Applied Science, Faculty of
Engineering, School of (Okanagan)
DSpace
UBCO
Sewasew, Yishak Tsehay
Master of Applied Science - MASc
University of British Columbia
This thesis explored the application of digital tools for urban heritage conservation using the historic port city of Massawa as a case study. The digital applications considered include heritage building and 3D city modeling with Historic Building Information Modeling (HBIM) principles, digital inventory, environmental comfort assessment, and design applications. The thesis first explored challenges and best practices along with prospects in heritage conservation to focus on resolving particular aspects of challenges or capitalize on trends of good practices. This was integrated using current best practice applications in heritage conservation, such as HBIM. This research develops an alternative HBIM development method for inaccessible heritage sites without requiring modern data acquisition and processing tools. Unlike prior methods, which mostly assume site accessibility for conducting a study, availability of expensive cutting-edge technologies, and particular expertise for data acquisition and processing, the proposed method relies on simple steps using an image. The results of the proposed modeling indicate feasibility of creating HBIM from images with a higher degree of precision. The result was extended to develop a 3D city model of Massawa, comprising four classes of models. This justifies the possibility of developing detailed 3D city models with limited resources, sidestepping the need for cutting-edge tools and associated costs. The 3D city model, in its current state, is proposed to be used in several applications. Digital inventory, environmental comfort assessment, and design applications were considered. The concept of Built Heritage Passport for cultural heritage management was introduced and illustrated in four passport layers to assist cultural heritage management, sustainable urban heritage conservation, and promoting circular economy. It aims to provide a comprehensive, efficient, accessible, and easy-to-use built heritage inventory for a multitude of applications. Environmental comfort assessment was also conducted focusing on pedestrian-level wind environment. The effects of the urban fabric, modeling details, and evolution of urban form on wind micro-climate were studied. Design application was finally illustrated based on the results of this thesis and other studies and recommendations for Massawa. Overall, the thesis presented easy-to-use modeling, management, and assessment for local authorities in urban heritage conservation.
APPLICATION OF DIGITAL TOOLS FOR URBAN HERITAGE CONSERVATIONbyYishak Tsehay SewasewB.Sc., Addis Ababa University, 2019A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENTOF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OFMASTER OF APPLIED SCIENCEinTHE COLLEGE OF GRADUATE STUDIES(Civil Engineering)THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA(Okanagan)July 2024© Yishak Tsehay Sewasew, 2024The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the Col-lege of Graduate Studies for acceptance, the thesis entitled:APPLICATION OF DIGITAL TOOLS FOR URBAN HERITAGE CON-SERVATIONsubmitted by Yishak Tsehay Sewasew in partial fulfillment of the requirementsfor the degree of Master of Applied ScienceDr. Solomon Tesfamariam, University of Waterloo and School of Engineering (UBC Okanagan)SupervisorDr. Qian Chen, School of EngineeringSupervisory Committee MemberDr. Sumi Siddiqua, School of EngineeringSupervisory Committee MemberDr. Jahangir Hossain, School of EngineeringUniversity ExamineriiAbstractThis thesis explored the application of digital tools for urban heritage conservationusing the historic port city of Massawa as a case study. The digital applicationsconsidered include heritage building and 3D city modeling with Historic BuildingInformation Modeling (HBIM) principles, digital inventory, environmental com-fort assessment, and design applications.The thesis first explored challenges and best practices along with prospects inheritage conservation to focus on resolving particular aspects of challenges or cap-italize on trends of good practices. This was integrated using current best practiceapplications in heritage conservation, such as HBIM. This research develops analternative HBIM development method for inaccessible heritage sites without re-quiring modern data acquisition and processing tools. Unlike prior methods, whichmostly assume site accessibility for conducting a study, availability of expensivecutting-edge technologies, and particular expertise for data acquisition and pro-cessing, the proposed method relies on simple steps using an image. The resultsof the proposed modeling indicate feasibility of creating HBIM from images witha higher degree of precision. The result was extended to develop a 3D city modelof Massawa, comprising four classes of models. This justifies the possibility ofdeveloping detailed 3D city models with limited resources, sidestepping the needfor cutting-edge tools and associated costs.The 3D city model, in its current state, is proposed to be used in several ap-plications. Digital inventory, environmental comfort assessment, and design appli-cations were considered. The concept of Built Heritage Passport for cultural her-itage management was introduced and illustrated in four passport layers to assistcultural heritage management, sustainable urban heritage conservation, and pro-iiimoting circular economy. It aims to provide a comprehensive, efficient, accessible,and easy-to-use built heritage inventory for a multitude of applications. Environ-mental comfort assessment was also conducted focusing on pedestrian-level windenvironment. The effects of the urban fabric, modeling details, and evolution ofurban form on wind micro-climate were studied. Design application was finally il-lustrated based on the results of this thesis and other studies and recommendationsfor Massawa. Overall, the thesis presented easy-to-use modeling, management,and assessment for local authorities in urban heritage conservation.ivLay SummaryUrban heritage sites are pivotal for sustainable development. However, there is agap in integrating conservation within the broader planning and management prac-tice, partly due to the lack of modern tools and approaches that can enable integra-tion and facilitate sustainable conservation. To bridge this gap, this thesis presentsa new approach. Using the historic port city of Massawa as a case study, the the-sis introduces an easy-to-use modeling, management, and assessment approach forlocal authorities in urban heritage conservation. The thesis also proposes and val-idates a new approach for developing building and 3D city models with limitedresources, reducing the need for cutting-edge tools and associated costs. The useof these models is illustrated through a new approach to cultural heritage manage-ment, environmental comfort study, and design application. The digital applicationis intended to facilitate sustainable urban heritage conservation and integration intobroader planning and management practice.vPrefaceThis thesis is an original intellectual product of Yishak Tsehay Sewasew under thesupervision of Professor Solomon Tesfamariam. Chapter 3 is a publication in theJournal of Building Engineering. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 are collaborative efforts.The author and supervisor collaborated with Medhanie Teklemariam and BiniamTeame for Chapter 4, with Professor Qian Chen for Chapter 5, and with Profes-sor Girma Bitsuamlak and Dr. Anwar Awol for Chapter 6. The author conductsinvestigation, methodology, literature reviews, modeling, framework development,simulation, and design. Generative AI was not used in this work. A list of publica-tions at the University of British Columbia is listed as follows.Journal Papers• Sewasew, Y., Tesfamariam, S. (2023). Historic building information model-ing using image: Example of port city Massawa, Eritrea. Journal of Build-ing Engineering, 78, 107662 (Chapter 3). I carried out the investigation,methodology, software, validation, writing original draft, while ProfessorSolomon Tesfamariam carried out data curation, conceptualization, supervi-sion, project administration, funding acquisition, writing – review and edit-ing.• Sewasew, Y., Teklemariam, M., Teame, B., Tesfamariam, S.. Extension ofHBIM to 3D city modeling: Application for the port city of Massawa, Er-itrea. Journal of Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage,accepted for publication (Chapter 4). I carried out the investigation, method-ology, conceptualization, software, validation, writing original draft. Med-hanie Teklemariam carried out data curation and writing – review and edit-viing. Biniam Teame also carried out data curation and writing – review andediting. Professor Solomon Tesfamariam carried out data curation, concep-tualization, supervision, project administration, funding acquisition, writing– review and editing.• Sewasew, Y., Chen, Q., Tesfamariam, S.. Historic Building InformationModeling (HBIM) Supported Material Passport for Sustainable Urban Her-itage Conservation: Case Study of Massawa, Eritrea. In Proceedings Cana-dian Society of Civil Engineering (CSCE) Annual Conference, in press (Chap-ter 5). I carried out the conceptualization, investigation, methodology, soft-ware, validation, writing original draft. Professor, Qian Chen carried out datacuration and writing – review and editing. Professor Solomon Tesfamariamcarried out data curation, conceptualization, supervision, project administra-tion, funding acquisition, writing – review and editing.• Sewasew, Y., Chen, Q., Tesfamariam, S.. Built Heritage Passport (BHP) fordigital management of heritage assets (Chapter 5). I carried out the concep-tualization, investigation, methodology, software, validation, writing origi-nal draft. Professor, Qian Chen carried out data curation and writing – re-view and editing. Professor Solomon Tesfamariam carried out data curation,conceptualization, supervision, project administration, funding acquisition,writing – review and editing. (under preparation for submission)• Sewasew, Y., Awol, A., Bitsuamlak, G., Tesfamariam, S.. Pedestrian levelwind assessment of historic urban forms: A study of the port city of Massawa(Chapter 6). I carried out the conceptualization, investigation, methodology,software, validation, writing original draft. Dr. Anwar Awol carried out datacuration, supervision, and writing – review and editing. Professor Girma Bit-suamlak also carried out data curation, supervision, and writing – review andediting. Professor Solomon Tesfamariam carried out data curation, concep-tualization, supervision, project administration, funding acquisition, writing– review and editing. (under preparation for submission)viiTable of ContentsAbstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iiiLay Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vPreface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viTable of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viiiList of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiiList of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiiiList of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviiiList of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xixAcknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxDedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3 Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.4 Thesis Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5viii2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.2 Challenges in urban heritage conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.2.1 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.2.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.2.3 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.3 Achievements and prospects for development in urban heritageconservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.3.1 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.3.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.3.3 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192.4 Historic Building Information Modeling (HBIM) . . . . . . . . . 202.5 Chapter summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Historic building information modeling using image: Example ofport city Massawa, Eritrea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283.2.1 Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303.2.2 Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303.2.3 Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333.3 Case study - the port city of Massawa, Eritrea . . . . . . . . . . . 333.3.1 Initiation for heritage buildings in Massawa . . . . . . . . 343.3.2 Modeling for heritage buildings in Massawa . . . . . . . . 363.3.3 Validation of results of the modeling approaches for her-itage buildings in Massawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433.4 Chapter summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Extension of historic building information modeling to 3D city mod-eling: Application for the port city of Massawa, Eritrea . . . . . . . 554.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584.3 The port city of Massawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604.4 Overview of the approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62ix4.4.1 Building footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624.4.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644.4.3 HBIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664.4.4 HBIM to city model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734.5 Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744.6 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764.7 Chapter summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 Built heritage passport for cultural heritage management . . . . . . 795.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815.2.1 Circular economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815.2.2 Heritage inventory and assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855.4 Development of BHP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865.4.1 Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875.4.2 Sub-layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935.4.3 Indicators and descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985.4.4 Digital web-based inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055.5 Implementation cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135.7 Chapter summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176 Assessment and design applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196.2 Case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1216.3 Assessment procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236.3.1 Meteorological data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236.3.2 Aerodynamic information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236.3.3 Pedestrian wind comfort criteria and analysis . . . . . . . 1296.4 CFD analysis methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1316.4.1 Computational domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1316.4.2 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132x6.4.3 Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1336.4.4 Turbulence model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356.4.5 Number of wind directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356.5 Simulation results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366.5.1 Existing urban fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1386.5.2 Modeling detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1416.5.3 Urban form evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426.6 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1486.7 Design application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1486.8 Chapter summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1517 Conclusions and recommendations for future research . . . . . . . . 1547.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1547.2 Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557.3 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557.4 Recommendations for future research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158xiList of TablesTable 5.1 List of studies and number of identified elements (layers andsublayers/ descriptors, and indicators) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90xiiList of FiguresFigure 3.1 Proposed methodology to develop HBIM. . . . . . . . . . . . 29Figure 3.2 Photo of identified heritage buildings in the port city of Massawa. 34Figure 3.3 Location of identified buildings in port city of Massawa, Er-itrea (base map is developed from GIS data and Google Earthsatellite images.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Figure 3.4 The first identified heritage building (a) Image from maximumpossible distance to be used in modeling step, and (b) Close-range image to understand the details of the fac¸ade. . . . . . . 36Figure 3.5 Modeling steps for developing the first group of HBIM (a) Seg-mentation of fac¸ade, (b) Tracing polygonal outlines to definemajor outlines, (c) Tracing polygonal outlines to define details,and (d) Developing synthesized fac¸ade measurable to developHBIM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Figure 3.6 Parametric family developed using the first approach (a) Pa-rameters of developed family, and (b) Elevation drawing ofdeveloped family. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Figure 3.7 3D Perspective of developed HBIM using the first approach. . 39Figure 3.8 The Second and third identified heritage building pictures (a)Second building, (b) Third building, and (c) Fac¸ade details forthe third building. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40xiiiFigure 3.9 Modeling steps for developing the second group of HBIM; (a)Segmentation of fac¸ade, (b) Tracing polygonal outlines to de-fine major and minor outlines in relation to a context, (c) De-veloping preliminary fac¸ade drawing (red rectangles showingvertical strips of repetitive parts), and (d) Developing synthe-sized fac¸ade measurable to develop HBIM. . . . . . . . . . . 42Figure 3.10 Predictive elevation drawing of demolished parts of the her-itage building developed based on identified repetitive fac¸adefeatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Figure 3.11 3D Perspective of developed HBIM using the second approach. 43Figure 3.12 Architectural drawing of identified heritage buildings from 1927(a) Elevation and plan architectural drawings, and (b) Fac¸adedetail architectural drawing. (Source: Historic architecturalrecordings of the port city of Massawa accessed from Mer-hatinsaie Gebremariam.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Figure 3.13 Comparison of elevation drawings generated from historic ar-chitectural drawing, left side, and developed image-based HBIM,right side, for the first heritage building. . . . . . . . . . . . . 46Figure 3.14 Comparison of elevation drawings generated from historic ar-chitectural drawing, left side, and developed image-based HBIM,right side, for the second and third heritage buildings. . . . . . 48Figure 3.15 Parametric family developed using the modeling approach (a)Parameters of developed family, and (b) Elevation drawing ofdeveloped family. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Figure 3.16 Ground floor plan generated from refined HBIM of the heritagebuildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Figure 4.1 Methodology to develop 3D city model with HBIM. . . . . . 59Figure 4.2 Geographic location of the port city of Massawa. . . . . . . . 61Figure 4.3 Steps for developing building footprint; (a) Automated genera-tion of building footprint, (b) Manually developing new shapefiles, (c) Updating building footprint using Google Earth im-age, and (d) Final building footprint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63xivFigure 4.4 Identified buildings and streetscapes for modeling. . . . . . . 65Figure 4.5 Classification based on available resource. . . . . . . . . . . 66Figure 4.6 An example of Class 1 model (a) Ground floor plan, (b) Frontelevation drawing, (c) 3D perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Figure 4.7 3D perspective of Class 2 model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70Figure 4.8 3D perspective of Class 3 model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Figure 4.9 3D perspective of Class 4 model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73Figure 4.10 Final 3D city model of the port city of Massawa. . . . . . . . 74Figure 5.1 Framework for developing BHP for digital heritage management. 86Figure 5.2 Scale considerations of BHP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Figure 5.3 Proposed layers and sub-layers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96Figure 5.4 Site passport proposed sub-layers, indicators, and descriptors. 101Figure 5.5 Building passport proposed sub-layers, indicators, and descrip-tors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102Figure 5.6 Element/HBIM passport proposed sub-layers, indicators, anddescriptors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103Figure 5.7 Material passport proposed sub-layers, indicators, and descrip-tors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104Figure 5.8 An example of proposed city passport web interface. . . . . . 110Figure 5.9 An example of proposed building passport web interface. . . . 112Figure 5.10 An example of proposed element/HBIM passport web interface. 113Figure 5.11 An example of proposed material passport web interface. . . . 114Figure 6.1 Maps and pictures illustrating the urban form evolution of Mas-sawa (a) A detailed map of Massawa drawn 1885, (b) A newplan for Massawa approved after the earthquake in 1921, whichwas later withdrawn, (c) The plan proposed by Engineers Bernardiand Marranghello after the earthquake in 1921, which followsthe approach eventually accepted, (d) An aerial photograph ofMassawa taken shortly after liberation (around 1990), (e) UN-ESCO technical report 1995, and (f) Google Earth image ofMassawa 2020. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124xvFigure 6.2 Annual wind rose data from Massawa International airport (sourceOpen-meteo). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125Figure 6.3 Terrain roughness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126Figure 6.4 Two typologies of existing urban form for pedestrian level windcomfort assessment (a) 3D city model with fences along thenorthern and eastern part, and (b) 3D city model without fences. 128Figure 6.5 3D city modeling LOD typologies of existing urban form forpedestrian level wind comfort assessment (a) Detailed 3D citymodel, and (b) Footprint extrusion 3D city model. . . . . . . . 128Figure 6.6 3D city models of urban form evolution of Massawa (a) Urbanform of Massawa in 1885, (b) Urban form of the new planfor Massawa approved after the earthquake in 1921, whichwas later withdrawn, (c) Urban form of the plan proposed byEngineers Bernardi and Marranghello after the earthquake in1921, which follows the approach eventually accepted, (d) Ur-ban form of Massawa after liberation (around 1990), (e) Urbanform of Massawa based on UNESCO technical report 1995,and (f) Urban form of Massawa in 2020. . . . . . . . . . . . . 130Figure 6.7 Comfort criteria based on Lawson wind comfort criteria. . . . 131Figure 6.8 Computational domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133Figure 6.9 Mesh details. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134Figure 6.10 Grid sensitivity analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134Figure 6.11 Significant landmarks and areas (a) Banca d’italia (b) HotelTorino (c) Open spaces in the southeastern part of the city cre-ated after the independence war. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138Figure 6.12 Velocity Amplification Factor (VAF) maps for existing urbanfabric (a) and (b) 3D city model without fences along the north-ern and eastern part, and (c) and (d) 3D city model with fences. 140Figure 6.13 Mean velocity comfort class for 3D city model without fences. 141Figure 6.14 Velocity Amplification Factor (VAF) maps for modeling detailcomparison (a) and (b) Detail model, and (c) and (d) Mass model.143xviFigure 6.15 Velocity Amplification Factor (VAF) maps for urban form evo-lution comparison (a) and (b) Urban form of Massawa in 1885,(c) and (d) Urban form of the new plan for Massawa approvedafter the earthquake in 1921 (e) and (f) Urban form of the planproposed by Engineers Bernardi and Marranghello. . . . . . . 144Figure 6.16 Velocity Amplification Factor (VAF) maps for urban form evo-lution comparison (a) and (b) Urban form of Massawa afterliberation (around 1990), (c) and (d) urban form of Massawabased on UNESCO technical report 1995, and (e) and (f) Ur-ban form of Massawa in 2020. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147Figure 6.17 Historic considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149Figure 6.18 Comfort considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150Figure 6.19 Rehabilitation proposal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152xviiList of Abbreviations3D Three dimensionalBHP Built Heritage PassportBIM Building Information ModellingBPGs Best Practice GuidelinesCE Circular EconomyCFD Computational Fluid DynamicsCGA Computer-generated ArchitectureCityGML City Geography Markup LanguageDEM Digital Elevation ModelsEBIM Existing Building Information ModelingGIS Geographic Information SystemHBIM Historic Building Information ModellingHIAC Hejazi Islamic Architecture CharacterHIAS Heritage Information Access StrategyIoT Internet of ThingsLiDAR Light Detection and RangingLOD Level Of DetailMAHT Monitoring and Assessment Heritage ToolMARBH Methodology for the Assessment of Residential Built HeritageTLS Terrestrial Laser ScannersUHIs Urban Heat IslandsVAF Velocity Amplification FactorRANS Reynolds Averaged Navier-StokesxviiiList of SymbolsU Local pedestrian-level mean wind speedUpot Potential wind speed at the meteorological stationU ref Wind speed at the inlet of computational domain at pedestrian levelγ Total wind amplification factorxixAcknowledgmentsAll praise in my life goes to Almighty God and St. Mary.I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Professor SolomonTesfamariam, for his invaluable guidance and unwavering support throughout mythesis. I am grateful for his initiation, guidance, and encouragement in shaping thisvaluable contribution. I want to thank the Natural Science Engineering ResearchCouncil of Canada through the Discovery Grant for funding this research.I would also like to thank Professor Girma Bitsuamlak, Professor Qian Chen,and Dr. Anwar Awol for their support, invaluable guidance, and provision of re-sources for my research. I also need to thank Professor Sumi Siddiqua, my super-visory committee member, for her valuable support. Furthermore, I am grateful toMedhanie Teklemariam, Tesfai Berache, and others for their support, provision ofresources, and insights into my thesis.I extend my heartfelt appreciation to all fellow research group mates, with aparticular mention to Biniam Teweldebrhan, Ikenna Odikamnoro, Haile Woldesel-lasse, Madihe Khanjari, and Han Tongchen for their guidance, support, feedback,and technical assistance. I am also thankful to the staff and facilities at UBC andUW for providing the necessary resources, continued assistance, and guidance inmy research. Navigating through my thesis journey required more than mere aca-demic support. I express my immense gratitude to Bethelhem Nibret, DagimawiEneyew, Haile Darge, Ayelign Adal, Mohammed Hassen, and Bethelhem Birarafor their guidance, countless discussions, support and unwavering friendship thatguided me in my journey. I would also like to thank all who supported me in myjourney, including friends and academic colleagues at EiABC and ECL-AA.Most importantly, I will forever be in debt to my family for their unconditionalxxlove, unwavering support, inspiration, and continuous encouragement throughoutmy academic journey. Their faith, consistent motivation, and deeply ingrainedvalues have been the driving factors behind all of my achievements.xxiDedicationI would like to dedicate this thesis to my grandmother, Alemitu Moges, who passedaway during my master’s study. This thesis is also wholeheartedly dedicated to mybeloved family, friends, and all researchers.xxiiChapter 1Introduction1.1 BackgroundAn increase in the global population coupled with a high rate of urbanization hascreated an urgent need to provide a comfortable built environment. Efforts in ful-filling this need are highly oriented towards new developments, which usually areenergy-demanding, resource-intensive and waste-producing. The existing buildingstock, along with its historical urban heritage sites, is given less regard in fulfill-ing the growing human need in a sustainable manner. Despite the importance andefforts in implementing concepts of rehabilitation, there exists a huge gap in sus-tainable rehabilitation of urban heritage sites, especially in developing countries,as historic centres representing historical links and characterizing modern societydeteriorate and are demolished. In some cases, as in the case of the port city ofMassawa, such sites are also prone to man-made and natural disasters that signifi-cantly impact urban heritage.The significance of urban heritage sites for their historic value and sustainabledevelopment of cities should be given the highest regard. It should further be anintegral part of current urban planning and development. Studies have, however,shown a lack of knowledge on integrating conservation within broader planningand management practices [50]. It will thus be important to work on ways of facil-itating urban heritage conservation using digital tools and to work towards integra-tion with broader planning and management practices. This requires understanding1challenges and best practices along with prospects in heritage conservation to effi-ciently focus on resolving particular aspects of challenges or capitalizing on trendsof good practices. These could then further be integrated into current best practiceapplications in heritage conservation, such as Historic Building Information Mod-eling (HBIM), to facilitate urban heritage conservation and contribute to culturalheritage management.HBIM first appeared in literature in the last fifteen years and has been shownas the most suitable method for conservation [27]. The concept of HBIM closelyrelates to Building Information Modelling (BIM). It is described as a specificBIM for built heritage consisting of data collection, data processing and modellingphases [27, 164]. Digitization of urban heritage sites with the principles of HBIMwill thus have a significant role in facilitating sustainable rehabilitation of urbanheritage sites and integration into broader planning and management practice. Itwill further lay the ground for advanced approaches in cultural heritage manage-ment. Moreover, it will facilitate research and studies on urban heritage, frommicro-level building level studies to macro-level studies of historic urban formsand their relation to human comfort in the built environment.This thesis presents a case study of the urban heritage site of the historic portcity of Massawa, Eritrea. Alternative HBIM development method is illustrated forinaccessible heritage sites without requiring modern data acquisition and process-ing tools. Moreover, the concept of Built Heritage Passport (BHP) for culturalheritage management and effects of urban forms on pedestrian level wind environ-ment and human comfort is studied using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).1.2 Problem StatementDespite the significance of urban heritage sites in the sustainable development ofcities, there is a gap in integrating conservation within the broader planning andmanagement practices. This is partly attributed to the inadequate implementationof modern tools and approaches that can enable the integration and facilitate thesustainable conservation of urban heritage sites. Exploring the application of digi-tal tools for urban heritage will thus have a significant contribution.21.3 Aims and ObjectivesThe aims and objectives of this thesis are outlined below:1. Explore practical experiences of rehabilitation works to identify challengesand opportunities along with current best practice applications.2. Develop and validate an alternative HBIM development method for inacces-sible heritage sites without requiring modern data acquisition and processingtools.3. Develop a 3D city model of the historic port city of Massawa.4. Develop and illustrate frameworks for a comprehensive built heritage man-agement system.5. Carry out pedestrian-level wind environment study of historic urban formsand illustrate design applications.1.4 Thesis OverviewThis thesis is organized into 7 chapters:Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the thesis with background, problemstatement, aims and objectives, and overall thesis overview.Chapter 2 presents a thorough literature review exploring practical experi-ences of rehabilitation to identify challenges and opportunities in current practices.The review further explores practices in new developments to identify tools andtechniques that could assist in assisting sustainable urban heritage conservation.Chapter 3 illustrates the development, application, and validation of imagebased HBIM development method for inaccessible heritage sites without requiringmodern data acquisition and processing tools.Chapter 4 extends the image based HBIM development in Chapter 3 to de-velop a 3D city model of the port city of Massawa, Eritrea, comprising four classesof models. The method proposed illustrates the possibility of creating 3D citymodels with limited resources, sidestepping the need for cutting-edge tools.3Chapter 5 introduces a new cultural heritage management approach, BHP.The development of BHP frameworks in four scales (site, building, element, andmaterial) is illustrated along with its practical application for the historic port cityof Massawa. The integration of HBIM, BHP, and web-based application of theproposed passport scales was further shown as digital inventory.Chapter 6 contains the use of CFD simulation to study pedestrian-level windenvironments to understand the effects of urban fabric, modelling detail, and urbanform evolution. It further shows the design application of the digital tools explored.Chapter 7 includes a conclusion and recommendation for future research alongwith contributions and limitations of the research.4Chapter 2Literature review2.1 IntroductionUrban heritage conservation, which constitutes a significant part of urban plan-ning, is crucial for the sustainable development of cities. Cities contribute 70%of greenhouse gas emissions, 60% of energy consumption, and 70% of waste gen-eration [85]. Buildings, on the other hand, contribute 40% of total energy con-sumption, one-third of resource consumption, and 40% of the total solid wastevolume, from which only 20–30% of Construction and Demolition Waste gets re-covered [96, 126]. This, coupled with the current emphasis given to constructingnew buildings, has created a significant adverse effect on the environment, causingexcessive use of non-renewable resources and the production of excessive con-struction waste. Such factors make cities and buildings focal points of interest inachieving sustainable development. Thus, it is important to give high regard tourban planning and development of cities, which will determine how we function,move, work and live our daily lives.An important part of cities is urban heritage sites, which are part of many citiesworldwide. Urban heritage constitutes heritage buildings, activities, streets and allrelated aspects that contribute to the tangible and intangible characteristics of her-itage sites. Cultural heritage is usually found in cities [82], and urban sites accountfor a significant proportion of the UNESCO World Heritage list [223]. Conserva-tion of these sites is an important part of planning and management of urban areas.5Urban heritage conservation will create an opportunity to re-use existing buildingstock to limit the adverse effects of new construction. Moreover, it helps maintainthe identity of cities to create local distinctiveness and uniqueness, develop a senseof belongingness, improve quality of life and offer economic benefits. The eco-nomic, social and cultural benefits gained by developing countries are also widelyestablished [198].Cities are growing at an unprecedented rate due to increased population andglobalization. With this growth, the preservation of historic urban environmentshas been found to be one of the most urgent and multifaceted issues in culturalheritage conservation [129]. Currently, cities with significant historical or culturalimportance are experiencing unprecedented pressures and challenges that have notbeen witnessed before [16]. Aggressive development and inadequate managementpractices are the primary factors that pose a threat to World Heritage sites [82].Other contributing factors are attributed to rapid changes due to globalization,modern-day development requirements, high rates of emigration and immigration,increase in population, abandonment and stagnation, increased density within his-toric areas, and a high rate of urbanization. The challenges have led to the degrada-tion and demolition of structures, loss of intangible values, fragmentation of urbanheritage, social decay and neglect, relocation of inhabitants and overall loss of thecultural identity of cities. The problem is further compounded by the limited atten-tion given to urban conservation in the current urban planning practices. Despitethe crucial role urban heritage plays, governments, especially in developing coun-tries, highly focus on new developments in an effort to create a sustainable builtenvironment and respond to growing human needs. Steinberg [192] demonstratesthat the main focus of many developing country governments and internationalorganizations over the past four to five decades has been related to new develop-ments. During this period, the attention given to heritage has been insignificant,which has been of great concern to the conservation community. Historic city cen-tres were seen as barriers to new development approaches that intended to densifysettlements and develop commercial centres in city centres.Despite the importance and efforts in implementing concepts of rehabilitation,there exists a huge gap in sustainable rehabilitation of urban heritage sites, espe-cially in developing countries. Chowdhary et al. [50] illustrates the lack of knowl-6edge on integrating conservation within broader planning and management prac-tice. This section intends to explore urban heritage conservation through reviewingpractical conservation experiences to identify challenges, and achievements alongwith prospects for development in a way that could assist planners and all in thebuilding sector. Challenges and achievements, along with identified prospects fordevelopment, will serve as a foundation for proposing techniques and tools to bet-ter integrate conservation within existing planning practices and determine futureactions to develop sustainable planning of heritage sites. Identified challenges andachievements, along with prospects for development, were grouped into three ma-jor categories, including planning, implementation, and assessment related to dif-ferent life-cycle stages.The literature is divided into four major parts. The first part presents challengesin urban heritage conservation, the second explores best practices and prospects inheritage conservation, the third explores Historic Building Information Modeling(HBIM), and the final section draws conclusions and suggests recommendations.2.2 Challenges in urban heritage conservationThis section presents major challenges identified in urban heritage conservationin three groups. The first discusses challenges during the initial phase of conser-vation planning as planning issues. The second elaborates on challenges in theexecution of conservation plans as implementation challenges. Finally, the thirdsection discusses challenges related to both the planning and execution of urbanheritage conservation as assessment challenges, which are related to the evaluationof urban heritage. Identifying these challenges will assist in developing appropri-ate techniques and tools that suit the group and the nature of the challenge. Thiswill help in the development of sustainable rehabilitation of urban heritage sites.2.2.1 PlanningThe first group of challenges described are related to the planning stage of urbanheritage conservation. One of the biggest challenges in urban heritage conserva-tion arises from the need to maintain heritage structures and their functions in anevolving world where change is inevitable. There exists a conflict between conti-7nuity, which seeks to use existing structures to be adapted for new use with smalltransformation, and change, which, on the contrary, tends to cause radical changesto structures to accommodate the same needs [224]. This conflict between con-tinuity and change, represented as an issue of compatibility, was found to be themajor challenge in urban heritage conservation [82]. Considering this, determin-ing the right balance between change and continuity in response to an evolvingworld based on contextual needs makes decisions in conservation challenging. Ap-pendino [16] considers the ”museification” of urban heritage that could create abarrier for any change as a risk that could potentially arise from over-emphasisgiven to conservation tools. Urban heritage sites could potentially also end up be-ing ”well-maintained ghettos” if it become disconnected from the urban life thatsurrounds it [187]. Thus, the challenge relies upon maintaining heritage whilekeeping it connected and evolving in relation to current urban life.Another challenge in heritage conservation is related to stakeholder involve-ment. Stakeholders from different administrative levels mostly have contradictoryobjectives, values, priorities, and interests, which makes it difficult to fully graspdifferent stakeholder perspectives [130, 192, 195, 223]. These differences have ledto a significant challenge in identifying heritage, determining conservation goals,and devising ways to achieve them [130]. This creates a challenge by compli-cating the decision-making process in addressing the needs of all participants tocreate social consensus. The challenge is further complicated by power differencescreated by top-down planning that create limitations in public participation as gov-ernments and the elite tend to be sole decision makers [187]. These conditions,despite evolving and showing improvements in recent years, need to be furtherimproved to allow efficient, inclusive planning.The lack of an in-depth study and failure to comprehensively understand ur-ban heritage values creates a significant challenge in planning. Urban heritage iscomposed of tangible and intangible values. Trends in Urban heritage conservationtend to focus highly on tangible aspects of heritages without significantly consid-ering the intangible values [82, 130]. Regeneration of historic environments andspatial and social analysis has been given less attention in urban heritage planningdue to sole emphasis on tangible aspects [51, 130]. This has led to the loss ofintangible values that account for a significant portion of defining the characters8of urban heritage. Failing to consider the significance of local residents by onlyfocusing on remaking romantic scenery will fail to efficiently conserve [187], asit fails to account for residents that are crucial in determining intangible values ofheritage. Consideration of the conservation of intangible values further poses chal-lenges, as restricting changes in an evolving world will not be as easy as puttingrules to restrict changes in tangible values, which are easy to identify and track.Disregarding intangible aspects of heritage led to limitations in the scale ofconsideration in urban heritage conservation. Conservation tends to usually be lim-ited to building scale, disregarding contextual relation of historic environment ele-ments, which are crucial in defining the character of cities [187]. Steinberg [192]assessing conservation and rehabilitation in developing countries show efforts thatare limited to building scale intervention with few examples of large-scale rehabili-tation. Similarly, cases of city-level integrated area conservation of historic centreswere found to be very few [192]. This is associated with biased excessive attentionplaced on individual buildings in terms of tangible values of artistic, architectural,or monumental features [224]. These conditions led to the loss of intangible valuesof urban heritage sites due to the fragmentation of heritages.Another important factor that significantly affects urban conservation is evolv-ing international trends. This could be policy or development ideologies or relatedto specific implementation needs. Political ideologies that affect heritage conserva-tion policies are uncertain and challenging to exert control over [195]. In terms ofpolicies, there is a gap in principle between urban heritage conservation and otherplanning approaches such as compact urban development [195]. If we considerdensification among the aforementioned list, efficient conservation with densifi-cation and transformation in urban heritage sites demands knowledge and respectfor the character of a place [195]. The lack of these important considerations hasled to the loss of value in urban heritage sites in relation to densification-drivendevelopments.Another challenge in urban heritage conservation is the need to respond to newdevelopment demands, which is highly related to the main challenge of maintain-ing heritage while allowing change. The way of intervening without significanteffects on urban heritage while maintaining the interests of proprietors and the pri-vacy of a place is a critical consideration [114]. It is, however, hard to realize9these goals. There exists a very high risk of harm to urban heritage due to hastymodernization [51]. This modernization intends to respond to new demands ofdevelopment due to technological advancements and new ways of life as a resultof technological advancement. Among the modernization concerns is the issue ofurban mobility that created the need for widening of roads, construction of newinfrastructure, and parking facilities [51, 195]. These changes in urban heritagesites significantly affect the overall urban form of heritage environment as heritagebuildings need to evolve to make room for new developments.In terms of gaps in developing urban heritage development plans, there existchallenges in formulating effective plans. There is a lack of comprehensive de-velopment plan [130] and a lack of established strategic planning frameworks [50]which could assist in developing conservation plans. These factors, coupled withthe knowledge gap in urban heritage conservation, lead to significant challenges inconservation planning and implementation. It is common to regard conservationand management as a barrier in development [50]. This perception leads to disre-garding heritage aspects in planning, leading to the loss of urban heritage sites. Onthe other hand, When there is a good effort in developing a conservation plan, thereexists a gap in clarity and implementation [51, 130]. Amin and Akwasi [130] showa case where proposals were developed without any implementation and ended upbeing just a waste of money. The challenge thus extends beyond proposing conser-vation plans and further includes aspects of implementation.2.2.2 ImplementationThe second group of challenges is related to implementation practice. Most chal-lenges identified are the results of financial issues. The financial challenges startfrom identifying responsible stakeholders to cover associated costs and determin-ing cost recovery options in heritage conservation [169]. Moreover, stakeholdersare usually unable to fund conservation and financial resources available for localgovernments are insufficient [130, 192]. Steinberg [192] shows the inability ofgovernments and religious organizations to carry out conservation works consid-ering cases in different world cities. The economic challenges are further com-pounded by the high cost of rehabilitating private houses of urban heritage [51].10The financial challenges create a gap in implementing conservation works thatlead to the degradation of heritage buildings. Degradation of heritage buildingsleads to the inadequacy of structures to function, which degrades the quality oflife of inhabitants and further leads to physical obsolescence [169, 187]. Thesedegradation issues are further intensified by ownership problems, crowding, andover-utilization of services [192]. The degradation of structures could also be as-sociated with violation of codes in using cheap materials in renovating heritagebuildings due to financial limitations of owners [130]. Overall, financial limita-tions significantly affect the condition and use of heritage buildings.The financial limitations could be associated with gaps in taking economic ad-vantage of urban heritage conservation projects. There is a challenge in creatingstable or specific funding to finance conservation plans [130]. This could be associ-ated with a lack of external funds or failure in the implementation of conservationplans. Conservation works are seen as financial disadvantages by external fundproviders. Moreover, there are gaps in revenue collection and distribution [130],which create inequity and differences among stakeholders. Amin and Akwasi [130]show gaps in taking economic advantage of heritage sites through charging en-trance fees. Contrary to failure in taking economic advantage, excessive relianceon certain aspects of funding could create its own challenge.To prevent the degradation of heritage buildings that arise from financial lim-itations, several financial alternative funding options have been explored by pri-vate developers and tourism-oriented development. Despite their contribution toalleviating financial challenges, these alternatives have brought their own chal-lenges. Considering Private findings, it is usually associated with getting a profitthat might not necessarily be aligned to conservation demands and leads to frag-mentation of heritage that affects overall planning [130, 195]. Moreover, privatedevelopments could lead to large-scale commercial developments that inflate landvalues in urban heritage sites [184]. Over emphasis on tourism-related benefitsand poorly managed tourism-related development has also increased reliance onthe tourism industry which makes use of heritage buildings for local services lesscost-effective [50, 51, 187]. These conditions lead to developments that deify theintentions of the conservation of urban heritage with subsequent social impacts.Inhabitants get relocated due to poorly managed redevelopments [192]. High eco-11nomic benefit offered by private and tourism-oriented developments gravitates theinterest of stakeholders to seek financial benefit over maintaining heritage. It wasalso shown where stakeholders secretly damage their properties to initiate redevel-opment and get financial advantages [130].In terms of stakeholder involvement, there is a lack of expertise, collaboration,and inclusiveness in conservation implementation. Considering governing bodies,there is a lack of professionals, and decision-makers are rarely trained [50, 130].This highly affects the effectiveness of implementation and creates a gap in pro-viding support for other stakeholders. These challenges were further compoundedby financial limitations, which limit the provision of consultancies and technicalassistance [130]. There is also a gap in involving practitioners and familiarizingowners in the rehabilitation process [51]. This creates a condition where conserva-tion plans become not welcomed by some stakeholders due to failure to properlyunderstand the goals of conservation and believing that it would create a barrierin development. This causes mistrust among stakeholders, which further creates abarrier to collaboration among stakeholders [130]. Sectorial barriers further existbetween planning professional and research disciplines [195]. These could leadto barriers in collaboration, which further creates a gap in creating an inclusiveenvironment.Political challenges are also another significant challenge as the success of ur-ban heritage conservation highly depends on political factors. There is a lack ofpolitical commitment in implementing conservation plans [192]. Moreover, thereis a lack of adequate institutional collaboration, and local governments lack the ca-pacity and power to effectively maintain conservation planning regulations [130].This condition paves the way for individuals to act on heritage buildings withoutany regard to predefined conservation plans and governance structure. There isalso overlapping relation and political interference in the governance of conserva-tion plans that causes cross-pressure on heritage managers [130, 195]. This causesproblems in the division of responsibilities and power in guiding the implementa-tion of conservation plans effectively. Besides these factors, the existing practicefails to create an information repository for success stories that can potentially beused in different contexts [50].122.2.3 AssessmentAnother significant challenge related to both the planning and implementation ofurban heritage conservation is assessment value and implementation outcomes.Considering assessment in the planning phase, tools are not objectively definedand insufficient to comprehensively account for all the values of heritage build-ings. There exists a gap in objectively defining and assessing basic concepts ofsignificance, authenticity, and integrity since it is difficult to measure qualitativeaspects based on quantitative standards [223]. This challenge leads to subjectiveassessment outcomes with a higher probability of biased evaluation. Existing as-sessment tools also highly emphasize economic aspects with monetary values asthe dominant form of evaluation [224]. These tools are limited and difficult toapply in heritage conservation [50], requiring improvements to be able to accountfor non-market advantages [198]. Non-market advantages could include intangiblevalues of social and cultural significance. These values, despite being at stake inurban conservation [224], are less well utilized and difficult to measure [50, 198].Even if the values are well utilized and objectively measured, there will still be anissue on who is involved and gets to decide and, most importantly, whose valuegets considered.After the implementation of the urban heritage conservation plan, an assess-ment is needed to measure the effectiveness and sustainability of the implemen-tation. Considering the assessment of the effectiveness of conservation, there isa lack of effective monitoring tools to determine the state of conservation to as-sess changes of a site or comparison of different sites to judge if heritage is wellconserved [223]. Assuming the development of effective monitoring tools, theavailability of data, especially in developing countries, will still be a major issue inassessing conservation outcomes [198]. In terms of assessing the sustainability ofimplementation, there is a challenge in objectively devising measurable goals andtools to assist testing results [158]. Cultural heritage components are lacking inexisting sustainable urban development assessment tools [82, 129]. Existing urbangreen rating systems are not comprehensive enough as little or no considerationis given to aspects of heritage conservation with higher regard to environmentalaspects in all rating systems [129]. Identified indicators in most of the rating sys-13tems are heritage-specific or heritage-related indicators identified within other in-dicators. The limited indicators also have limitations as most emphasize tangibleaspects, which are related to the identified challenges of intangible heritage in theplanning stages of urban heritage conservation. Overall, it can be concluded thatthere is a lack of effective assessment tools and indicators that comprehensivelyaddress the need for urban heritage conservation.In conclusion, the absence of a thorough growth plan and limited participationin planning; the absence of stable funding and inefficient collaboration in the im-plementation; insufficiency in comprehensively accounting for all heritage valuesand gaps in objectively defining and assessing basic concepts in assessment havecreated a major gap in sustainable urban heritage conservation. These challengesare crucial as they can be used as a base for devising tools and techniques to re-inforce sustainable urban heritage conservation practices by alleviating challengesthat have been a barrier.2.3 Achievements and prospects for development inurban heritage conservationThis section explores achievements in current practices of urban heritage conser-vation projects and presents them along with prospects for development. As in thecase of challenges, results are classified into three groups: planning, implemen-tation, and assessment. The achievements identified in each group are identifiedfrom cases of best practices that have been found to contribute to the sustainableconservation of urban heritage. Prospects for development are directions for futureaction, which were proposed to solve challenges or reinforce best practices. Iden-tifying these positive aspects will guide in developing appropriate techniques andtools for the sustainable rehabilitation of urban heritage sites.2.3.1 PlanningConsidering the planning stage of heritage conservation, in response to challengesin maintaining heritage in an evolving world, conservation approaches should striveto create the right balance between change and continuity based on the specialrequirements of different contexts. Steinberg [192] discusses that conservation14should be planned in a way that allows the evolution of building and social systemsthrough modernization instead of passive protection or wholesome preservation ofeverything. In this regard, for the success of the conservation plan, what is beingconserved needs to be clearly defined along with the extent of change allowed inits conservation [50]. Ripp and Rodwell [166] through comparison of heritageplanning, discuss an emerging predominant term of ‘management of continuity’instead of the earlier ideology of ‘management of change’. These ideas illustratethe importance of responding to changing reality while maintaining heritage struc-tures.In terms of stakeholder involvement, planning should be participatory to allowthe formulation of common objectives, values, priorities, and interests. Effectivestakeholder collaboration helps to establish a shared vision of future goals [9, 130].In formulating this shared vision, it is important to assess alternative public prefer-ences. However, not all the preferences can be satisfied, and balancing is requiredusing expert knowledge for the best outcome [198]. Sirisrisak [187] discusses anexemplary case in creating a shared vision where a community develops a proposalin response to the government’s proposal, which would impact their life. Althoughnot being implemented due to legal difficulties, the project showcases the collab-orative development of vision between the government, education institute, andcommunity.The emphasis given to tangible values of heritage needs to be balanced withconsideration of intangible values. A landscape-based approach that accounts forintangible values should be the goal of an urban heritage conservation plan [82,158]. The conservation plan should promote tangible and intangible heritage throughequal consideration of the management of cultural and intellectual assets as for themanagement of physical assets [82]. Diverse and conflicting forces of intangibleattributes, along with tangible symbolism, should also be acknowledged in heritagepolicies [158]. Besides these factors, the scale of the conservation plan should alsobe considered since it has an impact on the conservation of both of the attributes.Steinberg [192] discusses the importance of area conservation to maintain urbanqualities and the life of communities through emphasizing activities and uses. Thepaper explores conservation practices in different countries emphasizing culturaland economic activities in reviving cities, the role of collaboration for large-scale15area conservation, and the importance of preserving urban patterns. All these fac-tors call for landscape-based accounting of intangible attributes in heritage conser-vation. This will assist in achieving efficient and comprehensive conservation ofheritage sites. To further assist this success, maintenance of value, integrity, andauthenticity of heritage should guide any action in heritage conservation [223].Conservation planning should also be harmonized with evolving trends of plan-ning approaches to fill the gaps with other planning approaches. There is a needfor consistent planning and policies, integration of protection, actors, and tools [16,82]. Moreover, urban Planning should consider conservation protocols [50], andthe gap between heritage principles and other planning methods needs to be ad-dressed through policies [195]. To address this gap, a robust connection is recom-mended to be established with urban development through landscape-based man-agement [82]. Considering urban heritage plans in particular, there is a need to shiftfrom generic objectives to special intervention plans [51]. Conservation plans alsoneed to carefully consider the impacts of new development demands and hastymodernization. New visions in conservation planning stress the importance ofPeople-friendly streets and the importance of public spaces that have different val-ues and identities of cities as a motivating factor to initiate the conservation of allaspects of heritage [51].2.3.2 ImplementationConsidering challenges in the implementation of conservation, to overcome finan-cial limitations, alternative sources of funding and tools to justify the financialfeasibility of projects are required. Financing, a mix of resources, land values,economic role, contribution, and comparison of activities are important economicconsiderations in heritage conservation [192]. Investment in conservation projectsshould be encouraged through proper demonstration of financial benefits and feasi-bility of plans. Heritage conservation investment modernizes the commercial sec-tor, creates employment opportunities, supports the local and national economy,creates opportunities for research and education, attracts more tourists, increasescustomers for business, and increases land and property value [129, 187, 192, 198].Steinberg [192] shows rehabilitation of shop-houses increases property value eight16times in conservation sites. Different stakeholders might also be initiated to in-vest in conservation plans triggered by the impacts of initial investments, as wit-nessed in Macedonia [198]. Investments in conservation also offer a unique en-trepreneurial opportunity in tourism-related business [187]. New construction usu-ally becomes more costly than initial plans, while restoration of old buildings wasfound in most cases to be less costly than expectations [192]. This should be en-hanced by developing appropriate cost assessment tools to set the right expecta-tions for an informed decision. Moreover, consideration of economic value needsto appropriately account for non-market benefits through robust evaluation tech-niques [198].After the identification of the benefits and feasibility of projects, alternativefunding sources which align with conservation goals should be explored to over-come the financial challenges in implementing projects. Banks could be involvedin conservation projects as partners, incentive providers, or assisting in guide de-velopment [169]. Public, private, and civil sectors are also significant actors inconservation projects [9]; participation of the private sector, in particular, is evermore demanded [50]. The increasing involvement of the private sector in conser-vation paves the way for public-private partnerships. This allows tasks to be under-taken jointly, which could have been difficult to achieve individually [169]. Ownerscould also participate in conservation, which could be enhanced through providingincentives in conservation projects [192]. Tourism-related activities could also bethe main considerations in alleviating financial challenges in conservation projects.Current practices suggest increasing trends in tourism-related activities that couldpromote local economy [192]. This, however, must be planned in a way that doesnot compromise major values in heritage conservation and should minimize con-sequent impacts on the culture of communities.Different rules and standards could be established to guarantee the maintenanceof conservation goals in the involvement of alternative funding sectors. Consider-ing the involvement of private sectors, all responsibilities in conservation projectscouldn’t be transferred to private investors due to the associated risks and publicinterest [169]. The government could provide legislation and policy frameworksthat clearly identify and express heritage values to manage changes for the suc-cess of private sector involvement [50]. In terms of tourism-oriented development,17the sense of place could be destroyed by over-emphasis given to specific sitesin tourism-oriented development in an effort to respond to tourists’ needs [184].Thus it is important to set the right balance in allowing tourism-related activitieswithin urban heritage sites. Alternatives in making heritage sites tourist interestareas need to be intensively explored and blended into the everyday life of com-munities [51, 192]. There should be a sound governance structure that prioritizesheritage conservation values for effective heritage plan management, and activi-ties need to also be incorporated within an existing context respecting the heritagevalues of sites [50]. Enhancing institutional collaboration is also crucial in tourism-oriented development due to the complexity of issues in the tourism sector [9].Collaboration of stakeholders is crucial in developing trust between stakehold-ers and contributing to effective conservation. Stakeholder interaction and collabo-ration in conservation projects are crucial in improving communication, determin-ing the interests of stakeholders, and contributing to the overall success of conser-vation [50, 130]. Thus it is critical to prioritize the collaboration of stakeholders inconservation projects. To minimize challenges in effective collaboration, conserva-tion plans should identify practices that restrict interaction [130]. The involvementof different stakeholders with alternative backgrounds and ranges of expectationsrequires appropriate decision-making steps to create effective participation. Rolesand responsibilities of all involved in conservation projects need to be clearly de-fined and well-balanced, with fair distribution of resources to avoid conflicts andmisunderstandings and set clear expectations [9, 50, 169]. Besides, there is a needto formalize the current informal coordination of stakeholders [9].Among all the stakeholders involved in conservation, the community is morerelated to heritage as an important constituting element of intangible values of her-itage. Community stakeholder participation in conservation projects is a criticalconsideration as it offers political and cultural contributions besides its quantita-tive contributions [50, 51, 158]. Communities have first-hand experience of her-itage environments and contribute to sustaining heritage value. Thus, it is vital toconsider how a community could participate in the formulation and implementa-tion of projects, how to involve the poor, how to avoid relocation, and how to avoidimpacts of gentrification [192]. Creating a sense of ownership is another crucialpoint of consideration in planning. Residents should frequently participate, start-18ing from the initial steps of conservation planning, guided by the government witha clear definition of role [50]. This participation has been fruitful in some of theprojects in world heritage sites. Cin et. al [51] identify cases where residents wereactively involved in conservation projects where private museums were developedby residents with their own initiative relying on family antiques. The paper furtherillustrates how residents actively participate in preservation and how social me-dia contributes to the success of community participation. This experience clearlyshows how social media could have a leading role in the future in enhancing par-ticipation.Political commitment has a significant role in shaping all the other aspectsof conservation planning. Establishing national policy and maintaining politi-cal support which favours urban heritage conservation with a unified governanceframework, skilled professionals, and an informed community should be priori-tized [50, 192]. Moreover, to minimize political interference and avoid overlap-ping relations, it is essential to enhance local governments and build their capac-ity. For an effective integration and management of conservation with other plans,the importance of strong local leaders needs to be recognized [50]. Local leader-ship must further be reinforced through an effective legal framework and sufficientfunding [51]. Amin et. al [130] also discuss the success of training in improvinglocal staff capacity. All efforts targeted at building the capacity of local authoritiesin urban conservation will thus positively contribute to the success of projects.2.3.3 AssessmentAssessment of heritage values and implementation outcomes need to significantlyimprove to be able to account for all aspects of heritage. Assessment methodsneed to be objective and serve as a base for a balanced judgment in decision-making [224]. Assessments need to also effectively acknowledge the existence ofintangible values, and the significance of preservation [129]. Considering the as-sessment of implementation outcomes of heritage plans, existing assessment toolsneed to be comprehensive to significantly account for all aspects. To achieve com-mon goals of sustainability and conservation, lower consideration given to heritageconservation needs to change, and a new urban green rating system needs to be19established along with new tools for evaluation [129]. These evaluation tools alsoneed to clearly and objectively define what to look for, what to measure, and howto interpret results. In this sense, data collection could be planned to start fromthe planning stage coupled with an appropriate methodology for an effective as-sessment of conservation project [198]. To avoid confusion in comparison of theoutcome of an implementation a control group could be used to make an effectivejudgment on the exact outcomes of a project. Moreover, assessment tools need tosignificantly improve to account for intangible values and assessment techniques.In conclusion, by creating participatory planning and developing a landscape-based approach to planning, exploring appropriate funding sources, and resolvingpolitical interference and subsequent overlapping relations in implementation, theneed for significant improvement to account for all aspects of heritage in assess-ment has been identified. These achievements and prospects in development arecrucial in capitalizing on positive practices and suggested future directions to rein-force sustainable urban heritage conservation practices.2.4 Historic Building Information Modeling (HBIM)The concept of Historic Building Information Modeling (HBIM) closely relates toBuilding information modelling (BIM). It is described as a specific BIM for builtheritage consisting of data collection, data processing and modelling phases [27,164]. HBIM is the most suitable method for conservation, and it first appeared inthe literature in 2009 [27], as a new system of modelling historic structures, whichcreates 3D documentation that generates 3D and 2D drawings and details [145].To comprehensively understand HBIM and its application it would be first usefulto understand its base, BIM.BIM is an intelligent model-based process connecting Architects, Engineersand Contractors to efficiently design, build, operate and manage buildings through-out the whole life-cycle of a building.BIM revolutionized how information is gen-erated, visualized, exchanged, predicted and monitored [22]. A common miscon-ception is to consider BIM as software or a technology, as promoted by some firms.It should rather be considered as a process [164]. BIM is composed of paramet-ric elements which can be modified/updated when needed [164] and combined as20building components [144] to generate a desired model. Parametric objects are el-ements defined using parameters in relation to their own values and other objectsin a model.BIM allows proactive decision-making at early design and pre-constructionstages, which helps in effective decision-making. BIM helps in enhanced stake-holder collaboration, digitization of buildings, design consistency, clash detec-tion, standard and guide providence, information management, analysis and per-formance simulation through dedicated plug-ins [22, 164, 206]. BIM also allowsa high level of integration and collaboration for those involved in a project [172].Integration of data is considered the most powerful feature of BIM, allowing themerging of all required information of a building into one file [164]. It is also inter-operable and flexible [164], allowing multiple disciplines to collaborate and workon the same model file. This requires profound changes in process and informationflows [206]. It provides an opportunity for professionals to achieve sustainabledevelopment goals more effectively by ensuring an optimized, sustainable build-ing design through performing complex building performance analysis [218]. Thisperformance analysis is done based on multi-disciplinary information embeddedwithin the BIM model using various assessment tools.Despite being commonly used for new buildings, BIM also offers significantadvantages for existing buildings. BIM can have several forms, including Exist-ing Building Information Modeling (EBIM) and HBIM. The intention of interven-tion and the variety of intervention subjects create the difference between BIM,EBIM and HBIM [27]. BIM has been applicable for existing and heritage build-ings since 2008 [27]. EBIM, as first covered by Arayici in 2008, can be used todrive productivity when data captured using advanced digital mapping technolo-gies such as 3D laser scanner technologies are integrated into BIM [18]. BIM forexisting buildings has a different information quality, availability and functionalrequirement compared to its application for new buildings [206]. Most of the Ex-isting buildings were not developed using BIM, which makes information aboutthe buildings fragmented and incomplete. This makes the development of BIMfor existing buildings challenging. The use of EBIM in the efficient utilization ofresources and sustainability is becoming widespread, which is important for recy-cling existing structures. [27].21Some of the applications of developing BIM for existing buildings include ef-fective documentation, visualization, retrofit/ refurbishment/renovation planning,defect detection, disaster management and demolition planning [18, 27, 206]. More-over, different analyses can be performed, including environmental analysis, devi-ation analysis, structural analysis, layer analysis, material analysis and diagnosticanalysis [27]. It also helps in doing assessments, calculations and simulations tounderstand the existing conditions of the building and predict how it will perform.Moreover, Integration of data in digital formats that are compatible and intercon-nected, rather than the current trends of paper format, solves problems of infor-mation incoherence and saves personal and economic resources [18]. Despite itsadvantages, BIM modelling for existing buildings poses challenges in data captur-ing and processing, time-consuming and error-prone process, issues in interoper-ability, lack of information and documentation and issues of ownership [27, 206],which limit its application. When considering BIM for existing buildings, Her-itage buildings are also considered. But, unlike other types of existing buildingsheritage buildings require special consideration due to their historical significance,uniqueness of building technique and material use and different maintenance re-quirements.The difference between EBIM and HBIM lies in their purpose of interven-tion and variety of intervention subjects [27]. Despite the similarities in EBIMand HBIM in the initial development of the building information model. UnlikeEBIM, which is used in sustainability, repair and facility management, HBIM ismajorly used in restoration, documentation and preservation of heritages [27]. Forpreservation, conservation or restoration work to be conducted on historical build-ings, appropriate 3D and 2D drawings and details are needed. HBIM is crucial inproviding all these necessary details about historical buildings to guide a plannedaction. It is also defined as ”the acquisition, transformation, collection of digitalinformation, and archiving of heritage structures using BIM” [27].The use of BIM, which has been developed for new buildings [27] and mostlyapplied to buildings under construction [164], has limitations when applied to his-toric buildings. The difficulty relies on developing a model that accurately repre-sents the complexity of heritage buildings, which have transformed through timethrough several interventions with different architectural influences [172]. The22limitations are majorly related to data collection and processing stages [27]. Whenconsidering data, there is an issue of uncertainty and interpretation in handlingdata [164]. Moreover, BIM’s standardized procedure clashes with heritage build-ings’ complex morphology and non-homogeneous features, which have evolvedthrough time through additions, demolitions and alterations of use [164]. Devel-oping an HBIM in contexts where there is difficulty in directly accessing historicalheritages first-hand and difficulties in getting sufficient information makes the pro-cess more difficult. The limitations could be associated with the requirement of apermit to access some privately owned heritage sites, lack of documentation show-ing the evolution of heritage in time, limitations in the availability of technologyto conduct data collection and limitations in data processing due to gaps in datacollection. Moreover, parametric libraries implicitly assume reproducing historicbuilding components with generalisable digital objects disregarding the value indi-viduality [164]. The individual characteristics and uniqueness of components thatemerge due to evolution in time and craftsmanship may get lost through general-ization.The development of parametric models in HBIM helps in establishing objectlibraries that increase accessibility. These libraries can be further classified toprovide a conservation approach and create a sustainable method of documenta-tion [27]. The ease in editing parametric elements makes it easier to update HBIMbased on changes in the building condition through time, based on intervention andbased on new discoveries or new interpretations [164]. The parametric elementsare linked to information containing their parameters and characters. Typical meta-data for heritage buildings includes archival photos and documents, architecturaland environmental data, condition reports, material characterisation, and all data ofthe heritage[164]. Overall, HBIM has a huge potential to facilitate urban heritageconservation and contribute to cultural heritage management.2.5 Chapter summaryUnderstanding the challenges and best practices, along with prospects in heritageconservation, will help in alleviating gaps in sustainable urban heritage conserva-tion. Practices were explored in three categories: planning, implementation, and23assessment. Challenges in planning show an absence of a thorough growth plan,limited public participation, disregard of intangible values, and conflict betweencontinuity and change. Implementation challenges are related to the absence of sta-ble funding, lack of political commitment, shortage of professionals, and inefficientcollaboration. In terms of assessment, there is insufficiency in comprehensivelyaccounting for all heritage values, gaps in objectively defining and assessing basicconcepts, and a lack of cultural heritage components in existing sustainability as-sessment tools. Considering best practices and prospects in heritage conservation,creating a balance between change and continuity, creating participatory planning,improving emphasis on intangible heritage values, developing a landscape-basedapproach, and harmonizing conservation plans are important in planning. In termsof implementation, alternative sources of funding in line with conservation goalsneed to be explored, the feasibility of projects assessed, community participationneeds to be enhanced, and political interference and subsequent overlapping rela-tions need to be resolved. Finally, in terms of assessment, tools need to signifi-cantly improve to account for all aspects of heritage for an objective and balancedjudgment. In conclusion, by focusing on resolving particular aspects of challengesor capitalizing on trends of good practices, urban conservation could be enhanced.These could further be integrated into current best practice applications in her-itage conservation, such as HBIM, to facilitate urban heritage conservation andcontribute to cultural heritage management.24Chapter 3Historic building informationmodeling using image: Exampleof port city Massawa, Eritrea3.1 IntroductionInappropriate restorations coupled with lack of documentation and plans can createirreversible damage for historical cites [18]. Development and use of an appropri-ate tool will thus significantly contribute to the conservation of historical cities.Historic Building Information Modeling (HBIM), which first appeared in the liter-ature in 2009, is a suitable method for conservation [27]. It was initially defined asa new system of modeling historic structures, which creates 3D documentation thatgenerates 3D and 2D drawings and details [145]. It can be used for conservationplanning and management, building analysis for retrofitting and renovation, virtualtours, simulation, assessments, scenario analysis, identification and prevention ofenvironmental damage, diagnosis, and site management [27, 164]. Several meth-ods employed in developing HBIM were explored [14, 26, 79, 146, 164, 172, 173,206, 207], which suggest the need for accessing sites, use of modern tools and com-plex process for data acquisition and processing. However, places like the ancientport city of Massawa (henceforth denoted as port city of Massawa), Eritrea, are25inaccessible and advanced tools are unavailable, making it challenging to developHBIM. These conditions inspire this research to initiate heritage conservation bydevising a methodology to develop HBIM with limited resources and illustrate itsapplication to heritage buildings in the port city of Massawa.Information for heritage conservation includes geometric information, mate-rial characterization, architectural and structural details, fac¸ade details, and in-terventions [164], a complete record of which is required for the conservation ofhistoric structure [145]. Documentation for HBIM starts with data collection asgeometric data from metric measurements and semantic data from research andobservation. Capturing and modeling real-world data for various built environ-ment applications is challenging [18]. The difficulty relies on developing a modelthat accurately represents the complexity of heritage buildings. Limitations mainlyrelate to data collection and processing stages [8, 27, 164]. Developing HBIM re-quires choosing appropriate techniques and tools for data collection and modelingbased on intended use, geometric complexity, required level of development andaccuracy, availability, cost, time, efficiency, and practicality [164, 206]. Severaldata acquisition methods are used to develop HBIM. Traditional methods includemanual measurements, images, maps, drawings, and written documents, whichare among the basis for heritage study [164, 172]. Modern approaches includethe use of Digital photogrammetry, air-born and terrestrial laser scanners (TLS),light detection and ranging (LiDAR), and other technologies to accelerate datacollection and improve accuracy [28, 58, 105]. Standard practices in develop-ing HBIM using the methods and tools aforementioned were explored. This in-cludes Use of drawings, photographs, and sketches coupled with in-situ inspection[172], use of laser and image surveys [146], reconstruction through photogram-metric processing [12, 79, 207], and use of a combination of photogrammetry andTLS [14]. Current developments show a 3D segmentation method for an effectiveHBIM development [26] and scan to BIM plugin to process point clouds directly[27]. Future developments are further geared towards highly automated processes[58, 91, 173, 206].The methods explored require access to heritage sites, modern technologies,or both. Future developments also indicate requirements to use modern tools andautomated processes with expertise. This has created a gap in heritage conserva-26tion, especially in developing countries, as some sites are inaccessible and moderntechnologies are unavailable. Moreover, advanced methods, despite their bene-fits, require expertise and expensive tools which might necessitate complex tasks[18, 27, 139, 164]. Their use has also posed challenges in practicality, difficultiesin managing high data size, high processing time, high cost, the need for pow-erful computer processing, data inconsistency and incompleteness, accuracy, in-correct object fitting and incorrect assumptions, and quality issues based on dataconstraints [12, 18, 58, 139, 146, 208]. These challenges have created the needto devise an alternative method of developing HBIM with available resources toinitiate the heritage conservation of sites like the port city of Massawa. The aimof this research is thus to develop and illustrate a new methodology to developHBIM for inaccessible heritage sites without any requirement for modern data ac-quisition and processing tools relying only on available resources, mainly images.This will be crucial to bridge the gaps in HBIM development and facilitate heritageconservation.Several methods have been previously used in different studies to develop 3Dbuilding models using images. Automatic 3D model derivation using single fac¸adeimage [141], reconstruction of 3D architectural models using an image by drawingoutlines over images [185], fac¸ade modeling through semi-automatic image-basedapproach [220], were among the studies that show the application of images for 3Dmodeling. These models are made to create photo-realistic models for visualiza-tion purposes, and the models were not parametric models. However, the modelingapproach used in developing these 3D building models can be employed to de-velop parametric models to develop HBIM for heritage buildings. Considering theexisting challenges and data availability, this paper proposes a similar approach tousing images in developing 3D models. But, unlike previous image-based 3D mod-els, it will be composed of flexible parametric elements that can easily be alteredand used for different applications. The proposed method also offers a simplified,inexpensive, and easy-to-use approach compared to previously used HBIM mod-eling approaches. In 3D modeling, a good trade-off between cost-effectiveness,reliability, and accuracy can be achieved by developing initial models from low-cost methods, which will then be enhanced by on-site data acquisition [74]. In thissense, the proposed method will help initiate heritage conservation using HBIM27employing a low-cost method.Considering the heritage conservation practice in the region, several studieshave been conducted on the application of HBIM. Baki et al. [24] explored her-itage recording using Jeddah HIBM in Saudi Arabia. Almaimani and Nawari [13]further investigated the creation of a BIM-driven library for Hejazi Islamic Ar-chitecture. This provides an opportunity to develop a comprehensive BIM libraryfor Islamic heritage. Such an approach will be important for Massawa’s port city,considering its symbolic position in Eritrea’s Islamic past [15, 68, 136]. Fadli andAlSaeed [64] proposed Qatar HBIM for vanishing architectural heritage. Researchin the region has been further expanded to consider the integration of Jeddah HIBMwith 3D GIS in Saudi Arabia [25] and integrated models of BIM and GIS in Egypt[11]. The digitization approaches intend to facilitate the documentation and man-agement of heritage buildings. This paper draws on these studies and proposes anew approach that fits the needs of the port city of Massawa.3.2 MethodologyChallenges in developing HBIM with limited resources created the need to proposea new approach (Figure 4.1). The method is intended to provide an inexpensive,easy-to-use, and efficient approach considering all the limitations and relying onavailable resources. It is a simplified method using images. Prior methods that usedimages in digitizing heritage buildings mainly required access to the site to takemultiple images, which then need to go through complex steps before the initiationof HBIM development [18, 27, 164, 208]. However, the method proposed in thispaper relies on identifying an appropriate image that will be used without complexprocessing to develop HBIM for a fac¸ade of heritage buildings. There are threephases (initiation, modeling, and validation phases) proposed in this research todevelop HBIM (Figure 4.1). The subsections below will clarify the approachesproposed in each primary step.28Façade segmentation Refined HBIM Synthesized façade drawing parametric families Detailing and Semantic data Defining major outlines Defining minor outlines Defining con-textual relation Preliminary façade drawing Validation Updating Updates for Building detail information ComparisonBuilding base map InitiationModelingValidation Approach 1 Step 2 (1) Step 3 (1) Step 2 (2) Step 3 (2) Step 4 (1,2) Step 1 (1,2) Approach 2Pre-synthesisLegend i = step number j = approach number Developing synthesised façade drawingBuilding detail information HBIM Initiation Exploring available dataIdentifying imageRectifying image Step i (j)Figure 3.1: Proposed methodology to develop HBIM.293.2.1 InitiationThe first step of the methodology is initiation, where available data and imagessuitable for modeling are explored. Documenting heritage buildings need a mul-tidisciplinary approach to develop a reliable database [12, 172]. Hence differentresources need to be explored to gather the maximum information possible. Theresources could be documentation, research studies, archives, maps, Google Earthdata, picture sources, movies and videos, architectural documents, and other re-lated sources. The initiation step will be crucial in developing a reliable databasefor the modeling step.3.2.2 ModelingIn this step, images identified in the initiation step are first rectified to generatesynthesized fac¸ade drawings after segmentation, outlining, and developing prelim-inary drawings. Parametric models will then be developed and combined withother building components to generate HBIM.Pre-synthesisPre-synthesis includes rectifying images and generating a base map. Before devel-oping synthesized fac¸ade drawings, images are identified to be rectified to undistortand enhance the image. Rectifying allows the transformation of images to havea photograph resembling an image taken precisely perpendicular to the interestplane [14]. This is particularly important for the first approach. The rectified im-ages will then be processed through four steps of developing a synthesized fac¸ade.The following subsections describe the steps in the two approaches proposed todevelop synthesized fac¸ade drawings.Developing synthesized fac¸ade drawingBased on the availability of images, the methodology offers two approaches todeveloping synthesized fac¸ade drawings (Figure 4.1). The first approach directlyuses rectified images, while the second relies on contextual relations to determinedimensions and proportions. The first approach can use Images with a camera an-gle perpendicular to a fac¸ade and a maximum possible distance. On the other hand,30other close-range and perspective images will be used in the second approach.The first step (Step 1(1)) in the first approach is segmenting a fac¸ade into differ-ent parts representing the general defining elements. Segmentation enables under-standing a fac¸ade through decomposition to elements [220]. The proposed fac¸adesegmentation is based on identifying repetitive and symmetric elements with sym-metry lines. Similar has been applied using an automatic method [58]. However,the level of detail in heritage buildings necessitates manually identifying elementsfor efficient modeling.Step 2(1)) and Step 3(1)) in the first approach define outlines based on the ele-ments identified in segmentation by tracing parallel polygonal outlines. The secondstep defines major outlines (floor levels, edges, and lines) for major architecturaland structural details. On the other hand, the third step is used to define minoroutlines (openings, arches and columns, railings, and other essential details) fordetailed architectural and structural fac¸ade elements. The final step (Step 4(1))is developing a synthesized fac¸ade drawing. Synthesized fac¸ade drawings can begenerated based on the identified representative elements in segmentation in rela-tion to major and minor outlines. Planner measurement details from the base mapare used to determine the width of buildings to adjust the scale. The synthesizedfac¸ade drawing can then be directly used for modeling.The second approach similarly starts with fac¸ade segmentation and ends withdeveloping synthesized fac¸ade drawing (same techniques used in the first approach).Unlike the first approach, major and minor outlines are defined in Step 2(2) to de-velop a preliminary fac¸ade drawing. The difference arises due to the types of im-ages used for modeling. In the first case, the rectified image could be directly usedto be scaled and proportioned to draw all the necessary details and make measure-ments. In the second approach, however, a preliminary fac¸ade drawing needs tobe developed before developing a synthesized fac¸ade since the images used in thismodeling are perspective and close-range images.In Step 2(2), parallel lines on buildings are used to draw multiple lines to de-fine major and minor outlines that relate measurements and proportions to con-text. The major and minor outlines meet at vanishing points on perspective imageswhich would help understand the geometric relation between building elementsand make assumptions on their measurements and proportion in relation to their31context. Vanishing points are crucial in setting constraints for architectural sceneswith abundant parallel lines to estimate proportion, define relation, and provide acue for inferring information [185]. For buildings that do not have an already de-veloped 3D model in their perspective line, their similarities with other buildingsbased on their location, architectural style, and building techniques will be crucial.In Step 3(2), before developing the final synthesized model, a preliminary fac¸adedrawing is developed. The drawing will be crucial to understand buildings’ accu-rate geometry and details. In this step, since measurements cannot be directlytaken as in the first approach, vertical and horizontal strips of repetitive parts in afac¸ade are identified. This can be used to develop a relational formula to determinethe dimensions of the fac¸ades. The width and height of buildings are determinedfrom the building base map and contextual relations with other heritage buildings,respectively. In Step 4(2), the preliminary fac¸ade drawing will then generate a syn-thesized fac¸ade drawing similar to the first case.Parametric families to HBIMAfter developing a synthesized fac¸ade drawing using either of the proposed ap-proaches, parametric families can be developed. As in the cases of reconstructinglost or damaged heritage, where speculation, expertise, and informed decision areneeded [12], this method proposes HBIM generation with limited resources. Thisnecessitates the imposition of assumptions, speculations, and judgment for an in-formed decision to fill the information gap. Assumptions can be made to determinevalues such as depth. Here, assumptions can be made based on construction tech-nique, literature study, proportions, personal judgment, informed decisions, andother justifiable reasons. In most cases, the assumptions will be incorporated intoeasily editable parametric models, which makes initial errors that might arise in theassumption less significant. Unlike previously proposed image-based digitization,which was used for visualization purposes [141, 185, 220], the proposed method inthis paper creates advanced parametric models. These flexible models offer differ-ent modeling advantages making it convenient to update HBIM. Parametric fami-lies could also be used as a reference library for future applications, case studies,and applications in developing buildings of similar architectural style [172]. Us-32ing the synthesized fac¸ade drawing as a baseline and combining parametric modelswith wall, floor, and basic building masses and enriching the model through detail-ing and semantic data, the final HBIM of heritage building can be generated.3.2.3 ValidationThis is the final step of the proposed methodology. It validates the results of theproposed approaches using the results of other techniques (e.g., point cloud, as-built architectural drawings) for the final refined HBIM. This process also can up-date the model by comparing, refining, and adding details to fill gaps that mightarise due to insufficient information.3.3 Case study - the port city of Massawa, EritreaThis section illustrates implementation of the proposed methodology on three her-itage buildings in the port city of Massawa, Eritrea (Figure 3.2). The port cityof Massawa was a global strategic port home to various communities and a hubof cross-cultural interaction in the red sea trade routes. It emerged as a centerof contestation in the sixteenth century for its economic and strategic importance[136]. The city has also been occupied by the Ottomans, Egyptians, and Italiansthat have significantly impacted the physical fabric, urban form, social and culturalcharacters. Ottomans and Egyptians influenced these architectural elements of theheritage building [136], exhibiting a similar Islamic architectural style that canbe seen in the Red Sea proper, e.g., Jeddah, Suakin, Hudaidah, and other coastalcities. Architectural elements of the heritage building, its technique, and materialdetails are mainly related to the island city of Suakin on the Sudanese Red Seacoast [203, 204]. The port city of Massawa is also the only urban center to main-tain Eritrea’s local architectural style and urban form with a unique and symbolicposition in Eritrea’s Islamic past [136]. Thus studying the port city of Massawais significant to understand the architecture of the region, port cities, and Islamictradition.The significance of the heritage buildings in the port city of Massawa neces-sitates developing appropriate mitigation strategies to conserve the urban heritageof the city and region. The port city’s heritage has been severely damaged due33Figure 3.2: Photo of identified heritage buildings in the port city of Massawa.to several historical and natural incidents, including the independence war, whichhas led to the damage and/or demolition of a significant part of the city. The cityis also in a seismic zone, and earthquake incidents in the past have contributed tothe deterioration of heritage buildings [152]. Moreover, new development traitsassociated with a potential revival of the port due to its strategic significance couldpotentially wipe out the city and region’s history. All these traits and the historicalimportance of the heritage buildings make it significant to develop an HBIM toassist in the conservation of the heritage buildings, overall urban form, and historyof the region.3.3.1 Initiation for heritage buildings in MassawaImplementation of the methodology to develop the HBIM, for heritage buildings inthe port city of Massawa, started with exploring available data and identifying ar-eas of interest. Sources from multiple disciplines, reflecting different perspectives,were explored. Available resources utilized entail limited photographs, sourcesfrom the internet, archives, documentation and research studies, GIS and GoogleEarth data, documentaries, movies and videos, historic documents, and inventorydocuments. Figure 3.3 shows the base map of the port city of Massawa developedby integrating the GIS and Google earth satellite image. In Figure 3.3, additional34insert is depicted to show location of the building identified in Figure 3.2. Thebuildings have evolved for nearly a century due to natural and political circum-stances that have led to severe damage and partial loss of building features (Fig-ure 3.2). This condition highlights the need for an urgent intervention to developHBIM that will facilitate intervention planning to preserve and rehabilitate the her-itage site [68, 186]. The buildings are believed to have been built (reconstructed)in the 1920s after the 1921 earthquake. This was during the Italian colonial era inthe post-1921 reconstruction of the port city of Massawa that is believed to havebeen completed by 1926 [71].Buildings in old MassawaLegend Figure 3.3: Location of identified buildings in port city of Massawa, Eritrea(base map is developed from GIS data and Google Earth satellite im-ages.)353.3.2 Modeling for heritage buildings in MassawaFor this study, Revit 2022, commonly used software for HBIM development [27],was used for the heritage building models, and to develop parametric componentsfor architectural and structural components. This section illustrates the two ap-proaches proposed (Figure 4.1) for buildings shown in Figure 3.2.(a) (b)Figure 3.4: The first identified heritage building (a) Image from maximumpossible distance to be used in modeling step, and (b) Close-range imageto understand the details of the fac¸ade.Example using the first approach for a heritage building in MassawaIn the first approach, two photos were selected, one from a far distance with acamera angle perpendicular to the fac¸ade surface (Figure 3.4a), and another closerange (Figure 3.4b). Using Adobe Photoshop, the first image was rectified to ad-just minor perspective distortion and proportion using measurements from the basemap generated on GIS (Figure 3.3). After rectifying the image, basic steps of themodeling approach were performed to develop a synthesized fac¸ade model (Figure3.5). The four steps followed are: segmentation of fac¸ade into representative partsthrough identifying repetitive and symmetrical elements (Figure 3.5a)(Step 1(1));defining major outlines of the fac¸ade through tracing parallel polygonal outlinesbased on the identified segments, and significant details (Figure 3.5b)(Step 2(1));defining minor outlines of the fac¸ade through tracing parallel polygonal outlines todetermine important minor details (Figure 3.5c)(Step 3(1)); and synthesized fac¸ade36(a) (b)(c) (d)Figure 3.5: Modeling steps for developing the first group of HBIM (a) Seg-mentation of fac¸ade, (b) Tracing polygonal outlines to define major out-lines, (c) Tracing polygonal outlines to define details, and (d) Develop-ing synthesized fac¸ade measurable to develop HBIM.drawing is generated that will be directly used for modeling (Figure 3.5d)(Step4(1)).Using measurements from the synthesized fac¸ade drawing (Figure 3.5d) para-metric elements were first developed for the representative fac¸ade elements iden-tified in Figure 3.5a. For instance, the parametric family shown in Figure 3.6 rep-resents an architectural and structural detail identified among the representative37(a) (b)Figure 3.6: Parametric family developed using the first approach (a) Parame-ters of developed family, and (b) Elevation drawing of developed family.elements. In this model, all measurements were derived from synthesized fac¸adedrawing with the depth of the walls being the only assumption made. Each partof this parametric element was linked to information containing its parameters andcharacters. Measurements of individual elements of the parametric model couldeasily be adjusted to update the model, making it easier to adjust initial assump-tions and change parameters to use the model for different buildings. Other para-metric elements were similarly developed, including columns, arches, windowsand doors, railing details, and other important decorative details.Combining the parametric models developed with wall, floor, and basic build-ing masses and enriching the model through detailing including generic mass, wallreveals and extrusions, the final HBIM is generated (Figure 3.7). Semantic datafrom literature studies, historical documents, inventory files, and other sources areintegrated with the geometric data of 3D models to generate comprehensive HBIM.Following similar steps, the HBIM can be developed for heritage buildings relyingon rectified elevation images. The results of this building category can be usedin understanding other buildings in the port city of Massawa, which have similarconstruction materials, construction techniques, similar architectural and structural38details, and some with identical parametric families. Based on these similaritiesand the contextual relationship with other buildings on the site, this group of mod-els can be used as a reference in modeling other heritage buildings, as illustrated inthe second approach.Figure 3.7: 3D Perspective of developed HBIM using the first approach.Example using the second approach for heritage buildings in MassawaIn approach two, two buildings are modeled in relation to the first model (Figure3.7). For this approach, four pictures were used. Figure 3.2, which was recti-fied and used as the main image in this modeling approach, shows the identifiedbuildings in relation to their context. Figure 3.8 further shows images of identifiedheritage buildings and close-range images, which help clearly understand details.Similar to the first approach basic steps of the second approach to generate a syn-thesized fac¸ade model were performed as shown in Figure 3.9. The four stepsare: segmentation of fac¸ade into representative parts through identifying repeti-39(a) (b)(c)Figure 3.8: The Second and third identified heritage building pictures (a) Sec-ond building, (b) Third building, and (c) Fac¸ade details for the thirdbuilding.tive and symmetrical elements as shown in Figure 3.9a(Step 1(2)); defining majorand minor outlines in relation to context through tracing multiple lines that meetat vanishing points on the perspective image to understand geometric relation andmake assumption in defining identified segments, major and minor details as shownin Figure 3.9b(Step 2(2)); developing preliminary fac¸ade drawing and identifyingrepresentative segments in the fac¸ade using measurements from the base map andsimilarity with other buildings as shown in Figure 3.9c(Step 3(2)), and finally re-fining preliminary fac¸ade drawing and developing synthesized fac¸ade drawing thatwill be used for modeling as shown in Figure 3.9d(Step 4(2)).Unlike the first approach, which uses rectified images for measurements, thesecond approach needs more steps to determine measurements. To show the appli-40cation of the steps proposed in determining measurements and use of the relationalformula, first the fac¸ade for both buildings in the model was divided into two partsof repetitive vertical strips in red rectangles (Figure 3.9c). For the building withtwo stories, the first identified part, denoted as variable A, consists of an archedstructure supported by columns on each side on the first floor and openings thatshare the same symmetric line vertically. The second identified part represents thetwo end points of the building, represented as variable B. The fac¸ade is comprisedof five and two parts of A and B, respectively. Part A intern comprises two parts ofB combined with a part accounting only the arched parts and without the columns,represented as a variable C. The total width of the building determined from thebuilding footprint map is 15.2 meters. When the variables are added, we also getthe total dimension of the building. Using this technique for the parts shown inthe red line for the two-story building, the first part, A, is determined to be 2.92meters, and the second part, B, 0.48 meters. These measurements are part of theparametric models developed, making it easier to change and test assumptions and,most importantly, to validate, edit and update the model at any time if needed.Understanding characters and representative elements of a fac¸ade could assistin predicting characters of the demolished parts. The first building with two sto-ries is used to illustrate the second approach, as shown on the synthesized fac¸adedrawing in Figure 3.9 and image of the building in Figure 3.8. After studying thegeometry of the building, an informed predictive elevation drawing was developed,as shown in red lines in Figure 3.10, to create a complete picture of what the her-itage building was like before demolition. The repetitive vertical strips identifiedin the third step in developing a synthesized fac¸ade drawing and the parametricmodels developed were crucial in predicting the lost parts.Based on the synthesized fac¸ade model, parametric models were developed forthe identified representative elements of the fac¸ade using the same procedure in thefirst case. Some parametric models were developed by updating similar paramet-ric elements developed in the first approach based on the similarity of identifiedfac¸ade elements (Figure 3.15). Finally, the HBIM is developed as shown in Figure3.11, which represents the existing conditions of the building coupled with pred-icatively modeled parts shown in Red. The model is generated by combining theparametric elements with wall, floor, structural elemnts and basic building masses41(a) (b)A BC(c) (d)Figure 3.9: Modeling steps for developing the second group of HBIM; (a)Segmentation of fac¸ade, (b) Tracing polygonal outlines to define ma-jor and minor outlines in relation to a context, (c) Developing prelimi-nary fac¸ade drawing (red rectangles showing vertical strips of repetitiveparts), and (d) Developing synthesized fac¸ade measurable to developHBIM.and enriching through detailing using generic mass, wall reveals, and extrusions.Semantic data is integrated into the model using the same procedure in the first ap-proach. Informed judgment is often a component of the HBIM process when it isapplied in modeling lost heritages with no prior building information [12]. In thissense, parametric models developed were crucial in reconstructing demolished andlost parts of heritage buildings. This model can be enhanced by relating them toexisting buildings in terms of geometric details, proportion, and shared parametricfamilies depending on architectural similarities.42Figure 3.10: Predictive elevation drawing of demolished parts of the heritagebuilding developed based on identified repetitive fac¸ade features.Figure 3.11: 3D Perspective of developed HBIM using the second approach.3.3.3 Validation of results of the modeling approaches for heritagebuildings in MassawaHistorical document of an architectural drawing from 1927 by engineer Paolo Re-viglio (Figure 3.12) was used to compare, validate and update the model developed.The timeline when the drawing was made suggests that it was around the recon-struction of the buildings damaged from the 1921 Massawa earthquake. Despitethis information, it is difficult to tell if the drawing was made before the construc-tion of the heritage buildings or as-built after the completion. The drawing willmake the HBIM a more comprehensive model as it provides plans and details ofthe heritage building. The first task in this step is digitizing the historical paperdrawings, which will enable to develop a model base that could be compared with43the image-based models. The steps used, and the parts identified in both modelingapproaches are considered in digitizing the drawings. Based on this consideration,an elevation model was developed to validate the developed HBIM fac¸ade model,as seen in Figures 3.13 and 3.14.Validation of results of the first approachHBIM, from the first approach, was first used to illustrate steps in comparison,validation, and updating. The comparison of results considers the general build-ing features and measurements. Comparing the general features of the two draw-ings (Figure 3.13), the first from the architectural drawing and the second fromHBIM developed, the drawings have differences in fac¸ade features. In Figure 3.13,features identified only on the architectural documents were represented in greenlines. The differences include parapet and railing details on the roof, roof gutterdetails, and minor differences in window and door details along with their decora-tive counterparts on the wall. Features unique to the drawing made based on theexisting condition from an image are identified in cyan lines (Figure 3.13). Fea-tures identified include parapet wall, railing details, wooden screening elements,and decorative details. The differences could arise from several factors, includingchanges due to demolition and maintenance works. Another factor for the differ-ences depends on whether the drawing was made before or after the constructionof the heritage building. If the drawings were made before the construction of theheritage building as a blueprint, likely, some of the features on the drawing werenot realized during the construction, leading to the features we have now. If thedrawings were made as-built for already constructed heritage buildings, it suggeststhat the differences in exhibited features arise from changes due to demolition ormaintenance works. Studying these differences was crucial as it avoids unneces-sary comparisons that might arise due to embedded fundamental differences. Afterthe identification of these differences, the next step was to make a comparison ofmeasurements.The overall width of both elevation drawings is equal. At the same time, theheight shows a variation of a 25-centimeter decrease on the left end and 10 cen-timeters increase on the right end when compared to elevations developed from the44(a)(b)Figure 3.12: Architectural drawing of identified heritage buildings from 1927(a) Elevation and plan architectural drawings, and (b) Fac¸ade detailarchitectural drawing. (Source: Historic architectural recordings ofthe port city of Massawa accessed from Merhatinsaie Gebremariam.)45Legend Features that were only identi ed from the architectural drawing Features that were only identi ed on the existing condition Identi ed di erence between common elements Figure 3.13: Comparison of elevation drawings generated from historic ar-chitectural drawing, left side, and developed image-based HBIM, rightside, for the first heritage building.architectural drawing. The height difference is anticipated since the architecturaldrawing has a flat ground level while the existing condition shows sloping terraintowards the right side of the building, which creates a variation. Besides, the struc-ture would likely settle, or possible erosion and level changes around the buildingcreate a height difference. Considering detailed comparisons, all the families de-veloped have similar results except the height of the window sill and the height ofthe first-floor column capital. Red broken lines connecting the column capitals onthe two drawings (Figure 3.13) suggest the height of column capital needs to beincreased by 5 centimeters, which can easily be adjusted by changing the values ofthe parametric model. Another difference was the miss-alignment of the horizontallayers of concrete spaced between layers of the coral stone wall, which affected thewindow sill level. These are ideally spaced equally, but the spacing differs by a fewcentimeters in real life. However, a general assumption can be made on the spac-ing of this historic layered construction technique, which can be used in estimatingheight for other models as the average height of spacing is the same.Considering the width of families, all families have the exact width as modeledusing the rectified image. However, some difference exists in the placement andconsistency of spacing of the families. Depending on the architectural drawing,the arched structures supported by the columns on the first floor have equal spac-46ing between (first drawing in Figure 3.13). Nevertheless, this is not the case as seenin the picture of the fac¸ade (Figure 3.4). The columns highlighted in red on bothdrawings show where the difference exists. The spacing difference in one pointcould have created the need to decrease the spacing on the other parts, which couldhave quickly been done by adjusting the parametric values of the families. How-ever, this was unnecessary as the elevation drawing modeled based on the imageaccurately represents the existing fac¸ade. Here, it is important to notice that thedifferences might appear due to changes in the heritage building or in realizing thedrawings. Differences in detail measurements and similarities in overall measure-ments of major building parts indicate the developed methodology is more effectivein modeling significant features of the building fac¸ade. To achieve greater accu-racy in this modeling technique for detail measurements, high-resolution imagesor close-range rectified images showing building features are required.In terms of assumptions made in developing the model, the first assumption onpositions of axis lines for structures on an image-based model were made basedon first-floor structures and symmetry lines, with ground floors assumed to beload bearing wall with a possibility of structures being embedded along the axisof structures. The drawing, on the other hand shows structures spaced unevenlywith no symmetrical charters in response to fac¸ade features. Reinforced struc-tures are embedded within the coral stone wall without aligning with first-floorcolumns. Another assumption made in developing parametric models and decid-ing the cross-section of the wall was the assumption of coral walls have a thicknessof 50 centimeters. On the drawing, most coral stone walls are 55 centimeters thick,with only a few being 50 centimeters. Based on all the comparisons, the developedmethodology was valid. Some refinements were done on parametric componentsbased on the identified differences.Validation of results of the second approachUsing similar steps for the second approach, considering only general features, thetwo elevation drawings exhibit differences. Fac¸ade features only identified fromthe architectural drawing are shown in green (Figure 3.14), including mainly theroof details. Differences are found on all parapet and railing details, roof gutter47details, door details, and window decorative elements. Figure 3.14 shows featuresthat were identified on the drawing made based on the existing condition in cyancolor. These differences include all roof details, timber opening additions on thefirst floor, and new door details on the ground level. Overall, as for the first group,there have been several differences that were identified. However, the significantfeatures of the fac¸ade are similar. As mentioned in the previous validation forthe first approach, differences could arise from several factors, including buildingchange due to demolition and maintenance works or based on the drawing timeline.Figure 3.10 also shows a reconstruction of the demolished fac¸ade, which is similarto the fac¸ade features from the architectural drawing, validating the approach takenin predictive modeling of demolished heritage.Legend Features that were only identi ed from the architectural drawing Features that were only identi ed on the existing condition Identi ed di erence between common elements Figure 3.14: Comparison of elevation drawings generated from historic ar-chitectural drawing, left side, and developed image-based HBIM, rightside, for the second and third heritage buildings.In terms of measurement differences, the second approach has more differencescompared to the first as the measurements were determined based on contextualrelation. A comparison of the roof parapets disregarding the decorative elementsfrom the architectural drawing shows 62 centimeters difference. Unlike the eleva-tion developed from the architectural drawing, the buildings have different slopingground levels and different floor heights on the existing condition (Figure 3.14).The difference can be attributed to the height of the first-floor level in the existingcondition. The overall width of the two buildings is similar. However, the demol-ished parts on the first building created a challenge in accurately demarking theedge between the two buildings. This created deviation from the elevation fromarchitectural drawings. The width of the first building is 20 centimeters wider, andthe second building is narrower with the same value, making the overall width sim-48(a) (b)Figure 3.15: Parametric family developed using the modeling approach (a)Parameters of developed family, and (b) Elevation drawing of devel-oped family.ilar. This difference affects the axis line spacing on the developed families. Theassumption on column base width on the first floor of the first building was madebased on similar parametric elements from the first approach, which show a 4 cmdifference. Decreasing the parametric models’ axis line spacing can easily adjustthese differences. Similarly, the arched structures could easily be adjusted for thesecond building by increasing the axis line spacing by 6 centimeters. The widthdifferences could be avoided using high-resolution satellite images that could helpidentify the exact lines of demolished parts.Comparing measurement differences of fac¸ade features, considering paramet-ric models developed in the first approach being used, the same adjustments willalso be applied. Besides, the columns support different arches (Figure 3.15), whichwere modeled after a parametric model in the first model (Figure 3.6). Detail mea-surements of the family were taken from the earlier model, with adjustments to theheight of the arch made based on related measurements (Figure 3.9). The para-metric model was further modified based on the architectural detail drawings of49the arch (Figure 3.12). The results of the comparison show differences in col-umn spacing and the height of the arch. This was easily modified by adjusting theparameters highlighted in Figure 3.15. Similar assumptions were made in deter-mining the position of axis lines and cross-section walls as in the first case, whichgives similar differences of unevenly spaced axis lines without symmetrical char-acters and thicker wall cross-sections. The model was thus modified based on theplan shown in Figure 3.12. Overall, the modeling approach was less accurate thanthe first, Since it relies on more steps in determining measurements based on con-textual relations than the models developed by taking measurements directly fromthe rectified image. Despite being less accurate in comparison, it has a good over-all accuracy with minor easily adjustable differences, making the overall method avalid technique.Depending on the comparison and validation done using historic architecturaldocuments, the HBIM model was updated and enriched to develop the final re-fined HBIM representative of the conditions of the heritage buildings as can beseen in Figures 3.7 and 3.11. Differences that were not accommodated in refiningthe existing model suggest two possibilities. The first assumes the architecturaldrawing was done as an as-built drawing after the construction of the buildings.In this case, the difference could indicate demolition and addition of parts after thebuildings were constructed, requiring conservation works to reconstruct lost detailsof the heritage buildings and avoid new fac¸ade features that were not included inthe original design shown on the architectural drawings. The second possibility isbased on the assumption the architectural drawing was done before the constructionof the buildings. This might have a similar possibility as for the first one if the her-itage buildings were constructed based on the drawings. Another possibility couldbe that the heritage buildings are not realized based on the original design. In thiscase, a further historical study is required to conserve the heritage buildings basedon the as-built details. Figure 3.16 shows the final Plan of the heritage buildingsdeveloped based on the architectural drawing shown in Figure 3.12. The drawingenhances the level of detail in the HBIM by transforming the original fac¸ade modeldeveloped from images.Considering the detailed steps in developing the HBIM, in both approaches, 3Dmodeling started after developing synthesized fac¸ade drawings. Using measure-50ments from the building base map and synthesized fac¸ade, axis lines were drawnat the ground level. The wall surface was then added following the axis lines todefine the fac¸ade. Height information and details were determined from a syn-thesized fac¸ade drawing. Assumptions based on construction technique, literaturestudy, proportions, personal judgment, informed decisions, and other justifiablereasons were crucial in deciding depth. After drawing wall surfaces, parametricmodels were developed for different components. The parametric models (Figures3.7 and 3.11) have parameters to define overall width, overall height, and detailmeasurements along with appropriate material types and other semantic informa-tion to enrich the model. The final HBIM of the heritage building (Figure 3.7) isthen generated by combining parametric models, wall, floor, and basic buildingmasses and enriching the model through detailing including generic mass, wall re-veals, and extrusions. The final HBIM was then further refined and detailed in eachview to appropriately represent details of the heritage buildings.Figure 3.16: Ground floor plan generated from refined HBIM of the heritagebuildings.Based on the two modeling approaches illustrated, any fac¸ade can be decon-structed into parts to develop a synthesized fac¸ade drawing to determine mea-surements and proportions. This will provide an appropriate base for develop-ing HBIM. The modeling approach proposed in developing parametric elements isrigorous and time-consuming. However, as the number of parametric families de-veloped increases, the process becomes less demanding since buildings of similararchitectural style share the same families with different parameters. The methodalso offers low-cost and easy-to-use steps to develop HBIM for sites that havelimited available resources and less accessibility, like the Port City of Massawa.The challenge will be Finding the right image as it could be close-range requiring51several steps to determine proportion and measurements; it could have differentqualities affecting the level of detail that could be inferred; and it could also be ofdifferent timelines. However, despite this challenge, an appropriate modeling ap-proach can be selected from the approaches illustrated to develop HBIM. This willhighly contribute to initiating heritage conservation in information-deprived con-texts of developing countries. The proposed method could also be further extendedto be used for accessible heritage sites by taking images based on the expectationsset in the proposal. This allows easier and simplified HBIM development. Theresulting HBIM can then be used for different applications to assist in managingbuilt heritage. HBIM has been found crucial in supporting the design phases ofhistorical or contemporary projects, for accurate management decisions, in assess-ing energy performance and sustainable retrofitting heritage buildings [8, 13, 116].Moreover, the model will be crucial to generate engineering drawings, for 3D visu-alization, conservation planning, developing heritage building inventory, and otheruses that will assist in maintaining built heritage.3.4 Chapter summaryIn this paper, HBIM was developed using a new image-based method for a heritagebuilding in the port city of Massawa, Eritrea. Most of the previously proposedmethods in developing HBIM assume accessibility of heritage buildings for con-ducting studies and accessibility of cutting-edge data acquisition and processingtechnologies. However, this assumption does not work for all heritage sites, es-pecially for heritage sites in developing countries. The challenges create the needto develop HBIM with existing available information without requiring moderndata acquisition tools. This paper proposes a new image-based method to developHBIM for inaccessible heritage sites. Unlike most commonly used methods that re-quire multiple images and sophisticated processing processes, the proposed methodrelies only on rectifying an appropriate image to develop parametric models of her-itage building fac¸ade. This simplifies the steps required to develop HBIM for her-itage buildings. Despite being previously used for different modeling approaches,image-based digitization has never been used to develop HBIM for heritage build-ings with parametric models. Unlike the previous digitization approaches, which52create models for visualization, the proposed approach allows the creation of moreadvanced parametric models that could be used for different applications.HBIM was developed for heritage buildings in the port city of Massawa, witha parametric digital library for each fac¸ade feature. The images used in modelingmostly give information only about the front fac¸ade of buildings. Thus, the HBIM,for the most part, is limited to developing details for the fac¸ade of heritage build-ings. Two approaches for developing HBIM were presented in this paper. The firstmodel is developed from rectified elevation images of the heritage building, wherebuilding outlines were drawn to identify fac¸ade features and their measurementsto develop synthesized fac¸ade drawings. HBIM with parametric families for eachidentified fac¸ade feature was developed based on this. The second model was de-veloped in relation to the first model by projecting perspective lines relating fac¸adefeatures. Parametric models developed in the first model were also used based onthe relation of fac¸ade features. In both models, semantic data from literature stud-ies, historical documents, inventory files, and other essential sources was integratedwith the geometric data of 3D models to give comprehensive HBIM. The modelswere then compared and validated with historic architectural drawings to updatethe model and add significant details.Results show, the feasibility of developing HBIM from rectified images ofbuilding elevation with higher accuracy. The method is suitable for buildings withlimited stories as vertical image distortion will increase with an increased numberof stories, creating difficulty in rectifying images. The modeling technique posessome limitations as the user’s significant interaction is required, making the pro-cess subjective, intensive, and tedious. The method requires meticulous steps inimage selection, feature identification, projection of lines, and assuming develop-ing the models. Some steps need user judgment in choosing the best possibilityin determining relation, proportion, and measurements. For instance, Outlines aredrawn to determine relations could potentially be associated with multiple van-ishing points. This creates subjective decisions that could make differences. Thequality of the image identified for modeling also affects the output. The proposedmethod requires the identification of appropriate pictures with high resolution forbetter outcomes of HBIM. Moreover, The method can only be used to model el-ements in the same fac¸ade surface, requiring measurements and proportions of53components extruding from the fac¸ade elements to be determined from other im-ages besides the rectified image used in developing synthesizing fac¸ade drawings.To overcome the limitations in the proposed method, it could be further devel-oped to allow automatic detection of fac¸ade features in image-based modeling ofHBIM that responds to intricate details of heritage buildings and the uniqueness offac¸ade features. Overall, it can be concluded that the proposed methodology allowsimage-based HBIM development, which could be used in conservation planning,decision-making, 3D visualization, and extraction of engineering drawings for dif-ferent purposes.54Chapter 4Extension of historic buildinginformation modeling to 3D citymodeling: Application for theport city of Massawa, Eritrea4.1 Introduction3D city models have been increasingly used since the mid 1990’s [84]. The models,which have been mostly used for visualization, are now used for different purposes,e.g., spatial analysis [33], decision support tool for planning and management [31,190], and urban design and planning [174]. 3D models have also been instrumentalin urban heritage conservation [56], virtual reconstruction heritage sites and cities[67, 188] and virtual experiences [42, 65, 104, 182, 222]. The applications of 3Dcity model enable to analyze and experience cities in different scenarios to createa sustainable living environment. This research aims to develop and illustrate amethod to generate 3D city models for urban heritage conservation, particularly ininaccessible and resource-deficient sites. It focuses on developing a 3D city modelfor the historic port city of Massawa, Eritrea, with the specific aim of facilitatingsustainable conservation and contributing to the broader understanding of 3D city55models.Various 3D city model development methods were explored, such as integra-tion of footprint data and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) point classifi-cation [160], parametric 3D reconstruction approach using structured footprints[121] virtual reconstruction using CGA shape [140], procedural and parametricmodeling [62], Scan2BIM2GIS [56], image-based techniques [221], using 2D datathrough height prediction [33]. Two critical datasets consistently emerged in theseapproaches: building footprint data, defining the shape and size of the ground areacovered by a building, and surface elevation data, providing information regardingthe height of building elements. The wide-scale availability of building footprintdatasets as GIS data in recent times has significantly eased the development oflarge-scale 3D city models [160]. Building footprint data can be acquired fromvarious sources, including cadastral datasets [19, 205], ground plans and figures[140], automated derivation from topographic databases [93], and automatic ex-traction from digital elevation models (DEM) [121] or based on marked point pro-cess [157]. Another critical component, elevation datasets, is essential for detailedgeometric reconstruction. It is an essential but often unavailable data commonlyacquired from photogrammetry and LiDAR [33]. It can also be acquired fromimage matching and fac¸ade texture from standard and oblique aerial photography[84], semi-dense point clouds using multiple images [221], prediction of the heightof buildings from 2D data through machine learning techniques based on the num-ber of stories, building age, and net internal area [33], using building figures [140],through laser scanning of physical models [81, 113], and estimation of buildingheight based on number of floors acquired from areal imagery [211]. By employ-ing suitable footprint and elevation data acquired through different techniques, 3Dmodels can then be generated.In developed countries, nationwide building footprints are readily available ascadastral data or can be automatically extracted [84, 93]. However, cities in devel-oping countries face significant challenges due to lack of sufficient and updatedfootprint data. The absence and/or inadequate city-scale comprehensive carto-graphic documentation tools, has hindered the advancement of the concept of suchurban heritage [56]. Similarly, there is a notable gap in elevation datasets. Whilemethods for capturing 3D data, like laser scanning and photogrammetry, have been56advancing [160], obtaining elevation datasets remains a costly and labour-intensiveprocess, requiring expensive infrastructure and expertise, thereby impeding thecreation and accessibility of 3D city models [196, 211]. Moreover, many areasworldwide, including numerous developed nations, continue to face a shortage ofcomprehensive national elevation data suitable for generating 3D city models [33].The process is further complicated in sites like Massawa due to lack of resources,site inaccessibility, and unavailability of modern data acquisition tools.A 3D city model incorporating Historic Building Information Modeling (HBIM)for sites like Massawa has the potential not only to initiate urban heritage conserva-tion but also to contribute to sustainable development. The approach in this papercan aid in conserving inaccessible and resource-deficient heritage sites while fa-cilitating information-sharing for educational purposes and cultural tourism. Themethod in this paper is designed to create 3D city models with limited resources,avoiding the need for cutting-edge tools. Acknowledging the typically costly andtime-consuming nature of 3D city model generation [33, 62, 140, 211], the pro-posed method offers an economical and efficient modeling approach. Buildingfootprint dataset is proposed to be generated mainly using GIS, Google Earth, andhistorical data. The study expands on the building-level HBIM development pro-posed by [176] that utilized images to acquire elevation data to 3D city model ofthe historic port city of Massawa, Eritrea. Our research introduces a meticulouslycrafted 3D city model that transcends conventional representations by incorporat-ing intricate details of the urban heritage of Massawa with parametric familiesrepresenting the architecture of the city.The rest of this research is organized into the following sections. Section 2presents an overall introduction to the proposed methodology, followed by Section3, defining the study area and its significance. Section 4 illustrates the applicationof the proposed method in detail by using Massawa as a case study. Section 5presents the research results and discussion and Section 6, limitations, followed bythe final section, Section 7, of the conclusion.574.2 MethodologyConsidering the challenges associated with acquiring building footprint and ele-vation datasets in resource-constrained sites, the methodology proposed in Figure4.1 illustrates a procedure for developing a 3D city model with limited resources.The methodology consists of four fundamental steps: building footprint datasetgeneration, classification, HBIM development, and finally, generating a 3D citymodel.Initially, the building footprint dataset is generated using available resources,mainly GIS, Google Earth, and historical data. In the second step, buildings areclassified based on the level of resources available for modeling before generatingelevation data. This classification serves as the foundation for determining focusareas and generating different classes of HBIM with alternative levels of detail.An images-based HBIM development approach [176] is then employed in the thirdstep of this method to generate elevation datasets. This paper extends the resultsof the research and shows its application in 3D city modeling. Two approachesare utilized in this image-based HBIM development. The first approach (approach1) uses rectified images for segmentation, outlining, and developing synthesizedfac¸ade drawings to get elevation measurements and develop HBIM. The secondapproach (approach 2) uses perspective images for segmentation, outlining, and de-veloping preliminary fac¸ade drawings using contextual relation before developingsynthesized fac¸ade drawings for elevation measurements and HBIM development.The results of both modeling approaches can further be validated using historic ar-chitectural drawings to add details and refine the models. This previously proposedmethod is part of the 3D city modeling approach proposed in this paper, as shownin the HBIM section of Figure 4.1. After developing individual building models ofdifferent classes, the final step involves generating the 3D city model through de-tailed context modeling, integration of semantic data, and incorporating additionallayers of city information.583D city modelBuilding footprintGenerating footprint Classification HBIM HBIM to City modelHistoric documents and building inventorySemantic data and urban informationImage-based HBIM development Context modeling Classification and mass modeling Building modelingInformation transfer Class 1Class 2Class 4(LOD1)Class 3(LOD4)GIS, Google earth, and historic data(LOD3)(LOD3)Figure 4.1: Methodology to develop 3D city model with HBIM.59In the third section of the proposed method, HBIM, four classes of models wereproposed, as illustrated in Figure 4.1. These classes differ in terms of the level ofdetail, the availability of information used in generating the models, and the levelof confidence in modeling. The first class comprises highly detailed models witha higher level of certainty, utilizing a full information data set extracted from ei-ther rectified or perspective images and validated with architectural drawings. Thesecond class consists of detailed models with a higher level of certainty, using aninformation data set extracted from rectified images. The third class involves mod-els developed with lower certainty compared to the first two classes due to the useof information based on contextual relations corresponding to the first two classesof models. Finally, the fourth class is developed based on the first three classes tocreate 3D masses for the volumetric representation of buildings with limited infor-mation. The four classes exhibit variations in their level of detail (LOD), a termwhose definition varies considerably among practitioners, standards, and institu-tions [30]. The five LODs of the CityGML were used in this paper. Among thesefive LODs, the models in the four classes in this paper fall under LOD1, LOD3,and LOD4 of CityGML. Employing the steps proposed, section 4 of this paperwill detail how the proposed method (Figure 4.1) was applied to develop a 3D citymodel for the port city of Massawa.4.3 The port city of MassawaThe port city of Massawa was carefully selected as a case to demonstrate the pro-posed approach for developing a 3D city model. Positioned along Eritrea’s north-ern coast (Figure 4.2), Massawa is renowned for its compact planning, character-ized by buildings facing narrow streets that radiate from the central parts of thecity, converging with roads along the seashore. Since the sixteenth-century impe-rialist struggles between Portugal and the Ottomans, Massawa was crucial in thediplomatic, military, and political realms of several countries to influence the RedSea region and establish contact with the Horn of Africa [136]. Being a center ofcontestation, it has been influenced by various rules that control the city. The city’slong-term association with the Ottomans and Egyptians created strong similaritieswith other Red Sea ports of Jiddah, Sawakin, Hudaydah, and Luhayya [136](Figure604.2). Architectural features, construction methods, and material details draw par-allels primarily with the island city of Suakin along the coast of the Red Sea inSudan [203, 204]. Suakin and Massawa exhibited the traits typical of Red Seatowns, and the towns were also Arabian, distinct from those of African origin, asseen in their diverse populations, architectural styles, and lifestyle choices, includ-ing clothing [193, 209]. The cultural distinctiveness, coupled with its unique andsymbolic position in Eritrea’s Islamic past, renders the study of Massawa crucialfor a comprehensive understanding of the Red Sea region.SawakinHudaydahMassawaEthiopia DjiboutiLuhayyaJiddahRed SeaGulf of AdenEritreaSudanSouthSudanSomaliaYemenSaudi ArabiaFigure 4.2: Geographic location of the port city of Massawa.Flat-roofed masonry buildings with limited stories and ottoman-type high minaretsof mosques characterize the built structure in Massawa. The construction of thefirst-known buildings during the initial period of Turkish domination marked theinception of building activities that continued to evolve throughout centuries, span-ning the time of Egyptian rule and the Italian colonial era. The architectural land-scape of the port can be broadly categorized into large public and commercialstructures of Italian colonial origin and smaller residential and religious buildingsof Turkish and Egyptian origin [15]. A series of man-made and natural circum-61stances have influenced the evolution of the port city. Noteworthy incidents suchas the 1888 fire incident, the 1921 earthquake, and the 30-year war for indepen-dence have significantly impacted building practices and overall urban form. Inaddition to these factors, heritage buildings are currently facing decay due to lackof maintenance. Furthermore, potential new developments threaten Massawa’s ur-ban heritage, which could wipe out the city and region’s history.4.4 Overview of the approachThe proposed methodology is successfully applied to develop a 3D city model withHBIM for the port city of Massawa, Eritrea. The method comprises Four essen-tial steps: (1) creating a building footprint (2) classifying buildings based on theirhistorical significance and resource availability (3) developing HBIM models withvarying level of details, and (4) seamlessly integrating these HBIM models withother layers to create a comprehensive 3D city model. This iterative process en-sures a nuanced representation of the city’s urban heritage, accounting for historicalsignificance and varying levels of detail in the modeling approach.4.4.1 Building footprintThe initial phase of the proposed methodology focuses on generating building foot-prints. GIS data, coupled with Google Earth satellite imagery and historic docu-ments, was employed to create building footprints. The process began with theuse of the QuickOSM QGIS plugin for the automated generation of building foot-prints using QGIS base map and online data source [154] (Figure 4.3a). However,limitations were identified, particularly in detecting heritage buildings, necessitat-ing manual shape file development for these structures in the second step (Figure4.3b). This step is critical and challenging in developing the city model as build-ings are not automatically detected through typical methods used in developingbuilding footprints. The third step involved overlaying the final building footprintswith satellite views to ensure accuracy and alignment with the QGIS base map,incorporating updates for missing or demolished buildings (Figure 4.3c). Lastly,the final building footprint, a refined and updated version, was then established asthe base map for subsequent HBIM and 3D city model development (Figure 4.3d).62(a) (b)(c) (d)Figure 4.3: Steps for developing building footprint; (a) Automated genera-tion of building footprint, (b) Manually developing new shape files, (c)Updating building footprint using Google Earth image, and (d) Finalbuilding footprint.634.4.2 ClassificationThe classification of buildings serves a dual purpose: to identify structures andareas of heightened historical significance and to group buildings based on resourceavailability for modeling. The following are the two classifications used in studyingthe site.Identified areasThe initial classification aims to pinpoint areas and buildings of interest by leverag-ing various resources, including historical documents, prior studies on Massawa,maps, and building inventory files. The overarching goal of developing a digi-tized city model with HBIM is to use it as a strategic tool for planning the reha-bilitation of Massawa’s historic city. Based on this intention, buildings and siteswith greater historical significance and anticipated impact on the city’s rehabili-tation take precedence in the classification. This paper mainly focuses on mod-eling UNESCO-identified historic sections of Massawa, renowned for significantarchitectural values. These encompass areas characterised by notable building andarchitectural features and those with pivotal streetscapes. The delineation of fo-cus areas, as illustrated in Figure 4.4, draws inspiration from studies conducted byFrancesco [68], and Ren and Edward [165].Resource availabilityThe second classification explores available data from multiple resources, despiteresource accessibility limitations, with a Major goal of grouping buildings basedon the availability of resources for modeling. Various data sources were explored,such as pictures from prior site visits, social media, and the internet, archival files,documentation, research studies, documentaries, movies, YouTube videos, his-torical documents, inventory documents, and limited architectural drawings andsketches. The classification relies on the image-based HBIM development ap-proach by Sewasew and Tesfamariam [176] to gain elevation data. Images playeda pivotal role in this modeling approach; thus, the classification is primarily basedon the type of images available for modeling. Buildings, images, and additionalresources were first categorized into groups with zones, blocks, and building num-64LegendSigni cant buildings or architectural featuresImportant streetscapesFigure 4.4: Identified buildings and streetscapes for modeling.bers. Following Sewasew and Tesfamariam’s approach [176], images were filteredto identify different perspectives across different timelines and prioritized hierar-chically based on their suitability for modeling. The second classification revealedvariations in the level of detail and documentation for Massawa’s buildings. Moststructures had limited information, often with only one or a few available images,while others possessed more substantial documentation, including several pictures.A small percentage of buildings had historic architectural drawings.Four distinct groups were identified in the second classification. The firstgroup, Group 1, comprises buildings with architectural drawings and sketches,potentially supplemented by rectifiable and perspective images. Group 2 includesbuildings with rectifiable images, potentially complemented by perspective images.Group 3 consists of buildings with only perspective images, while the fourth group,Group 4, has limited resources available for modeling. Figure 4.5 visually repre-sents these four groups, utilizing the footprint map (Figure 4.4) and initial heightapproximations derived from building inventory files to initiate 3D city modeling.Notably, Group 1 has the fewest number of buildings, whereas Group 4 encom-passes the highest number. The increasing number of buildings from the first to the65fourth group underscores the challenges associated with acquiring sufficient infor-mation for detailed modeling. Importantly, the majority of buildings within theidentified focus area for this paper possess adequate resources for detailed model-ing.LegendGroup 1 Group 2Group 3Group 4Figure 4.5: Classification based on available resource.4.4.3 HBIMBuilding on the results of the two previous classifications, 3D models were metic-ulously crafted for the port city of Massawa. The classification into four distinctgroups determines the formation of four classes of 3D models. These classes differin terms of the level of detail, the availability of information used in generating themodels, and the level of confidence in modeling. For instance, Group 1, charac-terized by buildings with architectural drawings, leads to highly detailed models.On the other hand, Group 4, representing buildings with limited resources, resultsin 3D models with a more generalized representation due to the scarcity of de-tailed information. The four classes differ in LOD, the definition of which greatlyvaries among practitioners, standards, and institutions [30]. The five LODs ofthe CityGML were used in this paper. The LODs range with an increasing geo-metric and semantic complexity from the coarsest level LOD0, a two-and-a-half-dimensional Digital Terrain Model, to the finest level LOD4 with detailed wall androof along with interior structures [80]. The five LODs, despite being consideredinsufficient and ambiguous in their specification [32], were used in this paper for66their simplicity and straightforward concept.The 3D models of heritage buildings are developed with HBIM principles toenable integration of comprehensive data and enable exploration of multiple ap-plications. In terms of information content, unlike 3D models, which primarilycontain geometric and visual data, the HBIM models of this research enable theintegration of comprehensive data regarding heritage buildings’ physical and func-tional characteristics. Information on materials, construction detail, structural sys-tem, modeling detail, and other layers of information attached to every single com-ponent of the HBIM models of the heritage buildings make it an information-richmodel. The HBIM is also composed of parametric elements, which, unlike sim-ple 3D models, are more advanced with the flexibility to be altered and used fordifferent applications. Due to site access and data limitations, the integration ofmultiple information layers is a challenge, and it is part of our ongoing research.Unlike 3D models, HBIM models are developed with the capability of integratingmultiple information layers as more resources become accessible. In terms of use,the HBIM models will have significant applications in heritage conservation be-sides the visualization and presentation benefits of 3D models. The HBIM modelswill serve as a comprehensive inventory for meticulous documentation to capturethe crucial elements of the city’s historical fabric, serve as valuable resources forvarious urban and building-level assessments, contribute to conservation planningand collaboration, and offer a multitude of applications.Class 1 modelsThe first model class aligns with Group 1 in the classification of buildings basedon resource availability (Figure 4.5). This class of models are highly accurate anddetailed models with a higher level of certainty, which has a full information dataset extracted either from rectified images or perspective images and validated witharchitectural drawings. The models have precisely developed parametric fac¸adeelements, interior space, and detailed plan, section, and elevation drawings. Thesemodels are considered LOD4, detailed wall and roof structures along with inte-rior structures [80]. The initial development of HBIM for this class employedan image-based approach [176], utilizing either rectified images or contextual re-67lations from perspective images. The model is then refined and validated usingarchitectural drawings and sketches. Due to uncertainties in the timeline of draw-ings relative to heritage buildings and limited access to the site, it was imperative toemploy images representing the current state, which was determined through previ-ous condition assessment studies and identification of recent images, for modelingalongside architectural drawings.In this category, fourteen heritage buildings were meticulously developed, withsix initially created from rectified images and the remainder from contextual re-lations using perspective images. All the models were subsequently refined andupdated based on the drawings available. These models are developed with pre-cise dimensions for overall building geometry and detailed parametric elements,referring to architectural drawings and sketches. These LOD4 models, featuringdetailed elevation, section, and plan drawings, can be used for different applica-tions such as detailed planning, architectural studies, realistic virtual tours for in-door and outdoor scenes, conservation planning, and various assessments. Servingas the most detailed and accurately developed reference model, this class played akey role in guiding the modeling of other classes based on architectural similaritiesand contextual relations.Class 2 modelsThe second class of models, results of the second group of buildings in the classifi-cation of buildings based on resource availability (Figure 4.5), are developed withhigh accuracy. Unlike the first class of models, this class is limited to fac¸ade model-ing. The models draw on information extracted from rectified images by segment-ing a fac¸ade into different parts, drawing outlines, and developing a synthesizedfac¸ade [176]. This was then coupled with footprint data to generate HBIM. Whenrectified images were available for only one side of the building, the remainingsides were modeled by developing preliminary fac¸ade drawings before synthesiz-ing the final fac¸ade drawing. Elevation data will still be mainly determined from therectified image. This class of models has precisely developed parametric fac¸ade el-ements with detailed elevation drawings. The models are considered LOD3, whichprovides detailed wall and roof structures potentially including doors and windows68(a)(b)(c)Figure 4.6: An example of Class 1 model (a) Ground floor plan, (b) Frontelevation drawing, (c) 3D perspective.69[80]. The rest of the building model, besides the fac¸ade, was developed with 3Dbuilding mass as detailed information regarding the interior of the building was notavailable.Figure 4.7: 3D perspective of Class 2 model.In this class of buildings, twenty-two heritage buildings were developed. Outof these models, seven models have detailed fac¸ade models on one side, while theremaining have multiple faces modeled. The latter were modeled based on theresulting elevation data from one side of the heritage building. Unlike class onemodels, the second class models did not have section and plan drawings, featuringonly detailed elevation drawings. The accuracy of class 2 and class 3 models can beillustrated using the accuracy of the image based HBIM development approachesused. Class 2 models developed using rectified fac¸ade images typically exhibitprecise width with a difference in total height considering overall measurements:with differences around 25 centimeters. Detailed measurements of families showaccurate representation with minor differences in subcomponent levels of paramet-ric families and spacing. Models in this class being LOD3 can be used for fac¸adestudy and conservation, virtual tours of an urban environment, and other assess-ments. Like class 1 models, elevation measurements and parametric elements ofclass 2 models can be transferred and used for class 3 and class 4 models based onsimilarities in general architectural and structural features, construction technique,and construction material.70Class 3 modelsThe modeling results of the third group of buildings in the classification of build-ings based on resource availability (Figure 4.5) present accurately developed class3 models. In contrast to the class 1 and 2 models, the models in this class aredeveloped relatively with lower certainty, as information is extracted based on con-textual relation using perspective images and relying on the first two classes ofmodels. Class 3 models offer the same LOD3 models as class 2 models, withmodeling limited to the fac¸ade of heritage buildings. The models use perspectiveimages to segment the fac¸ade, draw outlines, prepare preliminary fac¸ade draw-ings, and develop synthesized fac¸ade drawings. The parametric fac¸ade elementsare modeled in relation to other buildings, giving rise to an overall detailed eleva-tion drawing of the fac¸ade. Similar to class 2 models, other parts of the building,besides the fac¸ade, are represented with 3D building mass due to a lack of detailedinformation.Figure 4.8: 3D perspective of Class 3 model.Class 3 encompasses a larger number of buildings, with sixty-seven buildingsthan the first two classes. Out of these models, twenty-two models have detailedfac¸ade models on one side, while the remaining have multiple faces modeled. Thenarrow streets in the interior parts of the port city of Massawa offer perspectiveimages that were only suitable for modeling this class of models. Although thesemodels provide elevation drawings for significant building fac¸ades, they lack sec-71tion and plan drawings. Class 3 models developed using perspective images werefound relatively less accurate than class 2. The differences are attributed to totalwidth changes of around 20cm and total height changes of around 50cm. Detailedmeasurements of families also show minor differences in width and spacing. Simi-lar to class 2 models, the models being LOD3 models are valuable for fac¸ade study,conservation, virtual tours of the urban environment, and other assessments. Eleva-tion measurements of this class of models are selectively transferred only to class 4models; usually, floor height details are used to make assumptions in determiningheights.Class 4 modelsThe fourth class of models, results of the fourth group of buildings in the clas-sification of buildings based on resource availability (Figure 4.5), are 3D basicbuilding mass due to insufficient information for detailed modeling. In contrast tothe first three classes, the models lack detailed fac¸ade elements and specific ele-vation drawings, to create a general volumetric representation to complete the 3Dcity model. The height of buildings in this class is assumed based on the numberof stories, leveraging elevation data from the first three classes. The number ofstories has proven to be a reliable predictor of building height from 2D data [33].Class 4 models were developed utilizing the building footprint and an inventorydocument containing images and the number of stories for each building. Thesemodels are categorized as LOD1 (with most possibly functioning as LOD2 for flat-roofed buildings), representing block models comprising prismatic buildings withflat roofs [80].Class 4 models comprise the largest number of buildings, nearly one hundredfifty structures, represented as simple 3D masses. This is a reflection of the need formore resources in developing HBIM. It was not possible to find architectural draw-ings or images suitable for modeling. Moreover, some parts of the city have beendemolished due to natural and man-made circumstances. Despite these constraints,it was deemed essential to represent some of the lost parts of the city as 3D mass toget an overall image of the port city. Class 4 models represent width precisely andheight using similar structures as reference. Detailed measurement accuracies are72Figure 4.9: 3D perspective of Class 4 model.not considered since there are no parametric models in this class. Models of thisclass can be used for photovoltaic potential analysis [168], extraction of buildingheating volume [194], and other urban assessments.4.4.4 HBIM to city modelIn the concluding stages of 3D city modeling, once individual 3D building modelsof various classes have been developed, a meticulous refinement process is ini-tiated to ensure consistency in the overall representation of the city. Models arecarefully identified based on their similarities to be refined and updated for con-sistent representation. Notably, visible elements of heritage buildings, includingintricate features like arched paths, are given special attention and detail. Eachbuilding model is then assigned designations based on its specific area, block, andbuilding number. This systematic approach aids in the seamless identification ofbuildings within the intricate layout of the port city, enhancing the overall clarityand navigability of the 3D model.In the post-building level modeling stage, after completing the detailed mod-eling of individual buildings, the focus shifted to modeling the broader context ofthe port city by incorporating various layers of semantic data and additional ur-ban information. The modeling extends beyond individual structures to define keyurban elements such as roads, open spaces, and vegetation areas. The integrationencompassed diverse geospatial, infrastructure, and environmental data, including73terrain details, road network maps, and green space distributions. The current it-eration of the 3D city model is visualized in Figure 4.10, showcasing its intricateurban landscape. Future iterations of the model are envisioned to undergo furtherenhancement by integrating additional urban data, addressing current resource lim-itations, and aligning with the incremental development strategy. This paper usedthe Enscape plugin on Revit to visualize the resulting 3D city model.4.5 Results and discussionUtilizing various data sources, predominantly images, 3D city model of the portcity of Massawa was developed, showcased in Figure 4.10. The model encom-passes most historically important buildings and vital streetscapes, as highlightedin Figure 4.4. Covering nearly 90% of UNESCO-identified significant areas andmore than 40% of the entire city, the current model achieves LOD1, LOD3, andLOD4 of CityGML standards. The model is intended to be developed incremen-tally to increase the number of modeled buildings and enhance the LOD of themodels. The model’s design facilitates easy modifications, paving the way for po-tential future expansions covering the entire city and its surroundings at increasedLOD.Figure 4.10: Final 3D city model of the port city of Massawa.The adopted image-based HBIM development by Sewasew and Tesfamariam[176] for developing HBIM in a 3D City model has proven to be highly effec-74tive, particularly owing to the architectural homogeneity observed among her-itage buildings in Massawa. Detailed models evidence the success achieved usingminimal resources efficiently, showcasing the practicality of transferring elevationdata and parametric families based on architectural feature similarities. Modelsfrom more detailed classes were invaluable references to developing less detailedclasses. The approach was also effective since the number of stories of buildingsin Massawa was limited and consistent for the most part.The model offers a multitude of applications across various scales. At a generallevel, it serves as a valuable tool for visualization, enabling the creation of realis-tic virtual tours. Additionally, it proves instrumental in conservation efforts and arange of assessments. The more detailed LOD3 and LOD4 models can further beused for building-level studies, such as energy assessments, detailed preservationplanning, life-cycle analysis, and exploration of diverse architectural styles. Look-ing ahead, the enhanced visualization capabilities of the model hold the promiseof fostering public participation and integration into widely used platforms such asGoogle Earth.Developing the model presented several challenges, particularly in identifyingsuitable pictures as narrow streets offer less flexibility in getting compatible pic-tures. Most of the pictures retrieved in these areas were difficult to process to un-derstand building geometry and proportion. Despite these challenges, web-basedimages provided an accessible and cost-effective data source that continues to ex-pand, offering numerous options for model refinement. The available pictures arealso mostly focused on major streets, constraining the modeling process to frontfac¸ades and leaving some blind spots in the HBIM, yet not a significant limitationas key heritage details are usually oriented towards major streets. Achieving visualconsistency across the city also posed difficulties, leading to the exploration of var-ious visualization options and future development directions for a more realistic3D city model.The 3D city model can potentially evolve into a city digital twin. The interac-tion between physical and virtual models is among digital twins’ main characteris-tics and advantages [181]. Currently, the data transfer is unidirectional. However,future development could enhance this model, facilitating real-time data integra-tion and transformation into a city digital twin. City digital twins contribute to75sustainability and developing smart cities [55]. The model could thus be furtherdeveloped to create a city digital twin for Massawa that can offer great potentialfor the rehabilitation and advancement of the port city. The proposed methodol-ogy and resulting model can also inspire the development of 3D city models forsmall-scale heritage cities or districts with limited building height. While this ap-proach may be less accurate than modern tools like LiDAR, its cost-effectivenessand simplicity make it an accessible method for developing 3D city models.4.6 LimitationsThere were several limitations in the procedure used in developing the 3D citymodel. The procedure requires substantial user interaction, making the processsubjective, intensive, and tedious. Certain steps require user judgment to selectthe best option for determining relations, proportions, and measurements. More-over, there were challenges in acquiring suitable images for modeling and ensur-ing consistent resources. This has posed a gap in creating consistent HBIM forthe different building typologies. The proposed HBIM method necessitates usinghigh-resolution images for modeling to ensure optimal output quality. The proce-dure also poses challenges in modeling complex details, roof details, and handlingcurved surfaces. The method is limited to modeling elements on the same fac¸adesurface, necessitating additional images to measure and proportion componentsthat extend from the fac¸ade. There are also further limitations in extending the pro-cedure to other sites. The fact the port city of Massawa covers a small area with alimited number of buildings which have limited building storeys, consistent build-ing height, and fac¸ade similarity makes the proposed procedure efficient. However,large areas with more buildings, complex fac¸ades, and significant differences inbuilding heights might require automated modeling procedures and modificationof the proposed procedure to meet site-specific needs. Despite all the limitations,however, the approach holds promise for initiating urban heritage conservation,particularly in inaccessible and resource-deficient sites in developing countries.764.7 Chapter summary3D city models have been found useful for different applications in urban designand planning. This paper proposes and illustrates an approach to developing a3D city model of an urban heritage site with limited resources without requiringcutting-edge 3D data acquisition tools. The paper mainly relies on image-basedacquisition of elevation data, which is combined with footprint data to develop a3D city model for the port city of Massawa. Unlike prior methods in developing 3Dcity models, the approach proposed in this paper offers an inexpensive and efficientmodeling approach. The approach intends to initiate urban heritage conservationand contribute to sustainable development for inaccessible and resource-deficientheritage sites, particularly in developing countries.The HBIM-based 3D city model of the port city of Massawa was developedand composed of four classes of models, each offering a varying level of detail, in-formation availability, and modeling certainty. The first class of models are highlydetailed models developed with a higher degree of certainty with a full informationdataset extracted either from rectified images or perspective images and validatedwith architectural drawings. This class of models are LOD4 models providing de-tailed fac¸ade and interior representation. In contrast, the second and third classesare LOD3 models, focusing solely on fac¸ade modeling without interior details. Thedifference between the class 2 and class 3 models relies on the type of image usedfor modeling. Class 2 models use rectified elevation images to determine mea-surements, while class 3 models rely on contextual relations derived from class 1and class 2 models to determine measurements and proportions. The fourth groupof models, class 4, are 3D mass models generated to create volumetric representa-tions of heritage buildings. Most of the UNESCO-identified historically significantbuildings and streetscapes of the port city have been developed with detailed fac¸ademodels of classes 1,2 and 3. The 3D city model is intended to be further developedincrementally to include more buildings and increase the LOD of current models.The 3D city model, in its current state, can be used for a number of applicationssuch as visualization, conservation, and environmental assessments. It could alsobe used to assess the impacts of future developments and to enhance public partic-ipation.77The architectural coherence among buildings in Massawa facilitated the effi-cient development of multiple models, with the seamless transfer of elevation dataand parametric families. The approach was also practical since the number of sto-ries of buildings in Massawa was limited and consistent for the most part. The3D city model is intended to be further developed incrementally to include morebuildings and increase the LOD of current models. Limitations of the approachinclude challenges in acquiring suitable images and ensuring consistent resources,modeling complex details, creating a consistent HBIM, accurately representingroof details, handling curved surfaces and the need for substantial user interac-tion. Overall, the resulting model demonstrates the feasibility of developing 3Dcity models without using modern data acquisition tools, relying mainly on im-ages and footprint datasets. While this approach may be less precise than standardmethods, it presents an inexpensive and user-friendly alternative. Thus, it standsas an inspiring methodology to develop 3D city models for small scale heritagecities or districts with a potential development into a city digital twin. The model,in its current state, can be used for a number of applications such as visualization,conservation, and environmental assessments.78Chapter 5Built heritage passport forcultural heritage management5.1 IntroductionThis chapter intends to explore the application of digital inventory for cultural her-itage management by developing and illustrating frameworks for managing builtheritage. Gravagnuolo [78] shows the built environment to be among the sectorsthat are the most relevant in the circular economy of historic port cities. This chap-ter will introduce the concept of Built Heritage Passport (BHP) and explore howit could assist cultural heritage management, sustainable urban heritage conserva-tion, and promoting circular economy. The concept will be illustrated using thecase of the historic port city of Massawa in Eritrea. Furthermore, the integration ofHBIM, BHP, and web-based inventory for efficiently conserving built heritage hasbeen explored.Buildings have a significant impact on the environment through the consump-tion of non-renewable resources and the production of excessive waste, which cre-ates growing environmental concerns. Studies show buildings to be one of themost energy and material-intensive, contributing 40% of total energy consumption,one-third of global resources consumption, producing 40% of the total solid wastevolume [126], where only 20–30% of Construction and Demolition Waste is recov-ered [96]. These conditions are further exacerbated by an increase in the global79population, which comes with high demand for new construction. The need forproviding a comfortable built environment for the growing population worldwideaccelerated the rate at which new buildings are being constructed, also creating theneed for redevelopment of the existing building stock. Mass production of productsthrough industrialized methods to meet the growing demand increased the amountof resources used, which also consequently increased resource depletion and wastegeneration.The conditions mainly raise concerns about the increase in consumption ofnon-renewable resources and challenges in managing excessive waste production,raising the need to rethink the use of materials and energy [142]. An awarenessof the impacts called for a sustainable development approach in the building con-struction sector with a new perspective on considering resource use. Thus, to de-couple economic development from consumption of finite resources, a new eco-nomic model of Circular Economy (CE) emerges [142]. When contemplating theimplementation of Circular Economy principles for a sustainable future, the con-struction sector should not solely concentrate on new developments. Giving greaterconsideration to the rehabilitation of existing building stock, particularly heritagestructures, is essential to accommodate the continually evolving needs of society.Rehabilitation of heritage requires efficient documentation of buildings. Historicbuilding information modeling (HBIM) supported approach will facilitate efficientdocumentation and rehabilitation planning.The type of material used, construction method and connection details em-ployed in constructing a building highly affect the re-usability and recycling po-tential of a building. Sufficient information is thus required to understand the com-position of existing building stock. This could include details such as; buildinguse, material composition, construction techniques and details, and all the neces-sary information regarding the building. The availability of such information willcontribute towards the realization of CE. The concepts of digital inventory, buildingpassport, material passport and other sustainability assessment certifications havebeen explored. However, an integrated approach lacks efficient relations betweenall aspects of built heritage. BHP thus intends to provide an integrated frameworkfor Sites, buildings, elements, and materials information of heritage buildings.805.2 Background5.2.1 Circular economyThe concept of CE has its roots in the 1970s, and it has been widely explored inthe last decade with more than 100 literature definitions [72, 78, 96]. CE hasbeen defined as a ”regenerative by design” economic model focusing on the life-cycle of materials with a contemporary understanding that shares the idea of closedloops [72, 78]. It allows the reduction of resource and energy consumption throughthe reuse of existing resources, unlike the linear economic model that causes ex-traction of unlimited raw materials [96]. Implementation of CE and transition toa circular and dynamic built environment requires a holistic and trans-disciplinaryapproach with multi-level and multi-scale approach [1, 78].The scale of implementation of CE can range from company-level micro imple-mentation to national policy level implementations and an average scale of meso-level implementation on the city level with new concepts of circular city [78]. Insustainable urban development, circular cities are emerging as a new concept andform of practice. An initial exploration in circular economy application to identifyopportunities and challenges at an urban scale identified five key areas of imple-mentation, including the built environment, energy systems, urban mobility sys-tem, urban bio-economy, and local closed system of production [78]. Among thesekey areas of implementation, the built environment will be a point of interest forheritage conservation. CE strives to create circular products to maintain the valueof products, materials and resources for an extended period of time [96, 112]. Withthis in mind, CE offers an opportunity to build heritage conservation, providing theopportunity for sustainable rehabilitation of urban heritage through maintainingthe integrity of built heritage and its embedded value. Sustainable rehabilitationof heritage sites like Massawa can be geared with this emerging new concept ofCE. At urban and regional scales, the most recognized innovative environments fordeveloping CE are Japan, China, and Europe, with Germany, often being entitledas a forerunner of CE [78], all in the developed part of the world. Implementationof this study to develop the concept of CE in a heritage city of developing nationslays the ground for the adoption of CE in other cities of developing countries to81promote sustainable development.5.2.2 Heritage inventory and assessmentA heritage inventory is recognized as a way utilized for documenting the extent ofcultural evidence found within a single or small historic site[161]. In urban culturalheritage management, heritage inventories also serve as vital tools, encompassingextensive information on buildings, districts, sites, or open spaces [179]. Devel-opment of inventories would thus highly contribute to urban heritage conservationin several aspects. Inventories serve as continuous documentation, identifying anddescribing heritage sites for various purposes such as heritage management, pro-tection, and fostering public appreciation [147]. Evaluating and monitoring urbanheritage buildings is also vital, particularly in urban areas and historical centres, topreserve their integrity, memory, and authenticity values [83]. To effectively ben-efit from these advantages, it is crucial to consider the scope, nature, and functionof inventories in depth. Studies have shown the necessity for a comprehensive in-ventory and cataloguing of cultural heritage, encompassing urban areas, historicalsites, and landscapes [53, 54, 135]. The requirement for contemporary inventoriesis reflected in both international policies and the national legislation of individualcountries, which acknowledge the significance and function of inventories in vari-ous international heritage charters, conventions, and recommendations [133, 147].The insufficiency of tools in supporting decision-making coupled with the com-plexity, inaccessibility, and time-consuming nature of existing tools built heritageconservation has also been identified by practitioners [75, 162]. There also remainsa need for improved, comprehensive evaluations to safeguard urban heritage build-ings effectively, along with greater involvement of diverse stakeholders in urbanplanning decisions [83, 127, 210]. Moreover, there is a requirement for systematicassessment of urban buildings, establishing databases capable of sharing informa-tion and best practices among diverse stakeholders in urban heritage managementprocesses [163]. The intention of developing BHP is to meet these requirementsand fulfil urban heritage conservation needs. Moreover, it intends to meet the spe-cific needs of sites in developing countries, such as the port city of Massawa, asassessments are recommended to be fit-for-purpose suiting the local environment82of heritage site [101].There have been several studies in the assessment and documentation of urbanheritage. The concept of building a passport for sustainable conservation (BPSC)has been used in the sustainable conservation of built heritage in the assessmentof heritage buildings as a tool in identifying priorities of intervention [59]. Boarinet al.[41] present GBC Historic Building rating systems to asses restoration, re-furbishment, and partial-integration level of sustainability in heritage buildingscoupled with the use of historic building identity cards. Similar approaches inassessments and inventory systems have been explored, including; assessment ofresidential built heritage, Methodology for the Assessment of Residential BuiltHeritage (MARBH) [155], a Monitoring and Assessment Heritage Tool (MAHT)for urban heritage buildings [156], Arches heritage inventory and managementsystem [45, 148], inventory model for shared HBIM libraries [202], Fast Assess-ment and Survey of the Territory for Evaluation and Restoration (Faster!) [43],and PetroBIM tool of graphical database for the inventory of architectural heritage[10]. Specific case studies of heritage sites in developing heritage inventory havealso been explored, including heritage place inventory for Kampung Kepayang,Malaysia [23]; inventory of the historic monuments of the Draˆa Valley, Morocco[118]; documentation and development of comprehensive Heritage Inventories forthe historic city of Ahmadabad, India [179, 180]; GIS heritage inventory of the cityof Cape Town, South Africa [106]; heritage inventory supported with the Internetof Things(IoT) in Bandar Lampung, Indonesia [89]; Heritage Information AccessStrategy (HIAS) [44] and The Heritage Gateway in England [6], gmja archive ini-tiation Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [73]; and national inventories in Scotland and Wales[3, 4, 133].Some of these studies focus on specific aspects of heritage conservation re-sponding to specific needs, while the others in the extreme are too broad. Somestudies also focus on sustainability aspects and performance evaluations with somecriteria in the intervention process and less regard for inventory aspects. Such as-sessments require proper documentation of cultural values in built heritage, whichsome sites in developing countries, such as Massawa, lack. Moreover, the conceptof CE and its possible consideration are given less regard. It will thus be impor-tant to have a comprehensive built heritage management system that considers all83the required details for urban heritage conservation along with circularity and sus-tainability aspects for sustainable rehabilitation of urban heritage sites. Moreover,there is less study on integrating HBIM of buildings and families in digital invento-ries of heritage sites to create awareness and accessibility. BHP intends to providea comprehensive, efficient, accessible, and easy-to-use tool supported by HBIM toenable the efficient capturing of embedded cultural values in built buildings alongwith aspects of sustainability for conservation planning. BHP also proposes tomake building and family HBIM models accessible to create awareness, facilitatedesign, and initiate research in urban heritage conservation.Building passports have been shown to have the potential to facilitate the as-sessment of heritage buildings [59]. The concept of building passport has alsobeen shown to have a potential for forecasting maintenance work as an “alarmclock” [90], which will have significance in heritage conservation. The signifi-cance of relevant and accurate information in supporting interventions in built her-itage has also been shown [155]. Moreover, the concept of material passport hasalso been explored for new and existing buildings along with its potential in CE[95, 98, 142]. Drawing inspiration from these studies, the development of BHPaims to provide a comprehensive, efficient, accessible, and easy-to-use built her-itage inventory for a multitude of applications. BHP mainly intends to use the scalein creating classifications of layers with sub-layers of information and indicatorsand descriptors to facilitate comprehensiveness and ease of management. It aimsto address professional practice challenges in built heritage, mainly availability,accessibility, and complexity of information [75] and address specific challengesof sites in developing countries, such as the port city of Massawa. Unlike exist-ing tools [10, 41, 43, 59, 148, 155, 156, 202], BHP will cover multiple scales andlayers, mainly emphasizing, architectural, sustainability and conservation aspects.The proposed BHP is intended to provide several benefits. Mainly, it aims toprovide easy-to-use assessment and management tools for local authorities in urbanheritage conservation. It will provide comprehensive information on urban heritagefor different stakeholders to assist decision-making. It will also provide structuredand systematized data with an easy to use platform to conduct assessments withreduced cost and time. It will allow us to update information continuously, inte-grate resources, manage information, and resolve issues of data loss. It will also84contribute to implementing heritage-related laws and policies and work towardsthe achievement of legal protection. It can be further used for knowledge dissemi-nation, research, and educational purposes. Moreover, it aims to provide publiclyavailable resources regarding urban heritage, stimulate interest, and establish thevalue of heritage buildings. It could serve a function in disaster risk managementand be applied in assessing damage and buildings at risk to determine priorities ofintervention in the event of man-made and natural hazards. Most importantly, itwill be crucial as a base for future development strategies.5.3 MethodologyHBIM models in 3D city models of urban heritage sites can enhance the documen-tation and management of heritage buildings. Earlier studies on building passports,rating systems, and historic Building Identity Cards for sustainable conservationand assessment of built heritage particularly emphasize sustainability aspects inheritage conservation with less particular focus on comprehensive built heritageinventory and cataloguing. Moreover, the integration of HBIM has also been ex-plored less. The proposed BHP in this research will give particular emphasis to theinventory and cataloguing of built heritage to comprehensively capture the embed-ded cultural values of heritage buildings. It will also include sustainability aspectsin heritage conservation and explore integration with HBIM.The development of BHP requires determining layers and sub-layers and de-termining indicators and descriptors for different applications. An inductive rea-soning method [77, 92, 94] is used to support this study to derive a general frame-work for data management and documentation of heritage assets. Including botha literature study and case studies. The literature study is conducted on existingheritage management approaches, sustainable urban heritage conservation studies,and particular case studies of urban heritage management. The literature studyintends to identify general documentation requirements, structure, and indicatorsthrough exploring potential relations, and other aspects deemed to be importantfor built heritage management. Figure 5.1 show the proposed approach to de-velop heritage passport model. Case studies include in-depth analysis of the her-85Selection based on significance Identify common characteristics HBIMDefining scale/layersIdentifying sub-layers and indicators and descriptors Data management and inventory of urban heritageUrban heritage information Indicators for sustainability of urban heritage sites Proposed Built Heritage Passport (BHP) models Web-based inventory Case studies Exploring standards and requirmentsFigure 5.1: Framework for developing BHP for digital heritage management.itage indicators and information requirements across different application contexts[75, 118, 125, 148, 162].5.4 Development of BHPDefining aims and strategies has been shown to be the first basic step in developingheritage place inventory [23]. In this regard, this research starts by defining the86aims and strategies for developing BHP for the urban heritage of Massawa. Themain aim of developing BHP is to provide a structured framework for documentingthe urban heritage of Massawa and create an accessible platform to promote urbanheritage conservation. The proposed strategy to achieve this is to conduct a litera-ture study to define the basic layers and structure of the BHP. The research beginsby reviewing standards, approaches, and cases in developing inventory. Moreover,it is extended to identify sustainability indicators to incorporate sustainability con-cepts (e.g., recycling potential, end-of-life value) in HBP to initiate and facilitatethe sustainable conservation of urban heritage. The term built heritage is meantto represent the heritage buildings in the built environment that have significantarchitectural importance. The scope of this study is thus the heritage buildings inthe port city of Massawa within the suggested conservation areas of earlier studies[68, 165].5.4.1 LayersFour layers were considered in developing BHP, particularly considering urban her-itage management needs and the site-specific needs of Massawa. These four layersinclude site, building, element/HBIM family, and material (Figure 5.2). Rehabili-tation assessments in developing countries show efforts that are limited to buildingscale [192], which is also associated with biased excessive attention placed on in-dividual buildings in terms of tangible values [224]. The proposed BHP intends togo beyond the building scale to incorporate site information on a bigger scale andelement and material information on a smaller scale. A landscape-based approachshould be the goal of an urban heritage conservation plan [82, 158]. Besides, theimportance of area conservation to maintain urban qualities and the life of com-munities has been shown [192]. The landscape-based approach recognizes thebroader context of cultural heritage and the interconnected nature of various ele-ments within a landscape instead of solely focusing on individual heritage. BHPdevelopment similarly seeks to promote urban heritage conservation through anintegrated inventory strategy by critically considering building in relation to itscultural context and usage potential for circular economy strategies.87Figure 5.2: Scale considerations of BHP.As shown in Figure 5.2 the development of BHP considers four Layers. Themain focus in this figure is the building, signifying that the built heritage wouldbe the primary focus of developing BHP. The BHP proposes to have four layersof frameworks for inventory, including building passport, site passport, elementpassport, and material passport. On a bigger scale, the building would be furtherstudied to understand its site in the site passport. This layer is proposed to havesite information including, district, city, regional, national, and international as-pects related to a specific heritage building. As can be understood from the scale,this layer is supposed to represent information regarding multiple heritage build-ings in a site; meaning multiple heritage buildings in the same site could share thesame site passport. At a smaller scale, using element passport, buildings would bedecomposed to elements, particularly to HBIM parametric families, to understandthe composition and significant characteristics of a heritage building. A building isproposed to have multiple element passports that are unique to it. In some cases, ifarchitectural style similarities exist, the element passport could be shared betweenmultiple buildings with minor adjustments. Typical building element representa-tions could also be designed to have the same passport for simplicity. Finally, an-other smaller-scale assessment intends to explore the building materials of heritage88buildings through material passport. Similar to an element passport, a building canhave multiple material passports under it. These could potentially be shared withmultiple buildings as heritage sites could potentially have similar building materi-als in a site. Overall, considering a particular building of interest in a heritage site,a site passport and multiple element passports and multiple material passports areproposed to be integrated with BHP.The development of BHP starts by exploring literature to understand existingapproaches, their structure, categories, information requirements and other spe-cific aspects particular to each study. Moreover, since the development of BHPintends to promote sustainable urban heritage conservation, studies pertaining tosustainability indicators in urban heritage conservation were also part of the lit-erature study. Finally, specific case studies of heritage conservation were takeninto account to explore practical applications. The literature considered in decid-ing the structure of BHP is shown in Table 1. There have been several factorsin identifying these studies, including, the type of literature, the level of informa-tion offered and the amount of literature covered; geographical variety of stud-ies to consider studies from different regions; relation to circular economy con-cepts; relation to sustainable urban heritage conservation; and particular similari-ties to the intended passport to be developed at each scale. The literature studiescould generally be categorized into three groups. The first group includes stud-ies in data management and inventory [10, 13, 20, 41, 43, 45, 47, 59, 90, 95–98, 112, 142, 147, 148, 153, 155, 156, 171, 202]. The studies were found to bemore related to building and material scale of the proposed BHP. Among these lit-erature studies, studies on building passport [59, 90] and material passport [142]were particularly significant and inspiring in developing BHP. The second groupis associated with studies related to indicators for the sustainability of urban her-itage sites and circular economy strategies [17, 48, 76, 78, 197]. The third andfinal group includes literature studies of case studies [23, 89, 106, 118, 179, 180].Based on this literature and using the four proposed scale of BHP as layers, sub-layers coupled with corresponding descriptions and indicators were proposed tobe identified from the literature studies. Thus, When exploring the literature, theintention was first to understand the studies’ use of layers and sub-layers, followed89by understanding and integrating different indicators and descriptions for intendedinformation documentation.Table 5.1: List of studies and number of identified elements (layers and sub-layers/ descriptors, and indicators)Identified studies #elementsCertified sustainability for heritage buildings: development of thenew rating system GBC Historic Building [41](4/25)Supporting residential built heritage rehabilitation through an in-tegrated assessment [155](3/13)Building passport for the sustainable conservation of built her-itage [59](1/15)The building passport: A tool for capturing and managing wholelife data and information in construction and realestate [90](6/18)Virtual reconstruction in BIM technology and digital inventoriesof heritage [10](3/6)The reconstruction of a dynamic inventory model toward sharedHBIM libraries for vaulted systems [202](2/6)Monitoring and Assessment Heritage Tool: Quantify and classifyurban heritage buildings [156](0/12)The Arches heritage inventory and management system: a plat-form for the heritage field [148](3/14)Faster! Platform: Fast assessment and survey of the territory forevaluation and restoration [43](3/12)Heritage inventories: promoting effectiveness as a vital tool forsustainable heritage management [147](1/1)The Arches Heritage Inventory and Management System: astandards-based approach to the management of cultural heritageinformation [45](2/8)Continued on next page90Table 5.1 – continued from previous pageIdentified studies #elementsMIDAS Heritage: The UK historic environment data standard[153](4/14)Materials passport’s review: challenges and opportunities towarda circular economy building sector [142](9/19)Digitizing material passport for sustainable construction projectsusing BIM [20](0/10)Material Passports for the end-of-life stage of buildings: Chal-lenges and potentials [98](0/4)Concept for a BIM-based Material Passport for buildings [95] (0/8)A proposed material passport ontology to enable circularity forindustrialized construction [112](0/3)Data-and stakeholder management framework for the implemen-tation of BIM-based Material Passports [96](0/4)Scan-to-BIM for the semi-automated generation of a materialpassport for an existing building [97](0/6)Heritage-related indicators for urban sustainable development: asystematic review [17](1/20)Characterising existing buildings as material banks (E-BAMB) toenable component reuse [171](0/2)A systematic review of indicators for sustainability of urban her-itage sites [48](4/8)A comprehensive strategy to identify indicators of sustainableheritage conservation [197](1/33)Selection of core indicators for the sustainable conservation ofbuilt heritage [76](3/25)Circular economy strategies in eight historic port cities: Criteriaand indicators towards a circular city assessment framework [78](0/10)Requirements in an inventory on cultural heritage in Morocco andreflections on the presentation of the information [118](0/2)Continued on next page91Table 5.1 – continued from previous pageIdentified studies #elementsHeritage place inventory: A tool for establishing the significanceof places [23](4/20)Documentation and Cultural Heritage Inventories-Case of theHistoric City of Ahmadabad [179](2/16)Development of the City of Cape Town GIS Heritage Inventory[106](0/2)Heritage building condition assessment: a case study from JohorBahru, Malaysia [151](0/13)Creation of cultural heritage inventories: case of the historic cityof Ahmadabad [180](2/19)The role of Internet of Things to support cultural heritage inven-tory in Urban resiliency approach: Tradisional house in BandarLampung case [89](1/22)Historic England [5] (0/11)BIM-driven library for historic islamic structures [13] (1/2)Building Condition Assessment and Defect Analysis on HeritageShophouses in Penang, Malaysia: Case Studies [115](0/13)The studies were first assessed in terms of layer and sub-layer use. The fourlayers proposed in the BHP (Figure 5.2) closely relate to information layers usedin different studies, including, site and materials layer [76]; building attributes in-formation [76]; materials and resources (MR) and sustainable sites (SS) structures[41]; site layer [59]; the heritage dimensions [155]; location and plot layer andmaterial and system layer [90]; constructive elements and constructive materialsmodules [10]; heritage dimensions database [43]; Material as basic informationfor building component [47]; heritage resources category [45]; heritage asset andspatial information themes [153]. Taking these four scales as the main layers ofinformation, sub-layers were devised in each layer based on the specific needs ofeach layer. The main layers are named site passport, building passport, element92passport, and material passport.5.4.2 Sub-layersThe structures of the studies shown in Table 1 were explored in detail to determinesub-layers for each proposed layer. The building passport layer was emphasised atthis stage as individual buildings are significant elements of urban heritage. Sev-eral sub-layers were identified from these studies including, economic, environ-mental, social, and governance as four dimensions to achieve sustainable urbanheritage [49]; values category [76]; historic, social, economic criteria in local her-itage place assessment along with values [23]; map sheets and remarks [179]; mapsheets and value [180]; sustainable sites (SS) and historic value (HH) structures[41]; technical and social dimensions [155]; administrative, technical/functionalcharacteristics, financial, social, and environmental performance layers [90]; in-tervention module [10]; historical phase and HBIM library [202]; BIM elements[13]; historical events, activities, information resources structures [148]; technicaland social dimensions [43]; activities and historical event[45]; activities and infor-mation sources themes [153]; general data, Material health, sustainability, designand production, use and operate phase, disassembly guide, recycling and re-usepotentials, history, and other information layers [142], characterization categoryof heritage-related sustainability indicators [17, 197]. The sub-layers were furtheradapted to the four layers of BHP based on specific criteria of each scale and Mas-sawa’s intended inventory need, considering existing passport models in each scale.Among the four layers proposed for the BHP, the existing literature shows casesof building and material passport. Thus Building passport and material passportwere given priority to building on existing literature and be used as a reference indeveloping site passport and element passport.The building passport is proposed to be an inventory with detailed buildinginformation, conservation management information, and sustainability informa-tion. Thus, sub-layers of general data, characteristics, history, value, building doc-uments, elements and HBIM families, materials, environmental, economic, social,93governance, events, technical/functional, assessments, intervention, informationsources, and remarks sub-layers were included (Figure 5.3). Among these sub-layers, most are adopted from the literature study, including, general data [142],characteristics [17, 197], history [23, 41, 142, 202], values[23, 41, 76, 180], ele-ments/HBIM [202], environmental, economic, social and governance [23, 41, 43,49, 90, 142, 155], events [45, 148], technical/functional [43, 90, 155], interven-tion [10, 45, 148, 153], information sources [142, 148, 153], and remarks [179].These sub-layers identified were directly used or with minor adjustments to thedesired intentions under building information, conservation management informa-tion, and sustainability information. Additional sub-layers of building documentsand Materials for building information and assessments sub-layer for conservationmanagement information were added. This aims to fulfil building documentationneeds with detailed building materials and meet the basic need for building assess-ment results for intervention in built heritage management.The second passport layer developed was the material passport. It is proposedto be an inventory with detailed material documentation, material change trackingfor sustainability, and material conservation information. There have been studieson a material passport for new buildings [95] and existing buildings [95]. Munaroand Tavares [142] have also proposed materials passport models in materials pass-port’s review study. Sewasew et al. [178] have explored HBIM Supported MaterialPassport for Sustainable Urban Heritage Conservation. However, material passportis yet to be fully developed. To meet the proposed intention of material passportlayer sub-layers of general data, design and production, history, value, recyclingand reuse potentials, sustainability, heritage management, disassembly guide, useand operate phase, material health (safe data sheets), information sources, and re-marks sub-layers were included (Figure 5.3). Unlike the building passport sub-layers, which were adopted from multiple studies, material passport sub-layerswere mainly adopted from existing material passport models proposed by Munaroand Tavares [142] and Sewasew et al. [178]. Sub-layers of values[23, 41, 76, 180]and remarks [179] from literature were included. The assessments sub-layer forconservation management information added in the building passport layer wasincluded under the use and operate phase. Similarly, economic, social, and envi-94ronmental sub-layers that were identified in the building passport layer were in-cluded under the sustainability sub-layer. The sub-layers thus generally representthe same information requirements with a shift of priority based on the specificlayer needs. The recycling and reuse potentials sub-layer proposed by Munaroand Tavares [142] was found worth having a separate sublayer as sustainabilityinformation to meet the specific proposed information needs on sustainability atthe material passport layer. Moreover, the heritage management sub-layer was in-cluded in the material passport layer to account for governance and intervention inmaterial conservation information. In comparison, a material passport is simplerand has fewer generalized sub-layers than a building passport due to the specificnature of the layer responding to one material documentation.95Figure 5.3: Proposed layers and sub-layers.96Based on the sub-layers determined for building passport and material passport,sub-layers for site passport and element/HBIM family passport were developed.The building passport structure was majorly adopted with minor sub-layer changesto accommodate specific layer needs. For the site passport, the intention is to havean inventory with detailed site information, conservation management information,and sustainability information. The site could have a range of scales from smallneighbourhoods and districts to entire cities or regions, and it intends to includeinformation on different scales, including site, district, city, region, national, andinternational aspects. Thus sub-layers of general data, characteristics, history, val-ues, city documents/map sheets, buildings, element and HBIM families, materials,environmental, economic, social, governance, events, technical/functional, assess-ments, intervention, information sources, and remarks sub-layers were proposed(Figure 5.3). Except for city document/ maps sheets and building sub-layers, allare adopted from the building passport and literature studies. Sub-layer of mapsheets [179, 180] was identified in the studies and deemed more fitting specificallyto the site passport. It is included as city document/ maps sheets to account forother information resources besides maps. The building’s sub-layer compares withthe building documents and materials sub-layers in the building passport. It aimsto fulfil site documentation needs with building information on the urban heritagebuildings on a site.A similar approach was used for element/HBIM families passport sub-layerdevelopment. In this layer, the intention is to have an inventory with detailed el-ement information depicting the architectural aspects, conservation managementinformation, and sustainability information. Thus sub-layers of general data, char-acteristics, history, values, element composition and style, materials, recycling andre-use potentials, sustainability, governance, events, technical/functional, assess-ments, intervention, information sources, and remarks sub-layers were proposed(Figure 5.3). Besides element composition and style, recycling and reuse poten-tials, and sustainability sub-layers, all are adopted from the building passport andliterature studies. For element/HBIM families passport it was found important toinclude sub-layers dedicated to describing the elements in depth. Thus, elementcomposition and style sub-layer was proposed. Moreover, separated parametric97elements as components and sub-components are also proposed to be further de-veloped beside the complete parametric elements as in the case of the Hejazi Is-lamic Architecture Character (HIAC) library [13]. Element composition and stylesub-layer would enable an in-depth study of an element by exploring its compo-nents, sub-components and associated architectural styles. Re-use potentials andsustainability sub-layers are adopted from the material passport layer as the reusepotentials of elements and HBIM families were deemed crucial for sustainabilityand achievement of circular economy concepts. Figure 5.3 shows the final sub-layers proposed under each layer of passport. The sub-layers are attributed to threebasic categories, including building detail, sustainability, and conservation, alongwith an additional category of resources.5.4.3 Indicators and descriptorsAfter identifying the sub-layers of information to be included in each passportlayer, indicators and information descriptors were identified from the literaturestudies. These were further categorized under each sub-layer identified for thefour passport layers. Some studies, such as a study on a comprehensive strategy toidentify indicators of sustainable heritage conservation [197], development of newrating system for sustainability of heritage buildings [41], and selection of coreindicators for the sustainable conservation of built heritage [76], were among thestudies that contributed the highest number of indicators and descriptors, 33,25,and 25 respectively. Some studies, on the other hand, contributed a very smallnumber of indicators [13, 96, 106, 112, 118, 171]. Among these indicators and de-scriptors identified, some were directly adopted to the desired sub-layers withoutany change. For instance, historic events, armed conflicts, and natural disasters un-der the events sub-layer; recycling and re-use, integrity, comparison and compati-bility under the assessments sub-layer; site, structure, service, and space plan underthe characteristics sub-layer; name, reference number, location, function, descrip-tion under general data sub-layer. Similarly, some of the indicators and descriptorsidentified from the literature study were directly included in all the sub-layers. Onthe other hand, some of the indicators and descriptors were reformulated, such as98ratings of condition, function, and management under the technical/functional sub-layer; percentage of alteration and good condition under the assessments sub-layer;recycling grade, separability, and disposal options under recycling and re-use po-tential sub-layer. In terms of transferability among the passport layers, some ofthe directly adopted indicators and descriptors were used among different passportlayers in a similar manner. For instance, historical events, armed conflicts, andnatural disasters under the events sub-layer were used under site, building, and el-ement/HBIM passport in a similar manner with the effects of the events related tothe particular scale of interest. In contrast, others were reformulated to adapt tothe desired passport layer. For instance, building service under the characteristicssub-layer in the building passport layer was changed to site infrastructure under thecharacteristics sub-layer of the site passport. Such changes were made to meet thespecific requirements of each passport layer and represent the desired scale accu-rately.While classifying different indicators and descriptors identified from the litera-ture studies, indicators and descriptors were filtered based on concept similarities.This is intended to avoid repetition and limit the number of indicators and de-scriptors for ease of use. For instance, authenticity under the values sub-layer wasidentified in different literature among the identified studies. In the studies, it hasdifferent yet similar representations. It is, thus, adopted as one indicator with adefined definition that relates to all the ideas represented in the studies. Similarly,indicators and descriptors under Sustainability sub-layers have different represen-tations among the studies identified. These were then filtered based on the similar-ity of concept to have a concise number of indicators and descriptors under eachsustainability sub-layer. For instance, the environmental sub-layer of the buildingpassport has thermal comfort, water efficiency, lighting, and ventilation indicatorsand descriptors. These indicators and descriptors have similar yet different repre-sentations in the literature explored. Based on their similarities, a definition wasprovided for each passport to define what should be considered when developingthe passport information. Figure 5.4, Figure 5.5, Figure 5.6, and Figure 5.7 showthe final structure of the passport models with sub-layers and corresponding indi-cators and descriptors.99Among the four layers of passport proposed under BHP, The site passport hasthe largest number of sub-layers, 18, followed by the building passport and ele-ment/HBIM passport with 17 and 15 sub-layers, respectively. Material passporthas 12 sub-layers, which is the list number of sub-layers. It could generally be un-derstood that in the proposed BHP, as the scale of the layer increases, the numberof sub-layers increases. This is mainly due to the specificity of the smaller-scalepassport layer’s emphasis on particular aspects compared to general considerationsof all aspects in large-scale passport layers. Moreover, the bigger scale layers ofthe passport include details regarding the subsequent layer of the scale passport.Within the sub-layers of each layer of passport, some have several indicators anddescriptors, while some have a few. For instance, sub-layers of general data con-sistently have several indicators and descriptors in all four passport layers. Some,on the other hand, have several indicators and descriptors between two or three ofthe passport layers, such as sub-layers of value, assessment, environmental, andgovernance. Contrary to this, some of the sub-layers have a very limited numberof indicators and descriptors, such as materials sub-layer in site, building, and el-ement/HBIM families passport. In terms of the application of the passport layers,some of the indicators and descriptors must be filled out using a word, sentence, ora few sentences. For instance, the name of the building, ownership, and occupancyunder the general data sub-layer of the building passport can easily be filled withjust words. On the other hand, observations, flexibility, and modification underthe assessment sub-layer of the building passport might require paragraphs to befilled. It is thus important to understand the structures of the sub-layers and theircorresponding indicators and descriptors (Figure 5.4, Figure 5.5, Figure 5.6, andFigure 5.7) can change as the passports are populated with their respective infor-mation. The Passport model layouts could also change depending on the type ofplatform used for documentation and information sharing. It is thus supposed tohave different looks if used on Word, Excel, websites or any other platform. Theuser has the freedom to change the ways as needed. Moreover, it might be difficultto find all the information requirements listed in the passport. The user could thusprefer to work on specific sub-layers and, indicators and descriptors. The overallpassport model is proposed to be completed through time as all information re-100Figure 5.4: Site passport proposed sub-layers, indicators, and descriptors.101Figure 5.5: Building passport proposed sub-layers, indicators, and descrip-tors.102Figure 5.6: Element/HBIM passport proposed sub-layers, indicators, and de-scriptors.quired for a specific layer is found. Overall, the passport layers are proposed asbasic frameworks in guiding effective and comprehensive documentation of built103Figure 5.7: Material passport proposed sub-layers, indicators, and descrip-tors.heritage information in different scales.Each passport model is designed to be a stand alone information catalogue,with all the necessary details to describe a particular entity of interest in each scale.The site passport (Figure 5.4) has buildings, elements and HBIM families, andmaterials sub-layers. Similarly, the building passport (Figure 5.5) has elementsand HBIM families, and materials sub-layers. Finally, the element/HBIM passport(Figure 5.6) has a materials sub-layer. Each layer of the passport is designed tohave the subsequent passport layer on a lower scale as a sub-layer. Similarly, each104layer of the passport is designed to have the subsequent passport layer of a largerscale as an element within the sub-layers. These approaches are intended to makeeach passport layer a stand alone information source with all the required detailsin each scale. However, the level of detail included might differ. For instance, theintention of including elements and HBIM families in the site passport is to exhibitelements and families in the entire site, to create a general understanding of thedetails of the site. This will further facilitate several studies, such as the archi-tectural characteristics of a site. One can, for instance, identify opening familiesin the site passport to study their similarities and have an idea of the architecturalcharacter of the site. The intention of including elements and HBIM families in thebuilding passport, on the other hand, is to identify elements and families within thebuilding. Unlike the site passport, the sub-layer will have a very limited number ofelements and families. When considering the passports of each element and HBIMfamily listed under site and building passport, it will include detailed informationsub-layers with their own indicators and descriptors to define an element or HBIMfamily in particular. Between these transitions, it is important to notice that thefocus of interest, the level of information, and the number of elements and familiesconsidered vary. The site passport has several elements and families with limitedinformation (mostly limited to listing the elements and families) with a focus onidentifying general characteristics. The building passport, on the other hand, has alimited number of elements and families with more detailed information comparedto the site passport (for instance, further explaining elements and families besideslisting) with a focus on defining specific characteristics of a building. The elementand HBIM passport layer, in contrast, is dedicated to one element or family, with anin-depth study with several sub-layers of information and a focus on understandingthe detailed characteristics of an element or family.5.4.4 Digital web-based inventoryThere is a requirement for systematic assessment of urban buildings, establishingdatabases capable of sharing information and best practices among diverse stake-holders in urban heritage management processes [163]. Several approaches could105be used to facilitate the sharing of information among different stakeholders forthe proposed BHP. One aspect would be to digitize the proposed BHP to facil-itate inventory management and information sharing. Studies show the need tofully digitized building passports to realize their full potential [90]. Similarly, dig-itization of all four layers of passport of the proposed BHP could be consideredimportant to exploit their full potential. Historic environment knowledge has alsobeen radically enhanced and democratised through the evolution of paper recordsto digital data [133]. Moreover, in almost all cases, modern heritage inventorieshave been shown to be digital [147]. The digitization of BHP passport layers willthus facilitate its application in urban heritage conservation.While considering the idea of digitization, it is important to consider the formof digitization to achieve the desired information-sharing capability. Communica-tion and sharing of information in a historical environment has been shown to bechallenging due to the existence of heterogeneity of approaches and informationbased on the purpose of recording, source of information, and target stakehold-ers [10, 170]. The choice of digitization thus needs to consider this complexity.The proposed BHP defines a specific approach for the purpose of recording andresponding to heterogeneity challenges. Digitization through a shared platformcould be considered a tool to fill the challenges of heterogeneity in informationassociated with the source of information and target stakeholders. The digitiza-tion of BHP thus considers the capabilities of information sharing from differentinformation sources between different stakeholders. It is intended to be used byseveral stakeholders, including architects, engineers, historians, conservation spe-cialists, artisans, government bodies, the public, researchers, students, investors,or other stakeholders interested in urban heritage conservation. It is also intendedto accommodate information on urban heritage from different sources in differentformats. The accessibility and flexibility of digitizing platforms are thus crucial toaccommodate these needs.Making historical data available online and enabling remote access ensuresthat the historic environment remains visible, valued, and taken into consideration[133]. Studies have also shown the relevance of specific online location database106concentration [43]. An online web-based platform is thus proposed for the dig-itization of the proposed passport layers. There are several cases of web-basedplatforms in cultural heritage management [3, 4, 6, 73, 159]. The web-based plat-form is intended to provide accessibility and flexibility to provide access to multi-ple stakeholders and allow integration of information from different sources withdifferent formats. To maintain their effectiveness, inventories of heritage placesmust continuously update their information to reflect evolving knowledge, newlyidentified sites, and changes in the status of existing ones [147]. The web-basedplatform is thus intended to further respond to specific needs in urban heritagemanagement, such as the need to accommodate change with time, change of value,evolution of human cultural tradition, and contribution of new resources. Utilizingdigital platforms integrates heritage data into everyday societal endeavours and en-courages public interest and involvement in preserving the historical environment[133]. There have also been studies using public participation through online plat-forms [59]. The web-based digital platform is thus also intended to create aware-ness among the public on urban heritage, create interest, and initiate public partic-ipation. With a capability of embracing future technological developments like thewidespread use of BIM, BIM-enabled heritage asset management [99], improvingthe link of external knowledge to HBIM [52], digital twins in heritage conservation[119, 128], preventive maintenance through digital management [200], the digitalform of a building passport demonstrates its adaptability. In this regard, the web-based digital platform development for BHP intends to integrate HBIM models ofbuildings and respective parametric families. Its future development is also pro-posed to be geared towards the integration of IoT devices in heritage buildings andthe development of urban heritage digital twin.Considering the functional aspects of the proposed web-based digitization ofBHP passport layers, it is proposed that it be an easy-to-use platform respondingto the particular needs of each stakeholder. It is proposed that multiple functionsbe provided for different stakeholders. Students, researchers, and the public coulduse it as a learning platform to develop an understanding of urban heritage sitesand conduct studies. Different urban heritage professionals could also use it asa documentation and contribution platform. Moreover, government stakeholders107and investors could use it as a tool to promote urban heritage rehabilitation andeconomic development. All these functions and stakeholders create different func-tional requirements. Given the multidisciplinary nature of architectural heritagedocumentation, the process must facilitate the integration and communication ofheterogeneous data, accommodating various content and format requirements fromexperts across different fields [10, 170]. The web-based digitization platform forthe proposed BHP is thus intended to allow the integration of a large amount ofinformation to be stored, processed, and shared in different data content and for-mats. There is a need for increased accountability for data providers to ensurethe robustness, currency, and comprehensibility of data for remote users [133]. Toachieve the goals of a heritage inventory, its information must also be accessibleto authorized users with diverse locations and affiliations, while safeguarding con-fidential data, such as detailed archaeological site information and sacred places,from unauthorized access[147]. The web-based BHB platform intends to allowcontrolled access for its users, with heritage professionals having authorized con-trol to continuously update information and determine which information wouldbe accessible for different stakeholders using the web-based digitized BHP plat-form. This requires complex management structures. Information systems allowfor complex queries, necessitating specialized expertise and time, which contrastswith the expectation of average users for straightforward access and analysis ofdata, texts, images, and maps suited to their needs [118]. It is thus required tohave specialized expertise in managing the BHP web-based platform. Besides theexpertise in urban heritage management, professionals have to contribute to easymanagement and use. This goes in line with the multidisciplinary nature of her-itage conservation, calling for collaborative efforts in urban heritage management.5.5 Implementation casesThis section will illustrate the application of the four layers of passport in the pro-posed BHP using the port city of Massawa as a case study. The Port city of oldMassawa was used as a site to show the application of the first layer, the site pass-port. Site passports could be used as an inventory for a neighboured, district, or108city with an urban heritage site. In the case of the port city of Massawa, the sitepassport will be used as an inventory of a city for its urban heritage. HBIM of her-itage buildings developed through image-based approach [176] and 3D city modelof the city developed through HBIM principles [177] were crucial in developingthe passport layers. For the second passport layer, a building within the histori-cally significant areas of Massawa was selected. Several criteria were consideredwhen choosing a building to illustrate a building passport. This includes the his-torical significance of the area, the architectural significance of the building, theavailability of resources for building passport, and the level of detailing in HBIMdevelopment. An arched column structural HBIM family within the same build-ing was used to illustrate the use of the proposed element/HBIM passport. Finally,coral stone, as a dominant building material and a defining characteristic of the site,was selected as a material to illustrate the use of the fourth passport layer, materialpassport.The city passport of the port city of Massawa is shown in Figure 5.8. The sitepassport is first assigned the appropriate scale naming of the site of interest. In thecase of Massawa, it is denoted as a city passport. The city’s web-based digital in-ventory includes all the layers proposed under the site passport with additional tabsfor contribution to promote public participation. The web-based passport interfaceis organized into sub-layers in rows and two columns. The indicators and descrip-tors of each sub-layer are assigned a tab in each sub-layer. After clicking on thedesired tab, it will display information under the desired indicator or descriptor ofa sub-layer. Such an organization creates an easy exploration by creating a simpli-fied display with a single set of information on an indicator or descriptor displayedat a time. Moreover it saves space in displaying all the sub-layers within a limitedweb page space. In its current state, the city passport of Massawa doesn’t haveinformation for all the indicators and descriptors identified in the site passport. It isdesigned to get populated as more information resources become accessible. Cur-rently, the city passport covers information such as general data, detailed site his-tory along with significant historical events such as Fenkil operation, site relationsto similar port cities in the Red Sea region, details on the architectonic qualitiesof the Urban Heritage, Maps, wind simulation results on pedestrian wind comfort,109potentials for economic advancement, information on social life integration, obser-vation assessments, historic redevelopment plans, and several other resources fordifferent indicators and descriptors. Figure 5.8 shows a digitized section of the citypassport. It is important to note that the passport layer has been assigned a uniqueidentification reference to be easily identified for regional, national, and interna-tional use when used along with other city passports.Figure 5.8: An example of proposed city passport web interface.A building passport for a heritage building in the port city of Massawa is shownin Figure 5.9. The identified building is called Casa Ex-crico. It is located alongthe seashores in the northern part of the city. The building was identified by UN-ESCO among the historically significant buildings for its significant architectural110facade and overall value to the port city [15, 68, 165]. The facade of the buildingis characterized by a symmetric facade with repetitive arched elements, varyingcolumn cross sections and decorative motifs, and timber windows and doors. Ithas a typical architectural style of the Egyptian and Ottoman period of Massawa,with layered coral construction typical of the port city. The model is classified asclass 1 model (LOD4) with detailed information regarding the exterior and inte-rior of the building. This has helped to include more information in the proposedbuilding passport. Due to the scope limitations in HBIM development and chal-lenges in accessing the site, the proposed building passport in its current state formost buildings will be limited to external facades of buildings. For only a limitednumber of buildings, as in the case of the building in this example, classified inclass 1 model in HBIM-based 3D city model [177], will the building passport ofBHP provide detailed information regarding interior and exterior spaces. In suchcases also, there is limitation in accessing the current status of the interior spaces,building elements, and furnishings.Arched parametric families with column support from the heritage building ofCasa Ex-Rico were used to illustrate the application of the third passport layer, theelement/HBIM passport. Figure 5.10 shows the web-based digitized element/H-BIM passport of the family. In terms of building materials, the identified heritagebuilding for the building passport layer, Casa Ex-crico, is majorly composed ofcoral stone walls, limestone, concrete and wood. One of the characteristic buildingmaterials of the site, coral stone, was used to illustrate the application of the fourthpassport layer, material passport. Information on coral stone was integrated fromdifferent literature studies [29, 132, 165, 178]. Figure 5.11 shows the web-baseddigitized material passport for coral stone building material.Information and resources in each passport layer are integrated from differ-ent resources. This includes literature studies, HBIM-based 3D city models ofthe city, Google images, YouTube videos, historic resources, inventory documents,maps, historic architectural drawings and sketches, simulation results of differentsoftware, studies related to desired sub-layers or indicators and descriptors, sev-eral websites, and other resources. All the passport layers have a contribution tab111Figure 5.9: An example of proposed building passport web interface.allowing users to contribute resources they have in each passport layer. This is in-tended to breach data access gaps due to the inaccessibility of the site and the lackof modern tools in data acquisition. Crowdsourcing of information is thus a valu-able element for the development of each passport layer. Some of the sub-layersor indicators and descriptors have more available resources to fill an intended pass-port layer. On the other hand, some have limited or no access. The passport layersare thus intended to be developed incrementally as more resources avail and morecontributions are gathered from the public.112Figure 5.10: An example of proposed element/HBIM passport web interface.5.6 DiscussionThe concept of BHP was proposed with four layers of passport. The structure ofeach passport scale was determined with respective sub-layers and indicators anddescriptors to accommodate all the desired information for urban heritage conser-vation. The application of the proposed passport layers was further illustrated withweb-based passports as digital inventory. The proposed passports, besides beinginventory files for urban heritage management, could potentially serve differentpurposes. Element/ HBIM family’s passports could be used to study the architec-tural style of Massawa. It could also be further integrated with studies in the RedSea region, such as HIAC library [13], aimed at creating a comprehensive BIM113Figure 5.11: An example of proposed material passport web interface.library for Islamic historical structures. This layer of passport could be furtherused as an asset in understanding and relating to different architectural styles inthe world. Thus, it has a significant contribution to studying the architecture ofMassawa. Similarly, the site passport could be used to study the specific charactersof Massawa’s planning in relation to similar port cities. As in the case of BIMlibraries, the urban structure could be decomposed and studied to draw similari-ties. For instance, the Urban form of Massawa is closely related to Suakin. Suchurban forms could be studied from different perspectives for a particular point ofinterest. For instance, the next chapter of this research will cover the impact of theurban form of Massawa on the pedestrian-level wind environment. Such studiesare proposed to be included under the environment sub-layer of the proposed site114passport layer of BHP. Such studies could be further expanded and help in drawingan understanding of the impacts of the urban form of port cities on environmentalcomfort. This could further be compared to modern-day urban forms to gener-ate important findings that could assist current planning practices. Inventories willalso be important in assessing damage and buildings at risk and in determiningpriorities of intervention during a disaster. The establishment of BHP for sites likeMassawa, which has endured several damages to the built heritage due to naturaland man-made disasters, would thus be significant. The city being in a seismiczone with several earthquake incidents that deteriorated the urban heritage [152],the development of BHP would be significant. Overall, it could be concluded thatthe proposed passport layers of the BHP create multifaceted opportunities to dodifferent research and applications in different areas.Extensions to the study could be done by extensively doing literature studies inapplying Metadata Schemas and Controlled Vocabularies for the advancement ofBHP model. The development of standards has been worked on by many CulturalInstitutions and National Bodies, including ICCD in Italy, MIDAS in England, andthe Sche´ma documentaire applique´ au patrimoine et a` l’architecture (SDAPA) inFrance as national standards [170]. The BHP model will significantly benefit fromConsideration of these and similar standards for better and uniform documentationand to enhance compatibility with other approaches for better retrieval and shar-ing of information. The current form of BHP mainly focuses on responding to thespecific needs in managing the urban heritage of the port city of Massawa. Fur-ther studies could be done based on the current BHP for an enhanced built heritagemanagement tool to further enhance the model and promote national and regionaluse. It is intended to be flexible and updated over time, and requirements shouldbe used to accommodate different data and information categories. More indica-tors could be included based on additional studies if necessary. It could also bereformed to meet user requirements for ease of use.The case of Massawa passport layers of BHP presented can be improved forwider data access. The current development of passport layers mainly relies onexisting information from different resources without accessing the site and using115modern data acquisition tools. Access to the site to gather information in differ-ent layers and sub-layers, along with the use of modern technologies, will highlycontribute to the comprehensiveness and accuracy of passport information. Dueto the scope limitations in HBIM and challenges in accessing the site, the BHP, inits current state, is also limited to external facades of buildings. For only a lim-ited number of buildings classified in the class 1 model in the HBIM-based 3Dcity model, the BHP provide detailed information regarding interior and exteriorspaces. In such cases, there is also a limitation in accessing the current status ofthe interior spaces, building elements, and furnishings, which is a huge limitation.Overall, despite the aforementioned limitations in the BHP passport layers and thepresented case study, The proposed passport models can be adopted and used bylocal authorities in urban heritage conservation. It will promote sustainable reha-bilitation of urban heritage by providing comprehensive information for differentstakeholders in heritage conservation to assist decision-making.In terms of possible development, the proposed BHP could be altered and re-designed based on specific site needs to meet data limitation challenges and re-spond to specific site needs. It could also be developed incrementally, as in thecase of Massawa, to allow the integration of detailed data as more resources be-come available. The integration of more detailed data in each layer, however, willpose a huge challenge, including challenges of data interoperability and complex-ity. It will thus be important to consider the integration of multiple platforms alongwith the web-based platform to enable efficient functioning. Moreover, further en-hancement to BHP could be planned through the integration of advanced digitaldatabases using GIS and Revit integration. Moreover, integration with navigationtools in our daily lives, such as Google Earth, could also be explored and integratedfor enhanced accessibility. Plugin developments to Revit considering BHP struc-tures could also be considered to facilitate the integration. BHP can also be furtherintegrated into the overall urban management of the entire city of Massawa or anyurban management initiatives in Eritrea to facilitate sustainable urban developmentin line with urban heritage conservation.1165.7 Chapter summaryThe availability of information on building stock, material use, construction tech-nique and other aspects of the built environment will contribute towards the re-alization of a circular economy and sustainable development. In urban culturalheritage management, heritage inventories serve as vital tools, encompassing ex-tensive information on buildings, districts, sites, or open spaces. This researchexplored the application of digital inventory for cultural heritage management andCircular economy by developing and illustrating frameworks for managing builtheritage. The concept of BHP was introduced in this research to assist culturalheritage management, sustainable urban heritage conservation, and promoting acircular economy. There have been several studies in the assessment and docu-mentation of urban heritage. The concepts of digital inventory, building passport,material passport and other sustainability assessment certifications have been ex-plored. However, an integrated approach lacks efficiency relating all aspects andscales inbuilt heritage. Studies have also shown the necessity for a comprehensiveinventory and cataloguing of cultural heritage, encompassing urban areas, histor-ical sites, and landscapes. The development of BHP thus aims to provide a com-prehensive, efficient, accessible, and easy-to-use built heritage inventory for a mul-titude of applications. It aims to address professional practice challenges in builtheritage, mainly availability, accessibility, and complexity of information, throughproviding a structured framework for documenting urban heritage and creating anaccessible platform to promote urban heritage conservation. BHP covers multiplelayers and sub-layers, mainly emphasizing, architectural, sustainability and con-servation aspects. Moreover, BHP intends to provide a comprehensive, efficient,accessible, and easy-to-use tool supported by HBIM, to enable efficient capturingof embedded cultural values in built buildings along with aspects of sustainabilityfor conservation planning. BHP also proposes to make building and family HBIMmodels accessible to create awareness, facilitate design, and initiate research in ur-ban heritage conservation.The BHP is proposed in four layers of frameworks for inventory, includingbuilding passport, site passport, element passport, and material passport. A litera-117ture study on existing heritage management approaches, sustainable urban heritageconservation studies, and particular case studies of urban heritage managementwas conducted to identify general documentation requirements and indicators byexploring potential relations and other aspects deemed to be important for builtheritage management. Layers, sublayers, and indicators and descriptors were iden-tified and categorized to develop each passport layer. The sublayers were generallyidentified considering building detail, sustainability, and conservation aspects. In-dicators and descriptors were further categorized under each sublayer. The struc-ture of each passport scale was determined with respective sub-layers, indicators,and descriptors to accommodate all the information desired for urban heritage con-servation.The proposed concept was illustrated using the case of the historic port city ofMassawa in Eritrea. Furthermore, the integration of HBIM, BHP, and web-basedinventory for an efficient conservation of built heritage has been explored. The ap-plication of the proposed passport layers was illustrated with web-based passportsas a consistent digital inventory and a common data environment for heritage con-servation management. The proposed passports, besides being inventory files forurban heritage management, could potentially serve different purposes, includingstudying the architectural style, creating a comprehensive HBIM library, studyingthe specific characters of a site, and other applications in urban heritage conserva-tion. The proposed BHP could also be altered and redesigned based on specificsite needs to meet data limitation challenges and respond to specific site needs.It could also be developed incrementally, as in the case of Massawa, to allow theintegration of detailed data as more resources become available. Extensions to thestudy could be done by extensively doing literature studies in applying MetadataSchemas and Controlled Vocabularies for the advancement of BHP model. TheBHP model will significantly benefit from the consideration of these and similarstandards for better and uniform documentation and to enhance compatibility withother approaches for better retrieval and sharing of information.118Chapter 6Assessment and designapplications6.1 IntroductionThe quality of urban areas is essential in promoting urban comfort and outdooractivities for enhanced social life. Pedestrian-level wind comfort and safety isan important consideration in this aspect in shaping the quality of urban areasin cities. It refers to airflow characteristics experienced by individuals at groundlevel in urban environments. Assessing pedestrian wind environments, as one ofthe key urban physical environments, is essential during the urban planning pro-cess to promote the overall well-being of the city and its residents [183]. Urbanwind environment assessment is also highly regarded in the mitigation of urbanheat island (UHI) [120]. Unfavourable wind conditions have been shown to causeseveral problems, including failure in fulfilling functional requirements [167, 216]and cause for fatalities [124]. The study of pedestrian-level wind environment hasthus been made essential by many urban authorities worldwide in the initial designstage of new building construction and urban projects worldwide [38, 150]. Stud-ies on pedestrian wind environments can be conducted using different techniques.From the initial studies with on-site measurements to wind tunnel measurementson the scaled model, Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has become a viabletool as high-performance computational resources become increasingly available119[137]. Different resources are required to conduct such studies. Meteorologicaldata, aerodynamic information, and criteria for wind comfort and wind safety arerequired to study pedestrian-level wind [39, 40, 102]. Urban area’s Wind flow andmorphological and aerodynamic characteristics should also be jointly consideredfor evaluation and improvement of urban wind conditions [110].There have been several experimental and computational studies in understand-ing the effects of buildings and urban morphology on wind flow patterns and com-fort. Aerodynamic effects of buildings on pedestrian comfort and safety have beenstudied in relation to a building in several studies [108, 138, 175, 227]. Severalother studies have also explored effects of a group of buildings, neighbourhoods,and urban areas [21, 37, 39, 46, 63, 66, 131, 183, 225]. Moreover, some studiesexplore particular aspects of a building design or urban area in relation to pedes-trian level wind comfort including, the effect of building height and fac¸ade arearatio on pedestrian wind comfort [201]; optimization of building height and planarea densities to enhance complex real urban areas wind conditions [110]; pedes-trian level wind comfort impacts of building height and porosity [60]; the influ-ence of lift-up buildings with different aspect ratios on the surrounding pedestrianlevel wind [226]; effects of trees in urban areas on pedestrian wind comfort [109],and others. The effects of urban planning, urban morphology changes, and Ur-ban morphological indicators on wind flow pattern and comfort have also beenexplored[7, 117, 120].The aforementioned studies mostly tend to focus on understanding the effectsof modern developments, such as high-rise buildings, on pedestrian-level windcomfort. Ku and Tsai [120] have shown failure in accounting for the effects ofcomprehensive planning and the combined influence of different morphologicalfactors, with emphasis commonly limited to building scale in most studies. Thestudies also mostly consider cases of cities in the developed world, with less re-gard for conditions in the developing world. The effects of urban forms of historicsites on pedestrian-level wind comfort are less explored. Such sites have embed-ded wisdom in building design and city planning that evolves through time, en-during the impacts of modern developments. The effects of organic urban formsand unique buildings of historic cities are yet to be explored. The effects of ur-ban form changes in time on wind micro-climate in historic environments are also120given less regard. This could lead to uncomfortable areas in urban environments,including open spaces and streets. Recognizing such effects at an early stage in theurban rehabilitation of heritage sites will assist in mitigating weather challenges,creating a comfortable urban environment for outdoor activities, and enhancing theexperience of tourists visiting historical sites. Moreover, an understanding of windmicro-climate effects on organic urban forms of heritage sites could be used tomake comparisons and assist urban planners in decision-making in shaping urbanlandscapes.This research intends to explore the effect of urban form and building designon urban wind flow and pedestrian-level wind comfort in the historic port city ofMassawa. Pedestrian-level wind comfort criteria were used to assess comfort andmake comparisons between different urban forms. The comparison was made tounderstand the effects of the urban fabric, modelling details, and the evolution ofurban form for nearly 150 years span. The study has also considered the effectsof urban form changes on wind micro-climate. It compares Wind micro-climateeffects of different urban forms that evolved due to several man-made and naturalhazards. Different historical urban redevelopment proposals were also consideredto compare the proposed plans and the original configuration of the city. This isintended to create awareness of the contribution of historic urban forms of heritagesites for urban comfort and assist designers in shaping urban landscapes. It willparticularly be important to understand the significance of port city urban formsfor urban comfort in the hot climate weather of Red Sea port cities. The researchwill use CFD to illustrate how arched pathways of buildings and the organic urbanform of Massawa, the level of detail in modelling urban environment, and urbanchanges due to hazards and radical planning proposals with grid urban form canaffect wind micro-climate and human comfort in an urban environment.6.2 Case studyThe port city of Massawa is an old town owing its mixed architectural style mainlyto Turkish, Egyptian, and Italian colonizers, in addition to its medieval heritage.Massawa has played a pivotal role in diplomacy, military affairs, and politics sincethe 16th century for various nations seeking influence in the Red Sea region and121connections with the Horn of Africa [136]. This has led to urban heritage thatevolved through centuries under different influences. A densely built environmentwith organic urban form, narrow streets, and flat-roof masonry buildings, alongwith mosques adorned with tall Ottoman-style minarets, characterize the Port cityof Massawa. Massawa uniquely preserved Eritrea’s local architectural style andurban layout, representing a symbolic link to the nation’s Islamic history. Studyingthe influence of such urban forms on human comfort would contribute to researchtargeted at understanding the influence of the built environment on human comfort.Due to its enduring ties with the Ottomans and Egyptians, Massawa developedsignificant resemblances to other Red Sea ports like Jiddah, Sawakin, Hudaydah,and Luhayya over time [136]. Studying the influence of the urban form of Massawaon pedestrian-level wind comfort would contribute to developing an understandingof the effect of the urban form of port cities and historic urban sites on humancomfort.Starting from the construction of the first-known buildings during the initial pe-riod of Turkish domination, the buildings and urban form of Massawa have evolvedthroughout centuries. The evolution of Massawa’s port city has been shaped by acombination of human and environmental factors, including significant events likethe 1888 fire and the 1921 earthquake, as well as the impact of the 30-year warfor independence, while current challenges such as neglect leading to the decayof heritage buildings and proposed new developments pose threats to the preser-vation of Massawa’s urban heritage and the rich history of the city and its region.These factors have greatly contributed to the evolution of the urban form. Thisresearch intends to study the influence of the evolving urban form of Massawa onpedestrian-level wind comfort. Besides the change of urban form, there have beenseveral urban redevelopment proposals throughout history, most related to majorincidents such as the 1921 earthquake. Several urban form evolution and urban re-development plans from different resources were explored [15, 68, 165]. Figure 6.6shows the urban forms identified for this research from different timelines, 1885to 2020. This research intends to explore the effect of this urban form and build-ing design changes on urban wind flow and pedestrian-level wind comfort in thehistoric port city of Massawa. Comparison will be made to understand the effectsof the urban fabric, modelling details, and evolution of urban form based on these122historical changes. The study will also consider the effects of urban form changeson wind micro-climate, comparing Wind micro-climate effects of different urbanforms and proposed redevelopments.6.3 Assessment procedureTo study pedestrian-level wind environment, meteorological data, aerodynamic in-formation, and criteria for wind comfort and wind safety are required [39, 40, 102].This section will illustrate the assessment procedure for studying the pedestrian-level wind environment of the port city of Massawa.6.3.1 Meteorological dataMeteorological data of Massawa was collected from Massawa International Air-port, located close to the port city. Due to data access limitations, several resourceswere explored. Meteorological data is suggested to cover several decades, typically30 years [35]. Open-meteo [2] open-source weather offering free access was usedto collect hourly weather data of Massawa from 1993 to 2023. Figure 6.2 showsthe wind rose data generated using this data. As shown in the wind rose data, thepredominant wind directions are from east-northeast, West by South, and north-northeast. Among these directions, two directions were identified for this study:east-northeast (70◦) and West by South directions (260◦). These wind directionsare expected to have a greater impact on the pedestrian-level wind environment.The two directions identified are in opposite directions with different alignmentsto streets, buildings, and other urban elements. These wind directions will be usedto make comparisons to understand the effects of the urban fabric, modeling de-tails, and evolution of urban form.6.3.2 Aerodynamic informationTerrain-related and design-related contributions constitute aerodynamic informa-tion. The first accounts for changes from the meteorological site to the study area,while the second considers changes due to urban and building design in the studyarea. The total wind amplification factor (γ) represents these two contributionsfrom different spatial scales [36]. It is represented as the ratio of local pedestrian-123(a) (b)(c) (d)(e) (f)Figure 6.1: Maps and pictures illustrating the urban form evolution of Mas-sawa (a) A detailed map of Massawa drawn 1885, (b) A new plan forMassawa approved after the earthquake in 1921, which was later with-drawn, (c) The plan proposed by Engineers Bernardi and Marranghelloafter the earthquake in 1921, which follows the approach eventually ac-cepted, (d) An aerial photograph of Massawa taken shortly after libera-tion (around 1990), (e) UNESCO technical report 1995, and (f) GoogleEarth image of Massawa 2020.124'!JAO ":,":,0�'l,o, , , , -·-' , -...... o ,, , "> , , . , -, , , , , , , � , ' · , , , , ") , , , . ',, . I , , , <:> , I ?J ,' J , , , , , ., ' , ' , ,. 'C ' I co , l"l ,1 - ... •. ;'· . . 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I C C ,-, I <:> ,._, ,._ � .... n:,O " Figure 6.2: Annual wind rose data from Massawa International airport(source Open-meteo).level mean wind speed (U) to potential wind speed at the meteorological station(Upot). It considers design related contribution (U/Uref) and terrain-related contri-bution (Uref/Upot) [37].γ =UUpot=UUrefUrefUpot(6.1)Several studies have used amplification factors in pedestrian-level wind envi-ronment studies [36, 37, 87, 137]. For comparative study, this research will partic-ularly focus on the design-related contribution of urban forms of the historic portcity of Massawa using Velocity Amplification Factor (VAF). VAF is defined as theratio of Wind speed at the inlet of a computational domain at pedestrian level (Uref)to local pedestrian-level mean wind speed (U) from simulation. It could also be re-ferred to as the local amplification factor. Studies have used different heights for125Uref. In this research, Uref is defined at pedestrian level, 1.5 meters, at the inlet ofthe computational domain.VAF =UUref(6.2)Terrain related contributionThe terrain-related contribution will be important to define the atmospheric bound-ary layer, which is considered to define the inlet wind velocity profile. The terrain-related contribution ought to consider, at minimum, the variation in terrain rough-ness between the meteorological location and the site of interest. Figure 6.3 showsterrain-related contribution considerations for the port city of Massawa. Two rough-ness lengths were considered (Z0). For the eastern side of the site, Z0 of 0.003 ascoastal area exposed to open sea. For the Western side of the site Z0 of 0.05 as asuburban area.902701800Figure 6.3: Terrain roughness.126Design related contributionElements of existing urban fabric and details of heritage building design were con-sidered to study design-related contributions of buildings and urban morphology.Moreover, the evolution of the port city in terms of the addition of urban elements,loss due to natural and man-made hazards, and proposed redevelopment plans fromdifferent timelines were considered. The study was conducted in three categoriesof cases.Existing urban fabricThe first case, existing urban fabric, explores the effect of the current state ofurban morphology on pedestrian-level wind comfort. This considers the conditionsof demolished buildings and blocks. The fence structure in the northern and east-ern parts of the city was considered a new addition to the port city that could havepotentially impacted the pedestrian-level wind flow. These elements, despite theirfunctional aspect, don’t go with the heritage value of the site. The detailed HBIMbuilding models were first remodelled to detailed mass models representing thegeometric details and fulfilling CFD simulation requirements. The HBIM modelswere remodelled manually for water-tightness and less number of cells in mesh-ing to reduce computational demand. The LOD of the refined models follows theLOD3 approach with significant refinement for simulation compatibility. The ef-fects of building design with arched pathways, mainly along the northern seashore,were thus studied with the updated models. The effect of possible removal of thefences is considered in comparison with the existing urban form. This intends toillustrate the application of the 3D city model and CFD simulation in decision-making for urban rehabilitation proposals. Figure 6.4 shows the two typologies of3D city models of existing urban forms considered for the assessment.Modeling level of detailTo understand the effect of the level of detail in 3D city modelling on pedestrian-level wind comfort, an assessment comparison was made using models with differ-ent levels of detail. The effects of detailed models of heritage buildings with archedpathways, mainly along the northern seashore, were compared with 3D city modelsfrom footprint extraction. This was particularly intended to understand the effectof the level of detail in 3D city modelling on the results of CFD simulation. Ha˚gbo127(a) (b)Figure 6.4: Two typologies of existing urban form for pedestrian level windcomfort assessment (a) 3D city model with fences along the northernand eastern part, and (b) 3D city model without fences.(a) (b)Figure 6.5: 3D city modeling LOD typologies of existing urban form forpedestrian level wind comfort assessment (a) Detailed 3D city model,and (b) Footprint extrusion 3D city model.et al. [88] explored the influence of the geometry acquisition method on pedestrianwind simulations, showing the limitation of building footprint extrusion modelscompared to more detailed and accurate models using remote sensing measure-ments. The 3D city model of Massawa used in this study was, however, developedusing an image-based HBIM development approach [176] and a 3D city modellingapproach without using modern data acquisition tools [177]. Case 2 of the simu-lation assessment, Modeling level of detail, intends to make similar comparisonsto understand the effect of the level of detail in modeling on pedestrian-level windcomfort assessment results. This further intends to initiate urban comfort assess-ments using 3D city models from building footprint data by understanding thelimitations and uncertainties for an efficient comfort study. Figure 6.5 shows thetwo levels of detail considered for the assessment.128Urban form evolutionThe assessment of the effect of the evolution of urban form on pedestrian-levelwind comfort is a significant part of this research. The change in the Urban form ofthe port city of Massawa from the late nineteenth century to the current time wasconsidered. This includes urban changes due to natural and man-made hazards andthe consequent historical urban redevelopment proposal. This is intended to createawareness of the contribution of historic urban forms of heritage sites for urbancomfort. The assessment also intends to compare the proposed plans in differentcity timelines and the original configuration of the city. The effects of the radicalproposals of grid urban form in comparison with the organic urban form of thecity will be explored. Moreover, the effects of demolished buildings and blockson open space and street pedestrian wind comfort will be explored. Overall, theassessment will be important in understanding the significance of port city urbanforms for urban comfort in the hot climate weather of Red Sea port cities and alsoassist designers in shaping urban landscapes. Figure 6.5 shows the 3D city modelsdeveloped for different timelines for comparison.6.3.3 Pedestrian wind comfort criteria and analysisThe criteria for wind comfort in this research focuses on the mechanical effectsof wind on comfort. The criteria are based on the probability of exceedance ofa threshold wind speed for different activities. Wind speed and frequency of oc-currence determine the criteria for wind comfort. There have been several windcomfort criteria proposed to determine areas of comfort and discomfort for sev-eral activities [61, 100, 103, 122, 123, 134, 143, 149, 189, 212–215]. Studieshave shown differences between these criteria [107, 191]. The differences relayin threshold wind speed and exceedance of probability considered. The differenceswere shown to lead to different conclusions, showing the need for wind comfortstandardization [107]. In this research, for pedestrian level wind comfort assess-ment, Lawson wind comfort criteria [122], which Categorize regions according tothe types of activities deemed ”comfortable,” based on the average wind speedsthey typically experience and how often these speeds are exceeded (Figure 6.7).This was also presented in Ha˚gbo and Giljarhus [86, 87] and Ha˚gbo et al. [88].129(a) (b)(c) (d)(e) (f)Figure 6.6: 3D city models of urban form evolution of Massawa (a) Urbanform of Massawa in 1885, (b) Urban form of the new plan for Mas-sawa approved after the earthquake in 1921, which was later withdrawn,(c) Urban form of the plan proposed by Engineers Bernardi and Mar-ranghello after the earthquake in 1921, which follows the approacheventually accepted, (d) Urban form of Massawa after liberation (around1990), (e) Urban form of Massawa based on UNESCO technical report1995, and (f) Urban form of Massawa in 2020.130This research will particularly focus on using the velocity amplification factor tocompare the effects of building design and urban form on amplifying reference ve-locity. The models will be compared using the same defined directions with similarmeteorological data. Hence, the amplification factor was deemed sufficient for thecomparison.Figure 6.7: Comfort criteria based on Lawson wind comfort criteria.6.4 CFD analysis methodologyCFD simulation was used to conduct a pedestrian-level wind comfort assessment ofMassawa for its high-resolution output data, cost and ease of parametric iterations.Best practice guidelines (BPGs) have been formulated to conduct CFD analysis ofurban wind environments. These guidelines were followed in setting simulationsin this research. The BPGs by Tominaga et al.[199] and Franke and Baklanov [70]were used in setting up simulations. A pedestrian-level wind environment study byAdamek [7] was also closely followed.6.4.1 Computational domainCFD simulation is sensitive to the geometry and dimension of the computationaldomain. Kastner and Dogan [111] recommended using the cylindrical domain foranalyzing at least eight wind directions and the box-shaped domain for studyingfewer than eight wind directions. A box-shaped domain is commonly used in sev-eral studies [7]. A cylindrical domain, offering the flexibility of mesh suitable for131simulating wind from many directions, has also been used in several studies re-cently [86, 88, 111]. In this research box-shaped domain was used as only twowind directions were considered for each study model (Figure 6.8).In terms of the domain size, the BPGs suggestions by Tominaga et al. [199]and Franke and Baklanov [70] were followed. The characteristics of the computa-tional domain used in pedestrian level wind assessment through city development[7], which follows the BPGs suggestions, was also used as a reference. The heightof the computational domain is set to be 5Hmax away from the top of Minarets, thetallest structures of the port city with height Hmax, following literature suggestionson computational domain size in urban areas with multiple buildings [70]. The lat-eral extensions were determined following the smaller maximum blockage of 3%recommendation [34, 70, 199]. The results of lateral extension closely align withAdamek et al. [7]; similar lateral, inlet, and outflow boundaries were used. Thisfollows the minimum outflow boundary placement away from buildings, 15Hmax[69, 70] and 10Hmax [199]. Figure 6.8 shows the computational domain withdimensions.6.4.2 Boundary conditionsThe boundary conditions are defined following BPGs and similar pedestrian-levelwind comfort studies. The inlet boundary condition is defined as a velocity in-let with vertically varying velocity based on height. The inlet mean wind speedprofile was defined with a neutral logarithmic profile following the aerodynamicroughness length shown in Figure 6.3. At 10-meter height, a mean wind speed of10 m/s is used for the simulation. When the approach flow direction is parallel tolateral boundaries, symmetry boundary conditions are frequently used [70]. Sym-metry boundary conditions have thus been assigned to the lateral sides and the topof the computational domain. Wall non-slip boundary conditions and wall-functiontreatment have been implemented to the ground and building surfaces, and pressureoutlet for outlet boundary condition. These boundary conditions were identical tothe boundary conditions used by Adamek [7] in studying pedestrian-level wind as-sessment through city development. Figure 6.8 shows the computational domainwith the assigned boundary conditions.1327B 4.5B1.33B4B6HB1.17BDiameter of study areaB = 600 m Height of tallest structureH = 21 m 3H2HZone 3Zone 2Zone 1Figure 6.8: Computational domain.6.4.3 GridPolyhedral meshes were used to discretize the computational domain. There arethree zones with different meshing specifications. Zone one is proposed to encom-pass a large area with a higher grid size. Zone 3, assigned for the region of interestfor pedestrian-level wind study, on the other hand, has the smallest area with thesmallest grid size. Zone 2, which includes the front zone and wake zone, is pro-posed to have an average area and grid size compared to Zones 1 and 3. Moreover,surface control was assigned to capture intricate detail geometries of buildings.Zone 2 and zone 3 are assigned with volumetric control in relation to the largestmesh size, zone 1, with 24% and 15% size, respectively. Similarly, building sur-faces are assigned surface control relative to zone 1 with 10% size. The highestgrid resolution is thus on the building surfaces and the lowest in the lateral andoutlet surroundings in zone 3 (Figure 6.9).The simulations were conducted in a high-resolution grid after conducting agrid sensitivity analysis. The grid-sensitivity analysis was conducted using a modelrepresenting the city’s current morphology. The velocity amplification factors indifferent parts of the city were compared using a horizontal line 1.5 meters above133the ground level. The test was conducted with the western wind direction for threegrids: coarse, basic, and fine grids. The differences rely on the base size leadingto different total cell counts of 17,529,776, 13,884,619, and 10,033,625 for fine,basic, and coarse grids, respectively. As illustrated in Figure 6.10, it was found thatthe differences between the coarse and basic grid were high, while the differencesbetween basic and fine were minimal. A basic grid with a base size of 10 was thusdeemed suitable for the study, offering a computational advantage.Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1Figure 6.9: Mesh details.Figure 6.10: Grid sensitivity analysis.1346.4.4 Turbulence modelPedestrian wind comfort CFD studies have been shown to most often use ReynoldsAveraged Navier-Stokes (RANS) solutions [36]. In this research, a standard RANS-based technique in CFD, a widely used turbulence model [183], with k– turbulencemodel is used. It is cost-effective and computationally efficient [137]. Several stud-ies that use this approach have been explored [66, 107, 107, 110, 183]. The simula-tion setup was done using best practice recommendations and the aforementionedvalidation studies.6.4.5 Number of wind directionsThere are several suggestions in studies on the number of wind directions for pedes-trian wind comfort and safety assessment. Ha˚gbo and Giljarhus [86] showed 8wind directions to be insufficient and more than 32 wind directions to be excessivein pedestrian wind comfort assessment. Ha˚gbo and Giljarhus [87] also suggesteda minimum of 8 for basic assessments, 24 for high-accuracy assessments, and atleast 36 for safety-focused assessments. 12 wind directions were commonly usedin Several studies for pedestrian wind comfort assessment [35, 36, 39, 57], and itwas shown to be sufficient [217]. Fewer wind directions were used, on the otherhand, for comparative studies and basic assessments. 8 wind directions were usedfor comparison in studying the influence of the geometry acquisition method onpedestrian wind simulations [88], and for pedestrian wind environment assessmentmethodology in real urban planning projects [183]. Studies on the effects of theevolution of urban form have considered a more limited number of wind directionsfor simulation, such as two directions [7] considering only westerly winds [117].Simulation with two prevalent wind directions was considered sufficient for thisstudy to conduct basic pedestrian-level wind comfort assessments to understandthe impact of urban form, its evolution, and the level of detail in 3D city model-ing. The focus of the study is particularly on the comparison of wind amplificationof different urban forms rather than intensively exploring comfort for a particularurban form.1356.5 Simulation results and discussionCFD simulation was used to conduct pedestrian-level wind assessment on the portcity of Massawa for its efficiency and time-saving despite its limitations comparedto wind tunnel testing. Simulations were conducted to assess pedestrian-level windenvironment, particularly to understand design-related contributions or local am-plification factors. Assessment of change in wind effect was done to study effectsof the urban fabric, modeling details, and evolution of urban form. Velocity am-plification analysis was used to identify areas of maximum VAF in two prevailingwind directions. Moreover, velocity magnitude values were also assessed in rela-tion to the selected comfort criterion and in relation to foreseen human activitiesand plans such as outdoor markets, outdoor cafeteria serving spaces, public spaces,and other activities. Simulations were conducted on 8 models in two prevailingwind directions, with a total of 18 simulations. This excludes the initial additionalsimulation runs for grid sensitivity analysis. The presented results of the simulationfocus on the wind environment on pedestrian height (1.5m), which is a commonlyused height [183], and the desired region of interest, despite running the simulationin the entire domain.The choice of CFD simulation for its efficiency and time-saving goes in linewith the intention of this research in developing inexpensive and efficient approachesin urban heritage rehabilitation through the development of HBIM models [176],3D city model, material and built heritage passport and conducting such simula-tions using available resources. The simulation was also performed on a personalcomputer, Alienware m15. This is intended to demonstrate the possibility of theproposed approaches in this research for local governments’ heritage managementplans. Similar procedures could be used to model 3D city models and conductpedestrian-level wind comfort assessments for enhanced urban rehabilitation ofheritage sites. For this research, StarCCM+, a commercial CFD software, wasused for its flexibility in meshing detailed heritage models after exploring severalCFD software. However, other free access or student access granting CFD softwarecan be used for local governments and student research on urban heritage.Results are presented in the circular plot of the region of interest on a horizon-tal plane at 1.5m as a contour plot depicting VAF and velocity magnitude. The136circular plots for pedestrian-level wind environment assessment results are centredin the historic centre of the port city. This extends to include all places within theurban heritage site; excluding the port areas in the northeastern part of the city.Some of the results particularly focus on identified areas within the region of inter-est, presented in smaller plots. VAF and velocity magnitude values are calibrateddepending on the intended comparison; VAF values are calibrated with the high-est value when comparing multiple models, while velocity magnitude is calibratedwith consistent color in line with the desired comfort criterion. The results areintended to demonstrate the effects of the urban fabric, modelling detail, and ur-ban morphology in altering local maximum wind speeds. Different models werefurther compared in terms of the prevalence of areas with higher VAF values andexceeding velocity magnitude based on comfort criteria.Common wind flow patterns resulting from building-wind interactions wereconsidered when discussing the results and making comparisons between differentmodels. This includes a variety of phenomena that significantly impact the localwind environment around structures. This includes the downwash effect, overflow,vortex shading, channeling, re-circulation, corner acceleration, roof level flow andwake effects. Some of these flow patterns are more noticeable than others in theurban forms of Massawa, as discussed in detail in the next subsections. Findingsfrom earlier studies were also considered and related in discussing the results. Thisincludes findings such as low wind speed resulting from narrow streets and uni-form building height [219]; the sheltering effect in densely built cities comparedto intensified ground-level wind speeds due to high-rise buildings in low-elevatedareas [87]; wind flow over low-rise buildings rarely entering the spaces between intypical suburbs due to even pressure distribution [7]; smaller change in mean windspeed ratio resulting from smaller street scale (H/W), Chiu (as cited in Ku andTsai, [120]). These studies and wind flow patterns were considered in the detailedpedestrian-level wind assessment results in the following subsection. Figure 6.11shows major landmarks and areas that were referred to in describing the simulationresults.137ACBFigure 6.11: Significant landmarks and areas (a) Banca d’italia (b) HotelTorino (c) Open spaces in the southeastern part of the city created afterthe independence war.6.5.1 Existing urban fabricThe current urban form of the city with fences along the north and eastern part ofthe city exhibits low wind amplification in most parts of the city, shown in bluein Figure 6.14. Exceptions to this with high wind activity that could cause dis-comfort are found mostly in the windward side of west by south angle of attack.Moreover, some streets and open spaces in the core of the city experience rela-tively high wind activity. Open spaces created in the southeastern part due to thedemolition of buildings after the independence war (C) have relatively more ar-eas of higher wind speed from winds from both prevailing wind directions (Figure6.14 (a) and (b)). For West by South prevailing wind direction, areas between thefence along the northern part and the buildings experience wind channeling withaccelerated wind flow due to Venturi effect (Figure 6.14 (c)). This seems to affectthe open space in front of Banca d’italia (A), which also experiences the effects ofhigher corner acceleration from surrounding buildings in the east-northeast angleof attack. Besides, there are areas of high amplification factor moving from thecauseway to via Roma, around Hotel Torino (B) and its surroundings (Figure 6.14(c)). Moreover, for both prevailing wind directions, there are areas of increased138localized wind speed due to corner acceleration on buildings facing the windwardside. This could cause uncomfortable wind speed changes and uncomfortable orhazardous conditions for pedestrians. From the two directions of study, the west-by-south prevailing wind direction has high VAF values, particularly in areas inrounded corners of one of the relatively tallest buildings of the site in the south-west of the city, isolated buildings in the open space in the southwestern part of thecity, and open spaces and streets around the same areas.In studying the effect of existing urban fabric on pedestrian wind environment,this study seeks to also explore the effects of the addition of relatively new elementsin the historic urban fabric. In restoring the urban heritage site to its original state,the effects of these additions need to be understood. The fences along the northernand eastern parts of the city, which are not part of the original urban fabric of thecity, show an impact on the wind flow patterns. For the west-by-south, prevailingwind direction, the fence created a channeling effect compared to a scenario with-out the fence (Figure 6.14 (a) and (c)). The east-northeast wind direction, on theother hand, shows increased areas of higher wind speed in the southeast of the cityand buildings facing the windward side in the case of without the fence (Figure 6.14(b) and (d)). Moreover, the open space in front of Banca d’italia experiences am-plified wind activity when the fences are removed, an effect that extends further toareas in the northern part of the city. The open space in front of Banca d’italia alsoexperiences high wind velocity from the west by the south prevailing wind, whichcould potentially affect comfort in the public space. This is more pronounced whenthe fences are removed in both wind directions. It could thus be understood thatthe fences could cause increased wind speed due to channeling while also limitingwind acceleration functioning as a shield. The removal of the fences to restore theauthentic urban form of the historic port city of Massawa needs to thus considerboth these advantages and disadvantages.Figure 6.13 shows simulation results as contour plots with calibrated velocitymagnitude with consistent color values 0m/s to 10 m/s, following the identifiedcomfort criteria (Figure 6.7. A wind speed of 95 percentile was used at the inletfor both wind directions as used in earlier studies with 80 percentile for 20% ex-ceedance probability [183]. The results of the two prevailing wind directions withurban form excluding the fences are presented. Results show high discomfort areas139West by south wind (260°)NBAC(a)NBACEast northeast (70°)(b)NBAC(c)NBAC(d)Figure 6.12: Velocity Amplification Factor (VAF) maps for existing urbanfabric (a) and (b) 3D city model without fences along the northern andeastern part, and (c) and (d) 3D city model with fences.140NWest by south wind (260°)(a)NEast northeast (70°)(b)Figure 6.13: Mean velocity comfort class for 3D city model without fences.around (1) Hotel Torino along via Roma; (2) open spaces in the southeastern part ofthe city created after the independence war; (3) in open spaces and narrow streetsin the southwest part of the city facing windward wind of west by south wind direc-tion; (4) in open spaces and streets in the Eastern part of the city facing windwardwind of east of northeast wind direction; (6) one of the major open space in frontof Banca d’italia (6) and other areas in the core of the city. Areas around the bazaararea in the core of the city and around Hotel Torino along via Roma require specialconsideration since the areas are part of significant streetscapes, expected to havemore outdoor activities and high tourist flow. Such comfort studies using prevail-ing wind directions have been considered in previous studies [7, 37]. This researchconsiders a similar approach, using only two prevailing wind directions. However,for a detailed understanding of pedestrian wind comfort, more wind directions,and detailed consideration of exceedance probability could be investigated furtherbased on the nature of identified study areas.6.5.2 Modeling detailThe effects of modeling detail in developing 3D city models for CFD simulationwere also explored in this research. Figure 6.5 shows the two types of modelscompared: Figure (a) 6.5 with detailed geometry heritage buildings and Figure (b)1416.5 with mass models from footprint extrusion. Results show closely consistentCFD simulation results with similar pedestrian-level wind environments. The ef-fects of the detailed models of arched pathways, particularly along the northernpart of the city facing the seashore, were mostly found to be localized. Differenceswere identified in some areas, including (1) in front of the arched pathways in thenorthern part, (2) behind some part of the block of arched pathways in the northernpart, (3) arched pathways to the core of the city from northern shore; (4) corneracceleration changes around Banca d’italia and surrounding buildings, most asso-ciated to the west by south angle of attack. One significant difference is found ineast northeast wind direction where buildings along the shore in the northern partcreate wind shielding. The detailed model with arched pathways accentuates thewind shielding, creating more comfortable areas on the leeward side. The resultsoverall show consistency in the overall urban form. [88] show footprint models tobe less effective. The results in this research, however, show similar results. Thiscould be associated with the fact that the detailed models are located in some areasand that both models share the same building models in most parts of the city.6.5.3 Urban form evolutionBesides the effects of urban fabric and modeling detail impact on pedestrian-levelwind environment, this research explored the effects of different urban forms. CFDsimulation was conducted on six models from different timelines over a century,representing the evolution of the urban form of Massawa and redevelopment plans.Figure 6.14 shows CFD simulation results for the six models in two angles of attackin prevailing wind directions.Simulation results of the urban form of Massawa from 1885 (Figure 6.15 (a)and (b)) overall show low wind activity. Except for a few places in the core ofthe city, most parts of the city have less wind acceleration, being less susceptibleto wind discomfort. Only areas around buildings in the windward directions fromboth prevailing wind directions have high wind speed with greater potential formore discomfort areas. Corner acceleration is the most common wind flow patternthat causes high wind activity in areas. For the two directions of the simulation, thedense organic urban form with small irregular blocks limits the channeling effect.142West by south wind (260°)NBAC(a)NBACEast northeast (70°)(b)NBAC(c)NBAC(d)Figure 6.14: Velocity Amplification Factor (VAF) maps for modeling detailcomparison (a) and (b) Detail model, and (c) and (d) Mass model.The irregular urban form seem to break build up of high wind acceleration areas,localizing and limiting wind effects on a building and its surrounding.The radical urban form of the new plan for Massawa, approved after the earth-quake in 1921 and later withdrawn, has a contrasting urban form compared to theurban form of 1885. Unlike the 1885 irregular and organic urban form, it hasgirded and formalized building blocks with wide streets. This contrasting differ-ence is also reflected in the CFD simulation result (Figure 6.14 (c) and (d)). The143West by south wind (260°)N(a)East northeast (70°)N(b)N(c)N(d)N(e)N(f)Figure 6.15: Velocity Amplification Factor (VAF) maps for urban form evo-lution comparison (a) and (b) Urban form of Massawa in 1885, (c)and (d) Urban form of the new plan for Massawa approved after theearthquake in 1921 (e) and (f) Urban form of the plan proposed by En-gineers Bernardi and Marranghello.144proposed radical urban form created a very high wind activity. Most importantly,the wide streets connecting the causeway to the core of the city have high windacceleration with a high probability of discomfort areas. This is caused by thechanneling effect of the urban form corridors that tunnel wind. Considering theprevalence of such corridors, this urban form could also potentially create similarhigh-wind activity regions when the angle of attack aligns with the direction of thestreets. Open spaces of this urban form also have high wind activity. Overall, theproposed radical urban form created more areas of high wind activity compared tothe organic urban form of 1885. In terms of VAF values, however, despite havingmore wind activities in the core of the city, the proposed radical urban form has alower VAF value. This could be associated with a very high VAF value of the 1885urban form in areas in the windward direction.The third urban form, the Urban form of the plan proposed by EngineersBernardi and Marranghello after the earthquake in 1921, which follows the ap-proach eventually accepted, has some character of the radical urban form proposedwith wide streets with a predominating organic urban form resembling the currenturban form. As shown in Figure 6.14 (e) and (f), this urban form has an averagecharacter of both. As in the 1885 organic urban form, the narrow streets and ir-regular building block layouts created less wind activity in most areas in the coreof the city. On the other hand, there are areas of high wind activity due to windchanneling, as in the case of the radical urban form proposal. This effect couldpotentially be pronounced when the angle of attack aligns with the wide street cor-ridor connecting the causeway to the core of the city. Extended building blockstowards the causeway seem to have created a shielding effect from the formationof a channeling effect on the west-by-south angle of attack. Overall, this urbanform has a pedestrian-level wind environment that is related to the organic urbanform of 1885 and the radical urban form proposal.The fourth urban form considered in this study is the Urban form of Massawaafter liberation, around the year 1990. The intention in considering this urban formwas particularly to understand the effects of buildings that were constructed alongthe seashore. Moreover, the effects of new buildings that exited the current urbanform were also considered. As shown in Figure 6.16 (a) and (b), the addition ofthese buildings along the shore has created high wind activity areas, especially on145the streets surrounding the city. This is caused by the channeling effect created be-tween buildings along the shore and buildings along the peripheries of the originalurban form. This highly differs from the results of the current urban form withoutthe buildings along the seashore (Figure 6.16 (e) and (f)). The added buildings alsoseem to create wind shade in the buildings and areas that are exposed to windwarddirection. However, areas exposed to the windward direction still have similar highwind activity with more potential areas of discomfort. Another significant differ-ence is noticed in the open space in front of Banca d’italia and the street on thenorthern shore. The addition of a new building block seems to have created a highwind activity in the open space in front of Banca d’italia, which didn’t exist in theurban form from around 1990. Considering differences in the core of the city, theadded buildings seem to have limited impact, with minor differences in some areas.Overall, based on the simulation results of the two prevailing wind directions, theaddition of buildings has created streets with high wind speeds and areas of similarwind activity facing windward directions.Finally, the Urban form of Massawa based on the UNESCO technical report1995 (Figure 6.16 (c) and (d)) was considered in relation to the current urban form(Figure 6.16 (e) and (f)) to understand the effects of the independence war andchange of urban form on pedestrian level wind environment. The results show afairly similar wind environment with two major differences associated with the de-struction of the independence. The first is noticed in the open space in front ofBanca d’italia and the street on the northern shore at the northeast angle of theattack. The destruction of a historic urban heritage block not only causes looseof heritage but also increases wind activity in the surrounding open space and thestreet, which can potentially cause discomfort. The second case is in the southeast-ern part of the core of the city, which has faced huge destruction during the war.This area has open spaces due to destruction that experience high wind activitycompared to the narrow streets before the destruction. Overall, the destruction dueto war has changed the dense urban form, with narrow streets in some parts of thecity more than others, which affects wind activity and comfort around destroyedareas.146West by south wind (260°)NBAC(a)East northeast (70°)NBAC(b)NBAC(c)NBAC(d)NBAC(e)NBAC(f)Figure 6.16: Velocity Amplification Factor (VAF) maps for urban form evo-lution comparison (a) and (b) Urban form of Massawa after liberation(around 1990), (c) and (d) urban form of Massawa based on UNESCOtechnical report 1995, and (e) and (f) Urban form of Massawa in 2020.1476.6 FindingsThe urban forms explored show different impacts and could be associated withdominant wind flow patterns based on their form. Wide and straight street cor-ridors, along with building blocks aligned in parallel, create channeling effects.Organic urban forms with irregular blocks and layouts have limiting wind effectbuild-up with less wind activity, which is typically localised to buildings and theirimmediate surrounding. Buildings facing a windward direction were shown toconsistently create areas of high wind activity in their surroundings due to cor-ner acceleration. The nature of the streets in terms of their continuity, width, andstraightness is also related to the level of wind activity. Moreover, large size build-ing blocks tend to create wide areas of wind shadow compared to urban forms withsmaller building blocks, providing a relatively calm area for pedestrians. Theseeffects seem to be more pronounced in front of buildings with arched pathways.This could be associated with a large surface obstructing and deflecting wind toenhance the creation of wind shadow. In the current urban form, open spaces andstreets directly exposed to the periphery of the city in the windward direction tendto have a high chance of discomfort, while those in the core of the city experiencereduced wind speed.6.7 Design applicationThis subsection intends to illustrate the application of the 3D city model of Mas-sawa and simulation results of the pedestrian-level wind environment for the Ur-ban rehabilitation design proposal. The digital application of tools in urban her-itage illustrated in this research could be integrated into earlier research targetedat improving the conditions of the heritage site. Several considerations in multiplelayers were taken into consideration in developing an urban rehabilitation proposalto illustrate design application. These include history, comfort, potential activities,earlier proposals, and intended design approaches.The urban heritage rehabilitation will primarily consider the history of the city.The port city is known for its street activities and markets. The bazaar in the coreof the city is among the sites’ historically significant lost heritage sites. The urbanrehabilitation proposal considers it a significant driving factor in rehabilitating the148city’s urban heritage. Areas around the bazaar area in the core of the city, the streetalong the northern shore with arched paths, narrow streets in the northern coreof the city, and other important streetscapes require special consideration sincethe areas are part of significant streetscapes and buildings, expected to have moreoutdoor activities and high tourist flow. Figure 6.17) shows historically significantstreets, buildings, and districts considered in urban rehabilitation proposals. Thehistorical consideration focuses on the original urban form of the city, disregardingnew additions to the urban fabric, such as fences along the north and eastern parts ofthe city. The historical aspect further considers the reconstruction of lost heritage.Figure 6.17: Historic considerations.The comfort layer in urban rehabilitation intends to consider urban comfortaspects when designing urban spaces. This could include consideration of pedes-trian wind comfort, thermal comfort, sunlight and shade, and other considerations.Among these, pedestrian wind comfort will be considered in this research in rela-tion to the pedestrian wind environment study in the earlier sections. The resultsof the pedestrian wind environment show areas of high wind activity in the openspace in front of Banca d’italia, the open spaces in the southeastern core of the city149created after the independence war, buildings and areas exposed to prevailing winddirections, via Roma street connecting the causeway to the core of the city aroundHotel Torino, and other small areas in the core of the city. Design mitigation forhigh wind activity is proposed by using vegetation to alter wind flow patterns insuch areas. This intends to create a wind shading effect and minimise wind speedin high wind activity regions to create comfortable space to promote outdoor ac-tivities. In this proposal, outdoor markets and outdoor cafeterias are among theactivities. The comfort consideration requires the fulfilment of seating comfortrequirements following wind comfort criterion. Figure 6.18 shows the proposedopen space and vegetation to mitigate the effects of high wind activity and create acomfortable urban space.Figure 6.18: Comfort considerations.The potential activities considered in rehabilitating the urban heritage of Mas-sawa consider the historical activities of the site and potential activities in facil-itating rehabilitation. This includes outdoor markets, the creation of a walkingexperience through the historic districts of old Massawa, the integration of publicspaces, the creation of shared facilities for residents, and the creation of a uniqueand authentic experience of a port city. Urban rehabilitation will also considerprevious proposals for the heritage site. Pulver and Goujon [15] on a preliminaryconservation and development scheme for old Massawa presented a proposal on theseafront, covered shopping streets, pavement and plantation in open spaces, recon-struction, building extensions, bus shelter design, seafront plantation, restoration150of covered passage, and other several rehabilitation proposals. These were takeninto consideration in developing an urban rehabilitation plan.Figure 6.19 shows the proposed urban design for rehabilitating the urban her-itage of Massawa. As illustrated in the figure, the proposal considers the recon-struction of a historic structure, the arched Bazaar, as a tangible heritage asset.Moreover, the proposal also considers intangible assets by including an outdooropen market. This is intended to show the social tradition of the society and thehistoric character of the site. Moreover, despite the focus being urban rehabilita-tion, building level heritage conservation principles will also be integrated whenconsidering the urban rehabilitation proposal. In such cases, HBIM of individualbuildings will be valuable in assessing individual buildings and proposing conser-vation plans. The BHP passport layer will also be important in rehabilitating andmanaging the heritage assets. Building-level conservation plans will be integratedwith urban rehabilitation proposals for the efficient and sustainable development ofthe port city.6.8 Chapter summaryPedestrian-level wind comfort and safety are important considerations in shapingthe quality of urban spaces in cities. This research explores the effect of Urbanfabric, modeling detail in 3D city modeling, and the evolution of urban form onpedestrian-level wind environment in relation to comfort and safety. The historicport city of Massawa was used as a case study to conduct the pedestrian windenvironment study. The research particularly focused on the comparison of aero-dynamic effects of different urban forms, focusing on VAF to understand design-related contributions. The simulation was set up following best practice guide-lines. Common wind flow patterns resulting from building-wind interactions wereconsidered in assessing the results of CFD simulation. Sixteen simulations wereconducted in total in two prevailing wind directions on eight urban form models.Results of the first CFD simulation comparison on the effects of urban fabric showthe addition of fences, which are not part of the original urban fabric, created awind channeling effect while also creating wind shielding for buildings facing awindward direction. In understanding the pedestrian comfort of exiting urrban151(a)(b)Figure 6.19: Rehabilitation proposal.152fabric, comfort maps were also created using the two prevailing wind directions.The second CFD simulation comparison shows the effect of the level of detail in3D city modelling. The results show consistency, with most effects being local-ized with minor differences in the overall city. The results justify the feasibility ofusing footprint extrusion building models for pedestrian-level wind environmentstudy for urban comfort. The third CFD simulation comparison shows the effectsof urban form evolution on the pedestrian wind environment. The results show theorganic urban forms have less wind activity in the core of the city, with high windacceleration mostly related to buildings in the windward direction. Girded urbanform with wide and straight street corridors creates a channeling effect, creatingmore areas of potential discomfort in the core of the city. The comparison of theurban forms also shows that distractions due to the Independence War have createdareas of high wind activity in public spaces that could create discomfort.153Chapter 7Conclusions andrecommendations for futureresearch7.1 ConclusionThe application of digital tools for urban heritage conservation has been explored inthis thesis. The thesis has presented new methods of developing HBIM and 3D citymodel along with the application of the models in cultural heritage management,assessment of urban comfort, and design applications.Based on challenges and best practices along with prospects in heritage conser-vation identified in the literature study in Chapter 2, the thesis presented digitiza-tion, cultural heritage management, urban comfort assessment and design sugges-tions for the historic port city of Massawa. A new approach to developing HBIMfor inaccessible heritage sites like Massawa was illustrated and validated in Chap-ter 3. This was further extended to develop a 3D city model of the port city inChapter 4. These two chapters focus on the digitization of the urban heritage ofthe port city without relying on modern data acquisition and processing tools. TheHBIM models are composed of parametric models that could be used for severalapplications. A number of applications such as visualization, conservation, envi-154ronmental assessments, impact assessments, and several other applications couldbe carried out using the model. The models are proposed to be enhanced incre-mentally as more resources become available, enabling enhanced application fordifferent scenarios.The thesis in Chapter 5 and Chapter 6 presented in detail the application ofthe urban heritage model of Massawa. Chapter 5 introduced a new concept in cul-tural heritage management, BHP, intended to provide a comprehensive, efficient,accessible, and easy-to-use tool supported by HBIM to enable efficient capturingof embedded cultural values in heritage buildings along with aspects of sustain-ability for conservation planning. In Chapter 6 environmental comfort assessmentwas carried out. CFD simulations were used to study pedestrian-level wind envi-ronments in relation to the urban fabric, modeling detail, and evolution of urbanform. The chapter further illustrates the design application of the 3D city model ofMassawa through urban design suggestions.7.2 ContributionsUrban heritage sites play a significant role in the sustainable development of cities.The integration of urban heritage conservation is, however, limited within broaderplanning and management practice. This thesis proposed new approaches in de-veloping HBIM and 3D city models of urban heritage sites that are inaccessiblewith limited resources. The approach was used to develop a 3D city model ofthe historic port city of Massawa with HBIM principles. Using the model, a newapproach to cultural heritage management was proposed and illustrated using thecase of Massawa. Moreover, the environmental impacts of historic urban formswere explored.7.3 LimitationsIn terms of modeling, the proposed approaches in developing HBIM and 3D citymodels poses some limitations as the user’s significant interaction is required, mak-ing the process subjective, intensive, and tedious. There were also challenges inacquiring suitable images and ensuring consistent resources, modeling complexdetails, creating a consistent HBIM, accurately representing roof details, and han-155dling curved surfaces. Due to the scope limitations in the proposed HBIM andchallenges in accessing the site and its resources, the BHP, in its current state, ismostly limited to external facades of buildings. Modeling consistency in the levelof detailing and accurate representation of historical maps of urban forms, alongwith using a limited number of wind directions due to computational demand, wasalso a limiting factor.7.4 Recommendations for future research1. To overcome the limitations in the proposed modeling for HBIM and 3D citymodels, it could be further developed to allow automatic detection of fac¸adefeatures that respond to intricate details of heritage buildings and the unique-ness of fac¸ade features. Further research on minimizing user interaction andminimizing subjectivity.2. HBIM and 3D city modeling using modern data acquisition and processingtools for the historic port city of Massawa can be considered to conduct acomparative study of the proposed approach in relation to state-of-the-artmodeling.3. Extensions to the BHP for cultural heritage management can be done byextensively doing literature studies in applying Metadata Schemes and Con-trolled vocabulary for the advancement of the proposed BHP model. TheBHP model will significantly benefit from the consideration of standards forbetter and uniform documentation and to enhance compatibility with otherapproaches for better retrieval and sharing of information.4. The application of heritage digital twin in urban heritage management can beexplored using the 3D city model of the port city Massawa and the proposedBHP model.5. The environmental comfort study on pedestrian-level wind environment con-siders a limited number of wind directions. 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Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Civil Engineering
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
Graduate
Tesfamariam, Solomon
Application of digital tools for urban heritage conservation
Text