"Arts, Faculty of"@en . "Art History, Visual Art and Theory, Department of"@en . "DSpace"@en . "UBCV"@en . "Poirier, Joseph George Maurice"@en . "2011-10-25T23:01:36Z"@en . "1965"@en . "Master of Arts - MA"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "The purpose of this thesis is to present a new approach to the art of Rosso and Pontormo and to suggest a new interpretation to its controversial character. The first part is essentially a preparation to the main discussion: the notion of Spirituality, necessary to a full understanding of the art of Rosso and Pontormo, is first developed, followed by an extensive study of the primary \"will\" which was guiding the classic painter in his major realizations.\r\nThe second part discusses the art of Rosso and Pontormo. The object here is to demonstrate that in a reasonably large number of their works we can detect a distinct will to awake feelings of incongruity, abnormality, strangeness in the beholder, and to perplex, disturb, frustrate and even shock him. This will is defined as the new will. After an expose of the latter, the art of Rosso is taken up, followed by the art of Pontormo. Eight works by Rosso and eleven by Pontormo are discussed individually. The method of analysis followed extensively takes into account the fact that the revolutionary art of those artists made its apparition in an essentially classicizing atmosphere.\r\nThe third part attempts to explain what may have caused the new will to germinate in Pontormo and Rosso. A first chapter is devoted to showing that corruption, at the height of the Renaissance, pervaded the Italian clergy from top to bottom. In a second chapter, documents are brought up to the support of the fact that a reformation of the clergy was the great spiritual need of that age. It is also pointed out that the whole of the Italian society of that time, indeed, was morally deteriorating at an alarming rate.\r\nA final chapter describes how, under the effect mainly of the new dignity awakened in them by their recent recognition as liberal artists, Pontormo and Rosso would have subconsciously awakened to such a state of affairs. They would have realized, among other abnormalities, that Christian art, essentially meant to promote the spiritual advancement of society, was not helping to solve the great spiritual demand of their age, nor was it truly helping society as a whole, although it had just reached an unprecedented degree of perfection. Disillusion and despair would have followed, ultimately engendering, at least at the pre-conscious level, a bitter resentment against society in general which was failing to respond as it should to the artist's message. The will to turn the work of art against society by making it disturbing, frustrating and even shocking would have been the direct result of such a resentment. The thesis concludes by pointing out some important similarities between the art of Rosso and Pontormo and the modern Dadaist movement."@en . "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/38289?expand=metadata"@en . "A DADA1ST CRISIS IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY by Maurice P o i r i e r . B.A.', University of Montreal, 1956 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of FINE ARTS We accept t h i s thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A p r i l , 1965 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r reference and study. I f u r t h e r agree that per-m i s s i o n f o r extensive copying of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s understood that copying or p u b l i -c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be allowed without my w r i t t e n permission* Maurice P o i r i e r Department of Fine A r t s The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, Vancouver 8, Canada Date A p r i l - 1965 IV ABSTRACT The purpose of t h i s thesis i s to present a new approach to the art of Rosso and Pontormo and to suggest a new interpre-t a t i o n to i t s controversial character. The f i r s t part i s essen-t i a l l y a preparation to the main discussion: the notion of S p i r i t u a l i t y , necessary to a f u l l understanding of the art of Rosso and Pontormo, i s f i r s t developed, followed by an extensive study of the primary \" w i l l \" which was guiding the c l a s s i c painter i n his major r e a l i z a t i o n s . The second part discusses the art of Rosso and Pontormo. The object here i s to demonstrate that i n a reasonably large number of t h e i r works we can detect a d i s t i n c t w i l l to awake f e e l i n g s of incongruity, abnormality, strangeness i n the beholder, and to perplex, disturb, frustrate and even shock him. This w i l l i s defined as the new w i l l . A f t e r an expose of the l a t t e r , the art of Rosso i s taken up, followed by the art of Pontormo. Eight works by Rosso and eleven by Pontormo are discussed i n d i v i d u a l l y . The method of analysis followed extensively takes into account the f a c t that the revolutionary art of those a r t i s t s made i t s appar-i t i o n i n an e s s e n t i a l l y c l a s s i c i z i n g atmosphere. The t h i r d part attempts to explain what may have caused the new w i l l to germinate i n Pontormo and Rosso. A f i r s t chapter i s devoted to showing that corruption, at the height of the Renaissance, pervaded the I t a l i a n clergy from top to bottom. In a second chap-ter, documents are brought up to the support of the f a c t that a reformation of the clergy was the great s p i r i t u a l need of that age. I t i s also pointed out that the whole of the I t a l i a n society of that time, indeed, was morally deteriorating at an alarming rate. V A f i n a l chapter describes how, under the effect mainly of the new di g n i t y awakened i n them by t h e i r recent recognition as l i b e r a l a r t i s t s , Pontormo and Rosso would have subconsciously awakened to such a state of a f f a i r s . They would have r e a l i z e d , among other abnormalities, that C h r i s t i a n a r t , e s s e n t i a l l y meant to promote the s p i r i t u a l advancement of society, was not helping to solve the great s p i r i t u a l demand of the i r age , nor was i t t r u l y helping society as a whole, although i t had just reached an unprecedented degree of perfection. D i s i l l u s i o n and despair would have followed, ultimately engendering, at least at the pre-conscious l e v e l , a b i t t e r resentment against society i n general which was f a i l i n g to respond as i t should to the a r t i s t ' s message. The w i l l to turn the work of art against society by making i t disturbing, f r u s t r a -t i n g and even shocking would have been the d i r e c t r e s u l t of such a resentment. The thesis concludes by pointing out some impor-tant s i m i l a r i t i e s between the art of Rosso and Pontormo and the modern Dadaist movement. I l l I am greatly indebted to H. W o l f f l i n for my understanding of c l a s s i c art and also to S.J. Freedberg mainly for h i s perspica-cious analyses of the early works of Pontormo and Rosso. I want to thank Mr. Ian McNairn for his very he l p f u l and constructive remarks regarding t h i s paper. My gratitude must also be extended to Mr. W.S. Hart, and to Dr. B. Savary of the Philosophy Department for his sympathetic attitude during the elaboration of my ideas. I f i n a l l y wish to express my indebtedness to Dr. R.C. Cragg for his kind assistance i n allowing t h i s project to be brought to completion. CONTENTS PREFACE ABSTRACT PART ONE -- FROM EARLY CHRISTIAN TO CLASSIC PAINTING CHAPTER I The Advent of S p i r i t u a l i t y i n Chri s t i a n Painting CHAPTER I I The Cl a s s i c W i l l PART TWO \u00E2\u0080\u0094 THE NEW WILL IN ROSSO'S AND PONTORMO'S ART CHAPTER I I I Notion of the New W i l l CHAPTER IV The Art of Rosso CHAPTER V The Art of Pontormo PART THREE ~ SOCIOLOGY OF THE NEW WILL CHAPTER VI Sit u a t i o n of the I t a l i a n Clergy at the Height of the Renaissance CHAPTER VII The Great S p i r i t u a l Need of the High Renais-sance CHAPTER VIII The Reaction of Rosso and Pontormo SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY I PREFACE This thesis i s e s s e n t i a l l y concerned with the analysis of a group of works by Rosso and Pontormo. The t i t l e chosen, I must admit, i s not quite appropriate. My intention was to devise one which would describe the psychological response of these a r t i s t s to the high degree of immorality reached by the society of t h e i r time, and which would also be expressive of t h i s very response as transmitted through t h e i r works. After several unsuccessful attempts I f i n a l l y decided on the present t i t l e , much more indeed for i t s suggestiveness, which w i l l be found he l p f u l i n under-standing the ideas submitted, than for i t s adequacy of expression. I wish to make i t clear that I w i l l not by any means be attempting to interpret the art of Rosso and Pontormo i n terms of Dadaism. There are indeed important s i m i l a r i t i e s between the l a t t e r and the art of those a r t i s t s but these w i l l be suggested only at the very end of t h i s essay and i n a way which w i l l make the main d i s -cussion independent and u t t e r l y s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t . With these r e s t r i c t i o n s i n mind, the reader should be better prepared to accept t h i s rather dissonant t i t l e . The f i r s t part may seem to be a long diversion ranging from early C h r i s t i a n art to Raphael's Tapestry Cartoons. The nature of the f i r s t chapter was dictated to me by the fact that the term s p i r i t u a l i t y , fundamental to my discussion of the art of Rosso and Pontormo, i s so often misused that a r e - d e f i n i t i o n of i t i n a way p a r t i c u l a r l y applicable to painting appeared highly desirable i f not necessary. That I have found i t most convenient to go back I I to early C h r i s t i a n times i n order to i l l u s t r a t e my d e f i n i t i o n should not require any j u s t i f i c a t i o n . The second chapter i s an attempt to summarize the fundamental character of c l a s s i c painting. Such a task seemed desirable before discussing Rosso*s and Pon-tormo' s a r t , and indeed i t may be found that many of the ideas which I express there w i l l f a c i l i t a t e the understanding of my approach to the art of these a r t i s t s . The ultimate goal of art h i s t o r y should not be simply to achieve a perfect anatomy of the exterior manifestations of the work of art but to enable us to understand as much as possible why and how those manifestations came into being. Most attempts at penetrating the creative process, i n the case of a p a r t i c u l a r a r t i s t , either l i m i t themselves to the discussion of formal influences from the works of other a r t i s t s , or else theorize about i t i n such a vague and abstract way, that one finds i t hardly possible to even perceive, i n the works themselves, the theory which i s being proposed. I t i s hoped that the present essay, which i s indeed highly speculative, w i l l enable the reader at least to see the ideas suggested, and also perhaps to gain a deeper, broader and more intimate understanding of the a r t i s t s i n question. I have no pretension about t h i s essay and indeed i t should be considered as a f i r s t exploration of the subject: for I am perf e c t l y aware that even tf\u00E2\u0080\u009Enly i n a few years from now I may want to amend and perhaps even abandon so many of the ideas which I now believe i n , that i f retouched then the present paper w i l l c e r t a i n l y be hardly recognizable. 1 PART ONE FROM EARLY C H R I S T I A N TO C L A S S I C P A I N T I N G 2 I THE ADVENT OF SPIRITUALITY IN CHRISTIAN PAINTING The transformations undergone by C h r i s t i a n painting during the early phase of i t s history were not without complexity. So many c o n f l i c t i n g influences were at work, so many new concepts and feelings had to be externalised, that no single l i n e of development can actually be followed during the f i r s t f i v e cen-t u r i e s . I t i s possible, however, to determine several major inten-tions by which a r t i s t s of that time would have been guided and which would have played an important role throughout those cen-t u r i e s of development. I s h a l l presently attempt to survey what appear to be the most s i g n i f i c a n t ones of those intentions. A f i r s t generalization which we can safely make about early C h r i s t i a n painting, leaving aside the emotional aspect for the moment, i s that on the whole i t aims at giving a clear, d i s t i n c t rendering of the action depicted: the observer must f i n d out re a d i l y what i s going on. To t h i s end, nature w i l l be distorted i f necessary, and d i s t r a c t i n g elements w i l l be eliminated. The es s e n t i a l thing here i s for the event to be r e a d i l y \"grasped\" by the observer. The Adoration of the Magi (fresco i n the Cemetery of Petrus and Marcellinus; I I I century)*' i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s tendency perhaps at i t s purest. Against an empty background, two magi are depicted coming towards the V i r g i n , who i s seated i n a chair and holding the Child i n her arms. The figures are a l l rendered with a f a i r amount of naturalism: they have a certain v i t a l i t y , average proportions and t h e i r gestures s u f f i c i e n t l y approximate the ones 3 of normal human beings. There is no deliberate attempt at dehumanization.2 One sees, however, that the ar t i s t has unnat-urally tipped the bowls which the magi are holding: so that we can judge of the nature of their offerings. That i s a l l . The emotional content in this work is indeed reduced to a minimum: the event stands out in an atmosphere of practically complete neutrality. Now we may very reasonably imagine that many an ar t i s t would have been tempted to make his depictions look more plausible, more true to l i f e , more \"real*: this resulting either, on the one hand, from a genuine interest in naturalistic, or, in some cases, idealized (in the classipal manner) descriptions, or on the other hand, from a desire to convince the beholder that the action depicted actually took place (or is taking place). Thus here he would have been inclined to suggest a three-dimensional space, to give p l a s t i c i t y to the figures, to add a r e a l i s t i c background with buildings and trees...etc, A f u l l outburst of this urge can be clearly seen in the apsidal mosaics of Sta Pudenziana, Rome, (ca. 401-417). Here the i l l u s i o n of a three-dimensional space is clearly intended; numerous buildings recede in the background; the figures themselves (Jesus and his disciples) are portrayed \"as majestic and dignified persons just as i f they were di s t i n -guished Romans, imperial governors or influential senators\". 4 If i t did not significantly interfere in such scenes as the one we have just described, such an interest was, however, theoretically coming into conflict with the desire for c l a r i t y and directness of expression, when an actual event had to be 4 depicted. For the more you integrate an event in a natural setting, the more indeed you give i t the appearance of reality, but the more also the event i t s e l f somehow tends to be engulfed in this setting. Therefore, in his desire to impress the event s t i l l more vividly on the mind of the observer, the early Christian a r t i s t was led to take measures which often disregarded even the basic principles of naturalism. Thus he was led to eliminate irrelevant details, to geometrically reorganize the spatial components, to compress the scene in an irrational space; he was also lead to increase the size of the central figures, and this i s apparent even in the Adoration of the Magi discussed above;5 frontality was also found highly effective and therefore i t was adopted as a standard device; for the same reasons, the figures, from the beginning, were given clear, emphasized, arrested gestures. 6 A f u l l embodiment of a l l these tendencies can be seen in the nave wall mosaics of Sta Maria Maggiore, Rome (ca. 432-440). What has been said so far (except for the tendency to idealize forms the classical way, which did not last very long), was relevant more to the event i t s e l f than to the fundamental sp i r i t of the depiction. Since they were at the service of a new religion which was radically displacing old-established beliefs, and because the traditional art was intimately associated with those beliefs, i t was to be expected that the artists of that time would have eventually attempted to characterize their works:; in a way that would make them fundamentally different from traditional works; and since the god of the new religion was one 5 whose kingdom was not of t h i s world, since detachment and renun-c i a t i o n from the things of t h i s world were indeed the most revolutionary ideals preached by the new r e l i g i o n , i t was also to be expected that t h i s characterization, t h i s new s p i r i t which would make them fundamentally d i f f e r e n t from purely pagan works, would also be somewhat related to \"unworldliness.\" And indeed when we survey the art of the sixth century fox instance, we r e a l i z e that something new has been added, we become conscious, i n many works, of the d e f i n i t e existence of a new s p i r i t , a t r u l y new \" l i f e - c u r r e n t \" , hardly known to Antiquity and eminently symbolic of the very essence of C h r i s t i a n i t y . The work i n which to my mind t h i s new s p i r i t , t h i s new l i f e - c u r r e n t can be apprehended the most s i g n i f i c a n t l y and unequi-vo c a l l y i s the set of mosaics narrating events from the l i f e and Passion of C h r i s t , i n the nave of Sant 1 Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (ear l y VI century). The following d e s c r i p t i o n matches these mosaics p e r f e c t l y : \"We have here scenes that take place i n a peculiar medium without l i g h t and a i r , i n a space without depth, perspective, and atmosphere, whose f l a t , shapeless figures are without weight and shadow. A l l attempt to produce the i l l u s i o n of a consistent piece of space i s now altogether discarded; the figures do not act upon one another i n any way, and the r e l a t i o n s between them are purely i d e a l . They become fa r more s t i f f and l i f e l e s s , and at the same time far more solemn, more s p i r i t u a l i z e d , more remote from l i f e and from t h i s earth. Most of the devices by which these e f f e c t s are achieved \u00E2\u0080\u0094 above a l l , the reduction of the s p a t i a l depth, flatness and f r o n t a l i t y of figu r e s , economy 6 and simplicity of design -- were known to late Roman and early Christian art; but now they a l l coalesce and form the elements of a new style of their own. Formerly they were found in isolation, or at least only employed i f a particular situation seemed to require them, and were always in open and unresolved conflict with naturalistic traditions and recollections; but here the fl i g h t from the world i s f u l l y accomplished and a l l i s cold, s t i f f , l i f e l e s s form although i n s t i l l e d with a very instense and very essential l i f e through death of the fleshly Adam and awakening of a new spiritual man. It a l l reflects the words of St. Paul: ttI li v e , but not I but Christ liveth in me.\" The ancient world and i t s joy in sense i s now abolished; the old glory departed; Imperial Rome in ruins. The Church now celebrates her triumph, not in the s p i r i t of the Roman nobility, but in the sign of a power which pretends to be not of this world.\"? The reader w i l l have noticed here that the new life-current which I was mentioning above i s described very penetratingly by Hauser as \"a very intense and very essential l i f e through death of the fleshly Adam and awakening of a new spiritual man.\" Now such a \"very intense 1 1 l i f e would indeed presuppose that the contact with Nature (considered as a life-giving power) has been practically \"cut off.\" In scenes, for instance, such as the ones depicted on the nave walls of Sta Maria Maggiore, this contact i s definitely not quite cut off (which should become apparent upon comparison of these mosaics with the ones in Sant 1 7 Apollinare Nuovo): there i s s t i l l too much naturalism in the ai r ; the space defined, in most depictions, i s s t i l l too deep and comfortable; the figures in general s t i l l have too much pla s t i c i t y and aliveness, their gestures often seem too easy and they are s t i l l too organically related to one another. A further comparison w i l l help us to s t i l l more firmly grasp the essence of this \"very intense and very essential l i f e 1 * of which Hauser speaks. Let us consider the figures of Patriarchs and Prophets (early VI century) immediately below the scenes from the l i f e and Passion of Christ, in Sant* Apollinare Nuovo. These figures psychologically belong to a normal humanity: they have personality and seem rationally controlled; their look i s positive and lucid. Now let us glance at the Procession of Martyrs (ca; 557-569) just below these Patriarchs and Prophets. The Martyrs stare into emptiness; they have a blank look; even though some may appear to be looking at us, on closer observation we find that they do not seem aware of our presence. They do not seem under the control of Reason; they seem to be under the spell of some foreign power which takes a l l individuality away from them. Although there are some differences among them, we do not feel them much. The impression we get i s that these people a l l belong to one same family. A similar difference can be observed in the treatment of the bodies and draperies. While in the case of the Patriarchs and Prophets the a r t i s t had striven for a certain variety and a certain p l a s t i c i t y , here in the Procession of Martyrs, his concern i s to put as l i t t l e variety and p l a s t i c i t y 8 as possible; flowing lines axe kept to a minimum; roundness i s eliminated in favor of angularity, which tends to make the de-sign look more two-dimensional. As with the Patriarchs and Prophets the a r t i s t , although setting the figures on a gold background, had suggested a sufficient three-dimensional space on the ground, here the sense of spatial i l l u s i o n i s entirely suppressed: the Martyrs stand in an unreal space. We can indeed observe in these mosaics a difference in s p i r i t similar to the one which we have pointed out between the nave wall mosaics of Sta Maria Maggiore and the scenes from the l i f e and Passion of Christ in Sant 1 Apollinare Nuovo. In the case of the Patriarchs and Prophets, the contact with Nature i s s t i l l much f e l t , even though there i s a drastic tendency towards abstraction. With the Procession of Martyrs, however, such a contact no longer exists: here \"the f l i g h t from the world i s f u l l y accomplished and a l l i s cold, s t i f f , l i f e l e s s form\u00E2\u0080\u0094 although i n s t i l l e d with a very intense and very essential l i f e through death of the fleshly Adam and awakening of a new spiritual man. a Let us f i n a l l y compare the mosaic version of the Baptism of Christ in the dome of the Baptistery of the Orthodox, Ravenna (ca. 449-452) with the one in the dome of the Baptistery of the Arians, Ravenna (ca. 500). In the earlier version, the Baptist i s standing in a normal and relaxed position; his raised l e f t foot i s resting comfortably on a clearly three-dimensional rock, and he i s pouring water on Christ*s head while looking calmly at the Dove. The figure personifying the Jordan, on the other hand, 9 i s sympathetically looking at Christ; the latter i s looking down, conscious of the importance of the event, but remaining calm and dignified. The interrelation among the figures here i s indeed highly organic. From this interrelation, from the strongly plastic modeling of the figures and also from the flowers and plants depicted at the lower left-hand corner, one gets a distinct sense of tttrue l i f e \" , circulating through the work. In the later version, a fundamentally different atmosphere has been created. Here the foliage has been eliminated and the figures are now standing in a ri g i d symmetrical order. The strong chiaroscuro of the earlier treatment has been drastically reduced. One of the Baptist*s feet i s s t i l l raised, but here the rock on which i t was resting in the earlier version has been eliminated, which gives a character of a r t i f i c i a l i t y , of forced arrestedness to his posture; this impression i s reinforced by his look which, like for the other two figures, does not seem to rest anywhere; moreover, instead of pouring water, he i s now simply touching Christ's head with his right hand. The figure personifying the Jordan has also been significantly altered: he is here depicted frontally, with a frozen look in his eyes, as i f in a state of momentary transfixion. \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Briefly, one gets the impression in this depiction that l i f e has been momentarily suspended and that a supernatural, irrational power has taken over. The contact with Nature, s t i l l very strong in the earlier version, i s here no longer f e l t . Like for the Procession of Martyrs and the scenes from the l i f e and Passion of Christ in the nave of Sant* Apollinare Nuovo, one may say indeed, here also, that \" a l l i s cold, s t i f f , l i f e l e s s form \u00E2\u0080\u0094 although i n s t i l l e d xo with a very intense and very essential l i f e through death of the fleshly Adam and awakening of a new spiritual man,11 Now I am not denying that much of the new s p i r i t or new life-current, which Hauser's description analyzes so penetratingly and which I have tried to make the reader conscious of, can in-deed be f e l t in such works as the nave wall mosaics of Sta Maria Maggiore. Therefore, in order to enable us \u00C2\u00A3o more practically handle this new s p i r i t , this new life-current, we shall make use of Hauser's definition but in a somewhat modified way. We shall define i t ( i . e . the new s p i r i t or new life-current) as an ether breathing the presence of an unworldly and supernatural power (which i s God himself as understood and taught by the Christian religion), and we shall c a l l this ether by the name of Spiritu-a l i t y . By this definition we are making provision for a d i f f e r -ence in degree, in intensity for this \"very intense and very essential l i f e \" , and we axe also allowing i t (which Hauser's definition does not allow) to co-exist with another ether, this one breathing the presence of a natural power (which i s Nature considered as a life-giving power), and to which we shall give the name of Natural L i f e . 8 S p i r i t u a l i t y thus understood 9 can be said indeed to have emerged in Christian painting long before the time of the nave wall mosaics of Sta Maria Maggiore. It i s , however, as we have pointed out above, only in such depictions as the ones narrating events from the l i f e and Passion of Christ in the nave of Sant 1 Apollinare Nuovo that i t reached f u l l purity (or maturity) and that Natural Life practically vanished from the scene.*6 11 From then on, and especially with the victorious and decisive spread of the Byzantine style, S p i r i t u a l i t y was to remain, for many centuries, a foremost concern for the Christian a r t i s t . 1 1 The re-awakening of interest in nature which took place with the Gothic period meant a revolutionary transformation in the outlook of the Christian a r t i s t . The new interest can significantly be seen, for instance, in the statues of the North and South porches of Chartres Cathedral (second quarter of XHIth century) as compared to the ones in the Royal West Portal (begun ca. 1145). While the latter are elongated, prisoner of the columns to which they are attached, highly stylized and l i t e r a l l y shut to our world,i2 the ones of the North and South porches reveal a definite w i l l to rehumanize the figure of man.1^ At the same time, by their awareness of their environment, of the world around them, they manifest a re-awakening of interest in the world i t s e l f from the part of the a r t i s t . From then on this renewed interest in man and the world was to compete for a place of i t s own. The main problem raised in Christian art, from that time on, was to conciliate this interest in man and the world (or, ultimately, Nature) with the w i l l to impose S p i r i t u a l i t y . 1 4 With the opening of the Early Renaissance, artists set out to conquer Nature systematically. The reticences which had manifested themselves a l l through the fourteenth century are now discarded by the greatest majority of artists, and the interest in Nature takes over. So much indeed that in some artists the interest in Spirituality subsists at a bare minimum. 12 One by one the mysteries of Nature are uncovered and integrated in the f i e l d of Christian art. The conflict between Natural Li f e and Spir i t u a l i t y remains s t i l l unresolved, however, until the coming of Leonardo da Vinci and the other classic artists f i n a l l y brings i t to a solution. 1. W\u00C2\u00AB Lowrie, Art in the Early Church. New York, 1947, plate 14c. 2. By dehumanization I mean that the human figure i s recast in another form than i t would have i f naturalistically rendered. Likewise I shall use the term dematerialization whenever the environment of the figures i s recast in another form than i t would have i f depicted with naturalism. 3. The dating of this work, as well as of the other early Christian monuments discussed from here on, i s taken from W.F. Volbach, Early Christian Art. London, 1961. 4. A. Hauser, The Social History of Art. Vintage edit., 4 Vols., New York, 1957, I, p. 126. 5. One w i l l note here the slightly enlarged scale of the Virgin compared to the one of the magi. 6. A l l these devices can indeed be found in late Roman art. I am simply pointing out here why the early Christian artist would have wanted to use them. 7. Hauser, op. cit.,. I, p. 128. I must quickly point out here that this description, in Hauser's book, i s not meant for the Sant' Apollinare Nuovo mosaics but for the nave wall mosaics of Sta Maria Maggiore, Rome. Obviously I do not agree with this. To my mind, as w i l l be seen presently, the nave wall mosaics of Sta Maria Maggiore embody fax too many naturalistic tendencies to f i t this description perfectly. 8. By )|atuxe I mean hexe the natuxal agent cxeatox of a l l that exists on eaxth including man's intelligence. Thus anything with a xecognizable natuxal form or presumably created by man's intellect (e.g. an architectural construction) w i l l t h e o r i t i c a l l y breathe the presence of Nature (or Natural L i f e ) . This latter pxesence w i l l diminish in intensity in pxopoxtion as the amount of dehumanization and dematerial-ization increases. 13 9, There is a certain s p i r i t u a l i t y inherent i n the crudest depiction of any religious event, due to the fact that we automatically recognize in i t the presence of God (no matter in how indirect a way)\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 I term this s p i r i t u a l i t y the \"internal\" s p i r i t u a l i t y of the work. Thus the s p i r i t -uality which the early Christian a r t i s t was led to impose i s really an \"external'1 one. Since an internal s p i r i t u a l i t y i s inherent in a l l religious paintings and i s not relevant to our discussion, except in so far as i t \"prepares the ground\" for the existence of the external s p i r i t u a l i t y , we shall c a l l the latter by the simple name of Sp i r i t u a l i t y (with a capital S), 10, It would be tempting to speak of the \"ascent\" of Spirit u a l i t y in Christian painting, and to point out for instance the more advanced character, in this respect, of the triumphal arch mosaics in Sta Maria Maggiore (ca, 432-440) as compared to the nave wall mosaics, and the decisive triumph of Spi r i t u a l i t y , some years later, in the nave of Sant* Apol-linare Nuovo, One could indeed be led to speak of a \"class i c a l phase,\" when the contact with Nature would have just been broken, and during which Sp i r i t u a l i t y would have dominated with the minimum display of movement, emotions,,, \u00E2\u0080\u00A2etc. Thus Romanesque art, for instance, would have con-stituted a baroque or even a rococo phase, in this respect,\u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 If one had gone that far, the temptation, in so far as Sp i r i t u a l i t y i s concerned, to consider the series of mosaics relating events from the l i f e and Passion of Christ in the nave of Sant* Apollinare Nuovo, as the \"Parthenon Sculptures of Christian Art\" (in a way not totally unlike the one in which Raphael's tapestry cartoons have been called the Par-thenon Sculptures of Modern Art\") \u00E2\u0080\u0094 would be hardly resisted, 11, The fact that Byzantine art owed i t s decisive advent partly to purely p o l i t i c a l motivations does not basically conflict with our argument. For an expose* of the p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i -cance of this art, see Hauser 1s chapter entitled The A r t i s t i c Style of Byzantine Caesaropapism. op, c i t , , I, pp. 129-136, 12, The heads are verti c a l ; the draperies f a l l r i g i d l y ; the arms do not stretch outside the body. The books they are holding are a l l v e r t i c a l . 13, The attitude of these figures i s much less rigid indeed. The fantastic elongation of the West portal statues has gone. Draperies are more deeply (and thus naturalistically) carved. There i s more variety and a certain aliveness in the position of the arms. Some figures are looking side-ways, aware of their environment. 14, I am considering here the new naturalistic trend which moved implacably through the Early Renaissance and culminated in the art of the High Renaissance as we shall soon see. 14 II THE CLASSIC WILL What actually happened in early Christian times was that the demands which Nature imposes on the work of art for her dignity to be respected and affirmed were ignored by the a r t i s t : at f i r s t , essentially for purposes of c l a r i t y and directness of expression; and later, more essentially in order to impress on the beholder the transcendental meaning of the scenes depicted* When interest in the world around began to redevelop, Nature began to impose herself again and from then on raised her voice more and more in order to have her dignity affirmed more and more in the work of art. With the advent of the Early Renais-sance, the w i l l to reassert this dignity was given a decisive elan, which culminated in the art of the High Renaissance. Here Nature i s f u l l y conquered and her dignity powerfully affirmed. The f u l l affirmation of the dignity of Nature, in painting, implies the respect of some basic natural laws. Through the respect of these laws, the projection of the world depicted onto our own takes place spontaneously. We feel.the figures animated with the same type of l i f e as animates us and with a blood similar to ours running in their veins. Their environment, on the other hand, does not fundamentally di f f e r from ours and we would not feel sti?anger in i t . Thus i s created a sense of intimate relationship between our world and the world depicted by the a r t i s t . We feel intensely acting in i t the same natural power (Nature) as i s acting in our own. 15 Now what axe these basic laws, the xespect of which assuxes such an affixmation. They axe ox xathex constitute what I texm the physical premises of classic painting. The lattex does not specifically xeside in theix xealization, as we shall see, fox i t goes beyond them. But i t i s based on them and xespects them. These pxemises demand fi x s t of a l l that the figuxes appeax con-vincingly liv i n g with a humanity like ouxs; they must thus have xealistic pxopoxtions; theix limbs and joints must be xounded out naturalistically; theix movements must appeax easy and natuxal; they must have a convincing p l a s t i c i t y and occupy a txue three-dimensional space adequate fox them; they must have v i t a l i t y and appeax contxolled by Reason. The physical pxemises also demand that the law of gxavity be xespected: figuxes must stand up fixmly and secuxely on theix feet; i f they axe seated, they must appeax sufficiently gxounded to theix seat.* The laws of optics, f i n a l l y , must be xespected: to this effect, linear and aerial perspective shall be used; the lighting shall appear r e a l i s t i c ; the distinction between the animate and the inanimate shall be clear. The significance of classic painting resides partly in the fact that i t realizes and respects those premises more faith-f u l l y than ever before in Christian art. Hauser observes that \"in the whole of Italian painting before Leonardo there i s no human figure which, compaxed with the figuxes of Raphael, Fxa Baxtolommeo, Andxea del Saxto, Titian, and Michelangelo, has not y 16 something clumsy, s t i f f , constricted about i t . However rich they are in accurately observed details, the figures of the Early Renaissance never stand quite firmly and securely on their feet; their movements are always somewhat cramped and forced, their limbs creak and wobble at the joints, their relationship to the space around them i s often contradictory, the way they are modelled i s obtrusive and the way they are illuminated a r t i f i c i a l * The naturalistic efforts of the fifteenth century do not come to fruition until the sixteenth,\"2 Thus i s i t that classic art affirmed the dignity of Nature to a degree unpre-cedented in Christian times* A complete definition of the classic w i l l would involve so lengthy a discussion, that I have no other ambition here than to point out only what appear to be the main objectives behind the classic artist's efforts. The f i r s t thing which strikes us, after the elaborate and fancy descriptions of Quattrocento art, i s the seriousness with which the classic a r t i s t takes his sub-ject-matter.\"^ The scene i s purged from a l l accessories and incidentals, and the event confronts us with a force of presence indeed recalling the one of early Christian art. Simplifica-tion and concentration become two major rules. The event must be grasped in i t s essence immediately and directly: to this end a l l distracting elements, not intimately bound to i t , are excluded. 17 A comparison of the Drunkenness of Noah as treated by Benozzo Gozzoli (Pisa, Campo Santo; ca. 1467-69) with the same subject as dealt with by Michelangelo in his Sistine Ceiling (Rome, Vatican; 1509) w i l l serve to make this clear. Gozzoli takes pleasure in depicting a l l the antecedents leading to the drunkenness i t s e l f , including a crowd of irrelevant details. Michelangelo, on the other hand, with the minimum of figures and using an almost bare setting, concentrates exclusively on what really i s the key-moment of the event, namely the discovery by his grandchildren of the drunken man indecently exposed. Having thus purified the scene from a l l irrelevancies, the classic artist now turns his efforts on suffusing the work with a powerful v i t a l i t y . The latter process i s f i r s t applied to the figures themselves, considered individually. The classic figures, as has already been hinted, breathe v i t a l i t y to a degree e;unprecedented in Christian art. Wolfflin observes that \"one feels a heightened physical v i t a l i t y , and, indeed, the mere act of looking at something i s endowed with an energy pre-viously unknown.\"4 A comparison of Verrocchio's Baptism of Christ (Florence, U f f i z i ; ca. 1476) with the treatment given to the same subject by Andrea Sansovino in the Baptistery of Florence (ca. 1502-05) illustrates this idea significantly. In the Verrocchio, the ceremony takes place with hastiness and we feel a certain rest-lessness in the figures. Sansovino, on the other hand, depicts the protagonists as simply standing there, quite calmly: yet 18 the v i t a l i t y pulsating in them greatly surpasses the one of the animated figures in the Verrocchio. The same phenomenon i s observable in portraits, where \"a new expressive vigour\"^ can be seen. The desire for v i t a l i t y i s so great indeed that a new organic current i s noticeable even in the clothes which the figures are wearing. The Count Castiqlione by Raphael (Paris, Louvre; 1515-16) offers an excellent example of such an organic current. Now beside v i t a l i z i n g the figures individually, the classic a r t i s t endeavours to also v i t a l i z e the relationships among them on the one hand and the relationships between the figures and their environment on the other hand. His aim i s to relate the figures among themselves and to integrate them with their environ-ment in a truly organic way. The School of Athens (by Raphael), as we shall see, offers a perfect example of such interrelations. But the idea there i s fundamentally the same as exists in such a work as the Madonna of the Harpies (Florence, U f f i z i ; 1517) by Andrea del Sarto. In the latter work, the placing of the figures in different positions and at different angles, al l i e d with the interplay of light and shadow and the directions suggested by the draperies.\u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0080\u00A2.etc., is specifically meant to produce such an organic current, such a rythmic freedom among them. Wolfflin observes 7 that here Hthe eye i s continually kept in pleasing movement.* It goes without saying that such an organic current adds i t s own share to the v i t a l i t y already present in the figures considered individually, and contributes to make the work pulsate with 8 v i t a l i t y s t i l l more. 19 Now in works such as a Holy Family, or a Madonna with Saints, there i s no actual event taking place. Such works essentially aim at confronting the beholder with certain holy figures, without really trying to impose a story on him. The Holy Family tondo by Michelangelo, the Sistine Madonna by Raphael and the Madonna of the Harpies by Andrea del Sarto belong to such a group. In such cases, the endeavours of the ar t i s t are on v i t a l i z i n g the figures individually, and also v i t a l i z i n g the relationships among them (and between them and their environ-ment), on the purely formal point of view, without really aiming any further (as far as v i t a l i t y i s concerned). On the other hand, in works such as the Creation of Eve, the Liberation of Peter, the School of Athens ...etc. an actual event i s taking place.9 Let us visualize such an event as having an existence of i t s own, independently from the world in which i t i s taking place. We shall then be in a position to understand that beside being turned on v i t a l i z i n g the individual figures and v i t a l i z i n g their relationships among themselves and with their environment (in other words v i t a l i z i n g the world in which the event i s taking place) the classic artist's efforts are also turned on powerfully v i t a l i z i n g the existence of the event i t s e l f . We must clearly realize how \"such a v i t a l i t y of existence i s something different from the mere force of presence the event may have. In an early Christian work such as the Raising of Lazarus (Ravenna, Sant' Apollinare Nuovo; early Vlth cent.), 20 the event as such possesses a powerful force of presence, yet i t s existence can be said to be static. The classic a r t i s t , while preserving in the event a similar force of presence, aims at powerfully v i t a l i z i n g or dynamizing i t s existence. It cannot be denied of course that the v i t a l i t y of the event as such depends largely on i t s force of presence (statically; considered) and also very largely on the v i t a l i t y of the world in which i t i s taking place (for indeed i t would be possible to visualize a vitalized event without a vitalized world)\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 But more is needed to make us feel the pulse of the event strongly. There must be a particular concentration of the actors on the event i t s e l f and there must also be among the figures certain inter-relations through which the essence of the event i s dynamically and powerfully brought out. Giotto had been clearly concerned with such an intensi-fication. His late frescoes in Santa Croce indeed reveal an obvious desire to suffuse the figures and their environment with a greater degree of natural v i t a l i t y , but we can also detect a distinct w i l l to vi t a l i z e the event i t s e l f . In the Renunciation of the Worldly Possessions _with pupil_7(Upper Church in San Francesco of A s s i s i ; ca. 1296-99);10 the father's disapproval i s clear, yet i t s existence is rather static. Giotto takes up the same subject in Santa Croce (Bardi Chapel; ca. 1325), but this time the father's gesture i s made much more aggressive and dynamic. The man violently steps out toward his son and two attendants are now needed to hold him back. Further, Giotto 21 adds on the l e f t the figure of a child prevented to throw a stone at the Saint by his mother. These two alterations com-bine to greatly intensify the pulse of the event. It i s interesting to compare the Raising of Drusiana by Giotto (Santa Croce, Peruzzi Chapel; ca. 1318-23) with the Creation of Eve by Michelangelo (Vatican, Sistine Ceiling; 1509), Both artists aim at organically relating the power of the \"raiser 1 1 with the helplessness of the person raised. To this end, Giotto depicts Drusiana seated with her hand pointing at the saint, and looking straight at him. The latter i s slightly bent towards her with his hand in a commanding gesture. Yet how arrested does this event appear when we compare i t to the Creation of Eve by Michelangelo (who uses basically the same motif). Here the raising of Eve i s s t i l l clearly in process while her complete dependence on God's gesture breathes v i t a l i t y in a most powerful way. So far we have seen that the classic artist aimed at giving the event an intense force of presence while suffusing i t and the world in which i t takes place with a powerful v i t a l i t y . What remains to be said now i s that on the event thus brought into focus and vitalized, the classic artist i s interested in imposing Monumentality. Webster gives of monumental the following definition: of the nature of, or resembling a monument; hence, massive and lasting; impressive; stupendous; as conspicuous as a monument; colossal; notable. And indeed we readily know what i s meant by 22 a monumental architecture and the monumentality of such Egyptian statues as the Colossi of Memnon. I would like here to make a particular use of the word Monumentality and define i t as a quality partaking of the dignified, the grand, the solemn, the grave, the potentially powerful, the highly lucid, the calm, the ordered, the controlled.\u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0080\u00A2.This quality can be seen in i t s purest form (which i s also the perfectly static one) as embodied in a statue such as the seated Chefren (Diorite. Life-size. Cairo, Egyptian Museum. IVth dynasty, ca. 2530 B.C.) Now with the proper adjustment, i t can be said that the classic a r t i s t endeavours to impose the essence of this quality on his works (considered as wholes). To this end, he purifies the scene from a l l accidental details: only the essentials are kept in both the setting and the figures. The architecture used i s severe and powerful. The figures themselves are given the attitude of noble, dignified beings. The clothes they are wearing axe simple, but heavy and distinctive. Anything partaking of the vulgar or the low is cast aside. They stand easily and move freely but with calm and dignity. Their gestures, no matter how vitalized, are at the same time measured and restrained. They remain in control of their emotions even in the most dramatic cases. Their behaviour in any situation i s the one of true aristocrats. ; H The classic artist further makes use of symmetry, balances, verticals and horizontals, lays out the spatial components in layers parallel to the picture plane and clearly delineates a l l the individual objects. Thus i s created 23 an atmosphere of lasting order, control, dignity, solemnity, power and high lucidity* And thus i s made to prevail over the work the quality embodied in the Chefren which we have defined as Monumentality. One of the major problems confronting the classic artist was the conciliation of Monumentality with v i t a l i t y * The latter must always be kept within certain bounds, otherwise the atmos-phere of high lucidity and solemnity inherent to the existence of Monumentality finds i t s e l f endangered. It i s such an interest in v i t a l i t y , broken free, which partly led to the advent of the Baroque. A significant example of such an interest i s the Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus by Rubens (Munich, Museum? ca. 1617). Here the s p i r i t of the Chefren ceases to be f e l t . It i s interesting to observe how Michelangelo succeeded in maintaining such a s p i r i t in his Sistine Ceiling. Although the latter i s bursting with v i t a l i t y , yet we have the impression of a solemn order and control* It i s most important here to consider the Ceiling as a whole. The solid grounding of the Seers and Ignudi (already pointed out) greatly contributes to keep the bursting energy within controllable bounds. We also observe that the passionate figures of the Prophets are answered by the calm figures of the Sibyls and that the active Ignudi count among them some solemnly calm ones (such as the one above Jeremiah). The figure of God himself, bursting with boundless vigour in the Creation of the Sun and Moon, i s given less impetus 24 in the nearby scene (Separation of the Earth and Waters) and a solemn calm (although i t i s sweeping down) in the s t i l l next one (the Creation of Adam). Now in classic art in general, the subject-matter usually lends i t s e l f f a i r l y easily to a conciliation of Monumentality and v i t a l i t y . The School of Athens, the Baptism of Christ, the Creation of Adam, the Madonna with Saints,.,.etc, are a l l of such a kind. Trouble begins to develop when an animated drama (such as the Expulsion of Heliodorus) has to be depicted. The classic a r t i s t , here, in his w i l l to impose on the event both Monumentality and a strongly pulsating l i f e of i t s own, i s faced with the problem of suffusing the work with dramatic v i t a l i t y (which can easily run wild) while keeping the latter within the solemn frame of Monumentality. We shall see later how Raphael reached an \"impasse\" in the Expulsion of Heliodorus and how in the tapestry cartoons he evolved the perfect solution to this problem.*2 There i s another category of events which cannot be called true dramas in the same sense as the Expulsion of Heliodorus or the Kiss of Judas but which s t i l l imply a certain departure from the calm and the controlled. A Lamentation over the Body of Christ and an event like the Death of St. Francis belong to such a group. Here the v i t a l i z i n g of the event implies the display of a l i v i n g sadness. Now sadness is another quality which con-f l i c t s with Monumentality, for (as just said above) i t implies a certain departure from the calm and the controlled, and can 25 easily develop into an exaggerated sentimentalism. Heze too, thus, the classic artist was faced with a problem. Giotto had understood that problem and in his Lamentation (Padova, Arena Chapel; ca. 1305-10) he included some figures actively displaying their sorrow, but he also enclosed them with calm and dignified figures and distributed the latter in such a way that Monumentality was made to most happily co-exist with sadness. The Death of St. Francis in Santa Croce (Bardi Chapel; ca. 1325) reveals the same intention and displays basically the same treatment, with s t i l l happier effects. Faced with the same problem, Michelangelo in his early Pieta (Rome, St. Peter*s; 1498-99) opted for the display of a stoical acceptance only tinged with sadness. Fra Bartolommeo's Pieta (Florence, P i t t i ; ca. 1516-17) on the other hand, displays a greater amount of living sadness. The event as such i s perhaps indeed more vitalized but the work also somewhat loses in Monumen-t a l i t y over Michelangelo*s. Summarizing our results, we can say that the tr i p l e imposi-tion on the event of an intense force of presence, of a powerful v i t a l i t y and of the solemn s p i r i t of the Chefren (defined as 13 Monumentality) constituted the major aim of the classic a r t i s t . The whole of classic painting, indeed, could perhaps be summed up as a series of attempts to bring these three elements into a happy unity. Towards that end (and this could be called the practical side of the classic w i l l ) , the classic artist endeavoured 14 to intensely exploit a l l the pos s i b i l i t i e s of the formal elements and to interrelate the latter within a powerful unity. 26 The work which to my mind e x a m p l i f i e s t h i s w i l l most s p e c t a c u l a r l y and most s u c c e s s f u l l y , and which i s thus emin-e n t l y c l a s s i c , i s the L i b e r a t i o n of Peter by Raphael ^Stanza d'EliodoroJ(Rome, V a t i c a n ; l a t e 1513-early 1514), Let us consider the middle scene, where the dramatic t e n s i o n i s at i t s h i g h e s t . The event depicted here i s the waking up of P e t e r by the angel. I s h a l l not i n s i s t on the mere force of presence which Raphael gives to i t f o r i t i s obvious. I would l i k e i n s t e a d t o a t t r a c t the reader's a t t e n t i o n on Raphael's i n t e r e s t i n v i t a l i z i n g the drama t a k i n g p l a c e , i n dynamizing i t s very l i f e , i n making i t p u l s a t e w i t h dramatic v i t a l i t y . I t i s such an i n t e r e s t which f i r s t made him choose to d e p i c t the event at i t s most pregnant moment. Pet e r i s s t i l l s l e e p i n g profoundly and the angel i s j u s t about to wake him up. Coupled w i t h t h i s i s the f a c t t h a t the s o l d i e r s are placed i n such p o s i t i o n s t h a t they appear much more only t e m p o r a r i l y dozing than f a s t asleep (they are both standing up and r e s t i n g on t h e i r l a n c e s ) . Now had Raphael depicted Peter wide awake (as Domenichino di d ) * - 5 t h e i r sleep would more e a s i l y appear a r t i f i c i a l ( i . e . caused by God's d i r e c t i n t e r v e n t i o n ) , since a s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t would then e x i s t . But w i t h t h e i r standing as they are, we get the d i s t i n c t impression t h a t they are j u s t t e m p o r a r i l y dozing, of the same n a t u r a l sleep as P e t e r ' s . And somehow we get the mysterious f e e l i n g t h a t they could wake up at any time. We wonder indeed whether the angel has not used h i s power to get i n t o the c e l l , p r o f i t i n g of a moment of weakness from the p a r t of the s o l d i e r s , and has not taken the chance that the l a t t e r do not wake up. Thus Raphael confronts us here w i t h 27 a situation where a conflict between the supernatural and the natural i s imminent and could arise at any moment. Needless to say that the pulse of the dramatic event taking place i s thereby greatly intensified. Space* architecture, color and light are also exploited and fused powerfully to intensify the pulse of the event. Light i s here the unifying agent among a l l those means* Emanating behind the angel, i t shines dramatically on the armor of the guards and illuminates the plain black structure of the ceiling and the walls in a most peculiar way* The yellow of the light intermingles with the black of the structure in such a way that the black, although obviously beneath the yellow, tends to pierce through the latter and to affirm i t s e l f as much on the surface; the structure thus ceases to be of a unified color to which one could give a distinct name: the black i s specifically f e l t as such and so i s the yellow spread over i t ; the conflict, the tension which we feel between the two results in a dramatic vibration* This vibration, by a true phenomenon of resonance, sets into a similar vibration the g r i l l of the c e l l ; conse-quently the space included between the two ( i . e . the whole space of the interior of the cell) becomes i t s e l f activated: by thus adding i t s own vibration, i t contributes directly to enliven, to intensify the dramatic l i f e of the event* As much as i t was on making the event pulsate with v i t a l i t y , Raphael's concern was on imposing on i t a powerful Mionumentality* To this effect, he includes the scene within two giant, massive piers and uses a plain, severe structure 28 fox the interiox; he also gives noble and dignified attitudes to the figuxes (appaxent even in the soldiexs) and distxibutes them in a cleax symmetxical order. Thus is cxeated an atmos-phexe of order, nobility and even solemnity which stxikingly contxasts with the xestlessness achieved in Domenichino*s work.*^ A similax analysis could be done of the two side scenes. The xeadex may notice especially how the daxk form of the soldiex holding a toxch xises dramatically and energetically on the whole length of the brighter stairs, and how the silhouette of his companion also affirms i t s e l f impressively against the distant bare landscape. He may also observe how the fact that we cannot see their faces gives a more o f f i c i a l \"cachet\" to the action of these two soldiers by affirming in a purer way the authority which they personify, and how this fact directly contributes to the monumentality of the whole by making the event look more o f f i c i a l and more formal. He may observe, f i n a l l y , the outstanding nobility and grandeur of pose in the sleeping soldier on the extreme right, how light, especially, unifies the three scenes, and how Raphael makes the two massive piers contribute, through their colossal scale, to the monumen-t a l i t y intended, and, through their \"glowing\", to the dramatic l i f e of the whole. This work indeed, especially when we take into account the stringent economy of means practised, realizes, within the event which i t f a i t h f u l l y and powerfully brings out, one of the happiest dynamic combinations of Monumentality and dramatic 29 v i t a l i t y ever achieved. For t h i s reason, i t can be included without h e s i t a t i o n among the very few greatest masterpieces of the c l a s s i c w i l l . ^ 7 The School of Athens /stanza d e l l a Signatur\u00C2\u00A77 (Rome, Vatican; late 1510-mid 1511) i s another outstanding example of the c l a s s i c w i l l . The event taking place, here, has nothing of a drama; i t can be described as r a t i o n a l thinking being done, Reason at work or s t i l l i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y i n process. The idea was to i l l u s t r a t e t h i s a c t i v i t y using a group of outstanding philosophers from Antiquity, among whom Plato and A r i s t o t l e . In agreement with the c l a s s i c w i l l , Raphael proceeds to monumentalize the scene. He sets the figures i n an a r c h i t e c t u r a l context at once powerful and majestuousi the monumental arches recede with order and solemnity i n the distance. The figures themselves are given \"noble\" proportions; t h e i r gestures are clear and controlled and t h e i r attitude breathes calm and d i g n i t y . Beside conferring Monumentality to the event, the a r c h i -tecture i s also made expressive of the very a c t i v i t y depicted: i t i s clear, vast and powerful and thus d i r e c t l y contributes to the s p e c i f i c atmosphere of \"high clear tthought\" 1\u00C2\u00AE which Raphael intends. The pavement i n the foreground f u l f i l l s the same function: i t i s made of c l e a r l y spaced squares inscribed one i n the other, at once expressive of \" r a t i o n a l i t y \" and order. Now by depicting the philosophers in the middle of an animated discussion, Raphael at once communicates a certain v i t a l i t y to the event i t s e l f . In agreement with the c l a s s i c 30 w i l l , Raphael wishes to intensify this v i t a l i t y . To this end, he f i r s t proceeds to organically relate the architecture with the figures. This i s accomplished f i r s t by suffusing the figures with such a v i t a l i t y , distributing and interrelating them in such a way, and using such a system of coloring on them.,*9 that the whole space which they are occupying becomes i t s e l f activated and v i t a l i z e d . 2 0 Now the v i t a l i t y thus circulating in the space of the figures, expands, like the molecules of a gas, beyond and above the figures, in the space created by the majestuous arches. (This i s greatly helped by the placing of some figures inside the border of the space of the arches, and by the fact that the space of the arches i s connected with the foreground space, independently of the figures, through per-spective). What results i s a truly organic interpenetration of the vast space created by the arches with the space inhabited by the figures. 2*- It i s this interpenetration which allows the latter to be organically related with the architecture, and i t is through this organic relation that the architecture i s made to dynamically (and not statically as was the case in the Quattrocento) 2 2 lend i t s qualities to the event depicted. Now Raphael distributes and interrelates the figures in such a way that the eye i s led implacably to the two philosophers in the center (this i s greatly helped by the placing of the latter exactly in the opening of the last arch). By thus doing Raphael is making a l l the amounts of intellectual v i t a l i t y present in the scattered figures (especially in the foreground) converge towards the figures of Plato and Aristotle and contribute 31 their own share to the v i t a l i t y already present in those too. Similarly, the qualities inherent to the architecture find themselves dynamically concentrated and integrated in those two figures (and not only juxtaposed, as would be the case i f there was no organic or dynamic relationship between the figures and the architecture). As a result of a l l this concentration of energy on Plato and Aristotle, the l i f e of the mind (which they eminently symbolize) i s presented to us suffused with a powerful v i t a l i t y . Here again, like in the Liberation of Peter, the event has been not only monumentalized but powerfully vitalized. The Expulsion of Heliodorus ^Stanza d'Eliodoro7 (Rome, Vatican; second half 1512) narrates a drama in the f u l l sense of the term: avenging angels, at the request of the High Priest in the background, come to punish the impenitent Heliodorus. The activity i s essentially: drama, suspense. Inaagreement with the classic w i l l , Raphael's intention i s to suffuse i t with a powerful v i t a l i t y . Like he was to do in the Liberation of Peter the year after, he chooses to depict the moment most pregnant with dramatic tension, when the angels are just about to f a l l on Heliodorus. Now the wide space between the two groups in the foreground (disregarding the papal group) had to be activated with dramatic v i t a l i t y , and to this end Raphael made the group of women and children, on the l e f t , r e c o i l violently.\" Their force of look and gesture is directed to-ward the right, but at the same time an equal and opposite impulse of fear makes them recoil toward the left.\"23 -phe 3 2 space between the two groups thus becomes charged with tension, like a tensed spring which could come back to i t s normal position at any time. It i s with a similar intention of charging the air through-out with dramatic tension that Raphael devised such an archi-tecture as he did: \"The vacant foreground of the scene i s marked out in a floor pattern of movemented, perspectively-diminished shapes; the architecture to the rear i s open not only in i t s center but at the sides, making a wider and more pervasive sense of the activity of space; in the center bay of the temple arches, cornices and mouldings are multiplied, and insistently 94 and quickly scan their diminution into distance.\" And Freedberg further observes: \"Unobstructed to the front, and swiftly and i r r e s i s t i b l y channeled to the rear, the space and i t s vehicle, the architecture, are of one temper of dramatic animation with the figures; more than their sounding board, the space becomes an actor in the drama with them.\"25 Light i s also used by Raphael to directly contribute to the sense of drama intended: i t f a l l s as a dynamically inter-sected beam on the arches of the center bay and thus adds i t s own share to the dramatic l i f e of the whole. We can also see why Raphael included the two figures climbjLng up on one of the columns: so that the eye w i l l be induced s t i l l more towards the deep center and at the same time to help unify the space in the foreground with the one of the background by in-serting them as a connecting element, a plastic link between the two spaces. Similarly for the two men standing against that 33 column and talking to each other: one i s turned towards the center and induces the eye in that direction, while the other one i s violently twisted, thus charging the air immediately around him with tension and contributing to the dramatization of the whole. On the drama thus powerfully vitalized, Raphael was faced with the problem of imposing Monumentality. The papal group on the l e f t serves such a purpose. It may also be observed how the impenitent Heliodorus preserves a dignity of bearing in the c r i t i c a l situation he finds himself i n . The massive architecture also throws a note of severity. But a l l the same, we feel here an unresolved conflict between dramatic v i t a l i t y on the one hand and Monumentality on the other hand. The papal group i s not integrated in the event but merely juxtaposed; the architecture, for a l l i t s massiveness, does not resolve in repose and majesty. Now I would like the reader to realize the d i f f i c u l t y which Raphael was encountering in the treatment of this subject as compared with the School of Athens. In both depictions, the space defined i s wide and deep and the figures occupy a rather small proportion of i t . In the School of Athens, as we have seen, space i s energized but in a gentle and controlled way, let us say, in agreement with the event taking place. In the Expulsion on the contrary, Raphael had to devise ways to pervade space not only with v i t a l i t y but with dramatic v i t a l i t y (since the event i s a true drama), i f the specific event taking place was to be truly enlivened. 34 Now such a large space as exists in the Expulsion i s not so easily dramatized and Raphael found out that he had to sacrifice Monumentality to a large extent in order to do so. The logical solution was to increase the scale and the power of expression of the figures and reduce the importance given to and the role played by space and architecture.2\u00C2\u00B0 in the tapestry cartoons (1515) Raphael took the f i n a l step towards such a solution. In the Death of Ananias, for instance, the figures are contained in such a shallow space that there i s no need for a complicated architecture to impose the sense of drama intended. The energy released in the foreground i s not allowed to be dispersed but immediately reaches the group of apostles, on which i t i s at once reflected and amplified. The apostles thus f u l f i l l the dual function of imposing Monumentality on the event to a powerful degree (by the solemnity of their presence) and of acting as a human sounding board for the dramatic energy released in the foreground. Monumentality and dramatic v i t a l i t y are thus not f e l t as conflicting (like in the Expulsion) but as integrated into a powerful unity.27 Such an integration was also one of the major concerns of Andrea del Sarto, as can be seen for instance in the Arrest of St. John the Baptist (Florence, Scalzo; 1517). One may notice here how effectively the calm and solemn figure in the l e f t foreground answers Herod's dramatic movement foreward (although the latter i s addressed to the Baptist), and how the enclosing of the actors in a shallow space allows the event to vibrate with Monumentality and dramatic v i t a l i t y , both being powerfully unified. 35 A word may be said here about Spirituality. It was stated earlier that classic art solved the traditional conflict between Spir i t u a l i t y and Natural L i f e . Now such a conflict, in the Quattrocento, existed in two forms. Artists could purposely dehumanize the human form in order to emphasize the idea of the supernatural (as Botticelli, for instance, so often did) \u00E2\u0080\u0094 in which case the conflict was between Natural Life and S p i r i t u a l i t y . On the other hand, they could depict the holy figures as simple, down-to-earth people, aiming essentially at a convincing natur-alism \u00E2\u0080\u0094 in which case a conflict existed between Natural Life and the internal S p i r i t u a l i t y of the work (by challenging our conception of holy figures). By powerfully affirming the dignity of Nature (as we have seen) the classic work automatically integrates Natural Life in f u l l (and vice-versa). On the other hand, the higher level of existence (at once more v i t a l and more monumental) to which the classic a r t i s t raised reality, became the equivalent for a spiritualized existence. The religious classic work of art thus theoretically breathes both Natural Life and Spiri t u a l i t y (internal and external) no longer f e l t as conflicting, but as conciliated. 36 1. Michelangelo grounded his Prophets and Ignudi (in the Sistine Ceiling) so powerfully to their seat partly because he rightly gathered that the suggestion of any lose detachment of these figures from their seat, when seen from below, would make them look half-seated, half-suspended in the air, thus challenging our sense of gravity. And this could not be tolerated by the classic w i l l operating in him. 2. Hauser, op. c i t . , II, pp. 88-89. 3. H. Wolfflin, Classic Art. New York, 1950, p. 208. 4. ibid., p. 233. 5. ibid., p. 208. 6. ibid., p. 219. 7. ibid . , p. 174. 8. It i s important that we realize how the dignity of Nature i s respected by the classic a r t i s t . The latter achieves in his works a v i t a l i t y often greater than i s found in real l i f e , yet through the respect of the physical premises enumerated above, Nature i s always f u l l y integrated. What i s happening i s that the latter*s v i t a l i t y i s , let us say, intensified: there i s an increase in true v i t a l i t y , as before there was always a lack. That i s why although the world created by the classic a r t i s t may be highly superior to ours, yet we would feel more at home in i t than in any of the Quattrocento worlds: precisely because we feel a more intimate correspondence between i t s principle of l i f e and ours (which i s Nature herself, considered as a l i f e -giving power)\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 9. It i s irrelevant to our discussion that pre-Socratic and Hellenistic period philosophers appear side-by-side in the School of Athens. What matters i s that they are depicted as i f l i v i n g at the same epoch. 10. The dating and attribution of this as well as of the other works assigned in this essay to Giotto, are taken from C. Gnudi, Giotto. Milan, 1959. For a contestation of these matters, see M. Meiss, Giotto and As s i s i . New York, 1960. 11. W81fflin observes that na bourgeois art i s transformed into an aristocratic one which adopts the distinctive c r i t e r i a of demeanour and feeling prevalent among the upper classes.*1 (op. c i t ; , p. 213). 37 12. Giotto also had to face this problem in a subject like the Kiss of Judas (Padova, Arena Chapel; ca. 1305-10). Although he imposes here a powerful monumentality on the event, yet he f a i l s to dynamize i t s existence and we have the clear impression that a l l the activity going on has been \"frozen\". 13. These three elements indeed a l l contribute to one another. They have been considered separately here in order to enable us to better grasp the mechanism with which the classic w i l l i s fundamentally operating. 14. By formal elements I mean essentially here space, light, color and architecture as well as the human figure i t s e l f . 15. In his Liberation of Peter (Rome, S. Pietro in Vincoli; early XVIIth cent.). 16. The comparison of the two works i s taken from Wolfflin, op. c i t ; , p. 104. 17. Wolfflin observes that the Liberation of Peter \" i s perhaps better fitted than any other of Raphael's works to lead the hesitant to a f u l l appreciation of him.\" (op. c i t . , p. 106). 18. S. J. Freedberg, Painting of the High Renaissance in Rome and Florence. Harvard Univ. Press, 1961, I, p. 123. 19. For a description of this system of coloring, see Freedberg (op. cit.) pp. 124-25. It i s demonstrated here how Raphael makes use of the assertive and recessive \"personality\" of the different hues to activate space. 20. Freedberg observes that the space occupied by the figures i s transformed into a \"plastically responsive aether\" (ibid., p. 126). 21. The idea of \"interpenetration\" i s taken from Freedberg, op. c i t . , p. 124. 22. The Funeral of St. Stephen (Prato, Duomo; 1460) by Fra Filippo Lippi offers a good example of a static juxta-position. 23. Freedberg, op. c i t . , p. 159. 24. ibid., p. 159. 25. ibid., pp. 159-160. 38 26. The increase in scale which his figures gradually under-went can be partly interpreted as a search for such a solution. 27. In the Liberation of Peter, as we have seen, Raphael achieved a similar integration. It may also be observed that the force of presence of the event has greatly gained in the Cartoons. In a work such as the Expulsion, the eye i s attracted certainly to the main actors, but also to the architecture and wide space around. The latter are indeed pervaded with drama, but in doing so we somewhat lose nation of the specific drama being played. In the Cartoons, the event confronts us with a most powerful intensity of presence. In the latter works, indeed, as in the Liberation of Peter. Raphael struck what i s perhaps the ideal balance between force of presence, v i t a l i t y and Monumentality. 28. A good example i s Benedetto da Maiano's Madonna and Child (Berlin Museum; ca. 1480-85). This example i s taken from Wolfflin, op. c i t . , p. 42. PART TWO THE NEW WILL IN ROSSO'S AND PONTORMO'S ART 39 III NOTION OF THE NEW WILL Classic painting reached i t s climax, in Florence, between the years 1516 and 1518, under the leadership of Fra Bartolommeo (who died in 1517) and Andrea del Sarto. 1 The former produced such outstanding works as the Holy Family (Rome, Galleria Nazionale; 1516), the Salvator Mundi? (Florence, P i t t i ; 1516) and the Pieta /with Bugiardini7 (Florence, P i t t i ; ca. 1516-17). Andrea, on the other hand, created his two masterpieces: the Madonna of the Harpies (Florence, U f f i z i ; 1517) and the Disputation on the Trinity (Florence, P i t t i ; 1517-18). In a l l these works we recognize the classic w i l l (as we defined i t in the preceding chapter) as unmistakably as in the works discussed above. By a rather unusual coincidence, since the classicizing o trend was overwhelmingly predominating, those years also saw the emergence of a new art which was soon to powerfully challenge the accepted ideals. This new art, which we shall study in the works of Pontormo and Rosso, has proven to be one of the most controversial ones which art history has dealt with in the last forty years. It i s my intention to help throw some light on i t s true character and on the s p i r i t which led to i t s advent. In order to do so systematically, I shall make a particular use of the word \"i r r a t i o n a l i t y \" . I define as partaking of irr a t i o n a l i t y the amount by which the depiction departs from 40 what would be a normal r e a l i s t i c rendering of the event. Thus I include under irra t i o n a l i t y any amount of dehumanization or dematerialization, also anything which reveals i t s e l f to be abnormal, strange, odd, ambiguous, incongruous, dissonant, \"irra t i o n a l \" , inappropriate, i l l o g i c a l , untrue to l i f e , untrue to normal experience, anything which does not agree with the notion we have of a r e a l i s t i c , normal representation of the event. On surveying the whole of Christian painting prior to the new art^, we find that irrationality had resulted from a great diversity of interests. It had resulted, for instance, from an interest in cl a r i t y and directness of expression (as was the case in early Christian times); i t had been used to promote Spi r i t u a l i t y ; i t had resulted from an interest in the things of nature (as when animals, which we would normally not expect to be included, are inserted by the a r t i s t ) ; i t had resulted because the ar t i s t was interested in celebrating the fashion of the day (as Ghirlandaio i s when he dresses b i b l i c a l figures in the costumes of the day), or because he wanted to please the arch-eologically-minded ones (as Ghirlandaio does in his Adoration of the Shepherds (Florence, S. Trinita; 1485)4; i t had resulted from a concern for purely aesthetic effects (as was partly the case with the refined Gothic line) ; i t had resulted from an interest in Monumentality (as was the case in Giotto, Masaccio, Mero della Francesca and the classic a r t i s t s ) ; i t had resulted from a particular interest in the human figure (as Michelangelo manifests in depicting b i b l i c a l stories with nudes),,\u00C2\u00AB.etc. 41 Now i t can be said that until the advent of the new art, the i r r a t i o n a l i t y included in the work of art, on the whole was not meant as such to arrest the mind. When he dehumanizes the human figure and dematerializes the latter*s environment, the Byzantine a r t i s t exaggerates everything in such a way that the mind w i l l not find interest in the resulting abnormality and strangeness as such. He i s concerned with avoiding the the provocation of such comments as: \"What a strange facel\" or \"How i l l o g i c a l i s the size of the eye s i \" or \"How ambiguous i s the space!\" Instead, he hopes that the abnormality and strangeness created w i l l be immediately interpreted as a mani-festation of the presence of the s p i r i t of God, and thus readily translated by the mind into Sp i r i t u a l i t y . Quattrocento art i s f i l l e d with i r r a t i o n a l i t i e s of a l l kinds. But here again the latter are not meant, as such, to arrest the mind. When he includes antique monuments in his Adoration of the Shepherds. Ghirlandaio expects that the in-congruity as such w i l l not impose i t s e l f on the beholder; he expects the latter to enjoy both the monuments and the scene of the Adoration without being disturbed by the obvious abnor-mality. Wb'lfflin observes, in this context, that \" a l l the romancing of the fifteenth century i s just a harmless game with architecture and dress.\u00C2\u00AE6'J The same thing, with the appropriate adjustments, could be said of a l l the irr a t i o n a l i t y present in classic art. When Raphael, for instance, includes two youths climbing up one of the columns, in the Expulsion of Heliodorus. the abnormality thereby created i s not meant as such to arrest the mind. It i s meant to be simply by-passed. 42 The significance of Pontormo*s and Rosso\"s art comes from the fact that we are confronted here with an art endowed with an i r r a t i o n a l i t y meant to impose i t s e l f in i t s very character of abnormality and strangeness. Indeed i t i s my contention that we can discern i n the new art a d i s t i n c t w i l l to awake feelings of abnormality, of incongruity, of dissonance, of i l l o g i c a l i t y , of ambiguity, of inconsistency, of strangeness i n the beholder. I r r a t i o n a l i t y i s no longer meant to be trans-lated nor to be by-passed, but, as such, to arrest the beholder's attention, to perplex and disturb him, to frustrate and b a f f l e him, and often to create malaise, discomfort and uneasiness in him. Romanesque a r t , at times, achieves e f f e c t s resembling the ones achieved i n the new a r t . I t s i r r a t i o n a l i t y sometimes pos-sesses such a power of f a s c i n a t i o n that, l i k e in the new a r t , i t tends to impose i t s e l f i n i t s very character of strangeness. But the l a t t e r i s , l e t us say, a naive strangeness, A Roman-esque work may intrigue and fascinate the mind through i t s very i r r a t i o n a l i t y ( l i k e do also the ones created by Hieronymus Bosch) yet i t does not r e a l l y perplex the mind nor does i t t r u l y awake in the beholder fee l i n g s of incongruity, abnormality, i l l o g i -c a l i t y * etc. because of i t s being too consistently and obviously i r r a t i o n a l . The new a r t , as we s h a l l see, awakes such feelings e s s e n t i a l l y through subtle or isolated departures from the l o g i c a l , the normal, the congruous, the clear, the \"rational 1*...which, as such, challenge the mind, perplex i t and disturb i t . The l a t t e r cannot be t r u l y challenged nor disturbed unless a suf-f i c i e n t l y high amount of r a t i o n a l i t y ox *frfeau ;sibility w i s included. And indeed i t i s one of the main characteristics of the new art that the force of impact of i t s irr a t i o n a l i t y as such is largely due to the rather high amount of \"rationality* 1 with which this i r r a t i o n a l i t y i s contrasted. In the f i r s t chapter, we have defined Spirit u a l i t y as an ether breathing the presence of the S p i r i t of God, It i s of a fundamental importance, for an adequate understanding of the new w i l l , to understand how such an ether i s different from the one which irrat i o n a l i t y , as such, produces. The latter, by defini-tion, i s made of abnormality, strangeness, ambiguity, i l l o g i -c a l ity, inconguity...etc. Now when these qualities as such strike the mind, we are not properly speaking in the domain of Sp i r i t u a l i t y , The latter is allowed to exist only when these qualities are translated by the mind. Thus a search for the abnormal, the strange, the ambiguous, the incongruous, the i l l o g i c a l . . . e t c , i s something theoretically different from a search for the sp i r i t u a l .