Arts, Faculty of
Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Studies, Department of
DSpace
UBCV
Archibald, Kara
Master of Arts - MA
University of British Columbia
The study of the past, History, is often presented through a colonial lens. The past is a collection of events that happened, with people who existed, and it can be seen as static and a record of the truth. With the current discourse on decolonization, however, such a representation of history sets a limitation, on classical studies in particular, in the way that the past can be examined. It is the stagnation of imagination that causes a rift between what is considered historical and what is considered fictional. Therefore, it is integral to engage in alternative approaches to the ancient past, and one key way to do this is to Indigenize it. In texts such as the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey,' the fictional or mythical elements supersede the significance of orality and oral history. Homer’s epics are therefore considered unverifiable, which can ultimately lead to the limitations of what can be interpreted and gleaned from reading these epic poems. The information and details embedded in the poem, however, are remnants of cultural memory, and are highly influential to later authors, including translators today. Further, Herodotus’ 'Histories' is subject to scrutiny for the validity of his text, whether he wrote the truth as it actually was or whether he invented it. Based on the way historians, both modern and ancient, experience and interpret the past, any form of fictionalization can result in assumptions. Interpretation and translation can often lead to discrepancies in order to make the past look a certain way. In some cases, through a colonial perspective, it means putting emphasis on socially acceptable ideas rather than what might have been the reality. As a result, anything outside of those ideals are considered “unsophisticated.” It is necessary to break away from opposing categorization – black and white, real or fake, true or false – in order to see the complex nature of the past through Indigenous perspectives on its texts. As such, this thesis is an exploration of the significance of orality, oral history, and the use of narrative in order to provide different interpretations of these ancient texts.
INDIGENOUS PERSPECTIVES TO UNLEARN COLONIAL MINDSETS: AN EXPLORATION OF ORAL HISTORY AND NARRATIVE IN HOMER AND HERODOTUS by KARA ARCHIBALD B.A., Brock University, 2016 M.A., Memorial University of Newfoundland, 2019 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Ancient Culture, Religion, and Ethnicity) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) February 2024 © Kara Archibald, 2024 ii The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies for acceptance, the thesis entitled: Indigenous Perspectives to Unlearn Colonial Mindsets: An Exploration of Oral History and Narrative in Homer and Herodotus submitted by Kara Archibald in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Ancient Culture, Religion, and Ethnicity Examining Committee: Franco De Angelis, Professor, Department of Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Studies, UBC Supervisor Antone Minard, Lecturer, Department of Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Studies, UBC Supervisory Committee Member iii Abstract The study of the past, History, is often presented through a colonial lens. The past is a collection of events that happened, with people who existed, and it can be seen as static and a record of the truth. With the current discourse on decolonization, however, such a representation of history sets a limitation, on classical studies in particular, in the way that the past can be examined. It is the stagnation of imagination that causes a rift between what is considered historical and what is considered fictional. Therefore, it is integral to engage in alternative approaches to the ancient past, and one key way to do this is to Indigenize it. In texts such as the Iliad and the Odyssey, the fictional or mythical elements supersede the significance of orality and oral history. Homer’s epics are therefore considered unverifiable, which can ultimately lead to the limitations of what can be interpreted and gleaned from reading these epic poems. The information and details embedded in the poem, however, are remnants of cultural memory, and are highly influential to later authors, including translators today. Further, Herodotus’ Histories is subject to scrutiny for the validity of his text, whether he wrote the truth as it actually was or whether he invented it. Based on the way historians, both modern and ancient, experience and interpret the past, any form of fictionalization can result in assumptions. Interpretation and translation can often lead to discrepancies in order to make the past look a certain way. In some cases, through a colonial perspective, it means putting emphasis on socially acceptable ideas rather than what might have been the reality. As a result, anything outside of those ideals are considered “unsophisticated.” It is necessary to break away from opposing categorization – black and white, real or fake, true or false – in order to see the complex nature of the past through Indigenous perspectives on its texts. As such, this thesis is an iv exploration of the significance of orality, oral history, and the use of narrative in order to provide different interpretations of these ancient texts. v Lay Summary This thesis is a conversation on how to Indigenize academia. Instead of saying ‘decolonize,’ which can be reductive, this research suggests alternative ways to examine and explore ancient literature. By examining Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey and Herodotus’ Histories through an Indigenous perspective, specifically for the way these authors use oral history and narrative to convey the significance of cultural memories, it breaks away from the colonial idea that orality is unreliable. There is still meaning behind these stories, and setting a limitation upon their examination based on what is considered truth or fiction does a disservice to those who find oral histories and myth to be culturally and academically significant. vi Preface This thesis is original, unpublished, independent work by the author, Kara Archibald vii Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary .................................................................................................................................. v Preface............................................................................................................................................ vi Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... vii Land Acknowledgements............................................................................................................. viii Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Why Indigenous Perspectives Matter ............................................................................................. 7 Terminology and Uses .................................................................................................................. 16 Homer – Formulaic Orality ........................................................................................................... 24 Oral Poet of Complex Narratives ......................................................................................... 24 Nestor, the Wise Elder/Warrior ........................................................................................... 31 The Odyssey’s Penelope ...................................................................................................... 36 Herodotus – Investigative Orality ................................................................................................. 46 A Man of Narrative Wisdom ............................................................................................... 51 Getting Back to His Roots: Homeric Storytelling ............................................................... 54 Adaptive Narrative ............................................................................................................... 58 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 62 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 65 Land Acknowledgements This thesis was first developed at the University of British Columbia, which is located on the traditional, ancestral, and unceded homelands of the hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓-speaking xʷməθkʷəy̓əm (Musqueam) people. It was continued in Southern Ontario, the traditional territory of the Anishinaabek, Haudenosaunee, Lūnaapéewak and Attawandaron peoples. ix wâciye Hello, in the language of the Moose Cree. Miigwech Thank you 1 Introduction Understanding and re-learning oral history is a process that does not have clear guidelines. In order to attempt to decolonize, or rather Indigenize, the mind, there are aspects of internal learning that need to be addressed, acknowledged, and modified. As a student of a colonized academia, it is difficult to un-learn certain aspects of classical literature and theory because there are few avenues that I can follow. Therefore, it is important to recognize that while this project explores ancient texts through an Indigenous perspective, it is a process of continuous un-learning and re-learning certain analytical practices.1 A process of un-learning to the point that the argument or desired outcome may not be reflected in the conclusion, or have a satisfactory, linear sense of closure. Within academia itself, especially in the last couple of decades or so, the concept of decolonizing has grown in popularity. Authors like Ahenakew (2016), Henhawk (2013), Smith (2017), Heath (2017), Anderson (2001), and many other Indigenous scholars have been working towards highlighting the importance of decolonization. Ahenakew states that there is the need for a form of engagement that is not afraid of “difficulties, complexities, impossibilities, and the limits of thinking,” something that is a distinctly Indigenous way of thinking and pushing the boundaries of what is accepted academically.2 However, despite so many Indigenous authors fighting for new methodologies or at least the reestablishment of old, Indigenous ones, there is still a desire to find one method to decolonize which academics can follow that requires the least 1 Judy Iseke, "Cultural Mirrors Made of Papier Mache: Challenging Misrepresentations of Indigenous Knowledges in Education Through Media.” Alberta Journal of Educational Research 55, no. 3 (2009): 366, https://iportal.usask.ca/record/53462. Iseke proposes challenging personal and cultural biases within the academic field, which may help in Indigenizing approaches to teaching and experiencing Classics. 2 Cash Ahenakew, “Grafting Indigenous Ways of Knowing Onto Non-Indigenous Ways of Being.” International Review of Qualitative Research 9, no. 3 (2016): 324, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26372211. 2 amount of effort. The act of inclusion and integration of Indigenous knowledges then are used only under the dominant norms and population, which, as a result, determines what can be said and how.3 Such determinations often result in a desire to get to the centre, to find the truth, of any matter worth investigating under strict and limiting methodologies. It can set a precedent that there is only one conclusion or truth, when in reality, historical truth is subjective and often individualized, which makes for a very frustrated colonial mind.4 Therefore, as a way to push against a colonial narrative and dominant norms, this project refrains from using the term or concept of ‘decolonization.’ Since becoming a buzzword that often has this connotation of a complete stripping of any and all colonial ideas, it is counter-productive to engage in a discussion of its function within an Indigenous perspective. As such, it may be more encouraging to say ‘Indigenize,’ as it suggests a more inclusive approach to re-learning academic knowledges rather than being reductive. My supervisor, Franco De Angelis, suggested finding out whether my approach to this project was etic or emic, with regard to the perspective I was choosing. To best answer this type of feedback, I refer to Robin Wall Kimmerer, author of Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants. Such distinctions in perspectives are often based on colonial determinations of how to approach nature, society, and life in general. One story that Wall Kimmerer shares is her journey to university for botany. She was curious to know why Asters and Goldenrod flowers grew together in nature, wondering if their colours, shape, and general beauty affected the way they grew. Her professor told her that “it’s not science” to know the beauty of plants, or even 3 Ahenakew, “Grafting Indigenous Ways,” 324. 4 Daniel Henhawk’s article highlights the same frustration but from an Indigenous perspective, stating that to maintain a certain image or literary style for a Western audience is equally frustrating and often difficult to overcome (Daniel A. Henhawk, “My Critical Awakening: A Process of Struggles and Decolonizing Hope.” International Review of Qualitative Research 6, no. 4 (2013): 515-516, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/irqr.2013.6.4.510). 3 have the desire to learn about that beauty. Instead, just the concrete, scientific facts were all that mattered. Her truth, belief, and cultural connection had been broken, as she was forced to accept the “truth” of science and disregard her need for beauty as well.5 Therefore, by organizing or labelling my project as either etic or emic would be following the same structures that may take away from what I aim to accomplish. It is not the goal to be right or provide a concrete answer for my project, but rather to encourage a conversation within Classics that moves away from restrictive norms when it comes to creating a project like this.6 Therefore, in some aspects of my approach in exploring Homer and Herodotus, there may be etic and emic perspectives, as they can often work together and influence each other in analyses of ancient cultures and ideas. In this project, I explore the importance of oral history, and how orality, mythology, and narrative are just as important as science and ‘proof,’ especially within academia, which is a social and often communal space.7 To reiterate, this project is to highlight the fact that it is a process of re-learning how to read these texts and how to better understand them through an Indigenized perspective. Two of the main authors that are examined are Homer and Herodotus for their different representations of orality. Homer, the oral poet, represents a compositional or formulaic orality, and Herodotus, the historian, represents a historical or investigative orality. It is for simplicity’s sake that these two authors are being examined for their types of orality. However, the concept of oral history is 5 Robin Wall Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants, (Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions, 2013), 41. 6 Soenke Biermann, “Chapter Twenty-Four: Knowledge, Power, and Decolonization: Implication for Non-Indigenous Scholars, Researchers, and Educators.” Counterpoints 379 (2011): 396, http://www.jstor.com/stable/42980909. Biermann expresses a similar desire for the start of ongoing discussions, rather than one-off solutions: “Importantly, this is not about developing a neat linear progression, but an open-ended, messy, and unpredictable process determined by the crucial principle of respectful, equal dialogue.” 7 Or at least, should be. 4 complicated and does not have a clear-cut answer. Despite many attempts to make it so or find a single ‘truth,’ there is always some new idea that brings up the complexity of history. The primary discussion is based on Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, and Herodotus’ Histories. In the section on Homer, selections of the Iliad and the Odyssey are used to highlight the use of narrative, how the layered concept of voice from the characters to the narrator establishes a complexity in oral history. Since Homer was an oral poet, the extensive knowledge and memory that he had to commit in his mind demonstrates the importance of oral communication.8 However, there are issues with composition and chronology. Powell states that the dating of Homer’s text is still debated, which makes it difficult to know if Homer came before writing, or if the Greek alphabet was already in circulation by the time Homer composed his works.9 In the section on Herodotus, his narrative relies on the memory and communication of others to create his work, the difference being his ability and skills to record such oral histories.10 The way he goes about presenting this information is interesting for three reasons. First, Herodotus is investigating the past, having a desire to understand the cause of the Persian Wars, and so he may have had an open mind about his approach to such inquiries. Second, Herodotus does not restrict himself to a certain narrative style. Instead, he creates a work that can be orally discussed and heard, thus continuing a tradition of oral history. Third, his perspective provides a more international view of the ancient world, while offering his own personal opinions.11 8 In this case, Homer is just one individual who produced the story. Barry B. Powell, Homer. (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 22. 9 See Powell 2004 for further reading. 10 Greek written language was much more developed by the time Herodotus was writing, which allows for the expansion of ideas and exploration of other cultures. 11 As the kids would say now, “he adds a little spice.” 5 To further Indigenize the perspective of ancient texts, I include aspects of Indigenous culture and knowledge as a guide to examine certain elements of ancient orality. In Homer specifically, there is a formulaic orality, meaning that the epic is composed of metre and rhythm in order to be remembered. Similarly, certain Indigenous people use the heartbeat as a method to remember songs and lessons. The drumbeat is likened to the heart since the pulse provides a natural and connective rhythm. In my own culture, the powwow is a sacred ceremony that is led by drummers and singers who use certain drumbeats to tell stories.12 These songs can be formulaic in their repetition, their "lines" and "verses". There are no recorded words to use or read as it was all orally taught and experienced. However, due to the deliberate disconnection of our culture, a lot of that knowledge is gone, and replaced with words that are used to teach the structure but often lack the full, spiritual meaning behind them. Knowing and remembering is the core of oral history, and the lack of that knowledge is the price paid for a culture centred on the written language. By examining these texts, and highlighting how oral history interacts with culture, both written and heard, it is my goal to see whether it is possible to re-learn aspects of the text from a new perspective. Is it possible to read Herodotus with an Indigenized perspective, allowing for certain ideas of a colonial mind to be reset and offer a new interpretation?13 Can Homer be understood more effectively by accepting that there is likely never going to be a straightforward answer to the ‘Homeric Question’? It is not the goal to critique current or past literature on the 12 Celeste Pedri-Spade, "The Drum Is Your Document." International Review of Qualitative Research - Special Issue: Indigenous Knowledges: Reclaiming Space in Contemporary Research 9 (4), 2016). Iain Rohahes Phillips, “Native Drums: Culture,” 2005. https://native-drums.ca/en/about-drumming/culture/. “The Meaningful Teachings of the Drum,” Powwow Times, May 10, 2020. https://powwowtimes.ca/the-meaningful-teachings-of-the-drum/. 13 Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. (Third Edition. London: Bloomsbury, 2021). 6 texts themselves, but rather to offer another alternative that works towards adding perspective that could alleviate some frustration about the verifiability of authors like Homer and Herodotus. 7 Why Indigenous Perspectives Matter have to know when and where to use Indigenous literature and style and when and where to use the Western canon and style to build legitimacy and credibility for indigenous thought and experience14 I am an Indigenous woman. I am part of the Moose Cree First Nations Band in Northern Ontario. The official reserve is Moose Factory 68, but the traditional lands encompass approximately 169 square kilometres from the western coast of James Bay to Kapuskasing. I am also colonized, by my paternal British family, by Canadian settler society, and by my education. I have to actively be aware of myself and reflect in the ways I process information, present said information, and in the end, start the self-reflection process all over again. The way I have been taught my entire life has been through a colonial structure – what is right according to a specific Eurocentric guideline, socially, politically, and academically.15 In the attempts to Indigenize my own education and knowledge, I have realized that it is an extremely complicated process, and that it often leaves me struggling in ways that make me feel less productive. The reason that Indigenization is a complicated process is because there is no one way or method to define it and make it actionable.16 Henhawk provides a description of decolonization, which is based on his own interpretation: 14 Ahenakew, “Grafting Indigenous Ways,” 326. Verse of a poem from within the article – the poem has no punctuation and is structured to break the article to be less cohesive and push the boundary of what is considered “academic.” 15 Kerstin Knopf, “The Turn Towards the Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices in the Academy.” Amerikastudien/American Studies 60, no. 2/3 (2015): 182, https://www.jstor.org/stable/44071904. 16 Gail Baikie, "Indigenist and Decolonizing Memory Work Research Method." (Journal of Indigenous Social Development 9, 1, 2020), 43-44, https://ucalgary.ca/journals/jisd. Baikie provides an Inuit perspective to her work to decolonize methodologies within academia, particularly with social work. She explains that there are few academic sources for her to base her work on, and so must reach out to her community and Elders to fill in the gaps that academia is missing. 8 Decolonization research does not constitute a single agree-upon set of guidelines or methods… Decolonizing research does not have a common definition… Decolonizing research is defined by certain themes and defining elements and concepts that arise when researchers engage in what they describe as decolonizing research versus research that studies coloniality or postcoloniality (Swadener & Mutua, 2008, p.33).17 As such, the way he organized the structure of his article goes against academic structure. In his section “Praxis,” Henhawk presents a sort of conversation with two versions of himself, the “colonized self” and the “decolonizing self.” It brings the reader into the mind of someone processing information as they receive it. As someone still learning to Indigenize my own thinking, it was a hard article to wrap my head around, but the intelligence embedded in the work, as well as the emotional influence, showed just how difficult and unnerving it can be to actively unlearn colonial practices and methodologies. Often, there is a sense of competitive individualism that is taught and engrained into young people, which ends up becoming this “failure is not an option” kind of thinking. The consequences of this type of teaching and learning strain the type of knowledge that many young people want to have, which is often met with deterrents and pressure to “focus” work into something that is socially acceptable and productive. Economically productive. How my work and I can become marketable. As such, the struggle between what I want to accomplish and what I am allowed to accomplish within this thesis are at odds. Many of the Indigenous authors I have read for this research try to break down that barrier between what is accepted and what is interpretative. To put it plainly, my goal is to provide an Indigenous perspective in the ways that ancient texts like Homer and Herodotus can be read and interpreted. It has been difficult to find any 17 Henhawk, “My Critical Awakening,” 521. 9 scholarly resources that provide support or information about how to approach this type of project, which means that my work is among a few that are trailblazing this concept within the discipline of Classics. It is a daunting experience, and that is why I have struggled with it in general. Not only do I have to come to terms about my own position as both an Indigenous and colonized individual, but I have to reorient myself as to why I am doing it in the first place. Of course, there are Indigenous scholars within academia who are tackling, and have been tackling, decolonization and its complexities for the last couple of decades. Kim Anderson, author of A Recognition of Being: Reconstructing Native Womanhood, published her book in 2000 and discussed her desire and need to provide Indigenous literature in order to connect with other Indigenous women across Canada. She conducted her research for three years (1996-1999), interviewing women between the ages of twenty-eight and seventy-five.18 Her journey began much earlier than my own, and yet her voice is not heard as loudly as it should. Without the opportunity to hear voices like hers, applying an Indigenous perspective to Classics is a part of modern academia that few have looked at closely. Craig Williams, thankfully, is a scholar who does work with an Indigenous perspective within Classics. In a lecture by Williams, entitled “Whose Antiquity? Ancient Greece and Rome in Native American Autobiography,” presented at the Morphomata Lectures Cologne at the Morphomata International Centre for Advanced Studies in 2020, he specifically researched the literacy of Indigenous peoples and their use of the language, mythologies, literatures, and histories of ancient Greece and Rome.19 His research is based on how Indigenous people, both past and 18 Kim Anderson, A Recognition of Being: Reconstructing Native Womanhood (Toronto: Second Story Press, 2000), 47-48. 19 Craig Williams, “Whose Antiquity? Ancient Greece and Rome in Native American Autobiography,” May 4th, 2020, Morphomata Lectures Cologne at the Morphomata International Centre for Advanced Studies, Zoom, 46:00, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JTG5REBbTyI&ab_channel=UniversitaetzuKoeln 10 present, use aspects of ancient Greece and Rome to make connections within their literature. Williams references authors like Sherman Alexie and Louise Erdrich for their seemingly casual use of ancient Greek and Roman ideas.20 In contrast, however, my research is an attempt to Indigenize the way ancient texts can be interpreted and received, instead of finding areas where Indigenous peoples have assimilated, or at least made the effort to be accepting of other cultures, in order to fit into a colonial standard.21 The automatic ideation of the battle of Troy being led by Brad Pitt and Eric Bana types (a.k.a. white), or Herodotus being the first Historian and thus a comrade to enlightened thinkers, is challenged.22 Breaking down Classical literature to its foundations, then, is a huge undertaking, especially since colonization is a structural concept and not an event, as most people outside of academia often believe.23 Due to the assumptions and stereotypes that surround the discipline of Classics, some may believe it is impossible to approach the subject with an Indigenized mind.24 20 Dawn Dumont, “The Way of the Sword.” In Read, Listen, Tell: Indigenous Stories from Turtle Island, edited by Sophie McCall, Deanna Reader, David Gaertner, and Gabrielle L’Hirondelle Hill (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2017), 14-29. Dumont does something similar as the authors that Williams’ references. She tells the story of her comic book hero, Conan the Barbarian, citing his origins to the Cimmerian people (although fictionalized for the purposes of the comic series). She makes a parallel between Native people and Conan: “Part of the reason we loved Conan was we believe he was Native. The story of Conan mirrored the story of Native people. Conan was a descendent of the Cimmerians, a noble warrior people who made swords yet lived peaceably. They were attacked and annihilated by an imperial army who murdered the men and women and enslaved the children” (Dumont 16). 21 Franco De Angelis, “From the British Museum to British Columbia: Settler and Indigenous Classicism” (presentation, Classical Association of Canada, Halifax, Nova Scotia, May 2023). De Angelis does something similar in his lecture about the Haida Nation in BC. He presented examples of Indigenous people putting forward their interpretations of European culture in order to welcome them to Canada. The most intriguing example was that Haida people recreated Doric fluting, having adopted it from the “neoclassical architecture encountered by the Haida on their visits to Victoria” (10). This attempt to connect culturally is an Indigenized way of interpreting the past. In the case of De Angelis’ presentation, it is based on how European and Classical influences presented themselves in Indigenous culture. 22 Troy, directed by Wolfgang Petersen (Malta, Mexico, 2004), Netflix. 23 Biermann, “Knowledge, Power, and Decolonization,” 389. The distinction of colonization as an ongoing construct rather than an event is highlighted most with the term “post-colonial.” Smith puts it quite succinctly: “Did they leave?” in reference to colonizers and their ideals of social structure. M.I. Finley, The World of Odysseus (New York: New York Review Books, 2002), 7. Finley states that the human mind plays tricks with time, especially when considering the ancient past: “centuries become years, and millennia as decades” (7). 24 I had a conversation with a woman about this project, who wishes to remain anonymous, who had not known what Classics was exactly, assumed that because of the “high-brow” nature of the discipline, it was for a certain type of person only. In her words, “older, white, European men” (Anonymous, September 20th, 2023). Overall, she 11 Scholars like Craig Williams help to make those first steps, but “how does one resist and turn their back on things they’ve believed their whole lives?”25 The realization hit me while reading Daniel Henhawk’s article: there is a difference between knowledge and research, and I have a contempt for specific types of research.26 I thrive when learning about new things and analyzing different forms of information, but the reductive style of Western academic structures that often represent colonial systems makes it hard to value each and every part of learning.27 Linda Tuhiwai Smith explains how the term and concept of “research” can be fairly negative for Indigenous people, and by extension, hinder the path to decolonization: The word itself, ‘research,’ is probably one of the dirtiest words in the Indigenous world’s vocabulary. When mentioned in many Indigenous contexts, it stirs up silence, it conjures up bad memories, it raises a smile that is knowing and distrustful…The ways in which scientific research is implicated in the worst excesses of colonialism remains a powerful remembered history for many of the world’s colonized peoples. It is a history that still offends the deepest sense of our humanity… It appalls us that the West can desire, extract, and claim ownership of our ways of knowing, our imagery, the things we create and produce, and then simultaneously reject the people who created and developed those ideas and seek to deny them further opportunities to be creators of their own culture and own nations.28 expressed that Classics felt inaccessible to someone like her, and for a long time, believe it would never be accessible. Thankfully, after a long discussion, her perception of Classics has changed slightly, and hopefully for the better! 25 Henhawk, “My Critical Awakening,” 513. 26 Ibid., 516. 27 Ibid., 516. 28 Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies, 1. 12 Therefore, coming to terms with my own colonization, I had to work out how I could approach my chosen topic without making it reductive, and without diminishing the information that can be gleaned from the ancient texts. Take, for example, the “Other.” In Classical studies, the ‘Other’ is used to denote anyone other than the Greeks, as is especially highlighted in ancient texts.29 Throughout time, the “Other” has been a commodity in society, in literature, and in culture. Gruen states that “negative images, misrepresentations, and stereotypes,” permitted ancient peoples to “invent” the “Other,” which allowed for the justification of “marginalization, exclusion, and subordination.”30 At first glance, Herodotus’ text appears to highlight the exotic, differing nature of the “Other” in contrast to the Greeks, whether it is Persians, Egyptians, or Scythians. However, as I explain in my section “Herodotus – Investigative Orality,” Herodotus does much more than simply stereotype, or promote marginalization. Even so, Herodotus’ outward appearance of “us versus them” still makes the fascination with the “Other” prevalent. Kim Anderson highlights that when white authors write or speak about Native women, it is often in the attempts to either “consume” the “Other,” or “to be the ‘Other.’”31 By consume, Anderson explains that: The commodification of Others has been so successful because it is offered as a new delight, more intense, more satisfying than normal ways of doing and feeling. Within commodity culture, ethnicity becomes spice, seasoning that can liven up the dull dish that is mainstream white culture.32 29 Erich S. Gruen, Rethinking the Other in Antiquity (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2011), 1- 2. Gruen states, however, that the main approach for his book is to argue that the “Greeks, Romans, and Jews,” were far more mixed, nuanced, and complex than what certain stereotypes present. 30 Gruen, Rethinking the Other, 2. 31 Anderson, A Recognition of Being, 45. 32 Ibid., 44. 13 In today’s terms, cultural appropriation comes to mind, especially when artists and writers do not know the difference between appropriation and appreciation.33 Although it is not a direct parallel, the comparison of how the ancient “Other” is perceived is clear. Historians long to consume as much information about the ancient world as possible, and sometimes the result of that consumption is the limitation of how to interpret it.34 As I have stated previously, in the past few decades there has been more work in understanding the complexities of the ancient world, including the diverse nature of it. William F. McCants’ book Founding Gods, Inventing Nations: Conquest and Culture Myths from Antiquity to Islam (2011), highlights the similarities and outright borrowing of certain mythologies, heroes, and religious beliefs between Greeks and the Ancient Near East.35 Due to colonization (both ancient and modern), however, the idea that ancient Greek and Roman peoples were ethnically diverse and interacted culturally is either rejected or argued against because of the cultural appropriation.36 Previously, the idea of being “knowledgeable,” especially in an academic setting, meant to gain mastery over a specific topic, and not necessarily every aspect of that topic. I was told in a course that as graduate students, we had to become producers of information rather than simply being receivers. While in some respects I can understand this perspective, it sets this arbitrary 33 Many content creators on Tiktok have spoken out about non-Indigenous people claiming certain Indigenous artwork and styles as their own or using sacred rituals and items such as powwows and smudging as a ways to make themselves “feel” Indigenous. 34 The desire to consume as much knowledge makes even the Greeks the consumable ‘Other’ for historians. 35 William F. McCants, "Gift of the Gods: The Origins of Civilization in Ancient Near Eastern and Greek Mythology." In Founding Gods, Inventing Nations: Conquest and Culture Myths from Antiquity to Islam (New York: Princeton University Press, 2011), 10-28. 36 Take, for example, the American appropriation of Greek and Roman culture, particularly in art and architecture. In Nashville, Tennessee, there is an exact replica of the Parthenon in structure. However, is it a commemoration to the sheer building achievement, or is there something else that underlies the need to replicate such a structure, especially when it is not completely historically accurate? Colour was most likely painted on the art to represent the vibrancy of the ancient culture, and yet, when ancient Greek and Roman art are mentioned, it is often under the impression of “whiteness,” due to the lack of colour on the art itself (White at the Museum, Part 3, by Samantha Bee, Full Frontal on TBS, April 3, 2019, video, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TkwUCUwt3Rs&ab_channel=SamanthaBee). 14 limit on what I can achieve through the absorption of knowledge – as if the production of information becomes more important than receiving it and allowing time to process it. Therefore, that is why I initially struggled in conceptualizing my thesis topic – my desire to learn general knowledge differed from what the goal was, and is, about Classical studies.37 In order to conceptualize my own goal, and to still remain active within the Classical discipline, I had to address why I was doing it in the first place. Gail Baikie, in her article about decolonizing methodologies, expresses a similar sentiment, and puts it quite clearly: I must respect knowledge acquired both through observation and experience, [as] well as transmitted orally. I am obliged to critically analyze ideas, to think deeply and to innovate when designing and implementing the research. I am to maintain a view that recognizes holistic interdependent connections, the need for caring relationships, the need for self-reliant individuals who can contribute to the community, and the need to foster good spirit by being welcoming and inclusive. I recognize that the past informs the present and the future and that there are high expectations for sharing.38 I must respect the knowledge that is already well established within Classics, but I must also be critical in ways that add value to that knowledge.39 As such, with the support and guidance from Indigenous authors like Daniel Heath Justice, Robin Wall Kimmerer, Linda Tuhiwai Smith, and Daniel Henhawk, this thesis is the attempt to Indigenize the way ancient texts can be interpreted. A way to find the humanity and all its complexities in Homer’s epics and Herodotus’ Histories is 37 I am in no way speaking harshly or negatively against any of my previous professors. I appreciate all that they have taught me in my life, since they are the ones that guided me to this point. It is mostly through my own self-reflection that I can recognize my own shortcomings in learning – not seeing my struggles and how to regulate them effectively – and hopefully use it to my advantage in this thesis. As Henhawk suggests, there is a blindness to one’s own colonization, and it is a bit shameful and awkward to work around (Henhawk, “My Critical Awakening,” 513-514). 38 Baikie, “Indigenist and Decolonizing Memory,” 44-45. 39 Biermann, “Knowledge, Power, and Decolonization,” 395. When talking about deconstructing pedagogy, it is good to have as a “reminder that analyses of colonialism and imperialism should play a much more prominent part in educational praxis.” Furthermore, Biermann argues that “it is important for non-Indigenous scholars not only to engage with and consider Indigenous theories of decolonization such as those developed by Laenui (2000), but also to articulate, think through, and theorize the process of their own non-Indigenous intellectual decolonization” (395). 15 to highlight that these authors are not Eurocentric, or even European, and thus do not actually fit into this concept of cognitive imperialism, and to demonstrate that these texts are also subject to imperialism due to their appropriation.40 40 Ahenakew, “Grafting Indigenous Ways,” 327. Finley mentions this self-prophesized analogy from the Angles and Saxons in Britain in reference to Greek and Proto-Greek speakers: “they were not Englishmen, but they were to become Englishmen one day” (The World of Odysseus 2002, 8). 16 Terminology and Uses There are four terms that are used in this project, some of which are questioned and challenged, specifically those that are primarily colonial in meaning. The main goal for questioning terminology is to reflect on how colonial values have steered the way in how ancient texts are viewed and consumed. By Indigenizing the approach to ancient texts like Homer’s epics and Herodotus’ Histories, there is room to try to re-learn what the texts convey, both in meaning and historical significance. As such, this section highlights specific terminology to discuss the issues with using them without being overly critical of their meaning, and offering a repurposed or alternative meaning to such terms in order to clarify how they can be used in analysis, and how they are used within this project. First, I would like to call attention to the term “Indigenous.” I have already used it to self-identify as Indigenous, but what does it actually mean? The term can refer to First Nations, Métis and Inuit communities and peoples collectively in North America: the original, or first, peoples of Turtle Island, which is now known as Canada and the USA. Collective does not mean pan-Indigenous or a single homogeneous culture; rather, Indigenous Nations have their own distinctions and are diverse – from their creation stories, languages, ceremonies, and histories.41 However, “Indigenous” can also refer to other cultures and peoples around the world who are Indigenous and may have their own self-identifications.42 Unfortunately, language is complicated, and so even the term “Indigenous” may not be correct because it comes from a colonial way of thinking and categorizing.43 Therefore, when I use the term Indigenous, I am 41 Christine M’Lot and Katya Adamov Ferguson (eds.), “Resurgence: Engaging with Indigenous Narratives and Cultural Expressions In and Beyond the Classroom” (Winnipeg: Portage and Main Press, 2022), 18-19. 42 Patty Krawec, “Nii’kinaaganaa.” In Becoming Kin: An Indigenous Call to Unforgetting the Past and Reimaging Our Future (Minneapolis: Broadleaf Books, 2022), 2-3. 43 Krawec, “Nii’kinaaganaa,” 4-5. 17 specifically referencing my own experiences, my foundational knowledge does not necessarily come from my own Moose Cree First Nation, but from a plethora of other nations from all the places I have been. Some values and histories are shared, while others are vastly different when it comes to community and teachings. Second, as stated in the introduction, instead of using the term “decolonize,” I use the term “Indigenize,” as it provides more space for inclusive thoughts and contribution. It is not the goal, however, to remove all aspects of colonial structures when it comes to analyzing ancient texts, but rather to offer different perspectives that are equally worthy of contribution. To Indigenize is to recognize the validity of Indigenous world views, knowledge, and perspectives, and allowing for a greater space for indigeneity to be expressed.44 In some ways, this approach to un-learning is, itself, a rejection of colonialism; however, the difference is to see how these opposing perspectives can co-exist. As an Indigenous person, I am in between the Western and the Indigenous cultural worlds, and I have to actively re-learn my own colonial biases. Therefore, my approach and exploration of Homer and Herodotus stems from a connection found in the space in-between; I can provide a view from both sides, colonial and Indigenous, the same as Herodotus and Homer to some degree. In order to effectively discuss these texts with an Indigenous approach, I reached out to elders and other members of my separated family and community to find out about my own culture. It is a similar approach to how Herodotus went about his own Histories – an inquiry into a time that is not necessarily my own but affects me still. The stories that I hear and learn from my elders are similar to Homeric structure – the history is mixed and integrated into the very fabric of our culture, something that is known and 44 “A Brief Definition of Decolonization and Indigenization,” Indigenous Corporate Training Inc., last modified March 29, 2017, https://www.ictinc.ca/blog/a-brief-definition-of-decolonization-and-indigenization. 18 felt with each drumbeat and story told. In a discussion about oral composition, Egbert Bakker explains that: writing in our modern sense of composition fictionalizes the speech act, inventing a textual voice that in the written reception of the text has to function as the substitute of the absent author’s actual voice. No such fictionalization occurs on the left-handed side of the scale, and we had better study these conceptionally oral texts not as text but as the speech that led to their existence.45 Acknowledging that these texts were initially thought of and brought about orally, through storytelling and performance, gives me the freedom to explore them without the limitations of Westernized academic structures. Although I am personally still learning about my own culture and attempting to bring in the teachings from Elders and my community, I can still provide a unique perspective to analyze texts like Homer and Herodotus for the quality of storytelling and the significance of their narrative.46 Third, terms such as “primitive” are not constructive in the discussion of ancient texts, or oral history. It is often defined as a person belonging to a “preliterate” or “nonindustrial” society, or the early stage of evolution. But such a definition is based on a value system set up by Western (colonial) society, meaning that other cultures must be measured against that particular culture.47 Furthermore, this definition is formed through an academic perspective, and in the 45 Egbert Bakker, “How Oral is Oral Composition?” In Signs of Orality: The Oral Tradition and Its Influence on the Greek and Roman World, edited by Anne Mackay (Boston: Brill, 1999), 32. 46 The reason why I do not state that I can provide my community’s perspective in my analysis of the ancient texts is due to the fact that the following analysis is based on my own experience as a student of Classics, with outside help and guidance from my community and Elders. Many times, I had to explain what it is I do and what I study because often the members of my Indigenous community do not even recognize what I do, or what Classics is. I specifically state that I can provide a unique perspective because I can internalize what I learn from both sides of my education – academically and spiritually. 47 In a more modern context, particularly in the art world, “primitivism is an attempt, made within the confines of ‘high culture,’ to enjoy the supposed benefits of ‘low’ or alien culture” (Carter Ratcliffe, “On Contemporary Primitivism,” Artforum, Penske Media Corporation, 2023. https://www.artforum.com/features/on-contemporary-primitivism-209634). It still holds this idea of being lesser, and commodified. In an Indigenous perspective, the image of First Nations people in North America, and Indigenous peoples around the world, is stuck in a primitive state. It is often presumed that the culture has been left in the past, and that there are no longer Indigenous people in 19 current climate, is now considered an unnecessary and almost derogatory word to use within the context of analyzing minority cultures. The same, however, cannot be said for the general public outside of academia. Despite the efforts made to be more inclusive and politically correct, there are strong, lasting stereotypes about Indigenous peoples that are hard to break. As I reflect on my childhood and teenage years, I remember moments that made me realize that I was different, that I was part of a culture that was considered lost, or at the very least, disappearing. There was no one like me at my schools, and the one class that was offered for Native Studies consisted of nine students, all of whom had a rather shocking realization that Indigenous peoples still existed in a modern way. Often, people within the general public do not know, or have not been educated on Indigenous affairs in Canada, and thus perpetuate the stereotype of a primitive and long-lost culture. On a class field trip to the Royal Ontario Museum during my undergraduate years, there was an exhibit that encapsulated the antiquated thinking about Indigenous people. In the display, there were mannequins of two Indigenous people dressed in deerskins and moccasins but holding modern items like an iPod and power tools. The blatant juxtaposition of the stereotype represented in that display is what most of the general public thinks about Indigenous peoples.48 Too often do I hear that Indigenous peoples, First Nations peoples, need to “get over” things that happened in the past and to move on from this old way of thinking. Daniel Heath Justice explains: the world. Despite the many efforts over the last decade or so, there is still tension between Indigenous people and non-Indigenous people when it comes to reconciliation. References like, “savage,” or “Indian,” are still used within a context of a perceived “primitive” nature, even though education against such uses are available. 48 And yes, I do mean most. There are people still, to this day, who act as if Indigenous people are an inconvenience for existing, for making noise about things that are not part of “current” problems. An old friend of my mother’s, whom we do not speak to anymore, told my mother to get over her anger and self-righteousness about Residential schools because it was “in the past.” The “past” for this person had the same tone of “past” as one would equate to ancient history, no longer relevant. 20 Settler colonialism isn’t something one gets over; it’s woven into all aspects of our experience, and those strangling threads are too often invisible and all the more wounding as a result.49 And it is exactly why it is important to acknowledge that the word “primitive” needs to be addressed. Indigenous people are often stuck in this stereotype, no matter how loudly or strongly we say otherwise. The idea of “primitive” still lingers in the back of peoples’ minds, and in order to combat this type of thinking, this information needs to be brought outside of academia and become accessible to the general public. By bringing issues like this to light, whether within the context of ancient texts or outside of it, Indigenous authors, me included, are making those threads visible in order to challenge what limits Indigenous and oral voices. By introducing the concept of a society and of knowledge that survived and flourished without Western technology is a strong and progressive way to address the issues with terms like “primitive.” Lyla June, a Diné woman, presented her research at a TEDx talk in 2022, which discussed the ancestral farming techniques of Indigenous peoples in North America.50 Her approach to the subject was to contrast the current, modern farming culture that was introduced by Western colonization, with the generational cultivating techniques by Indigenous peoples. She explained that the clear-cut forests and use of large plots of land for cultivating specific crops destroyed centuries of carefully organized techniques of maintaining nature. Indigenous peoples saw how elements of nature interacted with one another and used that knowledge to their 49 Daniel Heath Justice, Why Indigenous Literatures Matter (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2018), 48. 50 Lyla June 2022, “3000-year-old Solutions to Modern Problems” TEDx Talks, Kansas City. https://www.ted.com/talks/lyla_june_3000_year_old_solutions_to_modern_problems?utm_campaign=tedspread&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=tedcomshare. Lyla June references the Diné specifically in her presentation as well as her dissertation (included in the bibliography under Lyle June Johnston). Jonathan Hall (Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity 1997) uses the term “primordial” and “primeval” in the discussion of ethnic identities of ancient Greek cultural groups. In his introduction, Hall argues that current research (1997) of ethnic identity is categorized as a social group, often distinguished from another by a “myth of shared descent and kinship and by its association with a ‘primordial’ territory” (2). 21 advantage to establish a stable agriculture.51 The framework of this contrast is based on the idea that the colonial perspective saw this sort of organization as “primitive” due to the perceived “wilderness” of North America.52 In reality, as June argued in her research, the cohesiveness that was taught about the relationship with nature allowed for generations of Indigenous peoples to thrive and develop other sophisticated technologies. Lastly, the terms “history” and “truth” are analyzed together for their binary definitions. By modern definitions, history is defined as a “chronological record of significant events often including an explanation of their causes,” and truth is defined as the “quality or state of being true,” or a “true or accepted fact.”53 However, what is considered true or historical can be subjective in different cultures which makes it complicated to have “one” truth.54 For example, king lists in Achaemenid Persia were often reorganized to create new timelines and establish the legitimacy of a new king, defined by their ancestry and connections to divine figures. Darius I’s claim to the Persian throne led to the reorganization and change to his own lineage, providing a different chronological record of events that allowed him to appear legitimate. Such changes can be seen from other existing king lists before and after Darius I, which shows that a “true, historical event” may be in fact a culturally based narrative, rather than a more scientific and unchangeable truth.55 51 Lyla June Johnston, "Architects of Abundance: Indigenous Regenerative Food and Land Management Systems and the Excavation of Hidden History" (PhD diss., University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 2022), 16, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. 52 Wild = uncivilized. 53 Oxford English Dictionary. 54 Eric H. Cline & Mark W. Graham, "Chapter 4: Beyond the Near East: The Neo-Babylonian and Early Achaemenid Empires." In Ancient Empires From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 80-102. 55 Whether this was true for the average citizen or denizen of the Persian Empire is another matter entirely. It can be presumed that some groups or individuals expressed distaste for the change and misleading information. In the case of Darius I, his truth was righting a wrong that had been made, adjusting the present view of the past to adhere to a version that suited his own goals, but also persuaded the general public. 22 And so, by this modern standard, much of Homer’s epics and Herodotus’ work are not considered historical, since their contents go against the ideal of colonial, Eurocentric structures, which is often one-sided and very limiting. Therefore, this project acknowledges that these terms are complicated. In a society that loves labels and categorization, there is really no alternative definition that could encapsulate the meaning of history or truth without a colonial understanding. In order to Indigenize the strictness of such colonial understandings, such terms are stretched a bit beyond what has been conventionally accepted thus far. Instead of thinking of history as this fixed record of events, it seems prevalent to interpret it as an active thing, something that is occurring simultaneously with our present. Living memory through the cultures that reflect and interpret the past are there to help the present and prepare for the future.56 It is similar to the structure that both Homer and Herodotus present, aspects of the past are repeated in the present, but still remain integrated in the general understanding of society.57 This is done by communicating through storytelling, which is the primary means for engagement socially.58 It means to change the way “history” and “truth” are seen and understood since they are subjective at their core. My history is different from someone else’s, even if we have experienced the same events over and over. My truth is different from others because what I believe in and how I choose to learn and re-learn aspects of the cultures around me will affect my own understanding 56 Although it seems a bit vague, the concept of time is discussed a bit further as well, as both Homer and Herodotus often jump back and forth in time. It may seem chaotic, and honestly, it is because the concept of a linear timeline was introduced by colonial mindsets in order to organize the natural world – a domination over chaos and disorder. It is like the ultimate sense of control, without actually being able to control it fully. 57 M.I. Finley, The Use and Abuse of History (London: Chatto & Windus, 1975), 13. “Without myth, indeed, [Greek Historians] could never have begun their work. The past is an intractable, incomprehensible mass of uncounted and uncountable data. It can be rendered intelligible only if some selection is made, around some focus or foci.” 58 Sophie McCall, Deanna Reder, David Gaertner, and Gabrielle L'Hirondelle-Hill, "Centring Indigenous Intellectual Traditions: Introducing Read, Listen, Tell." In Read, Listen, Tell: Indigenous Stories from Turtle Island (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2017), 13. 23 of what “truth” is. Quite philosophical, indeed, but it allows the chance to interpret the world differently, Indigenously.59 59 This is primarily based within literature, and again, it is not the reduction or replacement of colonial developments, but rather the addition of other perspectives that can be used. Other disciplines, like maths or sciences, are not necessarily the targets of this type of Indigenization but could potentially benefit from it as it becomes more popular and widely used. 24 Homer – Formulaic Orality First, I would like to state that I am aware of the oral-formulaic composition theory by Parry and Lord. However, my chosen heading “Formulaic Orality” extends beyond the elements that the theory presents.60 While the theory discusses the use of “stock” lines and the repetition of those lines in order to remember large sequences, my perspective of formulaic orality is based on the flow of the text, and how certain epithets can change and fluctuate, depending on the singer, poet, or translator.61 I explore this with examples from Indigenous nations that I have interacted with and have personal experiences with – Cree, Ojibwe, Mi’kmaq, and Chippewa – specifically the use of drums and the songs that accompany them.62 The formulaic aspect of song and story are rooted in the body, ensuring a connection that stems from singer/author to the audience, similar to how dactylic (finger) hexameter is used: the driving, marching beat that keeps the sound and movement of the story going. Therefore, instead of looking at the text for an appointed rigid structure, I want the reader to experience the song as a song, as something beyond the categories and limitations placed upon it. Oral Poet of Complex Narratives From the available scholarship, it seems that there are two main ideas concerning Homer, specifically whether or not he represents history. Some, like François Hartog (2000), do not believe that the Homeric epics are history, while others, like T.J. Luce (1997), suggest that 60 Bakker, “How Oral is Oral Composition?” 35. Bakker argues against the criterion of Lord and Parry, stating that the inflexible position of ‘oral must be orally composed’ is “anachronistic and ill-taken.” In a similar case for this thesis then, I focus more on what I can experience from the texts themselves, guided by the fluidity and flexibility Indigenous authors and storytellers provide. 61 In particular, descriptions associated with Nestor, and Penelope, both of which include “wise.” 62 From my experience, I have learned about powwows, drum circles, and song from Cree, Chippewas of Nawash, Anishinaabe, Musqueam, Mi’kmaq, and Métis people. 25 Homer, at one point, was history.63 Given the ambiguity and mystery of Homer, it makes sense that there will be differing ideas about the epics and their author. However, it is clear that “history” is complicated, as the interpretation of Homer is highly dependent on the reader or analyst, and what they are trying to get out of the text. What history meant for someone like Homer would differ from both Hartog and Luce because of the way society changes over time, and what values are considered important. For example, Irad Malkin stated that it is “sobering to remember that some of the Near Eastern civilizations were as old relative to the Greeks as the Greeks are to us.”64 So, not only are modern historians dealing with ancient texts and their own biases, but texts like Homer are more than likely influenced by cultures and social structures previous to them. As such, when discussing history and the inevitable search for “truth,” it must be understood that a specific type of history is being researched, and a different version of the “truth” is being presented: neither of them can be interpreted as “general” history or knowledge. A modern-day truth, by 2024 standards, would require the utmost care in research and refinement of sources in order to remain objective and present the facts just as they are.65 But since this project is dealing with texts that were considered “pre-history,” or the very beginning of what is considered history now, nothing is clear-cut or obvious when it comes to interpreting the texts. First, it is my opinion that the written versions of the epics, the Iliad, and the Odyssey, which have survived, are from one author – namely Homer. However, the contribution to the stories overall, which led to the creation of the lasting version we have now, are from possibly 63 Finley states that “if a Greek owned any books – that is, papyrus rolls – he was almost likely to own the Iliad and Odyssey as anything from the rest of Greek literature” (The World of Odysseus, 12). 64 Irad Malkin, "Postcolonial Concepts and Ancient Greece Colonization," (Modern Language Quarterly 65 (3), 2004), 346. 65 Beverley Southgate, "What was history? The past as it was." In History: What and Why? (London: Routledge, 1996), 13. 26 numerous other poets. The very nature of oral poetry and oral history suggests the passing of narratives from poet to poet, or from community to community.66 Such examples can be seen in sections of text that seem out of place, like the Doloneia in Iliad 10, which has been argued to be a much later addition to the story than the rest of the text.67 What ends up happening is that poets were most likely adding their own spin on the epics in order to facilitate changes in audience participation and behaviours, which was then subsequently adopted by the next poet.68 This position, then, highlights the complexity of the text themselves, not only from the point of view of later historians studying them, but also that the creation and standardization of the alphabet only manages to capture part of the complexity of the narrative from oral stories into text. Furthermore, since the authorship of the texts is a mystery, specifically the debate of Homer as an individual, it makes studying this type of history all the more intriguing and frustrating. G. S. Kirk explains that [much] of the Iliad is obviously historicizing in content. How far legend has exaggerated and distorted history is irrelevant – there is certainly a great deal of exaggeration, but even those least confident in the existence of a ‘Trojan War’ concede that some 66 Andrew Dalby, Rediscovering Homer: Inside the Origins of the Epic (New York: W&W Norton Company, 2006), xiv. Dalby argues that there is no possible way that the text we have now is from Homer, specifically because narratives in oral tradition are “created anew every time they are performed.” To that, I agree, but he also states that the earliest written sources “dating from about 500 to 300 BCE,” state that “Homeros” was a Greek singer of the distant past who composed the epics, along with many other, now lost, poems. Therefore, it can be argued, as I have stated above, that Homer, or at least the title, was among the last of the composers to commit the epics to writing, especially the version we have today. 67 Benjamin Sammons, “Brothers in the Night: Agamemnon & Menelaus in Book 10 of the Iliad,” (The Classical Bulletin, 2009), 27. The main argument in Sammons articles is that Homer’s Iliad 10 was a much later addition to the overall story, with the shift in narrative style and tone within the story going from heroic, battlefield type imaginings to deceptive and sneaky ploys. 68 François Hartog, “The Invention of History: The Pre-history of a Concept from Homer to Herodotus," (History and Theory, 2000), 392. Hartog argues that Homer’s epics are not history because the epics end in a “completely different world” (389). However, later, Hartog explains that in the Odyssey, Demodocus sings songs about Odysseus and the Trojan War. He states: “the epic separates past and present through simple juxtaposition. As soon as the bard, any bard, beings to sing, the caesura divides: the klea andrôn, the great deeds of heroes, are transformed into acts performed by men of yore and the dead become men of the past… As with Odysseus, the poem also experiences time and discovers historicity” (392, first italics mine). In comparison to Herodotus’ process, which is more along the lines of a historian, focusses more on the deeds of men rather than bards’ “area of expertise” of covering the deeds of heroes and gods (394). 27 attack took place, and that some Achaeans were among the attackers. The point is that the story is based on some kind of memory of the past, and that its progress is described in largely realistic terms.69 The complex, yet beautiful narrative that is available does not adhere to the specific rules that modern scholarship and conformity have made, which makes the epics difficult to place categorically and chronologically within the sphere of history.70 In her discussion of the “West,” Smith explains that modern research contributed to systems of classification, representation, and evaluation, specifying that some knowledges contain certain “rules” which “help make sense of what is contained within the archive and enable knowledge to be recognized.” These “rules” are the creation of dominant “knowledges” which tend to be “articulated through implicit understandings of how the world works,” specifically a colonized world. So, whereas modern scholarship and storytelling like to have a beginning, a middle, and an end, an oral story that was conveyed multiple times, through multiple voices to different audiences would not have that type of structure, especially if each segment of story was part of a bigger picture. That type of storytelling then provides a stronger, more inclusive cultural and connective memory. As such, Homer’s epics convey the magical part of a particular past. Based on the approximate composition dates (1100-700 BCE), the stories that Homer presents in the text stem from a dark time where technology (in the eyes of modern historians) was lacking. The literacy of the Greek world was in shambles and required a reboot. In order to maintain a historical past, or series of events, it was most likely the goal of oral poets to weave together stories that would be memorable to hear and serve as inspiration to learn. Thankfully, song is something that can be 69 G.S. Kirk, Myth: Its Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 32. 70 Smith, Decolonization Methodologies, 50. Kirk, Myth, 34. Kirk also states that it would be “wrong” to treat the Homeric epics just as legends, let alone exclude them from the “consideration of myth as a whole” (34). Their treatment depends on the open-mindedness of storytellers and knowledge keepers to keep the narratives alive. 28 passed down from one person to the next without the need for writing.71 As for the truth or accuracy of such songs, it was very much dependent on the continued belief in the gods, and the natural order of things to make the song successful. In both the epic texts, Homer (and any possible poet before him) reference the Muse (Iliad l. 7; Odyssey l. 1), reflecting back on a part of their own past that permits them to use their memory to create the song.72 In a similar fashion, Indigenous peoples use the heartbeat of both humans and Mother Earth to guide their songs and drumbeats. In Indigenous ceremonies, often in recognition and appreciation of kinship and community, a commonality is the spoken tradition of repeated stanzas of thanks.73 This means naming particular classes of being – “trees, medicine plants, food plants, animals, birds, the sun and the moon, the stars, the thunders, and so on” – and creating a connection between everyone involved.74 It goes beyond simply recording events. It suggests that the memory of those events are being actively engaged with, that the new audience is contributing to the continued maintenance of history. Homeric composition does something similar by having repeated epithets and phrases to keep the story connected, albeit without specific relationships beyond the heroes and other characters.75 71 Not to disregard non-musical narratives, which can also be passed down from person to person without the need for writing. It could be argued that while the epic poems were more than likely sung, some poets may have just spoke to them like a regular story, which is where we might see more examples of sections not matching one another or see slight shifts in metre and patterns that are not as consistent. 72 Barbara Graziosi, “The Poet in the Iliad,” In The Author's Voice in Classical and Late Antiquity, edited by Anna Marmodoro, and Jonathan Hill (Oxford, Oxford Academic, 2013), 14. Graziosi argues that the Muses represent a distinct difference between author and narrator of the epics, namely that their presence is both present and past, time condensed together to simultaneous. As she notes in her article, the verb tenses in the epics, aorist and imperfect, reflect a narration of the past because there was no historical present invented yet, which allows for an interesting perspective on how time and space are perceived by ancient and modern audiences. 73 Justice, “Why Indigenous Literatures Matter,” 88. 74 Ibid., 88. 75 Bakker argues that the composition of written text is not dependent on the use of repetition, therefore does not necessarily need to maintain the repetitive style of oral composition (Bakker, “How Oral,” 36). 29 There is also the issue of translation and how the ancient Greek can be interpreted over the course of a thousand years. One major issue stems from the very prospect of translation, where different languages affect the understanding of what is considered true and historical for one culture.76 The meaning of truth in one culture can be different in another, which means, what was considered true and historical is now a step out of alignment from the original culture and language. Rupert Ross explains in his book Indigenous Healing: Exploring Traditional Paths, that relationships and knowledge need to be experienced, not just thought about. He mainly focusses on Ojibway and Cree cultures for their knowledge about relations between one another, and the truth that is embedded in the nature surrounding the people. He presents an example of a skeptical man participating in a traditional Anishinaabe cross-cultural program, where the man experienced something that defied his sense of logical and reason. The experience is as Ross describes it: During the sweat lodge [ceremony], however, something happened that changed his life. At one point, as he sat in total darkness, the “sky” inside the lodge turned a beautiful blue. Spiralling out of it and coming toward him was a brilliant red speck that, as it got closer, turned into a large eagle-like bird. It came right at him, face to face, and knocked him onto his back. He lay there for what felt like a long time, wondering what had just happened to him… Still mystified the next day, he approached the keeper of the sweat lodge and described what had happened to him the night before. The next part is the main reason I included this example: The keeper listened closely and then smiled, telling not to worry. The red bird meant that he had aboriginal blood, and the bird had appeared as his protector. The keeper then carried on with his regular duties of the day, as thought nothing unusual had happened.77 76 Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Truth: A History and A Guide for the Perplexed (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 1997), 6-7. 77 Rupert Ross, Indigenous Healing: Exploring Traditional Paths (Toronto: Penguin Books, 2014), 67. Ross uses some antiquated vocabulary when it comes to describing Indigenous peoples, particularly the use of “aboriginal,” which is not widely used in Canada now. 30 Although this example is not of an old text or translation in the sense of written work, it is an example of translation being understood by the Anishinaabek keeper. The man experienced something that was illogical to his own mind and experiences, which then pushed the boundaries of what he considered to be true. Later, he discovered that he indeed was Indigenous.78 However, the keeper’s knowledge of the meaning of the bird, and the reason that it appeared to the man was almost common-place, some deeply imbedded truth that is usually dismissed by colonized minds.79 Therefore, the concept of truth and history can change and has been changed. As the values and perspectives of society change and move forward, the significance of oral history and the perception of truth is that much more displaced. As a consequence, cultural stories, both ancient Greek and Indigenous, became less historical because of their mythical foundations and branching off from “logic” and “reason.” What was considered true was less based on the mythical notions of gods and heroes, as we see with Herodotus and the way he separated himself (mostly) from the mythical and was based more on objective ideas of what history ought to look like. It created the distinction between false and true, even if it was to the detriment of cultural memory. Therefore, instead of giving into the temptation of assuming that these ancient stories are fiction, we can Indigenize the way we interpret the ancient texts.80 Indigenous writers, and storytellers “often move more fluidly between the personal, the historical, the supernatural, and the theoretical,” very much in ways similar to Homer’s epics.81 The fluidity of speaking of the 78 Ross, Indigenous Healing, 67. 79 Ibid., 68-69. 80 McCall, Sophie, et al, “Read, Listen, Tell,” 2. 81 Ibid, 3. 31 past, present, and the mythical is more of concentration of cultural connection, something that gets lost in translation if analyzed too objectively. Nestor, the Wise Elder/Warrior Therefore, let us take Nestor’s first speech in the Iliad 1.290-333 as a first example of re-learning elements of the narrative. Nestor’s character is introduced as a clear speaker, with a voice “sweeter than honey” (Iliad. ll. 249-250), and older than Achilles and Agamemnon by two generations. Based on this description, Nestor is an elder who embodies wisdom and guidance in stressful situations and should be treated with respect. What is incredibly interesting about his speech is the fact that the narrative gives the audience background information about Nestor, highlighting particularly significant moments where Nestor was seen as a wise and formidable man. The main bulk of his speech starts off with expressing his distaste for the current situation, namely the argument between Achilles and Agamemnon (Homer Iliad ll.303-320) 82: Listen to Nestor. You are both younger than I, and in my time, I struck up with better men than you, even you, but never once did they make light of me. Nestor places the two warriors at a level lower than himself in terms of age and wisdom. It stresses the importance of listening and acknowledging an elder for their voice and their advice in times of turmoil. Since this is supposedly spoken aloud, one can imagine Nestor being active in this scene, using not only his words but also his body to impose himself into a position of power, that of the speaker. He continues: I’ve never seen such men, I never will again… men like Pirithous, Dryas, that fine captain, 82 Homer, The Iliad. Translated by Robert Fagles. (New York: Penguin Classics, 1990). The original Greek text did not have line numbers, and in Fagles’ translation, he does not include the line numbers from the Greek text. 32 Caeneaus83 and Exadius, and Polyphemus, royal prince, and Theseus, Aegeus’ boy, a match for the immortals. This list of men from a time when Nestor was younger highlights the integrated nature of what is deemed mythological by modern standards. Each man mentioned in this list is connected to Theseus, or Thessaly, in some way, usually in the form of fighting and violence. Nestor goes on to explain just how powerful these men were, setting up the heroic standard that modern readers have come to learn. Given how quickly Nestor lists these men, it suggests that the audience must know of their stories, at least to some extent, the poet did and then could be persuaded to recount them on another occasion.84 The oral history that would have to be transmitted through song and stories most likely helped to develop such a long and complex narration. While the urge might be there to assume that one person made this story, it is more likely that the teaching of previous oral poets and storytellers created multiple stories in order to establish foundational and adaptable storylines.85 It allows the audience to orient themselves within the story, and actively participate in learning about Nestor as his own character. As Nestor continues his speech, the narrative creates a clear delineation between Nestor, Agamemnon and Achilles, and the men Nestor was associated with in his youth. They were the strongest mortals ever bred on earth, the strongest, and they fought against the strongest too, shaggy Centaurs, wild brutes of the mountains – they hacked them down, terrible, deadly work. 83 Famously, Caeneus, according to Ovid, was originally a woman but was raped by Poseidon. As a result, she never wanted to be dishonoured and wronged again, so she asked Poseidon to transform her into a man. Her wish was granted, and she became a man. In either case, the fact that Nestor considers Caeneus to be among the greatest and strongest of men in his youth is an incredible acknowledgement of transgender people, sexual violence, and the consequences of that trauma (if not in so many words or understanding of such concepts). 84 Hanna Roisman, “Nestor The Good Counsellor,” (The Classical Quarterly 55 (1), 2005), 18. Roisman raises the issue that Nestor actually exhibits “anachronistic” military advice, and so it is not clear whether or not Nestor is believed for his stories, or even relied upon for his tactic advisory skills. 85 There is also the possibility that the narrator(s) just made up names as they went along, thus providing inspiration for new stories and later mythological histories to carry on the oral traditions. 33 The repetition of the word “strongest,” the adjective κάρτιστοι repeated three times in two lines (Il. l. 266-7), continues this delineation between the different generations of warriors.86 Often, Achilles is described as the greatest of all the Greeks, but in an audience with Nestor, there were once men stronger than him, and who faced enemies stronger than those in their current time (Agamemnon for dishonouring him, and the Trojans to some extent). The fact that Nestor highlights the strength of warriors and enemies alike suggests that Nestor is trying to teach the men a lesson of humility, forcing them to see the frivolous nature of their argument.87 Worthy opponents like “shaggy Centaurs and wild brutes of the mountains” defined the strength of a man, instead of the debate between honour in prizes and kleos. I would like to bring attention to Robert Fagles’ choice to use “shaggy Centaurs” in this particular translation of the text. There is no word for “centaur” or “shaggy” in the original Greek text, simply “beasts” and “mountain-bred,” or “wild.”88 In comparison, Emily Wilson’s translation of this particular line better aligns with the Greek: “they fought the strongest mountain beasts and killed them” (Il. l.357).89 The mention of Pirithous is enough of a connection to the idea of centaurs, at least in Wilson’s translation.90 So, why would Fagles introduce such a change in the text? From an academic perspective, it seems that Fagles is either assuming that Homer was alluding to the specific story of Pirithous, and thus decided to fix it by 86 LSJ S.V. Other possible definitions for this adjective are “mightiest,” “best,” and “most excellent.” 87 Roisman, “Nestor,” 23. Even though Nestor is boasting about his triumphs as a young man, the distinction that Nestor makes between himself in the present and in his youth, suggests that the characterization of Nestor is both a good counsellor and flawed. 88 The Greek is as follows: καρτίστοις ἐμάχοντο φηρσὶν ὀρεσκῴοισι καὶ ἐκπάγλως ἀπόλεσσαν. “They fought the strongest mountain beasts and killed them violently.” 89 Homer, The Odyssey. Translated by Emily Wilson (New York: W.W Norton & Company, 2018). Emily Wilson provides two line numbers, her own and the line numbers associated with the original text. Again, the original text did not have line numbers, and the line numbers are mostly arbitrary, but for the sake of clarity, Wilson provides both. 90 Whether that story would have been known to such an ancient audience is a mystery, but certainly later, after the incorporation of other sources and stories, the centaurs’ presence in the Iliad would make sense (Homer, The Iliad. Translated by Emily Wilson. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2023; note 1.357, page 614). 34 adding in a clear connection; or he is attempting to add later narrative developments into the poems based on his own expertise and scholarly research.91 From an Indigenous perspective, the fluidity and knowledgeable approach to translation that Fagles possesses is not necessarily a detriment to the translation. Even Wilson’s translation, which is a bit more faithful to the Greek, possesses a fluidity and knowledge of the text that is equally important. Both translators are using all their knowledge to provide what they deem accurate and useful to the text and the reader. Indeed, when read in its entirety, the addition or exclusion of “shaggy Centaurs” does not necessarily take away from the original source material. Instead, by acknowledging the “holistic interdependent connections” within the text, and other, later sources, it makes either of these translations useful and approachable for the regular person to read.92 In this case then, it would be worthwhile for a translation like Fagles’ to include a note on why the translation included such a deviation from the original text, and how it best adds to the overall story. Such an inclusion would highlight that the translator is making an active contribution to the narrative, thus keeping the historical and fantastical nature of the story alive. Now, back to the Nestor’s speech. Similarly to how Fagles’ includes elements to place Nestor in time and space in comparison to the immediate audience – namely Agamemnon and Achilles, Nestor’s speech ages himself, specifically by highlighting the shift in societal values from one generation to the next. Only certain aspects from his past can be valued as advice, but his experience allows him to know things, therefore making connections of past and present 91 Antone Minard, “Comments on Version 2,” December 14th, 2023. Thank you to Antone Minard for bringing this to my attention, as it helped bring out more opportunities to Indigenize my own research and critical thinking. 92 Baikie, “Indigenist and Decolonizing Memory,” 44-45. Especially someone who does not have a background in Classics. 35 situations.93 The next set of lines, Nestor places himself within the ranks of those strong men, giving an example of his knowledge and authority of the subject matter: And I was in their ranks, fresh out of Pylos, far away from home – they enlisted me themselves and I fought on my own, a free lance, single-handed. And none of the men who walk the earth these days could battle with those fighters, none, but they, they took to heart my counsels, marked my words. So now you listen too. As the narrative wraps up the information about Nestor’s past, it demonstrates that Nestor was very much an active member of battle, and quite adept in his own right.94 However, Nestor’s experience only highlights the strength and greatness of those he has encountered, whereas he only mentions his own prowess once, and minutely at that. It could be out of modesty, or just Nestor being humble towards his own achievements, but it is significant that he uses the strongest men as an example for his speech. In order to convey meaning and have the two men, Achilles, and Agamemnon, understand what Nestor is saying, he must reach out to them on their level. Two powerful men, one a king, and the “greatest” warrior, there has to be some sort of connection between the past and the present, whether that be physiological, psychological, or something entirely different. Such narrative techniques are then used to make the audience part of the story, part of interpreting the action. Rather than assuming that Nestor’s background is a fanciful and made up story simply because of the mythological aspects of the men he fought with in his youth, it is more productive to acknowledge that history was not as categorized or objective as modern conventions impose. To make the claim that Homer had no sense of history is then an accurate 93 McCall, et. al. “Read, Listen, Tell,” 4-5. 94 Roisman, “Nestor,” 25. 36 statement, since the type of historical thinking that Homer included in his narrative was not based on a linear progression of time.95 It was fluid for a specific reason: it allowed the story to change and adapt as necessary, while continuing to use historical and mythological elements to keep a connection to the past. The Odyssey’s Penelope In the Odyssey, there is more direct interaction with other singers and storytellers, whether this is to highlight the narrator’s ability to remember and perform complex poetry, or if it is simply an experiment or evolution in how oral histories were presented. Comparatively, the Odyssey covers much more than the Iliad, in time and place; the length of Odysseus’ journey home requires much more nuance of the regions of the known world.96 Time, however, is particularly interesting, since the way the narrative unfolds is through flashbacks of events and demonstrates a non-linear way of revealing the plot.97 Time within the story comes together near the last couple of books in the epic, specifically when Odysseus returns home in his disguise. Due to the flexibility of time within the story, the orality of the epic is expressed as a self-reflection for oral poets. In book 1, the narrator draws attention to the song of a bard at the home of Odysseus, placing the importance of the narrator at the inception of the epic. It is also the moment when Penelope is introduced, providing an interesting link between the two. As 95 Powell, Homer, 37. 96 I have chosen ‘nuance’ instead of knowledge due to the nature of the epic. Many of the places Odysseus and his crew visit and land upon are difficult to pinpoint accurately on a map, thus lends to the concept of mythical places and beings. And due to the zig-zag nature of their journey, it might be an indication that more than one poet contributed to the creation of this epic, representing both geographical and temporal zig-zagging in the story. 97 Scott Richardson, "The Devious Narrator of the Odyssey," (The Classical Journal 101 (4), 2006), 338. Richardson, however, focuses on the negative characteristics of the narrator, stating that the narrator misguides the audience and tricks them into a false sense of security. While this interpretation is on point for the theme of the epic, it makes the narrator appear more sinister, and rather than focusing on how much talent and skill it takes to manage such feats of trickery and deceit in a live performance, this perspective brushes past important elements of the plot, which I discuss further in this section. 37 Telemachus and the suitors were listening to the poet, “who sang how Athena cursed the journey of the Greeks as they were sailing home from Troy” (Odyssey. 1.325-328), Penelope is immediately folded into the narrative: Upstairs, Penelope had heard the marvelous song. She clambered down the steep steps of her house, not by herself – two slave girls came with her. She reached the suitors looking like a goddess, then stopped and stood beside a sturdy pillar, holding a gauzy veil before her face. Her slave girls stood, one on each side of her. In tears, she told the holy singer, (Od. 1. 328-336)98 A few striking points: first, the narrator describes the poet’s song as “marvelous,” which would highlight a reflection of self-importance, since having the skills to perform complex and invigorating pieces of work would be commendable, to say the least.99 This idea is highlighted again with “holy singer,” suggesting that the position of a poet is both in high demand and respected for their craft. Alternatively, it may represent the importance of the divine nature of the poet’s words, rendering the individual poet as merely a vessel to effectively provide information about the culture.100 Furthermore, the idea of “marvelous” could also be understood as the events of which the poet is singing. Since he is singing about the events of Troy, the song adds to the heroic nature of the war; the warriors who went to fight and those who did not return are memorialized and immortalized through song. Second, the narrator makes Penelope’s entrance abrupt and emotional, setting the stage for how Penelope will be perceived for the duration of the epic. She is the grieving wife of 98 Italics mine. 99 Since it is the muse who provides the song, it is “divinely uttered,” thus making it even more compelling. 100 It is not so much about the individual “Homer” as it is about what the stories say about the cultures through the “Homers” of the time. 38 Odysseus, and the language that the narrator uses highlights that.101 Emily Wilson’s choice of “clambered” is interesting, as it suggests that Penelope is moving quickly, almost frantically, to get the poet to stop his song. In contrast to the verb κατεβήσετο, which can just be “came down from,” the choice makes the scene more emotionally charged. One thing to note with Emily Wilson’s translation is that she excludes the mention of Penelope’s father, specifically “κούρη Ἰκαρίοιο, περίφρων Πηνελόπεια,” “the daughter of Icarius, wise/very intelligent Penelope.” Why Wilson would leave this part out of the introduction of Penelope seems a bit odd, especially since the description περίφρων for Penelope would be useful for her character. It could reflect the way Wilson approaches the text overall, getting to the core of the plot and getting rid of elements that could be described as fluff. However, based on how she translated this section in particular, it seems that Wilson may have misunderstood the importance of describing Penelope as “wise” or “very intelligent,” considering how she picks up the epithet later on. The narrator’s choice to call Penelope “wise” is important, as it sets up this idea that Penelope is worthy of respect, even though she does not receive much of it until Odysseus returns home. In comparison to how Nestor is received in the Iliad, the wise nature of Penelope is linked to her capabilities of being cautious, thoughtful, or even artful. These definitions of the Greek noun περίφρων: “very thoughtful,” “very careful,” “notable,” “artful,” or “crafty,” describe Penelope in a different light than Nestor, especially in the context of where Penelope is within the story, and how she is perceived as a woman (namely, an object/prize to be won by the suitors).102 Instead, it seems that the narrator creates a sort of relationship between himself and Penelope, one of mutual respect and as a way to highlight the importance of their characters 101 Dalby, Rediscovering Homer, 98. Dalby also states that Penelope’s character could be a representation of how the audience could intervene within the narrative, especially if the audience felt strongly on the matter of war and the songs that come from it. 102 LSJ 39 within the text. When Penelope enters the room with the suitors and the poet, she mentions the poet by name: Stop, please, Phemius! You know so many songs, enchanting tales of things that gods and men have done, the deeds that singers publicize. Sing something else and let them drink in peace. Stop this upsetting song that always breaks my heart, so I can hardly bear my grief. I miss him all the time – that man, my husband, whose story is so famous throughout Greece. (Od. 1.336-344) Penelope’s voice is clear and uninterrupted here. Not only is the narrator of the epic using Penelope to demonstrate the capabilities of oral storytellers, but also their importance in maintaining the connection to the past. As someone who can tell “enchanting tales of things gods and men have done,” the narrator’s goal of placing himself within the text is clear and effective. In addition to this, the narrator is making space for Penelope’s grief. Although that space is quickly taken over by Telemachus (Od 1.345-359), the fact that Penelope’s presence and her sadness can command attention in a room of men speaks volumes to the way Penelope’s character will unfold in the remainder of the epic. Even though there are many cultural differences between Indigenous women and the women portrayed in ancient Greek texts, there are similarities of how the power of women were made small and less significant over time. According to Olsen, many Linear B tablets record a world where women contributed in “multiple ways to the economic, civic, and religious institutions of their states.”103 Comparatively, Indigenous women were often at the centre of their communities, not only because of their life-giving power, but also their positions to choose suitable leaders.104 In Indigenous tradition, the gendered roles were not simply based on the 103 Barbara Olsen, "The Worlds of Penelope," (Arethusa 2015), 108. 104 Anderson, A Recognition of Being, 170. 40 strength or weakness of either sex but based on the understanding of balance and collaboration for the good of the community. The divisions of labour “were based on practical needs,” and therefore, no one was restricted from engaging in each other’s work. Furthermore, within the land-based systems of labour, the work of Indigenous men was never considered to be more valuable than Indigenous women’s work.105 The limitations that are placed upon women, in both societies, are based on the domestication of the roles, and the shift in distinctions of gendered roles. The difference between this shift is that Indigenous women had no sense of being “less important” in comparison to men.106 The domestication of women’s work only began to take place because of European oppression, which essentially trapped women in the “western domestic role.”107 In the case of Penelope, then, she is within the boundary of being both in a position of power, and under the subjugation of later societal rules with regard to women during the seventh and sixth centuries BCE.108 Based on general information within the epic, Penelope is from Crete, which was once part of the main system of palace strongholds and would suggest that her position would afford her some power within society. However, there are times when the development of Penelope’s character contradicts itself in the epic, which goes to show that there is something reconstructed and imaginary about her backstory. Therefore, although the consensus on the time period represented in the epics is still debated, narratively speaking, the poet(s) would need to draw from what they knew, or at the very least, use what they knew as a foundation for imaginative reconstructions of the past. The use of the past tense then, allows for an effortless blending of different time periods because of the lack of written history to ‘correct’ 105 Anderson, A Recognition of Being, 60. 106 Ibid.,60. 107 Ibid., 60. 108 Not to mention the social biases and constructs that influence later translations of the text. 41 or alter the oral history that was more common knowledge.109 Olsen states the epics largely depict an “imaginary Early Iron Age society that purports to be a representation of the fourteenth- and thirteenth century palace-states of Mycenaean Greece.”110 And since there are scarcely any contemporary references within the epics, it would be necessary to imagine how a woman like Penelope would be perceived, and just how much her character would need to change in order to accommodate certain audiences.111 Such a change can be seen in the interaction between Telemachus and Penelope after she cries to the poet. Telemachus uses his position as the son of Odysseus and the assumed “man of the house” to push against her power: Go in and do your work. Stick to the loom and distaff. Tell your slaves to do their chores as well. It is for men to talk, especially me. I am the master. (Od 1.356-359) Telemachus’ speech brings the audience back to the social norms of the time, rather than continuing with Penelope, a woman, being in charge. It demonstrates that despite the effort for the storyteller to be faithful to the time period that is being presented, that historical social construct has passed, and makes it difficult for Penelope to maintain her voice and agency. Even her response to the chastisement is not in her own voice since the narrative does not allow her to speak again. However, what is most interesting about this response is that it sets up the contrast even further between Penelope’s power and subjugation subtly, but clearly. First, her reaction is shock: “that startled her” (Od. 1.360). It startled her that her son would speak to her that way, which makes it seem that before the weight of society fell onto his shoulders, the relationship 109 Dalby, Rediscovering Homer, 4. “This means that the epic world…and the world of the archaic lyrics…do not after all represent two different periods separated by a couple of generations of astonishingly rapid change. They are the same world” (4). 110 Olsen, “The Worlds of Penelope,” 108. 111 Dalby, Rediscovering Homer, xiv. Dalby argues that the epics were “certainly composed before 600 B.C.” 42 between mother and son was more connected and understanding. Her voice was all that Telemachus had while his father was away, and thus his upbringing was closer connected to his mother than any other male figure, including his grandfather, Laertes.112 In Indigenous tradition, the bond between mother and child was honoured and respected because of the risks involved, especially in childbirth. Furthermore, it was the responsibility of the women to provide the next generation of people “with the teachings that will enhance respect, peace, and co-existence.”113 With Telemachus laying claim to the power of the household, he is breaking away from that bond, and deliberately disturbing a sense of peace, co-existence, and showing disrespect to his mother. He is essentially silencing Penelope in favour of appearing more adult to the suitors, and Penelope’s response to her son’s “deliberate scolding” (Od. 1. 361) results in her fleeing the lack of respect shown to her, and cries in silence in her chambers. As I have mentioned previously, it is important to the oral poet to demonstrate their capabilities of narration, which can result in subtle shifts between what was culturally significant in the ancient past, and what was culturally significant to their present audiences. In short, the way the narrator uses the oral history to depict Penelope as a special type of character is to foreshadow her intelligence. After Telemachus complains about the suitors ruining his house (Od. 2.38-81), the narrator has one of the suitors, Antinous, explain why the situation is unfair, namely blaming everything on Penelope. Telemachus, you stuck-up, wilful little boy! How dare you 112 Agathe Thorton, “Laertes,” In People and Themes in Homer’s Odyssey (London: Routledge, 1970), 115-119. Laertes is first mentioned by Athena in 1.188 and does not appear himself until the last book of the epic. It is in book 11, when Odysseus meets his mother in the Underworld that we learn about Laertes. He is described as an old man consumed by grief, withering away from longing for his son’s return (Od. 11.188-196). Therefore, the state of Telemachus’ relationship with his grandfather is not as strong as his relationship is with Penelope. With his grandfather, and father, essentially absent for his formative years, Telemachus must learn to navigate the politics of his father’s house based on the teachings his mother has provided (and of course, with the help of Athena). 113 Anderson, A Recognition of Being, 170. 43 try to embarrass us and put the blame on us? We suitors have not done you wrong. Go blame your precious mother! She is cunning. It is the third year, soon it will be four, that she has cheated us of what we want. (Od. 2. 87-92) Despite the fact that Penelope has been effectively ruling Ithaca in her husband’s absence, she is reduced to a cunning and manipulative woman because the suitors did not immediately get what they wanted.114 Not only that, but she managed to embarrass them at the same time, since it took them almost four years to figure out her scheme.115 Antinous’ complaint here then expresses a discord with how other women are presented and perceived in the epics, and how Penelope is described. Again, it is subtle, but the narrator allows for parts of Penelope’s agency to show through her actions, while at the same time maintaining her position as an ideal wife. A possible way to ensure that Penelope receives the correct treatment of her status from an imaginative past, the narrator first describes her as “like a goddess” (Od. 1.332).116 By initially attributing Penelope’s power to that of divinity, it suggests that Penelope is more than an ideal wife. Instead, she was once part of a society where women were among those who could hold property, have their say in politics, and possibly represent a more balanced perspective on gender roles. Her power is also essential to the plot of the poem because she ultimately forces the 114 Emily Wilson, "Introduction," In The Odyssey (New York: W.W Norton & Company, 2018), 38. Patricia Marquardt, "Penelope ‘Polutropos’," (The American Journal of Philology 106 (1), 1985), 35. It seems that Penelope’s plan was to remain a widow, since it was the assumption that Odysseus had long died, and so it would allow Penelope to remain in control of the “extensive properties” (Marquardt 1985, 35). 115 Which they did not even figure it out; it was a maid of the house who told them. 116 In the original Greek, the lines reads: ἡ δ᾽ ὅτε δὴ μνηστῆρας ἀφίκετο δῖα γυναικῶν. It intentionally keeps Penelope in the mortal realm, but this sentiment of divine stature is repeated again in book 17, lines 336-37: Ἀρτέμιδι ἰκέλη ἠὲ χρυσέῃ Ἀφροδίτῃ, where she is compared specifically to two goddesses. Emily Wilson’s decision to make the line read: “like a goddess,” clarifies the notion of Penelope’s power to such a degree that it signals to the reader that there is more to this character than meets the eye. And to bring this picture of divinity full circle, Wilson repeats the use of “like a goddess,” hammering in the idea that Penelope is a powerhouse in the poem, comparatively to the likes of her husband, Odysseus. 44 suitors to accept her choice, whether it is by trickery or avoidance/distraction (Od. 2.90-92; 16. 410-418). In comparison, [it] never seems to have been a normal Greek custom for power over the household to transfer through the woman to a new husband. But the notion is vitally important in the Odyssey: if Penelope remarries, Odysseus will lose not only a person he loves, but also, perhaps more important, all his economic wealth and social status. It is at least hinted as a possibility that the wife in this poem, unlike most wives in real archaic society, has the power to choose the man who will have control over her household.117 However, the narrator must also cater to the attention and entertainment of his audience, which makes it hard to recognize straightaway what elements of Penelope’s character are accurate representations of the past, and what is modified to pacify the masses. As I have mentioned before, gender roles in Indigenous society were often well balanced, and required mutual respect of one’s position in order to benefit the community. In some ways, Penelope’s character fits the criteria of this balance, since her relationship with her husband and her son, to some degree, is better than most relationships that are presented in the epics. Penelope has the respect of the slaves within her household, as they take care of her consistently and kindly.118 Telemachus also respects his mother, especially in moments when her honour is put into jeopardy.119 When Antinous threatens the livelihood of Telemachus’ wealth because his mother’s lack of desire to remarry, Telemachus responds clearly: Antinous, I cannot force my mother out of the house. She gave me birth and raised me. My father is elsewhere – alive or dead. If I insist my mother has to leave, Icarius will make me pay the price, and gods will send more trouble; if she goes, 117 Wilson, “Introduction,” 39. 118 Some examples: Od. 1.331, 362; 4.741-760; 16.415; 17. 493-497. 119 When he is not actively trying to appear more adult than he actually is. 45 Mother will rouse up Furies full of hate to take revenge, and everyone will curse me. (Od. 2.131-138) In this passage, Telemachus is faced with some very real choices, most of which, as he mentions, come with consequences. However, his youthfulness shines through because he does not want to be subject to those consequences.120 He does not want to take accountability for anything that he might have to do, whether it is to send his mother away, or risk his father’s house. One thing Telemachus stresses is that his mother gave birth to him and raised him. As I mentioned previously, his mother is the main source of influence and guidance in the absence of his father, and Telemachus recognizes her sacrifice as significant. The way that both Penelope and Telemachus are presented in this poem demonstrates the complexity of the epic, both in regard to the structure of the story, but also just how in-depth the narrator is able to go. In this analysis of Penelope’s character, it is clear that the author is trying to incorporate aspects of both time periods in order to be faithful to the oral history of the epic, but also making it adaptive and modern for their general audiences. As time progressed, this shift in how narration works, and how oral history is consumed and distributed, demonstrates the changing needs of an evolving society. 120 Agathe Thornton, “Telemachus,” In People and Themes in Homer’s Odyssey (London, Routledge, 1970), 68-70. Thornton explains that while Telemachus has reached physical maturity, his “naïve spiritedness” makes his decisions appear rash and with childlike delight. It is only when the narrator refers to Telemachus as ἱερὴ ἲς, “Inspired and Confident” (Od. 2.409), that do we as readers see the shift into adulthood. 46 Herodotus – Investigative Orality Herodotus provides a new narrative style, introducing an investigative quality that satisfies and inspires the curious mind. However, despite this new style of acquiring and sharing information, Herodotus’ work is structured based on his knowledge of Homer’s epics – a sense of grand, epic story that also defies the chronological aspect of time progression, a style of narrative that is powerful and memorable for its creative and cultural significance.121 Homer’s epics and style of narration were, and are, fundamental in the creation of historiography and later literature because they captured the essence of oral history and orality, and made it accessible to many people.122 This fluidity and accessibility allowed prose writers like Herodotus to branch out into their own narratives by including elements of ordinary life, even more so than Homer, or even Hesiod, could provide.123 As previously stated in the section on Homer, the idea of “history” during ancient times is different from what the understanding is today. From the perspective of a modern reader, 121 Suzanne Saïd, "Herodotus and the 'Myth' of the Trojan War," In Myth, Truth, and Narrative in Herodotus, by Emily Baragwanath and Mathieu de Bakker (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 97. Footnote 45. Saïd, “Herodotus and the ‘Myth’,” 105. Herodotus is “the ‘most Homeric’ historian somewhere between epic tradition and fifth-century rationalism.” However, in Histories 2.45, Herodotus states that the “Hellenes tell many things without proper examination; among them is the silly myth they tell about Heracles.” But, as Finley states, Herodotus had no trouble believing that Heracles existed at one time; rather the issue was with where and with whom Heracles was being associated, and Herodotus made strong attempts to “sift out the truth from fable” (The World of Odysseus, 14-15). 122 Alan Griffiths, "Stories and Storytelling in the Histories,” In The Cambridge Companion to Herodotus, edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 137. “But most often all we can be sure of is that most of [Herodotus’] source-material was somehow, orally transmitted” (137). Finley, The Use and Abuse, 14. “Greeks did not love epic and tragedy, however, solely because they needed to be reminded about the origins of their rites, important as that function was for the individual – and even more for the community, which was rooted in divine patronage and ancestry. Myth was their great teacher in all matters of the spirit. There they learned morality and conduct; the virtues of nobility and the golden mean or the menace of hybris; and they learned about race and culture and even politics” (14). 123 E.J. Bakker, "The Syntax of historie: How Herodotus Writes,” In The Cambridge Companion to Herodotus, edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 94. Bakker argues that Herodotus has a syntactic style of narration, where his work is neither paratactic nor hypotactic. Instead, his style is more of a “’putting together’ of two different places or two different times,” often linked to one place, or different places to one time, and so is no constricted by modern forms of linear time” (94). 47 Herodotus is an author who does not separate fact from fiction. The use of the mythical, like gods and demi-god heroes, is often considered fictional in today’s society, and such categorization is based on colonial thinking and placed upon academia in order to arbitrarily organize and regulate the past.124 Everything from math through literature to agriculture, must be clearly defined, organized, and categorized in order to make sense of a chaotic world.125 Anything that does not fit into that purview either need to conform to or be designated by the term “fictional” or some other term that lessens the truth of another culture. Within the context of ancient writers like Herodotus, the fluidity of the content disrupts the strict structure of modern literature, which then complicates how his Histories are interpreted. Take the following quotation, for example: Because of his love for the marvelous, the unusual, and the fantastic, he was criticized by his contemporaries "as a tall-storyteller;” he was considered both the "father of history" and the "father of lies.” No wonder so many of his followers loved to learn about his exaggerations and make-believe tales!126 The “marvelous,” the “unusual,” “the fantastic,” are all terms to describe how Herodotus appears to modern readers. However, at the same time, this sort of perception lessens the value of the 124 Robert W. Blake Sr., "Tell Me a Story: The Forms and Uses of Narrative." (Counterpoints - Becoming a Teacher: Using Narrative as Reflective Practice - A Cross Disciplinary Approach, 2012), 18: “Herodotus lived in a time when categories of knowledge had not been rigidly separated, and his work ranges over many fields and include geography, anthropology, ethnology, zoology, even fable and folklore.” 125 Even the sense of organization can be different depending on the culture or people. What may be organized for one group, may not make any sense to another, however, it is important to recognize in that moment that not all people or cultures need to have the same organization, or ideas of organization. In the context of a colonial type of organization and categorization, it means that anything that does not fit into the white, European (English specifically), religious ideology were forced to conform with no choice in the matter. It appears that Herodotus differs here because of the way he introduces two sides of various stories that he hears, in order to allow his audience to make informed opinions on the matter. While he does interject with his own opinions, he is still making the effort to highlight that things are done differently with other culture and societies, but it does not necessarily mean that it is wrong. 126 Blake Sr., “Tell Me a Story,” 19. Italics mine. 48 content, specifically why, how, and what Herodotus is providing about other cultures.127 More often than not, historians (both modern and ancient) attempt to identify the oral sources “in terms of political ideology,” rather than the intricate narrative Herodotus is providing.128 Therefore, if we were to examine Herodotus through an Indigenous lens, the stories and the fluidity of the content would not be seen as unusual or fantastical.129 The majority of Indigenous storytelling, at least from the many stories I have heard at the annual powwow in Cape Croker, do not reveal the main message, or get straight to the point.130 They weave different elements of the story in order to provide a fuller picture, which can allow for greater understanding and knowledge. Herodotus often does the same thing by configuring the stories to reflect a Greek perspective. For example, Herodotus states that “the Lydian empire has been ruled by the bloodline of Heracles” (Herod. Histories 1.7), in order to bring in a connection, invented or not, to engage his audience within the storyline. It is unusual, marvelous, and fantastic to consider Heracles a real person, given the mythical nature of the hero. But by implicating that there is a Greek connection to a Persian, a.k.a. “foreign” bloodline, it allows a justification for the presence of Greek culture and dominance within the story and “history.” Tom Holland notes that “Greeks were happy to imagine, in myth, that a Greek hero-god, Heracles, might have sired a non-Greek royal dynasty – descended allegedly from one Mermnas.”131 As such, despite the fact that Herodotus “was 127 Gruen, Rethinking the Other, 25. Due to Herodotus’ subject matter, the use of “fictitious” speeches and storylines, the unreliable or unbelievable nature of the Persians further highlights their ‘Otherness’ is in contrast to Greek peoples. 128 Griffiths, “Stories and Storytelling,” 137. 129 Fantastical in the same tone as in the passage above, not necessarily derogatory, but not entirely positive either. 130 Hanna Guttorm, Lea Kantonen, Britt Kramvig, and Aili Pyhälä, Decolonized Research-Storying: Bringing Indigenous Ontologies and Care into the Practices of Research Writing." In Indigenous Research Methodologies in Sami and Global Contexts, by Pirjo Kristina Virtanen, Pigga Keskitalo and Torjer Olsen (Brill, 2021), 117. This article is quite a lovely read, as it discusses ways to decolonize academic writing and approaches, while at the same time highlighting the difficulties of doing so. I highly suggest it for those interested in further reading into ideas about decolonization and Indigenization of academia. 131 Tom Holland, “Notes to Book One,” 642, note 16. 49 concerned with all aspects of their culture,” his storytelling is based on his own Greek perspective.132 Therefore, it is necessary to recognize what it is Herodotus is doing within his Greek perspective. There is a clear distinction between Greek and Persian, under the framework of Greek and “Other.” Although Herodotus gives space to describing other cultures and attempting to provide accurate accounts of their customs, his descriptions are often contrasted heavily against Greek normalities and customs. The voice that is given to the “Other” by Herodotus is being told from a Greek perception of that culture, and thus the voice is altered. However, Linda Tuhiwai Smith’s discussion about the use of “Other” fits into what Herodotus attempts to do in his Histories. Now, Smith does not discuss any elements of ancient Greek texts, mainly focusing on Indigenous studies and how to best decolonize methodologies within academia, but the idea of Indigenous representation through stories fits the breadth of exploration I am trying to accomplish with Herodotus. She states: A critical aspect of the struggle for self determination has involved questions relating to our history as Indigenous peoples and a critique of how we, as the Other, have been represented or excluded from various accounts. Every issue has been approached by Indigenous peoples with a view to rewriting and rerighting our position in history. Indigenous peoples want to tell our own stories, write our own versions, in our own ways, for our own purposes. It is not simply about giving an oral account or a genealogical naming of the land and the events which rages over it, but a very powerful need to give testimony to and restore a spirit, to bring back into existence a world fragmented and dying. The sense of history conveyed by these approaches is not the same thing as the discipline of history, and so our accounts collide, crash into each other.133 132 Robert W. Blake Sr., “Tell Me a Story,” 19. 133 Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies, 31-32. 50 In comparison to Herodotus’ work in general, Herodotus is not simply providing genealogies, or naming land, but actively including the stories of the “Other,” making sure to include elements that do not fit into the normalized perspective of Greek audiences. From a colonialist perspective, especially one that depends on the categorization of Herodotus’ work, the context of the Histories collides with the modern discipline of history. From an Indigenous perspective, however, the storytelling is significant because Herodotus is not simply rewriting a history, but rather giving a platform for the rerighting of a misinterpreted past. So, the question is why would Herodotus endeavour to collect such a plethora of information about such a wide geographical range? Curiosity is definitely a strong reason, not only for understanding the cause of the Greek and Persian conflict, but also preserving the “great and many deeds” of people before and during his own time.134 This curiosity could extend to understanding the Persian expansion Westward, which Herodotus himself experienced, since his homeland of Caria was effectively colonized by Persian power. Herodotus was Carian-Greek, which allows him a special perspective of having experienced the negative affects of Persian power, and then with enough wisdom to want to know more, he finds a reason for the Persian expansion. Another reason would be the performative element of his work. His story is not an epic, nor a poem: he defies categorization.135 Therefore, it cannot be assumed that the concept of history for Herodotus could be categorized as either. Often, the question “why” is a way to reflect about the past and tease out information that would be valuable to a present situation. Storytellers are the way the question “why” is answered, since they provide information that is 134 Herod. Histories 1.0 Proem. 135 Bakker, “The Syntax of Historie,” 92. “Epic and prosaic, colloquial and elevated, oral and literature.” 51 normally inaccessible to a general audience.136 Stories themselves are powerful, and the information that is held within them can help heal or harm those who listen to it.137 Herodotus, as a storyteller, embodies the persona of oral poet, spectator, investigator, and listener, all at the same time because of his chosen topic and presentation of his content. He actively seeks out answers for “why” the war happened, but also provides thorough supporting information to be as close to the truth of the oral history as possible. In some ways, it is almost a natural evolution in how stories are told from a type of epic like Homer’s, or a poetic song like Hesiod’s, so that it is no longer just about the fantastic or mystical but embedded in reality.138 A Man of Narrative Wisdom There are two books in Herodotus that I discuss in the following sections, for three reasons. First, I examine Book 1 for the mention of Helen and the connection Herodotus is making to Homer’s epics. There are elements within that specific section that highlight Herodotus’ voice as a storyteller, while at the same time introducing his investigator persona. Second, I examine Book 4 for the description of the Scythian peoples.139 The way the narrative shifts from Darius I as the main focus, to the Scythians and their culture being pushed to the 136 Jessica Venable, Brandy Ann Sato, Jimi Del Duca, and Franklin Sage, "Decolonizing Our Own Stories." (International Review of Qualitative Research 9 (3), 2016), 345. Venable et al., discussed a project of storytelling through student experiences in academia. Their approach to answering questions of ‘why’ come from the placement of themselves within the story: “knowledge belongs to the cosmos and the researcher is just the interpreter… We saw ourselves not only as interpreters but also knowledge weavers who worked together to create a story that is both diverse and holistic” (345). With this perspective then, Herodotus is providing a similar form of storytelling and knowledge interpretation. It is not merely a way to spout facts, but a way to demonstrate just how integrated everything is, culturally, spiritually, and politically. 137 Harold R. Johnson, The Power of Story: On Truth, the Trickster, and New Fictions for a New Era (Windsor: Biblioasis, 2022), 102-105. 138 Hesiod’s Theogony and Works and Days represent another sort of midway point between epic poetry and accessible, local poetry that can be understood and felt by others in similar situations. Hesiod provides the pious, hard working local perspective, and does not necessarily subscribe to the fame and kleos as in Homer’s works. 139 François Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus: The Representation of the Other in the Writing of History, Translated by Janet Lloyd, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. In Hartog’s first chapter, he discusses the Scythians and their place within the Herodotean text at length, questioning why he includes them with such detail. I venture into this in section 2 c) Evolving Narrative because I find the beginning of Book 4 to be utterly fascinating. 52 forefront, represents an element of Herodotus’ inquiry that some may perceive as unnecessary or superfluous.140 Third, due to the complexity and reach of Herodotus’ research, it is important to highlight the different types of narration that Herodotus produces, specifically the way he approaches myth and reality. There is no clear cut division in his work, but there is a distinction of why he includes certain elements of both myth and reality. This distinction can be seen as “action within a tale” and “a source for the tale,” which E.J. Bakker explains as either a speech that is either part of the action “represented within a logos” or the speech “can be the logos itself.”141 But if we as modern readers are to look at Herodotus’ work as either action or source alone, then the entire concept of what Herodotus is trying to accomplish is overshadowed. Herodotus is weaving this story, this history of the larger known world, in order to bring together a comprehensive reason for the Greek and Persian war.142 And so, to bring forward such a reason, the storytelling must be complex, invigorating, and attractive to audiences, both reading and listening. In order to effectively attract audiences, Herodotus knows that a good story is the way to keep their attention. Therefore, Herodotus remains a storyteller throughout his work, but does so in a way that allows people to see the reality woven in the story more clearly.143 Following in the footsteps of Homer, Herodotus is able to manifest the type of wisdom required to maintain a good story without losing any authority as an author. Alan Griffiths writes: [that] great poem functioned as the ground bass underlying all Greek cultural expression up to and far beyond Herodotus’ own 140 The reality of the general public reading, understanding, and appreciating Herodotus’ work is less than what would be desired because of the way Classics is perceived. The label of “historian” automatically sets up this image of what a historian, specifically modern 19th, or 20th century, looks like. When that image does not match the content and pushes against the stereotypical constructs of history, people lose interest or become confused. Confused leads to disheartened, and then Herodotus slumps back down into his realm of unpopularity. 141 Bakker, “The syntax of historie,” 98. 142 Ibid., 94. 143 Reality being what was well known and culturally significant contemporarily to Herodotus’ time. 53 day, and it is the authoritative familiarity of Homer that makes this style both attractive to Herodotus and acceptable to his audience.144 Herodotus continues to use story elements, including mythical and supernatural because of their significance in the daily lives of his audiences. The difference in this use of mythical is much more subtle, and even actively written out of the narrative, in order to present this more objective and investigative quality to his work. But by keeping in just enough of the supernatural, his objectivity does not overpower the importance of creativity and imagination.145 As such, Herodotus is dedicated to presenting the information he has collected in a way that best suits the flow of his story. The timeline of the story creates a discord with modern readers because the narrative jumps forwards and backwards in time. Efforts to reconcile this form of storytelling, modern historians have labelled this as “ring composition.” Herodotus often digresses from the main point of his work, discusses long-winded stories that seem to have nothing to do with the general theme of the work, and then abruptly brings the reader/audience back to his point earlier in the text.146 This method is not entirely consistent throughout the text, at least in the sense of perfect ring composition. The idea of ring composition suggests that there is a deliberate and conscious balance from the beginning to the end of the story, but while reading the Histories, it is clear that the flow of Herodotus’ narrative is less balanced and clearly 144 Griffiths, “Story and Storytelling,” 135. 145 Personally, I am referencing Thucydides here. The desire to remain objective and completely factual can sometimes lead to the lack of imagination and thus a lack of captivating storytelling. Sarah Forsdyke, “Thucydides’ Historical Method.” In The Oxford Handbook of Thucydides edited by Sarah Forsdyke, Edith Foster, and Ryan Balot, New York: Oxford University Press, 2017. Forsdyke specifically references Thucydides 1.22.2 with regard to his method of recording events. Carol Dewald, “The Construction of Meaning in the First Three Historians” In A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography edited by John Marincola, Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. Dewald states that Thucydides’ approach to writing was much more focussed for a future generation of readers, as his work was based on his “own best-judgement of what happened” (75-78). Much like how science forward thinkers react to their surroundings, there is little room for creativity, similar to the example I include about Robin Wall Kimmerer and her experience as a botanist. 146 T.J. Luce, The Greek Historians (London: Routledge, 1997), 16. 54 structured, and more in tune with the ordered chaos of orality.147 His work also highlights the complexity of the information he is providing, not only to acknowledge different cultures and peoples, but also to work within the confines of familiarity for his audiences.148 Getting Back to His Roots: Homeric Storytelling As I previously mentioned, storytelling is often a way to answer the question “why?” Therefore, Herodotus begins the narrative of his investigation by placing his audience within a recognizable framework, namely the recent events of the Persian War, as well as the world of Homer and the battle of Troy. By centering his story with a clear connection to the Trojan War -Helen – Herodotus presents the audience with a plausible, specifically Greek perspective of the causes of war. In Book 1, Herodotus explains that the abductions of notable women in history started off the animosity between Greeks and Persians, providing different perspectives of the same story through a Greek lens and a Persian one. By 1.3, Herodotus already makes the connection to the Trojan War: A generation now passed, we are told – and then Priam’s son, Paris, who had picked up on the story, decided that he might as well steal a Greek wife for himself, since the Greeks, who had never paid reparations to anyone, would hardly be in any position to demand satisfaction from him. The result was the rape* of Helen. (Herod. Histories 1.3)149 147 John Herington, and M. S. optimi viri Friderici Solmsen, "The Closure of Herodotus’ Histories," (Illinois Classical Studies 16 (1/2), 1991), 149. Take for example the debate about the ending of the Histories. Due to the expectations of closure within narrative and stories in general, Herodotus’ work is “clearly unfinished,” which can result in an incomplete ring composition structure (149). However, the modern desire for a specific and neat closure to stories and narrative can overshadow the overall content of the work, which makes it difficult to reconcile what is actually part of the text, and what is assumed to be missing or lacking from it. Furthermore, I am not saying that Herodotus is not organized in the structure of his work, but rather he is disorganized and complex to a modern reader. 148 Phiroze Vasunia, "Herodotus and the Greco-Persian Wars," (PMLA 124 (5), 2009), 1834-1837. Especially in book 1, Vasunia compares the complexity of the Greek and Persian war to how Herodotus creates a complex text, highlighting the difficulty of rendering a rational account of the cause of war. However, the challenge does not deter Herodotus, but rather encourages the focus on the root causes and their significance in history. 149 Translation by Tom Holland 2013. 55 Part of the reason Herodotus includes the back and forth between the Greeks and Persians is to highlight the complex nature between the two cultures. Herodotus does not make the distinction that one is lesser than the other, but merely different in terms of custom and values. In comparison to the depiction of Persian peoples in Aeschylus’ play The Persians, Herodotus’ treatment of the Persians differs significantly: “not only are ‘individual Persians…given just as much narrative space as individual Greeks,” Herodotus also actively avoids describing them “as a whole ‘as weak and despicable rulers of an evil empire.’”150 Christian Baier states that Herodotus presents a “hugely untypical attitude” towards non-Greek peoples, calling him the most important “fair-minded source” on Persia.151 It is quite interesting, and funny, that Baier manages to explain a fairly Indigenous perspective without actually acknowledging why this idea of “untypical attitude” is so important or out of the ordinary. Although Herodotus would have known about the cultural and ethnic distinctions between Greek and Persian peoples, he employs “various narrative strategies” to undercut, challenge, modify, and subvert the stereotypes placed on Persian peoples as a whole.152 Thus, Herodotus is, in a way, providing an Indigenized perspective of Persian peoples, by using his skills that are “decidedly ‘Homeric’” by not including “ethnocentric and derogatory stereotyping.”153 I would also like to bring your attention to the asterisk with the word “rape” in the section quoted above. In Tom Holland’s translation, he has opted to use the word rape, but provides a note to explain the other possible translations. He states: 150 Christian Baier, "Homer’s Cultural Children: The Myth of Troy and European Identity," (History and Memory 29 (2), 2017), 39. 151 Baier, “Homer’s Cultural Children,” 39. 152 Ibid., 39-40. 153 Ibid., 40. 56 This is by no means the only, or the most accepted, version of the origins of the Trojan War. The Greek word harpagê meant literally ‘seizure’ or ‘abduction’ and was something of a euphemism.154 In this case then, his choice of “rape” suggests that Helen was an unwilling participant in her abduction, and thus the reason for the Trojan War was justified for the Greeks. But beyond that, the fact that Helen was seen as a possession to be taken and traded for compensation highlights much of the customs and rituals within Homer’s epics. The wrath of Achilles is famous because he felt dishonoured by Agamemnon for taking his prize, which was a woman.155 To have such a hero, divinely blessed, be the centre of a story all because of his wrath provides enough of a plausible justification for later generations to use to their own advantage. As such, the audiences to whom Herodotus would be catering his story would recognize the dishonour and disrespect, thus allowing for the cause of the Persian Wars, and the subsequent storylines within his work, to become plausible as well. Also, by using Homer as a source for his Histories, Herodotus is able to play with the concept of time and the chronological order of things. In a perfectly colonial world (without any rejection of the types of organization and order colonization would suggest), all stories would have a beginning, middle, and end. It would also be very boring. Part of the reason Homer is so popular, and why Herodotus is so valued as a historian, is due to the incomplete nature of their stories. As storytellers, they acknowledge that there is never just one version of events or perspectives, and thus allow space within their own narratives for growth. In Indigenous literatures and oral histories, storytellers have a significant role to play within their community. They are the ones who maintain the histories, but not in a clear-cut 154 Holland, “Notes to Book One,” 641, note 8. 155 Fairly simplified recap of events. 57 fashion; rather they reflect similar traits that can be found in Homer or Herodotus. Lyla June, in her dissertation about Indigenous land and food management, details a specific methodology in which she approaches her scientific research: the Yarning methodology consists of four main principles that replaces traditional ethnography with dignity and respect. The principles are as follows: Respect is far more than simply respecting the person you are talking with, as it also includes respecting the knowledge or the information that is being provided. This type of respect is demonstrated through the way the information is used . . .. Reciprocity is more than giving a like-for-like. Reciprocity is a process that models responsibility. It is also an honouring process that demonstrates the importance of the relationship . . .. … it is the researcher’s responsibility to not only develop connections with the participant and to maintain them, but it is equally important to develop respectful relationships with the knowledge that is being provided, and to convey that information in a way that fosters respectful narratives.156 Although Lyla June’s work is based on the scientific elements of land and food management, the methodology that she presents in her work can be applied to a Classical standpoint with regard to Herodotus. As I mentioned previously, Herodotus’ treatment of the Persians is untypical for his time, and so he has respect for the information that is being provided. There is reciprocity in the way that he provides different versions of his stories and oral histories, which ties into the relationships he creates with the people he has contacted and engaged with. Furthermore, Herodotus clearly takes on the responsibility of making connections, both to Homeric tropes and foundational storylines, as well as to the audiences of his own time. 156 Johnston, “Architects of Abundance,” 158. 58 Adaptive Narrative In the beginning of Book 4, a section of his work that I particularly enjoy exploring, the Scythian people are a good example of how Herodotus uses his wisdom of storytelling and investigation to create an image of a culture that would be otherwise inaccessible.157 But why would Herodotus take so much of his time to describe a group of people that appear to be a tangent from the main narrative? In Book 1, Herodotus had already mentioned the Scythians with regard to their connections with Persian conflict, so why does he include such an in-depth description of their culture and their regions?158 The answer might seem too simple, but the reality is, Herodotus is a storyteller led by his curiosity. The brief mention in Book 1 would not suffice in the long narrative of Herodotus’ inquiry, and therefore required the space to be developed. Based on his talent for “vivid realization in almost cinematographic detail,” Herodotus’ ability as a believable storyteller shines in beginning of Book 4, if I do say so myself.159 In my previous master’s thesis, I focused on an emporion called Olbia (and Berezan by extension), analyzing the migration and colonization of the northern Black Sea region. Something that I noticed over and over was the issue of accurate accounts made by Herodotus, specifically whether or not the descriptions he provided were true.160 Throughout my current research, the knowledge I have about this region allowed me to see past what was ‘true’ and what was ‘false,’ and appreciate what Herodotus was doing within the narrative itself. His research expanded the known world for Greek audiences. He describes groups culturally and 157 Specifically 4.1-36. 158 Herodotus Histories 1.103-106. 159 Griffiths, “Story and Storytelling,” 131. 160 Armayor (1978), West (2003), David Asheri, Alan Lloyd, and Aldo Corcella (2007) 59 ethnically different from himself and those he is writing about, explaining the capabilities of these people by including them in the narrative as contrast to Persian power. Based on the level of detail that Herodotus provides, it is my belief that he did in fact visit Olbia, since it was a fairly strong trading center during the 5th century BCE.161 An issue arises, however, because Herodotus does not specifically say that he went to Olbia or that he stayed there for any length of time.162 The sections dedicated to descriptions of the people in and around the area, 4.17-23, are based on the word of mouth information he received. As Stephanie West explains, the only specific detail that shows Herodotus to be physically in the northern Black Sea region is in 4.81, where he references a bronze bowl.163 But as a storyteller, how can Herodotus provide such amazing, cinematographic detail about a place he has never visited? It is entirely possible that most of the information is invented, since Herodotus himself does state several times that the information he has received was either “heard” by himself or “claimed” by those retelling to him.164 This structure is not new though; 161 Stephanie West, "Herodotus and Olbia." In Classical Olbia and the Scythian World: From the Sixth Century BC to the Second Century AD edited by David Braund and S.D. Kryzhitskiy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). 162 West, “Herodotus and Olbia,” 79. Kimball O. Armayor, "Did Herodotus Ever Go to the Black Sea?" Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 82, 1978). One of the specific arguments against Herodotus’ travels is the inconsistency and inaccuracy of his measurements of the Black Sea, including the Hellespont and the Bosporus (45-49). Stephanie West, "'The Most Marvellous of All Seas'; The Greek Encounter with the Euxine," (Greece & Rome 50 (2), 2003), on the other hand, discusses the issues with conversion measurements from ancient calculations and modern ones, and much of the calculations provided by Herodotus are arbitrary, and thus do not accurately or conveniently convert to modern measurements. Reinhold Bichler, "Herodotus' Book 2 and the Unity of the Work." In Interpreting Herodotus, edited by Elizabeth Irwin and Thomas Harrison (Oxford: Oxford Academic, 2018), 78-79. Additionally, Bichler argues that Herodotus was aware that the majority of his measurements and calculations of other regions, including the Black Sea, were conjecture, established through estimates and transmission based on how long it took to get somewhere on foot or by boat. 163 West, “Herodotus and Olbia,” 79. West specifies that this location is a four days’ journey north of Olbia, along the Hypanis river. 164 Specifically in the sections of Book 4 that discuss the groups of people Herodotus mentions. Histories 4.5 (according to the account), 7 (say and claim), 8 (say), 10 (the story told by the Greeks of Pontus), 11 (heard), 12 (version of the story, one that is reported by both barbarians and Greeks alike), 15 (such is the story), 16 (account, and hearsay), 26 (reported), 31 (according to), 33 (according to). 60 Herodotus often uses phrases like “according to the account given” to get his point across. Hartog describes this sort of structure: We have, on the one hand, what Herodotus says and, on the other, what is known from other sources. What is known is used to criticize what is said, and what is said, once it has been criticized, adds to what is known. The whole text is evaluated from the point of view of the quantity and quality of the information it contains.165 Therefore, it is not so much if everything is accurate, but what is believable to an ancient audience. Enough of the information he provides is plausible to ancient audiences that if there are details that seem out of place or out of the ordinary, it is usually attributed to the “Otherness” of the region. Herodotus highlights these moments in particular by interjecting his opinion, or making note that whatever he is talking about it an oddity. For example, one of the first differences between Scythian people and Greek people that Herodotus makes is that Scythian peoples are “nomads, not tillers of the soil” (Histories 4.2). The idea of constant mobility and lack of structure would be an unsettling and odd notion to Greek audiences.166 This difference automatically sets up the cultural differences but does not degrade or devalue Scythian ways. The way Herodotus highlights the differences between his Greek audience, and those he writes about, forces the realization that the world, whether ancient or modern, is not explicitly logical. From an Indigenous perspective, Herodotus’ approach to creating this type of work is an attempt to maintain a level of authenticity, in order to make sense of a messy and chaotic world. In Guttorm (et al), the authors explain that: In order to write, the realness of the world of the writer – and those worlds that the writer tries to write into being – rests on the support 165 Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, 6. 166 Holland, “Notes to Book Four,” 667, note 4. Holland states that most Greek people were sedentary agriculturalists. 61 of certain concepts and theories that support the possibility for otherness to become present. This can accomplish a struggle with words, authority, structures, norms, and regulations – a need to attend to the working of the language and the need to tell new stories. We use words to tell stories, but they do not always succeed in depicting that which we yearn to say. In many cases, this requires translation between different vocabularies and languages, which are not directly translatable, as they include the different knowledge systems.167 Herodotus is providing support and space for otherness to become present. His use of phrases to show how and where he received his information demonstrates his attempts to accurately translate what was previously untranslatable. There are more than likely other areas within his work that does the same thing, but his explanation of the Scythians, and all the groups around the region, serves to highlight his strengths and capabilities as a curious storyteller. 167 Guttorm et al, "Decolonized Research-Storying,” 120. 62 Conclusions In some ways, my overall question to this topic is whether or not it is possible to approach ancient texts and culture through an Indigenous perspective. I find that it is important to recognize that my work up to this point has barely scratched the surface of what can be analyzed within ancient texts with Indigenous knowledge in mind. In all honesty, it took a lot of effort to stop myself from becoming overly critical of the texts, actively stopping myself from repeating the same style of analysis that I have been taught for over a decade. The constant reflection made it hard to find the right words to express my perspective. One of the main sources that I learned from my study about Indigenous knowledge was the role of women within the oral history of Indigenous peoples. The balance and respect they represented before the invasion by European society. It helped find new, at the very least alternative, perspectives with which to read a text like Homer or Herodotus. The societal differences were still there, with women being considered lesser in ancient Greek society than in Indigenous culture; however, the knowledge I acquired about the strength and power of woman allowed me to interpret Homer’s Penelope, and Herodotus’ Helen in a new light. Of course, it is possible that my interpretation of these women is more connected to feminism than it is to Indigenous knowledge. But knowing of the experiences women in my own culture, including my own and my mother’s, reaffirms for me that there is a difference in the balance of how women are represented. Indigenous oral history is centered within the power and sacredness of women and their roles within society. Kim Anderson, an Indigenous author referenced several times in this project, highlighted specific issues concerning the diminished nature of women due to European intervention. It was her work, however, that lead me to think of Penelope as a woman 63 of power; her power diminished only from the changes in society during a later period, when the role of women became lesser. When I spoke with Elders about their perspectives on oral history and storytelling, it was almost always women who had the knowledge to share. My maternal grandmother, Joyce, shared many of her experiences with me in August of 2020. She explained to me that her mother taught her how to make nets and how to fish, as did her mother before her, and her mother before her. It was not until I explored deeper that this sort of teaching was common among women, and extremely important. The orality of their stories and their teachings was embedded into the very fabric of their community. However, Joyce’s power was diminished when her children, my mother included, were taken from her during the Sixties-Scoop. There was a break in the teachings. Knowledge was lost for a time because the importance of oral history and the stories that came with it were considered insignificant or barbaric. I attributed this lesson to Penelope, and her connection with her son. It was not identical, or even with the same cultural significance, but elements of teaching and respect were present in Homer’s representation of Penelope’s character. Her power as a wife, a mother, and effective ruler of Ithaca during her husband’s absence demonstrates an ancient balance between women and power within Greek culture. The shift of Telemachus understanding his mother’s role to taking over her position further highlighted the issues with rendering women to silent characters. As for Herodotus, much of what I learned from Herodotus was more of a self-reflection. He created space for his inquiry into the different cultures and did not limit himself to just one area of study. He understood the necessity of using elements of geography, anthropology, ethnology, zoology, even fable and folklore, since it is difficult to separate one from another 64 effectively.168 In a similar fashion, my inquiry into Indigenizing my perspectives on ancient texts, and on Classics in general, must also include a plethora of areas of study. 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Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Ancient Culture, Religion and Ethnicity
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
Graduate
De Angelis, Franco
Indigenous perspectives to unlearn colonial mindsets : an exploration of oral history and narrative in Homer and Herodotus
Text