Arts, Faculty of
Music, School of
DSpace
UBCV
Therieau, Kaylee
Master of Arts - MA
University of British Columbia
This thesis discusses the lives and works of Clara Angela Macirone (1821-1914) and Oliveria Prescott (1842-1919), two prominent women musicians featured in The Girls’ Own Paper (TGOP) during the late 19th century. Both graduates of the Royal Academy of Music (RAM) and accomplished composers, teachers, and authors, Macirone and Prescott advocated for the equal music education of Victorian girls through their writings in TGOP. Macirone's "A Plea for Music" series (December 1883 to July 1884) passionately promotes the importance of music education in girls' schools, drawing parallels with the benefits seen in boys' schools. Her subsequent series, "On Taste in the Choice of Songs" (March to August 1885), provides guidance to young singers on selecting appropriate repertoire while delving into English music culture and the spiritual aspects of music making. Prescott, on the other hand, contributed to the music theory landscape of the era with her book Form, or Design, in Music (1882), compiled from her articles in the Musical World, and About Music, and What it is Made Of: A Book for Amateurs (1904), derived from her public lectures. Comparing these publications, along with her articles in TGOP, uncovers Prescott’s specific changes in language between her writings for musicians versus musical amateurs. By analyzing their articles and comparing their perspectives, this paper reveals their contrasting opinions on the purpose of music in a woman's life and the broader societal expectations for women in the Victorian era. Through their efforts, Macirone and Prescott paved the way for future generations of women in music, challenging traditional gender norms in the profession and advocating for equal opportunities in music education.
MUSICAL BABES: CLARA MACIRONE AND OLIVERIA PRESCOTT’S ROLE IN VICTORIAN-ERA GIRLS’ MUSIC EDUCATION by Kaylee Therieau B.S., Elon University, 2022 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Music – Theory) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) April 2024 © Kaylee Therieau, 2024 ii The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies for acceptance, the thesis entitled: Musical babes: Clara Macirone and Oliveria Prescott’s role in Victorian-era girls’ music education submitted by Kaylee Therieau in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Music – Theory Examining Committee: Leigh VanHandel, Music Theory Division Chair and Associate Professor, School of Music, UBC Supervisor Anabel Maler, Assistant Professor, School of Music, UBC Supervisory Committee Member Laurel Parsons, Lecturer, School of Music, UBC Supervisory Committee Member iii Abstract This thesis discusses the lives and works of Clara Angela Macirone (1821-1914) and Oliveria Prescott (1842-1919), two prominent women musicians featured in The Girl’s Own Paper (TGOP) during the late 19th century. Both graduates of the Royal Academy of Music (RAM) and accomplished composers, teachers, and authors, Macirone and Prescott advocated for the equal music education of Victorian girls through their writings in TGOP. Macirone's "A Plea for Music" series (December 1883 to July 1884) passionately promotes the importance of music education in girls' schools, drawing parallels with the benefits seen in boys' schools. Her subsequent series, "On Taste in the Choice of Songs" (March to August 1885), provides guidance to young singers on selecting appropriate repertoire while delving into English music culture and the spiritual aspects of music making. Prescott, on the other hand, contributed to the music theory landscape of the era with her book Form, or Design, in Music (1882), compiled from her articles in the Musical World, and About Music, and What it is Made Of: A Book for Amateurs (1904), derived from her public lectures. Comparing these publications, along with her articles in TGOP, uncovers Prescott’s specific changes in language between her writings for musicians versus musical amateurs. By analyzing their articles and comparing their perspectives, this paper reveals their contrasting opinions on the purpose of music in a woman's life and the broader societal expectations for women in the Victorian era. Through their efforts, Macirone and Prescott paved the way for future generations of women in music, challenging traditional gender norms in the profession and advocating for equal opportunities in music education. iv Lay Summary In this thesis, I explore the lives and impact of Clara Angela Macirone and Oliveria Prescott, two remarkable women musicians from the late 19th century. They were featured in The Girl’s Own Paper (TGOP) and promoted equal music education for girls in Victorian England. Clara Macirone’s writing passionately argues for music education in girls' schools, highlighting its benefits for young minds, and guides young singers in choosing suitable songs. Oliveria Prescott contributed significantly to the world of music theory through her books and articles in TGOP. Her works, accessible to professional musicians and musical amateurs, cover musical topics in varying levels of complexity. Through their writings, Macirone and Prescott challenged societal norms by advocating for women's roles in music and equal opportunities in education, helping to fill the gaps in girls’ education. This research sheds light on their pioneering efforts and their lasting impact on music education and gender equality. v Preface This thesis is original, unpublished, independent work by the author, Kaylee Therieau. vi Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary ................................................................................................................................ iv Preface ............................................................................................................................................ v Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. viii List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... ix Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ x Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 A Balancing Act: Music, Education, and Victorian Societal Norms .............................. 7 1.2 Breaking Down Public Music Theory ........................................................................... 14 1.3 A Magazine of Their Own: The Girl’ Own Paper and the Influence of Victorian Magazines .................................................................................................................................. 16 1.4 Journey From Student to Master: An Examination of Clara Macirone’s Life Through Music Education ........................................................................................................................ 19 1.5 For the People: A Brief Overview of Oliveria Prescott’s Life and Work ..................... 22 Chapter 2: Advocation and Advice: Clara Macirone’s Writing in The Girl’s Own Paper ... 25 2.1 Clara Macirone’s Advocation of Home Music in “The Power of Music” and “A Plea for Music” .................................................................................................................................. 25 2.2 Advice for Young English Singers: Clara Macirone “On Taste in Choice of Songs” .. 30 vii Chapter 3: Oliveria Prescott’s Writings for a Musical Audience in Form, or Design, in Music ............................................................................................................................................. 35 3.1 Miniature Music: Oliveria Prescott’s Discussion of Minuet Form ............................... 35 3.2 Oliveria Prescott’s Presentation of the Development of Sonata Form .......................... 51 Chapter 4: Appealing to the Masses: Analyzing Oliveria Prescott’s Language Towards the Musical Amateur ......................................................................................................................... 63 4.1 From Songs to Symphonies: Describing Musical Concepts in About Music, and What it is Made Of ................................................................................................................................. 64 4.2 “Even Babes”: Oliveria Prescott’s Theoretical Analyses in The Girl’s Own Paper ..... 72 Chapter 5: Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 82 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 87 viii List of Figures Figure 3.1: Beethoven's Sonata in E♭, Op. 31, No. 3, Mvt. III, Menuetto .................................... 36 Figure 3.2: Beethoven's Sonata in E♭, Op. 31, No. 3, Mvt. III, Trio ............................................. 38 Figure 3.3: Bach's Suite Anglaise No. 4 in F major, BVW 809, Mvt. VI, Menuet II .................... 39 Figure 3.4: Bach's Suite Anglaise No. 4 in F major, BVW 809, Mvt. V, Menuet I ...................... 41 Figure 3.5: Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 1 in A major, K. 331/300i, Mvt. III, Menuetto, mm. 1-23 ....................................................................................................................................................... 43 Figure 3.6: Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 11 in A major, K. 331/300i, Mvt. III, Menuetto, mm. 24-48 ................................................................................................................................................... 44 Figure 3.7: Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 11, Op. 22, Mvt. III, Menuetto, mm. 1-25 ................. 47 Figure 3.8: Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 11, Op. 22, Mvt. III, Menuetto, mm. 26-47 ............... 48 Figure 4.1: "Near Woodstock Town" as it appears in About Music, and What it is Made Of ...... 65 Figure 4.2: Piano reduction of Haydn's Symphony No. 103 in E♭ Major, Hob. I: 103, Mvt. III, Menuetto, mm. 1-13 ...................................................................................................................... 67 Figure 4.3: Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 31, Op. 110, Mvt. III, Adagio, ma non troppo, mm. 1-10 ................................................................................................................................................... 71 Figure 4.4: Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 15, Op. 28, Mvt. II, Andante, mm. 1-24 .................... 79 ix List of Abbreviations About Music: About Music, and What it is Made Of (1904), by Oliveria Prescott Form: Form, or Design, in Music (1882), by Oliveria Prescott RAM: The Royal Academy of Music TGOP: The Girl’s Own Paper x Acknowledgements I would like to express the sincerest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Leigh VanHandel, for her unwavering support and guidance throughout this project. Dr. VanHandel has been a constant motivator and, despite the many redirections and changes to this project, has always been willing to sit down and talk through my next steps. This project would not have come to fruition without her. Thank you to my committee members, Dr. Anabel Maler and Dr. Laurel Parsons, for their assistance throughout this project. I am infinitely grateful for their suggestions and attention to detail. I want to recognize all the women who have guided my musical education, including Dr. Allison Wente and Gretchen Bruesehoff. I am ever grateful for their support and do not take for granted the many women role-models that have guided me and my journey, my experience is not of the majority. Thank you to Amanda Lawrence for keeping me accountable and motivated, for letting me nap on your couch, and for answering all my dumb formatting questions. I will miss drinking burnt coffee at Lucy’s with you. Thank you to my family for their constant support, and for answering my phone calls when I walk to the bus. xi Dedication To my mother, my first role model and to whom I owe everything. 1 Chapter 1: Introduction From 1883 to 1891 two women musicians were featured in the pages of The Girl’s Own Paper, hereafter TGOP, a penny weekly magazine considered the most popular girl’s magazine in Victorian England. Clara Angela Macirone (1821-1914) and Oliveria Prescott (1842-1919) were composers, teachers, and authors who began their musical careers at the Royal Academy of Music (RAM) under prominent musicians such as Sir George Alexander Macfarren (1813-1887) and Cipriani Potter (1792-1871). After graduating from the RAM, both Macirone and Prescott taught music at girls’ schools in London, published compositions, and authored numerous articles in various English journals and periodicals. In addition to her articles, Macirone had many of her compositions, mostly art songs and piano solos, published in music journals. Prescott, who composed larger instrumental works, also published two theoretical texts during her lifetime: Form, or Design, in Music (1882) and About Music, and What it is Made Of (1904), each based on her previous articles and lectures. Through a discussion of their lives and works, I show how these women advocated for the equal music education of Victorian girls and young women in the pages of The Girl’s Own Paper. My first introduction to the world of historical periodicals was through a discovery of a feature on French composer Cécile Chaminade in the Ladies’ Home Journal, an American magazine in print from 1883-2014.1 A search into the overlap between late-19th century periodicals and music theory led me to Rachel Lumsden’s 2020 article in Music Theory Online, 1 Ethelyn Friend Middleton, “The Idol of the Girls: A Personal Glimpse of Mademoiselle Chaminade,” The Ladies’ Home Journal (Philadelphia: American Periodicals Series III, February 1900), https://www.proquest.com/magazines/idol-girls/docview/137011997/se-2?accountid=14656. 2 “Music Theory for the ‘Weaker Sex’: Oliveria Prescott’s Columns for The Girl’s Own Paper” and her chapter in The Oxford Handbook of Public Music Theory (2022), “Oliveria Prescott and the Musical Amateur.”2 By looking more closely at how music was incorporated in TGOP, I discovered the work of Clara Macirone, who had more than twenty compositions published in TGOP between 1880 and 1910, commonly credited as C. A. Macirone. These two women dominated the music section of TGOP at the end of the 19th century, and their writings in TGOP and elsewhere reflected the changing Victorian views on music as a potential career for women. In the Victorian era, the music profession, especially music theory, was overwhelmingly male. Although representation in music theory has unquestionably improved since Macirone and Prescott’s time, male music theory scholars and professors still outweigh their non-male counterparts. According to the 2023 Annual Report of Membership Demographics produced by the Society of Music Theory (SMT), approximately 59% of members identify as male.3 These numbers are especially high compared to other musical professional societies; as of 2017, 48.5% of the American Musicological Society’s membership was made up by men and approximately 47% of the Society of Ethnomusicology. This imbalance is also reflected in the demographics of graduate students and professors. In her article “Getting to Count” (2021), Ellie Hisama states the uncomfortable truth that music 2 Rachel Lumsden, “Music Theory for the ‘Weaker Sex’: Oliveria Prescott’s Columns for The Girl’s Own Paper,” Music Theory Online 26, no. 3 (2020); Rachel Lumsden, “Oliveria Prescott and the Musical Amateur,” in The Oxford Handbook of Public Music Theory, ed. J. Daniel Jenkins (Oxford University Press, 2022), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197551554.013.5. 3 Trevor de Clercq, “Annual Report on Membership Demographics” (Society of Music Theory, December 2023), https://societymusictheory.org/administration/demographics. 3 theory and composition has “the lowest percentage of women U.S. Ph.Ds. in the humanities.”4 SMT’s demographic report shows that the majority of people in academic teaching positions are male and “the proportion of men increases with an increase in academic rank, although male membership appears to be decreasing over time within the three levels of professorship.”5 Furthermore, men are still disproportionately published in academic journals. A 2008 study conducted by Robert Zierolf found that women were published far less than men in several major journals including Journal of Music Theory, Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, Music Theory Spectrum, and Music Analysis.6 Although this data is discouraging, there is evidence to support growth in women representation overall, with SMT’s 2023 report showing growth in the percentage of women in all three levels of the professoriate.7 Causes for the lack of professional women musicians in the Victorian era will be discussed in further detail in my review of literature, but why are the numbers still so disproportionate in the 21st century? Many scholars discuss several discriminating characteristics of music theory and music theory pedagogy that could contribute to the imbalance. Hisama points to the concept of “inner exile,” or a “state of exclusion that occurs within a person’s homeland.”8 Based on the many narratives she gathered from women previously or currently in the profession, which outline the discrimination they have faced from supervisors and male 4 Ellie M. Hisama, “Getting to Count,” Music Theory Spectrum 43, no. 2 (2021): 350, https://doi.org/10.1093/mts/mtaa033. 5 de Clercq, “Annual Report,” 18. 6 Robert Zierlof, “The Number and Nature of Journal Articles by Women in Music Theory.” This report, although outdated, is seemingly the only of its kind that presents data on the comparison of publications between men and women. 7 De Clercq, “Annual Report,” 9. 8 Hisama, “Getting to Count,” 352. 4 colleagues, Hisama deduces that this is a factor leading to the overall “homogeneous and uninviting” nature of the field.9 An additional theory for the lack of women in the field discusses the underrepresentation of repertory and scholarship by women composers and theorists in music theory courses. Cora Palfy and Eric Gilson present this argument in their 2018 article “The Hidden Curriculum in the Music Theory Classroom.” They propose that the presence of a hidden curriculum, or “a concept or idea that is implicitly taught through the way courses are structured, content is communicated, conceptual examples are chosen, or by the personal biases of the professor,” impacts the way students see themselves represented in the field.10 Jane Martin, an American philosopher of education, states in her 1976 article that “unnoticed negative hidden curricula can impact what students understand to be important, who can participate, and whether they pursue careers in a field.”11 Students who do not fit the description of the overemphasized “canon” composers, i.e. Bach, Beethoven, Mozart, Haydn, etc., “may feel that they are not able to continue their musical careers as composers or theorists.”12 Philip A. Ewell (2020) argues that this underrepresentation does not apply only to musical examples presented in classes but also the musical theories that are used. He states: “these theories are also, of course, overwhelmingly written by whites. In fact, I do not know one nonwhite (or nonmale) music theorist whose music theories are regularly 9 Hisama, “Getting to Count,” 352. 10 Cora S. Palfy and Eric Gilson, “The Hidden Curriculum in the Music Theory Classroom,” Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy 32 (2018): 81. 11 Palfy and Gilson, “Hidden Curriculum,” 84, quoting Jane R. Martin, “What Should We Do with a Hidden Curriculum When We Find One?,” Curriculum Inquiry 6, no. 2 (1976): 135–51. 12 Palfy and Gilson, “Hidden Curriculum,” 84. 5 studied in undergraduate classes.”13 Specifically for the music theory profession, not having a diversity of theorists represented in the classroom can greatly impact a student’s decision to continue in the field. In her 1993 book Gender and the Musical Canon, Marcia J. Citron shows how the aim to grow the presence of women in the field is cyclical in nature. She states: “The increased presence of women has helped fuel a growing interest in historical women and their music as a research area.”14 Additionally, she concludes that “women professors provide strong and needed role models for female students. They demonstrate to all students that women participate in the discourse of history by extension of history itself.”15 Therefore, the increase of women in the field adds to the increased representation of women. This in turn leads to even more women in the field because they see themselves represented in both musical examples and active professionals. Macirone and Prescott fit nicely in this narrative; one could even consider them as some of the first instigators of this cycle Citron describes. The above discussion emphasizes the importance of prioritizing women in the profession for the sake of future generations. In the following thesis, I aim to show how Macirone and Prescott acted as public music educators through their writings, especially those published in TGOP. Before conducting analyses of their work, I first situate Macirone and Prescott as women musicians in the Victorian era. As could be expected, society at this time imposed many restrictions and expectations on women in the music profession and everyday life. Women who 13 Philip A. Ewell, “Music Theory and the White Racial Frame,” Music Theory Online 26, no. 2 (2020): para. 3.1, https://doi.org/10.30535/mto.26.2.4. 14 Marcia J. Citron, Gender and the Musical Canon, (Cambridge [England]; New York; Cambridge University Press, 1993): 228, https://go.exlibris.link/t0W4mxxB. 15 Citron, Gender, 230. 6 did enter musical professions were expected to be performers or teachers as there was a commonly held belief that women were not able to compose music on the same level as men. These beliefs also reverberated into the education system as girls’ schools lacked adequate music instruction. After contextualizing Macirone and Prescott’s work in Victorian society, I demonstrate how their writings illustrate an early version of public music theory. Because many of their articles were published in TGOP, I then describe the history and importance of the magazine in the lives of Victorian girls, allowing me to show how Macirone and Prescott’s articles fit into the paper as a whole. Finally, I present brief biographies of both Macirone and Prescott to situate their writings within the greater context of their life. Macirone published two letter series in TGOP; “A Plea for Music” appeared between December 1883 and July 1884 and “On Taste in the Choice of Songs” between March and August 1885. Her first series, “A Plea for Music,” promotes equal music education in girls’ schools through a discussion of the power that music has on the young mind, including description of the benefits found in boys’ schools from proper musical training. “On the Taste in the Choice of Songs” seeks to assist the young singer in determining appropriate repertoire. In this series, Macirone asks and answers three questions: “What can you sing? What object have you in singing? How can I guide you to know a good song?” Throughout her discussion, Macirone touches on topics such as English music culture and the role that spirituality has in music making. In addition to her articles in TGOP, Oliveria Prescott published two books covering various musical concepts. Her first book, Form, or Design, in Music (1882), was compiled from a series of articles published in The Musical World, a popular music periodical. The book covers 7 the forms of instrumental and vocal music, but for the purposes of this work, I only discuss Prescott’s first three chapters: the introduction to form, minuet form, and sonata form. Her second book, About Music, and What it is Made Of: A Book for Amateurs (1904), is based on a series of public lectures Prescott gave in 1893. Prescott covers a wide range of topics from English music to opera to symphonies. For this discussion, I focus on the final chapter, “The Making of Symphonies,” to provide a comparison between this text and her previous publication. Because this book and her TGOP articles are aimed at the musical amateur, I opted to group them together to provide an adequate representation of how Prescott addresses an audience with less musical knowledge. Through my presentations and discussions of these two women, I aim to show how their work represented an early example of public music theory. Additionally, through a comparison of their writings, I discuss how these two authors present two contrasting opinions surrounding the purpose of music in a woman’s life, as well as the purpose of women in the larger society. Macirone and Prescott’s articles, in addition to providing the readers of TGOP with music instruction and advice, show how two similar life experiences can lead to widely different views on societal issues. 1.1 A Balancing Act: Music, Education, and Victorian Societal Norms It is important to contextualize how Prescott and Macirone functioned as women and musicians in Victorian society. In her 2009 article “Beyond the Drawing Room: The Musical Lives of Victorian Women,” Sarah McNeely describes the purpose music played in women’s lives at this time. She paints a picture of a typical drawing-room performance: 8 A middle-class woman seated at the piano embodies refinement and accomplishment as she performs to friends, family, and potential husbands, who applaud and murmur their approval to one another. Even in this private setting, the stakes are high for the woman musician: if she plays well, her performance may earn her a husband, but a discordant note could raise questions about her breeding and respectability.16 Musical ability was a marker of social status for women in the Victorian era and represented one instance where a woman was able to be in the spotlight. However, once the goal of cultivating a woman’s musical ability was achieved, i.e. marriage, music was no longer considered as an avenue for self-improvement. Once a woman fulfilled her obligation to society, she was expected to use her musical ability for the education of her children. In Music, Gender, Education (1997) Lucy Green discusses women’s “enabling role” in Victorian society. Green states: “The mother, whose role in music education has been considerable, can fulfil her maternal musical duties in ways that affirm patriarchal definitions of femininity.”17 Women pass music onto their children through simple acts such as singing lullabies. Additionally, mothers convey musical education and expectations to their daughters to aid them in finding a suitable husband. The roles of teaching in the home gradually evolved, along with changing gender norms, into an allowable profession for women: that of a music teacher. We can begin to understand the expectations Victorian era society imposed on girls and young women through analysis of the many educational texts for girls, prescribing what was 16 Sarah McNeely, “Beyond the Drawing Room: The Musical Lives of Victorian Women,” Nineteenth-Century Gender Studies 5, no. 2 (2009): 1. 17 Lucy Green, Music, Gender, Education, 1st ed., (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997): 48, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511585456. 9 required from a “well-kept” girl. H.R. Haweis produced multiple publications involving music’s interaction with morals, most notably Music and Morality (1872) and Ideals for Girls (1897). In Ideals for Girls, Haweis introduces different characters meant to represent typical English girls, and through narrative stories, Haweis shows the downfall of girls with undesirable traits. Through his discussion of the “musical girl” and “educated girl” and their positive attributes, Haweis describes the necessary attributes needed to be considered a “proper” English girl. For Haweis, like others in the Victorian era, girls’ education is an intermediary step in the transition from childhood to marriage and motherhood.18 Bearing children was not the only way women were able to contribute to national improvement. The transitional time in a girl’s life, before marriage, was her chance to participate in the workplace in specific “feminine” jobs, such as nursing or midwifery. Through these occupations, a girl was able to improve the nation for a short time before becoming a wife and a mother. This transitional time was often the focus of girl’s magazines and journals, such as TGOP, which will be discussed in detail in subsequent sections. In addition to being taught in the home, music was beginning to be incorporated into public school curriculum, for boys and girls. Bernarr Rainbow (1989) discusses the evolution of public music education for women in Victorian England, which began through the incorporation of singing instruction in schools. Rainbow examines the first textbooks and manuals used for music instruction and discusses the notable scholars and instructors at the time. Rainbow notes that although singing was widely taught, instrumental education was remarkably 18 Hugh Reginald Haweis, Ideals for Girls, (London: James Bowden, 1897). 10 underdeveloped; while women were receiving lessons on instruments, the lessons were lacking any theoretical instruction. Rainbow states: The tendency in [girls’] schools was to concentrate on empty display. And it seems obvious today that the accepted image of the drawing-room pianist who dazzled suitors with empty technique or earned their affectionate indulgence with faltering execution obliged every young lady to learn to play the piano whether she had aptitude or not. The failure of many girls to benefit fully from their lessons must cause little surprise.19 Rainbow’s case study shows the important gaps in Victorian women’s music education. For most women, musical instruction was intended for surface level improvement. It was not considered necessary that women understood the technical or theoretical aspects of music; rather, they were simply expected to perform to a certain standard. Judith Barger (2017) touches on this concept in Music in The Girl's Own Paper: An Annotated Catalogue, 1880-1910; she states: “the musically accomplished young lady was expected to live her life so that she did not lose as an ideally feminine woman what she gained in proficiency as a musician.”20 Women who were able to surpass superficial musical knowledge and participate in the professional sphere were subject to even more judgements about the place of women in society. In “Women Musicians and Professionalism in the Late-nineteenth and Early-twentieth Centuries,” Sophie Fuller (2018) discusses how professional women musicians were perceived in Victorian society. The difference between amateur and professional musicians was largely determined by financial compensation; musical amateurs could be paid for their services, but 19 Bernarr Rainbow, “The Rise of Popular Music Education in Nineteenth-Century England,” Victorian Studies 30, no. 1 (1986): 17-41. 20 Judith Barger, Music in The Girl’s Own Paper: An Annotated Catalogue, 1880-1910 (Routledge, 2017), 3. 11 someone who earned their living through musical employment as a performer, composer, conductor, etc., was thought of as a professional musician.21 Although this era saw an increased number of educational and career opportunities for women, expectations varied based on social class. For middle- and upper-class women, some thought that “careers or professions were degrading” and reflected the husband or father’s inability to provide for his family.22 Upper-class women were more likely to have access to private music instruction that prepared them to enter schools like the Royal Academy of Music for an education that enabled them to partake in the professional musical world. Thus, women of higher socio-economic status had the ability to make a choice between the professional and domestic worlds; their access to music instruction meant they were more likely to be a skilled performer who could attract a good husband, but they were also more likely to have the understanding and ability required for higher education in music. In the Victorian era, not only were women more likely to be excluded from the musical professions, but their participation in the field was also often limited to a small number of “accepted” careers. As discussed previously, one of these careers was that of the music teacher, as it was assumed that women would be able to pass on their musical knowledge to their own children or the children of others. Women were also accepted as performers, which originated from the societal expectation for women to showcase their talents to find a husband. As women gained education and experience as performers, it would be a logical step for them to start 21 Sophie Fuller, “Women Musicians and Professionalism in the Late-Nineteenth and Early-Twentieth Centuries,” in The Music Profession in Britain, 1780-1920 (Routledge, 2018), 150. 22 Fuller, “Women Musicians,” 152. 12 composing music for their respective instruments. However, there was a noticeable absence of women composers, leading to several articles in contemporary Victorian publications discussing the underlying reasons for this disparity. In March of 1894, The Atlantic Monthly published an essay by Edith Brower (1847-1931) titled “Is the Musical Idea Masculine?”. Brower acknowledges the women composers that have published music but states that none of them have been truly great. She points at a long history of women involved in music, and claims that while women have been familiar with instruments and musical notation, none have reached the level of male composers. Therefore, according to Brower, women must have an inherent lack of ability to compose as well as men.23 Brower was not alone in this line of thinking. There was a long-held belief in the Victorian era that women were “too emotional” to compose. The anonymous author of an 1889 interview with Clara Macirone in The Musical Herald summarizes this belief using a quote from American journalist and author George P. Upton’s book Women and Music as an example24: The explanation of this problem Mr. Upton finds in the very emotional nature of woman. Emotion being part of herself she cannot project it outwardly. Man controls his emotions, and can measure them out in the ordered forms of art. Technical skill, the fruit of patient study, holds the reins of his imagination. Whereas woman lives and acts in and from imagination; works by intuition; cannot reach results by the slow processes of reason. Again, she cannot endure disappointment; cannot wait through years of neglect; cannot keep heart amid malicious opposition.25 23 Edith Brower, “Is the Musical Idea Masculine?,” Atlantic Monthly 73, no. 437 (1894): 323–39. 24 George P. Upton, Woman in Music: An Essay, (James R. Osgood And Company, 1880), https://go.exlibris.link/R5JCc4Np. 25 “Miss Clara A. Macirone,” in The Musical Herald and Tonic Sol-Fa Reporter, ed. J.S. Curwen, September 1889, 194. 13 The author of The Musical Herald article does not agree with this argument, and cites oppositions to Upton’s and Brower’s beliefs, such as those from Mrs. William Sharpe: “Women,” [Sharpe] says, “have had many serious hindrances to contend against: defective education, lack of broad experience of life, absence of freedom in which to make full use of natural abilities, and the force of public and private opinion, both of which have been prone to prejudge her work unfavourably, or, at best, apologetically.”26 Support for women musicians and composers was also found in contemporary works of fiction. In 1894, feminist author Mona Caird (1854-1932) published the novel The Daughters of Danaus, which centres around a fictional woman composer, Hadria Fullerton, in the late nineteenth century.27 Caird’s novel supports Sharpe’s argument and extends it; rather than just having obstacles in their training, the novel suggests that “women have been held back by demands on their time, the nature of artistic temperament, and physical limitation, both racial and sexual.”28 Anna Peak (2014) addresses the dispute surrounding women in music through an analysis of Caird’s novel. In addition to an analysis and counter to Brower’s article, Peak also addresses the belief that women were meant to compose different genres than men. Many Victorian writers point to the tendency for women composers to compose small genres, such as art songs as opposed to symphonies, as a sign that “women and men innately think and compose differently.”29 However, authors such as Sharpe and Caird argue that the imbalance between 26 “Miss Clara A. Macirone,” 194. 27 Mona Alison Caird, The Daughters of Danaus, (England: Bliss, Sands & Foster, 1894). 28 Anna Peak, “Music and New Woman Aesthetics in Mona Caird’s ‘The Daughters of Danaus,’” Victorian Review 40, no. 1 (2014): 136, https://doi.org/10.1353/vcr.2014.0011. 29 Peak, “Music and New Woman,” 136. 14 male and female composers stems from societal inequalities rather than inherent personal characteristics. These discussions occurred around Clara Macirone and Oliveria Prescott throughout their careers, illustrating different opinions about a woman’s place in the musical world. Macirone and Prescott’s writings reflect these contrasting views; in the Musical Herald interview, Macirone stated that a woman belongs in the home with the family, and that this is why women were more accustomed to composing small forms: “those which come to a hearing at the fireside and in the drawing room and are sufficient to occupy the circle in which she lives.”30 Prescott, however, routinely advocated for the equality of women in musical fields. An 1894 article by Prescott in the paper Musical News titled “Imperial Exhibition of Women’s Work” discussed the possibility of a musical event solely featuring women as composers, directors, and performers. She described the importance of young women seeing successful women in the field: “it will be a revelation that will lighten and broaden the lives of many women.”31 1.2 Breaking Down Public Music Theory Clara Macirone and Oliveria Prescott acted as public music theorists through their writings in TGOP and elsewhere, with a goal of enhancing musical education of girls and women. In his introduction to The Oxford Handbook of Public Music Theory, J. Daniel Jenkins (2021) describes public music theory as an “interaction between the academy and the public,” with or without the involvement of a formal, academic music theorist. He gives a variety of ways 30 “Miss Clara A. Macirone,” 195. 31 Oliveria Prescott, “Imperial Exhibition of Women’s Work.,” Musical News 7, no. 179 (August 4, 1894): 101. 15 in which this can occur, including: “preconcert lectures, radio broadcasts, courtroom testimony, journalism, criticism, program notes, podcasts, videocasts, social media, video games, museums, and in many other locations and interactions focused on improving musical understanding or using musical skills to improve people’s lives.”32 Although many of these locations are only possible in the modern world, they connect to a long history of sharing information. Before the technology of the radio and internet, newspapers, magazines, and books were the primary means for the mass dissemination of information. There were music-specific journals, but music journals could be riddled with technical knowledge that excludes those without formal music theoretical knowledge. Because they were aimed at a larger non-musical audience, the articles featured in TGOP present us with an exceptional example of public music theory in the Victorian era. The Oxford Handbook of Public Music Theory (2022) features a chapter by Rachel Lumsden titled, “Oliveria Prescott and the Musical Amateur.” In this chapter, Lumsden describes how Oliveria Prescott contributed to public music theory through her book About Music, and What it is Made Of. This book, written with the musical amateur in mind, is based on a lecture series that Prescott gave in 1893, one of the available methods of public music theory at the time. Through her discussion of Prescott’s articles in TGOP, Lumsden (2020) touches on Prescott’s contribution to public music theory, specifically for girls. Macirone’s and Prescott’s articles presents a specific approach to Jenkins’s definition of public music theory: music theory written by women for women. 32 J. Daniel Jenkins, “An Introduction to Public Music Theory,” in The Oxford Handbook of Public Music Theory (Oxford University Press, 2022), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197551554.013.37. 16 1.3 A Magazine of Their Own: The Girl’ Own Paper and the Influence of Victorian Magazines The Girl’s Own Paper was a penny weekly published by the Religious Tract Society from 1880–1927 as an offshoot of their earlier publication, The Boy’s Own Paper. According to Michelle Smith (2011), the Religious Tract Society’s goal through their publications was “to shape morally upright and productive girls and boys.”33 TGOP’s intended readership was young women ages fifteen to twenty-five, but actual ages, and genders, of readers varied widely from young children to grandparents. TGOP is considered the most well-known and widely circulated young women’s periodical in late-19th century Britain, and its popularity took off immediately. By the end of its first year of publication, TGOP had sold more than 250,000 weekly copies.34 In her 1996 book A Magazine of Her Own: Domesticity and Desire in the Woman’s Magazine, 1880–1910, Margaret Beetham discusses how the British press in the late 19th-century was “re-working the concept of the ‘girl’” where, rather than assumed as part of the larger population of women readers, “girls” became specifically targeted readers. Beetham acknowledges TGOP as “pioneering” the girls’ magazines of the 1880s and 1890s.35 Not only did these papers provide means of amusement, but they also aided in girls’ education. Women’s magazines including TGOP would have essay competitions and even offer “education bursaries to the girls nominated by the largest number of readers.”36 Other than being a means of 33 Michelle J. Smith, Empire in British Girls’ Literature and Culture: Imperial Girls, 1880-1915, 1st ed., (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011): 25, https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230308121. 34 Lumsden, “Music Theory," 2.6. 35 Beetham, A Magazine, 138. 36 Beetham, A Magazine, 138. 17 advertising and boosting sales, competitions like these provided girls with a means of funding educational advancements. From the beginning, TGOP was focused on bringing music to British girls. It did so with the assistance of Charles Peters, who was the editor of TGOP from the publication’s first issue to his death in 1908 and had a musical background, having studied music at Trinity College London.37 In addition to new compositions, musical advice, and criticism, the paper would include serialized fiction, nonfiction, poetry, illustrations, music scores, varieties, competitions, and answers to correspondents. The nonfiction featured also covered a wide range of topics including character building, health, sciences, work, domestic life and more.38 Despite their wide range of topics, TGOP was set apart from other women’s magazines by its amount of musical content. Judith Barger’s 2017 book Music in The Girl’s Own Paper: An Annotated Catalogue, 1880–1910 “offers readers and scholars in both fields [music and literature] an easily accessible database for a single periodical, which circulation figures, self-reported praise and reader response suggest was widely read and popular among Britain’s female readers of all ages.”39 Barger identifies that approximately 88 percent of issues between 1880–1910 included some kind of music content, including musical scores, nonfiction articles about musicians and composers, illustrations, and responses to correspondents on various musical topics.40 Sarah McNeely (2009) looks specifically at Victorian periodicals, including TGOP, and why they incorporated music education into their publications. As discussed previously, music 37 Barger, Music in The Girl’s Own Paper, 18. 38 Barger, Music in The Girl’s Own Paper, 22. 39 Barger, Music in The Girl’s Own Paper, 2-3. 40 Barger, Music in The Girl’s Own Paper, 1. 18 performance for women was an avenue to bring acclaim to her family and earn herself a husband. Although music performance and education were initially intended as an extension of the marriage market, they evolved into a way of improving and legitimizing professional women.41 By including music resources in the same location as stereotypical gender norms, TGOP was able to appeal to the musical woman while also molding the ideal Victorian girl. Another aspect of modern Victorian society that became a part of content in TGOP was the increase of girls and young women in employment. Smith (2011) discusses how TGOP encouraged their readers to engage in occupations that supported national pride such as nursing, midwifery, or missionary work. These types of occupations not only align with the expectation of girls as caregiver but also allows them to “improve” the people they work with, thus improving the nation as a whole.42 Smith notes that in this era, “women’s work is presented as just as skilled and valuable as that of men,” within the concept of national improvement. An additional way of “serving the nation” was simply engaging in the traditional roles for women at the time: marriage and motherhood. Smith suggests that TGOP was directed toward girls who were in a transitional period of their lives, as “mothers and wives in training.”43 In TGOP and other Victorian magazines, the “ideal” English girl was one who improved the Empire through motherhood, and many articles were focused on training girls to become the “future mothers of our race.”44 41 Sarah McNeely, “Beyond the Drawing Room: The Musical Lives of Victorian Women,” Nineteenth-Century Gender Studies 5, no. 2 (2009): 2. 42 Smith, Empire, 54. 43 Smith, Empire, 56. 44 Smith, Empire, 57, quoting Ruth Lamb (1881) ‘Baby Care’, Girl’s Own Paper, 2, 474–6. 19 It is important to consider the targeted readers of The Girl’s Own Paper. Although serving a generally underrepresented group, it is important to note who these magazines were excluding. According to Kathryn Ledbetter in her chapter in The Routledge Handbook to Nineteenth-Century British Periodicals and Newspapers (2016), “the largest portion of women’s periodicals targeted white, heterosexual, middle-class women readers and focused on self-enrichment and the reinforcement of women’s conventional roles in society.”45 In the case of Victorian society, the “ideal” English girl was white, of means, and willing to serve others. These were the kinds of girls to whom opportunities, educational and professional, were available. 1.4 Journey From Student to Master: An Examination of Clara Macirone’s Life Through Music Education Clara Angela Macirone was born in London in 1812 to an upper-class family with Roman lineage. She came from a family of musicians; her father was a tenor, and her mother was a cultivated pianist. Macirone never married or had children but remained close to her sister Emily as they lived together after leaving their family home. She received substantial musical education at home and was accomplished enough to enter the Royal Academy of Music (RAM) in 1839, where she studied singing, piano, and composition and received a first-class certificate in music in 1842. There are some reports of her holding an instructor of pianoforte position at the RAM following her graduation. Throughout her life, Macirone held multiple instructor positions, 45 Kathryn Ledbetter, “Periodicals for Women,” in The Routledge Handbook to Nineteenth-Century British Periodicals and Newspapers, 1st ed. (New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, 2016), 260. 20 teaching music and composition, and wrote numerous articles on the importance of equal musical education opportunities in TGOP.46 A collection of letters between the members of the Macirone family survived, allowing scholars like Patricia Neate (2018) to chronicle the life of Clara and her family. Through familial correspondences, Neate tracks Macirone through her childhood, experiences studying at the RAM, and her later years as a teacher and composer. Although these letters primarily show Macirone’s means of connecting with her family, they also provide a first-hand account of her experience as a woman composer during this time, including Macirone’s and others’ recollections about a visit by Felix Mendelssohn in 1846. Describing Macirone’s Benedictus, Mendelssohn stated: “It shows the feeling and at the same time the skill with which you practice our beloved art, and simple as it seems to be, it affords everywhere a proof of zealous and assiduous study and of that enthusiasm without which study avails nothing.”47 This comment touches on a common thought in Victorian society; success in men was often traced back to thoughtful study with credit given to their instructors, but because women were not thought to have natural talent, a successful musical woman was often referred to as a marvel. Mendelssohn, however, praises Macirone for her commitment and enthusiasm to her study of composition rather than considering her work a surprising phenomenon. As the principal of the Church of England High School for Girls starting from 1878, Macirone reorganized their system of music education. Macirone notes in her interview in The 46 James Duff Brown and Stephen Samuel Stratton, British Musical Biography: A Dictionary of Musical Artists, Authors, and Composers Born in Britain and Its Colonies, (Birmingham: S.S. Stratton, 1897): 263, https://go.exlibris.link/DsRNrzW7. 47 Patricia Neate, “All My Darlings”: A Victorian Family in Their Own Words (Troubador Publishing Ltd, 2018): 139, quoting Mendelssohn. 21 Musical Herald that, though subjects like math and science took priority, Macirone sought to increase the girls’ exposure to music. Macirone viewed her task as training her students “to be good sisters, daughters, wives, and mothers,” and therefore saw music and art instruction as instilling the “culture of imagination and of the sense of beauty” into her pupils.48 Macirone’s cultivation of a new system of music education ultimately won the support of composer George Macfarren, who was an esteemed instructor at the RAM and had a close relationship with Oliveria Prescott.49 McNeely (2009) describes how Macirone participated widely in Victorian music culture and was considered a musical professional because of her work as a teacher and composer. She states: “Macirone also wrote extensively about music in an age when most serious music journalism was written by men. Her writing on music passionately advocates the importance of music in life and education, especially for young ladies.”50 Where most of the articles in TGOP were written by men advocating for the education and advancement of their young readers, Macirone brought a female perspective, showing young women where a musical education could lead. McNeely thoroughly analyzes what exactly Macirone is advocating for in her articles, including two series in TGOP, “A Plea for Music“ and “On Taste in Choice of Songs,” although it is worth questioning what the root motivation was for Macirone’s “pleas.” Looking back at Macirone’s interview with The Musical Herald, one could conclude that Macirone was 48 “Miss Clara Macirone,” 195. 49 Derek B. Scott, “Macirone, Clara Angela,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie (Grove, 2001). 50 McNeely, “Beyond the Drawing Room,” 4. 22 promoting girls’ education in order to create more well-rounded wives and mothers, despite never having filled these roles herself. 1.5 For the People: A Brief Overview of Oliveria Prescott’s Life and Work Oliveria Louisa Prescott (1842/3-1917) was an English composer, theorist, and instructor. Due to the little biographical information about Prescott’s early life, there are some inconsistencies with her birth year; John R. Gardener in The New Grove Dictionary of Women Composers (1994) cites her birth as September of 1843, whereas the British Musical Biography, which was published during Prescott’s lifetime in 1897, cites her birth year as 1842. Through attendance records, it is understood that Prescott entered the Royal Academy of Music in 1871 and studied under notable composers Lindsay Sloper (1826–1887) and George Alexander Macfarren (1813–1887). Prescott is also attributed with working as amanuensis for Macfarren when he began to lose his eyesight.51 Rachel Lumsden (2020) discusses Prescott’s successes at the RAM during her time of study there; she received multiple medals and certificates for her work in harmony and her compositions were often featured in student concerts.52 After graduating from the RAM, she worked as an instructor of harmony at the Church of England High School for Girls from 1879-93 as well as Newnham College Cambridge University teaching harmony and composition.53 Lumsden focuses more on Prescott’s writing for the musical amateur in her book About Music, 51 John R. Gardner, “Prescott, Oliveria Louisa,” in The Norton/Grove Dictionary of Women Composers (W.W. Norton, 1994). 52 Lumsden, “Music Theory,” 2.2. 53 Brown and Stratton, British Musical Biography, 327. 23 rather than TGOP; I aim to compare her writings for a primarily female audience in TGOP, as well as her publications for the wider musical, and amateur, readers. Sophie Fuller (2018) discusses how Oliveria Prescott fits into the music professional world at the end of the nineteenth century through her analysis of gender discrimination during the Victorian era. Fuller identifies Prescott as “one of the first students, male or female, to be admitted to the RAM [Royal Academy of Music] with ‘Composition’ as a principal study.”54 Before this, there were courses on harmony and composition, but, like Macirone, students had other principal subjects such as pianoforte or singing. Aligning with her theme of gender discrimination in this era, Fuller discusses how Prescott was treated as a women composer in the Victorian era music society. Magazine reviews would often feature “overtly gendered criticism” of her compositions.55 For example, an 1878 review of Prescott’s Symphony in D minor, “Alkestis,” which was featured in an RAM student concert, states: “The fair composer has, perhaps, hardly the requisite strength for the subject, but there were points of merit in the composition.”56 This piece was only the second symphony composed by a British woman, the first having been written by composer Alice Mary Smith. Like Macirone, Prescott never married or had children; unlike Macirone, Prescott was notably more progressive when it came to views on women in the field of music. She was widely involved in London’s professional music community, serving on the council for the Musical 54 Fuller, “Women Musicians,” 154. 55 Fuller, “Women Musicians,” 154. 56 Fuller, “Women Musicians,” 154, quoting The Era, 1879. 24 Artists’ Society for seven years and promoting women’s involvement in music in her writing. In her second book, About Music and What It Is Made Of, Prescott states: In a book written by a woman we may not omit the part which women have of late played in the orchestra of our musical world. Abroad, Mdlle Holmes, Mdlle Chaminade and others, and in England Virginia Gabriel, Alice Mary Smith, Maude Valérie White, Rosalind Ellicott, E. F. Smyth — and, may we add, the present writer? — have, among others, done work which has its share of influence in the making of what is now the modern musical style.57 Prescott makes an important distinction in her praise of other women musicians. Where Macirone saw women composers as destined to contribute in “salon” styles of music, short piano pieces, part-songs, and art songs, Prescott is identifying women composers as contributing to the style of orchestral music, which was thought of as a masculine genre. Prescott also wrote several articles on musical analysis that appeared in The Musical World and The Girl’s Own Paper, and she often gave public lectures on various music theoretical topics, such as her 1891 lecture titled, “Poetic Meanings in Unison with Musical Design.” I believe Prescott saw the importance of girls and young women seeing another woman thrive in the field. Although the majority of her work was aimed at a broader musical community, her articles in TGOP were directed at female readers. Where most of the musical articles in TGOP fell in the category of “self-help,” for example “How to Play Beethoven’s Sonatas,” Prescott’s articles introduced girls to discussions on the harmony and form of these pieces of music. 57 Oliveria Prescott, About Music, and What It Is Made of; a Book for Amateurs, (England: Methuen, 1904, 1904), 100. 25 Chapter 2: Advocation and Advice: Clara Macirone’s Writing in The Girl’s Own Paper Macirone spent much of her professional career teaching and composing; as a teacher, and eventually headmistress, she cared deeply about the music education of English girls. Throughout her career, Macirone had numerous compositions published in The Sunday at Home: A Family Magazine for Sabbath Reading, Musical Times and Singing Class Circular, and TGOP, as well as a variety of articles in published magazines such as The Argosy, The Leisure Hour, and TGOP. Macirone’s articles in TGOP act as opinion and advice columns focusing on the music education of English girls. Although advocating for the equal education of girls, Macirone simultaneously enforces traditional societal norms and gender roles. Her articles focus on shaping the “proper English girl” who uses her education to cultivate a culture of home music for the benefit of her husband and children. 2.1 Clara Macirone’s Advocation of Home Music in “The Power of Music” and “A Plea for Music” Between December 1883 and July 1884, Clara Macirone published seven letters in TGOP advocating for the inclusion of musical education in girls’ schools.58 Macirone structures her articles to build on each other and gradually increase the strength of her arguments. 58 Although the first letter was titled “The Power of Music,” and subsequent articles “A Plea for Music,” it is clear that Macirone viewed “The Power of Music” as the first and introductory letter for the following articles. 26 Rather than summarizing each of Macirone’s points, I point to her concluding letter where a brief overview of each article is given: In my first letter the power and beneficence of the noble and divine art of music was shown by many examples in history, ancient and modern. In my second, I quoted opinions much more weighty than my own on the point that its power was as much and even more needed now than ever. In my third letter I gave the experience of the head-masters of the greatest schools for boys in England … upon the results of the organised and systematic culture of the highest music in their schools. Thus I reached at last the point on which I feel the greatest anxiety as a musician, as one also to whom the future of our young girls is so dear. What is done for them?59 This succinct summary leaves out some of the aspects that define Macirone’s writing. As Macirone suggests, much of her articles consist of quotes from notable male scholars and authors with “more weighty” opinions, such as Shakespeare and Julius Caesar, who discuss the importance and impact of music. For Macirone, the words of men are integral in justifying her own opinions and act as a constant theme in her writing. Although Macirone advocates for the increase of music education in girls’ schools, she clarifies that this does not mean music education should replace math or science instruction but rather be an addition to those subjects. Macirone supports her argument with a quote from Dr. John Hullah, an English composer and teacher, who states: “If musical education–or rather, the neglect of thorough musical education–goes on as it does now, in a few years our footmen and chambermaids will have a finer taste in music than their masters and mistresses.”60 In addition to touching on the discussion of the place of music for communities of lower socio-economic 59 Clara Macirone, “A Plea for Music,” The Girl’s Own Paper, July 19, 1884, 650. 60 Clara Macirone, “A Plea for Music,” The Girl’s Own Paper, June 14, 1884, 580. 27 status, Hullah provides added evidence and effects of the decline of adequate music education. The quotes from Haweis and others echo the Victorian beliefs discussed in Chapter 1 that women are inherently different from men, and although the authors support the increase of music education for girls and young women, music instruction should reflect the fundamental differences between the sexes. Her second letter references multiple articles by H. R. Haweis on the benefit of music for girls. Haweis states in an article in Contemporary Review, “The emotional force in women is usually stronger, and almost always more delicate than in men. Their constitutions are like those fine violins which vibrate to the lightest touch.61 Interestingly, this statement integrates multiple commonly held beliefs at the time that women are more emotional and have different “vibrations” from men which prohibit women from participating in the music profession in the same way that men do. Haweis, however, uses these arguments as reasons why women should be involved in music. Macirone’s general argument is made clear in this letter. She states: “And here, also, I may turn to better knowledge than my own as to the chief central point of all education–home.”62 Despite briefly touching on women as professionals, Macirone’s overall goal is for music to enhance a girl’s home life as a daughter, and eventually a wife and mother. As she does throughout, she supports her opinion with a quote from a man, in this case Rev. Baldwyn Brown, who states: “Home is the school in which God educates men and women by a great trust.”63 61 Clara Macirone, “A Plea for Music,” The Girl’s Own Paper, January 26, 1884, 269. 62 Macirone, TGOP, 26 January 1884, 269. 63 Macirone, TGOP, 26 January 1884, 269. 28 Upon establishing the need for and purpose of music for girls, Macirone discusses the reality of music education in girls’ schools. She presents case studies of multiple boys’ schools that benefitted from the instruction on practical and theoretical music concepts. Based on the results from these schools, Macirone asks why such advantages should be excluded from girls’ schools; girls, “who on the contrary need it so deeply and often suffer so bitterly from the vacant want of it, both in themselves and in their homes?”.64 On this topic, Macirone addresses what she describes as the “probable reply” of headmistresses who would voice their concerns with the addition of musical instruction: “Our girls have no leisure for such culture of music; it is incompatible with the successful pursuit of exact sciences we are expected to teach.”65 At the end of the 19th-century, girls’ schools were beginning to shift their focus towards math, science, and literature, subjects that had long been standard in boys’ education; however, this shift put less emphasis on art and music. Macirone believed that because of their studies, girls were too busy to cultivate a home that would allow the “manly mind” to rest after their long day. “How are they [girls] being prepared to bear their part in such music when the boys come home?”.66 Instead, “they are a burden instead of a help to the weary mother; a disappointment to the father, who once… may have looked forward to bright, refreshing home evenings, with ‘rays of gals’ illuminating the otherwise dull rooms with their young life and sweetness. While to their brothers they are possible rivals in getting daily bread in the future– certainly neither help, comfort, not pleasure in 64 Macirone, TGOP, 26 January 1884, 331. 65 Macirone, TGOP, 19 July, 1884, 650. 66 Macirone, TGOP, 14 June 1884, 581. 29 the present.”67 In previous letters, Macirone supported girls’ joining the workforce and participating in academia; this statement, however, shows her true opinions on the place of women. In fact, Macirone specifically addresses women in public professions in her final letter: “Noisy honours and public displays are not the real attribute of that sex which was last at the cross and first at the sepulchre. They are utterly abhorrent to the idea of womanhood at whose head the Virgin Mother stands.”68According to Macirone, boys are destined to use their education to produce works of greatness and contribute to society; girls, however, are fated for a different path. She quotes Count Joseph de Maistre as validation for this by declaring that although historically women have failed to create any items of importance, “they produce something grander than all these things; it is on their knees that is formed what is most excellent in the world—an honest man and an honest woman.”69 This statement, though to the modern reader rife with misogyny, reflects prevalent 19th-century and Victorian beliefs about the role of women. As noted previously, it was often thought that the best way for a woman to improve England, and humanity by extension, was through marriage and motherhood. Macirone’s final letter builds on this opinion, explaining how homes are improved through the inclusion of music and women taking their proper place in the home. She states: Is there a more delightful meeting-place than the bright home concerts in which every talent has a career of pleasure and usefulness open to it… Think of such home evenings and you will say, ‘No wonder that the children of such a household grew up all eminent in various ways, each carrying on into a career of usefulness the fine and rich mental life such time and people would foster.’70 67 Macirone, TGOP, 14 June 1884, 581. 68 Macirone, TGOP, 19 July, 1884, 662. 69 Macirone, TGOP, 26 January 1884, 332. 70 Macirone, TGOP, 19 July, 1884, 661. 30 Macirone believes that the cultivation of a proper home benefit men who require such leisure after a taxing day, and that children who come from such a home will go on to lead a beneficial life for the rest of society. A woman’s responsibility to England does not end after bearing children, but, according to Macirone, they must nurture a culture of home music. 2.2 Advice for Young English Singers: Clara Macirone “On Taste in Choice of Songs” Clara Macirone’s second series of articles in TGOP, titled “On Taste in the Choice of Songs,” was published between March and August of 1885, less than one year after her previous articles. In this series, Macirone’s purpose is to bestow the next generation with proper musical taste. As in “A Plea for Music,” Macirone often draws on the statements of men to justify her arguments. For example, she begins her discussion of musical taste with a quote from Louis Ehlert, a German composer and music critic; “Taste is not inborn, but educated… If we are able to investigate the causes that can make a thing beautiful or ugly, we are able to understand it.”71 Macirone connects the letters through a common discussion of the intersection of music and nationality, comparing English music and musicians with their Italian and German counterparts. After an introduction which argues for the need for assistance in determining proper repertoire, Macirone outlines the questions that will help guide the audience in this task: What can you sing?, What object have you in singing?, and How can I guide you to know a good song? As to the first question, “What can you sing?,” Macirone addresses what she believes to be a common problem with English singers: “There seems to be amongst young ladies ‘a belief,’ as 71 Clara Macirone, “On Taste in the Choice of Songs,” The Girl’s Own Paper, March 21, 1885, 390, quoting Louis Ehlert, Letters on Music. 31 a very clever author says, ‘that to sing at all is such a fine thing, that it is no matter how you do it.”72 In her second letter, Macirone expands on this concept: “Quiet English girls with no special talent, with no special capability either of voice or culture, will hear a fine operatic song, and attack it calmly, for the edification of their friends, because they have heard it given by a great singer, and it seemed so very easy to her.”73 According to Macirone, English singers will sing challenging songs without engaging in instruction and practice that will develop the necessary abilities. Macirone quotes G. A. Macfarren, who connects this tendency to the inadequate musical education in English schools: The other obstacle is the insufficient rudimentary instruction that too often clogs the after career of artists and amateurs. Ill-educated in first principles, that are frequently incompetent to the simplest tasks of their art, though they pretend to feats of which well-schooled practitioners are diffident. It is not to be wondered at that taste is on a par with teaching, and that persons like bad music who know nothing of musical elements.74 This excerpt makes an important connection to Macirone’s previous articles, showing that, as well as leading to homes where the women are unable to provide music to their families, the poor music education system is impacting the performance abilities and quality of taste of English musicians. The singer must also consider the language of the songs she wishes to sing. According to Macirone, the English girl is best suited to sing English songs, not only for the ease in pronunciation. Macirone again quotes Macfarren, who connects the tendency of English singers to favor Italian music as one reason why “the English language is not good for singing.” 72 Macirone, TGOP, 21 March 1885, 390. 73 Clara Macirone, “On Taste in the Choice of Songs,” The Girl’s Own Paper, May 30, 1885, 549. 74 Macirone, TGOP, 21 March 1885, 391. 32 Macfarren states that because English singers train in the Italian language they render themselves unintelligible when they attempt to sing in their “mother tongue.” In addition to pronunciation and the quality of English tastes, Macirone points to the vast differences in national cultures as an additional reason to focus on English music. Macirone states: “you must bear in mind how the thermometer, as it were, of expression varies in different countries—how the value and meaning of words change according to their usage in society.”75 The differences between cultures, languages, and customs, also present themselves in the “character of the music”; according to Macirone, these differences make an English girl unprepared to sing an Italian song with the tone and feeling that is required from other nations’ music. Along with choosing a song that is “within the compass of your voice,” the young singer should also consider their ability to accompany themselves. Macirone claims that the ability to accompany is “one of the most unselfish, for its perfection consists in the art with which you show off the talents of others.”76 This leads to Macirone’s second question in this letter: “What objective have you in singing?” In addition to spiritual self-improvement, Macirone insists that singing should be a selfless art that improves the nature of the home. Macirone quotes a “very excellent writer,” who states, “domestic music in its ideal perfection would be a source of unalloyed enjoyment, or even beatific rapture.” In order to create this picture of home music, Macirone asserts that the young singer must have their heart in their music, which is not the case for every song fresh from the 75 Macirone, TGOP, 21 March 1885, 391. 76 Macirone, TGOP, 21 March 1885, 391. 33 publishers. To connect to her final two letters on this topic, Macirone states: “Supposing your voice to be sweet and true and well-trained, and yourself sweet also and true and well-trained, to do what you can to make your singing a real source of brightness and pleasantness to others, something remains to be considered as to what I can suggest for your guidance in finding suitable songs.”77 Providing her audience with such guidance, Macirone’s final letter lists numerous musical selections she believes to be appropriate choices for the young singer to develop her musical taste. Aligning with her previous thoughts on styles and languages of songs, the majority of the suggestions are in English and composed by English composers. Additionally, Macirone identifies that her suggestions are mostly songs from the earlier time periods, “for if you form your taste on the fine music of the past, your feeling will soon learn to discriminate between the false and the real.”78 Macirone also acknowledges that some of her readers “may know foreign languages well enough to sing them easily,” and offers direction in determining adequate composers from other European countries such as Sweden, Denmark, Russia, Poland, and Germany. Macirone touches on the music of some of the most famous composers in more detail, i.e. Mozart, Beethoven, and Haydn, but leaves for last what she defines as the “greatest and noblest of all musical work”: hymns. The importance of faith in the creation of great work is also discussed in Macirone’s second letter, where she assembles quotes from Beethoven, Mozart, and Haydn that attribute their success in music to their devotion; this allows Macirone to conclude that “this feeling is the key to all repose and greatness.” Not only should the young singer keep 77 Macirone, TGOP, 30 May 1885, 550. 78 Clara Macirone, “On Taste in the Choice of Songs,” The Girl’s Own Paper, August 1, 1885, 698. 34 in mind the scope, accompaniment, and language of songs, but she must also “think of the spirit in which they are written, and from which they spring.”79 This final point adds an important caveat to her portrait of the perfect English girl. According to Macirone, not only must the young Englishwoman curate an appropriate home life with objectively good music, but she must also be a good Christian. She leaves her readers with an important question: “Here is a beautiful description of a Christian girl… Will you be like her?”80 79 Macirone, TGOP, 30 May 1885, 549. 80 Macirone, TGOP, 1 August 1885, 699. 35 Chapter 3: Oliveria Prescott’s Writings for a Musical Audience in Form, or Design, in Music Form, or Design, in Music, hereafter Form, was compiled from a series of articles written by Prescott in the Musical World, a British music journal that ran from 1836 to 1891. In addition to comparing Prescott’s writing to Macirone’s, I will discuss the differences between Prescott’s writing for musicians versus amateurs. In Form Prescott discusses musical form with her audience’s assumed knowledge in mind. For the purpose of this research, I only discuss the first three chapters of Form in detail: the introduction, Minuet form, and Sonata form. These three chapters contain more than enough information needed to understand how Prescott conceptualizes form. In addition to analyzing the language Prescott uses to define form types, I also track the journey she describes from minuet to sonata, stopping along the way to discuss some of Prescott’s distinctive concepts and themes, including the concept of the “half-way rest” and miniature forms, and her use of flowery metaphors. Additionally, I briefly discuss how the chapters have changed in content from their original versions in the Musical World. 3.1 Miniature Music: Oliveria Prescott’s Discussion of Minuet Form In both Form and About Music, and What it is Made Of, Prescott takes a small piece of music and uses it as a template for introducing and describing larger, more complex forms. In Form, Prescott introduces the minuet as a dance form and shows its development into sonata form. She does so by analyzing various pieces from the Baroque to Classical, although not in chronological order. Rather, Prescott jumps around between composers and eras to show a journey from simple to complex. 36 Figure 3.1: Beethoven's Sonata in E♭, Op. 31, No. 3, Mvt. III, Menuetto The “simplest” minuet that Prescott introduces is the Minuet from Beethoven’s Sonata in E♭, Op. 31, No. 3, Mvt. III (figure 3.1). She identifies this piece as a “design by cadence”: “This is a design by cadence, the half cadence at the end of eight bars ending the first part of the tune, the full cadence after the next eight bars ending the second part.”81 This quote provides an 81 Oliveria Prescott, Form, or Design, in Music (1882), 6. 37 interesting look into what Prescott is prioritizing in determining formal structure. Rather than describing the thematic aspects of each part of the minuet, she discusses the design of the piece through its cadences. In fact, Prescott states explicitly her focus on “design by key” in the first, introductory chapter: “Principally, form is a just balance or proportion of keys.”82 Second in importance is the recurrence of idea, followed by phrase rhythm.83 From the beginning, Prescott is prioritizing tonal areas over thematic material. Prescott uses the same piece to introduce what she defines as an essential characteristic of both minuet and sonata form: the “half-way rest.” She states: “The first part works up to a half-close, or half-way rest, which by its unfinished effect—by its necessity for another chord after it, shews [sic] that there is more music to follow; while the second part works up to a full or final close, which suggests and requires no more.”84 According to Prescott, in a minuet, the half-way rest would occur at the end of the first part before the beginning of the second part. In a sonata, this would be equivalent to the end of the exposition before the development. 82 Prescott, Form, 3. 83 It is important to note that Prescott, and other theorist at this time use “rhythm” to refer to phrase rhythm and hypermeter rather than the duration of note values. 84 Prescott, Form, 7. 38 Figure 3.2: Beethoven's Sonata in E♭, Op. 31, No. 3, Mvt. III, Trio Following her discussion of the minuet, Prescott touches on the Trio of the same piece (figure 3.2). She identifies the Trio as the best example to illustrate the “balance of key,” as the first phrase ends with a “full close” in the key of the dominant, B♭ major; the second phrase begins immediately in the tonic and remains there until the perfect authentic cadence at the end of the second part. Prescott identifies this Trio as an “amplification of the design by cadence” as this piece is just slightly more complex than the first example given. Where the minuet just had a balance of cadence, the full close balancing the half close, this piece extends that idea by modulating to the dominant key but ending in the tonic key in order to show a balance of key.”85 85 Prescott, Form, 7. 39 Again, Prescott does not address melodic aspects of the form, focusing instead on how the change of key creates form. Figure 3.3: Bach's Suite Anglaise No. 4 in F major, BVW 809, Mvt. VI, Menuet II The Minuet in D minor of Bach’s F major Suite Anglaise is an example of a more “elaborate” minuet form (figure 3.3). Prescott identifies this work as having the same half-way 40 rest at the end of the first part as in Beethoven’s Minuet in Eb. However, Prescott highlights the beginning of the second part as “modulating” to new, closely related keys and then returning to the tonic of D minor with the return of the melodic material from the beginning of the first part, which is changed to conclude with a perfect authentic cadence in D minor. In modern form terminology, this minuet would be considered rounded binary because the material that begins the first section returns to finish the second section. It is important to note Prescott’s use of the term “modulation” in the discussion of this piece; it would be more accurate to describe the exploration of keys other than the tonic and dominant as tonicizations rather than modulations. Overall, it appears that Prescott is using this term to help identify the next step in the minuet-to-sonata process, where the beginning of the second part explores new tonal areas as in a sonata development. 41 Figure 3.4: Bach's Suite Anglaise No. 4 in F major, BVW 809, Mvt. V, Menuet I Prescott uses the first minuet of the same F major suite to discuss another advance in the minuet form (figure 3.4). Prescott states: “In this minuet therefore, the first tonic portion is balanced by the dominant portion, the modulating portion by the second tonic portion–the first pair balancing the second pair.”86 Due to her emphasis on tonal areas and cadences, Prescott’s 86 Prescott, Form, 7. 42 discussion of this minuet leaves out some important thematic elements that are distinct from the previous example from Bach’s Minuet in D minor. As in the D minor Minuet, the second part begins with a section that explores new, closely related keys followed by a phrase that returns to the tonic key with material pulled from the first section. However, unlike the D minor example, the return to the tonic of F major is not made using exactly the material from the first section. It is not until measure 31 that there is a return to material previously presented in the first section, although an octave higher than originally presented and only lasting a bar and a half. Rather than describing the phrases as balanced due to their length or melodic material, Prescott distinguishes the phrases by their key areas, another example of Prescott’s emphasis on key over melody or motive. 43 Figure 3.5: Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 1 in A major, K. 331/300i, Mvt. III, Menuetto, mm. 1-23 44 Figure 3.6: Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 11 in A major, K. 331/300i, Mvt. III, Menuetto, mm. 24-48 Prescott’s next illustration of the elaboration of minuet form into sonata form uses the Minuet from Mozart’s Piano Sonata No. 11 in A, K.331/300i, Mvt. III (figure 3.5/3.6). This piece presents the two sections of the first part, tonic and dominant, as separate motivic ideas, 45 which are repeated in their entirety at the end of the second part with the dominant section transposed into the tonic. This analysis represents an important change from previous examples; this is the first time Prescott has specified the thematic characteristics of the piece that contribute to the form. In the other examples, any description of form has been based purely on the tonal structure, whereas in this discussion, Prescott distinguishes the material in the tonic and dominant sections of the first part as being distinct melodic ideas. Interestingly, this is also the first time that the reader is given an incipit from the score to orient them to the music. Following this discussion, Prescott states: “All of these forms hitherto described are miniatures, more or less fully developed, of the design known as the sonata form, which is more fully described in the next chapter.”87 This statement is necessary to understand how Prescott understands minuet form as it relates to sonata form. In most of Prescott’s previous examples, the minuets and trios fall under a general rounded binary form, although the specific breakdown of each form varies. The overall form of a sonata can be thought of as an extended rounded binary. In rounded binary, the sections ||: A :||: B A’ :|| are made up of only a phrase or two; in sonata form, the large formal sections (exposition, development, recapitulation) can be thought of as an extension of the ||: A :||: B A’ :|| process seen in rounded binary. It is interesting that Prescott places this statement, an important concept in her understanding of minuet and sonata form, in the middle of this chapter rather than using it in her concluding thoughts or to transition into the next chapter. 87 Prescott, Form, 8. 46 Prescott’s final musical example in this chapter comes from Beethoven’s Piano Sonata No. 11, Op. 22, Mvt. III (figure 3.7/3.8), which consists of a Menuetto and a Minore. The “first part” of the minuet of this sonata is described by Prescott as being a “complete miniature sonata like the Beethoven trio just named.”88 Until now, Prescott has been using the term “first part” to describe the first phrase(s) of the minuet contained within the first repeat, but here it appears she is using the term differently, indicating the entire first minuet could be considered a miniature sonata as it is in rounded binary with a short coda. However, to add to the confusion, in the next sentence, Prescott uses “second part” to discuss not the alternate minuet, but the second phrase of the first minuet as she had in other examples. This second part, or “episode,” tonicizes different keys similar to the development in a sonata, and leads into a complete recapitulation of the first section of the minuet. Prescott includes an incipit from this piece in order to orient the reader, as in her analysis of the Mozart minuet, although this simply shows the difference between the first and second parts. Additionally, when Prescott describes the larger form, she claims, “the whole minuet is a miniature rondo”; she appears to be discussing the entire minuet and Minore together, which when performed da capo, create a large ternary form. She may be considering this ternary form a condensed rondo form in the same way she considers rounded binary a condensed sonata form. 88 Prescott, Form, 8. 47 Figure 3.7: Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 11, Op. 22, Mvt. III, Menuetto, mm. 1-25 48 Figure 3.8: Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 11, Op. 22, Mvt. III, Menuetto, mm. 26-47 49 Prescott describes the headed Minore as similar to the form of the Bach minuet in F where the tonic and dominant sections in the first section flow into each other with no stop (figure 3.8). This description focuses on the tonal aspects of the first section and does not clarify that these sections feature slightly different melodic material. This is important because though Prescott identifies the return of material from the first part, she does not clarify that the closing section is drawn from specifically the dominant material of the first part. As discussed previously, each chapter from Form first appeared as a stand-alone article in the Musical World. Looking at this original publication, which shares a title with the book chapter, we can compare Prescott’s discussion of Minuet form with what was eventually published in her book. The biggest difference between the two is that in the article she does not discuss the form of the minuet eventually leading to the creation of the sonata, whereas that is the focus of the chapter in the book. This could be due to the articles being published sequentially, as her article on the sonata had not been published yet in the Musical World. Prescott’s referencing forward and backward in Form shows the reader how interconnected she believes these forms to be. Additionally, in the article there is no discussion of the concept of the “half-way rest,” perhaps because Prescott thought the Musical World’s intended audience might not have been able to decipher this somewhat confusing term. As far as Prescott’s discussion of specific pieces in the article and book, only minor differences can be found, the main difference simply being the order of the musical examples. In the article, Prescott organizes the examples chronologically and by composer with two examples each from Bach, then Mozart, then Beethoven. In the book, Prescott organizes the pieces from least to most complex, with the final example being most like sonata form and therefore acting as 50 a link to the next chapter. The examples in the book are meant to show the journey from minuet form to sonata form, but the examples are presented out of chronological, historical order. Prescott does not connect the form of the minuet to any kind of binary form in either publication. Additionally, her discussions of each musical example analyze the form through distinguishing between harmonies and tonal areas as opposed to thematic material. For example, Prescott’s analysis of the D minor minuet of Bach’s Suite Anglaise in F major revolves around the balance between the tonic and dominant phrases of the first part and the “modulating” and tonic sections of the second part, “the first pair balancing the second pair.”89 Her only mention of thematic material appears in her discussion of the minuet and trio of Mozart’s sonata in A major, as the tonic and dominant phrases of the first part are distinguished by their “distinct ideas,” where other minuets feature the “tonic and dominant portions flow[ing] the one into the other without break and without change in manner; being a continuous idea though the key changes.”90 As mentioned, Prescott uses the term “modulation” when discussing the exploration of other keys, what we would now call tonicization. Interestingly, Prescott changes her use of the term from the original publication to the book. For example, in the Musical World article, when discussing the minuet in F major of Bach’s Suites Anglaises, Prescott states that this piece “has the first phrase in that key [F major] with one modulation ending the first section so transient as scarcely to be called a modulation.”91 Here Prescott is touching on the lack of strength in the change of key of this first phrase but appears to not distinguish between a modulation and 89 Prescott, Form, 7. 90 Oliveria Prescott, “FORM, OR DESIGN, IN MUSIC.,” The Musical World 57, no. 20 (May 17, 1879): 301. 91 Prescott, “FORM,” 301. 51 tonicization. In the book, when discussing the same piece, Prescott states that the first section has a clear phrase in the tonic key and one in the dominant without touching on the weakness of modulation discussed in the original article. 3.2 Oliveria Prescott’s Presentation of the Development of Sonata Form Prescott begins the next chapter of Form by continuing the journey from minuet to sonata; she returns to Bach’s Suites Anglaises to do so. Rather than simply laying out the sonata form, she starts by explaining the form of many of the preludes found in the Bach suites. These begin with what Prescott calls the “principal subject,” which contains mostly phrases in the tonic but some in the dominant, ending in an authentic cadence. The “middle portion,” which later Prescott calls a “free fantasia of mixed keys,” is made up of phrases pulled from the principal subject but combines and transposes them to different keys, avoiding the tonic. The final close in this section leads into a complete recapitulation of the principal subject, as in sonata form. In addition to describing the structure of these pieces, Prescott mentions the ever elusive “half-way rest”: “These have not the half-way rest pointed out in other forms as a characteristic of the sonata form; but the tonic and dominant keys are both present in the first part as the chief and only keys of that part.”92 This explanation does not assist us in determining the definition of this term, but it does reintroduce it to be further explained in Prescott’s sonata chapter. In addition to an overall description of the preludes in the suites, Prescott singles out the prelude from the F major suite, describing it as an “amplification” of the minuet of the same 92 Prescott, Form, 10. 52 suite. This prelude has a slightly different structure from the preludes outlined previously. Its first part contains a first subject in the tonic key and a second, or so-called “dominant” subject, in the dominant key. Once again, the “half-way rest” is reintroduced through Prescott’s simple statement: “The close of this latter [dominant subject] being in C makes the half-way rest.”93 This leads to the “modulating portion,” which is described similarly to the previous description: pulling ideas from the first and second subjects using a multitude of keys while avoiding the previous tonic and dominant. This modulating section is followed by a complete repetition of the first subject only. Like the F major minuet from the same suite, Prescott uses the term “balanced” to describe the form of this prelude. However, unlike the F major minuet, the sections of this piece are staggeringly varied in length. Of the entire prelude’s 108 measures, the first part, made up of the first and second subject, cover 34 measures, whereas the second part, made up of the modulating section and return of the first subject, covers 74 measures, with the modulating portion being much larger than any other part. Additionally, these preludes do have a form similar to those minuets described in the first chapter, but without the characteristic repeat signs that signal binary form. Their undetermined form allows them to be used as a stepping-stone from minuet to sonata. Prescott’s chapter on sonata form, like that of the minuet, charts out the development of the compositional process through her examples and descriptions. In this case, however, she arranges her examples in chronological order, starting with Bach, then Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. Rather than establishing a standardized form for the sonata, Prescott describes how 93 Prescott, Form, 11. 53 these composers built upon the works from their predecessors to create compositions that grow in complexity over time. The first example that is clearly identifiable as sonata form is from Haydn’s Symphony No. 104 in D Major, but Prescott describes the form as a clear outgrowth of the previous Bach prelude, rather as a separate form. The first and second subjects, “half-way rest,” and modulating portion are all in the same manner, but … instead of closing immediately at the end of the tonic portion, a long coda is introduced; … so in this Haydn symphony much of the music which was in the first part given in the dominant key, is at the end of the movement translated into the principal key of the piece and turned to account as the coda to bring the whole to an end. It is not the complete recapitulation of the second subject, but the ideas contained in that subject are recomposed and formed into a coda.94 Because Prescott does not identify this piece as having a complete recapitulation of both themes (as is standard in sonata-form pieces) she connects this piece to the preludes that precede it. Prescott identifies further developments including pieces where there are multiple “ideas” contained in each subject. She presents the Haydn symphony as an example, stating: “for the tonic portion has at least three which are distinct in character though flowing continuously one into the other, and the dominant portion has the first tonic idea transposed to begin with and work successively into two others.”95 These could be understood not necessarily as themes but motives, and do not consistently correlate with beginnings and ends of phrases. 94 Prescott, Form, 12. 95 Prescott, Form, 12. 54 Prescott then discusses Mozart’s Piano Sonata in F, K. 280. This piece shows a further advancement in sonata form, that of distinct themes, or “subjects,” presented in the exposition. Unlike the Haydn example, Mozart presents the tonic and dominant sections of the exposition with distinctive ideas. Additionally, Prescott notes that this piece presents a “free fantasia,” or development section that is particularly irregular in its phrase lengths, compared to the standard phrases of the exposition and recapitulation. It presents multiple fragments from the first and second themes and sequences them as is expected in a Classical-era development. Prescott makes a point to relate the lack of key in this section with the lack of phrase rhythm: “Thus rhythm plays its part in the form of this sonata, and the variety in rhythm strengthens the variety in division of key. Where the keys are broken and the ideas, so is the rhythm; and where the key becomes settled, and the ideas return to their former shape, the rhythm returns to its natural course.”96 The balance of key is achieved through the tonal structure of the recapitulation. As in the Haydn symphony, the entire primary theme is repeated in the recapitulation, but, unlike Haydn, Mozart repeats the secondary theme as well but transposed into the tonic key. According to Prescott, Mozart does so in order to “preserve the balance of key [and], to give the due preponderance to the main tonic which it should have, especially towards the end of the movement.”97 This allows the piece to come to an authentic cadence in F major to end the movement without the need for a coda such Haydn uses in the symphony discussed previously. Prescott’s last example for this chapter is the first movement of Beethoven’s Piano Sonata in Eb, Op. 31, No. 3, of which the minuet and trio movement was used as an example in 96 Prescott, Form, 12. 97 Prescott, Form, 12. 55 the previous minuet chapter. This piece provides us with multiple advancements to discuss, the first of which is the first subject ending with a half cadence in B!, the key of the dominant and that of the succeeding theme. The previous examples have had a half cadence in the tonic key leading into the dominant key of the secondary theme. The end of the primary theme modulates through mediant related keys using secondary leading tone chords before finally pausing on an E fully diminished seventh chord leading to a half cadence on F major, which transitions into the secondary theme in Bb major. In addition to this, the development section presents fragmentation of previous motives but with many more additions and “curtailments,” according to Prescott. As in the Mozart example, Beethoven brings back both themes, transposing the secondary theme to the tonic, and, like Haydn, ends the movement with a coda made up of material from the secondary theme. As in the previous chapter, Prescott presents the evolution of sonata form as a story, showing its genesis from its simplest form to more elaborate examples. She concludes the chapter by comparing the three sonata examples, showing how each composer drew from previous composers in order to create their particular composition. It is interesting that up until this point, Prescott has never directly described sonata form. Instead, she has created an understanding of the sonata process, showing not only the story of the evolution of sonata form, but the story of the sonata itself. The minuet chapter explained the need for contrasting primary and secondary themes, as well as the balance of tonic, dominant, and modulating sections. This sonata chapter, as a continuation of the minuet chapter, has expanded the concept of form by key. In conclusion, Prescott describes how, above all, the organization of keys is what establishes form: “We find that it has always been the division or orderly arrangement of keys that 56 composers have worked with. The method has not been to confuse keys, but to simplify them, to put them into distinct places; in short, to mark out the form by marking out the keys.”98 As with the minuet chapter, I will compare this Sonata form chapter with the original article as published in the Musical World. This chapter is almost identical to the Musical World version; there are some instances where Prescott has expanded on her original thoughts to describe the examples in more detail. The most significant change, like that in the minuet chapter, is the inclusion of the “half-way rest” in the book that does not appear in the original article. Prescott’s sonata article does refer to the previously published minuet article in the Musical World to aid the reader in understanding the development she is describing. Prescott’s method of describing form falls in between thematic and harmonic; the three aspects of form that Prescott weaves into her discussion of each form type and example being division of keys, rhythm, and recurrence of idea. In the descriptions of her various minuet examples, Prescott tends to describe the form by harmonies and tonal areas. For example, in her analysis of the D minor minuet of Bach’s Suite Anglaise in F major, Prescott describes the relationship between the first and second part by comparing their tonal areas and cadences rather than their melodic material. However, in her description of the minuet of Mozart’s sonata in A major, she describes the tonic and dominant sections of the first part as “completely divided by being distinct ideas.”99 When describing sonata form, Prescott is more likely to incorporate thematic descriptions because of the separation between the primary and secondary subjects. 98 Prescott, Form, 14. 99 Prescott, Form, 7. 57 Overall, she connects the analyses between examples through comparison of cadences, keys, and modulations rather than thematic material. In addition to analyzing how Prescott discusses the forms of the minuet and sonata, it is worthwhile to examine the specific vocabulary Prescott uses to describe the forms. These include her vocabulary surrounding cadences, the “half-way rest,” parallel and relative keys, and use of metaphors. Prescott’s inclusion of cadences in her discussions begins in the minuet chapter. Recalling back to Prescott’s analysis of the minuet of Beethoven’s sonata in E♭, Op. 29-31, No. 3, she states that this piece is a “design by cadence,” and uses the terms “half cadence” and “full cadence.” However, less than one page later, Prescott switches the vocabulary that she uses regarding cadences. Discussing the same piece, she switches her terminology from “cadence” to “close.” This term was not uncommon for the time. In fact, G. A. Macfarren’s text, The Rudiments of Harmony (1860), uses the same definition for both terms: “20. Close, or Cadence. The completion of a phrase or rhythmical period. A full close, or perfect cadence, is when a phrase terminates with the common chord of the key-note, preceded by the harmony of the dominant. A half close is when a phrase terminates on the harmony of the dominant.”100 Although the reader may have deduced the definition of a half close through context clues, Prescott finally provides a full definition of this term: “In one of Mozart’s sonatas in F we find another advance. The first subject (a) coming to a half close (that is, ending with the dominant chord), is followed by the second subject (b) in the dominant key, a distinctive idea.”101 100 G. A. Macfarren, The Rudiments of Harmony, 8th ed., (1881), 2. 101 Prescott, Form, 12. 58 This section introduces another term that deserves more explanation, the “half-way rest.” The way it is used equates the term with a half cadence, but because Prescott places the term after the “first part,” it could make the term equivalent to a medial caesura, a type of musical punctuation that occurs between the primary and secondary theme in a sonata exposition. This potential definition is refuted at the beginning of Prescott’s chapter three. When discussing a section of Bach’s Suites Anglaises, Prescott states: In the minuet we found a tonic portion followed by a dominant portion of equal extent with a close in that key which made the half-way rest; then a modulating portion, followed by another in the tonic, with a final close. Similarly, in the Prelude, there is a large portion in F, which we will call the first subject … followed by an equally large portion in C, which we will call the second or dominant subject, … the close of this latter being in C makes the half-way rest.102 This description places the half-way rest in a different place in the sonata than in the minuet. Here, Prescott describes the half-way rest as occurring after the secondary theme of the exposition, which is not where the medial caesura occurs. According to Hepokoski and Darcy (1997), the musical punctuation that occurs in this part of the sonata is known as the essential expositional closure (EEC). The EEC is the moment where the exposition has “completed its essential mission, that of providing a clearly articulated sign of closure in the new key,” the new key being that of the dominant or relative major.103 This definition clearly aligns with Prescott’s description of the half-way rest. Although I do not discuss chapter four in the same manner as chapters two and three, there are some vocabulary terms in this chapter that deserve explanation. The chapter, titled 102 Prescott, Form, 12. 103 James Hepokoski and Warren Darcy, “The Medial Caesura and Its Role in the Eighteenth-Century Sonata Exposition,” Music Theory Spectrum 19, no. 2 (1997): 119, https://doi.org/10.2307/745751. 59 “Varieties of the Sonata Form,” discusses the key options for the secondary theme when the primary theme is in a minor key. Prescott states: “The most prominent variety in the treatment of the sonata form, however, is an elasticity in the choice of key for the second subject when the primary key is minor, and the permission to place that subject either in the minor key of the dominant or in the major key of the mediant.”104 Her use of the term mediant rather than relative major is notable. She follows this statement with a discussion of why these keys are chosen as those for the secondary theme: “The relationship of both keys may be traced from the old form of the minor key (Part II., p. 30, &c.) before the recognition of the leading note as an essential part of the key, when the seventh note of the scale was a minor seventh from the keynote below. This arrangement gave the dominant chord a minor third, and the mediant a perfect fifth, instead of the major thirds from the dominant and the augmented fifth from the mediant which is produced by the leading note.”105 This explanation discusses why the leading tone is not raised when in either of these keys for the secondary theme, preserving the natural minor, or Aeolian mode, rather than the melodic or harmonic minor. After this, Prescott moves on to describing why the mediant is thought of as closely related to the tonic minor key. “The major key of the mediant seems to bear the same close relationship to a minor key that the key of the dominant does to a major: so close as to acquire the name of relative major, although so distinctly a different key as fitly to take the place of the dominant where, as in the second subject, change of key is needed.”106 This is the first time that 104 Prescott, Form, 15. 105 Prescott, Form, 15. 106 Prescott, Form, 15. 60 Prescott uses the term “relative” when describing the relationship between the minor tonic and its mediant, although her definition lacks the clarification of relative keys sharing the same key signature. To close out the discussion on the relative major, she describes another way the mediant is considered closely related to the tonic: “Another connection which holds good in the chromatic modern style, namely, when the third of one tonic chord is a perfect interval, either root or fifth of the other, forms a double link in the case of these two keys; for while the third of the original tonic is the root of its mediant, the thirds of the mediant is the fifth of the original tonic chord.”107 This explanation seems to be similar to draws on the neo-Riemannian theory of mediant relationships. Because the relative major and minor triads are a mediant away from each other, they share two common notes. Later, through the discussion of Mendelssohn’s Ruy Blas, Prescott introduces the concept of parallel relationships: “In the overture to Ruy Blas, in C minor, the second subject is in E♭:– but in the recapitulation, anxious to preserve the character, which would be changed by alteration from major to minor, Mendelssohn introduces it in C major–the major and minor varieties traced from the same key-note being one and the same key.”108 This example shows both relative and parallel relationships. In the exposition, while the primary theme is presented in C minor, the secondary theme is presented in the relative major key of E♭ major. However, when these themes return in the recapitulation, the secondary theme is presented in the parallel major key rather than the relative major. This definition, like that of the relative major, does not fully encompass the 107 Prescott, Form, 15. 108 Prescott, Form, 16. 61 importance of the parallel key relationships. Although, it is true that these are traced from the same “key-note,” it would be highly contested that this makes them “one and the same key.” Another aspect of Prescott’s writing that deserves analysis is her use of flowery metaphors. This begins in chapter one, which acts as an introduction to her forthcoming chapters. She begins by comparing a piece without form with “a kaleidoscope of colours, or a child’s imaginary drawing–a medley of confused colours which mean nothing, or lines which give no idea.”109 One of her longer descriptions in this chapter compares written form versus heard form: Those which can be seen or felt may be compared to a road laid out on a map, the form of which becomes evident at a glance; that which is heard must be compared to the same road when we travel on it and trace it out by slow degrees, turning a corner here, going a hundred yards in a direct line, and another fifty in a curve, and so working its form into our minds minute by minute, and having it in our memories to refer to afterwards.110 This illustrates how in-depth Prescott’s metaphors can be. Not all chapters are like this, where every description is accompanied by a metaphor of this length, but Prescott will often conclude a chapter with a metaphor to connect it to the next. For example, at the end of chapter three on sonata form, Prescott alludes to the next chapter by stating: The next step will be to show how a later process has been to add new features to these large members; as it were to indicate the fingers and toes of what in the broader outlines were shown only as limbs; to make subdivisions and varieties, depending on the main division, as in architecture the simple arches of the older style are crowned and multiplied by the more elaborate arches of the newer, and as in nature the great branches of a tree divide and subdivide into innumerable boughs.111 109 Prescott, Form, 3. 110 Prescott, Form, 3. 111 Prescott, Form, 14. 62 These excerpts also outline the common themes of these metaphors. Prescott often makes comparisons with art, architecture, and nature. Rachel Lumsden (2021) identifies this tendency of Prescott as a way of enhancing her theoretical observations while also adhering to the gender stereotypes of the time, as it was thought that women should remain in the “spheres” that align with their gender such as fashion, art, and nature. Additionally, Prescott’s use of metaphors further connects her to the world of public music theory as they make her analytical writing more digestible for a wider audience. 63 Chapter 4: Appealing to the Masses: Analyzing Oliveria Prescott’s Language Towards the Musical Amateur Oliveria Prescott’s second book, About Music, and What it is Made Of, hereafter About Music, was published in 1904 and was compiled from a series of public lectures Prescott gave in 1893. Prescott describes how she was directed to write such a publication: “For when the suggester of this book, the late Mr. W. H. Davenport Adams, set me thinking about it, his words were, ‘not a technical manual, but a readable book, —on the forms of music, the different schools; on amateur music, drawing-room music, the character of different styles as set before us by the great masters, with analysis of representative compositions.’”112 Unlike her first book, About Music was specifically written with amateur musicians in mind and covers a variety of topics, as Adams suggested. Prescott’s articles in The Girl’s Own Paper demonstrate additional writing for a wider audience. Because the readers of TGOP varied in age, status, and ability, Prescott’s articles, most of which are analyses of Beethoven piano sonatas, present musical concepts without assuming depth of prior knowledge and show young musicians that they can understand difficult musical concepts. Through discussions of About Music and her articles in TGOP, one can see changes in language and content made by Prescott to appeal to an audience of varied levels of musical knowledge. 112 Oliveria Prescott, About Music, and What It Is Made of; a Book for Amateurs (1904): 253-254. 64 4.1 From Songs to Symphonies: Describing Musical Concepts in About Music, and What it is Made Of An article titled “Women’s Enterprises” in an 1893 publication of the Englishwoman’s Review describes Prescott’s upcoming lecture series, given at the Church of England High School for Girls, the same school at which Prescott taught harmony, counterpoint, and composition.113 An 1894 edition of the same paper summarizes the series and describes the “conversational title”: “she [Prescott] pointed out the structure of old popular and scholastic music, and how modern music has gradually ‘built in’ the old material upon a new foundation, that foundation having, at the same time its first stones laid in popular tunes.”114 In December of 1893, The Musical Times stated: “… that the subjects were dealt with attractively and adequately will readily be assumed by all who know Miss Prescott’s peculiar fitness for such a task. Such lectures have an educational value which can scarcely be too highly rated.”115 In 1894-95, multiple local papers summarized Prescott’s lecture series, raving about the breadth of topics and the manner in which they were presented. The 1894 article in the Englishwoman’s Review introduces an important aspect of Prescott’s writing in both Form and About Music: her means of describing increasingly complex compositions through comparisons to “simpler” pieces of music. In Form, Prescott first describes the Minuet from Beethoven’s Sonata in E♭, Op. 31, No. 3, Mvt. III, and uses this piece as a building block for more complex minuets and eventually as a link to sonata form. In About 113 Englishwoman’s Review of Social and Industrial Questions, 16 December 1893, 264. 114 Englishwoman’s Review of Social and Industrial Questions, 17 January 1894, 44. 115 The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular, 1 December 1893, 745. 65 Music, Prescott uses the folk tune Near Woodstock Town throughout her final chapter titled “The Making of Symphonies.” Near Woodstock Town is first introduced in the opening chapter, “Home Music in England” (figure 4.1), where Prescott describes Near Woodstock Town as having a regular phrase rhythm and in the “simple diatonic key of C.” Prescott thoroughly describes the tonal areas of this short tune more than the melodic material: “There is a modulation to the nearest related key, G, with a close half-way through the tune. This close makes a regular balance in the tune between the first half ending with the dominant or note of second importance in the key, and the second half ending with the tonic or note of first importance in the key. Herein is a modernism of which we must say more by-and-by.”116 Figure 4.1: "Near Woodstock Town" as it appears in About Music, and What it is Made Of In this book, as in Form, Prescott often describes any movement to other key areas as a “modulation,” rather than a tonicization. It is clear why Prescott chooses this song as her model, as it contains many of the tonal characteristics she emphasizes in larger works: a pause half-way through the piece and movement to the dominant at this half-way mark balanced by the final 116 Prescott, About Music, 32. 66 cadence on the tonic. This description of Near Woodstock Town also demonstrates the assumed knowledge of About Music’s intended audience, as Prescott accompanies terms like “tonic” and “dominant” with additional description and context. We can compare Prescott’s level of description to that of the Beethoven minuet in Form: “This is a design by cadence, the half-cadence at the end of eight bars ending the first part of the tune, the full cadence after the next eight bars ending the second part.”117 Although Prescott’s analysis of this piece has been fully examined previously, we can use this brief statement to compare the level of assumed knowledge between the readers of each book. In Form, this is the first time that these terms are being attributed to a piece of music, and there is no additional information to assist the reader in determining their meaning, indicating that Prescott expected the readers of Form to have more musical knowledge than the readers of About Music. A similar passage in About Music relates Near Woodstock Town to the structure of a minuet, specifically the Minuet of Haydn’s Symphony No. 103 in E♭ Major, Hob.I:103, Mvt. III (figure 4.2): “And though its first part does not modulate, as Near Woodstock Town, yet it does what has the same effect of coming to a semicolon in writing; namely, it ends on the dominant chord with what is called a half-close, or half-cadence.”118 In this statement, Prescott uses two techniques to situate her terminology. First, she makes a comparison to literature by stating that this term, which has not been introduced yet, does the same in music that a semicolon does in writing, already giving the reader context. Following this context, she gives the definition 117 Prescott, Form, 6. 118 Prescott, About Music, 211. 67 accompanied by the name of the term. This strategy eases the reader into a discussion that uses technical terminology with landmarks to help if they get lost. Figure 4.2: Piano reduction of Haydn's Symphony No. 103 in E♭ Major, Hob. I: 103, Mvt. III, Menuetto, mm. 1-13"Near Woodstock Town is used to connect the various elements of the chapter outlining the history of the symphony and the structure of its movements. The first time Near Woodstock Town is seen in this chapter, it is used as an example to show how to determine the tonal areas of different sections of music, which is the aspect of form Prescott focuses on. She describes how in this short song, the first phrase is made up of only the notes of the C major scale, whereas the second phrase uses only notes in the G major scale, distinguished by the inclusion of F"#. The second half of the song, made up of the third and fourth phrases, returns to C major. Following this description Prescott states: “Now if we realise that the scale of any particular note is only the key of that note with all its related notes arranged in a row, we have taken our first lesson in the 68 musical key-design, or plan, or form, of modern classical music.”119 Prescott takes particular care to fully explain the concept she feels is most important in determining form, further relating to her audience through the use of a familiar piece of music. We have seen through the analysis of Prescott’s first book, Form, or Design, in Music, the use of the minuet as a building block of sonata form. Therefore, it makes sense that Prescott would use Near Woodstock Town, which she has previously used to compare to minuet form, to model sonata, or first-movement form, as well. As noted previously, the most important characteristic of form, according to Prescott, is the division by and balance of key: “the tune agrees with the general principle of key-form, because it begins with enough music in C to decide it to be the main key of the piece, and because the tune modulates in the middle and then ends with a large proportion in that main key.”120 Prescott also uses the tune to explain the “half-way rest,” which has previously been discussed in Form. Near Woodstock Town demonstrates this concept because “about half-way through, it makes a decided stop on the chord of G, the dominant of the main key of C. It is this half-close, or rest upon the dominant at the end of about half of the movement, which is the distinguishing feature of the design called the sonata form, or first-movement form.”121 This definition is relatively concise and accessible compared to the description in Form. In addition to containing a half-way rest and design by key, Prescott states that Woodstock also mirrors the most common key structure seen in the sonata movement, the first half of the first phrase 119 Prescott, About Music, 194. 120 Prescott, About Music, 232. 121 Prescott, About Music, 232. 69 outlining the tonic with the second half outlining the dominant. In the Sonata, this would correspond to the common keys of the primary and secondary theme areas, which Prescott calls the tonic and dominant subjects. In addition to showing how Woodstock is similar to larger movements, Prescott also uses the song to show how it is different from these forms. One aspect of sonata form that Woodstock does not show is the complexity of the second half of the piece. Prescott states: “after the half-way rest, the course of the design is to bring back the main key, and so to travel home again to the full close in order to make the balance.”122 Although Woodstock shows this by having the second half of the song in the tonic key, it does not show the common aspect of recapitulating the melodic material from the first part. Additionally, Near Woodstock Town does not have the “free fantasia” or coda sections which Prescott identifies as “means of lengthening and of making works of more importance.”123 It’s possible that Prescott did not think these were important details for an amateur audience. Another idea discussed throughout this chapter is the connection of symphonic works to vocal music. In the beginning of this chapter, Prescott describes how the early instrumental works were derived from vocal music. She states: “Many works in the early days of instrumental music were but vocal music played by instruments; and these were more or less fugual [sic], or madrigalish, if we may be allowed the word, in their course. Thus they had imitations, more or less close, of the different unrhythmical melodies introduced; and each idea was carried out to the full before the next one was touched. Their main design, therefore, was on the old-fashioned 122 Prescott, About Music, 234. 123 Prescott, About Music, 234. 70 principle, namely, that of the treatment of the musical idea.”124 Here, when discussing the old style of symphonic works, Prescott identifies the connection by thematic material as “old-fashioned.” According to Prescott, it isn’t until the creation of a group of works through the connection of ideas that phrase rhythm is introduced to add variation to the collection. For example, a group of works would show contrast between one piece in a “grand style and dignified rhythm, with another in a fugal style without phrase rhythm, and again with a third in a dance style and dance rhythm.”125 Some instances of the inclusion of Near Woodstock Town are less notable than others. Prescott makes a quick comparison between what she calls the “Woodstock tune” and the Andante of Beethoven’s Sonata in D “Pastorale,” Op. 28 No. 15, Mvt. II. Prescott states: “There is a tune, little more than the ballad-tune of Near Woodstock Town, in its squareness of rhythm, in the slow movement of Beethoven's sonata in D, sometimes called Pastorale. It has a second strain of alternative, after which the first returns and is wound up by a little coda. Yet there is room for the utmost expression in this little movement.”126 This discussion occurs in Prescott’s description of the “song movement” of a symphony, again connecting instrumental music to “when it was but vocal music played by instruments.”127 In describing the forms of modern symphonies, Prescott discusses how these compositions often contain aspects of older forms, and often vocal forms. One example of this is the use of recitative and aria-like movements in a symphony or sonata, yet another example of 124 Prescott, About Music, 201. 125 Prescott, About Music, 201. 126 Prescott, About Music, 217. 127 Prescott, About Music, 217. 71 vocal music played by instruments. As an example, Prescott uses Beethoven’s Piano Sonata No. 31, Op. 110, Mvt. III, Adagio ma non troppo (figure 4.3). The beginning of this movement mirrors a standard operatic recitative “as it might be for a voice, at the same time that its scope is adapted for an instrument,” followed by a melodic arioso.128 Figure 4.3: Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 31, Op. 110, Mvt. III, Adagio, ma non troppo, mm. 1-10 128 Prescott, About Music, 206. 72 Prescott’s technique of connection through vocal forms, using Near Woodstock Town as a specific example, has historical and pedagogical significance. As discussed previously, About Music is directed at musical amateurs, a group of people who might not have the previous knowledge that would make Form readable. Prescott effectively connects with a broader audience by utilizing vocal music, a genre commonly taught in schools, as seen in Rainbow’s case study; this approach demonstrates that theoretical knowledge is accessible for About Music’s audience. Moreover, Prescott enhances this strategy by utilizing Near Woodstock Town to explain complex instrumental forms, thereby bridging the gap between challenging theoretical concepts and familiar musical knowledge. Additionally, Prescott discreetly subverts the anticipated roles for women composers and theorists. Given Victorian societal norms, Prescott is presumed to possess extensive knowledge in vocal music and small forms, as women were typically expected to compose within these genres. Prescott’s discussion demonstrates to the reader that the transition from vocal to instrumental music is not a challenging one. I argue that with Prescott's guidance, women who may feel limited to small-form genres receive the support needed to understand larger musical forms. 4.2 “Even Babes”: Oliveria Prescott’s Theoretical Analyses in The Girl’s Own Paper Between 1886 and 1891, Oliveria Prescott wrote six articles for TGOP diving into more technical and theoretical musical concepts. Like About Music, Prescott’s articles in TGOP were aimed at an audience of musical amateurs; in this case, Prescott is writing for an audience of mostly girls and young women. 73 Prescott’s first article in TGOP, titled “A Letter on Musical Rhythm,” was published in 1886 and carefully discusses the definition and importance of musical rhythm. Prescott states: “The broadest, simplest explanation of rhythm is the balance of sounds.”129 As with her prior writings, Prescott uses metaphors relying on the readers’ prior knowledge to explain certain concepts. In Form, Prescott describes a musical note as a brick or building block that stacks upon itself to create a piece of music: And thus rhythm, the sounds or, successions of sounds, is the material out of which music is made; for the balance of equal vibrations forms a musical note, the balance of notes forms a fragment of a phrase, of fragments a whole phrase, of phrases a sentence, of sentences an idea, of ideas a movement, of movements a symphony or an opera.130 Although she uses the metaphor of construction in Form, her description there introduces technical musical terms without explanation, as the intended audience is one with the previous musical knowledge needed to understand the journey from rhythm to symphony. In Prescott’s TGOP article, she takes more time to explain the science behind sound; how the pulsations through the air are like the pulsing of blood in veins. The chain of events that creates a “musical sound” is the first step in what Prescott calls the “rhythmic ladder.” The second step is the “balance of bars or balance of accents.”131 The balance of accents across multiple measures of music, as well as the pattern of strong and weak beats in a measure, is an important aspect of hypermeter. For Prescott, the difference between the strength of accents in a bar help to connect, or balance, measures with each other. She states: “The primary accent of 129 Oliveria Prescott, “A Letter on Musical Rhythm,” The Girl’s Own Paper, June 19, 1886, 601 130 Prescott, Form, 4. 131 Prescott, TGOP, 19 June 1886, 601. 74 every bar, then, balances, with the primary accent of all the other bars, and the secondary accent of every bar balances with the secondary accent of all the other bars.”132 As with her discussion of musical sound, Prescott spends an extensive amount of time explaining every aspect of her thinking; she maps out how the beat strength differs from duple to triple, and from simple to compound. The third step in Prescott’s ladder is the balance within and between phrases. Before understanding the rhythm of phrases, the audience must be able to describe what a musical phrase is; Prescott explains basic phrase construction by making a comparison to literature. Prescott gives examples of increasingly longer sentences that are made up of short phrases; the next step is to give these demonstrations a musical counterpart, and what better example to use than Near Woodstock Town. Prescott’s use of a common folk tune to explain musical concepts plays on her audience’s prior knowledge and allows them to easily make connections. She explains how the phrases of Near Woodstock Town are easily comparable to her sentence example: “The two longer phrases of Near Woodstock, that is, the first pair of little ones and the second pair of little ones, join together and make one doubly-long phrase, or complete strain of music. In the same way, the two pairs of little word-phrases join together and make a complete thought.”133 However, unlike musical phrases, spoken or written sentences are rarely made up of phrases of equal length. As we saw in About Music, Prescott uses literature as a comparison in her explanation of cadences; she likens a “full stop,” or period, to a perfect cadence and a semicolon to a half 132 Prescott, TGOP, 19 June 1886, 602. 133 Prescott, TGOP, 19 June 1886, 602. 75 cadence. However, in TGOP, Prescott goes further in her definition of full and half cadences in order to align to her audience’s knowledge. She states: “you do not know harmony, but you know the scale; I can show you by that if you will forgive the many letters and numbers.”134 She then goes into an in-depth description of triads and scale degrees to effectively give her audience the vocabularies of tonic and dominant. Finally, to bring the article to a close, she helps her audience to apply the knowledge they just attained but showing how Near Woodstock Town contains most all of the concepts just described: “This tune, then, has its half-cadence, equivalent, to the semicolon of word-writing, in the middle of the tune; while this is balanced at the end by the full cadence, which is the full stop in word-writing.”135 This article, for someone with extremely limited musical knowledge, could be a first step in understanding some of Prescott’s more complex writing. This first article in TGOP shows a different level of explanation for the musical amateur than her published books, or even her other articles in the same journal. Prescott’s subsequent articles in TGOP move away from writing for true beginners and feature more technical terminology. Her first analysis of an individual piece in TGOP was published in 1887 and contains an in-depth examination of Beethoven’s Sonata in G Minor, Op. 49, No. 1.136 Compared to her previous article in TGOP, this analysis contains an extensive amount of musical terminology, showing a difference in the intended audience between the two articles. Despite this, Prescott spends the first part of this article providing some background information on the 134 Prescott, TGOP, 19 June 1886, 602. 135 Prescott, TGOP, 19 June 1886, 602. 136 This article identifies Prescott as a “late Professor at the Royal Academy of Music,” which was not a detail featured in any of her other biographies. 76 sonata. For Prescott, there are two aspects of music that are most important, which are clearly articulated in her opening paragraph: “For the name sonata has two meanings in musical design. First, it means a group of movements with some connection in their keys, and contrast in their ideas; second, it means a particular course of key or modulation in one movement.”137 Her analysis follows this by focusing on the connection of keys and contrast of ideas between the two movements in this sonata. Overall, this article contains many of the same ideas presented in Form and About Music with some notable differences. First, because the key of this sonata is minor, Prescott carefully describes parallel and relative keys: “Here Beethoven uses one of the earliest varieties in sonata construction, for the dominant subject is not in the dominant key, but in that of the mediant or relative major. The feeling that this is suitable shows that the keys called relative major and relative minor (having one signature but two tonics) are two different keys; while at the same time it shows how nearly related they are.”138 Compared to Prescott’s description in Form, this discussion is concise and understandable; it adds to readers’ previous knowledge of topics such as major and minor key signatures, without overwhelming the reader with unnecessary information. Additionally, by introducing this concept in the context of a specific piece, the reader is able to see Prescott’s connection in context while they are reading about it. Another change in this article from the publications previously discussed is the absence of the “half-way rest.” In both Form and About Music, Prescott identifies the “half-way rest” as 137 Oliveria Prescott, “Beethoven’s Sonata in E Flat, Op. 7: Analysis of Its Design and Harmony,” The Girl’s Own Paper, March 24, 1888, 555. 138 Prescott, TGOP, 24 March 1888, 555. 77 an integral characteristic of sonata form but does not include it in this analysis. To conclude her analysis of the first part of movement 1 of this sonata Prescott states: “Another pair of short phrases are a repetition of the first thought [of the second subject] and bring the second subject to a full close in its own key. The close of this music in B♭ is also the end of what is called the first part of the sonata movement.”139 Since the term “half-way rest” was included in Form, which was published in 1882, it is clear the term was in Prescott’s vocabulary when writing articles for TGOP. Prescott’s analyses in TGOP increase in complexity from her initial “Letter on Musical Rhythm” but still leave out concepts that Prescott may have determined to be too complex for this audience. There is one instance of Prescott using this term, although it is placed in the analysis of Beethoven’s Piano Sonata No. 15, Op. 28. In this article, titled “Musical Design for Musical Babes,” Prescott analyzes the second movement of this piece. She labels the design of the piece a “miniature rondo,” which, if we remember back to her chapters in Form, refers to ternary form. Prescott’s example of ternary form in this case is made up of a minuet and trio, performed da capo. The form of the andante movement in Beethoven’s Piano Sonata No.15 is considerably different, however. Prescott’s article dissects the piece twice, the first time looking at the overall plan of the piece and the second narrowing in to discuss the smaller changes in key and harmony. After a discussion of the harmonies in the first part of the A section, which tonicize D minor, F major, and A minor, Prescott states: “This perfect cadence or close in the second principal key [A minor] is the real end of the first part. It is the half-way rest of the little sonata, and the proof 139 Prescott, TGOP, 24 March 1888, 555. 78 that it is in sonata form.”140 Looking at the first A section of the movement (figure 4.4), one can see that it takes the standard structure of rounded binary form, ||: a :||: b a’:||, which Prescott refers to as a “miniature sonata” throughout her discussions in Form. According to Prescott, the perfect authentic cadence in A minor creates the “half-way rest” of just the A section of the movement. It is interesting that the only instance of Prescott’s use of this term occurs in the analysis of a piece that is not in sonata form. 140 Oliveria Prescott, “Musical Design for Musical Babes: Analysis of the Slow Movement of Beethoven’s Sonata in D, Op. 28,” The Girl’s Own Paper, July 20, 1889, 665. 79 Figure 4.4: Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 15, Op. 28, Mvt. II, Andante, mm. 1-24 Prescott’s third article in TGOP takes a large leap in complexity from the first two. This article, published in March of 1888, analyzes the form and harmony of Beethoven’s Sonata in E♭ 80 “Grand Sonata,” Op. 7. Prescott begins by providing readers with a strategy to easily breakdown sonata form: “Divide it in half; the half-way of this movement is at the double bar… subdivide each of these halves– the first into tonic or first subject and dominant or second subject; the second into free fantasia and recapitulation of first part.”141 However, after this helpful explanation, Prescott dives into a pages-long analysis marked by the inclusion of advanced concepts with little to no explanation. For example, when going through the different keys explored in the “free fantasia,” Prescott states: “D minor has its connection with the next key–E♭–in the mutual chord of B♭; it has also a reverse relationship in the tonic chord of E♭, which is the Neapolitan sixth of D in its uninverted form.”142 This short excerpt brings forth complex topics, such as the Neapolitan sixth, in a way that assumes the audience has the previous knowledge needed to interpret them. Overall, Prescott’s articles present the young readers of TGOP with a model of a woman who, in addition to her understanding of theoretical concepts and ability to dissect harmonic structure, is not held back by societal restrictions. In her article on Beethoven’s Sonata in E♭, she opens with an anecdote about her mentor G. A. Macfarren, who, upon writing his King David oratorio, was presented with a section written by Prescott to the same text. In response, Macfarren stated: “‘Now I have a new difficulty before me… for I have not only to make something that shall be good, but something that shall be different to yours.’”143 By including this reminiscence, Prescott highlights her ability to produce a piece of music that impresses 141 Prescott, TGOP, 24 March 1888, 409. 142 Prescott, TGOP, 24 March 1888, 410. 143 Prescott, TGOP, 24 March 1888, 408. 81 notable male composers. Prescott’s theoretical writing for the public emphasizes the idea that not only do girls have the right to enter into the professional music world, but that they can contribute work that is of the same calibre as men. 82 Chapter 5: Conclusion Through my discussion of Clara Macirone and Oliveria Prescott, I have described two women with similar backgrounds and experiences who present contrasting views on women in the musical profession. Both women advocate for girls’ education—specifically for their equal music education—however for distinctly different reasons. Macirone believed that a woman’s place was in the home, and a girl’s purpose had not been fulfilled until she was a wife and mother. Additionally, according to Macirone, a well-structured and musical home was essential for the well-being and future success of one’s children; as a mother, a woman could pass her musical knowledge onto their children, further perpetuating the convention of the musical home. Interestingly, however, Macirone herself never fulfilled these roles; she may have opted to teach the next generation of women as a mother would, as she never married nor had children of her own. As headmistress for multiple girls’ schools, and through her articles in TGOP, perhaps she was able to influence exponentially more minds than if she had filled the role of wife and mother. Prescott, too, never married or had children, but her views on women’s equality were markedly different from Macirone’s. Studying Prescott’s writings allows us to determine how her language changes when directed at different audiences. Because Form was written with musicians in mind, some concepts are not fully explained, as it was assumed that her audience had the necessary prior knowledge. Her second book, About Music, presents much of the same information, but was specifically directed towards the musical amateur. Prescott’s feelings about the musical amateur’s abilities are made clear in this publication and her articles in TGOP. In About Music, Prescott addresses Davenport Adams’ statement for the suggestion of the book: 83 “He added, ‘Many skilful executants are nothing more than executants, and play bad music with as much willingness as good, because they know no better.’ Because they know no better? Alas, how many of us there are who ‘know no better.’ Not because the thing is difficult to learn, but because we have no thought of it nor of the way to learn. It is not difficult; for these things in music have all grown, and everything is easy to learn if we take it in the natural way of growth.”144 Prescott is insistent that musical knowledge, especially to the level of her publications, is attainable for all no matter their age or gender, and she continues this assertion in her analyses in TGOP. Prescott’s first TGOP article, “A Letter on Musical Rhythm,” was specifically directed towards beginners and thoroughly scaffolds the concepts of rhythm, phrases, and cadences in a way that assumes very little prior knowledge of the reader. Additionally, her article titled “Musical Design for Musical Babes,” analyzing Beethoven’s Op. 28 sonata, presents some increasingly complex concepts while still encouraging her readers of their ability. Prescott opens the article by explaining: “I have heard so many little girls–aye, and big ones too–say, ‘Oh it is too difficult for me to understand music;’ but so long as you have love for music; and patience to dwell upon it, its meaning will unfold to you.”145 She acknowledges that some young girls may feel discouraged by a task such as analyzing Beethoven, but reassures them that, with her help, they have the ability to accomplish anything. Another interesting comparison between Macirone and Prescott comes from how they view their work and thoughts versus that of others, specifically men. One of the main themes in 144 Prescott, About Music, 254. 145 Prescott, TGOP, 20 July 1889, 663. 84 Macirone’s writing is her use of quotes from influential male figures, both historical and modern, for the justification of her own opinions. Throughout her writing, she insert comments devaluing her worth as an author and musician: “I know many opinions so much more deserving of a hearing than my own,” “I would ask that the opinions of wise and practical men like those I have quoted be allowed to weigh in a matter of education on which so much of the happiness of the lives of our young people depends,” and “I have allowed myself to quote facts from such writers as the above, whose correct and weighty opinions on this subject are of importance, and should precede any advice I can give you.”146 It is clear that Macirone thinks her views are important enough to warrant two separate series of articles in a nationally recognized journal; this takes a back seat, however, to Macirone’s need to adhere to societal roles and prioritize the thoughts of men over her own. Prescott, however, shows the importance of establishing oneself aside from others, and especially men. In a similar anecdote to the King David recollection, Prescott states the following about forming her own analytical opinions of Beethoven’s Sonata in E♭, Op. 7: The tables are turned now upon the pupil; she wished to write an analysis of a certain sonata, and there lie on the desk before her her own notes of a lecture given by her master on the very same sonata. Yes, there is the groundwork of what I must say in those notes, but how am I to say that which shall be my own? Shall I make it my own by saying I have proved the truth of all the analysis by experiment, and that I have added much that was not said by him?147 Prescott is showing her audience that it is possible, and even necessary, to form one’s own thoughts separately from those of previous scholars. She is doing much more than just teaching 146 Macirone, TGOP, 26 January 1884, 268; 14 June 1884, 581; 4 July 1885, 635, respectively. 147 Prescott, TGOP, 24 March, 1888, 408. 85 music theory, she is encouraging the next generation to follow in her footsteps, to discover the details of music hidden behind the notes and rhythms. Both Macirone and Prescott are aiming to impart musical “taste” to their readers. The concept of taste as it connects to girls’ education is an interesting point for discussion. In Macirone’s second series of letters, “On Taste in Choice of Songs,” she describes taste as directly related to one’s education, rather than inherent to their being. Because the first instance of education is familial influence, this directly relates taste to class. By teaching “taste,” not only was Macirone breaking down stereotypes of English music and musicians, but she was also attempting to remove barriers that determine class. Prescott, however, was teaching taste through education, addressing the second half of Ehlert’s quote: “if we are able investigate the causes that can make a thing beautiful or ugly, we are able to understand it.”148 Macirone advocates for music education for girls to develop taste, but Prescott goes one step further and delivers the technical instruction that helps women enter the music profession on the same level as their male counterparts.149 Both women were integral characters in Victorian era music society and led similar lives. They both completed their music education at the Royal Academy of Music, published and performed compositions following their graduation, became educators of music for girls, and contributed multiple articles to various English magazines and journals. Clara Macirone and 148 Macirone, TGOP, 21 March 1885, 390, quoting Louis Ehlert, Letters on Music. 149 Interestingly, Prescott’s articles began appearing in TGOP less than one year after the end of Macirone’s series “On Taste in the Choice of Songs.” Macirone’s final article in this series was published 1 August 1885, and Prescott’s article, “A Letter on Musical Rhythm,” was published 19 June 1886. 86 Oliveria Prescott presented Victorian women with a model of successful women musicians and provided opportunities for education that may not have been present in traditional schooling. Despite their similar experiences, they developed distinctly different opinions on a woman’s place in society. These thoughts shaped how and why they presented information to the public that would impact the lives of future generations of musicians. J. Daniel Jenkins describes public music theory as “focused on improving musical understanding or using musical skills to improve people’s lives.” Through their writings in The Girl’s Own Paper and elsewhere, Clara Macirone and Oliveria Prescott embody early versions of public music theorists. Macirone and Prescott paved the way for future generations of women in music, challenging traditional gender norms in the profession and advocating for equal opportunities in music education. 87 Bibliography Barger, Judith. Music in The Girl’s Own Paper: An Annotated Catalogue, 1880-1910. Routledge, 2017. Beetham, Margaret. A Magazine of Her Own?: Domesticity and Desire in the Woman’s Magazine, 1800-1914. Routledge, 2003. Beetham, Margaret, and Kay Boardman, eds. Victorian Women’s Magazines: An Anthology. Manchester University Press, 2001. Brower, Edith. “Is the Musical Idea Masculine?” Atlantic Monthly 73, no. 437 (1894): 323–39. Brown, James Duff, and Stephen Samuel Stratton. British Musical Biography: A Dictionary of Musical Artists, Authors, and Composers Born in Britain and Its Colonies. Book, Whole. Birmingham: S.S. Stratton, 1897. https://go.exlibris.link/DsRNrzW7. Caird, Mona Alison. The Daughters of Danaus. England: Bliss, Sands & Foster, 1894, 1894. https://go.exlibris.link/Vb5HW0Fg. Citron, Marcia J. Gender and the Musical Canon. Cambridge [England]; New York; Cambridge University Press, 1993. https://go.exlibris.link/t0W4mxxB. Clercq, Trevor de. “Annual Report on Membership Demographics.” Society of Music Theory, December 2023. https://societymusictheory.org/administration/demographics. Curwen, J.S. “Miss Clara A. Macirone.” The Musical Herald and Tonic Sol-Fa Reporter, September 1889. Easley, Alexis, Clare Gill, and Beth Rodgers. Women, Periodicals and Print Culture in Britain, 1830s-1900s: The Victorian Period. 1st ed. Book, Whole. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781474433921. Ewell, Philip A. “Music Theory and the White Racial Frame.” Music Theory Online 26, no. 2 (2020). https://doi.org/10.30535/mto.26.2.4. Fatout, Paul. “THRENODIES OF THE LADIES’ BOOKS.” The Musical Quarterly XXXI, no. 4 (1945): 464–78. https://doi.org/10.1093/mq/XXXI.4.464. Fuller, Sophie. “Women Musicians and Professionalism in the Late-Nineteenth and Early-Twentieth Centuries.” In The Music Profession in Britain, 1780-1920, 149–69. Routledge, 2018. Gardner, John R. “Prescott, Oliveria Louisa.” In The Norton/Grove Dictionary of Women Composers. W.W. Norton, 1994. Green, Lucy. Music, Gender, Education. 1st ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511585456. Haweis, Hugh Reginald. Ideals for Girls. London: James Bowden, 1897. ———. Music and Morals. London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1872. Hepokoski, James, and Warren Darcy. “The Medial Caesura and Its Role in the Eighteenth-Century Sonata Exposition.” Music Theory Spectrum 19, no. 2 (1997): 115–54. https://doi.org/10.2307/745751. Hisama, Ellie M. “Getting to Count.” Music Theory Spectrum 43, no. 2 (2021): 349–63. https://doi.org/10.1093/mts/mtaa033. 88 Jenkins, J. Daniel. “An Introduction to Public Music Theory.” In The Oxford Handbook of Public Music Theory, 0. Oxford University Press, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197551554.013.37. King, Andrew, Alexis Easley, and John Morton, eds. The Routledge Handbook to Nineteenth-Century British Periodicals and Newspapers. London; New York; Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, 2016. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315613345. Ledbetter, Kathryn. “Periodicals for Women.” In The Routledge Handbook to Nineteenth-Century British Periodicals and Newspapers, 260–75. New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, 2016. Lumsden, Rachel. “Music Theory for the ‘Weaker Sex’: Oliveria Prescott’s Columns for The Girl’s Own Paper.” Music Theory Online 26, no. 3 (2020). ———. “Oliveria Prescott and the Musical Amateur.” In The Oxford Handbook of Public Music Theory, edited by J. Daniel Jenkins, 0. Oxford University Press, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197551554.013.5. Macfarren, G. A. The Rudiments of Harmony. 8th ed. Book, Whole. London: J. B. Cramer, 1881. https://go.exlibris.link/Qwt8Rtyy. Macirone, Clara. “A Plea for Music.” The Girl’s Own Paper, January 26, 1884. ———. “A Plea for Music.” The Girl’s Own Paper, February 23, 1884. ———. “A Plea for Music.” The Girl’s Own Paper, March 29, 1884. ———. “A Plea for Music.” The Girl’s Own Paper, April 19, 1884. ———. “A Plea for Music.” The Girl’s Own Paper, June 14, 1884. ———. “A Plea for Music.” The Girl’s Own Paper, July 19, 1884. ———. “On Taste in the Choice of Songs.” The Girl’s Own Paper, March 21, 1885. ———. “On Taste in the Choice of Songs.” The Girl’s Own Paper, May 30, 1885. ———. “On Taste in the Choice of Songs.” The Girl’s Own Paper, July 4, 1885. ———. “On Taste in the Choice of Songs.” The Girl’s Own Paper, August 1, 1885. ———. “The Power of Music.” The Girl’s Own Paper, December 15, 1883. Martin, Jane R. “What Should We Do with a Hidden Curriculum When We Find One?” Curriculum Inquiry 6, no. 2 (1976): 135–51. https://doi.org/10.2307/1179759. McNeely, Sarah. “Beyond the Drawing Room: The Musical Lives of Victorian Women.” Nineteenth-Century Gender Studies 5, no. 2 (2009). Middleton, Ethelyn Friend. “The Idol of the Girls: A Personal Glimpse of Mademoiselle Chaminade.” The Ladies’ Home Journal, Philadelphia: American Periodicals Series III, February 1900. 137011997. American Periodicals. https://www.proquest.com/magazines/idol-girls/docview/137011997/se-2?accountid=14656. “Miscellaneous Concerts, Intelligence, &c.” The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular 34, no. 610 (1893): 744–46. Morning Post. “Births, Deaths, Marriages and Obituaries.” October 31, 1893. British Library Newspapers. Neate, Patricia. “All My Darlings”: A Victorian Family in Their Own Words. Troubador Publishing Ltd, 2018. Palfy, Cora S., and Eric Gilson. “The Hidden Curriculum in the Music Theory Classroom.” Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy 32 (2018): 79. 89 Peak, Anna. “Music and New Woman Aesthetics in Mona Caird’s ‘The Daughters of Danaus.’” Victorian Review 40, no. 1 (2014): 135–54. https://doi.org/10.1353/vcr.2014.0011. Prescott, Oliveria. “A Letter on Musical Rhythm.” The Girl’s Own Paper, June 19, 1886. ———. About Music, and What It Is Made of; a Book for Amateurs. England: Methuen, 1904, 1904. ———. “An Analysis of Beethoven’s Sonata in G Minor, Op. 49, No. 1.” The Girl’s Own Paper, May 28, 1887. ———. “Beethoven’s Sonata in E Flat, Op. 7: Analysis of Its Design and Harmony.” The Girl’s Own Paper, March 24, 1888. ———. “FORM, OR DESIGN, IN MUSIC.” The Musical World 57, no. 20 (May 17, 1879): 301–2. ———. “FORM, OR DESIGN, IN MUSIC.” The Musical World 57, no. 21 (May 24, 1879): 317–18. ———. Form, or Design, in Music. London: Duncan Davison & Co., 1882. ———. “Imperial Exhibition of Women’s Work.” Musical News 7, no. 179 (August 4, 1894): 101. ———. “Musical Design for Musical Babes: Analysis of the Slow Movement of Beethoven’s Sonata in D, Op. 28.” The Girl’s Own Paper, July 20, 1889. Rainbow, Bernarr. “The Rise of Popular Music Education in Nineteenth-Century England.” Victorian Studies 30, no. 1 (1986): 25–49. Scott, Derek B. “Macirone, Clara Angela.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie. Grove, 2001. Smith, Michelle J. Empire in British Girl’s Literature and Culture: Imperial Girls, 1880-1915. 1st ed. New York; Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire; Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230308121. The Englishwoman’s Review of Social and Industrial Questions. December 16, 1893. The Englishwoman’s Review of Social and Industrial Questions. January 17, 1894. The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular. December 1, 1893. Upton, George P. Woman in Music: An Essay. James R. Osgood and Company, 1880. https://go.exlibris.link/R5JCc4Np. Zierlof, Robert. “The Number and Nature of Journal Articles by Women in Music Theory.” Presented at the Society of Music Theory Annual Conference, 2008.
Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Music - Theory
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
Graduate
VanHandel, Leigh
Musical babes : Clara Macirone and Oliveria Prescott's role in Victorian-era girls' music education
Text