Education, Faculty of
Education, School of (Okanagan)
DSpace
UBCO
Scott, Ronan
Master of Arts - MA
University of British Columbia
This qualitative study explores the perceived benefits of using English as an additional language learning materials created according to a set of principles grounded in a general education theory, second language acquisition (SLA) theory, and materials development principles. Additional language learning instructors often need to either create their own language learning materials from scratch, choose language learning materials, or edit pre-existing language learning materials when teaching. Despite this regular practice, questions remain over the effectiveness of choosing, creating, or editing language learning materials. The overarching research question for this study was related to how English for academic purposes students perceive the benefits of using English language learning materials developed according to a set of predetermined principles related to effective EAL teaching and learning. Qualitative methods contributed to the data collection of this study, including an online questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. Data collected suggested that language learning materials created according to the adopted principled framework for this study are beneficial for students as they can improve listening skills, foster autonomy, increase interactions, improve speaking skills, increase motivation, take advantage of video-learning, activate cognitive skills, and increase relevance of the entire materials. The results of this study can aid language learning materials writers by providing them with a set of principles for the creation of language learning materials. Furthermore, the results of this study can inform policy makers regarding materials development time for teacher and professional development opportunities. Additionally, the results can also inform teacher education to include more courses related to of additional language learning materials.
The perceived benefits of using English as an additional language learning materials created according to a principled framework by Ronan Scott B.A., The Mater Dei Institute of Education, 2013 CELTA, Akcent, 2014 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE COLLEGE OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Education) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Okanagan) August 2021 © Ronan Scott, 2021 ii The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the College of Graduate Studies for acceptance, a thesis/dissertation entitled: The perceived benefits of using English as an additional language learning materials created according to a principled framework submitted by Ronan Scott in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts. Dr. Scott Roy Douglas, Okanagan School of Education Supervisor Dr. Robert Campbell, Okanagan School of Education Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Peter Arthur, Education, Okanagan School of Education Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Karen Densky, Thompson Rivers University University Examiner iii Abstract This qualitative study explores the perceived benefits of using English as an additional language learning materials created according to a set of principles grounded in a general education theory, second language acquisition (SLA) theory, and materials development principles. Additional language learning instructors often need to either create their own language learning materials from scratch, choose language learning materials, or edit pre-existing language learning materials when teaching. Despite this regular practice, questions remain over the effectiveness of choosing, creating, or editing language learning materials. The overarching research question for this study was related to how English for academic purposes students perceive the benefits of using English language learning materials developed according to a set of predetermined principles related to effective EAL teaching and learning. Qualitative methods contributed to the data collection of this study, including an online questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. Data collected suggested that language learning materials created according to the adopted principled framework for this study are beneficial for students as they can improve listening skills, foster autonomy, increase interactions, improve speaking skills, increase motivation, take advantage of video-learning, activate cognitive skills, and increase relevance of the entire materials. The results of this study can aid language learning materials writers by providing them with a set of principles for the creation of language learning materials. Furthermore, the results of this study can inform policy makers regarding materials development time for teacher and professional development opportunities. Additionally, the results can also inform teacher education to include more courses related to of additional language learning materials. iv Lay Summary Creating or editing additional language learning materials is a consistent task for a teacher in the additional language learning field. Language learning material development is an aspect of English as an additional language teaching which is often ignored compared to teaching strategies or second language acquisition theories. The purpose of this research was to explore the perceived benefits of using additional language learning materials which were created according to a set of material development principles. The material development principles were created according to a theoretical framework including general education theories, second language acquisition theories, and material development principles. This research aimed at identifying the benefits of said additional language learning materials and as a result it is expected that this study can help English as an additional language teachers or materials writers in creating, choosing, or editing additional language learning materials. v Preface This thesis is an original intellectual product of the author, Ronan Scott. The research reported in Chapters 3 to 5 was conducted through the protocols of The University of British Columbia’s Campus Behavioural Research Ethics Board (BREB) under the project title: Student Perceptions of Using Theory and Research Informed English for Academic Purposes Listening and Speaking Materials: H20-02797. As per UBC’s BREB guidelines, the data collection was conducted by Ronan Scott under the guidance o the Principal Investigator and the thesis committee. The committee for this project included: • Dr. Scott Roy Douglas Graduate Supervisor and Principal Investigator Associate Professor Okanagan School of Education • Dr. Robert Campbell Associate Professor Okanagan School of Education • Dr. Peter Arthur Professor of Teaching Okanagan School of Education vi Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary ................................................................................................................................. iv Preface............................................................................................................................................. v Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ xii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... xiii Dedication .................................................................................................................................... xiv Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Overview of Chapter 1 ..................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Summary of Relevant Literature ...................................................................................... 2 1.3 Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................ 5 1.4 Research Question ........................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Significance of Study ....................................................................................................... 5 1.6 Overview of Research Methods ....................................................................................... 6 1.7 Limitations and Delimitations.......................................................................................... 7 1.8 Organization of Thesis ..................................................................................................... 8 Chapter 2: Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 9 vii 2.1 Overview of Chapter 2 ..................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Second Language Acquisition Theories ........................................................................ 10 2.3 Content Based Instruction and Content and Language Integrated Learning ................. 16 2.4 General Education Theories ........................................................................................... 21 2.4.1 First Peoples Principles of Learning ................................................................... 22 2.4.2 Critical Pedagogy ................................................................................................ 23 2.4.3 Critical Thinking ................................................................................................. 24 2.4.4 Power in the Classroom ....................................................................................... 25 2.4.5 The Position of the Learner ................................................................................. 25 2.4.6 General Education Theories Conclusions ........................................................... 27 2.5 Curriculum Design and Materials Development Considerations for an EAP Program. 28 2.5.1 Forward, Central, and Backward Design and Materials Development ............... 28 2.5.2 Backward Design ................................................................................................ 29 2.5.3 Objectives and Backward Design ........................................................................ 30 2.6 Material Development Principles .................................................................................... 34 2.6.1 Pitfalls in Additional Language Learning Materials Development ..................... 35 2.6.2 Description of Effective Additional Language Learning Materials .................... 35 2.6.3 Additional Language Learning Materials and Activities .................................... 36 2.6.4 A Text-Driven Approach to Task Based Language Teaching ............................ 36 2.7 A Principled Framework for Materials Development ..................................................... 38 viii 2.8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 3: Research Methods ................................................................................................... 43 3.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................... 43 3. 2 Rationale ......................................................................................................................... 43 3.3 Research Question ........................................................................................................... 45 3.4 Research and Philosophical Perspective ......................................................................... 45 3.4.1 Positionality ......................................................................................................... 47 3.5 The Language Learning Materials .................................................................................. 48 3.6 Research Design .............................................................................................................. 51 3.6.1 The Pilot Study .................................................................................................... 51 3.6.2 Changes to the Materials ..................................................................................... 52 3.6.3 Refinements to the Data Collection Procedure ................................................... 53 3.7 Trustworthiness and Validity .......................................................................................... 54 3.8 Research Setting .............................................................................................................. 54 3.9 Participants ...................................................................................................................... 59 3.10 Research Instruments: Online Questionnaire and Semi-Structured Interviews ............ 61 3.10.1 Online Questionnaire ......................................................................................... 62 3.10.2 The Semi-Structured Interview ......................................................................... 62 3.11 Research Methods ......................................................................................................... 65 ix 3.12 First contact with potential participants ........................................................................ 65 3. 13 Limitations and bias ..................................................................................................... 66 3.14 Creative Commons License ........................................................................................... 69 3. 15 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 69 Chapter 4: Results....................................................................................................................... 70 4.1 Overview of Chapter 4 .................................................................................................... 70 4.2 Summary of Research Methods ...................................................................................... 70 4.3 Participants ...................................................................................................................... 71 4.4 Results ............................................................................................................................. 71 4.4.1 Improved Listening Skills ............................................................................ 72 4.4.2 Student Autonomy ....................................................................................... 74 4.4.3 Interactions ................................................................................................... 76 4.4.4 Improved Speaking Skills ............................................................................ 76 4.4.5 Increased Motivation ................................................................................... 77 4.4.6 Cognitive Skills ............................................................................................ 78 4.4.7 Video Learning ............................................................................................ 80 4.4.8 Relevance ..................................................................................................... 81 4.5 Findings Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 83 Chapter 5: Discussion ................................................................................................................. 84 x 5.1 Overview of the Study ..................................................................................................... 84 5.2 Summary of Results ........................................................................................................ 84 5.3 Discussion of Results ...................................................................................................... 84 5.3.1 Improved Listening Skills ................................................................................... 85 5.3.2 Student Autonomy ............................................................................................... 90 5.3.3 Interactions .......................................................................................................... 92 5.3.4 Improved Speaking Skills ................................................................................... 97 5.3.6 Motivation ........................................................................................................... 99 5.3.6 Video Based Learning ....................................................................................... 102 5.3.7 Cognitive Skills ................................................................................................. 105 5.3.8 Relevance .......................................................................................................... 108 5.4 Major implications ........................................................................................................ 110 5.5 Future Studies and Limitations ...................................................................................... 112 5.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 113 References .................................................................................................................................. 116 Appendices ................................................................................................................................. 130 Appendix A: Information on Informed Consent for the Online Questionnaire .................. 130 Appendix B: Online Questionnaire ..................................................................................... 134 Appendix C: Semi-Structured Interview Questions ............................................................ 137 xi List of Figures Figure 1 Factors Affecting Language Learning Materials ............................................................. 9 Figure 2 Factors that Promote SLA ............................................................................................. 16 Figure 3 Benefits of Using CBI/CLIL ......................................................................................... 21 Figure 4 Effective Language Learning Materials and General Education Theories .................... 28 Figure 5 Process for Designing Principles and Language Learning Materials ............................ 40 xii List of Tables Table 1 Core Outcomes ................................................................................................................ 58 Table 2 Online Questionnaire and Interviewee Participant Information……...……..………….61 xiii Acknowledgements I would like to extend my deepest appreciation to Dr. Scott Douglas for the support, guidance, and help over the past two years. I felt inspired by Scott’s love for education, language learning, and materials development. When I had imposter syndrome or low confidence, Scott was always there to provide assistance or words of wisdom which motivated me. Thank you, Scott. Thank you to my committee and external examiner who took time to read my dissertation and participate in the thesis defence process. Dr. Robert Campbell, Dr. Peter Arthur, and Dr. Karen Densky. Thank you all for your valued input and guidance. Thank you to the librarians at UBCO who were always on hand to provide support, even during the pandemic the services at the library were second to none. Finally, thank you to my family and to my incredible partner Sorcha. If everyone in the world had even half the support ye gave me, everything would be possible. xiv Dedication To Sorcha, who helped me beyond belief over the last 24 months. Without Sorcha, this would not have happened, so please direct all complaints towards her. To my family, who were always there to call or not to call. The last two years have taught me so much, but one lesson which stands out is the support of family. 1 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Overview of Chapter 1 Language-learning materials are anything used by a teacher or a learner to learn an additional language (Tomlinson, 2011). It is my belief that language learning materials should be grounded in second language acquisition (SLA) theories, general education theories, and current additional language learning material development principles. Ensuring language-learning materials are efficient and actually foster additional language acquisition is a continuous responsibility and process of being a language teacher. There is an abundance of additional language learning materials available for learners and teachers, but despite this abundance, materials development is still a core part of being an additional language teacher (Tomlinson, 2014). Teachers will adapt or create brand new materials for their learners; rarely does a teacher use the materials 100% as is. While it is quite common for an English as an additional (EAL) teacher to develop their own materials based on pre-existing materials or creates materials from scratch, questions might remain regarding the effectiveness of these materials and the process for creating, adapting, and choosing these materials. Whilst materials development is not an understudied field (AlKhaldi, 2010; Azarnoosh, Zeraatpishe, Favani, Kargozari, 2016; Bao, 2016, 2018; Ellis, 2003; Pinnard, 2014, 2016; Tomlinson, 2008, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2017), it can be concluded that there is no one correct way to develop language materials, which is one of the main drivers for this research. This qualitative research project aims to identify what EAL learners consider are the impacts of using a research informed theoretical framework to develop a set of English for 2 academic purposes (EAP) listening and speaking materials. Through an exploration of material development theories, SLA theories, general education theories, and my own personal practical knowledge (Clandinin, 1985), a set of material development principles were developed for this project, which are presented in chapter 2. This research project used qualitative methods, including data collection in the form of an online questionnaire and a semi-structured interview, to capture the participants’ lived experiences of using the language learning materials created according to a principled framework. All participants in this study were enrolled students in the EAP 100 course at Pacific Interior University (PIU) (a pseudonym) and were on the cusp of attending full-time tertiary education in Canada. Based on the results of the data, it is proposed that using a principled framework for language learning materials development or editing is a beneficial way to approach language learning materials because materials created according to the principles can improve listening skills, foster autonomy, increase interactions, improve speaking skills, increase motivation, take advantage of video-learning, activate cognitive skills, and increase the relevance of the entire materials. The results of this study can aid language learning materials writers by providing them with a set of principles for the creation of language learning materials. 1.2 Summary of Relevant Literature As it is clear there is no one correct way to learn an additional language or one correct way for adults to learn in general, the literature review section of this research paper focused on three areas of learning which combined are believed to provide an efficient and effective way for language learning material development: SLA theories, general education theories, and principles of material development. This study is guided by the concept of principled eclecticism which is a pluralistic view of language teaching and learning that allows materials developers to 3 blend various methods, approaches, and traditions in a principled way that is informed by theory and research (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). The literature review borrows from sociocultural, socio-cognitive, and constructivist thoughts of learning. In my experience of teaching adults, exposure to a language can help students acquire a language, but anxiety can lead students to hitting their affective filter (Burt and Dulay, 1977; Krashen, 1981, 2009) and prevent them from acquiring said target language. According to Krashen (1981, 2009), people can acquire an additional language when they receive comprehensible input. It is important to note that the input learners receive consists of input that a learner understands and also contains language that is just a little bit beyond the learners’ level of understanding. However, if learners are experiencing anxiety or high emotions, an affective filter can block this comprehensible input and impede additional language acquisition. It is also important to note that just because they are exposed to language, it does not mean they will necessarily acquire the additional language (Lightbown & Spada, 2015), the input has to be meaningful for the student, which will be discussed later, as well as comprehensible (Krashen, 1982). This theoretical framework also supports controlled and free production of language. The controlled and free production of language, such as communicative speech, is vital to acquiring an additional language (Swain, 1993, 1995, 2000). Moreover, with communicative speech the students should be more equipped to become a valued member of the community, which is typically one goal of learning English for newcomers (Riley and Douglas, 2016). While Krashen (1982) has hypothesized that people learn additional languages when they are exposed to language they understand (comprehensible input) in low anxiety situations, it has been argued that comprehensible input is not enough, there also needs to be comprehensible output (Swain, 4 1993, 1995, 2000) and interactions (Long, 1996). When students engage in communicative speech with their peers or members of the public, they are being exposed to the additional language in an authentic and natural way, and it may also lead to noticing (Schmidt, 1990) or negotiation for meaning (Ellis, 1997). By borrowing from these additional language learning theories for the development of additional language learning materials, materials writers can create materials which provide rich opportunities to foster additional language learning. A major part of this theoretical framework is that the content of the materials should be relevant to the students as making classroom content relevant to students will help them acquire an additional language, stay engaged, and be more motivated (Knowles, 1980; Lightbrown and Spada, 2015). Moreover, despite all the research conducted on language learning materials, Tomlinson (2011) observed that gaps still appear. There are various schools of thought to language learning material development; for example, Tomlinson (2018) proposed a text-driven approach to Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) (Ellis, 2003). In addition to a text-driven approach, Pinnard (2014) proposed a combination of a text-driven approach to TBLT woven with a metacognitive approach to language learning materials development. By immersing myself in the work of Tomlinson, Ellis, Pinnard, Knowles, and many more theorists of adult education or language learning material development reviewed in chapter 2, I was able to create a theoretical framework for the development of principled language learning materials. Aside from materials development and SLA theories, general education theories also played a role in the development of the theoretical framework. Particularly the work of Dewey (1897), Freire (2000), and bell hooks (1994, 2003). The theoretical framework embodies a push for a classroom democracy (Dewey, 1897), with student autonomy which does not always encourage immediate affirmation (hooks, 1994). Furthermore, the theoretical framework was 5 inspired by Freire (2000) in that it promotes critical thinking and encourages a problem-posing approach. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The main purpose of this study is to identify the impact, from the point of view of the learners, of using a set of English language teaching (ELT) materials, which were informed by SLA theory, general education theory, and material development principles. The hope is that a coherent understanding of language learning materials development emerges so that teachers or course coordinators could use this framework to choose, edit, or create language learning materials for their students. 1.4 Research Question The overarching research question for this study was: How do English for academic purposes students perceive the benefits of using ELT materials developed according to a set of predetermined principles related to effective EAL teaching and learning? 1.5 Significance of Study Despite there being over 20 EAP programs across post-secondary institutions in British Columbia (EAL Steering Committee Chairs, 2020–2021), little research has been carried out investigating materials development for EAP programs, particularly in the Canadian context. . This research will pave the way for material developers and language instructors in a variety of ways, particularly those working in post-secondary contexts. This research will help material developers by giving them insight into the effectiveness of creating materials with a set of principles which are grounded in SLA theories, general education theories, and material development principles. In addition to aiding material developers, it will provide insight for 6 teachers who are often placed in the position of material developers, editors, or creators. The principled framework can be utilized in such a way to guide the teacher to choose materials which they believe best foster additional language learning in their classroom with their students. The teacher can approach a set of language learning materials and by reading the material development principles they can ask themselves if these materials are beneficial for their students. Similarly, if a teacher is editing language learning materials, they can use the principles to tinker and tailor the materials to suit their particular group of students. In addition, when a teacher is creating original materials they can use these principles to ensure the language learning materials foster additional language learning. This research also captures the students’ voice on these materials and the format and structure will lend itself to further studies based on language learning materials. A study which utilizes this theoretical framework and gathers data could be useful for language instructors or EAP material developers or even EAP program coordinators. Furthermore, the framework utilized could also be used by individuals in the private language school industry or facilities where the main focus is on academic English, such as IELTS, CELPIP, or TOEFL preparation. 1.6 Overview of Research Methods Mills and Gay (2016) described qualitative research as the collection, analysis, and interpretation of a data related to a particular phenomenon and described case study research as being appropriate when the researcher wants to answer a descriptive or explanatory question (p.405). This qualitative case study was carried out to investigate the students’ perceptions of using English language learning materials designed according to a principled theoretical framework. By focusing on the students’ perceptions, I tried to set aside my own possible 7 preconceptions related to the outcomes to honour the participants’ voices in the online questionnaire and subsequent semi-structure interviews (Mills & Gay, 2016). This is a case study research paper. Case study research was chosen as for many decades it has been a successful method to gather research in the field of additional language teaching (Duff and Anderson, 2015). The steps taken in the development of this case study research were standard (see Mills and Gay, 2016) in that it started off with determining the research question. Once the research question was determined, the case under study was defined. After, the role of theory was decided and built upon. Then, the theoretical framework was developed which consisted of SLA theory, general education theory, and principles of language learning materials development. Finally, a single case study was chosen as opposed to a multiple or collective study as a single case study was more appropriate for this research. The theory-and-research informed materials were piloted in PIU towards the end of January and start of February 2021 with students who are in the exit level of the EAP program. On completion of using these materials, students were asked to partake in a short online qualitative semi-structured questionnaire to gather data about the materials. The final question asked the participants if they would take part in a 30-minute semi-structured online interview about the use of the principled informed materials. Once the data were collected from the semi-structured questionnaire and interviews, the data from these two sources were gathered, divided into units of meaning (meaningful text segments from the data), coded, and then grouped into several themes. To promote reliability, a consensus approach was taken to the codes between the researcher (me) and my supervisor. Mills and Gay (2016) provided the framework for the coding and data analysis. 1.7 Limitations and Delimitations 8 This research is delimited by only being conducted in one EAP course at PIU. The research was limited to students who were enrolled into the exit level of the EAP program and who used the materials. On account that all the participants were from the same course who were also attending the same university, the findings are not ideal for generalization or suitable to apply to different environments. However, generalization was never the main target of this qualitative study (Mills & Gay, 2016). The main target of this research was to identify the perceived benefits, according to this specific set of students, of using the materials created according to a set of 10 principles of language learning materials development which were grounded in theory. In saying that, the data and design may be used for future research, and while the findings are not generalizable, “they may have some applicability or transferability to a similar setting (Mills & Gay, 2016, p. 559). 1.8 Organization of Thesis Chapter 1 frames the context of the study. Chapter 1 also presents the outline for this thesis. Chapter 2 reviews the literature and theoretical framework which was utilized for this study. Chapter 3 focused on the methods and methodology which was used during this study. Chapter 4 details the findings which emerged from the data collected from the online questionnaire and semi-structured interview. Chapter 5 presents the discussion which combines the findings with the literature review in order to organize the findings for presentation and also suggests ideas for future research. 9 Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Overview of Chapter 2 Figure 1 Factors Affecting Language Learning Materials Figure 1 shows the process of what is important to factor in when creating effective additional language learning materials. The main goal of this research project was to identify the perceived benefits of additional language learning materials, which were created according to a principled framework, utilized by students in an academic environment. I created the language learning materials designed for this project, which were based on a set of 10 material development principles derived from SLA theory, Content-based Instruction (CBI), and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) methods, general education theories, and material development principles. In this chapter each of these is examined in detail. This research was Effective Langauge Learning MaterialsSLA TheoryCBI/CLILGeneral Education TheoryConnection to relevant curriuclumPrinciples of Language Learning Materials Development10 chosen for several reasons, including the fact that I have been teaching EAL for several years and have rarely gone into a classroom and used additional language learning materials as is; there frequently needs to be an overhaul or adaption of materials in order to make them more suitable for a particular set of learners. Moreover, Tomlinson (2011, 2013) completed several evaluations of additional language learning materials which found there to be a gap between the additional language learning materials and SLA theories. This chapter is divided into several different sections. First, SLA theory is examined focusing on methods such as input and output and the difference between language learning and acquisition. Second, CBI and CLIL are examined as a way to integrate SLA theory into materials or activities. Third, general education theories including constructivism and critical pedagogy are investigated to formulate which theories of learning overlap with SLA theories and which could be beneficial for additional language learning materials development. Fourth, materials development is discussed within the scope of curriculum. Fifth, material design principles are explored to try and identify what patterns emerge and what principles are currently being utilized in the creation of materials. Finally, the principled framework which was developed for this research project is presented. 2.2 Second Language Acquisition Theories Within the studies of additional languages, there are many ways to describe the learning process. For this research project several avenues of research were reviewed and described below. First, Krashen’s (1981, 2009) theories are considered. Following that consideration, there is insight into the interaction and output hypothesis with references to negotiation for meaning, noticing, and collaborative dialogue. 11 Krashen’s (1982, 2009) understanding of SLA theory is broken up into five hypotheses which are: (1) The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis; (2) The Monitor hypothesis; (3) The Input hypothesis; (4) The Affective Filter hypothesis; and (5) The Natural Order hypothesis. These hypotheses have played a major role in SLA theory. These hypotheses, in particular the Input Hypothesis and the Affective Filter Hypothesis, have played a pivotal part in the creation of the principles which guided this research project. In the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, Krashen (1982) explained how learning is different from acquisition. Learning implies something is being taught or picked up explicitly. In this hypothesis, acquisition is unconscious or almost passive, and learning is conscious or active. It is proposed that language learning materials should foster both learning and acquisition. Krashen (2009, p.9) stated that the input hypothesis “may be the single most important concept in second language acquisition theory today.” There are few who would disagree that exposure to the English language will help a person develop the language; however, it must be input that the student can comprehend so that they do not feel like they are lost and overwhelmed by the input. In other words, the input must be comprehensible. Teachers can support language acquisition by ensuring the environment includes comprehensible input, which means they need to choose materials and conduct activities based on the level of the class which fosters comprehensible input. The input hypothesis is theorized to help a learner, or an acquirer, go from one stage of English to the next stage, where the acquirer’s current level of English is i and their desired level is i+1. Krashen (2009) stated that acquisition of the +1 will take place when two criteria are met: when the input is understood and there is enough of it. It is not important to focus on the fluency at this stage. For Krashen, comprehensible input is vital to language acquisition; However, there 12 are others who say that input is not the sole way for a student to acquire or learn a language, something which will be touched on later in this chapter (e.g. Swain, 1993). The input hypothesis (Krashen, 2009) can be explained through the following major points: 1. The input hypothesis focuses on acquisition, not learning 2. Students can acquire an additional language by being exposed to language a small bit ahead of their current level of understanding 3. Fluency is acquired and not learned, it will be unveiled in time 4. When aware speakers (competent users or teachers of the target language, or additional language learning materials in this research study) communicate to the acquirer (students), input contains the language a small bit beyond the acquirers’ current level (+1) 5. Input can be obtained from competent users of the target language, teachers, or from an acquirer’s peers. However, rarely will input be successful in the outside real world, unless the speaker modifies their language to be more comprehensible to learners. Originally put forward by Dulay and Burt (1977), the affective filter was added on to by Krashen (2009). The Affective Filter hypothesis states that a student’s anxiety, lack of motivation, or low self-esteem can hinder language acquisition (Krashen, 1981, 2009; Lightbown and Spada, 2015). Given that students can be faced with many stress-inducing challenges when attending university including being away from families, friends, or loved ones, not having access to a stable financial source, and a lack of free time (Bitsika, et al., 2010), and given that the students in this research were all international students where the challenges are also extended to a new culture and language, it is possible their individual affective filters could be raised when attending university. Furthermore, students have recognized that stress negatively impacts their ability to learn a new language (Binfet, et al., 2016) which aligns with Krashen 13 (2009) where he believed teachers’ “pedagogical goals should not only include supplying comprehensible input, but also creating a situation that encourages a low filter” (p.32). Fahim (2014) also explained how a low affective filter can be beneficial for critical thinking. Krashen (1981; 2009) advanced SLA theory and inspired others to reply. A goal of additional language instruction is to help learners achieve automaticity where choosing words, utilizing effective pronunciation, choosing accurate collocations, choosing combinations of words that naturally occur together, choosing the correct grammar structures, and when retrieving word meanings is essentially automatic (Lightbown and Spada, 2015). This process is only achieved when the cognitive process in the learner is activated. Automaticity has been described by Segalowitz (2010) as being important for language learning because when a language can be used automatically, it frees up more resources for learning. When less resources are being used for acquisition, more resources can be dedicated to learning. Krashen’s theories are complemented by Michael Long (1996) and Merriel Swain (1993, 1995) in that comprehensible input (Krashen, 2009) is absolutely necessary for additional language acquisition, but it might not be fully adequate for that acquisition to take place; there needs to be more. Building on Krashen, Long (1996) discussed the importance of interactions, and Swain (1993, 1995, 2000) discussed the importance of comprehensible output and collaborative dialogue. Both of which are rooted in more cognitive functions than just comprehending input. The interaction hypothesis (Long, 1996) suggested that a cognitive process helping acquisition is triggered when students engage in interactions. When engaging in output and input both interlocutors are exposed to opportunities to negotiate for meaning (Schmidt, 1990); they are in a position to receive modified or non-modified feedback from the other interlocutor. Modified interactions can be beneficial and using conversation modifications (comprehension 14 checks, clarification requests, self-repetition, or paraphrasing (Ellis and Shintani, 2014; Lightbown and Spada, 2015) can aid this process. A further benefit of utilizing interactions in the classroom and through materials is that in the classroom environment students are going to be engaging with people on the same or similar linguistic level. By engaging with people of the same or similar level, students are not going to become overwhelmed by the response, which often happens when proficient target language users over-elaborate when negotiating meaning (Ehrlich et al., 1989). Language learning materials should include opportunities for peer-to-peer classroom interactions as effective negotiation for meaning is more likely to take place when two non-native speakers of a language interact with each other (Varonis & Gass, 1985). By engaging in interaction and producing output, the student is in the moment where noticing can take place. Schmidt (1990) theorized that learning cannot take place until an element of the target language is noticed by the leaner. Swain’s comprehensible output hypothesis (1995, 2005) stated that language learning and acquisition can come with controlled and free production of language. The controlled and free production of language, such as communicative speech, is vital to acquiring an additional language. Comprehensible input is not enough. Moreover, according to De Bot (1996), output can help a student increase their command on already partially acquired language. By providing opportunities for free and controlled production of communicative speech, students are likely to engage in modified interactions, authentic interactions, negotiation for meaning, and both the interlocutor and listener are usually cognitively engaged. These principles relate to Swain’s theory in that they push the student to use their additional language with different listeners and thus may notice the limitations of their own language. Furthermore, Swain (2000) explained how output can increase grammatical competence. The classroom and the materials should include 15 ample opportunities to produce output, be it written or verbal, and have opportunities for reflection and growth. Additionally, Swain (2000) advanced her output hypothesis to include collaborative dialogue. Collaborative dialogue occurs when two speakers are engaged in knowledge construction and the solving of problems together. Through collaborative dialogue speakers use cognitive processes to mediate their thoughts and the thoughts of their peers. Students work together to construct meaning, and this co-construction is beneficial for additional language acquisition. Collaborative dialogue is supported by Gass et.al (2005) whereby they argued that communication activities which do not include reaching an outcome together are less effective at promoting additional language acquisition than activities where students must work together to reach an outcome. Furthermore, it is important to include opportunities for output because, as Swain (1996) highlighted, there can be a lack of student output in CBI/CLIL classes. Thus, additional language learning materials should provide opportunities for students to co-construct knowledge and problem solve in a communicative setting. Overall, Ellis and Shintani (2013) summarized that interaction assists incidental additional language acquisition by providing opportunities for output that facilitate additional language development. Figure 2 draws together the various theories which have been discussed. There is not one sole way to learn or acquire a language. A combination of the various theories of additional language learning and acquisition can be combined together to inform an environment where students can learn or acquire the English language. As a result of there not being one sole way to learn or acquire a language, a materials developer, editor, or teacher choosing material should base their choices or decisions on various applicable and relevant SLA theories. 16 Figure 2 Factors that Promote SLA 2.3 Content Based Instruction and Content and Language Integrated Learning Proponents of CBI assert that an additional language is acquired through communication (Larsen and Freeman, 2018) and that people learn an additional language when they have opportunities to use the language to acquire information (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). Similarly, teachers working within a CLIL framework apply the same principles as CBI to use content to create a rich language learning environment. CBI and CLIL share the same core properties and do not, in general, pedagogically differ (Cenoz, 2015). An overlapping trait of CBI and CLIL is that they both use content as a vehicle for learning a language. Additionally, Richards & Rodgers (2014) have stated that additional languages are best learned when the focus is not on the mastery of language but on the mastery of content. CBI/CLIL regularly involves activities which SLASufficient Comprehensible InputLow Affective FilterEgnagement in InteractionsProduction of OutputCollaborative DialgoueOpportunities for NoticingOpportunities to Negotiate Meaning17 connect various skills as it is based on the real world (Richards & Rodgers, 2014), which in turn can use a wide array of skills to foster learning. In this section, the steps in designing CBI/CLIL will first be discussed. Following that, CBI/CLIL’s relationship to learning and SLA theory will be examined, focusing on the development of community and independent learning. Finally, learning as a socio-cognitive skill will be discussed. CLIL is a forward design model which usually starts with the design of a syllabus that contains both content and language (Richards, 2013). CLIL can be used to develop language proficiency as well the mastery of subject matter, critical thinking, and other cognitive skills through the use of a syllabus that integrates both language and subject matter (Richards, 2013) to reach the overarching goal of helping students achieve their language goals and more. Wiggins and McTighe (2005) summarized the steps that can be applied to utilize a CLIL approach to curriculum and materials. First, the learning outcomes are identified. Following that, the evidence needed to be gathered from students in order to assess if the goals have been reached are determined. Then, the teaching and learning experiences which students need in order to produce the evidence are created. This is similar to Merrill’s (1983) Component Display Theory where the first stage is determining the overall goals, the second stage requires the creation of learning objectives to meet those goals, the third stage is where the assessments to determine if the goals have been achieved are created, and the final stage is where the instructional content is created or chosen. When using CBI/CLIL both content and language goals need to be established by the teacher. Furthermore, the teacher needs to scaffold the necessary language needed to help the student find the content and language meaningful (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). What is important is that the steps all remain consistent to each other. For example, the final assessments and learning experiences must be related to the final desired outcome. 18 Content has become an important cog in the design of many modern EAL programs (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2018) and additional language learning materials as it relates to the key SLA theories discussed earlier in this chapter. This style of using content to teach language is popular in many language schools and programs which utilize content to develop courses such as English for Specific Purposes (Aviation, Autobody, Physiotherapy, etc.), or even the Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC) program which targets the completion of real world tasks (making a phone call, reading a schedule) after being reviewed through content and language instruction. In both of these programs, language is the medium for learning content, not solely instruction (Mohan, 1986). CBI/CLIL can be used to foster learning for students and can be more effective than language focused classes (Richard et al., 2014). When connecting CBI/CLIL to SLA theory, there are several overlaps. CBI/CLIL is connected to SLA theory in that this approach promotes the development of communities and independent learners, the content is motivating, relevant, and engaging, and CBI/CLIL can generate a social approach to learning, When adopting CBI and CLIL for materials development, teachers can also take steps in creating a community and independent learners in the classroom by utilizing engaging and critical content to stimulate interactions and discussion. The creation of social relationships and community in the classroom can enhance academic and social engagement for students (Engstrom & Tino, 2008), and CBI fosters students working together collaboratively (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). hooks (1994) articulated how building community in the classroom requires the recognition of each individual voice, regardless of opinion. In addition to the formation of communities, students who are in a CBI/CLIL environment are also known to learn independently (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). Becoming an autonomous learner shows 19 development, maturity, and can foster additional language acquisition faster than purely associating learning with the teacher or the classroom. In the CBI/CLIL classroom, students are not passive agents who digest language, they are active participants who need to modify their output (Swain, 1993) and who need to critically engage with the content to learn. However, despite the benefits of utilizing CBI/CLIL, this style of collaborative learning is not often familiar to the learners based on their previous educational experiences; as a result, the teacher needs to understand that it may take time for learners to learn via this method. Another benefit of using a CBI/CLIL approach to EAL teaching is that this approach is generally more motivating, interesting, and engaging. It can provide immediate relevance to students’ lives compared to approaches which focus purely on language (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). When students are not motivated, interested, or engaged, it is unlikely they will learn as the learning could be inhibited by students’ affective filters (Krashen, 2009). When teachers utilize engaging content, which is relevant and motivates students, they can better deduce that students will learn more efficiently. Furthermore, additional language learning is thought to be more efficient when students are more fixated on ideas, problems, or formation of or analysis of other people’s views, rather than being purely fixated on language (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). Another reason a CBI/CLIL approach to materials development is beneficial to learning is that it is connected to Vygotskian thoughts of learning. Vygotsky (1978) hypothesised that knowledge is constructed when a learner is socially active and interacting with others on the same level as themselves, the teacher, or experts. In Vygotsky’s approach to learning, learning is a social act which utilizes the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (the metaphorical space between what learners can do on their own and what they can achieve in collaboration with 20 others), internalization, assisted performance, and imitation, all of which can be beneficial for additional language acquisition. According to Vygotsky’s (1978) conception of the ZPD, there are two types of development: the actual development level and the potential development level. The ZPD is connected to the latter of these. The ZPD is a socio-cognitive construct (Ellis, 2014) in which learning involves the psychological contributions that learners make in their social environment. Using the ZPD to help EAL learners is more effective than providing random help (Nassaji and Swain, 2000). Swain (2000) explained that learning transforms to development when the transformation of external activities to mental ones occur. She called this process internalization. Internalization is when language moves into the learner’s brain from their environment (Ohta, 2001). By fostering interactions, teachers provide an opportunity for this transformation and internalization to occur. Additionally, by utilizing CBI/CLIL, teachers can create an environment where language can move from the environment or content to the learner’s brain as the content is relevant and meaningful. Engaging in interactions and producing output can help generate the process of imitation. Imitation is a creative and transformative activity where a student steps from something they know to something new (Vygotsky, 1986). When engaging in collaborative dialogue and interactions, the possibility of imitation is heightened. As imitation is a social-cognitive process, interactions are a way to increase this feature of additional language acquisition and also increase the chances of deferred imitation (Lantolf, 2006). Including groupwork around the meaningful content is a way to establish the necessary terrain for imitation. Figure 3 shows the various aspects of CBI/CLIL which are beneficial to learning and additional language acquisition. 21 Figure 1 Benefits of Using CBI/CLIL 2.4 General Education Theories To base the purpose of learning a language on the definition supplied by Riley and Douglas (2016), where the goal of learning a language is for newcomers to be able to converse, connect, and contribute as a valued community member, this purpose would navigate the EAL classroom to a communicative, constructive, cognitive, and CBI/CLIL classroom which also includes relevant principles from the First Peoples Principles of Learning (FPPL) (FNESC, 2015). Approaching materials writing with a critical-constructivist lens can advance teaching and the study of languages in ways that can promote social justice, including but not limited to the interests of the working class, women, non-heterosexuals, ethnic minorities, marginalized CBI/CLILDevelops communities and social relationshipsCreates independent learnersMotivates EngagesUses relevant content as a vehicle for languagePromotes a socio-cognitive approach to learning22 peoples. This approach also includes perspectives that valorize environmental conservation and peace (Crookes, 2012). Constructivism allows the material writer to include activities which activate cognitive functions of the brain, promote the use of a critical pedagogy, and is extremely well suited towards a CBI/CLIL method of learning. In this section, FPPL, critical pedagogy, critical thinking, power in the classroom, and the position of the learner are discussed. 2.4.1 First Peoples Principles of Learning Many well renowned general education theories and leading SLA theories complement the FPPL. In 2008, a Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was convened in Canada. The TRC’s mandate is to inform all Canadians about what happened in the Indian Residential Schools (The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2021). The Residential School System was a range of institutions in Canada which existed for the purpose of: …separating Aboriginal children from their families, in order to minimize and weaken family ties and cultural linkages, and to indoctrinate children into a new culture—the culture of the legally dominant Euro-Christian Canadian Society, led by Canada’s first prime minister, Sir John A. Macdonald.” (The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015, Preface, v). Given the role of education in the oppression of Indigenous people and the negative impact of the Residential School System, including FPPL in the classroom and learning materials is an integral part and responsibility of being a teacher or a materials writer in British Columbia. FPPL must be included in the process of teaching in an attempt to further decolonize the educational system. By including aspects of FPPL educators can take steps in achieving decolonization and help learners learn not only content but also learn in a way which teaches 23 them how the FPPL can transcend the classroom and help transform the leaner. When creating materials, the materials writer should also have a solid foundation of general education theories which align with FPPL. FPPL includes the idea that education is a complex process which is personal and holistic, that education is embedded in relationships not only to each other but to self and to land, and education is most effective when it is authentic and relevant (Chrona, 2016). Additionally, FPPL (FNESC, 2015) include the principle that learning supports the well-being to the self, the family, the community, the land, the spirits, and the ancestors. FPPL encourages responsibility of one’s actions and promotes student independence. According to FPPL, learning involves patience and time, which is similar to some theories which will be explored later in this section. 2.4.2 Critical Pedagogy For this research project, approaching ELT material writing with a critical pedagogical lens helped create materials which foster learning and additional language acquisition. By breaking from the traditional educational style of banking (i.e., depositing knowledge into learners) to a more liberal pedagogy (Freire, 2000), the learner can be at the centre, and the materials create an environment where learners can experience, discover, and explore. Critical pedagogy, which is inspired by Freire (2000) and hooks (1994, 2003), integrates social issues into the classroom and can be beneficial for EAL learners. Furthermore, critical pedagogy is also strongly connected to FPPL. Critical pedagogy is an essential approach for constructivism as it focuses on issues in the students’ lives that are problematic, and issues which they may be equipped to change or improve through having literacy or an additional language (Crookes, 2012). In addition, the FPPL overlap critical pedagogy whereby they state that learning involves recognizing the 24 consequences of one’s actions and that learning also involves patience and time. Crawford (as cited in Crookes, 2012), being inspired by Freire, established a set of principles for language critical pedagogy. These principles incorporated critical thinking in the form of problem solving, real life content, production of materials by the students, subject matter as second to organizing generative themes, teachers as learners included in the dialogical process, teachers posing problems, and students having the power of independence and decision making. 2.4.3 Critical Thinking Critical thinking is an integral part of constructivism, CBI, and additional language acquisition. Freire (2000), who was against the traditional style of banking education in which an expert imparts knowledge on students, advocated for a type of literacy that goes beyond the ability to read and taps into critical thinking. If students are merely containers where the teacher deposits information (Freire, 2000), real learning will not take place. Critical thinking activities which are utilized in the learning process can often touch on critical issues. When there is a critical issue being discussed, teachers will have to give up their needs or desires for immediate affirmation for the greater good of learning (hooks, 1994). Similarly, a materials writer should understand that when creating materials, not all questions need an immediate answer. The learner should also give up the need for immediate affirmation and realize education is a long and transformative process which requires patience; a process which includes tension but also time and space for the teacher and the learner to work through difficult aspects of the target (Mezirow & Taylor, 2009). This change in paradigm can be one of the hardest things for teachers and learners, but once this paradigm is changed, a new type of learning can take place (hook, 1994). Surrendering immediate affirmation was also described by Freire (2000) in Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Freire strived for a type of literacy where students can think for 25 themselves. If a learner’s success is based on immediate affirmation, thinking for oneself may not be achieved. By not supplying immediate affirmation and encouraging patience, students should naturally ponder something for longer and think more critically. When students understand that there is not just one correct answer, they can start to see the true value of literacy and thinking. By keeping these points in mind, a material writer can create materials which do not always give immediate affirmation, but rather promote critical thinking and then affirmation at a later stage. As Freire emphasized a style of education that envisioned learning as an act of culture and freedom, it was not a style of education that lent itself to immediate affirmation. Textbooks may be filled with multiple choice or fill in the blank questions, but these types of assessments which give immediate affirmation do not solely foster additional language acquisition (Lightbown & Spada, 2015). In the EAL classroom, there are many ways to answer one question, and the learner needs to be aware of that multiplicity and the materials need to encompass variation. 2.4.4 Power in the Classroom The question of power in the classroom is a common theme amongst constructivist theorists. Dewey’s (1897) approach to a democratic education was revolutionary at the time. Vygotsky (1978) pushed for the teacher to be more of a guide. Freire (2000) disdained the style of education where the teacher deposits information and the learner consumes. hooks (1994) approached the question of power through a critical constructivist lens. hooks (1994, 2003) has inspired many teachers to revise the role of power in the classroom. 2.4.5 The Position of the Learner The position of the learner is something which EAP material writers need to consider. By utilizing materials which are derived from a socio-cultural constructivist environment, teachers 26 can better understand how to position the learner. Dewey (1897) believed that an individual who is to be educated is a social individual. Similarly, Vygotsky’s (1978) socio-cultural learning theory, hooks (1994) promotion of communities, and Freire’s (2000) idea that learners were not containers can be combined to inform material writers about where to position the EAL learner. Overall, learners need to be independent, learners do not need to be treated or act like containers, and learners need to be creative and make mistakes. Interactions are important for additional language acquisition and learning (Long, 1995; Lightbown & Spada, 2015). Interactions can take place in the classroom community or in the wider community. In order to thrive in these situations, students need to have some level of educational independence. This independence can be observed when students take ownership of their learning and are able to learn without direct instruction from the instructor (Landry, 2019). There is also a connection between student autonomy and effective learning (Chan, 2000). The standard EAL classroom may be made up of students who might have learned through conservative, traditional educational practices and conceptualize learning as only taking place with the presence of the professor (hooks, 2003). A constructivist understanding of pedagogy helps learners become independent because independent learners are more likely to expose themselves to the community, and this community involvement can foster additional language acquisition. The learner should tap into their creativity and imagination in a constructivist classroom and materials need to accommodate and foster this. According to Dewey (1897) and Eisner (2002), creativity can be a huge step forward in achieving pedagogical goals. Placing the learner in a creative environment is not an easy task; however, it can be beneficial to EAL learning. Creative learning is something which a lot of students are not familiar with and may be 27 apprehensive of. Similar to hooks’ (1994) students, they may not see the point in doing a critical or creative activity as it does not adhere to other more conventional styles of learning. Including creativity and the arts in the EAL classroom can help the students understand that there can be more than one solution to a problem and that you do not need to be perfect every time, variability of outcome is okay (Eisner, 2002). However, it must be said that “creativity in spelling is no virtue” (Eisner, 1992, p.594), but spelling is only one layer of learning a language. An activity that has clear objectives or outcome can foster creativity, critical thinking, and additional language acquisition. When linking creativity to additional language acquisition, teachers can deduce there are low levels of anxiety amongst the students (Krashen, 1982), there is authentic output amongst the students (Swain, 1993), there is negotiation for meaning with partners (Long, 1996), and there might also be noticing (Schmidt, 1990). 2.4.6 General Education Theories Conclusions Overall, a variety of educational theories have been discussed as well as their connection to effective language learning materials. Figure 4 presents the connections between effective language learning materials and general education theories. 28 Figure 2 Effective Language Learning Materials and General Education Theories 2.5 Curriculum Design and Materials Development Considerations for an EAP Program In this following section, a backward design approach to the creation of language learning materials will be discussed, with reference to the EAL materials created for this research project. First, a brief summary of forward, central, and backward design will be given. Following that description, this section explores backward design and its relationship to material development for this project. Finally, backward design and objectives will be discussed. 2.5.1 Forward, Central, and Backward Design and Materials Development Teaching EAL and creating materials for EAL are two related skills, but they utilize vastly different methods. When reflecting on SLA theory, it could be argued that the classroom should always be student centred, should require the student to be an independent learner, and Effective Language Learning MaterialsPromote classroom communities and sharing of powerUtilize FPPLInfuse critical pedagogy Contain relevant and social content as well as problem-solving activitesFoster critical thinkingPosition the learner in a creative, helping, and independent fostering envorinment29 should be based around activities that promote comprehensible input or output. This understanding does not mean that the methods employed in the language learning classroom need to be the same as additional language learning materials. When a teacher approaches a classroom, they may opt for a forward design approach. Forward design is positioned in a linear fashion where the content of instruction is resolved before methodology and output are decided. Some teachers may go for a central design approach to the class, which means that meaning is prioritized over accuracy, the teacher is a facilitator, the class is activity-based and the content is negotiated with learners, that the sequence of events may be determined by the learners, and that the curriculum development starts with the selection of teaching activities (Richards, 2013). Whilst this approach to curriculum may be suitable for the classroom, there are many reasons this central design approach would not be a feasible way to create additional language learning materials. A different approach that also adheres to SLA theory would better benefit materials writers; namely, an approach that employs backward design. 2.5.2 Backward Design For this research project identifying students’ perceptions of additional language learning materials, a backwards design approach to material development was adopted. Generally, in materials development, it is necessary to develop materials in relation to a certain curriculum and to be mindful of the audience (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). In the EAL world, students are the primary clients and the desired outcomes are determined by the achievement of desired learnings (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). As has been presented earlier in this chapter, one may have an idea of how people learn languages or how people learn in general, but conveying that information to paper and materials requires a knowledge of what the goals of the particular program or course are. 30 Materials are developed for a wide range of classes and contexts. As Wiggins and McTighe (2005) stated, teachers do not have the freedom to teach any topic they choose, but they are guided by guidelines set out by national, state, district, or institutional standards which state what students should know and be able to do. For materials writers, these guidelines mean they need to choose an approach that caters to a wide range of classes and contexts. The material writer must have a clear idea of the desired results before creating materials, including the content and activities. If the material writer is producing materials for an individual agent, like a private language school or an exam preparation course, a central design approach which is focused on activities may be adopted; however, if materials are being developed for a wider program, like the university EAP program at PIU, the writer must inform themselves of the curriculum adopted by the EAP program in question and create materials with the curriculum at the forefront of their decisions. Backwards design has been known as a “ends-means” approach (Tyler, 1949) or a program that begins with a statement of the results or outcomes (Richards, 2013) and then appropriate teaching activities and content are derived from the desired results of learning. Wiggins and McTighe (2005) presented three steps for achieving coherent backwards design: (1) Identify desired results; (2) determine acceptable evidence; (3) plan learning experience and instruction. In addition, backward design has been explained by Tyler (1949) as a program that puts specification of ends as a precondition for developing instruction. 2.5.3 Objectives and Backward Design As many educators are “focused on textbooks, favored lessons, or time-honoured activities—the inputs—rather than deriving those means from what is implied in the desired results—the output” (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, p.15), the materials writer should create 31 materials which aid the teacher by having an end goal started before the creation of activities or content. A materials writer should consult any guiding frameworks or publications about the program they are aiming to create the materials for in order to identify the end goals of a unit of materials. Teachers and materials writers can fall into the trap of using an activity which they know works, using a method which they feel comfortable with, and using a strategy which students enjoy as these three things can provide immediate affirmation or help the student feel content with the class. This popular type of objective based learning can run the risk of turning the materials into a mechanical exercise of converting statement of needs into objectives (Richards, 2013). A lot of teachers and materials often project content and activities against the wall and hope some of it sticks (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005); whilst these activities may be engaging for students, the question remains as to whether this approach is beneficial. This easy but perhaps ineffective method of teaching and material development can be avoided by adopting a backwards design approach to lessons and for the materials writer, additional language learning materials. Teaching methods, or in the writer’s case activities, can not be chosen until the desired outcomes have been specified (Richards, 2013). Sometimes, what appears to be the most efficient activity to reach an objective may come at a higher cost of learning. One way to navigate this issue is to have a bank of activities to choose from which have desirable outcomes or evidences of achievement. Through experience, the writer will know which activities are best suited to the relative objective. It is not a case where the material writer says “I must include this activity,” rather it’s a case of “Students must achieve this objective. What evidence do I need to show the student has achieved this objective? And what teaching and learning experiences do the 32 students need to have to produce this evidence? Which of my activities can aid this process?” A material writer may be keen to include activity x, because activity x has a proven track record of producing output and fostering additional language acquisition, but if activity x does not reasonably help the student produce evidence that they have achieved the objective, unfortunately activity x must be exchanged for a more suitable activity. By not basing the materials on activities but end objectives, the material writer can follow the three steps of Wiggins and McTighe (2005) stated earlier. Wiggins and McTighe (2005, p. 17) summed up the approach in backward design as shifting from “What will we discuss” to “what should they (the students) walk out the door able to understand or do regardless of what activities or tests we use?” and this approach also puts more emphasis on the evidence of ability. For a good materials writer, finding the accurate content is vital to achieving the objectives, and following that they can resort to their bank of activities and include them. Student autonomy is an important part of additional language learning and this recognition of autonomy means that all additional language learning materials should include engaging content and several activities which all help the student achieve the final objective, without needing to complete all the activities. Identifying the needs and outcomes is clearly an integral part of backward design and subsequently an integral part of materials development. Needs analysis can be done by consulting a curriculum or consulting students themselves. However, access to a group of students is not something a materials writer always has the luxury of having. A materials writer creates materials for a group of students they have never nor will ever meet. As a result, the writer needs to consult the outcomes and needs based on the curriculum adopted by the respective institution or publisher. This hurdle of not having students to engage with influenced 33 the material development principles produced for this research by inspiring the materials development principle where it promotes student autonomy and choice within the unit of materials. By giving a rich choice of activities which together and individually lead the student to the desired outcomes, the teacher or student can pick and choose activities. There is not one activity or content piece which can lead all students to the objective; hence, the materials writer must include a bevvy of choice within the materials. This can be a time consuming task for the materials writer and indeed, a lot of it may be in vain as some activities or content may never be touched on, but by putting the time into the materials the writer can ensure that a sound learning environment which fosters additional language acquisition and guides students towards the needs and outcomes is achieved and can give the teacher more opportunities to focus on teaching and nurturing the student. Tomlinson (2018) is an advocate for text-driven language teaching, and Ellis (2003) is an advocate for task-based language teaching (TBLT), Tomlinson (2018) responded to Ellis with his text-driven approach to TBLT, and Richards (2013) wrote about TBLT and backward design. For this research, a text-driven approach, which will be elaborated on in the next section, to TBLT was adopted which focused on what students need in the real world, in this case, what students need to become valued members of the community and to succeed at tertiary education in Canada. Once materials writers can identify these needs, they can start to produce tasks which guide the student to completion of these tasks. Thus, these principles and subsequent materials were to help students with tasks that they would face outside the EAL classroom. Through simulations in the classroom of these kinds of tasks, students should be better prepared to perform the tasks outside the EAL classroom environment. The materials created for this 34 research project were heavily impacted by a backward design, content or text-driven approach to TBLT, and the materials created focused on the students completing meaningful tasks. Overall, when it comes to creating additional language learning materials, writers need to consult the relevant curriculum to determine whether to focus on forward, central, or backward design. For this research project, a combination of engaging content through backward design was applied. 2.6 Material Development Principles Language-learning materials are anything used by a teacher or a learner to learn a language (Tomlinson, 2011). Developing a framework for additional language learning materials development and evaluation is not a new phenomenon (AlKhaldi, 2010; Azarnoosh, Zeraatpishe, Favani, Kargozari, 2016; Bao, 2016, 2018; Ellis, 2003; Pinnard, 2014, 2016; Tomlinson, 2008, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2017), and it is already grounded in research and theory. However, gaps still appear (Tomlinson, 2011, 2013) and material development is an ever-evolving field. When researching various theories of material development, one should always have SLA theories in mind (Tomlinson, 2017) and educational theories in mind. Several authors have taken different paths to material development from Tomlinson (2018) and a Text-Driven approach to Ellis (2003) and a Task-Based approach, and to Pinnard (2014) who combined them both along with a metacognitive approach to develop material based on three theories of learning. There is no one correct way to develop language materials; however, basing additional language learning materials on SLA theory, general education theories, and in current materials development principles, materials writers can develop a set of principles for language learning material development. In this section pitfalls to avoid in materials development are discussed in which a 35 description of effective materials is presented and ineffective activities are discussed. Then a text-driven approach to materials development will be examined. 2.6.1 Pitfalls in Additional Language Learning Materials Development When looking at what not to do for materials development, Tomlinson (2008) outlined some negative aspects of additional language learning materials. Problems included the way material developers underestimated learners’ abilities, the overuse of certain approaches, the insufficient use of recycling, an excessive focus on practice of typical examination tasks, and the failure to help the learner make full sense of the experience available to them. In order to avoid these pitfalls, materials writers can tap into the work of Bao (2016) and utilize his description of effective additional language learning materials. 2.6.2 Description of Effective Additional Language Learning Materials Following Bao’s (2016) description of effective materials, ELT materials writers can get more helpful insight into the creation of additional language learning materials. According to Bao, good additional language learning materials should: (1) attend to both form and meaning; (2) allow learners to observe rules in the language; (3) research features of written and spoken discourse; (4) move beyond the initiation-respond-feedback model; (5) utilize learners’ individual knowledge; (6) invite learners to interpret events; (7) demonstrate an open view towards topics; (8) create interesting, believable characters; (9) avoid stereotypes; (10) work in combination with other resources; (11) allow choices; (12) leave room for conceptualizing learner needs; (13) reflect learner identity; (14) utilize resources from real life; (15) care about learners’ feeling and bring learning enjoyment; and (16) cater for diverse learning styles (pp. 195-201). These comments echo the works of Tomlinson (2018) and AlKhaldi (2010). Ensuring additional language learning materials achieve the above provides a strong path to creating 36 effective additional language learning materials and avoids the pitfall of creating ineffective additional language learning materials. 2.6.3 Additional Language Learning Materials and Activities As Bao (2016) was focused on materials as whole, Tomlinson (2018b) wrote how little the activities which feature in EAL coursebooks have changed in the 50 years in which he has been using, writing, evaluating, or advising on coursebooks. Activities are a central part of additional language learning materials development, and Tomlinson asks the question whether certain activities are likely to facilitate language acquisition or not. When designing materials this is a good question to anchor the development of the materials. For the materials writer, consistently asking this question when designing materials can help the writer utilize a theoretical approach to the materials. By rooting the activities that make up the materials in SLA theory, materials writers can help students develop their language. Tomlinson (2013, 2016, 2018a, 2018b) has explained that a effective activity is likely to encompass five tasks: (1) exposing learners to a rich, recycled, comprehensible and meaningful input of language in use; (2) engaging the learners affectively; (3) engaging the learners cognitively; (4) paying attention to form during or after a meaning-focused activity; and (5) providing learners with opportunities to use the target language in authentic communication. Darici and Tomlinson (2018) presented a case study of principled materials in action where the conclusion deduced was that by using a text-driven approach, it is believed students’ chances of achieving engagement, motivation, linguist awareness, self-confidence, and therefore acquisition were increased. To avoid this pitfall of not utilizing activities or creating materials which increase the engagement, motivation, or linguist awareness, a text-driven approach to TBLT was adopted. 2.6.4 A Text-Driven Approach to Task Based Language Teaching 37 Given that a backward design approach to materials development was adopted for this research, and that the EAP program at PIU employs an approach that includes thematic teaching through content which uses content as a vehicle for language learning, a text-driven approach to TBLT was utilized to shape the backward design approach. In fact, CBI can be considered as a type of task-based approach to additional language teaching (Skehan, 1998). TBLT started to become more mainstream and organized in the SLA world with pioneers like Ellis (2003) and Long (2015). Tomlinson (2018) described TBLT as an approach where students are set a meaningful task with non-linguistic outcomes. Tasks include the teacher having language learning objectives in mind and aiding students with any language issues they encounter in the task. The task should have a fluid blend of input and output. Ellis (2018) described the four main conditions for a task: (1) A task is meaning-focused activity; (2) A task does not specify the exact meaning or content to be addressed as this will be subject to modification when it is performed; (3) A task should mimic what people do in the real world; (4) A task should have a sense of completeness. Tomlinson (2018) described the task in TBLT as anything that is present in the materials. A task includes action that needs to be undertaken by the learners and action that has the direct aim of helping the student learn an additional language. Whilst Long (2015) placed more emphasis on the outcome of a task, Tomlinson has placed more emphasis on the text. A text-driven approach to materials development is where the unit of material is not driven by pre-selected teaching points but affective and cognitive engagement with written or spoken texts (Tomlinson, 2018). A text can be alive and authentic and as Tomlinson (2018) said, it can be related to the real world and generate authentic interactions. The use of a text is central to Tomlinson (2018) who claimed that using texts in a TBLT environment can increase the affective and cognitive engagement of the students, increase the value of the content and 38 education of the unit, generate authentic and valuable tasks, and expose the students to a rich and meaningful exposure to language in use. Overall, for Tomlinson, the use of an engaging text can drive production in a way that solely TBLT can not. When approaching materials design with the text-driven approach to TBLT lens, the choice of texts is clearly an integral aspect and an aspect which needs to be clearly laid and thought out. 2.7 A Principled Framework for Materials Development By examining current materials development frameworks, materials writers are able to ground their materials in a strong principled framework. When creating materials for language learning the writer needs to go beyond solely materials development principles and take from SLA theories and general education theories, all of which were described in this chapter. Equipped with knowledge of how people learn languages, CBI/CLIL, general education theories, backward design approaches to materials development, text-driven approaches to TBLT, and material development principles or frameworks, a set of 10 principles were developed for this research project. Figure 5 shows this process and the relationship between theory, the principles, and effective language learning materials. These principles are perceived to help language teachers and materials writers ensure language-learning materials are efficient and actually foster language acquisition, which is a continuous responsibility and part of the process of being a language teacher or materials writer. Each principle is connected to various theories of education and SLA. It is important to note that it is not one principle one SLA theory, but one principle and many SLA theories. It is hoped the following principles can guide the creating, choosing, or evaluating of additional language learning materials. Each principle has been crafted by drawing on all the theorists mentioned with the end goal of creating effective additional language learning materials. It is believed that 39 by creating materials with this principled framework materials writers can create materials which foster additional language acquisition and boost language learning. It is also hoped that the language learning journey of the learner is more critical and meaningful. These principles could also serve as a way to adapt current materials.. Whilst some materials may not apply all of the principles, if the teacher can put their own stamp on the materials based on some of these principles, the materials could become better equipped to foster additional language acquisition. 40 Figure 3 Process for Designing Principles and Language Learning Materials SLA TheoryMaterial Devleopment Principles General Education TheoryCBI/CLIL10 Principles of Language Learning Materials Development Language Learning Materials 41 The additional language learning materials development principles are as follows: 1. The language learning material or activity is as authentic as possible. 2. The language-learning material or activity actively reduces classroom anxiety. 3. The language-learning materials use language which is thought to be in the +1 area of the students’ additional language. 4. The language-learning material or activity helps students become valued members of the community. 5. The language-learning material or activity promotes controlled and free production of communicative speech. 6. The language-learning material or activity provides a rich recycled exposure to the target language. 7. The language-learning material fosters critical thinking, empowerment, and motivation. 8. The language-learning material utilizes engaging and relevant content and objectives. 9. The assessments in the language-learning materials provide several options for competition and are relevant to the context of the situation and content of materials. 10. The language-learning materials are based on the relevant curriculum or guidelines adopted for whom the materials will be used. 2.8 Conclusion By examining and combining SLA theory, general education theory, and principles of materials development materials writers can develop a set of coherent and reliable principles of language learning materials development. These principles are fluid and as time goes on they may evolve. Furthermore, one principle does not necessarily align with just one particular SLA 42 theory; rather, one principle may align with many SLA theories, general education theories, and material development principles combined. For this research, I created a set of language learning materials which were guided by the principles above. These materials were subsequently piloted with EAP students in PIU. The findings are presented in chapter four, and they are connected to the relevant literature and theory in chapter five. 43 Chapter 3: Research Methods 3.1 Overview The aim of this chapter is to elaborate on the methods used to gather information to conduct this research study. To start, a rationale for the research study is provided. Following that, the research question, philosophical approach, research design, trustworthiness and validity, participant and research setting, research instruments, research methods, first contact, the pilot study, and limitations and bias, creative commons are all included. To conclude, a short summary is attached at the end. 3. 2 Rationale Language-learning materials are anything used by a teacher or a learner to learn a language (Tomlinson, 2011). These materials should, as far as possible, be grounded in SLA theories to support additional language learning (Tomlinson, 2017). Ensuring language-learning materials are efficient and actually foster language acquisition is a continuous responsibility and process of being a language teacher. There is an abundance of additional language learning materials available for learners and teachers. However, materials development is still a core part of being a language teacher. Teachers will adapt or create new materials for their learners, and rarely does a teacher use the materials 100% as is. While it is quite common for EAL teachers to develop their own materials based on others or create original materials, questions remain as to the effectiveness of these materials and the decision-making process related to creating or choosing materials. This research project aims to discover what the impact of using a research informed principled framework to develop a set of EAP listening and speaking materials is on EAL 44 learning is for students. Through an exploration of material development theories, SLA theories, general education theories, and my own personal practical knowledge (Clandinin, 1985), a set of EAL material development principles were developed for this project, and subsequent materials which were piloted in the EAP 100 program were also created. The set of ten principles for language learning are as follows: 1. The language learning material or activity is as authentic as possible. 2. The language-learning material or activity actively reduces classroom anxiety. 3. The language-learning materials use language which is thought to be in the +1 area of the students’ additional language. 4. The language-learning material or activity helps students become valued members of the community. 5. The language-learning material or activity promotes controlled and free production of communicative speech. 6. The language-learning material or activity provides a rich recycled exposure to the target language. 7. The language-learning material fosters critical thinking, empowerment, and motivation. 8. The language-learning material utilizes engaging and relevant content and objectives. 9. The assessments in the language-learning materials provide several options for competition and are relevant to the context of the situation and content of materials. 10. The language-learning materials are based on the relevant curriculum or guidelines adopted for whom the materials will be used. 45 Whilst materials development is not an understudied field (Ellis, 2003; Pinard, 2014, 2015; Tomlinson 2013; 2017), it can be concluded that there is no one correct way to develop language materials, which is one of the main drivers for this research. The purpose of this qualitative research study was to explore the perceived benefits and student perceptions of using theory and research informed EAP listening and speaking materials. The research aimed to bridge the gap between SLA and general education theories and ELT materials (Tomlinson, 2013). It is hoped that this research can aid the development of specific EAP materials for listening and speaking classes as well as develop a solid and reliable framework which teachers can follow when choosing, adapting, or creating materials for EAL learners. 3.3 Research Question The research set out to answer the question: How do EAP students perceive the benefits of using ELT materials developed according to a set of predetermined principles related to effective EAL teaching and learning? 3.4 Research and Philosophical Perspective The research perspective for this study is informed by a case study approach where I aimed to capture the experience of the participants (Duff and Anderson, 2015; Mills and Gay, 2016). A case study was chosen as case-study research can give a first-hand perspective of the participants’ lived experiences and what impact those experiences had on them (Duff and Anderson, 2015). It was important for me to bracket my own experiences of language teaching, learning, and material creation in order to really understand those of the participants in the study and to capture their voices in an unbiased manner (Nieswidaomy, 1993). Also, collecting the participants’ voices in an unbiased manner as possible was achieved by ensuring that I 46 consistently tried to not let my own opinion or personal bias influence the study. However, I do bring a certain background in teaching and learning that may have influenced how the data were collected and analyzed. This background is outlined in 3.4.1, which further explains my positionality in relation to this research project. As has been stated before, the purpose of this research was to identify the students’ perceptions of the perceived benefits of using ELT materials created from a set of principles, and through a qualitative case study approach this process of identification was achieved. By adopting this approach, I was able to understand the experience of using these materials through the eyes and lived experiences of the participants involved. In terms of language learning, the principles and materials were created from a sociocultural and constructivist viewpoint. Therefore, it supports the use of a qualitative methodology. By combing through the online questionnaire responses and the semi-structured interview transcripts, I was able to identify certain themes which emerged and were common between the participants. As has been stated before, I approached the interviews with a bracketed mindset (Nieswidaomy, 1993) so that any preconceived notions of the materials or the answers participants would give would not interfere with the qualitative approach and take away from the participants’ voice. Interview techniques were inspired by Wolcott (1994), Stringer (2007), and Mills and Gay (2016), which are all cited in more detail later in this chapter, so that I would strive not to impose my own beliefs and sway the participant in one direction in the interview. This philosophy was also utilized when I was analysing the data after it was collected in order to give the most unbiased and fair analysis possible. 47 3.4.1 Positionality Despite trying to stay as unbiased as possible, my own personal teaching philosophy combined with my teaching and learning background may have influenced aspects of the research. Who I am, what my teaching experience is, and what my role in the EAP program was where this study took place all may have influenced this project. At the time of this research project, I had been teaching EAL for over seven years. Prior to teaching EAL, I studied to become a religious and history educator in Ireland. This educational journey of being a student to becoming a teacher led me to believe and follow certain aspects of teaching and learning which may have affected the interpretation of the data. Having worked in many different educational environments ranging from state schools, private language schools, private tutoring, and not for profits, I believe that education is an act of freedom and in order for learning to place, students need to feel welcomed and need to discover why they are learning before they can learn. Furthermore, my role in the EAP program at PIU may also have influenced the research. Whilst I was not involved as an instructor in the EAP 100 course at PIU, I was involved in the EAP 99 course as a Graduate Teaching Assistant (GTA) at PIU one semester before the research was carried out. When this research project was carried out, I was employed as an Open Educational Resource (OER) materials developer at PIU. Having worked with students in the EAP 99 program and having immersed myself in the relevant work of a materials developer, it gave me insight as to the level and ability of the class. Despite my best attempts to bracket myself from preconceived ideas or notions, my previous teaching and learning experiences, employment in various teaching contexts, and 48 employment at PIU may have affected my interpretation of the data; however, given the relevant experience which was utilized for this research project to understand and interpret the data, it can be viewed as an asset rather than a liability in achieving a more comprehensive understanding and interpretation of the data. 3.5 The Language Learning Materials Grounded in the set of material development principles, which were presented in chapter 2 and at the start of this chapter, the unit created for this research was targeted at students from non-English speaking backgrounds who were enrolled in the EAP pathway program at PIU, with the goal of full admission to their target undergraduate programs. The overarching theme of the EAL learning materials created for this research was on the topic of ecology and ecological issues. The unit consisted of authentic materials which were chosen to motivate and engage the students without overwhelming them. As the main purpose of these materials was to prepare students for taking discipline-specific courses at the post-secondary level in Canada, the materials were designed to help students critically think and develop the academic English skills that support successful learning experiences at a university in Canada. The EAL learning materials created were anchored on two authentic Ted Talks (Hessburg, 2017; Leonard, 2019). The two Ted Talks chosen for these language learning materials were based on the overall theme of ecology and ecological issues. This theme was chosen by my supervisor and I as we felt it was an engaging topic where students could not only be engaged but also learn relevant content which would help them in their post-secondary education. The ecological issues included in these materials were on the topics of water contamination and wildfires. The former was chosen as many people around the world can relate to it, and the latter was chosen as it is an issue which affects British Columbia. Both issues were 49 thought to enhance student engagement, and they aligned with the academic level of English which students may encounter during post-secondary studies at an English-medium university in Canada. The unit used a text-driven approach (Tomlinson, 2011) to task-based language teaching and learning (Ellis, 2003). The use of authentic texts was chosen to expose students to comprehensible input (Krashen, 1982) and because they are thought to be interesting for the students and the topics are relevant to academic English (Knowles, 1980; Lightbrown and Spada, 2013). Furthermore, the unit included several activities which promoted student independence, critical thinking, the development of classroom community (hooks, 2003) and the production of student output (Swain, 1993), collaborative dialogue (Swain, 2000), and interactions (Long, 1995). The inclusion of interactions and output were an essential feature as it can lead to noticing (Schmidt, 1990) or negotiating for meaning (Ellis, 1997; Long, 1996). Several parts of the unit involved problem-based learning (Freire, 2000), as this is another way to promote content and additional language learning. Furthermore, the use of productive vocabulary and grammar structures was embedded throughout the unit. These aspects of the English language and content were chosen as they are not only relevant (Lightbrown & Spada, 2013) to learners but they also reflect what students will hear and need to use in tertiary level education in Canada. Another key feature of these materials was that they were useable on all digital formats (tablets, smartphones, computers, laptops). Accessible materials became a colossal issue for students during the 2020 and 2021 Covid-19 pandemic, and these EAL learning materials needed to reflect this change. The language learning materials created consisted of 12 hours of content with online teacher resources and extra optional supplementary materials for students. One of the aims of these materials was to expose students to a wide variety of English in use; thus, this unit contained more content than was needed in a bid to give more autonomy to the learner so they 50 could choose what supplementary activities or materials suited them. It was important that every aspect of the materials was easily accessible through computers, laptops, tablets, and smartphones. Overall, students were given a textbook, two key word e-books, over two hours of video-based learning experiences, and extra worksheets. This unit of material was designed to foster the development of three core speaking and three core listening skills related to the learning outcomes of the Articulation Guide for English as a Second Language Programs in the British Columbia Post-Secondary Transfer System (2019). The core speaking skills chosen for this unit of materials were: (1) Paraphrase and summarize sources orally and use citation practices appropriate for visual presentations; (2) Use learned vocabulary, idioms, and colloquial expressions; (3) Use a wide variety of tenses and complex structures appropriately (p.41). The core listening skills were: (1) Distinguish between formal and informal register, style, attitude, and purpose in speech; (2) Apply note-taking strategies; (3) Use critical thinking skills to formulate conclusions and opinions in level-appropriate contexts. (p. 37) The EAL learning materials were aimed at students in an IELTS band of 6–6.5 or Canadian Level Benchmark (CLB) 7/8 level where the comprehensibility of the content and materials was aimed at a general equivalent to a grade 10–12 reading level as per the readability statistics of MS Word. The CLBs are a national standard for describing, measuring and recording additional language proficiency for adults in Canada. Overall, there are 12 CLB levels, but the CLB pertinent to this study is CLB 8, which aligns with the ESL Articulation Guide Level IV and EAP 100 at PIU. This unit was designed to enhance the listening and speaking of students who were admitted to undergraduate program but were still developing their English language skills for full-time studies. In addition to the authentic Ted Talks, the unit included 51 supplementary vocabulary activities and videos, grammar activities and videos, critical thinking activities, pronunciation activities and videos, and final outcome activities which were created by me, a teacher with over seven years experience in the EAL field. 3.6 Research Design The design of this qualitative study was established to identify how EAP students perceive the benefits of using ELT materials developed according to a principled framework derived from known and supported SLA theories, material development principles, and general education theories. The purpose of this study was to gain insight to the students’ perceptions of the perceived benefits of using these materials so that EAP instructors, EAP material designers, or program coordinators could possibly use this or an adapted framework when creating, choosing, or modifying EAP materials. Furthermore, it could open up an opportunity to delve into a larger or more focused study focusing on students’ perceptions of all ELT materials. First, a pilot study was conducted in October 2020 which resulted in several changes to the materials and data collection procedure, then in February 2021 the materials were deployed again and data were collected for the research project. 3.6.1 The Pilot Study The EAP materials as well as online survey and semi-structured interview were piloted in PIU in October 2020 to an EAP class in a medium-sized research-intensive university in British Columbia. The EAP class is a pseudonym as are the levels mentioned. The aim of the pilot study was to identify potential practical problems and to alert me to important aspects which may be comprised (Van Teijlingen and Hundley, 2001) and to act as a dress rehearsal for the full-scale study (Mills and Gay, 2016). When conducting the pilot study 52 several areas of improvement were identified and relevant overhauls were made. Overall, changes were made to the online survey and the materials themselves. For the former, changes were made in terms of presentation of information on informed consent, use of sections, volume of and order of questions; and for the latter changes were made to make the materials more e-friendly and accessible for students and instructors. 3.6.2 Changes to the Materials The materials which were created for this research project were well received by the instructor and students of the EAP program during the pilot phase; however, there was room for improvement. Changes were made to make the materials more e-friendly as well as more suitable to an online learning management system (LMS). Due to COVID-19, the majority of students were abroad and took this program online. Thus, they did not have access to a physical copy of the unit of materials. According to the instructor of the pilot study, this led to some frustration as students wanted or thought the materials would be interactive and editable. In order to navigate this problem and make the materials more accessible or usable two changes were made; (1) the materials were uploaded to the university’s LMS; (2) editable word documents were created which students could download, write their comments or answers onto, and reupload for correction. The videos and listening materials for the unit, which were hosted on YouTube in the pilot, were uploaded to the LMS, so students did not need to visit an external site to complete the activities. Moreover, by utilizing the university’s LMS, the activities were more interactive. For instance, quizzes, assignment submission areas, and discussion threads were created for the study, thus students could complete the unit exercises and questions and sometimes even obtain an instant result. This use of the LMS also had the added benefit for the instructors who may 53 have not been overly familiar with using the university’s LMS. COVID-19 forced a bevvy of changes, but the use of the university’s LMS navigated the majority of issues created related to the materials and research. 3.6.3 Refinements to the Data Collection Procedure The pilot study also led to several refinements in the data collection procedure. Three key research decisions were made in this study in relation to the online questionnaire: (1) Reduce the number of sections in the questionnaire from four to two; (2) Reduce the amount of questions in the questionnaire from 18 to 12; (3) Reorder the questionnaire. Overall, these changes had a positive effect on the amount of data collected as after the second reminder email was sent to potential student participants, there was more of an uptake in responses and more detail in the responses. In conclusion, the lessons learned in this pilot section of the research were vital to the success of the main research that took place in the subsequent semester. Before conducting this research project, ethics approval was sought and obtained from the UBC Okanagan Research Ethics Board. In February 2021, data were gathered from an online questionnaire and semi-structured interviews with EAP students from PIU, both of which included closed and open-ended questions. The survey and the interviews were confidential, and informed consent was explained to participants in the first contact meeting after the materials were used by the students and once again at the start of the semi-structured interviews. The names of all the participants were kept confidential and during the interviews the students chose a pseudonym to be referred to. This research was also considered minimal risk as participants’ personal information was not recorded for the online survey, and if participants opted for the semi-structured interview, it was kept confidential. The participants’ participation or lack of participation had no affect on 54 their grade within the EAP program, and each student was made aware of this on several occasions. Also, all data will be kept for five years after publication in a secure location, after which all of it will be deleted or destroyed. 3.7 Trustworthiness and Validity Trustworthiness and validity were ensured for this study by following two main sets of researcher guidelines, Guba (1981) and Wolcott (1994). Guba’s article “Criteria for Assessing the Trustworthiness of Naturalistic Inquiries” was utilized in terms of increasing credibility, transferability, and dependability. For credibility purposes, practising triangulation and member checks; for transferability, understanding that the goal of this research is to understand the data collected and how it is not applicable to generalize to larger groups of people; hence, the setting has been described rigorously in this chapter to allow readers to visualize the environment where the research was conducted; for dependability, utilizing the overlap method by using a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview. In addition, I have drawn on Wolcott (1994) to further ensure validity and trustworthiness by following his eight strategies for ensuring the validity of qualitative research: (1) Talk little; Listen a lot; (2) Record Observations Accurately; (3) Begin Writing Early; (4) Let Readers “See” for Themselves; (5) Report Fully; (6) Be Candid; (7) Seek Feedback; (8) Write Accurately. Moreover, to further the reliability of this research, which is to ensure data would be collected consistently if the study were repeated (Mills and Gay, 2016), I have included a detailed account of how the data were collected and analyzed in section 3.9 of this chapter. 3.8 Research Setting 55 The EAP program at PIU combines English language learning and academic courses while also infusing campus life. The EAP program is an innovative and credit-bearing program which provides university admission for a wide range of undergraduate programs in PIU for students who do not meet PIU’s English language proficiency requirements. The EAP program at PIU is made up of two courses, EAP 99 and EAP 100. The EAP program at PIU adopts content as a vehicle for learning English as an additional language. The curriculum makes use of a blend of thematic-based and content-based teaching approaches which align with the outcomes stated in the Provincial Articulation Guide for Post-Secondary EAL (Province of British Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education, 2019) which are also aligned with the CLBs (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2012). The EAP 100 course, which is worth 3 credits, is a 20 hour per week course for 12 weeks. Students have 7.5 hours of reading and writing and 7.5 hours of listening and speaking per week in EAP 100. In addition to the 15 hours of reading, writing, listening, and speaking focused instruction, there are also five hours of language labs. The language labs give students the opportunity to work one-on-one or in groups with EAP teaching assistants in order to help them boost their comprehension of the content and concepts covered in class. Students in EAP 100 may also enrol in two academic courses. Students in EAP 100 must achieve a final grade of 68% or higher to pass the course and gain access to their full academic programming at PIU. The EAP program at PIU is designed to help students engage in activities which increase their abilities in English, successful academic study, intercultural communication, and integration to university life. Students in this program are encouraged to find their own voice, so they can become a member of the community in a meaningful way. Students in the EAP program participate in cultural immersion activities as well as language labs and as has already been 56 stated, academic courses. As mentioned above, the students in the EAP program at PIU have 20 hours of instructional content per week; however, due to COVID-19 students did not have the entire 20 hours as synchronous education in a face-to-face setting. Rather, the course was offered online in accordance with PIU’s university protocols. For both reading and writing and listening and speaking, students had a total of between four and six hours of synchronous class time, with the remaining time made up asynchronously. Students also had two hours of mandatory language labs, with the other three hours offered as needed. The EAP program curriculum at PUI incorporates content-based instruction (CBI) (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011), with the curriculum incorporating a series of thematic units based on typical undergraduate subject areas, such as education, biology, geography, business, science, and technology. By utilizing CBI as an organizing feature of the curriculum, the EAP program is able to foster an environment where learning takes place via rich content. Thus, the program is one where language is a vehicle for learning content (Mohan, 1986). The students get a “two for one” program with content and language learning outcomes (Wesche, 1993). It is a program where students are evaluated on their knowledge of content and their language ability (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). There are clear objectives related to skills ranging from academic communication, cross-cultural communication, and comprehension and oral proficiency. The teacher should use authentic texts when possible, utilize lots of examples, build on students previous experiences, and create activities which teaches both language and content (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). As my research was carried out in January 2021, many of the participants for this research were not living in British Columbia. This situation meant that the research setting was now taking place online and in a more diverse environment. In other words, due to the 57 emergence of COVID-19, the research setting shifted from a face to face experience to an online experience. The curriculum, content, and overall aim of the research did not change, just the implementation of each. Data collection shifted from originally planned face to face interviews, to online interviews. This also meant that recruitment was to be conducted online, all the data collection was conducted 100% remotely. The materials designed for this research were also fully adapted to be used online via PIU’s LMS. The EAP program at PIU, which has been planned for a duration of 12 weeks for a total of 240 hours, incorporates some of the key learning outcomes included in the Articulation Guide for English as a Second Language Programs in the British Columbia Post-Secondary Transfer System (Province of British Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education, 2019). Learning EAP is recognized as an ongoing process that involves a synthesis of core skills and competencies (Province of British Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education, 2019). The core competencies include study skills, critical thinking, problem solving, and group interaction skills. The curriculum for the PIU was created with some of the key learning outcomes found in the Articulation Guide, which stated: Students who have successfully completed Level IV of English for Academic Purposes will have the language skills necessary to enter post-secondary level academic, technology, career and vocational programs, including those requiring English 12 prerequisites. They will be capable of functioning effectively in formal, extended, unpredictable, and challenging situations typical of the teaching and learning environments at Canadian colleges, vocational institutes, and universities. (p.15) By studying the Articulation Guide (2019) and PIU’s website I was able to develop materials which would aid students in their additional language learning journey and prepare them for 58 Canadian colleges or universities. The learning outcomes for both speaking IV and Listening IV (Province of British Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education, 2019 p. 37, 41) were taken into consideration during the EAP curriculum development process at PIU. With this in mind, the learning outcomes for Listening IV and Speaking IV played a large role in the materials developed for this research. Drawing from this guide, I infused aspects of the performance conditions and learning outcomes of both listening and speaking into the materials. Table 1 displays the core outcomes from the Articulation Guide (2019) which were influential to the materials. Table 1 Core Outcomes (Province of British Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education, 2019, p.37, 41) Listening IV (P.37) • Demonstrate comprehension of listening material by successfully completing level-appropriate tasks • That require description, discussion, explanation, categorization of ideas and details, paraphrasing, • Identify major and minor points and rhetorical patterns in discourse. • Interpret long, detailed instructions and directions for academic tasks. • Use critical thinking skills to formulate conclusions and opinions in level-appropriate contexts. • Apply note-taking strategies. Speaking IV (P.41) 59 • Paraphrase and summarize sources orally and use citation practices appropriate for visual presentations. • Produce speech that is almost always comprehensible with accurate use of common patterns of intonation, linking, words stress, and sentence stress. • Use learned vocabulary, idioms, and colloquial expressions. • Use a wide variety of tenses and complex structures appropriately. • Express critical thought appropriately • Respond to questions and feedback • Give a clear and well-organized presentation that includes information accessed and evaluated for use from online and/or print reference sources. Overall, the research setting was conducted in a research-intensive university in BC. The participants were all highly motivated and aiming for a minimum 68% grade as this grade is the passing grade. The curriculum is made up of several facets, including social engagement activities, academic courses, and language labs. The materials were also designed with these in mind. 3.9 Participants The criteria for partaking in the online questionnaire and semi-structured interview was simple: be a registered student in the EAP 100 course of PIU and have used the materials which were created from a principled framework created for this research. Potential participants were recruited from the EAP 100 course at PIU during the Winter 2 semester in January 2021 via 60 purposive and snowball sampling methods. The former is where the location and potential participants are chosen in accordance with certain criteria and the latter is where the researcher identifies people who fit the criteria of the study and asks the participants to identify other possible participants who also fit the criteria (Mackey & Gass, 2012). The majority of potential participants had completed the EAP 99 program at PIU. All potential participants were on the cusp of entering their target undergraduate programs full time in PIU. This particular EAP class is the exit stage of the entire EAP program in PIU. Overall, seven participants took part in the online questionnaire, four of the seven gave their contact details for the semi-structured interview, two took part in the semi-structured interview, and two never replied to follow up emails. Table 3.1 provides information on the students’ respective demographic information who completed the online questionnaire as well as those who participated in the semi-structured interview. The participants for the survey and semi-structured interview were all between the ages of 19 and 21. Furthermore, none of the students were based in Canada at the time of the recruitment phase. One was based in Mexico, and the rest were based in China. As many of the participants were not based in British Columbia due to COVID-19, the research setting is more varied than what it would have been without the impact of COVID-19. Despite the impact of COVID-19, I made myself available for the semi-structured interviews at a time which suited the participants, regardless of the local time. 61 Table 2 Online Questionnaire and Interviewee Participant information Number Gender Year of birth First language Country of origin Currently living Interview Yanjin Male 2000 Chinese China China Yes N/A Prefer not to say 2002 Chinese China China No N/A Female 2002 Chinese China China No N/A Male 2002 Chinese China China No Rodrigo Male 2001 Spanish Mexico Mexico Yes N/A Female 2001 Mandarin China China No N/A Male 2001 Mandarin China China No 3.10 Research Instruments: Online Questionnaire and Semi-Structured Interviews There were two main research instruments utilized in this study: an online questionnaire and a semi-structured interview with willing participants. The two research instruments were reviewed and approved by the research ethics board. The level of comprehension of the questionnaire and interview questions were set at a Canadian high school reading level by running the texts through the Flesch-Kincaid readability tools in Microsoft Word. This reading 62 level was deemed sufficient because the students were in an EAP 100 course, and this reading level aligns with the CLB 7 and 8 levels for this course. 3.10.1 Online Questionnaire The online questionnaire was hosted on Qualtrics, a survey tool used by UBC and hosted in Canada. The questionnaire consisted of two sections. The first section was included in order to gain consent from the participants whilst the second section was included to gather three points of information: background information about the participants, some data on the perceived benefits of the EAP materials, and an invitation to the semi structured interview. At the start of the second section, participants had the option of giving their name and email address indicating if they would like to partake in the online semi-structured interview. The online questionnaire was set up to only take between ten and fifteen minutes of the participants’ time. The questions for the online questionnaire were made up of several sections. The first section covered informed consent and the second section gathered some background information from the student, then data related to the students’ perceptions of the materials used, and finally an invitation to participate in a semi structured interview. Refer to Appendix A for the full questions included in the questionnaire. I gave the link to the online questionnaire to the students in our first contact meeting which is described below in section 3.11. I also attended a second language lab to help potential participants with any questions they might have had and to review the questionnaire. Also, an email reminder of the survey was sent out by a member of staff in the EAP program. I also went back to the class to walk them through the online survey again a week later. This was approved in a post approval activity from the ethics board. 3.10.2 The Semi-Structured Interview 63 The semi structured interview was completely optional for the participants. The final question of the online questionnaire invited students to leave their name and email if they wanted to participle in the interview. If participants did leave their information, it was kept confidential. If participants indicated they would like to participate in the semi structured interview, I then contacted them. All the semi-structured interviews were conducted online through a UBC Zoom account. The semi-structure format was utilized in an attempt to keep the interview free flowing, natural, and open (Wolcott, 1994). The interview questions were created to elicit information from the participants, to elicit their opinions, thoughts, criticisms, and feelings about the EAP materials they had recently used as well English language learning materials in general. The semi-structured questions are included in Appendix C. Once the interviews were completed the interviews were downloaded onto my own password protected computer. The video file was deleted, and the audio file was transcribed and then deleted. I checked over this information more than once to be sure it was transcribed correctly and a copy was sent to the participants to look over, if they desired. The participants had an opportunity to correct or change any information which was included in the transcripts. To ensure confidentiality, each participant used a pseudonym. Each interview took between 20 and 30 minutes of the participants’ time. The semi-structured interview started off with an oral reminder of informed consent and the participants were reminded of how they could withdraw from the semi-structured interview at anytime. The same questions were used for each participant in the semi-structured interviews. However, some probing questions varied depending on the answers the participants gave. Prior to the recording of the session, I asked and answered any questions or concerns the participants had. Once everything was clarified, the interview 64 proceeded and was recorded. During the interview, I followed the guidelines by Wolcott (1994) which were to be candid, seek feedback, and often check for clarity. 65 3.11 Research Methods Qualitative research is the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data related to a particular phenomenon (Mills and Gay, 2016), and this research study was created to qualitatively investigate the students’ perceptions of ELT materials designed with a principled theoretical framework. I approached this study by trying to avoid any preconceived notions, with the intention of creating as blank a slate as possible that was going to be filled with the students’ responses via the online questionnaire and semi-structured interview. Overall, this section focuses on the first contact and subsequent reminders of the research with the participants and the methods which were used to gather and analyze the data. 3.12 First contact with potential participants I attended two virtual language labs. The purpose of the first meeting was to introduce potential participants to the online questionnaire, go over the meaning of informed consent, and give them the link to the website it was hosted on. The second virtual meeting took place within 14 days after the first where the purpose was to address any questions the students had with the questionnaire and research. Students were also given time in the virtual language lab to complete the online questionnaire. Even though participants were given three weeks after the initial meeting to complete the online questionnaire, it is important to note that if a student did complete the online questionnaire and indicated they would like to partake in the semi-structured interview, they were contacted, and the semi-structured interview was set up almost immediately. The decision to not wait for the three-week period to end before starting interviews was taken because the students had just used the materials in question and therefore the sooner they were interviewed about the materials the more accurate and credible the answers may have been. 66 Once the data were collected from the semi-structured questionnaire and interviews, a process of writing and reflecting on notes to further understand the data, and describing and classifying was conducted. Following the initial analysis, the questionnaires and interviews were coded and to promote reliability, a subsection of the codes were double-checked by a second researcher and a consensus approach was taken. Rossman and Rallis (2017) state that coding is the formal representation of analytic thinking. It is a complex and iterative task which involves thinking through what researchers take as evidence of a category or a theme. When coding, the researcher needs to be coherent and diligently approach word choice for the themes which illustrate or elaborate on the chosen concept. Important data were recorded on a Microsoft Word table, and as I read and reread the data, it was compiled into emergent themes or categories. I approached the data with questions I hoped would be illuminated with no clear sense of what the findings would be; themes emerged from the data and were coded. Mills and Gay (2016) provided the framework for the coding and data analysis. To ensure credibility in the study, I consistently asked myself the six questions posed by Dey (1993), which were related to observation or hearsay, motivations of the participants, biases of the researchers, the reliability of the data, the circumstances, and corroboration of observations. This practice was extremely important when developing, conducting, and analysing the online survey and semi structured interviews. For data interpretations I followed techniques described by Wolcott (1994) and Stringer (1996), which were also summarized in Mills and Gay (2016, p.578): (1) Extend the analysis; (2) connect findings with personal experience; (3) seek the advice of critical friends; (4) contextualize findings in the literature; (5) turn to theory; and (6) know when to say when. 3. 13 Limitations and bias 67 Throughout this study, I had to always self reflect to ensure the limitations and potential biases were not going to affect the research in a detrimental way. Overall, I acknowledge that sampling, participant responses, instrument bias, and research validity were all open to interference. As a result, steps were taken to mitigate any potential interferences in these areas. To avoid a potential response bias of having too few questionnaires returned (Mills and Gay, 2016), two virtual face to face meetings with the students were organized and two follow up emails with the link to the online questionnaire were sent out to the potential participants for the study. These follow-ups were taken to try and boost the trustworthiness of the questionnaire and further enhance the recruitment process for the semi-structured interviews. Indeed, it is important to note that in the initial pilot study there was a lack of initial participation, so aspects of the online questionnaire where changed, which are detailed in the pilot section of this chapter. A post approval change was submitted to the ethics board and accepted. In order to ensure maximum participation in the online questionnaire students were asked to open the online questionnaire in the first contact language lab. I then went through the online questionnaire with the students and showed the students how it would only take maximum 15 minutes of their time to complete. Furthermore, students were encouraged to partake in the semi-structured interview by reminding them that it was an opportunity to reflect on their own language learning journey and to have a one to one interview with a qualified EAL teacher. Whilst I was not part of the instructional team for the EAP 100 course, I had already formed a relationship with some of the participants as they had progressed from the EAP 99 course in the prior months where I served as Graduate Teaching Assistant in the Fall semester when these participants were in the EAP 99 course. Despite this, I assumed that the participants were honest in their responses in the questionnaire and the semi-structured interviews. All 68 findings in this research project were based on the responses given for this EAP class and this set of participants. Several steps were taken in order to avoid instrument bias with the online questionnaire and semi-structured interview. All questions in the online questionnaire were designed to be understood at no more than a Grade 12 level of reading comprehension. Moreover, there were no material questions related to the participants ethnicity, race, gender, language, or religious orientation as these may distort the performances or responses of the participants (Mills and Gay, 2016). Also, the materials created with the principled framework were on a topic, ecology, that would invite students to examine the topic from a variety of perspectives. With regards to the semi-structured interview, the questions were building on those in the online questionnaire and the probing questions were unrelated to the students’ personal lives. One of the main objectives of this qualitative study was to discover what happened and what participants felt when using these materials which were created according to a principled framework. This approach does not mean that this principled framework or these materials are the only way for EAP students to learn; however, it does provide a detailed account of what this group of EAP students perceived beneficial and non beneficial in these materials and of the aforementioned principled framework on their language learning journey. In order to increase the validity of results of this study, another research study could be conducted with another group of EAP students. Furthermore, it would be insightful to see this study replicated or built on in other EAP programs in the Canadian context as it would further develop an understanding of students’ perceived benefits of EAP materials created or chosen in line with this principled framework and principles. This future would give more reliability to the framework and principles as a guide to developing, editing, or choosing EAP materials. 69 3.14 Creative Commons License A creative commons licence (Creative Commons, 2020) was adopted for the materials used in this research project. The decision to licence the materials in this way was in a bid to ensure that they could be used by another researcher or teacher who may find the materials suitable. The creative commons licencing for these materials state that the materials may not be used for commercial purposes, that the same licence must be used for any remix, transform, or build on the materials, and the user must give appropriate credit, provide a licence, and indicate if changes were made to the licensor. The licence also states that people may share, copy, and redistribute the material however they may want, and it allows them to adapt, remix, transform, and build upon the materials. The hope is that in the future these materials are used again for more research, or just for general learning of English as an additional language. 3. 15 Summary This qualitative study aimed to identify how EAP students perceive the benefits of using ELT materials developed according to a set of predetermined principles related to effective English as an additional language teaching and learning. This chapter included information on the methods included in this research project. Data were gathered in the form of an online questionnaire and a semi-structured interview with 2 participants. Participants were recruited using purposive and snowball sampling methods, and the interview was carried out with influence from Wolcott (1994). Once data were gathered, they were analyzed through a coding process and key themes emerged (Creswell, 2009; Mills and Gay, 2016). Overall, the study provides insight into the perceived benefits of using theory and research informed ELT materials in an EAP program preparing students for post-secondary studies in Canada. 70 Chapter 4: Results 4.1 Overview of Chapter 4 This chapter reports the findings of this study from the online questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. When the research was conducted all participants were registered students in PIU who were completing the EAP 100 course and who had used the language learning materials created for this research. This chapter presents a summary of the research methods, a description of the participants, a description of the results organized according to the major themes, and finally a conclusion. 4.2 Summary of Research Methods In this qualitative case study, I aimed to capture the lived experience of the participants (Mills and Gay, 2016). The lived experience was in relation to the participants’ use of the EAL learning materials created according to a principled framework. The overarching aim of this research was to identify the perceived student benefits of using these materials. I aimed to understand the experience of using these materials through the eyes of the participants. The study was completed in PIU with the EAP 100 class with participants from two different countries who were on the cusp of attending their target undergraduate programs at a university in Canada full time. Data were collected via an online questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The data are presented verbatim from the participants and the students’ own words were not changed in an attempt to capture exactly what the participants meant. First, units of meaning were identified from the answers to the online questionnaire and semi-structured interviews, with the units of meaning being data extracts in the form of short phrases or sentences that conveyed a particular idea. Then the unit of meanings were coded and 71 grouped together into themes. In addition, the codes were reviewed by my graduate supervisor in collaboration with me to ensure trustworthiness, reliability, and validity (Mills & Gay, 2016). 4.3 Participants Participants for the survey consisted of students registered in the EAP program at PIU who had recently used the EAL learning materials created with the principled framework. Eight students took the online questionnaire. Of those eight students, seven gave permission for their information to be used, four gave permission to be contacted for an online semi-structured interview, and two students attended the semi-structured interview. The first seven questions of the online questionnaire gathered information regarding the participants’ demographic information. Questions included were based on length of studying English, level of education, gender, year of birth, first language, country of origin, and where participants were currently living. All of the questionnaire participants had been studying English for five or more years when they took the questionnaire. Seven out of eight students said university was their highest level of education, whilst one student said college was their highest level of education. Four participants identified as male, two participants identified as female, and one student chose “prefer not to say.” All of the participants were born on or after the year 2000: one participant was born in 2000, two were born in 2001, and four were born in 2002. One participant spoke Spanish as a first language, whilst the rest of the participants spoke Chinese or Mandarin. One participant was from Mexico and the other six were from China. One of the participants were living in Canada at the time of the study, one participant was living in Mexico, and the rest of the participants were living in China. 4.4 Results 72 The overall aim of this research project was to investigate the perceived benefits, according to the participants, of using principled informed EAL learning materials. Based on the participant responses in the questionnaire and interview, the use of principle-informed materials improved listening skills, fostered autonomy, increased interactions, improved speaking skills, increased motivation, took advantage of video learning, activated cognitive skills, and increased relevance. Figure 4 Themes from Data Collected 4.4.1 Improved Listening Skills The materials which were developed using the principles helped the participants with their listening skills in English. When asked if these materials helped him in improving his English skills, Rodrigo said: Themes from Data CollectedImproved Listening SkillsFostered AutonomyIncreased InteractionsImproved Speaking Skills Increased Motivation Leveraged Video LearningActivated Cogntiive SkillsIncreased Relevance73 Yeah, sure. It helped me with the listening part. Because there were parts in English, I didn’t really couldn’t understand that well. But because of this, this book had a lot of video and stuff that I have to hear, I get a little more used to it, to understand it. Then, when asked directly if the videos helped him with his listening skills, he responded “Sure.” Yanjin’s listening skills also benefited from using the materials as he said, “if I going to answer the question correctly, I going to listen three or four times. And eh, I can get some details and improve my listening and speaking.” He went on say to say that it was “very useful” for him. Furthermore, Yanjin said he listened to the Ted Talks (one of the listening components of the unit) “so many times” and tried to identify individual words. Yanjin also tried to mimic the accents he heard in the content of the videos. He felt that this was the “most important one” when referring to listening skills. Rodrigo also gave the impression that his listening skills improved when he was in communication with his classmates. Similar to Yanjin, who said he was able to improve his listening and understanding of accents with these materials, Rodrigo stated that “it was fun, talking with them”, referring to his classmates. One participant on the questionnaire identified the listening materials as an example of something which helped him improve his English skills in the online questionnaire and another questionnaire participant wrote, “I learned a lot from cooperation with my classmates.” Rodrigo also stated that the materials helped him with his listening skills as he was more engaged with the listening material and he was not just “hearing, hearing, and hearing.” He attributed this engagement to the content of the listening which included “good information.” Yanjin also said that he thought the Ted Talk listening was “very useful” when describing how he improved his listening skills with these materials. Listening skills were improved with the use of video-based media, and when Yanjin 74 was asked if the listenings from the videos were useful and helpful, he responded with “Yes, absolutely. I watch them so many times and even I can… I can recite.” 4.4.2 Student Autonomy Another general benefit of these EAL learning materials created for this research project is that they promoted student autonomy. Student autonomy is when students take ownership of their learning and become more independent without direction from the instructor (Landry, 2019), and evidence of student autonomy emerged several times in both semi-structured interviews and the online questionnaire. When discussing the final project of the materials, Rodrigo said he really “wanted to give a good speech about it [the topic]. So, I will look it up and keep thinking” until he was satisfied with the information and “I deliver something I was really proud of.” He also said how before he would not have really paid attention to the topic , but this topic was interesting and thus he took “full responsibility and it makes it really interesting.” Rodrigo wanted to do well in the final assignment and thus put more effort and work into it. Yanjin also found a benefit of the materials was helping him become an independent learner as he said he would examine the content “three or four times” in his own time. Yanjin’s first impression of the materials would also suggest he became an independent learner and took responsibility for his own learning because when asked what he liked specifically about these materials he said, “I think it’s the pictures. When I going to go through a book the first impression is pictures, for me. I going to look through all the pictures and find out which one I am interested in.” Yanjin did not wait to be told to look at a certain page or a certain picture, rather he took it on himself to explore the book independently. Moreover, Yanjin did not just watch the videos and content once, he watched them “so many times and even I can… I can recite.” Another example of the materials being beneficial in fostering student autonomy 75 emerged when Yanjin spoke about the final project, and he was “searching so many information” online. He was searching “so much information about ecological issues.” In contrast to Rodrigo, Yanjin stated that he completed the final project by himself and his friends “didn’t help me for this.” A decision which he enjoyed as he enjoys working by himself. Furthermore, Yanjin compared working with classmates and working by himself. He specifically said “I prefer to study by myself” and when asked if these materials were beneficial to studying by himself he said “I think for me it’s easier because I realize the information in this eBook.” The theme of student autonomy also came up in the online questionnaire when a participant stated the materials “help me to find information” and they specifically enjoyed the videos which they would have watched independently. Another instance of student autonomy emerged when Rodrigo spoke about how he enjoyed the note taking activity which required students to draw pictures. Rodrigo said, “I was drawing, so, it kind of made it a little fun if add something funny in my drawings, and it kind of makes it more enjoyable.” In addition to the drawing exercise, Rodrigo mentioned how he took “full responsibility” for his final project. In the online questionnaire the theme of student autonomy was identified when an online questionnaire participant answered that the materials helped them “identify information” and another student participant wrote that the materials helped them “give more attention to what I read.” In addition to those two examples of student autonomy another student participant stated that they enjoyed the “English book” and the “dictionary,” which were two supplementary documents accompanying the main unit of materials. The idea of these supplementary documents was for students to study autonomously and use these as support or reference to the main materials. These two answers from the online questionnaire are linked to student autonomy as they are 76 examples where the students are learning by themselves and not in a group or under the guidance of a teacher. 4.4.3 Interactions Increased interactions also came up several times as a benefit throughout the semi-structured interviews and the online questionnaire. In the online questionnaire, when asked how the materials helped students improve their English skills answers included “I also learned a lot from cooperation with my classmates” and “talk to others.” When the students participating in this study were asked what they liked specifically about the listening and speaking materials, answers ranged across “group learning,” having “conversation,” and liking “asking questions to student for upgrade the thoughts.” In the semi-structured interview, Yanjin said when he could not find words in the dictionary: “I going to ask my friends, we’re going to pull together and finish homework.” When asked directly if these materials were beneficial to fostering interactions between him and his classmates, Rodrigo replied, “Eh yeah, my classmates have been a little silent from the couple of classes. But this gave us like, gave us a reason to talk, you know? … it was fun, talking with them.” Overall, these materials appeared to be beneficial to learning as they promoted interactions between students. 4.4.4 Improved Speaking Skills Similar to listening skills, speaking skills are one of the pillars for acquiring or learning an additional language. Based on the responses from the participants, these EAL learning materials appear to help students improve their speaking skills. The first question in the online questionnaire, which related to how the listening and speaking materials helped students in improving their English skills, elicited answers connected to improved speaking skills, such as “Improved pronunciation of English words,” and “Improved speech ability.” Following that, one 77 student cited the final activity as a way in which an activity helped improve their speaking skills when they wrote “I improved my speaking ability by giving ten-minute speech.” Improved speaking was also connected to when a participant wrote about how their “vocabulary has increased” and answered “fluency” when asked about how they have improved their English skills through the use of the materials. In the two semi-structured interviews Yanjin and Rodrigo both gave answers related to improved speaking skills. Yanjin explained how he had listened to the videos many times in an attempt to “follow their accent” which he believed is the “most important one [skill].” In addition, after watching the videos many times, he noted an improvement in speaking skills when he said “I can recite.” Rodrigo explained how these language learning materials “Gave us a reason to talk,” thus fostering opportunities for output and opportunities for improved speaking. 4.4.5 Increased Motivation Motivation was another key theme associated with using the listening and speaking materials. The materials were “more interesting than other books I have read” according to a participant in the online questionnaire, which is connecting interest and motivation. Yanjin also had several examples of the materials being motivating as he watched the videos “three or four times.” Yanjin also said how he was “searching so much information about ecological issues” in order to complete his final project. Motivation was also evident when Rodrigo was completing some activities, namely the activities which included more creativity than others. He said that the activity which included drawing gave him “a lot more interest” and that he was engaged when “he drew something funny in my drawing and it kind of makes it more enjoyable and that makes me more interesting in that.” When asked directly about motivation and the materials Rodrigo said that he was more 78 motivated to study “for example, in the final project. I also want to know more about how water used and stuff because I want to give a good speech about it.” He went on to say “I will look it up and keep thinking like, keep thinking until I was satisfied with the information and I deliver something I was really proud of.” He then said “it was really kind of fun.” Rodrigo also felt motivated because the content was interesting and something he could relate to. He mentioned how he was taking a “full responsibility” for the tasks and how that made it “really interesting” for him. In addition, Rodrigo also attributed engagement and motivation to the content because it “felt like something new, I haven’t seen that, I’m really interesting in some more about it.” Motivation was again identified by Yanjin when he said that he would “look though all the pictures and find out which one I’m interested in.” The pictures motivated Yanjin to explore the book. Another key factor for engagement and motivation was when Yanjin said how the information in the book was not difficult to find. He compared other textbooks that “there are so much information and you can not find some details” to this unit of materials where “it’s easy to find the details or the information that I want.” Motivation was also identified when Rodrigo stated the materials helped him have interactions with his classmates stating, “this gave us like, gave us a reason to talk, you know?” Several students identified how the materials motivated them to have more interactions with their classmates in the online questionnaire with answers such as “talk to others,” “group learning,” and “Asking students to upgrade the thoughts.” 4.4.6 Cognitive Skills Another important theme which emerged in relation to using the listening and speaking materials was the engagement of cognitive skills. The materials were designed to utilize a full range of cognitive resources, and this focus on cognitive engagement was evident in the answers 79 provided through the online questionnaire and the semi-structured interviews. The theme of cognitive engagement was identified in the online questionnaire when one participant said they were “getting used to thinking by using English.” This statement was supported by Rodrigo who mentioned that the note taking activity helped him a lot. For Rodrigo, drawing pictures helped create a “mental map” and thus helped him remember the information and content more efficiently. When Rodrigo was asked if drawing a picture helped him remember the information more he responded with “Yeah.” In addition, he was an active learner when he was watching the video due to the fact that they were short and concise and not “20 minutes with lots of information but nothing you can relate to.” The videos were engaging cognitively because he “feel like you were still doing an activity… not just hearing and hearing and hearing.” Rodrigo also spoke in depth about a benefit of these materials were that they helped him “organize all my projects and everything so I can draw and make mental maps and thing like that that make me get a little better organizing.” Moreover, in relation to the final project Rodrigo said he kept “thinking until he was satisfied with the information” until he had created a project he was “proud of.” The theme of cognitive skills emerged when students in the survey reported they enjoyed the engagements with other students. One student participant wrote that they liked “asking question to students to upgrade the thoughts” and another said that they “learned a lot from cooperation with my classmates.” Cognitive skills were also found in the data as a participant said they found the materials helped them “identify information” and that their “vocabulary had increased.” Cognitive engagement was again identified when Yanjin mentioned how he specifically liked the pictures stating “I think it’s the pictures. When I going to go through a book the first impression is pictures, for me. I going to look through all the pictures and find out which one I 80 am interested in.” The pictures in the materials were also mentioned in the online questionnaire by several students who wrote “Beautiful pictures,” “Detailed graphic explanation,” and “Text and pictures for explanation” when asked what they specifically liked about the listening and speaking materials. The theme of cognitive skills was identified by students who were critically thinking or critically engaged with the materials. Critical thinking emerged several times throughout both the online questionnaire and the semi-structured interviews. Critical thinking was evident when Rodrigo spoke about the interactions he had with his classmates, and how they were working together trying to identify the difference “between an opinion and a fact.” Furthermore, critical thinking was identified when Rodrigo was connecting the content of the materials [the wildfires and water issues] to his own lived experience in Mexico saying “Because it’s something that is kinda recent because, from the Australian fires and the water, actually because there is a problem with that in Mexico here. It was a little close. So you can feel the topic here”. 4.4.7 Video Learning Learning through videos was another theme in the data related to the listening and speaking materials. The unit of materials came with short educational videos as well as links to two different Ted Talks. The educational videos were created as a way to support learning and possibly aid the teacher as they covered relevant content and educational objectives. The theme of engaging videos rose up when Rodrigo first mentioned that the videos helped him “understand it [the topic]” and they helped him “get used to it [the content].” Rodrigo also answered “Sure” when asked if the video-based instruction helped him. Yanjin indicated how the Ted Talk videos were engaging and that he listened “so, so many times.” The videos were also thought to be engaging as Yanjin mentioned how he watched them in his own time until he was able to 81 “recite” the videos. The theme of videos was also prevalent in the online questionnaire where a student mentioned the “perfect Ted Talks” when asked what they specifically liked about the materials. The same question also generated answers like “course videos” or just “videos.” The length of the videos was also an indictor to how engaging and relevant they were. When Rodrigo replied to the follow up question “What did you enjoy about the videos?” he stated that: Well, most of them was like do have information. You know? Sometimes there are videos they record for like 20 minutes with lots of information but nothing you can relate to. But this was like short videos with good information and it kind of feel like you were still doing an activity, you know? Not just hearing and hearing and hearing. This was also confirmed in the online questionnaire when a student responded, “the video is not too long so I will not get boring.” When asked if his engagement was attributed to the short length of the videos he responded “Yeah, that’s right.” Furthermore, Rodrigo also said that the videos helped him with his listening skills. Yanjin found the videos to be engaging because of the convenience of access to the videos, “I just click it and I don’t have to go search for it.” This was an integral part of the materials, making them more engaging by making them more accessible. 4.4.8 Relevance Relevant content and activities made the EAL learning materials more engaging for the students. The content was identified to be relevant for Yanjin when he said they were “very useful” when referring to the Ted Talks that were linked to the materials and the other videos. 82 Rodrigo mentioned how the content was engaging and how he was able to connect to his own life because it was relevant and relatable when he said: Yeah, I really enjoy. Because it’s something that is kind of recent because, from the Australian fires and the water, actually because there is a problem that in Mexico here, too. It was a little close. So you can feel the topic here. He mentioned how he was more interested in this unit of materials as the content was something new and that “I haven’t seen that, I’m really interested in some more about it.” The idea of relevant content is supported by Rodrigo by saying how the final activities were relevant because “everyone can approach in any way.” The questions were not closed; they were more open ended. Yanjin also made several comments about how the content was relevant because the unit of materials did not contain too much extra unimportant information. He said “our textbook there so much information and you can not find some details. This book is better for me. It’s easy to find the details or the information that I want.” The theme of relevant content was supported in the online questionnaire by several participants who said they specifically liked the “course videos” and that the materials were “more interesting than other books I have read.” The content was not the only thing to be relevant in the materials. The activities also proved to be relevant for student because they helped the students develop necessary skills for post-secondary education in Canada. One participant wrote in the online questionnaire that the materials helped them develop their writing skills: “through the writing of this unit, I learned a new composition structure,” and several students identified how their note taking skills had improved which would be beneficial for other courses. Another student mentioned how they were able to “identify information” easier now and that they also benefited from the fact that materials gave them opportunities to learn from “cooperation with my classmates.” Rodrigo was 83 fond of an activity which helped him develop a “mental map” of the content and thus helped him remember the content easier. In addition to the mental map, Rodrigo’s overall organizing skills improved by using these materials. Rodrigo also stated that the final question was “really helpful, especially the third one because it got like a really big question that everyone can approach in any way.” 4.5 Findings Conclusion This qualitative study was established to identify the perceived benefits of using principled informed EAL learning materials. The main research question explored, from the perspective of the students, what the perceived benefits of using principled informed EAL learning materials were. Data were collected from two sources, an online questionnaire and a semi-structured interview. Eight themes emerged which will be discussed in relation to the scholarly literature presented in chapter two. 84 Chapter 5: Discussion 5.1 Overview of the Study This chapter starts by summarizing the results of the study. Next, it explores the relationship between the themes from chapter four in relation to the literature presented in chapter two. Following that, it discusses the implications and gives ideas for future research. To finish, a brief conclusion is offered. This study aimed to identify the perceived benefits of using principled informed EAL learning materials with an EAP class in British Columbia. The principled informed materials were created according to a set of 10 language learning materials development principles which were created according to SLA theory, general education theory, and current material development principles. These materials were piloted with an EAP class at PIU. For the data collection a combination of an online questionnaire and semi-structured interviews were carried out. Two people participated in the semi-structured interview and eight people partook in the online questionnaire. 5.2 Summary of Results The research topic in this research study was related to additional language learning materials development. Participants in the online questionnaire were asked questions related to their perceptions of the language learning materials. The data collection yielded eight different themes which are discussed in detail below. 5.3 Discussion of Results 85 The following section will present and discuss the findings from chapter four relating them to the relevant theory from chapter two. 5.3.1 Improved Listening Skills The listening and speaking materials developed for this research set out to help students develop three specific listening outcomes taken from the ESL Articulation Guide (Province of British Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education, 2019). The listening outcomes chosen for these particular materials were to help students distinguish between formal and informal register, style, attitude, and purpose in speech; apply note-taking strategies; and use critical thinking skills to formulate conclusions and opinions in level-appropriate contexts. When improved listening skills emerged as a theme it indicated that the materials did help students foster these skills. None of these skills were explicitly said by students. However, “listening skills” were mentioned by participants of the online questionnaire and the semi-structured interview. Listening skills are an important part of attending tertiary education in Canada and integral to having an overall command of the English language. Listening is one of the core skills for EAL development, however, it is often forgotten about in place for speaking (Nunan, 1999, 2002) or the importance of this skill is underestimated by teachers (Field, 2008). Listening is a complex skill to harness (Lynch, 2002), and it needs more support (Vandergrift, 1999). Krashen’s input hypothesis (1981) places listening ahead of language production, and if students improve their listening then additional language acquisition can take place. Another aim of listening instruction is to help learners understand real life language (Maftoon, Kargozari, Azarnoosh, 2016) and as a result, it is important for language learning materials to develop listening skills. The listening skills developed during this research included interactive listening skills, independent listening skills, 86 extensive listening skills, increased comprehensible input, and improved listening skills also helped lower the affective filters. There were several listening activities included in the language learning materials which improved extensive listening skills. The aim of extensive listening is to construct a global understanding of oral language (Brown, 2001), which can include listening to radio programs, watching movies, listen to podcasts, songs, interviews, or lectures (Maftoon et al., 2016). Extensive listening skills emerged from the interview with Yanjin when he said he listened to the videos several times in an attempt to mimic the accent of the speakers. Yanjin also said he enjoyed the “perfect Ted Talks” which supports the theme of improved listening skills and development of extensive listening skills. The benefits of developing a global understanding of spoken language can be connected to Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory as well as an understanding of the individual as a social individual during the learning process (Dewey,1897). Having knowledge, competence, and confidence in a global understanding of the spoken language could motivate students to get engaged more with their wider academic and local community when living in Canada. Autonomous listening skills were also developed though the use of the principled informed language learning materials. Autonomous listening skills are activated when students engage in listening without the guidance of a teacher (Maftoon et al., 2016). Autonomous listening can include any type of natural language acquisition (Rost, 2011) ranging from children learning their first language or students learning an additional language in the real world. Given that the students were not in Canada at the time of the research, autonomous listening was not something which was readily available to them in that they could not go outside and be exposed to English. However, this lack of immersion in an English-speaking environment did not stop 87 several participants from identifying autonomous listening opportunities. For example, Yanjin spoke about how he would listen to the videos multiple times and how he was able to hear the details and improve his listening and speaking. Becoming an independent learner is not an easy task as many students may have learned through teacher-centered, traditional educational practices and concern learning only with the presence of the professor (hooks, 2003). By improving autonomous listening skills students are taking a step away from this association and taking more responsibility for their own language learning. Improved listening skills are also connected to interactive listening skills which are developed when learners engage in conversation interactions (Maftoon et al., 2016). Interactive listening skills promote collaborative dialogue (Swain, 2000) and promote interactions where negotiation for meaning (Long, 1995) or noticing (Schmidt, 1990) occur. Through the use of engaging, relevant, and stimulating content, teachers can generate collaborative dialogue and interactions, and students can increase their additional language acquisition and improve their listening skills by reaching the outer limits of their ZPD (Vygotsky, 1978). However, it is not just through collaborative dialogue and interactions that this can be achieved, there generally needs to be scaffolding (supports for learning) (Vygotsky, 1978). Scaffolding is needed to ensure the students will feel comfortable and confident. Language learning materials should use scaffolding to help the teacher find the students’ ZPD and then focus on improving listening skills. Generally, in a class, students have their own life experiences, their own stories to tell, and ways to learn, and thus students have their own ZPDs. Identifying and utilizing a learner’s ZPD requires a teacher to know each student individually and the group collectively. Additional language learning materials need to include activities which help the teacher identify the students’ ZPDs and then provide activities which can help the teacher guide the student towards 88 the outer limits of it. By doing this, we can not only improve students’ listening skills but also improve their overall SLA. Interactive listening skills are an opportunity for students to learn from each other and this opportunity was recorded in the online questionnaire with answers that referred to cooperating with classmates and when Rodrigo said it was fun talking with his classmates. Furthermore, when students improve their interactive listening skills, they can also open up an opportunity to give or receive authentic help (Freire, 2000) and not dominate one another. When learners engage in this peer-peer interaction, they have an opportunity to develop their interactive listening skills, with the benefits of this skill seeping into other aspects of their additional language learning. Improved listening skills can contribute to the ability to identify individual words and phrases and thus increase the possibility of a student accessing the +1 (Krashen, 1981) area of their additional language. For example, Rodrigo explained that the materials helped him develop his listening skills because, while there were elements of the materials in the videos and other listening opportunities that he didn’t understand very well, , he became used to the English and started to understand it. Rodrigo managed to traverse from i to +1 by improving his listening skills. At first Rodrigo was unable to understand everything, this is the +1; however, after improving his listening skills and after getting used to it he felt he was able to understand the area that was beyond him before. Yanjin also managed to reach the +1 area of his linguistic level with evidence that he understood accents after exposing himself to the listening material several times. Yanjin felt that listening three or four times to something helped him find the correct answers and obtain the details that would contribute to improving his listening and speaking skills. 89 As stated above, Tomlinson (2008) maintained that materials should provide students with a rich recycled exposure to the target language. Yanjin achieved his own version of a rich recycled exposure to the target language by listening three or four times to the same listening material. By doing this Yanjin was able to decipher the accents he heard and felt that listening was the most important skill developed when using the language learning materials. Getting used to accents is a key part of listening skills and successful L2 development and furthers the chances of reaching the +1 are of the additional language. Having improved listening skills is a way to foster comprehensible input (Krashen, 1981). Yanjin spoke about how he listened to the video materials again and again until he was able to mimic the accent. Similarly, Rodrigo spoke about how he improved his listening skills by using these materials. These factors could be beneficial for students because these improved listening skills may lower stress and the affective filter when engaging in a Canadian academic lecture or even when being in contact with competent interlocuters in the target language. Furthermore, the listening skills chosen for these materials were thought to help students develop their academic skills which is important because the skills are relevant for students who are going to attend tertiary education in Canada. The skills developed through these materials included being able to distinguish between formal and informal register, style, attitude, and purpose in speech, being able to apply note-taking strategies, and being able to use critical thinking skills to formulate conclusions and opinions in level-appropriate contexts (Province of British Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education, 2019). By equipping students with these listening skills, there is a greater possibility that their affective filters would be lowered when attending university in Canada as they would feel more prepared and empowered than before and may not find the Canadian lectures intimidating or stressful. A low affective filter also has the 90 potential to help students engage more with their university community and form more social relationships, which is beneficial for additional language learning. Overall, within the survey and the semi-structured interview the theme of improved listening skills emerged several times. The improved skills have been categorized into interactive listening skills, independent listening skills, extensive listening skills, increased comprehensible input, and low affective filters. When combined, these skills all play a role in successful additional language learning. 5.3.2 Student Autonomy The theme of student autonomy emerged when it was evident that the students who used the materials and partook in the data collection had become more independent learners and did not associate learning with just the teacher, an important part of hooks’ (1994) understanding of pedagogy. Furthermore, Landry (2019) described learner autonomy or independent learning, as being achieved when learning takes place without the direction of the teacher. Similarly, learner autonomy and language proficiency are connected in terms of development of communication skills and grammar competency (Benson, 2011). Additionally, Chan (2000) highlighted the relationship between learner autonomy and effective learning. As a result, it is important that language learning materials generate some degree of student self autonomy and that students take the responsibility of learning into their own hands. The benefits of working autonomously seep not only into addition language learning but also general education. It is thought if students can become independent learners the grounds for effective learning exist (Chan, 2000). The theme of student autonomy is connected to the self-accessed materials and meaningful and engaging activities in the materials. 91 Self-accessed materials have been cited as a way to help generate student independent learning (Gardner & Miller, 2011), and this independent learning was highlighted in the interview with Yanjin who spoke about how he found the information easy to access in the ebook. This finding was also supported by several students in the online questionnaire who stated they found the materials helped them because they were able to identify information easily and when the participants said they enjoyed the supplementary English book and dictionary supplied alongside the materials. Moreover, Yanjin, who watched the video multiple times in his own time, or enough times until he was able to recite the information, was found to be an independent learner which can be attributed to the fact that he had self-access to the materials. Yanjin also gave several examples of when he was an autonomous learner, such as when he did not associate learning with the class, teacher, or other students. When students can take learning into their own hands and not associate learning with the teacher or indeed other students, they can set the grounds for effective learning (Chan, 2000). Yanjin mentioned how he studied by himself with the materials and that he enjoyed working alone. He continued to say that it was easier to work alone because of the information in the ebook which was another example of self-accessed materials. As Landry (2019) states “teachers play a key role in the process of fostering independent learning” (p.2); however, independent learning rose up as a theme in this research not necessarily based on the teachers’ involvement but rather the materials used. Crabbie (1993) has stated that the material covered in class should be complemented by activities that strongly encourage the student to transfer knowledge and skills from the classroom to their own lives. This was recorded when Rodrigo explained how he was passionate about the topic of wildfires and water contamination as it was something which he could relate to because in his country they also had the same issues. In addition, engagement and independent learning was fostered when 92 students connected with the activities which they found to be meaningful (Cotteral, 2017). This connection is supported by Rodrigo who explained that he wanted to give a good speech about the topic and this motivated him to work independently and try to create a final product that he was proud of. Rodrigo was able to connect with the activities which were meaningful and thus this provided the grounds for engagement (Cotteral, 2017), which can lead to the flourishing of independent or autonomous work. Autonomy is described by Holec (1981) as one’s ability to take command of their learning which includes evaluating what has been acquired. This understanding of autonomy aligns with Rodrigo’s responses during the interview when he said he wanted to develop something he was really proud of in relation to the final assignment. 5.3.3 Interactions Some of the participants identified and reported that the EAL learning materials generated interactions. Whilst interactions may refer to anything the student interacts with in a class (Swain, 2000), for the purpose of this research interactions are referring to the interactions between students and their peers. Drawing on cognitive-interactionist and sociocultural theories of learning (Ellis, 2014), it can be understood that interactions provide students with an opportunity to utilize and maximize their linguistic environment. The cognitive-interactionist approach is of the idea that interactions initiate additional language acquisition by promoting the identification of new linguistic forms in input, aiding them to connect the new linguistic forms into something students desire to express, and subsequently encouraging them to change their output to make it more comprehensible. However, sociocultural theory identifies learning as a process which occurs during interactions. Interactions guide learning by helping learners produce new linguistic forms which they would not be able to produce solely by themselves. They also give learners opportunities to imitate new input or forms which they are exposed to. Ellis (2014) 93 stressed the importance of drawing on both schools of thought and not to treat them as separate entities but rather as schools which complement each other. Both types of interactions were identified as a theme in the data collection phase with answers related to learning a lot from cooperation with classmates, having conversations, and engaging in group work in response to the question of what students specifically liked about the language learning materials. It was found that the interactions mentioned in the data collection fostered additional language acquisition as they gave opportunities for aspects of the interaction similar to those hypothesized by Long (1995) as contributing to additional language acquisition. All in all, the interactions aided the formation of social relationships, and they fostered collaborative dialogue (Swain, 2000) within a zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). The interaction hypothesis (Long, 1995) states that interactions are important as they provide an opportunity for students to engage in negotiation for meaning and noticing, both of which are beneficial for additional language acquisition (Long 1985,1996; Lightbown and Spada, 2015; Schmidt, 1990). For the materials writer, by creating activities which create opportunities for interactions, it can aid the language teacher in fostering opportunities for noticing. Negotiation for meaning takes place when students utilize modified language in conversation or dialogue to prevent, repair, or solve a communication issue. Engaging in interactions where the participants work together paves the way for negotiation for meaning to take place. Examples of students working together while using the EAL learning materials included group learning and cooperation with classmates. Moreover, the act of effective negotiation for meaning is also more likely to occur when two speakers of an additional language are interacting compared to when an additional language speaker and a native speaker of that language are interacting (Varonis and Gass, 1985), which supports the inclusion of interaction 94 activities in EAL learning materials. By including opportunities for interactions in materials, materials writers can hopefully create the environment where group work and interactions are promoted. These interactions give students modified input whilst they are simultaneously generating modified output. Essentially, when engaging in negotiating meaning, the students are using a combination of two skills that play a role in additional language acquisition: listening and speaking. When language learning materials are being created for an EAP class like the one at PIU, creating social learners should be a goal of the writer. Interactions when using the EAL learning materials also helped develop social relationships. Dewey (1897) said the student to be educated needs to be a social individual, and by creating the grounds for interactions materials writers can foster this social aspect. In addition, interactions also help create Vygotsky’s (1978) social area for language acquisition. For example, Rodrigo reported on the silence of his classmates in previous classes, but the EAL learning materials promoted interactions as the materials gave Rodrigo and his classmates a reason to talk and created a fun environment for those interactions. Interactions in Rodrigo’s case prompted the development of social relationships in the class. In order to foster academic success and additional language acquisition, students need to have access to social relationships where they are engaged with peers who see them as equals because even if they are highly motivated there is no guarantee of learning an additional language without social relationships (Norton and Toohey, 2011). Yanjin also confirmed how building social relationships through interactions was important when he talked about asking friends for help and all of them working together to finish their homework. Other students also felt this way when they wrote about how they learned a lot through cooperating with other student. These interactions go beyond negotiation for meaning and noticing. It seems that these interactions 95 suggest there was a positive environment where the students’ voices were respected by their community. The creation of the classroom community and social relationships via interactions is also important as it addresses the issue of power in the classroom. Learners from different cultural backgrounds may have different understandings of power; therefore, materials can be created with a critical constructivist lens to show learners and teachers that power in the classroom is not attributed to one person, but to the community. The teacher and the materials need to convey that the omnipotence some students may want to give to the teacher, is not the typical practice in a constructivist classroom. As well as that, the learners need to give up the power they perceive to have over one another based on their gender, social status, intimate relationships, age, or educational background. Essentially, in a critical constructivist classroom, there is a level playing field with regards to power; thus, materials should reflect this balance of power, this can be achieved by the formation of respectful social relationships through interactions. Adapting a critical constructivist approach utilizing cognitive functions and wisely choosing content in ELT materials writing is a way which this and classroom democracy can be achieved. Generally, when a person speaks, they speak in order to be believed and respected (Bourdieu, 1977, 1991). By creating social relationships formed though in-class interactions, materials writers can create an environment where each voice is valued and respected. In turn, this interaction will further motivate students to produce more output and increase their overall additional language development. Collaborative dialogue is the process where speakers are engaged in the construction of knowledge and the solving of problems, and this process which can be beneficial for additional language acquisition and activated through interactions (Swain, 2000). Through collaborative 96 dialogue speakers refine their output to gain a more coherent understanding of the dialogue they are engaged in. Speakers use language as a cognitive tool to mediate their own thinking and that of others (Swain, 2006). According to Swain (2000), “speaking produces an utterance, a product (an artifact) that can be questioned, added to, discredited, and so forth. This act of co-constructing meaning is collaborative dialogue and is a source of language learning and development” (p.1). Examples of collaborative dialogue were evident through the interactions cited in the data collection. For instance, Yanjin explained how he worked together with his classmates to pull together and solve a problem and in the online questionnaire where a participant said they learned a lot from cooperation with their classmates. This act of collaborative dialogue through interactions is also beneficial as it corroborates Vygotsky (1978) and the sociocultural theory whereby learning takes place not only inside the head of the learner but in the world surrounding them. These interactions activate a psychological process in which external activities are transformed into mental ones through mediation of semiotic tools, language being the most powerful semiotic tool for mediating thought (Ellis, 2014). In addition, the materials can be created in a way to promote help, not the type of help where the helper dominates the helped, but authentic help (Freire, 2000). Authentic help is when the helped and the helper are learning together. Additional language learning materials can be created in a framework which encourages authentic help rather than dominating help. In order for students to accept authentic help, they need to be independent learners and work together in a community. As a result, language learning materials should strive to develop independent learners. In this study, some of the participants identified interactions as a benefit of using these principled informed EAL learning materials. The theme of interaction touches on many theories of learning, including the interaction hypothesis (Long, 1995), and sociocultural theories of 97 learning (Vygotsky, 1978). When students provided answers which indicated interactions had taken place when using the materials, it led me to believe that the grounds for negotiation for meaning, noticing, output, collaborative dialogue, and the formation of social relationships were created and utilized. All the mentioned features are cogs in the wheel of interactions, with interactions as one cog in the colossal wheel of additional language acquisition. 5.3.4 Improved Speaking Skills From the participants’ perspectives, the EAL learning materials also seemed to improve their speaking skills. Speaking is a vital skill when learning or acquiring an additional language, as outlined in Swain’s (1993) output hypothesis. Speaking is also a vital skill when attending tertiary education in Canada. As noted in the interaction section, there is the potential for a lack of student output in CBI/CLIL classes (Swain, 1996). By improving students’ speaking skills, it appears that these language learning materials, which were created from a CBI/CLIL framework, overcame this finding. The aim of an EAP class is not only to help students become valued members of the community, but also to prepare students for tertiary education in English. When attending university, students will need to engage with their peers who may be highly competent English speakers. In order to converse with students in real situations like university, students need to harness their speaking skills. Improved speaking skills, including improved pronunciation and fluency, were noted by the participants through the use of these principled informed materials. In addition, improved speaking skills can help speakers create the social space (Vygotsky, 1978) necessary for additional language acquisition. This was highlighted by participants noting the importance of talking to others and having a reason to talk. 98 Swain’s (1996) output hypothesis suggested that speaking the target language can foster additional language learning. Producing language can also give students an opportunity to practice what they have in their linguistic resources, which is beneficial as it can lead to automaticity (Swain, 1996; Segalowitz, 2010). Swain (1996) also argued that one of the implications of the output hypothesis was that there should be ample in-class opportunities for speaking. It is clear by the interactions recorded earlier in this chapter and by answers related to improved speaking skills, there were opportunities for in-class speaking. The materials helped students improve their speaking through giving speeches and talking to others—two activities that students found enjoyable. These examples seem to have led the way to improved speaking skills for the participants. Throughout the EAL learning materials used by the participants, there were an abundance of activities which were thought to engage with the learners holistically. These activities included role play or discussion. These activities were included as they can promote fluency (Ellis, 2014), and there was evidence in the data that fluency was one of the skills the participants improved. It appears that these activities helped students improve their speaking skills through the development of fluency. In relation to fluency, pronunciation was another area of improvement found in the data. The benefits of improved pronunciation can be connected to improved speaking skills as it aligns with the development of speaking accuracy. Furthermore, it is possible that having strong pronunciation can help students feel more confident with their output and may lead to more trying out of new language. Overall, improved speaking skills emerged as a key theme related to the benefits of using principle-informed EAL materials. Improved speaking skills are important as speaking can articulate and refine thoughts. Improved speaking skills can aid students when they attend post-99 secondary education in Canada, and improved speaking skills, such as pronunciation, has the potential to build more confidence in the students. 5.3.6 Motivation From the data collected, it was evident that students had enhanced motivation throughout the use of the principled informed EAL learning materials. Enhanced motivation is important for additional language acquisition because it can contribute to students not hitting their affective filters and promote student interactions. Motivation can also increase the opportunities for successful additional language acquisition through the seeking of comprehensible input, which will in turn, increase motivation further. The materials utilized relevant content and skills development, which helped lower the students’ proximity to their affective filters by increasing their motivation. By utilizing relevant and engaging content, language was used as the vehicle to teach content and as a result students seemed to be more motivated and engaged with the materials. Learners were placed at the centre where they were able to experience, discover, and explore. Rather than focus on trivial issues or irrelevant themes, these materials focused on issues in the students’ lives that are problematic and issues which they may be equipped to change or improve through having increased skills in the additional language (Crookes, 2020). The students felt like the content was something new, and there was evidence in the data that the students wanted to learn more about this new content and that it was more interesting that other things they had read before. The participants wanted to create projects they were proud of and that were connected to issues in their own lived experiences, such as when Rodrigo worked on a final project that was based on issues such as wildfires and water contamination. Lack of motivation is one way for students to get closer or hit their affective filters. It seemed apparent in the data that the participants were not lacking 100 motivation when using these materials. Further examples of student motivation arose with Yanjin who said that he looked through all the pictures in the materials to find one that he was interested in. Increasing motivation through the use of images can be beneficial for language learning as it not only reduces the affective filter but also provides cognitive engagement. Cognitive engagement and images are discussed later in this chapter. The activities which involved creativity and sketching, which are not very common in EAL materials, also appeared to be motivating. Furthermore, positioning the learner in a creative environment needs to be included in additional language learning materials as it aligns with many SLA theories and can help students take risks, make mistakes, and realize that perfection isn't the goal in language learning. For example, Rodrigo liked drawing funny pictures which increased his motivation and enjoyment. When a student is enjoying the activities, materials writers can assume they are motivated. The feeling of enjoyment stemming from creativity can both contribute to not only a motivated student but also a more relaxed classroom environment and thus a low affective filter, which is also beneficial for critical thinking (Fahim, 2014), all of which are important for additional language acquisition. With the affective filter hypothesis in mind, a materials designer can create materials which actively lower the affective filter or the possibility of the affective filter hindering additional language acquisition. By doing this, we can create materials which are not only engaging and motivating, but also encourage students to experience, discover, critically think, and explore. Thus, we are able to create materials which lower the affective filter and promote additional language learning. Collaborative dialogue (Swain, 2000) is based on the idea that students will work together to solve a problem and in the process they will co-construct knowledge. In order for students to work together and learn English they need to be motivated. It appears that the EAL 101 learning materials gave students a reason to talk and pushed their thinking to a higher level during collaborative dialogue and group learning. Having a reason to talk is a motivator to engage in dialogue with classmates, something which may be lacking from time to time in a CBI/CLIL classroom (Swain, 1996). When students identified motivation and how it encouraged them to work together, it appears that the same motivation also contributed to the formation of classroom communities (hooks, 1994). Classroom communities in turn strengthen the possibility of collaborative dialogue occurring and taps into sociocultural learning which are all beneficial for additional language acquisition. As stated in the interaction section of this chapter, social relationships or learning communities can enhance engagement academically and socially for students (Engstrom & Tino, 2008). When students are motivated to talk and work together these social relationships which are beneficial for academic learning and additional language learning could be created. According to Krashen (2009), the input hypothesis may be the most important theory in the field of SLA. Comprehensible input was highlighted throughout the theme of motivation. Comprehensible input was evident with Yanjin, which arose when he was self-motivated when using the materials. Yanjin mentioned how he enjoyed working alone and would find information in the eBooks [referring to the vocabulary eBook shared on screen during the semi-structured interview]. The language learning materials supplied to the students had two eBooks dedicated to increasing students’ vocabulary, which supports the connection to comprehensible input as students were exposed to language which was figured to be in the +1 range of their additional language. Comprehensible input was also highlighted by Yanjin in the semi-structured interview when he explained he had watched the videos multiple times and found them very useful. By exposing himself to the videos several times and finding the videos useful, he was 102 obtaining comprehensible input. Yanjin studying by himself could also be construed as self-motivated learning, something which is important for additional language acquisition. Disengagement from language learning can occur due to a lack of investment (Norton, 2010) and can prevent access to successful comprehensible input; however, Yanjin’s perceptions related to the EAL learning materials would suggest investment and a high level of self-motivation and no disengagement. Furthermore, as mentioned earlier in this section, Rodrigo spoke about how he was motivated to study the topic as it was relatable to his home country in Mexico and thus disengagement did not occur. In conclusion, enhanced motivation was recorded as a theme and is important for additional language acquisition because it can contribute to students avoiding their affective filters, motivation can promote student interactions, and the materials promoted self-motivation which can boost opportunities for additional language acquisition though comprehensible input. 5.3.6 Video Based Learning Technology can be used as a basis for teaching materials or resources which can provide enhanced learning experiences (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011; Schmid, Borokhovski, Tamim, Abrami, Surkes, Wades, & Woods, 2014). In addition, videos have also been shown to be an effective method of teaching (Allen & Smith, 2012; Lloyd & Robertson, 2012; Hsin & Cigas, 2013). In 2020 and 2021, with the emergence of COVID-19, the need for technology to be used for teaching and learning increased exponentially and language learning materials need to reflect this change. The language learning materials created for this research project included ample video-based lessons, tutorials, and educational videos. The videos were a combination of authentic and authentic like videos. Including video-based learning helped learners throughout the use of the EAL learning materials created for this project. On the online questionnaire, 103 several students highlighted the videos as a positive way to learn and in the semi-structured interviews video-based learning emerged several times. Video-based learning was included as a way to expose students to comprehensible input and utilized cognitive skills. In order for students to reach the +1 area of their linguistic development, they need to be engaged with content but also be exposed to English which is just a little bit beyond their current level (Krashen, 1981). The use of video-based learning was utilized as a way to ensure students were exposed to the +1. For example, Yanjin and Rodrigo both gave examples of when they were engaging with the +1 area of their L2. Yanjin mentioned how he watched the videos again and again until he was able to recite them and decipher the accents. Rodrigo stated that the materials had a lot of videos that he had to watch a couple of times before he could fully understand them. In addition to the linguistic level being in the +1 area of the students’ additional language, the content of the videos was found to be suitable for engaging and promoting student investment. If students are not invested in the content, there is no guarantee that acquisition will take place even if they are exposed to +1 language. Moreover, the topics chosen for this unit were found to be interesting and provided immediate relevance to the students’ personal lives, which is important for learning (Knowles, 1980). This idea was supported by Rodrigo who mentioned how the topic of wildfires and water rights were close for him because they have the same problems in Mexico. By utilizing video-based learning on topics which were generic for all people and by using language thought to be in the +1 area of the students’ additional language, the student participants appeared to be more invested in the videos, and thus there was more potential for additional language acquisition to take place. One of the major benefits of these video-based learning experiences provided to students via the language learning material was that they were cognitively engaging. The videos were 104 cognitively engaging due to efficient segmenting and weeding. The videos created for this research were sufficiently weeded of unnecessary information. This finding is supported by Rodrigo who mentioned that the videos were engaging as he felt like he was still doing an activity when watching them and the length of the videos was not overwhelming. He also mentioned how he was not just hearing something over and over again. If students are engaged and invested, it is likely that they are cognitively engaged compared to just passively watching the videos. Rodrigo compared the video-based learning experiences in these EAL learning materials to other video-based lessons he had done in the past saying that the length and the information was more direct and thus more beneficial for him. In the past he had watched videos that contained lots of information, but that didn’t connect to his own lived experiences. However, the short videos in the EAL learning materials were filled with precise and useful information that engaged Rodrigo in the activity. These videos were weeded and straight to the point which actively reduced the cognitive load and thus improved retention and of new information (Ibrahim, Antonenko, Greenwood, & Wheeler, 2012). According to participants in the online questionnaire, one of the benefits of the video-based learning was the duration of the videos, which is attributed to segmenting and enhanced cognitive engagement. Segmenting (Guo, Kim, & Rubin, 2014) can be utilized as a way to promote cognitive engagement as students will not get overwhelmed by the length of the video. It appeared that the videos were not so long that they made the participants bored. This finding from the questionnaire data echoes Rodrigo’s experience where the video was engaging and also shows investment and cognitive engagement. Being cognitively engaged is important as it can help generate automaticity. Automaticity is important for language learning as it can free up more resources for learning (Lightbown and Spada, 2015; Segalowitz, 2010). Yanjin spoke about 105 how he watched the videos again and again in an attempt to be able to recite the videos and fully understand them. This act of re-exposing himself to the videos served as a tool to develop automaticity with the target language and grammar structures. Tomlinson (2014) stated that language learning materials should have a rich, recycled exposure to the target language, when a student watches the language learning videos again and again it is giving them this recycled exposure to the target language and moves them closer to automaticity. Overall, the videos were cognitively engaging because they did not include irrelevant information and their duration was short. This combination promoted a light cognitive load for the students which can free up cognitive resources for learning and the development of automaticity by being exposed to the target language and grammar structures through the videos several times. To conclude, the language learning materials were effective in fostering learning and additional language acquisition partly in relation to video-based learning. Video-based learning as a theme is related to access to the +1 area of the students L2 and it also engaged students cognitively. 5.3.7 Cognitive Skills The student participants’ cognitive skills were activated when using the principle-informed EAL learning materials. Cognitive skills are brain-based skills which are utilized and necessary for knowledge, manipulation of information, and reasoning acquisition. As a result, cognitive skills are extremely important in the acquisition of language. Creating materials which activate cognitive skills is a necessary responsibility of a language learning material writer. These language learning materials fostered cognitive skills through the promotion of critical thinking skills and the use of images. 106 Cognitive skills were identified when Rodrigo explained how he engaged in critical thinking to discern the difference between facts and opinions. Being able to identify the differences between a fact and opinion in an additional language shows that additional language acquisition occurred. The ability to discern the difference between a fact and an opinion in English is an important skill for attending post-secondary education and a goal of the EAP program at PIU. Critical thinking was again identified when Rodrigo was able to relate the issues of wildfires and water contamination to his own lived experience in Mexico. This connection which was established using critical thinking and cognitive skills pave the way forward for a higher level of engagement and additional language development. It appeared that the materials helped the participants become more used to thinking in English. The materials were created with influence from hooks (1994) and Freire (2000) which lead to the inclusion of activities which foster critical thinking as well as inclusion of critical issues to spur learning. As a result of this inclusion the content of the materials was cognitively engaging and thus pushed students to acquire language. Furthermore, including activities which activate cognitive skills can create materials which do not treat the learner as a container needing to be filled (Freire, 2000). A materials writer should also take into account Freire’s description of what a teacher should not be. Materials should not treat the teacher as an infallible agent who doles out information. Rather, they should reflect a learning process for both the teacher and the learner. The materials should foster creativity and empower both students and teachers. Freire diligently described a teacher who is part of the less effective banking system of education, and this is a description which must be considered when creating materials. The teacher should be willing to learn from the learners as the learners are willing to learn from the teacher, and the teacher must not deposit information as if the student were a bank account. Additional language learning materials are 107 more beneficial when they reflect this type of learning. In addition, treating the learner as a container needing to be filled might lead to a learner being able to recite the present perfect tense of a verb, but if the learner is treated like a container, they will probably not be able to converse, connect, or contribute as a valued community member. Filling a container is not a cognitive task and thus is not beneficial to additional language acquisition. Materials need to align with Freire’s positioning of the learner and by doing so, they also align with many SLA theories which also include the activation of cognitive skills. The use of images can foster cognitive engagement as well as additional language learning. Yanjin explained how he liked the pictures in the language learning materials. He explained how when he first got hold of the materials, he spent time going through them and looking at the pictures to find the ones that were the most interesting to him. Language learning opportunities can arise with the use of images by motivating students to use target language (Mauchline, 2015), and although not directly stated by Yanjin, the way in which he investigated the materials in search for a picture which he was interested in could spur and motivate him to use the target language of the materials. In addition to Yanjin, several participants cited the pictures when they were asked what they liked specifically about the materials with comments related to how beautiful they were, how detailed they were, and how they included explanatory text. Rodrigo also explained how he utilized mental maps and found that by drawing pictures he was able to recall information more easily. It appeared that the use of images in the text could spur interactions and generate communication opportunities between students. Images can be utilized to create opportunities that support communicative interactions between students (Bailey & Krishnan, 2015) which in turn can benefit additional language acquisition. Furthermore, interactions and exchanges which utilize not only words but also images can foster the grounds 108 for higher cognitive process (Harper, 2002) which in turn can foster a higher level of knowledge acquisition. As was stated at the start of this section the use of cognitive skills is important for acquisition of knowledge and additional language skills. When using these EAL learning materials, students were engaged in critical thinking and through the use of images activated cognitive processes which can help foster additional language acquisition. 5.3.8 Relevance The relevance of the EAL learning materials was another key theme in the data, particularly in relation to relevant content and activities and relevant skills development. Due to the relevant content and activities students were thought to be more engaged, and thus more effective learning appeared to take place. By focusing on the content and not the language, the materials created can foster additional language acquisition and increase a student’s overall knowledge of the content. This acquisition of both language and content is vital for programs like the EAP program at PIU where a goal is to prepare students for tertiary education in Canada. It is important to note that the students at PIU benefit from learning about Canadian issues and content, and this content and language learning can be achieved though a CBI/CLIL approach which increases relevance. Additionally, this approach of teaching through content, which was utilized in the materials, aligns with the teaching and learning approach adopted in the EAP program at PIU whereby content based teaching or thematic teaching is utilized to foster student learning of both EAL and general content knowledge. The use of authentic materials was believed to have promoted more interest and relevance as it is believed that authentic materials are interesting to learners of various backgrounds (Vandergrift and Goh, 2012). For example, Yanjin and Rodrigo, despite coming 109 from very culturally different backgrounds, both cited the authentic Ted Talks as being engaging for them. Rodrigo found the content of the Ted Talks (wildfires and water contamination) more relatable as it was something which his home country also has an issue with. The relevant content of the Ted Talks was also thought to increase learning as adults are more interested in learning when the subject has immediate relevance and impact to their personal lives (Knowles, 1984). Furthermore, using content-relevant materials can help students focus on language form (Swain, 2001), which is important for additional language acquisition. This relevance is linked to Rodrigo’s feeling that he really enjoyed the content of the materials. When Rodrigo engaged with the content-relevant materials, he was likely more engaged with the language forms, thus fostering his additional language development. The student participants were also thought to be more engaged and invested as the materials did not contain irrelevant content in their opinions. When students are exposed to relevant content, they are generally more invested (Knowles, 1989), which is beneficial for additional language acquisition. For instance, Rodrigo mentioned how he was more interested in these materials because he had not seen it before in a textbook and how the final activities were relevant as everyone was able to approach them in their own way. Furthermore, Yanjin was more invested in the materials due to the lack of irrelevant information, which meant it was easier to navigate the book and that he felt it was better for him because he could easily find the information he wanted. By not including extra irrelevant content to bulk out the materials, it appeared that more effective learning took place. More effective learning can take place when materials include activities which develop transferable skills relevant to the students’ lives (Crabbie, 1993). Relevant transferrable skills were identified when Rodrigo explained how he benefited from the materials when he learnt how 110 to make mental maps which helped him recall information. Another transferable skill that participants identified was related to learning new composition structures which is a skill students will use in a number of different classes. Overall, the language learning materials were thought to utilize relevant content and activities and develop relevant academic skills which are both beneficial to fostering effective additional language acquisition and general education. 5.4 Major implications Based on the findings of this study, there are several implications to be discussed. Firstly, additional language learning materials writers should start with a cohesive set of principles which are ground in SLA theory, general education, and existing principles of materials development before writing. Secondly, increased opportunities for teachers to have time to create their own language learning materials for their own students would be beneficial. Finally, EAL teaching programs and language programs would also benefit from more investment in professional development sessions to help teachers foster the skills necessary to create their own materials. Before setting out to create EAL learning materials, writers should have a set of principles to guide them. For this research project, a set of 10 principles for EAL materials development were created. These principles were created based on my own personal practical knowledge of what helps students learn (Clandinin, 1985), SLA theories, general education theories, and current material development principles. By utilizing a set of principles, I found it extremely beneficial as I was able to analyze my own work with a critical eye. Furthermore, by relating the principles to theory, materials writers can easily defend the inclusion of a certain 111 activity or process. Prior to developing a set of principles, I had created many EAL learning materials; however, these materials were created based only on my lived experiences. Based on the results from this study, it is clear that creating materials according to a set of principles is more effective than relying purely on one’s own instinct or experience. By following principles of materials development, a materials writer can supply the teacher with materials which sufficiently tackle all skills needed to find the content and language meaningful. As a result, the materials writer can help the teacher spend more time focusing on the language learning journey of the student. It can be argued that creating resources for language learners should be a core part of additional language programs. These programs could put policies in place to create timetables and schedules where teachers or instructors have paid time to create materials for their individual classes or students. This is something which is not generally afforded to all teachers in Canada, depending on their status and where they work. However, these principled materials were created for the EAP program at PIU, and they are part of the program’s commitment to developing open educational resources for students. The outcomes and skills developed were directly related to the goals of PIU. When generic or commercially produced EAL learning materials are chosen by teachers or directors for a particular class, the language learning materials are generally not created specifically for this class. As a result, these commercially produced textbooks can be over saturated with irrelevant content and information which can inhibit focused additional language acquisition for students. For programs without a policy that supports teacher-created materials, if teachers or instructors in these programs had more time dedicated to planning or prepping, they would be able to create EAL learning materials for their own class where the content and activities are all relevant. 112 Giving that one of the implications is that teachers or instructors should have their own time to create language learning materials for their own students, these newcomers to materials writing would also benefit from targeted support in the form of professional development related to materials writing. In order for language teachers or instructors to create reliable and effective language learning materials, they should have professional development sessions dedicated to EAL learning materials development. Furthermore, English language teacher education programs such as Certificate in Language Teaching to Adults (CELTA) or Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) should include more information on EAL learning materials development. Both English language teacher education programs and public and private language intuitions should foster the creation of effective language learning materials through useful and relevant professional development opportunities. 5.5 Future Studies and Limitations In reference to future studies, it is hoped that a multiple or collective case study will be replicated in the future. It would also be possible and interesting to recreate this study with the same principles of EAL learning materials development or another set of EAL learning materials development principles tailored for a specific context. It needs to be understood that my own personal bias did play a role in the development of the EAL learning materials and the principles. It would be beneficial to see how other EAL instructors would approach this type of study. Additionally, if more participants had taken part, the research would have been stronger. When this research was carried out, COVID-19 prevented face-to-face instruction and all the participants were in their home countries. There is no doubt that this impacted the study. I would be keen to redo this study and include classroom observations once face-to-face classes are again 113 possible. I also believe that if the data collection were carried out in a face-to-face environment rather than an online setting, more students would have taken part. It would also be of interest to see the results of the same study, using these principles or new principles, conducted in other universities in Canada. 5.6 Conclusion This research focused on EAL learning materials development and the effectiveness of principle informed EAL learning materials for students in an EAP program. The results of this research showed that utilizing a set of principles for EAL materials development prior to creating EAL learning materials is beneficial. As more and more students are coming to Canada to not only study English but to relocate as permanent residents, it is important they are given the best possible chance of succeeding. In order to succeed in Canada and become a valued member of the community students can benefit from knowing the local language and culture. This development can be achieved by creating effective EAL learning materials which focus not only on language but content. By utilizing a CBI/CLIL approach to materials development and by employing principles of materials development based on CBI/CLIL and their connections to SLA theory as well as cognitive and constructivist learning theories, the materials writer can develop meaningful materials which expose the student to a higher level of English (i+1), help them engage with each other, and produce more comprehensible output. By being engaged in all this output, students increase their opportunities for noticing and negotiation for meaning. Moreover, students can be more motivated and engaged with the content because it is relevant (Knowles, 1980) and interesting. It gives the students opportunities to connect it with their own lives and 114 critically engage with it. It produces a more democratic and social method for learning as the student is encouraged to be critical and is also given the choice as to how to approach and respond to this content. CBI/CLIL embraces the cognitive functions of the brain for additional language acquisition and learning to take place. Materials should create space for each voice to be heard as a valid opinion and utilize engaging content as a way to teach English, no matter what the student believes or claims. In the classroom, it is not the job of the materials to tell the student what to think, it is the material’s job to create an environment where the students’ voices can be recognized in a non judgemental and safe way. Materials therefore need to help the teacher create community and provide prompts so that students can engage with the content By utilizing the principles of materials development, materials writers can hopefully help students grow their local knowledge and additional language skills. By creating EAL learning materials according to the principles, materials writers can better create effective language learning materials and experiences to benefit students’ academic knowledge as well as their wider knowledge, too. In addition, creating EAL learning materials according to this set of principles can foster empowerment and student autonomy, skills which will be necessary for attending tertiary education in Canada. When utilizing these principles, writers can create units of materials that lean towards a safe critical pedagogy approach. It is a way to teach students real issues, whilst also not raising the affective filter of the individual student and creating independent and free-thinking learners. Integrating critical pedagogy inspired materials into the EAL classroom can not only teach English but also foster learners gaining vital cultural information which will help them on their learning journey. Weaving critical pedagogy into EAP materials is a worthy responsibility of materials writers. Furthermore, by adopting aspects of FPPL and critical pedagogy, by positioning the learner in a creative and supportive community, 115 by creating materials which foster an environment where the learner and the teacher co-construct knowledge and learn together and include relevant content, by showing students that power is not attributed to one person but to the community, and by fostering student independence, teachers can hopefully create effective language learning materials. In 2009 I started my undergraduate program in Dublin to become a history and religion teacher. One aspect of this undergrad experience I enjoyed the most was developing materials. However, I had no guidance and relied only on instinct. When I became an English language instructor in 2014, my favourite part of teaching English was the materials development. Again, though, one issue was that I had no formal guidance, guidelines, or principles to follow and relied mainly on instinct. Over the past two years, having immersed myself in SLA theory, general education theory, material development principles and theory, I have developed the guidelines or principles that I was missing from 2009 to now. These guidelines or principles of materials development can be used to create efficient language learning materials. These principles go beyond just developing language and focus on developing the student to become an independent, critical thinking, unstressed learner. I am now able to see why older materials I have developed are not as efficient at fostering language as I previously thought. I now look back at my own work with a critical lens and can see where there is much room for improvement. After the pilot study was conducted, the materials went through more changes. 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What is the title of this study? Student Perceptions of Using Theory and Research Informed English for Academic Purposes (EAP) Listening and Speaking Materials Who is doing this study? Mr. Ronan Scott is a graduate student in the University of British Columbia’s Okanagan School of Education. He is studying for his Master of Arts in Education. His email address is: ronans@mail.ubc.ca. Dr. Scott Douglas is an associate professor in the University of British Columbia’s Okanagan School of Education. He is Mr. Ronan Scott’s graduate supervisor. His email address is scott.douglas@ubc.ca. Why are we doing this study? We are doing this study to learn what students think about using EAP listening and speaking materials based on a second language acquisition theoretical framework. You have been invited to take part in this study because you are in an EAP course using these types of materials. What happens to you in this study? You can take part in this study by completing this online questionnaire. The online questionnaire should take no more than 20 minutes for you to complete. There will be questions related to the perceived benefits of using content-based language learning materials which were created according to a second language acquisition theoretical framework. You may also take part in an optional online interview. The interview should take no more than 30 minutes of your time. The interview will expand on the questions in the online questionnaire. To take part in the interview, please provide your name and email address in space provided at the end of the online questionnaire. Interviews will take place using a Zoom conference call. Interviews will be recorded using the record function in Zoom. Before the interview begins, you will be asked if you agree to be recorded. After the interview, a transcript will be sent to you by 131 email. You have the opportunity to review the transcript of your interview to ensure it is accurate. How will people know about the results? The findings may be reported in presentations and journals developed around Ronan Scott’s master’s thesis. The master’s thesis will also be a public document available online through UBC’s Circle. Participants who would like to be contacted with a summary of the study results can inform the researchers by sending a message to either of their email addresses listed above. What are the possible risks? We do not think that anything in this study could harm you. If you feel uncomfortable at any time, please let one of the researchers know. Your participation will have no effect on your grades, and your instructors will not know if you participate or not in this study. If you agree to have an interview, your participation will no longer be anonymous. However, your identity will be kept confidential. You will choose a pseudonym and no identifying information will be kept with the data. What are the possible benefits? You may benefit from the opportunity to reflect on your learning experiences. You also have the opportunity to share those experiences with researchers in the field of EAP. Future EAP students may benefit from the study findings. You may be helped during the study by having the chance to practice your additional language and academic skills while interacting with a researcher. How will your identity be protected? Your university instructors will not know who is in the study. They will not have access to the original research data. Unless you provide your email address to be contacted for an interview, the researchers will never know who is participating in this survey. If you provide your name and email address, the confidentiality of your personal information will be kept. Your email addresses will not be associated with your questionnaire answers. Your real name will never be associated with the data collection, analysis, or reporting. We will not tell anyone who is in the study without your permission unless required by law. This questionnaire has been created using the UBC survey tool, hosted by Qualtrics. The data is stored and backed up in Canada. Once the responses to the questionnaire have been collected, the data will be deleted from the UBC survey tool. If you take part in an interview, the Zoom session will be created by a UBC Zoom user, and it will be hosted by UBC’s Zoom platform, which is hosted in Canada. Digital files will be kept on a password protected computer with drive encryption owned by the researcher. A backup of the digital files will be kept on a password protected and encrypted 132 portable hard drive / flash drive that is kept in a locked cabinet on UBC’s Okanagan campus. Data will be kept for a minimum of five years after publication. What if I have questions? If you have questions about this study, you may contact the researchers. Their email addresses are at the top of this page. What if I have concerns? You may have concerns or complaints about your rights as a research participant and/or your experiences while participating in this study. You can contact the Research Participant Complaint Line in the UBC Office of Research Ethics toll free at 1-877-822-8598 or the UBC Okanagan Research Services Office at 250-807-8832. It is also possible to contact the Research Complaint Line by email (RSIL@ors.ubc.ca). Please reference the study number (H20-02797) when contacting the Complaint Line so the staff can better assist you. How do I stop being part of this study? You may decline to participate in this study by not completing the online questionnaire. If you start the questionnaire, you are free not to answer any of the questions. Once you start the questionnaire, you may quit at any time by not completing the questions. Once you have submitted the questionnaire, you will no longer be able to withdraw from the study because identifying information is not connected to the questionnaire responses. You may withdraw from the study before, during, or after the interview. You may also decline to answer a question during the interview. If you withdraw from the study during or after the interview, your answers to the interview questions will not be used in the study, and the data will be destroyed. Consent will be reviewed and provided orally prior to the interview. How do I give consent? By clicking “Yes, I consent.” below, you acknowledge that your participation in the study is voluntary, you are 18 years of age or older, and that you are aware that you may choose to terminate your participation in the study at any time and for any reason. If you choose “yes” below and the questionnaire is completed, it will be assumed that consent has been given. If you do not consent to taking part in this study, please close your browser. You may provide your name and email address in the space provided at the email of this questionnaire. Your name and address indicate that you consent to take part in an interview. If you do not wish to take part in an interview, do not provide your name and address. You may download a copy of this information on informed consent by using the print function in your browser and saving this page as a pdf file. 133 Please note that this survey will be best displayed on a laptop or desktop computer. Some features may be less compatible for use on a mobile device.  Yes, I consent. 134 Appendix B: Online Questionnaire Section 1 1. How long have you been studying English? (Multiple Choice) a. 1 – 3 years b. 3 – 5 years c. 5 + years 2. What is your highest level of study? (Tick all the boxes that apply to you) a. High School b. College c. University d. Graduate Studies e. Post Graduate Studies f. Other (Please explain) 3. What is your gender identity? (Multiple Choice) a. Female b. Male c. Other d. Prefer not to answer 4. What is your year of birth? 5. What is your first language? 6. What is your country of origin? 7. Where are you currently living? 135 Section 2 1. How have the listening and speaking materials for the unit on Ecology helped you in improving your English skills? Give three examples. (e.g. speaking with strangers) a. ___ b. ___ c. ___ 2. What did you like specifically about the listening and speaking materials for the unit on Ecology for learning English? Provide three examples. (e.g. the nice fonts, video based instruction) a. ___ b. ___ c. ___ 3. How would you improve these listening and speaking materials for the unit on Ecology? a. ___ b. ___ c. ___ 4. Do you have anything else you would like to share about English language learning materials? Please use the space below for additional comments. Section 3 136 Please provide your name and e-mail address below if you would like to volunteer to participate further in the interview portion of the study Name (optional): E-mail address (optional): 137 Appendix C: Semi-Structured Interview Questions 1. How have the listening and speaking materials for the unit on Ecology helped you in improving your English skills? Give three examples. (e.g. speaking with strangers) 2. What did you like specifically about the listening and speaking materials for the unit on Ecology for learning English? Provide three examples. (e.g. the nice fonts, video based instruction) 3. Do you think these listening and speaking materials for the unit on Ecology have helped you in other courses? In what way? 4. Do you feel the content (TedTalks, Parallel Structure videos and activities, Key Word e-books) was interesting or helpful in your English language learning journey? (Explain) 5. What specific activity did you enjoy in the listening and speaking materials for the unit on Ecology and why? 6. Did the listening and speaking materials for the unit on Ecology motivate you to study independently? Can you give an example of what you did on your own? 7. Did the video-based materials for the unit on Ecology aid your experience? (Explain) 8. Did the activities in the listening and speaking materials for the unit on Ecology promote interactions between you and your classmates? (Explain) 9. How would you improve these listening and speaking materials for the unit on Ecology? 10. Do you have anything else you would like to share about English language learning materials?
Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Education
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
Graduate
Douglas, Scott Roy
The perceived benefits of using English as an additional language learning materials created according to a principled framework
Text