Education, Faculty of
Education, School of (Okanagan)
DSpace
UBCO
Marroquin Pinto, Claudia
Master of Arts - MA
University of British Columbia
This qualitative research study is a comparative study of instructional strategies that subject content teachers in Canada and in Chile use to teach additional language learners. The goal was to identify the most used and effective strategies. The study was framed within the research literature on additional language teaching and learning related to the constructivist view of learning. Qualitative methods were used, including a self-study carried out by the researcher, an open-ended questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews. The self-study consisted of a written journal based on classroom observations in a Canadian middle school, which allowed the researcher to witness the instructional strategies that teachers used in their classes and to reflect on their effectiveness in the additional language learning process. For the questionnaires and the interviews, the participants were six language specialists (three from each country) who responded to questions about the strategies that teachers use to support language learners in the four main skills (listening, reading, speaking, and writing) and the ways they assess student performance in those skills. The data gathered were coded and analyzed in search of patterns and themes oriented to answer the research question. The results of this study showed that teachers were aware of the modifications they needed to implement in the subject-specific, language, and social areas to support language learners by implementing instructional strategies related to differentiated instruction, comprehensible input, and cooperative learning, along with the use of technology to enhance learning experiences. It was also found that given the great number of approaches and instructional strategies available when planning the tasks and assessments, teachers can take and blend the aspects and elements that best fit their learners’ characteristics and learning profiles, a process grounded in the concept of principled eclecticism. It is hoped that the findings of this research help teachers to evaluate the instructional strategies they currently use and to obtain information on the most effective ones to modify and improve their praxis. It is also hoped that the findings can be used to set possible criteria for the implementation of Spanish as additional language programs in Chilean schools.
ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE LEARNING: EFFECTIVE APPROACHES TO SUPPORTING NEWCOMERS LEARNING ENGLISH IN BRITISH COLUMBIA AND SPANISH IN CHILE by Claudia Marroquin Pinto A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE COLLEGE OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Education) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Okanagan) July 2020 © Claudia Marroquin Pinto, 2020 ii The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the College of Graduate Studies for acceptance, a thesis/dissertation entitled: Additional language learning: Effective approaches to supporting newcomers learning English in British Columbia and Spanish in Chile submitted by Claudia Marroquin Pinto in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts Dr. Scott Roy Douglas, Associate Professor, Okanagan School of Education Supervisor Dr. Sabre Cherkowski, Associate Professor, Director of Graduate Programs, Okanagan School of Education Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Karen Ragoonaden, Professor of Teaching, Director, Center for Mindful Engagement, Okanagan School of Education Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Francis Langevin, Assistant Professor of Teaching, Faculty of Creative and Critical Studies, Okanagan Campus University Examiner July 6, 2020 Date submitted to Grad Studies iii Abstract This qualitative research study is a comparative study of instructional strategies that subject content teachers in Canada and in Chile use to teach additional language learners. The goal was to identify the most used and effective strategies. The study was framed within the research literature on additional language teaching and learning related to the constructivist view of learning. Qualitative methods were used, including a self-study carried out by the researcher, an open-ended questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews. The self-study consisted of a written journal based on classroom observations in a Canadian middle school, which allowed the researcher to witness the instructional strategies that teachers used in their classes and to reflect on their effectiveness in the additional language learning process. For the questionnaires and the interviews, the participants were six language specialists (three from each country) who responded to questions about the strategies that teachers use to support language learners in the four main skills (listening, reading, speaking, and writing) and the ways they assess student performance in those skills. The data gathered were coded and analyzed in search of patterns and themes oriented to answer the research question. The results of this study showed that teachers were aware of the modifications they needed to implement in the subject-specific, language, and social areas to support language learners by implementing instructional strategies related to differentiated instruction, comprehensible input, and cooperative learning, along with the use of technology to enhance learning experiences. It was also found that given the great number of approaches and instructional strategies available, when planning the tasks and assessments, teachers can take and blend the aspects and elements that best fit their learners’ characteristics and learning profiles, a process grounded in the concept of principled eclecticism. It is hoped that the findings of this research help teachers to evaluate the instructional strategies they currently use and to obtain information on the most effective ones to modify and improve their praxis. It is also hoped that the findings can be used to set possible criteria for the implementation of Spanish as additional language programs in Chilean schools. iv Lay Summary The increasing diversity of the population in Chile and in British Columbia calls for teachers with improved capacity and expertise in the use of instructional strategies to support additional language learners in their classroom contexts. The purpose of this research study was to explore the diverse strategies that Canadian and Chilean teachers put into practice to support language learners in middle school classrooms in order to determine which of them are the most used and effective ones. This research aimed at helping to set a precedent and criteria of effective approaches to start the implementation of Spanish language learning programs in all subject content in Chilean schools. It is also expected that this study can help Canadian pre and in-service teachers to evaluate the approaches they currently use and get information on the most effective ones in order to modify and improve their practices. v Preface This thesis is an original intellectual product of the author, Claudia Marroquin Pinto. The research reported in Chapters 3 to 5 was conducted through the protocols of The University of British Columbia’s Okanagan Campus Behavioural Research Ethics Board (BREB) under the project title: Additional Language Learning: Effective Approaches to Support Newcomers Learning Spanish in Chilean Schools, and identity: H19-02325. As per UBC’s BREB guidelines, the data collection was conducted by Claudia Marroquin Pinto under the guidance of the Principal Investigator and the thesis committee. The committee for this project included:  Dr. Scott Roy Douglas Graduate Supervisor and Principal Investigator Associate Professor Okanagan School of Education  Dr. Sabre Cherkowski Associate Professor, Director of Graduate Programs Okanagan School of Education  Dr. Karen Ragoonaden Professor of Teaching, Director, Center for Mindful Engagement Okanagan School of Education vi Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary ............................................................................................................................... iv Preface ............................................................................................................................................ v Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………......vi List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. x List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... xii Dedication ................................................................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Overview of Chapter 1 .......................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Summary of relevant literature .............................................................................................. 4 1.3 Purpose of the study .............................................................................................................. 6 1.4 Research question .................................................................................................................. 7 1.5 Significance of the study ....................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Overview of research methods .............................................................................................. 8 1.7 Limitations and delimitations ................................................................................................ 9 1.8 Organization of the thesis .................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 2: Literature Review .................................................................................................... 11 2.1 Overview of Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................ 11 2.2 Second/Additional Language Acquisition theories ............................................................. 12 2.2.1 Behaviourism ................................................................................................................ 13 2.2.2 Cognitivism .................................................................................................................. 13 2.2.3 Constructivism .............................................................................................................. 16 2.3 Methods, approaches, and techniques ................................................................................. 18 2.4 Learner considerations ........................................................................................................ 19 2.4.1 Learner’s background knowledge ................................................................................ 21 2.4.2 Learner’s performance assessment ............................................................................... 22 vii 2.5 Principled for exemplary teaching: Strategies into praxis in British Columbia .................. 23 2.6 Teacher education and professional development. ............................................................. 28 2.6.1 Teacher development on SLA: Research studies ......................................................... 30 2.6.2 Teacher development on intercultural communicative competence ............................ 31 2.6.3 Teacher development on technology ............................................................................ 33 2.7 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 34 Chapter 3: Research Methods ................................................................................................... 35 3.1 Overview of Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................ 35 3.2 Rationale for the study ........................................................................................................ 35 3.3 Research perspective ........................................................................................................... 36 3.4 Objectives and outcomes ..................................................................................................... 38 3.4.1 Research question ......................................................................................................... 39 3.5 Research design ................................................................................................................... 39 3.5.1 Overview of the research methods ............................................................................... 40 3.5.1.1 Self-Study…………………………………………………………………...……41 3.5.1.2 Questionnaire………………………………………………………………...…..42 3.5.1.2.1 Questionnaire questions………………………………………………………..44 3.5.1.3 Interview……………………………………………………………………...….44 3.5.2 Participants ................................................................................................................... 46 3.5.2.1 Self-Study observations……………………………………………...……….….46 3.5.2.2 Questionnaire and interview participants…………………………………….…..47 3.5.2.3 Recruitment of participants: Questionnaires and Interviews…………………….47 3.5.3 Research procedures: Questionnaires and Interviews .................................................. 48 3.5.4 Data collection .............................................................................................................. 49 3.5.4.1 Journal………………………………………………………………………...….49 3.5.4.2 Questionnaires……………………………………………………………………51 3.5.4.3 Interviews………………………………………………………………...………51 3.5.5 Data analysis ................................................................................................................. 52 3.5.5.1 Journal………………………………………………………………………..…..52 3.5.5.2 Questionnaires and Interviews……………………………………………...……53 viii 3.6 Data storing methods and security ...................................................................................... 55 3.7 Limitations and assumptions ............................................................................................... 56 3.8 Validity ................................................................................................................................ 58 3.9 Trustworthiness ................................................................................................................... 59 3.10 Reliability .......................................................................................................................... 60 3.11 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 61 Chapter 4: Results....................................................................................................................... 62 4.1 Overview of Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................ 62 4.2 Summary of research methods ............................................................................................ 62 4.3 Findings on the Self-Study .................................................................................................. 63 4.3.1 Findings in Grade 6 ...................................................................................................... 64 4.3.1.1 Differentiated Instruction…………………………………...……………………65 4.3.1.2 Comprehensible Input……………………………………………………………67 4.3.1.3 Cooperative Learning…………………………………………………………….70 4.3.1.4 Other instructional strategies…………………………………………………….71 4.3.2 Findings in Grade 7 ...................................................................................................... 73 4.3.2.1 Differentiated Instruction…………………………………………………...……73 4.3.2.2 Comprehensible Input……………………………………...…………………….76 4.3.2.3 Cooperative Learning…………………………………………………………….78 4.3.2.4 Other instructional strategies…………………………………………………….79 4.3.3 Findings in Grade 8 ...................................................................................................... 81 4.3.3.1 Differentiated Instruction……………………………………………...…………81 4.3.3.2 Comprehensible Input……………………………………………...…………….84 4.3.3.3 Cooperative Learning…………………………………………………….………86 4.3.3.4 Other instructional strategies…………………………………………………….87 4.3.4 Summary of the Self-Study observations ..................................................................... 89 4.4 Findings on the questionnaires and interviews: Chilean and Canadian Participants .......... 90 4.4.1 Question 1: Listening.................................................................................................... 90 4.4.2 Question 2: Reading ..................................................................................................... 92 4.4.3 Question 3: Speaking .................................................................................................... 95 ix 4.4.4 Question 4: Writing ...................................................................................................... 96 4.4.5 Question 5: School support........................................................................................... 98 4.4.6 Question 6: First assessment....................................................................................... 100 4.4.7 Question 7: assessment of students’ performance the rest of the year ....................... 101 4.4.8 Additional information ............................................................................................... 103 4.5 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 105 Chapter 5: Discussion ............................................................................................................... 106 5.1 Overview of the study ....................................................................................................... 106 5.2 Summary of results............................................................................................................ 108 5.3 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 109 5.3.1 Self study .................................................................................................................... 109 5.3.1.1 Adaptations with a Subject-specific Focus……………………………………..110 5.3.1.2 Adaptations with a Language Focus…………………………………………....111 5.3.1.3 Adaptations with a Social Focus………………………………………………..112 5.3.1.4 Additional not predetermined themes…………………………………...…..….114 5.3.2 Questionnaires and Interviews .................................................................................... 115 5.3.2.1 Listening and Speaking……………………………………...………………….115 5.3.2.2 Reading and Writing…………………………………………………………....118 5.3.2.3 Assessment…………………………………………………………….………..121 5.3.2.4 School Support………………………………………………………………….124 5.3.3 Comparisons between Canada and Chile ................................................................... 126 5.4 Summary statement ........................................................................................................... 127 5.5 Applications of research .................................................................................................... 129 5.6 Implications for practice and recommendations ............................................................... 130 5.7 Recommendations for future studies ................................................................................. 131 5.8 Final reflection .................................................................................................................. 132 References .................................................................................................................................. 134 x List of Tables Table 1 Listening themes and contributing codes…………………………………….……...….90 Table 2 Reading themes and contributing codes……………………………………………...…93 Table 3 Speaking themes and contributing codes…………………………………………..…...95 Table 4 Writing themes and contributing codes………………………………………………....97 Table 5 School support themes and contributing codes…………………………………….…...99 Table 6 First assessment themes and contributing codes…………………………………....…100 Table 7 Ongoing assessment themes and contributing codes………………………………….102 xi List of Figures Figure 1 Number of instructional strategies observed in each theme according to each grade....64 Figure 2 Instructional strategies related to Differentiated Instruction in Grade 6………………65 Figure 3 Instructional strategies related to Differentiated Instruction in Grade 7………………74 Figure 4 Instructional strategies related to Differentiated Instruction in Grade 8…...………….81 xii Acknowledgements I would like to extend my deepest appreciation to Dr. Scott Douglas for his dedication, hard work, infinite patience, and continuous support over the past two years. Thanks for always offering a smile, word of encouragement, constructive criticism, and cheerful attitude. I could not have asked for a more considerate, kind, helpful, and supportive supervisor. I would also like to sincerely thank my committee and external examiner who took time to read my dissertation and participate in the thesis defense process during the unprecedented times of the pandemic Covid-19: Dr. Sabre Cherkowski, Dr. Karen Ragoonaden, and Dr. Francis Langevin. They were tremendously supportive and helpful in moving this thesis forward. Thank you all for your meaningful and significant additions to my work and thinking. Many thanks are owed to the participants in my study in Chile and in Canada, for taking the time to share their insights and for their eagerness to participate. Their important contributions to this study made that this research could become a reality. Last but not least, I would also like to extend a special acknowledgement to my family and friends. Without their love, understanding, support, and patience I would never have been able to finish this long, challenging (but very worthwhile) journey. xiii Dedication To my family, who have supported me throughout this process. To Claudio (my very best half), for your love, understanding, support, and enourmous patience. To Nicolás and Catalina, who gave me the motivation to embark in this journey and encourage me to overcome all the challenges of it. “Differences of habit and language are nothing at all if our aims are identical and our hearts are open.” —Albus Dumbledore 1 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Overview of Chapter 1 For many years, in Chile, the majority of immigrants came from neighbouring countries such as Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina with whom they share a similar history, culture, and language. The thousands of immigrants who have arrived in the last few years speak a variety of languages and have a diversity of cultural characteristics that are typically distinct from those held by Chilean people. Since 2015, the number of immigrants who came from Haiti, Brazil, China, Syria, and the U.S.A., has grown radically. According to information provided by the Chilean Department of Immigration (2020), 193,073 permanent residency visas were issued to immigrants between 2000 and 2011. A similar number of permanent residency visas, 191,791, was issued during the following five years, from 2012 to 2016, and over the last three years, from 2017 to 2019, 269,010 permanent visas were issued. Of these permanent residency visas, 20% corresponded to people coming from a country where Spanish is not spoken as a first language. In Chile, laws regarding diversity have not been updated because the government has adopted a “diversity-blind” policy that has left to newcomers the responsibility to adapt to the country, look for a job, enrol children in schools, and learn Spanish without any kind of legal support. The law that regulates immigration topics was issued in 1975, and it has been under revision and reformulation since 2018 (Gobierno de Chile, 2020). Even though the Political Constitution of Chile ensures that all children have equal rights to education, it was not until 2015 that the Chilean government passed the Inclusion Law 20.845 which, among other aspects, 2 emphasized that schools have to accept and do not discriminate students because of any reason, making visible the presence of cultural and linguistic diversity in the classrooms. According to Mineduc (2018), the number of international/immigrant students enrolled in schools in Chile grew from 30,625 in 2015 to 77,608 in 2017. Considering this rapid growth, the government has started developing some projects (Mineduc 2017, 2018) to ensure that international/immigrant students receive equal opportunities in access, continuation, and promotion at school and have also provided principals and administrators with the autonomy to make decisions to ensure these opportunities are available according to their particular contexts. In this sense, there are no clear policies and guidelines to be implemented yet and therefore teachers, principals, and administrators have been developing their own guidelines to address diversity in their schools and classrooms. All of these guidelines have been based on their own criteria and personal opinion about immigrants and differ greatly from school to school (Diaz, 2017). In her study, Diaz confirmed that most of the implementations that have been put into practice since 2015 are more related to administrative areas: access to school, student ID, ministerial books, and resources. Not all the principals that participated in her study have had time to fully move from administrative measures to the promotion of multicultural inclusive practices; the implementation of practices to prevent racism or to address stereotyping, multicultural education or anti-bias curriculum, and particularly, programs of Spanish as an additional language. The participants agreed that it has been a slow process because of the rooted paradigm of education linked to the homogenization of students. It has been difficult to convince teachers that these practices do not mean a radical change in their teaching but the inclusion of multicultural considerations to enrich their practice. The principals who participated in said study expected that all teachers and personnel at school would be informed about specific 3 modifications and trained in strategies to work with diverse students but, unfortunately, the truth is that teachers have not received (and may not receive in the near future) any massive or formal professional development to support the inclusion of these students. Therefore, teachers adapt their teaching strategies and methodology the best they can in order to help students to learn. On the other hand, the educational system in British Columbia officially considers multicultural education and English Language Learning (ELL) as part of the overall curriculum and the government has provided schools with official guidelines, instructional plans, and language standards for ELL (British Columbia Ministry of Education, 1999, 2017, 2018). These documents provide teachers and administrators with consistent parameters, a common language, and pertinent information that make it possible to deliver quality ELL services in all the schools throughout the province. This qualitative research project is a comparative study between the common approaches and instructional strategies that teachers use to support additional language learners in Canada and in Chile and identify the most effective ones. The results of this project are thought to help additional language teachers who do not know the best way to help and support international students or immigrant students to use effective strategies to enhance meaningful learning experiences. Of course, it may help subject area teachers as well by providing research-based strategies and a theoretical foundation that could serve as common criteria to work with newcomers in both countries. It is hoped that the findings of this research will assist policymakers, administrators, and principals to set the criteria for the implementation of consistent guidelines and programs for supporting newcomers learning Spanish as an additional language in Chilean schools. 4 1.2 Summary of Relevant Literature The literature review section of this research study presents the relevant theories in second/additional language related to the constructivist view of learning. Constructivists generally believe that people create their own knowledge based on the interaction of what they already know and the information they come into contact through experience (von Glaserfeld, 1989; Vygotsky, 1978). In this sense, languages are thought to be learned thanks to the interaction with others, particularly if they are more skilled and knowledgeable as suggested by Vygotsky (1978). Vygotsky believed that the construction of knowledge occurs when the learners actively interact in the social world, where the role of an adult, teacher, or a more capable peer provides scaffolding and guides them to perform a task that would not be possible to achieve without support. Different types of scaffolding can be seen in the ELL Policy Guidelines (2018) and the ELL Guide for Classroom Teachers (1999) provided to schools by the BC Ministry of Education that suggest the modification of teachers’ instructional practices and the inclusion of some adaptations to better address the needs of ELLs. For this study, these adaptations were associated with theories or instructional strategies related to learning and teaching additional languages. In this way, the adaptations aimed at helping students pursue learning in relation to specific subjects such as science or math (adaptations with a subject-specific focus) were related to differentiated instruction (Tomlinson & Allan, 2000); the ones aimed at helping students expand their vocabulary and improve their ability to express themselves (adaptations with a language focus) were related to comprehensible input (Krashen, 1982, 1985); and those aimed at facilitating their social interaction and communication with others (adaptations with a social focus) were related to cooperative learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). These theories can be 5 translated into many instructional strategies that teachers can put into practice to support additional language learners. The definitions of methods, approaches, and techniques according to Anthony (1963) are briefly discussed in the literature review section in order to understand the evolution and starting point of the principled eclecticism. According to Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011), teachers can create their own method of teaching by selecting and blending aspects of the traditional methods and use whatever instructional strategies they consider fit better with their students’ characteristics and needs to introduce the suggested modifications in the subject-specific, language, and social areas. Learners’ characteristics and learning profiles are factors that have to be considered carefully by teachers when planning the tasks and assessments. Even though Lightbown and Spada (2013) stated that there is no full agreement in the qualities that successful learners possess, there are some characteristics linked to middle school students that were taken into consideration in this study in order to better understand their learning preferences. Reid (1995, p. viii) defined learning preferences as the “natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information” and they are also influenced by student’s culture and background. Related to the previous ideas, TESOL (2018) presented six principles for exemplary teaching of English learners, which represent a set of guidelines identified as best practices according to research in language pedagogy and language acquisition theory. These principles include knowing the learners, creating conditions for language learning, adapting lesson delivery, monitoring and assessing student language development, engaging and collaborating within a 6 community of practice, and designing high-quality lessons for language development. These principles coincide with the theories presented in the literature review of this research study. Additionally, research-based evidence in teaching content areas is discussed in order to highlight the importance of professional development in additional language teaching and learning theory, intercultural communicative competence, and the use of technology to enhance learning. These studies are discussed because some authors (Milner, 2010; Pacino, 2008; TESOL, 2018) have found that many teachers feel that they are not prepared to address diversity in their classrooms and need to be provided with knowledge and tools to better support additional language learners. 1.3 Purpose of the Study This study was contextualized by the situation in Chile in which there are no official policies provided by the Ministry of Education to address Spanish as an additional language in schools and that every principal in every school has the autonomy to include the modifications they consider relevant according to their school context. Therefore, the strategies teachers are using to support international/immigrant students typically lack consistency and a theoretical foundation as they depend on teachers’ personal criteria and the instincts of the educational leadership. The purpose of this qualitative research study was to explore diverse approaches and instructional strategies that Canadian and Chilean teachers put into practice to support additional language learners in middle school subject-area classrooms in order to determine which of them are the most used and effective. This information will serve to inform teachers about teaching additional languages in Canada and in Chile and help them to modify and improve their praxis 7 and to set possible criteria for the implementation of effective additional language programs to teach Spanish to newcomers in Chilean schools. 1.4 Research Question This research study aimed to answer the question: What English as an additional language teaching approaches in Canadian contexts have the potential to inform effective Spanish as an additional language teaching to newcomers in Chilean schools? 1.5 Significance of the Study This type of research does not appear to have been done before in Chile and may allow teachers to understand the need for specific strategies that help them to support the learning of newcomers who do not grade level Spanish language skills, especially for teachers who do not have knowledge, teacher education, or professional development in second/additional language acquisition theories. It can also contribute to promoting awareness among educational stakeholders about the importance of considering the use of intercultural communicative competence and diverse approaches to support students’ learning. Up to now, in Chile, Spanish language learning has been for the most part ignored at the school level and there are no official policies or curriculum guidelines that provide suggestions for teachers to better understand and implement multicultural instructional strategies to foster learning in students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. This research may help to set a precedent of effective approaches to start the implementation of Spanish language learning programs in all subject areas in Chilean schools. 8 It is also expected that this study may help Canadian pre and in-service teachers to evaluate the approaches they currently use and obtain information on the most effective ones in order to modify and improve their praxis. 1.6 Overview of Research Methods This qualitative study included the participation of six specialists in additional language teaching in Canada and in Chile. In Canada, the participants were three ELL district support teachers in the public school system who work directly with in-school ELL teachers of all elementary and middle schools in a local district; and in Chile, the participants were three academic coordinators from three major educational corporations who are in contact with elementary and middle school teachers of public and subsidized schools in the capital city, Santiago. These specialists were selected precisely because they are in contact with a great number of teachers, have been able to observe their lessons, and will have the opportunity to inform them of the results of this research in order to help them to improve their praxis. Participants were contacted and an invitation to participate was sent by email. This email explained the research study, stages, and provided information on informed consent. Data collection consisted of a questionnaire and an interview with all the participants in order to gather information on the approaches and instructional strategies they use when teaching English and Spanish as an additional language. They were also asked about the most used strategies other teachers use in the different schools of the districts and they think have the greatest impact on the learning of English / Spanish. ELL support teachers and Chilean academic coordinators were asked to answer via UBC Qualtrics a set of seven open-ended questions about the different approaches used to teach listening, writing, reading, and speaking. 9 They were also asked about the ways they use to assess students’ progress in these areas and the type of support they receive from the principals and school administrators. A self-study (Samaras, 2011) was also held based on my volunteer work in a local school in B.C., Canada. This self-study consisted of the observation in situ of how some of the strategies the language specialists mentioned were put into practice by different teachers with ELLs from diverse language backgrounds. I registered this information in written format along with some informal conversations that took place with some classroom teachers to clarify information and get further details. My reflections were based on my previous experiences in Chilean schools and the experiences I had during my volunteer work in the Canadian context. All accrued data were analyzed, coded, and classified according to themes (Creswell, 2012; Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2012). The data gathered from the self-study were sorted into three pre-determined themes and the data from the questionnaires and interviews emerged during the analysis rather than having pre-determined themes. 1.7 Limitations and Delimitations This research was conducted with six language specialists working with middle school teachers in the Province of British Columbia, in Canada and in Santiago, Chile. It also included the self-study I carried out with observations in one middle school in British Columbia. As in this study I acted as a teacher and at the same time as a researcher, I had to work at bracketing my own experiences, assumptions, and biases about language teaching and learning as I gathered and analyzed the data in order to see the data from an objective perspective (Cresswell & Poth, 2018). 10 As the research study was limited to the information provided by these six participants and my personal experience, it would be difficult to make any generalizations related to the most effective approaches and instructional strategies to support newcomers learning additional languages in other contexts. However, the findings provide interesting insights into teaching additional languages. The current findings may also serve as a starting point for further research on the topic, which may include other provinces, educational contexts, and linguistic backgrounds. 1.8 Organization of the Thesis Chapter 1 frames the context that originated the study, provides concepts, and presents an overall outline of the thesis. Chapter 2 presents the literature review and theoretical framework in which the scholarship that relates to the present research is discussed in detail. Chapter 3 describes the qualitative research methods that have been used throughout the study. Chapter 4 reports the observations and findings emerging from the data collected during the research study. Lastly, Chapter 5 discusses the results and offers recommendations for further areas of practice and study. 11 Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Overview of Chapter 2 The main goal of this research project was to identify the most used and most effective instructional strategies that teachers use to support ELLs in Canadian classrooms and have the potential to inform effective Spanish as an additional language teaching to newcomers in Chilean schools. This chapter presents a review of the research and literature on the topic of additional language teaching and learning starting with Second/Additional language acquisition theories. Despite teachers using some instructional strategies related to behaviourism and cognitivism, the school of thought and theories that support this study are mainly linked to constructivism since it relates additional language learning with the social interaction of learners. Then, the Principled Eclecticism is presented as the informed blending of methods, approaches, and techniques that teachers use in the present and that allow them to borrow different and diverse instructional strategies that best fit the needs of their students (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). Next, the point of view and suggestions from the B.C. Ministry of Education (1999, 2018) are reviewed in contrast with the TESOL’s (2018) principled for exemplary teaching. Here, Krashen’s (1982) ideas about comprehensible input are reviewed since they guide teachers’ efforts to try diverse strategies in order to make their messages clear enough for language learners. Also, the differentiated instruction suggested by Tomlinson and Allan (2000) is discussed since it encourages teachers to consider the particular characteristics and learning preferences of the students in order to make teaching flexible to their needs. 12 In the same way, the use of cooperative learning strategies is presented as it is believed that to have students working with more capable peers and to scaffold their learning of the language of instruction through content fosters co-construction of knowledge through meaningful interaction (Vygotsky, 1978). Finally, research-based evidence in teaching content-areas is presented in order to highlight the importance of professional development in additional language teaching and learning, intercultural communicative competence, and technology for all content area teachers working with additional language learners. The purpose of this review is to provide both the conceptual and theoretical frameworks behind the study by analyzing factors related to explain how languages are learned and how teachers can contribute to that from the perspectives of the prevailing theories and relevant literature in the field. 2.2 Second/Additional Language Acquisition theories Even though learning a second/additional language is not the same as learning the mother tongue, some Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theories have been based on ideas of first language acquisition and therefore share some of their characteristics. Some perspectives have been developed from cognitive psychology and sociocultural perspectives (Lightbown & Spada, 2013). Three major schools of thought in SLA will be reviewed in order to better understand the approaches and strategies used by teachers in their classrooms: Behaviourism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism. 13 2.2.1 Behaviourism According to the behaviourist view, additional language development is understood as the formation of habits through imitation, repetition of automated responses, and reinforcement. Consistent with this model, teaching emphasizes mimicry and rote learning (Brown & Lee, 2015). This psychological approach to language learning made a strong contribution to the Audio-Lingual Method. One of the major objectives of this method was that students acquire the structural patterns of a language as well as vocabulary and accurate pronunciation by means of repetition. It was thought that the more often the patterns and vocabulary were repeated, the stronger the habit and greater the learning. In this sense, the emphasis was on the teacher drilling and fostering the practice of problematic areas and correcting errors as they happened (Brown, 2000; Lightbown & Spada, 2013). Even though the effectiveness of this method has largely been questioned because it failed to improve long-term communicative proficiency, it is still possible to find language courses and teachers promoting audio-lingual instructional strategies, such as slot substitution drills, when teaching additional languages. 2.2.2 Cognitivism Differing from the behaviourist school of thought, Cognitivists see SLA as the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill and emphasize the natural human abilities in the process of learning. In this sense, McLaughlin, (1986, 1987, 1990) defined language learning as a building up of knowledge that will, at some point, become automatic thanks to repetition. During this process of automatization, the learner organizes and restructures new information linking it with the old information. This process, which requires a lot of attention and concentration, increases the mastery of an additional language. 14 Likewise, Krashen claimed that humans have an innate ability that guides the language learning process (Brown & Lee, 2015; Krashen, 1982). He thought that additional languages are acquired in the same way infants learn their mother tongue simply by listening attentively to spoken language that is meaningful to them (Krashen,1982). He also believed that there are no significant differences between the way we acquire our first language and our subsequent languages and in order to explain this further, he put forward the Monitor Model for SLA. This model consisted of five hypotheses within which the most relevant to this study are: the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, the Input Hypothesis, and the Affective Filter Hypothesis (Krashen 1982, 1985, 1998). The main point of the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis was to estate the difference between acquisition and learning. Acquisition is defined as an unconscious and natural process and learning as conscious, where the learner puts attention to language forms (Krashen, 1982). For example, as ELLs in Canada and Spanish language learners in Chile are learning the language of instruction and subject contents in schools at the same time, they are expected to pick the language up as they listen to and interact with their interlocutors (teachers or peers) without the explicit grammar explanation of their utterances. Once the student can produce the language, they can be introduced to grammar in order to polish the language. The Input Hypothesis suggests that people acquire language by understanding input. To be comprehensible, this input should be a little beyond our current level of acquired competence. This has been symbolized by the equation [i+1], i representing the level of acquired language up to now and +1 referring to language that is just one step beyond that level (Krashen, 1982). For students who have just arrived to a country where a different language is spoken, it is difficult to establish what i would mean. As each student comes to school with different levels of 15 knowledge, teachers need to find out their particular starting point in order to complete the +1 in the equation. Besides the points made about the input role in SLA, Krashen (1982, 1985) also made note of the special language directed to children when acquiring their L1: Caretaker Speech. This speech is simplified and it is intended to make the message more comprehensible. He connected this speech with teacher talk, which is the language of the classroom in SLA lessons that tends to be slower with simpler syntax and repetition and that is adapted to the learner’s proficiency levels. Finally, the Affective Filter Hypothesis refers to the internal processing system which impedes learning from taking place even when learners have been exposed to large quantities of comprehensive input. This affective filter acts as a barrier and consists of negative factors such as lack of motivation, anxiety, or dislike of the L2 (Krashen, 1982). In this sense, helping students to lower their affective filter may result in improving their learning of the additional language. This affective filter is intertwined with the personal characteristics and learning profile of each learner, which are also important to address. Another important phenomenon discussed by Krashen (1982) in his Input Hypothesis is the silent period, which is reflected in children who face a new country and cultural environment. In the first months they are provided with input but they remind silent. As explained by Krashen, this is because they are building up their competencies through the input that they receive day by day. The Silent Period is considered a pre-production stage in the learning process and it is suggested that students should not be forced to speak before they are ready (Haynes, 2007). Complementing the Input Hypothesis put forward by Krashen (1982, 1985, 1998), the Interaction Hypothesis suggested by Long (1993) stated that when learning a second language, 16 face-to-face communication should be promoted in order to develop language proficiency. Through real communication, speakers can negotiate meaning and ask for clarification or confirmation; they have the opportunity to interact with other speakers; someone who can give them feedback and can confirm if their hypotheses of the language are correct or need to be modified. This interaction triggers the cognitive processes that facilitate additional language acquisition. Also examining how interaction promotes additional language acquisition, Swain (1985) explained that when learners engage in communicative situations and they experience communication difficulties, they are forced to edit and modify language. Therefore, it is necessary to produce the target language to improve its learning. Learners are active participants and therefore they can feel intrinsically and socially motivated in their learning process, which in turn, enables additional language acquisition. This cognitive view of language learning contributed to the modern communicative approaches to teach additional languages that focus on meaning rather than on form (structure and grammar). As the goal of these approaches is to communicate with other speakers, classroom tasks are oriented to equip students with the skills necessary to participate in communicative contexts (Brown & Lee, 2015). 2.2.3 Constructivism Finally, Constructivists associate additional language learning with the social interaction of learners with other speakers. According to the theories related to constructivism, additional languages are acquired as learners interact and attempt to communicate with others using the target language; knowledge and skills are co-constructed gradually through experience, interaction, and social support. Making students work with partners who are more skilled and knowledgeable is relevant in language learning according to Vygotsky (1978). He named this 17 instance as the Zone of Proximal Development, or ZPD, and defined it as “the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p.86). That is to say, the difference between what learners can actually do and what they can achieve when supported and guided by a more knowledgeable person. Vygotsky emphasized on how learners co-construct knowledge and perform at a higher level thanks to the support provided by a peer. He postulated that this interaction provides the input the learner needs to activate internal processes to learn an additional language. The support provided by the more capable peer is also known as scaffolding and it provides learners with the support they need to perform a specific task, with the idea that in the future they will be able to do it by themselves, increasing their autonomy. Scaffolding strategies facilitate comprehension for language learners and can take many forms according to the learner level of proficiency and needs (Brown & Lee, 2015; Cummins, 1984; Lightbown & Spada, 2013). In this sense, when teachers use cooperative learning and group strategies to foster interaction, they should pay attention to the groups and organize them considering students’ capabilities and learning preferences. When applying constructivist theories in the classroom, teachers use real-life situations to stimulate not only interaction but also higher-level, problem-solving skills, and critical analysis. Students are asked to use diverse tools for asking for clarification, negotiate meaning, and paraphrase in order to communicate effectively with other speakers. Under this approach, students are also encouraged to apply their knowledge in a variety of contexts and share their ideas to foster collaborative learning (Brown, 2000). 18 2.3 Methods, approaches, and techniques Back in the 70s and 80s, the “Era of Methods” emphasized the coherent implementation of techniques, methods, and approaches in order to get better results in additional language learning. In this sense, Edward Anthony’s (1963) definitions of techniques, methods, and approaches became so popular that they still keep resonating in the language-teaching profession. He stated that an approach provides a theoretical framework related to the nature of language, learning, and teaching; method was defined as an overall plan dealing with the practical implementation of a selected approach; and techniques as specific activities, practices, and behaviors that teachers use to put into practice a determined method, which has also to be consistent with the corresponding approach. Popular in their time were the Grammar-Translation Method, Direct Method, Audio-Lingual Method, and Communicative Language Teaching Approach among many others (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). In spite of the great number of methods and approaches that emerged, no one was universally recognized as fully appropriate and effective in language teaching. It is said that the Era of Methods lasted until the 1990s and since then research has become less focused on methods and more interested in the process of teaching and in the diverse instructional strategies that teachers implement in their classrooms to help students gain a better understanding of the course material (Brown, 2000; Brown & Lee, 2015). In this scenario, the Eclectic Approach has been put forward by several authors (Brown, 2002; Brumfit, 1984; Kumar, 2013; Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011; Weidman, 2001) who are of the idea that this principle is a combination of various approaches and methodologies in language teaching. In this way, Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011) introduced the concept of “Principled Eclecticism” by pointing out that teachers create “their own method by blending 19 aspects of others in a principled manner” (p. 229) that is to say, in an informed way. According to Brown (2000, 2002), Principled Eclecticism allows teachers to select instructional strategies that fit their particular contexts since it is flexible and applies multiple theories, styles, and techniques according to each particular classroom. In this sense, teachers can borrow different ideas and implement a wide variety of strategies even if they do not match with one fixed approach. Kumar (2013) added that teachers who apply this principle are more imaginative and willing to experiment with different types of learning techniques which lead to interesting and varied lessons that support learners in accomplishing tasks and reaching the expected learning outcomes. 2.4 Learner considerations As it can be expected, the particular characteristics of students are an important factor that influences their learning of an additional language and needs to be considered in this study. Some of these variables are related to the learner’s age, cognitive maturity, aptitude, motivation, personality, native language, and affective factors among others (Brown, 2000; Lightbown & Spada, 2013). There is no agreement among the researchers in relation to the best qualities of additional language learners but in the case of middle school learners, whose ages range between 11 and 13, it is possible to make some generalizations about the fact that as they have already learned a first language, they are thought to possess certain cognitive maturity and prior knowledge about how languages work that give them some clues of other languages rules (Lightbown & Spada, 2013). In relation to personality it is also thought that extroverted students may be more successful in learning an additional language since they are more open to looking for 20 opportunities to interact and practice the language in meaningful communication with other speakers (Lightbown & Spada, 2013). In this sense, Brown (2000) made the connection between extroverted students with affective factors such as self-esteem and self-confidence. According to Brown, cognitive activities are to be successful as long as the learners believe in their own capacities. For teachers, building in the students’ awareness of their capabilities in learning the language of instruction may result in students willing to take more risks using the language. Another factor to take into account when addressing additional language learners is related to their learning preferences. Learning preferences can be defined as the “natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills” (Reid, 1995, p. viii). Learning preferences include working alone or with a partner or group, sitting still or moving around, in a quiet place or with music, for example (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). In this way, using diverse ways to present the content and the flexibility to allow students to process the content and show their understanding agree with the differentiated instruction suggested by Tomlinson and Allan (2000). A last factor that is relevant to mention is related to cultural and ethnic group affiliation. Approaches to learning are influenced by culture and shape the way learners communicate and relate to others, and how they perceive information and interact with the subject content (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). Despite being difficult to anticipate to what extend this factor may affect learning an additional language, some authors (Coelho, 2016; Gay, 2000; Kottler, Kottler, & Street, 2008) advised teachers to explore the student’s family background, student’s stage of acculturation, and to pay attention to their cultural norms in order to create a positive environment for learning. These suggestions are oriented not only to avoid misinterpretations of the student’s behaviour (or students misreading teacher’s actions) but also to support the 21 integration of multicultural resources in the learning process to build on students’ backgrounds and previous knowledge. In this sense, Brown (2007) warned that culture can lead language learners to confusion about certain concepts or topics and suggested teachers discuss cross-cultural differences in order to identify differences in their ways of thinking, feeling, and acting. In line with their ideas, Skehan (1989) provided a list of aspects that also influence additional language learning which include other variables related to teacher’s methodology, syllabus, and type of instruction that teachers should consider when planning the tasks and activities not only for additional language learners but for the whole class. 2.4.1 Learner’s background knowledge As stated before, learners actively construct knowledge through experience and meaningful interaction with their surroundings. In this process, prior knowledge is used as a foundation to build new knowledge and therefore it is of upmost importance for prior knowledge to be considered by teachers when planning the tasks and activities for language learners. This taking of prior knowledge into account is particularly important because they bring a way of thinking, feeling, and acting based on their culture, values, and beliefs that may be different form the ones of their peers and teachers (Gay, 2000). Before presenting new content, teachers should assess what knowledge learners already possess and fill the existing gaps. Knowledge about a learner’s profile and cultural background helps teachers to design culturally relevant and motivating lessons that include multiple sources of input, consider students’ choices, and rely on a variety of assessment types to determine student achievement (TESOL, 2018). 22 2.4.2 Learner’s performance assessment In relation to assessment, Gay (2000) encouraged educators to take into account that assessment should be focused on the process more than on the final product, that is to say, to favour the use of formative assessment over summative assessment. Summative assessment, which is usually conducted at the end of a period of learning, is designed primarily with accountability, ranking, or certification purposes such as norm-referenced standardized tests. In contrast, formative assessment consists of ongoing observations of the students’ performance during the instructional process that aims at improving learning. It has been defined by Black and William (1998) as “all those activities undertaken by teachers—and by their students in assessing themselves—that provide information to be used as feedback to modify teaching and learning activities” (p. 140). O’Malley and Valdez Pierce (1996) agreed on that idea and added that the activities should represent classroom-goals, curricula, and instruction on real-life performance and assessment can take the form of checklists, student self-assessment reports, running records, teacher observation of student’s artifacts, and student-teacher conferences, among others. It was suggested by some authors (Levine & McCloskey, 2013; Rivera, 2006; TESOL, 2018) to provide accommodations in case that language learners have no choice but to take summative tests. In their study, Rivera, Stansfield, Scialdone, and Sharkey (2000) found that most of the accommodations used with language learners could be organized into four broad categories: presentation, response, time-scheduling, and setting, which were later reorganized into two categories: those that provide direct linguistic support and those that provide indirect linguistic support (Rivera, Collum, Shafer, Willner, & Sia, 2006) in a way to “differentiate language proficiency from academic achievement variables” (Gottlieb, 2006, p. 23). These 23 accommodations include providing extended time, using a dictionary, receiving one-on-one support of an ESL/ELL teacher or language specialist, taking breaks during the test, reading the questions aloud in English, allowing students to respond orally in English, describing responses, and using linguistically simplified materials, among others. 2.5 Principled for exemplary teaching: Strategies into praxis in British Columbia As mentioned before, when teachers prepare their lessons, they should consider many variables including the learners’ characteristics. Thinking about the learners allows teachers to select the most appropriate and effective instructional strategies. When they have speakers of other languages or English Language Learners (ELLs) in their classrooms, as it is the case in Canada, this selection must be carefully considered. The ELL Policy Guidelines of the Ministry of Education (2018) in British Columbia defines ELL students as those “whose primary language(s) or language(s) of the home, is other than English and who may, therefore, require additional services in order to develop their individual potential within British Columbia’s school system.” These additional services not only should include language support but also a welcoming environment in which students feel valued and included regardless of their linguistic or cultural backgrounds in order to become competent in social and academic settings (Coelho, 2016). The TESOL International Association is a community of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages that acknowledges how teaching and learning challenges have evolved in time and offer materials and resources to support teachers in this endeavor. They have worked developing language proficiency standards and certificate program standards to train teachers in additional languages and in the use of technology in instruction of children and adults. In 2018, 24 they published the book Principled for exemplary teaching of English learners, which set a “research-based foundation for teachers and learners to be successful in a variety of program types” (TESOL, 2018, p. viii). These principles are: knowing the learners, creating conditions for language learning, adapting lesson delivery, monitoring and assessing student language development, engaging and collaborating within a community of practice, and designing high-quality lessons for language development. As explained by the TESOL International Association (2018), these principles are a set of universal guidelines identified as best practices according to research in language pedagogy and language acquisition theory. According to the TESOL International Association (2018) the principles for exemplary teaching of English learners are to be followed by all teachers who provide direct instruction to students learning English, even though they do not recognize themselves as teachers of English. Of course, these principles can be implemented not only for teaching English but any other additional language. They are also thought to be used in teacher instruction and teacher development programs to help them improve their praxis. As far as the BC Ministry of Education is concerned, they provide a guide for classroom teachers (1999) that suggests the implementation of adaptations in three main areas: subject-specific, language, and social. Since teachers can apply a great variety of instructional strategies in each area to foster learning and support students to thrive, some of them overlap and can be useful in more than one area. These areas are described in detail in the following paragraphs. a) Adaptations with a subject-specific focus These adaptations are aimed at helping students to pursue learning in relation to specific subjects, and the instructional strategies are related to modify academic instruction in order to make the content more accessible to ELLs. To this objective, Tomlinson and Allan (2000) 25 suggested the use of differentiated instruction strategies. According to the authors, differentiation can be done in three areas considering the students’ readiness, interests, and learning profile: content, process, and product. In the same way, Tomlinson and McTighe (2006) suggested the implementation of diverse methods to facilitate students’ access to key content instead of modifying the content itself. This use of diverse methods would enable students to retain, apply, and transfer content, as real learning has happened inside the same students (Wiggins & McTighe, 1998). The content refers to the information to be learned and can be differentiated by presenting the information in different formats such as orally through a lecture or a song, showing pictures of graphs or modeling the tasks with the students among others. The incorporation of instructional strategies that consider different learning preferences such as manipulative material, videos, music, computers, or physical movement are essential to present the content and scaffold the activities. The process is related to the activities to perform in order to learn the content and can be differentiated by giving students diverse choices to show their understanding of the content according to their abilities and interests. They also need to be given enough time to process task instructions and manipulate the information before producing an outcome. A language learner may understand a question and know the correct answer but may not find the appropriate words to use or may feel anxious to speak in front of the whole class, he/she may prefer to draw a picture or record a video instead (Tomlinson & Allan, 2000). Finally, the products are the expected outcomes and can be differentiated by allowing students to express what they have learned in varied ways, not only written or oral tests. Instructional strategies include diagrams, videos, puppet shows, and songs, among others according to the students’ learning profile (Tomlinson & Allan, 2000; Tomlinson & Imbeau, 26 2010). Learning profiles have been defined by Tomlinson and Imbeau (2010) as the “preference for taking in, exploring, or expressing content” and it is shaped by four elements and the interaction among them: learning preference, intelligence preference, gender, and culture. Other effective instructional strategies with a subject-specific focus include teaching the language of the subject, directed reading, pre-teaching contents, pre-teach-teach-review, using multisensory ways to present the contents, using L1 to teach vocabulary and provide explanation of the contents, scaffolding learning, using technology to present the contents, teaching learning strategies, applying sheltered instruction techniques, using hands-on activities (Ferlazzo & Sypnieski, 2012, 2018; Short, 1991). b) Adaptations with a language focus These adaptations are thought to help students to expand their vocabulary and improve their ability to express themselves. They also include strategies that the teachers can put into practice in order to make content more comprehensible to students, especially to language learnerrs. In this sense, Krashen’s Input Hypothesis (1982, 1985) serves to inform these strategies since it suggests that in order to make content comprehensible teachers should modify their language to facilitate understanding, slow down their speech, use repetition and synonyms, embedding definitions, paraphrase utterances, and avoid idiomatic expressions. Likewise, Cummins (1981, 1984) asserted that incorporating contextual support makes language more comprehensible. For him, the more the messages are embedded in context, the easier they are to understand by language learners. This type of support includes facial expressions, gestures, body language, demonstration, and graphic and visual representations in oral input, and use of pictures, graphs, charts, and tables in written input. 27 Other effective instructional strategies with a language focus include previewing important vocabulary for the lesson, providing clear directions, defining idioms and cultural references, using dictogloss, using graphic organizers such as Frayer models or KWL charts, simplifying sentence structures, repeating, rephrasing, checking understanding, writing keywords, providing extended thinking time after formulating a question, listing and reviewing instructions, writing them on the board, presenting texts in audio recorded formats, implementing word/sentence walls in the classroom, providing feedback and correcting errors when they impede communication, and having students create glossaries, among others (Ferlazzo & Sypnieski, 2012, 2018; Short, 1991). c) Adaptations with a social focus These adaptations are related to understanding that students need to communicate with others and they need to be provided with further social interaction. Interaction is essential in language development (Long, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978) as a way of providing learners with meaningful opportunities to test their hypotheses of the language and negotiate meaning. In this sense, Swain (1985) affirmed that “it is not input per se that it is important to second language acquisition but input that occurs in interaction where meaning is negotiated” (p. 246). Meaning is negotiated, for example, when ELLs converse with others and receive input from their peers. If they do not understand that input, they ask for repetition or clarification (more comprehensible input). In an effort to communicate, the interlocutor can paraphrase, draw, or use gestures to make meaning clearer. In this sense cooperative learning is thought to promote meaningful interaction by increasing the amount of student-initiated talk in the classroom, and supporting both content learning and language development. 28 According to Johnson and Johnson (1999) and Kagan (1994), it also helps in improving students’ academic achievement and personal growth; it reduces learning anxiety since learners are not forced to speak up in front of the whole class but in small groups; it increases participation and student talk in the target language by providing more opportunities to interact in small groups; and it builds a supportive learning environment as students help each other to understand the contents and exchange effective learning strategies. Effective instructional strategies include providing a supportive environment, peer tutoring, developing student-centered activities, supporting student’s home language and culture, fostering autonomy and competence, using the language in a natural and meaningful way, employing Think-Pair-Share activities, engaging students in small group discussions, implementing jig-saw activities, among others (Ferlazzo & Sypnieski, 2012, 2018; Jacobs & Hall, 2002, Short, 1991). 2.6 Teacher education and professional development Knowledge of the aforementioned SLA theories and approaches is an important part of the process of teaching additional languages. However, adapting strategies and implementing effective techniques that consider the particular needs of the great diversity of learners has become a fundamental aspect to consider in teacher education. In spite of this, Pacino (2008, p.83) believed that “not all educators are adequately prepared for the challenges of cultural and linguistic diversity” in the classroom, which reflects the reality in many educational systems around the globe. Similarly, Milner (2010) was of the opinion that teachers and administrators are already aware of the importance of developing learning environments that support diversity, promote respect among students, and empower minority groups. However, he asserted that 29 educators may have problems in designing and putting their ideas into practice, especially because of their deficient teacher education and pre-service training in relation to SLA and intercultural communicative competence. Several authors (Gay, 2000; Irvine 2003, Kuykendall, 2004; Ladson-Billings, 1992) have also suggested the adoption of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy to improve understanding, create meaningful teaching and learning experiences, and build positive classroom environments to support newcomers learning an additional language and subject-content. In Irvine’s (2003) words, “being responsive means to be aware of and capable of responding to the ways that culture influences the behavioral and mental ecology of the classroom” (p. 67). As proposed by TESOL (2018) and the B.C. Ministry of Education Policy Guidelines (2018), it involves putting into practice instructional strategies that include considering the students’ stories, providing them time and space to develop knowledge of content, understand and appreciate students’ different perspectives, examine their teaching style and adapt it to their students’ learning preferences, among many others. One complication is that some subject-content teachers do not consider themselves as teachers of language arts and focus their instruction on building only content knowledge. Moreover, as Irby, Lara-Alecio, Tong, Guerrero, Sutton-Jones, and Abdelrahman (2018) reported in their study, content-area teachers are not often familiar with English as a Second Language (ESL) strategies because they have not received professional development on meeting the needs of language learners. However, they also incorporate listening, reading, writing, and speaking tasks in their lessons and expect their students to demonstrate understanding using these skills (TESOL, 2018). In this sense, it becomes imperative to provide all subject-content teachers with the knowledge and tools to improve their praxis and help them to support 30 newcomers learning of additional languages. Professional development need to focus attention to SLA theories, intercultural communicative competence, and the use of technology to enhance learning. 2.6.1 Teacher development on SLA: Research studies Several studies have tried to explore this topic in the last few years. One of the major reviews of the research on ELL education is the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth study completed in 2006 by August and Shanahan. Their work included publications from 1980 to 2002 and aimed at identifying effective approaches carried out to help ELLs succeed in school that can be used to inform teacher development programs in additional language learning. The findings are extensive but one of the most important is related to the instructional modifications that are required to teach ELLs. These modifications include direct instruction of vocabulary; cooperative learning; visual representation of concepts using visual cues, pictures and physical gestures; modifications using students’ primary language; scaffolding instruction; focusing on similarities-differences between English and the students’ native language; using consistent classroom management routines; using diagrams, lists, easy-to-read schedules, and graphic organizers; adjusting instruction (teacher vocabulary, rate of speech, and sentence complexity); providing opportunities for interaction with teachers and peers; identifying, highlighting, and clarifying difficult words in texts; considering personal experiences and background knowledge to aid their reading comprehension. August and Shanahan (2006) suggested that as students gain proficiency over time they would need less modification or this can be provided only in cases when a particularly difficult topic is being taught. A study carried out by Janzen (2008) reported that ELLs who learned science with teachers who incorporated ESL strategies when teaching demonstrated a better performance. 31 The strategies mentioned in the study are related to hands-on activities, inquiry-based learning, collaborative work, and the use of visuals. Even though the promising implementation of ESL strategies, the author cautioned that science teachers must first be trained in implementing these techniques. In the same way, Irby et al., (2018) explored a set of ESL strategies and discussed the way these instructional strategies were effectively integrated into a middle school science class with ELLs. Some of the strategies mentioned in their study included differentiated instruction, use of manipulatives, comprehensive input, academic language scaffolding, questioning strategies, and cooperative learning. They concluded that these strategies can help to make content more accessible and strongly suggested the integration of ESL strategies into content-area teaching for ELLs. In this study, teachers also received previous and on-going training to use ESL strategies to enhance science and literacy growth. All in all, the studies presented here highlight the importance of providing specific teacher professional development in the use of SLA instructional strategies to foster learning not only in ELLs but also in all students. 2.6.2 Teacher development on intercultural communicative competence The increasing diversity of the population in Chile and in British Columbia calls for teachers with improved capacity and expertise in the area of Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) and therefore, further professional development is needed to prepare them to function in multicultural contexts. Byram (1997) defined ICC as peoples’ ability to “see and manage their own cultural beliefs, behaviours, and meanings as expressed in a language and those of their interlocutors, expressed in the same language” (p. 12). More recently, ICC has been defined as “the ability to 32 communicate effectively and appropriately with people from other language and cultural backgrounds” (Sun, 2014, para. 24). According to Byram (1997), the success of interaction implies an effective exchange of information as well as “the ability to decentre and take up the other’s perspective on their own culture, anticipating and where possible, resolving dysfunctions in communication and behaviour” (p. 42). These definitions imply that effective intercultural communication requires not only knowledge about the language and cultures from one’s own country but also of others’ countries. In this sense, teachers should be able to “help language learners to interact with speakers of other languages on equal terms and to be aware of their own identities and those of their interlocutors” (Byram, Gribkova, & Starkey, 2002, p. 7). Both teachers and learners need to develop intercultural awareness for effective communication. To that end, Sun (2014) highlighted the role of empathy, respect, tolerance, thinking, sensitivity, flexibility, and openness to understand and accept different ways of thinking and behaving. As stated by Deardorff (2011), it also involves self-awareness and the skills to listen, observe, evaluate, analyze, and relate to others. Unfortunately, because of their characteristics, these attitudes and skills have to be developed and cultivated, rather than transmitted in the classroom or learned by heart. In this way, committed teachers are needed to demonstrate with their live examples. Teachers are needed who are willing to engage in responsible intercultural learning, and who include in their syllabi tasks and activities that “encourage tolerance, foster empathy and cooperation, and build an understanding for cultural values” (Coffey, 1999, p 28). Despite its increasing relevance in the educational context, teachers often feel insufficiently equipped or reluctant to apply ICC approaches into their practice (Yuen & Grossman, 2009). As a result, there is a need to implement professional development in the area 33 so that teachers feel confident to adapt their teaching practices to facilitate effective communication and meaningful participation in their classrooms. 2.6.3 Teacher development on technology Even though technology has become an integral part of our lives, its use in the classroom with language learning and teaching purposes is still limited in some countries. Most middle school students have grown up surrounded by technology such as computers, cell phones, MP3 players, videogames, and iPads, among many others and, therefore, using them is natural for them (Prenksy, 2010). In contrast, most teachers might not be so familiar with these resources and need support to implement and increase their proper use in the classroom. Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011) identified two main ways to think about technology for additional language learning: “technology as providing teaching resources and technology as providing enhanced learning experiences” (p. 199), the first one being the most used by teachers as a way to find written, audio, and visual material. Technology as providing enhanced experiences implies the use of diverse technological resources to provide language learners with greater access to the target language, such as blogs, social networks, YouTube, wikis, online translators, games, digital portfolios, podcasts, and cell phone-based Apps (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). By using these resources, learners are able to work independently or collaboratively, increasing their autonomy and opportunities for interaction using the target language in an engaging and motivating way. They can take risks in the use of the language in real-life situations improving their communicative competence. They can have plenty of opportunities to access authentic material in written and visual formats. In addition, they can 34 access reference materials, stimulate creativity, build background knowledge, and foster cross-cultural awareness and understanding (Brown & Lee, 2015; Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). 2.7 Summary Many theories and approaches to teaching additional languages have been developed over the years and many instructional strategies have arisen from them. This chapter has described the most salient SLA theories particularly constructivism since it explains additional language learning from the point of view of the meaningful social interaction of learners with other speakers. In this sense, theories of comprehensible input, differentiated instruction, cooperative learning, ZPD, and Principled Eclecticism were presented in order to help us to understand some of the approaches to teaching behind the instructional strategies that teachers use to support language learners in this research study. Additionally, the principles for exemplary teaching and research-based evidence in teaching content-areas were presented to highlight the importance of teacher training and professional development in additional language teaching, intercultural communicative competence, and technology for all content area teachers. These topics will be addressed once again in the discussion section of Chapter 5 to make connections with the findings of this study presented in Chapter 4. 35 Chapter 3: Research Methods 3.1 Overview of Chapter 3 This chapter discusses the methods used to conduct this research study. First, a rationale and philosophical perspectives are provided, followed by a detailed description of the research design, the research question, the participants for the study, the research instruments, and the procedures used for collecting and analyzing the accrued data. Finally, validity, trustworthiness, reliability, and limitations of the study are discussed. 3.2 Rationale for the Study Since 2015, the number of immigrants who have come to Chile from non-Spanish speaking countries has grown radically. According to the last annual report of the Chilean Department of Immigration (2020), the number of permanent residency visas issued to immigrants between 2010 and 2019 grew from 17,089 to 88,527 per year. The thousands of immigrants who have arrived in the last few years and who speak a variety of languages represent, therefore, a challenge to Chilean teachers in terms of providing quality education. Teachers need to get information on the most effective instructional strategies to teach them the language of instruction and subject content at the same time. As a consequence, educational policies in Chile have just started to consider the cultural, ethnic, and linguistic diversity that these immigrations represent in the school system and have sent some suggestions to schools (Mineduc, 2018). These incipient curricular suggestions refer to the promotion of multicultural inclusive practices and encourage teachers and administrators to implement practices to prevent racism and to address diversity. In spite of that, they do not refer to the implementation of a program of Spanish as an additional language. In this context, 36 teachers and administrators have developed guidelines for supporting Spanish learners in their schools and classrooms. All of these guidelines have been based on their own criteria and personal opinion about immigrants and differ greatly from school to school. On the other hand, the educational system in British Columbia considers multicultural education and the delivery of English language learning services as part of the curriculum and the government has provided teachers and administrators with official guidelines, instructional plans, and language standards for ELLs (British Columbia Ministry of Education, 1999, 2017, 2018). These documents provide consistent parameters, a common language, and pertinent information to assist ELLs to improve their language skills and acquire the academic language competence necessary to succeed in school and in society. The purpose of this research study was to identify the most effective instructional strategies that teachers use to support additional language learners in middle school, and it is hoped that the findings will assist policymakers, administrators, and teachers to set the criteria for the implementation of consistent guidelines for supporting newcomers learning Spanish as an additional language in Chilean schools. 3.3 Research Perspective This research aimed at building a comparative study between the common instructional strategies to support additional language learners which are used in Canada and in Chile and identify the most effective ones. Hence, phenomenology and social constructivist perspectives influenced the data collection and data analysis. In this sense, Denzin and Lincoln (2011) see qualitative research as an activity that locates qualitative researchers in the world and helps them to study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of the phenomena in terms of 37 meanings people bring to them. Because of that, the qualitative instruments for data collection used in this study consisted of a self-study carried out by the researcher (me) with classroom observations and personal reflections captured in a journal, open-ended questionnaires, asynchronous email interviews, and semi-structured interviews with language specialists. These instruments allowed the participants to generate responses according to their own experiences (Creswell, 2012) and to the researcher to collect descriptive non-numerical data to gain insights on the research question (Mills & Gay, 2019). Purposeful sampling was used in order to get a better understanding of the strategies that teachers use to support additional language learners. In implementing a qualitative research approach influenced by the phenomenological and social constructivist approaches, I looked for units of meaning in the accrued data through the classroom observations and following reflections, the questionnaires, and the interviews. The information collected was gathered into emerging themes that served to identify the most used strategies that teachers implement to support language learners (Creswell, 1998). On the one hand, phenomenology has been defined as “a qualitative approach in which the researcher focuses on capturing the experience of an activity or concept from participants’ perspectives” (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2012, p. 629). In this sense, this study looked for exploring the most effective instructional strategies from the particular point of view of the language specialists considering their personal and professional experience in the field in order to obtain a deeper understanding of this topic (Creswell, 1998). On the other hand, by following the social constructivist paradigm, the analysis of the data was made with the intent of identifying effective practices and instructional strategies that can inform and enhance the way teachers face and support language learners in the classroom. Patton (2002) defined constructivism as “the multiple realities constructed by people and the 38 implications of those constructions for their lives and interactions with others” (p. 96). In this sense, it was relevant to know the opinion of the language specialists who have worked with other teachers in different contexts of schools, students, and school locations. They all brought something unique and individual to the study and enriched data with their experience in the language learning area. Similarly, in my role as researcher, I observed the strategies teachers put into practice inside the classrooms, I was able to position myself in the natural context and study first-hand the relationship between the teachers and students and their reaction to the diverse teaching strategies. Additionally, by setting myself into the school context, I was able to observe the phenomena over time and not as isolated strategies. As Guba and Lincoln (1994) argued, according to the social constructivist approach, the researcher and the object of research interact in order to create knowledge. In this case, the instructional strategies that were identified to be the most effective ones will be used to inform teachers’ praxis. Therefore, these identified instructional strategies can serve to improve the performance of in-service subject content teachers, administrators, pre-service teacher-education, and eventually, serve as a foundation to implement new policies and guidelines based on concrete evidence. In this sense, this study contributes to filling the gap of effective instructional strategies that teachers should use to support Spanish language learners in Chile and English language learners in Canada. 3.4 Objectives and Outcomes The purpose of this qualitative research study was to explore the diverse instructional strategies that Canadian and Chilean teachers put into practice to support additional language learners in middle school classrooms in order to determine which of them are the most used and 39 effective ones. This research aimed at helping to set a precedent of effective approaches to start the implementation of Spanish language learning programs in all subject content in Chilean schools. It is also expected that this study can help Canadian pre and in-service teachers to evaluate the approaches they currently use and get information on the most effective ones in order to modify and improve their practices. 3.4.1 Research Question This research aimed to answer the question: What English as additional language instructional strategies in Canadian middle school contexts have the potential to inform effective Spanish as an additional language teaching to newcomers in Chilean schools? 3.5 Research Design The research design for this study involved on the one hand, a self-study undertaken by the researcher (me), and on the other hand, a purposive sampling of additional language teaching specialists who participated in answering an open-ended questionnaire and a follow-up interview. These interviews took the form of asynchronous email interviews for the Chilean participants and in-person semi-structured interviews for the Canadian participants. Both the questionnaires and the interviews were confidential and their procedures were previously explained in detail in an invitation letter and consent form sent to the potential participants. Once the data were collected, qualitative methods were used to code key units of meaning. The self-study information was gathered in the form of a journal and the codes were classified into three predetermined themes. The data collected from the questionnaires and the interviews were gathered into codes and those codes gathered together into emerging themes 40 related to the research question (Creswell, 2012; Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2012). These themes were not predetermined. This research study was low risk and any identifying information such as names and e-mail addresses for questionnaires and interviews was kept confidential. The data were secured and stored safely as per the protocols of UBCO ethics board. All data will be kept for five years after publication. At that time, all data will be permanently deleted and any hard copy data will be shredded and disposed. 3.5.1 Overview of the Research Methods Qualitative research has been defined by Mills and Gay (2019) as the “collection, analysis, and interpretation of comprehensible narrative and visual data to gain insights into a particular phenomenon of interest” (p. 7). Denzin and Lincoln (2011) added that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, in an effort to make sense of the phenomena in relation to the people involved. In this study, the researcher intended to unveil the most effective instructional strategies to support newcomers learning an additional language in middle school, and therefore, the collection, analysis and interpretation of all data was done under this perspective, considering the participation of teachers who put into practice said strategies in the classroom. Methods used in qualitative research studies aim at getting insights on people’s beliefs and experiences, and the phenomena of interest are analyzed in their context-specific settings (Patton, 2002). With that in mind, this research considered the use multiple methods such as self-study reflections, questionnaires, and interviews which lead to more valid and reliable findings to understand the participants’ perspectives. As the goal was “to understand what [was] 41 happening and why” (Mills & Gay, 2019, p. 563), and the number of participants was small, generalizability of the findings was not an expected outcome. The process followed to collect data was inspired by Creswell (2012) who proposed five interrelated non-linear approach. As per Creswell, the first step was to identify the participants and sites to be studied; the second was to obtaining permissions to access to the language specialists and the school where the observations took place; the third, was to consider the type of information needed to answer the research question; the fourth was to design and prepare the questions of the questionnaire and the interviews with their respective protocols; and the fifth was to administer the instruments and carry out the observations paying attention to any potential ethical issue. Data analysis “involves summarizing data in a dependable and accurate manner” (Mills & Gay, 2019, p. 567) and requires that the researcher explores and makes sense of all the information collected. In this study, this process was done in an inductive, by-hand way, by classifying all the data according to the instrument used to collect them, categorizing and organizing codes into patterns in order to produce a descriptive synthesis of the instructional strategies that helped to answer the research question (Creswell, 2012; Mills & Gay, 2019). The coding process and themes of each instrument are explained in detail in the sections below. 3.5.1.1 Self-Study One of the methods of this project was informed by the self-study school of thought. In Samaras’ (2002) words, self-study requires a “critical examination of one’s actions and the context of those actions in order to achieve a more conscious mode of professional activity, in contrast to action based on habit, tradition, or impulse” (p. xiii). According to the author, this methodology implies that the teachers should examine their actions and their contexts in a 42 systematic and critical way in order to inform their practice and produce intentional changes and improvements (Samaras & Freese, 2006). In that way, Beck, Freese, and Kosnik (2004) have described self-study as “a personal-constructivist-collaborative approach” (p. 1261) which emphasizes the relevant components of this type of study. Self-study is personal since it is based on the personal experiences of the researcher; it is constructivist since it fosters the construction of knowledge as a result of critical reflection, and; it is collaborative since the role of partners is important to construct this knowledge. Self-study allows teachers to plan, put it into practice, and evaluate their pedagogical strategies being at the same time supported by critical colleagues in order to examine the impact of their practice on student learning (Samaras, 2011). I carried out this self-study in order to observe in situ the way strategies to support ELLs were put into practice by different teachers in middle school classrooms and reflect on the context that I was able to experience as a teacher in Chile. As a researcher, I kept a reflective journal to register and examine my experiences and the informal conversations that took place with some classroom teachers and teacher assistants I observed. My reflections were based on the observations and the experiences I got from my voluntary work in the Canadian context and no experimental interventions took place, outside of participation in normal educational practice as guided by the classroom instructors. 3.5.1.2 Questionnaire Another research instrument used for this study consisted of an open-ended question questionnaire for the Chilean and Canadian Language Specialists. Questionnaires, as understood by Mills and Gay (2019) are “a written collection of self-report questions to be answered by a selected group of research participants” (p. 556). The purpose of using a questionnaire was to provide plenty of time for the participants to answer in detail about the strategies they used when 43 teaching newcomers. Therefore, using these questionnaires allowed the researcher to collect large amounts of data in a relatively short amount of time (Mills & Gay, 2019). The questionnaire was created by the researcher using MS Word and sent via email to the participants to provide a preview of the questions. The same questionnaire was created in UBC Qualtrics to be answered online by the participants. The researcher created a questionnaire in English for the Canadian participants and one in Spanish for the Chilean participants. Previously, the participants had received an invitation letter to participate in the study which included the introduction of the study, the research instruments, an explanation of the informed consent, and the different steps and procedures of the study. The questionnaires were sent via email along with a link to answer it via UBC Qualtrics and they consisted of the same seven questions for all the participants (see section 3.5.1.2.1). As suggested by Patten (2001), the questionnaire only included objective questions related to the strategies they, and the teachers in their school, used in order to support the development of the four main skills: listening, reading, writing, and speaking in newcomers studying English or Spanish as an additional language. The questionnaire also included a question related to the way these students were assessed in these skills and the type of support and guidelines teachers received from the school administrators. While the participants were not anonymous to the researcher, any identifying information was kept confidential, and identifying information was kept separated from the data. They were asked to choose a pseudonym in order to protect their identity but at the same time to identify their questionnaire and elaborate an interview according to their answers. 44 3.5.1.2.1 Questionnaire Questions on methods and strategies to teach Additional Language Learners 1. What approaches do teachers use to teach listening skills to newcomers who are learning the language of instruction? 2. What approaches do teachers use to teach reading skills to newcomers who are learning the language of instruction? 3. What approaches do teachers use to teach speaking skills to newcomers who are learning the language of instruction? 4. What approaches do teachers use to teach writing skills to newcomers who are learning the language of instruction? 5. Does the school provide guidelines on the approaches to be used with newcomers who are learning the language of instruction? 6. How do teachers assess newcomers the first time in order to check how much of the language of instruction they can understand and produce? 7. How do teachers assess students’ performance the rest of the year in the different subject contents? Do teachers use the same tests as with the rest of the class? 3.5.1.3 Interview Considering that “an interview is a purposeful interaction in which one person obtains information from another” (Mills & Gay, 2019, p. 554), after receiving the answers of the questionnaire, and analyzing the information, follow-up interviews were scheduled in order to obtain further details and clarification for some of the participants’ answers. The reasons for choosing to conduct these follow-up interviews were related, on the one hand, to obtaining more detailed and contextualized descriptions linked to the personal experiences and perspectives of 45 the language specialists and, on the other hand, to obtaining insights into the participants’ interpretation of some of their objective responses provided in the questionnaires (Weiss, 1994). In the case of the interviews with the Chilean participants, the first choice of the researcher was to do a Skype interview but due to technical reasons related to poor internet connection, the follow-up interviews were asynchronous and carried out through email (O’Connor, Madge, Shaw, & Wellens, 2008). That is to say that the researcher sent the follow-up questions through email, and the participants sent their responses back using the same medium. Thanks to this type of interview, more questions were asked for clarification or to add further details on emerging topics during the email exchange. Along with the first email in this exchange, all participants were informed about ethical issues related to the protection of their identities and confidentiality of the information they provided through this medium. In the case of the interviews with the Canadian participants, these were held in person, at a mutually agreed location, and scheduled according to their personal agendas. Interviews did not take more than one hour of the participants’ time. Before the interview began, participants were reminded about informed consent and given a chance to reconsider their participation in the study. All interviews were recorded on a hand-held device and notes were taken during the interviews; more questions were asked for clarification or to add further details and information on certain topics. After analyzing the data, the participants were contacted again in order to check the accuracy of their answers. 46 3.5.2 Participants 3.5.2.1 Self-Study Observations For the self-study portion of this research project, there were no external participants. Rather, I, as the researcher and my personal reflections based on my teaching experience working in a middle school in Chile were the source of data and focus for this part of the study. Overall, the study sought to provide information about the instructional strategies that teachers used when teaching to speakers of other languages in order to determine the most used and effective ones. To that end, I enrolled myself as a community volunteer to work with ELLs in a middle school in a school district located in British Columbia. As a community volunteer, it was the in-school English language specialist teacher who assigned me the classrooms and the ELLs who needed more support inside the classroom. I did not have any type of relationship or personally knew the teachers or the students before. For the self-study, I observed eight teachers, two of them teaching in Grade 6, four of them teaching in Grade 7, and two of them teaching in Grade 8. These observations served as foundation of my personal reflections of the strategies I used to support language learners. The observations took place inside the classrooms, and there were 13 students involved in the observations, from grade 6 to grade 8. The students’ ages ranged between 11 to 14 years old. Out of these students, 12 were native speakers of Arabic, and one of them was a native speaker of Spanish. In order to protect their identities, they were not identified by their names in the journal entries. Instead, they were referred to as “the ELL,” “student 1,” “student 2,” “student 3,” etc. Similarly, teachers were referred to as “the teacher,” “teacher in grade 6,” “teacher in grade 7,” etc. 47 3.5.2.2 Questionnaire and Interview Participants This qualitative study included the participation of six specialists in additional language teaching in Canada and in Chile. In Canada, the participants were three ELL support teachers in the public school system who work directly with ELL teachers in all elementary and middle schools in a school district in British Columbia; and in Chile, three academic coordinators from three major educational corporations who are in contact with elementary and middle school teachers of public and subsidized schools in the capital city, Santiago. These specialists were selected precisely because they are in contact with a great number of teachers, have been able to observe their lessons, and will have the opportunity to inform them of the results of this research in order to help them to improve their praxis. The participants were contacted and an invitation letter to participate was sent by email. This letter explained the research study, the different stages, and provided information on informed consent. After they agreed to participate in this research study a second email was sent with a copy of the questionnaire and the link to access the questionnaire on UBC Qualtrics. As the questionnaire consisted of seven open-ended questions, receiving the questions in the second email provided them the opportunity to review the questions and think of an answer before accessing the official questionnaire in UBC Qualtrics. 3.5.2.3 Recruitment of participants: Questionnaires and Interviews Purposive sampling techniques were used to help the researcher to recruit an informed sample of participants with targeted experience in additional language teaching who were able to provide rich data for the study. This technique has been defined as a deliberate choice of informants due to the qualities that they possess (Bernard, 2002). That is to say that it is a non-48 random technique in which the researcher finds people who can and are willing to provide the information because of their knowledge or experience in a certain field. In this study, the researcher already knew the contact information of the participants because she had a professional relationship with them and had participated in their teachers’ networks and conferences. There is no power relationship between the researcher and the participants, so they did not feel coerced to participate in the study. In the same way, participating in the study did not have any negative impact on the participants’ workplaces. On the contrary, participants benefited by having the opportunity to reflect on their own teaching experiences and identifying the most effective approaches and strategies that are currently being used to support newcomers’ additional language learning experiences. 3.5.3 Research Procedures: Questionnaires and Interviews Potential participants were contacted and informed about the study through an invitation letter sent by email. In the email, the researcher provided information about the project, the different stages of it, potential benefits, and informed consent. Once the participants responded to the email indicating that they accepted to take part in the study, they were sent a second email with a copy of the questionnaire and a link to access the questionnaire via UBC Qualtrics, where they were also provided with the official consent form. The participants were given seven days to decide if they wanted to take part in the study and answer the email. After receiving the second email, participants had another 15 days to answer the questionnaire. Since December is a busy month in Chile because it is the end of the school year, participants took more than 15 days to answer it. A third email was sent in order to check if they were still willing to participate in 49 the study, and they all agreed they were in the need of more time to answer. Therefore, another 15 days were provided. Once the questionnaires were received, the information was analyzed in order to prepare the follow-up interviews. The interviews had the purpose of eliciting in-depth discussion of the questions in the questionnaire. The idea was to get an overall view of the strategies used to promote content learning and the development of the four main skills: listening, speaking, writing, and reading. Even though the participants’ identities were not anonymous to the researcher, any identifying information was kept confidential, and any identifying information was kept separate from the data. Participants were asked to choose a pseudonym in order to protect their identity, but at the same time to identify their questionnaire in order to prepare their interviews. Once the researcher received all the follow-up questions through the email interviews, and transcribed the in-person interviews, the answers were classified according to the questions of the questionnaire that originate them. Data from the questionnaires and interviews were broken down into independent units of meaning, which were coded and gathered into emerging themes. The codes and themes were not predetermined. 3.5.4 Data Collection 3.5.4.1 Journal During the self-study phase of this research project, data collection consisted of the observation of English language learning lessons, where I paid particular attention to the strategies that teachers used to teach and support students who were speakers of English as an additional language. The observations took place inside middle school classrooms while 50 students attended their regular lessons in Humanities, Math, and English Language Arts with the rest of their classmates. All these lessons were held during the morning from 9:30 to 12:30. These lessons were not video or audio recorded. Instead, I took notes every day in a journal and added my personal opinion, feelings, and experiences about them. These notes also provided information on the date, grade, subject area, lesson description, and handouts being used. Additional notes on informal conversations with teachers were also included in my journal’s notes in order to provide further details related to the activities and material provided to the students. The gathering of samples of handouts and worksheets was another type of data to complement this journal, and they were analyzed together with the class in which they were used. Every day, as part of the job as a Community Volunteer, I went to the classrooms and had a quick conversation with the teachers in relation to the content and activities they were going to do during the lesson. The teacher explained me briefly about the day’s lesson plan and provided further instructions to work with the ELLs. Sometimes the ELLs were asked to work in the same activities as the rest of the class with my help and support, and sometimes the teacher assigned a different activity according to their level of proficiency. All the activities were suggested by the teachers in charge of the classes. After finishing the class, I had some time to handwrite my observations in the journal, trying to add as many details as possible. Once at home, I typed the notes in a MS Word document and added more details if needed. Then, these entries were printed and classified according to the grade level and filed in a binder. The information gathered in these entries was analyzed and classified into three predetermined themes: instructional strategies to promote adaptations with a subject-specific focus using differentiated instruction, adaptations with a 51 language focus using comprehensible input, and adaptations with a social focus using cooperative learning strategies. 3.5.4.2 Questionnaires Data collection also consisted of a questionnaire sent to the Canadian and Chilean language learning specialists with the purpose of gathering information on the approaches they use when teaching English or Spanish as an additional language in schools. They were also asked about the most used strategies other teachers use in the different schools of the districts and they thought have the greatest impact on the learning of English or Spanish. The three Canadian language specialists and the three Chilean academic coordinators were asked to answer via UBC Qualtrics the same set of seven open-ended questions about the different approaches used to teach listening, writing, reading, and speaking. They were also asked about the ways they use to assess students’ progress in these areas and the types of support they receive from the school administrators. These questionnaires were open-ended in order to get detailed answers. Once the information on the questionnaires was received, the data were analyzed in order to prepare the follow-up interviews. The open-ended questions were also reviewed and coded, and classified according to non-predetermined themes. 3.5.4.3 Interviews At the moment of scheduling the interviews with the Chilean participants, they were on their summer holidays and expressed some concerns about having a Skype interview since they were in places with a poor internet connection. Because of that, the interviews were done through email. Participants were informed about the protection of their identity and ways to 52 ensure the confidentiality of their responses. After analyzing the information from their questionnaires, some themes emerged that required in-depth discussion and clarification. These questions were sent via email so that the language specialists could answer in detail. In some cases, these answers provoked more questions and in these cases, another set of questions was sent in the same way until all the ideas were clear. The Canadian participants were interviewed in person, at a mutually agreed location, and according to their personal agendas. Interviews did not take more than one hour of their time. All interviews were recorded on a hand-held device and notes were taken during the interviews; more questions were asked for clarification or to add further details and information on certain topics. The transcripts of the interviews were done by the researcher, using Google Voice Notepad software, and the recordings were checked for accuracy. After the interviews were transcribed, and before starting analyzing the data, the participants were contacted again in order to check the accuracy of their transcriptions. The information obtained from the email and in-person interviews was analyzed and coded, and these codes were classified according to non-predetermined themes. 3.5.5 Data Analysis 3.5.5.1 Journal I organized the notes I took along with my personal reflections in the journal according grade-level in order to determine if there were any differences in the strategies implemented regarding the grades the students were in. Then, I hand-analyzed these notes with the purpose of uncovering emerging codes related to the instructional strategies that the classroom teachers and I implemented in our lessons. 53 I filed both the samples of handouts and worksheets and the printed notes of the journal in a portfolio according to grade-level to be hand-analyzed. I carried out the analysis of the data by reading these notes and using a different colour to underline the codes which I later classified according to the three abovementioned predetermined themes. In this sense, I underlined with red colour the strategies that were related to instructional strategies to promote adaptations with a subject-specific focus using differentiated instruction; with blue colour the strategies that were related to instructional strategies to promote adaptations with a language focus using comprehensible input, and; with green colour the strategies that were related to instructional strategies to promote adaptations with a social focus using cooperative learning. I underlined with purple colour any other themes that arose and were not predetermined and are also discussed in the Finding Section. 3.5.5.2 Questionnaires and interviews The analysis of the data obtained from the questionnaires and interviews began as soon as the participants answered the questionnaires using the UBC Qualtrics link. Once the answers of a participant were analyzed, follow-up questions emerged. For the Chilean participants, these questions were sent via email and their answers were also analyzed. In the case that these answers required more details, another set of questions was sent by email until all the answers were clear to the researcher and no further questions were necessary. All the questions and answers were grouped according to the question in the questionnaire in order to be analyzed. For Canadian participants, after reviewing the answers of the questionnaire, a set of questions was prepared in order to serve as a foundation for the interviews. Other questions emerged in the moment of the interviews and were related to the topics that were being 54 discussed. All the questions and answers were also grouped according to the question in the questionnaire in order to be analyzed. The questions in the questionnaire and the follow-up questions in the interviews were oriented to obtain insight of the instructional strategies that teachers use to support students who are learning the language of instruction and content at the same time. Participants referred to the strategies teachers use to teach listening, reading, speaking, and writing to students who have developing levels of the language of instruction and the strategies they thought were the most effective. They also talked about the way these students were assessed when they first arrived at school in order to check how much of the language they could understand and produce, the type of support that they needed, and the ways teachers assess students’ performance the rest of the year in the different subject content areas. The information obtained from the questionnaires and each interview was reviewed and coded in order to find recurrent patterns or themes. The codes and themes were not predetermined. The themes found were grouped and analyzed in order to make a list of the used instructional strategies that teachers put into practice to support additional language learners. All these data were hand-analyzed by the researcher using MS Word and available highlight and commenting tools. The researcher grouped all the answers of all the participants according to the number of the questions in the questionnaire and their country. For example, all the answers to the first question of the Canadian participants including the answers of the questionnaires and follow-up questions of the interviews were put under the title “question N°1”. Then all the answers for “question N°2” were grouped together, and so on. The same process was followed with each one of the seven questions answered by the Chilean participants. 55 After having all the answers grouped and separated by country, the researcher went through each set of responses and reviewed them looking for recurring themes and highlighting said themes with a different colour to make them easier to categorize. The MS Word comments tool was used to label these themes into groups. Finally, these groups were used as the basis for creating relationships among the data and meaning could be extracted which is presented in the findings section of this study. 3.6 Data storing methods and security Any identifying information collected during the study will be kept confidential. Personal names were not used in the questionnaires as participants were asked to choose a pseudonym to identify their data set. No personal identifying data was collected in the questionnaire or in the interviews. All emails related to this research were deleted from the researcher’s computer once they were downloaded for analysis and there is no way to connect the email addresses with the data collected for this study. Data were gathered via a questionnaire sent by email with a UBC Qualtrics link to answer and interviews carried out via email with Chilean participants and in-person with Canadian participants. Data gathered through the questionnaires and interviews were downloaded to and held securely on a password-protected computer as well as backed up on a password protected and external hard drive. The drive was kept in a locked cabinet on UBC Okanagan campus. All data will be kept for five years after publication. At that time, the data will be permanently deleted and any hard copy data will be shredded and disposed. 56 3.7 Limitations and Assumptions This section addresses some of the limitations and assumptions related to this research study. One of the limitations is related to the school where the observations took place in British Columbia. Since these observations took place in only one middle school in British Columbia, and only included eight teachers along with the reflections on my personal experiences with additional language learners in Chile, the instructional strategies may not be representative of the whole school systems in British Columbia or Chile in general. In relation to the self-study, I worked at carrying out my reflections in a process that was as unbiased as possible by bracketing my repertoires of knowledge and beliefs to make transparent my reflexive practice in the hope I provided rigour and credibility to the research (Cresswell & Poth, 2018). In the same way, Starks and Trinidad (2007) stated that the researcher “must be honest and vigilant about her own perspective, pre-existing thoughts and beliefs, and developing hypotheses . . . engage in the self-reflective process of ‘bracketing’, whereby they recognize and set aside (but do not abandon) their a priori knowledge and assumptions, with the analytic goal of attending to the participants’ accounts with an open mind” (p. 1376). Even though it was challenging at some points of the research process, I made efforts to put aside my own opinions, assumptions, and biases about language teaching and learning while working with the data in order to accurately describe not only my experiences working with language learners but also when analyzing the responses of the language specialists who participated in this study. In relation to the additional language learning specialists, as they were chosen because they work with many teachers’ networks, they are known to be in contact with an unknown number of teachers who may have informed their opinions when answering the questionnaire and interviews. In the same way, it is unknown the number of students who are learning English 57 or Spanish as an additional language in schools and how they informed the answers of the participants. Similarly, the Chilean participants also work with teachers from subsidized and public schools in the capital city of Chile but whose location was not identified. Because of this, it is not possible for the researcher to estimate how representative their opinions are in relation to the great number of schools in Chile, in relation to the types of schools, or in relation to the location of these schools in the different areas in Santiago. Besides, as stated by Mills and Gay (2019), qualitative studies do not seek to “define ultimate truths or solutions to problems that can be transferred from a unique setting or sample to a broader population” (p. 563). For these reasons, the findings of this study are not suitable for generalizing the strategies that are most commonly used by teachers in Chile or in Canada. They should be considered as “context-bound” (Mills & Gay, 2019, p. 560) within the constraints of time, location, and circumstances previously described in this study. In future related studies, it would be interesting to gain insight on the opinions and experiences of teachers and track the type of schools, their location, the number of students, and the number of teachers who participate. In order to interpret and report the findings in this study, one assumption was made in relation to the additional language learning specialists. It was necessary to assume that those taking part in the questionnaires and interviews did not exaggerate or omit any information, were completely honest in their answers to the questions, and expressed “their true attitudes, interests, [and] values” (Gay, et al., 2012, p.159) rather than providing what would be considered an appropriate response to their experiences about the instructional strategies that they and teachers they know use in the classroom. 58 3.8 Validity Validity has been defined by Mills and Gay (2019) as “the degree to which qualitative data accurately gauge what we are trying to measure” (p. 558). In this study, as the objective was to explore the diverse instructional strategies that Canadian and Chilean teachers put into practice to support additional language learners in order to determine which of these instructional strategies are the most used and effective ones, the researcher used a variety of methods to collect that data in both contexts. The instruments used to collect data were chosen based on the idea of triangulation (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007; Gay, et al., 2012). According to these authors, there should be used at least two methods to gather information in order to increase reliability and validity in a study. Because of that, a questionnaire, a follow-up interview (via email and in-person), and a journal recording classroom observations and reflections were used as a means of collecting data in this study. In the case of the classroom observations that lead to my personal reflections, they were continuous as they extended for five months, so the accrued data can be considered to be demonstrative of the strategies that teachers used in their particular contexts. The results of the data collection were then analyzed and compared with the theoretical views of the literature review in order to present the topic in the most accurate way possible (Beck & Malley, 2003). In spite of this, as I conducted the self-study observing in only one institution, and with a limited number of additional language specialists, the findings are not generalizable although they provide interesting insights into additional language teaching and learning that are relevant to answer my research question. In order to improve validity, it is suggested that further research include more elementary and middle schools, and an increased number of participants. 59 3.9 Trustworthiness The data collection instruments to gather data also helped to ensure trustworthiness in this study. In order to address credibility, all of them were described in detail as well as the procedures and contexts in which they were implemented, including the participants and the particular conditions of the Chilean and Canadian additional language learning specialists. Also, the questions on the questionnaire and the ones of the interviews were open-ended in order to be objective in eliciting an answer consisting of facts and concrete actions teachers use instead of suggesting alternatives of strategies. To address transferability, the context in which I carried out the observations, the people involved in those observations, and the actions they did were described in a detailed way, trying to provide as much information of the setting as possible. Even though it was stated before that the findings of this study are not to be generalizable to broader populations, other researchers may find some applicability to other similar contexts (Mills & Gay, 2019). In regards to dependability, a critical friend group was formed to review and examine the self-study process and the data analysis in order to ensure that the findings were consistent. In relation to confirmability, triangulation of both the questionnaires’ and the interviews’ responses during the analysis of the data, ensured that the gathered information was cross-checked (Mills & Gay, 2019). The information provided by the Chilean and Canadian specialists was compared with the information obtained from the self-study observations conducted in the classrooms in a middle school in British Columbia and the subsequent reflections on my personal experience as a teacher. These comparisons were carried out to ensure that the findings of this study were based on the participants’ responses and the observed strategies rather than only in the personal opinions or past experiences of the researcher. 60 3.10 Reliability Reliability has been defined by Mills and Gay (2019) as “the degree to which study data consistently measure whatever they measure” (p. 562). In qualitative studies it also refers to the techniques that the researcher uses to collect data. In this sense, and considering Creswell’s (2012) suggestions, several steps were followed in order to obtain consistent and reliable information. The procedures followed to gather data in this study were described in detail as well as the instruments used. First, the entries of the self-study’s journal were carried out over a period of time, by observing the same group of teachers and considering the personal reflections of the same researcher working with language learners in Chile. The process of inputting and analysing this information was the same for each journal entry and carried out by the same researcher. The same questionnaire was applied to all the participants and the questions were direct and clear in order to avoid misinterpretation. The open-ended questions were oriented to get detailed information on the strategies teachers use to support language learners without eliciting a particular response by providing multiple-choice alternatives of instructional strategies. With the detailed information provided in this chapter, other researchers should be able to carry out similar studies in similar contexts. Future studies should consider the participation of a greater number of teachers who inform about the strategies they use and they consider are effective to support additional language learners. 61 3.11 Summary This qualitative study aimed at identifying the most used and effective strategies for teaching and assessing newcomers who are learning the language of instruction as an additional language: English in Canada and Spanish in Chile. This chapter addressed the data collection and data analysis procedures. Data collection consisted of an open-ended questionnaire, in-person interviews, and email asynchronous interviews with language learning specialists in Canada and in Chile. Additionally, as a researcher, I employed self-study instruments based on my volunteer experience in a middle school in order to observe the way the strategies suggested by the BC Ministry of Education were put into practice in the classroom by Canadian teachers and reflect on my previous experience as a teacher of language learners in Chilean schools. Data analysis consisted of coding the accrued data and gathering those codes into themes. Data from the self-study reflections were gathered into three predetermined themes and data from the questionnaires and interviews into emerging themes. The following chapter will discuss the findings and results of this research study. 62 Chapter 4: Results 4.1 Overview of Chapter 4 This chapter presents the results of this research study. It reports the findings derived from the self-study, classroom observations, and personal reflections carried out by the researcher and the answers of the questionnaires and interviews of the language specialists with the intent of getting information on the most used and effective instructional strategies to support language learners. This chapter starts with a summary of the research methods, describing the participants and the instruments, preceded by a revision of the qualitative methods used to analyze the data, and the presentation of the findings. This presentation consists of two sections: findings of the self-study and findings of the Chilean and Canadian participants’ information. 4.2 Summary of Research Methods This research study aimed at identifying the most used and effective instructional strategies that teachers use for supporting additional language learners in Chile and Canada. The methods used to gather and analyze the data were informed by qualitative perspectives of phenomenology and social constructivism (Creswell, 2012). Hence, as researcher, I was positioned in the natural context of a middle school classroom to carry out my self-study observations of the subject content teachers putting into practice diverse teaching strategies and the impact these strategies had on the students (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). I conducted a self-study in the form of journal reflection notes informed by classroom observations in the Canadian context and by the experience I got from my teaching work in Chilean schools. The information of these notes was analyzed and classified into three pre-determined themes. 63 At the same time, the participation of a purposive sample of language specialists in Canada and in Chile in answering an open-ended questions questionnaire and a follow-up interview contributed to the exploration of the most effective instructional strategies from the participants’ perspective, considering their personal and professional experience in this field (Creswell, 1998). These language specialists were contacted via email and informed about the project, the different stages of it, potential benefits, and informed consent. They were sent a link to answer a questionnaire via UBC Qualtrics and after analyzing the information, a follow-up interview was scheduled. Once the researcher had gathered all the answers, the information was coded and gathered into emerging themes. The codes and themes were not predetermined (Creswell, 2012) 4.3 Findings on the Self-Study Based on the official documents provided by the BC Ministry of Education, the ELL Policy Guidelines (2018) and the Guide for Classroom Teachers (1999), I used three major themes to code and list the instructional strategies that subject-area teachers used to support ELLs learning in Canada as well as the ones I used in my lessons with Spanish learners in Chile. I gathered these codes into three predetermined categories: instructional strategies to promote adaptations with a subject-specific focus using differentiated instruction, adaptations with a language focus using comprehensible input, and adaptations with a social focus using cooperative learning strategies. I classified as “other” a fourth theme that emerged from the journal data that corresponds to instructional strategies that teachers were observed to use in their classrooms and that were not related to these three pre-determined themes and which were also different for each grade. 64 For the self-study part of this research, I observed eight middle school teachers, two of them teaching in Grade 6, four of them teaching in Grade 7, and two of them teaching in Grade 8. These observations were used as a starting point for my reflections about the instructional strategies and approaches that teachers use to support language learners in Canada in comparison to what I did in my own practice in school classrooms in Chile. The observations took place inside the classrooms in their regular lesson hours. The total number of observations was 71 from October 28th to February 7th, which correspond to 106 instructional hours. Figure 1 illustrates the number of strategies I was able to observe in each of the aforementioned themes according to each grade. Figure 1. Number of instructional strategies observed in each theme according to each grade. 4.3.1 Findings in Grade 6 In Grade 6, I observed two teachers on Mondays and Thursdays. They both worked with three ELLs in their classrooms. I conducted a total of 19 observations, which correspond to 45 26 28 12 16 58 51 11 19 35 34 6 14 DifferentiatedInstructionComprehensibleInputCooperativeLearningOtherGrade 6 Grade 7 Grade 865 instructional hours, in the subject of Humanities, which is the blending of Social Studies and English Language Arts. 4.3.1.1 Differentiated Instruction The total of instructional strategies to promote adaptations with a subject-specific focus, using differentiated instruction was 26. I grouped these 26 strategies into three categories according to if the differentiation was made in the Content, Process, or Product. After that, I reviewed the strategies of each theme again in order to identify the most used ones. In this sense, as shown in Figure 2, the most commonly used strategies in the content category were related to teachers presenting the contents of the lesson using a video and the second most used strategy was that teachers provided the websites to the students so that they could research and look for information browsing on them. Figure 2. Instructional strategies related to differentiated instruction in Grade 6. 30% 22% 19% 16% 8% 5% Students work on a different activityTeacher uses video to presentcontentStudents look for information on thewebStudents present a different projectStudents can use simpler structuresor answer more specific questionsTeacher provides websites forsearching information66 In the Process category, I noted that the most used strategies were related to asking the students to work on a different activity and giving them the possibility to look for information, videos, and images on the internet according to their own interests related to the topic, instead of being the teacher who presented the facts and the videos with the information to be learned by the students. For example, in one of the observations, the ELLs were given the opportunity to choose to prepare a poster, a PowerPoint, a video, or whatever they wanted in order to present their projects. This “Passion Project” was an open chance to research any topic they were interested in, look for information, create a product, and present it to the rest of the class. In another lesson I could observe that the rest of the class was asked to create Halloween poems using nouns, adjectives, and verbs. As the level of the activity required that the students could use a wide variety of synonyms, the teacher suggested that the ELLs could play some card games instead. These card games aimed at students to form a word, describe some pictures, and form sentences. They could also practice pronunciation of words and sentences and come up with short stories using the vocabulary of the cards. In the Product category, the most used strategies I was able to identify were aimed at allowing ELLs to present a different project from the rest of their classmates, and being allowed to use simpler answers or structures in their projects. For example, in one of the lessons I could notice that in the context of the Canadian elections, the teacher was organizing groups to prepare a PowerPoint related to political parties. She asked the class to include the name of the party, the goals, pictures, and any other relevant information they would like to add. The teacher admitted that this topic was not relevant to the ELLs and asked them to work on a PowerPoint which included information about their home country, such as language, food, traditions, etc. They 67 searched on the internet about the topics they would like to include in their presentations and organized the information. It is not easy to contrast what I have observed in Canadian classrooms with my personal experience in schools in Chile since the educational systems and the resources differ greatly. Thinking of my experience with Grade 6 students in Chile, differentiating the content was the easiest part of the lesson. Even though I was always looking for diverse ways to engage students including different videos and stories, I realized that I only used videos, PowerPoint, and lectures to present the content. Students do not have personal computers in their classrooms and therefore it is not possible to include personal web search of information or differentiation in the process that allows them to look for information according to their interests. In a way to differentiate product, I introduced a variety of tasks, but they were always the same for everybody. This is to say that even though I planned to evaluate content with a poster, all of the students would prepare a poster; if I decided to assess a 5-minute video, all of the students would present a 5-minute video. It never crossed my mind to differentiate and allow every one of the students to come up with a different product. 4.3.1.2 Comprehensible Input The total of instructional strategies to promote adaptations with a language focus using Comprehensible Input I could observe was 28, being the most commonly used the revision of contents at the beginning of the class or unit in order to build on students’ background knowledge. In this sense, I could see teachers asking some questions related to the activities they did last class or the previous day and helped the students making connections with the present tasks. For example, I was able to note that one of the teachers in this level spent two weeks working on the topic of “slavery in North America” using various resources such as videos, web 68 quests, drawings, timelines, vocabulary building, posters, and internet research among others, to make students familiar with the topic, with the Underground Railroad, and with the historical context and relevant people before the class started reading a book set in those years. In this case, even though the ELLs were not familiar with American history, they were able to get the necessary information to understand the story of the book and the setting in which the story took place. Another instructional strategy that I noticed was highly used in relation to comprehensible input was the use of simple vocabulary and structures that teachers used to address ELLs, and a the same time, that ELLs were allowed to use simple vocabulary and structures in their tasks. I was able to observe teachers writing instructions on the board in order to let students copy them, or teachers providing activity sets with short and direct instructions. These were easier to understand and also easy to translate if the student needed it. In most cases, teachers presented the activities and provided examples to clarify. For example, in one of the lessons, I could observe that the teacher had previously written the instructions of the task on the board. In that lesson, she was reviewing the “silent e” and wrote on the board several examples to clarify the uses. She referred to them each time students made questions about the series of exercises they were doing in their worksheets. Likewise, two of the artifacts I collected in Grade 6 also evidenced the use of short, simple instructions to help students to follow the activities and to organize the information to facilitate learning. For example, in one of the lessons, the teacher handed out the Passion Project set of instructions and they described step by step what to do, using large fonts, and providing students enough space to write their ideas and thoughts about their projects. 69 A third frequent group of strategies I observed was related to helping students building vocabulary and improving their pronunciation with the use of games and picture dictionaries. For example, in one of the observations, while the rest of the class was working on a revision of contents about the political parties, the ELLs were playing with a scrabble-type game to form words and practice pronunciation. They also practiced the pronunciation of sight words, making sentences, and checking vocabulary. The picture dictionary helped especially to work with students whose L1 was Arabic since the book contained the translation of the words and that made it easier to understand the meaning of the words and images. Once the topic was presented, the teacher presented the words and asked the student to repeat them. Some questions were asked after that in order to build on picture description and communication related to the same topic. For example, once reviewing the topic of days of the week, months of the year, and seasons, after checking pronunciation of the words, the teacher asked questions related to the student’s favorite day, favorite month, and favorite season with follow-up questions to elicit further details of “why, when, where” etc. In my personal experience with Grade 6 students in Chile, I tried to build on their previous knowledge. Now that I think about it, that recalling of previous knowledge was most of the time related to “what we did last class” and not what they know about a certain topic. It is maybe because teachers in Chile are specialists in one subject, so I would not find myself asking them about math or science concepts before reviewing “grammar patterns.” In spite of that, in the school where I was working, teachers used to talk about integrating different contents to support the learning of students but we never did anything to concrete the idea. Thanks to the observations of these lessons, I could really understand the way to do it and the importance of doing it. 70 Providing comprehensible input to additional language learners seems almost intuitive, and for teachers is not difficult to put some strategies into practice. Speaking slowly and using simpler structures and vocabulary and gestures to make the messages easier to understand was the most used strategy I practiced in Chile along with providing flashcards and lists of words and expressions to practice their pronunciation with language learners. As I did not count on the resources as the “scrabble-type” game, most of the flashcards and lists were printed or hand-made with laminated construction paper. 4.3.1.3 Cooperative Learning I observed teachers putting into practice a total of 12 instructional strategies to promote adaptations with a social focus using cooperative learning strategies, being the most commonly used pairing students in order to share ideas and making groups to develop some projects. For example, in one of the lessons I observed that once the students had finished their PowerPoint projects, they were asked to practice presenting their projects to a classmate, who provided feedback and ideas to improve their products. On another occasion, they were asked to work in pairs to answer an online quiz about global issues. They had to discuss and get to an agreement in each question where they had a different point of view and that helped them to negotiate and debate ideas before answering. Most of the time, the two ELLs in this class worked together since they shared the same L1 and it was easier for them to communicate and discuss certain topics. Some other times, they were asked to work with a different partner or in a different group. When asked to work in groups, they generally were expected to prepare a shared project such as a timeline of “space-related events”. In these cases, students were asked to use Google Slides to work collaboratively with the rest of the group mates. This way of working provides each in the group the opportunity to contribute by modifying and editing the presentation using 71 different interconnected computers. When ELLs worked in groups they were assigned specific tasks: searching for information, videos, or images, for example. They had a tutor peer who helped them with the vocabulary and spelling, and they were also allowed to change the settings of the computer to change the language into their L1. Applying cooperative learning strategies was one of the most used strategies in my lessons in Chile. Despite not having more than one language learner per class, I grouped students according to their learning profiles and preferences. It was not difficult to do so since I had already worked with the same levels for more than five years and I knew the students well. In spite of that, it is not easy to arrange students into groups because of the size of the classrooms and the number of students; it is not easy to introduce this type of work because they become talkative, off-task, and easily distracted, but by providing clear rules and expectations, it is possible. I can say that my students became used to this way of working and could make the most of their ZPD working in pairs or in small groups. 4.3.1.4 Other instructional strategies The total of other instructional strategies I observed was 16 and they mainly referred to the use of technology such as Google Classroom, Google Docs, Google Slides, iPads with Google Translate, videos, and music. Google Docs and Google Slides were mainly used when students were asked to work in groups or peers in order to facilitate communication and collaboration between them. Using this resource also allowed the teachers to monitor their work and progress in their computers. In the school where I undertook the observations, each student who was developing their proficiency in oral communication was assigned an iPad to facilitate communication with teachers and classmates. They could use Google Translate when they needed to say something or when they needed to understand a text; they could type the sentences 72 or they could take a picture and use the translation tools. Also in one of the lessons, the students were given the chance to choose the way to present their projects and they decided to use PowerPoint. They used their own classroom laptops to look for information on the internet and shared the document using Google Docs. When they presented some problems in understanding the vocabulary on the web pages, they were allowed to use the iPads to translate the information to their L1 or change the settings of the computer to change the language. In this level, I noted that teachers used videos not only to present the contents but also to set the environment and lower the students’ affective filter. For example, in several observations when the students arrived in the classroom, the teacher was projecting a video of a beach, with the sound of the waves. In another opportunity, the teacher projected a video of a warm chimney with Christmas songs. Sometimes, when the students were working in their projects she played some classical music so that they could work and prevent their voices going too loud. It made me sad to realize that most of the schools in Chile do not count on the technology Canadian schools do. I was able to observe many tasks and activities that served to engage and motivate students with their learning that would not be possible to put into practice in the school where I worked in Chile because of the lack of computers and internet connection. I enjoyed that students were accountable for their learning when browsing for information and collaborating in the preparation of some projects. As per the technology I was able to observe in Canadian classrooms, the ones I used in my lessons were the videos, music, and Google Translate. The one that I used but I could not observe as part of my self-study observations was the use of audio for the explicit practice of listening activities. It was common in my lessons to play short descriptions or conversations and ask students to pay attention to some of the details and general ideas to answer some questions. 73 4.3.2 Findings in Grade 7 In Grade 7, I observed four teachers on Tuesdays and Fridays. They all worked with one ELL in their classrooms. I carried out a total of 34 observations in this level, which correspond to 41 instructional hours. These lessons were conducted in the subjects of Math and English Language Arts. 4.3.2.1 Differentiated Instruction It was possible for me to observe 58 instructional strategies oriented to promote adaptations with a subject-specific focus, using differentiated instruction. These strategies were grouped into three categories according to if the differentiation was made in the Content, Process, or Product. After that, I reviewed the strategies of each theme again in order to identify the most used ones. In this sense, as shown in Figure 3, I could see that the most commonly used strategies in the content category were related to teachers presenting or explaining the content in a lecture form, in front of the class, handing out to the ELLs a worksheet with the information previous to the lecture in order to facilitate them to follow the presentation, and providing students with the summary of the book the rest of the class was reading. For example, in one of the lessons I noticed that the class was learning how to add positive and negative numbers. The ELL received a page with the explanations and the same examples that the teacher was writing on the board so that he could focus on the oral explanation instead of on taking notes. I observed that sometimes, in the English Arts lessons, when the class was reading a chapter, the ELLs were asked to translate a summary of the same chapter and answer three questions related to the characters that appeared in the chapter, the setting, and the main events. 74 On other occasions, as the ELLs received the summary of the book, they were able to understand the full story in simple words and developed almost the same tasks as their classmates. Figure 3. Instructional strategies related to differentiated instruction in Grade 7. In the Process category, I noted that the most used strategies aimed at including the ELLs with the rest of the class by providing them with the same tasks to develop. Even though the students received the same handouts and materials to work during the classes, they were allowed to use translation tools and were also allowed to answer the activities using simpler vocabulary and shorter sentences. They were also allowed to draw in order to demonstrate their understanding, especially when working reading comprehension texts. For example, in one of the observations, one of the activities of the reading comprehension package set was drawing any idea, image, or thought that came to the ELL’s mind while listening to the text being read by the teacher. After that, she was asked to write three main ideas of the chapter, mention the 18% 16% 13% 13% 11% 11% 9% 9% Students use simple vocabulary andstructures in answersStudents read the summary of thebookTeacher explanation (lecture)ELLs use the same handout /materialStudents answer simpler/fewerquestionsStrudents can use drawings to showunderstandingStudents answer orallyTeacher provides a handout withcontent explanation75 characters that appeared in the chapter, and finally, write a summary of the chapters using all the previous information. In the Product category, the most used strategies I could observe were related to motivating students to produce the target language to show their understanding. These strategies include allowing students to answer comprehension questions orally instead of in writing. In this level, the ELLs have gained developing proficiency in their oral skills but were in the beginning stage in writing; they were still struggling with grammar and spelling of complex words. As they worked with the same materials as the rest of the class, sometimes they found it difficult to answer in writing at the same speed as their classmates and therefore answering orally helped them to complete the tasks on time. Sometimes, the Teacher Assistant was in charge of transcribing / typing the ELL’s utterances. Differentiation in Grade 7 in my personal experience in Chile was very similar to what I was able to observe as part of my self-study. As students are more cognitively mature, it was possible for them to pay attention to a lecture form class with a posterior worksheet of activities and tasks. It never crossed to my mind to provide a handout with information previous to the class in order to pre-teach-teach-review. In some cases, I provided a second handout at the end of the class to reinforce what we did in that lesson or in case the language learner was absent. In Chile, it also happens that teachers try to include language learners with the rest of the class by providing them with the same handouts and materials and allow them to use translation tools and the support of a more knowledgeable peer. Most of the time, I asked my language students to provide a written answer because of the lack of time for oral responses. They appreciated this because speaking aloud made them feel overwhelmed. In the same way, having the opportunity to complete the worksheets with a peer gave them the confidence to ask them some questions 76 they would not ask to the whole class. Working with a more capable peer helps them to understand better the tasks and acquire vocabulary and expressions more quickly. 4.3.2.2 Comprehensible Input The total of instructional strategies I could observe teachers carrying out to promote adaptations with a language focus using comprehensible input was 51, being the five most commonly used: checking for understanding, checking vocabulary, practicing pronunciation, teacher modifying and simplifying speech when addressing to ELLs, and teacher modelling reading. For example, in one of the lessons I noticed that before starting the reading activities, the teacher projected on the board and explained each one of the five activities the students were asked to do after the reading. While he was reading the book, he stopped a few times in order to check understanding of the whole paragraph or a single word he considered important to learn. After finishing the reading, he explained again what to do in the five activities and went around the classroom checking the students’ work and answering some questions. Sometimes he asked the students what they were supposed to do in each activity in order to elicit the explanation in their own words. In other lesson, I noted that the teacher was using more complex vocabulary in his explanation but immediately paraphrased himself, using another word, a more simple utterance to help ELLs to understand. He continually asked these students the meaning of certain words to check vocabulary. Likewise, in several observations I carried out, teachers modelled reading by projecting the book on the board and reading to the whole class. In these cases, students had the opportunity to listen to and to follow the reading paying attention not only to the pronunciation of the words, intonation, and rhythm but also to the joy of reading that the teachers transmitted 77 with their voices. On other occasions, the students were the ones who read the text and the teacher paid attention to their pronunciation. I was able to observe that when ELLs were pulled out, they also had the opportunity to practice pronunciation and reading using diverse resources such as sight word cards, flashcards, levelled books, and the Fun Fonix set of activities. This set of activities contained exercises to practice writing the letters of the alphabet, diphthongs, initial sounds, hard consonants, minimal pairs, and short / long vowels. This material was specially designed for students whose L1 was not related to the Roman alphabet and it helped students to become familiar with the form of the letters and their sounds. Students are asked to practice tracing and writing the letters, using them in words, pronouncing them, and relating the sounds with words and pictures. I collected eight artifacts in Grade 7, and they evidenced the use of pictures, images, and graphs to facilitate learning. For example, in several observations, the ELLs worked with a picture dictionary, reviewing basic vocabulary. Once they identified the words, they were asked to do some activities using the same vocabulary, such as colour, match, write, or trace. These pictures were clear, with large fonts. Sometimes they also had the translation in their L1. Similar to my reflections on the Grade 6 observations, providing comprehensible input for Grade 7 language learners is as natural as providing it for any student of the same age: asking questions to check for understanding, checking vocabulary, practicing pronunciation, and modifying and simplifying my speech when addressing to them. In the same way, I increased the use of pictures, images, and graphs to facilitate learning in classrooms with language learners. The strategies that I was not familiar with until I carried out my observations were related to the projection of the book and the teacher reading the text aloud to model pronunciation, intonation, and rhythm. During this self-study, I caught myself thinking of ways to implement 78 some of the strategies I observed in my classroom context, and in this case, I think I could provide each student with a copy of the text and model the reading without projecting the text on the board. Working with picture dictionaries was also common for me to review basic vocabulary or vocabulary related to the content units and the same as the Canadian teachers, I asked students to do some activities using the vocabulary, such as colour, match, write, or trace. Sometimes I asked the students to bring to class some old magazines and newspapers to look for images and cut the ones they needed according to the thematic units of the month. In Chile, there are not pull-out services yet and after having the opportunity to observe how they worked in Canada, I think they are valuable instances that should be implemented to provide individualized instruction and support to language learners. 4.3.2.3 Cooperative Learning In Grade 7, I identified 11 instructional strategies aimed at promoting adaptations with a social focus using cooperative learning strategies; the most commonly used being reading as a group and sharing ideas with a classmate. For example, in one of the observations, students were working in a revision of content for adding positive and negative numbers. They were seated in groups and even though they answered the problems individually, they were allowed to share and compare their answers with the rest of the group before the final check on the board. In another lesson, I could observe that the teacher had set several stations with a different book in each one and the summary of the same book. He asked the students to go to each station and check on the book and the summary and then select the one they would like to read. In the next class, reading groups were formed with the students who selected to read the same book and each English Language Arts lesson they sat together, read one chapter, and answered some 79 questions. In these lessons, they had the opportunity to check vocabulary with their group mates, share their ideas and understanding of the text, and support each other in answering the questions. In my experience, implementing cooperative learning strategies in Grade 7 worked the same as with Grade 6. As I had worked with them for a couple of years it was easy to form the groups for working and to sit them together with a clear task to develop; in my lessons, they never sat together and worked individually. Sometimes I sat them with a partner and sometimes I allow them to choose a partner, particularly when practicing speaking because they feel better talking with a friend and receiving feedback from someone who is close to them. I liked the implementation of book clubs and allowing the students to select a book to read with a group. I had never thought about it because in Chile all students are always asked to read the same books, at the same time, and answering the same questions. Giving students the opportunity to select what they want to read makes sense when I think about Krashen’s (2004) ideas of the effectiveness of self-selected recreational reading. 4.3.2.4 Other instructional strategies The use of positive feedback to motivate students, teaching learning strategies, and using translation tools were among the 19 other most recurrent instructional strategies I could observe in this level. For example, in one of the observations, students were practicing adding decimals. One of the ELLs understood quickly what to do and solved 10 exercises out of 15. At the end of the lesson when he showed his work, the teacher congratulated him and encouraged him to finish the rest of the exercises. The student was so happy and proud of his work that even though the bell rang to go to lunch, he stayed in the classroom until he finished the five remaining exercises. Once students understood the instructions and realized they were capable of completing the 80 tasks, they felt motivated to keep working. Similarly, when teachers gave them the opportunity to choose the project they would like to develop, they also felt much more motivated to complete the tasks. Teaching learning strategies that the students could apply to other lessons was observed to be relevant at this level. For example, in one of the observations, I noticed that the teacher helped an ELL to input some short stories into a two-entry Google Slide and showed her how to use translation tools to translate the texts and read them in her first language to fully understand the stories. Once she learned how to do it by herself, this strategy would be helpful to work in other subjects. Using translation tools provided the students autonomy to develop the tasks without having to work one-on-one with a teacher or pair, as they could translate the texts or sentences according to their proficiency needs. I always tried to show myself as a caring teacher and close to my students, particularly to language learners. I consider it easier to provide positive feedback and engage them when there is a positive relationship between teachers and students. The most common form of feedback that I used in Chile was recasting and elicitation. I repeated the student's utterance up to the mistake in a way to signal to the student that he/she should complete the utterance fixing the mistake or repeating the utterance using a more correct language. Of course, in a way of encouraging fluency, I only corrected them when the utterances they produced impeded communication. In a similar way as Canadian teachers, I used to teach learning strategies to language learners with the idea that they would be able to apply them in similar situations or in other content areas. The most recurrent included the use of graphs and tables, and highlighting a text to identify main ideas, important vocabulary and expressions, and tenses. 81 4.3.3 Findings in Grade 8 In Grade 8, I was able to observe two teachers on Mondays and Tuesdays. They worked with one and two ELLs in their classrooms. I conducted total of 18 observations in the subjects of English Language Arts and Social Studies, which correspond to 20 instructional hours. 4.3.3.1 Differentiated Instruction In Grade 8, the total of instructional strategies to promote adaptations with a subject-specific focus, using differentiated instruction that I could observe was 35. I grouped these 35 strategies into three categories according to if the differentiation was made in the Content, Process, or Product. After that, I reviewed the strategies of each theme again in order to identify the most used ones as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4. Instructional strategies related to differentiated instruction in Grade 8. 20% 14% 14% 14% 11% 11% 8% 8% Students can answer orallyTeacher presents content with aPowerPointTeacher provides the sameworksheetStudents answer using simplervocabulary and structuresStudents watch a video of the bookStudents read a summary of thebookStudents work on a different activityStudents can draw to showunderstanding82 According to Figure 4, the most commonly used strategies in the content category were related to teachers presenting the contents of the lesson using PowerPoint, students watching a short video or a movie based on the book the rest of the class was reading, and reading the summary of the book. For example, in one of the lessons I was able to notice that the teacher allowed an ELL to watch the movie “The Outsiders” while the rest of the class was finishing another project. The student watched the movie in three lessons, but after finishing watching it, he was not able to recall the important information. He was advised to watch a short video to get the general idea of the book and then the teacher asked him a few questions about the plot and characters. The class would start reading the book the following week, and he would have some information of the story as background knowledge. In another lesson, I noted that the students watched the movie “The Giver” after reading the book, but before completing a set of tasks related to the book. In this class, an ELL had read a summary of each chapter of the book provided by the teacher, and watching the movie helped him to fully understand the context of the story. In the Process category, the most used strategies were related to teachers providing the same worksheet, asking the students to work on a different project or activity, and giving them the opportunity to draw to show their understanding. At this level, I noticed that the students were asked to work using the same worksheets as the rest of the class even if they were asked to answer using shorter sentences or more basic vocabulary than their peers. Depending on the level of difficulty of the projects, sometimes the ELLs were asked to answer part of the worksheets or work on different activities. For example, in one of the lessons I observed that the rest of the class was working on a short story project on a cereal box. The idea was to fill the sides of the box with information from a short story they had already read. They were asked to 83 include a summary, a list and description of the characters, the plot, setting, a diagram or picture of the story, and mention the conflict and different points of view of the characters. The teacher considered that this type of work was too difficult for the ELL in the class based on his proficiency level and suggested that he should work on a simpler assignment. She asked him to prepare a PowerPoint with the main ideas of the story and a list of the characters only. In another observation, I noticed that the students were learning about the lifestyle of Vikings and were asked to look for information to answer some questions. The ELL in this class was asked to make a drawing on the same topic, so he read the information and drew a house, some Vikings with their clothes, and some animals, according to the description he had read. In the product category, the most used strategies aimed at supporting students to develop communication skills. In this sense, students were asked to answer the worksheets according to their level of proficiency. One of the ELLs was proficient orally but not in writing. In this case, the student was allowed to dictate his answers and the teacher wrote them on a piece of paper, helping him to organize the ideas, then the student could copy them in his handout. In this way, the student could relate his oral answer with the written response and at the same time practice writing. Additionally, as the teacher helped him to organize the ideas, she also explained some grammatical points, capitalization, and punctuation rules that will be helpful to the student to incorporate in his daily interactions and assignments. Differentiating content in Grade 8 using PowerPoint was a common practice in my experience in Chile. What was different concerning what I observed in the middle school in Canada was making students watch a movie based on the book the rest of the class was reading or letting students to read the summary of the book. Of course now I have seen more language learners I realized that it is a great idea to simplify the content until language learners are 84 proficiently ready to face grade-level readings in order to avoid them to get overwhelmed and frustrated with the language complexity. In relation to differentiating process and product, I used to provide the same worksheet for all the students but I asked language learners to answer the worksheets according to their level of proficiency; using simpler structures and vocabulary. Some of the tasks and activities I used allowed the students to work on a different project or activity under a single topic, and giving them the opportunity to draw, or make a collage to show their understanding. For example after working with the thematic unit of “travel,” they prepared a short presentation on any idea related to “travel.” They could prepare a PowerPoint, a short video, or poster presentation. 4.3.3.2 Comprehensible Input I observed a total of 34 instructional strategies to promote adaptations with a language focus using comprehensible input in Grade 8, being the most commonly used using summaries of each chapter of the books the class was reading, and using simple and direct vocabulary to explain or re-tell stories. For example, in one of the observations, I noted that the teacher provided a summary of the book the class was reading because the ELL in this class had expressed that he could not understand the original text because of the complex vocabulary. In this case, the ELL read each paragraph of the summary and then identified the main ideas and events. The teacher corrected some information according to the text and explained the context of the story when it was not so clear. In another observation, I could see that an ELL was asked to read several newspaper articles related to the big wildfires in Australia, and to use the information to draw a comic. The teacher helped him by reading the texts and modifying the vocabulary to make the articles easier to understand. She explained the context of the articles, asked some questions related to events to be sure that the student got the general idea of the 85 articles, and then asked him to organize the information he was going to use to draw in each comic strip. I collected six artifacts in Grade 8 and they also evidence the use of simple vocabulary and structures to facilitate understanding of the contents and scaffold learning. For example, in one of the lessons, I noticed that the students were working on the novel “The Outsiders.” The teacher provided a worksheet that explained the way to write paragraphs: the ACES paragraph stands for Assertion (explain the main idea of the paragraph—give an answer), Citation (provide an example from the text—quotation), Explanation (explain how their examples support their ideas) and Summarize (recap their main points). Students were given three questions, and they had to choose one to answer in their essays. The teacher chose one and presented an example on the board. The ELL in this class chose to answer the same question which consisted of describing three characters he thought may be considered as heroes. He had to include his definition of a hero, provide examples (quotes) from the book, and make a connection between both. The rest of the class was asked to write two paragraphs for C-E, but for the ELL only one of each was enough. The teacher printed a special sheet for the ELL. As this student had developing levels of reading and writing in English, he provided the answers orally and the teacher took notes so that he could transcribe them on his worksheet. Even though I did not let language learners to read the summaries of the books, I handed them a set of questions and activities to complete after reading each chapter. These questions included true or false statements, choosing multiple-choice alternatives, drawing a scene of the chapter, describing a character or place, and making predictions. They had the opportunity to complete the set with a partner to share ideas and check their understanding of the chapter. 86 I consider it important to mention that I have not worked with language learners in the beginning stage of language development; therefore, they are able to understand most of the texts and questions and can provide written and oral responses in a developing or extending level. Sometimes they required an explanation of idioms and specific vocabulary and classmates or teachers were ready to help. Providing one-on-one explanation of a text or supporting in the completion of a set of questions was not a common practice because of the lack of time and the number of students per class (40-45). A lack of resources and willingness to contract a support teacher dedicated to helping language learners in their classrooms impede a faster development of language proficiency. 4.3.3.3 Cooperative Learning Within the general category of cooperative learning, I could observe six instructional strategies promoting adaptations with a social focus, with the most commonly used being changing the seating arrangement frequently. Even though the students were asked to work individually most of the time, the teachers often changed the desks distribution and the partners in the groups. For example, in one of the observations I noted that the strategy to group students was to assign a number from one to five for each student and then ask them to form the groups according to their numbers. In another occasion, the teacher had projected the seating arrangement on the board so when the students arrived they knew where to sit. Sometimes they were seated in groups of four, other times the teacher organized the desks in a big square, in pairs, or the students were allowed to choose their groups. Choosing a seating arrangement is not an easy job; there are many variables to consider and most of the time students should not be informed of those variables. The strategy I used to 87 group students at the beginning of the year was according to the grades they got the previous year. I organized a list and in each group I sat one student whose grades were from 6-7, one with grades from 5-6, one with grades from 4-5, and one with grades under 4. As I had worked with them the previous year I also knew their learning preferences and their friend preferences so I had to select the students in each range of grades to form the groups. Once the groups were formed, the next criterion was to identify students with special needs and pay attention to their location in the classroom; for example, those who get distracted easily should be seated far from doors and windows, close to the board or the teacher, and far from talkative students or close friends. I used to change the seating arrangement once a month so that they all had the opportunity to sit close to the teacher and to the board to receive support. I printed a diagram of the location of each group and posted it on their noticeboard so that they could remember where to sit. At the end of the year or for special projects I let them choose their groups. 4.3.3.4 Other instructional strategies There was a total of 14 other instructional strategies that I could observe in Grade 8, and they referred mainly to teaching learning strategies and motivating students’ participation in class. For example, in one of the observations, I could see the teacher providing an organizer so that the ELLs in this class could complete it with short sentences about the setting of the story, the characters, the significant events, and other information that would help them to write a short summary. They were taught to identify these elements each time they face a book or text. The same as when they were given the summary of the book, they were asked to underline or highlight this information. Motivating students to work in Grade 8 was a challenge and the teachers I observed used many diverse strategies to involve students in the class activities. In some of the observations, it 88 was possible to observe teachers asking for projects that include drawing, writing, and using different materials such as plastic bags, egg cartons, cereal boxes, Popsicle sticks, or pipe cleaners to make a Viking ship. Once they were built, the purpose was to check which of the boats would float the longer when adding weight, so they should pay attention to the materials they chose and the construction. On another occasion, I could see that the students were provided with eight binders with information related to the lifestyle of Vikings. They were provided with a set of questions and were asked to look for the answers by reviewing the information in the binders. The next class they participated in a Web quest, being themselves a Viking who needed to build a ship to travel across the sea to find a treasure. In order to go through the different levels, they needed to answer some questions related to the information they gathered in the previous class with the binders. I completely agree that motivating Grade 8 students is a challenge particularly when they are 40-45 in a classroom and the teacher cannot monitor them all at the same time. Providing interesting tasks along with the opportunity to use their learning preferences to complete them is of utmost importance. I enjoyed the lessons with the topic of “Vikings,” I had not seen before the idea of a “scavenger hunt” that made the students look for information in several binders located in different places of the classroom. Many topics can be used with the same strategy with my students in Chile. I think that language learners would feel integrated and would like to share with others. As for the learning strategies, I always tried to introduce them in my lessons. I drew diagrams and mind maps and asked the students to use them with different topics or in other content areas. Getting to know our students and their learning preferences is relevant since, for example, highlighting and underlying is only useful for visual students; kinaesthetic students 89 may prefer to move around or hands-on activities instead, and they need to be provided with those strategies. Sometimes teachers forget about others’ learning preferences and we teach in the same way we learned or according to our learning preferences. 4.3.4 Summary of the Self-Study observations During the observations and ongoing reflections, I was able to notice that as teachers, we were aware of the modifications we needed to implement in order to support language learners in the subject-specific area, in the language area, and in the social area. The most salient instructional strategies in Grade 6 were related to the use of technology, where teachers facilitated the use of iPads and laptops to work in class using different programs and tools which promote collaborative work. In Grade 7 the most salient strategies were related to providing comprehensible input. The teachers modified their speeches when addressing to language learners and used gestures or realia to make instruction clearer for them. In Grade 8 the most salient strategies were related to differentiated instruction, where teachers provided scaffolds to the activities and diverse choices of work. Additionally, as teachers, we tried to provide a supportive environment in which language learners could feel noticed and considered but without being put on the spot. Positive reinforcement was put into practice in all the interactions between language learners and their teachers. All in all, teachers were flexible with language learners’ assignments, allowing them to choose the way they wanted to work on in class and to show what they had learned. 90 4.4 Findings on the questionnaires and interviews: Chilean and Canadian Participants 4.4.1 Question 1: Listening Question 1 aimed at obtaining information on the instructional strategies that teachers use to teach listening skills to newcomers who are learning the language of instruction. The themes and their contributing codes found in the data are presented in Table 1, along with the number of times the units of text in the data were assigned a code related to this question. Table 1 Listening Themes and Contributing Codes Chilean participants declared that one of their major concerns when addressing Spanish language learners was “making themselves understood.” Because of that, teachers tried to speak clearly, by slowing their speech down and pronouncing the words carefully, along with the use Coding Instances Total Instances Chile Speak clearly 2 List of basic phrases and vocabulary +L1 translation 1 Use of visual support (maps, graphs, drawings) 1 Use of translator 1 Tutor student, peer, buddy 1 Repetition of utterances 1 Use of gestures when speaking 1 8 Canada Use of Google Translate 3 Speak clearly 2 Use of visual support (maps, graphs, drawings) 2 Repetition of utterances 2 Use of gestures when speaking 2 Use of videos 1 12 91 of gestures to help make their ideas clear to the students. At the same time, students were asked to repeat and practice some utterances, particularly the ones related to daily classroom vocabulary. When having the opportunity to work one-on-one with the students, one of the teachers asked them “to pay attention to [her] mouth and repeat the sounds until they get them.” Some of the students were assigned a peer who acted like a tutor or buddy, who also used the same strategies. According to one of the teachers, the purpose of a peer was “not only to help them to feel integrated with their class but also with the school culture.” Teachers in Chile also increased the use of maps, graphs, and drawings in the classes with Spanish language learners in order to support their explanations of the subject content. Some teachers relied on the use of Google Translate to communicate with some of the students “particularly at the beginning of the school year when these students had just arrived and none of them was familiar with the other language.” All in all, the purpose was to communicate ideas and not to expect them to speak a “perfect Spanish.” Canadian ELL Specialists, agreed that teachers made an effort in speaking more clearly when addressing language learners, “and repeat utterances using gestures, pointing, and drawing” when necessary in order to communicate with these students. If the students did not understand, teachers “try again and paraphrase their ideas until they feel sure the ELL understood.” And the same when the ELLs tried to communicate, teachers asked additional questions, explained with their words, and paraphrased the students’ ideas in order to check that they really understood what the student was trying to say. They “did not give up until they were sure of the message they were giving or receiving,” even though sometimes communication was difficult. Canadian participants also agreed with the use of Google Translate as a “useful resource to communicate with ELLs.” It was easier for teachers to access the students’ iPads and 92 translate instructions and ideas during the early days of the new students in school. With regard to the use of visual supports such as maps, graphs, and drawings, teachers incorporated more of these in their classes and used some of them as “permanent posters and noticeboards” to refer sometimes when communicating with ELLs. This helped the students to gain more confidence when addressing the teachers and “helped them to remember clue phrases in their daily interactions.” As for explicit listening activities for details, one of the ELL Specialists regretted that teachers did not have the time to do this type of exercise and hoped to provide professional development for the in-school ELL teachers to implement them next year as she acknowledged it would be fruitful for the students. 4.4.2 Question 2: Reading Question 2 aimed at obtaining information on the instructional strategies that teachers use to teach reading skills to newcomers who are learning the language of instruction. The themes and their contributing codes found in the data are presented in Table 2, along with the number of times the units of text in the data were assigned a code related to this question. When presenting Spanish language learners with a text, teachers in Chile “added more pictures and graphs in order to facilitate understanding.” Students were also provided with shorter versions of the texts the rest of the class was reading or were asked to read only a part of them. Some of the teachers allowed the use of Google Translate so that students could get “a better idea of the contents” and to “make it easier for them to participate in the rest of the activities.” Some students were provided with lists of basic vocabulary such as numbers, days of the week, months of the year, and classroom vocabulary in order to “facilitate their learning of the 93 [Spanish] language.” One of the teachers was asked “to change the activities of two blocks a week in order to focus on building vocabulary” using that type of resource. Sometimes the lists were already translated, and some other times, the students were asked to work in class translating the lists to their native language. They were asked to “practice the lists orally in order to check pronunciation,” and they were also asked to “write and repeat them in order to help their memorization.” As declared by one of the language specialists, when teachers had extra time during the lessons, they were able to dedicate one-on-one time to “model reading and to check comprehension by asking questions that could be answered orally.” Table 2 Reading Themes and Contributing Codes In the Canadian context, the language specialists agreed that in the early days of newcomers, teachers “try to find the classroom text in translation or an online version of the books.” Students were allowed to read the same text as their classmates, but in their L1 in order Coding Instances Total Instances Chile Shorter texts 2 Visual support 2 Translation of documents / texts to L1 1 Lists of basic vocabulary 1 Summarize ideas orally 1 7 Canada Read summary of books/chapters/texts 3 Pull-out for practicing 3 Levelled readers / Raz Kids resources 3 Use of Sight Words 2 Read same books in L1 1 12 94 to encourage participation in the same tasks as their peers. In these cases, students read the book in their L1 and received the same set of questions as the rest of the class. They could translate the set of questions using translation tools and answer in their L1translating their answers into English to register their answers in the paper. In cases when the L1 book was not available, teachers prepared a short summary of the chapters and made “Google Slides with an English / L1 table” so that students could translate the summary into their native language. In these cases, they were asked to answer simpler comprehension questions related to the information included in the summary. In some cases, they were also asked to answer the same set of questions of the rest of the class “as long as they can.” One of the strategies in-school ELL teachers carried out frequently was pulling students out of their regular classroom activities to work individually or in small groups in a different room. This additional support depends on the needs and levels of proficiency of the students. For example, students were pulled-out to work with “right-fit texts based on student’s English level” in which cases the in-school ELL teacher used “levelled readers or Raz Kids resources.” Raz Kids (2020) resources are levelled reading resources for children. During these sessions, “students are asked to read aloud so that the teacher can correct pronunciation and ask vocabulary and comprehension questions.” Students were pulled-out in groups of 4–5 students. They all had similar levels of proficiency in English and they develop the same tasks. In this sense, the ELL teacher provides feedback on pronunciation and comprehension to the whole group at the same time. Sometimes, the teacher asked them to “practice the reading by themselves, and then called them to read the text to her” to check individual reading and pronunciation. 95 Another activity carried out in the pull-out sessions, during which ELLs received individualized attention, was to teach “sight words using flashcards and to practice them by making sentences.” Sight words are understood as the most common words that appear and can be found in almost every page in texts and therefore are important to be identified when reading. Students had the opportunity to practice vocabulary, sentence coherence, pronunciation, and listening skills when using these flashcards. 4.4.3 Question 3: Speaking Question 3 aimed at obtaining information on the instructional strategies that teachers use to teach speaking skills to newcomers who are learning the language of instruction. The themes and their contributing codes found in the data are presented in Table 3, along with the number of times the units of text in the data were assigned a code related to this question. Table 3 Speaking Themes and Contributing Codes Teachers in Chile only corrected the pronunciation and grammar of students when these mistakes impeded communication. When that happened, the students were asked to “repeat the Coding Instances Total Instances Chile Corrective feedback 1 Oral presentation in Spanish and in L1 1 Oral repetition of sentences / utterances 1 3 Canada Pull-out communication practice 3 Use of iPad with Google Translate 3 Picture flip-cards 1 7 96 utterances or mispronounced words,” or “the teacher paraphrased the correct form and made the student repeat it.” Some students were asked to prepare oral presentations on diverse topics but carried out in their L1. Sometimes they also presented the same topic in both languages so that “they could pay attention to the grammar and vocabulary they used” and contrast both languages. They were also asked to teach useful phrases to the class in order to “promote social-affective relationships with their classmates.” Some of the language specialists declared that “most of the time these students were not pushed to participate in speaking activities during the classes but were always integrated into groups and assigned a task to do.” Canadian participants declared that students usually “get pull-out support for oral language skills development” and they had the opportunity to work in small groups with the in-school ELL teacher. They tried to assign an iPad to each student “at least in the early days” and language specialists “train peers and teachers to use the Google Translate App” in order to facilitate communication. In the same way, students were provided with “picture flip cards for survival questions with English and L1 translation” which also included pictures and that could be used in cases when they did not have an iPad at hand. These flip cards included classroom vocabulary and useful sentences to ask for some objects, communicate their feelings, ask for permission to go to the washroom, or greet teachers and classmates, for example. 4.4.4 Question 4: Writing Question 4 aimed at obtaining information on the instructional strategies that teachers use to teach writing skills to newcomers who are learning the language of instruction. The themes and their contributing codes found in the data are presented in Table 4, along with the number of times the units of text in the data were assigned a code related to this question. 97 Table 4 Writing Themes and Contributing Codes Some Chilean language specialists mentioned that didactic material and realia were used, particularly in Math lessons in order to help students to show their understanding of the content. They were asked to “represent their answers instead of writing them using the language of instruction” as they were still developing their additional language skills. Most of the time, Spanish language learners were asked to “copy and repeat several times the same words and sentences to facilitate memorization and recognition of grammatical patterns.” Some teachers used the same material as with the rest of the class, but asked for simpler and shorter answers to these students. Sometimes the teachers presented “sentence starters” in order to facilitate the tasks. In cases when the teacher had some one-on-one time with these students, they were able to practice “dictation of words and sentences previously taught or provided in a list of words.” Canadian language specialists agreed that teaching “writing can be challenging,” especially in newcomers’ early days. They argued that teachers needed to “find the balance of Coding Instances Total Instances Chile Use of concrete material / realia 2 Copy and repeat phrases and expressions 1 Simpler activities 1 Dictation of words 1 5 Canada Write short sentences 3 Pull-out for practice (Fun Fonix resources) 3 Fill-in-the-blanks with word banks 2 Use Google Translate from L1 2 10 98 students responding at the level of their English versus students responding from translated L1.” For them, it was more valued that the students showed they were able to communicate even with simple words or sentences than writing long paragraphs translating everything from their mother tongue. They appreciated and preferred “short responses that demonstrate comprehension” in English rather than the over-use of translating Apps. One strategy that teachers used in their classrooms was to support students’ early writings by providing “fill-in-the-blanks with word banks” in order to facilitate the process. Another resource mentioned is the “FunFonix” (2006) material used in the pull-out sessions. FunFonix is a series of resources designed to provide additional support in learning and reinforcing phonic rules. From the website “funfonix.com” teachers can download the worksheets and can find online phonics games according to each student’s level of proficiency. In general, each student received a set in which they are asked to trace the letters of the alphabet, write some words, identify sounds, and match vocabulary with the corresponding picture. This material happened to be useful particularly to students whose L1 does not share the Roman alphabet. 4.4.5 Question 5: School support Question 5 aimed at obtaining information on the guidelines that schools provide in relation to the approaches to be used with newcomers who are learning the language of instruction. The themes and their contributing codes found in the data are presented in Table 5, along with the number of times the units of text in the data were assigned a code related to this question. Spanish language specialists who participated in this research study declared that the schools with which they were in contact “do not provide any guidelines or suggest instructional strategies” to be implemented with additional language learners. In this sense, all the material 99 “was created or modified by the teachers” who worked with these students in the classrooms without the support or contribution of the teachers who did not work directly with these students. In some schools, there were “special meetings with all the teachers who brainstormed ideas and strategies to support them” in all subject contents. Table 5 School Support Themes and Contributing Codes One of the language specialists in Chile declared that they were “fortunate” to receive some suggestions made by a former teacher volunteer from the same country of the students. She helped them to “get to know important information about the country and part of the culture” in order to “understand better the students.” All the language specialists emphasized the fact that all the ideas were carried out “from the good will and good intentions of the teachers.” In comparison, Canadian language specialists maintained that the approaches teachers used are “generally guided by the District ELL support team, in collaboration with the classroom teacher and the in-school ELL teacher.” As newcomers arrived and were assigned a school, they Coding Instances Total Instances Chile Schools don’t provide guidelines 2 Material is created / adapted by teachers 2 Teachers meet to brainstorm ideas to support students 1 Suggestions made by a volunteer from the same L1 of the students 1 6 Canada School district provides guidelines 3 District ELL specialists design support plans 3 In-school ELL teachers pull-out students 3 Classroom teachers are included in the design of support plans 3 12 100 were also assigned a district ELL specialist who carried out the first assessment and with the help of the in-school ELL teacher developed the adaptations needed. These adaptations depended on the “student’s and the classroom teacher’s styles” and may require a certain time of adjustment. The ELL team worked hard in order to provide every child the support they needed. 4.4.6 Question 6: First assessment Question 6 aimed at obtaining information on the way teachers assess newcomers the first time in order to check how much of the language of instruction they can understand and produce. The themes and their contributing codes found in the data are presented in Table 6, along with the number of times the units of text in the data were assigned a code related to this question. Table 6 First Assessment Themes and Contributing Codes In most cases, Chilean language specialists assured that there was “no formal first assessment” carried out by the school, but each teacher in their subject area carried out a “diagnostic evaluation” in order to “get an idea of their understanding of the language and the Coding Instances Total Instances Chile Each teacher evaluates in his/her class 2 Reading comprehension test 1 Personal interview + Google Translate 1 Oral evaluation 1 No evaluation 1 6 Canada District ELL Specialists do first assessment 2 In-school ELL teachers do first assessment 1 Use of Idea Proficiency Test or the Global Language Assessment protocol 3 6 101 content,” Alternatively, one of the academic coordinators in a school carried out an oral interview using Google Translate and then the students took a written Spanish language test in order to “let the teachers know what their level of Spanish was and started listing ideas of what to do next.” In extreme cases, there were no diagnostic evaluations and the teachers realized the level of understanding of these students “once they observed them working in class or after the first summative assessment.” This was when they started making some modifications in their teaching and in the next assessments. Canadian participants expressed that district ELL specialists or in-school ELL teachers were in charge of doing the first assessment when a newcomer arrived at school. To that end, they used the “IPT—Idea Proficiency Test or the CM global language assessment protocols,” both of them provided by the school district. These tests were applied before the students arrived at school or in the early days and “consists of four parts, to determine the level of understanding and production in listening, speaking, reading, and writing.” After applying these tests, an individualized plan is developed in cooperation with the in-school ELL teacher and the classroom teacher. 4.4.7 Question 7: assessment of students’ performance the rest of the year Question 7 aimed at obtaining information on the way teachers assess students’ performance for the rest of the year in the different subject contents. The themes and their contributing codes found in the data are presented in Table 7, along with the number of times the units of text in the data were assigned a code related to this question. Most of the time, the same type of assessment and the same content were used to assess Spanish language learners in Chile. Most of the time there were written tests and there were no special provisions because “the school asks for a determined number of evaluations (grades) 102 during the semester” for all the students and because teachers confessed that they “do not have time to prepare special tests.” In spite of that, some of them adapted the tests by allowing the students to “answer fewer questions” or “answer orally.” In some cases, once the student had completed the test and the teachers had corrected it, they “eliminate the worst item and discount the number of questions.” Another language specialist commented that teachers also “lowered the percentage of difficulty from 60% to 50% or even 40% according to the student’s results.” Sometimes, the students “are allowed more time to answer” and if the teachers had extra time during the test, they could devote a few minutes to “explain what to do and how to answer each item of the test” or to “explain some of the vocabulary and content involved in the questions.” Table 7 Ongoing Assessment Themes and Contributing Codes Coding Instances Total Instances Chile Assessment of the same contents 2 Assessment using the same tests 2 Adaptations of tests 1 Lower level of difficulty the tests 1 Students are given more time to answer 1 7 Canada Students are given more time to answer 3 Students can use Google Translate 3 Flexibility in products (posters, PPT, etc.) 3 Different projects 3 Adaptation of tests (according to each teacher) 2 Assessment of the same contents 2 Assessment using the same tests 2 Self-evaluation / self-reflection on their work 2 Use books and notes to answer test 1 21 103 Similarly, Canadian participants reported that classroom teachers “can adapt instruction and assessment until it becomes reasonable to assess [students] to grade-level outcomes.” At the start, they may be excused from assessment or these may be “right-fit assessment including matching questions, or drawing a line from vocabulary to a diagram.” Students were allowed to use translation tools, they could be asked to answer fewer questions, or questions may be modified according to their level of English. Even though in some cases students could access their book or notes during the tests, this strategy was not encouraged by ELL specialists since “accessing copious English notes” may cause that students rely too much on the book and impede them from producing the language or from demonstrating what they have actually learned. Likewise, they discouraged the use of multiple-choice questions since they may induce error by the use of “tricky language questions,” but in case teachers wanted to use them, they suggested “limiting to two clear responses.” 4.4.8 Additional information This section is composed of data that were gathered during the interviews with the language specialists and that did not fit as a response for any of the previously described questions in the questionnaire, but that the researcher found interesting to consider. When asked about the teaching of explicit grammar lessons, one of the Canadian specialists recognized that even though most teachers assumed that students would acquire the grammar patterns just by reading and listening to them, there was a need for teaching it explicitly, particularly in cases when the students have been in the country for a while and still have problems in writing and speaking. Only one of the ELL specialists in Canada knew of a school in the district where the in-school ELL teacher had a pull-out program that included explicit grammar practice. On the contrary, in Chile, grammar was taught in Spanish and 104 English Language Arts so that the students could contrast the patterns and organize their writing at the same speed as they acquire more vocabulary. Typically, teachers used “substitution gaps” in which students could exchange one word and practice making different sentences. For example in the sentence I eat chicken every day, the word chicken could be replaced by bread, apples, meat, salad, cereal, etc. Then they can change the frequency adverb, the person, the verb, and the tense, etc. to make many other similar sentences. When asked about the characteristics of students who showed considerable progress in comparison with their peers, all the specialists in Chile and Canada mentioned that interaction is a key element, along with students’ personality. Therefore “those who are willing to take risks in communication tend to learn the language faster than those who seem introverted,” and who do not participate in social interactions. One of the ELL specialists in Canada also mentioned that the visibility the ELLs had in the school was also relevant. In this sense, the support the school provided to the students included that the classroom teacher introduced the student to the class, promoted a positive and welcoming environment and encouraged the rest of the class to support these students. When asked about the preparation in Second Language Acquisition that teachers and in-school ELL teachers received at university or professional development workshops, Chilean participants agreed that “the topic of Spanish learners is so new that they do not have the tools and improvise during the year according to the results they get.” Teachers in Chile are specialists in one subject content and they can teach many levels during the same school year. As a result, none of them consider themselves as language teachers and are not aware of instructional strategies to teach listening, speaking, writing, or reading in their content areas. Under these circumstances, they feel that the teachers of Spanish Language Arts are the ones 105 responsible to do so. They have not received professional development on SLA, ESL instructional strategies or intercultural communicative competence. Most of the times, if teachers feel compelled to study further about those topics, it is considered a personal choice to look for and pay for professional development. Similarly, Canadian specialists agreed that teachers did not receive special training at university and that “even though the school district organized pro-D [professional development] workshops on the topic once a year, they were not mandatory to all teachers so they are not required to attend them.” Teachers only feel the need to get assistance when they received an ELL student in their class. Finally, one of the Canadian ELL specialists highlighted the flexibility that the new curriculum provided to teachers to work and select the material that best fitted the needs of their students. This flexibility was also present in the projects that students developed and in the diverse choices they could make to show their understanding. Not having to grade students took the pressure off the teachers to get the ELLs to perform at the same level of the rest of the class. 4.5 Summary Chapter 4 presented the results and findings of the research study in relation to the most used and effective instructional strategies to support newcomers learning an additional language in Chile and Canada. The data gathered from a Self-Study carried out by the researcher and an open-ended questionnaire along with a semi-structured interview answered by six language specialists in the two countries were presented in two sections accordingly. Graphical representations and examples from the data were used to show the findings in a detailed way. The following chapter will discuss the interpretation of the accrued data and its relation with the theory in the field, as well as the implication of the results in teachers’ praxis and future research. 106 Chapter 5: Discussion 5.1 Overview of the Study This chapter summarizes the results of the study: first, it discusses the findings in relation to the relevant literature presented in Chapter 2, then, the implications for teaching practice, and finally, some recommendations for future research. This qualitative research study was framed within a constructivist perspective. Constructivist second language acquisition theories were used throughout the study as a means of understanding the process of additional language teaching and learning and unveiling the most effective instructional strategies that teachers use to support additional language learners in Chile and in Canada. Constructivism is based on the idea that knowledge is constructed by learners as they attempt to make sense of their experiences. In this sense, knowledge is not passively received but actively built up by the learners (von Glaserfeld, 1989; Vygotsky, 1978). It is understood that each individual builds up knowledge according to the relationship they made of their past and current experiences, and therefore, it is not possible to state that two learners will produce the same construct being presented with the same stimulus. Because of that, the number of instructional strategies that teachers can use can be overwhelming. Principled eclecticism opens the doors for additional language teachers to select what they need from diverse methods and approaches and blend them in their unique method according to their contexts and their students’ learning preferences (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). Suggestions made by TESOL (2018) and the B.C. Ministry of Education (1999, 2018) to support ELLs were considered a foundation of this study, particularly the ones related to the adaptations needed in the subject-specific, language, and social area. In this sense, theories 107 related to differentiated instruction (Tomlinson & Allan, 2000), comprehensible input (Krashen, 1982), and cooperative learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Kagan, 1994; Vygotsky, 1978) were considered key elements to study the effective instructional strategies that teachers use to support additional language learners in all subject areas. In line with the qualitative nature of this study, the research methods consisted of a self-study carried out by the researcher, an open-ended questionnaire, and interviews with six language specialists in Chile and in Canada. On the one hand, the self-study consisted of reflections based on classroom observations I carried out in a Canadian middle school and allowed me to study the instructional strategies that teachers put into practice to support ELLs in their natural setting, which helped me to make sense of the relationship between the strategies and their effectiveness in language and content learning (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) and at the same time, to analyze my practice and personal experience teaching language learners in the Chilean context. On the other hand, the questionnaires and interviews with language specialists provided detailed descriptions of strategies used to foster receptive and expressive skills linked to their personal experiences in the field. All the data collected were coded and classified according to themes. These themes were organized in recurrent patterns and the findings and results were presented in Chapter 4 and summarized in the following section. The discussion of the findings is presented in two parts: on the one hand, the ones that arose from the self-study, and on the other hand, the ones related to the questionnaires and the interviews answered by the language specialists. 108 5.2 Summary of Results In this section and in the discussion of the self-study, I will refer as “teachers”, in general terms, to the group of teachers I observed including me as the accrued data was informed by both the observations and my personal reflections on the instructional strategies we put into practice to support language learners. In particular cases the “teachers” are identified as “teachers in Chile” or “teachers in Canada” when a distinction is needed to be made. After analyzing the information obtained from the language specialists and the notes taken after the classroom observations and reflections as part of my self-study, I was able to notice that all the teachers were aware of the adaptations we needed to implement to support language learners in the three areas suggested by the BC Ministry of Education: subject-specific area, in the language area, and in the social area. The most salient instructional strategies were related to comprehensible input, as teachers modified their speech when addressing language learners and used gestures or images to make instruction clearer for them; the use of summaries of books was one of the most used strategies to provide students with the same information but in a way adjusted to their current language proficiency. The second most salient strategies were related to differentiated instruction, as teachers provided scaffolds to the activities and diverse choices of work, including the use of technology to present the content, to give students the possibility to look for information, and to present what they have learned through different projects. Additionally, all of the teachers tried to implement cooperative learning strategies in order to provide a supportive environment for language learners. 109 5.3 Discussion 5.3.1 Self study The main purpose of this study was to identify the instructional strategies that content-area teachers commonly use when teaching language learners and which of them are the most effective ones. I covered three big areas as they are related to the adaptations that the B.C. Ministry of Education suggests in the ELL Policy Guidelines (2018) and in the ELL Guide for Classroom Teachers (1999). These adaptations are to be implemented in the subject-specific, language, and social areas, which in this study I related to instructional strategies to promote differentiated instruction, comprehensible input, and cooperative learning, respectively. The most important finding which served as a foundation for the discussion in this section was the fact that even though all teachers who were observed during this study and I put into practice modifications in these three areas, the instructional strategies we used were not the same in each grade or even in different classes of the same grade. Some of the strategies we used arise from our personal experience with language learners in previous years and some of them were adapted from workshops each of us had attended before. In Canada, most of the suggestions came from the ELL district specialist in charge of providing in-school support to subject teachers. It is evident that it is not possible to implement the very same strategies with every language learner since they bring to the classroom their personal characteristics and learning preferences which are a relevant factor in language learning (Brown, 2000; Lightbown & Spada, 2013). Because of that, in Canada, each newcomer is evaluated before starting school and a personal instructional plan is designed for each of them considering their “natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills” (Reid, 1995, p. viii). Taking these elements into account, teachers put into practice what Larsen-110 Freeman and Anderson (2011) coined as principled eclecticism: to borrow and adapt different aspects and techniques from traditional methods and approaches that enable them to foster and support better the language learners in their particular classroom context. That is why not all the strategies observed were exactly the same in each class but can, in some way, be grouped and discussed in general terms. 5.3.1.1 Adaptations with a subject-specific focus The modifications related to specific subject areas linked to differentiated instruction, aimed at making the content more accessible to students and providing diverse alternatives to process tasks and provide evidence related to the expected outcomes. In this research study, I was able to observe that differentiation was made based on students’ needs. In order to differentiate content, process, and product it is essential to understand and address students’ individualities. A learner’s profile includes the understanding of how culture and feelings of the students impact their learning; knowing their current level of knowledge, understanding, and skills in order to build up on them; personal interest that can be used to engage their attention and involvement in tasks to enhance their learning (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). The Canadian teachers observed during this study had the opportunity to work with the ELLs every day and therefore, were able to pay attention and consider their individual characteristics when planning the class activities. This was particularly obvious when teachers suggested ELLs to perform a different task because the topic was not familiar or not relevant for them (e.g., Canadian elections, Canadian political parties, etc.) and when they considered student’s choices in the learning process. As I could observe, student choice was considered in 111 the way they received input related to content knowledge, in the way they processed this content, and in the way they evidenced their leaning. In the same way, the results of my reflections align with the ideas of Tomlinson and McTighe (2006) since the methods that teachers used to present the contents allowed students to access the information through diverse ways, such as videos, summaries of books, realia, independent reading, online research, etc. without having to change the content itself. Including students’ choices helped learners to make sense of the content and came to understand it according to their level of proficiency in English, readiness, and interests (Tomlinson & Allan, 2000). Additionally, students were provided with a range of options to demonstrate what they had learned over a period of time: a video presentation, PowerPoint, poster, drawing, or list of words/ideas, among others. 5.3.1.2 Adaptations with a language focus Regarding the adaptations with a language focus, which I related to the strategies that teachers put into practice to make the content more comprehensible to students, I was able to observe how teachers applied comprehensible input principles to support language learners in their classrooms. Krashen’s Comprehensible Input Theory (1982, 1985), has stated that learners need to be exposed to language just a step beyond their current level in order to acquire that language. In this sense, the results of this study showed that teachers modified their language when addressing to language learners, provided clear instructions, slowed down their speech, and simplified sentence structures and explanations, among others. Graphic organizers and charts were also repeatedly used to present information in a clear way. Providing comprehensible input was a trial-and-error process in which teachers tried certain structures and observed the reaction of the language learners. Based on their responses, 112 repetition and paraphrasing were used to support students’ understanding. It was interesting to note that the teacher assistants (in the Canadian context) and classmates were also aware of making these modifications in their speeches. Even though comprehensible input is considered a great way to improve language learners’ listening and reading skills, it doesn’t focus much on developing speaking or writing skills, which is a second objective of the modifications with a language focus: to improve learners’ ability to express themselves. Because of that, teachers also encouraged language learners to generate output in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the input received. This approach aligns with Swain’s (1985) concept of comprehensible output. In this sense, students were also allowed to use vocabulary and structures according to their level of proficiency in English; their silent period was respected and they were not pushed to use grade-level grammar and expressions. They were able to communicate their ideas to others and interact using ‘what they have learned’ in English. 5.3.1.3 Adaptations with a social focus Finally, concerning the adaptations with a social focus, the idea of cooperative learning was observed repeatedly during this study. Opposite to what I did in my lessons in Chile, where students were used to work in well-organized groups as I used varied criterion to form the groups each month and encourage them to develop the tasks cooperatively and collaboratively, in the Canadian context this was not so consistent. Surprisingly, even though interaction is an important factor when learning an additional language (Long, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978), the opportunities to work with groups or pairs were not as many as it was expected in the Canadian context. Despite cooperative learning emphasizing small-group work in which students with different abilities and skills are required to perform a specific task together (Johnson & Johnson, 113 1999; Kagan, 1994), most of the time, students were sat in groups assigned by the teacher but they worked individually on the tasks. They were allowed to talk and share information, but it seems that the main purpose of that seating arrangement was providing a welcoming and supportive environment in which students could engage in casual conversations and small group not-lesson-related discussions. In spite of that, just by being sat with others, language learners were observed lowering their anxiety to speak and could practice their communication skills, it provided them more opportunities to use the language in meaningful interactions with peers (verbalizing and reformulating ideas, and discussing and comparing their ways of thinking), and it helped them to build a more supportive learning environment (sharing learning strategies, providing constructive criticism, and taking risks in their attempts to communicate), which goes in line with the ideas presented by Johnson and Johnson (1999). Cooperative learning principles and techniques as described by Jacobs and Hall (2002) and Kagan (1994) were not actively implemented during the classroom observations of this study or in my personal experience in Chile. However, when language learners had the opportunity to work in groups or in pairs, it was possible to observe what Vygotsky (1978) called the ZPD. Language learners interacted with more capable interlocutors who provided guidance and scaffold in the tasks, fostering understanding and learning the language of instruction and content. Sometimes these more capable peers were classmates from native English/Spanish speaking backgrounds and sometimes they were more proficient language learner in the same class. The activities proposed by teachers allowed language learners to give and receive peer support in activities such as researching, browsing information on the internet, organizing and presenting group-generated projects, editing other’s texts or paragraphs, and rehearsing oral presentations, among others. 114 5.3.1.4 Additional not predetermined themes A theme that was not predetermined but recurrent in many of the observations of the self-study was the use of technology. According to Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011), technology can be viewed as a source of teaching material and resources or as a way to provide enhanced learning experiences. Even though teachers used technology to present the content, such as projecting videos, playing audio texts, or using interactive boards, most of the time, technology was used to foster learning experiences. In this sense, technology such as computers, cell phones, and iPads facilitated individual learning and autonomy. Despite it not being possible to observe the use of technology to enhance learner-learner interaction as in chats, blogs, or social networks; it was possible to observe how it was used to promote learner-content interaction. The use of technology in the classroom was more frequent in the Canadian context than in the school context where I worked in Chile. In different ways, students were provided with authentic material while looking for information on the internet, they deepened their learning by watching videos on YouTube, they were allowed to use their L1 to access information to complement what they have learned using Google Translate and picture dictionaries, they had the chance to use diverse ways to represent their knowledge of the topics covered in the units, and they had fun being assessed using their cell phones connected to Kahoot. As a result, and in line with Ferlazzo and Sypnieski (2018), students’ development of intrinsic motivation was nurtured by autonomy, competence, relatedness, and relevance. Not only was the use of technology a key factor to promote learning experiences and to engage and motivate language learners, but also the feedback provided by teachers. It was noted that teachers did not correct all language learners’ mistakes when speaking or writing, only the mistakes that impeded communication. As believed by Coelho (2016) and Ferlazzo and 115 Sypnieski (2018), mistakes were seen as a natural part of the language acquisition process and as opportunities to learn, not as signs of failure. Teachers provided indirect feedback by modelling the correct form of grammar and pronunciation and at the same time, being very supportive as they constantly congratulated language learners for their accomplishments. Additionally, during this study, I was able to observe what has been defined by the TESOL International Association (2018) as the six principles of exemplary teaching of English learners: a set of universal guidelines identified as best practices in language pedagogy and language acquisition theory. Five out of the six principles were observed repeatedly in this study and are related to knowing the learners, creating conditions for language learning, adapting lesson delivery, monitoring and assessing student language development, and engaging and collaborating within a community of practice. The only principle that was not possible to observe was the one related to designing high-quality lessons for language development because of the lack of parameters to check what it is understood by “high-quality.” In spite of that, teachers designed lessons that engaged the students with relevant and meaningful content and tried to their best to promote the use of learning strategies and critical thinking among their students. 5.3.2 Questionnaires and Interviews 5.3.2.1 Listening and Speaking It was surprising to notice that in the questions related to the strategies that teachers use to teach listening and speaking skills to newcomers, the answers of both groups of specialists were very similar. Even though Chilean teachers do not have policy guidelines to suggest instructional strategies to support language learners, the specialists who participated in this 116 research study agreed in almost all the same strategies mentioned by the Canadian participants, who can rely on the B.C. Ministry of Education documents. It was evident, however, that the answers of the Canadian participants were repeated consistently by the three language specialists in contrast with the responses obtained from the Chilean participants. Both groups highlighted that when addressing language learners, teachers speak clearly, repeat utterances, and use gestures as a way to help them to understand the messages. In both countries, teachers increased the use of visual support such as maps, graphs, and drawings in order to facilitate learning. These ideas align with the classroom observations I carried out as part of my self-study and that also relates to Krashen’s (1982) comprehensible input theory and Cummins’ (1981, 1984) ideas of contextual support . By implementing the aforementioned strategies, teachers supply vocabulary and structures which serve as a model and foundation to language learners to develop their language proficiency. Chilean and Canadian participants mentioned the use of Google Translate to communicate in the early days and they both cautioned on the overuse of this tool which may cause students to delay their language development. Unfortunately, there is not much research on this topic since most of the information in relation to Google Translate refers to written texts and not to oral communication. In a similar aspect, a point that was made by both groups of specialists was the use of the learner’s L1 to facilitate understanding and communication. Language learners were allowed to use technological tools without restriction to translate, to read in their first language, and to look for information in their L1 as a way to ensure a complete understanding of the contents. It seems that it was completely understood that by not doing that teachers would, to some point, deny them access to education in conformity with Olsen’s (1997, p. 101) ideas that “a student who 117 speaks no English and is given instruction only in English is really being given no instruction at all.” Chilean teachers who received newcomers provided them with a list of phrases and basic vocabulary which was reviewed and repeated with the students to model pronunciation and as a way to boost vocabulary learning (Brown & Lee, 2015). Canadian teachers used flip cards, which are flashcards that in addition to the phrases and vocabulary also include pictures. In this way, the students could practice listening and speaking of specific sounds, structures, and vocabulary. This practice, related to Behaviourism and the Grammar-Translation approach (see Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011), has long been accepted as part of foreign language teaching and learning strategies and was also observed in the French lessons in the Canadian context. The information provided by both groups of specialists suggested that the explicit use of listening activities has not been considered as a strategy to enhance listening skills in language learners. They believe that with the mere fact that learners are immersed in the country, they will be able to pick the language up as they engage in meaningful interactions with native speakers, which concurs with Krashen’s ideas of language acquisition. Krashen (1982) claimed that additional languages are acquired in the same way people learn their first language, as a natural process, by listening attentively to spoken language that is meaningful to them. In spite of that, teachers should consider that picking the language up by interacting with peers may only help them to develop what Cummins (1981, 2008) popularized as BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills). Interacting with peers alone may not necessarily develop CALP (Cognitive Academic Learning Proficiency). According to Cummins, conversational English is typically limited in the vocabulary and expressions, and it is also characterized by being contextualized with gestures and concrete situations while not necessarily being too cognitively 118 demanding. These characteristics related to BICS differentiate from CALP in that academic English typically presents content-related vocabulary and more complex structures, along with less contextual support and abstract concepts while being increasingly cognitively demanding. The great difference between the answers of the two countries’ specialists was that in the Canadian context in this study, language learners are provided with a pull-out service to get supplementary language support. In these sessions, they are provided with additional comprehensible input and have the opportunity to use the language in meaningful interaction with similar language proficient peers (Long, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978). 5.3.2.2 Reading and Writing In the questions related to the strategies that teachers used to enhance reading and writing skills in language learners, the answers of Chilean participants were very different from the ones of Canadian participants. Maybe because Canadian teachers have been provided with clear guidelines and suggestions to be implemented, they all agreed on the same instructional strategies while each Chilean participant mentioned different strategies. As a way to foster reading and writing, in Canada, teachers use scaffolding techniques that imply starting from very short and easy texts with lots of images and progressively move to more complex texts. In the pull-out sessions, language learners are introduced to levelled reader books which include repetition of sounds, structures, and vocabulary so that they can practice reading according to their proficiency levels. The in-school ELL teacher takes advantage of Vygotsky’s (1978) ZPD to set up reading peers. As they work with similar-proficient peers, they collaborate and support each other with the pronunciation and meaning of some words. In order to enhance writing skills, ELLs start at the beginning level by tracing and writing letters and minimal pairs, matching pictures and words, and filling-in-the-blank with word banks. 119 After that, they move to the developing and expanding levels by increasing the level of difficulty and reducing contextual support. In consolidating levels, they are asked to write more complex sentences and paragraphs and some of them are also able to use grade-level structures and vocabulary. In this sense, the B.C. ELL Standards (2017) provide clear descriptors that teachers can use to support language learners as they move from the different language proficiency levels. Errors in writing were treated in the same way as errors in speech, as a natural and unavoidable part of the learning process (Coelho, 2016; Ferlazzo & Sypnieski, 2018). Teachers encouraged students to write without using translating tools as a way of stimulating the production of comprehensible written output in similar ways as the oral production. In the English Language Arts class, ELLs are allowed to read the summary of the book that the rest of the class is reading. Sometimes, they read the same text in their native language, and sometimes, they work translating a summary of the chapters into their L1 in order to contrast both languages. Teachers feel free to differentiate the content by presenting the same book in different formats which take into consideration the learner’s proficiency level in the language. Tomlinson and Imbeau (2010) suggested taking into consideration the individual learner’s profile as a way to scaffold the activities. In this sense, teachers are flexible and open to implementing modifications to support ELLs learning, which also included building on students’ previous knowledge. According to Jessness (2004), background knowledge is a huge part of reading since “if readers do not have sufficient knowledge to understand a passage, even if their decoding skills and vocabulary are adequate, the passage will not make sense” (p. 62). In agreement with this idea, it was possible to observe teachers providing information, encouraging research, and developing thematic units before starting reading a book. They made efforts to fill 120 the gaps between their students’ knowledge and the knowledge they needed to understand the content presented. Even without having a clear theoretical foundation for their decisions, Chilean teachers mentioned the use of shorter texts with visual support and translation of texts into students’ L1 to support reading skills that go in line with differentiated instruction (Tomlinson & Allan, 2000). They mentioned the dictation of words and copy-and-repeat techniques to practice writing in the beginning levels and the use of simpler activities according to the students’ level of proficiency in Spanish. It was interesting to realize that they used behaviouristic approaches to foster memorization and rote repetition of expressions with the idea that the more they repeat, the more they learn the language. It is very likely that teachers believe that these rote vocabulary and expressions may become at some point meaningful when they have to interact with native speakers in meaningful exchanges. As middle school learners have already learned their first language, teachers may think it would be easier for them, even beneficial, to receive ready-to-use expressions to put into practice when needed. The rote study of vocabulary and expressions also allows language learners to learn vocabulary more quickly than they could by just being exposed to the language (Jessness, 2004). On the other hand, the results of this study show that teachers used their instinct to implement strategies related to the way children learn how to read and write in their first language: starting by increasing phonemic awareness, helping them to decode words, encouraging memorization of high-frequency words, paying attention to spelling, and practicing one-on-one reading aloud to model pronunciation, intonation, and rhythm. It is possible that, without clear guidelines and knowledge of second/additional language theories, they made 121 generalizations about language acquisition and understand that people learn the first and additional languages in similar ways as suggested by Krashen (1982) and Brown (2000). In relation to grammar, Chilean teachers used it explicitly and consistently as a way to help students to discover syntactic and morphological patterns in contrast with their L1. They seemed to understand that some patterns are difficult to acquire without a formal study. Despite Canadian specialists agreeing with this idea, they recognized that most of the time it is assumed that the students will pick up the structures only by reading and listening to them, and therefore there is not much emphasis on teaching grammar explicitly. 5.3.2.3 Assessment It is clear that the answers of the specialists in relation to assessment were completely different between Chilean and Canadian participants. Particularly in relation to the first assessment that aims at checking how much of the language of instruction newcomers can understand and produce. Chilean participants declared that there were no formal protocols to evaluate language learners before they start school and that each classroom teacher evaluated their knowledge in their respective subject areas. A point needs to be made here concerning the number of teachers that attend each class. The educational system in Chile is based on teacher specialists in each subject content area instead of grade specialists as it is the case in British Columbia. In the school where the observations took place, one class had two teachers who organized the schedule and assigned the subjects to teach. Most of the times, one teacher is in charge of humanistic subjects such as English Language Arts, Social Studies, and French, and the other teacher is in charge of Scientific subjects such as Math, Science, and Technology. In the Chilean context, 122 students in Grade 6, for example, have a different teacher for Spanish, Math, Science, History, P.E, Music, etc. which means at least eight different teachers per class. As it can be noticed, it is certain that Canadian teachers have more opportunities to get to know their students because they spend more time with them (three instructional hours per day), in contrast with teachers in Chile who can spend only two to four instructional hours with them each week. Having the opportunity to spend more time with students helps teachers to become familiar with their characteristics and learning preferences, particularly useful to support language learners. The TESOL International Association (2018) emphasized the idea of knowing students as a good practice in language pedagogy. Several authors (Coelho, 2016; TESOL, 2018; Tomlinson & Allan, 2000; Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010) asserted that learning about students helps teachers to adapt instruction in ways that enhance their learning. Learning about students not only means to learn their names, address, or telephone number, but also to explore their cultural background, social class, religion, educational background, and special needs, among others. This knowledge of the students would serve to plan tasks, develop differentiated activities, and adjust teaching strategies to meet language learners’ learning and linguistic needs. Regarding the first assessment in Canada, all specialists who participated in this study agreed in that the first assessment is done by the ELL district specialists and to that end, they use tests and protocols provided by the B.C. Ministry of Education. There are well-known guidelines and materials to evaluate newcomers in the four main skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) that language specialists use to collect evidence to report to the Ministry of Education. Documenting and reporting the results of the first assessment is of great importance since based on these reports, the Ministry assigns supplemental funding and resources to support 123 ELLs in each school. At the same time, these results are used by the district ELL specialist, the in-school ELL teacher, and the classroom teacher to design an annual instructional plan to meet the needs of each student identified as a language learner. Following this instructional plan, classroom teachers can assess ELLs for the rest of the year. “Flexibility” is the word that defines the ongoing assessment of language learners. All language specialists mentioned in their questionnaires and interviews that teachers use diverse ways to evaluate ELLs’ learning progress. That is to say, they use formative assessments as defined by Black and William (1998), as ongoing observations of the students’ performance that provide information to modify teaching and learning activities instead of assigning a grade. Formative instruments allow learners to reflect upon their performance in ways that serve to monitor themselves and improve their learning. As discussed previously, differentiating the process and product as proposed by Tomlinson and Allan (2000) and Tomlinson and Imbeau (2010) implies considering the way learners make sense of the content and the way they demonstrate they have understood it. They are both linked to a process closely related to the student’s learning profile and readiness. According to Tomlinson and Imbeau (2010), good examples of differentiation in process and product include tiered activities, flexible use of time, varied resource options, varied assignments, personal goal-setting, and interest-based options, which clearly concur with the answers obtained by the Canadian language specialists and that, were also possible to observe in the classrooms during my self-study. The fact that middle school students in British Columbia are not assigned any type of numerical grade or are expected to fulfill a mandatory number of grades during the school year may also be of help for teachers’ flexibility when assessing them. Opposite to this system, 124 Chilean teachers have to register a minimum number of grades during the year and students are assessed in a numerical scale from 1 to 7. As there are no guidelines to suggest a differentiated way to evaluate the processes for language learners and the need to accomplish ministerial mandates, teachers use the same instruments to assess all students, which most of the time consists of a written test. Other ways to get a passing grade to register consist of taking some measures such as lowering the level of difficulty of the tests or do not consider the incorrect responses, which aligns somehow with the accommodations researched by Rivera et al. (2006) and distinguishes those that provide direct and indirect linguistic support to test-takers. All in all, it is certain that teachers try to support language learners not to fail because of their proficiency level of Spanish. 5.3.2.4 School support It has been put forward that language learners’ outcomes are the result of the interaction between school social contexts and students’ socio-cultural backgrounds (Coelho, 2016; Cortes, 1986; Gay, 2000), with school contexts defined by the structural organization of the school, teachers’ preparation, and staff attitudes, among others. With students’ socio-cultural backgrounds generally fixed, there are many aspects of the school context that can be modified in the schools to provide a positive and welcoming environment that enables language learners to succeed. Much emphasis has been put on teachers’ roles to support language learners, but as the results of this study indicate, without school administrators and principals who support teachers’ decisions, there is not much that teachers can do by themselves. In relation to the question aimed at obtaining information on the guidelines that schools provide concerning the strategies to be used with language learners, it was possible to notice how Canadian specialists provided clear and congruent responses in comparison with the Chilean 125 counterparts. It is evident that teachers in British Columbia count on guidelines and standards, and receive professional support from the ELL district language specialists to develop tasks according to students’ needs. Principals and teachers are aware of these resources, and it is seen as a natural activity that ELLs are pulled-out during the day, or that teacher assistants dedicate an important part of their time supporting them inside the classroom. Chilean participants declared that most of the actions taken on behalf of language learners were decisions taken based on their own criteria and intuition, without the guidance of school policies. Even though the material mentioned in previous sections to enhance learning in listening, reading, speaking, and writing, was created and adapted by the teachers who worked directly with language learners, teachers cannot change the assessment and grade system to adjust better to their needs. It is urgent to make improvements in the educational system and in teacher development on behalf of the increasing number of language learners. Despite all the available material and guidelines to support language learners in British Columbia, language specialists who participated in this study agreed that teacher preparation has been insufficient and many educators who work with ELLs have had little preparation either in teacher education or through professional development programs. Even though the ELL Standards (2017) specified that all teachers “should address the learning needs of ELLs and be prepared to adapt their instructional approaches to accommodate the different levels of English proficiency and different learning rates and styles of their students”, the reality is that they feel the need of more training in the use of diverse instructional strategies. 126 5.3.3 Comparisons between Canada and Chile Even though the Canadian and Chilean educational systems are different, after concluding this research study it was possible to state some similarities in the approaches and instructional strategies that teachers use to support language learners. On the one hand, the most obvious difference is the fact that in British Columbia, teachers have clear policy guidelines that orient their practices (BC Ministry of Education, 1999, 2017, 2018) and provide standards and resources to schools. These policy guidelines provide a common language and define the roles of teachers and language assistants so that everybody in schools knows that there are provisions to consider when receiving a language learner in their classrooms. Teachers can also rely on the district language specialists who provide advice and plan tasks and activities to better address the individual needs of ELLs. District support also includes orientations to schools to carry out pull-out services to provide one-on-one practice with students who need it. One of the most relevant similarities that could be observed included that in both countries teachers made efforts to provide comprehensible input (Krashen, 1982, 1985) as they modified their speech when addressing language learners, using simpler structures and vocabulary. As teachers received a language learner, they increased the use of contextual and visual support such as charts, graphs, and drawings to support their learning (Cummins, 1981, 1984). Another similarity is related to the use of technology, highlighting the use of Google Translate to foster oral communication particularly in the early days of newcomers. In both countries, teachers allow the use of students’ L1 as a basis to learn the language of instruction and negotiate content. Students’ L1 was mainly used to check comprehension and identify 127 possible problems, to clarify instructions, provide translations of keywords that are difficult to explain in the L2, and to find out what the students know but cannot express in the language of instruction. Teachers understood that in order to provide education, students need to be provided with access to knowledge and content, regardless of their native language (Olsen, 1997). Lastly, it was possible to observe a similarity in the way teachers assess language learners. Even though Chilean teachers do not have the flexibility of British Columbian teachers in the use of formative assessment, they also put into practice the same accommodations to support students. These accommodations are related to providing extended time, allowing the use of a dictionary, providing one-on-one support, allowing students to take breaks during the tests, reading to them the questions aloud, allowing students to respond orally, and using linguistically simplified materials, among others (Gottlieb, 2006; Rivera et al., 2006). All in all, with or without policy guidelines to orient teacher practices, teachers can support language learners and, according to the results of this study, it is possible to state that they possess accurate ideas of how languages are learned and they can use what they know (and feel) to support language learners learning an additional language. The only missing piece for Chilean teachers is to increase their knowledge of the theoretical foundations to support their decisions. The results of this study show that it is certain that they make use of the principled eclecticism to support language learners but they simply do not know it. 5.4 Summary Statement This qualitative research study and its findings suggest that even though there are clear theoretical foundations to support language learners and thousands of instructional strategies, there are no ready-to-use recipes to put into practice in the classroom. 128 Having knowledge of constructivist theories to approach additional language teaching and learning and intercultural communicative competence are essential aspects in globalized contexts as the number of immigrants is increasing around the globe. It is important to consider that teachers applying constructivist additional language strategies can simultaneously address the needs of additional language learners and students who already have grade-level proficiency in the language of instruction. This is because the modifications they make in content, language, and process, can make the curriculum more accessible and comprehensible, enhancing the learning experience of all students. Understanding that additional language learners need to be provided with adaptations in subject-specific, language, and social areas to succeed in any educational system is considered a good practice according to research (Coelho, 2016; Ferlazzo & Sypnieski, 2018; TESOL, 2018), apart from being ethical and fair (Olsen, 1997). Differentiated instruction, comprehensible input, and cooperative learning strategies are the big umbrella for thousands of instructional strategies that teachers can implement once they get to know their students. The principles for exemplary teaching serve as guidelines for teachers in their challenge to provide quality education to all students despite their diverse characteristics, such as recognizing the students’ first languages and cultures when planning instruction; involving language learners in meaningful social interaction with more capable peers; and creating engaging learner-centered activities that build on students’ backgrounds and interests. It is possible to conclude that effective instructional strategies depend on many variables that include particularly the consideration of learners’ personal characteristics and learning profile. Therefore, no one strategy can work in the same way in every context. 129 5.5 Applications of Research This research study was conceptualized to build a comparative study between the common instructional strategies that are used in Canada and in Chile to support additional language learners in middle school, with the ultimate goal of identifying the most effective ones. Teachers in Chile admitted that they implemented instructional strategies based on their instinct and criteria, and that they lacked research-based theory in additional language teaching and learning to justify their interventions. The results and discussions in this study indicated that even without clear policies and theoretical evidence, they are making beneficial decisions in relation to instructional strategies to support language learners. It is hoped that the findings of this research can be used to inform them of the theoretical foundations behind their decisions, that they can serve to enhance the implementation of effective instructional strategies, and that these informed decisions can be replicated by other teachers who need them. It is also expected that the findings of this study help Canadian educators to evaluate the instructional strategies they currently use and obtain information about the theoretical underpinnings that can be used to modify and improve their practices. They can also find it useful to use the information to prepare workshops to foster professional development in this area to make successful instructional strategies accessible to more teachers facing the challenge of supporting ELLs in middle school. Finally, it is hoped that these findings allow policymakers, administrators, and teachers in Chile to set possible criteria to create consistent guidelines based on research evidence for supporting newcomers learning Spanish as an additional language in Chilean schools. 130 5.6 Implications for Practice and Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that content-area teachers who work with additional language learners have teacher professional development on implementing a variety of instructional strategies to include adaptations with subject-specific focus, language focus, and social focus in order to make content more accessible, comprehensible, and engaging to language learners. There are many more instructional strategies that are possible to implement, but they are not commonly used; there are many modifications that can be implemented when considering the personal profile of the learners. Once teachers obtain better information on the theories behind additional language learning, they can be able to think of ways to scaffold and differentiate instruction according to their classroom contexts, and adapt those strategies over the years as they work with other students with different characteristics. Teacher development programs should include second/additional language acquisition theories in order to build a solid knowledge of ways of differentiating instruction, providing comprehensible input, and fostering cooperative learning principles in all content-area lessons. These programs are valuable because additional language teachers are more familiar with diverse instructional strategies and implement them more often than content-area teachers, who might put into practice only what additional language specialist teachers suggest to them according to their particular contexts. The implications of these results are also related to providing all students with equitable opportunities to grow and succeed in the school system regardless of their diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Providing a welcoming and positive environment in the school setting is an important principle according to research (Coelho, 2016; Ferlazzo & Sypnieski, 2018; TESOL, 2018) that must not be overlooked by teachers or administrators. 131 5.7 Recommendations for Future Studies Since this study was limited because of time constraints, because of the number of language specialists who participated, because of the number of teachers observed in the self-study, and because it included only my personal experiences in one Chilean school (see Chapter 3 for more details regarding this study’s limitations), it would be interesting to conduct a future study which allows an increased number of observations over a longer period of time. It would also be interesting to look at the use of other ways to triangulate and gather information, such as interviews with more content-area teachers and additional language specialists. It would also be significant to contrast information related to instructional strategies that are used in British Columbia, where ELL-specific policies exist and guidelines are provided by the Ministry of Education, with the instructional strategies implemented in other countries, as it was done in this study with Chile, where there are no official guidelines and teachers use their “common sense” to adapt their lessons to Spanish language learners. This type of research in other educational contexts could be carried out to explore similarities and differences in the way other countries support additional language learners and exchange successful practices. It is also recommended that when teachers carry out similar studies they pay special attention to their process of bracketing in order to maintain objectivity. As suggested by Cresswell and Poth (2018), bracketing involves the researchers being aware of their own personal experiences and setting them aside so that they can focus on the experiences of their participants without influencing the results or their interpretation. When researchers fully commit to the process of bracketing throughout the research process they will be able to accomplish its benefits. 132 5.8 Final Reflection As a researcher of this study, I first conceptualized this study as I experienced the frustration of working with Spanish language learners in Chile and feeling that the strategies I was implementing were not being successful. Without clear educational policies or guidelines and unaware of the theories and research-based principles to teach additional language learners, I adjusted my practice in an effort to provide support and care to my students. Unsatisfied with the results, I started this project in the hope of finding answers, and maybe a complete list of ready-to-use instructional strategies. I conducted a self-study which included the observation of middle school teachers working with ELLs in Canada in a way to help me to contrast that information with my personal experiences in Chile. At the same time, I applied an open-ended questionnaire and interviewed six language specialists who informed me about strategies that teachers use to enhance listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills in diverse educational contexts. The information was coded and organized into themes that were shared and discussed in previous sections of this thesis. After analyzing the data, I felt disappointed again since it was not possible to find a clear answer: a definite list of strategies. It was not until the very end of this project that I realized how the pieces of the puzzle matched together and evidenced the answers to my initial question: What English as an additional language teaching approaches in Canadian contexts have the potential to inform effective Spanish as an additional language teaching to newcomers in Chilean schools? In the end, I realized that I was not completely wrong in the adjustment I had made in Chile to support language learners. In the end, what I needed was the theoretical foundation to inform my practice. In the end, the answer was related to Principled Eclecticism (Larsen-133 Freeman & Anderson, 2011). Borrowing and blending aspects from various methods and approaches, and selecting the instructional strategies that best fit my context. Relevant to making this selection is considering my learners’ characteristics and their learning profile (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010) to be able to differentiate instruction (Tomlinson & Allan, 2000). As a teacher who knows my students, I am now able to select and provide comprehensible input (Krashen, 1982) to make content more accessible and able to enhance cooperative learning (Johnson and Johnson, 1999) to enrich interaction with more capable peers (Vygotsky, 1978). Having analyzed and understood the theories presented, teachers can begin to pay attention to their practice and reformulate it. They can make informed decisions to support additional language learners to provide opportunities to learn in constructivist ways. In the Chilean context, this would mean a change in the educational paradigm of homogenisation and move to a more student-based pedagogy that focuses on students’ characteristics and learning profiles. 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Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Education
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Graduate
Additional language learning : effective approaches to supporting newcomers learning English in British Columbia and Spanish in Chile
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