Education, School of (Okanagan)
DSpace
UBCO
Green, Freya Loren Louise
Master of Arts - MA
University of British Columbia
Despite the increasing popularity of canine-assisted interventions (CAIs) across a variety of contexts, and the demonstrated efficacy CAIs have on stress reduction, there is a paucity of literature that has examined the effects of such programs within the context of law-enforcement. Policing is known to be an environment in which personnel experience elevates occupational stress (Ménard & Arter, 2013; Ranta & Sud, 2008). As stress can be influential in the overall well-being of members and their ability to serve the public, it is important to establish and integrate effective stress-reduction strategies within detachment settings. To address these needs, this qualitative study explored the experiences of stress within members, and a CAI integrated within an urban RCMP detachment. Eight RCMP members (75% female, Mage = 49.21, SD = 6.12) from an urban RCMP detachment situated in the downtown core of a small city, were interviewed. The interview focused on topics including members’ experiences of stress within the workplace, their perceptions of the effects of stress, resources and sources of support, and their experiences of a weekly CAI within their detachment. Results indicate that organizational stressors were identified more often than operational stressors; that members most commonly report stress making them more irritable and affecting their sleep; and that the most commonly reported coping mechanism and resource are exercise and medical services, respectively. In discussing the CAI, participants were overwhelmingly positive in their experiences of the program, and demonstrated support for having CAIs within the detachment setting. Discussion of the impact of the sessions demonstrated that participants found that the program served as a break from work, relieved their stress, improved their mood, and helped them to change perspectives. Participants also identified the role of the dogs within the program, which included their role as a social entity. The findings from the current study contribute to better understanding of the lived experiences of stress within RCMP members, and of CAIs within an applied setting.
i EXPLORING OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND THE PERCEPTIONS OF A CANINE-ASSISTED INTERVENTION IN LAW-ENFORCEMENT PERSONNEL: A CASE STUDY by Freya Loren Louise Green B.A. University of British Columbia – Okanagan Campus, British Columbia, Canada, 2017 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE COLLEGE OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Education) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Okanagan) June 2020 © Freya Loren Louise Green, 2020 ii The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the College of Graduate Studies for acceptance, a thesis/dissertation entitled: Exploring Occupational Stress and Perceptions of a Canine-Assisted Intervention in Law-enforcement Personnel: A Case Study submitted by Freya Loren Louise Green in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts in Education. Dr. John-Tyler Binfet, Okanagan School of Education Supervisor Dr. Margaret MacIntyre Latta, Okanagan School of Education Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Sabre Cherkowski, Okanagan School of Education Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Rachelle Hole, Okanagan School of Social Work University Examiner iii ABSTRACT Despite the increasing popularity of canine-assisted interventions (CAIs) across a variety of contexts, and the demonstrated efficacy CAIs have on stress reduction, there is a paucity of literature that has examined the effects of such programs within the context of law-enforcement. Policing is known to be an environment in which personnel experience elevates occupational stress (Ménard & Arter, 2013; Ranta & Sud, 2008). As stress can be influential in the overall well-being of members and their ability to serve the public, it is important to establish and integrate effective stress-reduction strategies within detachment settings. To address these needs, this qualitative study explored the experiences of stress within members, and a CAI integrated within an urban RCMP detachment. Eight RCMP members (75% female, Mage = 49.21, SD = 6.12) from an urban RCMP detachment situated in the downtown core of a small city, were interviewed. The interview focused on topics including members’ experiences of stress within the workplace, their perceptions of the effects of stress, resources and sources of support, and their experiences of a weekly CAI within their detachment. Results indicate that organizational stressors were identified more often than operational stressors; that members most commonly report stress making them more irritable and affecting their sleep; and that the most commonly reported coping mechanism and resource are exercise and medical services, respectively. In discussing the CAI, participants were overwhelmingly positive in their experiences of the program, and demonstrated support for having CAIs within the detachment setting. Discussion of the impact of the sessions demonstrated that participants found that the program served as a break from work, relieved their stress, improved their mood, and helped them to change perspectives. Participants also identified the role of the dogs within the program, which included their role as a social entity. The findings from the current study contribute to better iv understanding of the lived experiences of stress within RCMP members, and of CAIs within an applied setting. v LAY SUMMARY Therapy dogs can have a positive effect on people in a variety of environments, including schools, universities, airports and hospitals. Programs involving therapy dogs have been shown to reduce individuals’ stress, and more recently, reduce stress in police officers. This study explored what it was like for police officers working within a high-stress environment, and what they thought of a therapy dog program held within their workplace. Eight RCMP members were interviewed by the researcher. Findings indicated that RCMP members experienced variable stress, and although they identified numerous coping mechanisms and sources of support, there were also significant barriers to seeking help. RCMP members also reported that spending time with the therapy dogs was enjoyable and beneficial in reducing stress, improving their mood, and allowing them to change perspectives. The program was highly supported as a resource within the detachment setting, and all participants planned to continue to attend. vi PREFACE This research was granted approval by The University of British Columbia’s (Okanagan campus) Research Ethics Board. Human ethics certification was granted on December 13, 2018 (#H17-03306). vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iii LAY SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................v PREFACE ...................................................................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................. vii LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................... xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................... xiv DEDICATION ...............................................................................................................................xv 1 CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................1 1.1 Background and Context ........................................................................................................1 1.1.1 Police Subculture .............................................................................................................1 1.1.2 Stress in Policing .............................................................................................................2 1.2 Researcher Background and Motivations ..............................................................................3 1.3 Statement of Problem .............................................................................................................4 1.4 Theoretical Frameworks .........................................................................................................5 1.4.1 Biophilia ..........................................................................................................................5 1.4.2 Social Support Theory .....................................................................................................7 1.5 Statement of Purpose ..............................................................................................................9 1.6 Significance ............................................................................................................................9 1.7 Operational Definitions ........................................................................................................10 1.8 Summary ..............................................................................................................................12 1.9 Thesis Overview ..................................................................................................................12 2 CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW ..............................................................................13 2.1 Overview ..............................................................................................................................13 2.2 Occupational Stress ..............................................................................................................13 2.2.1 Defining Occupational Stress ........................................................................................13 2.2.2. Occupational Stress and Policing .................................................................................13 2.2.3 Impact of Occupational Stress on Law-Enforcement Personnel ..................................14 2.2.4 Well-being Programs Targeting Occupational Stress ..................................................15 viii 2.3 Human-Animal Interactions .................................................................................................16 2.3.1 Background ...................................................................................................................17 2.3.2 Benefits of Human-Animal Interaction on Stress .........................................................18 2.4 Animal-Assisted Interventions in Law-Enforcement Agencies ..........................................19 2.5 Summary ..............................................................................................................................20 3 CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH METHODS ..............................................................................21 3.1 Overview ..............................................................................................................................21 3.2 Purpose of the Research .......................................................................................................21 3.3 Research Questions ..............................................................................................................22 3.4 Research Strategy .................................................................................................................22 3.5 Research Design ...................................................................................................................23 3.6 Ensuring Qualitative Quality ................................................................................................24 3.6.1 Worthy Topic .................................................................................................................24 3.6.2 Rich Rigor .....................................................................................................................25 3.6.3 Sincerity .........................................................................................................................25 3.6.4 Credibility ......................................................................................................................25 3.6.5 Resonance ......................................................................................................................26 3.6.6 Significant Contribution ................................................................................................26 3.6.7 Ethics .............................................................................................................................26 3.6.8 Meaningful Coherence ..................................................................................................28 3.7 Case Selection ......................................................................................................................30 3.7.1 Sample Size ...................................................................................................................30 3.8 Data Collection .....................................................................................................................31 3.8.1 Interview Procedure .......................................................................................................31 3.8.2 Member Checking .........................................................................................................33 3.8.3 Field Notes .....................................................................................................................33 3.9 Procedure for Study ..............................................................................................................34 3.9.1 Protection of Participants ..............................................................................................34 3.9.2 Recruitment Procedures and Consent ............................................................................35 3.10 Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................35 3.10.1 Conventional Content Analysis ...................................................................................36 ix 3.10.1.1 Within-case Analysis ...........................................................................................38 3.10.1.2 Cross-case Analysis .............................................................................................38 3.10.1.3 Researcher Reflections ........................................................................................38 3.10.2 Inter-Rater Agreement ................................................................................................39 3.11 Summary ............................................................................................................................40 4 CHAPTER 4 – RESULTS ........................................................................................................41 4.1 Overview ..............................................................................................................................41 4.2 Demographics .......................................................................................................................41 4.3 Within-Case Analysis of Members’ Experiences ................................................................41 4.3.1 Pippa ..............................................................................................................................41 4.3.2 Lucinda ..........................................................................................................................46 4.3.3 Ansel ..............................................................................................................................50 4.3.4 Andreas ..........................................................................................................................53 4.3.5 Zara ................................................................................................................................61 4.3.6 Mary ..............................................................................................................................66 4.3.7 Kitty ...............................................................................................................................71 4.3.8 Tina ................................................................................................................................74 4.4 Cross-Case Analysis by Interview Theme ...........................................................................79 4.4.1 Members’ Levels of Stress ............................................................................................79 4.4.2 Perceptions of the Effects of Stress ...............................................................................81 4.4.3 Coping with Stress .........................................................................................................82 4.4.4 Sources of Support ........................................................................................................85 4.4.5 Impact of the B.A.R.K. Program ...................................................................................88 4.4.6 Role of the Dogs within the Program ............................................................................93 4.4.7 Looking Forward ...........................................................................................................94 4.5 Summary ..............................................................................................................................95 5 CHAPTER 5 – DISCUSSION .................................................................................................97 5.1 Overview ..............................................................................................................................97 5.2 Discussion of Findings .........................................................................................................97 5.2.1 What are RCMP personnel’s perceptions and experiences of stress within the workplace? ..............................................................................................................................97 x 5.2.2 What do RCMP personnel gain from attending the CAI program based in their detachment? .........................................................................................................................105 5.2.3 What role do therapy dogs play within the context of the RCMP CAI program? .....113 5.2.4 Researcher Reflections ................................................................................................115 5.3 Strengths and Limitations ...................................................................................................118 5.3.1 Strengths ......................................................................................................................118 5.3.2 Limitations ...................................................................................................................120 5.4 Implications of Findings and for Further Research ............................................................121 5.4.1 Implications .................................................................................................................121 5.4.2 Future Research ...........................................................................................................122 5.5 Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................123 References ...................................................................................................................................125 Appendices ..................................................................................................................................151 Appendix A – Semi-structured Interview Guide .....................................................................151 Appendix B – Consent Form ....................................................................................................154 Appendix C – Recruitment Poster ...........................................................................................157 xi LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Considerations Taken by Researcher to Ensure High-Quality Research .......................29 Table 2. Cross-case Comparison of Members’ Stress Levels ......................................................80 Table 3. Cross-case Comparison of the Effects of Stress on Members .......................................82 Table 4. Cross-case Comparison of Coping Mechanisms ............................................................83 Table 5. Cross-case Comparison of Well-being Resources Reported .........................................86 Table 6. Cross-case Comparison of Barriers Reported ................................................................88 Table 7. Cross-case Comparison of Impacts of the Program .......................................................91 Table 8. Cross-case Comparison of Impactful Components of the Program ...............................92 Table 9. Cross-case Comparison of the Role of Therapy Dogs ...................................................94 Table 10. Prevalent Themes in Exploring CAIs as a Well-being Resource ................................95 xii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Winnowing Initial Codes into Meaningful Themes .....................................................37 xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AAA Animal-Assisted Activities AAE Animal-Assisted Education AAI Animal-Assisted Intervention AAT Animal-Assisted Therapy B.A.R.K. Building Academic Retention through K9s CAI Canine-Assisted Interventions HAI Human-Animal Interactions LEP Law-Enforcement Personnel LEO Law-Enforcement Officer xiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. John-Tyler Binfet, for all you have done to support me in this endeavor, and in the eight years leading up to it. Your encouragement, support, and mentorship has been pivotal in this journey. I would also like to thank my supervisory committee, Dr. Margaret Macintyre Latta and Dr. Sabre Cherkowski, for your support and feedback. To my fellow Graduate student, Nicole Harris. Thank you for your infectious determination and for being such a supportive colleague. I would like to thank my family, close friends, and B.A.R.K. team for all of your support throughout the last three years. In particular, I thank my partner (Robbie), parents (Darryl and Rach), and supporters (Davis, Alex, Camille, Shanneen, Nicole, Rob, Denise, Maureen, Sam, Kris, Briony, and Alyssa) for always being at my side through this endeavor. I would also like to thank Brent Mundle and Bill Finney at the Kelowna Detachment of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Thank you for providing such enthusiastic support of animal-assisted interventions within policing, without which this would not have been possible. xv DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this to my close friends and family for encouraging me throughout my academic career, and for your support through the highlights and the lowlights. Namely, I would like to dedicate this to my late Aunt, Jan, for being such a strong advocate for my academic career, for introducing me to animal-assisted interventions, and for inspiring me to continue your legacy in assisting the RCMP. I would also like to dedicate this to ‘my’ therapy dog, Niki for lending a paw when I needed it the most. Your affection, and plentiful supply of dog hair, has gotten me through both my undergraduate, and now graduate, degrees. Finally, I would like to dedicate this to the eight individuals who shared their stories with me. Thank you for your service to the country, and for your generosity in supporting my research. 1 CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background and Context Both the working context and the challenges faced by employees working in law-enforcement are considered unique (Arble et al., 2017; McCarty & Skogan, 2012; White & Robinson, 2014). As part of their routine duties, law-enforcement personnel (LEP) encounter dangerous situations and are regularly exposed to distressing events such as acts of terrorism, homicides, mass causalities, deaths of colleagues, and a constant, yet unpredictable, risk to life (Gershon et al., 2002; 2009; Marmar et al., 2006; Westmarland, 2017). In addition to these potentially life-threatening stressors, LEP may experience organizational stressors such as antisocial working hours and shift work, intermittent work pace, heavy workloads, and workplace discrimination (Gershon et al., 2009; Terpstra & Schaap, 2013; White & Robinson, 2014). 1.1.1 Police Subculture Furthermore, it has been identified that LEP are working in an environment that is said to depict a unique sub-culture. This sub-culture, often coined ‘police culture’ is sufficiently unique that it has become a topic of interest within the field of policing (Johnson et al., 2005; Terpstra & Schaap, 2013; Westmarland, 2017). Cox and colleagues (2018) describe police culture as a set of assumptions, beliefs and expectations within the police environment. These assumptions dictate officers’ relationships with colleagues and others with whom they interact, how to perform tasks, and their opinions of police administrators, the legal system and judges, and the laws or restrictions they impose as part of their profession. White and Robinson (2014) distinguish this police culture from other organizational cultures citing the life-and-death nature of the job, the solidarity, unmalleability, and subsequent resistance to change as explanations for its 2 exceptionality. In addition, it has been stated that “police culture can also demand conformity and exert pressures that take a toll on its members” and argue that this culture can result in isolation of LEP, both from the public and from one another, and a cynical attitude wherein LEP become distrustful of human behaviour (Cox et al., 2018, p.185). This unique culture characterizing police precincts is thought to contribute to members experiencing heightened stress. As Cox and colleagues (2018) argue: The effects of formal pressures and the pressures that the police subculture generates often lead police officers to experience a great deal of stress in their occupational, social, and family lives-resulting in cynicism, burnout, and a host of physical and emotional ailments (p.185). 1.1.2 Stress in Policing Given the unique culture in which LEP work and the high numbers of stressors they face, policing is considered to be amongst the most stressful of all occupations (Anshel, 2000; Ménard & Arter, 2013; Ranta & Sud, 2008). It follows that working in a high-stress profession has consequential effects on the psychological, physical, social, and emotional well-being of LEP (for reviews, see Abdollahi, 2002; Webster, 2013). Bano and Talib (2017), for example, examined police officers’ stress (N = 456) and concluded that 59.8% were experiencing high, or high to medium levels of self-reported stress. More recently, Queirós et al. (2020) surveyed Portuguese police officers (N = 2057) using the Operational Police Stress Questionnaire, and found that 85% of their participants exceeded the cut-offs for high operational stress levels and 28% presented high-distress levels. Researchers have identified that the accumulation of this occupational stress places LEP at a heightened risk for compromised physical health including cardiovascular disease and obesity, social concerns such as distrust of others and isolation, 3 familial issues including domestic violence and divorce, maladaptive coping mechanisms such as substance abuse and gambling, and compromised mental health (Bano & Talib, 2017; Carleton et al., 2018; Gershon et al., 2009; Terpstra & Schaap, 2013; Queirós et al., 2020; Zimmerman, 2012; 2014). 1.2 Researcher Background and Motivations As part of my commitment to high-quality research (See section 3.9), I will now explain my background, motivations, and potential biases that I bring forth. I work as the program coordinator for UBC’s Building Academic Retention through K9s (B.A.R.K) program, having been involved in the program since its inception in 2012 as a volunteer. I have a long-term interest in animal-assisted interventions, especially with canines and equines. Since a young child I have spent many hours riding, and bonding, with equines and can attest to the benefits that I recognized in my own well-being. I am also motivated to conduct this research in part because I have been involved with the established program that seeks to improve well-being and reduce stress in RCMP employees. This includes my being a member of the research team that explored the efficacy of the program within the detachment using quantitative measures (Binfet et al., in press). As a researcher, I want to recognize and minimize my potential biases so as not to hinder my investigation or reduce the quality of the study. As Roulston and Shelton (2015) argue that “any demonstrations of bias on the part of the researcher (e.g., expressions of ideological positions, or sympathies that lie with particular participant groups) are frequently viewed as indicators of a poor quality study” (p.332). I acknowledge that as a researcher, especially one who potentially has invested interest in the study at hand, I have to be mindful of, and try to reduce, researcher bias. The following steps were taken to remain impartial in my conclusions: 4 • In the planning phase of this study, existing research knowledge and theoretical frameworks were heavily utilized to guide the design and procedures of the present study. • Throughout the design and implementation of the study, the primary supervisor and other members of the research lab were consulted. • The interviews were semi-structured and made use of a standardized interview guide. Thus, all participants were asked the same key questions. The only variations between interviews was when questions were asked to seek elaboration or clarification. • Member checking was conducted wherein the interviewer provided participants with a summary of their responses. Participants were then asked to confirm, adjust, or negate the interpretations of the researcher. This helps to ensure that the researcher bias does not affect the conclusions drawn from participants’ voice and allowed for the participant to clarify or change their responses as needed. • Inter-rater agreement with a second coder was conducted in order to verify that the themes identified were objective, not as a result of any researcher bias. 1.3 Statement of Problem A concerning proportion of LEP are experiencing elevated workplace stress, and many of the agencies in which these personnel are based do not have wellness programs in place to combat the stress, or the resulting physical or mental health concerns. Canine-assisted interventions (CAIs), programs that bring together certified therapy dog-handler teams and clientele (often students or seniors) with the aim of improving wellbeing, have demonstrated their efficacy in reducing stress and posttraumatic stress within high-stress environments (Binfet et al., 2017; Kloep et al., 2017; Krause-Parello et al., 2015; 2016; Stern et al., 2013; Taylor et al., 2013; Yarborough et al., 2017; Yount et al., 2013; Ward Griffin et al., 2018). A study that 5 preceded the present study examined the efficacy of CAIs within a law-enforcement context and demonstrated the potential for such a program for LEP (Binfet et al., in press). However, a review of the extant educational, psychological, and law-enforcement literature revealed no studies addressing the efficacy and experiences of CAI within LEP. The present study is designed as a follow-up study and it is hoped that the findings will further explore the lived experiences of police stress, and of a CAI within a detachment. 1.4 Theoretical Frameworks: Biophilia and Social Support Theory Both Wilson’s theory of Biophilia (1984) and Cobb’s social support theory (1976) serve as theoretical frameworks to guide this study and subsequent research questions. 1.4.1 Biophilia Biophilia is the theory that humans have evolved to pay particular attention to nature, living organisms, and life-like processes (Wilson, 1984). Wilson (1984) suggested that Biophilia genetically serves to enhance the chance of survival in humans. In the age of early humans, animals would have provided a source of food and raw materials, as well as provide an outlook on the current threat of danger. Paying close attention to animals’ behaviour would have aided survival because they would signal a pending threat or danger (Serpell, 1986; 1996). In addition, taking notice of animals’ relaxed behaviour would have implied that the surroundings were safe and secure, and thus, would have been relaxing for our human ancestors (Beetz, 2017). It is thought that human-dog relationships in particular were advantageous due to early warnings of danger and that using their collective senses provided them with a “competitive edge” over other species (Gullone, 2000, p.306). Today, although we no longer live amongst animals in the same way as our early ancestors, humans are still tightly connected to non-human animals. This connection, seen today in our 6 affinity for spending more time at zoological parks than at major sports events (Wilson, 1992; 1993),and the popularity of having animals as companions (Serpell, 1996; 2017; Mornement, 2018), shapes our physical and cognitive development (Serpell, 1996; O’Sullivan, 2011). The theory of Biophilia has been supported in more recent research examining the efficacy of animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), in which animals have been found to relieve anxiety, pain, negative affect, and other unpleasant mental states (for a review see Waite et al., 2018). Buttelmann and Römpke (2014) induced speech-anxiety in university students (N =71) and examined their anxiety levels when they were alone or accompanied by a dog or a fish. The results suggested that there were reduced anxiety levels when students were accompanied by either animal, compared to the solitary control group. The anxiety-reducing effect of animals has been supported in clientele in a variety of treatment settings such as electroconvulsive therapy (Barker et al., 2014), treatment for schizophrenia (Lang et al., 2010), or major depression (Hoffman et al., 2009). Havey and colleagues (2014) examined patients in two separate hospitals who had recently undergone total joint replacement. Participants were matched between the two hospitals except that one had an animal-assisted therapy (AAT) program, and the other did not. They found that significantly less pain medication was required in the patients who participated at least one AAT session. This effect was observed most in the patients who had been visited by an animal three or more times (Havey et al., 2014). These reported effects have been supported neurologically, as it is thought that the right amygdala may have evolved in such a way that it processes information about animals differently to other stimuli. In this study, Mormann et al. (2011) analyzed neurological responses from neurons (N = 489) in the amygdalae of neurosurgical patients (N = 41) and found that the reactions were selective on images of animals. 1.4.2 Social Support Theory 7 Complementing the Biophilia theory, Cobb’s social support theory (1976) provides a second theoretical framework for this study. Social support is the information that “leads the subject to feel loved and cared for, […] esteemed and valued, [… or] to believe that he belongs to a network of communication and mutual obligation” (Cobb, 1976, p.300). Cobb (1976) asserts that social support throughout one’s life is protective against stress-related health concerns or crises. This has a variety of applications including, but not limited to, adherence to prescribed medication; smoking-cessation; reduction in post-operative psychological reactions; and adapting to change such as aging, a termination of employment, or dissolution of marriage (Cobb, 1976). This is supported by Joseph, Williams, and Yule’s (1995) Integrative Cognitive-Behavioural Model of Adaptation to Traumatic Stress, in which the authors claim that social support is an important component of coping mechanisms after stressful events. Further, the input and support from interpersonal relationships can assist in the appraisal of the event itself which may help to moderate the way the event is remembered, the meaning attributed, and the emotional reaction it provokes (Joseph et al., 1995). Recent research has supported the proposed benefits of social support within the context of first responders. Prati and Pietrantoni (2010) conducted a meta-analytic review to examine the relationship between received and perceived social support and mental health among first responders. Through an examination of 37 studies, the authors concluded that there was a medium effect size (r = .27) relationship between amount of social support and mental health. Schwarzer and colleagues (2014) examined self-reported stress of police officers (N = 2943) who worked at least one shift at the world trade center (or related sites), or had been involved in the transportation of debris, between September 11, 2001 and June 30, 2002. The researchers assessed stress responses (using the stressor-specific PTSD Checklist; PCL), self-reported 8 exposure levels, and social integration. Unsurprisingly, the results demonstrated that the stress response and reported exposure levels were correlated, thus indicating that more severe exposures were more stressful. Findings from this study also suggested that social integration mediated the effect of exposure on stress. The authors concluded that officers who were more socially integrated demonstrated more resilience to the 9/11 exposures, as characterized by lower stress responses (Schwarzer et al., 2014). In addition, social support theory is relevant to the examination of CAI as research has proposed that canines provide social support equal to, or more beneficial than, humans (Kloep et al., 2017). To illustrate, Polheber and Matchock (2014) examined the concept of canines as a form of social support for participants during a stress test. Participants (N = 48) were randomly assigned to be either alone, accompanied by a human friend, or a novel therapy dog for the duration of the trial. This consisted of a 40-minute rest period, 10-minute stress test, followed by a period to relax alone. Participants’ heart rate was measured throughout the study, and salivary samples were taken during the rest period and throughout the relaxation period after the test. Results demonstrated that participants in the canine group demonstrated lower heart rate during the test, when compared to the human friend and control groups. Further, participants’ cortisol levels, as measured through the saliva samples, were lowered with canine-support more so than human- or no-support. This study provides evidence that supports the use of therapy-canines as an effective form of social support (Polheber & Matchock, 2014). Both the Biophilia and Social Support theories are relevant to the current study because the existing CAI within the RCMP detachment, which is explored in the present study, is designed to foster close, hands-on contact with therapy canines and to encourage social interactions within the workplace. 9 1.5 Statement of Purpose The aim of this study is to explore Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) personnel’s perceptions and experiences of stress within the workplace. In addition, the extent to which UBC’s B.A.R.K. sessions, representing CAI programs more generally, function as a well-being resource will be evaluated. Five areas meriting investigation were identified for this study: 1) levels of stress; 2) perception of the effects of stress; 3) coping mechanisms and sources of support; 4) experiences of the B.A.R.K. program; and 5) the role of the dogs within the program. 1.6 Significance This research is significant from both theoretical and applied perspectives. Theoretically, the findings from this study hold potential to provide insights into the experiences of LEP and their perceptions of stress within the workplace. Further, this research offers the opportunity to explore the perceptions of a CAI within a law-enforcement context. From an applied perspective, the findings from this study could help to build knowledge around the perceptions of stress of LEP which could guide both members and management. Increasing knowledge about the lived experiences of stress, effects of stress, and resources to support stress reduction may provide insights to assist management in suiting the needs of LEP. Aiding LEP in stress-reduction could have a beneficial and contagious effect on other personnel within the detachment, families of personnel, and the general public. That is, as stress is reduced, officers are better able to perform their duties serving the public. Further, this study could help to inform law-enforcement agencies around best implementation when introducing canine-assisted wellness program within detachments. 1.7 Operational Definitions 10 Animal-assisted activity. A subdivision of animal-assisted interventions, AAA is defined as an intervention that “provides opportunities for motivational, educational, recreational, and/or therapeutic benefits to enhance the quality of life. AAAs are delivered in a variety of environments by specially trained professionals, paraprofessionals, and/or volunteers in association with animals that meet specific criteria” (Granger & Kogan, 2006, p.264). Animal-assisted intervention. AAI’s, by contrast, are defined as “any intervention that intentionally includes or incorporates animals as part of a therapeutic or ameliorative process or milieu" (Kruger & Serpell, 2006, p.25). Within the umbrella term ‘animal-assisted interventions’ includes: animal-assisted activities (AAA); animal-assisted education (AAE); and animal-assisted therapy (AAT). Unfortunately, these labels are not always consistently used in their correct manner within research and often AAT is used when the descriptor AAA is more accurate. Animal-assisted therapy. Kruger and Serpell’s (2006) definition states that “AAT is a goal-directed intervention in which an animal that meets specific criteria is an integral part of the treatment process. AAT is directed and/or delivered by a health/human service professional with specialized expertise and within the scope of practice of his/her profession” (p.23). B.A.R.K. Dog. For the purpose of this study, a B.A.R.K. dog refers to a therapy canine that has been assessed by, and integrated into, UBC’s Building Academic Retention through K9s program. Canine-Assisted Interventions. This study will utilize Binfet and Hartwig’s (2019) definition of CAIs, which is “the bringing together of credentialed CAI teams and members of the public in a specified setting with the purpose of enhancing human well-being. [This] may be 11 delivered individually with one CAI team and one client or group administered with several CAI teams supporting multiple clients” (p.10). First Responders. The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines first responders as “a person (such as a police officer or an EMT) who is among those responsible for going immediately to the scene of an accident or emergency to provide assistance” (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). First responders thus often include, but are not limited to: police; firefighters; paramedics; emergency medical technicians, 9-1-1 dispatchers, and rescuers. Law-enforcement personnel. In this study, law-enforcement personnel include any active member of a police force (such as the Royal Canadian Mounted Police) of any rank. In addition, civic employees who work for the police force in more clerical duties are included under this title. Occupational Stress. Occupational stress is defined in this study as “the mind-body arousal resulting from the physical and/or psychological job demands” (Pienaar et al., 2007, p.246) RCMP Member. For the purpose of this study, a ‘member’ is any individual employed by the RCMP of any rank (from Civilian members to the Commissioner). Service Dog. A service dog is a dog that “is trained to perform specific tasks to assist a person with a disability, and is certified as a service dog” (Guide Dog and Service Act, SC 2015, c.49) Therapy animal. Therapy animals (most commonly dogs and horses) work alongside their handlers to “bring emotional support through long-term care in places such as hospitals, retirement homes, schools, mental health institutions. […] Therapy dogs can handle various environments and bring comfort to many people in clinical, and learning settings and typically 12 are trained, licensed, and insured under an organization” (Service dog certifications, 2018). It is worth noting that therapy animals are distinct from service animals in that they provide support to multiple individuals, are not defined under the ADA, and are not allowed into public spaces or areas with ‘no pets’ policies (Service dog certifications, 2018). 1.8 Summary This chapter has contextualized the purpose of the present research, provided a description of the researcher’s motivations, and explained the theoretical frameworks that guided the study. In addition, the significance of the present study was discussed and key terms defined. Chapter 2 will include a brief overview of occupational stress within policing and of the benefits of human-animal interactions (HAIs). 1.9 Thesis Overview This thesis consists of five chapters. In the first chapter, the study is introduced, the context for the study provided, and the theoretical frameworks that guided this study are explained. In Chapter Two a literature review on the topics of occupational stress within policing and of canine-assisted interventions is provided. An explanation as to the methodology used is provided in Chapter Three, and in the fourth chapter, the findings of the study are presented, providing an explanation of both the within-case and cross-case analyses. Finally, Chapter Five presents a discussion of the salient themes that emerged from interviews with the participant including the significance of these findings and their implications for future research. 13 CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Overview This chapter will provide an overview of the relevant literature in the fields of policing and HAIs in order to illustrate the need for the study at hand. The first section of this literature review will provide an overview of peer-reviewed literature on occupational stress and its impact within the police force. The second section will focus on the relevant literature on CAIs, both in general, and in relation to stress. The third, and final, section will explore the emerging research exploring the effectiveness of CAIs within a law-enforcement context. 2.2 Occupational Stress 2.2.1 Defining Occupational Stress Recall that occupational stress can be defined as “the mind-body arousal resulting from the physical and/or psychological job demands” (Pienaar et al., 2007, p.246). Within occupational stress, two sub-categories of stressors have emerged: 1) operational and 2) organizational. Operational stressors are the stressors that are characteristic of the role held by the individual. These stressors are often described as “job content” stressors as they are inherent to the content of the career (Shane, 2010, p. 807). Organizational stressors are those that relate to the organization in which the individual works. These are often called “job context” stressors as they relate to the agency, or context, in which the employee is based (Shane, 2010, p. 807). 2.2.2 Occupational Stress in Policing Within the context of policing, operational stressors include the threat of injury or loss of life, often-negative interactions with the public, and long, antisocial work hours (Kaplan et al., 2017; McCraty & Atkinson, 2012; Shane, 2010). Organizational stressors, those that relate to the agencies within which LEP work, may include excessive punishment or insufficient rewards, 14 inter-agency politics, workplace inequalities, or shortages in staffing or other resources (Kaplan et al., 2017; McCraty & Atkinson, 2012; Shane, 2010). 2.2.3 Impact of Occupational Stress on Law-Enforcement Personnel Experiencing elevated occupational stress can have an impact on the social, psychological, behavioural, spiritual, and physiological well-being of LEP (Conn, 2016; Gershon et al., 2009; Gutshall et al., 2017; Smith & Charles, 2010). Recall from the previous chapter that Queirós et al. (2020) surveyed Portuguese police officers and identified 85% as being highly stressed. In addition to this finding, the authors identified that 55% of their participants (N = 2057) were at risk of developing a psychological disorder. Research by Mumford and colleagues (2015) offers additional support. These researchers conducted a study of LEP from 11 agencies (N = 184) wherein they administered a survey to gain insights on: physical activity and diet; job-related stress, environmental and critical incident exposures; substance use; physical and mental health; and, health-care use. Using the Mental Health Index-5, they concluded that Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was reported at a rate of over double that of the general population (8.8% compared to 3.5%) and that anxiety and depression were reported almost twice as often in LEP compared to the general population (Mumford et al., 2015). Gershon and colleagues (2002) administered questionnaires in a study of police officers aged 50 years or older (N = 105). Findings suggested that the officers’ perceptions of work-related stress were significantly associated with anxiety, depression, aggression, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress. In addition, the researchers reported that 87% of officers felt low in energy, 40% felt burned out, and 13% felt they were ‘at the end of their rope’ (p.163). More recently, and specifically with a Canadian sample, Carleton and colleagues (2018) conducted a survey of public safety personnel (PSP; N = 5813). In this study, they concluded that 15 the frequency of positive screens for mental disorders is considerably higher in PSP than in the general population (44.5% compared to 10.1%). Specifically looking at policing, the authors also found that 50.2% of the RCMP members surveyed screened positive for or self-reported an established mental disorder (i.e., PTSD, major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder or alcohol abuse). Notably, the members surveyed were significantly more likely to positively screen for PTSD, depression, anxiety, social anxiety disorder, and panic disorder than municipal or provincial police. In addition, a higher percentage of members screened positively for mental disorders than any of the other first responders including firefighters, paramedics and call-center dispatchers (Carleton et al., 2018). 2.2.4 Well-being Programs targeting Occupational Stress As discussed above, researchers have established that occupational stress within the law-enforcement agencies has ramifications for the personal well-being of employees. As a result of this increasing concern, researchers are starting to examine the efficacy of well-being programs. Kuehl and colleagues (2014), for example, examined a wellness program called Safety and Health Improvement: Enhancing Law-enforcement Departments (SHIELD) for LEP. Participants (N = 408) were randomly assigned to either a wellness program or a control group. Participants assigned to the wellness program attended weekly, 30-minute, peer-led sessions for 12 weeks. These sessions consisted of three to four brief group-based activities about exercise, body weight, healthy eating, sleep, stress, and other lifestyle factors. Participants in both groups completed baseline health assessments and a follow-up six months later. Results demonstrated that many of the criteria (including fruit and vegetable consumption; sleep quantity and quality; general health; and eating habits) had significantly improved after attending the wellness intervention when compared to the control. Further, there were reported decreases in alcohol 16 consumption, tobacco use, depression, and stress (Kuehl et al., 2014). In a follow-up examination 12-months after the SHIELD program, benefits in sleep, diet, stress, and alcohol and tobacco use had persisted (Kuehl et al., 2016). In another intervention study, McCraty and Atkinson (2012) examined the efficacy of a resilience and performance-enhancement training program on stress in police officers. Participants (N = 65) took part in a 16-week program that aimed to build resilience, recognition and self-regulation of stressors both in the workplace and in participants’ personal lives. Compared to the control group, reductions in stress, negative affect, depressive symptoms were noted. Further, officers reported improvements in peacefulness, family relations, communication, and workplace cooperation and performance (McCraty & Atkinson, 2012). Programs such as these have demonstrated efficacy in improving behavioural, emotional, social, and cognitive outcomes in LEP, however the implementation of programs is still lacking (Crouch, 2014). This is not for lack of enthusiasm however, as one study found that 80% of officers were interested in participating in a program if one were available (Crouch, 2014). As such, it is important that research be conducted that examines wellness programs within law enforcement contexts in order to implement feasible, sustainable, and successful programs across more agencies. 2.3 Human-Animal Interactions One such opportunity to assist agencies in employee well-being lies within the field of human-animal interactions (HAIs). CAIs, a sub-component of HAIs, remain under-utilized within policing despite their surge in popularity and efficacy in augmenting well-being across a variety of contexts (Binfet & Passmore, 2016; Hoffman et al., 2009; Lang et al., 2010). In the 17 following sections, an overview of CAIs will be provided and a review of the literature in support of the current study will be presented. 2.3.1 Background The therapeutic use of animals to bolster psychological well-being has a long history but has more recently been exponentially growing in popularity (Beck et al., 2018). There are many well-known academics who have utilized some form of AAT or intervention (AAI) including John Locke who, in the 1600s, theorized that small animals could aid the social development of young children. Other notable examples include Florence Nightingale who suggested that patients with chronic conditions had symptoms of depression reduced upon spending time with small pets; Sigmund Freud who was accompanied by his Chow Chow, Jofi, during therapy sessions; and Corporal Willian Wynne who, during World War II, brought in his Yorkshire Terrier to improve the moods of the injured soldiers in recovery (Coren, 2010). In the 1960s, Boris Levinson began to incorporate his dog Jingles into his therapy sessions with children, at which point more formalized research began (Coren, 2010). In his research, Levinson found that his young clients were able to communicate more effectively when in the presence of Jingles (Coren, 2010). These early pioneers of HAI could not have predicted the popularity of CAIs today, as now, half a century later, the use of animals as a therapeutic resource and the public interest in such programs has grown enormously (Brelsford et al., 2017). The beneficial effects of HAIs have provided the foundation for more formalized programs, activities, or interventions that routinely see horses, dogs, and other animals in a wide variety of contexts. These typically include, but are not limited to, retirement homes, hospitals and hospices, funeral homes, university and college campuses, libraries, and airports (Pet Partners, n.d.; St. John Ambulance, n.d.). 18 2.3.2 Benefits of human-animal interaction on stress One of the areas of well-being wherein CAIs have demonstrated benefits is in reducing stress levels, which has been well researched within a university or college student population (see Binfet, 2017; Crossman & Kazdin, 2015; Dell et al., 2015; González-Ramírez et al., 2013; Pendry et al., 2018; Trammell, 2017). Lass-Henneman and colleagues (2014) examined the effect of canine presence on female university students (N = 80) who were asked to view a traumatic video clip. Participants either viewed the video alone, or were accompanied by a toy dog, friendly female student, or a canine. Results suggested that participants who had been accompanied by a canine during the video clip reported lower anxiety and negative affect than those who were accompanied by a toy dog, a friendly female student, or had viewed the video alone (Lass-Henneman et al., 2014). Barker and colleagues (2016) also examined the efficacy of a CAI on stress levels of college students (N = 78). In this study, students were randomly assigned to either a CAI or an attention-control condition. Participants completed pre- and post-intervention questionnaires on perceived stress. The post-test results demonstrated that even a 15-minute intervention was associated with reduced perceived stress when compared to the control group (Barker et al., 2016). More recently, Pendry and Vandagriff (2019) sought to explore the efficacy of a brief AAI on students’ salivary cortisol levels. Undergraduate students (N = 249) were randomly assigned to one of four groups: 1) hands-on contact with a dog or cat; 2) observation much alike waiting in line for the intervention; 3) viewing a slideshow of the program’s dogs and cats wherein they completed a preference checklist; or 4) a waiting room group where students sat quietly without external stimuli. Saliva samples taken first thing that morning and at intervals to reflect pre- and 19 post- the 10-minute intervention demonstrated that spending time with cats and dogs was associated with significantly lower salivary cortisol levels when compared to the observation, slideshow, and waitlist groups (Pendry & Vandagriff, 2019). This supports pre-existing literature that attest to the perceived stress reduction effects of spending time with animals and suggests physiological reductions in stress levels within a student population. 2.4 Animal-Assisted Interventions in Law-Enforcement Agencies Despite the evident success of AAIs to reduce stress in students, there is a paucity of literature that has examined the efficacy of AAIs within the context of law-enforcement. A careful review of the literature in psychology, sociology and anthrozoology revealed only one study examining the use of therapy canines to support the well-being of law-enforcement personnel. Binfet et al. (in press) sought to explore whether spending time with therapy canines would positively impact self-reports of stress in LEP. In this study, seven therapy dog and handler teams were brought to an urban RCMP detachment and made available to law-enforcement officers and staff. There were 8 drop-in sessions available, one per week for eight weeks, each lasting 90-minutes. Participants were allowed to determine the duration of their visit, with the average duration of the visits being 11 minutes. Pre- and post-intervention measures of stress were assessed using a visual analogue scale. Firstly, findings demonstrated that 47% of officers self-identified as feeling somewhat- to very-stressed, thus illustrating the need for an effective well-being initiative. Secondly, findings suggested that even after an average visit of 11 minutes with therapy canines and handlers both officers and civic employees reported significant reductions in stress at post-visit (Binfet et al., in press). Given the demonstrated success of CAIs across a variety of contexts, and the need for stress-reduction and wellness programs within law-enforcement agencies, it is clear that CAIs 20 hold potential as a wellbeing resource for LEP. The present study aims to build upon the emerging literature in this field and to address some of the current gaps within the literature. For instance, it has been argued that organizational support for police is under-researched and that more research is needed to explore why police choose to, or not to, use stress-reduction services (Tucker, 2015). It has also been argued that qualitative research methods, which the present study utilizes, are considered valuable, yet underutilized within occupational stress research (Mazzola et al., 2011; Moreto, 2015). Finally, as there is an absence of knowledge surrounding LEPs experience of CAIs within a detachment setting, this study seeks to add valuable knowledge to the fields concerning HAIs and LEP stress/stress reduction. 2.5. Summary This chapter has provided a brief overview of occupational stress in policing and of the benefits of HAIs. Combined, this research illustrates that there is a need for an effective program to help combat occupational stress and improve the well-being of LEP. In addition, the literature in this chapter shows the potential for CAIs within this population but also illustrates the dearth of knowledge in this area and the need for further exploration. Chapter 3 will include a discussion of the purpose of the present study, the research question, strategy, and methodology, and the procedures undertaken. 21 CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH METHODS 3.1 Overview This chapter provides an overview of the research methods used in this study. The first section will include an outline of the purpose and design of the research, including research questions. The procedure of the study will be explained in the second section, and in the third section Tracy’s (2010) ‘big tent’ criteria will be discussed in relation to ensuring a high-quality qualitative study. Finally, the data analysis procedure conducted for this study will be discussed in the final section of this chapter. 3.2 Purpose of the Research Despite the growing popularity of CAIs, the efficacy such programs have already demonstrated, and the need for effective well-being resources within a law-enforcement context, there remains a dearth of literature that has examined CAIs within this population. A single study conducted (Binfet et al., in press) has explored this modality of support, however, more research is needed to explore the lived experiences of LEP and gain a deeper understanding of the factors within the law-enforcement workplace that place this population at risk for elevated stress level (Binfet et al., in press; see also Leppma et al., 2017). The present study aims to follow-up a previous study conducted by the author and colleagues (Binfet et al., in press) in which it was explicitly suggested that “a series of semi-structured interviews could be done to uncover the underlying factors contributing to, and exacerbating, employee stress” (Limitations and future research, para. 1). As discussed in the literature review section of this thesis, the study by Binfet et al. (in press) introduced a weekly CAI as a mechanism for reducing stress and improving wellbeing within an urban RCMP detachment. This particular program is now well-established within the 22 detachment and, at the time of conducting the data collection for the present study, has completed its 3rd year of program implementation. The present study seeks to act as a follow-up study by exploring, through qualitative methods, participants’ experience of the program, as will be discussed in more detail in the following sections. 3.3 Research Questions As mentioned in the introduction of this thesis, five areas requiring investigation were identified: 1) levels of stress; 2) perception of the effects of stress; 3) coping mechanisms and sources of support; 4) experiences of the B.A.R.K. program; and 5) the role of the dogs within the program. The three main questions guiding this study are as follows: 1. What are RCMP personnel’s perceptions and experiences of stress within the workplace? 2. What do RCMP personnel gain from attending the CAI program based in their detachment? 3. What role do therapy dogs play within the context of the RCMP CAI program? 3.4 Research Strategy Given the purpose of the study and the early stage of CAI research within this population, a qualitative approach was determined to best elucidate the research gaps identified in the literature review above. In addition, and as Hamilton and Corbett-Whittier (2013) argue, “Qualitative research has emerged in education, especially in the 1980s and beyond, as a fruitful or illuminative means of understanding more fully the people and processes involved” (p. 23). In this study especially, wherein the aim is to explore the lived experiences of LEP in relation to stress, and their experiences participating in a CAI, qualitative research holds potential to access the views and insights of participants over quantitatively-driven research alternatives. 23 3.5 Research Design Within qualitative research, case studies have emerged “as a possible champion that might be able to deepen understanding in real contexts rather than simply providing decontextualized ‘evidence’” (Hamilton & Corbett-Whittier, 2013, p. 6). There are a number of advantages of case study methodology, hence their increased appreciation in research (Sandelowski, 2011). A case study is an approach to research wherein researchers conduct a detailed, in-depth exploration of a single subject or multiple subjects in order to understand real-life events or complex social phenomena in a holistic and meaningful way (Luck et al., 2006; Yin, 2014). This approach is distinct from narrative research in that the focus is to understand an issue or phenomena rather than an individual (Creswell et al., 2007). There are a number of advantages of case study research that are applicable to the present study. Firstly, as identified above, case studies are able to contextualize evidence within real-life contexts. Secondly, case study research adds a humanistic approach and allows the reader to “arrive at their understanding through direct and vicarious experience” (Stake, 2009, p.18). Thirdly, as Stake (2009) argues, “...[B]ecause of the universality and importance of experiential understanding ... case studies can be expected to continue to have an epistemological advantage over other inquiry methods as a basis for naturalistic generalization” (p. 24). To discover truth in human nature and behaviour, researchers should utilize human encounter and immersion rather than objectivity and universal forces (Stake, 2009). Finally, case studies provide an expansive, rather than narrowing, way of knowing and provide a more humanist perspective, thus making them more relatable to the reader (Stake, 2009). Essentially, case studies hold an advantage over quantitative, evidence-based research in that they allow the researcher, and the reader, to immerse themselves in data that is both rich and humanist. 24 Case study research aids in the illustration of links between theory and complex, real-life events (Luck et al., 2006). Within HAI research, case studies might help to establish the link between CAIs and the emerging theory that they promote improved well-being in a variety of contexts. Case study research has established its value when the phenomenon under investigation is very complex and/or when there is an excess of variables that are not conducive to being controlled or manipulated (Rosenberg & Yates, 2007). Given that this study seeks to explore the lived experiences of participants and integrate this into emerging theory, there is a strong argument for utilizing a case study approach in the present investigation. 3.6 Ensuring Qualitative Quality In order to ensure high-quality qualitative research, this study utilized Tracy’s (2010) model or framework for conducting high-quality qualitative research. This model, which was further expanded by Tracy and Hinrichs in 2017, consists of the following criteria or components: 1) worthy topic; 2) rich rigor; 3) sincerity; 4) credibility; 5) resonance; 6) significant contribution; 7) ethics; and 8) meaningful coherence. Each of these components will be described in turn, and the efforts made in the current study to adhere to these guidelines, discussed. 3.6.1 Worthy Topic The first component of Tracy’s (2010) model, worthy topic, posits that the topic of interest in a study should be “relevant, timely, significant, and compelling” (Tracy & Hinrichs, 2017, p.2). The present study is worthy as there is rapidly-emerging evidence to suggest the efficacy of CAIs as a well-being resource. Despite research attesting the expansion of the field of CAIs, there is still a distinct lack of research examining the efficacy of such a program for first responders, specifically those in law-enforcement. It is hoped that this study will add knowledge 25 to an under-examined and under-utilized area in which therapy dogs can provide support. In addition, studies examining mental health and well-being opportunities are both relevant and compelling as poor mental health can be very detrimental to one’s wellbeing. 3.6.2 Rich Rigor As the authors discuss, high-quality research should demonstrate rigor through “careful attention to detail, methodological thoroughness, precision of evaluation, and the generation of requisite variety in regard to data richness and complexity” (Tracy & Hinrichs, 2017, p.4). Essentially, researchers should be thorough in their planning, exact in their evaluation, and ensure the measurement tools are as complex and multidimensional as the concept or interaction at hand. Rigor in this study has been established by consulting with a research committee, obtaining institutional ethics approval, conducting both within- and cross-case analysis, and establishing inter-rater agreement. 3.6.3 Sincerity Researchers striving to conduct high-quality research should be willing to be self-reflective, vulnerable, honest, and transparent if they are to achieve sincerity, Tracy’s (2010) third component in their model. As a researcher, I have aimed to remain sincere by being transparent about my background and potential biases, communicating my motivations to conduct this research, and discuss the strengths and limitations of the study (Tracy 2010; Tracy & Hinrichs, 2017). 3.6.4 Credibility “Qualitative researchers attain credibility through the use of thick description, crystallization of data, evidence of multivocality (providing opportunities for voice from a range of stakeholders), and engaging in member reflections with participants” (Tracy & Hinrichs, 26 2017, p.6). As the authors argue, the dependability and trustworthiness of a researcher is dependent on these four practices. I have sought to provide in-depth descriptions of the procedures and analytical process involved in this study, and have illustrated the findings by providing examples from the participants’ own voice. 3.6.5 Resonance Resonance, achieved through ‘aesthetic merit, evocative writing, and formal generalizations as well as transferability’ is the ability for the reader to be able to connect the themes and findings of the study to their own research, or even their own life (Tracy & Hinrichs, 2017, p.7). Essentially, the reader should be able to read through the present study and find ways in which this relates to their own expertise. It is hoped that the in-depth descriptions of the procedures, the analysis, and the salient themes that emerged will inform LEP, management personnel, researchers and CAI program directors in the lived experiences of attendees. 3.6.6 Significant Contribution If a study is to be of high-quality it should extend, transform, or build upon current literature, theories, or practices in a way that is insightful and meaningful. A high-quality qualitative study cannot be crafted in such a way that leaves the reader wondering what value the study added to what is currently known. This study holds potential to contribute knowledge to a field in which very little is currently understood with regards to stress, the perceptions of members, and of the role dogs play in supporting well-being. As discussed in the literature review, the present study is founded within a new and emerging area within HAIs. 3.6.7 Ethics Within the ethical component of the big-tent model, there are four categories: procedural, situational, relational, and exiting (Tracy, 2010). Procedural ethics “encompass the importance of 27 accuracy and avoiding fabrication, fraud, omission, and contrivance. These standards include participants’ rights to confidentiality, anonymity, and the protection of participants’ identity and privacy”. (Tracy & Hinrichs, 2017, p.9). In the development stage of this study, all procedures were passed through an ethical committee and the study was approved by the University’s human research ethics board and Kelowna’s RCMP detachment. As discussed in section 3.8, the researcher took steps to ensure that participants’ anonymity and confidentiality were protected by assigning research identification numbers, and by storing all electronic and hard copy files with encryption in a secure space. Situational ethics refer to the steps the researcher takes during the study to ensure that the standards of ethics are being upheld. As Tracy and Hinrichs (2017) point out, this can include the locations in which information is gathered and the choices made by the researcher when disclosing information so as to ensure that there is no negative impact on the participant. In this study, procedures were evaluated by an ethics committee and details of interview location were always approved by the researcher’s supervisor so as to ensure that a second opinion was always sought ahead of time. Participants anonymity was protected by assigning research identification numbers (RIDs) to audio-files and transcripts. RIDs are numerical descriptors that allow the researcher to identify data without the data being directly attached to any information that would identify the participant such as a first or last name. The list that pairs the participant name with their RID is kept separate from the data files. This study also upheld situational ethics by having a protocol was in place should a participant need additional support, in light of the discussion topic. In addition, the researcher took time to reflect on the ethical decisions made throughout the study. 28 Relational ethics “encourage researchers to be aware of the impact they have on people within the research site, and to treat participants with dignity, acknowledging them as people with values, voices, and beliefs, rather than merely as subjects of observation” (Tracy & Hinrichs, 2017, p.9). As the researcher was involved with the CAI on which the interviews were based, the participants and researcher would have already known one another to a limited extent. This, combined with the researcher’s continual self-reflection, allowed the researcher to build a more human relationship with the participants, and treat them with dignity and kindness. Exiting ethics refers to the steps that the researcher takes upon completion of data collection to ensure that the findings from the research are shared with the scholarly community in a way that “avoid[s] unjust or unintended consequences for their participants, particularly those who may be members of marginalized populations” (Tracy & Hinrichs, 2017, p.9). In this study, exiting ethics were ensured by using pseudonyms to discuss the data from participants. Pseudonyms are names that are used in replacement of the participants’ real names. These are chosen randomly and are distinct from their real names. Much like RIDs, pseudonyms help to ensure that participants remain anonymous and that they are not connected with any specific opinions, beliefs or assumptions. 3.6.8 Meaningful Coherence The eighth, and final, component of Tracy’s (2010) ‘Big Tent’ criteria for high-quality research is ‘meaningful coherence.’ This ‘refers to the overall consistency, soundness, and rationality of a study’ (Tracy & Hinrichs, 2017, p.9). As such, the literature review should establish an appropriate context for the research at hand, appropriate methods should be used to address the research questions, and the findings of the research should align with these questions and the existing literature. In addition, all of these components should be logically connected to 29 form one, cohesive, study. The current study has been formed with careful consideration and I have ensured that the review of the literature was carefully curated and scrutinized to provide support for the rationale of each component of the study. The table below provides a summary of the components discussed to ensure high-quality qualitative research and how the present study has sought to address these principles. Table 1 Considerations Taken by Researcher to Ensure High-Quality Research Component Considerations taken by the researcher Worthy Topic It is well established that law-enforcement is a stressful occupation, yet effective wellbeing opportunities remain under-examined. In addition, the efficacy of CAIs within this context remains under-utilized. Rich Rigor The present study has been thoroughly planned in consultation with committee members and in light of existing literature. In addition, the present study obtained institutional ethics approval, and the researcher conducted within- and cross-case analysis and established inter-rater agreement. Sincerity The researcher has remained transparent about potential biases, motivations for undertaking this research, and limitations of the study. Credibility The researcher has provided thick descriptions of all procedures of the study and has provided examples from participants’ own voice to illustrate the findings, thus allowing the reader to make their own interpretations. Resonance The researcher sought to provide in-depth descriptions of the procedures, analysis and findings from the study. It is hoped that this will help to inform researchers, CAI program directors, LEP, and management personnel. Significant Contribution As this study is founded within an emerging area of human-animal interactions and relatively little is understood about the topic, the findings represent a significant contribution to the research field. Ethics Participants’ anonymity was safeguarded using RIDs (procedural ethics) and the interview location was thoroughly considered, and committee members consulted (situational ethics). In addition, the researcher participated in continual self-reflection, treated participants with respect and dignity (relational ethics), and used pseudonyms to ensure that the summaries in this thesis document would not be connected to the individual participants (exiting ethics). Meaningful Coherence The researcher has carefully formed the study and all components of the study. Existing literature has been examined carefully and committee members consulted regularly to ensure that the context of the study is clear, the methods appropriately address the research questions, and that the findings are aligned with the research questions and existing literature. 30 3.7 Case Selection 3.7.1. Sample Size Qualitative studies, in general, and case studies in particular, tend to have smaller sample sizes than quantitative research (Mason, 2010, Seawright & Gerring, 2008). Part of the rationale for smaller sample sizes is that in qualitative research, a theoretical concept only needs to be included in one piece of data, or one code, in order for it to be included within the overall analysis (Mason, 2010). In addition, qualitative research aims to understand the meaning behind the data, rather than making a generalized hypothesis. The proposed sample size of 6-8 interviews for this study was determined based on recommendations in prior literature (Guest et al., 2006; Morse, 1994, Creswell, 2007). Particularly noteworthy is the work of Guest et al., (2006) who conducted 60 interviews and conducted analyses in groups of 6 interviews in order to determine at what point data saturation occurred – the point at which new information no longer adds value to themes or overall conclusions of the study. Findings suggested that 75% of high-frequency codes that were identified in the first six interviews remained in the high-frequency category after 60 interviews. This suggests that the themes identified as important in the first six or 12 interviews remained important for the entire analysis. Guest and colleagues also sought to examine whether any high-frequency codes in the final analysis emerged only after the first six or 12 interviews. Results demonstrated that 94% of these prevalent themes were identified in the first six interviews (Guest et al., 2006, p.78). Guest and colleagues concluded that for a study seeking to focus on overarching themes, six interviews would be sufficient to enable meaningful theme-development and useful interpretations (Guest et al., 2008, p.78). For the purpose of this study, the proposed sample size was 8 to allow for the possible attrition of participants. 31 3.8 Data Collection 3.8.1 Interview Procedure Prior to commencement of this study, approval for the CAI program within the detachment, and for the subsequent interviews was obtained. This study commenced with the approval of the University’s Human (H17-03306) and Animal (A18-0222) ethics boards, and from the Superintendent of Kelowna’s RCMP detachment. Data for this study was collected through individual, in-person, semi-structured interviews with each participant. Semi-structured interviews were chosen because they can be utilized effectively when there is ‘sufficient objective knowledge about an experience or phenomenon, but the subjective knowledge is lacking” (McIntosh & Morse, 2015, p.1). In the case of the present study, prior research has established that CAIs are effective in reducing stress within a detachment setting, however, what was left unanswered were the participants motivations for attending and their experiences of participating in the program. By interviewing a participant, as opposed to administering a series of surveys or questionnaires, the researcher is able to explore, in-depth, the lived experiences of members who choose to attend a CAI. Semi-structured interviews are not only appropriate for this study but the use of a semi-structured interview guide (Appendix A) can also strike a balance between flexibility for the researcher, consistency in the questions asked of participants, and fidelity to the rigorous nature of the study. The flexibility allows relevancy to the topic and comparison between participants while remaining responsive to the participant (Bartholomew et al., 2000). Researchers should use their experience to appropriately seek clarification, ask for elaboration, or delve deeper into topics as required. In contrast to an unstructured interview, the guide ensures that all participants are asked the same questions in the same order, which analytically speaking means that data can 32 be compared both within-participant and across-participants and may be numerically transformed or represented (McIntosh & Morse, 2015). All interviews were conducted at the University at a time convenient to the participants. The location of the university, as opposed to the local detachment, was chosen in order to help ensure anonymity of the participants. Upon arrival at the interview session, participants were asked to read the informed consent forms (Appendix B) and review the information provided before providing written consent both to participate in the study and to have their interview audio-recorded. Participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any point until the data analysis phase, although no participants did so. None of the participants declined to participate or to be audio-recorded. Following the signing of consent forms, participants completed a brief demographic questionnaire to collect descriptive information about the sample as a whole. This questionnaire asked participants to provide demographic information, to confirm that they were an active member of the RCMP, and to identify how many years they had been in service. Once complete, participants had an opportunity to ask questions before the interview commenced. The interviews lasted, on average, 71 minutes (range = 63-77 minutes). Upon completion of the interview, participants were given their remuneration gift certificate to a local coffee shop to thank them for their participation. The interview questions posed were derived from a careful review of the literature – both within the fields of stress reduction in law enforcement and CAIs. Key themes raised in previous research were used to create categories for which interview questions were produced. For each thematic category identified, one open-ended question was generated. Questions were designed to be invitational, thus to invite the views of the participant on the topic. This also allowed the 33 researcher to expand, or seek clarification on, the topic by asking follow-up probes (See Appendix A). 3.8.2 Member Checking Recall that member checking was conducted in order to increase validity and to ensure qualitative quality through credibility and resonance. Member checking, or “respondent validation” (Birt et al., 2016, p.1802) is a process wherein participants are provided with a summary of their responses in order to “check for accuracy and resonance with their experiences” (Birt et al., 2016, p.1802). In the present study, participants were provided a summary of their responses at the mid- and final-points of their interview. After each of the researcher’s comments, participants were asked to confirm, adjust, or negate the interpretations made by the researcher. This helps to ensure that researcher bias does not impact the conclusions derived from the interviews. In the present study, all participants participated in the member checking process. Participants largely agreed with the researcher’s interpretations. Often participants agreed with the statements and added further comments or examples to illustrate their responses. One participant made a small adjustment, and clarified her comments until they agreed that the researcher’s understanding was accurate to their experience. All comments or adjustments were transcribed and analyzed with question responses to ensure that these additional remarks featured in the findings. 3.8.3 Field Notes Field notes were completed during and immediately following each interview by the researcher. Field notes are considered to be an essential component if a researcher wants to conduct rigorous qualitative research as they can aid in describing the context of the interview, can provide information that is not always possible to document through audio-recordings thus 34 enhancing the researcher’s understanding, and can provide context for the analysis (Phillippi & Lauderdale, 2018). 3.9 Procedure for Study 3.9.1 Protection of participants To protect the anonymity of the participants in this study and to maintain confidentiality concerning their responses, interview recordings and transcripts were assigned a research identification number (RID) and given pseudonyms for the discussion of the results. Interview recordings, transcripts, and field notes were password protected and stored on a password-protected drive. Hard copies of consent forms and demographic questionnaires were stored in a locked filing cabinet, within a locked on-campus office. Any documents that identified names of participants, which included only the list of names with their RID pairings, were stored separately from the data. As discussed throughout this thesis, the study asked participants to reflect on their experience in a CAI held in the detachment. To protect the participants in this program, all B.A.R.K. volunteers and dog handlers were required to complete a Criminal Record Check and additional security screening as required by the RCMP. Upon receiving clearance, all handlers and program volunteers attended a training session hosted by RCMP liaisons. In addition, all dogs and handlers were screened by B.A.R.K. evaluators and had a minimum of 2 years prior experience as therapy dog handlers for the B.A.R.K. program. Handlers and dogs remained together at all times and were accompanied by a senior B.A.R.K. staff member and an RCMP liaison. 3.9.2 Recruitment procedures and consent 35 Participants were recruited by convenience sampling through posters posted throughout the detachment (Appendix C). Interested participants emailed the researcher who responded with a standardized email and a consent form (Appendix B). An incentive of a $50 gift-card to a local café was offered to participating individuals. Interested individuals were asked to confirm their interest in the study by sending an email to the researcher. Upon receiving this email, participants were sent a copy of the consent form (see Appendix B). They were asked to respond to the email to confirm their interest and willingness to partake in the study and to book a session for the interviews at a time convenient to them and outside their working hours. Upon arrival, participants were asked to sign two copies of the consent form: one for the researcher, and one copy for them to keep to demonstrate that they had consented to participating in a research interview and having the interview voice-recorded. 3.10 Data Analysis In order to analyze audio-based interview data, several phases occurred. First, the interview recordings were transcribed verbatim. Secondly, and upon completion of the transcription phase, these documents were imported into NVivo™. NVivo™ is computer software program that is designed for qualitative data analysis. For the purpose of this study, the advantage of NVivo™ was that it allowed the researcher to see their data in a visually-accessible format that indicates where codes are evident. This aids the researcher in the next phase of the data analysis. Once the data had been organized in a systematic and accessible manner, qualitative content analysis could take place. Hsieh and Shannon (2005) define this as “a research method for the subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns” (p. 1278). Essentially, qualitative content analysis aims to examine the words within responses in depth so as to pay attention to the 36 content and context of the text rather than merely counting words. This has become a widely used research method, especially for participant-generated data such as is the case here (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). 3.10.1 Conventional Content Analysis For the purpose of this study, the researcher used conventional content analysis to interpret the interview data. Conventional content analysis was chosen because it has been identified as an appropriate analysis method when there is limited pre-existing literature on the phenomenon at hand (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). The advantage being that the conventional analysis approach allows the actual information from the data to inform and to help form categories rather than approaching the data with preconceived categories from prior literature (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). As has already been noted earlier in this thesis, there is a paucity of literature examining the implementation of a CAI within a law-enforcement context, especially from a qualitative perspective. Alternative styles content analyses, such as directed (which is appropriate when prior research exists but is incomplete) or summative (in which specific, pre-determined words are identified and data is quantified) would not be a suitable fit for this study (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). The first step in this process was the initial analysis wherein the transcripts were read in a single session and global themes were identified. Upon completion, a more exhaustive analysis was conducted wherein smaller segments of each transcript were coded. Coding is an important component of qualitative research as it allows for researchers to identify key components within the interview data and form these key words, phrases, or paragraphs into a coherent story (Skjott Linneberg & Korsgaard, 2019). These codes are subsequently reduced with similar codes combined to form logical themes that accurately represent the key messaging from the data in a 37 process called winnowing (Wolcott, 1990; See Figure 1). The newly developed themes form a dynamic coding manual which are then utilized for the next phase of the data analysis. Phase II is comprised of a two-step process consisting of within-case analysis where each case is examined individually followed by a cross-case analysis, where all the cases are examined as a collective to identify themes shared across participants. Conducting both within-case and cross-case analysis allows researchers to examine each case in-depth but also to identify any shared themes amongst the participants. The within-case and cross-case steps in the present study are discussed in more detail below. Figure 1. Winnowing initial codes into meaningful themes. 3.10.1.1 Within-case analysis. Recall that within-case analyses examines each interview in-depth to identify meaningful themes from transcripts. Each of the interviews were read through carefully and meaningful excerpts were coded using the coding guides. For the purpose of the analysis and subsequent presentation of the results, the interviews in the present study 38 were divided or categorized into seven distinct topic areas corresponding to the 7 guiding themes of the interview itself (i.e., 1) levels of stress, 2) effects of stress, 3) coping mechanisms, 4) sources of support, 5) experiences of the B.A.R.K. program, 6) role of the dogs, and 7) looking forward). As these are distinct categories within the interview transcript, dividing these sections accordingly allowed for a more in-depth analysis of each topic. 3.10.1.2 Cross-case analysis. Cross-case analysis allows for the researcher to compare and contrast the commonalities, differences, and prevalence of salient themes between cases or participants (Ayres et al., 2003; Khan & VanWynsberghe, 2008). Analyzing data in this way allows researchers to establish themes that are of importance to the greater or entire sample and to identify themes that are distinctly important to one, or a small number of individuals. The cross-case analysis, much like the within-case analysis, was conducted in seven sections which corresponded with the seven guiding topics of the interviews just described. In this way, it was possible to examine the prevalence of each theme and to identify what participants as a whole reported as meaningful or important. 3.10.1.3 Researcher reflections. Upon completing my first round of coding, it was very apparent that there were a large number of codes that had been identified. On the one hand, I was reassured that my data was rich and would provide me with many insights, however, I was also keen to ensure that I did not oversimplify the data and diminish the voice of the participants through the grouping of my codes into themes. In order to analyze this data effectively, and whilst remaining faithful to participants’ voices, I consulted heavily with my research team during this process. 3.10.2 Inter-Rater Agreement 39 Inter-rater reliability is the extent to which the coding of the same excerpts of data by two different researchers correspond and agree with one another (Gwet, 2014). Thus, if two raters were to code the same data set, would they identify the same prevalent themes and reach the same conclusions? Inter-rater reliability appeals to qualitative researchers who are keen to ensure that their data captures the voice of the subjects of the investigation, not the voice of the raters analyzing the data (Gwet, 2014). Thus, by having a second coder analyze the results, the quality of the research is strengthened, researcher bias is reduced, and ability of the researcher to capture the true lived experiences of the participants is improved. Syed and Nelson (2015) provide recommendations to researchers, which were adhered to in the present study. These are as follows: First, the researcher should provide the coding manual for all coders involved in the project. This manual should be discussed in detail and all initial questions addressed. Second, the researcher should provide sample data randomly drawn from the data set, with which coders can practice the coding scheme. These initial codes should be discussed thoroughly with the coding team, and the exclusion and inclusion process should be detailed. At this stage, the coding manual is often revised to reflect common questions put to the researcher by coders in order to provide documentation of any decisions made in the early training stages (p. 378). As noted above, in the present study, a second researcher (a graduate student experienced in qualitative content analysis) assisted in the coding of the data. The coding manuals were provided to the second rater with an opportunity for questions and clarifications and the two raters walked through a randomly selected interview excerpt as a training process. After completion of training, 20% of the data (i.e., 2 interviews) were randomly selected and the 40 second rater independently coded this data. From this, the coded data from both raters was compared to determine the extent to which the two raters agreed or disagreed. The percentage agreement rate is calculated by dividing the number of agreements by the number of agreements and disagreements, which is subsequently multiplied by one hundred in order to transform the number into a percentage (Syed & Nelson, 2015). The present study obtained an agreement rate of 88%. The two raters agreed on 72 codes, disagreed on 10 codes, thus having a total of 82 codes identified between both raters ([72 ÷ 82] x 100 = 88%). The disagreements that occurred were subsequently discussed between both raters and resolved. 3.11 Summary This chapter provided an overview of the research purpose, design, and questions, as well as details of data collection. In addition, criteria for quality research and measures that the researcher took to ensure a high-quality study have been discussed. This chapter concluded with an explanation of the data analysis process, including inter-rater agreement. In Chapter 4 the findings that emerged from analysis of the interviews will be presented. 41 CHAPTER 4 – RESULTS 4.1 Overview Recall that the purpose of the present study was twofold: First, to explore Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) personnel’s perceptions and experiences of stress within the workplace; and second to understand their experiences as participants in UBC’s B.A.R.K. program held at the Kelowna detachment. In the first section of this chapter the demographics of the participants will be presented. Following this, findings from the within-case and cross-case analyses of the participants’ responses are presented. 4.2 Demographics Participants were drawn from an urban RCMP detachment situated in the downtown core of a small city (population 216,500; BC Stats, 2020). This detachment serves a population that could be considered ethnically homogenous (94.8% Caucasian; Statistics Canada, 2007). As noted previously, a demographic questionnaire was administered to each of the eight participants. Of the eight participants (75% female; Mage = 49.21, SD = 6.12), all were active members of the Kelowna detachment and all were full-time employees. It is worth noting that there was considerable variation in role, rank, and position of these members. Participants’ service in the RCMP ranged from 10-28 years. The average length of service was 20.25 years at the time of interview commencement. 4.3 Within-Case Analysis of the Member’s Experiences In no particular order, the descriptions and corresponding insights of each of the participant’s experiences is presented next. All participants’ experiences will be discussed using pseudonyms in order to protect their confidentiality and anonymity. 4.3.1 Pippa 42 At the time of the time of the interview, Pippa identified her stress levels as being high and identified three organizational stressors that were contributing to her elevated stress. These included high volume of calls, lots of change in the office, and lots of court preparation. When asked how this elevated stress affects her she identified two effects: 1) Irritability; and 2) Productivity. In order to alleviate this stress, Pippa said that she ensures that she is getting breaks and tries to keep perspective by learning to prioritize certain tasks over others. Pippa also identified three sources of support: 1) fitness/gym, 2) events, and 3) social/human contact. The human contact that Pippa found valuable, arguably the most emphasized component in this section of her interview, was her accommodating supervisor. When asked why her supervisor was key in fostering well-being she responded: Because […] if it was something that they didn’t do, it’s almost like a dictatorship. It’s like “no this is your shift and this is what you have to do” and I think that that tends to burn people out more, or they’re feeling more like that they’re at work all the time and they’re not getting that balance that they kind of need in their life. In keeping with the theme of accommodating supervisors, when asked about potential barriers for seeking mental health resources, Pippa acknowledged that because the detachment is divided into units and that different people have different supervisors, not every individual may be as willing to seek resources. She described this as a “snowball effect” in that if management supports/or does not support well-being, then this predisposition trickles down to the lower ranks. She also stated that if people do not have a good relationship with their supervisor, it may serve as a barrier to seeking resources (other). 43 The responsibility for fostering well-being within the detachment, according to Pippa, is personal. She stated that the “onus falls on myself to distribute stress better.” She also acknowledged though, that trust within one’s workplace is important. She reported finding it helpful that her colleagues trust that when she is taking a break it is because she needs to, that it is legitimate, and that she is not just manipulating the system to avoid work tasks. Recall that the second half of the interview focused on the participants’ experiences in the B.A.R.K. program. Pippa ranked herself as a high-medium user of BARK and attended the majority of sessions held that semester. She was motivated by the need for a break (other) and the promotion of the program within the detachment. Specifically, Pippa had heard about the program through a national RCMP newsletter article prior to transferring to the Kelowna detachment. Despite hearing about the program in advance, Pippa stated that she did not have expectations as to what she might gain from the program prior to attending and expressed her surprise through stating that “I didn’t think that I would feel such a difference going in at the beginning of a session to leaving.” Upon discussing motivations to attend the program, the interview then sought to establish what, if any, impact the CAI had on the participants. Pippa said that she had no prior expectations about the program other than spending time with dogs. She said that she appreciated B.A.R.K. as being a break and felt refreshed after having attended. This is evident from the following quotation: You forget about all the stuff that was on your mind just before you went there, and it just kind of cleared your mind, a fresh start […] So it was a nice little break and recharge, or something out of the norm, it’s just a nice break. 44 The following codes were then established in her description of the impact the program had on her: Helps general, relieves stress, changes perspective, and improved mood. She also mentioned that she felt “spoiled” by having the program in her detachment (B.A.R.K. enjoyable) and then cited B.A.R.K. dog characteristics such as the dogs being attentive, affectionate, and cute, in her explanation. Finally, the duration of the aforementioned impact was discussed. Pippa felt that the effects lasted for a few days (duration lasted a day or more). Pippa was then asked “What is it about the program specifically that you think causes that impact or makes that difference?” To which she quickly stated, “It’s obviously the dogs.” She identified B.A.R.K. dog characteristics such as “they’re just too darn cute.” In addition, Pippa appreciated that the program was structured but liked how it was not a heavily-dictated structure and that it was “left up in the air almost like fate” around which dogs would be available upon her arrival. She illustrated this comment with a description of a colleague who ended up sitting with a whippet and, despite that not being perhaps the dog she would have chosen, has built a connection. Later in the interview, she added that the flexibility in the program meant that the program did not feel repetitive as it would not be an identical experience each time. She pointed out that repetition was not a factor in her attendance and that she liked the variety. Another component of the program that Pippa stated numerous times was talking to the handlers and hearing the stories of the dogs (other). She enjoyed taking a break from “all the junk I’m dealing with” and listening to the positive stories of the handlers, or of the dogs. In addition, she drew parallels between the handlers in the sense that they were trying to make a difference, and policing. When asked why this similarity was important for her, she responded: 45 Because I think that everybody needs to do that, we all need to […] otherwise there’s just going to be so much negativity right? Nobody that gets into policing wants all that negativity. So when you see other people making a difference it, it just helps you to feel better. It’s like you know, okay there are so many other people out there that are making a difference, […] but you get some people, they think that they’re entitled and that the system owes them and it’s all about them. But when you start doing things for other people and other things then you make a difference, right? And that’s what makes things better. It was clear from this section of her interview that Pippa felt better (improved mood) for seeing other people trying to make a difference and trying to do good things within society. Later in her interview she added: Sometimes you feel, like is anybody else doing this [trying to make a difference] too? Like am I fighting a losing battle? So when you see other people doing stuff to, to help, it’s nice knowing that there are more people out there not just, you know first responders like EMS [Emergency Medical Services], but other people that have other jobs. It’s just nice to see good people. Good people doing good things. Especially in policing [as] you see a lot of negativity, a lot of bad people, and it, even though we don’t know those people we see the bad side of them, [and we] don’t always see the good side. So, we kind of associate that, you know when you’re dealing with bad people all day it’s like, are there any good people out there? So when you start seeing people that have a positivity, or a positive role, or do positive things, it just makes you feel better that we’re not fighting a losing battle. 46 When asked about the role of the dogs within B.A.R.K, Pippa described that therapy dogs should be calm and social, specifically that they should be “approachable” and “friendly” and to be “a dog that’s not going to create more tension in the situation.” Pippa also acknowledged that the therapy dog’s needs should be met in that they should not be stressed themselves. Pippa felt that interventions assisted by other animals, specifically “anything fuzzy” would be effective for her personally but acknowledged that not everyone may feel the same way or find other animals as calming or relaxing. Looking forward from the interview, Pippa was confident that she would attend in the future and cited the beneficial effect on her as a reason for her continued participation in the program. These benefits included overall productivity and feeling calmer upon returning home. Later in the interview, she stated that she felt that B.A.R.K. injected a positive atmosphere into a workplace where there is a lot of negativity, demonstrated that management is trying to improve well-being within the detachment, and that CAIs have a place both within the detachment and in other contexts such as fire departments and military settings. 4.3.2 Lucinda At the time of the time of the interview, Lucinda identified her stress levels as “manageable compared to previous months and years” which was subsequently coded as low-moderate stress. She identified five organizational stressors, three of which were “dealing with the workload,” “the pressures of being able to meet certain deadlines,” and “juggling multiple things.” Later on in the interview Lucinda mentioned an additional two organizational stressors: “working really long hours” and “being called out in the middle of life.” When stressed, Lucinda noticed that she is more irritable (i.e., “impatient” and “touchy”), especially with her family. 47 Five themes were present in Lucinda’s coping mechanisms: 1) Perspective, 2) breaks, 3) exercise, 4) getting outdoors, and 5) recreational activities. Specifically, for Lucinda, strategies to alleviate stress included taking extra time for herself, getting her mind into a calmer space, taking a day or two off, getting outdoors, doing exercises, and something recreational. As examples of a recreational activity, Lucinda said: “going for a walk, going for a run, something athletic or a drink with a friend. Something that I know makes me feel good.” Within the detachment, Lucinda described six resources. The first mentioned was the wellness committee (other resources) and she explained that the wellness committee is a group of members who aim to “improve overall wellness, mental health, and psychological safety in the workplace.” The second wellness resource she described was the peer-to-peer program which she described as a divisionally led program wherein “members are trained how to respond to somebody who may have been exposed to a critical incident or a trauma.” In addition, Lucinda mentioned that there are online resources (other), which includes a virtual therapy tool called LifeSpeak, Gym, critical incident briefings with psychologists (medical/psychologists), and teambuilding events. When asked who is responsible for fostering well-being, Lucinda felt that the responsibility does not fall on the shoulder of any one individual or group of individuals and rather, the responsibility is shared by everybody (collective). She added that within the detachment setting, this responsibility is not well defined. Lucinda self-identified as a low user of well-being resources and mentioned three barriers to seeking or utilizing mental health resources. Firstly, she mentioned time and specifically used the example of members out on the road with potentially insufficient time to come in from duty, get changed, work out in the gym, get changed again, and head back out. She also stated that there is pressure to remain on duty rather than leaving your colleagues out there alone, already 48 understaffed, to come back and go to the gym (other barriers). Secondly, she mentioned that one of the main barriers to accessing mental health resources was stigma. Lucinda reported that there is a tendency for members to make fun of those off-duty due to PTSD and that she felt that people who are dealing with mental health concerns would be reluctant to use the available resources or openly acknowledge that they need help for fear of being “outed” or criticized for taking time off. Lucinda attended the majority BARK of sessions held that semester, self-identified as a medium user of the B.A.R.K. program whom did not have set expectations going into the program. She reported that she was motivated to attend because she wanted to support the management personnel who had arranged to have the program integrated into the detachment and she was curious about the program itself (motivations – other). Lucinda stated that she found the program enjoyable and derived benefits from it, including ‘feeling great’ when she left (improved mood) and that she became more positive (changed perspective). In addition, she made reference to benefits within the detachment climate. One such benefit was that having the B.A.R.K. program illustrated an effort by management that demonstrated their care and attention to employee well-being. In addition, Lucinda discussed the ‘residual benefits’ of having had the program run in the detachment. These included positive conversations with colleagues, such as talking about the dogs. Later in the interview, the positivity of the program re-emerged in the dialogue, with Lucinda stating that “there’s a lot of negativity associated with [the job], so I think anything that can inject some positivity into our work environment, I think is really good” (BARK-work contrast). Having described an impact of the program on both herself and the workplace climate within which she works, Lucinda was asked to reflect on how she thinks this works, or what 49 components of the program contributed to the benefits she described. Her response indicated that B.A.R.K. dog characteristics were important in the impact of the program, as is demonstrated in the following quote: “Any time people deal with a dog as calm and sweet as the ones that you guys bring in are, I think it just has this way of making people feel just something positive in their energy.” The duration of the impact for Lucinda lasted for the day, but she also mentioned again that having the B.A.R.K. program impacts the perception of the management in relation to fostering employee well-being. Specifically, she stated that “as long as the B.A.R.K. program keeps showing up, I think that makes me more of a believer that our management is actually committed to our mental health” and “as long as it lasts, it makes me more of a believer that management cares, which is a huge deal.” Lucinda mentioned the management and their caring about fostering well-being on numerous occasion, which arguably speaks to how much she values management personnel’s attitude toward well-being. Another prevalent topic throughout this interview section were the canine handlers. She felt that the conversations with the handlers were an added bonus that she had not anticipated when she first heard about the program. The handlers, according to Lucinda “were just the perfect personality” and that they “enhanced the interactions with the dogs.” Lucinda subsequently mentioned that as she attended more B.A.R.K. sessions, she became more comfortable talking with the handlers and that they were all “very friendly, outgoing [and] had a vibration to their energy that you could tell they were caring people, kind people, and had that selfless personality.” Lucinda described the role of the therapy dogs in B.A.R.K. as being social. Specifically, she said that “their role is to be social with everyone and anyone” and “when they lean into you, 50 you know while you’re petting them, things like that they do I think is what makes it.” When asked if the program would be as meaningful without the dogs, or with another animal, Lucinda felt that other animals would not be as effective and that dogs are suited to animal-assisted interventions because “they have a reputation for being like this unconditionally loving companion” and that “there’s something about the way they communicate with their eyes and impressions and their faces” that makes them loveable (dogs suitable due to characteristics). Lucinda was also confident that she would attend in the future and endorsed the B.A.R.K. program. Specifically, Lucinda liked chatting with the handlers, petting the dogs, and felt that it was a “positive part of a work day.” She expanded on her endorsement by expressing that she hopes more members will utilize the program, and that CAIs have a place within the detachment setting. 4.3.3 Ansel Ansel identified his stress levels as being variable and even described his stress in the last 30 days as being “erratic or rollercoaster.” He described his stress as “moderately low but with sometimes rapid-fire changes.” Similar to Pippa and Lucinda, organizational stressors were in Ansel’s responses for this section of the interview. In his case, three organizational stressors were identified: “schedule changes,” “last-minute requests thrown our way,” and “new training.” When asked about the effect of stress, Ansel identified irritability, sleep, and social. He felt that he was “probably more quick to judge with a snap judgement, that he has “been accused of using that cop-like mentality sometimes with family and friends that’s too harsh,” and that he was sure his family would pick up on elements of his increased stress within the home environment. He also explained that, when stress persist over time, he invests less in social interactions or 51 relationships, is less genuine and more judgmental, and is more aware of the give-take balance in his interactions with others. Ansel’s coping mechanisms were coded into the following themes: Perspective, social, getting outdoors, and exercise. Ansel mentioned that compartmentalizing his thoughts was a helpful way to reduce his stress when he is alone (perspective). When with colleagues, he finds bouncing stuff off one another, sarcasm and mockery of certain situations, and using humour to be effective stress-relieving techniques (social). He even said that for him, “sharing with peers is probably the number one. Talking and de-stressing.” During the interview, Ansel was asked to elaborate on how humour is an effective mechanism for him, to which he felt that it allowed him to process the information and that in turn, was stress-reducing. Dissecting the problem and putting it together in a different sort of format, or a different viewpoint […] even if you devote some energy to it, at least it’s just an outlet probably from the thought process and the verbalization. In addition to this social outlet, Ansel also used the gym, physio exercises, and getting outside with his dogs as coping mechanisms (exercise, getting outdoors). When asked the question “Who’s responsibility is it to foster well-being?” Ansel stated that everyone has ownership, and an equal share, in fostering well-being within the detachment, or “at least not to poison the environment.” In addition, he stated that the boss of the entire detachment ultimately has a large influence in the well-being of the detachment, and explicitly stated that the Kelowna RCMP management, and specifically the Superintendent, was actively trying to foster collective well-being. Furthermore, he described the Kelowna detachment as “blissful” compared to prior workplaces. When asked to elaborate on this, and if this had any impact on workplace well-being, he said the following: 52 I think it opens you up because you are more positive already, you’re more willing to talk, you’re more willing to invest in others, and you’ll be part of an authentic team or something. You’re part of the boat rowing the same direction, you hardly have to talk, everything seems to work out, it’s less energy, there’s less psychodrama. When discussing sources of support, five themes were identified. Specifically, Ansel mentioned specific members that are at the ‘center point’ for distribution of knowledge within the detachment (social/human contact), and the employee assistance program, in which employees assist other with a variety of matters (e.g. financial and family problems), seeing doctors or psychologists (medical/psychologists), the B.A.R.K. program, and letters/email resources (other resources). Ansel also identified five barriers to accessing support, which were coded into three themes. These comprised: Lack of confidentiality (trust), lack of resources available during irregular working hours (accessibility), lack of knowledge of resources (accessibility), lack of a staff directory for guidance and contact information (accessibility), and lack of priority to seek mental well-being resources (other barriers). At this point in the interview, the topic changed to the B.A.R.K. program. Ansel described himself as a low-user of the B.A.R.K. program, having attended just under 30% of the sessions held in the past two months. He also noted at this point, he would like to have been a medium-high attendee, but that availability of days (based on the shift patterns) and lack of time during working days had served as barriers to his attendance (other). Ansel stated that he was motivated by his love of animals, and that he had “heard before that contact with animals is a good way to lower stress” (motivated – CAIs). He also noted a B.A.R.K.-work contrast by saying that the program was a “neutral or unbiased environment with the dog and their owner” and “a 53 good exposure”. In contrast, in the same sentence he described work as “having the possibility of being negative.” Upon discussing the potential impact of the program, Ansel identified B.A.R.K. as a break, and mentioned that it lowered his blood pressure, relieved his tension and made him feel more settled (reduces stress). This impact lasted for about the next hour (impact – lasted less than a day). Ansel identified the break from work, non-judgmental conversations with handlers (other), tactile with dogs, and B.A.R.K. dog characteristics (appearance and behaviour) as reasons that the program had an impact on him. Ansel described the role of the therapy dogs in B.A.R.K. as being “the centerpiece” of the program. In addition, he highlighted the social role of the dogs, stating that the dogs’ role is to connect through eye-contact and to establish the first contact between the dog and the participant that ultimately leads to them getting to know one another. Ansel felt that the program would not be as effective without the dogs, or with another animal, and cited dogs’ communicative and calm nature and their reputation for being unconditionally accepting as reasons why dogs are more suited to this role. During the final section of the interview, Ansel stated that he will continue to attend future B.A.R.K. sessions. When asked why he responded that “[it is] perfectly tailored and I can’t imagine a more convenient and easy program that gets a good result for me personally.” The convenience piece was arguably a key component for Ansel, as he mentioned convenience, closeness of the program and the lack of labour required to attend at three distinct points over the course of his interview. Ansel felt that as long as practical elements were satisfied, CAIs had a place within the detachment and expressed his support for the program. 4.3.4 Andreas 54 Andreas reflected on his stress levels and it was evident that his stress levels were variable, and included high-stress peaks. Andreas also identified eight distinct stressors, of which three were organizational (e.g., lack of resources, budgeting), three were operational (e.g., a recent police-involved shooting), and two were categorized under, and self-identified by the participant as, personal stressors. Reflecting on the effects of heightened stress, Andreas identified four main themes: introspective thinking, being irritable, affected mood, and poor sleep. Andreas identified his sleep as a big factor, and said, “I tend not to sleep well, in general, and I think that’s something I’ve developed over the course of my career.” He attributed his long-term poor sleep patterns to being on-call, getting called out in the middle of the night, and waking up and ruminating over something that is really bothering him. To relieve his stress, Andreas chooses to do exercise, take breaks to be by himself, process his thoughts and put things into perspective (breaks, perspective). He reported finding gaining perspective helpful in giving him some internal comfort as it potentially allows him to come to conclusions and make decisions to solve problems. He deemed exercise as helpful in distracting his mind, reducing the rumination of thoughts, and to redirect any negative energy. In addition, Andreas spoke of a big difference in how he deals with the two distinct forms of stressors: operational and occupational. Specifically, he felt he was able to feed off of the operational stressors which he described as “the day-to-day, real policing-type issues,” and that he is confident in his ability to perform well in those situations, thus making it more of a positive stress. He also reported that operational police work was his motivator for joining the RCMP, and he felt that operational stress was the kind of stress that he can thrive of off. 55 Organizational stressors, however, he found more mentally exhausting, and said “One side [operational] can be very exciting and exhilarating whereas the other one [organizational] is kind of like a lifesucker.” He added that part of the reason there is a distinction between how he perceives the two sources of stress is related to the amount of control he has over the situation, and his ability to respond to it. An excerpt from the interview is included below to illustrate: I think some of it may have to do with control, or perception of control, like the operational side [of] some of those things – how they evolve and how they happen - I have no control over but I can control the response to it, and the organizational. Whereas, I feel like with some of the other side, I feel like I don’t have any control of it, like some of the organizational pieces, you know the decisions and things that I have to live with or deal with, you know, they’re made at much higher levels mile and miles away kind of thing so I don’t have a whole lot of control over and, you know, they’re maybe, have a lot more outside influence. Andreas felt that responsibility rests with the individual to foster their own well-being but also argued that it is up to the organization and workplace leaders and managers to try to meet certain needs of employees. He felt that it is the organization and senior staff’s responsibility to ensure that members have the tools that they need to do their jobs and to reduce the detachment-borne stressors to which they are exposed. Andreas described seven sources of support within the detachment: the health plan (medical/psychologists), peer support system (peer-to-peer), counselling or visiting a psychologist (medical/psychologists), physical support such as massage, chiropractors, and acupuncture covered by the health plan (medical/psychologists), and the gym. In addition, Andreas discussed some personal measures he takes including massages, exercise, and hiking 56 with his dog. Despite listing several sources of support based within the detachment, Andreas felt that, due to his role within the detachment, he didn’t have much social support, as is evident in the following quote: More so, in my current environment, I would say I don’t have a lot of people or connections that to me, that I could sit down and discuss things with, so that’s really something I’m missing compared to other locations. But [that’s] just kind of due to my own role, there’s really not a lot of people, unless I’m with a health care professional or something, where I can really talk about a lot of my issues with. He clarified that there is an effort from the organization to provide well-being resources for general employees, but that in his role specifically, there was a lack of appropriate options, as is evident when he said, “You know there’s lots of things that we’re trying to drive down and ensure certain of things are in place but you know, to be fair, I don’t really feel like there’s anybody looking after me.” Elaborating on this, as his role is connected to human resources, he felt he couldn’t talk to colleagues for the fear of accidentally or inadvertently disclosing information that should not be shared. In addition, as part of the role, he has to make decisions that may affect co-workers, and so keeping friendships within the detachment, from his perspective, is impossible. As such, he has found himself retreating, and stated that it can be a lonely situation to be in. When asked if there were resources available to more senior members of the force or others in similar situations, he stated that organizationally there is a lot of discussion surrounding supporting employees in general, but that there is not much support for those who are more senior. Andreas could not think of a resource that he would like to see made available, but expressed a desire to have support come from the ranks below. Encouragement and support from below would be appreciated, as he plays a large role in trying to ensure that 57 employees have the support they need. He felt that there was a lack of recognition and appreciation for those gestures which he felt was perhaps more important to him than receiving support from above. In addition, Andreas noted that the health services program, and associated providers, do not have the capacity to cater for everyone who is in need and that increasing capacity would be of huge assistance, especially for the special units within the detachment. Andreas attributed the lack of capacity to the salaries not being high enough to compensate for the sheer volume of work that RCMP-employed health professionals face and postulated encourages them to look for work elsewhere where their workload would be more manageable. To quote Andreas’ example from the perspective of a health professional, “why am I putting myself through this for this amount of money, when I can do this for more money with less stress?” In addition to feeling a lack of support in general, Andreas identified four barriers to seeking well-being resources. He felt there were stigma-related reasons that may prevent him from seeking resources, but also trust-related reasons. To the point of stigma, Andreas noted that there have been significant improvements in recent years but that he would still be concerned about his supervisors, or his family at home, being aware that he was seeking well-being opportunities. He noted, however, that he would not be bothered about people in the office knowing that he was actively engaged in well-being resources. To the point of trust, Andreas felt that it would be difficult for him to feel comfortable talking to someone within a counselling capacity, if they were complete strangers. He would prefer to have some time to get to know someone, and build a relationship prior to speaking openly and freely. Andreas also briefly mentioned that accessibility for him is an issue. Specifically, as mentioned above, he felt that it would not be appropriate or viable for him to access some of the well-being options due to his 58 more senior rank. Programs, such as peer-to-peer, which relies on communication with fellow members, did not have an equivalent form for more senior members. He also mentioned that he does not avail himself of many of the resources (other barriers), and subsequently ranked himself as a low-to-medium user of well-being resources. Throughout this section of the interview, Andreas made several references to the RCMP in their handling of operational and organizational stressors. He explained that there are resources available to members for operational stressors, but that resources for other stressors are hard to come by. He stated that the RCMP reacts to operational stressors, but that other stressors, such as organizational stressors, are not recognized to the same degree, despite his impression that organizational stressors are harder to detach from. An excerpt from his transcript is included below for illustration. Organizationally, we [the RCMP] are very proactive and reactive to incidents where people are involved in violent situations and, you know, unpleasant scenes [but] we don’t recognize these other forms of stress that are occurring within the organization. So we’ve got a great awareness of when someone goes to a violent death scene [that] they may be disturbed or bothered by, but we’re completely missing the point that someone [is] repeatedly having to deal with difficult people or, people that are, constantly surrounded by conflict and things like that. We don’t recognize that there’s a certain degree of stress that comes with that all the time. When discussing the topic of the B.A.R.K. program and the impact it had on him, Andreas described himself as a medium user having attended approximately 83% of sessions that year. His motivations included prior experience with therapy dogs, and the beneficial effects of having a therapy dog within a high-stress policing context and in response to a critical incident 59 (motivation – CAIs). To illustrate, Andreas said, “When the dog was there and I could see it interacting with people and my own interactions, it made me feel 100% better.” He described the program as a break from work-related things, and that the therapy dogs are not-judgmental, and provide him with positive feedback (other). In addition, he mentioned that there was a B.A.R.K-work contrast, and that the program provided a good opportunity to connect with colleagues in a way that is distinct from work. To this end he said the following: It gives me an opportunity too to speak with people, like separate from the work environment in a sense. So for 10 hours of my day it’s just work stuff all day and then you know, maybe I’ve got this 15 minutes or 20 minutes during the overall interaction to speak to some different people about different, un-work related things. When talking about the impact the program had, Andreas stated that it felt the program had provided him with “a better sense of reality in the sense of, I’ve been dealing with something negative all morning and that’s becoming my perception [but the program] helps to make me realize ‘you know what, it’s a sunny day outside’.” Andreas reported that the impact varies, that it could be fleeting or up to a day (duration – less than a day) and was dependent on what he had to face upon leaving the session. It could be argued that the change in energy and increase in positivity that the B.A.R.K. program and the program staff bring to the detachment was a large component of Andreas’ experience. He mentioned that there was a positivity to the program because the program staff, volunteers and dogs all bring “a different energy when I walk down the hall.” As presented earlier, Andreas felt that this helped him to change perspectives, and that he finds talking to people with a different perspective is healthy, as illustrated in the following quote: “I see lot of my work negatively, so really any opportunity I get to do something different, discuss different 60 ideas or interact with people that have a different perspective on things to me, I find a lot healthier.” Andreas saw the therapy dogs playing a primary role within the program. He felt that the dogs’ role was to draw people in. Later in this section of the interview, he identified the therapy dogs as having a role in being non-judgmental and in being social by showing interest in people and being affectionate. He felt that although handlers are important for facilitating discussion, it would probably preferable for him if it were just the therapy dogs present. His justification for this was that because dogs are non-judgmental, whereas people tend to have their own views or perceptions, having a program with only dogs would be easier to trust - a barrier that had been identified earlier in Andreas’ interview. He clarified that handlers were not a detriment to the program, but that they were the secondary role within the handler-therapy dog team. Upon discussion of other animals in replacement of therapy dogs, Andreas felt that other animals may be possible, but that the program would need to have a set structure. He also noted that the benefit of the dogs in such a program, is that it brings back a similar pleasure to coming back to his family dog who is waiting for him at the door at home. Looking forward, Andreas plans to continue attending the B.A.R.K. program and explained that he will likely return based on numerous factors. He cited the enjoyment he gets from the program and the opportunity to interact with people from outside the detachment as his main reasons for his return (gain benefit of B.A.R.K). He also felt that CAIs have a place within the detachment, and explained that he believes the program helps to break down mental health stigma, gives members a well-being opportunity, and generates conversations with employees that may not typically interact with one another. He described the environment as “high-testosterone,” “macho.” He felt that employees feel they always have to maintain a strong 61 façade, and said that bringing the B.A.R.K. therapy dogs into the detachment makes it okay to sit down and interact with them. He also demonstrated endorsement of B.A.R.K. and added that the program has drawn in people that perhaps he would not have anticipated using well-being resources, such as CAIs, as is evident by the following quote: I think we’ve seen more people doing it, and I’ve been surprised by some of the people that have attended the program, and in some ways, I think that’s helped to maybe draw others in as well, that wouldn’t normally do it. So I think just the ability to open people’s minds to a new idea is a positive thing. I think the program helps to do that. When he was asked why he thought this was, he theorized that the convenience and accessibility of the program were the reasons, specifically the time, the proximity, and the availability. He also said that he felt encouraged to see that people were taking advantage of it, and hoped that as people utilize the program and hopefully provide positive reviews, it will encourage more people to attend but also signal to others that it is socially acceptable to do so. He also hoped that if someone is seeking help, but is feeling lost, then they can use the program as “the first step to seek something” (other). 4.3.5 Zara When asked to reflect on her stress levels in the last 30 days, Zara described her stress as an “overall load of stress” and that “work is always stressful” (high/higher than usual stress). In describing her stress, Zara identified four distinct stressors, three organizational and one operational. Her organizational stressors including juggling workload between big files and proactive work, pleasing bosses, doing lots of forms and paperwork, or working on big files that take a lot of time. The operational stressor she identified was the factor of “you never know what you’re going to get.” She elaborated to describe that in her role, in dealing with the public, she 62 has no way of knowing prior to an interaction whether it is going to be friendly or not. She said “Most people respond quite well with me, but of course there’s always a certain segment of the population that deals really, really badly anytime they have police interaction, and then they see a uniform and not a person.” She stated that the way in which she can deal with operational and organizational stressors is one of the distinctions between the two forms of stress (other). She felt, on the one hand, that there is usually a way to deal with operational stress, either by removing herself from the situation, or discussing it and decompressing with colleagues after the event. Organizational stress, on the other hand, she described as “an ongoing stress that doesn’t seem to have an end.” Zara reported that, when stressed, she has trouble with sleep which included having nightmares, she has physiological pain in her jaw, neck, and back, and she is more irritable. To cope with stress, Zara makes time for recreational activities and intentionally does things that she enjoys - such as going out with family members, or snowshoeing. In addition, she finds taking a break from her desk (breaks), and having supportive and helpful colleagues and going for coffee with one another (social) to be beneficial. On the note of her colleagues, she said “most people have been through, or are presently in, the same kind of stress or worse, so that’s, I don’t know misery loves company, but also we can be a support to each other and go for a coffee.” A theme that was heavily discussed in Zara’s interview was exercise. Zara reported that regular movement and stretching was beneficial, and that the benefits were two-fold. Firstly, she reported finding that exercise was helpful at reducing stress. Secondly, as naturally active person, not moving was also a stressor in itself. She said that being inactive added to her stress because she “hates being stuck to an office.” The following quote illustrates her stance on exercise and keeping active. 63 I think that activity helps with stress, like the endorphins are released or whatever physiologically happens. […] plus I think being active makes your blood circulate better, you think better, you’re actually more productive even just by, even say going for coffee, that means from where our office is we have to walk through the whole building, up and down the stairs, over to cross the parking lot. So you actually get some activity going for coffee! Having discussed coping mechanisms, Zara was asked the question “Who’s responsibility is it to foster well-being?” Her response was poignant: “Ultimately I think mostly it’s my responsibility to look after me because can you really trust anybody else to look after you?” She thus demonstrated that she believed it was personal responsibility. Although it seemed clear that she felt the responsibility was on the individual, she did go on to discuss the advantages of having management trying to improve wellness at the Kelowna RCMP. In the following quote, she revealed a high regard not only for the management at her detachment, but also for the effort placed in fostering employee well-being: I think right now we are very fortunate with who we have in our upper management being, caring really for the employees. Now I think that’s an admirable quality, do I think that they have to? I’ve definitely worked in places where they haven’t! So I do think that’s a plus right now with our senior management team being very good and being proactive even in trying to address employee well-being, because it does make a difference, and I’m sure they must believe that it makes a difference in order to be doing it. Everything from less sick days, less stress days, whatever you want to call them to higher quality of work, better outlook, with co-workers as well as with the general public. It’s definitely a winning combination if you ask me. 64 The first resource within the detachment Zara mentioned was the wellness space, where there are comfortable couches and reading material on wellness, but she stated that “I don’t have time to do that because work is too stressful, I can’t actually take part in any of that.” She then mentioned the gym/fitness area, the B.A.R.K. program, peer-to-peer and employee assistance programs, the chaplain (other), and psychologists and extended medical care (medical/psychologists). She also mentioned the lunchroom wherein support could potentially be found from co-workers. She said however, that she has never utilized that option and instead stays in her own office where she reported “there’s definitely comradery within our unit” (social/human contact). Later she added stress seminars held by psychologists (events) to this list. In Zara’s opinion, the responsibility for fostering well-being in the detachment was collective. She argued that it is her own responsibility to look after her own well-being, but also felt that she had a responsibility to help out other employees, and that other employees should try to help one another, especially if colleagues are struggling. Zara self-identified as a low user of well-being resources because she does not make herself available to use the resources because she is “trying to be a good employee or do more things.” When discussing seeking these resources, Zara identified two main barriers: time and stigma. She felt that there was so much to do at work, and that this prevented her being able to access the resources (time). She added that she feels badly for not being able to access the resources, because she knows that it would help with her stress. She described the stigma as “perceived barriers, in being vulnerable [and] saying that you need help, or that other people might perceive that you need help” and she added that “there’s still, mental illness stigma out there, even PTSD-related, which pretty much all of us have! So [we try] to look like you still are half holding it together, whether you are or not!” 65 As the interview developed into discussing the B.A.R.K. program, Zara reported that she had attended about half of the sessions held in the previous year, and self-identified as a high user of the program. She was motivated to attend because she knew someone who had been involved in the B.A.R.K. program, because she finds dogs to be helpful in reducing general feelings of stress and her blood pressure (motivation – CAIs) and because she has a love of dogs. Zara expressed that the program was impactful on her, and described B.A.R.K. as a break, as the following quote illustrates: “Even if you’re there for such a short time, it is just a complete break from everything else that is going on, and it’s almost like a reset button.” In addition, she said that the program left her feeling that she had “more clarity of thought” and a “different motivation” (changes perspective). When asked what about the program creates that impact on her, Zara responded it was the “physiological process that happens when you pet a dog and their unconditional acceptance of you” (tactile with dog, dogs non-judgmental). She also stated that the B.A.R.K. therapy dogs were friendly and sociable (B.A.R.K. dog characteristics), that the program was a “non-stress, safe place,” and that she had read that petting dogs reduces blood pressure (relieves stress). Finally, Zara mentioned that the program “gives you an opportunity to just interact on a totally different level than normal work would be” (other impact). When asked about the duration of this impact, Zara implied that the initial feelings last for a few hours (impact lasts less than a day), but that thinking about the program later on allows her to remember those feelings the positive feelings back (relived experiences impactful). Zara described the role of the dogs in the program as “passive” and that the dogs do not actively do anything in particular, like tricks, but that they lie there and allow people to pet and interact with them. As she put it they “are an aid to let somebody else unwind or reset […] allowing somebody to interact with them more than the dog is actually interacting with you.” 66 Despite this, however, it was clear that the dogs held value in her perspective as when asked if the program would be as meaningful without dogs she responded: “No! Does anybody say anything different? No, you can’t run a B.A.R.K. program without a dog!” As the interview continued, Zara felt that other animals would be possible, and mentioned the benefits of other therapeutic ways in which you can have contact with animals. Looking forward Zara was confident that she would continue to participate in B.A.R.K. sessions, and based this decision on the benefits she had gained from the program. When asked if CAIs had a place within the detachment, she answered confidently that they had a place within the detachment itself and in a variety of other settings. The following quote illustrates her justification: Absolutely, just like I think that animals have a huge place in like retirement homes, and even in hospitals being able to bring animals in, because people are in stress in so many different ways and so I totally believe in that. I don’t think Kelowna is very animal-friendly as a city and so I think that so many people are missing out on opportunities because we have become way too safety [conscious] and worried about dog allergies or cat allergies. I think that animals need to be re-introduced to society as a whole. Even in jails they’ve found that if they give a stray dog to an inmate and they’re just teaching them how to care for them, and spend time and teaching them how to do tricks and stuff that it can make a huge difference in an inmate’s life. So yes, I think that we need to really work at, as a society, to be much more inclusive of animals. 4.3.6 Mary At the time of the interview, Mary described her stress level as variable but also described an “inherent level of stress just with the job that we do so you’re always kind of a little 67 bit above baseline” (high/higher than usual stress). The variability in stress, from her perspective, was linked to how busy she was on any given day. The days that were busier, and required her to deal with more clients (operational stressor), were more stressful than those with lower client activity. When asked to elaborate on the aforementioned inherent level of stress associated with the job, Mary identified 5 more operational stressors (a total of 6), including “tasering someone who’s non-compliant,” “domestic violence files,” and “getting into a fight at the side of the road.” To illustrate her description of operational stressors, the following excerpt from her interview has been included: So it’s always being mentally prepared for whatever it is you’re going to deal with, you know it has that, inherent stress [but for] somebody who goes to work in a bank, you’re not expecting to deal with, and you don’t have to deal with, people who are violent or who want to hurt you or somebody else and you have to step in and secure their safety. So yes, it’s just a little bit different based on the nature of the job. During the section of the interview that asked participants to explain their perceptions of the effects of stress, Mary identified the effect of stress on her sleep, mood, irritability, and described herself as being more introspective, especially at night. Specifically, Mary found that when she is stressed she has difficulty staying asleep; she wakes up in the night and will ruminate; she can get angry and struggle more to control her emotions; she has a shorter fuse and is less able to cope with everyday stressors. To illustrate, Mary said that “it just becomes a little bit harder to I’ll use the term, keep your cool, [or] maintain that professional façade!” In order to cope with her stress, Mary identified four coping mechanisms. She said that “physical activity is a huge factor in my mood stability in dealing with stress” and so she tries to ensure she is getting regular exercise and maintaining significant levels of activity in her routine. 68 Other coping mechanisms include getting time away from her stressors to get alone time (breaks) by doing deep breathing or mindfulness exercises. She also reported finding getting outdoors, and spending time with her puppy (social) as useful mechanisms for dealing with stress. Responsibility, in Mary’s view, for fostering well-being fell on the organization, and on the RCMP to work towards fostering employee well-being. As part of this discussion she mentioned that mental well-being had not been on the forefront of the RCMP agenda until recent years, but she mentioned that the Kelowna management have been making steps toward improving employee health and well-being (management trying to improve wellness at Kelowna RCMP). Later on in the interview, however, she also acknowledged a personal responsibility for fostering well-being. She said that members, as individuals, also have a responsibility to seek out, and make use of, resources available. Mary self-identified as a medium user of well-being resources and when asked about sources of support, she included eight distinct resources. In her interview she mentioned the peer-to-peer and employee assistance programs, medical/psychologists (specifically psychologists and doctors that no longer need to be force-approved), and events such as appreciation BBQs. She also mentioned the B.A.R.K. program, the within-detachment area for fitness/gym, the wellness corner (spaces) and the wellness committee (other resources). Mary identified six barriers for seeking wellness opportunities. These included a lack of trust between employees and management within the RCMP (trust), lack of trust in the confidentiality of resources (trust), fear of being ostracized or treated differently for seeking resources (stigma), discouraging attitudes from occasional “old school” managers (other barriers), and having a busy job wherein some of the tasks are time-sensitive (time). In addition, Mary felt that for some, not knowing what resources are available, where they can go, or who to 69 talk to could be a barrier (accessibility). Specifically, she drew a link between the lack of knowing which resources are available, helplessness, and increased rates of suicides within members, as is evident in the following quote: “I can see why suicide rates have gone up so far because people come and they’re like ‘I don’t know where to go, I don’t know what to do’.” Regarding B.A.R.K. and the sessions held within the detachment, Mary reported that she attended approximately 25% of the sessions held in the previous year, and self-identified as a low-to-medium user of B.A.R.K. Although she stated that she did not have any specific expectations about what she might get out of the program, she was motivated to attend the program initially due to her love of dogs and her view of dogs as a de-stressor (motivator – CAIs). She also said that she finds that the program is “a pleasant experience that in itself gets rid of stress” (relieves stress). When asked what it was about the program that relieves stress, she described B.A.R.K as a break and that the program is enjoyable by stating that it’s “really good because it takes you away out of your brain for a little bit, [and] because you’re concentrating on something that you really enjoy.” She also attributed some of the aforementioned stress relief to the fact that she has no responsibilities at that moment (B.A.R.K. as a break) and that the dogs are not rude and do not talk back (B.A.R.K. dog characteristics). In addition to the program being stress-reducing, Mary also reported that it helps the workplace climate because “it changes the environment of the workplace.” When asked directly if the program had had any impact on her above and beyond what she had already mentioned, she said that it had improved her mood as she usually left feeling happy, and that she was feeling less stressed even within a short period of spending time at the program (relieved stress). She spoke to the convenience of the program as it was “readily available, close by, and accessible very easily” which reduced the commitment required to attend 70 for a short 5-10-minute break. In addition, she noted that her love of animals may have been a factor in her positive experience and acknowledged that the efficacy of the program may not be as high if someone did not like animals. She also referred to the research conducted on animal-assisted programs on mental health of individuals within the context of hospitals and children’s hospitals. Specifically, she referred to the innate ability of dogs and horses to be happy, to love, and to calm others, but was unsure of the physiological processes of petting an animal that has that impact. With regards to the duration of the impact, Mary estimated that on average, the duration lasts for approximately half an hour (duration – less than a day) but acknowledged that this was a guess as she said that the duration varies and is influenced by what she deals with after the session. Dealing with a negative call out will, in her words, cause “the memory to fall back, so it doesn’t last as long,” but that if instead, she talks to other attendees about the program, it lasts a bit longer because she is reliving the experience (relived experiences impactful). To quote Mary herself, she said, “Even people who haven’t been up there, just talking about the positive experience […], just sharing it with people or just talking about it continues that good feeling or that flow in your stress.” Mary was asked to elaborate on this, and to explain why she thought this such was the case, to which the following was her response: Because you’re talking about things that are not negative, like there’s so much dark humour [in our environment]. There’s so much that we see and we deal with and that we read, and that’s so negative and not everybody is aware of. It’s just, you know, it’s [the program] something positive. It’s a positive experience to talk about and to “dwell on” as opposed to the regular norm of what it is that we deal with on a regular day which is 99.9% negative. There’s not much positivity in our line of work! 71 For Mary the role of the therapy dogs within the program was to be calm, non-judgmental and that they draw people in. She noted the importance for the dogs to be calm and not over-excited as she mentioned that an excitable dog that is jumping around, licking constantly, or pushing for attention can actually be very stressful instead of de-stressing. She emphasized that for this program their role is “just to remain nice and calm and keep it a stress-free environment” and not to judge anyone who chooses not to interact with them. When asked why this was important for her she said, “Because we’re already stressed and inundated with stimuli and just to have more of that would compound with what you’re already dealing with, instead of reducing it.” She later added that the dogs in the B.A.R.K. program are “just so calm and stress-free and they’re just a presence. They’re not necessarily like a stimulus,” thus demonstrating the importance for her that therapy dogs are calm. Having discussed the role of the dogs, it was established that Mary did not feel that the program would work without the dogs, and that other animals, such as cats, would not be as effective. Cats, she felt, could be too unpredictable thus causing stress. Dogs, on the other hand, are not normally unpredictable and instead have “a calm presence and a relaxed attitude.” Looking forward, Mary confidently stated that she plans to continue attending sessions because she enjoys them, and because she gains benefit from the program. She too felt that CAIs had a place within the detachment, and added that she felt that CAIs had a place in a variety of contexts. 4.3.7 Kitty At the time of the interview, Kitty ranked her stress as a 4 or 5 out of 10, which was coded as low-moderate stress. Kitty identified seven sources of stress, including one organizational and six personal. These stressors included working alone in a job where there are 72 usually two members of staff, buying and renovating a house, and the passing of a family member. Regarding the effects of stress, Kitty reported noticing that the two main outcomes are that she gets headaches and neck pain (physiological pain) and that she does not sleep well. When stressed, Kitty mentioned five strategies that she has made use of to help relieve the stress. The reported strategies included: 1) talking to others to help solve issues or concerns (social); 2) having celebratory gatherings with friends or colleagues (social); 3) stretching (exercise); 4) going for a walk (exercise); and 5) clearing her mind by doing breathing exercises (perspective). When asked about the ownership of responsibility for fostering well-being, Kitty reported viewing it as a collective responsibility. She added that she tries to contribute to everyone’s well-being, and believes that others should try within their limits to do the same: I try to foster well-being with everybody at work. You know just smile, say hi to people, if someone looks like they’re having a bad day say, ‘Hey how are you doing’. […] If you can. Like some people can’t, right? Some people are struggling, some people maybe aren’t socially like able to do that, maybe they’re shy or introverted or whatever, or maybe people are going through really hard times. In addition to her own coping mechanisms, Kitty described six resources available to her within the detachment. She mentioned the employee assistance program, the road-to-mental readiness program (other resources), a psychologist, talks and events, and later in the interview the extended health plan (medical/psychologists). In addition, she mentioned that she finds support through her friends at work and her supervisors within whom she has “total faith to be confidential and supportive” (social/human contact). She explicitly stated that, in her opinion, 73 “there’s tons of support.” When asked to rate her usage of well-being resources, Kitty self-identified as a medium-to-low user. Upon discussing barriers for seeking well-being resources, the following themes were identified: Time and trust. She described noticing in her own behaviour that she had not made use of well-being resources because she had been busy and that she recognized that she had to be intentional about making time to make use of the resources available to her. In addition to describing lack of time as a barrier, Kitty acknowledged that another barrier could be lack of trust. She stated that this was not a barrier for her personally, as she had supportive supervisors, but that some people do not have trust or faith in the confidentiality of others and that they may feel that talking to someone might have a negative outcome. Of note in Kitty’s interview was her explicit statement that she did not think stigma was a barrier to seeking well-being resources and felt that stigma in general was not as much of an issue as in the past (other). Kitty self-identified as a medium user of B.A.R.K., having attended five sessions. She was motivated by her love of dogs and said she was attracted to “the opportunity to pet a dog” and wondered “who wouldn’t take that?” She confidently said that the sessions had had an impact on her and said that she found that B.A.R.K. was a nice break from work and that it helped to relieve physical tension. This is illustrated with the following quote from her interview: I tend to sit at my desk and if I’m working on something, I’ll work on it and then I’ll sit there for too long and I get stiff and sore because I’ve been working there for too long, so it’s a good break […] So it’s getting away from your desk and, it’s more than just getting away from your desk because it’s like you’re actually deliberately going to do something that you know is going to be positive. [Also], there’s that, almost that excitement walking down the hallway like “ooh I can see the dogs!” 74 Later in her interview, she added that the program has a “positive impact on your mood and stress level” (improves mood, relieves stress) and that that in turn makes her feel more positive because she took a step to take care of, or do something for, herself. She also said that she found herself getting excited to see which dogs were there each session and that it felt like a treat for her to attend (B.A.R.K. enjoyable). Kitty was asked during the interview to elaborate on the impact the program had on her mood, to which she responded: “If you’re having a shit day, you’ve got a bunch of other stuff on your mind, or a bunch of deadlines, and you get to sit and pet a dog for five minutes – how can that be a negative thing?” When asked to elaborate on this impact and describe what about the program fosters that effect, she mentioned that it was probably “something to do with the neural pathways in the brain.” She added that she felt that petting dogs makes her happy and that doing so is a good, calming, distraction. According to Kitty, the role of the dogs is not to be crazy or rambunctious (calm), as well as to be friendly and to engaging with people (social). Kitty felt that other animals would not be as effective and cited the dogs’ disposition, size, and social nature as being reasons for their effectiveness. Looking forward, Kitty stated that she plans to continue attending B.A.R.K. sessions in the future because she likes the program and it is a “positive part of my day.” She also felt that CAI’s “absolutely” had a place within the detachment because the program is an opportunity for members to be proactive and seek out something positive. She added to this by calling the program “a bubble” of positivity within a negative working environment (B.A.R.K-work contrast). 4.3.8 Tina 75 Tina described her stress level, at the time of the interview, as high/higher than usual. Tina identified both organizational and operational stressors, one of each respectively, during this section of her interview. At the time of the interview, Tina was participating in a work-related course and finding that juggling the course work in personal time as well as working a full-time job was stressful (organizational). In addition, Tina mentioned that dealing with the public in predominantly negative situations was a cause of stress (operational). Tina described a single effect of this stress and stated that her mood is affected. Specifically, she described the feeling of tension she gets when she is stressed, stating that it can make her feel ‘overwhelmed’. In order to combat stress, Tina reported working out (exercise), trying to look at things realistically (perspective), and attending the B.A.R.K. program (BARK). When asked to elaborate on these strategies, Tina said that exercise was a way in which she could achieve something and use this achievement to motivate her further. [Going to the gym is] something that’s an accomplishment. Once you go there and you do that you go, ‘Okay, look, I had to do that. I went. I did that.’ Now I’ll put the same focus toward sitting down and doing whatever it is I have to do. She also said that the B.A.R.K. program was “one of those things that worked” and that “when you go to the BARK program, there is nothing there that’s saying you have to do anything or produce anything to just get a bearing on what’s going on.” Responsibility for fostering well-being, according to Tina, is an “employee-employer shared responsibility” (collective). She posited that it is the individual’s responsibility to work on their well-being but that it is also important for others to provide support or assistance. Tina described herself as a low user of well-being resources. When asked what was available within the detachment, she listed off five resources, namely the Health Canada 76 employee assistance service, the peer-to-peer program wherein members can talk to trained colleagues to discover resources, LifeSpeak and other website resources (other resources), speaking to a doctor (medical/psychological), and member workplace advisors for guidance on work-related issues (e.g. harassment; other resources). Tina also identified two barriers to seeking mental health: not recognizing the need to seek resources (other barriers) and self-imposed stigma. She stated that members, as a collective, have the view that they should be able to handle any stressors, as is demonstrated by the following quote from her interview. We’re of the belief that we should know all, or should be able to handle all, because we’re given a gun and told to go out and help people with their crises, and then when we’re under crisis we’re sometimes not able to admit to ourselves that we need to [seek help]. Or to [let] other people know because it’s an embarrassment of ‘you’re not very strong’, well that’s the old way of looking at it, and hopefully I am saying it’s old, hopefully we have moved along, along the pendulum to have gone okay, we all have weaknesses and we’re having some times that we’re not handling it as well as we should and they’re resources, let’s use it. Tina described herself as a very high user of B.A.R.K. having been to all, or almost all, of the sessions offered at the detachment. When asked about motivations, she identified three that into two prevalent themes. Firstly, she identified her love of animals and stated that she is unable to have an animal at home at the moment. Secondly, she mentioned the convenience of the program (motivation - other) by saying that: I don’t have to plan it, I don’t have to pay for it, I don’t have to do anything, and [the program is something] employers made available, so it would be ridiculous to not take advantage of something that is just presented for you to utilize, as that happens so rarely. 77 The third motivation identified was that she had a desire to provide support to senior management and she hoped that, in turn, positive feedback would make them think of more ideas to support employee well-being (motivation - other). Specifically, she said “it was a good idea, so I jumped on it and came to show that I supported it” and “I communicated to the superintendent that I like it, and it’s a good thing, so that he’ll think of other ways of how he can make things better.” When discussing the impact of the program, Tina reported that the program relieves stress. To that end, she said “it’s a calm, comforting environment, no one is yelling at you, the doggies are not turning around and yelling at you, or being demanding, asking you for unrealistic, making unrealistic demands.” In addition, she reported that B.A.R.K. was a break and that she found the program enjoyable. The components of the program that brought her benefit, she said, were the dogs’ demeanor, their behaviour, and their calm attitudes (B.A.R.K. dog characteristics); the feedback from the dog (other); and the tactile petting of the dog. In particular, she described the contact with the dog, and the sense of touch, as being calming. She later reported that by going to the program she felt more resilient to stress having attended B.A.R.K., better able to shrug off issues at work (changed perspective) and deal with any matters that arose in a better way, simply by remembering the session earlier on (relived experiences impactful). Tina felt that the impact of the program could last for the rest of the day or into other days (duration – lasted a day or more) but that it was dependent on what else she came across after the session (impact duration varies). Of note in Tina’s interview was that she talked about the effect of her mood on other people – a concept known as emotional contagion (Hatfield, 2009). The following quote demonstrates her understanding of how one’s emotional reaction can influence another’s, and 78 how the regulation (or lack thereof) of those emotions can have a knock-on effect to those around you: If someone is yelling at you, there is a tendency for you to be agitated or to yell back but if someone is calm and cool, there is no need to get agitated, you’re going to obviously come down to that level and be calm and cool. […] And also too just you being calm will also bring them down too, like that person yelling at you, you’re not yelling back. She also added that within the context of B.A.R.K. “you and the dog are both getting that good feeling from that contact” thus demonstrating her view of the program being mutually beneficial for clientele and canine. When asked to discuss the role of the dogs, Tina first identified that dogs should be calm and loving (calm, social). She also said that their role is to “help you deal with stress,” “to lessen the load off,” “to give you a bit of support,” and “to bring your focus to simple things instead of the big things you’ve got to deal with” (other). Later in the interview, she also said that the dogs are what draws people in to the program. The interview then moved on to discuss the potential of the program with other animals and the effectiveness without the dogs. Tina implied that the program would not work without the dogs because: That [the dogs] is the whole reason why people go, because most people have had contact with dogs so they know what to expect so the dogs are the draw. And also too, the dogs are beautiful-looking dogs so they draw you in with their faces. She did acknowledge that other animals would be possible, such as cats, but stated that they would have to have the “same calming temperament to allow people to pet them and talk to them” and that they would “have to be showing a patience so they make you patient as well.” 79 Looking forward, Tina reported that she planned to continue to attend the B.A.R.K. program and cited the benefit gained from the program as the reason. She also believed that CAIs had a place within the detachment and within other areas of policing such as witness testimonies and victim support to help witnesses open up, be more calm, and be more willing to tap into themselves (CAIs have a place in a variety of contexts). She also mentioned, coming back to the topic, that the tactile petting of the dog helps in this situation as well. As the tactile component of HAIs had come up numerous times in the interview, Tina was asked to explain what it is about tactile petting that was so impactful for her. Her response taps into the human need to be touched, and to communicate with one another physically. 4.4 Cross-Case Analysis by Interview Theme After completion of within-case analysis, the interviews were analyzed across cases thus allowing the researcher to examine the prevalent themes of the members as a collective. The findings from this analysis will be discussed in seven sections, corresponding to the seven guiding sections of the interview. 4.4.1 Members’ Stress Levels The first section in the interview asked participants to reflect upon the last 30 days and describe their stress levels. The prevalent themes that emerged from this question were: • Variable or Erratic Stress Levels • High/Higher-than-usual Stress • Organizational Stressors • Operational Stressors • Personal Life Stressors • Other Levels of stress across the eight participants was variable. Four interviewees (50%) identified that their stress was high, or higher than usual, in the last 30 days, however, three 80 (37.5%) stated that their stress was low-moderate. In addition, three (37.5%) admitted that their stress levels, even over the past 30 days, had been variable or erratic. One described their stress as a “rollercoaster” (i.e., Lucinda). Despite not being asked directly about stressors during the interview, all participants mentioned at least one source of stress during their responses to this question. The most common stressor, and indeed the most common response to the question as a whole, was to identify a source of organizational stress. Of the eight interviewees, seven (87.5%) included one or more organizational stressors when describing their stress levels. Recall that organizational stressors are defined as sources of stress that relate to the organization in which they are a member. These may include excessive punishment or insufficient rewards, inter-agency politics, workplace inequalities, or shortages in staffing or other resource (Kaplan et al., 2017; McCraty & Atkinson 2012; Shane, 2010). Within these interviews, examples that emerged included workload, deadlines, and shortages in resources. In the words of Lucinda, “If you asked me what my biggest stressor was, it would be just the workload, just the pressures of being able to meet certain deadlines, juggle multiple different things,” and Zara said “I have been working on some pretty major files lately, um, I thought there was a light at the end of the tunnel last week and then … it wasn’t, so now I’m just as snowed under as I was, feeling quite overwhelmed by it all.” Organizational and personal stressors were also identified, by 50% and 37.5% of the sample, respectively. As some of the participants identified multiple stressors within one category in this section of their interviewed, the total number of stressors identified was calculated, by theme. This revealed that 19 organizational stressors were identified, 11 operational, and nine personal. The table below summarizes the participants’ responses by theme. 81 Table 2 Table to illustrate cross-case comparison of members’ stress levels Variable Stress High/Higher-than-usual Stress Low-Moderate Stress Organizational Stressor Operational Stressor Personal Stressors Other Case Pippa X X Lucinda X X Ansel X X X Andreas X X X X X X Zara X X X X Mary X X X X Kitty X X X Tina X X X 4.4.2 Perceptions of the Effects of Stress In the second section of the interview, participants were asked to describe how stress affects them. The prevalent themes that emerged from this question were: • Irritability • Physiological pain (e.g., muscle tension, neck or back pain) • Sleep • Mood • Social • Productivity • Introspective The most notable theme that emerged was that participants feel irritable when they are experiencing heightened stress levels, with six of eight (75%) participants stating during their interviews comments such as: “I don’t have a temper, but I will be a little bit more irritable quicker than normal, you know, with people around me like my family!” (Lucinda). Another 82 notable theme that emerged was that members felt that their sleep was affected (62.5%), either by quality or quantity, when they were stressed. Almost half of participants also noted that their mood was affected and mentioned examples such as anger and mood instability. The table below illustrates the most common themes identified in relation to effects of stress. Table 3 Table to illustrate cross-case comparison of effects of stress on members Irritability Physiological Pain Sleep Mood Social Productivity Introspective Case Pippa X X Lucinda X Ansel X X X Andreas X X X X Zara X X X Mary X X X X Kitty X X Tina X 4.4.3 Coping with Stress Having discussed how stress affects the participating members, they were asked “When you are in a period of heightened stress, is there anything you do about it?” and “Who’s responsibility is it to foster well-being within the detachment?” The prevalent themes that emerged from this section were: • Exercise (e.g., stretching, going to the gym, staying active) • Social (e.g., spend time with friends, getting along with colleagues, spending time with dogs) • Perspective (e.g., focus on goals, changing the approach, calming the mind). • Breaks (e.g., taking time off, taking a break, taking time to be alone). 83 • Recreational Activities (e.g., something enjoyable, reading, going out with my husband) • Getting Outdoors (e.g., getting fresh air, being outdoors). • Personal Responsibility • RCMP Responsibility • Collective Responsibility • Kelowna RCMP improvement efforts • Other The two most notable coping mechanisms were exercise (87.5%) and perspective (75%). The majority of participants felt that getting exercise by using the fitness area, stretching, or generally staying active helped them to cope with their stress, or provided an outlet for negative energy resulting from stress. One participant even labelled exercise as an accomplishment and stated that “once you [exercise], you go okay, I had to do that, I went and I did that. Now I’ll put the same focus toward sitting down and doing whatever it is you have to do” (Tina), thus demonstrating that exercise provided her with motivation to complete tasks that may have been causing stress. Six of the eight participants identified perspective as a coping mechanism, which included creating a priority list of tasks, looking at tasks realistically, focusing on goals and calming the mind. More than half of participants (67.5%) also identified having breaks as a way to cope. This included taking some time off, taking a break at work, or having some time alone. The table below illustrates the prevalent themes from this section of the interview, by participant. Table 4 Table to illustrate cross-case comparison of coping mechanisms Exercise Social Breaks Perspective Recreational Getting outdoors Other Case Pippa X X Lucinda X X X X X X 84 Table 4 Table to illustrate cross-case comparison of coping mechanisms Exercise Social Breaks Perspective Recreational Getting outdoors Other Ansel X X X X Andreas X X X X Zara X X X X Mary X X X X Kitty X X X Tina X X When commenting on the responsibility for fostering well-being, six of the eight participants identified a single entity as being responsible, however, two participants identified two. Four participants affirmed that the responsibility was personal, with one saying, “Mostly it’s my responsibility to look after me because, can you really trust anybody else to look after you?” Four participants felt that it was a collective responsibility, with one example from an interviewee being “I wouldn’t say it falls on the shoulders of any one particular person or group […] I think the responsibility is sort of considered to be everybody’s.” Two members, both of which had already identified another responsible party, felt that responsibility also fell onto the shoulders of the RCMP and that the organization should be putting energy and resources into ensuring that employees have the necessary tools and resources to improve their well-being. Three interviewees explicitly mentioned that the Kelowna RCMP detachment was actively trying to improve wellness within the workplace (Kelowna RCMP improvement efforts) and one described the Kelowna detachment as “blissful” compared to previous detachments, which he described as “command and control, [then] divide and conquer” and “toxic and dysfunctional” (Ansel). By contrast, he said that the Kelowna detachment was well-organized, is run by an approachable Superintendent who is willing to go the extra mile, and is full of 85 “excellent people who are working very hard and don’t carry funny agendas about getting more rank by stabbing other people in the back.” In addition, he said that the management team were delivering programs, and included the B.A.R.K. program as an example, that are tangible, and “real, sincere, and ongoing.” Ansel also described a conversation with a colleague wherein they had said that Kelowna was “the first place I’ve worked where I actually feel like a professional.” When asked what effect this has on the workplace environment he said “it opens you up because you are more positive already, more willing to talk, more willing to invest I others, and you’ll be part of an authentic team” (Ansel). 4.4.4 Sources of Support In order to tap into sources of support available to, and utilized by, members of the Kelowna RCMP, participants were asked the following questions: “What resources are there available to you?” and “Can you think of any barriers to seeking these resources?” The prevalent themes that emerged from this section were split into three over-arching themes, as follows: • Resources o Fitness/Gym (e.g., the fitness area, the gym) o Employee Assistance Program o Peer-to-Peer Program o Psychologists/Medical (e.g., counselling sessions, seeing a psychiatrist or doctor, extended medical care) o Events (e.g., Email invitations to events, appreciation events, teambuilding, seminars by health professionals, wellness workshops) o B.A.R.K. o Social/Human Contact (e.g., work friends, supportive colleagues/supervisors, comradery) o Spaces (e.g., Reading corner, wellness space, lunch room) o Other Resources (e.g., chaplain, Road to Mental Readiness Program, wellness committee, online resources). 86 • Barriers o Time (e.g., work is too busy to participate, hard to pull away, no time) o Trust (e.g., fears over confidentiality, needing to know someone before they can be trusted) o Stigma (e.g., perceived or actual stigma from self or others) o Accessibility (e.g., needing a referral, lack of resource availability out of hours, lack of capacity). o Other Barriers (this theme encompassed the barriers to seeking resources that could not be categorized in one of the prevalent themes above) The most prevalent responses for resources were Psychologists/Medical (87.5%), and Other Resources (87.5%). Fitness/Gym, Employee Assistance Program, Peer-to-Peer, Events and Social/Human contact were also notable, with 62.5% of participants including each one of those categories when discussing the resources available to them as members. Over half of the participants (62.5%) also mentioned attending B.A.R.K. as something they do to relieve their stress. The table below illustrates the prevalent themes for sources of support, by participant. Table 5 Table to illustrate cross-case comparison of well-being resources reported Fitness /Gym Employee Assistance Program Peer-to-Peer Program Psychologists/ Medical Events Social/ Human Contact Spaces BARK Other Resources Case Pippa X X X Lucinda X X X X X X Ansel X X X X X Andreas X X X X Zara X X X X X X X X X Mary X X X X X X X X Kitty X X X X X Tina X X X X X X 87 When discussing barriers to seeking mental well-being programs or initiatives, stigma either perceived or actual, and either self-imposed or imposed by others was identified as a barrier by 62.5% of the participants. The following quote illustrates an example, using the participants’ own voice, of the stigma within the workplace. I think that members who are dealing with things in their own head and trying to get through struggles probably don’t want to be outed as someone who is dealing with the same stuff as people who are off and being criticized […] there’s a healthy number of members that will criticize or judge a member who’s off due to mental health related issues, so it doesn’t really make the person who’s on duty and dealing with something super out to acknowledge, especially openly, that they might need some help (Lucinda). In addition to stigma being a barrier, other barriers, which included self-imposed barriers, being too senior, negative self-attitudes, and not recognizing the need, amongst others, were mentioned by 87.5% of the participants. Another example was the notion that the specific supervisor could impact whether their subordinates are likely to seek well-being resources when needed, and participants illustrated this with the following quotes: “It does depend on who our bosses are. Also, their acceptance, if they’re more accepting that people have foibles and need help then I find that that trickles down to everybody on the bottom” (Tina) and “because there are so many units […] each has their own watch manager so I think that [seeking well-being resources] depends on what the relationship is like with their immediate supervisors” (Pippa). Also noteworthy were the responses coded into concerns over accessibility and trust, each of which were mentioned by half of participants. Examples included shift-work patterns, not having appropriate resources for more senior members, confidentiality concerns, and feeling the need to get to know someone on a deeper level before being able to discuss issues. Three of 88 the eight (37.5%) of participants also identified lack of time as a barrier for seeking resources, with the main example being that members are too busy to pull themselves away from work to seek out well-being opportunities. The following table provides a cross-case illustration of most commonly identified barriers. Table 6 Table to illustrate cross-case comparison of barriers reported Accessibility Stigma Time Trust Other barriers Other Case Pippa X Lucinda X X X X Ansel X X X Andreas X X X X X Zara X X Mary X X X X X Kitty X X X X Tina X X 4.4.5 Impact of the B.A.R.K. Program One of the more extensive sections of the interview asked participants to reflect on their experiences of the B.A.R.K. program and to discuss the motivations for attending, the impact the program had on them, and the duration of this impact. Questions in this section included “What motivated you to attend in the first place?” “Did the program have any impact on you?” and “How long did this impact last?” The prevalent themes that emerged from this section were: • Motivated by… o love of animals o knowledge of canine-assisted interventions o other 89 • B.A.R.K. as a break • B.A.R.K. was beneficial o General o Reduced Stress o Improved Mood o Changes perspective o Impacted climate of detachment • B.A.R.K. was enjoyable • B.A.R.K. positive in contrast to negative work environment (B.A.R.K.-Work contrast) • Tactile/physical touch with dogs • Non-judgmental/unconditionally accepting dogs • B.A.R.K. dog characteristics • Impact duration o Varies o Less than a day o More than a day o Relived experiences impactful • Other The first topic in this section of the interview was designed to explore the reasons why participants chose to attend their first B.A.R.K. session within the detachment. Six of the eight participants (75%) stated that they were motivated by their love of animals, or specifically dogs, making this the most popular motivation for attending. Half of participants stated that prior knowledge or experience of CAIs, or dogs as de-stressors, was a motivation for attending the program (motivated by knowledge of CAIs). To quote one of the participants: “I’ve learned before that contact with animals is a good way to lower stress” (Ansel). Another participant, Andreas, described his past experience with therapy dogs and said that “when the dog was there 90 and I could see it interacting with people and my own interactions it, it made me feel 100% better.” Half of the participants stated other reasons for attending which included that they wanted to support the management team that had brought the initiative into the detachment, and that they were curious about the program. The most prevalent theme when discussing the impact of the program was to report that B.A.R.K. was a break. Seven of the eight participants (87.5%) reported that B.A.R.K gave them a break from work or that it helped them to recharge, refresh, or clear their mind. One participant (Zara) even described B.A.R.K. as “such a welcome relief” and another (Tina) said, “It’s a very short amount of time, you can just go there for five or ten minutes, […] and you’re ready to go about whatever you’re doing a little more refreshed.” Six participants also mentioned that they found B.A.R.K. enjoyable. In addition, all participants mentioned at least one benefit of B.A.R.K., and this theme was subsequently sub-categorized to delve deeper into participants’ experiences. Six of the eight participants (75%) explicitly stated that B.A.R.K. relieved stress or had a calming effect on them. Four participants stated that B.A.R.K. benefitted them by improving their mood, with examples such as “I found myself smiling after I left” (Lucinda) and “you can feel that it has a positive impact on your mood” (Kitty). Three-quarters of the participants (75%) said that attending the program helped them to change perspectives. To illustrate, Andreas said that B.A.R.K. “provides me with a better sense of reality,” and Zara added, “It’s like a safe place that ends up giving you the energy to go back and do stuff you need to do, but with more clarity of thought and a different motivation.” Two of the participants stated that having the B.A.R.K. program had helped to improve the workplace climate, citing more positive conversations with colleagues and improved faith in management’s desire to improve well-being of colleagues. A key example of this is this quote from Lucinda: 91 What I also really liked about it, and what I got from it, was that I felt like our senior management was doing something, you know actionable, that was a gesture of caring about their people […] I believe it just shifts culture a little bit for us and, and I think it restores some people’s faith in their management, that they care. Three of the participants also explicitly drew attention to their view of B.A.R.K. being positive in contrast to the negative work environment in which it is situated (B.A.R.K.-work contrast). One participant said “when you’re coming from a negative, it’s such a big positive to be in the presence of something that seems to want you there, and enjoys you [being] there” (Andreas) and another added “it’s a positive experience to talk about and to ‘dwell on’ as opposed to the regular norm of what we deal with on a regular basis which is 99.9% negative” (Mary). The table below illustrates the break down, by participant, of the prevalent themes representing the reported impacts of the sessions. Table 7 Table to illustrate cross-case comparison of impacts of the program B.A.R.K. as a break Helps General Reduces Stress Improved Mood Changes Perspective Climate of Detachment B.A.R.K. enjoyable Other Case Pippa X X X X X X X Lucinda X X X X X Ansel X X X Andreas X X X Zara X X X Mary X X X X X X Kitty X X X X X X Tina X X X X X When discussing how the program, or what components of the program, fostered the impact it had had on participants, the following themes were the most prevalent. B.A.R.K. Dog 92 characteristics, such as the dogs were “cute,” “loving,” “affectionate,” or “well-behaved” were mentioned by five of the eight participants. Physically touching the dog was referred to by 75% of the participants, although it should be noted that the responses were often vague references, such as “physical patting of a pet as well as the pet checking you out is just a neat little diversion” (Ansel). The dogs being non-judgmental or unconditionally accepting was mentioned by three of the participants (37.5%) with an example being “part of it too is that animals [have an] innate sense of accepting you where you are, and for who you are, [and] you don’t have to pretend” (Zara). The table below demonstrates the cross-case comparison of the components of the program that the participants identified as being impactful. Finally, participants were asked to estimate how long the duration of the impact lasted, on average, after leaving a session. Responses to this question were highly variable. Three of the participants stated that the impact was variable, often depending on what the participants would Table 8 Table to illustrate cross-case comparison of the impactful components of the program B.A.R.K-work contrast Tactile/ physical connection with dog Non-judgmental B.A.R.K. dog characteristics Relived experiences impactful Impact varies Impact lasts less than a day Impact lasts a day or more Case Pippa X X X Lucinda X X X Ansel X X X X Andreas X X X X Zara X X X X Mary X X X X X X Kitty X X Tina X X X X X X 93 face in their working day. Four stated that the impact lasted for a less than a day but another three stated that it lasted for a day or longer. Three participants also noted that thinking or talking about the session later on in the day or week brought some of the feelings back (relived experiences impactful). For instance, Zara said, “You get another little boost from that [thinking about B.A.R.K.] because you’re remembering the feelings that it brought, and how you felt, [and] you were able to cope with the stress, just by thinking about it from when it happened before!” 4.4.6 The Role of the Dogs within the Program The most prevalent responses to this question indicated that the therapy dogs’ role was to be social (75%) or other role (62.5%). Examples of responses that were categorized as other role included “to be the centrepiece of the program” and “to provide support.” The dogs’ temperament was also a notable component to their role, with 50% of participants stating that the dogs’ role was to be calm. When discussing whether interventions similar to these would be as effective without the dogs, or with a replacement animal, participants overall were undecided. Half of participants felt that other animals would be possible (although often stated stipulations based on behaviour or temperament), where the other half felt that other animals would not be as effective. When elaborating on their responses, 62.5% explicitly stated that dogs were effective in the program due to their traits or characteristics citing their reputation for being unconditionally loving, their disposition, or their unlikeliness to reject attention from a human. The table below represents the summary of the most prevalent themes regarding the role of the dogs. 94 Table 9 Table to illustrate cross-case comparison of the role of therapy dogs Calm Social/ Attentive Non-Judgmental Draw people in Other Role Program would not work without dogs Other animals possible Other animals not as effective Dogs suited due to character Case Pippa X X X X Lucinda X X X Ansel X X X X X Andreas X X X X X Zara X X X Mary X X X X X X Kitty X X X X Tina X X X X X X X 4.4.7 Looking Forward Recall that the ‘looking forward’ section of this interview was designed to explore whether participants felt the program was an appropriate program to be held within the detachment, and whether they intend to continue attending in the future. All of the eight participants in these interviews stated that they will continue to attend. When asked to elaborate, the majority (75%) explicitly endorsed B.A.R.K. This endorsement included the following examples from participants: “It’s a positive part of a work day that not everybody gets to have” and “I love them [B.A.R.K. sessions]. It’s just a nice time away from my work and it’s just a good-feeling time.” In addition, 87.5% of participants stated that they gained a benefit from the B.A.R.K. program. To quote participants: “I can’t change that I’m on a ten-hour shift, but I can at least make it as enjoyable as I can and taking 10 minutes to take a 95 break and rub a dog’s belly helps me” and “[I will continue to attend] due to the fact of what they’ve given me back, they bring a calmness and just a different way of being.” In addition to stating that they plan to attend B.A.R.K. again, 100% of participants also stated that they felt CAIs had a place within the detachment. To illustrate, when one participant was asked whether CAIs belonged in a detachment setting, they responded: Absolutely […] because it’s a work environment that can be stressful and I think it’s a positive, proactive thing, no one is being forced to go […] it’s just another tool or option for us to seek out something positive (Mary) Another participant felt that the program had a place within the detachment setting because of the impact that it has on members’ well-being, but also in aiding the attitudes toward help-seeking behaviours within the detachment climate, as is evident from the quote below. I think it helps to break down some of the stigma around mental health. It gives people an opportunity to do something themselves that assists their mental health, and it also generates conversation too amongst employees that, just due to geography of the building, they may not normally connect with. (Andreas) The table below illustrates the participants’ prevalent themes upon exploring CAIs, future attendance of the B.A.R.K. program, and CAIs their place within detachment settings Table 10 Table to illustrate most prevalent themes in exploring CAIs place as a well-being resource Will Continue to Attend CAI has a place within detachment Endorsement of BARK CAIs have a place in variety of contexts Gain Benefit from BARK Other Case Pippa X X X X X Lucinda X X X Ansel X X X X X 96 Table 10 Table to illustrate most prevalent themes in exploring CAIs place as a well-being resource Will Continue to Attend CAI has a place within detachment Endorsement of BARK CAIs have a place in variety of contexts Gain Benefit from BARK Other Andreas X X X X X Zara X X X X X Mary X X X X X Kitty X X X X Tina X X X 4.5 Summary In this chapter, the findings of within-case and cross-case analyses of this qualitative case study were presented. The findings indicate experiences of stress is variable, but that organizational stressors are more commonly reported than operational. Members have a variety of ways in which they cope with stress and have resources available to them, however also identified several barriers to seeking well-being resources. The aforementioned findings also demonstrate that the program was perceived to be beneficial for reducing stress, improving members’ mood, changing their perspectives, and improving workplace climate. Discussion into the components of the program that were impactful indicated that the contrast between a negative working environment and a positive within-detachment program, tactile contact with non-judgmental therapy dogs, and general therapy dog characteristics such as behaviour, appearance or temperament were important for members. It was also demonstrated that a CAI situated within the detachment provided benefits to members, and received overwhelming support from attendees. In chapter 5, conclusions from this study will be discussed and the author will disclose the limitations of this study and provide recommendations for future studies. 97 CHAPTER 5 - DISCUSSION 5.1 Overview In this chapter, the findings of the present study will be discussed in relation to the literature reviewed in the introductory chapter and recent publications related to stress reduction, law-enforcement, and the field of human-animal interactions (HAIs). As part of this chapter, the strengths and limitations of the study will be discussed, as well as implications and suggestions for future research. 5.2 Discussion of Findings Recall that the aim of the study was to explore Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) personnels’ perceptions and experiences of stress within the workplace. In addition, this study sought to explore members’ experiences of the B.A.R.K. program held within their detachment. The three overarching questions guiding this study were as follows: 1. What are RCMP personnel’s perceptions and experiences of stress within the workplace? 2. What do RCMP personnel gain from attending the CAI program based in their detachment? 3. What role do therapy dogs play within the context of the RCMP CAI program? In the following sections, the findings from each of these questions will be discussed and how they are situated within the context of existing research. 5.2.1 What are RCMP personnel’s perceptions and experiences of stress within the workplace? 5.2.1.1 Organizational stressors. The findings in the present study identified that organizational stressors were more commonly identified than operational stressors. All but one (i.e., 87.5%) of the participants identified organizational stressors whereas half of the participants identified operational stressors as the source of workplace stress. When the 98 interviews were analyzed to calculate the total number of stressors identified across participants, it was found that organizational stressors were identified at almost twice the frequency than were operational stressors (i.e., 19 versus 11). The findings in the present study are consistent with prior research in which LEP have reported organizational stressors more often than operational stressors including events such as dangerous or critical incidents (Liberman et al., 2002). In a large scale study (N = 954), Brown and Campbell (1990) reported that organizational factors were reported as stressful four times more often than operational duties. Davey, Obst and Sheehan (2001) recruited participants (N = 749) from two divisions of Australian police (metropolitan and regional) and asked them to complete two questionnaires, three weeks apart. The questionnaires included demographic information, questions related to their work environment, and their specific work duties. The findings demonstrated that organizational stressors were a predictor of job stress in police officers but that dangerous duties were not. More recently, El Sayed, Sanford, and Kerley (2019) conducted hour-long interviews with 20 members of a federal police force and found organizational stressors to be a prevalent theme in their narrative (see also Newman & Rucker-Reed, 2004). 5.2.1.2. Effects of stress. As presented above, the most commonly reported effects of stress were irritability and sleep. Participants talked about having a shorter fuse, being quicker to react, and identified difficulties falling asleep or having poor of quality sleep. These are both consistent with prior research that identified associations between workplace stressors and irritability and/or sleep disturbance, both specifically in the context of law-enforcement and more generally (see Jansson & Linton, 2006; Linton et al., 2015; Michie 2002; Nixon et al., 2011). 99 Both irritability and sleep disturbance are well-established effects of stress, thus these do not demonstrate novel findings in of themselves but rather corroborate findings reported elsewhere in the literature. What is curious, however, is that in the present study other well-established effects of stress were not raised at all by participants in the interviews. There are a wide range of documented effects. To illustrate, Michie (2002) posits that responses to workplace stress can be physical, behavioural, or emotional. Specifically, the author states the following: Acute responses to stress may be in the areas of feelings (for example, anxiety, depression, irritability, fatigue), behaviour (for example, being withdrawn, aggressive, tearful, unmotivated), thinking (for example, difficulties of concentration and problem solving) or physical symptoms (for example, palpitations, nausea, headaches) (Michie, 2002, p.67). Looking at the extensive list above, it is evident that some of these effects were identified in the present study (irritability, being withdrawn, and muscle pain) and often by several participants. Others however, such as nausea, palpitations, fatigue, or being tearful, did not arise from any of the interviews. This is of interest because the presentation of stress in the current study is different to what has been reported in prior literature. It may be that there is something different about the participants in this study that moderates how stress affects them, such as receiving different support, different resources, or being in a different environment. Perhaps the effects of occupational stress presents in individuals differently depending on the type of stress. It may be that operational stressors have different effects on an individual than organizational. It is important for researchers to explore this, in order to advise law-enforcement agencies of these differences and provide suggestions as to how to combat both forms of stress. 100 5.2.1.3. Coping mechanisms. The most commonly reported mechanism to cope with stress, as reported by just over 87% of the participants, was exercise. The findings are in-keeping with results from the literature in that exercise is a prevalent coping strategy. Exercise is a well-established, and popular, coping mechanism and it is associated with both physiological and psychological benefits that may help individuals cope better or become more resilient to stress (Berger, 1994; Childs & de Wit, 2014; Salmon, 2001). This may be because it reduces the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (Fleshner, 2005; Greenwood et al., 2003) and the release of stress hormones (Campeau et al., 2010). In addition, exercise is beneficial for preventing stress-induced immunosuppression (Fleshner, 2005; Greenwood et al., 2003) and is associated with reduced prevalence and severity of depression and anxiety (DiLorenzo et al., 1999; Knubben et al., 2006; Mikkelsen et al., 2017). The present study, however, suggests that exercise plays a more significant role in coping than has previously been reported in the literature. Deb and colleagues (2008), for example, conducted a study wherein traffic constables (N = 68) in Kolkata were surveyed on their occupational stress and coping mechanisms. Findings demonstrated that half of the participants identified exercise as a strategy they used to cope with occupational stress. Further, results from a large-scale Canadian survey on the general population (N = 36,984) demonstrated that 40% of the participants used exercise as a coping strategy for stress, thus identifying exercise as the 8th most popular coping mechanism amongst the general population (Cairney et al., 2014). Comparatively, the results from the present study identified that more than double the participants identified using exercise to cope when compared to the general Canadian population and 30% more than traffic constables in Kolkata. This is of interest because findings from this study emphasized the importance of having opportunities for members to improve their well- 101 being and cope with stress through exercise. This is important for law-enforcement agencies to understand and for funding sources to acknowledge, in order to ensure that all members have easy access to a fitness area, breaks for exercise, and/or a membership to a gym. 5.2.1.4. Sources of support. Upon discussing the resources within the detachment that are available to members, the most commonly identified resources (87.5%) were psychologists and/or medical assistance. Examples under this theme included psychologists and psychiatrists, medical doctors, and extended medical care. The notion that participants are making use of psychological or medical care to assist in their well-being is not a novel finding. The present study, however, suggests that members in this study are making more use of this resource than previous, admittedly limited literature, has demonstrated. For example, a study conducted by Naz and colleagues (2014) examined police officers’ attitudes towards seeking psychological support by comparing survey responses of police in a developed country (Britain) with those in a developing country (Pakistan). They found that of the British LEP (n = 313), 25.0% would make use of a psychologist, 10.9% a psychiatrist, and 47.6% a medical doctor. Interestingly, the authors found that discussing issues with family or friends was still the preferred resource (66.1% and 51.5%, respectively). This finding presents a stark contrast to the findings in the present study wherein the use of medical services was preferred over any type of social/human contact. It should also be noted that in the present study not a single participant mentioned that they would talk to family members about their concerns. Participants, in general, identified numerous resources available to them both within the detachment and beyond. There were numerous resources identified that are housed within the detachment, which one would assume would be more convenient and accessible to the majority 102 of members. Interestingly, however, more members still report using an external resource rather than in-house alternatives. Further, although participants are aware of a multitude of resources, it remains unclear if they make use of many of these resources. There is a stark difference between being able to identify that a resource is available, and making use of these resources and finding them an effective way to cope with stress or improve well-being. The next section will discuss the barriers to seeking well-being resources, as identified by the participants in the present study. 5.2.1.5. Barriers. As discussed in the results, stigma was the most commonly identified barrier to making use of well-being resources. This is consistent with the findings of previous studies demonstrating that stigma surrounding mental illness may create barriers for seeking help (Lauber & Rossler, 2007). Lucia and Halloran (2019) conducted a study wherein they interviewed law-enforcement officer (LEO) program managers (N = 5) using semi-structured interviews. The authors concluded that stigma was a prevalent theme in their interviews with participants quoting examples such as “In most agencies, the top still sees it as a stigma; if you have to get help, you are probably broken and we have got to get rid of you” (p.7). This study, which used a similar methodology to the present study, adds support to the notion that stigma is still a significant barrier within law-enforcement contexts (see also Goldstein, 2005). Further support for the finding that stigma is a barrier for seeking help can be found in studies of military personnel. Although not identical, military members face similar occupational hazards and stressors, and are also embedded within a unique work culture. In Schell and Marshall’s (2008) study of US military members, more than one-third (38.4%) of the members (N = 752) identified as having a possible need for services stated that they felt their coworkers would have less confidence in them if they found out that they were making use of health resources. 103 A second prevalent barrier identified by more than half of the participants in the current study was that trust was a concern when seeking help. Participants cited the fear of confidentiality being broken as the main component under this barrier. Within LEP, this is in alignment with prior research identifying two forms of distrust as barriers for seeking mental health resources: 1) distrust for professionals who do not work within law-enforcement; and 2) distrust in the services provided and subsequent confidentiality. Recall that Lucia and Halloran (2019) interviewed law-enforcement officer (LEO) program managers (N = 5). Through interviews, the authors concluded that trust was a prevalent theme (in addition to stigma), with participants citing examples such as “officers do not trust anybody when it comes to talking about mental health or their problems” and “the clinicians were not from law-enforcement, so people did not have a lot of trust” (p.7). Also speaking to the distrust of external professionals, Bryan and Morrow (2011) described first responders (including police) as having a sense of distrust against outside sources of support which would explain members’ hesitancy to trust services provided from outside of the detachment, potentially including psychologists, counsellors, psychiatrists and doctors. The second form of distrust when discussing barriers to resources is distrust in the services and the confidentiality of those services. This was the more prevalent form of distrust mentioned in the present study and is also supported by existing literature. Fox et al. (2012) conducted a study wherein LEPs (N = 150) from an urban detachment completed surveys on their mental health, use of services, and barriers to accessing services. Nearly half of the respondents (46.7%) identified at least one concern with accessing well-being resources with 35% of those barriers being confidentiality concerns (Fox et al., 2012). Further support for the finding that participants in the current study were leery of accessing support can be garnered 104 from individuals within military settings. In the aforementioned study by Schell and Marshall (2008), 29% of US military members with a possible need for services identified that they feared that their treatment would not be kept confidential. The findings of the present study further strengthen the notion that LEP face trust concerns within their regular working lives and also in their ability to seek well-being resources. The conclusions of the present study, and previous literature, should be taken into consideration by management personnel within law-enforcement settings. Building trust and reducing concerns over confidentiality should be a priority for law-enforcement agencies as this may help to improve the use of well-being resources and reduce the impact occupational stress has on the individual members, their ability to serve the public, and on the human resources within the organization as a whole. The salient theme raised under barriers was accessibility which was identified by half of the participants. There is a paucity of literature that addresses the issue of accessibility which, in the present study, encompassed a multitude of concerns including working unusual hours outside of typical office hours, resources having a lack of capacity to cater for the need, being out on the road, needing a referral to see a medical professional, and not having relevant resources based on rank (for example, a peer-to-peer system for senior management personnel). Given that this theme was prevalent in the present study and was identified by 50% of participants, it is curious that this remains an under-researched area within the literature. Other notable barriers in the present study included lack of time and within “other barriers” participants mentioned that they did not make it enough of a priority in their lives or that they did not acknowledge that they needed help. This is supported by prior research which identified that barriers to seeking help have included participants’ identification that their need 105 was not high enough to warrant seeking resources and that they have insufficient time to seek help. In the present study, not a single member identified that they would not make use of resources for fear of losing their job or being demoted. It would seem that in the sample of participants in this study career instability was not a barrier for seeking well-being resources. Prior literature however, has identified this as being a significant barrier for LEP. In the aforementioned study of by Fox et al. (2012) the potential negative impact on one’s career was identified by 16.7% of participants. In addition, Lucia and Halloran (2019), who conducted semi-structured interviews with LEOs, identified the two career-based fears which, combined, were one of the top barriers to seeking help. From the one perspective, fear of the individual of potentially losing one’s job was identified. From a departmental perspective, there was the view that “if we uncover things, then we are going to have a whole department that is going to be off on stress leave” (Lucia & Halloran, 2019; p.7). 5.2.2 What do RCMP personnel gain from attending the CAI program based in their detachment? 5.2.2.1 The B.A.R.K. program was a break. The most prevalent theme that emerged from discussing the impact of the weekly B.A.R.K. canine-assisted intervention (CAIs) offered at the detachment was that the program served as a break. This finding is perhaps unsurprising as members who attended would pause their work, leave the room in which they work, and attend the program. In addition, as dogs capture people’s attention (Serpell, 1996), the program provides an opportunity for members to be distracted completely from their work tasks. It logically follows then that participants would report this as being a ‘break.’ Participants also noted, as part of this description, that they felt refreshed or recharged having attended the B.A.R.K. program. This feeling of refreshment could be attributed to having 106 had a break from working stressors, however, there is a paucity of research that has explicitly investigated whether participants view CAIs as refreshing or recharging. The Biophilia hypothesis provides theoretical support for the CAIs as being perceived as a break. Given that animals capture the attention of humans, it has been argued that “animals provide a distraction, especially from negative states” (Beetz, 2017, p.145). Considering the negative and potentially high-stress environment in which the participants are working, a distraction from work to focus on therapy dogs would give them a break from thinking about the stress of their working lives. However, it should be noted that, to date, the ability for CAIs to have a distracting effect has not been empirically examined. 5.2.2.2. Stress-reduction. The majority of participants (75%) identified that the B.A.R.K. program was stress-relieving or had a calming effect. This reported stress relief is consistent with prior research examining the impact of CAIs. Specifically, within the law-enforcement setting, the findings from this study further corroborate the findings from emerging research on CAIS in law-enforcement conducted Binfet and colleagues (in press). These researchers (including the present author) examined self-reports of stress prior to, and immediately after attending the B.A.R.K. program and found a significant reduction in self-reports of stress from pre-test to post-test. It logically follows that participants interviewed in this follow-up study would identify a stress-relieving benefit from attending the program having reported lower levels of stress upon leaving the session. Although the research examining therapy dogs and CAIs within law-enforcement is still emerging, the stress-reducing effects of CAIs has been well-established outside of this setting. These benefits have been demonstrated in a variety of contexts, including colleges and 107 universities (Barker et al., 2016; Binfet, 2017; Crossman & Kazdin, 2015; Pendry & Vandagriff, 2019) and in hospitals and psychiatric facilities (Machová at al., 2019; Tsai et al., 2010). The role of oxytocin may also provide an explanation for some of the benefits derived from CAIs (Beetz et al., 2012). Oxytocin is a hormone, and neurotransmitter, that is released into the circulatory system and the brain and has been found to decrease levels of glucocorticoid, a stress hormone (Neumann et al., 2000). Researchers have identified that the activation of the oxytocin could play a key role in the effects derived from HAIs (Beetz et al., 2012). There is also theoretical support for the stress-reducing effect of CAIs found in Cobb’s (1976) social support theory. In addition to fostering HAIs, the program explored in this study sought to facilitate interactions between participants and therapy dog handlers and to foster connections between members and their colleagues. Social support theory states that social relationships, which may include non-human animals, provide a buffer against stress, anxiety and depression. The stress-reducing perception of animals is also supported by the previously referenced Biophilia hypothesis (Wilson, 1984). Beetz (2017) argued that the Biophilia hypothesis may explain “how even the mere presence of a calm, friendly animal can help individuals to relax, particularly in stress-eliciting situations, be it at home, at school, or in institutions” (p.141). Recall that this theory posits that humans have a natural affinity to natural beings and life-like processes, including an attraction to being close to, or spending time with, animals. Given that animals can provide a signal for impending danger (such as earthquakes or other natural disasters, it is possible that this developed in humans as a survival technique). Monitoring animals’ behaviour could provide a signal as to whether the situation was potentially dangerous, or safe. If an animal is calm and relaxed, as a therapy dog typically would be, then it 108 signals or conveys to humans that there is no current threat in the environment, and thus promotes a feeling of safety and security, and a physiological relaxation. 5.2.2.3. B.A.R.K. helped to change perspective. Three quarters of the participants reported that the CAI helped them to change perspectives, thus identifying ‘perspective’ as a prevalent theme that emerged from these interviews. Recall that specific examples provided included participants feeling more positive, more resilient, or having a different motivation after having attended a session. Literature in the field has not closely examined the relationship between participating in CAIs and subsequently changing perspectives as a whole, however, there is some research that aligns with some of the sub-components that were coded into the theme ‘perspective.’ These are presented below. Participants in the present study identified that they felt “more positive” or “more positive about themselves” having attended a B.A.R.K. session. McCullough, Ruehrdanz, and Jenkins (2016) postulate that “because pets, including dogs generally give individuals feelings of positivity, it can help to improve individuals’ moods and reduce stress” (p.4), however, to date, research has yet to examine participants’ self-perceived positivity in terms of their outlook. Other participants mentioned that they felt that having attended a B.A.R.K. session they were more equipped to not allow stressors to make them feel stressed, were more resilient, and found it easier to cope with stress. There is a dearth of literature examining the effect of CAIs and therapy dogs on self-perceived resiliency. CAIs have been combined with resilience training workshops (Kjellstrand Hartwig, 2017), although the effect of the therapy dog alone on resilience has not been examined specifically. Potential support for therapy dogs boosting individuals’ sense of resiliency can be derived from studies the human-companion animal bond where participants have credited their pet dogs as a source of resilience (Rhoades et al., 2015). 109 Interestingly, the notion that participants identified the B.A.R.K. program as helping them to change perspective links into another prevalent theme. Within the section that discussed coping mechanisms, 75% of participants identified gaining perspective as one of the ways they cope with stress. Perhaps part of the reason that participants were overwhelmingly supportive of the CAI within their detachment was because the program assisted them with one of their pre-existing coping mechanisms. Prior research has provided support for the use of canines in motivating individuals in reading programs, walking, and motor activity tasks (Campbell et al., 2016; Friesen, 2009; Gee et al., 2007; Johnson & Meadows, 2010, Rousseau & Tardif-Williams, 2019; Wohlfarth et al., 2014). There is, however, a distinct lack of research examining whether canines impact more general motivation after a session is complete. Research has focused on motivation to participate in a task wherein the dogs are involved but have not examined lasting motivation or motivation to complete other tasks. 5.2.2.4. B.A.R.K. program was enjoyable. Recall that more than half (62.5%) of participants labelled the CAI program as enjoyable. One explanation for this could be that having a dog present in the environment is a distraction from work and that having access to a therapy dog is a novel way to improve their well-being. The concept of a CAI being enjoyable was also found in a study using similar methodology but with a different clientele. Harris (2019) conducted a study wherein children aged 5-11 years participated in a social-emotional learning workshop with therapy dogs from the B.A.R.K. program. Interviews with a subsample of this population (N = 8) demonstrated that 7 of the eight (87.5%) participants referred to the program as ‘fun’ or ‘enjoyable.’ This study corroborates the findings reported here that the CAI is a positive experience for those who are involved. The notion that CAIs are enjoyable is also 110 supported by Macauley (2006), who conducted a pilot study wherein people with aphasia participated in one semester of traditional therapy followed by one semester of animal-assisted therapy (AAT). At the end of the study, participants reported finding the AAT more enjoyable than the traditional therapy (Macauley, 2006). Wilson’s (1984) Biophilia hypothesis could help to explain why CAIs are enjoyable. Biophilia states that humans are naturally attuned to, and more interested in, animals. Naturally, it follows that if individuals are more interested by, or in something, they are more likely to find the experience enjoyable. As such, CAIs provide a novel and interesting pathway through which the well-being of LEP may be enhanced. This is important to note within the context of law-enforcement where members are known to report significant barriers to seeking help. A well-being resource that is deemed to be enjoyable, as well as being convenient and accessible, may prove to be a resource that is more likely to be utilized than other, more formalized opportunities. 5.2.2.5. Improved Mood. In this study, the CAIs were said to have improved the mood of half of the participants. This included participants reporting that they felt happier, that they were smiling more, or that they felt more patient. This is in-keeping with previous literature which posits that CAIs have a beneficial effect on mood of participants (Beetz 2017; Marcus, 2013; Morrison, 2007). For example, Grajfoner and colleagues (2017) conducted a study where students (N = 132) participated in a 20-minute intervention either with a handler-dog team, a dog only, or a handler only. Measures of well-being, mood and anxiety were taken before and after the intervention. Results indicated that the two groups in which the dog was present had significantly improved mood at post-test, when compared to the handler-only group. Having identified that CAIs can reduce stress, it logically follows that interactions with a therapy dog would improve one’s mood simply by reducing the stress. It is, however, unclear if 111 the improved mood reported is simply because the individuals are facing less stress having attended or if the CAI actually improves their mood independent of the stress-reduction factor. In addition, this is theoretically supported by the Biophilia hypothesis as it is argued that spending time in unthreatening, natural environments, in this case calm and non-judgmental canines, has a wide range of benefits including improving one’s mood and psychological well-being (Joye, 2011). Recall that researchers have linked oxytocin to some of the effects derived from HAIs such as stress-reduction (Beetz et al., 2012). Studies have also demonstrated that increased oxytocin, or the activation of the oxytocin system, leads to reduced depressive mood, thus improving the mood from pre-test (Ohlsson et al., 2005). As spending time with therapy canines is thought to activate the oxytocin system and oxytocin is thought to lead to improved mood, it is possible that spending time with therapy canines in a CAI leads to reported mood improvement. 5.2.2.6. Tactile connection with canine. As part of the discussion surrounding the experiences of the B.A.R.K. program, participants were asked to describe what aspects of the program were impactful. Three-quarters of the participants in this study discussed the physical connection or tactile petting of the therapy dog as being an important component impacting the program’s success. Generally, when asked to elaborate, participants were unable to provide an explanation as to why the physical connection fostered the impact, be it reduction in stress, improved mood, or changed perspectives. One participant suggested that the physical contact was comforting and likened it to being comforted by another human through a hug, or pat on the back. Researchers in HAIs have made claims that having physical contact with the animal, in this case the therapy dog, enhances the effects of the intervention or has physiological benefits 112 akin to physical contact with a human (Joye, 2011; Lass-Hennemann et al., 2014; Odendaal, 2000). That being said, there is a dearth of empirical literature that has examined whether physical contact is an impactful component of CAIs. Oxytocin is released during a variety of activities that simulate the senses, including pleasant physical contact and touch. It is therefore possible then that physical contact with animals, including therapy dogs, also releases oxytocin. Recall that the effects of Oxytocin have been theorized to include stress-, anxiety-, and pain-reduction. It is also theorized that the release of oxytocin promotes communication, bonding, and building trust (see Beetz & Bales, 2016). Studies have demonstrated that petting a dog, even for as little as three minutes, increases oxytocin. It should be noted however, that studies have largely focused on familiar dogs rather than visiting therapy dogs (Handlin et al., 2011; Odendaal, 2000; Odendaal & Meintjes, 2003.) It may be that the participants are attributing some of the effects of the program to the physical petting of a therapy dog due to the activation of oxytocin thus reducing stress and improving social connectedness. 5.2.2.7. Non-judgmental dogs. Just under half of the participants identified that non-judgmental dogs were another one of the beneficial components of the CAI program. Prior research, specifically with children as clientele, have established that dogs’ ability to be non-judgmental is an important component of their therapeutic effects. Indeed, this perception is often cited as support for inclusion of therapy dogs within a variety of contexts (Allison & Ramaswamy, 2016; Friesen, 2010; Gee et al., 2007; Jalongo, 2005; Levinson, 1969; Limond et al., 1997; Mallon, 1994; Prothman et al., 2006). Jalongo, Astorino, and Bomboy (2004), for example, found that the presence of a non-judgmental dog allowed young children to read without feeling anxious that they were going to 113 make mistakes. Other studies have suggested that the non-judgmental perception of canines has led to children feeling calmer and more willing to engage in reading activities (Friesen, 2009); encouraged positive communication between students in a classroom (Anderson & Olsen, 2006); and, improved children’s accuracy and pace when performing motor skills (Gee et al., 2007). Dell and colleagues (2019) conducted a modified instrumental case study with inmates from a Canadian psychiatric prison (N = 3) wherein both quantitative and qualitative data was collected. Interviews conducted at the midway and final points of the program revealed that the perceived unconditional and non-judgmental acceptance from the therapy dogs was a prevalent theme when discussing the experience of support (Dell et al., 2019). Social support theory (Cobb, 1976) provides theoretical support for the non-judgment of therapy canines being a beneficial component to a CAI. Recall that the social support theory argues that being supported by others acts as a buffer against stress and anxiety. If participants feel supported by the therapy canines, who are not passing judgment or making critiques, then this may explain why some of the beneficial aspects (such as reduced stress and improved mood) are attributed to the dogs’ non-judgmental character. 5.2.3 What role do therapy dogs play within the context of the RCMP CAI program? 5.2.3.1 Social. Three-quarters of the participants identified the therapy dogs’ role as being social or attentive. From the participants’ responses, it could be argued that one of the roles of the dogs is to solicit attention from humans and to foster the connection between the two individuals present at the session. There is a lack of literature examining clienteles’ perceptions of the role of therapy dogs or the identification of perceptions of the characteristics of therapy dogs, however, therapy dogs’ social role within CAIs has received much attention from researchers. Boris Levinson (1969) first identified dogs as being a “social lubricant” or “social 114 catalyst” thus arguing that they help to initiate conversations and social connections between individuals. This has been supported by a wealth of research in the field of CAIs (Chandler, 2011; Corson & Corson, 1980; Fine, 2015; McNicholas & Collis, 2000). Individual studies have demonstrated that therapy dogs have facilitated social connections between children in classrooms and hospital settings (Jalongo et al., 2004), with children with Autism (Fung & Leung, 2014), and with Pervasive Development Disorders (Martin & Farnum, 2002), amongst others. 5.2.3.2. Dogs’ suitability for CAIs. Half of participants identified that dogs were suitable for the program, often over other animals, based on their characteristics and temperament. Participants described dogs as having a reputation for being unconditionally loving, for having a sweet temperament, and for being social and communicative. This could perhaps be explained by dogs as having a reputation as being “man’s best friend.” Dogs have a long history for being a human companion, initially as an aid to hunter-gathering requirements, but increasingly as a loving, loyal companion. Compared to many other animals, including our closest primate relatives, dogs are intrinsically social and communicative and are highly capable of reading human behaviour (Hare & Tomasello, 2005). Participants also cited practical reasons for canines being suitable for the program including the dogs’ physical size, and their ability to be trained. Often participants noted that canines have practical advantage over other larger, or more wild, animals. Equine-assisted interventions, for example, have demonstrated benefits across a variety of contexts (see Boss et al., 2019; Peters & Wood, 2017; Starke, 2018; and Stern & Chur-Hansen, 2019 for reviews), however, there is a limit to their practicality. Participants in this study acknowledged this practical element as a significant factor in favour of CAIs. As dogs are easily portable and 115 content to be indoors they have obvious advantages over their significantly larger equine counter-parts. It simply would not be feasible to incorporate larger animals (such as horses, goats, or llamas) into the detachment setting. 5.2.3.3. Gained benefit from B.A.R.K. A majority of the participants identified that they would continue to attend the program in future because they gained a benefit from attending. Whether it was due to stress reduction, improvement of mood, or other benefits, it is clear that participants perceived the program to have a benefit to them. This aligns with the wealth of literature in the field that has established that CAIs can elicit well-being outcomes in participants. In particular, this aligns with the aforementioned study by Binfet et al. (in press) wherein participants from the same detachment, attending the same program, reported significant reductions in self-reports of stress before and after a CAI session. 5.2.4 Researcher Reflections As I reflect on the study at hand and the findings that arose from these interviews, I am left with two lasting impressions. On the one hand, I find the experiences of stress to be somewhat discouraging. Given the coverage in the media and what we already understand about occupational stress in policing, I find it disheartening that members are still reporting that feel unsupported and that there are a number of perceived barriers to seeking well-being support and help. On the other hand, I find it encouraging to hear the positive reviews of the CAI that was integrated within their detachment. Incorporating a program like B.A.R.K. is a low-cost, low-barrier, and effective way to reduce members’ stress within a regular working day. With such positive reviews from the participants, I am hopeful that other CAI groups and first-responder 116 detachments will be inspired to be innovative and to incorporate HAIs into their well-being workplace regimes. More personally, I was honored to have built connections with the RCMP members whom I interviewed. It was clear to me that participants had a sufficient level of trust in me to be open and honest about their experiences of stress – a topic that can be difficult to discuss. Prior to commencing the interviews, my reading of the literature gave me the impression that members have a tendency to be distrustful of the public and I anticipated that obtaining participants for interviews, building rapport, and obtaining honest answers would be challenging. My experience however, was quite the contrary. Individuals made disclosures that were not only very personal, often private matters, but also did not seem to be affected by social desirability bias. I was left with the strong sense that I was given a window into their workplace and oftentimes, personal, lives. As the program coordinator, and having been involved with the first phase of this study, I am also intrigued by some of my observations at the in-person sessions. I regularly attend B.A.R.K. sessions with a variety of clientele including university students, children aged 5-12, seniors, and LEP. Typically, the sessions with children, university students, and even seniors have a very vibrant atmosphere. In these sessions I witness lots of conversations, excitement, and regular outbursts of laughter. The sessions held at the RCMP detachment are much quieter. Rather than an excitable atmosphere, the sessions at the detachment are quiet and peaceful, almost serene. I find it curious that sessions that are run in very similar ways can have such different atmospheres and yet, the participants report similar benefits. Another observation I have from attending these sessions arose from observing the handler-dog teams. In planning the first phase of this study, we knew that the handler-dog teams 117 would have to be selected through careful consideration. The main focus at the time was to ensure that the handlers would be comfortable in such a unique environment. Now, however, I see the importance of handler and therapy dog selection based on the preferences of the clientele. University students seem to appreciate handlers who are engaging, ask a wealth of questions, and have a heavy involvement in the group conversation. In addition, they seem to enjoy seeing both quiet dogs and those who solicit more attention. Members, however, seem to appreciate handlers who allow the members to initiate the conversation if they so desire, or to stay quiet if they do not. In addition, they seem to appreciate the therapy dogs that solicit some, but not too much, attention. In interviews, participants often referred to specific dogs with whom they had interacted and it seemed the most popular therapy dogs were those who solicited some attention as opposed to none, without being excessively attention-seeking and becoming a demanding stimulus. Many of the salient themes that arose from the interviews aligned with observations I have made in attending the sessions. There were, however, some observations that I noticed that were not mentioned in the interviews. For instance, when attending the sessions, I notice that members often seem to talk to one another about topics that are unrelated to work. A common topic, unsurprisingly, is to discuss their pets at home, the habits their pets have, and the activities that they like to do with them. The sessions are situated at the end of a corridor and often times, even after leaving the sessions, members seem to take an additional few minutes to talk to one another before returning to their work stations. I was surprised that these conversations, which I suspect happen rarely during a work shift, were only mentioned in a single interview. 5.3 Strengths and Limitations 5.3.1 Strengths 118 One major strength of the present study is that this research was able to gain an insight into the views and experiences of female members. The literature in policing is saturated with studies wherein participants were predominantly male, including many of the studies discussed in the literature review of this paper. Gershon et al. (2002) for example conducted a study wherein 98% of the participants were male and the findings incorporated the views of only two female participants. Other studies have not had quite a stark contrast between male and female participants but still reflect the male dominance prevalent in much of the research. In the aforementioned studies exploring stress in policing and the outcomes of this stress on well-being, the participation rates varied from 82.3% male to 85% male (El Sayed et al., 2019; Gershon et al., 2009; Karaffa & Koch, 2016; Marmar et al., 2006; White & Robinson, 2016). One exception was the research of Shane (2010) who had a slightly more promising sample, however even this study still reflected a 71% male sample. These studies, although informative, are dominated by the experiences of the male member. The sample from the current study was 75% female and 25% male. This allowed for an exploration into the experiences of female RCMP members. In addition, this study sample was largely representative of the population who make use the B.A.R.K. program. Recall that the present study aimed to build upon the knowledge obtained in an earlier, quantitative study wherein a CAI was introduced within an urban RCMP detachment (Binfet et al., in press). The members who made use of the program within their detachment consisted of 66.5% females and 33.5% males. The present study sample consisted of 75% females, and 25% males. This study also has high ecological validity, defined as “the extent to which the environment experienced by the subject in a scientific investigation has the properties it is supposed or assumed to have by the investigator” (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, p.516). The study 119 sought to explore participants’ experiences of an existing, well-integrated CAI within their detachment, a real-world, applied setting. The findings are ecologically valid because the interviews were based on an existing CAI that occurs throughout the year and not artificially created for the purpose of the study. This program is also held within the RCMP detachment during a normal working day – it is integrated into the ebb and flow of this complex work environment. Another strength of this study surrounds the participant-interviewer relationship. Recall that one advantage of qualitative interview case studies is that they allow for exploration of participants’ lived experiences and provides opportunities to showcase the participants’ own voice. The researcher in this study was already involved with the CAI held in the detachment and had already built rapport with the interviewees. This is especially advantageous within law-enforcement research as members have a reputation for being distrusting of individuals outside the detachment. Having a rapport built and having prior experience in interview research, allowed for the researcher to build a trusting relationship with the participants thus potentially improving the honesty of the responses and the amount of information shared. Furthermore, the prior experience of the researcher in qualitative interviews and experience in CAIs provided the researcher with the ability to rephrase questions as needed. Using Tracy’s (2010) ‘big tent’ criteria for guidance, the researcher took numerous steps to ensure high-quality qualitative research. The purpose of this study was to explore the lived experiences of a CAI within the context of law-enforcement which, despite the increasing popularity of CAIs, remains an under-utilized well-being resource. This, combined with the demonstrated need of LEP to reduce stress and the current concern over police stress and mental health, demonstrated that this study had a worthy topic. This study demonstrated rich rigor by 120 carefully planning the study, seeking advice from supervisory and committee members, and taking existing literature into account. Credibility and resonance was ensured by conducting member checking (see section 3.8.2), thus increasing validity (Hamilton & Corbett-Whittier, 2013) and confirming the accuracy of the researchers understanding; conducting inter-rater reliability with another experienced graduate student; and providing detailed descriptions throughout the present manuscript. Furthermore, the researcher embedded quotations from the transcripts throughout the results section to allow for the participants’ voice to be reflected and to substantiate findings. The present study also represents a significant contribution to literature as this study seeks to explore, for the first time, the lived experiences of LEPs who participated in a CAI. Previous research demonstrated that the CAI within this setting was a low-barrier, low-cost, and effective way to reduce stress in members (Binfet et al., in press), and the present study has expanded the knowledge in the emerging field of HAIs. Finally, the researcher had approval from the University’s human and animal research ethics board and the RCMP detachment, kept files securely, held interviews off-detachment property, and used research identification numbers and pseudonyms to protect the anonymity and confidentiality of participants. In addition, the interviewer sought to continually reflect on decisions that may have ethical implications, and treated participants with kindness and dignity. These steps helped to ensure that the present study was ethical. 5.3.2 Limitations The findings of this study should be examined in light of several limitations. The study design, in being a case study, means it is acceptable to have smaller sample sizes due to practical and outcome factors (Mason, 2010). This study followed previous research guidance (Guest et al., 2008) in order to collect enough data to cover important perspectives and viewpoints without 121 collecting too much data, thus rendering later interviews redundant. Although this is considered acceptable and is common in qualitative research, it does not negate the fact that having a small sample size reduces the ability to generalize results to a wider population. It should also be noted that participants in this study were all obtained from a single, urban detachment in Canada and the sample was largely homogenous. The lived experiences of these members may not reflect the lived experiences of RCMP members from other detachments, such as those in rural areas or in other locations. Another limitation of this study was that data was collected through interviews alone. It would have been beneficial to have used triangulation to gather more information. Triangulation can be achieved in a number of ways (Denzin, 2017). Researchers can collect data from multiple sources to corroborate findings and strengthen conclusions (data); examine different points of view to reach the same conclusions (theory); multiple researchers can examine the same event (investigator); or the same approach can be used multiple times to increase confidence (methodological; Denzin, 2017; Tellis, 1997). It may have been beneficial to have collected other information, such as feedback in individual sessions over time; measures of sleep quality, irritability, and other reported effects of stress; or reports from colleagues and/or family members. 5.4 Implication of findings and suggestions for further research 5.4.1 Implications The findings of the current study hold implications for both HAIs and law-enforcement. Firstly, the place of CAIs within a first-responder setting is still a novel approach to supporting well-being and under-examined area of research. The findings of this study demonstrate that having a CAI within the detachment is well-received by participants and considered to be 122 enjoyable and beneficial. This further attests to the beneficial effects of HAIs and adds further support for CAIs in high-stress environments. Secondly, this research has implications for management personnel in law-enforcement settings. There is strong evidence that law-enforcement is a highly stressful job and there is growing concern over the mental health of RCMP members, their ability to serve the public, and the implications high-stress has on recruitment, retention, burnout, and job performance. This study informs RCMP and other policing agencies of the experiences of workplace stress from the members’ perspective. In addition, this study adds further support to the use of CAIs within this context as well-being resource worthy of integrating within their workplace context. 5.4.2 Future Research The findings from the current study inform, and stand to inspire, future research. Firstly, organizational stressors, and strategies to cope with them, remain an understudied area of occupational stress within policing (Violanti et al., 2019). These stressors have been identified as equally, if not more, impactful than operational stressors which continue to dominate the literature. In addition, and as reported by participants in this study, law-enforcement agencies seem to have a strong appreciation for operational stressors and providing well-being resources to combat these stressors. However, there appears to be much less acknowledgement of organizational stressors and very few, if any, resources that seek to reduce with the impact of these context-based stressors. Future studies should seek to examine the impact organizational stressors have on LEP and examine ways in which law-enforcement agencies could effectively reduce the impact of organizational stress. Secondly, as identified by this study, there is a paucity of well-being resources available to more senior members of law-enforcement, especially those in leadership or management 123 positions. Agencies such as the RCMP are beginning to focus on employee well-being, however, this is largely focused on supporting employees at lower ranks. Future research should explore viable well-being resources that are specifically designed to assist more senior, or management-level, personnel. This is especially important as senior members within the detachment are in positions that often allow them to advocate for, and create policy around, the implementation of well-being initiatives. Thus, safeguarding their well-being has a potential ripple effect within and throughout the detachment. This study, combined with findings from previous research (Binfet et al., in press) has demonstrated that CAIs are an effective, enjoyable, and feasible well-being resource within policing in Canada. Future studies should seek to explore CAIs in policing agencies in other areas and into other first-responder environments such as within emergency health services, fire-fighting, and search and rescue. Finally, this study demonstrated that the tactile petting of, or contact with, a therapy dog may be a key aspect of CAIs. Although this has been anecdotally reported in a variety of contexts, there remains a lack of research empirically investigating this component. Future studies should empirically examine whether the type of contact with therapy canines impacts the beneficial effects already established. 5.5 Conclusion It has been established that CAIs provide benefits to clientele in a variety of contexts by improving social, emotional, psychological, and physiological well-being. Increasingly, CAIs are being incorporated into schools, colleges, universities, airports, hospitals, psychiatric facilities, and funeral homes (Pet Partners, n.d.; St. John Ambulance, n.d.). The present study has built on emerging literature demonstrating that CAIs have a place as a wellbeing resource within a law- 124 enforcement setting. As such, there is a need for further studies to investigate the effectiveness of CAIs within first-responder settings. The present study demonstrated that RCMP members’ perceptions of a CAI integrated within their workplace was beneficial and enjoyable. In addition, members demonstrated overwhelming support for the program in general and felt that CAIs have a place within the detachment setting. 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That is, the specific questions asked will depend upon the responses of each participant. *Probes generated during the interview may be used to delve more deeply into the topic shared by participants. Category Guiding Questions Probes* Justification Levels of stress As you are aware, this is a study about stress in RCMP members. Let me first begin by asking you to reflect over the past 30 days, and describe your stress level? To clarify what you’ve said to me, could I describe you as low/medium/ high stress? • Evidence has suggested that police officers experience high-medium levels of stress (Bano & Talib, 2017). This question will seek to explore this from a qualitative perspective. • A 30-day period is used for the reflection on stress because this is deemed a sufficient length of time to take into account any events that are still influencing current stress (Cohen et al., 1983). Perceptions of the effects of stress Thank you for describing to me your stress level, I’m curious now to hear how you think stress affects you? What else can you say about that? Tell me more. • This question seeks to gather details as to the physiological and psychological effects of stress on RCMP. • This is asked because research has suggested that there are physiological and psychological effects to officers’ wellbeing when they are stressed (Bano & Talib, 2017; Gershon et al., 2009; Terpstra & Schaap, 2013). Coping mechanisms In general, when you experience stress, do you do anything about it? When we’re talking about workplace stress, whose responsibility is it to reduce stress? The precinct/organization, or the individual? If so: Tell me about that? What makes you say that? Can you tell me more? • These questions aim to establish what RCMP members are/are not doing to reduce their stress. • They also aim to explore whether officers take it upon themselves to reduce their stress, or if they are relying on organizational support. 152 Category Guiding Questions Probes* Justification Sources of support A lot are concerned about member stress, describe for me what wellbeing resources are available to you? You have just described these opportunities; would you describe yourself as a low/med/high user of these opportunities? We’ve established that there are stress-reduction opportunities available to employees. What would you say are barriers that prevent you from making use of these? If so: can you tell me about these? If they are using them: what is it about ____ program that you find particularly valuable? Tell me more about your frequency of use? • These questions aim to establish the barriers to seeking stress-reduction support. • This is asked because research has suggested that there are reasons why officers do not seek programs to reduce their stress (e.g. Karaffa & Koch, 2016). Impact of the sessions Participation in this study required you to have made use of a B.A.R.K. session here at the detachment. Would you describe yourself as a low/med/high user of the program? Why did you make use of the B.A.R.K. program? Did the B.A.R.K. sessions have any impact on you? You have described an impact of the B.A.R.K. session, how do you think this works? If you had to describe how this program works to someone else outside of the precinct, how would you describe the session? Tell me more. What was it about this that made you feel that way? Why do you think the program impacted you in that way? • These questions aim to explore the motivations for attending and what, if any, impact the CAI program had on members. • This is asked because research has established that this program was successful in reducing pre-to-post self-reports of stress (Binfet et al., in press). Research has not explored whether there were any other perceived benefits to having attended. Role of the dogs How would you describe the role of the dogs in this program? What do they do exactly? Tell me more. If so... How? • Research has established the efficacy of CAIs within a variety of contexts (Binfet & Passmore, 2016; Hoffman et al., 2009; Lang et al., 2010), however little is known about what aspect of the program fosters the beneficial effects. 153 Category Guiding Questions Probes* Justification Looking forward Do you think you will continue to attend B.A.R.K. sessions in the future? Do you think that canine-based interventions have a place in the detachment setting? Why/Why not? • This is asked because research has established that this program was successful in reducing pre-to-post self-reports of stress (Binfet et al., in press). • As there is still very little research in this field, this question sought to establish whether participants would endorse the use of CAIs within their detachment. Do you have any comments or anything else you would like to tell me? 154 Appendix B – Consent Form 155 156 157 Appendix C – Recruitment Poster What?a) 1-hour conversation to discuss your thoughts on how interacting with therapy dogs may boost well-being. This will be completely confidential. b) a short follow-up phone interview. Benefits?a) Your participation is important as we know dogs reduce stress but we don’t yet know why. Findings from this study will inform future initiatives at the Kelowna detachment. b) A $50 gift card to a local coffee shop for completion of both the in-person and phone interviews.When? In-person conversations, scheduled at your convenience. Who? Any active duty constables who have attended at least one B.A.R.K. session at the Kelowna detachment.Like talking about dogs? Want to help fellow members? Please consider participating in a UBC study to better understand how therapy dogs can reduce member stress.Interested? Have questions?Email Freya Green at bark.dogtherapy@ubc.ca Please use your personal email. Fostering well-being in RCMP constables: A pilot project between UBC's B.A.R.K. program and the Kelowna RCMPWhere? UBC Okanagan campus (your parking is paid by us). Freya Greenbark.dogtherapy@ubc.caPlease use your personal email. B.A.R.K. Dog StudyThis study has been approved by the Research and Business analytics unit of RCMP national office, UBC Human and Animal ethics (H17-03306 & A18-0222)
Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Education
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
Graduate
Exploring occupational stress and the perceptions of a canine-assisted intervention in law-enforcement personnel : a case study
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