Creative and Critical Studies, Faculty of (Okanagan)
DSpace
UBCO
Sarrami, Jalal
Master of Arts - MA
University of British Columbia
This thesis delves into the significance of pigeon towers within Persianate gardens and agriculture, with a particular focus on the Mardavij pigeon tower in Hezār Jarib garden, Isfahan. It addresses gaps in English-language scholarship and the underutilization of digital methodologies, underscoring the towers' roles in boosting agricultural productivity through pigeon manure and reflecting socio-political power. Employing digital arts and humanities methods, including three-dimensional modeling, alongside traditional architectural and historical analyses, the study offers a detailed examination of these structures. The findings illustrate the crucial role pigeon towers played in promoting sustainable agriculture in Persianate societies by providing valuable fertilizer, thereby linking architectural innovation with environmental stewardship. Additionally, the towers were contextualized within broader socio-political and economic frameworks, indicating their role in symbolizing and facilitating power dynamics, wealth, and social hierarchy. The research on the Mardavij pigeon tower, which incorporates digital reconstruction and historical textual analysis, unveils the tower's complex design that merges functionality with aesthetic and cultural values, enhancing the garden's utility and its representational significance. This approach not only enriches understanding of Persianate garden architecture but also advocates for the conservation of such heritage sites, stressing their relevance to contemporary discussions on sustainability and environmental guardianship. Key insights emphasize the value of integrating traditional knowledge systems into present-day sustainability practices. Advocating for the preservation of Persianate gardens and pigeon towers as sources of ecological insight, the study highlights the potential of ancient agricultural techniques to inform sustainable practices today. This thesis bridges historical knowledge with modern environmental and architectural practices, offering insights into the sustainable integration of built and natural environments. Future research might further explore pigeon tower contexts and the broader implications for Persianate gardens, utilizing digital tools for enhanced architectural and environmental analysis.
Digital Echoes of Ancient Gardens: Exploring Persianate Pigeon Towers’ Role in Agriculture and Heritage through Three-dimensional Modeling by Jalal Sarrami B.Sc. in Horticultural Science, Isfahan University of Technology, 2009 M.Sc. in Environmental Design Engineering, The University of Tehran, 2012 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE COLLEGE OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Interdisciplinary Studies) (Digital Arts and Humanities) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Okanagan) May 2024 © Jalal Sarrami, 2024 ii The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the College of Graduate Studies for acceptance, a thesis entitled: Digital Echoes of Ancient Gardens: Exploring Persianate Pigeon Towers’ Role in Agriculture and Heritage through Three-dimensional Modeling submitted by Jalal Sarrami in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts Dr. Hussein Keshani, Faculty of Creative and Critical Studies Supervisor Dr. Miranda Hart, Irving K. Barber Faculty of Science Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Sajjad Nejatie, Irving K. Barber Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Saygin Salgirli, The University of British Columbia (Vancouver) University Examiner iii Abstract This thesis delves into the significance of pigeon towers within Persianate gardens and agriculture, with a particular focus on the Mardavij pigeon tower in Hezār Jarib garden, Isfahan. It addresses gaps in English-language scholarship and the underutilization of digital methodologies, underscoring the towers' roles in boosting agricultural productivity through pigeon manure and reflecting socio-political power. Employing digital arts and humanities methods, including three-dimensional modeling, alongside traditional architectural and historical analyses, the study offers a detailed examination of these structures. The findings illustrate the crucial role pigeon towers played in promoting sustainable agriculture in Persianate societies by providing valuable fertilizer, thereby linking architectural innovation with environmental stewardship. Additionally, the towers were contextualized within broader socio-political and economic frameworks, indicating their role in symbolizing and facilitating power dynamics, wealth, and social hierarchy. The research on the Mardavij pigeon tower, which incorporates digital reconstruction and historical textual analysis, unveils the tower's complex design that merges functionality with aesthetic and cultural values, enhancing the garden's utility and its representational significance. This approach not only enriches understanding of Persianate garden architecture but also advocates for the conservation of such heritage sites, stressing their relevance to contemporary discussions on sustainability and environmental guardianship. Key insights emphasize the value of integrating traditional knowledge systems into present-day sustainability practices. Advocating for the preservation of Persianate gardens and pigeon towers as sources of ecological insight, the study highlights the potential of ancient agricultural techniques to inform sustainable practices today. iv This thesis bridges historical knowledge with modern environmental and architectural practices, offering insights into the sustainable integration of built and natural environments. Future research might further explore pigeon tower contexts and the broader implications for Persianate gardens, utilizing digital tools for enhanced architectural and environmental analysis. v Lay Summary This study focuses on pigeon towers in Persianate gardens, specifically one in Isfahan's Hezār Jarib garden. Pigeon towers were utilized centuries ago in Iran not only for their beauty, but also for a very practical reason: they housed pigeons, whose dung was a valuable resource for farming, working as a natural fertilizer to increase crop development. Aside from their agricultural importance, these towers signified the wealth and status of their owners and were closely linked to the society and politics of the day. This research, which uses modern technology such as three-dimensional modeling and an in-depth look into historical records, provides new insights into how these towers were built and their significance, encouraging us to preserve these architectural wonders while also reminding us of ancient practices that can still teach us about living sustainably today. vi Table of Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary ................................................................................................................................................ v Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................ x Glossary ....................................................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................................... xiv Dedication ................................................................................................................................................... xv Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1. Background: Persianate Gardens and Pigeon Towers .................................................................. 1 1.2. Pigeon Towers of the Hezār Jarib Garden ................................................................................... 6 1.2.1. Case Study: Mardavij Pigeon Tower .................................................................................. 10 1.3. Sustainability Then and Now ...................................................................................................... 13 1.3.1. Bridging Traditional and Contemporary Knowledge ......................................................... 14 1.3.2. Facilitating Conservation and Rehabilitation ...................................................................... 14 1.4. Conceptual Framework and Methodology .................................................................................. 15 1.4.1. Approaches, Methods and Data .......................................................................................... 15 1.4.2. Software .............................................................................................................................. 16 1.4.3. Data Sources ....................................................................................................................... 17 1.4.4. Positionality ........................................................................................................................ 19 1.5. Organization of The Thesis ......................................................................................................... 20 1.6. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 22 Chapter 2: Literature Review ...................................................................................................................... 24 2.1. General Studies (Persianate Gardens and Pigeon Towers) ......................................................... 25 2.1.1. Historical, Cultural, and Agricultural Studies ..................................................................... 34 2.1.2. Technical Studies: Architecture and Structure.................................................................... 38 2.2. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 46 Chapter 3: Political, Cultural and Economic Aspects ................................................................................. 48 3.1. Crops and Crowns: Exploring Rulers' Perspectives on Agriculture and Horticulture in a Persianate Manuscript ............................................................................................................................. 50 3.2. Pigeon Towers in Iran ................................................................................................................. 55 vii 3.3. From Manure to Money: The Economic Significance of Pigeon Towers in Iran ....................... 60 3.4. Pigeon Towers: Visual Symbols of Power and Prestige ............................................................. 68 3.5. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 72 Chapter 4: Collecting and Using Pigeon Manure in Gardens and Agriculture ........................................... 75 4.1. Pigeon Manure Utilization in a Historical Book: Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat .......... 76 4.2. Towers as Agricultural Technology ............................................................................................ 79 4.2.1. Optimizing Pigeon Care ...................................................................................................... 80 4.2.2. The Amount of Produced Manure in Towers ..................................................................... 86 4.2.3. Extraction, Mixing, and Application .................................................................................. 90 4.3. Spatial Organization ................................................................................................................... 92 4.4. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 93 Chapter 5: Structural and Architectural Aspects ........................................................................................ 95 5.1. Typology, Structure and Materials of the Mardavij Tower ........................................................ 98 5.1.1. Typology ............................................................................................................................. 99 5.1.2. Structure .............................................................................................................................. 99 5.1.3. Materials ........................................................................................................................... 102 5.2. Design Details ........................................................................................................................... 104 5.2.1. Scaffolding Holes ..................................................................................................................... 104 5.2.2. Turrets and Windows in Mardavij Tower ................................................................................. 107 5.2.3. Functional Decorative Elements ............................................................................................... 109 5.2.4. Roosts ....................................................................................................................................... 110 5.3. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 121 Chapter 6: Achievements and Conclusion ................................................................................................ 123 6.1. Summary of Key Findings ........................................................................................................ 124 6.2. Implications of the Research ..................................................................................................... 131 6.3. Future Research Directions ....................................................................................................... 132 6.4. Closing Remarks ....................................................................................................................... 134 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................. 136 Appendix: Statement and Documentation ................................................................................................ 141 viii List of Figures Figure 1 Frederick G. Clapp, Iran, view of Isfahan croplands and landscape, 1933, Nitrate negatives, Frederick G. Clapp Collection (The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System, http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/, additions by the author ............................................................... 5 Figure 2 Google map showing the historical location of the Hezār Jarib garden and its pigeon towers, Isfahan (screenshot and additions by the author) ........................................................................................................... 8 Figure 3 Elisabeth Beazley, Plans of towers in the Hezār Jarib, 1966, from The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān, Taylor & Francis, n.d., 106, fig. 1 & 2 ............................................................................................................................... 10 Figure 4 Mahvash Alemi, Graphical Reconstruction of the Chahār-bāgh Type of Garden According to Heravi, 2011, from The Persian Garden, Unesco, n.d., 55, fig. 2–11. ...................................................................................... 27 Figure 5 Engelbert Kaempfer, Bagh-i Hizar Jarib in Isfahan surveyed by Kaempfer, n.d., from Mahvash Alemi, Gardens of the Great Muslim Empires: The royal garden of the Safavid period: types and models, New York, Brill, 1997, 89, fig. 12 ......................................................................................................................................... 29 Figure 6 Engelbert Kaempfer, Planographia, 1712, from Amoenitatum exoticarum politico-physico-medicarum fasciculi V, Henrici Wilhelmi Meyeri, 1712, 179. ............................................................................................... 33 Figure 7 Engelbert Kaempfer, ISPHAHANUM, 1712, from Amoenitatum exoticarum politico-physico-medicarum fasciculi V, Henrici Wilhelmi Meyeri, 1712, 162. ............................................................................................... 33 Figure 8 S.M. Mahmoudian, et al., Plan of the Hezār Jarib’s Tower, from The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan, Isfahan: Golha, 2000, 206, n.d. ........................................................................................................................................ 42 Figure 9 Valibeigi and Homayooni, Plan’s representation of Hezār Jarib in Qajar period based on the descriptive documents, from A Review of Hezār Jarib Garden’ Form Based on the Descriptive, Illustrative, and Field Documents, Tehran: Manzar, 2021, 16, fig. 9 .................................................................................................... 45 Figure 10 Hensel et al, Computational Fluid Dynamic Analysis, Pigeon Towers in Isfahan, from Towards an Architectural History of Performance: Auxiliarity, Performance and Provision in Historical Persian Architectures, Architectural Design, 2012, 35, n.d. ........................................................................................... 46 Figure 11 Unknown (painter, calligrapher, outliner). Cover page of Kabutarnameh by “Valih”. India, 1788. Opaque watercolour, ink, on paper, 260 x 150 mm (leaf). British Library, Oriental and India Office Collection, London, UK, IO Islamic 4811, fol. 1v. (artwork in the public domain) ............................................................................. 59 Figure 12 Unknown photographer, The Chahar-Borj pigeon tower located Falavarjan, Isfahan, before renovation, accessed March30, 2023, https://newsfalavarjan.ir (photograph in the public domain) ................................. 63 Figure 13 Unknown photographer, The Chahar-Borj pigeon tower after renovation, accessed March 30, 2023, https://asriran.com (photograph in the public domain) ................................................................................... 63 Figure 14 Decorative calligraphy of The Chahar-Borj pigeon tower, Isfahan (photograph by Reza Asgari provided by the author) ......................................................................................................................................................... 69 Figure 15 Elisabeth Beazley, A painted pigeon tower near Pir-Bakran, 1977, from SOME VERNACULAR BUILDINGS OF THE IRANIAN PLATEAU, Taylor & Francis, n.d., fig. IV .................................................................................. 70 Figure 16 Lost paintings of the Pir-Bakran pigeon tower after recent restorations, Pir-Bakran, Isfahan (photograph by Reza Asgari provided by the author)............................................................................................................. 71 Figure 17 Unknown photographer, Roosts, ledges, and exit and entry points within the Mardavij pigeon tower, accessed October 22, 2023, www.fa.tripyar.com (photograph in the public domain) ..................................... 84 Figure 18 Google map of the historical area of Hezār Jarib garden and the area covered by it’s pigeon towers’ manure (screenshot and additions by the author) ............................................................................................ 89 Figure 19 Three-dimensional section of the Mardavij pigeon tower showing the structure and indoor accessibility, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) ................................................................................................ 100 Figure 20 General dimensions of the Mardavij tower in Isfahan, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) .. 101 Figure 21 Brickwork in turrets, roof and entrances on the Mardavij pigeon tower’s roof, 16th century, Isfahan (photograph by the author) ............................................................................................................................. 103 ix Figure 22 Elisabeth Beazley, The west tower in the Hezār Jarib, 1963, from The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān, fig. 1 105 Figure 23 Kamaluddin Behzad. The building of the famous castle of Khawarnaq. Iran, 1494, from the Khamseh of Nezāmi, British Library, London, UK, OR. MS. 6810, fol. 154v. (artwork in the public domain; photograph in the public domain) ........................................................................................................................................... 106 Figure 24 Scaffolding Systems in the Mardavij Pigeon Tower, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) ...... 107 Figure 25 The birds’ entrances and exits in the Mardavij tower, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) .. 108 Figure 26 Security layers in the Mardavij tower, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) ........................... 110 Figure 27 Comparing undulated outer wall with a circular wall with the same diameter, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) ................................................................................................................................... 113 Figure 28 Layout of roost inside the Mardavij tower on the top storey, 16th century, Isfahan (photograph by the author) ............................................................................................................................................................. 115 Figure 29 Traditional 'Pigeon House' brickwork technique, remnant of a pigeon tower in Gaz, Isfahan (photograph by the author) .................................................................................................................................................. 115 Figure 30 Unknown photographer, Pigeons’ Roosts and Perches, accessed March 30, 2023, https://archnet.org (photograph in the public domain) .................................................................................................................. 116 Figure 31 Elisabeth Beazley, Interior of tower in the Hezār Jarib, showing remains of galleries, 1966, from The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān, n.d., fig. XII ............................................................................................................. 118 Figure 32 Details of roosts and perches in the Mardavij tower, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) .... 119 Figure 33 S.M. Mahmoudian, et al, Roost and Perches, from The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan, Isfahan: Golha, 2000, 208 (published under fair use; photograph by author) ................................................................................... 120 Figure 34 Unknown photographer, Mardavij pigeon tower, accessed October 17, 2023, www.wikimedia.org (photograph in the public domain) .................................................................................................................. 121 x List of Tables Table 1 Source Documentation for 3D Models and 2D Visualizations ..................................................................... 144 xi Glossary Bāgh In Iranian agriculture, the word bāgh, though usually translated as “garden,” means more precisely an enclosed area bearing permanent cultures—i.e., all kinds of cultivated trees and shrubs, as opposed to fields under annual crops—in land-use statistics as well as in everyday speech. It includes orchards (bāgh-e miveh), vineyards (bāgh-e mow), olive groves (bāgh-e zeytun), tea plantations (bāgh-e chāy), but not vegetable gardens (sabzikāri or sayfīkāri). Bāgh is the Middle Persian and New Persian word for "garden.” The old word for “garden” paridaiza- (Old Persian *paridayda-), literally “walled” (whence pardēz, Greek ho parádeisos “park for animals,” “paradise,” Arabic ferdaws), survives in the New Persian pālīz “vegetable garden,” “melon bed,” though today this most often denotes an unenclosed patch. Other words for “garden” are the New Persian būstān (from bō’istān, whence the Armenian burastan), literally “place of perfume,” Arabic bostān (plur. basātīn), and golestān “rose garden” or “flower garden.” 1 Borj/Borj-e Kabutar/Kabutar Khāneh BORJ (plur. Pers. borjhā, borūj; Ar. borūj, abrāj, abreja) is an Arabic and Persian word derived from an Aramaic adaptation of Latin burgus (borrowed from Germanic) “castle”. In both Persian and Arabic, the term borj has two principal meanings: 1. a tower, castle, or fortress; a dovecote (Ar. borj al-ḥammām; Pers. borj-e kabūtar) 1 “BĀḠ (Bagh) ‘Garden’,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed July 22, 2023. https://iranicaonline.org/articles/bag-garden. xii 2. a sign of the zodiac (Pers. borj-e āsemānī, Ar. borj al-samāʾ) and, by extension, a solar mansion, a month.2 Gach Plaster Kabutar/Kaftar Pigeon 3 Kāhgel Kāhgel is a mortar that is used in Iranian architecture, especially in the central regions of Iran. Kāhgel is obtained from a mixture of straw, clay, and water. This mortar is kneaded well to the extent that the mortar does not stick to the shovel and is easily separated, and it is used in layers for pivoting walls. Straw is added to prevent the mud from cracking (about 45–50 kg of straw are needed to make each cubic meter of mud). If the thickness of clay straw mortar is 20 to 30 cm, it is a good insulator against moisture and heat, and in terms of durability, if it is prepared properly, it will resist for years. Kāhgel dries in the open air in front of sunlight or indirect heat. One of the weak points of clay straw is erosion due to rain and wind, which causes dust.4 Khesht and ājor The most frequent building material in Iranian cultural areas has always been mud, which is available everywhere. When wet, it can simply be plastered on walls without shaping. 2 Abbas Daneshvar, “BORJ,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed July 22, 2023, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/borj. 3 David N. MacKenzie, “kabōtar”, in A concise Pahlavi Dictionary (London: Routledge, 2016) 4 “Kāhgel,” Abadis, accessed July 22, 2023. https://abadis.ir/fatofa/ xiii Alternatively, it can be tempered and formed into large blocks with more or less rectangular sides; the most common dimensions of such blocks, even today, are about 80 x 80 x 60 cm. Mud can also be manufactured into bricks and either dried (Khesht) in the sun or baked (ājor). Sun-dried mud bricks were generally larger in antiquity and the early Middle Ages than they are today.5 Muqarnas A complex corbeling of brackets, squinches, and inverted pyramids that forms the decoration in Islamic architecture; occasionally made of stone, but more frequently of plaster. Also called stalactite work.6 The Pir-Bakran Pigeon Tower A wealthy pigeon tower in Pir-Bakran village, Isfahan (refer to chapter 3) 5 Guitty Azarpay, “Brick,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed July 22, 2023, https://iranicaonline.org/articles/brick-blocks-of-tempered-mud. 6 “Architecture Dictionary: An Architecture Reference," ArchDic, accessed July 22, 2023. https://www.archdictionary.com/. xiv Acknowledgments I am profoundly grateful to my supervisor, Dr. Hussein Keshani, for his invaluable guidance and support throughout this journey. I also extend my thanks to the members of my supervisory committee, Dr. Miranda Hart and Dr. Sajjad Nejatie for their expert advice and insights. Special thanks to Saeid Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, whose invaluable assistance greatly contributed to the completion of this project. His lifelong dedication to the study of pigeon towers in Iran serves as a profound inspiration. This accomplishment reflects the combined efforts of all who supported me. xv Dedication To Marzi, my love; Isfahan, my heart's city; and Iran, my beloved homeland. 1 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1. Background: Persianate Gardens and Pigeon Towers The development of agriculture and horticulture over the course of history had a significant impact on the development of cultures, societies, and empires. 7 Persianate gardens, situated at the confluence of culture and nature, have accumulated a wealth of evidence over the course of millennia, offering valuable insights into historical enigmas. Persianate gardens of the Islamic period were developed across Greater Iran, Central Asia, and South Asia, as well as resonated across the wider Middle East and Mediterranean. Persianate gardens are often regarded as the essential elements that complement and enhance the architectural structures and palaces they are associated with. Numerous gardens worldwide have drawn inspiration from the establishment of these gardens in the arid climate and challenging environmental circumstances of Persia, as well as their historical resilience and longevity. Although previous scholarly works in the fields of history, architecture, urban design, structural design, religion, archaeology, and landscape architecture have provided insights into the cultural, aesthetic, and architectural aspects of these gardens, there is a notable absence of a comprehensive analysis of the ancestral horticultural and agricultural practices that form the foundation of their design. The gardens, characterized by their intricate designs and seamless integration of natural and man-made components, serve as tangible evidence of the accumulated knowledge and skill passed down through generations of gardeners and agricultural 7 Jennifer Hasty and David G. Lewis and Marjorie M. Snipes, Introduction to Anthropology (Houston, Texas: OpenStax, Rice University, 2022) 2 practitioners; they are a form of Traditional Knowledge.8 In the context of Iran's heterogeneous topography, which is marked by elevated temperatures, restricted precipitation, recurrent sandstorms, and strong solar radiation, successive cohorts of Iranian horticulturists have adopted inventive strategies to optimize accessible resources and maintain a practice that is presently recognized as sustainable management of water, soil, and the environment. Traditional techniques and knowledge pertaining to Persianate gardening and agriculture encompass a range of practices including plant combinations, medicinal plants, terracing, weeding, irrigation management, and plant cultivation techniques, pruning skills, pest and disease management, soil amendment, food processing, and manure gathering and application, scholars have the opportunity to not only document these practices but also enhance our understanding of these traditions and practices. Looking into the connection between traditional knowledge systems and the design and functionality of Persianate gardens could help us learn more about the social and cultural dynamics in the societies that made them possible, as well as the role and significance of ancestral gardening and farming knowledge and practices in the creation, growth, maintenance, and long-term viability of these gardens. They have much to teach us about sustainability and building resilient food systems. Moreover, the yet-unexplored potential influence of emerging technologies, such as computer modeling, on the examination and analysis of Persianate gardens is a topic of significant interest. The utilization of these technologies presents significant opportunities for the advancement of our comprehension of ancient gardens. Computer modeling presents a promising approach to 8 Dan Ayaa Dominics, Waswa Fuchaka, “Role of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in the Conservation of the Bio-Physical Environment among the Teso Community in Busia County, Kenya,” African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 10–12 (2016): 467 3 digitally reconstructing and analyzing historic landscapes. According to Reilly,9 this methodology enables the incorporation of diverse viewpoints and perspectives that may not be feasible to achieve in the physical realm or other forms of two-dimensional depictions, such as sections and details. Through the process of simulating the physical components such as structures, vegetation, and water features that characterize gardens, researchers are able to enhance their understanding of the spatial organization, environmental dynamics, and intricate design principles that underlie these gardens. By integrating conventional academic research with innovative methodologies, this interdisciplinary approach holds promise for uncovering concealed aspects of the Persianate garden. One intriguing facet of incorporating modeling in these studies is the capacity for researchers to actively interact with the models, thereby enhancing their understanding of buildings, related information, and interconnected customs. The utilization of this interactive approach has the potential to aid researchers in the process of refining their research questions or potentially uncovering novel avenues of inquiry. Moreover, the presence of comprehensive data within the models facilitates the streamlined generation of inquiries and responses.10 The primary objective of this study is to clarify the importance and distinctiveness of pigeon towers within the framework of Persianate gardens, orchards, and farms, with respect to manure gathering and application for the purposes of fertilization. Historical records and empirical data show that manuring techniques have a wide range of applications in arid and 9 Paul Reilly, “Data Visualization in Archaeology,” IBM Systems Journal 28 (4): 569–79 (1989): 570 10 Reilly, “Dat Visualization in Archaeology,”, 571 4 semi-arid regions. 11 The pigeon towers found in Iran are specifically constructed edifices intended to efficiently produce significant amounts of organic fertilizer while effectively utilizing limited spatial resources. Moreover, this research endeavor possesses the capacity to generate captivating revelations pertaining to the architectural complexities of pigeon towers in Iran. The examination of various architectural shapes, forms, and components allows for a deeper understanding of the preferences and decision-making processes employed by designers in the field. Our objective is to establish a connection between conventional and contemporary knowledge, demonstrating the ongoing significance of these time-honored structures in our present-day society. Furthermore, this study aims to investigate the possibilities of preserving and restoring these culturally significant sites while also gaining valuable perspectives through the application of digital arts and humanities methodologies. In this regard, the act of raising pigeons and the related building structures called dovecotes, commonly referred to as pigeon towers (kabutar khāneh; borj-e kabutar in Persian), played significant roles in the collection of pigeon excrement for fertilizing the croplands, orchards, and gardens in Persia. The photograph taken by Frederick G. Clapp in 1933 depicts Isfahan, showcasing a diverse landscape of farms, orchards, gardens, pavilions (C), and pigeon towers (A and B). This image offers a fascinating insight into the interconnected stories of agriculture and architectural innovation in Iran (Fig. 1). 11Jennifer Ramsay, Yotam Tepper, Mina Weinstein-Evron, Sophia Aharonovich, Nili Liphschitz, Nimrod Marom and Guy Bar-Oz, “For the Birds: An Environmental Archaeological Analysis of Byzantine Pigeon Towers at Shivta (Negev Desert, Israel),” Journal of Archaeological Science, Reports 9 718–27, (2016) 5 Figure 1 Frederick G. Clapp, Iran, view of Isfahan croplands and landscape, 1933, Nitrate negatives, Frederick G. Clapp Collection (The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System, http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/, additions by the author This research aims to elucidate the intricate relationship between horticultural practices and the built environment in Iran through an analysis of the Hezār Jarib garden's pigeon towers. This analysis will consider the historical context, cultural significance, architectural characteristics, and agricultural implications associated with these structures. This study seeks to explore the various dimensions of this traditional practice by adopting an interdisciplinary approach that incorporates fields such as history, architecture, agriculture, and horticulture. 6 1.2. Pigeon Towers of the Hezār Jarib Garden Pigeon towers occupy a prominent position in Iran's architectural and cultural heritage, functioning as versatile edifices that exemplify exceptional design efficiency. The construction of these towers is executed with great attention to detail in order to effectively accommodate a substantial quantity of pigeon holes (roosts) while simultaneously optimizing the use of building materials. Historically, the predominant materials used in construction were sun-dried mud bricks coated with mud, due to the limited availability of timber resources. As a result, the construction process necessitated careful and thorough attention in order to ensure the preservation of structural integrity through the application of compression.12 In contrast to their European counterparts, which primarily utilized dovecotes for the production of pigeon meat, pigeon towers in Iran were primarily employed for the purpose of collecting pigeon manure, which was highly regarded for its significant agricultural advantages. Furthermore, these architectural formations not only offered a source of eggs and feathers, which were utilized for pillow-making purposes, but also functioned as means of message transportation. The interiors of these pigeon towers frequently showcase intricate sculptural elements and elaborate patterns, thereby elevating their status as architectural wonders deserving of admiration. The pigeon towers discovered in Isfahan have garnered significant recognition.13These towers have assumed a crucial role in cultivating the liveliness, economic affluence, and agricultural progress of Persianate gardens, orchards, and farms. Numerous 12 Elisabeth Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahan,” Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 4, no. 1, (1966): 107. John Chardin, Travels in Persia, 1673–1677 (Newburyport: Dover, 2012), 242. 13 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 108 7 travelogues and historical texts make frequent mention of the prevalence of pigeon towers throughout Iran, with a particular focus on the Isfahan region. 14 The documentation of Thomas Herbert's observations during his visit to Mehiar, a location positioned between Shahreza and Isfahan in the seventeenth century, is significant as it represents one of the earliest documented encounters with these notable architectural formations. He was an English traveler and follower of Charles I. He wrote an account of his travels, including a visit to Persia during the mid-seventeenth century. He stated, “Albeit their houses were neat, yet they were in no wise comparable to their dove-houses for curious out.”15 Among Persianate gardens, the Hezār Jarib garden was reportedly one of the most well-known during the Safavid dynasty, and it was said to have contained a number of pigeon towers. Two words “Hezār Jarib” (Persian: بيرجرازه, also Romanized as Hezār Jarīb, Hazārjarīb, Hazār Jerīb, and Hezār Jerīb) refer to one thousand acres. This, in turn, indicates that the garden was quite large and extensive. This garden was constructed at the foothills of Soffeh Mountain in the south of the city and was part of the original urban redevelopment project that began in 1590/1591 and made Isfahan the Safavid capital after 1598. Since Shāh-‘Abbās ordered its creation as a royal suburban recreation center in 1596 AD, the Hezār Jarib Garden is also known by the name ‘Abbās-Ābād.16 It is important to note that the Hezār Jarib Garden should not be mistakenly identified as the Bāgh-e Sa‘ādatābād (or referred to as Hezār Jarib-e Now (New Hezār Jarib) or Hezār Jarib 14 Abu Abdullah Ibn Batuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta in the Near East, Asia, and Africa, 1325–1354, trans. Samuel Lee (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications, 2004). Chardin, Travels in Persia, 243. 15 Thomas Herbert, Travels in Persia, 1627–1629 (London: Routledge, 2005), 120. 16 Sussan Babaie, Isfahan and Its Palaces: Statecraft, Shi'ism, and the Architecture of Conviviality in Early Modern Iran (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2008). Lotfollah Honarfar, Ganjine-ye āsār-e Tārikhi-e Isfahan [A Treasure of The Historical Monuments of Isfahan] (Isfahan: Saghafi, 1971), 157 8 Kuchak (Small Hezār Jarib)). This second architectural masterpiece, which was authorized by Shāh-‘Abbās II (1642-1666), was located between the 33-pol bridge and the Khāju bridge (also referred to as the Hasan Beyk Bridge). It was positioned on the southern bank of the Zāyandeh-Rud River, in close proximity to a smaller aqueduct bridge called Pol-e Jubi. Several palaces were constructed in this magnificent garden, including notable structures such as the āyineh-khāneh, the Namakdān pavilion, and the Haft-Dast.17 Figure 2 shows the geographic location of the Hezār Jarib garden, its remnant pigeon towers, and the Bāgh-e Sa‘ādatābād in Isfahan, Iran. Figure 2 Google map showing the historical location of the Hezār Jarib garden and its pigeon towers, Isfahan (screenshot and additions by the author) 17 Mahvash Alemi, “Bagh-i Hizar Jarib-i Naw,” Doaks, accessed October 25, 2022. https://www.doaks.org/resources/middle-east-garden-traditions/catalogue/C174. Honarfar, A Treasure of the Historical Monuments of Isfahan, 197 9 The Hezār Jarib garden exhibited a notable attribute, namely, the presence of four pigeon towers strategically situated at each corner, intricately linked to the outer walls of the garden. According to Alemi, there is evidence suggesting that one of the pigeon towers in the Hezār Jarib garden remained intact until the 1890s, as depicted in a picture by Ernst Hoelster.19 Multiple scholarly inquiries and documented sources have further supported the presence of two distinct southern dovecotes. These structures were constructed during the reign of the renowned Shāh-‘Abbās from 1587 to 1629.20 One of these towers, referred to as the University Pigeon Tower, is situated at the University of Isfahan. The other structure, known as the Mardavij tower, is located at the terminus of Sheykh Sadugh Street within the Mardavij neighborhood in Isfahan. These towers exhibit intricate designs that surpass those of their counterparts in Isfahan. The presence of intricate craftsmanship implies a rich and enduring heritage associated with their production. Both of the remaining towers primarily display a cylindrical form; however, their unique attributes differentiate them from each other. The southwest tower captivates observers with its visually captivating undulating exterior while simultaneously featuring a structurally non-cylindrical inner core. On the other hand, the southeastern tower exhibits a distinctive architectural feature by incorporating undulating patterns in both its exterior and interior walls, showcasing a remarkable demonstration of architectural skill21 (see Figure 2). Figure 3 depicts the plans for the southeast tower (1) and the southwest tower (2) in the Hezār Jarib garden, sketched by Beazley. 19 Alemi, “Bagh-i Hizar Jarib-i Naw.” 20 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān.” Lotfollah Honarfar, “The Hezār Jarib and Soffeh Mountain; The King Abbas’s Heaven,” Art & People 157: 73–94 (1976): 78 21 Nima Valibeig and Roya Homayooni, “A Review of Hezār Jarib Garden's Form Based on the Descriptive, Illustrative, and Field Documents,” MANZAR (2021): 17 10 Figure 3 Elisabeth Beazley, Plans of towers in the Hezār Jarib, 1966, from The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān, Taylor & Francis, n.d., 106, fig. 1 & 2 1.2.1. Case Study: Mardavij Pigeon Tower The Mardavij pigeon tower, situated in the renowned city of Isfahan, Iran, presents an intriguing subject for examination that effectively embodies the architectural and cultural legacy of the Safavid period. Constructed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the tower stands as a lasting testament to the artistic ingenuity and forward-thinking mindset characteristic of this distinguished era in Iranian history. The Mardavij pigeon tower, being a historical monument of great significance, presents a valuable opportunity for comprehensive investigation and scholarly examination of its multifaceted nature. The Historical Context The Safavid dynasty, known for its significant support of the arts and architecture, had a lasting impact on the cultural heritage of Iran. During this particular historical period, urban landscapes were embellished with remarkable architectural creations, among which Isfahan emerged as a prominent hub of this flourishing artistic revival. The Mardavij pigeon tower, located in this bustling urban center, serves as a prime example of the integration of artistic 11 creativity and practical utility, showcasing a captivating combination of visual appeal and agricultural innovation. Its historical significance lies in its distinction as one of the oldest surviving pigeon towers in Iran, providing a window into the past and offering valuable insights into the region's agricultural and architectural practices. The Architectural Significance The architectural complexity and magnificence of the Mardavij pigeon tower serve as a symbol of the architectural accomplishments of its era. The impressive edifice, adorned with intricate geometric motifs and elaborate embellishments, serves as a testament to the exceptional skill and expertise of Safavid artisans and architects. The architectural design of the tower not only showcases an appreciation for visual aesthetics but also reflects a profound understanding of structural engineering, thereby exemplifying the innovative construction techniques prevalent during that era. The Mardavij pigeon tower holds immense architectural importance, standing as one of the largest and most well-preserved pigeon towers in Iran. This monument is revered for its intricate design and is considered the epitome of its architectural type.22 Agricultural Importance, Power and Prosperity In addition to its impressive architectural features, the Mardavij pigeon tower possesses a significant agricultural purpose that has attracted substantial attention from scholars and researchers. The tower's architectural design served as a refuge for pigeons, effectively contributing to the production of fertilizer. These towers played a crucial role in supporting and 22 Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000): 202 12 maintaining agricultural productivity throughout the centuries. The distinctive interaction between architecture and agriculture exemplifies the inventive problem-solving methodologies employed during that period. Agriculture occupied a central position in the Safavid economy, and the promotion of agricultural practices was paramount for ensuring the prosperity of the empire. The birds' droppings, rich in nutrients, served as highly prized organic fertilizer that enriched the poor soil of the region, enhancing crop yields and supporting continued progress in traditional agricultural practices. By associating the Mardavij pigeon tower with agriculture and its productivity, the Safavid kings sought to reinforce their image as benevolent and capable rulers. The tower's role in fostering a bountiful agricultural landscape symbolized the king's care for his subjects' welfare and demonstrated the monarch's ability to ensure the kingdom's prosperity. This symbolic association with agricultural abundance reinforced the legitimacy of the Safavid kingship and its connection to the well-being of the people. The establishment and maintenance of the Mardavij pigeon tower as an architectural marvel showcased the Safavid monarch's authority and patronage. The financial and logistical investment required for the construction and upkeep of such an elaborate structure indicated the king's ability to command resources and exert control over both human and natural domains. Furthermore, the tower's integration into the agricultural landscape demonstrated the Safavid kings' interest in actively shaping and supporting the agricultural sector, solidifying their position as influential leaders in the realm of governance. The Mardavij pigeon tower holds considerable academic value as a case study due to its capacity to provide insights into various facets of Safavid society, encompassing architectural 13 aesthetics, agricultural methodologies, and socio-economic factors. Through a meticulous examination of this historical monument, a comprehensive understanding of the broader cultural context of the Safavid era can be attained. This endeavor allows for valuable insights into the intricate interplay between art, agriculture, and political dynamics, shedding light on a vibrant period of Iranian history. 1.3. Sustainability Then and Now The concept of sustainability is often associated with modern practices, but it is important to recognize that the agricultural techniques used in Persianate gardens and pigeon towers demonstrate a notable adherence to the principles of sustainability that are acknowledged in the present day. The concept of "sustainable" effectively encapsulates the fundamental principles underlying the horticultural practices and thoughtful design of pigeon towers in Persianate gardens. The aforementioned practices were devised with the dual purpose of promoting the efficiency and sustainability of the gardens, as well as safeguarding ecological equilibrium and conserving natural resources. The gardens showcased a sustainable approach that prioritized the harmonious coexistence between human cultivation and the environment, incorporating water management systems and organic fertilization methods. Hence, it is entirely justifiable to classify the agricultural practices of that time period as "sustainable." Therefore, the research's significance can be thoroughly evaluated through three distinct perspectives that align with its overarching goals and objectives, 14 1.3.1. Bridging Traditional and Contemporary Knowledge There exist fundamental similarities between traditional and scientific knowledge, despite their apparent disparities. Both forms of knowledge are derived from human observation and experience and are subject to testing, replication, and transmission within their respective communities through social institutions and mechanisms.23 The primary objective of this study is to establish a connection between conventional wisdom and scientific methodologies within the realm of Persian horticulture, with the ultimate goal of broadening the range of available techniques. By integrating the innovation systems of traditional and scientific communities, a wider range of novel concepts and practices can be cultivated. 1.3.2. Facilitating Conservation and Rehabilitation The utilization of the research findings in this study involves the identification, collection, and updating of local skills and knowledge that have been employed for many centuries in the establishment and maintenance of farms, orchards, and gardens. This endeavor aims to safeguard these invaluable resources for both current and future generations. The erosion of traditional knowledge, combined with the adoption of non-specialist approaches, as previously emphasized, results in the degradation of a substantial portion of our cultural legacy. Maintenance of historical gardens and farms in Iran is confronted with significant challenges, encompassing the utilization of unsuitable chemical fertilizers and non-indigenous flora, as well as issues related to pollution, urban sprawl, road development, water scarcity, and the 23K. Ammann, “Reconciling Traditional Knowledge with Modern Agriculture: A Guide for Building Bridges,” In Intellectual Property Management in Health and Agricultural Innovation: A Handbook of Best Practices, ed. Anatole F. Krattiger, Centre for Management of Intellectual Property in Health Research and Development, and Public Intellectual Property Resource for Agriculture. (Oxford ; Davis, CA: MIHR; PIPRA, 2007), 1540 15 requirement for additional water resources. Furthermore, it is crucial to acknowledge that inaccuracies in the process of restoring and rehabilitating cultural and architectural landmarks, such as pigeon towers, can result in permanent harm to their essence and purpose. Therefore, the documentation and preservation of these practices hold significant importance. 1.4. Conceptual Framework and Methodology 1.4.1. Approaches, Methods and Data Utilizing an art historical framework, the principal research methodology will entail the examination of historical sources, including digital archives, published manuscripts, travelers' reports, and drawings. Additionally, an analysis of pertinent secondary literature and scholarly data derived from prior field studies conducted on the Hezār Jarib garden and other pigeon towers in Isfahan will be conducted. Taking inspiration from previous endeavors such as the Rome Reborn project,24 the present research project aims to achieve the following procedural objectives: firstly, to gather and examine visual and descriptive materials related to the Mardavij pigeon tower through a comprehensive review of pertinent literature; subsequently, to utilize advanced digital drawing and modeling techniques in order to synthesize and gain a comprehensive understanding of the architectural design and structural characteristics of this specific pigeon tower. Visual representation and modeling are integral components in comprehending, depicting, and constructing diverse levels of information and systems within the scope of this 24 Andrew Curry, “Rome Reborn,” SmithsonianMag, accessed May 22, 2022, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/rome-reborn-157825055/. 16 project. Additionally, they serve to facilitate the exchange of ideas between conceptualized and realized structural compositions, which are integral elements of architectural design. The models will include various components, such as axonometric and/or perspective images depicting different sections of the tower, three-dimensional elevations, three-dimensional section designs of its components, locations for bird entry and exit, areas for roosting, defensive mechanisms against predators, etc. In order to achieve the collection, integration, and representation of various layers of data, the utilization of graphic software (e.g., Adobe Photoshop) and modeling software (such as Rhinoceros 6) will be employed. The incorporation of three-dimensional modeling techniques within this research will facilitate cognitive processes related to visual representation and augment the effectiveness of visual communication abilities.25 1.4.2. Software In this project, Rhinoceros 6 was employed for the purpose of conducting three-dimensional modeling of components and the Mardavij pigeon tower. Rhino 6, referred to as Rhinoceros three-dimensional, represents robust software for three-dimensional modeling that operates on the basis of NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B Splines). In contrast to other software's utilization of polygons, such as Sketch Up, Rhino 6 employs a methodology that is rooted in mathematical principles, thereby enabling a higher degree of precision in the representation of surfaces. This characteristic renders Rhino 6 particularly well-suited for 25 Eckart Lange and Ian D. Bishop, Visualization in Landscape and Environmental Planning: Technology and Applications (London ; New York: Taylor & Francis, 2005), 56 17 accurately capturing intricate design elements. The ability to accurately analyze the architectural intricacies of the Mardavij pigeon tower was of utmost importance. The utilization of Rhino 6 facilitated the creation of intricate models characterized by precise tolerances. This capability proved indispensable in comprehending the structural aspects and design characteristics of the tower. Additionally, Rhino 6 possesses the capability to efficiently export three-dimensional data in a range of formats, including IGES and STEP. This feature greatly facilitates the seamless exchange of information with other applications that utilize Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines (NURBS), thereby significantly enhancing compatibility with various CAD software employed in the design and engineering domains. The utilization of this software played a crucial role in deciphering the complex architectural features of the Mardavij pigeon tower, thereby facilitating a comprehensive comprehension of its historical and cultural importance within the context of my master's thesis. 1.4.3. Data Sources The data utilized in this thesis was obtained from a wide array of reputable sources, thus ensuring a comprehensive and dependable basis for the investigation of the Mardavij pigeon tower. Major information sources included the following: Digitized Archival Collections: Museums, libraries, and government organizations have made digitized archival collections, which include a variety of materials like photo collections, travel diaries, and manuscripts, available. These institutions have played a significant role in providing these valuable resources. The digitized records provided valuable historical insights and visual depictions of the Mardavij pigeon tower, facilitating the examination of its architectural and cultural importance. 18 Research Studies and Books: The investigation drew upon a comprehensive range of scholarly research studies and books that focused on the Safavid era, architecture, gardening and farming, and the cultural milieu surrounding pigeon towers. The aforementioned academic publications functioned as dependable secondary resources, enhancing comprehension of the historical backdrop and architectural complexities of the Mardavij pigeon tower. Newspapers and Journals: especially those that engaged in interviews with individuals possessing expertise in pigeon towers or produced reports on relevant subjects, offered significant primary sources and current viewpoints. These sources provide insights into the cultural significance of the tower during the Safavid era and subsequent periods. Reports and Documentation From Organizations: The preservation and documentation of heritage sites, such as the Mardavij pigeon tower, have been extensively studied and analyzed through reports and documentation provided by a range of organizations and government agencies, including the Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism, and Handicrafts of Iran (MCTH). These valuable sources offer significant insights into the subject matter. The inclusion of these official records served to enhance the credibility of the research by providing supplementary data. Digital Public Websites: Digital public websites were accessed to obtain photo collections that were specifically focused on the Mardavij pigeon tower. The aforementioned online resources provided a comprehensive collection of visual representations, facilitating in-depth examination and record-keeping of the tower's architectural components and historical characteristics. By utilizing information derived from these five main sources, the thesis successfully conducted a thorough and all-encompassing examination of the Mardavij pigeon tower. This 19 investigation encompassed various aspects, such as its architectural attributes, agricultural implications, cultural importance, and historical background. The inclusion of a wide array of data sources in the study provided strong evidence, thereby enhancing the comprehensiveness of the research on the tower's significance during the Safavid period and its enduring influence on Iranian architectural and cultural heritage. 1.4.4. Positionality Having resided in Isfahan, a city renowned for its historic gardens, my deep fascination with the intricate relationship between plants, animals, humans, and the constructed surroundings served as an inspiration for my academic pursuit of horticultural science during my undergraduate education. I made the deliberate decision to advance my academic endeavors by pursuing a postgraduate degree in environmental design engineering because of my growing interest in garden design, landscape architecture, and botany. During the course of my master's program, I had the opportunity to study subjects such as garden design in Iran, architectural history with nature, and environmental design with plants. These courses provided me with a profound understanding and appreciation for the captivating allure of Persianate gardens. The gardens in question, which are characterized by their remarkable beauty and demonstrate the remarkable skill and creativity of humans, stand as prime examples of the successful integration of the natural environment and human craftsmanship. The profound interest I possess in Persianate gardens has motivated me to embark on a thesis that focuses on the preservation of their cultural heritage and the environmental importance they hold. The objective of this study is to provide insight into the traditional 20 knowledge and expertise that have cultivated these gardens over successive generations, thereby guaranteeing their sustained existence throughout the course of history. The primary aim of this thesis is to make a significant contribution to the preservation and safeguarding of Persianate gardens and their architectural legacy. This includes a particular focus on iconic elements such as the Mardavij pigeon tower. The study aims to preserve these captivating landscapes in the face of contemporary challenges by identifying sustainable practices. Furthermore, the study aims to honor and protect the cultural essence that is embodied in Persianate gardens. The thesis aims to explore the historical and societal significance of a particular subject with the goal of fostering a renewed sense of appreciation and pride in our cultural heritage within the Iranian community. With a commitment to scholarly rigor, I aim to shed light on the lesser-known narratives surrounding Persianate gardens. The objective of my research is to reinvigorate our shared awareness, cultivating a deep comprehension of these valuable entities as manifestations of the symbiotic relationship between the natural world and human ingenuity. 1.5. Organization of The Thesis This thesis undertakes a comprehensive investigation into the intriguing realm of pigeon towers found in Persianate gardens, orchards, and farms. The exploration of the cultural, architectural, and agricultural elements of these traditional structures will be divided into six chapters, each offering significant contributions to this captivating field of study. Chapter 1 functions as the introductory section, establishing the context for our inquiry and providing the justification for undertaking this research. In this study, we aim to delineate 21 the research objectives, scope, and significance of investigating pigeon towers within the context of Persianate gardens. The introductory section of this text lays the groundwork for our comprehensive examination by offering a summary of the following chapters. Chapter 2 delves into an extensive literature review, wherein we engage deeply with pre-existing scholarly literature on the subject matter of pigeon towers. The primary objective of this literature review is to augment our comprehension of the complex interplay between nature, architecture, and human ingenuity. Chapter 3 explores the political, cultural, and economic dimensions of pigeon towers. This study aims to analyze the impact of political structures, cultural perspectives, and economic contributions on the role of these towers within the socio-economic landscape of the region. Moreover, an examination will be conducted on the symbolic importance of pigeon towers as visual manifestations of authority and status, offering insights into their historical milieu. Shifting our attention to the realm of agriculture, Chapter 4 delves into the agricultural dimensions of pigeon towers, specifically examining their role in the collection of fertilizer. In this study, we examine the historical literature and sources in order to gain insights into the conventional techniques employed for agricultural utilization of pigeon droppings. Significant information about past farming methods can be gained by looking at the different steps involved in building, managing, maintaining, feeding pigeons, removing manure, applying it, measuring it, and measuring the yield. Chapter 5 delves into the examination of the structural and architectural aspects of pigeon towers, providing a detailed analysis of their distinctive attributes. Our study provides a glimpse into spatial organization and location, architectural typology, and the selection of materials. Through the implementation of a comprehensive case study on the Mardavij pigeon tower, a 22 more profound comprehension of its underlying design principles and the seamless integration of these architectural structures within the surrounding landscape can be achieved. The final chapter, Chapter 6, serves as a synthesis of the various components and findings of our research endeavor. Our report presents a thorough overview of our research outcomes, incorporating insights from both the literature review and the case study analysis. Furthermore, we analyze the ramifications of our study in relation to the conservation and valuation of pigeon towers in the framework of Persianate gardens and orchards. This chapter elucidates the potential for future research endeavors by emphasizing the cultural, agricultural, and architectural importance of these ancient structures and their contribution to the conservation of traditional knowledge and historical heritage. This thesis endeavors to provide insight into the intriguing realm of pigeon towers and their enduring impact within the enchanting landscapes of Persianate gardens and orchards. Through an in-depth exploration of their historical significance, architectural characteristics, and agricultural utility, our objective is to cultivate a more profound sense of admiration for these distinctive edifices, thereby ensuring the preservation of their cultural heritage for future generations. 1.6. Conclusion This chapter focused on the significant cultural, architectural, and historical importance of Persianate gardens and pigeon towers. These structures have not only been impressive examples of architectural creativity but have also played a crucial role in supporting agricultural practices and influencing the socio-economic environment of the area. This study aims to explore the extensive traditional knowledge and horticultural practices related to these gardens. 23 By doing so, it aims to connect the past and present, promoting a greater understanding and recognition of their lasting impact. The incorporation of digital technologies, such as modeling, presents promising opportunities for a more thorough comprehension of these renowned structures. The utilization of an interdisciplinary approach shows potential for uncovering concealed elements of Persianate garden culture and revealing previously unknown layers of meaning present in these remarkable creations. In addition, the research seeks to provide insight into the cultural importance of pigeon towers and their contribution to sustainable agriculture. The Mardavij pigeon tower is an interesting example that demonstrates the architectural skill of the Safavid period. It also highlights the lasting significance of these buildings over time. The study examines the historical context, architectural details, and agricultural significance of the Mardavij pigeon tower. By doing so, it helps document and protect the cultural heritage of Persianate gardens. The research uses advanced modeling techniques and gathers data from various sources to provide a complete understanding of the tower's importance. This ensures that its legacy continues and motivates future generations. 24 Chapter 2: Literature Review This chapter explores the significant historical and interdisciplinary importance of Persianate gardens, their fundamental design principles, and their crucial role in Iranian society by focusing on the frequently disregarded yet essential element of these gardens, namely the pigeon towers. The chapter begins by emphasizing the various scholarly activities focused on Persianate gardens. Scholars from different academic fields come together to explore the origins, evolution, and symbolic significance found in these gardens. By utilizing primary sources such as historical texts, manuscripts, and artworks, scholars reconstruct the intricate fabric of these vibrant sanctuaries. We aim to explore the topic of pigeon towers, which are often overlooked but important structures in Persianate gardens, orchards, and farms. These towers played a significant role in improving agricultural prosperity, as pigeon manure was used as a powerful fertilizer. This analysis reveals the interconnectedness of power and agriculture in the Safavid era, highlighting the mutually beneficial relationship between these two realms. The chapter recognizes the lack of research on pigeon towers in the wider context of Persianate gardens. Although scholars such as Alemi and Babai have extensively studied different aspects of these gardens, the significance of pigeon towers has been overlooked or downplayed in their research. The impact of pigeon towers on sustainable agriculture and environmental management, at both local and global levels, underscores the importance of further exploring their historical and practical importance. We try to promote the idea of a comprehensive understanding of pigeon towers by encouraging interdisciplinary research. This approach is important for setting the foundation for 25 future studies. The use of digital technologies and three-dimensional modeling has become increasingly important in research, allowing for in-depth analysis of architectural details and historical contexts. The combination of traditional scholarship and advanced methodologies has the potential to reveal hidden aspects of Persianate gardens and the structures that support them, which are often ignored. 2.1. General Studies (Persianate Gardens and Pigeon Towers) Persianate gardens possess considerable historical and interdisciplinary importance, attracting the interest of scholars from diverse academic disciplines such as history, archaeology, architecture, landscape design, art, aesthetics, philosophy, literature, environmental science, horticulture, anthropology, and sociology. The purpose of these academic investigations is to examine various aspects of the garden tradition in Iran. The studies primarily center on the origins and development of Persianate gardens, their fundamental design principles, their cultural and artistic importance, the symbolic meanings conveyed through Persianate gardens, the intricate utilization of plants and water management methods, and the societal function they fulfill in Iranian society. Researchers have utilized primary and secondary sources as crucial tools to analyze Persianate gardens in order to gain comprehensive insights. Primary sources, such as historical texts, manuscripts, paintings, and archaeological artifacts, provide direct and firsthand evidence that can offer valuable information about garden layouts, horticultural practices, and cultural significance. 26 The book Islamic Gardens and Landscapes by D. Fairchild Ruggles is a notable scholarly work that offers a thorough analysis of the topic of Islamic gardens.26 This study adopts a thematic approach to examine the cultural and historical importance of Islamic gardens. The scholar pays equal attention to the ecological aspect, which involves the science of gardening and the use of trees and plants. Additionally, the study explores the symbolic aspect, which encompasses the organization of the earth and the portrayal of gardens in fantasy and literature. In her study, the author notes that the presence of a well-maintained garden came to symbolize human achievement, while a fruitful landscape was seen as an indication of divine approval. Nevertheless, her main focus centers on the significance of water and irrigation in maintaining the verdant and vibrant nature of Islamic and Islamicate gardens, while the importance of fertilizer and soil fertilization is seldom recognized. Therefore, one could argue that the author has neglected to acknowledge the significance of pigeon towers in enhancing the environmental quality of gardens and fields, as well as the economic prosperity of the agricultural sector during that period. Mahvash Alemi's research in the field of Safavid period garden studies is highly significant. Her work primarily centers around the categorization of gardens, royal structures, and their connections to urban landscapes. Alemi's research focuses on analyzing primary textual and visual sources. These sources include descriptions and drawings recorded by foreign observers and travelers (Fig. 4). 26 D. Fairchild Ruggles, Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, Penn Studies in Landscape Architecture. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008) 27 Figure 4 Mahvash Alemi, Graphical Reconstruction of the Chahār-bāgh Type of Garden According to Heravi, 2011, from The Persian Garden, Unesco, n.d., 55, fig. 2–11. The focus of Alemi's study is to investigate the various types and models of Safavid Royal Gardens.27 Alemi highlights the importance of Engelbert Kaempfer's original drawings and sketches of Persianate gardens and palaces, which he created during his travels in Persia from 1684 to 1688 (Fig. 5). Kaempfer, who held the positions of doctor and secretary in the Swedish King Charles XI's embassy at the Persian court of Shah Sulayman, subsequently documented his experiences and illustrations in a book after his return to Europe. Alemi emphasizes the significance of the original manuscripts and drawings stored in the British Library. In contrast to reproduced engravings, which were subject to the preferences and interpretations of Europeans, these documents offer valuable and in-depth information about Safavid gardens and cities. 27 Mahvash Alemi, “The Royal Garden of the Safavid Period: Types and Models.” In Gardens of the Great Muslim Empires, ed. A. Petruccioli. (Leiden, New York, Koln: Brill, 1997), 72–96 28 Alemi investigated the lasting significance of gardens, architectural designs, and urban planning in Iran during the Safavid period in her examination of Kaempfer's drawings. Significantly, Safavid cities such as Isfahan, Qazvin, and Kashan are known for their impressive architectural landmarks, including Āli-qāpu, Chehel-Sotun, Hasht-Behesht, and Jahān-namā buildings. These cities also feature the presence of Khiyābān-e Chahār-bāgh, a notable avenue. During this period, the Khiyābān-e Chahār-bāgh appears to have functioned as an elongated garden or promenade, connecting the royal residences within the city to the gardens located on the outskirts. The linear layout of the structure included water channels and basins, which were lined with plane or cypress trees. Additionally, entry houses were placed along the sides of the structure for decorative purposes. In regards to the Safavid royal gardens, like Hezār Jarib, Alemi observes that they have different designs, which demonstrate their ability to adjust to different urban and geographical environments.28 This allows them to avoid being categorized based on stereotypes. Nevertheless, the fundamental characteristics of these typical gardens consist of enclosed orchards with linear boundaries, stone water channels, pavilions featuring covered walkways on each side, basins, fruit and shade trees, bathing areas, and towers. 28 Alemi, “The Royal Garden of the Safavid Period: Types and Models,” 73 29 Figure 5 Engelbert Kaempfer, Bagh-i Hizar Jarib in Isfahan surveyed by Kaempfer, n.d., from Mahvash Alemi, Gardens of the Great Muslim Empires: The royal garden of the Safavid period: types and models, New York, Brill, 1997, 89, fig. 12 Sussan Babaie conducts scholarly research on the gardens and palaces of Isfahan, examining their architectural and urban designs that represent the early-modern Perso-Shi'i practice of Safavid kingship in Iran. The objective of her research is to clarify how the differentiation between Sunnism and Shiism is manifested in the architecture and urban planning of Isfahan. In her extensive research, Babaei conducted a comparative analysis of the architectural styles found in the Isfahan region and other regions of Iran, including Mazandaran.29 29 Sussan Babaie, Isfahan and Its Palaces: Statecraft, Shi’ism and the Architecture of Conviviality in Early Modern Iran (Edinburgh: Edinburgh university press, 2008) 30 Mazandaran, located in the northern part of the country, is known for its high levels of rainfall. In this particular context, the author emphasizes the influence of the natural environment and climate on the agricultural economy and palace architecture of the region and how these factors interact with each other. She stated, The scarcity of water (in Isfahan) imposed an agricultural economy that was focused on the cultivation of fruit trees rather than construction lumber.30 This observation suggests that pigeon towers played a crucial role in supporting Persianate gardens, farms, and agriculture, especially during the Safavid period. As stated earlier, these towers played a vital role in the preparation and collection of pigeon manure, which was utilized as fertilizer in fields and gardens. Due to the arid climate and less fertile soil in Isfahan, farmers in the area have acknowledged the importance of using fertilizer to improve the quality and quantity of their crops and fruits. As a result, the government at that time provided increased assistance for the establishment and upkeep of these towers. This action served to strengthen the economic basis of agriculture and, in turn, bolster their own political authority. This aspect highlights the significant connection between power and agriculture in the Safavid period. In chapter four, we will delve deeper into the agricultural aspects of pigeon towers in Isfahan to gain a better understanding. In conclusion, Persianate gardens have significant historical and interdisciplinary importance, attracting the interest of scholars from different academic fields. Numerous studies have been undertaken to investigate various aspects of the garden tradition in Iran, including its origins, principles of design, cultural importance, and role in society. Nevertheless, despite the 30 Babaie, Isfahan and Its Palaces, 169. 31 considerable academic efforts dedicated to the study of these gardens, there appears to be a lack of attention or discussion regarding pigeon towers within the framework of these gardens. Prominent scholars in the field have overlooked the significant role of pigeon towers in supporting Persianate gardens and agriculture. The towers played a crucial role in providing fertilizer for crops, which was vital for the agricultural prosperity of the area. Additional investigation into the pigeon towers in Persianate gardens has the potential to yield valuable knowledge regarding their agricultural, architectural, and cultural importance and the interplay between power and agriculture in the Safavid era. Hence, it would be advantageous for future research to integrate these elements when investigating Persianate gardens and their historical importance. It seems that the lack of research on the traditional knowledge of Persian pigeon towers is due to its divergence from the main research focus in the field of Iranian architecture or gardens. Pigeon towers, although not required in Persianate gardens, were often found in rural regions and were primarily used in agricultural settings like farms and orchards. Therefore, their importance as a fundamental component of Persianate gardens may not be regarded as of utmost importance. Studying historical architecture and landscape design can be challenging, especially when the structures being examined no longer exist or have been significantly changed over time. The difficulties in obtaining relevant information may have led to a lack of research on this topic. As previously stated, the oversight of the significant role of pigeon towers in preserving and enhancing Iranian gardens is evident even in the studies conducted by renowned researchers in this field. As an illustration, although Kaempfer's designs have served as a notable source of 32 inspiration for Alemi and Babai's research, it is surprising that neither of them acknowledged the inclusion of pigeon towers in these illustrations. While the pigeon towers located at the four corners of the Hezār Jarib Garden were not specifically mentioned in one of the main surveys of the garden by Kaempfer (see Fig. 5), other drawings and descriptions indicate that these towers were significant architectural elements, similar to pavilions, pathways, and lake basins, during that time in Isfahan. Specifically, they were prominent features in the architecture of the Hezār Jarib garden, and Kaempfer made sure to emphasize them in his drawings. Upon examining Kaempfer's drawings, it becomes evident that there are numerous pigeon towers scattered throughout the city of Isfahan. One of his significant drawings is Planographia, which illustrates a section of the Royal Complex located in the city of Isfahan. Kaempfer has designated the different palaces, gardens, and main squares of the city with English letters and has provided the name of each location in this illustration. The structure highlighted in red was identified as one of the Pigeon Towers located in Isfahan, which was connected to the royal gardens between the Chehel-Sotun garden and Bāgh-e Khalvat within the royal complex area (Fig. 6). 33 Figure 6 Engelbert Kaempfer, Planographia, 1712, from Amoenitatum exoticarum politico-physico-medicarum fasciculi V, Henrici Wilhelmi Meyeri, 1712, 179. There is a notable prevalence of these towers in another illustration by Kaempfer, named the Isphahanum. Pigeon towers can be observed in various locations, such as gardens, residential areas, and fields. These structures are distinguished by their red color in figure 7. Figure 7 Engelbert Kaempfer, ISPHAHANUM, 1712, from Amoenitatum exoticarum politico-physico-medicarum fasciculi V, Henrici Wilhelmi Meyeri, 1712, 162. The comprehensive exploration of pigeon houses necessitates a meticulous examination of an array of literature and sources, which can be conveniently categorized into two overarching 34 domains: historical-cultural studies and agriculture, and technical studies encompassing architecture and structure. By delving into these distinct areas, we can acquire a profound understanding of the multifaceted aspects associated with pigeon houses, thereby enriching their scholarly endeavors. 2.1.1. Historical, Cultural, and Agricultural Studies The current body of literature primarily focuses on the historical and cultural importance, as well as the economic function, of pigeon houses in Iran during the Qajar period (1789–1925). The majority of these studies have predominantly utilized existing, operational pigeon towers, alongside historical texts and manuscripts, to collect their research data. Out of the various sources examined, the manuscript titled Irshad al-Zera'eh emerges as a notable and commendable piece of work. In Persian, the term "Irshad" means guidance or instructions, and "Zera‘eh" refers to gardening or horticulture. Therefore, this manuscript is a valuable guide on gardening and horticultural practices. The text, which Abunasr-e Heravi wrote in Herat in 1515, is well known as a significant agronomic work from the medieval Persian period. The text consists of an introductory section and eight chapters, known as Rowzeh, which each focus on different topics. The subjects covered in this study encompass a range of agricultural topics. These include the classification of different soil types, the influence of astronomical and weather factors on planting, methods to protect crops from pests, techniques for storing cereal crops, the cultivation of various types of plants such as fruits, vegetables, trees, and flowers, the art of grafting trees and vines, methods to estimate crop yields, strategies for preserving agricultural produce, the preparation of items like rosewater and sweets, and the design and arrangement of a Chahār-Bāgh, which is a traditional Persianate garden layout. 35 The Irshad al-Zera'eh manuscript is highly regarded in the field of Iranian garden studies. Maria Subtelny highlights its importance, noting that it is a valuable historical manual based on real agricultural knowledge and direct observations.31 The significance of this is emphasized for research on the reconstruction of Iranian gardens. The manuscript, which is believed to have been written by Abunasr-e Heravi, is dedicated to Shāh Ismail I, a prominent ruler of the Safavid dynasty during that period. The creation of this document serves two main purposes. Firstly, it aims to preserve the agricultural and gardening traditions of the Herat region, which were at risk of being forgotten due to the poor state of agriculture in the early sixteenth century. Secondly, it seeks to encourage the newly established Safavid government in Khorāsān to support the revival of these important practices. In a study conducted by Heidari Babakamal, the historical and cultural significance of dovecotes in Golpayegan and Khansar, Isfahan, Iran, during the Qajar Era was examined.32 While there were no explicit restrictions on the establishment and management of pigeon houses for ordinary people, it was observed that the majority of such structures in Khansar and Golpayegan were predominantly owned by affluent landowners. This can be attributed to the substantial costs involved in constructing these facilities and the scarcity of land for individuals with smaller landholdings. The distribution of ownership observed can be attributed to the fact that large landowners had access to more extensive land holdings. 31 Maria Eva. Subtelny, “Agriculture and the Timerud Chahargagh: The Evidence from a Medieval Persian Agricultural Manual,” In Gardens in the Time of the Great Muslim Empires: Theory and Design, edited by Attilio Petruccioli, 110–28 (Leiden; New York, Koln: Brill, 1997), 110 32 Yadollah Heidari Babakamal, “Dovecotes of Iran and Turkey: A Comparative Study of Their Functions and Importance for the Indigenous Cultures of the Regions,” Iranian Studies, Vol. 10 (2020): 33 36 A number of scholars have employed a comparative methodology to study pigeon towers, examining these architectural features in Iran alongside other areas such as Turkey and England. In their research, Amirkhani et al. conducted a comprehensive investigation on the architecture of pigeon towers in Iran and Central Anatolia.33 They successfully identified a total of eight distinct pigeon tower types in the Iran Plateau, as well as two unique types in central Anatolia. According to Heidari Babakamal, the variations observed in the origins, shapes, materials, and purposes of dovecotes in Iran and Turkey can primarily be attributed to environmental influences.34 In Turkey, dovecotes are commonly built using durable materials such as stone or brick, strategically positioned on rugged cliffs, far from agricultural areas. These structures exhibit a variety of foundation shapes, including square, rectangular, circular, or oval, both above and below ground level. On the contrary, Iranian dovecotes often exhibit a construction predominantly composed of mud brick while incorporating specific elements such as entrances on the roofs, as well as floors and roofs made of fired brick. According to Heidari Babakamal, the pigeon towers in Iran surpass their Turkish counterparts in terms of size and intricacy. These towers can be observed in various locations, such as Golpayegan, Khansar, Khomein, and Miandoab, where they are strategically positioned in fields and along rivers. Notably, these structures exhibit both circular and rectangular designs, adding to their architectural diversity. In addition, Iranian dovecotes were predominantly employed for the purpose of producing fertilizers to enhance agricultural soils. The hunting of 33 Aryan Amirkhani, Hanie Okhovat, and Ehsan Zamani, “Ancient Pigeon Houses: Remarkable Example of the Asian Culture Crystallized in the Architecture of Iran and Central Anatolia,” Canadian Center of Science and Education, Vol. 2, No. 2, (2010) 34 Heidari Babakamal, “Dovecotes of Iran and Turkey,” 35 37 doves was infrequent, mainly due to religious and cultural factors, and the meat was not typically consumed. In contrast, Turkish dovecotes served a multifaceted purpose, encompassing the production of meat and gunpowder, which were exported to European nations, alongside the creation of fertilizers. Two academic studies conducted by Balali and Sattarnezhad et al. have investigated the classification of pigeon towers in the northwestern region of Iran.35 The research indicates that various factors, such as climate, culture, and architecture, have a significant impact on the design and construction of pigeon towers in different locations. As a result, there are noticeable variations in their shape, layout, and materials when comparing them to the central region of Iran, specifically Isfahan. In a recent study, Karimi conducted research to investigate the influence of tourism entrepreneurship on the development and reconstruction of pigeon houses in East Isfahan.36 Based on her research, the placement of pigeon towers is an important factor in the development of rural tourism. Pigeon towers that are located in natural and agricultural environments and are still integrated with traditional agricultural practices play a significant role in promoting rural tourism. In contrast, pigeon towers that are situated far away from fields and no longer fulfill their original function have a lesser impact on rural tourism development. Furthermore, Karimi emphasizes the significance of building more pigeon towers to promote the development and prosperity of tourism in the region. 35 Azita Balali Osquei and Sepideh Shiri-Zadeh, “Typology of pigeon houses in Azerbaijan region of Iran,” Journal of Green Architecture, Vol. 6, Issue 4, (2020): 37. Saeid Sattarnezhad, Shima Azizi, and Tohid Hemmati Arghoun, “A Study on Carved Rock Pigeon Houses of Taze-Kand Village in Maraghe, Iran,” Study in Art and Humanities Vol. 2 (2017): 127 36 Sajedeh karimi, “The Study of Development and Reconstruction Effect of Pigeon Houses in East Isfahan on the Prosperity of Tourism Entrepreneurship,” Journal of Entrepreneurial Strategies in Agriculture 7, no. 14 (2021): 95 38 Ansari and colleagues examine the significance of pigeon towers in the interaction between humans and nature.37 The authors suggest that the interaction between humans, fields, and pigeon houses serves as a practical guide for agricultural operations and creates a connection between these three elements. These variables have a direct impact on the quality of life and well-being of the two factors they are associated with, similar to sturdy poles. 2.1.2. Technical Studies: Architecture and Structure Several studies have investigated the technical, architectural, and structural elements of pigeon towers. While digital three-dimensional modeling is beneficial for architecture and structural analysis, most existing research primarily relies on descriptive methods using two-dimensional images such as plans and elevations. 38 The integration of three-dimensional digital modeling offers several advantages to researchers. These include improved visualization, better preservation of historical heritage, and the ability to conduct virtual simulations. Additionally, this integration promotes interdisciplinary collaboration among researchers. An early example of research into the pigeon towers of Iran is The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan by Elisabeth Beazley. She offers a thorough analysis of the architectural and historical 37 Atefeh Ansari, Behnam Pedram and MohammadHasan Talebian, “Dovecote Role in Creation of Man’s Relationship with Nature in the Countryside Fields of Esfahan,” Indigenous Knowledge of Iran 5-9 (2018): 137 38 Elisabeth Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 4, no. 1, (1966): 105-9. Ghada Abdel Monem El Gemaiey, “The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan-Iran,” Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 21, no.12 (2016): 69. Saeid Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, Kabutar Khaneh Dar Iran [Pigeon House in Iran] (Tehran: Cultural Studies publication, 2006), and Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000) 39 importance of the well-known pigeon towers in Isfahan, including the remaining pigeon towers from the Hezār Jarib Garden. The monograph thoroughly examines the technical details and design aspects of these remarkable structures, providing insight into their historical background and practical purposes throughout history. Beazley's academic research takes a descriptive approach, effectively recording the subject matter using traditional two-dimensional representations like plans and elevations (see figure 3 in Chapter 1). However, it is crucial to recognize that the reason for the lack of digital three-dimensional modeling and advanced visualization techniques in this study is due to its historical context. This study was conducted before these modern methodologies became widely available. Although traditional descriptive methodologies are commonly used, Beazley’s studies are an important reference for understanding the architectural and historical significance of these culturally important monuments. The careful record-keeping in the monograph serves two important purposes: it helps to safeguard their cultural legacy and offers valuable knowledge for both architecture enthusiasts and historians. However, scholars and researchers in the present day may have the chance to explore further by incorporating advanced digital tools. Digital three-dimensional modeling and technologies have become widely utilized in recent research on buildings across various disciplines such as art history, architecture, archaeology, tourism, and museums. The tools provide enhanced visual representations and structural examinations, which can result in fresh perspectives and understandings,39 especially when studying remarkable pigeon towers. 39 Antonio Almagro, “An Approach to the Visual Analysis of the Gardens of Al-Andalus.” In Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity: Questions, Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective, ed. Michel Conan 40 The Rome Reborn Project is a significant endeavor in the field of digital historical reconstruction.40 It combines advanced technology and scholarly research to accurately recreate ancient Rome. The Rome Reborn Project places great importance on maintaining historical accuracy and adhering to rigorous scholarly standards. The project aims to reconstruct ancient Rome by collaborating with renowned historians, archaeologists, and experts from different fields. As Bernard Frischner, the director of the project, says, it will be possible that researchers in fields as diverse as architecture, computer programming, literature, engineering, and archaeology can collaborate to add layers of information to the model.41 This comprehensive approach is employed to ensure a thorough and accurate representation of the ancient city. The city's architectural structures, monuments, and public spaces exhibit intricate detailing, while the depiction of daily life across various historical periods is carefully rendered. The project's credibility is strengthened by including original sources and archaeological discoveries. The Rome Reborn Project is a valuable resource for scholars, students, and enthusiasts interested in Roman civilization. It provides a wide range of historical evidence and offers an engaging opportunity to explore the rich tapestry of Roman culture. In addition to providing entertainment, the Rome Reborn Project is a highly valuable educational resource that enhances our comprehension of the intricate aspects of ancient Rome. The interface of this system is designed to be easy for users to understand and use. It allows users to move around the virtual city without any difficulties. Users can explore different time (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection; Distributed by Harvard University Press, 2007), 55 40 Andrew Curry, “Rome Reborn,” Smithsonianmag, accessed May 22, 2022, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/rome-reborn-157825055/. 41 Curry, “Rome Reborn.” 41 periods and see how the landscape of Rome changed over time. The interactive approach enhances understanding of historical events, architecture, and cultural practices, offering an enjoyable and immersive learning experience. The project's historical interpretation allows users to witness important events from the past, such as the elaborate celebrations at the Circus Maximus and religious ceremonies at the Temple of Jupiter. The Rome Reborn Project provides insight into the socio-cultural aspects of Roman society, revealing the rich cultural heritage of this ancient civilization. The book titled Pigeon Houses of Isfahan, written by Mahmoudian and Chit-Saz, is a significant addition to the existing body of research on pigeon towers in Isfahan.42 The book takes a comprehensive approach by including the identification, categorization, and documentation of existing pigeon towers in the region. This research project involves conducting thorough fieldwork, where the authors personally visit and document more than fifty-two pigeon towers located throughout the landscape of Isfahan. The authors are strongly dedicated to thoroughly and carefully investigating the pigeon towers. Consequently, the research concludes by producing comprehensive two-dimensional drawings, which offer detailed plans and sections of these remarkable architectural structures (Fig. 8). The visual representations provide valuable insights into the structure and function of pigeon towers. 42 Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan. 42 Figure 8 S.M. Mahmoudian, et al., Plan of the Hezār Jarib’s Tower, from The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan, Isfahan: Golha, 2000, 206, n.d. The research study exhibits various strengths in its methodology for identifying and classifying the pigeon towers. The authors aim to gain a deep understanding of these structures by utilizing historical research, architectural analysis, and extensive fieldwork. The study of history, which involves examining primary and secondary sources like historical texts, maps, drawings, and other relevant materials, is crucial for understanding the significance of pigeon towers. However, the study exhibits some inaccuracies in the depiction of specific details, particularly in the portrayal of roosts and their details (refer to Chapter 5). There are several reasons why these inaccuracies may exist. These include difficulties in obtaining accurate historical data, incomplete or missing information about the structures, changes or damage to the original towers over the years, and limitations in the technical aspects of the reconstruction process. Furthermore, the presence of inaccuracies in the analysis could be attributed to various 43 factors, such as interpretations and assumptions made during the process, as well as potential transcription errors. The discrepancies and inaccuracies are thoroughly examined in Chapter 5. Notwithstanding these constraints, the research offers valuable perspectives on the historical importance and architectural features of pigeon towers in Iran. The methodology employed by the authors sets a high standard for future research in this field. The study includes a variety of drawings and photographs collected during the researchers' fieldwork. These visual references enhance the analysis of architecture and highlight the cultural significance of the pigeon towers and their environment. The research also focuses on analyzing different types of pigeon towers in Isfahan, specifically exploring their structural features and architectural complexities. Additionally, the study provides information to readers regarding the current state of the towers, including factors such as their level of activity, capacity, and production of manure. The study's significance is further enhanced by placing their findings within the broader discussion of architectural heritage conservation and preservation in Iran. The authors offer valuable suggestions for preserving and revitalizing pigeon towers, which are culturally significant sites. This highlights the importance and practical applications of their research. The research article, authored by Nima Valibeig and Roya Homayooni, focuses on the analysis of Hezār Jarib garden's form.43 The study examines various descriptive, illustrative, and field documents to gain insights into the architecture of the garden, particularly the pigeon towers. The research specifically investigates the garden's characteristics during the Safavid period in Isfahan. 43 Nima Valibeig and Roya Homayooni, “A Review of Hezār Jarib Garden's Form Based on the Descriptive, Illustrative, and Field Documents,” MANZAR (2021):6 44 The main goal of Valibeig and Homayooni's research is to introduce and gain a deeper understanding of the features of ancient Iranian garden architecture by examining the Hezār Jarib garden. The documents have been described and recorded by different tourists during different time periods. These accounts offer valuable information about the architecture and events of the garden, both during its prosperous times and its decline. It is worth mentioning that the study focuses solely on the general modeling of shapes in larger dimensions without examining the specific architectural details and structures of the garden (Fig. 9). Notwithstanding this constraint, the objective of the study is to provide a comprehensive depiction of the structure and components of the Hezār Jarib garden. Furthermore, this study examines the garden's irrigation technique by analyzing visual materials such as descriptive and illustrative documents. 45 Figure 9 Valibeigi and Homayooni, Plan’s representation of Hezār Jarib in Qajar period based on the descriptive documents, from A Review of Hezār Jarib Garden’ Form Based on the Descriptive, Illustrative, and Field Documents, Tehran: Manzar, 2021, 16, fig. 9 In their study, Hensel et al. conducted a thorough examination of the performance characteristics of different historical structures in Iran.44 These structures included qanats, water cisterns, ice houses, pigeon houses, the well-known Khaju Bridge in Isfahan, and Boroujerdi's House in Kashan. In relation to the examination of pigeon towers, Hensel's findings suggest that these buildings efficiently control internal temperatures and airflow by utilizing both the materials' ability to retain heat and the strategic placement of openings in the towers. The researchers utilized transient thermal analysis with the software RadTherm to investigate the optimal design of multiple adobe walls in buffering daily temperature fluctuations. In addition, their research on a pigeon tower from the Safavid era illustrates the natural occurrence of wind- 44 Michael Hensel, Defne Sunguroğlu Hensel, Mehran Gharleghi, and Salmaan Craig, “Towards an Architectural History of Performance: Auxiliarity, Performance and Provision in Historical Persian Architectures,” Architectural Design, 82, no.3 (2012): 26 46 driven ventilation within the structure. The tower's interior architecture and the temperature difference between its upper and lower sections can potentially create a stack effect when there is no wind (Fig. 10). Figure 10 Hensel et al, Computational Fluid Dynamic Analysis, Pigeon Towers in Isfahan, from Towards an Architectural History of Performance: Auxiliarity, Performance and Provision in Historical Persian Architectures, Architectural Design, 2012, 35, n.d. 2.2. Conclusion In summary, this chapter has emphasized the significance of Persianate gardens and the influence of pigeon towers on the landscape and societal structure of Iranian society. Previous research has focused on the architectural and urban designs of Safavid gardens, specifically in Isfahan. Scholars such as Alemi and Babaie have conducted extensive studies on the classification of gardens, royal buildings, and their relationship to the surrounding urban areas. Nevertheless, the significance of pigeon towers in these gardens has not been extensively studied, highlighting the necessity for additional research on their agricultural, architectural, and cultural value. Furthermore, it is crucial to examine how they interacted with power and agriculture during the Safavid period. The study of pigeon towers in Isfahan is currently based on historical depictions made by travelers and researchers, such as Beazley. However, there is an opportunity for additional research using advanced digital tools like three-dimensional digital modeling. These tools can 47 improve visual representations and structural examinations of the pigeon towers. The utilization of these technologies can enhance the academic comprehension of these structures and offer valuable perspectives on their historical importance. By carefully analyzing primary sources and utilizing advanced technologies, future research has the ability to reveal previously unknown information about Persianate gardens and their related structures. This will ultimately enhance our overall understanding of historical landscapes and traditional horticultural practices. 48 Chapter 3: Political, Cultural and Economic Aspects Gardens possess a diverse and fascinating history and cultural significance, providing a captivating exploration of human creativity and the passage of time. According to D. Fairchild Ruggles,45 gardens have both practical and symbolic functions. They play a crucial role in the cultivation of crops necessary for sustaining life, ensuring survival during different seasons. This involved organizing the space, managing natural elements, increasing agricultural productivity, and creating a clear plan for using natural resources. Moreover, gardening exemplifies a fundamental human inclination to control and nurture the natural environment, a practice that necessitates few resources and does not necessitate intricate strategies. Gardens can vary in size and purpose, ranging from grand undertakings associated with leaders or communities to smaller, impromptu initiatives. Gardens encompass a broad range of purposes, spanning from agricultural practices to the sheer joy of cultivating the land. In this regard, the resources displayed a range, where smaller, ordinary gardens required few resources and impressive elite gardens necessitated significant investments. The size and magnificence of gardens were closely related to the amount of resources allocated to them. This connection between gardens, resource usage, and their association with power, whether as a tangible product or a symbolic representation, was particularly significant. Similarly, throughout history, Persianate gardens have been profoundly intertwined with discourses of power and prestige. These gardens, often accompanied by palaces and towers, served as emblematic displays of opulence and influence wielded by rulers and the wealthy elite. 45 D. Fairchild Ruggles, Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, Penn Studies in Landscape Architecture. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 9. 49 Persianate gardens have been skillfully designed to demonstrate not only social influence but also control over nature and the surrounding environment. These gardens have served as significant representations of the political authority and influence held by their owners. In addition, these gardens hold great cultural and religious importance, representing a deep bond with the Islamic faith and cultural heritage. Gardens’ architectural elements, such as palaces and towers, helped reinforce the visual presence of elites in the urban and suburban landscape, but some brought additional associations. Pigeon towers were a notable characteristic of certain Persianate gardens, serving various purposes that contributed to their association with authority. The towers were crucial for the gardens' horticultural achievements, as they collected pigeon droppings that served as valuable fertilizers. The gardens were nurtured and maintained through a symbiotic relationship, which ensured their fertility and grandeur. Furthermore, the pigeon towers had a broader significance beyond just horticulture. They served a crucial purpose in supporting agricultural practices, strengthening the economy, and promoting social vitality. Agriculture was foundational for building economic wealth and, consequently, political authority. The relationship between the pigeon towers and gardens and the wider agricultural landscape strengthened their association with power, as they played crucial roles in sustaining the prosperity and vitality of the society they served. Pigeon towers possessed considerable symbolic and aesthetic value as a result of their connection to authority and affluence. The grandeur of their architecture and their commanding presence in gardens and fields served as visual representations of the owner's wealth, power, and capacity to support agriculture. Thus, the existence of pigeon towers in Persianate gardens 50 represents wealth and a strong bond with land cultivation. They served as prominent landmarks, augmenting the aesthetic appeal and charm of the surrounding scenery. The purpose of this chapter is to understand the relationship between pigeon towers and centers of power. This study involves examining various historical sources, including manuscripts, artworks, and relevant scholarly discussions. In this study, we aim to analyze an important historical book in the field of agricultural practices in Iran. Our analysis focuses on understanding the subtle perspectives of gardens, farming activities, and horticultural efforts as seen from the viewpoint of ruling monarchs and influential leaders, with a specific emphasis on the Safavid period. In addition, careful examination is focused on the specific characteristics of pigeon towers, including aspects such as their distribution in Iran, methods of determining their value, and ways they are taxed. Through a careful analysis of these dimensions, we aim to understand the various aspects of their economic, cultural, and societal significance within the broader context of the socio-political environment. 3.1. Crops and Crowns: Exploring Rulers' Perspectives on Agriculture and Horticulture in a Persianate Manuscript The Safavid period in Persia involved an intricate relationship between power and the economy, with agriculture being of great importance. During this period, Persia experienced some changes in its economic structure in different sectors, such as agriculture, animal husbandry, manufacturing, and taxation. Agriculture continued to be a fundamental component of the Persian economy. The Safavid agricultural economy consisted of two primary agricultural systems: sharecropping, also known as mozāraʿa, and the Eqṭāʿ system. Sharecropping is a system where landowners provide peasants with land, water, and seeds. In return, the peasants 51 share the harvest with the landowners based on predetermined terms. Eqṭāʿ was a system that granted a beneficiary the right to receive specific revenue from a designated district. 46 The Safavid rulers' views on agriculture and land ownership were of great importance. The rulers put into action policies that influenced the distribution of land, revenues, and resources. Their economic choices were closely connected to their political and military objectives, as they sought to gain the loyalty and backing of military, bureaucratic, and religious figures.47 These decisions had enduring consequences, as they necessitated substantial financial resources to sustain standing armies, incentivize loyalty, and facilitate the empire's growth. The economy of the Safavid Empire was strongly connected to agriculture, as the financial stability of the state depended greatly on the productivity of the land. Comprehending the viewpoints of the Safavid rulers regarding agriculture and land ownership is essential when examining the intricacies of this subject matter. Historical documents, books, and manuscripts provide valuable insights into the perspectives of monarchs and landowners during that time period. Irshad al-Zera'eh is a significant historical manuscript in the field of agriculture. We aim to analyze this text carefully in order to understand how previous Iranian monarchs and landowners approached agricultural and horticultural issues. We will analyze their viewpoints and approaches in order to understand how authority is expressed in this particular situation. This entails analyzing the extent of control exerted by individuals or entities over agricultural production. It also involves studying the intricate connection between agricultural practices and 46 “EQṬĀ,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed June 27, 2023, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eqta. “ECONOMY Vii. SAFAVIDS THROUGH THE ZANDS,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed June 27, 2023, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/economy-vii-from-the-safavids-through-the-zands. 47 “ECONOMY Vii. SAFAVIDS THROUGH THE ZANDS” 52 the corresponding policies that are strategically employed to enhance control over food production and assert influence and power. The Irshad al-Zera'eh, an agricultural manual written in Persian during the late Timurid-early Safavid era in 1515, provides documentation of a vibrant agricultural system that faced significant challenges due to detrimental changes. The Irshad al-Zera'eh was likely prompted by a crisis in agriculture due to Uzbek invasions of Khorasan and changes in leadership within the region.48 The author of this text is Qasim b. Yusuf Abu Nasri. He held the position of accountant, overseeing the lands that provided income and crops to sustain the shrine of ‘Abdullah Ansari in Herat. This agricultural manual makes a noteworthy contribution to the study of the Persianate gardens and their agricultural and horticultural practices. This text provides a thorough examination of various techniques related to fertilization, irrigation, and soil analysis, as well as other relevant aspects in these fields. While this document does not cover the entire Safavid period, it provides valuable information about agricultural and horticultural practices during this transitional time. It offers a glimpse into the knowledge about farms and gardens during this era, which helps us understand the historical development of these important aspects of society during that period. The first few pages of this treatise provide valuable insights into how agriculture was understood and practiced in the sociopolitical context of that time. It helps us understand the perspectives of the rulers of that era towards agricultural activities. Furthermore, by investigating this source, we can explore the complex relationship between agricultural activities and systems 48 Ruggles, Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, 35-8 53 of authority, providing a comprehensive understanding of how agriculture interacts with larger social and political forces. Abu Nasr Heravi referenced the earlier commentary of Zayn al-Din Gorgani,49 who clearly emphasizes the importance and superiority of agriculture compared to other professions and industries. According to Heravi, Gorgani stated, There are four essential pillars that support the continuation of the world: agriculture, industrial activities and skilled professions, political governance, and the knowledge of religious scholars. These four layers collectively support the ongoing existence of the world. Nevertheless, it is important to recognise that the farmer plays a crucial role in supporting the survival of the three main elements. If agriculture were to decline, the well-being of all animals would also decline. Although the absence of the other three sectors may create challenging circumstances, it would not result in the complete cessation of existence. Therefore, it can be concluded that the agriculturist surpasses all other entities due to their essential role.50 In another part of Heravi’s work, the author claims that the pre-Islamic Sassanian King Anushirvan 51 issued a directive to his administrators, emphasizing, If there is any unused land within the areas under your control, there will be consequences. This commandment is based on the belief that the ruler's income primarily comes from taxes and fees, which are directly related to the prosperity of the kingdom. Increasing agricultural productivity is crucial for promoting prosperity and progress. It is important to prioritize the well-being and fair treatment of farmers in order to achieve 49 Zayn al-Din Sayyed Isma‘il ibn Husayn Gorgani, commonly referred to as al-Jurjani, was a renowned Persian scholar and physician who lived from approximately 1040 to 1136. He made significant contributions to his fields during the 12th century. Originating from Gorgan, Iran, he made noteworthy contributions to diverse fields such as medical and pharmaceutical sciences, theology, philosophy, and ethics. Gorgani, a significant figure during the Islamic Golden Age, was notably influenced by the works of Avicenna. 50 Qaseme Ibn-e Yousof Abunasr-e Heravi, Irshad al-Zera'eh, 1515. Edited by Mohammad Moshiri (Tehran: University of Tehran, 2011), 11 51 Khosrow I, traditionally known by his epithet of Anushirvan, was the Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 531 to 579. 54 these goals. The success of agricultural activities depends on how fairly they are treated and how well they are taken care of. 52 Abu Nasr Heravi recounts the treatment and approach of the Safavid kings towards agriculture and farmers. According to Heravi, when Sultan Mohammad Khodabanda (1532–1595), the fourth Safavid king, became aware of the mistreatment of farmers by his soldiers and commanders, he admonished them and expressed his disapproval, The unity, efficiency, and overall prosperity of our nation can be attributed to the diligent efforts of farmers. It is important to recognise that if we were to exploit and burden them, they may be compelled to abandon agriculture. This would raise concerns about our future food supply. 53 Together, these narratives combine to form a complex pattern that goes beyond time, giving us a diverse perspective on the lasting significance of agriculture's interconnectedness with food, influence, and the fundamental nature of life. They remind us that throughout different time periods and civilizations, the act of farming has always been closely connected to the survival of societies and the maintenance of control. Throughout history, there have been rulers who understood the importance of maintaining stability in agriculture. Scholars have also emphasized the crucial role of farmers in sustaining society. This highlights the fact that agriculture is not just about basic survival; it also plays a fundamental role in maintaining the balance of life and authority. The holistic perspective enhances our comprehension of the historical complexities that connect cultivation, governance, and human civilization. Similar to how seeds need nurturing to grow, societies have also relied on the careful management of 52 Abunasr-e Heravi, Irshad al-Zera'eh, 1515, 25. 53 Abunasr-e Heravi, Irshad al-Zera'eh, 1515, 25. 55 agriculture for their growth and resilience throughout history. However, the key to successful agriculture was the development of fertilizer, and pigeon towers were important in this regard. 3.2. Pigeon Towers in Iran Pigeon towers hold a significant place in Iran's architectural heritage, having been used for numerous centuries. These structures were specifically constructed to accommodate pigeons, which were highly regarded for their droppings that were utilized as valuable fertilizer in agricultural practices. They were also highly visible structures in the urban and suburban landscape, attesting to their patrons’ wealth and influence. The precise distribution of these towers throughout the country is not well documented. However, historical texts and remaining evidence suggest that the Isfahan region, including its rural areas, played a significant role in housing these towers. From the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, Isfahan served as the capital of the Safavid dynasty, which led to significant growth and influence in the region. During this time, there was a significant increase in the number of gardens, palaces, and pigeon towers. Together, these efforts demonstrated a deliberate attempt to strengthen and extend authority through architecture, particularly agricultural architecture. The Safavid support for the arts and architecture resulted in the development of magnificent works, including grand mosques, gardens, and palaces, that continue to serve as evidence of the empire's artistic excellence. Moreover, the strategic location of the dynasty's realm along significant trade routes played a crucial role in promoting extensive commercial endeavors, which in turn contributed to economic growth and facilitated cultural interchange. In addition, the Safavids' investment in a 56 strong military enabled them to safeguard their borders and increase their territories, thereby strengthening their political dominance in the region. During a time of stability and wealth, improvements in agricultural methods played a vital role in maintaining the empire's strength and prosperity. The incorporation of pigeon towers had a notable impact on improving agricultural productivity. This practice enhanced the quality of farmland and promoted plentiful food production. In this regard, Chardin stated, With the help of that manure, the land, whether sandy, stony, or clay, is made capable of all sorts of seeds, and there is some land that bears barley twice a year. In the neighborhood of great cities, the land never lies fallow; as soon as one sort of fruit is gathered, they set another. Two or three years after the land has been dug, it grows dry, but they dug it again presently and watered it, and then it recovers its former fruitfulness. 54 Therefore, the concentration of political power in Isfahan, being the capital city, correlates with a growth in pigeon tower construction in the region. Pigeon towers, while normally categorized as vernacular architecture, possessed notable cultural and royal significance in the Safavid era. The prevalence of these towers in Isfahan, particularly during the Safavid dynasty, underscores their significance as representations of the socio-economic and political environment of that era. The construction of these buildings required specific resources, expertise, and support, which were only available to people in positions of power and wealth. Dr. M.L. Dewan conducted a study on the soils of Iran, which was funded by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. In his report, he stated that the construction of an average-sized pigeon tower in Iran necessitates a team of twenty individuals, including 54 John Chardin, Travels in Persia, 1673–1677 (Newburyport: Dover, 2012), 335. 57 architects and laborers. This team would need approximately six months to complete the construction process. 55 This highlights the significant amount of effort and financial resources dedicated to constructing these remarkable buildings, which further emphasizes the exclusivity of the individuals responsible for their creation. The presence of pigeon towers in the Isfahan region can be attributed to several contributing factors, in addition to the concentration of political power in Isfahan. The tradition of pigeon breeding and rearing has been passed down through generations in Iran, particularly in Isfahan province, which has a rich and culturally significant history associated with this practice. This custom has become an integral part of Isfahan's culture and economy, resulting in pigeon towers becoming emblematic of the region's architecture and heritage. The study of the Safavid pigeon towers is enriched by Lady Mary Leonora Woulfe Sheil's observations, which serve as a valuable connection to the past, despite the significant time gap. Sheil, an Irish author and the wife of Sir Justin Sheil, British ambassador to Persia from 1836 to 1851, is well-known for her literary works on Persia, particularly her book "Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia," published in 1856, that provides valuable insights into the society, culture, and politics of mid-nineteenth-century Persia. She states, Ispahan is the land of promise for pigeons; they swarm like locusts and not only are never eaten, but are highly cherished and thrive accordingly. Their residences, high, malakhoff-looking towers painted white, dot the whole country, and these buildings are evidently objects of great care—much more so than any other edifices. 56 55 M.L. Dewan, Towers and Pigeon Guano in Iran (1955), 102–104, quoted in Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000), 57. 56 Lady Mary Sheil, Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia ( London: J. Murray, 1856), 231-2 58 Fascination with pigeons and their breeding is evident through the presence of historical texts like Kabutar nāmeh, written by Sayyed Moḥammad Musavi “Valih” (d. 1184/1770-71) during the eighteenth century. Valih was born in Khorasan but migrated to South Asia, first to Hyderabad and then to Arcot. 57 Despite being written in the South Asian region, this historical manuscript holds significance for us due to its Iranian authorship and Persian language. Additionally, it dates back to the early Safavid period. An illustrated copy of the text was completed in 1788 in South Asia. The manuscript presents different types of pigeon breeds, including details about their colors, characteristics, and information about pigeon flying. It is written in Persian and is accompanied by miniature paintings and illustrated panels. 58 Figure 11 illustrates a significant image in this manuscript. In the image, a gathering of affluent individuals is depicted, proudly displaying their diverse assortment of pigeon species. Every pigeon in the manuscript is depicted with meticulous detail, which highlights the importance of these birds within the manuscript's cultural context. Men are participating in lighthearted interactions with these pigeons, demonstrating their profound enthusiasm for these avian creatures. The depiction successfully communicates the deep bond between humans and pigeons, a theme that is also reflected in the author's poems, as he mentions, رظن ندرک رد نيا رهظم رورض تسا/ هگن ار تحار و ناج ار رورس تسا رتوبک یاه ام زجعم دنزارط/لد ره هتسخ ار تجهب دنزاون 57 Ursula Sims-Williams, “Pigeon Keeping: A Popular Mughal Pastime. British Library,” Asian and African Studies, February 23, 2013. https://blogs.bl.uk/asian-and-african/2013/02/pigeon-keeping-a-popular-mughal-pastime.html?p=4. 58 Sayyed Mohammad Musavi Valih, “Kabutar nāmeh,” accessed December 2, 2023, https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=IO_Islamic_4811. 59 One mustn't underestimate the significance of observing pigeons, for they embody a wellspring of tranquility and joy. Behold, our magnificent pigeons, whose grace and charm possess the power to uplift even the weariest of souls, filling them with boundless joy. 59 Figure 11 Unknown (painter, calligrapher, outliner). Cover page of Kabutarnameh by “Valih”. India, 1788. Opaque watercolour, ink, on paper, 260 x 150 mm (leaf). British Library, Oriental and India Office Collection, London, UK, IO Islamic 4811, fol. 1v. (artwork in the public domain) The geographic and climatic factors in Isfahan province significantly contributed to the abundance of pigeon towers in the region. The area experiences a moderate climate with low levels of humidity, which creates a favorable setting for the breeding and raising of pigeons. 59 Valih, “Kabutar nāmeh.” 60 Moreover, the ample availability of agricultural lands and water resources in the province has played a crucial role in maintaining the necessary feed and water provisions for pigeons. The strategic crossing of the Zayandeh-Rud river in the Isfahan plains has helped make this region the most water-rich area in central Iran. According to Hadizadeh,60 certain areas in Isfahan province are recognized for their significant concentration of these architectural features. The areas included in this study are Golpayegan and Khwansar counties in the northwest, Lenjan region in the southwest of Isfahan city, Gavart village in Khorasgan city, and the eastern side of Isfahan city. Although there is limited, comprehensive documentation on the geographical distribution of pigeon towers in Iran, some research efforts have attempted to fill this gap. The Borj-e Kabutar Project 61 is currently working on pigeon towers in Iran and developing a detailed distribution map of these structures using an online Geographic Information System (GIS) map. This map will effectively display the clustering of pigeon towers within Isfahan province. 3.3. From Manure to Money: The Economic Significance of Pigeon Towers in Iran The primary motivation behind the establishment of pigeon towers in Isfahan was their practical utility as a valuable source of fertilizer. As a result, a significant number of pigeon towers were built in Isfahan. The presence of effective fertilizer has played a significant role in boosting crop productivity, improving the overall quality of crops, and promoting the local economy. In addition, the trade of pigeon droppings presented economic prospects for both pigeon owners and farmers, contributing to the expansion of the agricultural sector. 60 Saeid Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, Kabutar Khaneh Dar Iran [Pigeon House in Iran], (Tehran: Cultural Studies publication, 2006), 46 61 “WebGIS,” Borj-e Kabotar, accessed August 7, 2023, https://borjekabotar.com/webgis/. 61 The pigeon towers and their products in Iran held significance that went beyond their agricultural purposes, as they had broader social and economic implications. This fertilizer, made from pigeon droppings, was highly sought-after and exchanged between pigeon keepers and farmers. In 1903, William Jackson, a well-known professor of Indo-Iranian languages at Columbia University, undertook a six-month expedition to Persia. This journey follows his previous trips to India and Ceylon. He primarily concentrated on scientific research, specifically focusing on the study of Zoroaster. Jackson examined different cities, monuments, and ancient structures while he was traveling. 62 His observations provided a valuable scholarly viewpoint on the history and culture of the region. The distinguishing feature of his work is the abundant visual material found in his book, such as photographs, charts, and reproductions of monuments. The book contains a wealth of visual material that is important for individuals who have an interest in the history and culture of Iran and Central Asia. It offers a vibrant depiction of the cultural heritage of the region, making it an indispensable resource. As reported by Williams Jackson, 63 pigeon towers played a significant role in providing a lucrative source of income for people involved in the trade of bird droppings as fertilizer for nearby fields. This highlights the significant economic importance of pigeon towers in Iran's agricultural methods, emphasizing their essential role in enabling the use of pigeon droppings as a natural and efficient fertilizer. 62 Henri Cordier, “Review,” T’oung Pao 8 (4): 581–85 (1907): 581 63 Williams Jackson, Persia Past and Present : A Book of Travel and Research (NewYork: The Macmillan Company, 1906), 263 62 According to Sir John Chardin,64 a well-known French traveler and observer of Persian society during the seventeenth century, pigeon towers in Iran were not subject to any specific regulations or restrictions, except for the requirement to pay a tax known as the "Dung Tax." Nevertheless, he observed that the construction and ownership of these structures were restricted to Muslims, suggesting that the financial resources for their building and maintenance typically came from wealthy Muslim individuals who could afford the associated expenses. According to Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz,65 pigeon towers were highly significant in the past and widely seen as beneficial, representing a distinct advantage for their holders and functioned as manifestations of power, personality, taste, and social status. The exclusivity of these towers for the most affluent individuals in society enhanced their desirability and impressiveness. Undoubtedly, individuals who were privileged to own a pigeon tower regarded it as a representation of their esteemed position and significant impact within the community. Even in more recent times, the ownership of pigeon towers in Iran seems to have been limited to wealthy and privileged individuals. During a research trip to the Isfahan region, Beazley 66 observed a notable example of a well-maintained pigeon tower owned by Colonel Zahedi, a prosperous military officer. The tower in question, situated in Chaharborj village about thirty kilometers south of the Isfahan, is said to have housed 10,000 birds and provided a significant source of income for the village (Fig. 12). Although Beazley's account does not explicitly mention the specific source of income from Colonel Zahedi's pigeon tower, it can be 64 Chardin, Travels in Persia, 243 65 Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000), 179 66 Elisabeth Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 4, no. 1, (1966): 105-9 63 inferred from the context that the economic value most likely came from the pigeon manure rather than the pigeons themselves or renting the tower. Figure 12 Unknown photographer, The Chahar-Borj pigeon tower located Falavarjan, Isfahan, before renovation, accessed March30, 2023, https://newsfalavarjan.ir (photograph in the public domain) These observations highlight the close relationship between pigeon towers and economic and social status. The pigeon tower, once Zahedi, has recently undergone renovations and is currently open to the public as a tourist attraction. However, it no longer serves as a habitat for pigeons (Fig. 13). Figure 13 Unknown photographer, The Chahar-Borj pigeon tower after renovation, accessed March 30, 2023, https://asriran.com (photograph in the public domain) 64 In 1931, Frederick Charles Richards, a British artist and traveler, wrote the book "A Persian Journey." This book documented his nine-month exploration of Iran. The book is a valuable tool for studying the history and culture of Iran. It includes unique illustrations that provide insights into Iran during the early twentieth century. The book is a captivating narrative that offers insight into Iran's cultural heritage, thanks to Richards' personal journey and commitment to documenting his experiences. According to Richards, 67 during the rule of Shah Abbas, farmers who aimed to grow superior melons faced considerable costs in procuring fertilizers from proprietors of pigeon towers. Despite the economic challenges, these farmers acknowledged the benefits of utilizing pigeon manure as a fertilizer for cultivating various crops, such as melons and watermelons. They were willing to invest in these fertilizers, despite the expenses involved, in order to guarantee successful yields. Therefore, the existence of pigeon towers and the use of pigeon manure as a fertilizer had a significant influence on the local economy and the distribution of power in the community. Richards establishes a correlation between the centralization of power in Isfahan, the capital of the Safavid dynasty, and the flourishing of agriculture and the abundance of pigeon towers. The decline and eventual abandonment of the pigeon houses occurred when Isfahan was no longer the capital, leading to a decrease in the demand for high-quality melons. This suggests that political and economic factors were important to the success and prosperity of agriculture during the Safavid period, as mentioned earlier. C.J. Wills, another English traveler who lived from 1842 to 1912, documented his experiences as a medical officer for the Indo-European Telegraph Department. He served in this 67 Fred Richards, Safarname-ye Fred Richards [A Persian Journey], trans. Mahindokht Saba (Tehran: Elmifarhangi, 2011), 109 65 role for fifteen years, specifically from 1866 to 1881, primarily stationed in Hamadan, Isfahan, and Shiraz. His writings provide extensive information about the social life in Persian provinces during the middle years of Nāser-al Din Shāh's reign. In a similar vein, Wills 68 observes a connection between the concentration of political power in Isfahan during the Safavid period and the agricultural success of the area, which is evident in the prevalent presence of pigeon towers. Although pigeon tower owners incurred minimal expenses for bird feeding, as the birds primarily searched for food outside the towers and only returned to rest and reproduce, the demand for melons and watermelons in the Isfahan market decreased due to the relocation of the Safavid capital to Tehran. As a result, the economic feasibility of constructing and maintaining these towers became impractical, which ultimately resulted in their abandonment and subsequent decline. In summary, the use of pigeon manure as a fertilizer and the construction of pigeon towers had a significant impact on the agricultural practices and economic development of Iran. These structures had a significant impact on improving soil quality and increasing crop yields, as well as having wider social and economic implications. The pigeon towers in Iran have significant historical importance as they highlight the complex relationships between agricultural practices, economic growth, and social structures in influencing the course of human civilizations. 68 C. J. Wills, In the Land of the Lion and Sun (Washington, D.C.: Mage Publishers, 2004), 130 66 Manure Prices and Tower Taxations The examination of historical sources provides a valuable viewpoint for studying the various aspects of pigeon towers in Iran and their significance in Persianate gardens, orchards, and farms. Some of these historical sources reveal interesting information about the acquisition and trade of pigeon waste. They cover various aspects, including pricing, taxation, and the intriguing practice of purchasing, selling, and renting pigeon towers. These reports and studies provide insight into the economic aspects of pigeon waste, as well as the social and cultural dynamics associated with its exchange and trade. Based on historical records, the renowned French traveler and chronicler Chardin recorded that in the Isfahan region of Iran, pigeon droppings were traded based on their weight. He stated, It is sold a bisty, or four-penny, the twelve-pound weight. 69 It is important to mention that people were obligated to pay a small fee to the government in order to obtain permission for building pigeon towers and for selling pigeon dung. In a study conducted by Beazley,70 the author examined the cost of pigeon manure in Isfahan during the 1970s. The findings indicated that the estimated price was around 7 Rials per kilogram. Additionally, Beazley's research reveals that during the early nineteenth century, a pigeon tower could generate an income of approximately one hundred Tomans per year. This amount was regarded as substantial during that particular era. This information emphasizes the economic significance of pigeon manure and the potential income generated by pigeon towers in 69 Chardin, Travels in Persia, 243 70 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 107 67 Iran, highlighting their importance as valuable economic resources. Beazley observed that pigeon towers in Iran were still in use during her time, primarily for the purpose of collecting manure. The author also mentioned that this specific fertilizer is regarded as the most expensive in Iran. It is mixed with ash and soil in different ratios to suit various agricultural products. Some accounts provide insight on the ownership and pricing of pigeon towers in Iran. Based on Dewan's research, privately owned pigeon towers, as opposed to those in the public domain, generally had a higher market value. 71 This can be attributed to the increased level of maintenance provided by individual farmers. As an illustration, Dewan documented the sale of a substantial tower for a sum of two hundred thousand Rials. It is worth noting that the exchange rate at the time was one-dollar equivalent to 80 Rials, and 18 Rials were equivalent to one Indian rupee. Furthermore, a tower that was three years old was allegedly exchanged for a sum ranging from 30,000 to 40,000 Rials. The findings highlight important economic factors related to the ownership and valuation of pigeon towers in Iran. Factors such as the maintenance and age of the towers can affect their market value. Overall, the economic aspects of pigeon manure and pigeon towers in Iran are closely connected to social, cultural, and historical factors, as indicated by reports and findings from multiple sources. These observations enhance our comprehension of the economic worth linked to pigeon towers in Iran and their importance in the agricultural and economic environment of the area. 71 Dewan,Towers and Pigeon Guano In Iran, 59 68 3.4. Pigeon Towers: Visual Symbols of Power and Prestige Pigeon towers also played a crucial symbolic and aesthetic role in the Persianate garden landscape, which is frequently ignored. The presence of a pigeon tower in a royal garden or orchard highlights the esteemed position of these buildings within society. Pigeon towers served not only as practical structures for agricultural needs but also as representations of affluence, authority, and social standing. The existence of a pigeon tower in a royal garden indicates that these buildings were considered prestigious and desirable and were sought after by individuals who had the resources to construct and upkeep them. According to Kaempfer, 72 the erection of pigeon towers was frequently employed to elevate the standing and reputation of a structure like a garden or an orchard. By constructing them to be taller than the neighboring buildings, they attracted the notice of individuals passing by from afar, functioning as a representation of magnificence and awe-inspiring qualities. James Justinian Morier, an English diplomat, traveler, and writer, made note of the presence of decorative painting and murals on the pigeon towers during his observations from 1810 to 1816. Additionally, he posits that there appears to have been a higher level of focus and consideration given to the outward appearance of these towers in contrast to most residential structures, More care appears to have been bestowed upon their outside than upon that of the generality of the dwelling houses, for they are painted and ornamented. 73 72 Engelbert Kaempfer, Amoenitatum exoticarum politico-physico-medicarum fasciculi V (Lemgoviae: Henrici Wilhelmi Meyeri, 1712).195 73 James Justinian Morier, A Second Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor to Constantinople, between the Years 1810 and 1816 (London: Longman, 1846), https://go.exlibris.link/6XBKGbpm, 140 69 These statements emphasize that the construction of pigeon towers had both practical and symbolic importance. It was not solely about providing shelter for the birds but also about displaying wealth and magnificence. The visual appeal of pigeon towers is easily noticeable due to their detailed brickwork and decorations. This highlights the fact that these structures serve both practical purposes and artistic expressions that bring visual pleasure. It seems that pigeon towers owned by wealthy individuals exhibited prominent visual and artistic characteristics. One example can be the insertion of poems and artwork into the plastered surfaces of the Chahar-borj village tower, which was previously mentioned (Fig. 14). The central cylinder of the Chahar-borj village tower in Isfahan features poems and artwork displayed on its plastered surfaces. Figure 14 Decorative calligraphy of The Chahar-Borj pigeon tower, Isfahan (photograph by Reza Asgari provided by the author) Another astonishing example is a decorated and painted tower in Pir-Bakran in Isfahan, which was photographed in 1970 by Beazley (Fig. 15). In this regard, she stated, 70 The decoration, in cobalt blue, black, and red ochre on white, depicts traditional stylized birds and flowers and a man (the owner?) in a big black hat. We were told that they had been painted about thirty years before. These vigorous and exceptionally attractive designs typify the Persian traditional enjoyment in, and masterly management of, pattern and color: here bands which are densely filled with elaborate decoration are boldly contrasted with areas of blank wall space.74 Figure 15 Elisabeth Beazley, A painted pigeon tower near Pir-Bakran, 1977, from SOME VERNACULAR BUILDINGS OF THE IRANIAN PLATEAU, Taylor & Francis, n.d., fig. IV Regrettably, inadequate attempts to restore the pigeon towers have occasionally resulted in the neglect and destruction of their visual characteristics, such as wall paintings. For example, 74 Elisabeth Beazley, “Some Vernacular Buildings of the Iranian Plateau," Iran 15 (1977): 89–102. https://doi.org/10.2307/4300566. 71 the recent restorations of the Pir-Bakran Tower have resulted in the destruction of its paintings (Fig. 16). Apparently the Bagh-e Hezār Jarib 's towers were once adorned with grand and majestic wall paintings. However, these paintings were unfortunately lost over time and during the restoration process. Figure 16 Lost paintings of the Pir-Bakran pigeon tower after recent restorations, Pir-Bakran, Isfahan (photograph by Reza Asgari provided by the author) The aesthetic appeal of the towers was highly remarkable, eliciting inspiration among international visitors and travelers. The individuals crafted artistic depictions of the towers, to the extent that Jackson himself found inspiration and expressed his thoughts on the towers in the following manner, 72 A peculiar feature of the landscape is the large number of pigeon towers which line the sides of the road and dot the plain beyond. These turreted columbaries, which are built of clay and brick and look like windmills that have lost their arms and sails, provide shelter for myriads of pigeons. 75 In a poetic homage to pigeon towers, Beazley expressed equal fascination with their exceptional aesthetic appeal and unique characteristics. She states, Generations of travellers have recorded the marvels of Isfahan, and most have been sufficiently amazed and intrigued to comment on the extraordinary pigeon towers which dot the hazy green sea of orchards and gardens surrounding the city. Massive in scale, these towers seem to be incongruously out of context; they might be naval forts stranded hundreds of miles inland or chessmen waiting for the mastermind of a remote giant. 76 The significance of these towers, which is often disregarded, is integral to the beauty of this captivating landscape. In addition to their practical purpose, they serve as symbols of wealth, influence, and social status, reflecting stories of prosperity and grandeur. The buildings communicate through complex brickwork and captivating decorations, enhancing the atmosphere around them like a sophisticated language of elegance. The enduring allure of these individuals remains evident over time, as evidenced by the poetic descriptions of their admirers, such as Jackson and Beazley. The pigeon towers are more than just buildings; they represent human creativity, ambition, and the ongoing balance between practicality and aesthetics in the cycle of existence. 3.5. Conclusion This chapter explores the complex connection between Persianate gardens and orchards, pigeon towers, and centres of power, with a specific emphasis on the Safavid period. It provides 75 Jackson, Persia Past and Present : A Book of Travel and Research, 262 76 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 105 73 a diverse viewpoint on the interaction between agriculture, authority, economics, and aesthetics and examines the historical and cultural importance of pigeon towers as representations of wealth and power, with a particular focus on their function in displaying social status and prestige. In Safavid Iran, gardens, palaces, and pigeon towers coexisted in a harmonious manner, serving as symbols of power and authority. The incorporation of pigeon towers, which functioned as both agricultural facilities and symbols of social standing, provides an interesting viewpoint on their role within the community. The section Distribution of Pigeon Towers in Iran considers Isfahan's importance as a central location for these buildings, connecting various factors such as economy, climate, and culture. The presence of numerous towers in Isfahan during the Safavid era was a result of the concentration of power in the city. This also emphasizes the interconnectedness of architecture, agriculture, and political influence. The chapter also considers the use of pigeon manure as a valuable resource, revealing an intriguing economic aspect. Pigeon towers enhanced agricultural productivity, facilitating a trade network and thereby stimulating economic growth. The analysis of historical records on manure prices and tower taxations illuminates the economic value of this resource and its relationship with the social and economic structure. Furthermore, the examination of pigeon towers as visual representations of authority and status effectively demonstrates their dual function as impressive architectural structures and indicators of social hierarchy. The utilisation of first-hand testimonies, such as the poetic depictions by Jackson and Beazley, effectively captures the captivating visual appeal and profound sense of wonder that these towers evoked. This chapter serves as evidence of the complex relationships that exist among gardens, pigeon towers, and power dynamics within Persian society. By conducting historical analysis 74 and providing carefully selected examples, we explored the various aspects of symbolism, economics, and aesthetics associated with these frequently disregarded structures. The detailed examination enhances our overall comprehension of how pigeon towers and gardens were interconnected, showcasing the magnificence, impact, and cultural complexities of Persia's history. 75 Chapter 4: Collecting and Using Pigeon Manure in Gardens and Agriculture The observations of researchers, foreign travelers, and historians demonstrate that Iranian farmers have long understood the value of fertilization. Specifically, they used pigeon manure to cultivate crops, particularly vegetables. The utilization of pigeon excrement in Persianate gardens and agriculture served as a pragmatic approach to address the issue of preserving fertile soil in a region characterized by high temperatures and limited rainfall. 77 The dry climate of the region resulted in soil that frequently lacked necessary nutrients, posing challenges for agricultural cultivation. The utilization of pigeon manure, which contains significant amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, offered a viable and environmentally friendly resolution to this issue. In this chapter, a comprehensive method is used that combines primary and secondary sources to examine the various aspects of pigeon manure in Persian pigeon towers located in the Hezār Jarib garden, including the Mardavij tower. The methodology I used involves a thorough examination of historical records and current research, enabling me to gather a wide range of perspectives on the production and use of pigeon manure. This chapter examines the historical importance of pigeon manure in Persianate agriculture. It specifically focuses on key texts such as Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat. We will look at the practical aspects related to the maintenance, feeding, management, and provision of sustenance for pigeons in towers. We discuss the methods used to produce and extract fertilizers from these structures. By synthesizing information, we aim to quantify the 77 W. Bayu, N. F. G. Rethman, and P. S. Hammes, “The Role of Animal Manure in Sustainable Soil Fertility Management in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review.” Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 25 ,2 (2005): 113 76 yearly production of manure from these towers and investigate the extent to which agricultural land is enriched by this organic fertilizer. This chapter enhances the thesis by incorporating information from historical texts, scholarly viewpoints, and practical examples. It offers a comprehensive understanding of how pigeon manure was used in Persian agriculture, taking into account its historical, ecological, and cultural aspects. The collaborative approach places significant emphasis on the circular economy, which is deeply rooted in ancient practices. This perspective provides a valuable framework for current agricultural discussions. 4.1. Pigeon Manure Utilization in a Historical Book: Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat The methods and procedures used to gather and use pigeon excrement in Persianate gardens and agriculture are described in various sources. These sources offer insightful information about the agricultural practices employed in ancient Persia. Through the study of these texts, we can develop a deeper understanding of the conventional agricultural methods employed in managing Persianate gardens and farms. These methods encompass various activities such as the collection, extraction, and combination of manures. One key work is the Persian text Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat (About the Knowledge of Some Agricultural Matters). 78 The exact date it was written and the specific author are unknown. According to Taghi Bahrami, it is postulated that the earliest version of this 78 The manuscript of this book was included in Abdul Ghafar Najm al-Dawlah's three-volume collection titled "Dar ālam-e Felāhat wa Zerāʿat" in 1905, using lithography. Moreover, in the year 1980, the book titled "Shenkhti Az Keshvarzi-e Sonnati-e Iran" was successfully published by the Bongah-e Tarjomeh va Nashr-e Ketab publication, thanks to the diligent endeavors of Ahmadreza Yavari. Furthermore, the book in question was authored by Iraj Afshar and published by Mirās-e Maktub in 2006. We used the edition published in 1980 by Yavari, as previously mentioned, for our reference. 77 treatise was written by an individual named Muhammad Ibn-e Ali in the year 1598.79 However, it is evident that Muhammad Ibn Ali was just one of many scribes who participated in transcribing the contents of this work, suggesting that the text may have originated earlier. This collection consists of twelve chapters that discuss various aspects of farming and agriculture. The collection concludes with a section specifically focused on pigeons and pigeon houses. The author emphasizes the significance of constructing towers within gardens to facilitate pigeon nesting and the production of fertilizer, Traditionally, it was customary for peasants to construct pigeon houses within their fields and gardens due to the advantageous properties of pigeon dung. This practice proved highly beneficial for the cultivation of crops and the growth of trees. 80 The author highlights the importance of this practice for preserving soil fertility and achieving successful agricultural outcomes. The text also includes a list of more than sixteen types of fertilizers, such as pigeon manure, with great detail. He states, The droppings produced by birds have been found to be useful for fertilizing agricultural fields and encouraging the growth of trees. However, it is important to note that duck excrement may have negative effects. Pigeon excrement is widely acknowledged as the most effective avian droppings for fertilization purposes. 81 At one point, the author discusses a method for using pigeon manure to increase the productivity of fruit trees, 79 Ahmadreza Yavari, Shenkhti Az Keshvarzi-e Sonnati-e Iran [An Understanding of the Traditional Agriculture of Iran] (Tehran: Bongah-e Tarjomeh va Nashr-e Ketab, 1980) 38 80 Muhammad Ibn-e Ali, Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat, quotes in Ahmadreza Yavari, Shenākhti Az Keshāvarzi-e Sonnati-e Iran [An Understanding of the Traditional Agriculture of Iran] (Tehran: Bongah-e Tarjomeh va Nashr-e Ketab, 2005), 165. 81 Ibn-e Ali, Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat, 106 78 Pigeon excreta that has been dissolved in water and then applied via the branch application process results in an increase in yield. 82 According to the text, pigeon guano is a strong beneficial amendment that should be carefully combined with other organic fertilizers to avoid any potentially harmful effects from excessive application. The author also suggests mixing plant seeds with pigeon guano as a way to increase agricultural yield. In addition to this advice, the author emphasizes the necessity of pre-irrigating the planting substrate before sowing. 83 It seems a preventative measure is recommended to lessen the danger of seedling combustion caused by the exothermic characteristics of the fertilizer ingredients. As the author states, In order to increase yield potential, it has been recommended to mix the dung of pigeons or other birds with the seeds of the plant they want to plant. This compositional mixture requires implantation in a sufficiently moist soil environment. Because the developing seeds are vulnerable to burning effects if the implantation occurs in dry terrain, resulting in reduced yields. 84 As we have seen, Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat is but one illustration of the vast history of agricultural knowledge that existed in Persia, as well as the important role that pigeon manure played in preserving the fertility of the soil and promoting the growth of plants. 82 Ibn-e Ali, Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat, 116 83 Ibn-e Ali, Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat, 105 84 Ibn-e Ali, Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat, 105 79 4.2. Towers as Agricultural Technology Upon examining the primary historical document pertaining to pigeon fertilizer, it is crucial to direct our focus towards the towers that served as habitats for these birds. Specifically, we should investigate their design, the techniques employed for maintaining, overseeing, and nourishing the pigeons within these towers, as well as the processes involved in producing and extracting fertilizer from these edifices. Pigeon towers can be considered innovative agricultural machines that demonstrate a distinct system for producing fertilizer. Their design and operation depended on the zoological knowledge of pigeons. These architectural structures were carefully designed to provide a suitable habitat for pigeons. Pigeons, which were commonly found in urban and rural areas, inhabited these tall structures. Then they made contributions to their environment through their natural behaviors, which include nesting, breeding, and producing waste. Pigeons residing in towers provided a valuable contribution in the form of their droppings, which served as a significant source of fertilizer. Farmers collected and utilized organic waste, which served as a crucial resource for enriching the soil and improving crop growth in nearby gardens and farms. The pigeon towers served as effective mechanisms for converting the natural actions of pigeons into valuable agricultural assets, highlighting the relationships between humans, animals, and the environment in traditional farming methods. Every aspect of the towers, from their meticulous construction and maintenance that ensured ideal conditions for pigeon habitation to the careful monitoring, feeding, and management of pigeon populations, was given thorough attention and played a vital role in the operation of this traditional agricultural system. The extraction of valuable fertilizer produced by pigeons was a careful and precise procedure aimed at achieving the highest possible amount of fertilizer for use. A closer examination of the towers provides valuable insights into the complex 80 mechanisms of pigeon towers and their important role in shaping historical agricultural geography. 4.2.1. Optimizing Pigeon Care In order for towers to work effectively as collection facilities for pigeon manure, knowledge of ideal pigeon behaviour and best practices in their management needed to be incorporated into tower design. According to Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, pigeon breeders commonly held the belief that the main factor affecting a pigeon's ability to return to its designated location and its hesitation to leave the tower was the quality and comfort of its nest. 85 This highlights the essential importance of maintaining and managing the pigeon towers. The careful construction and maintenance of the towers helped create an environment that promoted a feeling of safety and familiarity for the pigeons. By placing importance on the welfare and ease of the pigeons, breeders and tower owners guaranteed the birds' ongoing presence and involvement in the tower, thereby creating a mutually beneficial relationship between birds and people. The author of Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat suggested that, in general, pigeon housing should be constructed based on certain guidelines, The selected site for the pigeon house should have a high position. It is essential to consider providing a well-crafted wooden perch (ledge) in front of each dwelling for the pigeons so that they may find a suitable place to rest. In order to safeguard the pigeons from bothersome creatures, some craftsmen dig four pillars into the ground and subsequently raise the pigeon house upon these steadfast foundations. 86 85 Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000), 30 86 Ibn-e Ali, Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat, 166 81 Providing ledges allowed pigeons to rest and observe their surroundings (Fig. 1). These specific details demonstrate the careful consideration given to the design and functionality of pigeon houses in ancient agricultural practices. The author of Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat possessed extensive knowledge in the fields of agriculture, animal husbandry, and pigeon behavior, which allowed them to offer additional helpful guidance. The author advised, They (the owners) should refrain from spending too much time in the pigeon house, as it disturbs the tranquility of the pigeons. 87 This approach aimed to mitigate any potential negative effects or disruptions that may have arisen from excessive movement. The tranquility within the towers played a significant role in enhancing the quantity of pigeon excrement. By limiting access to the towers, the owners aimed to maintain a peaceful environment that would be conducive to the pigeons' overall welfare. In this regard, the process of collecting pigeons from pigeon towers was conducted on an annual basis. 88 After each waste removal, the door of the pigeon towers would be sealed or bricked up and then covered with plaster. According to Beazley, 89 the restriction on entering pigeon towers was so strict that it became extremely difficult to gain access to any operational tower for architectural documentation. 87 Ibn-e Ali, Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat, 166 88 Fred Richards, Safarname-ye Fred Richards [A Persian Journey], trans. Mahindokht Saba (Tehran: Elmifarhangi, 2011), 109. Elisabeth Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 4, no. 1, (1966): 107. C. J. Wills, In the Land of the Lion and Sun (Washington, D.C: Mage Publishers, 2004) 130 89 Elisabeth Beazley, “Some Vernacular Buildings of the Iranian Plateau," Iran 15 (1977): 89–102. https://doi.org/10.2307/4300566, 102 82 Likewise, it is worth noting that some previous rulers took steps to ensure the safety and well-being of the pigeons by implementing various security measures. For instance, one such measure involved prohibiting hunting activities within a specific radius of the towers. One illustrative instance involved the regulations implemented by Ghazan Khan Mughal, 90 which are mentioned in the book of Jami al-Tawarikh. This source is a historical chronicle authored by Rashid al-Din Hamadani, a Persian historian, physician, and statesman, during the 14th century. This extensive piece of literature encompasses a wide range of historical occurrences, societies, and geographic areas, rendering it one of the most all-encompassing histories of its era. The author integrates information from diverse sources, such as Persian, Arabic, and Chinese manuscripts. This text holds significance and relevance to our study due to its comprehensive coverage of historical events as well as its inclusion of geographical, ethnographic, and religious aspects. According to this historical text, The great king of Islam (Ghazan Khan) issued a decree forbidding his soldiers from seizing the pigeons and birds owned by the people. He also commanded that traps should not be set near any pigeon towers. 91 Additional evidence exists regarding the prohibition of pigeon hunting around the pigeon towers. For instance, Morier, who visited Iran between 1810 and 1816, mentions, 90 Mahmud Ghazan (1271–1304) served as the seventh ruler of the Ilkhanate division in Iran within the Mongol Empire, reigning from 1295 to 1304. 91 Rashid al-Din Hamadani, and Muhammad Rawshan, Jāmiʻ Al-Tavārikh: Tārikh-e Iran va Islam [Compendium of Histories] (Tehran: Markaz-e Pazhuheshi-e Mirās-ie Maktub, 2013), 348 83 No regulations are in force against shooting pigeons on the wing or in a field, but if they are shot at when perched on a pigeon-house, the complaints are soon made. 92 According to Dewan, certain limitations on hunting have been upheld in more recent periods too. 93 This restriction aimed to create a secure zone where the pigeons could thrive without the threat of being hunted. When building pigeon houses, the main focus was on ensuring the birds' comfort and safety. 94 These houses were strategically positioned in secure areas with convenient access to water and seeds to fulfill the birds' requirements. Sufficient ventilation and heating systems were essential to create favorable conditions for pigeons to breed and care for their offspring. To address the issue of pigeons having difficulty seeing in the dark, measures were taken to facilitate the entry of natural light into the tower. This was achieved by incorporating openings on the sides or top of the structure (Fig. 17). 92 James Justinian Morier, A Second Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor to Constantinople, between the Years 1810 and 1816 (London: Longman, 1846), https://go.exlibris.link/6XBKGbpm, 140 93 M.L. Dewan, Towers and Pigeon Guano in Iran (1955), 102–104, quoted in Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000), 59 94 Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan, 180 84 Figure 17 Unknown photographer, Roosts, ledges, and exit and entry points within the Mardavij pigeon tower, accessed October 22, 2023, www.fa.tripyar.com (photograph in the public domain) Good design could enhance fertility, and more pigeons inevitably meant greater production of fertilizer. Although, in general, egg-laying rates tended to be lower during cold seasons in comparison to other times of the year, the towers provided a warm and comfortable environment and helped promote ongoing egg-laying. 95 Well-fed pigeons were productive pigeons, so knowledge of their feeding preferences was essential. In Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat, the author points out that pigeons were inclined towards different types of seeds, such as ajwain, mung bean, fenugreek, lentil, black seed, and notably cumin seed, which appears to be their preferred choice. 96 95 Ibn-e Ali, Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat, 165-166 96 Ibn-e Ali, Dar Maʿrefat-e Baʿzi Omur-e Felāhat, 166. 85 Similarly, contemporary scholar M.L. Dewan highlights the connection between the act of feeding pigeons in colder seasons, the selection of specific types of feed such as wheat, barley, millet, grass seeds, alfalfa, and legumes, and the financial sustainability of the towers. He emphasizes the essential role of millet grain and states that the pigeons in each tower were manually fed with an average daily feed of around 120 kg of millet grain by their owners in winter. 97 Dewan highlights the significant benefit of adequately addressing manual feeding practices during the winter. Failure to provide manual feeding can result in negative consequences, including a decrease in pigeon manure production and an increased likelihood of pigeon death. 98 Although Dewan does not provide a precise definition of manual feeding, it seems to involve caretakers preparing seeds and dispersing them in the area surrounding the tower rather than inside it. This conclusion is based on the previous discussion about the importance of reducing the number of entries and exits in the tower. Dewan insightfully acknowledges that the consumption of crops by pigeons inevitably led to a decrease in grain yield. 99 However, the advantages of using pigeon waste as fertilizer were greater than the disadvantages because it was highly effective in improving soil fertility and stimulating the growth of plants. The overall improvement in crop yield greatly surpassed the losses incurred from pigeon cultivation; the benefits outweighed the costs. The challenge was to find the middle ground between maximizing the production of pigeon waste as a valuable fertilizer resource and minimizing the potential decrease in grain production. 97 Dewan, Towers and Pigeon Guano In Iran, 60. 98 Dewan,Towers and Pigeon Guano In Iran, 60. 99 Dewan,Towers and Pigeon Guano In Iran, 61. 86 Investing in bird feeding during the winter season was found to be beneficial in various ways, despite the economic cost. 100 This strategy effectively discouraged pigeons from departing the tower, thereby guaranteeing their ongoing presence and uninterrupted nesting activities. Moreover, this practice served as a method of enticing other pigeons to the tower, inhibiting their dispersion, and fostering a feeling of steadiness. 4.2.2. The Amount of Produced Manure in Towers What was the quantity of fertilizer generated by a pigeon tower, and what was the extent of agricultural land and gardens that could be fertilized by the output of each tower? In this section, we aim to provide an approximate response to inquiries regarding pigeon towers, with a particular focus on the Mardavij tower. Our analysis is primarily based on the data and figures presented in various reports, with a particular emphasis on the statistics provided by Dewan. It is noteworthy that Dewan himself recognized the reliance of his data on information collected from local farmers, and he has not encountered any other credible sources in this particular area. 101 The amount of fertilizer produced by each individual pigeon was contingent upon a number of different elements. When each individual pigeon is kept in a confined cage, Hadiadeh's observations and estimates 102 indicate that the pigeon has the ability to contribute around five kilograms of fertilizer each year. However, in the case of pigeons who live in the towers, where they have the freedom to move about and access a greater range of resources, the yearly collection of fertilizer from each pigeon is anticipated to be significantly lower. Pigeons 100 Saeid Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, Kabutar Khaneh Dar Iran [Pigeon House in Iran], (Tehran: Cultural Studies publication, 2006), 47 101 Dewan,Towers and Pigeon Guano In Iran, 61 102 Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, Kabutar Khaneh Dar Iran, 22 87 that live in the towers also have access to a wider variety of food sources. The ability of the pigeons to forage for other food sources beyond what is supplied within the limits of a cage is likely the cause of this differential in fertilizer production. Likewise, there was considerable variability in the quantity of fertilizer produced in each pigeon tower. Dewan stated that this amount was between 600 and 3000 kilograms per year. 103 Although he did not mention any more detail about the reasons for this, it can be understood that this range was determined by considering several factors that have a significant impact on the quantity of fertilizer present. To begin, the population of pigeons living in a tower had a direct influence on the amount of waste generated. An increase in the population of pigeons leads to a corresponding increase in the production of fertilizer. Given this account and taking into consideration that the Mardavij tower was among the largest pigeon towers in Iran with approximately fifteen thousand nests, 104 one can infer that this tower annually yielded the highest amount of fertilizer, as indicated by Dewan's statistics about bigger towers—roughly 3000 kilograms per year. In addition, the availability of food was a significant factor in shaping the feeding patterns and dietary preferences of pigeons. This, in turn, had a direct impact on the nutritional content and overall quality of the fertilizer produced by these birds. The presence of seeds and grains around the pigeon tower facilitated easy access to food for pigeons, thereby decreasing their reliance on searching for food in other areas and ensuring that pigeons are able to maintain a sufficient diet. As a result, pigeons produced a larger quantity of waste that was rich in 103 Dewan, Towers and Pigeon Guano In Iran, 60 104 “The Mardavij Pigeons’ House,” Imna, Accessed June 27, 2023, https://www.imna.ir/news/557697 88 nutrients and useful as a valuable fertilizer for crops. There is also a lack of precise statistical data available regarding the quantity of fertilizer utilized by farmers in Isfahan and the efficacy of pigeon manure as a fertilizer. Dewan argues that the quantity of pigeon excrement utilized exhibited variability based on factors such as soil composition, plant species, and previous instances of utilization. 105 He added that the cultivation of flax and poppy crops necessitated the application of 1.2 tons per hectare. On the other hand, fruit-bearing trees such as peaches, pomegranates, and cherry apples necessitated a more modest quantity of 600 to 800 grams per tree on an annual basis. By considering the typical planting distance of fruit trees in a garden, which is approximately 3 meters, we can infer that each tree necessitates an average area of 9 square meters in a garden. Dewan found that, on average, 700 grams of pigeon manure were required per tree. Hence, the Mardavij tower, as a substantial structure for housing pigeons, was capable of generating an annual yield of 3000 kilograms. This quantity was deemed satisfactory for sustaining a garden consisting of 4286 fruit trees, which occupied a total area of 38574 square meters. Figure 18 depicts these areas in blue squares compared to the historical area of Hezār Jarib garden highlighted in green. 105 Dewan,Towers and Pigeon Guano In Iran, 60 89 Figure 18 Google map of the historical area of Hezār Jarib garden and the area covered by it’s pigeon towers’ manure (screenshot and additions by the author) As we mentioned in Chapter 2, Hezār Jarib garden had four large, similar pigeon towers, including the Mardavij tower located at its corners. Additionally, Persianate garden design encompassed various elements other than fruit tree areas, such as flowers, roses, pathways, water features like waterways and pools, and buildings. 106 These non-fruit tree areas did not require as much fertilization. Therefore, it can be concluded that the pigeon manure produced by the pigeon towers in Hezār Jarib garden was sufficient for the entire garden. Consequently, the garden has the potential to produce its own fertilizer without relying on external sources. 106 Qaseme Ibn-e Yousof Abunasr-e Heravi, Irshad al-Zera'eh. Edited by Mohammad Moshiri (Tehran: University of Tehran, 2011), 281-284. 90 Dewan also argues that farmers who have accumulated knowledge and expertise over the years have found that pigeon manure is approximately 50% effective. 107 However, due to the lack of particular numbers on the yield of fruit trees in the Hezār Jarib garden, it is difficult to determine the extent to which the towers of Hezār Jarib's manure contributed to the enhanced productivity of the garden. Because of this, determining the impact of the manure is more difficult. 4.2.3. Extraction, Mixing, and Application There are informative sources available that provide valuable insights on the application methods and blending of pigeon manure. A significant contribution is made by Jane Dieulafoy's travel notes regarding her trip to Persia, as documented in her book. Dieulafoy was a French writer who was active from 1851 to 1916. She had engagements in the disciplines of archaeology, exploration, and writing. She became well-known mainly for her important archaeological achievements in Persia while working together with her spouse, Marcel Dieulafoy. During the latter part of the 19th century, the couple initiated a voyage to Persia, during which they engaged in significant excavations and conducted extensive research. The author penned a book detailing her journeys and archaeological endeavors in Persia. Somewhere. In her book, the author discusses the topic of pigeon manures, Apart from irrigation, the soil requires fertilization to yield fruit. In the nearby areas of nearly all towns and villages, much like in Egypt,108 one can find a great many dovecotes. Those who approach Ispahan might truly believe that the people of that city only eat pigeons. Yet, such is not the truth: the pigeons are merely anticipated to multiply abundantly and stay free from confinement. The pigeon droppings, when combined with 107 Dewan,Towers and Pigeon Guano In Iran, 61. 108 A village in Isfahan 91 debris and powdered stone, serve as the finest nourishment for the fields where the sweet and delicious melons flourish. The inhabitants of Ispahan rely primarily on the cultivation of a kind of melon to sustain themselves during the summer season. 109 Dewan provides a description of the procedure involved in converting pigeon manure into a usable resource. 110 In the first step of the process, the waste was gathered and subsequently exposed to the natural drying effects of sunlight. After the drying process was complete, the item could be utilized without any further preparation or treatment. However, when considering the application of this technique to grain fields, an additional step was required in order to achieve optimal results. In order to facilitate uniform distribution across the areas, the dried manure underwent a process of grinding and pulverization using the back of a shovel. This method was employed to achieve a fine texture, which enhanced the ease of spreading. Regarding the usage of pigeon fertilizer, Beazley provided an explanation regarding the practices of Iranian farmers. 111 These farmers employed a combination of pigeon manure, soil, and ash, using different proportions of these components to achieve desired outcomes in terms of crop production. Hadizadeh points out that the historical practice of combining pigeon manure with other natural materials, such as soil and waste, to produce fertilizer may be attributed to its high nitrogen content. 112 Nitrogen, a crucial nutrient for plant growth, is present in manure. When combined with other materials, this mixture can help maintain a balanced nutrient composition. This is particularly important; as excessive use of manure can potentially harm plants by causing them to burn. 109 Jane Dieulafoy, La Perse, La Chaldee et La Susiane (Paris: LIBRAIRIE HACHETTE ET C. 1887), 286 110 Dewan,Towers and Pigeon Guano In Iran, 60. 111 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 108. 112 Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, Kabutar Khaneh Dar Iran, 22. 92 4.3. Spatial Organization The placement and positioning of the towers in the vast plains and fields, along with their close proximity to gardens and farms, was strategic and carried considerable importance. The carefully chosen locations of these structures demonstrated the successful integration of them into the agricultural landscape and its interconnected geographies. Additionally, it emphasized the natural link between pigeon rearing and agricultural activities. Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz emphasize the significance of a meticulous selection process for the pigeon tower's location. 113 This was crucial in order to guarantee the safety of the pigeons and facilitate their convenient access to water. The selected location should provide a safe setting that safeguards the pigeons from potential hazards and unfavorable weather circumstances. Moreover, the presence of a nearby water source is crucial for the overall welfare of the pigeons. Access to water is essential for both drinking and bathing, as it plays a critical role in maintaining hygiene and overall health. According to Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, pigeons possess an inherent preference for green spaces and bodies of water. 114 Consequently, gardeners and farmers built pigeon towers as elevated buildings and in higher places within landscapes that have a plentiful supply of trees. These towers were frequently located next to the walls of orchards and in close proximity to gardens. The positioning of the towers in relation to gardens and farms allowed for the effective gathering and use of pigeon manure, which was considered a valuable resource. The close 113 Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan, 198. 114 Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan, 34. 93 distance between the droppings and the collection area enabled convenient gathering and transportation. This facilitates the utilization of the droppings as fertilizer, which in turn improves crop productivity. The proximity of the towers to agricultural areas promotes a sustainable agricultural system. The close interaction between pigeons and crops establishes a mutually beneficial cycle of advantages. 4.4. Conclusion In this chapter, our aim was to conduct a thorough investigation into the historical importance of pigeon towers and their crucial impact on the development of agricultural methods. The significance of preserving these structures was highlighted in order to create a secure and familiar habitat for pigeons. This, in turn, guarantees their ongoing presence and their valuable contribution to the production of fertilizer. We aimed to present a comprehensive analysis of historical accounts and scholarly perspectives that provide valuable insights into the complex interplay between pigeons, pigeon towers, agriculture, and people. By examining various sources, we gain a deeper understanding of the intricate relationship between these elements. The importance of pigeons in soil enrichment, plant growth promotion, and crop yield enhancement was clearly apparent. The comprehensive information provided on the topic of pigeon housing, feeding methods, and waste management has provided significant knowledge on the intricacies of this agricultural practice. In conclusion, this chapter provided a thorough and extensive analysis of the complex and diverse connection between pigeons, pigeon towers, and agriculture within historical settings. The importance of preserving this tradition and its potential contributions to sustainable agriculture in the present day was emphasized. 94 The next chapter more thoroughly examines the design of the towers, focusing on their structural and architectural aspects. 95 Chapter 5: Structural and Architectural Aspects Pigeon towers in Isfahan, particularly during the Safavid era, are historically significant yet overlooked. There is a lack of precise data on the number of pigeon towers in Isfahan in the past. However, John Chardin, a French traveler who visited Isfahan between 1673 and 1677, estimated that there were approximately 3,000 towers during the Safavid era. He noted, They reckon above three thousand Pidgeon-Houses about Ispahan, all built for the sake of the Dung, more than for the sake of the Breed of the Pidgeons, as I have observ’d.115 The total number of towers that remained standing in Isfahan in 1977 was estimated by the scholars Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz to be around 725.116 Although there have been various studies of the structural and architectural aspects of Persianate pigeon towers, particularly in regards to Isfahan, there is considerable room for further discussion and investigation. The research to date needs to be synthesized along with diverse sets of historical data, including historical texts and images, and analyzed using both quantitative and design-focused approaches that are informed by horticultural and zoological perspectives. This chapter, with a specific focus on the Mardavij pigeon tower, intricately explores how the architectural design of the pigeon tower was developed with a deep understanding of pigeon behavior, prioritizing their safety and tranquility. This exploration will reveal how architectural design can encapsulate knowledge of the natural world, thereby contributing significantly to agricultural value. 115 John Chardin, Travels in Persia, 1673–1677 (Newburyport: Dover, 2012), 234. 116 Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000), 67–75. 96 Despite the historical importance of these structures, there has been a noticeable absence of significant endeavors to conserve and renovate them. Moreover, in instances where restoration has taken place, there have been numerous errors during the restoration process. Upon comparing the statistics of Chardin and Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, it becomes apparent that the towers in question have not been adequately attended to or maintained for the past two centuries. During his research trip to Iran in 1955, scholar M.L. Dewan noted that the declining condition of the towers suggested that only a small amount of repair work was done in the preceding decades. Dewan highlighted the importance of the slope and arrangement of gutters on the roofs of most of the towers in Isfahan as essential factors in their repair process. 117 He observed that the towers' external wall design required routine maintenance. Elisabeth Beazley observed that the towers in the Hezār Jarib garden experienced considerable deterioration over a period of time, leading to the removal of their protective fences and the collapse of most of their roofs. 118 Given the conservation issues mentioned, studies like the present one help document and improve our comprehension of the architectural and cultural importance of these pigeon towers and offer insights into the historical context, architectural features, and cultural significance of these buildings. Using three-dimensional modelling in concert with surviving visual evidence, this chapter aims to describe and examine key architectural and structural elements of the Mardavij tower that have received limited attention in previous studies. This tower, located in the 117 M.L. Dewan, Towers and Pigeon Guano in Iran (1955), 102–104, quoted in Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000), 58. 118 Elisabeth Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 4, no. 1, (1966): 105. 97 southeast corner of the Hezār Jarib garden, is one of only two surviving pigeon towers from the Safavid era at the site. The outcomes of this study will be beneficial for identifying errors that occurred during the restoration process and providing a valuable resource for future restoration projects, as well as promoting a greater appreciation for the cultural heritage represented by Isfahan's pigeon towers. The use of three-dimensional modeling was an important choice in this study because it helped researchers gain a better understanding of the design and structure of the Safavid pigeon tower in Isfahan. As researchers, we used three-dimensional modeling to gain a detailed visual representation of the tower's architectural elements. This allowed us to better understand the construction details with more accuracy compared to traditional illustration methods. There are numerous benefits to integrating modeling in three dimensions. Firstly, it functions as a valuable analytical tool, enabling us to carefully examine and explore every aspect of the tower's design accurately. This helps in developing a thorough understanding of the subject matter. Moreover, the opportunity for experiential learning provided by this technology is extremely valuable. By exploring the virtual model, we can gain insights into the functionality and construction techniques used during the Safavid period. In addition, the interactive nature of three-dimensional models allows for a comprehensive examination of the pigeon tower from various perspectives, greatly enhancing our spatial comprehension in ways that two-dimensional sketches cannot achieve. Conducting a comprehensive investigation is crucial not only to ensure academic rigor but also to facilitate well-informed decision-making in potential conservation endeavors. 98 In this regard, this chapter includes a thorough examination of historical materials, such as archival records, photographs, and descriptions provided by previous scholars. The sources provide valuable insights into the original design, construction techniques, and aesthetic features of the Mardavij Tower. For example, a review of the visual representations of the Mardavij pigeon tower also reveals instances when notable elements such as the murals on the exterior walls of the Hezār Jarib towers, the shape of the ledges, as well as the holes used for attaching scaffolding, have been either taken away or altered. Three-dimensional modeling techniques are applied to reconstruct particular segments of the tower. This technology enables the digital reproduction of intricate details, such as carvings, ornaments, nesting holes, and ledges. The utilization of three-dimensional modeling not only assists scholarly inquiry and synthesis but also fulfills practical objectives in the realm of heritage preservation and restoration. 5.1. Typology, Structure and Materials of the Mardavij Tower According to Beazley, the Hezār Jarib garden towers demonstrate a higher level of advancement in terms of planning and design. She stated, Since these (the towers in Hezār Jarib garden) have more highly developed plans than any others now extant, it must be assumed that a considerable tradition lies behind them. 119 Similarly, Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz state that the Mardavij tower is considered superior due to its advanced and elegant design. 120 He highlights that, in comparison to other towers, this particular structure excels in its capacity to effectively tackle common issues and 119 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 105. 120 Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan, 202. 99 challenges that are typically faced in similar constructions. The tower exhibits a highly organized design and a deliberate choice of proportions, taking inspiration from historical knowledge and leveraging proven practices. The Mardavij tower serves as a cost-effective architectural marvel, showcasing the artistic sensibility and skill of Iranian artisans. 5.1.1. Typology The scholar Saeid Hadizadeh categorized pigeon houses in Iran by their architectural design and structure, considering the most common characteristics. He categorized structures into different types, such as square, circular, and amorphous. 121 The Mardavij pigeon tower falls under the classification of circular towers, which were more abundant than other types of pigeon houses. Circular towers were typically composed of one or more cylindrical units arranged in a simple or complex manner, either next to or inside one another. 5.1.2. Structure The construction of the Mardavij pigeon tower can be traced back to the Safavid era in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 122 The tower is composed of three levels, which include the central cylindrical chamber, which runs the whole height of the building, and the ring chamber encircling the central tower (Fig. 19). As shown in Figure 1, after entering the tower through the turrets and windows, pigeons could access the internal spaces on all three levels of the tower through the access openings on the floors and windows on the internal walls. 121 Saeid Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, Kabutar Khaneh Dar Iran [Pigeon House in Iran] (Tehran: Cultural Studies publication, 2006), 38. 122 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 105. 100 Figure 19 Three-dimensional section of the Mardavij pigeon tower showing the structure and indoor accessibility, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) The tower is equipped with a staircase consisting of thirty-eight steps that are steep in nature. The heights of these steps vary, ranging from thirty-two centimeters to forty-five centimetres. The height of the middle cylinder in this tower is approximately eighteen metres, while the base of the main cylinder has a diameter of sixteen metres (Fig. 20). 123 123 “The Mardavij Pigeons’ House,” Imna, Accessed June 27, 2023, https://www.imna.ir/news/557697 101 Figure 20 General dimensions of the Mardavij tower in Isfahan, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) The outer cylinder of this tower is designed in a scalloped shape by combining eight smaller cylinders around the central one. The architect and builder were able to achieve several advantages by incorporating an undulating pattern into the outer wall, such as reducing the wall thickness while simultaneously enhancing the stability of the tower. 124 The tower's increased durability can be attributed not only to the outer cylinder's curves but also to the connection between the outer wall and the inner cylinder's wall. Furthermore, the slope of the outer cylinder walls also influences the thickness of its outer wall. This leads to a thicker bottom wall in comparison to the top wall. 125 Beazley provides additional details regarding the interior of the tower, 124 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 107 125 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 107 102 The main drum is divided vertically by the galleries which cut the buttresses and are connected by a circular stair. The galleries are supported on barrel vaults and saucer domes. Between the buttresses, the domes are pierced to allow the birds to fly up and down; similarly, the inner and outer drums are connected by open arches at every level. 126 Furthermore, the presence of a scalloped-shaped wall allows for increased spacing between the two cylinders within the tower. These internal spaces ensure convenient access to all areas of the tower, thus providing equal nesting opportunities for pigeons. The enhancements in conditions included factors such as lighting, ventilation, and the ingress and egress of pigeons.127 5.1.3. Materials The pigeon towers in Isfahan were built using readily available materials such as clay and straw, which were skillfully used to create an aesthetically pleasing appearance. Hadizadeh adds that using raw adobe or clay as the main construction material for pigeon towers had notable environmental advantages. 128 Obtaining materials from nearby sources reduced harm to the environment and promoted the use of construction methods that could be maintained over time. Moreover, after fulfilling their intended function, these pigeon towers were disassembled, and the soil obtained from them was recycled and repurposed for agricultural activities. This cyclical process facilitated the reintegration of these materials into the natural cycle of nature, thereby enhancing ecological equilibrium and reducing waste. 126 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 105 127 Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan, 202. 128 Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, Kabutar Khaneh Dar Iran, 83. 103 However, it is important to acknowledge that raw adobe was not the only material used in the construction of pigeon towers. In certain cases, wood, brick, and white plaster were also used. 129 Clay and mud were commonly employed in the construction of walls and domed roofs, while wood was used as a structural component in the building. Bricks were frequently utilized in strategic positions for the purpose of constructing some parts of pigeon towers, specifically for roofing, flooring, and turrets. The turrets, which were cone-shaped entry points for pigeons, had a honeycomb or see-through pattern and were placed in a vertical position on the roofs of circular towers, as seen in the Mardavij pigeon tower (Fig. 21). Figure 21 Brickwork in turrets, roof and entrances on the Mardavij pigeon tower’s roof, 16th century, Isfahan (photograph by the author) 129 Dewan, Towers and Pigeon Guano In Iran, 59. 104 5.2. Design Details This section examines important architectural components of pigeon towers, like the scalloped shape found in Mardavij Tower, and factors to consider regarding ventilation. Additionally, it addresses the inclusion of functional decorative elements, the design of roosts in terms of their shapes and sizes, and the arrangement of nesting spaces. The conclusion highlights the importance of ledges and their potential considerations in the context of restoration efforts. 5.2.1. Scaffolding Holes Upon analyzing historical photographs predating recent restoration and repair endeavors, it becomes apparent that there are noticeable openings in the outer wall of the tower. The holes on the body of the Hezār Jarib garden’s southwest pigeon tower are visible, and some of them are highlighted in red in the photograph captured by Beazley in 1963 (Fig. 22). During the recent restoration effort, these openings were completely filled, raising important questions about the maintenance of the tower's initial character and architectural integrity. To date, the presence of these holes has never been explained. However, it can be argued that the apertures found in the tower were remnants of a scaffolding system that was used during the tower's original construction or subsequent repairs. The openings were used for scaffolds. Once the construction was finished, the holes in the wall were typically left in place for future repairs. 105 Figure 22 Elisabeth Beazley, The west tower in the Hezār Jarib, 1963, from The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān, fig. 1 Scaffolding techniques in Iranian architecture are illustrated in a painting by Kamaluddin Behzad, a renowned Iranian artist from the Timurid and Safavid eras (Fig. 23). The artwork portrays the process of building Khovarnaq castle. This castle held historical and legendary significance and was notably featured in Nezami's Haft Peykar, where it played a crucial role in the narrative surrounding the Sasanid king Bahram Gur. 130 In this illustration, the scaffolding is composed of timber columns and horizontal braces lashed together. Some parts of the scaffolding are inserted into holes in the baked brick wall being constructed to provide support and reinforcement. The skilled master builder and the labourers are positioned on the wooden platform, diligently carrying out their respective tasks. 130 Renate Würsch, “ḴAWARNAQ,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed November 26, 2023. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kawarnaq. 106 Figure 23 Kamaluddin Behzad. The building of the famous castle of Khawarnaq. Iran, 1494, from the Khamseh of Nezāmi, British Library, London, UK, OR. MS. 6810, fol. 154v. (artwork in the public domain; photograph in the public domain) Figure 24 shows a three-dimensional model of the Mardavij pigeon tower with an accompanying scaffolding system. This model visually represents the tower's original configuration, including the concealed openings and scaffolding structure. 107 Figure 24 Scaffolding Systems in the Mardavij Pigeon Tower, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) 5.2.2. Turrets and Windows in Mardavij Tower The design of the entrances and exits for pigeons into the Mardavij pigeon tower was carefully considered, with the results being both practical and visually appealing. Considerable concern was devoted to elements such as dimensions, positioning, and alignment, guaranteeing their efficacy and convenient access for pigeons while effectively blocking the entry of birds of prey and crows. 131 Architects exhibited a profound comprehension of pigeon behavior in order to design an environment that enticed and accommodated the birds. The Mardavij tower’s pigeon entrances and exits can be divided into two distinct sections. Firstly, the central tower features eight latticed windows strategically placed on the main roof, which served as entry points for pigeons. Secondly, the tower features a total of nine turrets with honeycomb brickwork. One was located at the highest point of the central tower's roof, and eight other turrets were neatly arranged around the central tower, which emerged 131 Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, Kabutar Khaneh Dar Iran, 82–83. 108 through the main roof. These turrets function as supplementary entrances to the windows, enabling pigeons to enter the tower from various angles and points of entry (Fig. 25). Figure 25 The birds’ entrances and exits in the Mardavij tower, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) The positioning of these entrances facilitates visibility and accessibility for birds in flight, making it effortless for them to locate and access the entrances. It is important to mention that the effective movement of pigeons within the Mardavij tower, as well as their entry and exit, were accomplished by the strategic placement of the turrets and providing adequate space for movement. Additionally, the openings provided sufficient lighting inside the tower, showing consideration was given to the limited visual capabilities of pigeons in low-light conditions. 132 132 Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan, 181. 109 5.2.3. Functional Decorative Elements The ornamental features of the Persianate pigeon tower served various purposes. Not only did they improve the visual aesthetics of the structure, as discussed in Chapter 3, in order to emphasize the power and wealth of their owners, but these adornments served practical purposes as well. In the case of the Mardavij tower, the building was embellished with elaborate cupolas, turrets, muqarnas friezes, and other intricate decorations, which highlighted the artistic abilities of the craftsmen who were involved in its construction. But these ornamental features had various practical functions, and their primary purpose was to serve as a defense mechanism against potential intruders and predators. 133 The defense system of the tower consisted of several elements. One of these was a white gypsum belt that surrounded the tower. Additionally, the tower was adorned with strategically designed muqarnas friezes, raised edges, and zigzags. These features were all part of the tower's defense mechanisms against natural predators. 134 Beazley explains the significance of these seemingly decorative elements of the pigeon towers, stating: External decoration varies according to the grandness of the tower, but even at its most exotic, it probably derives from the dual function of letting the birds in and keeping snakes out. The bands of smooth Gach plaster, usually coloured in lime wash or red ochre, are certainly for this purpose. A snake might otherwise creep up the drum of the tower, getting a grip on the rough Kāhgel (mud/straw) plaster of its surface. String courses of brick and molded mud or brick cornices and friezes, besides giving an effective decorative capping to the wall, provide projections that snakes would find difficult to negotiate. Perhaps these intricate decorations were in use before the smooth plaster bands were introduced. The honeycomb brickwork, which gives the pigeons 133 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 107. Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan, 34. Fred Richards, Safarname-ye Fred Richards [A Persian Journey], trans. Mahindokht Saba (Tehran: Elmifarhangi, 2011), 110. 134 Richards and Saba, Safarname-ye Fred Richards, 109–110. 110 access through the cupolaed turrets, is in itself very decorative and is usually carried around both drums as a balustrade, giving the birds somewhere to perch. 135 Beazley’s understanding of the layers of defenses, as well as that of other writers, is more clearly understood when they are visualized as they are in figure 26. Figure 26 Security layers in the Mardavij tower, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) 5.2.4. Roosts The surviving pigeon towers in Isfahan exhibit significant diversity in the design of their nesting holes, with variations in quantity, shape, and size. Although it can be difficult to accurately measure the exact number of nesting spaces in these towers due to a lack of available data, it is widely acknowledged that these structures provided a substantial number of holes for 135 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 107 111 nesting. In terms of form, the nesting holes typically exhibit a cuboid design. There is some variation in size, but the nesting holes typically offer sufficient space for pigeons to comfortably inhabit them. In addition, an important characteristic of numerous nesting holes is the inclusion of ledges that provide resting spots for pigeons. Enhanced Roosting Capacity Pigeon tower design maximized the number of pigeon holes while minimizing the amount of materials used. 136 Unfortunately, there is a lack of accurate information regarding the number of nests found in the towers of Isfahan. The sources that are currently accessible mainly consist of a small selection of reports and travelogues. Although these sources provide valuable information, they do not provide precise names and numbers for the towers. They offer general estimates such as 3,000 nests, 5,000 to 6,000 nests, 7,100 nests, and more. 137 For example, C.J. Wills, an English traveler who lived from 1842 to 1912, documented his first-hand experience while living in Isfahan from 1866 to 1881 as a medical officer for the Indo-European Telegraph Department. He stated, I have counted cells for seven thousand one hundred pairs (of pigeons) in a large pigeon tower; there were five thousand five hundred in the outer wall and sixteen hundred in the cruciform wall occupying the centre. 138 136 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 105. 137 Richards and Saba, Safarname-ye Fred Richards, 109. Beazley, The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān, 108; C. J. Wills, In the Land of the Lion and Sun (Washington, D.C.: Mage Publishers, 2004), 130. 138 Wills, In the Land of the Lion and Sun, 130. 112 One factor contributing to the scholars' uncertainty regarding the quantity of nests in the towers is that, according to their own accounts, they were prohibited from entering the towers. This restriction was imposed to prevent any disruption to the pigeons' peaceful environment. As previously mentioned, the Mardavij tower presents an interesting design that combines creativity and effectiveness. Based on available sources, it can be estimated that the Mardavij tower had approximately 15,000 nests available for pigeons. 139 The increase in the number of roosts observed in Mardavij Tower, in comparison to other towers, can be ascribed to the integration of scalloped-shaped architectural patterns in its exterior wall. The adoption of this innovative design yielded several benefits, including improved stability and expanded interior space, as mentioned earlier. However, the most notable consequence was a large increase in the abundance of roosts. As Beazley points out, Most builders seem to have been content to build the outer wall as a simple drum, and it is the way it may be alternately hollowed out and buttressed internally that provides its architectural fascination. However, the two towers attributed to the late sixteenth or early seventeenth century in the Hezār Jarib have the further refinement of a corrugated outer wall, which increases the stability of these larger towers without increasing the wall thickness. The eastern tower could be thought of as a cluster of eight small drums around a larger central drum; thus, the surface area of the walls and hence the number of pigeon-holes are considerably increased. 140 In order to test Beazley's claims, three-dimensional modeling can aid in calculating capacity. By comparing a model with undulations and a model with a simple circular design. Assuming both models had the same circumference, calculations show the undulated model occupies a total surface area of 625.6 square meters, whereas the simple circular design 139 “The Mardavij Pigeons’ House” 140 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 107. 113 measures 522.6 square meters. The findings indicate a twenty percent rise in the quantity of roosts on the undulated model (Fig. 27). Figure 27 Comparing undulated outer wall with a circular wall with the same diameter, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) Shapes and Sizes of Nests in Mardavij Tower Undoubtedly, a prominent feature observed in all pigeon towers in Iran is the unique cuboidal shape of the nests and cavities. The presence of this widespread architectural feature in these structures suggests a purposeful and uniform design decision. Different measurements have been reported regarding the dimensions of pigeon nests found in the towers of Isfahan, for instance, 20 x 25 x 30 centimetres or 20 x 20 x 27 centimetres. 141 141 Dewan, Towers and Pigeon Guano In Iran, 58. Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 107. 114 Clearly, there is significant variation in nest dimensions even within a single tower. An analysis of the Mardavij tower was conducted by Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, who found specific measurements related to the nests located inside. The dimensions of three such nests are as follows: 22 x 22 x 25 centimetres; 25 x 22 x 14 centimeters; and 16 x 16 x 25 centimetres. 142 The differences in nest sizes within this tower highlight the complexity and diversity present. This emphasizes the need for more research and clarification to fully understand the situation. Layout of Nesting Spaces (roosts) in Mardavij Tower The arrangement of nesting holes in the Mardavij Tower is an intriguing feature of its architectural design. A pigeon tower is commonly a cylindrical building with three levels. The nesting holes are intentionally placed within the inner walls of the tower, forming a checkerboard pattern that helps pigeons with their nesting and breeding activities. The checkerboard pattern, which includes designated nesting spaces, helped create an organized layout that minimized conflicts between pigeons and encouraged peaceful coexistence. The purpose of this structured arrangement was to provide individual spaces for each pair of pigeons to construct their nests. This helped prevent overcrowding and allowed the birds to more easily attend to their eggs and offspring (Fig. 28). 142 Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan, 208–209. 115 Figure 28 Layout of roost inside the Mardavij tower on the top storey, 16th century, Isfahan (photograph by the author) The technique employed to construct the nests, as depicted in figure 29, involves stacking multiple flat mud bricks on top of one another. The architectural technique referred to as "pigeon house" brickwork was commonly employed by pre-modern Persian architects. The configuration of nesting cavities found in the interior walls of pigeon towers is notably similar to the organization of a beehive. Figure 29 Traditional 'Pigeon House' brickwork technique, remnant of a pigeon tower in Gaz, Isfahan (photograph by the author) 116 Ledges (Perches), Construction Techniques and Restoration The ledges found within pigeon towers played a crucial role in providing a feeling of tranquility and safety for the pigeons. The ledges were intentionally designed to offer secure and easily reachable spots for birds to land on and depart from their roosts. The purpose of this landing platform was to mitigate the risk of accidents or injuries that could arise from pigeons attempting to fly directly into nesting holes without a stable surface for landing. Likewise, when the pigeons were prepared to depart from their nests, the ledges served as platforms for takeoff (Fig. 30). Figure 30 Unknown photographer, Pigeons’ Roosts and Perches, accessed March 30, 2023, https://archnet.org (photograph in the public domain) Beazley provides significant details of the mud ledges found in these towers, The mesmeric quality of the inside of the towers comes from the repetition on every vertical surface, whether or not it is curved on the plan of the standard pigeon hole (20 x 20 x 27 cm deep) with its mud perch below; much of the sculptural quality of the structure is due to these perches (note the comparative flatness of those interiors where they have fallen away). Each is made of an asymmetrical mud pyramid of four unequal sides whose square base is clapped, damp, onto the vertical brick face below the hole (whether this is done at the time when the brick was made or when it was in position is 117 not clear. It would seem easier when the brick was still green, but this would have the disadvantage of making its transport awkward). When in position, the smaller top side of the pyramid forms a horizontal perch and the other sides slope away, making access to the neighboring holes easier for the pigeons next door. 143 It is crucial to answer Beazley's question regarding whether the ledges were built at the same time as the foundational brick or if they were added later. Based on the existing evidence, it appears that the constructor of the tower first arranged the bricks to form a nest-like structure. Subsequently, they shaped and created ledges, which were then affixed to the foundation using a mortar made from straw. The statement becomes clearer when we closely analyze figure 29, where we can observe the positions of ledges that have become detached or separated from the structure due to different factors. We also illustrated the perches and their attaching area on the wall in figure 32. 14 Beazley did not use explicit illustrations or models to visually represent her descriptions. Instead, she relied solely on personal photographs taken within Mardavij Tower (Fig. 31). 143 Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” 107. 118 Figure 31 Elisabeth Beazley, Interior of tower in the Hezār Jarib, showing remains of galleries, 1966, from The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān, n.d., fig. XII However, three-dimensional models can be created based on Beazley's descriptions and photographs, as well as relevant documents related to the Mardavij pigeon tower. The purpose of these models is to clarify the inherent characteristics and fundamental shape and arrangement of the ledges. Figure 32 shows these models, which clearly demonstrate that the upper surface of the asymmetric pyramid (i.e., perch) is designed to have a gentle slope. As Beazley stated, this design not only facilitates entry into the nests but also has the practical purpose of preventing the buildup of pigeon droppings inside the nests. The gentle incline efficiently guides the waste towards the floors of the tower. 119 Figure 32 Details of roosts and perches in the Mardavij tower, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) Despite the apparent simplicity of the design and implementation of these ledges, there have been notable inaccuracies and errors in both the research on pigeon towers and the restoration efforts in the pigeon towers of Isfahan due to the lack of attention to important principles and techniques necessary for their proper execution. These mistakes have led to changes in their original appearance and arrangements. For example, as shown in Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz 's sketches in Figure 33, there are noticeable mistakes and inaccuracies in the general shape and angles that define the pyramidal shape of the ledges. 144 For example, the orientation of the upper surfaces of the ledges is 144 Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan, 208. 120 inaccurately depicted as upward (Fig. 33-A), and the base surfaces of the perches that are connected to the walls are not square and are illustrated as triangular (Fig. 33-B). Figure 33 S.M. Mahmoudian, et al, Roost and Perches, from The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan, Isfahan: Golha, 2000, 208 (published under fair use; photograph by author) The recent restoration of these ledges has likely resulted in compromised structural integrity, durability, and visual inconsistencies within the tower due to a lack of attention to these details. The instability observed in the attachment of ledges in specific sections of the Mardavij tower can be attributed to the presence of incorrect angles, shapes, and sizes. This has led to situations where the ledges have broken or become detached, as shown by the green circles in figure 34. 121 Figure 34 Unknown photographer, Mardavij pigeon tower, accessed October 17, 2023, www.wikimedia.org (photograph in the public domain) 5.3. Conclusion This chapter examined Persian pigeon towers, which serve as evidence of the cultural and architectural achievements of pre-modern civilizations. The towers in Isfahan have been present in the landscape for many centuries. There were possibly thousands of these towers during the Safavid era, but only a few remain today. The process of restoring these impressive architectural structures has been marked by challenges related to limited resources and expertise. Unfortunately, this has led to the unintentional removal of important features like murals, ledges, and scaffolding holes. This chapter primarily centres on the Mardavij Pigeon Tower, which is located within the Hezār Jarib garden, a site dating back to the Safavid period. The curved structural design of the outer cylinder of the Mardavij tower was examined, which not only improved its stability but also provided more suitable spaces for pigeons to build their nests. In addition, the design of the 122 ledges, characterized by their asymmetrical mud pyramids and inventive construction methods, was examined. Using three-dimensional modelling of the Mardavij pigeon tower and its various parts, a more complete understanding of the tower's architectural and structural aspects was accomplished. Modeling helps reveal the restoration errors that have occurred and aids in the preservation and comprehension of Persian pigeon towers through a thorough examination of their structure and architecture. 123 Chapter 6: Achievements and Conclusion This study has explored the importance and design of pigeon towers in Persianate gardens, orchards, and agricultural landscapes through a detailed study of the Mardavij pigeon tower in the Hezār Jarib garden in Isfahan, Iran. In doing so, it aims to contribute to the protection and revival of these monuments. Two main gaps were identified in the current research on Persianate gardens and pigeon towers. Firstly, there is a general lack of research, especially in English language scholarship, on pigeon towers, which were important but often ignored parts of Persianate gardens, orchards, and farms. Secondly, methodologically speaking, the possibilities of digital technologies, like computer-generated three-dimensional modeling, in studying and analyzing Persianate gardens and their features, such as pigeon towers, were largely untapped. This method combines conventional wisdom with contemporary technology to offer fresh perspectives and approaches for research and preservation. Throughout this study, a number of limitations influenced the extent and methodology of the research. Due to time limitations, certain aspects of this study could not be thoroughly explored. Unfortunately, the in-depth analysis of the Hezār Jarib garden and its additional pigeon towers was not possible within the constraints of this project, given its large scope. There is potential for additional research to explore the unique context and features of the other pigeon towers of Hezār Jarib. In addition, there were difficulties in accessing primary resources. More thorough study was hindered by the limited physical access to manuscripts stored in Iranian museums and libraries. However, the available photographs and historical texts were examined. it was not 124 possible to conduct fieldwork, which necessitated our reliance on published photographs, films, and textual sources. Tasks such as staircase modeling, would have been greatly improved by on-site observations and enriched our architectural analyses by providing valuable insights and increasing their accuracy and depth. The scope of our study had to be limited in order to effectively manage the project within the given timeframe and resources, hence the focus on specific aspects of pigeon tower architecture and their historical context. 6.1. Summary of Key Findings In the literature review for this thesis, the historical importance of Persianate gardens, specifically pigeon towers, was discussed. Interestingly, travelers such as Kaempfer included pigeon towers in their drawings. However, scholars have traditionally placed greater emphasis on the symbolic, design, and other aspects of Persianate gardens, such as palaces and pavilions. This thesis aims to fill this significant gap in the existing literature by studying the often overlooked architectural and functional aspects of pigeon towers. In this regard, this investigation was initiated by gathering and analyzing a wide range of historical documents, texts, and firsthand accounts. This method allowed for an exploration of the subject matter, revealing insights into the building methods, materials used, and societal and economic influences on the development of pigeon towers. A visual analysis was conducted by examining archival visual records, including photographs, drawings, and architectural plans. This approach helped us better understand the diverse architecture and structural creativity, highlighting the aesthetic aspects and regional differences of these buildings. 125 This study also focused on quantifying the agricultural impact of pigeon manure as a fertilizer, highlighting its important role in historical agricultural practices in the past and hopefully its relevance in modern sustainable farming. We studied the innovation seen in the design of the Mardavij tower, specifically comparing the efficiency of using an undulated wall shape versus a traditional circular wall. This study emphasized the clever architecture and improved functionality provided by this distinct design element, contributing a crucial level of insight into the practical importance of pigeon towers. Using digital three-dimensional modeling has also played a crucial role in revealing complex architectural elements and offering valuable insights that were previously out of reach using conventional research methods. By combining various methods, the research is intended to illuminate the less-explored subject of pigeon towers and highlight the importance of using different approaches in historical and architectural research. As a result, we hope it represents a major breakthrough in the realms of historical, architectural, and cultural studies. The status of and relationship between different aspects of pigeon towers and Persianate gardens can be expressed as follows: Socio-political and economic contexts The study placed pigeon towers in their larger contexts, revealing how these structures reflected and influenced the economic tactics, and socio-political interactions of that era. This investigation aimed to uncover the complex connections between architecture and power, showing how pigeon towers went beyond their practical functions to also represent social status and tools of authority. Pigeon towers held significant cultural importance that extended beyond their practical function in agriculture. The impressive architecture and prominent placement in gardens and fields served as visual symbols of the owner's affluence, influence, and standing in society. They 126 also held great importance in terms of aesthetics and culture, often showcasing intricate brickwork and embellishments. The interdependence of economics, politics, and culture was evident in the mutually beneficial relationship between economic prosperity, political power, and cultural achievements. In terms of politics and society, the utilization and dispersal of pigeon towers reflected the existing socio-political dynamics, which were shaped by the ruling elite. This emphasized the significance of these structures within the social hierarchy. From a cultural perspective, the gardens and pigeon towers in Persian identity are deeply intertwined, symbolizing religious, artistic, and literary themes. The economic and political strength of rulers was supported by successful agriculture, which was made possible through efficient practices such as the use of pigeon tower fertilizers. This period of prosperity facilitated significant cultural development, evident in the creation and upkeep of intricate gardens and pigeon towers. These architectural marvels not only enhanced the ruler's prestige and power but also served as icons of cultural refinement, wealth, and economic capacity rooted in agricultural productivity. The architectural prominence of these structures in gardens showcased the owners' authority, as their impressive size and beauty enhanced the cultural and visual environment. Agricultural Role The agricultural policies of the Safavid rulers had a profound impact on the socio-economic landscape, as they were closely linked to their political and military goals. The allocation of land and resources played a crucial role in their governance, influencing the overall structure of society. In this context, pigeon towers played a crucial role in boosting agricultural productivity. 127 Historical texts such as Irshad al-Zera'eh, provided a valuable understanding of the farming methods used at the time. They emphasize the significance of agriculture in maintaining social structures and power dynamics, illustrating the interdependence of agriculture, the economy, and political authority. The economic significance of pigeon towers is evident in their contribution to the broader economic system, as seen through the trade of their by-products and the associated taxation policies. Pigeon towers played a crucial role in the overall design and functionality of Persianate gardens and agriculture more broadly. They contributed to the gardens by providing nutrient-rich fertilizer in the form of pigeon droppings, which greatly improved agricultural productivity. This fertilizer was essential in enhancing soil quality and boosting crop yields, thereby playing a crucial role in the local economy. One important observation is the economic sustainability and productivity of Persian agriculture, which greatly depends on pigeon towers. These towers were used to collect pigeon manure, a highly valued fertilizer. This highlights the towers' important contribution to improving crop yields and land fertility, which in turn supported the agricultural economy. Using a wide range of sources, insight into the various uses of pigeon manure in the Persian pigeon towers of Hezār Jarib garden was gained. The main focus was on the renowned Mardavij tower and a review of a range of texts, from historical documentation to current studies, with the goal of providing a more thorough understanding of manure production and application, as well as the practices involved in maintaining and managing pigeon towers. Synthesizing information from these texts enabled analysis of the yearly amount of manure produced and its effects on farmland. Using the Mardavij tower as a case study, the effectiveness of pigeon towers in generating fertilizer for agricultural purposes became clearer, and estimates 128 concerning manure production were made. It was determined that the Mardavij tower accommodated approximately 15,000 nests. One of the largest towers of its kind, it produces around 3,000 kg of manure each year. This structure consequently played a vital role in nourishing the fruit trees of the Hezār Jarib garden. Each tree needed 700 grams of manure, which created a self-sustaining fertilizer system in the garden, bearing in mind Dewan's findings that the effectiveness of pigeon manure was likely around 50%. However, due to the lack of specific yield data from the garden's trees, it was difficult to accurately measure the exact impact of this manure on productivity. Nevertheless, the evidence strongly suggests that the manure alone was more than enough to meet the garden's requirements without the need for additional external sources. However, there was likely little excess manure produced for use elsewhere. Visualizing the area the Mardavij tower’s manure could fertilize and support the fruit trees in the garden clarified the self-sustaining design of the Hezār Jarib garden, which was not evident before. Based on our findings, traditional agricultural practices, like utilizing pigeon manure, clearly have the potential to offer sustainable and self-sufficient approaches to crop fertilization. Design This study also engaged in an in-depth examination of the architectural design of the Mardavij pigeon tower. The analysis of the design demonstrated a comprehensive understanding of pigeon behavior at work, with a particular emphasis on prioritizing their safety and calmness. Pre-existing scholarship had not fully appreciated the extent to which an understanding of pigeon behaviour was incorporated into the design. This was accomplished by utilizing a two-pronged strategy: establishing a robust defense system to ward off predators while also providing a 129 tranquil setting with comfortable perches and nesting holes, all carefully maintained at an ideal temperature. To help synthesize the available data on the tower’s design and to assist with the analysis, three-dimensional modeling in conjunction with pre-existing visual evidence was employed, an approach that has not been used in the scholarly study of Persianate gardens, particularly beyond the goals of reconstruction. Previous studies had only briefly touched upon these elements, but our research explored deeper into their significance. It enabled the clarification of common misconceptions surrounding the study of pigeon towers, particularly in the works of Mahmoudian and Chit-Saaz, and other scholars. The analysis revealed inconsistencies in these studies, especially in relation to restoration initiatives. Significant conservation errors that obscured how the structure functioned and was maintained were observed, including the incorrect filling of scaffolding holes and modifications to the perches' shape, resulting in a decrease in their effectiveness. Three-dimensional modeling was valuable for comprehending and pinpointing errors in restoration, which will be useful for future restoration and preservation efforts. This study greatly benefited from the use of digital tools, which served as both a visual aid and an analytical tool. For example, they helped examine and support the assertions made by scholars such as Beazley regarding the curved undulating design of the tower, which was believed to provide more areas for roosting. Three-dimensional modeling techniques were used to assess and contrast the capacity of a design with undulations versus that of a straightforward circular design. The analysis revealed a significant 20% increase in both the size and quantity of roosts in the undulated model, leveraging the benefits of contemporary technology to gain a richer comprehension of historical 130 architectural design and effectiveness, beyond what two-dimensional representations and analysis can offer. Additionally, digital tools played a crucial role in effectively showcasing the complexities of the Mardavij tower's architecture. Three-dimensional modeling techniques were used to better understand the tower's unique features, such as its scaffolding system and how perches were attached beneath each roost on the interior walls. This involved analyzing Beazley’s descriptions, photographs, and relevant documents and synthesizing them through modelling in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of its inherent characteristics. This analysis and visual models provided a more complete understanding of the tower's architectural design and functionality. The close examination of visual evidence in the course of modelling yielded additional insights on the earlier appearance of pigeon towers. The examination of the Pir-Bakran Tower, as captured in Beazley's photographs, uncovered a fascinating past of artistic adornment. In its original state, this tower was decorated with elaborate calligraphy and vivid paintings, showcasing the artistic excellence and aesthetic sensibilities of the time. However, observations made after the restoration show a notable change: the decorative elements, such as the calligraphy and paintings, were taken out. This alteration not only diminishes the tower's historical accuracy but also detracts from the cultural legacy it embodies. It highlights the difficulties in preserving the delicate equilibrium between restoration and upholding the historical authenticity of architectural heritage. 131 6.2. Implications of the Research While this study is rooted in the context of Greater Iran and its gardens and pigeon towers, its outcomes are more broadly applicable in ways that transcend geographic and cultural boundaries. The research goes beyond shedding light on the Mardavij pigeon tower's role, design, and function. It offers insights that have theoretical, practical, and policy-related importance. In an academic context, the approach taken expands how architectural history research methods can incorporate modern technologies such as three-dimensional modeling alongside historical and visual evidence. In practical terms, it showcases how historical designs have much to offer contemporary sustainable architectural design and urban planning. In terms of policy, it highlights the importance of environmentally conscious restoration and agricultural practices and adds to our knowledge of how to use resources sustainably and preserve our heritage together in alignment with global sustainability objectives, and has the potential to enhance agricultural practices. Historical pigeon tower design shows a strong comprehension of pigeon requirements, showcasing a mutually beneficial connection between human and animal well-being. These designs were created with both practicality and the well-being of pigeons in mind and serve as an inspiration for modern design practices that prioritize multi-species cohabitation and emphasize mutual benefit. The design and construction of pigeon towers highlight the creative utilization of nearby, eco-friendly materials, specifically pigeon manure, in farming methods. This approach not only provides a unique alternative to synthetic fertilizers but also promotes a cycle of ecological sustainability. This raises the possibility of incorporating traditional natural techniques into contemporary farming, improving soil quality, and increasing crop yields in an eco-friendly way. This study can help inform the development of agricultural and environmental policies that 132 promote a shift towards more eco-conscious practices. The research supports global sustainable development initiatives by advocating for innovative and community-based solutions. These solutions have the potential to create a more environmentally friendly and sustainable future in agriculture. This research also supports architectural conservation policies that prioritize restoration methods that honour the original architectural designs and cultural contexts of historical buildings and are culturally and historically aware. This involves making sure that heritage conservation efforts maintain the historical integrity and authenticity of structures such as pigeon towers. This approach is essential for preserving architectural heritage and ensuring that restoration work enhances our knowledge and appreciation of historical architecture. 6.3. Future Research Directions There are several areas that could be explored in future research, building upon the limitations and unexplored aspects we have identified in our study. One area worth exploring is Kaempfer's intricate drawings of pigeon towers. His work provides a comprehensive and detailed perspective on these structures, offering a valuable resource for further architectural study and comprehension. This aspect, although briefly mentioned, shows great potential for future academic investigations. The conservation and examination of the many pigeon towers, which face the danger of disappearing from future generations, represent a crucial area that requires attention. It is crucial to provide immediate assistance for the preservation, examination, and repair of these significant historical structures, so that they can be safeguarded and valued by future generations. 133 Preserving our architectural past is of utmost importance in order to maintain a tangible connection to our heritage. Another area for further investigation involves updating the concept, principles, and design of pigeon manure usage in modern agriculture, or rethinking pigeon towers as shelters for urban pigeons. This update offers practical applications for pigeon towers, setting them apart from other local Iranian vernacular buildings, such as caravanserais, which may not have current functional relevance. This adaptation has the potential to incorporate pigeon towers into contemporary architectural and environmental concepts. Pigeon towers have not received sufficient attention in academic research across various disciplines, such as typology, architecture, and restoration, despite their significance in our natural and cultural heritage. It is important to note the significance of this oversight, especially in light of the 1972 UNESCO Convention that highlighted the interdependence of cultural and natural heritage. The convention's perspective on heritage preservation highlights the significance of studying and conserving structures such as pigeon towers. These structures exemplify the harmonious relationship between human creativity and the environment. Incorporating virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) technologies into the study of pigeon towers offers an exciting chance to expand knowledge and engage the public. These technologies have the potential to make the complex intricacies of pigeon towers accessible to a broader audience, providing engaging and interactive experiences. These structures can effectively showcase their architectural intricacies and historical importance, enhancing the learning experience by making it more captivating and easy to understand. This approach is a perfect fit for the extensive and comprehensive nature of our work. It offers a contemporary 134 platform to present our research findings and cultivate a greater understanding of and admiration for this architectural heritage. These suggestions aim to further enhance the comprehension and utilization of our findings, laying the groundwork for future scholars to build upon and broaden the existing body of knowledge we have initiated. 6.4. Closing Remarks As this study comes to a close, it goes beyond being an academic pursuit. It takes us on a voyage through history and culture, intertwining the past with the present. Pigeon towers are a prime example of how architecture can be both environmentally friendly and sustainable. They demonstrate a grasp of the interconnections found in gardens and the significance of preserving natural resources. The use of pigeon manure in Persianate gardens demonstrates the ingenuity and forward-thinking of the individuals responsible for the design and upkeep of these gardens. It exemplifies an early example of sustainable practices that coexist harmoniously with nature. The utilization of pigeon manure in Iranian agriculture is comparable to an artist employing aged paints to craft a fresh masterpiece. This practice takes what some might perceive as insignificant leftovers and turns them into a valuable asset, enhancing the soil in a timeless cycle that has been a part of gardens for generations. It's a balanced fusion of history and modernity, where the idea of sustainability is not a recent trend but a tradition passed down over time, caring for the land in a natural way. Our exploration of Persianate pigeon towers, using modern technology and a multidisciplinary approach, has been a journey of personal learning and revelation. This investigation went beyond a basic examination of architecture, encompassing cultural, economic, 135 and ecological viewpoints to offer a more comprehensive understanding of Persianate heritage. The significance of these structures, both in their historical context and in today's world, highlights their lasting value as architectural marvels and representations of sustainable living and cultural heritage. 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Würsch, Renate. 2013. “ḴAWARNAQ.” Encyclopaedia Iranica. 2013. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kawarnaq. Yavari, Ahmadreza. 1980. Shenākhti Az Keshāvarzi-e Sonnati-e Iran [An Understanding of the Traditional Agriculture of Iran] Tehran: Bongah-e Tarjomeh va Nashr-e Ketab. 141 Appendix: Statement and Documentation Statement on Modeling Methodology and Data Limitations This thesis utilizes models to synthesize different data sets of varying precision, which are essential to the modeling process. The data set used to build the models has certain limitations due to historical uncertainties, interpretative reconstructions, and the constraints of digital approximations of physical structures. Thus, it is important to consider these models as intricate approximations, offering a digital interpretation rather than precise replicas of the ancient pigeon towers. They provide a way to visually and conceptually explore the past using modern digital tools, while acknowledging the inherent limitations and the ever-changing nature of our knowledge of history and architecture. Using the Mardavij pigeon tower as an example, information was gathered from M. L. Dewan's accounts to determine the amount of pigeon manure produced. Based on various factors like pigeon population and feeding patterns, as well as the challenges in accurately representing the detailed architecture of pigeon towers through digital modeling, it can be concluded that our reconstructions are educated guesses. This modeling, although advanced, does not capture every detail of the physical and historical reality. It faces challenges in verifying historical descriptions and lacks physical evidence for certain aspects of the towers. This dependence on historical accounts, which have been consistently used over time, implies that although the figures are not precise, they provide a reasonable foundation for comprehending the extent of agricultural productivity enabled by the towers. However, the lack of current supporting data suggests that these figures should be regarded as rough estimates rather than exact measurements. In a straightforward manner, the towers' architectural aspects are reconstructed by gathering information from a range of sources, such as ancient manuscripts, travelers' accounts, and 142 modern studies. For example, the analysis of the towers' structure and defensive features, like the use of a special gypsum belt to keep predators away, is based on historical records and architectural principles. These features are explained using modern architectural knowledge and may not fully represent the original historical methods or materials. In addition, my examination of the Mardavij pigeon tower's design uncovered its intricate structural and aesthetic features, including its curved outer cylinder that enhances stability and offers ideal nesting areas. However, the limited opportunities for direct observation, such as the inability to conduct fieldwork or access certain manuscripts, pose a significant constraint on the accuracy and comprehensiveness of the models. Therefore, the digital reconstructions act as knowledgeable interpretations that aid in our comprehension of the towers' possible shapes and purposes, but they are not exact replicas with the utmost accuracy. The intricacy of these models is further highlighted by the technological limitations inherent in digital modeling. Although Rhinoceros (Rhino) software is capable of creating detailed curves and surfaces, it can only provide an approximation of certain aspects of the Mardavij tower's design. This includes the intricate muqarnas decorations and the subtle variations in the curvature of its surfaces. The intricacies of the tower's design, crucial for both its visual appeal and practicality, present a difficulty for contemporary modeling methods. Despite their sophistication, these techniques are unable to completely capture the artistic skill and meticulousness of the Safavid era. In this thesis, the digital models presented are a noteworthy attempt to visually and conceptually reconstruct Persianate pigeon towers. They aim to fill in historical knowledge gaps by providing a simplified and accessible digital interpretation. Therefore, the models are not 143 exact replicas, but rather intricate and well-informed representations that aid in visualizing what has been lost over time. This modeling exercise is an important addition to the ongoing discussion about Persianate architecture. This encourages scholars to approach these structures from fresh angles, fosters conversations about historical building methods and cultural importance, and inspires additional archaeological and architectural investigations. As a constantly evolving tool, digital modeling represents the current state of knowledge and also serves as a platform for future discoveries. In this context, Table 1 lists the sources utilized for creating both the two-dimensional and three-dimensional drawings presented in this thesis. 144 Table 1 Source Documentation for 3D Models and 2D Visualizations Figures Page Sources Figure 35 Google map showing the historical location of the Hezār Jarib garden and its pigeon towers, Isfahan (screenshot and additions by the author) 9  Mahvash Alemi, “Bagh-i Hizar Jarib-i Naw,” Doaks, accessed October 25, 2022. https://www.doaks.org/resources/middle-east-garden-traditions/catalogue/C174.  Honarfar, A Treasure of the Historical Monuments of Isfahan, 197  Nima Valibeig and Roya Homayooni, “A Review of Hezār Jarib Garden's Form Based on the Descriptive, Illustrative, and Field Documents,” MANZAR (2021):6 Figure 36 Google map of the historical area of Hezār Jarib garden and the area covered by it’s pigeon towers’ manure (screenshot and additions by the author) 92  M.L. Dewan, Towers and Pigeon Guano in Iran (1955), 102–104, quoted in Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000), 58.  Qaseme Ibn-e Yousof Abunasr-e Heravi, Irshad al-Zera'eh. Edited by Mohammad Moshiri (Tehran: University of Tehran, 2011), 281-284.  Sarrami, Jalal. "Isfahan field notes." Isfahan, 2022  “The Mardavij Pigeons’ House,” Imna, Accessed June 27, 2023, https://www.imna.ir/news/557697 Figure 37 Three-dimensional section of the Mardavij pigeon tower showing the structure and indoor accessibility, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) 103  Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000), 202–209.  Saeid Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, Kabutar Khaneh Dar Iran [Pigeon House in Iran] (Tehran: Cultural Studies publication, 2006), 38.  “The Mardavij Pigeons’ House,” Imna, Accessed June 27, 2023, https://www.imna.ir/news/557697 Figure 38 General dimensions of the Mardavij tower in Isfahan, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) 104  Elisabeth Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 4, no. 1, (1966): 107  Saeid Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, Kabutar Khaneh Dar Iran [Pigeon House in Iran] (Tehran: Cultural Studies publication, 2006), 38.  “The Mardavij Pigeons’ House,” Imna, Accessed June 27, 2023, https://www.imna.ir/news/557697 Figure 39 Scaffolding Systems in the Mardavij Pigeon Tower, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) 110  Elisabeth Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 4, no. 1, (1966): 105.  Renate Würsch, “ḴAWARNAQ,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed November 26, 2023. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kawarnaq. Figure 40 The birds’ entrances and exits in the Mardavij tower, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) 111  Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000), 181. 145 Figures Page Sources  Saeid Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, Kabutar Khaneh Dar Iran [Pigeon House in Iran] (Tehran: Cultural Studies publication, 2006), 82-83. Figure 41 Security layers in the Mardavij tower, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) 113  Fred Richards, Safarname-ye Fred Richards [A Persian Journey], trans. Mahindokht Saba (Tehran: Elmifarhangi, 2011), 110.  Elisabeth Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 4, no. 1, (1966): 107.  Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000), 34 Figure 42 Comparing undulated outer wall with a circular wall with the same diameter, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) 116  “The Mardavij Pigeons’ House,” Imna, Accessed June 27, 2023, https://www.imna.ir/news/557697  Elisabeth Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 4, no. 1, (1966): 107. Figure 43 Details of roosts and perches in the Mardavij tower, 16th century, Isfahan (drawing by the author) 122  Elisabeth Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 4, no. 1, (1966): 107.  Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000), 208  Saeid Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, email message to author, August 2023 Figure 44 S.M. Mahmoudian, et al, Roost and Perches, from The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan, Isfahan: Golha, 2000, 208 (published under fair use; photograph by author) 123  Sayed Mohammad Mahmoudian and Ali Chit-Saaz, Borj-hay-e Kabutar-e Esfahan [The Pigeon Towers of Isfahan] (Isfahan, Iran: Golha Publication, 2000), 208  Elisabeth Beazley, “The Pigeon Towers of Iṣfahān,” Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 4, no. 1, (1966): 105.  Saeid Hadizadeh Kakh-gi, email message to author, August 2023
Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Interdisciplinary Studies
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
Graduate
Keshani, Hussein
Digital echoes of ancient gardens : exploring Persianate pigeon towers’ role in agriculture and heritage through three-dimensional modeling
Text