"Arts, Faculty of"@en . "History, Department of"@en . "DSpace"@en . "UBCV"@en . "Ferguson, Helen"@en . "2011-11-03T18:31:00Z"@en . "1939"@en . "Master of Arts - MA"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "[No abstract available]"@en . "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/38705?expand=metadata"@en . "THE: DEVELOPMENT OF GOMMUNIGATTONS IN COLONIAL BRITISH COLUMBIA by Helen Ferguson A t h e s i s submitted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements f o r the degree of Master of Ar t s i n the Department of History, 7 . 14 3 ^ The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia A p r i l 1939 THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATIONS IN COLONIAL BRITISH COLUMBIA Chapter One The Second Empire and the- P a c i f i e V i c t o r i a n decline i n c o l o n i a l i s m - a new imperialism on the P a c i f i c - The Oregon and the fur-trade - Hudson's ' Bay Company charter - the Select Committee of 1853 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2> \u00E2\u0080\u00A2. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Pages 1 - 6 Chapter Two No Thoroughfare The report of 1857 - population, Indian and white -communications - the f u r trade -Pages 7 - 1 7 Chapter Three Trespassers G-old p r i o r to 1858 - Bulwer Lytton as Secretary f o r the Colonies - erection of a gold colony - the rush -Pages 18 - 28 Chapter Four The 'Couriers\" Prove a Costly Ornament The Royal Engineers as 'couriers' - o r i g i n of the idea of a m i l i t a r y force f o r the P a c i f i c coast -Lytton's plans and execution - the van-guard a r r i v e s -Moody chooses a c a p i t a l s i t e - the main body - e a r l y operations - H a r r i s o n - L i l l o o e t and Cariboo - end of the Engineer era - n Pages 29 - 45 Chapter Five The 'Couriers' Recalled C o l o n i a l O f f i c e opinion of the Engineers - c o l o n i a l resentment - minor obstacles -Pages 46 - 54 Chapter Six C i v i l i a n Roads - Cariboo Rush - C o l o n i a l R i v a l s I . C i v i l i a n s on the H a r r i s o n - L i l l o o e t - under the Engineers - contractors - finance - II.Cariboo discov-e r i e s - t r a n s p o r t a t i o n problems - route controversies -B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t and c a p i t a l - III.Douglas and Moody -Pages 5 5 - 9 0 Chapter Seven P r i v a t e Enterprise Carries on Seymour - Construction 1864-1866 - a l i n k with the east-Pages 91 - 103 Chapter Eight Un Mariage de Convenanee Union - debts - construction and r e p a i r s 1867-1871. Pages 104 - 118 Chapter Nine Conclusion. Pages 119-120 gIBLIOG-RAPHY Pages 121-126 {. THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATIONS IN COLONIAL BRITISH COLUMBIA CHAPTER ONE THE SECOND EMPIRE AND THE PACIFIC' A young Canadian h i s t o r i a n , g e n e r a l i z i n g r e c e n t l y i n an attempt to e x p l a i n the phenomenal growth of D i s r a e l i -Rhodes imperialism, claimed that 1871 marks the death of the Second B r i t i s h Empire and the b i r t h of the T h i r d . P r i o r to that date l i e s \"the slow sombre d e c l i n e \" of the c o l o n i a l i s m which marSed the f i r s t decades of V i c t o r i a ' s r e i g n . ( 1 ) The c o l o n i a l p e r i o d of. the mainland of B r i t i s h Columbia c o i n c i d e s with the f i n a l t h i r t e e n years of that \" d e c l i n e \" and f o r the most part i l l u s t r a t e s the t r u t h of Mr. Greighton 1s g e n e r a l i -z a t i o n . However the development of communications on the mainland of B r i t i s h Columbia f u r n i s h e s one example at l e a s t of a s u r v i v i n g B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t i n c o l o n i a l development. To achieve a proper p e r s p e c t i v e f o r a study of t h i s s u r v i v a l and i t s e f f e c t s , i t i s : n e c e s s a r y to r e t u r n to the b i r t h of the Second Empire at the c l o s e of the American Revolution. At that date B r i t a i n ' s claims upon the shores of the B a c i f i c Ocean were those e s t a b l i s h e d by Captain James Cook, but they were n e i t h e r recognized: i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y nor h i g h l y p r i z e d at home. However the B r i t i s h East Indian .Company was absent-mindedly laying.the foundations of the 1. Greighton, D.G-. \"The V i c t o r i a n s and the Empire . \"Canadian H i s t -o r i c a l Review.June 1938.XIX:138 f f . 2 I , j B r i t i s h r a j i n India so that, sooner or l a t e r , the c i r c l e of I B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t would of n e c e s s i t y include the P a c i f i c Ocean. During the p e r i o d of the Napoleonic wars the o b s t r u c t i o n of B r i t a i n ' s European trade, stimulated the extension of trade with the c o l o n i e s . Stimulated by t h i s trade expansion a group of c o l o n i a l reformers began to advance new i m p e r i a l t h e o r i e s based on f r e e trade and the need f o r emigration to r e l i e v e p opulation pressure a t home. Perhaps the most famous of t h i s group were B u l l e r , Wakefield and Durham whose concerted e f f o r t s c o n s t i t u t e so important a chapter i n Canadian h i s t o r y , While Wakefield's name_is one of great s i g n i f i c a n c e i n the h i s t o r y of A u s t r a l i a . The slow working of the leaven of \u00C2\u00AB < ^ o t W : * n W \u00C2\u00A3 j through the lump of p u b l i c i n d i f f e r e n c e . i s the t a l e of B r i t i s h imperialism during the^ nineteenth century; t This leavening was aided g r e a t l y by the n e c e s s i t y of a c q u i r i n g naval s t a t i o n s and points' of c a l l to p r o t e c t the new trade routes along which B r i t i s h Vessels were t r a n s p o r t i n g the wealth of the o r i e n t . But trade on the American side of the P a c i f i c was slow i n developing; consequently any i n t e r e s t ' d i s p l a y e d there by B r i t a i n was perfunctory i n comparison with the e f f o r t s to acquire and hold, such vantage p o i n t s as Malta, Capetown, T r i n i d a d and Ceylon. The f i r s t phase of the new imperialism on the P a c i f i c was the withdrawal of Spain. By the terms of the Nootka Con-vention of 1790 her proud claim to \"sovereignty of the P a c i f i c and her r i g h t . . . to exclude other peoples from that ocean \" ( 2 ) was set aside, under B r i t i s h pressure. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 rj . . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 '\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 g.Howay,F.W.British Columbia:The Making of a Province.Toronto 1 9 2 8 . p.33 3 \"The r e s u l t i s that the north-west, coast,.outside of such s c a t t e r e d occupancy, was l e f t without sov-ereignty i n any c i v i l i z e d s t a t e ; and thus i t could become the t e r r i t o r y of any nation that entered and occupied i t . \" ( 3 ) When, i n 1819, the n o r t h e r l y l i m i t of Spanish t e r r i t o r y was e s t a b l i s h e d by t r e a t y at 42 degrees North l a t i t u d e , the con-t e s t f o r sovereignty over the region northward to 54 40' and eastward to the Rocky Mountains re s t e d with Great B r i t a i n and the United States. Expansionist tendencies i n the United States were evident from the Revolution onward. F r a n k l i n had gone to the peace conference with dreams of a North American r e p u b l i c and upon those dreams succeeding generations of American p a t r i o t s e s t a b l i s h e d a philosophy of \"manifest d e s t i n y \" . Very e a r l y the scope of t h e i r proposed expansion included the e n t i r e P a c i f i c coast. Although as ,early as 1818 p r o v i s i o n was made by convention between Great B r i t a i n and the United States f o r the s o l u t i o n of the.Oregon Boundary problem, f i f t y - f o u r years were to elapse before the boundary as i t now e x i s t s could be e s t a b l i s h e d . An i l l u s t r a t i o n of the s t r a i n e d Anglo-American r e l a t i o n s which p e r s i s t e d throughout t h i s p e r i o d i s provided by the f i l e s of the \"Economist\". In 1853 .when 'President P i e r c e d e l i v e r e d h i s in a u g u r a l address lie s a i d : \"The r i g h t s , s e c u r i t y , and repose of t h i s confederacy r e j e c t the idea of i n t e r f e r e n c e or c o l o n i s a t i o n on t h i s side of the ocean by any f o r e i g n Bower, beyond present j u r i s d i c t i o n , as u t t e r l y I n a d m i s s i b l e . \" ( 4 ) This \"dogma\" the Economist found not only \" i n c o n s i s t e n t . . . 3 . Noway o p . c i t . 0 p.33 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 4 . \"The New Presi d e n t ' s Inaugural Address.\"The Economist.March 19, 1853. XI:307 4 w i t h h i s ( P i e r c e ' s ) o t h e r p r i n c i p l e s , \" hut s a v o u r i n g \"too much o f P a p a l u s u r p a t i o n , which gave away America, or.iSpahish grasp-i n g , which, on such a \" g i v i n g , c laimed c o u n t r i e s i t c o u l d never occupy.\". The e d i t o r i a l c l o s e d w i t h t h i s d e f i a n t warning: \" I f our v o i c e can reach a c r o s s the A t l a n t i c , we would suggest to P r e s i d e n t P i e r c e t h a t he should c o n f i n e the r e s t r i c t i o n on f o r e i g n , c o l o n i s a t i o n to the t e r r i t o r i e s c l a i m e d and occ u p i e d by the U n i t e d S t a t e s ..\"(5) . P r o b a b l y the Oregon was one of the t e r r i t o r i e s which the Economist had In mind. An e x t e n s i v e and p r o f i t a b l e f u r -t r a d e , b oth maritime and i n t e r i o r , \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 had been c a r r i e d on west of the R o c k i e s ever, s i n c e Alexander Mackenzie's memorable e x p l o r -a t i o n s on b e h a l f of the North-West Company i n 1792. The ' Hudson's Bay Company, a f t e r amalgamation w i t h the North-West Company i n 1821 had a l a r g e stake i n t h i s t r a d e . By 1846 the Columbia Department which extended from 55. n o r t h to 41 30 1 and from the Rocky Mountains to the. P a c i f i c (6) was b e i n g e x p l o i t e d by the Company's agents working through an e x t e n s i v e system of t r a d i n g p o s t s . Those i n c l u d e d i n t h e . f u r r e t u r n o f the'Department f o r t h a t year were: New C a l e d o n i a , G o l v i l l e , Thompson's R i v e r , Nez P e r c e s , Langley, N i s q u a l l y , Snake Country, Simpson, and : S t l k i n e . (7) So e x t e n s i v e a c a p i t a l investment warranted a con-s i d e r a b l e a l a rm when i t became apparent t h a t the onrush of a g r i c u l t u r a l s e t t l e r s i n t o Oregon foreshadowed the end o f the , f u r e r a . . But though alarmed, the Company e v i d e n t l y d i d not 5. The Economist, March 19,1853. XI:307. 6. McLean J . Noi.es o f a Twenty-five Years S e r v i c e i n Hudson's Bay T e r r i t o r y . London, l849..(Champlain S o c i e t y , Toronto 1932) 1:21 7. Hudson's Bay Co. A r c h i v e s ( h e r e a f t e r HBC) B223 d. \"Vol. 212 p.125 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2' \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ^expect much support from the B r i t i s h Government and when the compromise'* .settlement was e f f e c t e d In 1846, .Douglas' could write: \" A l l things considered, the y i e l d i n g - mood of the B r i t i s h M i n i s t r y and the concessions made,.we have come o f f b e t t e r than I expected. I looked for'nothing short of an u t t e r s a c r i f i c e of our e n t i r e i n t e r e s t . \" ( 8 ) . - . The B r i t i s h government, - having taken the plunge,. began, eyen before the gold era, to give some \"thought to the future settlement of t h i s c o l o n i a l wilderness. At l e a s t prospects of settlement by immigration were b r i g h t enough that the Hudson's Bay Company was unable to gain an o b j e c t i v e which might have provided a r e s p i t e f o r t h e i r f u r - t r a d e . Immediately a f t e r the boundary settlement i n 1846 they had p e t i t i o n e d f o r a blanket c h a r t e r covering settlement, government and e x c l u s i v e trade f o r most of what i s now Western Canada. (9) Shrewdly suspecting tjaat the Company's aim was to discourage c o l o n i s a t i o n r a t h e r than to husband i t , the B r i t i s h Government reduced the scope of the c h a r t e r which was f i n a l l y given January 13, 1849 to i n c l u d e only Vancouver Island; and t h i s merely because there seemed no other way of inaugurating B r i t i s h r u l e i n the t e r r i t o r y U n t i l 1849 the p r o p o r t i o n of the B r i t i s h p u b l i c which gave any heed to the prospects of developing the Empire on the 8. Jas.Douglas-Dr.W.P.Tolmie,Apr 1 9 , 1 8 4 7.B.C.Archives Report 1913 pp. 82-85. d. Sovocrl 9 . I beg leave to say that i f Her Majesty's'Ministers would be' of the o p i n i o n that the t e r r i t o r y i n question would be more conveniently governed and c o l o n i z e d (as f a r as may be p r a c t i c -able) through the Hudson's Bay Company, the Company are w i l l i n g to undertake i t , :and w i l l be ready.to r e c e i v e a grant of a l l the t e r r i t o r i e s belonging to the Crown which are s i t u a t e d to the north and west of Rupert's Land.\" S i r John P e l l y - E a r l Grey. Parliamentary Paper (1848) No.619 p.9. Also c f . Howay and S c h o l f i e l d B r i t i s h (Dolufiib;la.|i.riErom the: E a r l i e s t Times to the Present.Vancouver/ 1914. I:498 and Begg,A.History of B r i t i s h Columbia. Toronto'\", 1894. p. 184 , i n Aaa<* \u00E2\u0080\u00A2VMA 4 8 C T O . t o KM . W e o v v ^ U o l c S c \ \ \ C C o ' t o ^ a . - n ^ -nor viSiS.t/ould probably have been more accurate. - The white population, was almost n e g l i g i b l e . With the exception of the h a n d f u l ! of o p t i m i s t s engaged i n the 'I beginnings of,the naval supply trade and the growing of . a g r i c u l t u r a l produce (some of which went to pay the Hudson's Bay Company's r e n t a l of the Russian s e a l f i s h e r i e s ) ' the e n t i r e white population of s i x hundred west of the Rockies was engaged d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y i n the fur-trade.(11) With the exception of a s m a l l group from the Red River Colony who came i n the f o r t i e s there were .no B r i t i s h s e t t l e r s or overlanders unconnec-t e d with, the Company. This settlement i n e r t i a may be diagnosed as the r t s u l t .8-.Imperial Blue Book op. g i t . Ques. 388 . % '\u00E2\u0080\u00A2. .' 9. J.Douglas^Nevvcastle, Apr. -22, l86l(Despatches to Downing St. V i c t o r i a Archives) 10. Canada Year Book 1938. p.. 1051 11.Sage, W.N.Sir James Douglas and B r i t i s h Columbia. Toronto 1930 p. 1.;.8. 10 of the Hudson's Bay Company's f u r - t r a d i n g ' monopoly. The Company 1s .great a l l i e s were the i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y of the i n t e r i o r and the ' l a i s s e z - f a i r e ' p o l i c y of the C o l o n i a l O f f i c e . -While ; the s e c r e t a r i a l s t a f f of t h a t department and' those o f the A d m i r a l t y and War Department d i d take some cognizance o f the. a f f a i r s of Vancouver I s l a n d , e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r 1849, i t seemed u n l i k e l y t h a t B r i t i s h I n t e r e s t would extend i t s e l f to the f o s t e r i n g ,of s e t t l e m e n t and communications upon the mainland. An e x c e l l e n t i l l u s t r a t i o n o f the inadequacy of the c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and of B r i t i s h I n d i f f e r e n c e l i e s i n /the f a c t t h a t , i n theory, the l a w - c o u r t s o f Canada had j u r i s -d i c t i o n over the mainland a r e a u n t i l i t s e r e c t i o n as a separate .colony i n 1858..(12) - i :';\u00E2\u0080\u00A2! \u00E2\u0080\u00A2,... ^ -v -v :' ' , The i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y of the i n t e r i o r which Cooper had s t r e e s e d ( 13). was due p a r t l y to the l a c k of a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system adequate f o r a- s e t t l e m e n t c o l o n y . The main t r a f f i c a r t e r i e s , p r i o r to the g o l d era,, were, l i k e the white p o p u l a t i o n , i n the s e r v i c e of the f u r - t r a d e . By p a c k - t r a i l and bateau they l e d from the n o r t h e r n f o r t s and- the Kootenay 'te-feM -^f6 T~feett&\u00C2\u00AB down the Okanagan to the Columbia and the sea.. The r o u t e to the i n t e r i o r v i a the F r a s e r R i v e r was not s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d as a f r e i g h t r o u t e b e f o r e 1847 a l t h o u g h i t had been e x p l o r e d by Simon F r a s e r i n 1808,. S i r George. Simpson i n 1828 and A. C. Anderson i n 1846.(14) By 1846 the Hudson's Bay Company r e c o g n i -zed^, the expediency o f f i n d i n g an a l t e r n a t i v e to the r o u t e 1.2.21 & 22 V i c t o r i a C 99 Sec 4 (An A c t to p r o v i d e f o r the Gov-ernment of B r i t i s h Columbia,- August 2,1858.) 13'. I m p e r i a l 'Blue Book op. c i t . : & B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t , June 29,1859. l4.Howay & S . c h o l f i e l d op. c i t . Chapter X,pp 235-282; Howay,F.W. . \"The R a i s o n d'Etre of F o r t s Yale.and'Hope.\"Transactions o f the R o y a l S o c i e t y of Canada, 3 r d . S e r i e s . XVI,'52 (1922); and Sage op. c i t . pp 133-135. eft AwUr\u00C2\u00AB,t>* A . L \\\>,\O , - -Perhaps too, Douglas 1 despatches contained more of h i s worries 24. Blackwood, May 29,-1863. (PRO CO 60.17) 25. Newcastle,. A p r i l 22,- 1863 -(PRO CO 60.17) 26. E l l i o t , A p r i l 21, 1863 (PRO CO. 60.1-7) 53, and demanded more c o n s i d e r a t i o n than was warranted by the r e l a t i v e ' i m p o r t a n c e of the colony. Consider, f o r example, the Governor's expose of the r a t i o n s ' r a c k e t ' as he sa\u00C2\u00A5/ i t . .He was anxious to place before Newcastle \"the numbers of the d i f f e r e n t persons r a t i o n e d , e s p e c i a l l y the wives and f a m i l i e s - o f the O f f i c e r s . \" ( 2 7 ) The expenses of the Detachment i n 1862 exceeded those of 1861 by \u00C2\u00A32271. The i n c r e a s e was to be found mainly under the heading, \" p r o v i s i o n s and F u e l . \" I n 1862 these r a t i o n s had exceeded the \u00C2\u00A3-6,020 o f 1861 by \u00C2\u00A3-1,785. Douglas charged t h i s i n c r e a s e to. the f a c t t h a t the number of women and c h i l d r e n r e c e i v i n g r a t i o n s rose from s i x t y - f i v e to one hundred and f i f t y and t h a t the number of c h i l d r e n had more than t r e b l e d d u r i n g the f i v e year p e r i o d . \" I b e l i e v e t h i s i s out of a l l p r o p o r t i o n to what i s a u t h o r i z e d by the r e g u l a t i o n s of the Srmy . \" ( 2 8 ) Douglas proposed to d i s c h a r g e a l l who had l a r g e f a m i l i e s , g i v i n g them the o p t i o n of remaining In the colony I f they so d e s i r e d . E l l i o t ' s comment on the Governor's expose was: \"The f a c t t h a t the whole of the numerous wives and f a m i l i e s of these Engineers were drawing r a t i o n s a t immense c o s t \" t o the p u b l i c w h i l s t the Governor c o u l d not o b t a i n so much as even a l i s t .of the r e c i p i e n t s . . w i l l not have escaped the a t t e n t i o n of Newcastle.\" (29) Blackwood too, c o n s i d e r e d t h a t : \" T his r e p o r t s t r e n g t h e n s the p r o p r i e t y of the measure \u00C2\u00B0resolved upon by the Duke of Newcastle to withdraw the 2 7 .Douglas-Newcastle, 1863 (PRO CO 60.15 #5956) 28.. i b i d . 2 9 . . E l l i o t - F o r t e s c u e , J u l y 4, 1863- (PRO CO 60.17) 54 \"Engineers from B r i t i s h Columbia. I understand that s h i p p i n g has been taken up f o r the conveyance of the detachment to England.\"(30) So Douglas was r i d o f : h i s \"incubus,\" h i s \" o l d man of the sea.\"(31) In a c c o u n t i n g f o r the d i s c o n t i n u a n c e of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the ' c o u r i e r s ' and the ward of the 'Lady of P r o p e r t y ' , c l e a r l y one cannot adopt the s i m p l i -f i c a t i o n which seemed adequate to Hugald M c l a v i s h at the time (and to Judge Howay l a t e r ) . \" I dare say,\" wrote McTavish, \"there i s some t r u t h i n i t , as i t i s shrewdly surmised, t h a t His E x c e l l e n c y has had more to do.with the r e c a l l of the Engineers home than anyone e l s e . \" ( 3 2 ) Quite o b v i o u s l y the t e r m i n a t i n g of L y t t o n ' s experiment i n e m p i r e - b u i l d i n g was e f f e c t e d by Newcastle's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w ithout much deference to c o l o n i a l o p i n i o n . 3 0..Blackwood-Elliot, June 18, 1863 (PRO CO 50.15 #5956) 31., D o u g l a s - E l l i o t , A p r i l 17, 1865 (B. C . A r c h i v e s , Douglas L e t t e r Book, p.96) 52.Howay and S c h o l f l i e l d o p . c i t . p.109 55 CHAPTER SIX CIVILIAN ROADS - CARIBOO RUSH - COLONIAL RIVALS The disbanding and withdrawal of the Royal Engineers from B r i t i s h Columbia marked the end of an era i n the develop-ment of communications. Before proceeding to a d i s c u s s i o n of the p e r i o d which followed, however, three aspects of the Engineer era, h i t h e r t o avoided i n the i n t e r e s t s of c l a r i t y , must be considered. These are: the a c t i v i t i e s and f i n a n c i n g of c i v i l i a n r oad-builders, the consequences of the Cariboo rush, and the r e l a t i o n s h i p between Douglas and Moody. Each of these .has a bearing upon the c o n d i t i o n of the colony on the eve of the new regime. I When the onrush of gold-seekers i n 1858 necessitated the establishment of communications with the i n t e r i o r , the f i r s t important step taken was a c i v i l i a n e f f o r t unique i n character. When, on August 19, Douglas a p p l i e d to Stanley f o r \"even a s i n g l e company of i n f a n t r y \" f o r defence purposes i n the colony, he r e f e r r e d 'to t h i s c i v i l i a n e f f o r t as part j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r n i s request. ( 1 ) A beginning, he wrote, was being made toward i n t e r n a l communications; a party of f i v e hundred men were b u i l d i n g a road i n t o upper Fraser's River by the v a l l e y of the Harrison River. The group to whom Douglas o r e f e r r e d were miners who had assembled i n V i c t o r i a . To them the governor had presented the problem of t r a n s p o r t i n g supplies I.Douglas-Stanley, Aug 19, 1858. (PRO CO 60 #10,342) 56 to the g o l d - f i e l d s and d i r e c t e d them to the H a r r i s o n - L i l l o o e t route a l r e a d y known to the Hudson's Bay Company f o r whom Anderson had e x p l o r e d i t i n the f o r t i e s . \"The men employed are of many n a t i o n s - B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s , Americans, French, Germans, Danes, A f r i c a n s , and Chinese who v o l u n t e e r e d t h e i r s e r v i c e s immediately on our wish to open a p r a c t i c a b l e route i n t o the i n t e r i o r of E r a s e r ' s R i v e r D i s t r i c t b e i n g made known to the P u b l i c . They moreover p r o f f e r e d t h e i r s e r v i c e s on terms, so p e c u l i a r - i n themselves and so' advantageous f o r the country t h a t i t would have been unwise of me to d e c l i n e them. . . . The c o s t of the work w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , not be heavy, nor exceed our means of repayment out of the revenues of the Gold D i s t r i c t . \" ( 2 ) A l a s f o r Douglas' e x p e c t a t i o n s . The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the t r a i l proved f a r more expensive than he had a n t i c i p a t e d . Howay (3) g i v e s the a c t u a l c o s t as \u00C2\u00A3-12,064.17.8 and t h i s e v i d e n t l y d i d not i n c l u d e the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n allowance made to the r o a d - b u i l d e r s on the conveyance o f t h e i r s u p p l i e s from V i c t o r i a t o the t r a i l ' s end, which, a f t e r some squa b b l i n g , was d e f i n e d by Douglas a t e i g h t e e n cents per pound. Probably the rumour r e p o r t e d by the V i c t o r i a Gazette was not much out when i t suggested s e v e n t y - f i v e to a hundred thousand d o l l a r s as the t o t a l c o s t. ( 4 ) U n f o r t u n a t e l y the q u a l i t y of the work d i d not j u s t i f y the unpremeditated expense. Douglas wrote to L y t t o n i n December: \" H a r r i s o n ' s R i v e r road i s a f t e r an endless d e a l of t r o u b l e and a n x i e t y from the want of honest and ab l e men to c a r r y out the p l a n s of government f a i r l y open \u00C2\u00B0 to t r a f f i c . \" ( 5 ) 2. D o u g l a s - S t a n l e y , Aug 19, 1858 (PRO CO 60 #10,342) 3. Howay and S c h o l f i e l d o p . c i t . 11:89 4. A 3 - E d i t o r , Sep 30,1858.\"Letter from P o r t D o u g l a s . \" V i c t o r i a Gazette. Oct 7, 1858. 5. Do u g l a s - L y t t o n , Dec 24, 1858 (PRO CO 60 #52 B.C. 1527) 57 A r e p o r t on the completed p r o j e c t prepared f o r the Governor suggested- t h a t the road might not be \" f a i r l y open\" v e r y long. \"The b r i d g e s c o n s t r u c t e d by the Road Makers are In ge n e r a l too low. Most of them w i l l be swept away by the f r e s h e t s . \" ( 6 ) So i n a u s p i c i o u s l y was f r e e trade i n r o a d - b u i l d i n g inaugurated i n the i n f a n t colony o f B r i t i s h Columbia. The w r i t e r of the' r e p o r t j u s t quoted had accounted f o r the u n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s . o n the H a r r i s o n - L i l l o o e t by the l a c k of competent s u r v e y o r s . That l a c k was f i l l e d s h o r t l y by the a r r i v a l of the Engineers on whom, .according to a s p e c i a l despatch from L y t t o n to Douglas, the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a l l road surveys i n the colony was to r e s t , a t l e a s t so l o n g as the amount of necessary work remained w i t h i n t h e i r scope. (7) Douglas knew w e l l t h a t p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s who had been a l l o w e d to l o c a t e and survey roads had got out of hand i n Oregon and he was q u i t e w i l l i n g to cooperate. ( 8 ) Throughout the Engineer p e r i o d , however, r o a d - b u i l d -i n g by c i v i l i a n c o n t r a c t o r s , packers and p r o p e r t y - h o l d e r s c o n t i n u e d . The two l a t t e r groups were drawn i n t o the- road-b u i l d i n g program u s u a l l y because government a c t i o n was too slow to cope w i t h the r a p i d development of the g o l d country and because, as Moody h i m s e l f seon p o i n t e d out, the Engineers ( were i n c a p a b l e of a c c o m p l i s h i n g the whole-of the works contemplated and a s s i g n e d to them on t h e i r departure from 6. McKay's Report to Douglas, Oct 2, 1858 (B.C.Archives) 7. Lytton-Douglas, Oct 16,1858 (Douglas L e t t e r Book -4 p.8) 8. \"Trutch's Report, 1868.\" Okanagan H i s t o r i c a l Association. 1 9 3 5 9. D o u g l a s - L y t t o n , Mar 19,1859 (PRO CO 60747 58 England. Thus s h o r t - c u t s , and makeshift t r a i l s e a r l y appeared as t r i b u t a r i e s to the main routes and on these too, much v o l u n t a r y a s s i s t a n c e was rendered to the Engineers by those who stood to ga i n most from a speeding-up of o p e r a t i o n s . There are many i n s t a n c e s to be gleaned-from the \ c o l o n i a l p r e s s of p r i v a t e I n d i v i d u a l s doing v o l u n t a r y work\ and c o n t r i b u t i n g money toward the upkeep or c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s e c t i o n s of road a l o n g the main r o u t e s . I n 1859 p r o p e r t y h o l d e r s a t Douglas c o n t r i b u t e d amounts v a r y i n g from \u00C2\u00A715 to \u00C2\u00A740 i n o rder that the H a r r i s o n - L i l l o o e t wagon road might be com-p l e t e d . (10) And i n the same year the c i t i z e n s of Hope sub-s c r i b e d $2,000 f o r a t r a i l from Hope to \"a p o i n t above the K e n y o n . \" ( l l ) I n 1861, so i t was r e p o r t e d , a p a r t y of Frenchmen l e f t L y t t o n \"to cut a new t r a i l from above Lake Le Hache to Beaver Lake c u t t i n g o f f t w e n t y - f i v e m i l e s . \" \"They ! lcross F l y Creek and have got f o u r - b r i d g e s to make, doi n g i t f o r t h e i r chances a t new houses on the route.\"( 1 2 ) While these men were prompted by hopes of g a i n , o t h e r s were s p u r r e d on by.hopes of a v e r t i n g l o s s . The packers, f o r example, who i n 1863 r e p a i r e d the Pernberton Portage which was i n a \" d e p l o r a b l e s t a t e \" because of h i g h water, had befo r e them the case of the packer who, w a i t i n g f o r the government '-to do something, spent |2 ,000 on feed.(13) Small wonder t h a t \ the L y t t o n correspondent wrote to h i s e d i t o r , tongue i n cheek: 1 0 . C o l o n i s t , J u l y 22,1859- - \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 I I . i b i d . J u l v 27,1859. 1 2 . i b i d . Dec 29,1861 & June 28 ,1862. 1 5 . i b i d . J u l y 13,1863. 59 \"Perhaps when the-miners get to the Rockies the Government w i l l CONSIDER roads to the Cariboo.\"(14) In the same v e i n he added: \"The system of a l l o w i n g p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s to cut t r a i l s and make roads f o r the p r i v i l e g e of c h a r g i n g a t o l l f o r a l i m i t e d p e r i o d was no good i n a B r i t i s h c o lony; very good f o r a C a l i f o r n i a , but i n B r i t i s h Columbia we must not do t h i n g s i n a h u r r y , but proceed s l o w l y w i t h due regard to w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d form, and p recedents.\"{15 ) The p r i v i l e g e r e f e r r e d t o , t h a t of t u r n i n g the p u b l i c communica-t i o n s system i n t o a network of p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s was l a t e r granted to the c o l o n i s t s when development seemed p o s s i b l e no other way. I t i s not s u r p r i s i n g however t h a t the i n n o v a t i o n should have been r e s i s t e d , f o r i t was l e s s than a decade s i n c e E n g l i s h r e f o r m e r s had waged t h e i r b a t t l e f o r the a b o l i t i o n of t h a t v e r y p r i v i l e g e i n England. From the o u t s e t the awarding of c o n t r a c t s was a v e r y ' h i t and miss' a f f a i r . This was due i n p a r t to Douglas' l a c k of e x p e r i e n c e as a \"road-king\", i n p a r t to h i s eagerness to have communications opened w i t h the i n t e r i o r , and i n p a r t to the s p i r i t of p r o d i g a l i t y , the v e r y atmosphere of the g o l d c o l o n y . These had a l l c o n t r i b u t e d to the- break-down of the r o a d - c u t t i n g scheme on the H a r r i s o n - L i l l o o e t the season p r i o r LO the a r r i v a l of the Engineers and t h a t f i a s c o formed p a r t of the background f o r the new a d m i n i s t r a t i o n under Moody. Douglas h i m s e l f had been aware of the weaknesses i n h i s scheme -at l e a s t by the end of the season when he wrote to Downing S t r e e t the despatch a l r e a d y quoted i n which he blamed the 14. A r g u s - E d i t o r , May 28, 1861. I'Le U e r from F o r e s t C i t y #11.\" C o l o n i s t June 17,1861. 1 5 . i b i d . 60 f a i l u r e on \"the want of honest -and a b l e men to c a r r y out the p l a n s of'government.\"(16) He had gone on to say that the miners were very d i s s a t i s f i e d and, i f the f o l l o w i n g from the 'Gazette' i s t r u e , t h i s i s not to be wondered a t . \"A hundred and f i f t y men are doing- n o t h i n g because there are as many a t work a t the f u r t h e r end of the r o u t e as can be s u p p l i e d w i t h p r o v i s i o n s . \" ( 1 7 ) I t might be q u e s t i o n e d whether or not even honest and a b l e men c o u l d have accomplished much under t h i s arrangement. At any r a t e , G-ustavus B l i n Wright, who l a t e r became a c t i v e as a road c o n t r a c t o r , recommended the f o l l o w i n g s p r i n g t h a t the H a r r i s o n - L i l l o o e t road be done by c o n t r a c t , suggest-i n g t h a t the road should be d i v i d e d i n t o s e c t i o n s l e t t i n g r e s p o n s i b l e p a r t i e s b i d on each s e c t i o n . ( 1 8 ) He even s t i p u l a t e d the p r o b a b l e t o t a l c o s t , $20,000, and the l e n g t h of time r e q u i r e d f o r c o m p l e t i o n , two months. Whether or n o t ' h i s s u g g e s t i o n c a r r i e d any weight w i t h Douglas or Moody, i t was a l o n g the l i n e s he i n d i c a t e d t h a t the development took p l a c e . I t cannot be s a i d however t h a t the c o n t r a c t arrangements l o s t t h e i r ' h i t and miss' c h a r a c t e r . Yet w h i l e i t i s easy to p o i n t to numerous fla w s i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the department of lands and works, there Is much to exonerate the p f f i c i a l s . I t i s true t h a t the Engineers d e l a y e d so l o n g i n p e r f o r m i n g necessary s e r v i c e s t h a t even as l a t e as i860 many of the c o n t r a c t s awarded were 16. c f . p.56 above. 17. \" L e t t e r from P o r t Douglas.\" V i c t o r i a Gazette, Sept 28,1858 18. C o l o n i s t , May 27, 1859 61 v i r t u a l l y b l a n k cheques. For example, the c o n t r a c t which Dewdney h e l d In the Hope-Similkameen i n that year contained no d e f i n i t e p r o v i s i o n s as to the d e t a i l s of the route and caused almost endless c o n t r o v e r s y between Douglas, Moody and the contractor. ( 1 9 ) But the l a y i n g out of a c a p i t a l , the b u i l d i n g of b a r r a c k s , and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Ned McG-owan War were unavoidable o b s t a c l e s ; and i t was no f a u l t of the Governor's t h a t the Engineers should make blunders because of t h e i r l a c k of f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h the country. B Again, the i n e f f i c i e n c y of the c o n t r a c t i n g system can be excused because communications' were always slow and o f t e n spasmodic and i t was. no simple task to p r o v i d e adequate s u p e r v i s i o n over so v a s t and so rugged a w i l d e r n e s s . And the s i t u a t i o n was f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by the f a c t t h a t an area which one day might clamour f o r roads might be d e s e r t e d on the day f o l l o w i n g . I t came to a p o i n t where the govern-ment simply v o t e d an a p p r o p r i a t i o n to eke out l o c a l c o n t r i b u -t i o n s and l e f t the i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s to get the most f o r t h e i r money. For example, Douglas requested i n 1861 a committee of l o c a l c i t i z e n s to spend-an a p p r o p r i a t i o n of \u00C2\u00A72,000 to the best advantage on a t r a i l from W i l l i a m s Lake to Quesnelle Forks. ( 2 0 ) In depending on the s e l f - i n t e r e s t of the c o l o n i s t s as a spur to road development the Governor Wc.s not d e a l i n g w i t h a n o n - e x i s t e n t f o r c e ; he was only mistaken w i t h r e s p e c t 19\u00E2\u0080\u00A2Moody's Ms8. #1154, J u l y 6, 17, Aug 23, Oct 9, Nov 9, 13, 21, 27. ( V i c t o r i a A r c h i v e s ) 2 0 . C o l o n i s t , May 22, 1861. 62 to i t s d i r e c t i o n . A c a s u a l r e a d i n g of the c o l o n i a l press a c c o u n t s ' o f the a c t i v i t i e s of the c i v i l i a n r o a d - b u i l d e r s i s l i k e l y to leave one w i t h the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t the t e n who undertook to b u i l d a t r a i l here or a b r i d g e there were p u b l i c b e n e f a c t o r s . In.most cases however the i l l u s i o n i s l a t e r d e s t r o y e d by some news item r e v e a l i n g t h a t the b e n e f a c t o r owned a convenient s t o r e or h o t e l , the custom of which c e r t a i n l y d i d not s u f f e r from i t s p r o x i m i t y to the t r a i l or b r i d g e . T y p i c a l o f many such cases i s the d i s p u t e which arose between Captain.Grant of the Royal Engineers and G. B. Wright as to the course of the road to YiTilliams .take. Wright advocated abandoning the f u r brigade route which .proceeded to A l e x a n d r i a o v e r l a n d f o r one which f o l l o w e d the r i v e r . He c l a i m e d e a r l y i n May, 1863 t h a t h i s change would save ten m i l e s on the t o t a l d i s t a n c e as w e l l as o f f e r i n g the t r a v e l l e r the a l t e r n a t i v e of three-days-a-week steamship s e r v i c e on the r i v e r s a v i n g s i x t y m i l e s l a n d t r a v e l . ( 2 1 ) Grant however h e l d out f i r m l y f o r the o l d b r i g a d e t r a i l . Toward the end of the month when the smoke of b a t t l e wt.s b e g i n n i n g to c l e a r ' i t was r e v e a l e d by the ' C o l o n i s t ' t h a t Wright had r e c e i v e d a h a l f -i n t e r e s t - i n a ranch a t Deep Creek, rumoured to be \"the p r i c e of t a k i n g the road t h a t way.\"(22) At the same time, Judge Elwyn who owned a t h i r d i n t e r e s t i n M i s s i o n Claim which had c o s t him $7,000 and which would d e p r e c i a t e i f Wright had h i s 2 1 . C o l o n i s t , May 4,1863. 2 2 . i b i d . May 28, 1863-63 way, hurried, to pour i n t o o f f i c i a l ears h i s advocacy of the o l d r o u t e . ; But n e i t h e r h i s p l e a s nor t h a t which should have c a r r i e d more weight, the a d v i c e of Grant, were s u f f i c i e n t to d e f e a t Wright. The ' C o l o n i s t ' had hoped t h a t the C h i e f 1 Commissioner, to whom the matter was r e f e r r e d , w o u l d be guided by the r e p o r t of Captain Grant who was \"probably b e t t e r Q u a l i f i e d than any o t h e r o f f i c e r i n the country to determine the matter.\"(23) The f o l l o w i n g s p r i n g the E d i t o r was s t i l l v i e w i n g the s i t u a t i o n w i t h alarm ana p o i n t i n g to a d d i t i o n a l evidence of \" t r i c k e r y , f a v o u r i t i s m and m a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . \" \"Why d i d the Government a l l o w the road to be taken that way? Echo s t i l l answers why? Why were the c o n t r a c t -ors a l l o w e d to take the road to Soda Creek and s t a r t a steamboat on the Eraser? . . . Of course the c o n t r a c t -ors hadn't made any d o l l a r s out of the road or steamboat? Oh no I . . . D u r i n g the time the road was being b u i l t --'We' heard from r e l i a b l e sources t h a t the managing c o n t r a c t -or expressed to the W i l l i a m s Lake s e t t l e r s (on the o l d t r a i l ) h i s w i l l i n g n e s s to take the road by way of t h e i r ranches i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a small donation of $15,000! How k i n d ! But the next news the strange person l a b o u r i n g so h a r d f o r the g e n e r a l weal had become possessed of a h a l f - s h a r e i n Deep Creek Ranch .. . .(one of the b e s t stands f o r b u s i n e s s ) and not w i t h s t a n d i n g the many v i r t u e s V i c t o r i a j o u r n a l s had so f r e q u e n t l y found i n t h i s gentleman the road e v e n t u a l l y took the course by way of Deep Creek. Another t h i n g .- . . t h e steamboat r e t u r n s at such an hour t h a t the miner on h i s way down can j u s t make the f o u r t e e n m i l e s and stay a t Deep Creek House.\"(24) The e d i t o r went on to express a f a i n t hope t h a t the government would \"'keep t h e i r weather eye l i f t i n g 1 a l i t t l e more on the next' o c c a s i o n of g i v i n g out c o n t r a c t s f o r the c o n s t r u c t i o n of roads, t a k i n g care t h a t the l i n e i s f i x e d by d i s i n t e r -e s t e d , competent men and that the c l a u s e s i n the deed 23. C o l o n i s t , May 28,1863. 24. \" \" J o t t i n g s on B.C.'s P r o j e c t e d Road.\" i b i d . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 L a r c h 4,1864 64 of c o n t r a c t are s t r i n g e n t enough to prevent the p o s s i b i l i t y of i n d i v i d u a l s scheming and t r i c k i n g to b e n e f i t themselves a t the expense of the country.\"(25) C e r t a i n l y the country c o u l d i l l stand the expense. The h i s t o r y of the f i n a n c i n g necessary f o r the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the c i v i l i a n b u i l t roads i s complex and r e f l e c t s the mush-room nature of the colony's development and the craze f o r s p e c u l a t i v e investment which was s t r o n g l y p r e v a l e n t . At the o u t s e t Douglas favoured a p o l i c y of \"pay as you go.\" H i s attempts to r a i s e s u f f i c i e n t revenue to pay f o r the r a p i d l y expanding road system n a t u r a l l y a ntagonized the c o l o n i s t s . The s u c c e s s i o n of customs d u t i e s , l i c e n s e s , head tax, mule tax and road t o l l s both governmental and p r i v a t e , grew from year t o - y e a r and bore down upon p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e l i k e a s n o w - s l i d e . Or so the tax-payers would have i t ; ~ but Douglas p o i n t e d out t h a t they were not so h e a v i l y taxed as t h e i r neighbours I n Tsashlngton t e r r i t o r y and by a s l e i g h t of hand under cover of t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s he showed the taxes per head to be reasonable indeed. The. success of h i s d e v i c e depended upon h i s i n c l u d i n g i n the c a l c u l a t i o n s c f the- e n t i r e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n whether i n contact, w i t h c i v i l i z a t i o n or not.(26) But though he may have decei v e d h i s correspondents i n England, the c o l o n i s t s were under no i l l u s i o n s as to the r e a l i t y of t h e i r t a x burden. On December 10, 1859 Douglas opened f i r e w i t h a p r o c l a m a t i o n s e t t i n g up customs dues on 2 5 . C o l o n i s t , March 4, 1364. \u00C2\u00A76.cf. Sage o p . c i t . p.297 65 f r e i g h t passing through New Westminster. In the preamble i t was set f o r t h that i t was \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \"expedient to r a i s e f u r t h e r revenue f o r the purpose of opening and improving communications, navigation and roads i n B r i t i s h Columbia.\"(27) At the same time and with the same end i n view Douglas conceived -a plan of taxation which well-nigh proved h i s undoing. W r i t i n g to the C o l o n i a l O f f i c e on February 25, i860 he s a i d : \"Because the Royal Engineers are unable to grapple with the great d i f f i c u l t i e s or to make any impression on the mountains, therefore I have used c i v i l labour a l s o and f a i l i n g help from Her Majesty's Government I re s o r t e d to a s s i s t a n c e by-way of a tax of \u00C2\u00A3'i s t e r l i n g o n - a l l pack animals l e a v i n g Douglas and Yale. . . .' The tax i s unpopular but a l l -taxes are and t h i s i s urgent.\"(28) Urgent or not, i t brought as compensation f o r i t s lack of p o p u l a r i t y only \u00C2\u00A330 to the c o l o n i a l revenues (29) and worse still,\"\"drew upon the governor a storm of c r i t i c i s m which culminated i n a popular a g i t a t i o n f o r h i s dismissal. ( 3 0 ) Amor de Cosmos, one of the committee to choose a spokesman to voice' i n London the. indignation- of the tax-payers, devoted considerable space i n the 'Colonist' to heated d i s c u s s i o n on \"the present c r i s i s . \" ( 3 1 ) On March 10, i n an a r t i c l e headed \"Mule Tax T a c t i c s \" he gloated over the spectacle of the arch-autocrat e x t r i c a t i n g himself from the \"horns of the dilemma.\" \"How to f i n d a pretext f o r repeal?\" De Cosmos al s o quoted with some glee the e d i t o r of the Port 27. B.C.Papers, part I I I . 28. Douglas-Downing Street, Feb 2 5 , i 8 6 0 . ( V i c t o r i a Archives Desp.) 29. C o l o n i s t , March 10, i860. 5 0 . C o l o n i s t , Feb 2 8 , i 8 6 0 . 31.Colonist, Feb 23,1860. 66 < Townsend R e g i s t e r whom, he s a i d , \"handled our governor w i t h -out g l o v e s . \" The d i a g n o s i s o f f e r e d by the American e d i t o r was t h a t the l e v y i n g of the mule tax was \"a case of murdering the goose t h a t l a y s the egg.\"(32) But however u n w i l l i n g to pay a mule-tax, the c o l -o n i s t s s t i l l clamoured f o r roads and Douglas tunned to other methods.of r a i s i n g the necessary revenue. There i s evidence t h a t the Governor a p p l i e d i n March f o r a l o a n , presumably intended f o r p u b l i c works.(33) And i t i s probable t h a t p e r m i s s i o n was r e f u s e d because the Royal Engineers had been despatched to the Colony f o r the purpose of d e v e l o p i n g communications and no a d d i t i o n a l e x p enditure was c o n s i d e r e d necessary. At any r a t e Douglas a p p l i e d a g a i n f o r a l o a n on October 13.(34) Two days l a t e r he i s s u e d an ordinance estab- ] f l i s h i n g t o l l s a t Y a l e , Douglas, and Hope - t h a t i s to say j i a t the p o i n t of departure of each of the three r o u t e s to the j upper country. ( 3 5 ) In the l a t t e r i n s t a n c e i t i s worth n o t i n g that the mule-tax had not a p p l i e d on the f u r - b r i g a d e r o u t e from Hope and t h i s had drawn c r i t i c i s m upon Douglas f o r h i s pro-Company p o l i c y . C e r t a i n l y \" the proceeds of the &1 mule-tax would have been c o n s i d e r a b l y augmented had the tax been l e v i e d on the Hudson's Bay Company brig a d e of 400 animals which l e f t Hope a n n u a l l y . 32. Colonist,- Feb 23,1860. 33. Douglas-Downing S t r e e t , Oct 13,1860 ( V i c t o r i a A r c h i v e s Desp) 3 4 . i b i d . . . 35..Broclama11on, October 15, i860. 67 The system of p r i v a t e t o l l s had already heen instituted.:. For example, i n the 'Colonist' of September 27, i 8 6 0 i t was reported that a bridge had been b u i l t ' at L i l l o o e t by p r i v a t e p a r t i e s and that t o l l s were being charged. Furthermore, Douglas reported to Downing- Street on October 9 that he had given permission while on tour to a p r i v a t e company who proposed throwing \"a bridge at t h e i r own expense over the Thompson at Lytton to be r e p a i d by t o l l s . \" ( 3 6 ) And the Governor considered the scheme \"desirous\". During the next three years the p o l i c y became more and more \"desirous\" and a number of bridges, notably Spence's and Trutch's Alexandra bridge, were constructed on t h i s basis. And Wright even c o l l e c t e d t o l l s on the s t r e t c h of road from L i l l o o e t to Alexandria. The arrangements seem to have proved p r o f i t a b l e ' ' f o r the c o n t r a c t o r s . I t was claimed i n 1863 that the returns were as high as 25/o,(37) This s e c t i o n devoted to the a c t i v i t i e s of c i v i l i a n r o a d - b u i l d e r s during the Engineer era may be concluded with b r i e f references to the 'p r i n c i p a l contractors and the d i s t r i c t s with which t h e i r names are -connected. Mention has already been made of the a c t i v i t i e s of G. B. Wright above L i l l o o e t and i n Cariboo. Joseph W. Trutch constructed a small sector on the H a r r i s o n - L i l l o o e t road as w e l l as the bridge mentioned above. Edgar Dewdney's memorial i s the Dewdney T r a i l from Hope into the Similkameen d i s t r i c t . Spence's Bridge commemorates 36.Douglas-Downing Street, Oct 9 , I 8 6 0 . ( V i c t o r i a Archives Desp) 37-,-Colonist, Sep 23,1868. 68 Thomas Spence who a l s o c o n s t r u c t e d the wagon-road from Boston Bar'to L y t t o n . Walter Moberly, who l a t e r became Trutch's r i g h t hand man, had the m i s f o r t u n e i n 1862 to go i n t o p a r t n e r s h i p with Charles Oppenheimer and T. B. Lewis to c o n s t r u c t the p a r t of the Cariboo wagon-road from j_ytton to A l e x a n d r i a . Oppenheimer \"absquatulated\"(38) before the task was f i n i s h e d . W i l l i a m Hood assumed the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and completed a l l but a s m a l l s e c t i o n b u i l t by the Royal Engineers. II . Douglas had w r i t t e n to Lord S t a n l e y i n June 1858 t h a t , j u d g i n g from r e p o r t s c o l l e c t e d from H a r r i s o n ' s R i v e r , Hope, Thompson's R i v e r and i t s t r i b u t a r i e s , the upper F r a s e r , and Okanagan Lake, the g o l d d e p o s i t s of the mainland were not r e s t r i c t e d to the c u r r e n t d i g g i n g s on the lower F r a s e r . \"The c o n v i c t i o n i s g r a d u a l l y f o r c i n g i t s e l f upon my mind t h a t not only F r a s e r ' s R i v e r and i t s t r i b u t a r y streams, but a l s o the whole country s i t u a t e d to the eastward of the G u l f o f Georgia as f a r n o r t h as John-stone 's S t r a i t s , i s one c o n t i n u e d bed of Gold of i n -c a l c u a b l e v a l u e and extent.\"(39) Three years proved t h a t the d e p o s i t s , i n e x t e n t i f not i n v a l u e , exceeded the Governor's e s t i m a t e . By 1859 the d e p o s i t s of the lower F r a s e r had been \"worked'out\" from the p o i n t of view of the g e t - r i c h - q u i c k p r o s p e c t o r s , a l t h o u g h ' O r i e n t a l g l e a n e r s remained to e x t r a c t a modest h a r v e s t throughout the g p l d p e r i o d . T h i r t y - f i v e d o l l a r g o l d and an embarrassing 5 8 . C o l o n i s t , Sep 24 , 1862. 39.Douglas-Stanley, June 10,1838. (FRO CO 60) 69, unemployment problem have, i n our own day, r e c a l l e d i nto use the despised lower Fraser diggings as p r o v i n c i a l government youth t r a i n i n g schools. The gold-seekers of 1859, however, were i n t e r e s t e d i n bigger money and penetrated f o r t y miles beyond Alexandria. Some new f i n d s were made but on the whole 1859 had a sobering e f f e c t . Nor d i d i860 bring' word of the awaited Eldorado. But i n 1861 prospectors found t h e i r way over the d i v i d e from ^Cariboo Lake to William's Creek where they worked q u i e t l y for a season. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 In s p i t e of t h e i r precautions, news leaked out by the end of the season that t h e i r deep diggings f a r surpassed i n r i c h n e s s any d i s c o v e r i e s made heretofore. The Cariboo rush of 1862 was the consequence.(40) In i t s t r a i n came new t r a n s p o r t a t i o n problems and, f o r the f i r s t time, some enthusiasm on the part of the B r i t i s h p u b l i c . The t r a n s p o r t a t i o n problems were complicated at the outset by the f a c t that the 'winter of 1861-2 was unusually severe. In s p i t e of the f a c t that the 'Colonist' apologized f o r the weather on the grounds t h a t i t had been \"not h a l f as severe as winters i n general i n Canada and the Northern States,\"(41) i t was a subject f o r lamentation that as l a t e as March 6, \"communication between New Westminster and the upper country had v i r t u a l l y ceased\" and was s t i l l impossible.(42) From the middle of January the r e s i d e n t s of Yale had been deprived of 40. A c o l o u r f u l account of the William's Creek pioneers i s to be found i n lewis, Lebourdais 1 \" B i l l y Barker of B a r k e r v i l l e , \" B . C . H i s t o r i c a l Quarterly, July, 1937. 1:3:165-177. 41. C o l o n i s t , March 6, 1862. 4 2 . i b i d . 70 beef and potatoes while the s c a r c i t y of f l o u r had driven the p r i c e to | o 2 per b a r r e l . ( 4 3 ) A packer wrote from L i l l o o e t on March 4 that h a l f the pack animals had died and that sno?fknd w\"Led-ge of the great sucess of the over-land P a c i f i c Railway, making one, as Douglas said, \"tremble f o r the pre s t i g e of E n g l a n d m u s t have c a r r i e d weight. \"Bound together by t h i s easy-line of I n t e r n a l communication, the United States,\" sai d Douglas, \"may b i d defiance to the world and work havoc whenever i t pleases them with our commerce i n the East.\"(54) Enough trouble seemed forthcoming -without the worry of annexationists, ( 5 5 ) possible Fenian raids, ( 5 6 ) and reports of d e f e n c e - d i f f i c u l t i e s due to poor communications w i t h i n the colony.(57) The l o g i c a l p o l i c y f o r B r i t a i n i n western North America seemed to G r a n v i l l e to involve \"washing in . our hands of the whole.\"(58) Yet he was not w i l l i n g that B r i t a i n should cede to the United States, \"by sale or otherwise the whole of our possessions on the P a c i f i c , leaving the Rocky Mountains as a boundary between them and us. . . . They have been p r i v a t e l y given to understand,\" said he, \"that no such proposal w i l l even be admitted consideration. \" ( 5 9 ) 52. Baring & Glyn--Newcastle, July 5,1862 ( i m p e r i a l Blue Book on a f f a i r s r e l a t i n g to Canada.1819-1870 Vols.41 - 2 . No 2) 53. MonselI, June 1,1869. (Hansard, Vol 196) 54. Douglas-Dallas, Aug 23,1869 (Douglas Let t e r Book 1869 p.150) 55. Carnarvon, Feb 14,1870(Hansard Vol . 1 9 9 P.193) 56. Telegram,Downing St-Seymour (PRO CO 60.34) 57. Seymour-Col.Office, Jan 14,1869.(B.C.Arehives Despatches) 58. Referred to by Carnarvon i n Hansard, Vol . 1 9 9 p.193 59. Thornton-Granville,Mar 2 1 , 1 8 7 1(Granville Papers,PRO GD 29/80) 117 Confederation with i t s plans for a connecting highway probably seemed to the men at the C o l o n i a l O f f i c e as w e l l as to G r a n v i l l e at the Foreign O f f i c e , the most e f f e c t i v e way of \"washing our hands\". When Seymour died on June 10,1869 at B e l l a Coola i n northern B r i t i s h Columbia, the Col o n i a l O f f i c e named as hi s successor the r e l i a b l e f e d e r a t i o n i s t , Anthony Musgrave who, although he f a i l e d to add Newfoundland to the Dominion, deserved a second chance because of h i s sincere e f f o r t s . Thenceforward the i n t e r e s t of the home government i n the wagon road clause sponsored by the V i c t o r i a C i t i z e n s ' Confed-er a t i o n League, the Surveyor-General 1s report on the subject of a coach road, and Waddington's personal v i s i t to London, was based on the desire to see B r i t i s h Columbia a part of the Dominion w i t h as l i t t l e delay as possible,(60) P r i o r to the appointment of Governor Musgrave the b a i t dangled before the colony by f e d e r a t i o n i s t s had been the promise of an i n t e r - c o l o n i a l highway. With Musgrave i n B r i t i s h Columbia however,-union with Canada and a trans-c o n t i n e n t a l road were ensured. The discussion now turned on the nature and l o c a t i o n of the promised highway. And a high-way i t was to be as f a r as Musgrave was concerned at the outset.(61) The Government 'Gazette' considered that he was asking f o r too l i t t l e , claiming that \"the age f o r Coach Roads 60. Co l o n i s t, Jan 29,l868;Seymour-Col~Office,Apf 2,1868 (B.C. Archives Despatches);PRO CO 60.34 & 60.42, 1868, 1870. 61. Musgrave-Colonial Office,Oct 30,1869. (B.C.Archives Des-patches ) \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 . 118 has almost passed away\" and an overland railway was \"the most v i t a l part of the whole scheme of Confederation.''(6/2) In determining the route which the transcontinental would follow from the p r a i r i e westward, the choice-of- a pass was fundamental. The popular choice--was the Yellowhead. But with the exception of Waddington the explorers favoured a more southerly pass,(63) For them a route : v i a Eagle Pass assumed importance f o r i t s proximity to the Big Bend and Kootenay and f o r the competition i t would provide for r a i l -roads south of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l boundary. Surveying was begun i n the west with the assignment of sections at Canoe River, on the Fraser f i f t y miles below Yellowhead, Howse Pass and near Eagle Pass.(64) With these s l i m evidences of constructive a c t i v i t y before them c o l o n i a l dreamers saw a new day dawning when a l l t ransportation problems would be solved. I 6.2.Government Gazette sent to London (PRO CO 60.39 11:1870) 63. C o l o n i s t , Aug, 7,1869. 64. Begg op.eit,p 404 119 CHAPTER WINE * 5 CONCLUSION Whether or not one agrees with the time d i v i s i o n s of i m p e r i a l h i s t o r y adopted by Creighton and ref e r r e d to i n the* opening sentences of t h i s essay, one cannot deny that the period from 1858 to 1871 was- one during which c o l o n i a l enthusiasm i n England was not marked. Any manifestation of B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t i n c o l o n i a l development during those years i s therefore of p e c u l i a r i n t e r e s t . B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t which was perhaps f i r s t aroused by the boundary settlement i n 1846 and revived by the a c t i v i t i e s of the Select Committee whose report appeared i n 1857 re s u l t e d i n 1858 i n the despatch to the colonies of the Royal Engineers. This might not have happened had Bulwer-Lytton not been Secretary f o r the colonies at the c r u c i a l time - c r u c i a l , that i s to say, from a B r i t i s h Columbia point of view. The experiment which Lytton inaugurated was not or$ the whole successful and Newcastle, Lytton's successor, took the f i r s t opportunity of r e s t o r i n g the development of communications to a basis of l o c a l , c i v i l i a n , and, as i t turned out, p r i v a t e enterprise. A c t u a l l y i t was private enterprise which was responsible f o r the major developments of the period. The network of t r a i l s which the gold-seekers i n h e r i t e d owed much of i t s o r i g i n to the requirements of the fu r * t r a d e . The f i r s t work on the H a r r i s o n - L i l l o o e t route was done by volunteers eager to reach the diggings 120 and i t was on the same road that the f i r s t experiments i n contract construction were c a r r i e d on. Lengthy stretches of the great Cariboo road were b u i l t by contractors - Wright, Trutch, Hood and others. Dewdney b u i l t much of the Hope-Similkameen i n the capacity of contractor before he entered the service of the government. Waddington wasted h i s substance i n a v a i n attempt to popularize the Bute I n l e t route. This impressive chronicle of achievements of l o c a l p r i v a t e enterprise in'contrast to those of the Royal Engineers would seem to minimize the importance of B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t i n the development of communications. Nevertheless i t should be remembered that I the m i l l i o n d o l l a r debt which B r i t i s h Columbia c a r r i e d i n t o the Dominion of Canada represented B r i t i s h c a p i t a l invested i n those- l o c a l achievements. Might one suggest that the i n t e r e s t of English c a p i t a l i s t s was of greater s i g n i f i c a n c e than the d i s i n t e r e s t of the Colonial Office? The motives which lay behind the B r i t i s h govern-I ' ; ment's support of the union between B r i t i s h Columbia and Canada are complex. No doubt a fear of American expansion-i s t sentiment played i t s part as d i d perhaps a d i s i n c l i n a t i o n to administer such a large and sparsely populated t e r r i t o r y from so great a distance as London. At any rate the Important point i s that B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t i n the accomplishment of confederation played i t s part i n the motivation and shape of communications development during the c l o s i n g years of the c o l o n i a l ' period. 121 BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY AND CONTEMPORARY I. .Manuscript . Hudson's Bay Company Archives, London, England: Account Sales, Invoices, Fur Returns and outgoing correspondence f o r O u t f i t s of 1843 to 1859. A 51/37 B 223d Le t t e r Books, 1845 to 1854. A 6/ 27 & 29 *London Locked Pri v a t e L e t t e r Books:Correspondence with Her Majesty's Government, especially\" Colonial O f f i c e and Foreign O f f i c e . A 7/ 2 & 3; A 8/ 4, 5 & 6 Miscellaneous Unsorted Papers: 1849, 1850, 1851. Reports on Overland.Surveys f o r Telegraph etc. 1865 C 226 C/2 *West Department Lett e r Book, correspondence c h i e f l y to the Secretary, London from Fort V i c t o r i a . V o l \" I : 1844-45; Vol XI\u00C2\u00ABXIII: 1853-57. B 226b P r o v i n c i a l Archives of B r i t i s h Columbia, V i c t o r i a . ^Departmental Correspondence: Dewdney, Moberly, Moody, Palmer, Parsons, Royal Engineers o f f i c e r s , and Trutch with the Department of Lands and Works. |t ^Despatches to and from the Co l o n i a l Office from 1851 to 1871. Douglas P r i v a t e Letter Books: 1857, 1863, 1867, 1869 Miscellaneous Correspondence: Bank of B r i t i s h Columbia and Bank of B r i t i s h North America with the C o l o n i a l Secretaries, 1862, 1865. Public-.RecOrdftOffiee, C o l o n i a l O f f i c e Section, London. ^Blackwood's interdepartmental notes, 'Blanshard to Grey, Carnarvon to Newcastle,, ^Douglas to Stanley, Labouchere, Lytton, Newcastle, * E l l i o t to Fortescue, Hamilton, Board of Trade, Fortescue's interdepartmental notes, I r v i n g to Douglas., Rogers, Items marked * were most us e f u l f o r t h i s essay. 122 PRIMARY AND CONTEMPORARY, Manuscript (Cont'd) *Lytton to Douglas and Moody, *Moody to Carnarvon, Lytton and Newcastle, ^Newcastle to Douglas, War Of f i c e , and interdepartment, \u00E2\u0080\u00A2^Seymour to Cardwell, E l l i o t , Rogers, Treasury to Rogers, Waddington to Secretary of State, War Of f i c e to Secretary of State, C a l l numbers: 1848-1851 CO.305' 3; 1858-1859 CO 60.1-4; 1863-64 CO 60.15-18; 1866 GO 60,26; 1868 CO 60.34; 1870-1 CO 60.42-4. II.. P r i n t e d - O f f i c i a l *Act to Provide for the Government of B r i t i s h Columbia, August 2, 1858. 21 & 22 V i c t o r i a C 99 . Correspondence Relative to the Discovery of Gold on Fraser's River, London I858. Correspondence R e l a t i v e to the Discovery of Gold at Queen (Charlotte !s Island. London, 1853. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2^Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, 1849-1871. Imperial and C o l o n i a l Blue Books r e l a t i n g to B r i t i s h Columbia. ^Journal of L e g i s l a t i v e - C o u n c i l of B r i t i s h Columbia. Proclamations of B r i t i s h Columbia 1858-1864. Papers R e l a t i v e to the A f f a i r s of B r i t i s h Columbia. Parts I * I V , 1859-1862. London. i d ^Report from' the Select Committee on the. Hudson's Bay Company. London 1857. . I I I . Printed; - U n o f f i c i a l ^Anderson, A.C. The Dominion at the. West. V i c t o r i a , Government P r i n t e r , 1872. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Anderson, A.C. History of the M o rth-West Coast. V i c t o r i a , 1878. Barrett-Lennard, Captain C.E. Travels i n B r i t i s h Columbia, London, Hurst and Blackett, 1862. Broun, R. European, and A s i a t i c Intercourse v i a B r i t i s h Columbia etc. London, Hardwicke, 1858. 123 PRIMARY AND CONTEMPORARY, Pr i n t e d * U n o f f i c i a l (Cont'd) Columbia River Exploration, 1865. Instruc t i o n s , Reports and Journals r e l a t i n g to the Government Exploration between the Shuswap and Okanagan Lakes and the Rocky Mountains. New Tfestminster, Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1865. Cornwallis, K. The New Eldorado; or B r i t i s h Columbia. London, Newby, 1858. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \" Fortune, A.L. Diary, O r i g i n a l i n Library of Uni v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia. Harvey, A. S t a t i s t i c a l Account of B r i t i s h Columbia. Ottawa, Desbarets, 1867. ' ' Macdonald, D.G.F. B r i t i s h Columbia and Vancouver Island. London, Longmans Green, 1862. Mayne, L i e u t . B.C. Report on Journey i n B r i t i s h Columbia i n the D i s t r i c t s bordering on the Thompson, Fraser and;' Harrison Rivers. McLean, John. Notes of a Twenty-Five Years Service i n Hudson's Bay T e r r i t o r y . London, 1849. Republished by Champlain Society, Toronto, 1932. M i l t o n , Viscount and Cheadle, W.B. The Northwest Passage by Land. London, C a s s e l l , P e t t e r & Galpin, 1865 Moberly, Walter. The Rocks and Pines of B r i t i s h Columbia. London, Blaeklock and Co. 1885. Palmer, Lieut.H.SReport on Williams Lake and Cariboo. H New Westminster, pr i n t e d by Royal Engineers, 1863. P a l l i s e r , Capt. J . Exploration of B r i t i s h North America. Journal'of Geographic Society, London, Murray, i 8 6 0 . 7 Pemberton, J.D. Facts and Figures Relatng to Vancouver Island and B r i t i s h Columbia, etc. London, Longman and Green, i 8 6 0 . ~~ Synge, Col. M.H. Paper on Central B r i t i s h N o r t h America etc. B r i t i s h North America Assoc. 1864. Waddington, A l f r e d . On the Geography and Mountain Passes of B r i t i s h Columbia, etc. Journal of Royal Geographic Society, London, Murray, 1868.-124 PRIMARY AND CONTEMPORARY (Cont'd) IV.' Newspapers. ^ B r i t i s h Colonist, V i c t o r i a . B r i t i s h Columbian, New 'Westminster. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2^Economist, London. Times, London. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2\"\u00E2\u0080\u00A2-Victoria Gazette, V i c t o r i a . SECONDARY I. Books, Anstey, A. The Romance of B r i t i s h Columbia. Toronto, Gage and Op:, Ltd. 1927. ~ ~ ~ ~ Bancroft,'H.H, History of B r i t i s h Columbia, Ian Francisco, The History Co., 1867. \". *3egg, Alexander (CC.) History of B r i t i s h Columbia, etc. Toronto, Briggs, 1894. Canada Year Book, 1958. Cary, C-.H. Hist o r y of Oregon. Chicago, 1932. CoatsyR.H. and Gosnell, R.E, S i r James Douglas. Toronto, Morang.and Co. 1909. D e a v l l l e , The Co l o n i a l Postage System of Vaneouyer Isl a n d and B r i t i s h Columbia. P r o f l n e l a l Archives Memoir No. 8 . -^ D i c t i o n a r y of National Biography. London, Smith, Elder & Co. 1909. V o l . X I I I \u00E2\u0080\u00A2^Felling,, ,K. Sketches i n Nineteenth Century Biography. London, 1930. *Howay/ F.W, and S c h o l e f i e l d , E.Q.S. B r i t i s h Columbia from the E a r l i e s t Times to the Present. 2 v o l s . Vancouver, S.J.Clarke Co. 1914. Howay, F.W. B r i t i s h Columbia. The Making - of a Province Toronto, the Ryerson Press, 1928, 125 SECONDARY: Books (Cont'd) Gosnell, R.E. (Ed.) The Year Book of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1897 ^ nd Manual of P r o v i n c i a l Inform-a t i o n . V i c t o r i a , 1897. ; \" : ~ : ~ Innis, Mary Quayle. An Economic History of Canada. Toronto, Ryeraon Press, 1935. Jeness, D. The Indians of Canada. Dept. of Mines, National Museum of Canada, B u l l e t i n 65 , Anthro-p o l o g i c a l Series No. 15. 2 n d . E d i t i o n . 1934. Morice, Rev. A.G. History Of the Norther I n t e r i o r of B r i t i s h Columbia, Formerly New Caledonia. Toronto, Wm. Briggs, 1904. ' Ross, V. A History of the Canadian Bank of Commerce. Toronto, 1920. Robinson, Noel. B l a z i n g the T r a i l through the Rockies:. Vancouver, News-Advertiser. 1914. #Sage, W. 'N. S i r James Douglas and B r i t i s h Columbia. Toronto, U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto Press, 1930. S c h o l e f i e l d , E.Q.S. and Gosnell, R.E. BBitishhColum-b i a . S i x t y Years of Progress.. Vancouver and V i c t o r i a 1913. 1 T r o t t e r , R.G. Canadian Federation. Torn&to, J . M. Dent and Sons. 1924. I I , P e r i o d i c a l s . ;| - *Creighton, D.G. \"The V i c t o r i a n s and the Empire.\" Canadian H i s t o r i c a l Review. June,1938. XIX :138 f f . Dunnage,J.A. \"Transportation, the Key Factor i n Empire. Trade.\"World Today. August,1927. p.259 *Howay, F.7/. \"The Raison d'etre of Forts Hope and Yale.\" Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. 3 r d . Series, Vol.16. 1922. Howay,F.W. \"The Overland Journey of the Argonauts of 1 8 6 2 . \" Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. 3 r d . Series, V o l . 13 1919. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 LeBourdals, L. \" B i l l y Barker of B a r k e r v i l l e . \" B r i t i s h Columbia H i s t o r i c a l Quarterly. July, 1 9 3 7 . l o l . 1. / 126 SECONDARY: P e r i o d i c a l s (Cont'd) ' .. Long-staff, F.V. \"Notes on the Early History of the P a c i f i c Station etc,\" Canadian Defence -Qarterly, A p r i l , 1926. vb.lv I I I . ~~ ~ ; : Nelson,Denys..\"Ninety Years of History i n B r i t i s h Columbia.\" The B u l l e t i n . Vancouver, May, 1925. *Reid, R..L. \" A l f r e d Waddington.\" Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. 3 r d . Series, Vol. 26 1932 Reid, R.L. \"Captain Evans of Cariboo.\" B r i f i s h Columbia H i s t o r i c a l Quarterly. October 1938. 11:4 *Reld f R.L. \"Economic Beginnings i n B r i t i s h Columbia.\" Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. 3rd Series, V o l . 30, 1936. *Riekard, T.A. \"Indian P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Gold Discoveries.\" B r i t i s h Columbia H i s t o r i c a l Quarterly. . January 1938. Vol . 1 1 ;I. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2K-Sage, l.N. .\"From Colony.to Province.\" B r i t i s h Columbia H i s t o r i c a l Quarterly. January 1939. V o l . I I I . *Sage, W.N. \"The Annexationist Movement i n -British Columbia.\" Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. 3 r d . Series, V o l . 21, 1927. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 *Sage-, W.N. \"The Gold Colony of B r i t i s h Columbia.\" Canadian H i s t o r i c a l Review. 1921. Vol. 2 *Sage, W.N,:\"The C r i t i c a l Period of B r i t i s h Columbian H i s t o r y . \" P a c i f i c H i s t o r i c a l Review. 1932. V o l , 1. S c h o l e f i e l d , ' E.O.S. \"The Yale-Cariboo.Wagon-Road.\" Man-1o-Man MagazIhe. January 1911. Vol. 7 I I I . Theses. Mcintosh, .D.J\u00E2\u0080\u009E Fort St. James Past and Present. EssSuj. U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, August 1933. *0rmsby, M.A. A Study of the Okanagan Val l e y of B r i t i s h Columbia. M.A. Un i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, A p r i l 1931. ^Palmer, P.P. A F i s c a l History.of B r i t i s h Columbia i n . the C o l o n i a l Period. Ph.D. Stanford. July 1932. *Thrupp, S.L. A History of the Oranbrook D i s t r i c t i n -East Kootenay. M.A. Uni v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, A p r i l , 1929. 127 ADDENDUM Books;, a r t i c l e s and maps omitted from bibliography through error or subsequently recommended by members of the Faculty of the Department of History, University of B r i t i s h Columbia; bearing p r i n c i p a l l y upon the i m p e r i a l i s t background of the subject. Books and A r t i c l e s Bodelson, Studies i n Mid-Victorian Imperialism. Denmark, Gyldendalske Boehandel, 1924. : Fay, C.R. Imperial Economy and i t s Place In the , formation of Economic Doctrine. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1934 '. : ~~ \ Jenks, L.H. The Migration of B r i t i s h C a p i t a l to 1875\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 New York, A.A.Knopf, 1927. Knowles, E.G.A. Economic Development of the Over-seas Empire,.London, Routledge Ltd., 1924* -Vol I I . Pares, R.\"Economic Factors i n the History of the Empire.\" Economic History Review. May 1937. Vol . 7 No, 2 pp 199 f f . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Soward, F..H. \"President Polk and the Canadian F r o n t i e r , \" Canadian H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n Annual Report 1930. pp 71-80. (The subject i s being ~ inv e s t i g a t e d by F. Merk) Map_s ; Anderson, A.C. Showing d i f f e r e n t routes of commun-i c a t i o n with the Gold Region on Fras\"er's River from o r i g i n a l notes.(1859?) In P r o v i n c i a l Archives. Arrowsmith. Map of B r i t i s h Columbia.. 1852, i n P r o v i n c i a l Archives. Epner, G. Map of the Gold Regions of B r i t i s h Columbia from .sketches and information given His Excellency James Douglas. V i c t o r i a , Hibben & Carswell, 1862. i n P r o v i n c i a l Archives. Piers,' S i r Chas. Wall map of Fur Brigade Routes. Shown by Hudson's Bay -Company i n h i s t o r i c a l d i s play, 1936 at Vancouver, B. C. 128 ADDENDUM: Maps (Cont'd) .Province of B r i t i s h Columbia. Tabloid Travel Talks on B r i t i s h Columbia. V i c t o r i a , i B a n f l e l d , 1930. Royal Engineers. Sketch maps i l l u s t r a t i n g survey reports of Bentinck Arm route, Cariboo and Hope-Similkameen. 1861-63. i n P r o v i n c i a l Archives. Truteh, Joseph. Map of B r i t i s h Columbia. I 8 7 1 r i n P r o v i n c i a l Archives, Inonb Showing New. Westmlnster-Burrard I n l e t roads and t r a i l s , (date?) i n Ci t y of Vancouver Archives.' I "@en . "Thesis/Dissertation"@en . "10.14288/1.0105571"@en . "eng"@en . "History"@en . "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en . "Graduate"@en . "The development of communications in colonial British Columbia"@en . "Text"@en . "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/38705"@en .