"Arts, Faculty of"@en . "Sociology, Department of"@en . "DSpace"@en . "UBCV"@en . "Hornosty, Roy Walter"@en . "2011-08-26T18:52:51Z"@en . "1966"@en . "Master of Arts - MA"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "Using the questionnaire method, data were collected on 1335 students, or 85 per cent of all students enrolled in Canadian schools of pharmacy during the 1961-62 academic year. The data are assembled in this presentation in an effort to provide (i) a general descriptive study of pharmacy students, and (ii) a detailed analysis of the factors leading to the choice of field within the profession.\r\nThe descriptive portion of the study focuses on four sets of factors, those being: (i) social background factors,\r\nincluding ascribed characteristics (sex, socioeconomic\r\nstatus, religion, urban-rural residence, and geographic region) and achieved characteristics (practical experience, occupational inheritance, and high school grades), (ii) sources of information and influence, ranging\r\nfrom practice-oriented sources (those oriented to the practice of the profession) to ideology-oriented sources (those geared to the goals toward which the profession is striving), (iii) occupational values, including intrinsic-people-oriented-extrinsic values, business, entrepreneurial, and independence values, and (iv) the age at which a career in pharmacy is first considered and finally chosen.\r\nThe findings show that students with different social backgrounds vary in the amount of contact with the profession; that practice-oriented sources of information and influence generally are more important than ideology-oriented sources; that pharmacy students hold positively values which, according to Rosenberg\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \"continuum of psychological distance,\" are ambivalent; and that students who differ in the age of first considering and finally choosing pharmacy vary in social background, derive information and influence from different sources, and feel differently about their chosen profession.\r\nThe choice of field is analysed in accordance with an analytic scheme which attributes independent causal significance to three sets of factors: social background factors, sources of information and influence, and occupational values. According to this scheme, the latter two sets of factors, although exerting some independent influence, are thought to be affected by the former. In a purposive sample achieved and ascribed social characteristics are expected to be related. The findings generally are consistent with the analytic scheme.\r\nOccupational alternatives within the profession are arranged along a continuum (B-P continuum) from retail pharmacy, the most business-like of the fields, to prescription pharmacy, to hospital pharmacy, to the residual fields, which are regarded as most profession-like. Students who choose a field at the business end of the B-P continuum, as compared with those who choose a field at the profession end, tend to enter pharmacy with more practical experience; to have parents and, to a lesser extent,\r\nrelatives in the profession; to have lower high school grades; to utilize practice-oriented, as opposed to, ideology-oriented, sources of information and influence; and to hold positively extrinsic, as opposed to intrinsic, business, independence, and entrepreneurial values, together with the value, \"meet the public and deal directly with people.\"\r\nThe choice of field is independent of the factor of socio-economic status but varies with the factors of sex, religion, urban-rural residence, and geographic region. Although these findings may be explained partly by the intervening variables considered above, there is some evidence to support the view that social background factors\r\nplay an independent part in the choice of field by affecting the visibility, accessibility, and \"social appropriateness\" of career alternatives.\r\nBy juxtaposing ascribed social factors, achieved social factors, sources of information and influence, occupational values, and the choice of field, and by considering the relationships among these sets of factors, the author gives an account of the process by which pharmacy students choose a field within the profession."@en . "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/36931?expand=metadata"@en . "A STUDY OF PHARMACY STUDENTS IN CANADA WITH PARTICULAR EMPHASIS ON THE FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE CHOICE OF FIELD WITHIN THE PROFESSION by i ) Roy Walter Homos t y B.S.P., U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1958 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS POR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n the Department of Anthropology and S o c i o l o g y We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA May, 1966 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r reference and study. I f u r t h e r agree that per-m i s s i o n f o r extensive copying of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s understood that, copying or p u b l i -c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my w r i t t e n permission* Department of Anthropol ngy and flnnlolngy The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, Vancouver 8, Canada D a t e A p r i l 18. 1966 t - i i -ABS TRACT Using the qu e s t i o n n a i r e method, data were c o l l e c t e d on 1335 students, or 85 per cent of a l l students e n r o l l e d i n Canadian schools of pharmacy during the 1961-62 academic year. The data are assembled i n t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n i n an e f f o r t to provide ( i ) a general d e s c r i p t i v e study of pharm-acy students, and ( i i ) a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of the f a c t o r s l e a d i n g to the choice of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . The d e s c r i p t i v e p o r t i o n of the study focuses on f o u r s e t s of f a c t o r s , those being: ( i ) s o c i a l background f a c -t o r s , i n c l u d i n g a s c r i b e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (sex, s o c i o -economic s t a t u s , r e l i g i o n , u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , and geographic region) and achieved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( p r a c t i c a l experience, o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , and high school grades), ( i i ) sources of Information and i n f l u e n c e , rang-i n g from p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources (those o r i e n t e d to the p r a c t i c e of the p r o f e s s i o n ) to i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources (those geared to the goals toward which the p r o f e s s i o n i s s t r i v i n g ) , ( i i i ) o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s , i n c l u d i n g i n t r l n s i c -p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d - e x t r i n s i c v a l u e s , business, e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l , and independence v a l u e s , and ( i v ) the age a t which a career i n pharmacy i s f i r s t considered and f i n a l l y chosen. The f i n d i n g s show t h a t students w i t h d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l backgrounds vary i n the amount of contact w i t h the pro-f e s s i o n ; t h a t p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n - i i i -and i n f l u e n c e g e n e r a l l y are more important than i d e o l o g y -o r i e n t e d sources; that pharmacy students h o l d p o s i t i v e l y values which, according to Rosenberg*s \"continuum of p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e , \" are ambivalent; and t h a t students who d i f f e r i n the age of f i r s t c o n s i d e r i n g and f i n a l l y choosing pharmacy vary i n s o c i a l background, d e r i v e i n -formation and I n f l u e n c e from d i f f e r e n t sources, and f e e l d i f f e r e n t l y about t h e i r chosen p r o f e s s i o n . The choice of f i e l d i s analysed i n accordance w i t h an a n a l y t i c scheme which a t t r i b u t e s independent c a u s a l s i g n i f i c a n c e to three s e t s of f a c t o r s : s o c i a l background f a c t o r s , sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and I n f l u e n c e , and occu-p a t i o n a l v a l u e s . According t o t h i s scheme, the l a t t e r two s e t s of f a c t o r s , although e x e r t i n g some independent I n f l u e n c e , are thought t o be a f f e c t e d by the former. I n a purposive sample achieved and a s c r i b e d s o c i a l charac-t e r i s t i c s are expected to be r e l a t e d . The f i n d i n g s g e n e r a l l y are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the a n a l y t i c scheme. , Occupational a l t e r n a t i v e s w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n are arranged along a continuum (B-P continuum) from r e t a i l pharmacy, the most b u s i n e s s - l i k e of the f i e l d s , to pre-s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, to h o s p i t a l pharmacy, to the r e s i d u a l f i e l d s , which are regarded as most;, p r o f e s s i o n - l i k e . Stud-ents who choose a f i e l d a t the business end of the B-P continuum, as compared w i t h those who choose a f i e l d a t the p r o f e s s i o n end, tend to enter pharmacy w i t h more p r a c t -- i v -i c a l experience; t o have parents and, to a l e s s e r ex-t e n t , r e l a t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n ; to have lower h i g h s c h o o l grades; to u t i l i z e p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d , as opposed to, i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d , sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e ; and to h o l d p o s i t i v e l y e x t r i n s i c , as opposed to i n t r i n s i c , b u s i n e s s , independence, and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , t o -gether w i t h the v a l u e , \"meet the p u b l i c and d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h people.\" The choice of f i e l d i s independent of the f a c t o r of socio-economic s t a t u s but v a r i e s w i t h the f a c t o r s of sex, r e l i g i o n , u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , and geographic r e g i o n . Although these f i n d i n g s may be expl a i n e d p a r t l y by the i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e s considered above, there i s some evidence to support the view t h a t s o c i a l background f a c -t o r s p l a y an independent p a r t i n the choice of f i e l d by a f f e c t i n g the v i s i b i l i t y , a c c e s s i b i l i t y , and \" s o c i a l a ppropriateness\" of eareer a l t e r n a t i v e s . By juxtaposing a s c r i b e d s o c i a l f a c t o r s , achieved s o c i a l f a c t o r s , sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s , and the choice of f i e l d , and by con-s i d e r i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p s among these s e t s of f a c t o r s , the author gives an account of the process by which pharmacy students choose a f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . TABLE OP CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES v i i LIST OF FIGURES x i l ACKNOWLEDGMENTS x i l i Chapter I. INTRODUCTION 1 A) Problem . . . . . . 1 B) Approach to Problem 2 C) Operational Definitions 17 D) Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 27 E) Methodology . . . . . . 37 I I . SOCIAL BACKGROUND FACTORS . . . . . . . . 44 A) S o c i a l Background F a c t o r s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 A s c r i b e d and Achieved \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 4-5 B) S o c i a l Background Factors and Choice of F i e l d i n Pharmacy 73 I I I . SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND INFLUENCE . . 88 A) Sources of Information and I n f l u e n c e -Pharmacy Students i n General . . . . 89 B) Information and Influence and S o c i a l Background Factors 10 6 C) Information and Influence and Choice of F i e l d i n Pharmacy 141 - v i -TABLE OP CONTENTS\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued Chapter Page IV. VALUES . . . - 15^ A) Value P r o f i l e of Pharmacy Students . 15? B) Values and S o c i a l Background Factors 169 C) Values and Choice of F i e l d . . . . . . 192 V. TEMPORAL PATTERNS OP THE DECISION TO STUDY PHARMACY . 205 A) Age at Which Pharmacy Career I s F i r s t Considered 206 B) Age of Career D e c i s i o n 219 C) Age of Career D e c i s i o n and Choice of F i e l d . . . . . . . . . . -. . . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 242 VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . 245 A) Pharmacy Students i n General . . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \ 245 B) Summary of Factors A f f e c t i n g Choice of F i e l d 258 G) D i s c u s s i o n of Hypotheses . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 . 2?5 D) Conclusions \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 289 NOTES 293 LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 - v i l -LIST OP TABLES Table Page I . Percentage Women E n r o l l e d I n Canadian Schools of Pharmacy: 1945-61 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 46 I I . R e l i g i o u s A f f i l i a t i o n of Pharmacy Students and S e x . 48 I I I . School of R e g i s t r a t i o n and Sex 49 IV. Socio-Economic Backgrounds of Pharmacy Students \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 51 V. School of R e g i s t r a t i o n and R e l i g i o n \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 54 V I . R e l i g i o n and Occupational.Inheritance \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 55 V I I . School of R e g i s t r a t i o n and Urban-Rural Residence 56 V I I I . Urban-Rural Residence and P r a c t i c a l Experience P r i o r t o Entry i n t o Pharmacy School 58 IX. School of R e g i s t r a t i o n and P r a c t i c a l , Experience P r i o r to Entry . . . . . . 59 X. School of R e g i s t r a t i o n and Occupational I n h e r i t a n c e . . . . . . . 60 X I . Sex and Choice of F i e l d I n Pharmacy \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 73 X I I . R e l i g i o n and Choice of F i e l d i n Pharmacy 74 X I I I . School of R e g i s t r a t i o n and Choice of F i e l d i n Pharmacy 77 XIV. High School Grades, Occupational Inher-i t a n c e , P r a c t i c a l Experience and Choice of F i e l d i n Pharmacy 78 - v l i i -LIST OP TABLES\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued Table Page XV. Importance of Factors i n Career Choice \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 90 XVI. Most Important F a c t o r i n Career D e c i s i o n 91 X V I I . Sources of Information About Various C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Pharmacy 93 X V I I I . Importance of Sources of Information \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 97 XIX. Types of Sources of i n f o r m a t i o n About Various C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Pharmacy \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 99 .XX. S o c i a l C l a s s , Sex, and Importance of Various Factors i n Career D e c i s i o n . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 108 XXI. R e l i g i o n and Importance of Factors i n Career D e c i s i o n 110 X X I I . School of R e g i s t r a t i o n and Importance of Factors I n Career D e c i s i o n \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 112 X X I I I \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 P r a c t i c a l Experience and Importance of Factors i n Career D e c i s i o n 115 XXIV. Occupational I n h e r i t a n c e and Importance of Factors i n Career D e c i s i o n . . . . 116 XXV. R e l i g i o n and Importance of Various Sources of Information \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 . 119 XXVI. School of R e g i s t r a t i o n and Importance of Sources of Information . . . . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 121 XXVII. Most Important F a c t o r i n Career D e c i s i o n and Choice of F i e l d i n Pharmacy . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 . 142 XXVIII. Types of I n f l u e n c e and Choice of F i e l d . 144 XXIX. Sources of Information and Choice of F i e l d i n Pharmacy 145 XXX. Types of Sources of Information and Choice of F i e l d 147 - i x -LIST OP TABLES\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued Table Page XXXI. Ranking 0f Occupational Values by-Pharmacy Students 158 XXXII. C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t s of Occupational Values: E x t r i n s i c , People-Oriented, and I n t r i n s i c \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 160 XXXIII* Occupational Values and Perceptions of Pharmacy . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 162 XXXIV. Sex and Occupational Values: Business and Independence \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 169 XXXV. Sex and E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l Values \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 . .*. 170 XXXVI. R e l i g i o n and Weighted Average Scores on Occupational Values: E x t r i n s i c , People-Oriented, I n t r i n s i c 172 XXXVII. R e l i g i o n and E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l Values \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 173 XXXVIII. R e l i g i o n and E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l Values of Pharmacy Students i n Canada Except Quebec \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 174 XXXIX. School of R e g i s t r a t i o n and Occupational V a l u e s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 E x t r i n s i c , People-Oriented, I n t r i n s i c \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 176 XL. School of R e g i s t r a t i o n and Entrepren-e u r i a l Values . . . . . . . . 179 X I I . High School Grades and E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l Values 181 X L I I . Weighted Average Scores f o r E x t r i n s i c , People-Oriented, and I n t r i n s i c Values by Choice of F i e l d 193 X L I I I . Business, Independence, E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l Values and Choice of P i e l d 195 -X-LIST OF TABLES\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued Table Page XLIV. Doubts About Career D e c i s i o n A f t e r E n t e r i n g Pharmacy School...\u00C2\u00BB,\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 . . . . . 203 XLV. Age a t Which Career i n Pharmacy i s F i r s t Considered \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 20? XLVT. S o c i a l Background Factors and Age a t Which Pharmacy Career i s F i r s t Con-s i d e r e d . ,. . 208 XLVII. Factors i n D e c i s i o n and Age a t Which Pharmacy Career i s , F i r s t Considered 210 XLVTII. Age of Considering Pharmacy and Feel-? . , ings about Pharmacy Career . . . . . . . 211 XLIX. Age of Considering Pharmacy and Career D e c i s i o n I f Made A g a i n 2 1 2 L. Age a t Which D e c i s i o n t o Enter Pharmacy I s Reached . . 219 L I . S o c i a l Background Factors and Age a t Which D e c i s i o n to Enter Pharmacy I s Reached 220 L I I . F a ctors i n D e c i s i o n and Age a t Which D e c i s i o n to Enter Pharmacy I s Reached . 222 L I I I . Age a t Which D e c i s i o n to Enter Pharmacy I s Reached and F e e l i n g s About Career \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 224 LIV. Age a t Which D e c i s i o n t o Enter Pharmacy I s Reached and Career D e c i s i o n I f Made A g a i n t . . ^ . 224 LV. Age a t Which D e c i s i o n to Enter Pharmacy I s Reached and Serious C o n s i d e r a t i o n of Other Careers . . . . ,. ,. ...... ,\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 .. .\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 225 LVI. Age a t Which D e c i s i o n to Enter Pharmacy I s Reached and Doubts Before and Af/ter , Ent e r i n g Pharmacy School \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 226 - x l -LIST OP T A B L E S \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t l n u e d T a b l e Page L V I I . Age a t Which B e c i s i o n t o E n t e r Pharmacy Is Reached and Change i n Doubt Be fore* and A f t e r E n t e r i n g Pharmacy S c h o o l \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 . 226 L V I I I . Age a t Which D e c i s i o n t o E n t e r Pharmacy Is Reached and C h o i c e of F i e l d . . . . . 242 - x i i LIST OP FIGURES Fi g u r e Page 1. Scheme f o r the A n a l y s i s of the Choice of F i e l d i n Pharmacy \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 1? 2. Summary of R e l a t i o n s h i p s Between A s c r i b e d and Achieved S o c i a l Background Factors . 62 3* Summary of R e l a t i o n s h i p s Between S o c i a l Background Factors and Pactors i n Career D e c i s i o n ?. 126 4. Summary of R e l a t i o n s h i p s Between S o c i a l Background Pactors and Sources of I n -format i o n . . . . . . . 128 5. Summary of R e l a t i o n s h i p s Between Values and S o c i a l Background Factors \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 183 6. Summary of Pactors A f f e c t i n g Choice of F i e l d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 > x i i i -ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author i s Indebted t o a number of i n d i v i d u a l s whose i n s p i r a t i o n , encouragement, and a s s i s t a n c e made p o s s i b l e the completion of t h i s t h e s i s . Acknowledgments are due t o Mr. Bernard R. B l i s h e n , Research D i r e c t o r , and the Royal Commission on Health S e r v i c e s who so generously supported the p r o j e c t from I t s i n c e p t i o n ; to P r o f e s s o r P i n l a y A. Morrison, A s s i s t a n t to the Dean, of the F a c u l t y of Pharmacy a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia who encouraged the author I n every p o s s i b l e way; to the deans, d i r e c t o r s , and f a c u l t y members of the e i g h t schools of pharmacy i n Canada who so w i l l i n g -l y cooperated i n the d i s t r i b u t i n g and a d m i n i s t e r i n g of the qu e s t i o n n a i r e ; t o the 1335 students I n Canada who gave up val u a b l e c l a s s time to complete the q u e s t i o n n a i r e , and e s p e c i a l l y to those who took the t r o u b l e t o w r i t e person-a l l y to the author; to Dr. Hugh Dempster of the Computing Center a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia who a s s i s t e d the author w i t h the computations; and to C o r n e l i a C. Hornosty who typed both the rough d r a f t and the f i n a l copy of t h i s t h e s i s . The author I s e s p e c i a l l y g r a t e f u l to h i s t h e s i s ad-v i s o r , Dr. R. A. H. Robson of the Department of Anthropology - x i v -and S o c i o l o g y , f o r the a s s i s t a n c e and encouragement which he so w i l l i n g l y gave, but p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r h i s patience and understanding i n seeing t h i s t h e s i s through to I t s completion* CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A) PROBLEM Since the t u r n of the century a r a p i d l y changing technology has been p e r s i s t e n t l y a l t e r i n g the s t r u c t u r e of one of the o l d e s t p r o f e s s i o n s known to the western world* To meet the demands of mass pr o d u c t i o n and o r -ganized r e s e a r c h , leaders of the p r o f e s s i o n of pharmacy have been making attempts to r e c r u i t and prepare young men and women f o r careers i n i n d u s t r y , r e s e a r c h , teaching and h o s p i t a l pharmacy* I n a d d i t i o n they have been making e f f o r t s t o r e d e f i n e the r o l e of the t r a d i t i o n a l pharmacist from one of a compounder and dispenser of m e d i c i n a l agents - t o one of a purveyor of i n f o r m a t i o n and a consultant on drugs* The p r o f e s s i o n of pharmacy i s p r e s e n t l y i n a s t a t e of t r a n s i t i o n and i t s d e s t i n y i s not e n t i r e l y c l e a r * The nature of the p r o f e s s i o n and the f u t u r e t h a t awaits I t pose many i n t e r e s t i n g and r e l e v a n t problems f o r s o c i o l o g y * Yet, compared w i t h other p r o f e s s i o n s , pharmaoy has been g i v e n l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n by s o c i o l o g i s t s * 1 I n t h i s presen-t a t i o n a modest attempt i s made t o add to the understanding of a l a r g e l y neglected occupation* I n p a r t i c u l a r t h i s study focuses on c e r t a i n problems a f f e c t i n g students of pharmacy. P r i o r to or a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l , students choose a career from one of s e v e r a l s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d s open t o them, i n c l u d i n g r e t a i l , p r e s c r i p t i o n , or h o s p i t a l pharmacy, i n d u s t r y , t e a c h i n g , r e s e a r c h , d e t a i l i n g , and m i l i t a r y o r government s e r v i c e . The main concern of t h i s t h e s i s i s to analyse some of the more important f a c t o r s t h a t are i n v o l v e d i n making t h i s c h o i c e . However, before attempting to e x p l a i n the choice of f i e l d , i t i s necessary to g i v e an account of some of the more I n t e r e s t i n g charac-t e r i s t i c s of pharmacy students i n g e n e r a l . Thus, the t h e s i s has a twofol d purpose and sets out to achieve the > f o l l o w i n g : 1. A general d e s c r i p t i v e study of students e n r o l l e d i n Canadian schools of pharmacy, and \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 2. A d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of the f a c t o r s l e a d i n g to the choice of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . B) APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM 1. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of pharmacy students Pharmacy students are de s c r i b e d i n terms of f o u r s e t s of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , those being: a) s o c i a l background f a c t o r s , b) sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and I n f l u e n c e , c) o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s , and, d) the time a t which a career I n pharmacy i s f i r s t considered and the age a t which the career d e c i s i o n i s made. The f i r s t s e c t i o n of each of the next three chapters and most of Chapter V are devoted p r i m a r i l y to the c h a r a c t e r -i z a t i o n of pharmacy students, although d e s c r i p t i v e m a t e r i a l can be found throughout the e n t i r e t h e s i s . A t t e n t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y d i r e c t e d to those f a c t o r s which tend t o be p e c u l i a r t o students of t h i s p r o f e s s i o n . By p o i n t i n g out such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as the changing sex composition, the d i s p a r i t y between sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and sources of i n f l u e n c e , the ambivalent value p r o f i l e , among o t h e r s , i t i s hoped t h a t , i n a d d i t i o n to g a i n i n g a b e t t e r under-standing of pharmacy students, a b a s i s f o r some f u t u r e comparative study w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d . 2. Choice of f i e l d i n pharmacy S o c i o l o g i s t s have shown inc r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n the problem of oc c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e 2 , a problem which, u n t i l r e c e n t l y , r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l y more a t t e n t i o n from p s y c h o l o g i s t s ^ . I n arguing f o r the s i g n i f i c a n c e of s o c i a l f a c t o r s and processes i n the d e l i m i t a t i o n of car e e r a l t e r n a t i v e s and the d e c i s i o n to enter a s p e c i f i c occu-p a t i o n , s o c i o l o g i s t s have elaborated a number of approaches and have a t t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n c e t o a v a r i e t y of v a r i a b l e s . Some d i f f e r e n c e s simply r e f l e c t the s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s of the researcher but others p e r t a i n t o the c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n and e x p l i c a t i o n of the problem and hence become matters of academic ooncern. Even a cursory glance a t the s o c i o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e on o c c u p a t i o n a l choice w i l l r e v e a l a number of d i f f e r e n c e s , one of which i s i n the degree of s p e c i f i c i t y i n the c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of the choice* Some s o c i o l o g i s t s con-c e m themselves w i t h p a r t i c u l a r o c c u p a t i o n a l choices , others t r y t o understand the f a c t o r s Involved I n choices of d i f f e r e n t types o r l e v e l s of occupations-*, and s t i l l others puzzle over the n o t i o n or char a c t e r of choice I t s e l f 6 . S o c i o l o g i s t s d i f f e r w i t h respect to the time span or p a r t of the l i f e c y c l e ? which they choose t o explore i n reference t o the problem. Some consider the problem of o c c u p a t i o n a l choice a matter of t r a c i n g the f a c t o r s antecedent t o the major career d e c i s i o n , c u l m i n a t i n g i n e a r l y adulthood w i t h the a c t u a l or avowed choloe of a p a r t i c u l a r occupation\u00C2\u00AE, w h i l e others p r e f e r t o view the process as a continuous one extending over the e n t i r e w o r k i n g 2 l i f e s p a n of the i n d i v i d u a l ^ . The l a t t e r tend to be more concerned w i t h career patterns and job m o b i l i t y . Another sense i n which s t u d i e s of oc c u p a t i o n a l choice vary I s w i t h respect to the conceptions of the process i t s e l f \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Some researchers t r e a t o c c u p a t i o n a l choice as a t e l e o l o g i o a l process, a developmental process t h a t has a k i n d of \" l o g i c a l u n f o l d i n g \" i n which each stage I s a pre c u r s o r of the n e x t 1 0 , w h i l e others view the process as one I n v o l v i n g a s e r i e s of s i t u a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s which, I n themselves, are not n e c e s s a r i l y connected i n any l o g i c a l way w i t h a s p e c i f i c c areer c h o i c e 1 1 . F i n a l l y , s o c i o l o g i s t s d i f f e r w i t h respect to the f a c t o r s they consider important i n the career d e c i s i o n ^ the number of such f a c t o r s s t u d i e d and the r e l a t i o n s h i p s among them. Some s o c i o l o g i s t s a t t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n c e to s o c i a l background f a c t o r s such as socio-economic s t a t u s 1 2 , sex 13, r e l i g i o n 1 ^ , u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e 1 ^ , geographic r e g i o n 1 6 , and c e r t a i n achieved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as academic h i s t o r y 1 ? . Often, s o c i o l o g i s t s c o nsider c e r t a i n contacts w i t h an occupation important, be they d i r e c t contacts such as visibility1\u00C2\u00AE, and p r a c t i o a l e x p e r i e n c e d , I n d i r e c t contacts such as recruitment l l t e r a t u r e Z O ^ or mass m e d l a \u00C2\u00A3 A , or contacts w i t h c e r t a i n persons such as p a r e n t s 2 2 , peers 23, or members of a prof e s s i o n 2 * * . Some s o c i o l o g i s t s a t t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n c e to the process of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h an occupation, whether I n c h i l d h o o d 2 ^ , or a d u l t h o o d 2 6 , as w e l l as the process of s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n 2 ? , w h i l e others p o i n t out the importance of i n t e r n a l motiva-t i o n a l f a c t o r s such as values2\u00C2\u00AE, a t t i t u d e s 2 ^ , or personal needs! 0* The present study seeks to analyse a h i g h l y s p e c i f i c o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e , t h a t of a s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d w i t h i n a s i n g l e p r o f e s s i o n . The s e l e c t i o n of t h i s problem i s based more on p r a c t i c a l than on t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , one of which i s i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the p r o f e s s i o n of phar-macy. Perhaps no other p r o f e s s i o n i s comprised of such \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 d i v e r s e l y s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d s as i s pharmacy, s p e c i a l t i e s which r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t a p t i t u d e s , s k i l l s , and m o t i v a t i o n s . - 6 -With pharmacy p r e s e n t l y J i n d e r g o l n g r a p i d change both i n s t r u c t u r e and subject matter, i t i s i n the i n t e r e s t s of the p r o f e s s i o n t o understand the f a c t o r s which p l a y a p a r t i n the choice of f i e l d . Although choosing a s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d w i t h i n a pro-f e s s i o n may be of secondary importance f o r most i n d i v i d -u a l s , i t nevertheless r e q u i r e s a career d e c i s i o n and. needs to be analysed as one. To view the problem of o c c u p a t i o n a l choice s o l e l y as a process which culminates i n a d e c i s i o n to enter a p a r t i c u l a r p r o f e s s i o n i s t o ignore the f a c t t h a t many, important dilemmas concerning one's oc c u p a t i o n a l f u t u r e are r e s o l v e d a f t e r making an i n i t i a l commitment to a g i v e n occupation. For pharmacy students the choice of f i e l d , i n many cases, i s as c r u c i a l - a s the d e c i s i o n t o enter the p r o f e s s i o n . The general o r i e n t a t i o n of t h i s p iece of research i s t o view o c c u p a t i o n a l choice as. a continuous process of s e l e c t i o n from o c c u p a t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s , which extends beyond and occurs I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e . I n i t i a l commit-ment to a p a r t i c u l a r occupation or p r o f e s s i o n . Whether the process I t s e l f i s t e l e o l o g i c a l o r s i t u a t i o n a l i n char-a c t e r i s a t h e o r e t i c a l q u e s t i o n which, because of the l i m i t a t i o n s of the data, i s g e n e r a l l y not d e a l t w i t h . This study i s concerned p r i m a r i l y w i t h the f a c t o r s t h a t are i m p l i c a t e d i n the choice of f i e l d . Three broad s e t s ; o f f a c t o r s are s e l e c t e d f o r d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s and i n c l u d e o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s , sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e and s o c i a l background f a c t o r s . -7-a) values The value concept has both s u f f e r e d and b e n e f i t e d from a wide v a r i e t y of d e f i n i t i o n s * 3 1 However, i t has proved u s e f u l I n a number of s t u d i e s of o c c u p a t i o n a l choice . 3 2 p o r the present purposes a value i s taken to mean \"a concept s p e c i f y i n g what aspects of a s i t u a t i o n are d e s i r a b l e , u n d e s i r a b l e , or hondesirable; or appro-p r i a t e , i n a p p r o p r i a t e 4 or nonappropriate. \" 3 3 Values are i n t e r n a l m o t i v a t i o n elements which serve as c r i t e r i a f o r making'decisions. But as po i n t e d out by Kluckhohn, \"... the locus of value i s n e i t h e r i n the organism nor i n the immediately observable world; i t s locus I s r a t h e r t h a t of a l l s c i e n t i f i c a b s t r a c t i o n s . \" 3 ^ i t i s an a b s t r a c t i o n from v e r b a l and non-verbal events. >\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 I n the present study f o u r types or ca t e g o r i e s of values are used\u00C2\u00AB (1) e x t r i n s l c - p e o p l e - o r l e n t e d - l n t r i n s i c , ( i i ) independence, ( i l l ) business, and ( i v ) entrepre-n e u r i a l v a l u e s . Morris Rosenberg found t h a t b e r t a i n o c c u p a t i o n a l values could be arranged along a continuum ranging^from I n t r i n s i c v a l u e s , values which seek expression i n the work i t s e l f , to people-oriented v a l u e s , those f u l f i l l e d by g r a t i f i c a t i o n s d e r i v e d from i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , t o e x t r i n s i c v a l u e s , those r e a l i z e d through the rewards r e c e i v e d f o r the work done. This general c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of oc c u p a t i o n a l values I s adopted f o r the present study, but the statements designed t o tap the va r i o u s values are, somewhat d i f f e r e n t . Business, - 8 -independence and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values are of p a r t i -c u l a r concern t o some pharmacy students and are used I n co n j u n c t i o n w i t h the l a t t e r to help e x p l a i n the choice of f i e l d . . b) ^Sources of Information and Inf l u e n c e S e v e r a l researchers have shown the e f f e c t s of sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and Influence on the choice of career.35 I t I s g e n e r a l l y f e l t t h a t an oc c u p a t i o n a l choioe Involves both r a t i o n a l and. n o n - r a t i o n a l elements; t h a t i s , i t I s a f f e c t e d by the Information one has about career a l t e r n a -t i v e s and i s i n f l u e n c e d by other persons. I n t h i s study the choioe of f i e l d i s thought t o be determined I n p a r t by the I n d i v i d u a l s who are Important i n the d e c i s i o n to enter pharmacy and by the sources from which i n f o r m a t i o n about the p r o f e s s i o n I s d e r i v e d . This piece of research was begun w i t h the n o t i o n t h a t the sources-of i n f o r m a t i o n and Influence u t i l i z e d by pharmacy students were of two d i s t i n c t typest those o r i e n t e d toward the i d e a l s of the p r o f e s s i o n and those o r i e n t e d toward I t s a c t u a l practice.. , \u00C2\u00BB. As mentioned e a r l i e r , , pharmacy i s p r e s e n t l y i n a s t a t e of t r a n s i t i o n , s t r u g g l i n g to preserve I t s p r o f e s s i o n -a l s t a t u s i n the face of a changing technology which I s th r e a t e n i n g t o render obsolete the r o l e of the t r a d i t i o n a l pharmacist. F a c u l t y members of schools of pharmacy, o f f i c i a l s of pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n s , and members of the p r o f e s s i o n who take an a c t i v e p a r t i n c h a r t i n g pharmacy^ f u t u r e , subsequently r e f e r r e d to as \" i d e o l o g i c a l l e a d e r s , \" are p r e s e n t l y attempting to change the p u b l i c image of the p r o f e s s i o n and r e d e f i n e the r o l e of the phar-macist. The p i c t u r e of pharmacy portrayed by I n d i v i d u a l s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s a c t i v e l y engaged i n the attempt to r e a l i z e these I d e a l s I s c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t presented by the great m a j o r i t y of p r a c t i t i o n e r s . Sources which present the former p i c t u r e of the p r o f e s s i o n are r e f e r r e d t o as \"i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d . \" On the other hand, some sources are o r i e n t e d toward the a c t u a l p r a c t i c e of the p r o f e s s i o n which, because of the r e l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n of l i c e n c e d pharmacists ( n e a r l y 90 per cent of the membership of the Canadian Pharmaceutical A s s o c i a t i o n I s engaged I n some form of r e t a i l p r a c t i c e ) , I s p r i m a r i l y t h a t of the r e t a i l f i e l d . Such sources are r e f e r r e d to as \" p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d . \" o) S o c i a l background f a c t o r s Studies of oc c u p a t i o n a l choice seldom f a l l t o take' i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n the s o c i a l background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the I n d i v i d u a l . I n t h i s study, e i g h t s o c i a l background f a c t o r s are used. These are grouped i n t o two general c a t e g o r i e s : a s c r i b e d and achieved. The former r e f e r s t o those c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h which an I n d i v i d u a l i s born or those over which he has r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e c o n t r o l , and includessex,* socio-economic s t a t u s , r e l i g i o n , u r b a n - r u r a l residence and geographic r e g i o n ; the l a t t e r r e f e r s to -10-those c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which an i n d i v i d u a l acquires as a r e s u l t of some a c t i o n or e f f o r t on h i s p a r t , and i n c l u d e s h i g h school grades, p r a c t i c a l experience, and o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e . - ^ Before d i s c u s s i n g the general a n a l y t i c scheme used i n t h i s I study i t i s necessary t o d e s c r i b e the v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s from which the pharmacy student chooses h i s s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d . F o r the sake of convenience and sim-p l i c i t y the s e v e r a l career a l t e r n a t i v e s are c a t e g o r i z e d as f o l l o w s i r e t a i l pharmacy, p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, hos-p i t a l pharmacy, and a r e s i d u a l category, \"other.\" B r i e f l y j the r e t a i l pharmacist works I n an e s t a b l i s h -ment commonly known as the \"corner drugstore,\" which i s g e n e r a l l y thought to have a du a l c h a r a c t e r , t h a t of a pharmaceutical s e r v i c e and h e a l t h center and t h a t of a convenient d i s t r i b u t i o n center f o r a wide v a r i e t y of consumer goods. Since l e s s than 25 per cent of the t o t a l r e c e i p t s of a r e t a i l pharmacy are d e r i v e d from p r e s c r i p -t i o n sales-^?, the r e t a i l pharmacist engages i n a number of commercial a c t i v i t i e s I n v o l v i n g non-medloinal merchan-d i s e and n o n - p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a f f . He deals d i r e c t l y w i t h the p u b l i c and has considerable autonomy and Independence i n the work s e t t i n g . A p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy i s a r e t a i l establishment h a n d l i n g p r i m a r i l y p r e s c r i p t i o n s and r e l a t e d m e d i c i n a l items and i s g e n e r a l l y l o c a t e d near a medical center or i n a d i s t r i c t i n which there i s a high c o n c e n t r a t i o n of - 1 1 -p r a c t l s i h g p h y s i c i a n s . The pharmacist employed i n such an establishment engages I n some commercial a c t i v i t i e s , buying, s e l l i n g , o r d e r i n g s t o c k , e t c . , but such a c t i v i t i e s g e n e r a l l y Involve m e d i c i n a l Items and p r o f e s s i o n a l per-sonnel* He deals d i r e c t l y w i t h the p u b l i c and has c o n s i d e r a b l e autonomy and independence, although perhaps not as much as the r e t a i l pharmacist* The h o s p i t a l pharmacist, on the other hand, i s employed i n a h o s p i t a l dispensary and i s engaged i n the p r e p a r a t i o n , c o n t r o l , and d i s t r i b u t i o n of m e d i c i n a l agents p r e s c r i b e d by s t a f f p h y s i c i a n s f o r the l a t t e r ^ p a t i e n t s * The work i s c o n s i d e r a b l y more t e c h n l o a l and Involves fBwer commercial elements* I n terms of the work s e t t i n g , the h o s p i t a l pharmacist i s i m p l i c a t e d I n an elaborate organiza-t i o n of personnel of v a r i o u s h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n s , and g e n e r a l -l y has l e s s autonomy and independence than the r e t a i l pharmacist* I t I s d i f f i c u l t t o c h a r a c t e r i z e the r e s i d u a l category because i t i s comprised of a number of d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s : I n d u s t r y , t e a c h i n g , r e s e a r c h , among others* However, the m a j o r i t y of cases i n t h i s category Involves the manipulation of ideas and symbols as d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the performance of techniques or the d i r e c t c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h the p u b l i c * Most of the \"other\" s p e c i a l t i e s are i m p l i c a t e d I n l a r g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s but a l l o w f o r considerable autonomy and i n -dependence by the very nature of the work* I n a d d i t i o n t o the q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s d e s c r i b e d I n the preceding paragraphs,-the f o u r f i e l d s vary i n terms of a t l e a s t three other overlapping but separate dimensions, those b e i n g , the s t r u c t u r e of the work sphere ( i . e . , business or p r o f e s s i o n ) , a c c e s s i b i l i t y , and v i s i b i l i t y . I t i s f e l t t h a t the f o u r f i e l d s can be arranged along a b u s i n e s s - p r o f e s s i o n continuum (B-F continuum) ranging from r e t a i l pharmacy, the most b u s i n e s s - l i k e of the f i e l d s , t o p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, t o h o s p i t a l pharmacy, t o the \"other\" category, which i s perhaps most exemplary of a profession.3\u00C2\u00AE Apart from but c o i n c i d e n t w i t h the b u s i n e s s - p r o f e s s i o n (B-^P) continuum, f i e l d s i n pharmacy vary i n terms of a c c e s s i -b i l i t y , t h a t i s , I n terms of the t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d and the o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Although a c c e s s i b i l i t y w i l l vary w i t h c e r t a i n s o c i a l background f a c t o r s , the f i e l d s can be c l a s s i f i e d g e n e r a l l y i n terms of t h i s charac-t e r i s t i c . R e t a i l pharmacy i s doubtless the most a c c e s s i b l e , as drugstores are found i n a l l p a r t s of the country. Of a l l the f i e l d s , r e t a i l p r a c t i c e r e q u i r e s the l e a s t f o r m a l t r a i n -i n g (a bachelor's degree from a recognized s c h o o l of pharmacy and a b r i e f a p p r e n t i c e s h i p period) and provides the g r e a t e s t number of employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s . P r e s c r i p -t i o n pharmacy i s the next most r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e f i e l d , w i t h the same formal t r a i n i n g requirements as r e t a i l pharmaoy, but w i t h fewer o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment. P r e s c r i p t i o n d i s p e n s a r i e s without s i d e l i n e s are found g e n e r a l l y i n l a r g e c i t i e s near c l i n i c s and medical centers where the volume of p r e s c r i p t i o n business i s h i g h . -13-H o s p l t a l pharmaoy, on the other hand, I s l e s s a c c e s s i b l e than the l a t t e r , w i t h g e n e r a l l y fewer employment oppor-t u n l t i e s a n d h i g h e r formal t r a i n i n g requirements. F i e l d s Included I n the 1 \"other\" category are the l e a s t a c c e s s i b l e , both Initerms of employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s and ed u c a t i o n a l requirements. I n a d d i t i o n , the l a t t e r f i e l d s are g e n e r a l l y g e o g r a p h i c a l l y l e s s a c c e s s i b l e , being l o c a t e d only i n c e r -t a i n p r o v i n c e s , as f o r example the pharmaceutical i n d u s t r y I n southern Ontario and Quebec. The s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d s a l s o d i f f e r g e n e r a l l y i n terms of v i s i b i l i t y , t h a t i s , I n the extent of f a m i l i a r i t y o r \" s o c i a l p u b l i c i t y , \" and the o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r contact. While many people are f a m i l i a r w i t h the corner drugstore, not a l l are aware of such \"hidden\" f i e l d s as h o s p i t a l phar-macy or research I n Ind u s t r y . Even r e c r u i t s t o the pro-f e s s i o n are not always t o t a l l y Informed about some of the more obscure s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d s . F o l l o w i n g the preceding two continua, f i e l d s i n pharmacy can be arranged according to t h e i r general v i s i b i l i t y , from r e t a i l pharmacy, the most v i s i b l e , t o p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, to h o s p i t a l phar-macy, t o the r e s i d u a l category, which I s probably the l e a s t v i s i b l e . Given the d e s c r i p t i o n of career a l t e r n a t i v e s open to pharmacy students and three s e t s of f a c t o r s b e l i e v e d to be i n v o l v e d i n the c h o i c e , i t I s now p o s s i b l e t o assemble a general scheme t o guide the a n a l y s i s of the choice of f i e l d and to serve as a b a s i s of d e r i v i n g s p e c i f i c hy-potheses. - 1 4 -S o c l a l background f a c t o r s are b e l i e v e d to i n f l u e n c e the choice of f i e l d i n a t l e a s t three ways. F i r s t of a l l , i t i s commonly thought t h a t o c c u p a t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s are d e l i m i t e d by an i n d i v i d u a l ' s statuses and r o l e s 3 9 f s e x \u00E2\u0080\u00A2>. s t a t u s being a case i n p o i n t . C e r t a i n occupations are considered p r i m a r i l y the domain of one sex or the other, i as f o r example, engineering or farming f o r males and nursing or k i n d e r g a r t e n teaching f o r females. J u s t as statuses and r o l e s a f f e c t the o c c u p a t i o n a l choice i n g e n e r a l , they are thought to be Involved i n the choice of f i e l d . Second-l y , s o c i a l f a c t o r s p l a y a p a r t i n the choice by a f f e c t i n g the a c c e s s i b i l i t y of v a r i o u s career a l t e r n a t i v e s . Such factors':as u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , geographic region,, and academic r e c o r d e i t h e r f a c i l i t a t e o r h i n d e r the choice of c e r t a i n f i e l d s , e s p e c i a l l y those a t the p r o f e s s i o n end of the B-P continuum. For example, t h a t there are few oppor-t u n i t i e s f o r employment i n pharmaceutical i n d u s t r y i n B r i t i s h Columbia tends t o discourage students i n t h i s i province from making t h i s , c h o i ce. F i n a l l y , some back- \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ground f a c t o r s , such as. p r a c t i c a l experience, o c c u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e , and geographic r e g i o n i n f l u e n c e the choice by a f f e c t i n g the v i s i b i l i t y of the various f i e l d s . For 1 examplei oontact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n as d e r i v e d from p r a c t i c a l experience tends to make the r e t a i l f i e l d r e l a -t i v e l y more v i s i b l e . So f a r no s e p a r a t i o n has been made between: a s c r i b e d and achieved s o c i a l f a c t o r s } both types are thought t o -15-I n f l u e n c e the choice I n the ways o u t l i n e d i n the preceding paragraph* However, I t must be recognized t h a t i n any g i v e n p o p u l a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n a purposive sample l i k e the one used i n t h i s study, a s c r i b e d and achieved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l bear some determinate r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h each other* F o r example, female students enter pharmacy sc h o o l w i t h ! h i g h e r academic q u a l i f i c a t i o n s than males, but males begin t h e i r formal t r a i n i n g w i t h more p r a c t i c a l experience* \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 S i n c e these achieved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l e a d to d i f f e r e n t c h o i c e s j i t i s necessary to explore the r e l a t i o n s h i p s be-tween a s c r i b e d and achieved f a c t o r s * S o c i a l background f a c t o r s , I n a d d i t i o n t o d i r e c t l y a f f e c t i n g the choice of f i e l d , p l a y a f u r t h e r p a r t I n the l a t t e r by shaping values and determining sources of i n f o r -mation and i n f l u e n c e * As mentioned e a r l i e r , values are c r i t e r i a f o r making d e c i s i o n s * Since they are i n c u l c a t e d d u r i n g the s o c i a l i z a t i o n process, they w i l l tend t o vary* w i t h c e r t a i n s o c i a l f a c t o r s , as f o r example, sex and r e -l i g i o n . Of course i t must be recognized t h a t some of the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s o c i a l f a c t o r s and v a l u e s , as f o r example t h a t between geographic r e g i o n and o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s , may be e n t i r e l y spurious* I n any event a l l the r e l a t i o n s h i p s are noted and attempts are made, when the data warrant i t , t o e x p l a i n the connections between back-ground f a c t o r s and v a l u e s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 That s o c i a l background f a c t o r s should help determine the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and I n f l u e n c e I s not too d l f f i --16-c u l t t o understand. For example, contact w i t h the pro-f e s s i o n s gained through p r a c t i c a l experience or occupa-t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e w i l l tend to l e a d t o the use of p r a o t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , w h i l e geo-graphic i s o l a t i o n w i l l b r i n g about a r e l i a n c e upon id e o l o g y -o r i e n t e d pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media. However, the data c o l l e c t e d i n t h i s study cannot always ex p l a i n ' the observed r e l a t i o n s h i p s between background f a c t o r s and sources. As w i t h values a l l the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between these s e t s of f a c t o r s are d e s c r i b e d and attempts are made to e x p l a i n those which are b e l i e v e d t o be d e t e r -minate. Thus, the general approach taken I n t h i s study of 1 the choice of f i e l d i n pharmacy i s to a t t r i b u t e Independent c a u s a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t o three s e t s of f a c t o r s , s o c i a l back-ground, sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and I n f l u e n c e , and v a l u e s , and t o suggest t h a t s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , both a s c r i b e d and achieved, are important I n shaping the l a t t e r two s e t s o f 3 f a c t o r s . F u r t h e r , s i n c e the study i s concerned w i t h a g i v e n p o p u l a t i o n (students a t t e n d i n g schools of pharmacy I n Canada), the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between a s c r i b e d and achieved f a c t o r s are to be taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n the t o t a l 5 a n a l y s i s . F i g u r e 1 shows the r e l a t i o n s h i p s among the v a r i o u s s e t s of f a c t o r s used i n t h i s study. S p e c i f i c hypotheses are d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n B of t h i s ohapter. -17-Pigure 1 Scheme f o r the A n a l y s i s of the Choice of F i e l d I n Pharmacy Values 1. E x t r l n s l c - p e o p l e -o r i e n t e d - i n t r i n s l c 2. Business 3* Independence 4. E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l S o c i a l Background Fa c t o r s 1. Asoribed I . 2. Achieved Choice of - F i e l d 1. R e t a i l 2\u00C2\u00BB P r e s c r i p t i o n 3* H o s p i t a l 4. Other Sources of Information and I n f l u e n c e \"\"\"\" 1* P r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d 2. Ide o l o g y - o r i e n t e d C) OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS As a matter of expediency I t i s thought best to s p e c i f y a t the outset the working d e f i n i t i o n s used i n t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n . Most of the data are d e r i v e d from a ques-t i o n n a i r e administered to pharmacy students (See Appendix A ) . The d e f i n i t i o n s which f o l l o w are based p r i m a r i l y on r e p l i e s to s p e c i f i c questions; Indexes comprised of a p l u r a l i t y of f a c t o r s are o c c a s i o n a l l y used. I n e i t h e r -18-case the raw data are taken from the student q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Data obtained from other sources are i n c l u d e d from time t o time and are d e f i n e d I n the main t e x t upon the occasion of t h e i r use. Thus, i t i s to be understood t h a t , unless otherwise s p e c i f i e d , the terms used i n t h i s r e p o r t are those which are p r e s e n t l y d e f i n e d . 1. S o c i a l background f a c t o r s As mentioned i n the preceding s e c t i o n , e i g h t s o c i a l background f a c t o r s , c a t e g o r i z e d as a s c r i b e d or achieved, are-used i n t h i s study. A s c r i b e d background c h a r a c t e r i s -t i c s Include sex, socio-economic s t a t u s , r e l i g i o n , urban-r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , and geographic region,and achieved char-a c t e r i s t i c s i n c l u d e high school grades, p r a c t i c a l exper-i e n c e , and o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e . Sex \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 R e p l i e s t o Question 3 of the q u e s t i o n n a i r e are used as i n d i c a t o r s of sex s t a t u s . F i f t e e n students f a i l e d t o respond to t h i s q u e s t i o n and are g e n e r a l l y excluded from tabulations...with t h i s q u e s t i o n . Socio-economic s t a t u s ( s o c i a l c l a s s ) Three f a c t o r s , the education of the f a t h e r , occupa-t i o n of the f a t h e r or c h i e f wage earner, and income, are combined to form an index of socio-economic s t a t u s or s o c i a l c l a s s . This index i s d e r i v e d by summing up the values assigned t o the responses to the questions used as i n d i c a t o r s of the three f a c t o r s comprising the index. The values assigned, w i t h one exception** 0, correspond to -19-the numbers preceding the response c a t e g o r i e s f o r Questions 43, 44(a), and 45. The range of p o s s i b l e values Is d i v i d e d I n t o s i x c l a s s e s I n the f o l l o w i n g manner! Class 1 - 2 5 - 2 7 Class I I - 20 - 24 Class I I I - 15 - 19 Glass IV - 10 - 14 Class V - 5 - 9 Class VI - l e s s than 5 ' A t o t a l of 170 students o r 13 per cent could not be c l a s s i -f i e d because they, f a i l e d t o answer one o r more of the ques-t i o n s r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s index. The terms \"upper,\" \"middle,\" and \"lower,\" when used I n t h i s study, r e f e r t o combinations of the c l a s s e s l i s t e d above. The upper c l a s s c o n s i s t s of Classes I and I I , the middle c l a s s of Classes I I I and IV, and the lower c l a s s of Classes V and V I . I t might be po i n t e d out tha t a son or daughter of a pharmacist i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y would be placed i n Class I I of the present c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , unless the pharmacist earned over $30,000 a year, I n which case he or she would be pl a c e d I n Class I . . * R e l i g i o n Although s e v e r a l P r o t e s t a n t denominations are Included among the response cat e g o r i e s to Question 47(b) of the q u e s t i o n n a i r e , they are combined to giv e f o u r r e l i g i o u s groupings: P r o t e s t a n t , Roman C a t h o l i c , Jewish, and \"Other.\" -20-S i n c e only a s m a l l number of respondents are c l a s s i f i e d i n the r e s i d u a l category, the l a t t e r i s o f t e n excluded from t a b l e s i n which the main i n t e r e s t i s i n the three major r e l i g i o u s groupings. U r b a n - r u r a l residence Responses t o Question 6(a) p e r t a i n i n g to the s i z e of the community i n which the respondent spent the g r e a t -e s t p a r t of h i s l i f e are combined to giv e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s which are used as measures of the u r b a n - r u r a l residence f a c t o r ; These a r e : farm o r r u r a l d i s t r i c t , town w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of 5t000 or l e s s , c i t y w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of - 5,000 - 100,000 ( s m a l l c i t y ) , and c i t y w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of over 100,000 ( l a r g e c i t y ) . Geographic r e g i o n > 'The school of r e g i s t r a t i o n I s used as an index of geographic r e g i o n . Although i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r a person to l i v e i n one province and atten d pharmacy sc h o o l I n another! t h i s p r a c t i c e , except i n the maritime p r o v i n c e s , I s not too common. Most students (95 per cent of the males and 93 per cent of the females) att e n d schools i n the province i n which they spend the g r e a t e s t p a r t of t h e i r l i f e . Three of the f o u r maritime provinces do not have schools of pharmacy. Thus, students l i v i n g i n New Bruns-wick, P r i n c e Edward I s l a n d , and Newfoundland g e n e r a l l y a t t e n d the pharmacy school a t Dalhousle U n i v e r s i t y i n Nova S c o t i a . The school of r e g i s t r a t i o n i s determined from a code number placed on each q u e s t i o n n a i r e . -21-Hlgh school grades I n Questions 14(a) and (b) students are asked t o estimate the average percentage grades maintained I n b a s i c sclenoe courses and.in other courses d u r i n g the l a s t two years of high s c h o o l . P r e l i m i n a r y t a b u l a t i o n s show t h a t science grades are s l i g h t l y h i gher than grades r e -ce i v e d i n other courses, but when each s e t of grades i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h other v a r i a b l e s , the same general t r e n d I s found. Thus, to s i m p l i f y matters, only the c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h science grades are presented i n t h i s study, and references t o high s c h o o l grades, unless otherwise s t a t e d , can beJassumed t o be the grades r e c e i v e d I n the b a s i c s c i e n c e s . P r a c t i c a l experience I n Questions 19(a) and (b) students are asked t o I n d i c a t e whether they had ever worked i n a pharmacy p r i o r t o beginning s t u d i e s I n pharmacy s c h o o l , and., i f so, how l o n g . I n a l l l i k e l i h o o d t h i s experience would have been gained i n a r e t a i l establishment, although the q u e s t i o n I s i n no way l i m i t e d t o t h i s type of pharmacy. However, by i t s very wording, the q u e s t i o n tends to exclude exper-ience gained I n pharmaceutical work ou t s i d e of an e s t a b l i s h -ment w i t h a dispensary, as f o r example, i n d u s t r i a l manu-f a c t u r i n g or l a b o r a t o r y research. Although I t i s d o u b t f u l whether many students have such o p p o r t u n i t i e s , i t I s c e r -t a i n l y p o s s i b l e . The e x c l u s i o n of the l a t t e r i s not I n t e n t i o n a l . As i t turns out I t all o w s f o r c e r t a i n g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s which otherwise would not have been p o s s i b l e . Occupational i n h e r i t a n c e Occupational i n h e r i t a n c e r e f e r s to the presence or absence of parents or r e l a t i v e s who are or have been phar-macists (Questions 10 and' 11). The term \"direct** occupa-t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , as used i n t h i s study, r e f e r s to the presence of a parent i n the p r o f e s s i o n , and the term \" i n -d i r e c t \" i n h e r i t a n c e r e f e r s t o the presence of a r e l a t i v e but hot a parent i n the p r o f e s s i o n . 2 . Sources of- i n f o r m a t i o n and I n f l u e n c e Two measures of the souroes of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e are used i n t h i s study, one designed p r i m a r i l y t o tap \" i n f l u e n c e \" and the other d i r e c t e d a t the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n . A c t u a l l y , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o separate the two dimensions c o n c e p t u a l l y or e m p i r i c a l l y , s i n c e one can l e a d to the other; perhaps they operate as a complex. I n any event, two separate questions are used. I n Question 25(a) and ( b ) , students are asked to i n d i c a t e how important a r o l e each of s e v e r a l f a o t o r s p l ayed i n the career d e c i s i o n and then to s e l e c t the two most Important ones. Responses to these questions are used as measures of i n f l u e n c e and are presented i n the r e p o r t under the heading, \"Importance of f a c t o r s i n the c a r e e r d e c i s i o n . \" Question 40 i s used as a measure of the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n . For each of e i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the p r o f e s s i o n (working c o n d i t i o n s , s a l a r y , o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment, p r e s t i g e , knowledge and t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d f o r performance of pharmaceutical t a s k s , p e r s o n a l s k i l l s ne-cessary f o r success, and t r a i n i n g requirements), students are asked t o i n d i c a t e , from a l i s t of t e n sources, the one which i s l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . An o v e r - a l l index of importance i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r each source by d i v i d i n g the sum of the responses f o r each source by the sum t o t a l of responses and m u l t i p l y i n g by 1000. Thus, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o determine the type of i n f o r m a t i o n provided by each source and i t s o v e r - a l l importance. This of course r e s t s on the assumption t h a t the e i g h t charac-t e r i s t i c s l i s t e d exhaust the types of i n f o r m a t i o n which p r o s p e c t i v e r e c r u i t s seek, and t h a t each type of i n f o r m a t i o n i s of equal importance. As mentioned i n the preceding s e o t i o n , sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e are of two t y p e s i p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d and i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d . P r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources I n c l u d e : pharmacists, p r a c t i c a l experience, parents and r e l a t i v e s . The l a t t e r two sources are thought t o be prac-t i c e - o r i e n t e d , beoause the image of the p r o f e s s i o n which they are l i k e l y t o have i s t h a t of the corner drugstore.' I d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources I n c l u d e : u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s , pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media (Ph.A. r e c . media), s p e c i a l speakers, and high school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s (H.S. teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s ) . Since h i g h s c h o o l teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s o b t a i n most of t h e i r i n -f o r m a t i o n about the p r o f e s s i o n from recruitment l i t e r a t u r e -24-c i r c u l a t e d by pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n s , they are I n -cluded i n t h i s category. Friends and acquaintances, mass media, and personal o b s e r v a t i o n , as sources, cannot be c l a s s i f i e d i n e i t h e r of these two c a t e g o r i e s and are g e n e r a l l y kept separate from the l a t t e r . It I s f e l t t h a t these souroes of i n f o r m a t i o n and I n f l u e n c e can be arranged along a continuum ranging from u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s , the most i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d source, to pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media, to s p e c i a l speakers, to h i g h school teachers, to r e l a t i v e s , t o parents, to p r a c t i c a l experience and p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists, the most p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources. 3\u00C2\u00BB Occupational values I n Questions 33(a) and ( b ) , students are g i v e n a l i s t of nineteen statements designed t o tap the value dimension and are asked t o rank each value i n d i v i d u a l l y i n terms of d e s i r a b i l i t y and then to i n d i c a t e , i n order of preference, the three most d e s i r a b l e . Although a l l nineteen values are i n c l u d e d i n the r e p o r t , not a l l are u t i l i z e d a t a l l times. A t t e n t i o n i s focused on the f o l l o w i n g s e t s or c a t e g o r i e s * a. E x t r i n s i c - people-oriented - I n t r i n s i c ( r e f e r r e d to as \"E.P.I. w values) E x t r i n s i c inoludes a Job* \" t h a t provides a very good s a l a r y and one I n which you work r e g u l a r hours and have r e g u l a r h o l i d a y s . \" \" t h a t I s considered a worthy one and has p r e s t i g e and h i g h standing I n the community.\" - 2 5 -\" t h a t provides s e c u r i t y of employment i n t h a t work i s always a v a i l a b l e . \" People-orlented i n c l u d e s a Job* \"tha t i s very u s e f u l and important to s o c i e t y i n general and i n which you can d i r e c t l y b e n e f i t your f e l l o w man.\" \" i n which you can meet the p u b l i c and d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h people.\" I n t r i n s i c i n c l u d e s a Jobs \" I n which you can use a l l your knowledge, t r a i n i n g , a p t i t u d e s and s k i l l s and one which allows you t o de-velop and e x c e l I n these areas.\" \" t h a t r e q u i r e s a good knowledge of science and s c i e n t i f -i c method.\" \"where you w i l l have a s s o c i a t e s or colleagues who have the same general i n t e r e s t s and whose company you f i n d extremely s t i m u l a t i n g . \" b. Business Includes a Job: \"which i n v o l v e s a considerable amount of merchandising or r e t a i l s e l l i n g . \" \" t h a t i s both a p r o f e s s i o n and a commercial business.\" c. Independence i n c l u d e s a Job: \"where you are p r e t t y w e l l your own boss i n t h a t you are not always under the guidance, and s u p e r v i s i o n of someone e l s e . \" I n a d d i t i o n to the preceding, students are asked t h e i r opinions concerning ownership of a pharmacy (Question 16). Responses to t h i s q u e s t i o n are used as a measure of e n t r e -- 2 6 -p r e n e u r l a l v a l u e s . Thus: d. E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values Inolude a f f i r m a t i v e r e p l i e s t o the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n : \"Would you l i k e t o own and operate a pharmacy?\" 4. Temporal f a c t o r s l a t a concerning the age a t which a career I n pharmacy I s f i r s t considered and the age a t which the d e f i n i t e de-c i s i o n to enter i s made are d e r i v e d from Questions 23(a) and ( b ) . Students are asked to r e c a l l these c r u c i a l ages* Only 8 of 1335 respondents f a i l to gi v e answers to t h i s q u e s t i o n . 5* Choice of f i e l d I n pharmacy Choice of f i e l d r e f e r s t o the responses to Question 1 7(a): \"Which f i e l d of pharmacy do you expect t o enter a f t e r graduation?\" Although I t I s f e l t t h a t these r e p l i e s are somewhat u n r e a l i s t i c , they are the best a v a i l a b l e i n d i c a t o r s of choice of f i e l d * Of the t e n f i e l d s l i s t e d , r e t a i l pharmacy, h o s p i t a l pharmacy and p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy account f o r n e a r l y f o u r -f i f t h s of the students* choices (see Appendix B ) . The r e -maining o n e - f i f t h d i v i d e t h e i r choices among the f o l l o w i n g : armed s e r v i c e s , government s e r v i c e , s a l e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f o r drug f i r m , i n d u s t r i a l manufacturing or resea r c h , teach-i n g or research i n a u n i v e r s i t y , \"other,\" and \"leave phar-macy and go In t o another f i e l d . \" These l a t t e r seven f i e l d s are lumped together i n the present a n a l y s i s and are r e f e r r e d to simply as \"other.\" The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s procedure J -27-i s t h a t , except f o r s a l e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , armed s e r v i c e s and government s e r v i c e , which account f o r only s l i g h t l y more than 5 per cent of the t o t a l number of cases, the remaining f i e l d s g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e some t r a i n i n g beyond the bachelor's degree. Of the 61 students checking the c a t e g o r i e s \"other\" and \"leave pharmacy and go i n t o another f i e l d , \" n e a r l y two-thirds p l a n to enter f i e l d s (medicine, dent: i s t r y , pharmaceutical law, etc.) which d e f i n i t e l y r e q u i r e f u r t h e r education. Bather than have a separate category f o r the s m a l l number of choices t h a t do not r e q u i r e f u r t h e r education, i t I s thought best t o Include these i n the r e s i d u a l group, thus g i v i n g f o u r c a t e g o r i e s of c h o i c e s , \" r e t a i l , \" \" p r e s c r i p t i o n , \" \" h o s p i t a l , \" and \"other.\" D) HYPOTHESES The w r i t e r began t h i s study w i t h a number of s p e c i f i c hypotheses d e r i v e d from the general a n a l y t i c scheme present-ed i n S e c t i o n B of t h i s chapter. Although many hypotheses suggested themselves d u r i n g the course of the r e s e a r c h , o n l y those conceived a t the outset are i n c l u d e d here. S i x s e t s of hypotheses concerning the f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n the choice of f i e l d are set out below. No c l a i m i s made f o r the importance of these hypotheses over others which c o u l d have been d e r i v e d from the general a n a l y t i c scheme but which were neglected. !\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Values and choice of f i e l d As mentioned i n S e c t i o n B, c e r t a i n o c c u p a t i o n a l values -28-can be arranged along a continuum ranging from e x t r i n s i c values to people-oriented values to i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s . S i m i l a r l y , i t was suggested t h a t the o c c u p a t i o n a l a l t e r n -a t i v e s open to pharmacy students could be c l a s s i f i e d i n terms of a b u s i n e s s - p r o f e s s i o n (B-P) continuum, ranging from r e t a i l pharmacy, the most b u s i n e s s - l i k e , to p r e s c r i p -t i o n pharmacy, t o h o s p i t a l pharmacy, to some \"other\" f i e l d . Rosenberg's f i n d i n g s show th a t e x t r i n s i c values are most l i k e l y to f i n d e xpression I n business and commercial occupa-t i o n s and i n t r i n s i c values are more o f t e n r e a l i z e d I n the a r t i s t i c f i e l d s , a r c h i t e c t u r e , j o u r n a l i s m , a r t , and the n a t u r a l sciences.** 1 Taking t h i s Into c o n s i d e r a t i o n one would expect to f i n d a r e l a t i o n s h i p between choice of f i e l d and oc c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s . Thus: Hypothesis 1.1t Students emphasizing e x t r i n s i c o c c u p a t i o n a l values w i l l tend t o choose a f i e l d a t the business end of the B-P continuum; students o r i e n t e d toward i n t r i n s i c values w i l l tend to choose a f i e l d a t the p r o f e s s i o n end of the B-P continuum; those s t r e s s i n g p e ople-oriented values w i l l tend t o choose a f i e l d mldwajr between the two extremes. S i m i l a r l y , f i e l d s I n pharmacy vary I n the extent to which they a l l o w f o r the r e a l i z a t i o n of business and e n t r e -p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . I f the c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of the B-P continuum i s v a l i d , the f o l l o w i n g can be expected: Hypothesis 1.2: Students o r i e n t e d toward business -29-values w i l l tend t o choose a f i e l d a t the business end of the B-P continuum. Hypothesis 1.3> Students showing a preference f o r e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values w i l l tend to choose a f i e l d a t the business end of the B-P continuum. Of a l l the f i e l d s i n . t h e p r o f e s s i o n , h o s p i t a l pharmacy i s notably l a c k i n g i n the amount of autonomy and indepen-dence that i t a l l o w s . On t h i s b a s i s I t i s f e l t t h a t students who place a value on independence w i l l tend not to choose t h i s f i e l d . Hypothesis 1.4t The more concerned a student i s w i t h independence as a value the l e s s l i k e l y he w i l l be to choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy. 2. Sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e and choice of f i e l d As mentioned e a r l i e r , pharmacy i s p r e s e n t l y i n a s t a t e of t r a n s i t i o n . The i d e o l o g i c a l leaders are making e f f o r t s to r e d e f i n e the r o l e of the t r a d i t i o n a l pharmacist and are t r y i n g to r e c r u i t and prepare young men and women f o r careers i n a number of f i e l d s other than r e t a i l pharmacy. Thus, an important p a r t of pharmaceutical i d e o l o g y i s i t s reference to a wide range of career o p p o r t u n i t i e s , es-p e c i a l l y such f i e l d s as h o s p i t a l pharmacy, i n d u s t r y , teach-i n g , and research. I t i s to be expected t h a t students who are s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources w i l l tend to choose the l a t t e r o c c u p a t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s . Regardless of the p o s i t i o n of the i d e o l o g i c a l l e a d e r s , only a s m a l l m i n o r i t y of pharmacists are a c t u a l l y engaged other than r e t a i l p r a c t i c e . Thus, I t i s to be expected t h a t students who are s t r o n g l y I n f l u e n c e d by p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources w i l l tend to choose r e t a i l pharmacy and, to a l e s s e r extent, p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. With t h i s I n mind the f o l l o w i n g hypothesis i s suggested! Hypothesis 2t Students who r e l y on p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources f o r Information and i n f l u e n c e w i l l tend to choose a f i e l d a t the business end of the B-P con-tinuum; those most s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d by id e o l o g y -o r i e n t e d sources w i l l tend to choose a f i e l d a t the p r o f e s s i o n end of the B-P continuum. 3\u00C2\u00AB S o c i a l background f a c t o r s and choioe of f i e l d No f a c t o r I s so Important i n the choice of a career f o r u n i v e r s i t y students as s o c i a l l y d e f i n e d sex r o l e s . ^ I n North American s o c i e t y there I s a f a i r l y c l e a r - c u t d i v i s i o n of l a b o r between the sexes, although the t r a d i t i o n -a l sex b a r r i e r s to some occupations are perhaps breaking down as d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n hi g h e r education i s reduced. I n a d d i t i o n t o the \" s o c i a l appropriateness\" of various careers f o r the sexes, men and women d i f f e r i n the extent of commitment to the occu p a t i o n a l w o r l d . ^ With these two p o i n t s i n ; mind i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e r i v e an hypothesis concerning the choice of f i e l d I n pharmacy. Since r e t a i l and p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy i n v o l v e a num-ber of commercial elements, I n c l u d i n g ownership of a b u s i -ness establishment, and s i n c e research, t e a c h i n g , Industry and the f i e l d s g e n e r a l l y comprising the r e s i d u a l category -31-r e q u i r e considerable career commitment, i t i s f e l t t h a t women w i l l tend t o choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy. Hypothesis 3>1\u00C2\u00BB Compared w i t h men, women w i l l more o f t e n choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy. I t i s g e n e r a l l y accepted t h a t the higher the s o c i o -economic background of the f a m i l y of o r i e n t a t i o n the more l i k e l y the i n d i v i d u a l i s t o choose an occupation;:.which c a r r i e s w i t h i t h i g h s t a t u s and which provides considerable economic rewards. Since t e a c h i n g , r e s e a r c h , i n d u s t r y , e t c . , are g e n e r a l l y regarded by the community as high s t a t u s occupations, and si n c e h o s p i t a l pharmacy I s accorded high s t a t u s by pharmacy students, i t i s f e l t t h a t those of-the upper socio-economic c l a s s e s w i l l tend t o choose these f i e l d s i n preference t o r e t a i l pharmacy. Thuss Hypothesis 3\u00C2\u00BB2t The higher the socio-economic s t a t u s the more l i k e l y the i n d i v i d u a l w i l l be to choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy or some \"other 1 1 f i e l d and the l e s s l i k e l y he w i l l be to choose the r e t a i l f i e l d . Although s e v e r a l researchers have concerned them-s e l v e s w i t h the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f - r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n and economic behavior, few have explored the e f f e c t s of r e -l i g i o u s background on the choice of c a r e e r . ^ Yet c e r t a i n d i f f e r e n c e s among the three major r e l i g i o u s groups would l e a d one to b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s f a c t o r i s Important i n the career choice. Persons of Jewish f a i t h are o f t e n thought t o be bu s i n e s s - o r i e n t e d shopkeepers. I n a d d i t i o n they are noted f o r t h e i r s t r o n g m o t i v a t i o n t o seek h i g h e r education, as -32-evidenced by t h e i r o v e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n the u n i v e r s i t y p o p u l a t i o n . P r o t e s t a n t s , on the other hand, when compared w i t h Roman C a t h o l i c s are g e n e r a l l y considered t o be more business- and su c c e s s - o r i e n t e d , although some recent s t u d i e s f a i l t o f i n d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between these two r e l i g i o u s groups w i t h respect t o the \"Protestant e t h i c . \" ^ 5 Whether C a t h o l i c s are l e s s l i k e l y t o enter graduate school and engage i n research i n the n a t u r a l sciences I s another hypothesis which i s being c h a l l e n g e d . ^ As a f u r t h e r t e s t of these notions the f o l l o w i n g hypothesis i s suggested: Hypothesis 3*3: Pharmacy students of Jewish f a i t h s ^ w i l l tend t o choose r e t a i l pharmacy and one of the f i e l d s i n the r e s i d u a l category: P r o t e s t a n t students w i l l tend t o f a v o r r e t a i l and p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy; and Roman C a t h o l i c s w i l l more o f t e n p r e f e r a career i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy. I t i s f e l t t h a t the f a c t o r s of u r b a n - r u r a l residence and geographic r e g i o n enter the process of oc c u p a t i o n a l choice by a f f e c t i n g the v i s i b i l i t y and a c c e s s i b i l i t y of va r i o u s career a l t e r n a t i v e s . For example, a person l i v i n g I n an I s o l a t e d community I n northern B r i t i s h Columbia w i l l be l e s s l i k e l y t o be aware of career o p p o r t u n i t i e s I n phar-maceutical Industry which I s predominantly l o c a t e d I n southern Ontario and Quebec and, on t h i s account, w i l l be l e s s l i k e l y t o form the Idea of e n t e r i n g t h i s f i e l d . With t h i s in-mind t h e - f o l l o w i n g hypotheses are constructed: Hypothesis 3.4: The l a r g e r the community of residence - 3 3 -the more l i k e l y an i n d i v i d u a l w i l l \"be to choose a f i e l d a t the p r o f e s s i o n end of the B-P continuum. Hypothesis 3 .5: The choice of career w i l l vary by province depending upon the r e l a t i v e v i s i b i l i t y and a c c e s s i b i l i t y of the various f i e l d s i n each province. !The a c c e s s i b i l i t y of f i e l d s i n pharmacy i s h i g h l y dependent-upon the academic h i s t o r y of the student, s i n c e graduate t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d f o r c e r t a i n career a l t e r n a t i v e s i s a v a i l a b l e only to those w i t h s u p e r i o r academic q u a l i f i c -a t i o n s . Since performance i n pharmacy school i s h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h high school grades ', the f o l l o w i n g hy-poth e s i s can be d e r i v e d : Hypothesis 3 . 6 : The higher the grades r e c e i v e d i n high school the more l i k e l y a student w i l l be to choose a f i e l d a t the p r o f e s s i o n end of the B-P continuum. Contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n through oc c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e or p r a c t i c a l experience w i l l enhance the v i s i b i l i t y of r e t a i l and p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, si n c e most p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists are engaged i n the r e t a i l f i e l d s , and si n c e these f i e l d s provide the g r e a t e s t o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment p r i o r to e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . Thus: Hypothesis 3*7: The gre a t e r the extent of occu-p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e the more l i k e l y an i n d i v i d -u a l w i l l be to choose a f i e l d a t the business end of the B-P continuum. Hypothesis 3*8? The gr e a t e r the extent of p r a c t i c a l experience p r i o r t o e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l , the more l i k e l y a student w i l l he to choose a f i e l d a t the business end of the B-P continuum. 4. S o c i a l background f a c t o r s and values Rosenberg found t h a t , i n the c o l l e g e community,'women are r e l a t i v e l y more people-oriented i n t h e i r values and men are more o r i e n t e d toward e x t r i n s i c v a l u e s . F u r t h e r , \" . . . o n l y a s m a l l m i n o r i t y of women expect t o achieve o c c u p a t i o n a l independence, i n the sense of becoming i n -dependent entrepreneurs or p r o f e s s i o n a l s . Almost a l l of them w i l l be sub j e c t to some s o r t of oc c u p a t i o n a l super-v i s i o n or domi n a t i o n . m * Taking the above i n t o c o n s i d e r a -t i o n i t i s p o s s i b l e to d e r i v e an hypothesis p e r t a i n i n g t o the values of pharmacy students. v Hypothesis 4.1: Compared w i t h men i n pharmacy s c h o o l , women w i l l tend t o h o l d p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e s , and w i l l tend not t o h o l d business, independence, and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . Compared w i t h women, men w i l l tend t o h o l d e x t r i n s i c values together w i t h business, independence and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Socio-economic s t a t u s has been shown t o be r e l a t e d itQ w i t h o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s . 7 With t h i s i n mind the f o l l o w -i n g hypothesis i s constructed i Hypothesis 4.2: The higher the socio-economic back-ground the more l i k e l y an I n d i v i d u a l w i l l be t o h o l d p o s i t i v e l y i n t r i n s i c o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s , and the -35-l e s s l i k e l y he w i l l be to s t r e s s e x t r i n s i c v a l u e s . Since values are i n c u l c a t e d I n the s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r ocess, one would expect t o f i n d d i f f e r e n c e s I n values r e l a t e d to r e l i g i o u s background. From the broad general notions presented e a r l i e r concerning r e l i g i o n and occu-p a t i o n a l c h o i c e , c e r t a i n conjectures about values can be made. For the sake of d i s c u s s i o n l a t e r , these are s e t out I n the form of hypotheses. Hypothesis 4.3* Pharmacy students of Jewish f a i t h w i l l tend to regard both e x t r i n s i c and I n t r i n s i c values h i g h l y . P r o t e s t a n t students w i l l s t r e s s - e x t r i n s i c values and C a t h o l i c s w i l l tend t o h o l d p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e s . Hypothesis 4.4t Compared w i t h C a t h o l i c pharmacy students, P r o t e s t a n t and Jewish students w i l l s t r o n g l y h o l d business and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 5\u00C2\u00BB S o c i a l background f a c t o r s and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e I t i s f e l t t h a t women have l e s s opportunity f o r d i r e c t contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n of pharmacy, and t h e r e f o r e w i l l be l e s s l i k e l y t o be i n f l u e n c e d by p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources. Thus i t would seem th a t women would seek out i n f o r m a t i o n about the p r o f e s s i o n from pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n s and other o f f i c i a l channels. Hypothesis 5.1: Compared w i t h men, women I n pharmacy w i l l tend to d e r i v e Information and i n f l u e n c e from i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources. Concerning the f a c t o r of u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , I t I s -36-f e l t t h a t the s i z e of the community i s d i r e c t lyy r e l a t e d to the o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r d i r e c t contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n . F u r t h e r , I t i s f e l t t h a t parents of students coming from - r u r a l d i s t r i c t s - a n d s m a l l towns are l e a s t able t o provide Information and i n f l u e n c e concerning o c c u p a t i o n a l a l t e r n -a t i v e s . Students I n s m a l l towns and r u r a l d i s t r i c t s * probably r e l y more on high school teachers and pharmaceut-i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment l i t e r a t u r e . With t h i s I n mind, the f o l l o w i n g hypothesis I s suggested: Hypothesis 5.2t The s m a l l e r the community of residence the more Important w i l l be the Ideology-o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . D i r e c t contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n w i l l vary w i t h the extent of oc c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and the amount of prac-t i c a l experience gained p r i o r to e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . Thus i t would seem th a t sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e would be r e l a t e d w i t h these f a c t o r s . From t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n the f o l l o w i n g hypotheses are d e r i v e d : Hypothesis 5.3: The g r e a t e r the extent of oc c u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e the more l i k e l y an I n d i v i d u a l w i l l be t o d e r i v e Information and i n f l u e n c e from p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources. Hypothesis $.4: The g r e a t e r the amount of p r a c t i c a l experience gained p r i o r to e n t e r i n g pharmacy school the more l i k e l y an I n d i v i d u a l w i l l be t o d e r i v e I n -formation and Inf l u e n c e from p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources. -37* 6* Age of career d e c i s i o n and choice of f i e l d The Importance of var i o u s f a c t o r s i n the d e c i s i o n and the sources of i n f l u e n c e vary w i t h the age a t which the d e c i s i o n i s made* Rogoff found, f o r example, t h a t the younger the student i s when he makes the d e c i s i o n to study medicine the more l i k e l y he i s to a t t r i b u t e im-portance to h i s f a t h e r . 5 \u00C2\u00B0 i n the case of pharmacy students i t i s found t h a t parents and p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists tend to be more important i n e a r l y d e c i s i o n s * Since the youth-f u l d e c i d e r i s less- l i k e l y to have access to i d e o l o g y - 1 o r i e n t e d sources, and s i n c e p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources t o which he may have access l e a d to the choice of the r e t a i l f i e l d , the f o l l o w i n g hypothesis i s suggested: Hypothesis 6t The younger the student i s when he decides to enter the p r o f e s s i o n of pharmacy, the more l i k e l y he w i l l be to choose a f i e l d a t the i business end of the B-P continuum. E) METHODOLOGY This t h e s i s i s based on a research p r o j e c t conducted under the auspioes of the Royal Commission on Health Ser-v i c e s w i t h the cooperation of the ei g h t schools of pharmacy i n Canada* The data i n c l u d e d here are d e r i v e d mainly from a q u e s t i o n n a i r e c i r c u l a t e d t o a l l students e n r o l l e d i n Canadian schools of pharmacy I n the s p r i n g of 1962* The ques t i o n n a i r e s were administered by f a c u l t y members p r i o r to the c o n c l u s i o n of the 1961-62 academic year* The 1335 r e t u r n s c o n s t i t u t e 85 per cent of the t o t a l enrolment, - 3 8 -the p r o p o r t i o n v a r y i n g by school of pharmacy as f o l l o w s ; U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 91 per cent; U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , 8? per cent; U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan, 77 per cent; U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba, 90 per cent; U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, 9 3 per cent; U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal, 87 per cent; L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y , 56 per cent; Dalhousle U n i v e r s i t y , 90 per cent* 1* Questionnaire The q u e s t i o n n a i r e (see Appendix A) was c o n s t r u c t e d on the b a s i s of e a r l i e r research conducted by the w r i t e r ^ 1 , but s e v e r a l questions were taken from a q u e s t i o n n a i r e used by Robert K* Merton and a s s o c i a t e s i n t h e i r s t u d i e s of medical s t u d e n t s ^ 2 , i n February of 1962 the q u e s t i o n n a i r e was p r e t e s t e d , u s i n g a sample of f i f t y - f i v e students en-r o l l e d I n the F a c u l t y of Pharmacy a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, a f t e r which time some questions were d i s c a r d e d , a few added, and others modified* The Dominion Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s p r i n t e d the r e v i s e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e and dispatched s u f f i c i e n t copies t o deans of schools of pharmacy to be administered t o students by f a c u l t y members* Students a t t e n d i n g the schools of pharmacy I n the province of Quebec r e c e i v e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s I n French* The q u e s t i o n -n a i r e s were returned d i r e c t l y to the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia where they were checked by the researchers* The data were then t r a n s f e r r e d t o I*B*M* cards and analysed w i t h the a i d of the Computing Center a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia* -39-2. Data The data presented I n t h i s study are d e r i v e d p r i -m a r i l y from the afore-mentioned q u e s t i o n n a i r e and are s u b j e c t to the l i m i t a t i o n s of the q u e s t i o n n a i r e method. However, the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the data owes much to previous research conducted by the w r i t e r , i n t e r v i e w s w i t h students e n t e r i n g the F a c u l t y of Pharmacy a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia i n the f a l l of 1962, and the personal experiences of the w r i t e r , both as a student of pharmacy and as a p r a c t i s i n g pharmacist* Since t h i s t h e s i s i s but a p a r t of a l a r g e r study concerning the r e c r u i t m e n t , education and u t i l i z a t i o n of pharmacists i n Canada^, only a p o r t i o n of the data de-r i v e d from the q u e s t i o n n a i r e i s u t i l i z e d i n t h i s study. This s t i l l c o n s t i t u t e s a l a r g e amount of data* To f a c i l i t a t e reference to the t a b l e s and other p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n , the data are presented i n each s e c t i o n under the heading of \" f i n d i n g s \" and are separated from the d i s -c u s s i o n of the f i n d i n g s * G e n e r a l l y only the s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s are presented i n t a b l e s or mentioned spe-c i f i c a l l y * Thus, i t can be assumed t h a t , when a s e t of f a c t o r s i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h another s e t of f a c t o r s , as f o r example s o c i a l background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and v a l u e s , c o r r e l a t i o n s which are not mentioned i n the f i n d i n g s f a i l t o a t t a i n the accepted l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e . To s i m p l i f y the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the d a t a , r e s i d u a l c a t e g o r i e s and \"no answers\" are o f t e n omitted from the t a b l e s * Thus, the t o t a l number of oases I s o f t e n ' l e s s than 1335\u00C2\u00BB the t o t a l , number o f - q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e t u r n s * I n most cases the \"no answers\" to one v a r i a b l e are d i s -t r i b u t e d p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y throughout the response c a t e g o r i e s of the v a r i a b l e w i t h which I t i s c o r r e l a t e d , thus minimiz-i n g the p o s s i b i l i t y of b i a s . However, a t t e n t i o n i s g e n e r a l -l y drawn to those lnstanoes where b i a s i s expected due to the uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n of \"no answers*\" -Percentages, when they appear i n t a b l e s or i n the t e x t , are g e n e r a l l y rounded t o the nearest u n i t . For t h i s reason the column or row percentage t o t a l s o c c a s i o n a l l y do not add up to 100* 3* Test of s i g n i f i c a n c e The chi-square t e s t was used throughout the study as a measure of the s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of c o r r e l a -t i o n s of v a r i a b l e s , the accepted l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e being s e t a t *05\u00C2\u00BB Concerning the s i z e of c e l l s , the ge n e r a l procedure was to accept the chi-square t e s t , I n cases where the number of degrees of freedom i s g r e a t e r than 1, l f no more than 20 per cent of the expected f r e -quencles are l e s s than 5 and no frequency l e s s than 1. Problems concerning the use of the chi-square t e s t w i t h 2 x 2 contingency t a b l e s d i d not a r i s e * Chi-square values are g i v e n f o r contingency t a b l e s , but are g e n e r a l l y omitted from t a b l e s showing only d e s c r i p t i v e data. 4* L i m i t a t i o n s Research I n the s o c i a l sciences i s seldom conducted under i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s and t h i s study i s no e x c e p t i o n . The f i r s t and most obvious l i m i t a t i o n stems from the < c h a r a c t e r of the p o p u l a t i o n sample. Since only pharmacy students are i n c l u d e d , the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s are n e c e s s a r i l y l i m i t e d t o those preparing f o r careers i n t h i s p r o f e s s i o n . Although the data a t times have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r problems which go beyond pharmacy, g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s stemming from these data are n e c e s s a r i l y t e n t a t i v e and should be i n t e r -p r e t e d more as hypotheses t o be explored than as e s t a b l i s h e d r e g u l a r i t i e s . r I t i s no doubt evident t h a t the present study i s s u b j e c t t o the l i m i t a t i o n s of the q u e s t i o n n a i r e method. Although every attempt was made to c o n s t r u c t the q u e s t i o n -n a i r e i n accordance w i t h the best procedures a v a i l a b l e , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o say whether the questions I n f a c t tap the intended t h e o r e t i c a l o r conceptual e n t i t i e s ; o r i n other words, whether the o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s correspond to the t h e o r e t i c a l concepts. One can never be s u r e , f o r example, whether the questions used to measure the v a r i o u s o c c u p a t i o n a l values of pharmacy students i n f a c t provide adequate indexes of t h i s dimension of a n a l y s i s . Another problem concerning the q u e s t i o n n a i r e has t o do w i t h i t s being t r a n s l a t e d i n t o French f o r students a t t e n d i n g L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y and the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal. I t was n o t i c e d i n a number of instances t h a t French speak-i n g students d i d not i n d i c a t e t h e i r responses i n the provided blanks preceding the q u e s t i o n s , but r a t h e r wrote -42-r e p l l e s I n spaces not designated f o r t h i s purpose\u00C2\u00A7 u s u a l l y i n the space f o l l o w i n g the question* Whether such c u l t u r a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s r e s u l t i n bi a s e d r e p l i e s i s d i f f i c u l t t o say* However, the p r o p o r t i o n of students f a i l i n g to r e p l y to c e r t a i n questions was much hi g h e r among French speaking students. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the ex-te n t of b i a s r e s u l t i n g from the t r a n s l a t i o n of the ques-t i o n n a i r e and/or the c u l t u r a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s of the French - c o u l d - n o t be determined. * I t i s necessary a t t h i s time to recognize the f a c t t h a t the r e s i d u a l category f o r the choice of f i e l d , as o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d , has c e r t a i n weaknesses* Although there i s much j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g f o u r c a t e -g o r i e s , r e t a i l , p r e s c r i p t i o n , hospital.pharmacy, and \"other,\" i t must be p o i n t e d out t h a t the l a t t e r u n f o r -t u n a t e l y contains a number of d i s s i m i l a r c h o i c e s . Over two-thirds of the choices i n t h i s category d e f i n i t e l y r e q u i r e f u r t h e r education, u s u a l l y a graduate degree, but the remaining t h i r d do not. The l a t t e r Include \"armed s e r v i c e s , \" \"government s e r v i c e , \" and \" s a l e s rep-r e s e n t a t i v e . \" Bather than c o n s t r u c t a separate category f o r some 73 cases, i t was decided to i n c l u d e these i n the r e s i d u a l category. Although the l a c k of homogeneity i n t h i s r e s i d u a l category cannot be overlooked, and may account i n some Instances f o r the f a i l u r e of t h i s group to respond as p r e d i c t e d , the category has proved u s e f u l i n the a n a l y s i s , s i n c e the m a j o r i t y of oases are s i m i l a r -43- . > w i t h respect t o ed u c a t i o n a l requirements. F i n a l l y , because of the l i m i t a t i o n s of time and resources, c e r t a i n computations c o u l d not be made; es-p e c i a l l y those i n v o l v i n g more than two v a r i a b l e s , For t h i s reason I t was not always p o s s i b l e t o c o n t r o l f o r f a c t o r s which might have been Involved i n an observed r e l a t i o n s h i p between two other v a r i a b l e s . For example, b o t h 1 r e l i g i o n and sex are found t o be r e l a t e d w i t h the choice of f i e l d , but the former two f a c t o r s are a l s o r e l a t e d w i t h each other. Time and resources, e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g the f i n a l stages of the study, simply were not a v a i l a b l e t o t e s t f o r the r e l a t i v e Impact of these f a c t o r s . F u r t h e r research I s obv i o u s l y necessary. The importance of t h i s t h e s i s , then, r e s t s not so much i n the conclusions i t reaches as I n the questions i t r a i s e s and the hypotheses i t generates. CHAPTER I I SOCIAL BACKGROUND FACTORS The occupations t h a t North America has to o f f e r I t s youth number i n the thousands, yet an oc c u p a t i o n a l choice i s made from a s m a l l range of a l t e r n a t i v e s . 1 To giv e s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o a l l occupations found i n t h i s s o c i e t y would be an(impossible t a s k . F o r t u n a t e l y s e v e r a l f a c t o r s operate to narrow the range of o c c u p a t i o n a l p o s s i -b i l i t i e s , among these the s o c i a l background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the I n d i v i d u a l . An o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e , then, i s i n p a r t a r e f l e c t i o n of the s o o i a l f a c t o r s which enter i t . Thus, any d e s c r i p t i v e study of members of or a s p i r a n t s to a g i v e n occupation must g i v e some c o n s i d e r a t i o n to ante-cedent s o o i a l f a c t o r s . The s o o i a l background f a c t o r s of pharmacy students i n general are presented I n S e c t i o n A of t h i s chapter. I n a d d i t i o n some of the r e l e v a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s among these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , e s p e c i a l l y those concerning a s c r i b e d and achieved s o c i a l f a c t o r s , are dis c u s s e d . The l a t t e r are important to the a n a l y s i s of the choice of f i e l d and r e f e r -ence w i l l be made t o them l a t e r . Although the data are b a s i c a l l y d e s c r i p t i v e , they are presented under the head-i n g of \" f i n d i n g s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 I n keeping w i t h the general format, - 4 5 -a d i s c u s s i o n of the m a t e r i a l i s g i v e n i n a subsequent \u00E2\u0080\u00A2> su b s e c t i o n l a b e l l e d \" d i s c u s s i o n . w J u s t as s o c i a l background f a c t o r s p l a y a p a r t i n the d e c i s i o n to enter pharmacy, some a l s o a f f e c t subse-quent o c c u p a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s w i t h i n the context of the p r o f e s s i o n * As poi n t e d out i n Chapter I , a l l pharmacy students must a t some time or other choose a s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d w i t h i n pharmacy, a choice which i s i n p a r t depen-dent upon s o c i a l background f a c t o r s * S e c t i o n B i s de-voted t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s o c i a l f a c t o r s and the choice of f i e l d * A) SOCIAL BACKGROUND FACTORS\u00E2\u0080\u0094ASCRIBED AND ACHIEVED Fi n d i n g s 1* Sex P r i o r to and du r i n g World War I I , the enrolment of women i n pharmacy s t e a d i l y Increased. The years immedi-a t e l y f o l l o w i n g the war saw an in c r e a s e d enrolment of male veterans and a corresponding decrease i n the pro-p o r t i o n of women. But, from 1950 t o the present, the tr e n d has been toward more women i n pharmacy. According to the Reports of the Committee on Enrolment i n the Proceedings of the Canadian Conference of Pharmaceutical F a c u l t i e s (I960, .1961 and 1962), the p r o p o r t i o n of women I n pharmaoy i n 1950 was 11 per cent (see Table I ) . F i v e years l a t e r , the percentage had r i s e n to 17 per cent and by i 9 6 0 , 26 per cent of a l l pharmacy students were women. -46-Por the academic year 1961-62, the Proceedings reported an enrolment of 1531 students of which 2? per cent were women. Of the students responding to the Royal Commission on Health S e r v i c e s Questionnaire, a t the c l o s e of the same academic year, a t o t a l of 1335 students, a f u l l 32 per cent were women. The p r o p o r t i o n of women I n pharmacy i s I n -cre a s i n g and I t Is h i g h l y l i k e l y t h a t t h i s t r e n d w i l l con-t i n u e as the enrolment of women i n Canadian u n i v e r s i t i e s i ncreases and as pharmacy i s regarded as an appropriate career f o r the female sex. > TABLE I PERCENTAGE WOMEN ENROLLED IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS OP PHARMACYJ 1945-61* Academic Year Percentage of T o t a l Beginning Women Enrolment 1945 24 771 1946 16 1383 1947 13 1314 1948 11 1448 1949 11 1436 1950 11 1394 1951 12 1309 1952 13 1380 1953 13 1263 1954 15 1207 1955 17 1198 1956 19 1145 1957 19 1109 1958 21 1268 1959 25 1353 I960 26 1474 1961 27 1531 Source: Proceedings of the Canadian Conference of Pharmaceutical F a c u l t i e s (I960, 1961 and 1962). -47-Although the enrolment of women I n pharmacy schools i s i n c r e a s i n g , t h i s i s not l i k e l y to a f f e c t the sex r a t i o of p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists i n the same pr o p o r t i o n s s i n c e the p r o f e s s i o n a l l i v e s of women are s h o r t e r than those of men* Of the women i n pharmacy who p l a n t o get married, and only 3,per cent do not p l a n to marry, 24 per cent do not know whether they w i l l continue working i n the pro* f e s s i o n a f t e r marriage* Of the 329 women r e p l y i n g to the qu e s t i o n concerning work a f t e r marriage (of a t o t a l of 422 women i n the sample),, only 8 per cent expect t o work f u l l time i n d e f i n i t e l y and another 9 per cent p a r t time i n d e f i n i t e l y . F i f t y - t w o per cent expect to work f u l l time d u r i n g the e a r l y p a r t of marriage or u n t i l they have c h i l d r e n and then work p a r t time l a t e r w h i l e 22 per cent expect to work f u l l or p a r t time d u r i n g the e a r l y p a r t of marriage o r u n t i l they have c h i l d r e n and then q u i t a l t o g e t h e r * The remaining 9 per cent p l a n to work \"only i f f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s i t a t e i t . \" The p r o p o r t i o n of women i n pharmacy v a r i e s w i t h r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n . From Table I I i t can be seen t h a t only 14 per cent of the students of Jewish f a i t h are women compared w i t h 30 per cent of the Roman Cath-o l i c s and 37 per cent of the P r o t e s t a n t s . - 4 8 -TABLE I I RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION OF PHARMACY STUDENTS AND SEX \u00E2\u0080\u00A2i \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 R e l i g i o n Percentage Males Percentage Females T o t a l No. of Students Jewish 86 14 106 Roman C a t h o l i c 70 30 426 P r o t e s t a n t 63 37 617 Other 64 36 53 ^No &nswer a 73 27 118 T o t a l b 68 32 1320 ^Includes those who d i d not s t a t e r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n . *>Does not Include 15 students who d i d not I n d i c a t e t h e i r sex. The p r o p o r t i o n of women e n r o l l e d i n pharmacy a l s o v a r i e s w i t h the school of r e g i s t r a t i o n (Table I I I ) . While women comprise 48 per cent of the pharmacy student popula-t i o n of the U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a and 40 per cent of the pharmacy students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba, only 16 per cent of the pharmacy students a t Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y and 13 per cent of those a t L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y are women. I n general the p r o p o r t i o n of women i n pharmacy schools I s hig h e r i n the u n i v e r s i t i e s i n the western p r o v i n c e s . I n pa r t t h i s I s to be expected, f o r the p r o p o r t i o n of women e n r o l l e d I n the u n i v e r s i t y as a whole i s g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r i n western Canada. 2 -49-TABLE I I I SCHOOL OF REGISTRATION AND SEX School of R e g i s t r a t i o n Percentage Males Percentage Females T o t a l No. of Students U. of B. C. 65 35 124 U. of A l b e r t a 52 48 172 U. of Saskatchewan 68 32 185 U. of Manitoba 60 40 95 U. of Toronto 69 31 354 U. of L a v a l 87 13 54 U. of Montreal 74 26 269 Dalhousie U. 84 16 67 T o t a l * 68 32 1320 aDoes not i n c l u d e 15 students who d i d not s t a t e sex. I n terms of s o c i a l c l a s s and u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , the p r o p o r t i o n of males and females does not vary s i g -n i f i c a n t l y . Male and female pharmacy students have s i m i -l a r backgrounds w i t h respect t o socio-economic s t a t u s and u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e . Males and females d i f f e r somewhat w i t h respect to two of the three achieved s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . \" A l -though the sexes do not d i f f e r w i t h respect to the extent of o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , they vary i n terms of high s c h o o l grades and p r a c t i c a l experience. Women enter pharmacy sc h o o l w i t h h i g h e r grades than do men, and t h i s a p p l i e s t o each of the schools of pharmacy considered s e p a r a t e l y * The median average grades i n a r t s courses and b a s i c sciences were c a l c u l a t e d f o r the sexes I n each of the schools and I n the p o p u l a t i o n as a whole. For the e n t i r e student body the median average grade i n a r t s courses i s 69*3 per cent f o r males and 7^*7 per cent f o r females; f o r the b a s i c sciences the average i s 72.8 per cent f o r males and 76*2 per cent f o r females* I t might be noted t h a t women r e c e i v e h i g h e r grades I n a r t s ; courses than the men do i n b a s i c s c i e n c e s , although the science grades are h i g h e r than the a r t s grades f o r men and women, and t h i s I s a l s o found t o be the case i n each of the < schools taken s e p a r a t e l y * t Although women enter pharmacy school w i t h b e t t e r 1 h i g h s c h o o l grades, men begin t h e i r academic t r a i n i n g w i t h more p r a c t i c a l experience* While 60 per cent of the women enter pharmacy school w i t h no p r a c t i c a l ex-per i e n c e , only 52 per cent of the men enter without experience. Of the females, 25 per cent had l e s s ' t h a n one year of p r a c t i c a l experience and 16 per oent had one year or more, compared w i t h 19 and 29 per cent of the males r e s p e c t i v e l y . 2* Socio-economic s t a t u s Table IV shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n of pharmacy students according to socio-economic-status of the f a m i l y * The l a r g e s t p r o p o r t i o n of pharmacy students come from Classes -51-TABLE IV SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUNDS OF PHARMACY STUDENTS Socio-Economic Status Percentage T o t a l of Number of Students Class I . 1.5 17 Class I I 15.8 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 184 Class I I I 15.8 184 Class IV 31.8 370 Class V 31.1 362 Class VI 4.1 48 3 T o t a l a 100.0 1165 aDoes not i n c l u d e 170 students who d i d not answer one or more of the questions r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s t a b l e . IV and V. A s m a l l e r p r o p o r t i o n comes from Classes I I and I I I w h i l e Classes I and VI c o n t r i b u t e very few pharmacy students. Among the pharmacy student p o p u l a t i o n , the f a c t o r of socio-economic s t a t u s i s r e l a t e d w i t h r e l i g i o n , urban-r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , and geographic r e g i o n . While 25 per cent of the Jewish students come from upper c l a s s f a m i l i e s (Classes I and I I ) , only 20 per cent of the Roman C a t h o l i c s and 15 per cent of the P r o t e s t a n t s come from such f a m i l i e s . Conversely, 25 per cent of the Jewish students, 33 per cent of the Roman C a t h o l i c s and 38 per cent of the Pr o t e s t a n t s come from lower c l a s s f a m i l i e s (Classes V and V I ) . -52-With respect t o the f a c t o r of urban^z-ural r e s i d e n c e , socio-economic s t a t u s d i f f e r e n c e s are observed p r i m a r i l y between those coming from farms and r u r a l d i s t r i c t s and a l l o t h e r s . Of the former, only 3 per cent come from upper c l a s s f a m i l i e s and 27 per cent come from middle c l a s s f a m i l i e s (Classes I I I and I V ) , w h i l e a f u l l 71 per cent come from lower c l a s s f a m i l i e s * Among the remainder of the students, 20 per cent are from upper c l a s s f a m i l i e s , 52 per cent from middle c l a s s f a m i l i e s , and 28 per cent from lower e l a s s f a m i l i e s . Socio-economic d i f f e r e n c e s among students coming from d i f f e r e n t geographic regions are most s t r i k i n g f o r those a t t e n d i n g the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan and the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal. Of the students a t t e n d i n g the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan, only 9 per cent have upper c l a s s backgrounds and 38 per cent have middle c l a s s back-grounds, w h i l e a f u l l 53 per cent come from f a m i l i e s of lower socio-economic s t a t u s . Of the students a t t e n d i n g the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal, 28 per cent oome from upper c l a s s f a m i l i e s , 46 per cent come from middle c l a s s f a m i l i e s , w h i l e only 26 per cent come from lower c l a s s f a m i l i e s . This i s t o be compared w i t h the n a t i o n a l averages which a r e : 17 per cent upper c l a s s , 48 per cent middle c l a s s , and 35 per cent lower c l a s s . Pharmacy students a t t e n d i n g the remaining u n i v e r s i t i e s do not vary s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h respect t o the f a c t o r of s o c i o -economic s t a t u s . With respect to achieved s o c i a l background f a c t o r s i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t students from the upper socio-economic c l a s s e s enter pharmacy school w i t h s l i g h t l y b e t t e r high s c h o o l grades (although the d i f f e r e n c e i s not s i g n i f i c a n t ) , experience more occu p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e ^ and g a i n more p r a c t i c a l experience before e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . While 67 per cent of the students from upper c l a s s f a m i l i e s enter pharmacy w i t h some p r a c t i c a l experience^ on l y 42 per cent of those from middle c l a s s f a m i l i e s and 39 per cent of those from lower c l a s s f a m i l i e s make t h i s c l a i m . 3 . R e l i g i o n Of those students i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a -t i o n , 51 per cent are P r o t e s t a n t , 36 per cent Roman Catho-l i c , 9 per cent Jewish and 4 per cent are of some other r e l i g i o n . As can be expected the p r o p o r t i o n of students of each f a i t h v a r i e s w i t h the school of r e g i s t r a t i o n (see Table V ) . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l i g i o n and each of the a s c r i b e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s of i n t e r e s t . With respect to p r a c t i c a l experience, i t i s found t h a t 61 per cent of the Jewish students enter pharmacy w i t h some p r a c t i c a l experience, compared w i t h 49 per cent of the P r o t e s t a n t s and 41 per cent of the Roman C a t h o l i c s . A l s o r e l a t e d - 5 4 -TABLE V SCHOOL OP EEGISTRATION AND RELIGION Students Attending Pharmacy School a t t Pereentace who are* T o t a l No. of Students -\"Protestant 1 a Roman C a t h o l i c Jewish Other U. of B. C. 7 6 17 4 3 97 U. of A l b e r t a 71 22 1 6 156 U. of Saskatchewan 79 13 tmmt 8 170 U. of Manitoba 66 13 10 11 88 U. of Toronto 57 20 20 3 330 L a v a l U. . \u00E2\u0080\u0094 98 2 55 U. of Montreal 2 87 \" 11 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 245 Dalhousie U. 81 19 mm mm 64 T o t a l 0 51 36 9 4 1205 a I n c l u d e s A n g l i c a n , Lutheran, P r e s b y t e r i a n , Greek Orthodox and Un i t e d Church. feDoes not i n c l u d e 130 students who d i d not answer the q u e s t i o n . t o the f a c t o r of r e l i g i o n I s t h a t of occ u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i -tance (see Table V I ) . Jewish students have the highest r a t e of d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t o c c u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e ; 22 per cent have parents I n the p r o f e s s i o n and 26 per cent have r e l a t i v e s i n pharmacy. This i s compared w i t h 10 and 15 per cent of the P r o t e s t a n t s and 9 and 19 per cent of the Roman C a t h o l i c s . F i n a l l y , the f a c t o r of r e l i g i o n i s found t o be r e l a t e d w i t h h i g h school grades. Although - 5 5 -TABLE VI RELIGION AND OCCUPATIONAL INHERITANCE R e l i g i o n Percentage wltfat \u00E2\u0080\u00A2mmm_ T o t a l No. of' Parent R e l a t i v e N e i t h e r Parent Students i n i n nor R e l a t i v e Pharmacy Pharmacy i n Pharmacy Jewish 22 26 52 105 P r o t e s t a n t 10 15 75 617 Roman C a t h o l i c 9 19 72 422 Other 6 17 77 53 T o t a l * 1197 aDoes not i n c l u d e 138 students who d i d not answer one or more of the questions r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s t a b u l a -t i o n . t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p may be p a r t l y due to the s e l e c t i v e f a c t o r of geographic r e g i o n 3 , i t I s i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t , w h i l e 25 per cent of the Roman C a t h o l i c s enter pharmacy sc h o o l w i t h grades of 80 per cent or h i g h e r , only 21 per cent of the P r o t e s t a n t s and 15 per cent of the Jewish students enter w i t h such grades. Conversely, 44 per cent of the Jewish students, 37 per cent of the P r o t e s t a n t s , and 26 per cent of the Roman C a t h o l i c s enter w i t h grades of l e s s than 70 per cent. 4. Urba n - r u r a l residence The d i s t r i b u t i o n of students according t o school of r e g i s t r a t i o n and u r b a n - r u r a l residence i s shown I n Table V I I . -56-TABLE VII SCHOOL OP REGISTRATION AND URBAN-RURAL RESIDENCE Students Percentage of Students Coming from: T o t a l Number of ; Students Attending Pharmacy Farm o r School R u r a l a t t D i s t r i c t a Town * Sm a l l * ? C i t y Large 0 No C i t y Answer U. of B.C. 14 17 39 30 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 127 U. of A l b e r t a 24 28 12 36 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 173 U. of Sask. 34 29 30 7 mm mm 188 U. of Man. 13 25 23 38 1 95 U. of Toronto 8 9 28 54 1 355 L a v a l U. 22 9 40 27 2 55 U. of Montreal 8 8 34 49 1 274 Dalhousle U. 21 19 47 13 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 68 T o t a l 16 16 30 38 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 1335 ^own: p o p u l a t i o n 5*000 or l e s s . D S m a l l C i t y : p o p u l a t i o n 5,000 - 100,000. \u00C2\u00B0Large C i t y : p o p u l a t i o n over 100,000. Of a l l the pharmacy students I n Canada, 38 ,per cent come from l a r g e c i t i e s , 30 per cent from s m a l l c i t i e s , 16 per cent from towns, and 16 per cent from farms and r u r a l d l s t r l o t s . These proportions vary w i t h the school of r e g i s t r a t i o n . Students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan tend t o come from s m a l l e r - s i z e d centers of p o p u l a t i o n w i t h over o n e - t h i r d coming from farms and r u r a l d i s t r i c t s and -57-only 7 per cent from c i t i e s of 100,000 people or more. At the other extreme are the U n i v e r s i t i e s of Toronto and Montreal w i t h only 8 per cent of the students coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s and 54 and 49 per cent, r e s p e c t -i v e l y , coming from c i t i e s of 100,000 people or more. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between u r b a n - r u r a l residence and occu p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e i s of importance. Of the 2121 pharmacy students I n Canada coming from farms o r r u r a l d i s t r i c t s only 2 persons or 1 per cent have parents who have p r a c t i s e d the p r o f e s s i o n of pharmacy a t some time or other compared w i t h 12 per cent of those coming from towns, 11 per cent of those from s m a l l c i t i e s , and 12 per cent of those from l a r g e c i t i e s . The b i g d i f f e r e n c e i s between those coming from farms and r u r a l d i s t r i c t s and a l l o t h e r s . A s i m i l a r type of r e l a t i o n s h i p I s seen between u r b a n - r u r a l residence and p r a c t i c a l experience as pre-sented I n Table V I I I . While one-half of the students from l a r g e c i t i e s and n e a r l y one h a l f of those from s m a l l c i t i e s or towns enter pharmacy school w i t h some p r a c t i c a l experience, only s l i g h t l y more than one-quarter of those coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s have such experience. With respect t o high school grades and urban-r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s can be found. - 5 8 -TABLE V I I I URBAN-RURAL RESIDENCE AND PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE PRIOR TO ENTRY INTO.PHARMACY SCHOOL Type of L o c a l i t y Percentage of Students w i t h Some P r a c t i c a l Ex-perience P r i o r to Entry. T o t a l Number of Students Farm or r u r a l d i s t r i c t 27 213 Town 48 218 Small c i t y 49 393 Large c i t y 50 497 No answer \u00E2\u0080\u0094 . 14 . T o t a l . 46 .,. , 1335 5* Geographic r e g i o n Table IX shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n of pharmacy students according.to p r a c t i c a l experience and school of r e g i s t r a -t i o n . The p r o p o r t i o n of students w i t h some p r a c t i c a l ex-perience v a r i e s from a low of 20 per cent a t L a v a l U n i v e r s -i t y and-21 per cent at the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan to a high of 84 per cent at Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y . Table X shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n of pharmacy students according to o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and school of r e g i s -t r a t i o n . L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y and the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchew-an have the lowest rates o f , d i r e c t o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , although the former has the highest r a t e of i n d i r e c t occu-p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e . The highest r a t e of d i r e c t occu-p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e i s found at Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y -59-TABLE IX SCHOOL OP REGISTRATION AND PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE PRIOR TO ENTRY School of Pharmacy a t : Percentage w i t h Some P r a c t i c a l Experience P r i o r to Entry Number of Students U* of B r i t i s h Columbia 36 124 U* of A l b e r t a 53 172 U. of Saskatchewan 21 185 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 U. of Manitoba 45 95 U* of Toronto 53 354 L a v a l U* 20 54 U* of Montreal 48 269 Dalhousie U* 84 67 T o t a l 48 1320 where 18 per cent of the students have parents i n the p r o f e s s i o n * 6. Achieved s o o l a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Of a l l the students I n Canada more than one-half (54*5 per cent) enter without ever having worked i n a pharmacy; 21 per cent have one year or l e s s experience and 25 per cent have more than one year* With respect t o oc c u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e , 10 per cent of the pharmacy students have parents I n the pro-f e s s i o n and another 17 per cent have r e l a t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n ; 73 per cent have n e i t h e r parents nor r e l a -- R O -T A B L E x SCHOOL OP REGISTRAT ION AND OCCUPATIONAL INHERITANCE Students Attending Pharmacy School att Percentage wltht Total Parent(s) Relative(s) Neither Number i n Other Than Parents of Pharmacy Parent i n Nor Students Pharmacy Relatives i n Pharmacy u; of B.C. 6 18 76 126 U . of Alberta 8 16 76 172 U . of Sask;* 5 1? 78 188 U . of Manitoba 10 16 74 95 U . of Toronto 14 16 70 350 Laval U . 2 22 76 54 U . of Montreal 12 19 69 264 Dalhousle U . 18 16 66 67 * T o t a l a 10 1? 73 1316. aDoes not include 19 students who d i d not answer the question. tl v e s i n pharmacy. Nothing much needs to be sa i d at t h i s time about high school grades except that science grades are generally higher than arts grades. About one-quarter of the students have grades of 80 per cent and about one-t h i r d have grades lower than 70 per cent. The extent of p r a c t i c a l experience Is rela t e d with occupational inheritance as would be expected. Of those w i t h parents i n the p r o f e s s i o n only 9 per cent have never worked i n a pharmacy w h i l e 62 per cent have more than one year's experience. Of those w i t h r e l a t i v e s i n pharmacy over-one-half (56 per cent) have no p r a c t i c a l experience and only 19 per cent have worked i n a pharmacy f o r more than one year. This i s compared w i t h those students w i t h n e i t h e r parents nor r e l a t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n , 6 l per cent of whom enter pharmacy school w i t h no p r a c t i c a l ex-perience w h i l e 20 per cent have more than one year of 1 experience. Of i n t e r e s t a l s o i s the r e l a t i o n s h i p between hig h s c h o o l grades and p r a c t i c a l experience. I n general the high e r the grades the l e s s p r a c t i c a l experience the I n d i v i d u a l i s l i k e l y t o have. Of those w i t h h i g h school grades of 80 per cent or more, 60 per cent enter w i t h no p r a c t i c a l experience compared w i t h 58 per cent of those w i t h grades of 70-79 per cent, and 46 per cent of 1 those w i t h grades of l e s s than 70 per cent. Conversely, 20 < per cent of those w i t h grades of 80 per cent o r more have more than one year of experience compared w i t h 23 per cent of those w i t h grades of 70-79 per cent and 31 per cent' of those w i t h grades of l e s s than 70 per cent. I n t h i s s u b s e c t i o n c e r t a i n s o c i a l background f a c t o r s have been presented and some of the more important r e l a -t i o n s h i p s among these f a c t o r s have been d e s c r i b e d . The relevancy of much of t h i s b a s i c a l l y d e s c r i p t i v e data w i l l become more evident as the t h e s i s proceeds. Of p a r t i c u l a r importance f o r the a n a l y s i s of the choice of f i e l d are the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between a s c r i b e d and achieved s o c i a l background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . These are summarized i n Fig u r e 2 . F i g u r e 2 Summary of R e l a t i o n s h i p s Between A s c r i b e d and Achieved S o c i a l Background Factors High School Occupational P r a c t i c a l Grades I n h e r i t a n c e Experience A. Sex Males Females Lower Higher D i f f e r e n c e More Not S i g n i f i c a n t Less B. Socio-economic Status Upper D i f f e r e n c e High High Middle Not Medium Medium Lower S i g n i f i c a n t Low Low R e l i g i o n Jewish Low High High P r o t e s t a n t Medium Medium : Medium C a t h o l i c High Medium Low Urban-Rural Residence Farm, R u r a l D i f f e r - Low Low Town ence High High Small C i t y Not High High Large C i t y S i g n i f i c a n t High High Geographic Region U.B.C. Depends Low Low U.Alberta on Low High U.Sask. Grading Low Low U.Manitoba System Medium Medium U.Toronto Used High High U.Montreal i n High Medium L a v a l U. Each Low Low Dalhousie U. Province High High - 6 3 -D l a c u s s i o n Sex i s one of the fundamental bases f o r a d i v i s i o n of l a b o r i n s o c i e t y , and i t i s one of the most important s o c i a l determinants of oc c u p a t i o n a l choice i n North America. Despite the l i b e r a l i z i n g e f f e c t of mass educa-t i o n , some f i e l d s i n our s o c i e t y are predominantly women's occupations, n u r s i n g , d i e t e t i c s , elementary school teach-i n g , s e c r e t a r i a l work, t o name a few, w h i l e o t h e r s , such as engineering, a g r i c u l t u r e , or business, are g e n e r a l l y considered the domain of men. However, sex b a r r i e r s to var i o u s occupations are being broken down, and men and women are beginning to enter occupations t r a d i t i o n a l l y r eserved f o r the opposite sex. One such f i e l d i s pharmacy. The enrolment of women i n pharmacy i s i n c r e a s i n g and w i l l probably continue t o Increase w i t h the enlarging\u00E2\u0080\u00A2en-rolment of women i n i n s t i t u t i o n s of hig h e r l e a r n i n g . Be-si d e s the I n c r e a s i n g enrolment of women i n pharmacy there i s f u r t h e r reason t o b e l i e v e t h a t the sex b a r r i e r to t h i s p r o f e s s i o n i s breaking down. Most students regard phar-macy as an appr o p r i a t e career f o r women. Only 6 per cent of the pharmacy students i n Canada, two-thirds of whom are men, do not agree w i t h the statement, \"Pharmacy i s a s u i t a b l e career f o r women.\" Pharmacy i s a l s o viewed as a career t h a t can be maintained by women a f t e r marriage, as evidenced by the f a c t t h a t only 9 per cent of the male pharmacy students and 5 per cent of the female students do not agree w i t h the statement, \"Pharmacy i s a career -64-whlch p r o v i d e s good o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r women and one whioh can be m a i n t a i n e d a f t e r m a r r i a g e T a k i n g these p o i n t s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , i t seems reasonable t o assume t h a t the sex b a r r i e r t o pharmacy which e x i s t e d a t the t u r n of the c e n t u r y i s r a p i d l y b r e a k i n g down. 1 I t i s I n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t the breakdown of the sex b a r r i e r i s Independent of s o c i a l c l a s s o r u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e . The p r o p o r t i o n of women I n pharmacy does not v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h soc io-economic s t a t u s o r u r b a n -r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , which lends \" f u r t h e r support t o the n o t i o n t h a t pharmacy i n Canadian s o c i e t y I s b e i n g regarded as an a p p r o p r i a t e c a r e e r f o r women. However, the p r o p o r t i o n of women i n pharmacy does appear to v a r y w i t h some s o c i a l background f a c t o r s , n o t a b l y r e l i g i o n and geographic r e g i o n . J ewish women are c o n s i d e r -a b l y u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n the pharmacy s tudent p o p u l a t i o n and P r o t e s t a n t women are somewhat o v e r - r e p r e s e r i t e d . I t may be t h a t people of J ewish f a i t h do not as ye t r e g a r d t h i s p r o f e s s i o n as a p p r o p r i a t e f o r women. As seen I n Table I I I the p r o p o r t i o n of women I n p h a r -macy v a r i e s w i t h the s c h o o l of r e g i s t r a t i o n . I n g e n e r a l the p r o p o r t i o n of female pharmacy s tudents i s g r e a t e r I n the w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s t h a n i n the e a s t e r n p r o v i n o e s . T h i s may be due I n p a r t t o the f a c t t h a t the p r o p o r t i o n of women e n r o l l e d I n I n s t i t u t i o n s of h i g h e r l e a r n i n g i s g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r i n the wes tern p r o v i n c e s . A c c o r d i n g to the Dominion Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s , the p r o p o r t i o n of women -65-e n r o l l e d i n u n i v e r s i t i e s west of Ontario f o r the academic year, 1961-62, was 29*5 per cent, compared w i t h 26*9 per cent i n the A t l a n t i c p r o v i n c e s , 23\u00C2\u00BB6 per cent i n O n t a r i o , and 22.2 per cent i n the province of Quebec, t o giv e a n a t i o n a l average of 25.*7 per cent*** However, the d i s p r o -p o r t i o n a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of women i n pharmacy schools cannot be ex p l a i n e d e n t i r e l y on the b a s i s of the p r o p o r t i o n of women e n r o l l e d i n i n s t i t u t i o n s of hig h e r learning,, s i n c e the p r o p o r t i o n of women at t e n d i n g pharmacy schools west of Ontario i s c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r than the p r o p o r t i o n of women i n the general u n i v e r s i t y student p o p u l a t i o n i n these p r o v i n c e s , w h i l e the p r o p o r t i o n of women at t e n d i n g the pharmacy school a t Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y - i s c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s than the p r o p o r t i o n of women i n the general u n i v e r s i t y student p o p u l a t i o n i n the A t l a n t i c p r o v i n c e s . I t i s f e l t t h a t the p r o p o r t i o n of women i n pharmacy schools f i s a f u n c t i o n of the s e l e c t i o n procedures used by the var i o u s schools of pharmacy* Each pharmacy school has an enrolment quota based on such things as p h y s i c a l f a c i l i t i e s , a v a i l a b l e s t a f f , f i -n a n c i a l resources, e t c * The general p o l i c y i s t o admit a l l students who s a t i s f y the minimum academic entrance requirements, and to g i v e preference t o a p p l i c a n t s w i t h s u p e r i o r academic records when the quota i s reached* How-ever, the. enrolment quota has been reached i n only two of the ei g h t schools f o r the l a s t three of the s i x years preceding t h i s study, those being the pharmacy schools a t - 6 6 - \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 i the U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a and the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba, where-the enrolment of women I s 48 and 40 per cent, r e -s p e c t i v e l y . I n these schools 22 and 34 per cent of the a p p l i c a n t s were r e j e c t e d d u r i n g the three year period.-' When academic c r l t e r l a a r e used f o r s e l e c t i o n purposes, they l e a d t o an Increased enrolment of women, f o r women who seek entrance i n t o pharmacy sc h o o l g e n e r a l l y have h i g h e r academic q u a l i f i c a t i o n s than men. I n a d d i t i o n , women have a lower withdrawal r a t e and tend to perform b e t t e r academically i n pharmacy s c h o o l . 0 Thus, i t would seem t h a t as the number of a p p l i c a n t s to pharmacy ex-ceeds the enrolment quota, the p r o p o r t i o n of women I n the p r o f e s s i o n i n c r e a s e s . a Women enter pharmacy school w i t h b e t t e r academic records but w i t h l e s s p r a c t i c a l experience i n the f i e l d , which, when taken together, have c e r t a i n consequences f o r the p r o f e s s i o n , mainly i n the type of employment expected by the students. Of the e n t i r e student body, 16'per cent expect t o work I n the f i e l d of h o s p i t a l pharmacy; of these, the m a j o r i t y , 56 per cent are women. P r e s e n t l y l e s s than 5 per cent of the p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists i n Canada are employed i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy, which seems t o make these expectations somewhat u n r e a l i s t i c . Many of the women w i l l have to seek employment i n other f i e l d s , which b r i n g s up another problem, t h a t of premature r e -tirement. * \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 The p r o f e s s i o n a l l i v e s of women are somewhat s h o r t e r than those of men* As poi n t e d out i n the preceding sub-s e c t i o n , few women expect t o work f u l l or p a r t time i n -d e f i n i t e l y ; most expect t o work f u l l or p a r t time during the e a r l i e r years of married l i f e and then e i t h e r q u i t a l t o g e t h e r or accept c a s u a l employment l a t e r * These ex-pe c t a t i o n s of women do not seem t o vary s i g n i f i c a n t l y by school of r e g i s t r a t i o n or place of resid e n c e , r e l i g i o n and most other s o c i a l background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , although there i s some r e l a t i o n between t h i s f a c t o r and socio-\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 > economic s t a t u s . I n any case, i t appears t h a t as the en-rolment of women in o r e a s e s , a l l schools of pharmacy w i l l have to graduate a gr e a t e r number of pharmacists to r e -p l a c e those who normally leave the p r o f e s s i o n because of death o r re t i r e m e n t . Regardless of sex, pharmacy students seem to be r e c r u i t e d from the lower-middle and upper-lower s o c i o -economic c l a s s e s . For over 80 per cent of the students, becoming a pharmacist represents an in c r e a s e i n s t a t u s over t h a t of t h e i r parents. But i t w i l l be n o t i c e d t h a t the m a j o r i t y are from Classes IV and V. There are fewer students from Classes I I and I I I and con s i d e r a b l y fewer from Classes I and VI* Pharmacy, a Class I I occupation, seems to be l e s s appealing t o members of t h i s c l a s s and of Class I I I than i t i s t o members of Classes IV and V* The data are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the n o t i o n t h a t a movement i n t o the s t a t u s of pharmacist i s seen as a reasonable a s p i r a t i o n by members of Classes IV and V and out of -68 - . reach to members of Class V I . I t may be t h a t members of Glasses I I and I I I a s p i r e to p o s i t i o n s of g r e a t e r s o c i a l s t a t u s . t h a n t h a t provided by the p r o f e s s i o n of pharmacy. This appears to be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the general e x p e c t a t i o n of s o c i a l m o b i l i t y I n Canadian s o c i e t y and w i t h the n o t i o n t h a t m o b i l i t y a s p i r a t i o n s between the generations are l i m i t e d i n scope to the subsequent rung of the s t a t u s ' l a d -der. I t might be s u r p r i s i n g f o r some to f i n d t h a t the experience of working I n a pharmacy i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d w i t h s o c i a l c l a s s ; t h a t , the h i g h e r the s o c i a l c l a s s , the more l i k e l y the I n d i v i d u a l i s to have worked i n a pharmacy p r i o r to e n t e r i n g the formal t r a i n i n g program, which sug-gests that students do not seek employment i n pharmacy p r i m a r i l y f o r f i n a n c i a l reasons. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between s o c i a l c l a s s and p r a c t i c a l experience i s due mainly to the s e l e c t i v e f a c t o r of occ u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e . I n the up-per c l a s s , c o n s i s t i n g of Classes I and I I , are found those students w i t h parents, and t o a l e s s e r extent, w i t h r e l a -t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n , who on t h i s account have g r e a t e r opportunity f o r employment. Thus I t would seem tha t prac-t i c a l experience, i n p a r t at l e a s t , depends on the amount of contact one has w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n . Those w i t h parents and r e l a t i v e s have more contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n and subsequently g a i n more p r a c t i c a l experience p r i o r t o en-t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . Pharmacy, u n l i k e many other p r o f e s s i o n s , o f f e r s considerable o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p o t e n t i a l r e c r u i t s , w i t h or without parents or r e l a t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n , t o g a i n p r a c t i c a l experience p r i o r t o e n t e r i n g a formal t r a i n i n g program, or f o r t h a t matter, p r i o r t o the career d e c i s i o n * P a r t o r f u l l time work as a d e l i v e r y boy, stock boy* or c l e r k i s o f t e n a v a i l a b l e a t a corner drugstore f o r the ambitious young man or women who may s t i l l be undecided about a career* Even a f t e r a career choice i s made, such p r a c t i c a l experience may help to r e i n f o r c e the d e c i s i o n and may serve to prepare the p r o s p e c t i v e pharmacist f o r the p r o f e s s i o n he w i l l e v e n t u a l l y enter* I t i s w i t h i n such a context t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l ' s notions about the p r o f e s s i o n and about h i m s e l f as a member of i t are de r i v e d * I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t , however, t o note t h a t such experience i s gained almost e x c l u s i v e l y i n . the r e t a i l f i e l d * . Thus, i t I s expected t h a t the image of pharmacy d e r i v e d i n t h i s context i s p r i m a r i l y based on the p r a c t i c e of r e t a i l phar-macy* \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Of the three major r e l i g i o u s groupings i n Canada, the Jewish f a i t h i s somewhat over-represented i n 1 t h e phar-macy student p o p u l a t i o n , w h i l e the C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n i s somewhat under-represented* According t o the 1962 Canada Year Book, Roman C a t h o l i c s comprise 45*7 per cent of the p o p u l a t i o n of Canada, w h i l e Jews make up 1*4 per cent* Of the pharmacy students, 36 per cent are Roman C a t h o l i c and 9 per cent Jewish*. The d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e representa-t i o n of these two groups i n the pharmacy student p o p u l a t i o n -70-may be simply a r e f l e c t i o n of the d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e rep-r e s e n t a t i o n of r e l i g i o u s groupings i n i n s t i t u t i o n s of< hig h e r l e a r n i n g . I n any event, a l l of the major r e l i g i o u s groupings are represented i n the pharmacy student popula-t i o n . >\u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Although a l l are represented I n the student body, they do not f i n d t h e i r way i n t o pharmacy through the same channels. Nearly one-half of the Jewish students have parents or r e l a t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n and over t h r e e -f i f t h s have some p r a c t i c a l experience p r i o r to e n t r y . Of the P r o t e s t a n t s and Roman C a t h o l i c s , only about one-qua r t e r experience any oc c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , d i r e c t or i n d i r e c t , and l e s s than one-half have any p r a c t i c a l experience. Thus, Jewish students who enter pharmacy have c o n s i d e r a b l y more contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n than do P r o t e s t a n t s o r C a t h o l i c s , although P r o t e s t a n t s have s l i g h t l y more contact than C a t h o l i c s . Occupational i n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l experience a l s o vary w i t h the f a c t o r of u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e . However, the v a r i a t i o n I s p r i m a r i l y due to the n o t i c e a b l e . l a c k of oc c u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l experience among students coming from, farms and r u r a l d i s t r i c t s , which suggests t h a t r u r a l students f i n d t h e i r way i n t o pharmacy through other than d i r e c t channels. * I f t h i s i s the case, then students a t t e n d i n g d i f f e r -ent pharmacy schools,, s i n c e they tend to come from d i f f e r -e n t - s i z e d c e n t e r s , w i l l vary i n the extent of d i r e c t contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n . T h i s i n f a c t appears to be the case. Pharmacy students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Sas-katchewan, L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y and the U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a tend, more so than o t h e r s , t o come from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s . Students a t these u n i v e r s i t i e s a l s o experience l e s s o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and, except f o r the U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , have l e s s p r a c t i c a l experience upon e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . Thus, i t would seem tha t the f a c t o r of u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h respect to the d i s -t i n c t i o n between r u r a l students and a l l o t h e r s , i s an important determinant of the channels by which students get i n t o pharmacy. The extent of p r a c t i c a l experience gained p r i o r to entry i s not t o t a l l y a f u n c t i o n of u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , r e l i g i o n , and occu p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e . I n p a r t i t i s determined by the ap p r e n t i c e s h i p p o l i c i e s of p r o v i n c i a l pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n s . Some a s s o c i a t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t the p e r i o d of p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g be taken p r i o r to en t e r i n g the formal academic program; others provide the o p t i o n of t a k i n g i t before entry o r a f t e r graduation, w h i l e s t i l l others a l l o w f o r the a p p r e n t i c e s h i p r e q u i r e -ments to be completed during summer vacations from u n i -v e r s i t y . I n c r e a s i n g l y , pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n s are hot r e q u i r i n g the completion of the p e r i o d of p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g p r i o r to commencement of c l a s s e s a t the u n i v e r -s i t y , and some are c o n s i d e r i n g dropping the appr e n t i c e -s h i p requirements e n t i r e l y . No two provinces are a l i k e -72-l n t h e i r p o l i c i e s towards the p e r i o d of p r a c t i c a l t r a i n -i n g . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 f \u00E2\u0080\u00A2' For t h i s reason, students i n d i f f e r e n t provinces are a f f e c t e d d i f f e r e n t l y by the a p p r e n t i c e s h i p r e q u i r e -ments. The p r o p o r t i o n of students who have served p a r t or a l l of t h e i r a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p r i o r to e n t e r i n g pharmacy sch o o l v a r i e s from a high of 55 per cent a t Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y , 44 per cent a t the U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , and 31 per cent a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, to a low of 8 per cent a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba and 11 per cent a t L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y . I n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n an attempt has been made to de-s c r i b e the s o c i a l background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of pharmacy students and to I l l u s t r a t e the connections between s o c i a l background f a c t o r s and some of the channels which students may take to get i n t o the p r o f e s s i o n . I t appears th a t each of the a s c r i b e d s o c i a l background f a c t o r s , sex, s o c i o -economic s t a t u s , r e l i g i o n , u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , and geo-graphic r e g i o n , a f f e c t the amount of d i r e c t contact I n d i -v i d u a l s have w i t h the working aspects of the p r o f e s s i o n , e s p e c i a l l y the r e t a i l f i e l d . The next q u e s t i o n that can be asked i s how these f a c t o r s are r e l a t e d to the choice of a f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . -73-B) SOCIAL BACKGROUND PACTORS AND CHOICE OP FIELD IN PHARMACY Find i n g s $ 1. Sex The f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p be-tween sex and choice of f i e l d . Table XI shows t h a t women more o f t e n than men choose a career i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy, w h i l e men more o f t e n than women choose the r e t a i l f i e l d . Of the menj 59 Per cent choose r e t a i l pharmacy compared w i t h 42 per cent of the women. Conversely, over two and one-half times as many women than men choose a career i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy. -2. Socio-economic s t a t u s The choice of f i e l d appears to be independent of socio-economic s t a t u s . No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p i s observed between these f a c t o r s . TABLE XI SEX AND CHOICE OF FIELD IN PHARMACY Percentage Choosing: R e t a i l P r e s c r i p t i o n H o s p i t a l Other T o t a l Sex Pharmacy Pharmacy Pharmacy Cases Males 59 8 11 23 898 Females 42 12 - 28 19 422 X 2 m 79.200s d.f. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 3* P<.001 3\u00C2\u00AB R e l i g i o n The choice of f i e l d i n pharmacy v a r i e s w i t h the -74-r e l l g i o u s background of the student. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between these f a c t o r s i s presented i n Table X I I . Prom t h i s t a b l e i t can be seen t h a t Jewish students more o f t e n than others choose r e t a i l pharmacy and some \"other\" f i e l d , w h i l e P r o t e s t a n t s together w i t h those l i s t i n g t h e i r r e -l i g i o n as \"other\" show a preference f o r h o s p i t a l pharmacy. S u r p r i s i n g l y , Roman C a t h o l i c s , when compared w i t h members of other r e l i g i o u s groups, tend to choose p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, although 15 per cent i n d i c a t e a preference f o r h o s p i t a l pharmacy. TABLE X I I RELIGION AND CHOICE OP FIELD IN PHARMACY Percentage Choosing t R e l i g i o n R e t a i l P r e s c r i p t i o n H o s p i t a l Other T o t a l Pharmacy Pharmacy Pharmacy Cases Jewish 63 5 7 26 106 P r o t e s t a n t 54 7 19 20 622 Roman C a t h o l i c 51 14 15 21 431 Other 48 11 26 !5 46 X* =. 28.499* d.f. = 9t P<.001 4. Urban-rural residence The r e l a t i o n s h i p between u r b a n - r u r a l residence and choice of f i e l d i s I n t e r e s t i n g . Although the r e l a t i o n -s h i p I s s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .01 l e v e l , the v a r i a t i o n I s due p r i m a r i l y to the d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e number of students -75-coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s who choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy. While 17 per cent of the students coming from towns, 13 per cent of the students from s m a l l c i t i e s , and 15 per cent of those from l a r g e c i t i e s choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy, a f u l l 24 per cent of those coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s make t h i s c h o i c e . With respect to< the other f i e l d s , r e t a i l , p r e s c r i p t i o n , and \"other,\" l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e can be observed among the ch o i c e s . ' 5\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Geographic r e g i o n The f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e that the choice of f i e l d v a r i e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h the sc h o o l of r e g i s t r a t i o n . Prom Table X I I I i t w i l l be seen, f o r example, t h a t the p r o p o r t i o n of students p l a n n i n g to enter r e t a i l pharmacy v a r i e s from a high of 69 per cent a t Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y to a l o w of 41 per cent a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba. Por purposes of a n a l y s i s , the schools of pharmacy i n which the propor-t i o n of students choosing a g i v e n f i e l d i s above the na-t i o n a l average are s i n g l e d out. They are as f o l l o w s : R e t a i l Pharmacy ( N a t i o n a l average: 54 per cent) 1. Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y (69 per cent) 2. U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a (65 per cent) P r e s c r i p t i o n Pharmacy ( N a t i o n a l average: 9 per cent) 1. U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal (15 per cent) 2. U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia (13 per cent) 3\u00C2\u00BB U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba (11 per cent) H o s p i t a l Pharmacy ( N a t i o n a l average: 16 per cent) 1. U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba (2.6 per cent) -76-H o s p l t a l Pharmacy \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Continued 2. U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan (23 per cent) 3. U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia (19 per cent) 4. L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y (18 per cent) Other ( N a t i o n a l average: 21 per cent) 1. U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto (27 per cent) 2. U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal (24 per cent) 3\u00C2\u00BB L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y (24 per cent) 4. U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba (22 per cent) 6. Achieved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Each of the achieved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , h i g h s c h o o l grades, o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , and p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i -ence, i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o the choice of f i e l d . These r e l a t i o n s h i p s are shown i n Table XIV. Students e n t e r i n g pharmacy sc h o o l w i t h low h i g h s c h o o l grades tend t o choose r e t a i l pharmacy, w h i l e those w i t h high grades tend t o choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy and some \"other\" f i e l d . S e p a r a t i n g from the r e s i d u a l category \"other\" the two o c c u p a t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s , \" i n d u s t r i a l manufacturing or research\" and \"teaching or research I n a u n i v e r s i t y , \" there i s found even a s t r o n g e r r e l a t i o n -s h i p between these choices and high school grades. Of those r e c e i v i n g grades of 90-100 per cent I n h i g h s c h o o l , n e a r l y one-quarter (24 per cent) are p l a n n i n g a career I n I n dustry or t e a c h i n g , compared w i t h 18 per cent of those w i t h grades of 80-89 per cent, 10 per cent of those -77-TABLE X I I I SCHOOL OF REGISTRATION AND CHOICE OF FIELD IN PHARMACY Percentage Expecting to Enter: T o t a l School of Number Pharmacy R e t a i l P r e s c r i p t i o n H o s p i t a l Other of a t : Pharmacy Pharmacy Pharmacy Students U n i v e r s i t y of B.C. 50 13 19 18 127 U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a 65 6 13 16 173 U n i v e r s i t y of Sask. 54 6 23 17 188 U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba 41 11 26 22 95 U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto 52 7 14 27 355 L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y 49 9 18 24 55 U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal 50 15 11 24 274 Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y 69 4 9 18 68 T o t a l 54 9 16 21 1335 - 7 8 -TABLE XIV HIGH SCHOOL GRADES, OCCUPATIONAL INHERITANCE, PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE AND CHOICE OF FIELD IN PHARMACY Percentage Choosingt R e t a i l P r e s c r i p t i o n H o s p i t a l Other T o t a l Pharmacy Pharmacy Pharmacy Cases A) High School Grades 90 - 100 % 41 6 22 31 32 80 - 89 40 11 21 28 259 70 - 79 54 10 15 21 588 60 - 69 62 8 14 16 393 50 - v59 71 5 15 10 41 B) Occupational I n h e r i t a n c e Parent 67 6 8 19 133 R e l a t i v e 53 10 16 21 227 Neither 52 9 17 22 956 C) P r a c t i c a l Experience More than 1 year 70 5 8 17 321 One year 269 or l e s s 52 10 18 20 None 49 11 19 21 713 A) X 2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 42 . 0 l 6 i d.f. \u00C2\u00BB 12: P<.001 B) X 2 - 13.423: d.f. - 6: P<.05 C) X 2 * 45.475: d.f. = 6: P<.001 1 -79-w l t h grades of 70-79 per cent, 6 per cent of those w i t h grades of 60-69 per cent, and only 2 per cent of those w i t h grades lower than 60 per cent. With respect to occu p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e , the f i n d -ings i n d i c a t e that the g r e a t e r the extent of i n h e r i t a n c e , the g r e a t e r i s the l i k e l i h o o d t h a t an I n d i v i d u a l w i l l ' choose r e t a i l pharmacy i n preference to the other f i e l d s . Prom the same t a b l e i t can be seen t h a t w h i l e over two-t h i r d s of those w i t h parents i n the p r o f e s s i o n choose r e -t a i l pharmacy, only s l i g h t l y more than one-half of those w i t h r e l a t i v e s i n pharmacy or those w i t h n e i t h e r parents nor r e l a t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n make t h i s c h o i c e . At the same time over twice as many students w i t h n e i t h e r parents nor r e l a t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n , as compared w i t h those i w i t h parents i n pharmacy, p l a n to enter h o s p i t a l pharmacy. \u00C2\u00ABA s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s observed between p r a c t i c a l experience and choice of f i e l d . The g r e a t e r the amount of p r a c t i c a l experience an i n d i v i d u a l gains p r i o r to e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l , the more l i k e l y he i s to choose the r e t a i l f i e l d and the l e s s l i k e l y he Is to choose p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, h o s p i t a l pharmacy, or some \"other'' f i e l d . While 70 per cent of those w i t h more than one year of p r a o t i c a l experience expect to enter r e t a i l pharmacy, only 49 per cent of those w i t h no p r a c t i c a l experience make t h i s c h o i c e . Conversely, over twice as many of those w i t h no experience, compared w i t h those having more than one year of experience, expect to make h o s p i t a l pharmacy t h e i r c a r e e r . D i s c u s s i o n ; \u00E2\u0080\u00A2> The f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t s e v e r a l s o c i a l background f a c t o r s are r e l a t e d w i t h the choice of f i e l d . Although the observed r e l a t i o n s h i p s are t o be exp l a i n e d , p a r t l y i f not e n t i r e l y , i n terms of the i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e s , values and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , there i s reason to b e l i e v e t h a t s o c i a l f a c t o r s p l a y some d i r e c t p a r t i n the choi c e . However, i t must be noted t h a t the data presented i n t h i s t h e s i s cannot f u l l y i l l u s t r a t e the independent s i g -n i f i c a n c e of s o c i a l f a c t o r s . I n t h i s s u b s e c t i o n the author wishes only to p o i n t out some of. the p o s s i b l e ways i n which the f a c t o r s of choice and s o c i a l background may be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d . Of the var i o u s s o c i a l f a c t o r s which serve to d e l i m i t the scope of oc c u p a t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s , sex i s o f t e n r e - \u00C2\u00AB garded as one of the most i m p o r t a n t T h e r e f o r e , i t seems reasonable t o suggest t h a t the choice of f i e l d may be d i -r e c t l y a f f e o t e d by the sex s t a t u s of the i n d i v i d u a l . A l -though the p r o p o r t i o n of women I n pharmacy i s i n c r e a s i n g , the f a c t remains t h a t the r e t a i l f i e l d i s s t i l l predom-i n a n t l y the domain of men. Women are most o f t e n found i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy where approximately 45 per cent are of the female sex. Less than 8 per cent of the pharmacists engaged i n r e t a i l p r a c t i c e are women, most of whom are s a l a r i e d employees. r 0 f those p r e s e n t l y i n the f i e l d , 6? per cent of , the males, but only 2 1 per cent of the f e -8 males, own r e t a i l establishments. The apex of the r e t a i l -81-pharmacist's career i s t o own and operate a pharmacy, as evidenced hy the f a c t t h a t n e a r l y two-thirds of the prac-t i s i n g pharmacists own r e t a i l establishments and 70 per cent of the students planning to enter the r e t a i l f i e l d , most of whom are males, consider i t d e s i r a b l e to\"become entrepreneurs. I t seems reasonable t o suggest t h a t the r r o l e expectations of r e t a i l pharmacy, p a r t i c u l a r l y the ownership and/or o p e r a t i o n of a commercial e n t e r p r i s e , are i n c o n f l i c t w i t h the r o l e expectations of women I n Canadian s o c i e t y . I t may be f o r t h i s reason t h a t women are l e s s i n c l i n e d t o enter the r e t a i l f i e l d and are more l i k e l y than men to choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy. I t i s a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t males and f e -males I n the r e t a i l f i e l d spend t h e i r time d i f f e r e n t l y . Women g e n e r a l l y spend more time f i l l i n g p r e s c r i p t i o n s , accumulating i n f o r m a t i o n about new developments, pro-v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and a d v i c e , and engaging I n research and product developmentj I n other words, performing those f u n c t i o n s which are r e f e r r e d t o by pharmacists as \" p r o f e s s i o n a l , \" w h i l e men tend t o spend more time s e l l -i n g n o n - p r e s c r i p t i o n merchandise and managing personnel, stock and casfa.^ The l a t t e r f u n c t i o n s are thought t o c o n s t i t u t e the*commercial aspect of pharmacy. I n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , then, males tend t o dominate the r e t a i l f i e l d and are more o f t e n i n v o l v e d I n the ownership, management and s u p e r v i s i o n of r e t a i l pharmacies. The p u b l i c image of the r e t a i l pharmacist i s f u r t h e r evidence f o r the a s s e r t i o n t h a t the r e t a i l f i e l d i s s t i l l regarded as the domain of men. The p u b l i c c o n t i n u a l l y confuses the female pharmacist w i t h the c l e r k and the male c l e r k or apprentice w i t h the pharmacist, s i n c e g e n e r a l l y there i s no d i s t i n c t i o n between the uniforms worn by c l e r k s and pharmacists of each sex. Even p h y s i c i a n s and other members of the h e a l t h team make t h i s mistake i n I d e n t i t y . A p h y s i c i a n , phoning i n a p r e s c r i p t i o n t o a r e t a i l phar-macy, w i l l o f t e n ask to speak to the pharmacist i f a female answers the phone. But i f a male should answer the phone, r e g a r d l e s s of whether the i n d i v i d u a l i s a pharmacist, c l e r k or d e l i v e r y boy, the p h y s i c i a n w i l l w ithout h e s i t a t i o n begin t o d i c t a t e the p r e s c r i p t i o n . Thus, i t seems t h a t f o r both the p u b l i c and the p h y s i c i a n the image of the r e t a i l pharmacist i s s t i l l t h a t of the male entrepreneur. Although t h i s Image may be breaking down w i t h the i n c r e a s i n g enrolment of women i n pharmaey, a s o c i a l sex b a r r i e r t o the r e t a i l f i e l d s t i l l appears to e x i s t . Because of t h i s b a r r i e r , sex may be an impor-t a n t f a c t o r i n the choice of f i e l d f o r pharmacy students. One of the s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which does not appear to a p p r e c i a b l y i n f l u e n c e the choice of f i e l d i s socio-economic s t a t u s . The f a i l u r e to f i n d a s i g n i f i -cant r e l a t i o n s h i p between these f a c t o r s can be e x p l a i n e d p a r t l y i n terms of the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n -f l u e n c e a f f e c t i n g students from d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s . This w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n subsequent chapters. What i s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2:>' -83- \u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 of i n t e r e s t here i s the f a c t that s o c i a l c l a s s , w h i l e g e n e r a l l y regarded as an important determinant of occu-p a t i o n a l choice and l e v e l of a s p i r a t i o n , appears t o be r e l a t i v e l y unimportant i n the choice of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n of pharmacy. Somewhat more s i g n i f i c a n t I n the choice of f i e l d i s the f a c t o r of r e l i g i o n , although the f i n d i n g s do not support e n t i r e l y the p r e d i c t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p . Jewish students tend t o choose r e t a i l pharmacy and one of the f i e l d s i n the r e s i d u a l category, as expeeted, but P r o t -estants and C a t h o l i c s tend t o choose other than the ex-pected f i e l d s . P r o p o r t i o n a t e l y more P r o t e s t a n t s than C a t h o l i c s expect t o work i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy and pro-p o r t i o n a t e l y more C a t h o l i c s than P r o t e s t a n t s f a v o r a career i n p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. A f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i n g f a c t o r I s t h a t Roman C a t h o l i c s a t t e n d i n g pharmacy schools a t the two Prenoh-speaklng u n i v e r s i t i e s d i f f e r i n t h e i r choice of f i e l d . Those a t L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y tend t o choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy and those a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal more o f t e n expect t o enter p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. I t i s q u i t e evident that a number of other f a c t o r s have to be-taken i n t o account t o e x p l a i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l i g i o n and choice of f i e l d . These w i l l be di s c u s s e d i a t e r . What can be s a i d a t the present time about the Independent s i g n i f i c a n c e of the r e l i g i o u s f a c -t o r I s simply t h a t C a t h o l i c pharmacy students, I n t h e i r -choice of f i e l d , do not appear t o be any l e s s o r i e n t e d - 8 4 -toward economic achievement and w o r l d l y success than are P r o t e s t a n t s . Students coming from farms and r u r a l d i s t r i c t s , and those coming from towns and c i t i e s , d i f f e r somewhat i n the choice of f i e l d , the former more o f t e n choosing h o s p i t a l pharmacy. Although one would expect the s i z e of the community of residence to a f f e c t c o n s i d e r a b l y the v i s i -b i l i t y and a c c e s s i b i l i t y of career a l t e r n a t i v e s , w i t h the s i z e being ' d i r e c t l y / r e l a t e d w i t h the choice of f i e l d s a t the p r o f e s s i o n a l end of the b u s i n e s s - p r o f e s s i o n con-tinuum, such does not appear to be the case. The observed r e l a t i o n s h i p between the f a c t o r of u r b a n - r u r a l residence and choice of f i e l d can best be e x p l a i n e d i n terms of the i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e s and w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r . Although u r b a n - r u r a l residence does not seem to have any Independent e f f e c t on the choice of f i e l d , the f a c t o r of geographic r e g i o n appears to be important i n a f f e c t i n g the v i s i b i l i t y and a c c e s s i b i l i t y of career a l t e r n a t i v e s . Students a t t e n d i n g d i f f e r e n t pharmacy schools tend to choose d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s and, although t h i s v a r i a t i o n may be due to achieved s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , values and sources of i n -f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , there i s reason to b e l i e v e t h a t the f a c t o r of geographic r e g i o n has some d i r e c t a f f e c t on the choice of f i e l d . Students a t t e n d i n g pharmacy schools I n Quebec and O n t a r i o , and t o a l e s s e r extent Manitoba, are more i n -c l i n e d than others t o choose one of the f i e l d s i n the - 8 5 -r e s i d u a l category. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to p o i n t out th a t the pharmaceutical Industry i n Canada i s almost e x c l u -s i v e l y l o c a t e d i n Quebec and Ontario and t h a t i i i these two provinces are found the two l a r g e s t pharmacy schools i n the country.; I t i s suggested t h a t by l i v i n g i n one of these e a s t e r n provinces an i n d i v i d u a l i s more l i k e l y to be exposed t o pharmaceutical i n d u s t r y , r e s e a r c h , and teaching and, hence, be more I n c l i n e d t o I d e n t i f y w i t h these f i e l d s and form the Idea of e n t e r i n g one. The f a c t o r of geographic r e g i o n i s a l s o f e l t t o be important I n the choice of r e t a i l , p r e s c r i p t i o n and h o s p i t a l pharmacy. Although p r e c i s e f i g u r e s on the pro-p o r t i o n of r e t a i l establishments w i t h a high r a t i o of p r e s c r i p t i o n r e c e i p t s t o t o t a l s a l e s by province are not a v a i l a b l e , i t would appear t h a t Quebec and B r i t i s h Columbia have r e l a t i v e l y more p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacies than other p r o v i n c e s . 1 0 I t may be p a r t l y f o r t h i s reason t h a t students at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia and the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal are more i n c l i n e d to enter the f i e l d of p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. S i m i l a r l y , the pro-p o r t i o n of h o s p i t a l pharmacists I s g r e a t e r I n Saskatchewan and M a n i t o b a 1 1 , I n provinces where pharmacy students are more I n c l i n e d to choose t h i s f i e l d . I n the Maritime provinces and A l b e r t a a l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n of the prac-t i s i n g pharmacists are engaged i n r e t a i l p r a c t i c e , and i n v these provinces students more o f t e n choose the r e t a i l f i e l d . Thus, i t would appear t h a t the f a c t o r of geographic r e g i o n enters the choice of f i e l d by a f f e c t i n g the access-i b i l i t y and v i s i b i l i t y of career a l t e r n a t i v e s . I t seems t h a t the g r e a t e r the o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c o n t a c t , r e l a t i v e l y speaking, w i t h a g i v e n f i e l d , the more l i k e l y an i n d i v i d u a l i s to I d e n t i f y w i t h the f i e l d and form the i d e a of e n t e r i n g i t . Prom Table XIV i t can be seen t h a t s t r o n g r e l a t i o n -ships e x i s t between achieved s o c i a l f a c t o r s and the choice of f i e l d . Although the data cannot f u l l y s u b s t a n t i a t e the independent s i g n i f i c a n c e of achieved s o c i a l f a c t o r s , they are a t l e a s t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the view t h a t achieved f a c t o r s p l a y a d i r e c t p a r t i n the choice. With regard t o high school grades I t can be seen t h a t those w i t h h i g h grades more o f t e n than others choose f i e l d s a t the p r o f e s s i o n end of the B-P continuum (\"other\" and h o s p i t a l pharmacy), w h i l e those w i t h low grades more o f t e n choose the r e t a i l f i e l d a t the business end of the B-P continuum. Those i n the middle range w i t h respect to high school grades more o f t e n than others choose the f i e l d of p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, which f a l l s between the two ex-tremes of the B-P continuum. Therefore, i t seems reason-able t o suggest t h a t h i g h school grades d i r e c t l y enter the choice of f i e l d by a f f e c t i n g the a c c e s s i b i l i t y of career a l t e r n a t i v e s . I t seems th a t the higher the grades the more a c c e s s i b l e are the p r e s t l g e f u l o c c u p a t i o n a l a l t e r n -a t i v e s a t the p r o f e s s i o n end of the B-P continuum. -87-I t a l s o seems reasonable t o suggest that p r a c t i c a l experience and occ u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e a l s o enter the choice of f i e l d d i r e c t l y . I t i s f e l t t hat contact w i t h an occupation, \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 as occasioned by having parents or r e l a -t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n or by g a i n i n g p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i -ence, f a c i l i t a t e s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the occupation and Increases the l i k e l i h o o d t h a t the I n d i v i d u a l w i l l develop the i d e a of e n t e r i n g i t . S i n c e , by f a r , the gre a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n of p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists are i n the r e t a i l f i e l d , and s i n c e the r e t a i l f i e l d provides the gr e a t e s t number of o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r g a i n i n g p r a c t i c a l experience p r i o r to e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l , contact w i t h the pro-f e s s i o n through these channels i s almost e x c l u s i v e l y l i m i t e d to the r e t a i l f i e l d . Thus, i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d t h a t students w i t h a g r e a t e r amount of p r a c t i c a l experience i n pharmacy and those w i t h parents i n the pro-f e s s i o n more o f t e n choose r e t a i l pharmacy and l e s s o f t e n choose the l e s s v i s i b l e f i e l d s a t the p r o f e s s i o n a l end of the B-P continuum. I n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n an attempt has been made to show some of the ways I n which s o c i a l background and choice of f i e l d may be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d . I n subsequent chapters s o c i a l background f a c t o r s w i l l be r e l a t e d t o values and sources of Information and i n f l u e n c e and an attempt w i l l be made to t i e together the various f a c t o r s e n t e r i n g the c h o i c e . CHAPTER I I I SOURCES OP INFORMATION AND INFLUENCE Two I n t e r r e l a t e d f a c t o r s which serve t o d e l i m i t the scope of oc c u p a t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s aret the i n f o r m a t i o n one has concerning v a r i o u s occupations and the Influence of o t h e r s . This does not mean t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l does not take an a c t i v e p a r t I n the decision-making process} i t suggests only t h a t the choice of career i s a f f e c t e d by the kinds of career i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t o the i n d i v i d u a l , and by people whom one respects o r admires and/or w i t h whom one shares and develops h i s oc c u p a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s . I n p r a c t i c e i t I s d i f f i c u l t t o separate the f a c t o r of I n f l u e n c e from that of i n f o r m a t i o n , i f they are i n f a c t separable. For I n d i v i d u a l s may be Important i n the career d e c i s i o n I n a number of d i f f e r e n t ways. Members of one's f a m i l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y p a r ents, may Influence the career d e c i s i o n by r e v e a l i n g t h e i r f e e l i n g s concerning various occupations. Members of an occupation or p r o f e s s i o n may serve as r o l e models which the i n d i v i d u a l seeks to emu-l a t e . These same people or others may enter the d e c i s i o n by p r o v i d i n g c e r t a i n e s s e n t i a l Information, or they may a s s i s t , as I s o f t e n the case w i t h guidance c o u n s e l l o r s , by arranging f o r Interviews o r s p e c i a l t a l k s w i t h per-- 8 9 -sonnel of various occupations. F u r t h e r , they may p o i n t out pamphlets, brochures, f i l m s t r i p s and other r e c r u i t -ment media provided by p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s and other i n t e r e s t groups\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Although i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o separate \" i n f l u e n c e \" from \"Information,\" s i n c e one can l e a d to the other, two se t s of questions are used as measures of the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , one designed p r i m a r i l y to show the importance of va r i o u s f a c t o r s i n the career d e c i s i o n , the other designed to show the sources from which I n f o r -mation concerning a number of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the pro-f e s s i o n i s d e r i v e d . S e c t i o n A gives a d e s c r i p t i o n of the sources of i n f l u e n c e and i n f o r m a t i o n u t i l i z e d by pharmacy students I n g e n e r a l . I n S e c t i o n B an attempt i s made to show the connections between s o c i a l background f a c t o r s and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . F i n a l l y , i n S e c t i o n C the choice of f i e l d I s considered I n r e l a t i o n to these sources. A) SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND INFLUENCE\u00E2\u0080\u0094PHARMACY STUDENTS IN GENERAL F i n d i n g s i 1\u00C2\u00BB Importance of f a c t o r s I n eareer d e c i s i o n The q u e s t i o n n a i r e asks students to I n d i c a t e how Im-por t a n t each of t e n f a c t o r s was i n the d e c i s i o n to enter pharmacy. Of those checking each f a c t o r , the p r o p o r t i o n r e p l y i n g \"very\" or \" f a i r l y \" Important i s shown i n Table XV. - 9 0 -TABLE XV IMPORTANCE OP PACTOBS IN.CAREER CHOICE F a c t o r i n D e c i s i o n Percentage S t a t i n g F a c t o r Was \"Very\" or \" F a i r l y \" Important T o t a l Cases Father 46 1261 Mother 46 1255 Pharmacists 45 1253 Ph. A. recruitment media 30 1218 H.S. teachers and co u n s e l l o r s 22 1235 R e l a t i v e s 18 1221 S p e c i a l speakers 17 1202 F r i e n d s 16 1225 Mass media 12 1203 Other 52 513 Prom t h i s t a b l e i t can be seen t h a t parents and p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists are considered important by near-l y one-half of the students answering the q u e s t i o n . Phar-maceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media i s next i n impor-tance w i t h n e a r l y o n e - t h i r d of the students c o n s i d e r i n g I t so. Over o n e - f i f t h of the students consider h i g h school teaohers and c o u n s e l l o r s Important I n the d e c i s i o n . R e l a -t i v e s , s p e c i a l speakers, f r i e n d s and. mass, media (books, movies, T.V., plays and l i t e r a t u r e i n general c i r c u l a t i o n ) are of minor importance. Of the 513 I n d i v i d u a l s who a r -t r i b u t e importance to some \"other\" f a c t o r , n e a r l y a l l s t a t e t h a t the choice was t h e i r own personal d e c i s i o n . A f t e r i n d i c a t i n g the importance of each of the above-mentioned f a c t o r s , students were asked to s t a t e the most -91-important s i n g l e f a c t o r I n the d e c i s i o n . These r e p l i e s are shown i n Table XVI. TABLE XVI MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR IN CAREER DECISION Most Important F a c t o r Percentage Number of i n D e c i s i o n Wast .. of T o t a l Cases Pharmacists 22 298 Mother 13 174 Father 13 171 Ph.A. recruitment media 8 103 R e l a t i v e s 6 83 H.S. teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s 6 80 Friends 3 46 S p e c i a l speakers 3 36 Mass media 1 16 Other 18 245 No answer 6 83 T o t a l 100 1335 The same general order of importance i s observed. Parents and pharmacists are most important, f o l l o w e d by pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media. Again, f r i e n d s , s p e c i a l speakers and mass media are considered l e a s t Important. I t might be noted t h a t n e a r l y o n e - f i f t h (18 per cent) of the students consider some \"other\" f a c t o r as most Important. As has already been mentioned, t h i s \"other\" f a c t o r most o f t e n r e f e r s to the personal d e c i s i o n of the I n d i v i d u a l respondent. Since the concern here i s w i t h those f a c t o r s o utside the i n d i v i d u a l which p l a y a p a r t i n the d e c i s i o n , the \"other\" category i s place d a t the i. bottom of the l i s t . -92-2. Sources of Information The q u e s t i o n n a i r e l i s t s e i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of pharmacy together w i t h a l i s t of t e n p o s s i b l e sources from which i n f o r m a t i o n about each might have been d e r i v e d . Students are asked to i n d i c a t e the source which i s l a r g e -l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the i n f o r m a t i o n they have about each c h a r a c t e r i s t i c : \" The d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e p l i e s i s shown i n Table X V I I . I n f o r m a t i o n p e r t a i n i n g t o working c o n d i t i o n s i s most o f t e n d r l v e d from p r a c t i c a l experience, personal observa-t i o n s , and p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists. The same can be s a i d f o r i n f o r m a t i o n about the s a l a r y the pharmacist r e c e i v e s and the time he spends I n the performance of h i s d a l l y t a s k s . Pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media, per-s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n , and p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists are l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n f o r m a t i o n about o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r em-ployment. Information concerning the p r e s t i g e and stand-i n g of the p r o f e s s i o n i n the community i s d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y from personal o b s e r v a t i o n . P r a c t i c a l experience, u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s and personal o b s e r v a t i o n account f o r most of the i n f o r m a t i o n about knowledge and t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d f o r the adequate performance of tasks and the personal q u a l i t i e s , a b i l i t i e s and s k i l l s necessary f o r success. Information p e r t a i n i n g t o the p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g requirements and the u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l u m i s d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y from pharma-c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media and u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s and s t a f f members. -93-TABLE XVII SOURCES OP INFORMATION ABOUT VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS OF PHARMACY , . . . . Percentage S t a t i n g Was D e r i v e d I n f o r m a t i o n from: C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Pharmacy Parents and R e l a -Family f i v e s Own Obser-v a t i o n Pharma-c i s t s F r i e n d s Working c o n d i t i o n s 6 1 29 17 1 S a l a r y 7 1 17 37 1 O p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment 4 1 20 19 1 P r e s t i g e 5 1 49 7 8 Time spent a t tasks 4 1 29 19 1 Knowledge and t r a i n i n g f o r t asks 2 mm 17 10 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 P e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s f o r success 4 - 31 9 P r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g and u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l u m 2 8 6 1 -94-TABLE X V I I \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t l n t i e d Percentage S t a t i n g Information Was Derived from: C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Pharmacy H.S. Teachers and Coun-s e l l o r s U. Pro-\u00C2\u00BB f e s -sors Mass Me-d i a Ph. A. Recr. Media Prac. Expe-r i e n c e T o t a l Cases Working c o n d i t i o n s 1 4 1 5 36 1211 S a l a r y 2 2 2 14 17 1208 Oppor t u n i t i e s f o r employment 3 15 3 25 8 1198 P r e s t i g e 1 7 3 6 13 1190 Time spent a t tasks - 2 2 3 39 1162 Knowledge and t r a i n i n g f o r tasks 4 34 1 10 22 1169 Personal q u a l i t i e s f o r success 4 19 2 9 21 1180 P r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g and u n i v e r s i t y currioulum 12 30 3 34 4 1174 -95-Slnce t e n p o s s i b l e sources of Information are l i s t e d f o r each c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , a source considered by more than 10 per cent of the respondents can be thought of as above average i n Importance. The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e s f o r each source the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s about which the source provides Information f o r more than 10 per cent of the respondents. Source of Information A. Own ob s e r v a t i o n B. P r a c t i c a l experience C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s about which Information I s provided f o r ^rnore than 10 per cent of respondents 1. Working c o n d i t i o n s 2. S a l a r y 3. Opportunities f o r employment 4. P r e s t i g e 5\u00C2\u00BB Time spent i n tasks 6. Knowledge and t r a i n i n g 7. Personal q u a l i t i e s , a b i l i t i e s and s k i l l s 1. Working c o n d i t i o n s 2. S a l a r y 3. P r e s t i g e 4. Time spent i n tasks 5* Knowledge and t r a i n i n g 6. Personal q u a l i t i e s , a b i l i t i e s and s k i l l s - 9 6 -Source of Information \u00E2\u0080\u0094 c o n t i n u e d C. Pharmacists D. U n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s and s t a f f members E. Pharmaceutical a s s o c i a -t i o n recruitment l i t -e r a t ure F. High school teachers and guidance coun-s e l l o r s G. Parents and members of f a m i l y H. Mass media I . Friends and acquaintances J . R e l a t i v e s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s about which i n f o r m a t i o n i s provided f o r more than 10 per cent of resp o n d e n t s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 c o n t i n u e d 1. Working c o n d i t i o n s 2. S a l a r y 3 . Opportunities f o r employment 4. Time spent i n tasks 1. Opportunities f o r . employment 2. Knowledge and t r a i n i n g 3 . Personal q u a l i t i e s , a b i l i t i e s and s k i l l s 4. Academic and p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g requirements 1. S a l a r y 2. Opportunities f o r employment 3* Academic and p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g requirements 1* Academic and p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g requirements None None None None -97-An o v e r - a l l Importance score (I.S.) can be c a l c u -l a t e d f o r each source according to the f o l l o w i n g formula: I.S. = Sum of responses f o r each source x 1000 \"~\" Sum t o t a l of responses ~ The I.S. f o r each source of i n f o r m a t i o n i s shown i n Table X V I I I . TABLE XVIII IMPORTANCE OF SOURCES OF INFORMATION Source of Information Importance Score (I.S.) 1. Own o b s e r v a t i o n \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ... \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 . . 249 2. P r a c t i c a l experience 199 3* Pharmacists lf>6 4 . U n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s . . . . . . . 141 5\u00C2\u00BB Ph.A. recruitment media . . . . . . 132 6. Parents and f a m i l y 44 7. High school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s 34 8. Mass media 20 9* Friends and acquaintances . 17 10. R e l a t i v e s .... 8 There appears to be a d i s t i n c t s p l i t between the top and bottom f i v e sources. Own o b s e r v a t i o n , p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i -ence, pharmacists, u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s and pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media, i n tha t order, are the most important sources of i n f o r m a t i o n f o r pharmacy students. The above sources of i n f o r m a t i o n can be grouped ac-cordin g to the cate g o r i e s o u t l i n e d I n Chapter I ( i . e . , p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d and i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d ) . The former I n -cludes p r a c t i c a l experience, pharmacists, parents and f a m i l y , and r e l a t i v e s , and the l a t t e r Includes u n i v e r s i t y - 9 8 -p r o f e s s o r s , p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e c r u i t m e n t media , and h i g h s c h o o l teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s . T h i s leaves three s o u r c e s , own o b s e r v a t i o n , mass media , and f r i e n d s and a c q u a i n t a n c e s , which cannot be c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s t y p o l o g y . Taken t o g e t h e r , the p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources are most important w i t h a t o t a l I . S . of 407, f o l l o w e d by the i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources w i t h a n I . S . of 3\u00C2\u00A97\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 The u n c l a s s i f i e d sources have a t o t a l I . S . of 286, l a r g e l y due to the f a c t o r , \"own o b s e r v a t i o n , \" which has an I . S . of 249. The p o i n t to note i s the d i f f e r e n c e between the p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d and i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s , the former b e i n g more impor tant t h a n the l a t t e r . A l t h o u g h p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources a r e on the whole more impor tant t h a n i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s , the two types of s o u r c e s , t e n d t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n about d i f -f e r e n t aspects of the p r o f e s s i o n . Table XIX shows the p r o p o r t i o n of s tudents d e r i v i n g i n f o r m a t i o n from p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d and i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources about e i g h t c h a r a c -t e r i s t i c s of the p r o f e s s i o n . P r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources seem t o p r o v i d e the most i n f o r m a t i o n about the t ime spent i n the performance of the p h a r m a c i s t ' s t a s k s , s a l a r y , and the w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s , w h i l e i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources t end to be more impor tant i n p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n about p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g and u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l u m , knowledge and t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d f o r the performance of t a s k s , and the o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment. I n t h i s s u b s e c t i o n f i n d i n g s p e r t a i n i n g t o the i m p o r --99-tanoe of f a c t o r s i n the career choice and the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n , f o r the student body as a whole, were pre-sented* The f o l l o w i n g i s a d i s c u s s i o n of the more i n t e r -e s t i n g f e a t u r e s of these f i n d i n g s . TABLE XIX TYPES OF SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS OF PHARMACY Percentage D e r i v i n g Information from? C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Pharmacy P r a c t i c e -Oriented Sources Ideology-Oriented Sources U n c l a s s i f i e d 8 - T o t a l Cases Time spent a t tasks 63 5. 32 1162 S a l a r y 62 18 20 1208 Working c o n d i t i o n s 60 10 31 1211 Personal q u a l i t i e s 34 . 32 33 1180 Knowledge and t r a i n i n g 34 48 18 1169 O p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment 32 43 24 1198 P r e s t i g e 26 14 60 1190 T r a i n i n g and cu r r i c u l u m 12 76 12 1174 a I n c l u d e s : own ob s e r v a t i o n , f r i e n d s , and mass media. - 1 0 0 -D l s o u s s l o n Although the response ca t e g o r i e s concerning the importance of f a c t o r s i n the career choice are not t o t a l -l y e q u i v a l e n t t o the c a t e g o r i e s used i n the question about the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n , a few i n t e r e s t i n g comparisons can be made. F i r s t of a l l , comparing Tables XVI and X V I I , i t w i l l be seen t h a t parents, who are among the most im-p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n the career c h o i c e , are much l e s s impor-t a n t sources of i n f o r m a t i o n . While 26 per cent of the students consider one of the parents as the most important s i n g l e f a c t o r i n the c a r e e r c h o i c e , an average of l e s s than 5 per cent d e r i v e i n f o r m a t i o n l a r g e l y from parents about e i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the p r o f e s s i o n . This would seem to i n d i c a t e t h a t , f o r the person making a career d e c i s i o n , \" i n f l u e n c e \" and \" i n f o r m a t i o n \" need not n e c e s s a r i l y be d e r i v e d from the same sources. However, i t i s important to note t h a t , although i n -f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e can be d e r i v e d from d i f f e r e n t sources by the pharmacy student, i n both cases p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources are g e n e r a l l y more important than i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources. This would seem to suggest that the student's conceptions of the pharmacist are d e r i v e d more o f t e n from the p r a c t i c e of the p r o f e s s i o n , which i s p r i m a r i l y t h a t of the r e t a i l f i e l d , than from the i d e a l aspects of the pro-f e s s i o n , which are emphasized by pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment l i t e r a t u r e and schools of pharmacy. As mentioned e a r l i e r , pharmacy, u n l i k e many other -101-p r o f e s s i o n s , provides considerable o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r em-ployment f o r young men and women p r i o r to e n t e r i n g phar-macy s c h o o l . I n some provinces such p r a c t i c a l experience i s made necessary by the ap p r e n t i c e s h i p p o l i c i e s of phar-maceutical a s s o c i a t i o n s . I n any case, the student's f i r s t d i r e c t exposure to the p r o f e s s i o n i s o f t e n I n the form of p r a c t i c a l experience gained i n a r e t a i l d rugstore. I t Is i n t h i s context t h a t the student I n many cases develops an Image of the p r o f e s s i o n and de r i v e s a conception of hi m s e l f as a member of I t . As the student begins to e n v i s i o n h i m s e l f as a phar-macist, he o f t e n chooses a member of the p r o f e s s i o n as a model to emulate. Against t h i s i d e a l he compares h i s own behavior and through such a process develops a conception of h imself i n the new r o l e ; he develops a r o l e model. 1 As a measure of t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , students were asked the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n : \"Do you know a p r a c t i s i n g phar-macist who, I n your o p i n i o n , comes c l o s e t o being an i d e a l pharmacist?\" Those answering I n the a f f i r m a t i v e are considered to have a r o l e model. That the a c q u i s i t i o n of such r o l e models slsa f a c i l -i t a t e d by experience i n r e t a i l pharmacy I s evidenced by the f a c t t h a t the incid e n c e of naming r o l e models v a r i e s w i t h the extent of p r a c t i c a l experience which, as mentioned e a r l i e r , i s gained almost e x c l u s i v e l y I n the r e t a i l f i e l d . Of the students who enter pharmacy w i t h no p r a c t i c a l ex-per i e n c e , only 59 per cent have a r o l e model, compared -102-w i t h 74 per cent of those w i t h one year or l e s s of prac-t i c a l experience and 84 per cent of those w i t h more than one year of experience. Furthermore, of those students who consider p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists as the most important f a c t o r i n the career d e c i s i o n , a f u l l 81 per cent have r o l e models, compared w i t h 52 per cent of those who con-s i d e r pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media as the most important f a c t o r . S ince those who are a f f e c t e d hy p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of Information and i n f l u e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y p r a c t i c a l experience and p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists, more o f t e n know \" i d e a l \" pharmacists than those who are a f f e c t e d hy i d e o l o g y -o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , and s i n c e there are more of the former than the l a t t e r , i t would seem to f o l l o w t h a t pharmacy students I n general more o f t e n choose a r e t a i l pharmacist as a r o l e model. This of course i s based on the assumption t h a t the type of r o l e model chosen, i . e . , a r e t a i l pharmacist, h o s p i t a l phar-macist, e t c . , i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h the f i e l d of pharmacy i n which experience i s gained and i n which contact i s e s t a b l i s h e d . I n any case, i t seems reasonably safe to assume that- a. great many pharmacy students a c q u i r e t h e i r conceptions of the \" i d e a l \" pharmacist i n the context of r e t a i l p r a c t i c e . Some students do not have r o l e models and they tend * to be those who r e l y on I d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources of i n -f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . I t i s h i g h l y l i k e l y t h a t the -103-conceptlons these students have of the p r o f e s s i o n are more a l i g n e d w i t h pharmaceutical i d e o l o g y than a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , and there i s some reason to b e l i e v e t h a t these students, upon e n t e r i n g pharmacy school s u f f e r more from ambivalence 2 of the c o n f l i c t i n g d e f i n i t i o n s of the p r o f e s s i o n as pro-v i d e d , on the one hand, by the i d e o l o g i c a l l e a d e r s , and on the other, by students who have had p r a c t i c a l experience and by the exigencies of a c t u a l p r a c t i c e w i t h which they become acquainted f o r the f i r s t time. This can be i l l u s -t r a t e d by the f a c t t h a t students without r o l e models are more i n c l i n e d t o be I n doubt about t h e i r career choice a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy school than those w i t h r o l e models. Students were asked the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n : \"Once you made up your mind t o become a pharmacist, d i d you ever have any doubts t h a t t h i s was the r i g h t d e c i s i o n f o r you: (a) Before e n t e r i n g pharmacy school? (b) A f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy school?\" They were r e q u i r e d to gi v e t h e i r answers by checking one of the f o l l o w i n g responses: (a) \"Yes, se r i o u s doubts.\" (b) \"Yes, s l i g h t doubts.\" (c) \"No, no doubt at a l l . \" I n both groups some s h i f t e d to p o s i t i o n s of g r e a t e r doubt a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l , w h i l e others s h i f t e d t o p o s i t i o n s of l e s s doubt. The net s h i f t i n doubt, taken as a percentage of the t o t a l number I n each group, was c a l -c u l a t e d f o r students knowing three or more \" i d e a l \" phar--104-m a c l s t s , those knowing one or two such pharmacists, and those who do not have r o l e models. The f i r s t group ex-perienced a net s h i f t of 9 per cent to p o s i t i o n s of g r e a t -er doubt, compared w i t h a net s h i f t of 16 per cent f o r the second group? the l a s t group comprised of students without r o l e models experienced a net s h i f t of 21 per cent to p o s i t i o n s of g r e a t e r doubt. Thus, students without r o l e models are more l i k e l y to s h i f t t o p o s i t i o n s of gre a t -er doubt about t h e i r career choice a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy sc h o o l than are those who have r o l e models. This d i f f e r e n c e can be a t t r i b u t e d to the sources of information, and i n f l u e n c e . I t seems th a t students who are a f f e c t e d by p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources d e r i v e a conception of the p r o f e s s i o n which I s more i n l i n e w i t h the r e q u i r e -ments of r e t a i l p r a c t i c e , choose a r e t a i l pharmacist as a fcoie model, and tend to be c e r t a i n about t h e i r career choice a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . Those who r e l y on id e o l o g y -o r i e n t e d sources tend to see pharmacy i n terms of the image created by the i d e o l o g i c a l l e a d e r s , which i s more o f t e n a r e f l e c t i o n of the goals toward which the p r o f e s s i o n i s s t r i v i n g than i t s a c t u a l p r a c t i c e . Upon e n t e r i n g phar-macy s c h o o l , these students are confronted w i t h a c o n f l i c t -i n g view of the p r o f e s s i o n and tend to doubt whether t h e i r c a reer choice i s the r i g h t one. P r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources and i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources d i f f e r i n another r e s p e c t , i n the types of i n f o r -mation provided. Prom Table XIX i t w i l l be seen t h a t the -105-former more o f t e n provide i n f o r m a t i o n p e r t a i n i n g t o the time spent i n the performance of the pharmacists t a s k s , s a l a r y , and working c o n d i t i o n s , w h i l e i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources tend t o provide i n f o r m a t i o n about p r a c t i c a l t r a i n -i n g requirements and u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l u m , knowledge and t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d f o r the performance of t a s k s , and the o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment. P r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources seem to provide i n f o r m a t i o n about the more v i s i b l e charac-t e r i s t i c s of pharmaceutical p r a c t i c e , w h i l e the ide o l o g y -o r i e n t e d sources appear to provide i n f o r m a t i o n about the I n s t i t u t i o n a l requirements of the p r o f e s s i o n and the oppor-t u n i t i e s f o r employment. Although the data can i n no way s u b s t a n t i a t e the c l a i m , i t would seem t h a t the p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources provide i n f o r m a t i o n about c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which are of i n i t i a l importance i n the career d e c i s i o n . F o l l o w i n g t h i s l i n e of reasoning, i t I s suggested t h a t r e c r u i t s t e n t a t i v e l y make a career d e c i s i o n a f t e r con-s i d e r i n g such things as the tasks performed, s a l a r y , and working c o n d i t i o n s , and l a t e r seek out i n f o r m a t i o n about such aspects as employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s , knowledge and t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d , and the u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l u m , which they d e r i v e from i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources. I f t h i s as-sumption I s c o r r e c t , then I t can be argued t h a t p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources are i n i t i a l l y more important i n b r i n g i n g about a d e c i s i o n t o enter pharmacy. I n t h i s s e c t i o n the sources of Information and i n f l u e n c e used by pharmacy students have been des c r i b e d and some of the more I n t e r e s t -- 1 0 6 -i n g f e a t u r e s of the f i n d i n g s have been d i s c u s s e d . I n the next s e c t i o n an attempt i s made to r e l a t e the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e to s o c i a l background f a c t o r s . B) INFORMATION AND INFLUENCE AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND FACTORS Fin d i n g s , Importance of f a c t o r s i n career d e c i s i o n The concern i n t h i s s u b s e c t i o n i s w i t h the r e l a t i o n -ships between s o c i a l background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and f a c t o r s which are important i n the d e c i s i o n t o enter pharmacy. To f a c i l i t a t e reference to these f i n d i n g s l a t e r , they are pre-sented under the headings of i n d i v i d u a l s o c i a l background f a c t o r s . 1. Sex Factors which are Important i n the career d e c i s i o n vary w i t h sex, but the d i f f e r e n c e i s not as great as might be expected. While 52 per cent of the women consider t h e i r mothers \"very\" o r \" f a i r l y \" important, only 43 per cent of the men a t t r i b u t e such importance t o t h i s f a c t o r . S i m i l a r -l y , 36 per cent of the women and 28 per cent of. the men con-s i d e r pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media \"very\" or \" f a i r l y \" important i n the d e c i s i o n . These d i f f e r e n c e s are s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e . Women more often.than men consider two other f a c t o r s , f a t h e r s and high school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s , as Important i n the d e c i s i o n , but these d i f f e r e n c e s f a i l to a t t a i n the accepted l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h the chi-square t e s t . -107-Th e main d i f f e r e n c e between the sexes i s t h a t women are more o f t e n I n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r mothers and pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media than men. 2. Socio-economic s t a t u s The r e l a t i o n s h i p between s o c i a l c l a s s and each of nine f a c t o r s i n the career d e c i s i o n i s shown I n Table XX. The data are separated by sex and i t can be seen that the r e l a t i o n s h i p s are on occasion d i f f e r e n t f o r males and f e -males. F i r s t * a t t e n t i o n should be drawn to some general f e a t u r e s of t h i s t a b l e . The t a b l e r e v e a l s t h a t the higher the s o c i a l c l a s s the more l i k e l y an i n d i v i d u a l i s t o be Inf l u e n c e d I n h i s career d e c i s i o n by parents and the l e s s l i k e l y he I s t o a t t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n c e t o p r a c t i s i n g phar-m a c i s t s , pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media, high school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s , and mass media. Second, i t i s Important to note some d i f f e r e n c e s be-tween the sexes. Although I n general the higher the s o c i a l c l a s s the more Important the parents, t h i s i s not the case f o r women w i t h respect t o the importance of the mother. I t seems t h a t lower and middle c l a s s mothers are more Important than upper c l a s s mothers. Although t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s not o v e r l y s i g n i f i c a n t , i t nevertheless i s a r e v e r s a l of the same r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r males. F u r t h e r , i t w i l l be no-t i c e d t h a t although pharmacists are more important f o r middle and lower c l a s s males and females than f o r members of the upper c l a s s , i n the case of women they are most -108-TABLE XX SOCIAL CLASS, SEX, AND IMPORTANCE OP VARIOUS .. FACTORS IN CAREER DECISION Percentage S t a t i n g Source Was \"Very\" or \" F a i r l y \" Important Males Females Source Upper Middle Lower Upper Middle Lower A. Mother 5 4 a 44 40 48 51 54 B. Father 7 0 a 43 38 6 6 a 48 43 C. R e l a t i v e 11 21 18 11 20 20 D. Pharmacists 2 9 a 45 48 3 3 a 51 45 E. F r i e n d s and acquaintances 13 15 19 13 16 13 P. H.S. teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s 13 22 22 19 23 31 G. Mass media 4 a 11 16 11 11 12 H. Ph.A. r e c r u i t -ment media l 4 a 31 33 35 40 32 I . S p e c i a l speakers 9 17 19 2 0 a 24 12 S i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e or b e t t e r . Excluding \"no answers,\" the numbers on which the percent-ages are' based vary from: 118 to 125 f o r upper c l a s s males? 341 to 359 f o r middle c l a s s males; 266 t o 283 f o r lower c l a s s males; 63 to 67 f o r upper c l a s s females; 165 t o 172 f o r middle c l a s s females; 113 t o 116 f o r lower c l a s s females. Chi-square t e s t s of s i g n i f i c a n c e : d.f. = 2 i n each case: A) Males: X 2 = 6.831: P<.05; Females: X 2 = .422: ; P<.9\u00C2\u00A9 -109-Chl-square t e s t s of s i g n i f i c a n c e s d.f. = 2 i n each cas e \u00E2\u0080\u0094 c o n t i n u e d i B) Males': X 2 33 37.699s P<.001; Females: X 2 ss 8.906: P<.02; c ) Males: X 2 = 5.683: P<.10 ; Females: X 2 = 3.123s P<.30; D) Males: X 2 = 13.719? P<.01 ; Females: X 2 6.334: P<.05; E) Males: X 2 = 4.1441 P<.20 ; Females: X 2 = .588: P<.80; F) Males: x 2 S5 5 . 4531 P<.10 t Females: X 2 3 . 9 5 6 : P<.20; G) Males: X 2 = 10.498: P<.01 ; Females: X 2 = .019: P<\u00C2\u00AB99; H) Males: X 2 = 15.781: P<.001; Females: x 2 = 1.666: P<\u00C2\u00AB50; I ) Males: X 2 5.945: P<.10 ; Females: X 2 s 6.054: P<.05\u00C2\u00BB Important f o r members of the middle c l a s s . Only 45 per cent of the lower c l a s s females consider pharmacists im-port a n t compared w i t h 51 per cent of those of the middle c l a s s . A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n can be seen w i t h regard to pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media. The middle c l a s s female i s more o f t e n I n f l u e n c e d by t h i s f a c t o r than i s the lower or upper c l a s s female. Although t h i s r e l a t i o n -s h i p a l s o i s not s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .05 l e v e l , i t i s d i f -f e r e n t from the one which holds f o r males. 3. R e l i g i o n The importance of f a c t o r s i n the d e c i s i o n i s r e l a t e d to the r e l i g i o u s background of the student. This r e l a t i o n -s h i p i s shown i n Table XXI. One should note the g r e a t e r Importance a t t r i b u t e d to parents by Jewish pharmacy students; 36 per cent of the students of t h i s f a i t h c onsider one of t h e i r parents as the most Important s i n g l e f a c t o r I n the career d e c i s i o n . -110-TABLE XXI RELIGION AND IMPORTANCE OP PACTORS IN CAREER DECISION Percentage S t a t i n g t h a t F a c t o r Was Most Important i n D e c i s i o n Roman Fa c t o r P r o t e s t a n t C a t h o l i c Jewish Other Mother 14 14 20 12 Father 16 11 16 8 R e l a t i v e 5 8 11 13 Pharmacist 26 23 18 13 F r i e n d 3 5 2 6 H.S. teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s 5 10 1 6 Mass media 1 1 - . 8 Ph.A. recruitment media 10 7 6 6 S p e c i a l speakers 3 3 1 4 Other 18 18 . 2 4 25 T o t a l . 1 0 1 100 99 101 N (599) (395) (99) (52) X 2 = 61.935* < d.f. = 27* P<.001 P r o t e s t a n t s and Roman C a t h o l i c s tend to a t t r i b u t e impor-tance to p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Roman C a t h o l i c s a l s o accord g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e to high school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s , w h i l e P r o t e s t a n t s more o f t e n consider phar-maceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media as important i n the d e c i s i o n . 4. Urban-rural residence F i n d i n g s , i n d i c a t e s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between u r b a n - r u r a l residence and three of the f a c t o r s which are - I l l -i mportant i n the d e c i s i o n t o e n t e r the p r o f e s s i o n , those b e i n g h i g h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s and c o u n s e l l o r s , mass media, and p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e c r u i t m e n t media. A l l thr e e are s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .02 l e v e l o r b e t t e r . Of those students coming from farms o r r u r a l d i s -t r i c t s , 30 p e r cent c o n s i d e r h i g h s c h o o l teachers o r coun-s e l l o r s t o be important i n the c a r e e r d e c i s i o n , compared w i t h 24 per cent of those coming from towns, 22 p e r cent of those coming from s m a l l c i t i e s , and 17 p e r cent of those from l a r g e c i t i e s . With r e s p e c t t o p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i -a t i o n r e c r u i t m e n t media, 40 p e r cent of those from farms o r r u r a l d i s t r i c t s , 31 per cent of those from towns, 27 pe r cent of those from s m a l l c i t i e s and 28 per cent of those from l a r g e c i t i e s , c o n s i d e r t h i s f a c t o r important. S i m i l a r l y , w i t h mass media, 19 p e r cent of those from farms o r r u r a l d i s t r i c t s , 11 p er cent of those from towns, 12 per cent of those from s m a l l c i t i e s , and 9 p e r cent of those from l a r g e c i t i e s a t t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n c e to t h i s f a c t o r . I t might be noted t h a t i n each case the b i g d i f -f e r e n c e i s between those coming from farms and r u r a l d i s t r i c t s and a l l o t h e r s . 5* Geographic r e g i o n As might be expected, the importance of f a c t o r s i n the c a r e e r d e c i s i o n v a r i e s by the s c h o o l of r e g i s t r a t i o n . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s shown i n Table XXII. I t w i l l be seen t h a t parents are more important sources of i n f l u e n c e f o r students a t Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y -112-TABLE XXII SCHOOL OP REGISTRATION AND IMPORTANCE OP FACTORS IN CAREER. DECISION Percentage S t a t i n g Most Important F a c t o r Was: School Mother Father R e l a t i v e Pharmacist Friends U. of B.C. 14 8 6 23 4 U. of A l b e r t a 15 14 5 29 2 U. of Sask. 14 14 9 17 4 U. of Manitoba 9 12 12 28 4 U. of Toronto . 14 16 5 24 4 L a v a l U. 4 2 11 20 . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 -U. of Montreal 18 13 7 24 5 Dalhousle U. 13 19 2 29. 3 X 2 = 117.597* d.f. = 63: P<.01 -113-TABLE X X I I \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t i n u e d Percentage S t a t i n g Most Important F a c t o r Was* H.S. Teachers Mass Ph.A. and Coun- Me- Recr. S p e c i a l T o t a l School s e l l e r s d i a Media Speakers Other Cases U. of B.C. 3 3 12 3 24 119 U. of A l b e r t a 5 - 8 4 18 164 U. of Sask. 8 1 12 4 18 182 U. of Manitoba 5 - 9 - 21 92 U. of Toronto 4 2 9 2 21 345 L a v a l U. 31 4 4 11 11 45 U. of Montreal 7 1 5 2 19 243 Dalhousie U. 10 2 2 ... 2 . . 19 62 X 2 = 117.597: d.f. = 63: P<.01 - 1 1 4 -and t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M o n t r e a l , and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t f o r s t u d e n t s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Tor o n t o and t h e U n i v e r -s i t y o f A l b e r t a . R e l a t i v e s t e n d t o be more i m p o r t a n t f o r s t u d e n t s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M a n i t o b a , L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y and t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Saskatchewan, w h i l e p h a r m a c i s t s a r e more i m p o r t a n t f o r s t u d e n t s a t D a l h o u s i e U n i v e r s i t y and t h e U n i v e r s i t i e s o f A l b e r t a and M a n i t o b a . Of p a r t i c u l a r n o t e i s t h e f a c t t h a t 31 p e r c e n t o f t h e pharmacy s t u d e n t s o f L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y c o n s i d e r h i g h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s and c o u n s e l l o r s t h e most i m p o r t a n t s i n g l e f a c t o r i n t h e c a r e e r d e c i s i o n . S t u d e n t s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t i e s o f B r i t i s h Colum-b i a and Saskatchewan a c c o r d g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e t o p h a r -m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e c r u i t m e n t media, w h i l e t h o s e a t L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y a t t r i b u t e more Importance t o s p e c i a l s p e a k e r s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 6. A c h i e v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s W i t h r e s p e c t t o h i g h s c h o o l grades and s o u r c e s o f i n f l u e n c e , o n l y two r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e f o u n d t o be s i g -n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l o r b e t t e r . I n g e n e r a l t h e lo w -e r t h e grades the more i m p o r t a n t a r e r e l a t i v e s and p r a c -t i s i n g p h a r m a c i s t s i n t h e c a r e e r d e c i s i o n . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e and s o u r c e s o f I n f l u e n c e i s shown i n T a b l e X X I I I . I n g e n e r a l , t h e more p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e an i n d i v i d u a l has t h e more l i k e l y he i s t o be i n f l u e n c e d by p a r e n t s and p r a c t i s i n g p h a r m a c i s t s and t h e l e s s l i k e l y he i s t o c o n s i d e r p h a r -m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e c r u i t m e n t media, h i g h s c h o o l -115-TABLE XXIII PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE AND IMPORTANCE .. OP FACTORS IN CAREER DECISION Percentage S t a t i n g t h a t F a c t o r Was Most Important i n Decisions -More Than One One Year or F a c t o r Year Less None Mother 15 14 14 Father 18 17 10 R e l a t i v e 4 8 7 Pharmacist 38 27 16 F r i e n d 2 3 4 H.S. teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s 3 5 9 Mass media - \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 1 2 Ph.A. recruitment media 2 6 12 S p e c i a l speakers mm 3. 4 Other 18 16. 22 T o t a l 100 100 > 100 N (317) . (257) (673) X 2 = 126.321s d.f. = 18s P<.001 teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s , and s p e c i a l speakers important i n the d e c i s i o n . The main d i f f e r e n c e between those w i t h and without experience i s th a t the former are more o f t e n i n f l u e n c e d by p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists, w h i l e the l a t t e r tend t o r e l y on pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media. Over twice as many of those w i t h more than one year of experience, compared w i t h those w i t h no experience, c o n s i d e r pharmacists as the most important s i n g l e f a c t o r i n the d e c i s i o n . Conversely, .six times as many persons -116-w i t h no experience compared w i t h those of more than one year of experience c i t e pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n r e -cruitment media as most important. As might be expected, the importance of f a c t o r s i n the d e c i s i o n v a r i e s w i t h o c c u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e (see Table XXIV)\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Students w i t h parents i n the p r o f e s s i o n TABLE XXIV OCCUPATIONAL INHERITANCE AND IMPORTANCE OF FACTORS IN CAREER DECISION Percentage S t a t i n g Most Important F a c t o r Wast Occu-pa- F r i e n d t i o n - or H.S. a l Teacher Inhe-r i t -ance Mother or Father Rel a -t i v e Pharma-c i s t or Coun-s e l l o r Mass Me-d i a Ph.A. Recr. Media Other T o t a l Cases Parent 68 1 6 2 - 1 23 124 R e l a t i v e 27 18 21 8 1 9 17 214 N e i t h e r 22 5 27 12 2 13 20 899 T o t a l 27 7 24 10 1 11 20 1237 X 2 = 185.921: d.f. = 12: P<.001 more o f t e n consider one of the parents to be the most Im-p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n the d e c i s i o n . From t h i s t a b l e i t can a l s o be seen t h a t r e l a t i v e s are more o f t e n considered im-p o r t a n t by those w i t h r e l a t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n . Prac-t i s i n g pharmacists, f r i e n d s , high school teachers and coun-s e l l o r s , and pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media -117-a r e more o f t e n f e l t t o be Important i n the c a r e e r d e c i s i o n by those who experience no o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and t o a l e s s e r extent by those who i n h e r i t the p r o f e s s i o n i n -d i r e c t l y . Another p o i n t t o note i s t h a t f o r those w i t h no o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and those w i t h i n d i r e c t i n h e r i t a n c e the range of f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g the d e c i s i o n i s much g r e a t -e r t han f o r those who i n h e r i t the p r o f e s s i o n from t h e i r p a r e n t s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Sources of i n f o r m a t i o n I f students w i t h d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l background ch a r a c -t e r i s t i c s a r e i n f l u e n c e d i n t h e i r d e c i s i o n t o e n t e r pharmacy by d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s , i t seems reasonable t o expect t h a t those w i t h d i f f e r e n t backgrounds w i l l seek i n f o r m a t i o n about the p r o f e s s i o n from d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s . T h i s s u b s e c t i o n I s concerned w i t h the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s o c i a l background f a c t o r s and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n . The importance of a source of I n f o r m a t i o n i s expressed i n terms of the Importance Score (I.S.) which Is d e f i n e d I n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . A g a i n the f i n d i n g s a re p r e s e n t e d under the headings of s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o f a c i l i t a t e r e f e r e n c e l a t e r . 1. Sex Men a t t r i b u t e more Importance t o p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n and p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , w h i l e women c l a i m t o d e r i v e more i n f o r m a t i o n about the p r o f e s s i o n from p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a -t i o n r e c r u i t m e n t media. D i f f e r e n c e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o the r e -maining sources a r e n e g l i g i b l e . The I.S.'s f o r males are -118-256 and 206 f o r the f a c t o r s p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n and p r a c -t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , compared w i t h 234 and 18? f o r females. Conversely, women have an I.S. of 173 f o r ph a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e c r u i t m e n t media, compared t o 113 f o r men. 2. Socio-economic s t a t u s Students i n C l a s s e s I and I I (upper c l a s s ) a t t r i b u t e more importance to parents than do members of the o t h e r c l a s s e s . The I.S.'s f o r Glasses I and I I are 100 and 173 r e s p e c t i v e l y , compared w i t h 31\u00C2\u00BB 26, 14 and 22 f o r the r e -maining c l a s s e s from C l a s s I I I to VI i n t h a t o r d e r . S t u -dents i n the middle and lower c l a s s e s tend t o d e r i v e more i n f o r m a t i o n from p r a c t i s i n g p h a r m a c i s t s . C l a s s e s I and I I combined have an I.S. of 99 f o r t h i s l a t t e r f a c t o r , compared w i t h I67, 157, 169, and 158 f o r C l a s s e s I I I to VI I n t h a t o r d e r . Students from the lower t h r e e c l a s s e s (IV, V, VI) d e r i v e s l i g h t l y more i n f o r m a t i o n from u n i -v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s and ph a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e -cruitment media, but the d i f f e r e n c e s a r e not v e r y g r e a t . D i f f e r e n c e s concerning the remaining sources a r e n e g l i g -i b l e . J. R e l i g i o n The r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l i g i o n and sources o f i n f o r m a t i o n i s shown i n Table XXV. S e v e r a l f e a t u r e s of t h i s t a b l e a r e important f o r the a n a l y s i s of c h o i c e of f i e l d . -119-TABLE XXV RELIGION AND IMPORTANCE OF VARIOUS SOURCES OF INFORMATION \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 .. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Importance Score of Students R e l i g i o n I s * Whose Source of Information P r o t e s t a n t Roman C a t h o l i c Jewish Other Parents and f a m i l y 36 51 87 37 R e l a t i v e s 6 10 17 15 Own pDS e r v a t l o n 234 259. 277 200 Pharmacist 158 156 130 160 F r i e n d s 13 22 14 22 H.S. teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s 34 34 41 35 U n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s 148 137 105 140 Mass media 19 20 8 35 Ph.A. recruitment media 156 103 75 160 P r a c t i c a l experience 196 209 246 197 I t might be noted t h a t Jewish students, more so than Roman C a t h o l i c s and P r o t e s t a n t s i n th a t order, de-r i v e i n f o r m a t i o n from parents, personal o b s e r v a t i o n , and p r a c t i c a l experience. On the other hand, Pr o t e s t a n t s a t t r i b u t e g r e a t e r Importance than do Roman C a t h o l i c s and Jewish students, I n that order, t o pharmaceutical a s s o c i a -t i o n recruitment media and u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s , and t o -120-a l e s s e r extent to p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists. 4. Urban-rural residence Students coming from d i f f e r e n t - s i z e d centers of p o p u l a t i o n c o n s i d e r d i f f e r e n t sources of i n f o r m a t i o n im-p o r t a n t , but the v a r i a t i o n t o a considerable extent i s between those from farms o r r u r a l d i s t r i c t s and a l l o t h e r s . For example, the I.S. of students from farms or r u r a l d i s -t r i c t s w i t h regard to parents as a source of i n f o r m a t i o n i s 11, compared w i t h scores of 58, 34, and 62 f o r those from towns, s m a l l c i t i e s and l a r g e c i t i e s r e s p e c t i v e l y . S i m i l a r l y w i t h respect t o i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d from prac-t i c a l experience, the I.S. of students from farms or r u r a l d i s t r l o t s I s 14?, compared w i t h 21?, 191, 220, of those from towns, s m a l l c i t i e s , and l a r g e c i t i e s i n that order. Thus, students from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s d e r i v e l e s s i n f o r m a t i o n from parents and p r a c t i c a l experience than do students from other centers of p o p u l a t i o n . At the same time, the former d e r i v e more i n f o r m a t i o n from u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s than the l a t t e r , although the d i f f e r e n c e i s not g r e a t . An Important r e l a t i o n s h i p I n t h i s regard i s th a t between u r b a n - r u r a l residence and pharmaceutical a s s o c i a -t i o n recruitment media. This source of i n f o r m a t i o n i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the s i z e of cent e r . The I.S. f o r students from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s i s 194, com-pared w i t h 140, 114, and 112 f o r those from towns, s m a l l c i t i e s , and l a r g e c i t i e s r e s p e c t i v e l y . -121-TABLE XXVI SCHOOL OF REGISTRATION AND IMPORTANCE OF SOURCES OF INFORMATION Importance Score of Students Attending the U n i v e r s i t y o f : Source of Info r m a t i o n B.C. A l -b e r t a Sask. Mani-toba Tor-onto La-v a l Mont-r e a l D a l -hou-s i e Parents and f a m i l y 30 44 27 36 40 25 100 32 R e l a t i v e s 8 1 7 8 5 8 16 16 Own obser-v a t i o n 245 221 240 224 252 258 295 250 Pharmacists 180 166 148 159 150 116 151 174 Frie n d s 16 14 10 12 16 36 27 16 H.S, teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s 9 39 31 23 39 61 40 30 U n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s 157 140 179 175 127 111 109 141 Mass media 14 17 36 19 19 22 17 12 Ph.A. r e c r u i t -ment media 156 142 195 151 129 133 45 87 P r a c t i c a l experience 185 214 126 192 224 230 201 244 5\u00C2\u00BB Geographic r e g i o n The importance of sources of i n f o r m a t i o n v a r i e s w i t h the s c h o o l of r e g i s t r a t i o n . These d i f f e r e n c e s are shown i n Table XXVI. -122-From t h i s t a b l e i t can be seen t h a t parents are more important f o r students at the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal. Personal, o b s e r v a t i o n i s a t t r i b u t e d more importance by students a t the two u n i v e r s i t i e s I n Quebec, w h i l e prac-t i s i n g pharmacists are more o f t e n considered important by those a t Dalhousle U n i v e r s i t y and the U n i v e r s i t i e s of B r i t i s h Columbia and A l b e r t a . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t f r i e n d s are thought to be more Important by students a t the French-speaking u n i v e r s i t i e s and t h a t h i g h school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s are more o f t e n considered Import-ant by those a t L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y . U n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s are more Important f o r students a t the U n i v e r s i t i e s of Saskatchewan and Manitoba and l e s s Important f o r those a t the two u n i v e r s i t i e s i n Quebec Pr o v i n c e . I t should be noted a l s o t h a t pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media i s more important f o r students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan and, to a l e s s e r extent, f o r those a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia. As a source of informa-t i o n , p r a c t i c a l experience I s most important f o r students a t Dalhousle U n i v e r s i t y . 6 . Achieved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Sources of i n f o r m a t i o n vary w i t h achieved s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Only the important d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l be mentioned here. With respect to high school grades the d i f f e r e n c e s are not o v e r l y s i g n i f i c a n t . Those w i t h h i g h grades d e r i v e i n f o r m a t i o n more o f t e n from pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n -123-recruitment media, wh i l e those w i t h low grades, e s p e c i a l l y those w i t h grades of 60-69 per cent, d e r i v e more informa-t i o n from p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists, but the d i f f e r e n c e s are not great., As might be expected, the importance of sources of i n f o r m a t i o n vary w i t h o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e . Those who i n h e r i t the occupation from t h e i r parents d e r i v e s i g -n i f i c a n t l y more i n f o r m a t i o n from parents than do o t h e r s . The I.S. f o r t h i s f a c t o r f o r those w i t h parents i n pharmacy i s 239 compared w i t h 41 f o r those w i t h r e l a t i v e s i n phar-macy and 16 f o r those w i t h n e i t h e r parents nor r e l a t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n . However, the l a t t e r two groups acquir e more i n f o r m a t i o n from p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists w i t h scores of 160 and 169 f o r t h i s f a c t o r compared w i t h 62 f o r those w i t h parents I n the p r o f e s s i o n . S i m i l a r l y , pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media i s more important f o r those w i t h n e i t h e r parents nor r e l a t i v e s i n pharmacy ( I . S . = 144) than f o r those w i t h only r e l a t i v e s ( I . S . =119) and those w i t h parents ( I . S . = 70). U n i v e r s i t y p r o fessors are some-what l e s s important as sources of i n f o r m a t i o n f o r those who i n h e r i t the p r o f e s s i o n from t h e i r parents ( I . S . = 114) than f o r those who acquire the p r o f e s s i o n I n d i r e c t l y through r e l a t i v e s ( I . S . = 143) and those who do not i n h e r i t phar-macy ( I . S . = 144). Thus, the g r e a t e r the extent of occ u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t -ance the more important are parents as sources, of informa-t i o n and the l e s s important are p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists, -124-pharmaoeutlcal a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media and u n i v e r s -i t y p r o f e s s o r s . A l l other d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h regard to occu-p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e are minimal. I t I s found that f o u r sources of i n f o r m a t i o n vary i n importance w i t h the extent of p r a c t i c a l experience. As would be expected, p r a c t i c a l experience as a source of i n -fo r m a t i o n i s more Important f o r those who have such expe-r i e n c e . Those w i t h more than one year of experience have an I.S. of 326, compared w i t h 255 and 120 f o r those w i t h one year or l e s s experience and those w i t h no experience, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media i s more important f o r those w i t h no experience ( I . S . = l 6 l ) than I t i s f o r those w i t h one year or l e s s experience ( I . S . =\u00C2\u00BB 118) or those w i t h more than one year of experience ( I . S . = 79)\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 S i m i l a r l y , w i t h p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists as sources of i n f o r m a t i o n the I.S.*s are 175, 140, and 128.for-those w i t h no experience, one year or l e s s , or more than one year of experience, r e s p e c t i v e l y . With regard t o u n i v e r s -i t y p r o f e s s o r s a s i m i l a r t r e n d i s seen, but the d i f f e r e n c e s are not as g r e a t , w i t h I.S.'s of l 6 l , 125, and 114. Thus, the g r e a t e r the extent of p r a c t i c a l experience the more o f t e n i n f o r m a t i o n about the p r o f e s s i o n i s d e r i v e d from p r a c t i c a l experience, and the l e s s o f t e n I t I s d e r i v e d from pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media, prac-t i s i n g pharmacists, and u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s . Other d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h i s regard are minimal. -125 -I n t h i s s u b s e c t i o n an attempt has been made to de-s c r i b e the more important r e l a t i o n s h i p s found between s o c i a l background f a c t o r s and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . To make more manageable the mass of data presented here the f i n d i n g s are summarized i n Figures 3 and 4. P l u s signs (+) are used t o I n d i c a t e the d i r e c t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p s , the number of signs r e p r e s e n t i n g the r e l a t i v e importance of a gi v e n source, but the reader i s cautioned a g a i n s t mak-i n g i n f e r e n c e s from these symbols as to the magnitude of the d i f f e r e n c e s . I n the f o l l o w i n g s u b s e c t i o n an e f f o r t i s made to account f o r the r e l a t i o n s h i p s found between s o c i a l background f a c t o r s and the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . -126-Figure 3 Summary of Relationships Between S o c i a l Background Factors and Factors i n Career Decision Practice-oriented Ideology-oriented Sources Sources H.S. Teach. Spec. Ph . A . S o c i a l Background Phar- Rela- and Speak- Recr. Factors macist Parents.tive . Couns. . ers -Media Sex Males \u00E2\u0080\u0094 + a \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 ~ + Females \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +++ Socio-ec. status Upper + +++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 + Males: Middle ++ ++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +++ Lower +++ + \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +++ Upper + +++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 ++ Females: Middle +++ ++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +++ Lower ++ ++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 + Relig i o n Protestant +++ ++ + ++ -- +++ Catholic ++ +... ++ +++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 ++ Jewish + +++ +++ + -- + Urban-rural res. Farm, r u r a l \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 *++ Town \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 ++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 ++ Small c i t y \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 ++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 + Large c i t y \u00E2\u0080\u0094 . -.- \u00E2\u0080\u0094 . +...\". \u00E2\u0080\u0094 + Mother only. ^Father only. (+++) = somewhat above average. (++) = about average. (+) = somewhat below average* (\u00E2\u0080\u0094) = differences are minimal. -127 P i g u r e 3 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t i n u e d P r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d I d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d Sources Sources H.S. Teach. Spec. Ph.A. S o c i a l Background Phar- E e l a - and Speak- Recr. P a c t o r s m a c i s t Parents t i v e Gouns. ers Media Geographic r e g i o n U. of B.C. ++ + ++ + ++ +++ U. of A l b e r t a +++ +++ ++ + ++ ++ U. of Sask. + ++ t' '1' 4' ++ +++ U. of Manitoba +++ +. +++ + + ++ U. of Toronto ++ +++ -M- + + ++ L a v a l U. + + +++ +++ + U. of Montreal ++ 'f .\"4\" ++ ++ + + D a l h o u s i e U. +++ +++ + +++ + + High s c h o o l grades 80 - 100% + + 70 - 79% ++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 ++ Less than 70% +++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +++ P r a c t i c a l experience More than one year +++ +++ mm mm +,.. + One y e a r or l e s s +++ +++ mm mm ++ ++ None + + \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +++ +++ O c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e Parent + +++ + + + R e l a t i v e . +,+ ++ +++ ++ ++ N e i t h e r +++ + ++ +++ +++ (+++) = somewhat above average (++) = about average (+) = somewhat below average (\u00E2\u0080\u0094) = d i f f e r e n c e s are minimal -128-F i g u r e 4 Summary of R e l a t i o n s h i p s Between S o c i a l Background F a c t o r s and Sources of I n f o r m a t i o n P r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d I d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d Sources Sources Own Ob-H.S. U. s e r -S o c i a l phar- Teach. Ph.A. Pro- va-Background Prac* } ma*-- Par- R e l a - and Recr. f e s - t i o n \u00E2\u0082\u00AC F a c t o r s Exp. c i s t s ents t l v e s Couns\u00E2\u0080\u00A2.Media s o r s Sex , Males tmmm +++ Females \u00E2\u0080\u0094 + Soolo-eo. s t a t u s Upper Middle Lower + + R e l i g i o n P r o t e s t a n t C a t h o l i c Jewish U r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e + +++ Farm, r u r a l Town S m a l l c i t y Large c i t y Geographic r e g i o n U.B.C. ++ +++ U. A l b e r t a ++ +++ ++ U. Sask. + + U. Manitoba -fc-fc U. Toronto +++ ++ *+ L a v a l U. +++ + .+_. U. Montreal ++ ++ ++ Dalhousie U. +++ +++ + + + \u00E2\u0080\u00A2H + -129-F i g u r e 4 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t i n u e d S o c i a l Background Factors P r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d Sources Own Ob-H.S. U. s e r -Phar- Teach. Ph.A. Pro- va-Prac. ma- Par- Rela- and Recr. f e s - t i o n a Exp. c i s t s ents t i v e s Couns. Media sors High school grades 80 - 100$ 70 - 79$ Less than 70$ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 P r a c t i c a l experience + ++ +++ +++ ++ + More than one year +++ One year or l e s s ++ None + + ++ +++ ++ +++ +++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Occupational i n h e r i t a n c e Parent \u00E2\u0080\u0094 + R e l a t i v e \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +++ Nei t h e r \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +++ +++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 + + + \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 ++ +++ + \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +++ +++ U n c l a s s i f i e d . -(+++) = somewhat above average ((++) = about average (+) = somewhat below average (\u00E2\u0080\u0094) = d i f f e r e n c e s are minimal -130-D l s c u s s l o n As mentioned e a r l i e r , the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e which p l a y a p a r t i n the d e c i s i o n to ent e r pharmacy are not a r b i t r a r i l y s e l e c t e d by the student o r p o t e n t i a l r e c r u i t , but r a t h e r a re a f f e c t e d , I n p a r t a t l e a s t , by s o c i a l background f a c t o r s . Although the data c o l l e c t e d i n t h i s study cannot f u l l y s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s c l a i m , some attempt however inadequate, must be made to e x p l a i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p s found between these s e t s of f a c t o r s . The f i n d i n g s a re d i s c u s s e d under the headings of the i n d i v i d u a l s o c i a l f a c t o r s . 1. Sex The f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t women more o f t e n use pha r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e c r u i t m e n t media as sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , w h i l e men tend t o r e l y on p r a c t i c a l experience and p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n . I n a d d i -t i o n , women more o f t e n than men c o n s i d e r the mother t o be important I n the c a r e e r d e c i s i o n . The l a t t e r d i f f e r e n c e can be a t t r i b u t e d t o the c l o s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n North American s o c i e t y of g i r l s w i t h t h e i r mothers. F o r a g i r l , d u r i n g e a r l y s o c i a l i z a t i o n , the mother serves as a t a n g i b l e meaningful r o l e model to emulate and w i t h which t o I d e n t i f y . ^ G i v e n t h i s s t r o n g e a r l y a s s o c i a t i o n , a g i r l i s more l i k e l y than a boy t o be i n f l u e n c e d i n the pareer c h o i c e by the mother. The main d i f f e r e n c e between the sexes l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t women are more o f t e n a f f e c t e d by pha r m a c e u t i c a l -131-a s s o c l a t i o n recruitment media, an i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d source of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , w h i l e men r e l y more on prac-t i c a l experience, a p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d source, and personal o b s e r v a t i o n . As pointed out e a r l i e r , pharmacy t r a d i t i o n -a l l y has been regarded as a male occupation, and only i n more recent times have women begun to -enter the p r o f e s s i o n . I t may be f o r t h i s reason t h a t women are l e s s l i k e l y to r e l y on personal o b s e r v a t i o n or to seek p r a c t i c a l experience p r i o r to e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . Bather, they may be more s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by o f f i c i a l recruitment l i t e r a t u r e and other media c i r c u l a t e d by pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n s , which l e g i t i m i z e s the choice of a career t h a t has been t r a d i t i o n a l l y the domain of men. F u r t h e r , pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n s and schools of pharmacy make appoint of s t r e s s -i n g the appropriateness of pharmacy as an occu p a t i o n a l r o l e f o r women and c o n t i n u a l l y emphasize the employment oppor-t u n i t i e s f o r the female sex. Recruitment l i t e r a t u r e tends to p o r t r a y women I n pharmacy by showing p i t u r e s of female pharmacists i n h o s p i t a l s , I n d u s t r y , r e s e a r c h , and other f i e l d s , and on t h i s account appeals to women. 2. Socio-economic s t a t u s The main d i f f e r e n c e among s o c i a l c l a s s e s i s th a t the upper c l a s s e s r e l y more on parents as sources of informa-t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , w h i l e the lower c l a s s e s tend to s e l e c t p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists. This may be due t o the f a c t t h a t i n the upper c l a s s e s parents i n v o l v e themselves more i n the occ u p a t i o n a l choices of t h e i r c h i l d r e n , e s p e c i a l l y when the -132-career choioe i s made from high s t a t u s a l t e r n a t i v e s r e -q u i r i n g u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g . Since upper c l a s s parents are more l i k e l y to be u n i v e r s i t y educated, they are b e t t e r able to provide i n f o r m a t i o n and advice concerning such occupa-t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s and are more l i k e l y t o be r e l i e d upon f o r a s s i s t a n c e I n making a career choice. Among the pharmacy student p o p u l a t i o n there i s another reason why upper c l a s s parents are more l i k e l y to a f f e c t the career c h o i c e . The upper c l a s s , c o n s i s t i n g of Classes I and I I , i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y i n c l u d e s those students whose parents are p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists. The f a c t o r of occupa-t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , then, may p a r t l y e x p l a i n the g r e a t e r Importance of parents f o r students of upper socio-economic c l a s s background. Those I n the lower c l a s s , l a c k i n g such c o n t a c t s , tend t o r e l y on other p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists f o r i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . From t h i s i t would appear t h a t s o c i a l c l a s s e s do not vary s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n the types of sources they s e l e c t , s i n c e a l l c l a s s e s are e s s e n t i a l l y a f f e c t e d by p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources. Although lower and middle c l a s s male pharmacy students are a f f e c t e d more by pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media than are those of the upper c l a s s , and although middle c l a s s female s t u d -ents are i n f l u e n c e d more by s p e c i a l speakers provided by the p r o f e s s i o n than are those from the upper and lower c l a s s e s , the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n concerning s o c i a l c l a s s and sources of Information and i n f l u e n c e would tend to h o l d . The v a r i a t i o n : among the c l a s s e s w i t h respect to p r a c t i c e --133-o r i e n t e d and Ideology-oriented sources i s not tha t great to warrant a t t r i b u t i n g to any s i n g l e c l a s s the predominant i n f l u e n c e of any one type. 3* R e l i g i o n As the f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e , Jewish students, compared w i t h o t h e r s , r e l y more on parents, r e l a t i v e s , p r a c t i c a l ex-per i e n c e , and personal o b s e r v a t i o n as sources of Information and I n f l u e n c e , w h i l e P r o t e s t a n t s tend to d e r i v e i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e from p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists, pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media, and u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s . C a t h o l i c s , on the other hand, are more l i k e l y than others to t u r n to high school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s . The Importance of parents, r e l a t i v e s , p r a c t i c a l ex-pe r i e n c e , and to,some extent personal o b s e r v a t i o n , f o r Jewish students can be explained by the f a c t that such students experience the highest r a t e of d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t o c c u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e (22 and 26 per c e n t ) , and enter pharmacy sc h o o l w i t h the g r e a t e s t amount of p r a c t i c a l ex-perience ( 6 l per cent compared w i t h 49 per cent of the Pr o t e s t a n t s and 41 per cent of the Roman C a t h o l i c s ) . That Jewish students should be a f f e c t e d more by parents i s not s u r p r i s i n g , s i n c e students of t h i s f a i t h tend to be more . f a m i l y - o r i e n t e d than P r o t e s t a n t s and Roman C a t h o l i c s . I n response to a qu e s t i o n concerning the s a t i s f a c t i o n students expect to r e c e i v e from v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s (see Question 22 of the Questionnaire, Appendix A ) , 72 per cent of the Jew-i s h students checked the statement: \"Your l i f e w i t h your - 1 3 4 -w l f e ( o r husband) and f a m i l y , n compared w i t h 49 per cent of the P r o t e s t a n t s and 38 per cent of the C a t h o l i c s . Being f a m i l y - o r i e n t e d , Jewish students may be i n f l u e n c e d more i n v t h e i r d e c i s i o n s by parents and, t o a l e s s e r extent, r e l a -t i v e s . P r o t e s t a n t s and C a t h o l i c s do not have as much d i r e c t contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n , i n the form of oc c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l experience, as do Jewish students, and t h e r e f o r e may have to t u r n t o i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources, although both P r o t e s t a n t s and C a t h o l i c s d e r i v e some i n f o r -mation and i n f l u e n c e from p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists. Although there-may be other reasons f o r the p a r t i c u l a r s e l e c t i o n of sources by P r o t e s t a n t s and C a t h o l i c s , the data c o l l e c t e d f o r t h i s study do not r e v e a l them. 4 . Urban-rural residence I n g e n e r a l , the s m a l l e r the community of residence the more important are high school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s and pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media as sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , and the l e s s important are parents and p r a c t i c a l experience, but i t should be noted t h a t the g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e w i t h respect to the Importance of these f a c t o r s I s between students who come from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s and a l l o t h e r s . This d i f f e r e n c e may be due to the r e l a t i v e l a c k of contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n f o r those students coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s . Although pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n s g e n e r a l l y f e e l t h a t they are unable to present an adequate p i c t u r e of the -135-p r o f e s s i o n t o students i n r u r a l a r e a s , they seem t o have c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t on such s t u d e n t s , perhaps because of the r e l a t i v e absence of o t h e r i n f l u e n c e s . Recruitment l i t e r a t u r e i s made a v a i l a b l e t o h i g h s c h o o l teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s through s e v e r a l sources and t h i s i s i n ^ t u r n passed on t o the s t u d e n t s . I s o l a t e d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y and l a c k i n g d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n , I n the form of o c c u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , students from r u r a l d i s t r i c t s may have to r e l y on the Ideology-o r i e n t e d p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e c r u i t m e n t media f o r . i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . 5\u00C2\u00BB Geographic r e g i o n The f i n d i n g s I n d i c a t e t h a t sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e v a r y by s c h o o l o f r e g i s t r a t i o n , but the da t a c o l l e c t e d f o r t h i s study cannot f u l l y e x p l a i n the reasons f o r these d i f f e r e n c e s . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s needed t o answer the q u e s t i o n of why d i f f e r e n t sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e a r e r e l i e d upon more h e a v i l y i n some p r o v i n c e s than I n o t h e r s , but p a r t i a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r these v a r i a -t i o n s can be suggested. T h i s v a r i a t i o n may be p a r t l y due to the amount of re c r u i t m e n t a c t i v i t y engaged i n by d i f f e r e n t p r o v i n c i a l p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , because of inadequate r e c o r d s and o t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e problems, phar-m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e unable t o p r o v i d e r e l i a b l e e stimates a t the pr e s e n t time as t o the extent of the e f -f o r t s made by each to encourage p o t e n t i a l r e c r u i t s t o -136-c o n s i d e r pharmacy as a career. But i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to p o i n t out tha t i n the western p r o v i n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y B r i t i s h Columbia, where the pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n i s engaged i n an a c t i v e recruitment program, pharmacy students a t t r i b -ute g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e to pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n r e -cruitment media, w h i l e i n the Maritime p r o v i n c e s , where l i t t l e formal e f f o r t , r e l a t i v e l y speaking, i s made by phar-mac e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s t o encourage recruit m e n t , only a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of the students consider recruitment media to be Important i n the career d e c i s i o n . Only 2 per cent of the students a t Balhousie U n i v e r s i t y regard pharmaceuti-c a l a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media as the most important s i n g l e f a c t o r i n the career d e c i s i o n , compared w i t h 12 per cent of the students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia. This f a c t o r i s a l s o very important f o r students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan and, to a l e s s e r extent, f o r those a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba, but an e v a l u a t i o n of the amount of recruitment a c t i v i t y engaged i n by pharma-c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s i n these provinces cannot be made w i t h the data a v a i l a b l e . However, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t f o r students a t t e n d i n g the l a t t e r two pharmacy schools u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s serve as important sources of i n f o r -mation about the p r o f e s s i o n . This would tend to suggest t h a t there i s a c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n a t these schools be-tween students and i d e o l o g i c a l l e a d e r s . Parents are important sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e f o r students a t t e n d i n g pharmacy schools a t the -137-U n l v e r s i t y of Mon t r e a l , the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, D a l -h o u s i e U n i v e r s i t y , and the U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a . The importance of t h i s f a c t o r f o r students a t t e n d i n g the f i r s t t h r e e u n i v e r s i t i e s may be accounted f o r i n p a r t by the f a c t t h a t these students experience the h i g h e s t r a t e s of occu-p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , but such i s not the case f o r students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a where the r a t e i s v e r y low. U n f o r t u n a t e l y the l a t t e r cannot be e x p l a i n e d w i t h the p r e s e n t d a t a . That p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists a r e among the most import-ant sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e f o r students a t t e n d -i n g the U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a and Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y may be accounted f o r by the f a c t t h a t these students e n t e r phar-macy w i t h the g r e a t e s t amount of p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . How-ever, students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba r e g a r d p r a c -t i s i n g pharmacists as important sources of i n f l u e n c e and those a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia d e r i v e c o n s i d e r -a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n from t h i s s ource, and i n these u n i v e r s i t i e s s tudents e n t e r w i t h l i t t l e p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . S i m i l a r l y , students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y , and L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y r e g a r d p r a c t i c a l e x perience as an important source of i n f o r m a t i o n . T h i s i s understandable f o r students a t the f i r s t two s c h o o l s , s i n c e these students e n t e r pharmacy w i t h h i g h r a t e s of p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , but students a t L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y e n t e r w i t h the lowest r a t e of p r a c t i c a l e xperience and s t i l l c o n s i d e r t h i s f a c t o r an important source of i n f o r m a t i o n . -138-Students at Laval University regard r e l a t i v e s and high school teachers and counsellors as important sources of information and influence. The importance of r e l a t i v e s may be a t t r i b u t e d to the f a c t that students at t h i s phar-macy school have a greater rate of i n d i r e c t occupational inheritance, but students i n Saskatchewan and Manitoba tend to regard r e l a t i v e s as important i n the career decision.and do not have high rates of occupational inheritance. From the preceding i t i s concluded that the amount of recruitment a c t i v i t y engaged i n by pharmaceutical associa-tions, over and against or i n addition to the amount of d i -rect contact with the profession as gained by p r a c t i c a l ex-perience or occupational inheritance, cannot adequately ac-count f o r the s e l e c t i o n of d i f f e r e n t sources of information and influence. I t i s reasonable to suggest that these f a c -tors help to determine the sources, but i t i s necessary to acknowledge the li m i t a t i o n s of the above as a t o t a l expla-nation of the s e l e c t i o n . Further research i n th i s area would be a useful' undertaking f o r pharmaceutical associa-tions and other interested agencies, since, as w i l l be shown l a t e r , the sources of information and influence play an important part i n the choice of f i e l d . 6. Achieved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s References are made i n the preceding paragraphs as to the importance of contact with the profession, gained through p r a c t i c a l experience and occupational inheritance, i n af-f e c t i n g the sources of information and influence. I t i s -139-n e c e s s a r y t o d i s c u s s t h e e f f e c t s of t h e s e f a c t o r s , t o -g e t h e r w i t h t h a t o f h i g h s c h o o l g r a d e s , on t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s o u r c e s . I t appears t h a t h i g h s c h o o l grades a r e not o v e r l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e s e l e c t i o n of s o u r c e s , a l t h o u g h t h o s e w i t h low grades t e n d t o r e l y on p h a r m a c i s t s and r e l a t i v e s , w h i l e t h o s e w i t h h i g h grades f a v o r p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e -c r u i t m e n t media, e s p e c i a l l y as s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n . I t may be t h a t s t u d e n t s w i t h h i g h g r a d e s , s i n c e t h e y a r e more a c a d e m i c a l l y i n c l i n e d , seek i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g c a r e e r a l t e r n a t i v e s t h r o u g h o f f i c i a l c h a n n e l s r a t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h w o r k i n g a s p e c t s of t h e p r o f e s s i o n . D i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n t h r o u g h p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e appears t o be i m p o r t a n t i n the s e l e c t i o n o f s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . S t u d e n t s w i t h o u t p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e t e n d t o d e r i v e i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e f rom i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s , p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e -c r u i t m e n t media, h i g h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s and c o u n s e l l o r s , and u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s , w h i l e t h o s e w i t h e x p e r i e n c e t e n d t o a c q u i r e i n f o r m a t i o n f rom p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e and t e n d t o be i n f l u e n c e d by p r a c t i s i n g p h a r m a c i s t s and p a r e n t s . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t s t u d e n t s w i t h e x p e r i e n c e a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o r e g a r d p h a r m a c i s t s as i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n , a l -though t h e y c o n s i d e r t h i s f a c t o r i m p o r t a n t i n the c a r e e r d e c i s i o n . I t seems t h a t p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e g e n e r a l l y l e a d s t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , w h i l e l a c k of e x p e r i e n c e l e a d s -140-t o i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources. Contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n as gained through occu-p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e a l s o seems to a f f e c t the s e l e c t i o n of sources. Those w i t h parents i n the p r o f e s s i o n d e r i v e i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e from t h e i r parents and tend not to r e l y on other sources, w h i l e those w i t h r e l a t i v e s tend to be i n f l u e n c e d by r e l a t i v e s , although they tend to acquire i n f o r m a t i o n from p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists and u n i v e r s i t y pro-f e s s o r s . On the other hand, students who do hot experience o c c u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e tend to u t i l i z e p r a c t i s i n g phar-m a c i s t s , h i g h school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s , u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s , and pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media. I n g e n e r a l , students w i t h parents I n the p r o f e s s i o n tend to r e l y most h e a v i l y on p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources, w h i l e those w i t h r e l a t i v e s tend to be somewhat more Ideology-oriented i n t h e i r s e l e c t i o n . Those w i t h n e i t h e r parents nor r e l a -t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n are most i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d i n t h e i r s e l e c t i o n of sources. The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s o c i a l background f a c t o r s and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e have been de s c r i b e d and d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n . I t was argued t h a t , although f u r t h e r research I s needed i n t h i s a rea, there i s evidence to suggest t h a t the various sources are not s e l e c t e d a r b i t r a r -i l y , but are a f f e c t e d , i n p a r t a t l e a s t , by s o c i a l f a c t o r s . The next s e c t i o n attempts to show the consequences of the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e f o r the choice of f i e l d . -141-C) INFORMATION AND INFLUENCE AND CHOICE OF FIELD IN PHARMACY F i n d i n g s The v a r i o u s f a c t o r s which are Important i n the c a r e e r d e c i s i o n and the s e v e r a l sources from which students o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n p l a y a p a r t i n the c h o i c e of a f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . The o b j e c t of t h i s s e c t i o n Is to show which sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h which c h o i c e s . 1. F a c t o r s I n the c a r e e r d e c i s i o n The r e l a t i o n s h i p between the f a c t o r s i n the c a r e e r d e c i s i o n and the c h o i c e of f i e l d i s shown i n Table XXVII. Students who c o n s i d e r p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists or e i t h e r of t h e i r parents as the most Important f a c t o r i n the c a r e e r d e c i s i o n a r e most l i k e l y t o choose r e t a i l pharmacy. Of those who l i s t pharmacists as most important, 6 l per cent choose r e t a i l pharmacy, as do 58 per cent of those who a t -t r i b u t e s i m i l a r Importance to e i t h e r of the p a r e n t s . Stud-ents who r e g a r d r e l a t i v e s as most Important, a l s o tend to choose r e t a i l pharmacy. Thus, I t w i l l be seen t h a t those who a r e most a f f e c t e d by p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources tend to choose r e t a i l pharmacy. On the o t h e r hand, students who c o n s i d e r one of the I d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s , pharmaceut-i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e c r u i t m e n t media, s p e c i a l speakers, o r h i g h s c h o o l teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s , as the most important s i n g l e f a e t o r i n the d e c i s i o n tend not to choose r e t a i l pharmacy. -142-TABLE XXVII MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR IN CAREER DECISION AND CHOICE OF FIELD I N PHARMACY Percentage ChoosingJ P r e s c r l p -Most Important R e t a i l t l o n H o s p i t a l T o t a l F a c t o r Was: Pharmacy Pharmacy Pharmacy Other Cases Pharmacist 61 8 13 18 298 Father 58 8 13 21 171 Mother 58 9 16 17 174 R e l a t i v e 57 8 18 17 83 Mass media 56 13 13 19 16 H.S. teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s 50 10 23 18 80 \"Other\" 49 11 12 28 245 S p e c i a l speakers 47 11 8 33 36 F r i e n d s and acquai ntanc es 46 13 17 24 46 Ph.A. r e c r u i t -ment, media 45 6 30 19 103 X^ m 45.962: d.f. = 27* P<.02 With respect to the f i e l d of h o s p i t a l pharmacy, s t u d -ents who r e l y most h e a v i l y on pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n r e -cruitment media and hig h school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s are more l i k e l y to make t h i s c h o i c e . Nearly o n e - t h i r d of the students who are most s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by pharmaceut-i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media and s l i g h t l y l e s s than one-quarter of those who consider h i g h school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s as most important p l a n t o enter h o s p i t a l pharm-acy. Students who regard e i t h e r mass media or f r i e n d s as -143-the most important f a c t o r i n the career d e c i s i o n are more l i k e l y to choose p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, but the t o t a l num-ber of cases a f f e c t e d by these sources i s r a t h e r s m a l l . Students who are most s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by s p e c i a l speakers are more l i k e l y to p l a n to enter one of the f i e l d s i n the r e s i d u a l category, but a g a i n the t o t a l number of cases i s r a t h e r s m a l l . More s i g n i f i c a n t as a source of i n f l u e n c e l e a d i n g to t h i s choice i s the r e s i d u a l category, \"other,\" which, i t w i l l be r e c a l l e d , i s comprised almost e n t i r e l y of responses i n d i c a t i n g t h a t the choice was the student's own personal d e c i s i o n . Thus, of the 245 students who a t t r i b u t e t h e i r career choices p r i m a r i l y to t h e i r per-s o n a l d e c i s i o n s , 28 per cent choose some \"other\" f i e l d . As the preceding paragraphs i n d i c a t e , students who are i n f l u e n c e d by d i f f e r e n t sources i n t h e i r d e c i s i o n to enter the p r o f e s s i o n of pharmacy vary I n t h e i r choice of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . The i n d i v i d u a l sources are c l a s s i f i e d by type of I n f l u e n c e , I.e., p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d , I d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d , and u n c l a s s i f i e d , and the p r o p o r t i o n of each choosing each of the f i e l d s I s shown i n Table XXVIII. I t w i l l be seen t h a t p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources most o f t e n l e a d to the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy. Those who r e l y on i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources are more l i k e l y than others to choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy, w h i l e those who s e l e c t one of the u n c l a s s i f i e d sources are more l i k e l y to expect to enter p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy or one of the f i e l d s I n the r e s i d u a l category. -144-TABLE XXVIII TYPES OP INFLUENCE AND CHOICE OF FIELD Percentage Choosing: P r e s c r i p -Type of R e t a i l t i o n H o s p i t a l T o t a l I n f l u e n c e Pharmacy Pharmacy Pharmacy Other Cases P r a c t i o e - o r i e n t e d a 59 8 14 18 726 I d e o l o g y - o r i ented* 5 47 8 24 21 219 U n c l a s s i f i e d 0 49 12 13 27 307 i n c l u d e s pharmacists, mother, f a t h e r and r e l a t i v e s . ^Includes pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media, hig h school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s and s p e c i a l speakers. c I n c l u d e s mass media, f r i e n d s and acquaintances, and \" o t h e r . w X 2 = 28.796: d.f. o 6: P<.001 2. Sources of i n f o r m a t i o n The r e l a t i o n s h i p between sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and choice of f i e l d i s presented i n Table XXIX. I t i s import-ant to note t h a t t h i s t a b l e shows the percentage d i s t r i b u -t i o n of responses and not cases. Since up to e i g h t d i f -f e r e n t sources of i n f o r m a t i o n can be c i t e d by a s i n g l e respondent (a respondent could g i v e a d i f f e r e n t source f o r each of e i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ) , c o r r e l a t i o n s between cases and choice of f i e l d cannot e a s i l y be made. Rather, i t i s necessary to work w i t h responses. To i l l u s t r a t e -INS-TABLE XXIX SOURCES OP INFORMATION AND CHOICE OF FIELD IN PHARMACY Percentage Responses G i v e n by Those Choosing: T o t a l _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ N u m b e r P r e s c r i p - Re-Source of R e t a i l t i o n H o s p i t a l sponse I n f o r m a t i o n Pharmacy Pharmacy Pharmacy Other e s a Parents and f a m i l y 62 5 10 22 424 P r a c t i c a l e xperience 59 10 12 19 1897 Pharmacist 54 10 17 20 1488 U n i v e r s i t y 16 p r o f e s s o r s 53 8 23 1349 Own o b s e r v a t i o n 52 10 15 22 2374 F r i e n d s 51 4 15 30 158 H.S. teach e r s and c o u n s e l l o r s 50 8 18 24 324 Mass media 49 7 22 23 194 R e l a t i v e 46 11 23 20 71 Ph.A. r e c r u i t m e n t media 46 7 23 23 1258 T o t a l '53 9 16 22 9537 aNumbers on which percentages are based; c h i - s q u a r e t e s t i s based on the d i s t r i b u t i o n of responses. X 2 = 144.962: d . f . = 27: P<.001 the r e l a t i o n s h i p between source of i n f o r m a t i o n and c h o i c e of f i e l d I t i s necessary t o compare the p r o p o r t i o n s of responses f o r a g i v e n source c o n t r i b u t e d by i n d i v i d u a l s choosing d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s . F o r example, of the 424 times t h a t parents and f a m i l y are I n d i c a t e d as sources of i n f o r -mation, 62 per cent are c i t e d by those p l a n n i n g t o e n t e r r e t a i l pharmacy. On the o t h e r extreme, o n l y 46 per cent -146-of the 1258 responses i n d i c a t i n g pharmaceutical a s s o c i a -t i o n recruitment media as a source of i n f o r m a t i o n are g i v e n by i n d i v i d u a l s making the same choice. From t h i s i t i s suggested t h a t the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n a f f e c t the choice of f i e l d . Those who d e r i v e t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n about the p r o f e s s i o n from p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources, except r e l a t i v e s , i . e . , par-e n t s , p r a c t i c a l experience, and p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists, tend to choose r e t a i l pharmacy. Those who o b t a i n t h e i r informa-t i o n from pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media, r e l a -t i v e s , and mass media more o f t e n than others choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy and tend not to choose the r e t a i l f i e l d , although i t must be noted t h a t the l a t t e r two sources are not i n themselves o v e r l y Important. I t i s perhaps s u r p r i s i n g to f i n d such a s t r o n g a s s o c i a t i o n between u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s -s o r s , who are considered t o be i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d , and the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy.. Over one-half of the responses i n d i c a t i n g t h i s source of i n f o r m a t i o n are g i v e n by those planning to enter the r e t a i l f i e l d . I t I s d i f f i c u l t to make statements about the a s s o c i a -t i o n of f a c t o r s from t h i s t a b l e , because some of the d i f -ferences are not p a r t i c u l a r l y g r e a t . However, i t i s poss-i b l e t o combine the i n d i v i d u a l sources by type and compare the choices which are, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each. These are shown i n Table XXX. Again, i t must be remembered th a t the t a b l e r e f e r s to the d i s t r i b u t i o n of responses and not cases. -147-TABLE XXX TYPES OP SOURCES OP INFORMATION AND CHOICE OF FIELD Percentage Responses G i v e n by Those Choosing: T o t a l Number of Type of P r e s c r i p - Re-Source of R e t a i l t i o n H o s p i t a l spons-I n f o r m a t i o n Pharmacy Pharmacy Pharmacy Other e s * P r a c t i c e - , o r i e n t e d 57 9 14 20 3880 I d e o l o g y -o r i e n t e d 50 8 19 23 2931 U n c l a s s i f i e d 4 52 9 16 23 2726 T o t a l 9537 *Numbers on which percentages are based. In c l u d e s p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , pharmacists, p a r -ents and r e l a t i v e s . c I n c l u d e s p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e c r u i t m e n t media, h i g h s c h o o l teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s , and u n i -v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s . ^ I n c l u d e s own o b s e r v a t i o n , f r i e n d s and a c q u a i n t -ances and mass media. X 2 = 69.620: d . f . = 6: P<.001 I t w i l l be seen t h a t the r e l a t i o n s h i p between types of sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and ch o i c e of f i e l d i s g e n e r a l l y the same as t h a t between types of I n f l u e n c e and c h o i c e , a l t h o u g h the former i s not q u i t e as c o n v i n c i n g as the l a t t -e r . Those who d e r i v e I n f o r m a t i o n from p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources more o f t e n choose the r e t a i l f i e l d , w h i l e those who r e l y on I d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources tend t o f a v o r h o s p i t a l - 1 4 8 -pharmacy. A l t h o u g h o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s a r e m i n i m a l , t h e y a r e i n t h e same g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n as t h o s e shown i n Ta b l e X X V I I I . A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s o u r c e s o f I n f o r m a -t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , and t h e c h o i c e o f f i e l d , f o l l o w s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 D i s c u s s i o n The f i n d i n g s show t h a t s t u d e n t s s e l e c t i n g d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n and I n f l u e n c e t e n d t o v a r y I n t h e c h o i c e o f f i e l d . Those who c o n s i d e r p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s t o be i m p o r t a n t i n t h e d e c i s i o n t o e n t e r pharmacy, and who d e r i v e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m such s o u r c e s , t e n d t o choose t h e r e t a i l f i e l d , w h i l e t h o s e who t u r n t o i d e o l o g y -o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , more o f t e n t h a n o t h e r s , p l a n t o e n t e r h o s p i t a l pharmacy. S t u d e n t s who r e l y on e i t h e r o f t h e s e two t y p e s o f I n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u * -ence do n o t seem t o v a r y i n t h e i r c h o i c e s o f p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy o r some \" o t h e r \" f i e l d . However, t h o s e who a r e most s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by one o f t h e u n c l a s s i f i e d s o u r c e s more o f t e n t h a n o t h e r s make one o f t h e l a t t e r two c h o i c e s . As mentioned e a r l i e r , t h e u n c l a s s i f i e d c a t e g o r y I s com-p r i s e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o f s t u d e n t s who i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e most I m p o r t a n t s i n g l e f a c t o r i n t h e c a r e e r c h o i c e was a p e r s o n a l d e c i s i o n . Thus, I t seems t h a t t h o s e who r e g a r d t h e i r e n t r a n c e t o t h e p r o f e s s i o n as r e s u l t i n g f r om a p e r -s o n a l d e c i s i o n , u n i n f l u e n c e d by o t h e r f a c t o r s , more o f t e n t h a n o t h e r s choose p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy o r one o f t h e f i e l d s i n t h e r e s i d u a l c a t e o g r y . -149-That p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources s h o u l d l e a d t o the c h o i c e of r e t a i l pharmacy I s no s u r p r i s e , s i n c e by f a r the m a j o r i t y of such sources a r e o r i e n t e d t o the r e t a i l f i e l d . C l o s e t o 90 per cent of the membership of the Canadian Phar-m a c e u t i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n i s engaged i n some form of r e t a i l p r a c t i c e . By the law of average a l o n e , nine out of every t e n c o n t a c t s w i t h l i c e n c e d pharmacists are n e c e s s a r i l y con-t a c t s w i t h the r e t a i l f i e l d , but the p r o p o r t i o n i s probably h i g h e r , s i n c e r e t a i l pharmacy compared w i t h o t h e r f i e l d s i s r e l a t i v e l y more v i s i b l e . Almost everyone a t some time or o t h e r has had o c c a s i o n to v i s i t a c o r n e r d r u g s t o r e , a t y p i c a l l y North American i n s t i t u t i o n , but few I n d i v i d u a l s have had the o p p o r t u n i t y to come f a c e t o f a c e w i t h hos-p i t a l pharmacists o r pharmacists I n i n d u s t r y , r e s e a r c h , o r t e a c h i n g , and when they do have such c o n t a c t , they g e n e r a l -l y do not view such i n d i v i d u a l s p r i m a r i l y as phar m a c i s t s . Thus, i t seems reasonable to suggest t h a t those who are i n f l u e n c e d i n t h e i r c a r e e r d e c i s i o n s by pharmacists, p a r -e n t s , r e l a t i v e s , o r by p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , w i l l tend to choose the r e t a i l f i e l d . Of course i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r a student: t o be I n f l u e n c e d i n h i s c a r e e r c h o i c e by p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources and to deci d e t o e n t e r a f i e l d o t h e r than r e t a i l a f t e r b e i n g made aware of such a l t e r n a t i v e s i n phar-macy school,, and th e r e i s evidence t o i n d i c a t e t h a t some students do j u s t t h a t . However, the f i n d i n g s show t h a t a s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between the sources of i n f o r -mation and i n f l u e n c e , which p l a y a p a r t i n the d e c i s i o n -150-to e n t e r pharmacy, and the c h o i c e of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . Prom t h i s i t i s suggested t h a t p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources are s i g n i f i c a n t i n b r i n g i n g about a de-c i s i o n t o e n t e r r e t a i l pharmacy. Schools of pharmacy and ph a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , I n t h e i r e f f o r t s t o p r e s e r v e pharmacy's p l a c e I n the p r o -f e s s i o n a l community, have been s t r i v i n g t o m a i n t a i n h i g h academic standards and standards of p r a c t i c e commensurate w i t h t h e i r claims t o p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s i n a r a p i d l y changing i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y . I n t h e i r e f f o r t s t o a t t r a c t more a c a d e m i c a l l y competent s t u d e n t s , i d e o l o g i c a l l e a d e r s have been drawing a t t e n t i o n t o o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employ-ment I n f i e l d s o t h e r than r e t a i l , f i e l d s which p r e s e n t more of a c h a l l e n g e t o the student who i s a c a d e m i c a l l y o r i e n t e d and s c i e n t i f i c a l l y I n c l i n e d . R e f l e c t i n g the goals of the I d e o l o g i c a l l e a d e r s , r e c r u i t m e n t l i t e r a t u r e c i r -c u l a t e d by p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s e a g e r l y p o r t r a y s pharmacists working i n i n d u s t r y , r e s e a r c h , t e a c h i n g , and h o s p i t a l pharmacy, perhaps out of p r o p o r t i o n t o the a c t u a l number of o p p o r t u n i t i e s p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e I n these f i e l d s . Thus, I t Is not s u r p r i s i n g to f i n d t h a t students who r e l y most h e a v i l y on i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources more o f t e n than others choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy. What i s p u z z l i n g , however, i s t h a t these s t u d e n t s , compared w i t h those who are most s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s , do not v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n the s e l e c t i o n of p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy o r some \" o t h e r \" -151-f i e l d . I t was f e l t t h a t students who are a f f e c t e d by i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources would be most l i k e l y t o choose one of the f i e l d s i n the r e s i d u a l c a t e g o r y . But the f i n d -i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t the students who r e l y on one of the un-c l a s s i f i e d sources are more l i k e l y than others to make the l a t t e r c h o i c e . Although the d a t a cannot e x p l a i n t h i s r e l a -t i o n s h i p , some suggestions can be made, perhaps f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . As p o i n t e d out e a r l i e r , students i n d i c a t i n g one of the u n c l a s s i f i e d sources a r e p r i m a r i l y those who s t a t e t h a t the c h o i c e of pharmacy as a c a r e e r was a p e r s o n a l de-c i s i o n . I t I s t o be expected t h a t a c e r t a i n p r o p o r t i o n of students w i l l not wish t o i n d i c a t e a source of i n f l u e n c e and w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e i r p e r s o n a l d e c i s i o n s to be of prime Importance. However, t h i s does not e x p l a i n the f a e t t h a t these students more o f t e n than others choose one of the. f i e l d s of the r e s i d u a l c a t e g o r y . I t may be t h a t f o r students who r e g a r d t h e i r person-a l d e c i s i o n s as most important, the c h o i c e of pharmacy i s secondary to some o t h e r motive, such as the d e s i r e to teach,\u00E2\u0080\u009E work i n i n d u s t r y , o r conduct r e s e a r c h . Once such a commit-ment i s made, the i n d i v i d u a l may s e l e c t r a t i o n a l l y a p r o -f e s s i o n which w i l l a l l o w f o r the r e a l i z a t i o n of t h i s prim-a r y g o a l and hence may r e g a r d such a c h o i c e as r e s u l t i n g from a p e r s o n a l d e c i s i o n . Another p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t some students f i n d thamselves i n an a m b i v a l e n t ^ s i t u a t i o n i n which they -152-a r e s u b j e c t e d to both types of i n f l u e n c e , p r a c t i c e - and i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s . To r e s o l v e t h i s c o n f l i c t , they might tend to r e g a r d the c h o i c e as r e s u l t i n g from a p e r -s o n a l d e c i s i o n . Although the d a t a cannot s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s c l a i m , i t i s f e l t t o be a worthwhile i d e a f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h . The i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s and the p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d pharmacists have d i v e r s e i d e a s as to the conduct of the l a t t e r i n the r e t a i l f i e l d , as ev-i d e n c e d by the f o l l o w i n g statement made by a p r o v i n c i a l p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n i n i t s monthly b u l l e t i n ! The p o i n t was r a i s e d s e v e r a l times d u r i n g the d i s -c u s s i o n on p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s t h a t the most s e r i o u s breakdown i n the p r o j e c t i n g of the pharmacist's im-age o c c u r r e d a t the p r a c t i s i n g l e v e l . I t was s t a t e d t h a t no amount of money devoted t o PR programs by the A s s o c i a t i o n c o u l d equal i n p u b l i c e f f e c t the im-p a c t which would be f e l t I f a l l pharmacists i n a l l pharmacies i n a l l areas of the p r o v i n c e conducted t h e i r p r a c t i c e s on a plane commensurate w i t h t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g and s t a t u r e . ^ I t may w e l l be t h a t students c o n f r o n t e d w i t h both p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d and i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources t u r n away from both s o u r c e s , c o n s i d e r the c a r e e r d e c i s i o n to be a p e r s o n a l one, and choose a f i e l d f u r t h e s t removed from the c o n t r o v e r s y , i . e . , one of the f i e l d s i n the r e s i d u a l c a t e g o r y . The tendency of t h i s group to choose p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy can a l s o be e x p l a i n e d w i t h the n o t i o n of ambivalent sources of i n f l u e n c e . P r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy probably con-s t i t u t e s a reasonable r e s o l u t i o n of the c o n f l i c t of competing i n f l u e n c e s , s i n c e i t i s on the one hand a r e t a i l e s t a b l i s h --153-ment s h a r i n g a number of t r a d i t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h r e t a i l pharmacy, e s p e c i a l l y the o p p o r t u n i t y to work d i r e c t -l y w i t h the p u b l i c , and on the o t h e r , i t i n v o l v e s a p r a c -t i c e g e n e r a l l y conducted on a plane \"commensurate w i t h [t h e pharmacist's] p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g and s t a t u r e . \" The image of pharmacy t h a t the i d e o l o g i c a l l e a d e r s of the p r o f e s s i o n a r e s t r i v i n g t o c r e a t e i s not n e c e s s a r i l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h the image r e f l e c t e d i n r e t a i l p r a c t i c e . Students s u b j e c t e d t o both types of i n f l u e n c e may very w e l l f i n d themselves i n an ambivalent s i t u a t i o n and may ten d t o r e s o l v e the c o n f l i c t by denying both i n f l u e n c e s and by choosing a f i e l d removed from the c o n t r o v e r s y or one which tends t o s a t i s f y the e x p e c t a t i o n s of both sources of i n f l u e n c e . CHAPTER IV VALUES Values are i n t e r n a l m o t i v a t i o n a l elements which serve as c r i t e r i a f o r making d e c i s i o n s . T h i s being the case, one would expect t o f i n d a d i s t i n c t i v e s e t of value s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the d e c i s i o n t o e n t e r pharmacy and the c h o i c e of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . I n the pr e s e n t study a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of value s i s i n -tended t o serve two purposes. F i r s t , i t I s hoped t h a t , by e x p l o r i n g the va l u e p r o f i l e of pharmacy students i n g e n e r a l , a b e t t e r understanding of the members of and r e c r u i t s t o t h i s p r o f e s s i o n w i l l be gained, and t h a t the b a s i s f o r some f u t u r e comparative study w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d . Second, s i n c e v a l u e s p l a y a p a r t i n c a r e e r d e c i s i o n s , i t seems necessary to take them i n t o account i n d i s c u s s i n g the ch o i c e of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . Although s e v e r a l s p e c i f i c values are mentioned throughout t h i s chapter, a t t e n t i o n i s f o c u s e d on f o u r s e t s o r c a t e g o r i e s of v a l u e s , those b e i n g : ( i ) ex-t r l n s i c - p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d - i n t r i n s i c , ( i i ) b u s i n e s s , ( i i i ) i n -dependence, and ( i v ) e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . The f i r s t s e t of v a l u e s , e x t r i n s i c - p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d -i n t r l n s i c , i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d i n accordance w i t h the f i n d -i n g s of Mo r r i s Rosenberg i n h i s study of c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s 1 -155-v a l u e s and o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e s . 1 The l a t t e r found t h a t students g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r more than one v a l u e important i n making an o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e and t h a t c e r t a i n v a l u e s tend to be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c e r t a i n o t h e r v a l u e s . Those p a i r s of v a l u e s which had the h i g h e s t c o e f f i c i e n t s of a s s o -c i a t i o n were f e l t to c o n s t i t u t e major \"value o r i e n t a t i o n s \" o r \" v a l u e - f o c i \" which were l a b e l l e d , \" p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d , \" \" e x t r i n s i c - r e w a r d - o r i e n t e d , \" and ' f e e l f - e x p r e s s i o n - o r i e n t e d . \" I n a d d i t i o n , he d i s c o v e r e d t h a t these v a l u e s c o u l d be arranged a l o n g a continuum a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r l i k e l i h o o d of b e i n g h e l d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . He w r i t e s : While i t i s p o s s i b l e to d i s t i n g u i s h c e r t a i n broad o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s , t h e r e i s reason to b e l i e v e t h a t these v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s are not e n t i r e l y s e p a r a t e and d i s t i n c t but, r a t h e r , l i n k i n t o one anoth-e r i n a f a i r l y o r d e r l y c h a i n of v a l u e s . T h i s i n t r o -duces the p o s s i b i l i t y of o r d e r i n g these values a l o n g some s o r t of value spectrum; the d i s t a n c e between any two p o i n t s on t h i s spectrum might be c o n s i d e r e d the \" p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e \" between the o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s . 2 A c c o r d i n g l y , a d j a c e n t v a l u e s tend to be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d ; t h a t i s , they a r e most l i k e l y t o occur t o g e t h e r . Values a t the extremes of the continuum tend t o be neg-a t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d and a r e l e a s t l i k e l y t o be h e l d by the same person. Thus, the v a l u e spectrum can be used t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e v a l u e complexes espoused by d i f f e r e n t i n -d i v i d u a l s . Rosenberg w r i t e s : T h i s continuum of p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e , i t may be noted, ranges from the \" s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n \" values to the \" p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d \" values to the \" e x t r i n s i c - r e w a r d \" v a l u e s . The sequence noted above enables us to see a t a glance the degree of probable mutual e x c l u s i o n and -156-i n c l u s i o n of v a r i o u s o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e a l t e r n a t i v e s . The more d i s t a n t people are ..on, t h i s s c a l e , the more r a d i c a l l y opposed a r e t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s l i k e -l y t o be. The s t r o n g e s t v a l u e d i f f e r e n c e Is between those who emphasize the s a t i s f a c t i o n s they w i l l get from the work i t s e l f (work i t s e l f as a g o a l v a l u e ) and those who focus on the rewards they hope to be g i v e n f o r the work they do (work as an I n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e ) . 3 Although the statements designed t o tap e x t r i n s i c , p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d , and i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s i n t h i s study d i f f e r somewhat from those used by Rosenberg, i t i s f e l t t h a t bas-i c a l l y the same dimensions are being e x p l o r e d . The v a l u e s used i n t h i s study l i n k i n t o each o t h e r t o form a continuum of p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e , much as Rosenberg r e p o r t s , but t h e r e are some important d i f f e r e n c e s . These w i l l be d i s -cussed i n t h i s c h a p ter. I n a d d i t i o n to the e x t r i n s i c - p e o p l e -o r i e n t e d - i n t r i n s l c v a l u e continuum, h e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o as the E.P.I, value continuum, t h r e e o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s of v a l u e s , as a l r e a d y mentioned,: are c o n s i d e r e d h e r e . B u s i n e s s , Independence and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s a r e of p a r t i c u l a r Importance i n the c h o i c e of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . The v a l u e p r o f i l e of pharmacy students i n g e n e r a l Is c o n s i d e r e d i n S e c t i o n A. I n S e c t i o n B, v a l u e s are r e l a t e d t o s o c i a l background f a c t o r s , and i n the f i n a l s e c t i o n , S e c t i o n C, the c h o i c e of f i e l d i s d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o v a l u e s . Although e i g h t v a l u e s are used i n S e c t i o n A to de-p i c t the E.P.I, value continuum, the number i s reduced f o r the sake of convenience to s i x , two i n each v a l u e o r i e n t a -t i o n , i n S e c t i o n s B and C. I n the l a t t e r two s e c t i o n s ex-t r i n s i c v a l u e s i n c l u d e \"good s a l a r y \" and \" p r e s t i g e , \" people--157-o r l e n t e d v a l u e s i n c l u d e \"meet the p u b l i c \" and \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man,\" and i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s i n c l u d e \" s c i e n t i f i c \" and \"use a l l knowledge.\" A) VALUE PROFILE OF PHARMACY STUDENTS F i n d i n g s 1. O c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s I n the q u e s t i o n n a i r e , students are g i v e n a l i s t o f n i n e t e e n statements designed t o tap o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s and a r e asked to i n d i c a t e the d e s i r a b i l i t y of each f o r an o c c u p a t i o n they would c o n s i d e r i d e a l . They are asked to rank each v a l u e i n d i v i d u a l l y i n terms of d e s i r a b i l i t y and to I n d i c a t e i n o r d e r of importance the t h r e e most d e s i r a b l e . Table XXXI shows the t a b u l a t e d responses to t h i s q u e s t i o n . The f i r s t p o i n t to note i s t h a t of the top t h r e e r a n k i n g v a l u e s the f i r s t i s a p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e , the second a s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n or i n t r i n s i c v a l u e , and the t h i r d an e x t r i n s i c v a l u e . Taking i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n Rosenberg*s r e s e a r c h on o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s , one might expect to f i n d t h a t the pharmacy student p o p u l a t i o n i s heterogeneous i n composition, s i n c e the t h r e e top r a n k i n g v a l u e s f a l l a t some d i s t a n c e from each o t h e r on the v a l u e continuum; and, a c c o r d i n g to Rosenberg, the l a r g e r the d i s t a n c e between any two v a l u e s on the continuum, the l e s s l i k e l y an i n -d i v i d u a l i s to want to s a t i s f y both v a l u e s . ^ To t e s t whether the pharmacy student p o p u l a t i o n i s heterogeneous, each v a l u e was c o r r e l a t e d w i t h each o t h e r v a l u e . -158-TABLE XXXI RANKING OP OCCUPATIONAL VALUES BY PHARMACY STUDENTS P e r c e n t a g e a S t a t i n g Charac-t e r i s t i c Was: Most Im-p o r t a n t f o r \" I n d i f f -An Occupation Which \"IDEAL\" \"Very \" F a i r l y e r e n t Would P r o v i d e the . Occupa- D e s i r - D e s i r - U n d e s i r -F o l l o w i n g : t i o n a b l e \" a b l e \" a b l e \" 1. \" B e n e f i t f e l l o w man\" 18 . 9 56 35 9 2 . \"Use a l l knowledge\" 18 . 3 61 31 8 3 . \"Good s a l a r y \" \" P r e s t i g e \" 13.1 41 48 11 4 . 8.5 39 43 18 5 . \" V a r i e t y of t a s k s \" 5-9 37 42 21 6 . \"Your own boss\" 5.6 45 38 17 7. \" S e c u r i t y \" 4 . 7 52 37 11 8 . \"Doesn't encroach on f a m i l y l i f e \" 4 . 1 36 43 21 * 9 . \" O p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r 47 42 advanc ement\" 3-5 11 10. \" I n t e r e s t i n g 46 41 c o l l e a g u e s \" 3.1 13 11. \" O p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r women\" 3-0 25 18 57 12. \"Meet the p u b l i c \" 2.4 i 33 42 25 13. \" P r o f e s s i o n and b u s i n e s s \" 2.4 20 30 50 14. \" S c i e n t i f i c \" 2.2 28 50 22 15. \" P e r s o n a l l i f e f r e e of c o n f o r m i t y \" 1.8 28 38 34 16. \" R e s p o n s i b i l i t y \" 1.5 26 51 23 17- \" L e a d e r s h i p \" .4 17 38 45 18. \" H i g h l y c o m p e t i t i v e \" . 3 9 31 60 19. \"Merchandis i ng and s e l l i n g \" .2 8 25 67 Not a l l students answered a l l q u e s t i o n s . P e r c e n t -ages are based on the number of responses. Except f o r one q u e s t i o n , that p e r t a i n i n g t o o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r women, the number of \"no answers\" was l e s s than s i x p e r c e n t . -159-Of the 153 p o s s i b l e p a i r s of values -^, twelve are c o n s i d e r e d d e s i r a b l e by 80 per cent o r more of the s t u d e n t s ; of these, two are combinations of values b e l o n g i n g to the same v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n , but s i x a r e combinations of v a l u e s b e l o n g i n g t o d i f f e r e n t v a l u e - f o c i . Of the l a t t e r s i x p a i r s of v a l u e s , two are combinations of e x t r i n s i c and p e o p l e -o r i e n t e d v a l u e s , two are combinations of p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d and i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s , w h i l e the remaining two p a i r s i n v o l v e combinations of e x t r i n s i c and i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s . Each of the remaining f o u r p a i r s of the twelve c o n s i d e r e d d e s i r a b l e by,80 p e r cent of the students i n c l u d e s e i t h e r an e x t r i n s i c , p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d , o r i n t r i n s i c v a l u e combined w i t h the v a l u e , \" o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r advancement,\" a v a l u e which i s not c l a s s -i f i e d I n terms of the continuum of p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e . The p a i r s of v a l u e s which are most s t r o n g l y , h e l d by pharmacy students are v a l u e s which are not n e c e s s a r i l y ad-j a c e n t each o t h e r on the v a l u e continuum. Por example, students who are concerned w i t h \" s a l a r y , \" an e x t r i n s i c v a l u e , are most l i k e l y t o be concerned w i t h \" b e n e f i t i n g one's f e l l o w man,\" a p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e , and \" u s i n g a l l knowledge,\" an i n t r i n s i c v a l u e . Values which are psycho-l o g i c a l l y d i s t a n t , as f a r as Rosenberg's v a l u e continuum i s concerned, a r e h e l d c o n c o m i t a n t l y by pharmacy s t u d e n t s . Thus, the p o p u l a t i o n as a whole i s homogeneous, but the v a l u e p r o f i l e i s i n t e r n a l l y ambivalent. T h i s r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s as t o whether a continuum of p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e a p p l i e s t o pharmacy s t u d e n t s . To - 1 6 0 -t e s t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s were c a l c u l -a t e d f o r e i g h t v a l u e s r e p r e s e n t i n g the th r e e v a l u e - f o c i , e x t r i n s i c , p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d , and i n t r i n s i c . These are shown i n Table XXXII. The f i n d i n g s g e n e r a l l y support the n o t i o n TABLE XXXII CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS OF OCCUPATIONAL VALUES: EXTRINSIC, PEOPLE-ORIENTED, AND INTRINSIC E x t r i n s i c P e o p l e - o r i e n t e d I n t r i n s i c I n t e r - Use B e n e f i t e s t i n g S c i - A l l Secur- P r e s - -iMeet F e l l o w C o l l - e n t i f - Knowl-S a l a r y i t y t i g e P u b l i c Man eagues i c edge S a l a r y S e c u r i t y +.351 P r e s t i g e +.303 +.246 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Meet p u b l i c +.182 +.231 +.218 B e n e f i t f e l l -ow man +.125 +.245 +.181 +.251 I n t e r -e s t i n g c o l l -eagues +.160 +.256 +.229 +.268 +.221 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 S c i -e n t i f -i c +.114 +.269 +.151 +.150 +.259 +.304 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Use a l l knowl-edge +.O65 +.099 +.098 +.180 +.230 +.278 +.388 -161-of a value continuum, w i t h a d j a c e n t values having the h i g h -e s t p o s i t i v e degree of a s s o c i a t i o n . But there are some p o i n t s t o note: the c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s are low and t h e r e are no n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s . T h i s s u b s t a n t i a t e s f u r t h e r the i d e a t h a t pharmacy students are a homogeneous group and h o l d v a l u e s which, a c c o r d i n g to Rosenberg's value continuum, are ambivalent. F o r pharmacy students i t i s not a matter of b e i n g e i t h e r i n t r i n s i c - o r i e n t e d , p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d , o r e x t r i n s i c - o r i e n t e d : I t i s a matter of b e i n g a l i t t l e of each. D i s c u s s i o n I f v a l u e s are c r i t e r i a by which d e c i s i o n s are made, then one would expect to f i n d the c h o i c e of pharmacy as a c a r e e r r e f l e c t e d i n the v a l u e p r o f i l e of the s t u d e n t s . S t u d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e i r chosen p r o f e s s i o n s h o u l d be somewhat congruent w i t h the v a l u e s they want to r e a l i z e . A t l e a s t some of the more important v a l u e s s h o u l d be viewed as r e a l i z a b l e i n the c a r e e r c h o i c e . Students were asked to i n d i c a t e the accuracy of n i n e -t e e n statements, s i m i l a r t o those used to tap o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s , i n d e s c r i b i n g the p r a c t i c e of pharmacy (see Ques-t i o n 34 of the Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , Appendix A ) . Answers to these statements are regarded as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the p e r -c e p t i o n s students have of the p r o f e s s i o n . The f i n d i n g s r e -v e a l t h a t these p e r c e p t i o n s do not vary s i g n i f i c a n t l y by s o c i a l background f a c t o r s or sources of i n f l u e n c e . Students g e n e r a l l y respond as a group. Table XXXIII shows the p r o -- 1 6 2 -TABLE XXXIII OCCUPATIONAL VALUES AND PERCEPTIONS OF PHARMACY Percentage Considering Occupational Value \"Very De- \"Very or P e r c e p t i o n s i r a b l e \" Accurate\" D i f f e r e n c e 1 1 . \"Use a l l knowledge\" 61 24 37 2 . \" B e n e f i t f e l l o w man\" 56 52 4 3 . \" S e c u r i t y \" 52 52 0 4 . \"Opportunities f o r 47 advancement\" 27 20 ' \" I n t e r e s t i n g 46 36 c o l l e a g u e s \" 10 . 6 . \"Your own boss\" 45 40 5 7- \"Good s a l a r y \" 41 12 29 8. \" P r e s t i g e \" 39 33 6 9 . \" V a r i e t y of tasks\". 37 46 9 10 . \"Doesn*t encroach on f a m i l y l i f e \" 36 12 24 11. \"Meet the p u b l i c \" 33 77 12 . \" S c i e n t i f i c \" 28 45 17 13 . \"Personal l i f e f r e e of conformity\" 28 11 17 14. \" R e s p o n s i b i l i t y \" 26 63 37 15 . \" P r o f e s s i o n and business\" 20 67 47 16. \"Leadership\" 17 25 8 17. \"Highly competitive \" 9 75 66 18. \"Merchandising and 69 s e l l i n g \" 8 77 19. \"Opportuni t i e s 56 67 f o r women\"a 9 f e m a l e respondents o n l y . p o r t i o n of students regarding each statement as \"very accurate\" compared w i t h the corresponding p r o p o r t i o n r e -garding each as \"very d e s i r a b l e \" f o r an i d e a l c a reer. I n other words, values are compared w i t h p e r c e p t i o n s , and the d i f f e r e n c e between the proportions responding p o s i t i v e --163-l y t o the v a l u e and p e r c e p t i o n i s shown f o r each charac-t e r i s t i c . The three o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s to which pharmacy s t u d -ents a r e most i n d i f f e r e n t , o r those which they h o l d n e g a t i v e -l y , a r e , e x c l u d i n g \" o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r women\" which i s a s p e c i a l case, \"merchandising and s e l l i n g , \" \" h i g h l y com-p e t i t i v e , \" a n d \" p r o f e s s i o n and b u s i n e s s \" (see Table XXXI). Yet as Table XXXIII i n d i c a t e s , the v a s t m a j o r i t y of s t u d -ents p e r c e i v e pharmacy as an o c c u p a t i o n which i n v o l v e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of merchandising and s e l l i n g , Is h i g h -l y , c o m p e t i t i v e , and i s regarded as a p r o f e s s i o n and b u s i -n e s s . Prom the same table, i t can be seen t h a t pharmacy students v a l u e h i g h l y the o p p o r t u n i t y to \"use a l l knowledge,\" but do not r e g a r d the p r o f e s s i o n as a l l o w i n g f o r the r e a l i z a t i o n of t h i s v a l u e . One t h i n g seems c l e a r , and t h a t i s t h a t the pharmacy student v a l u e p r o f i l e i s not t o t a l l y congruent w i t h student p e r c e p t i o n s of the p r o f e s s i o n . However, a d i s p a r i t y between p e r c e p t i o n and value i s not found I n a l l cases, and t h i s v e r y f a c t may a l l o w f o r a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n concerning the values which most s t r o n g l y motivate the student to choose pharmacy as a c a r e e r . I t i s f e l t t h a t the s m a l l e r the d i f f e r e n c e between the p r o -p o r t i o n h o l d i n g a value s t r o n g l y and the p r o p o r t i o n main-t a i n i n g the c o r r e s p o n d i n g p e r c e p t i o n , the more l i k e l y the v a l u e i s to a c t as a m o t i v a t i n g f a c t o r f o r the s t u d e n t s , t h a t i s , of course, i f the v a l u e i s important i n the f i r s t p l a c e . With t h i s type of comparison i t can be s a i d t h a t - 1 6 4 -pharmacy students a r e most s t r o n g l y motivated by the f o l l o w -i n g v a l u e s : \" s e c u r i t y , \" \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man,\" \"your own boss,\" and \" p r e s t i g e , \" and to a l e s s e r e x t e n t , \" v a r i e t y and d i v e r s i t y of t a s k s \" and \" i n t e r e s t i n g c o l l e a g u e s . \" Put i n oth e r words, pharmacy students hope t o d e r i v e from the pr o -f e s s i o n s e c u r i t y , independence (\"your own b o s s \" ) , and p r e s -t i g e , as w e l l as the s a t i s f a c t i o n from performing a s e r v i c e t o o thers ( \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man\"), but a r e w i l l i n g to com-promise t h e i r d e s i r e t o make f u l l use of t h e i r knowledge, t r a i n i n g , a p t i t u d e s and s k i l l s , o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r advance-ment, and a good s a l a r y . I n a d d i t i o n , they a re w i l l i n g t o put up w i t h such u n d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as merch-a n d i s i n g and s e l l i n g and c o m p e t i t i o n . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , men and women have s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r v a l u e p r o f i l e s , a lthough there are some Important d i f f e r e n c e s . Women are l e s s concerned w i t h the v a l u e s , \"your own boss\" (independence),and\"opportunities f o r ad-vancement,\" and hence, are l e s s motivated by the former ' and l e s s compromising of the l a t t e r . I n a d d i t i o n , women a r e - s t r o n g l y motivated by o p p o r t u n i t i e s which the pr o -f e s s i o n p r e s e n t e d f o r members of the female sex. Other d i f f e r e n c e s between the sexes a re d i s c u s s e d i n the next s e c t i o n . Another problem t h a t needs t o be d i s c u s s e d here i s t h a t of the value continuum. The f i n d i n g s show t h a t the E.P.I, val u e s of pharmacy students g e n e r a l l y \" l i n k i n t o \" each o t h e r t o form a continuum of p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e -165-as suggested by Rosenberg and a s s o c i a t e s , but t h a t pharmacy students tend t o h o l d p o s i t i v e l y v a l u e s which are some d i s t a n c e from each o t h e r on the va l u e continuum, suggest-i n g t h a t the E.P.I, value p r o f i l e of these students i s somewhat ambivalent. The i n t e r n a l ambivalence of the pharmacy student v a l u e p r o f i l e has to i t a p a t h o l o g i c a l tone. Yet I t may be p r e c i s e l y t h i s type of va l u e p r o f i l e which f i n d s ex-p r e s s i o n i n c e r t a i n types of o c c u p a t i o n s . I f McCormick i s c o r r e c t i n a s s e r t i n g t h a t the pharmacist i n h i s work environment i s caught between the cr o s s p r e s s u r e s of a 6 p r o f e s s i o n a l e t h i c and a commercial code , i t may w e l l be t h a t an I n d i v i d u a l w i t h an ambivalent v a l u e p r o f i l e might b e s t be a b l e to a f f e c t a s u c c e s s f u l r e s o l u t i o n of such a dilemma. But, l f c e r t a i n e s t a b l i s h e d occupations a l l o w f o r the e x p r e s s i o n of values which a r e some d i s t a n c e from each o t h e r on the va l u e continuum, need the va l u e p r o f i l e of i n d i v i d u a l s choosing such occupations be thought of as ambivalent? There i s some evidence t o support the c o n t e n t i o n t h a t pharmacists do not sense an ambivalence about t h e i r work and, i n f a c t , r e g a r d the d u a l i t y of t h e i r r o l e as an a s s e t . F o r example: Today, the pharmacist must b l e n d p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n -i n g w i t h commercial n e c e s s i t y I n e x e r c i s i n g p r o f e -s s i o n a l management of h i s pharmacy. The pharmacist . . . has a major advantage over most o t h e r r e t a i l -ers i n t h a t he can f u l l y u t i l i z e h i s own p e r s o n a l i t y i n r e a c h i n g and d e a l i n g w i t h the customers.' . -166-Th e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which go to make a good p r o f e s s i o n a l man, when a p p l i e d to commercialism w i l l produce one of the b e s t commercial p r o f e s s i o n a l s , o r the most p r o f e s s i o n a l c o m m e r c l a l i s t s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Not too many businessmen c o u l d become p r o f e s s i o n a l s I n the t r u e sense or the academic sense of the word! But many p r o f e s s i o n a l s c o u l d become businessmen by ex-t e n d i n g to commercial o p e r a t i o n s the b a s i c elements which make them s u c c e s s f u l p r o f e s s i o n a l s . \" The p r e c e d i n g a l s o seems to i n d i c a t e t h a t the pharmacist does not compartmentalize what are thought to be ambivalent v a l u e s , but r a t h e r , uses each f o r the s u c c e s s f u l r e a l i z a -t i o n of the o t h e r . I t i s suggested t h a t - t h e v a l u e s h e l d by pharmacy students are e x p e r i e n c e d as a coherent s e t and f i n d e x p r e s s i o n as such I n the p r o f e s s i o n chosen. The p r e c e d i n g of course r a i s e s some qu e s t i o n s about Rosenberg's continuum of p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e . I t seems t h a t Rosenberg f a i l s t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t v a l u e p r o f i l e s can v a r y i n the extent t o which they are \"focused\" or \" d i s -p e r s e d \" over the value continuum. While some, perhaps most, p r o f i l e s tend to I n c l ude v a l u e s which are a d j a c e n t to each o t h e r and cover a l i m i t e d range of the continuum, others may be spread over a l a r g e r s e c t o r . I n the case of pharmacy the v a l u e p r o f i l e tends to \"span\" the e n t i r e continuum or a good p o r t i o n of i t , and i t may be t h i s v e r y f a c t t h a t draws such students i n t o a p r o f e s s i o n such as pharmacy which i s comprised of d i v e r s e elements. That some I n d i v i d u a l s o r groups are more \" v a l u e -f o c u s e d \" than others can be seen i n Rosenberg's own study. The l a t t e r r e s e a r c h e r p o i n t s out t h a t the c h o i c e of occu-p a t i o n by c o l l e g e students i s r e l a t e d t o o c c u p a t i o n a l - 1 6 7 -v a l u e s , t h a t students choosing d i f f e r e n t occupations have d i f f e r e n t weighted average scores f o r each of the v a l u e -f o c i . Thus, those choosing a r c h i t e c t u r e , journalism-drama, o r a r t have the h i g h e s t scores f o r \" s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n o r i e n t -ed\" ( i . e . , i n t r i n s i c ) v a l u e s , w h i l e those e x p e c t i n g t o e n t e r s o c i a l work, medicine, o r t e a c h i n g have the h i g h e s t s c o r e s f o r \" p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d \" v a l u e s , and those p l a n n i n g c a r e e r s i n r e a l e s t a t e - f i n a n c e , h o t e l - f o o d , o r s a l e s - p r o -9 motion sco r e h i g h e s t on \" e x t r i n s i c - r e w a r d \" v a l u e s . What Rosenberg f a i l s t o draw a t t e n t i o n t o i s the f a c t t h a t s t u d -ents d i f f e r i n the extent to which they s t r e s s one v a l u e -o r i e n t a t i o n over another, t h a t i s , i n the extent t o which they a r e v a l u e - f o c u s e d . F o r example, students p l a n n i n g t o e n t e r a r c h i t e c t u r e tend t o s t r e s s i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s w i t h weighted average s c o r e s of 5\u00C2\u00BB78, 2 . 5 3 , and 2 .40 f o r the I n t r i n s i c , p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d , and e x t r i n s i c v a l u e f o c i , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Those choosing s o c i a l work a r e a l s o v a l u e -f o c u s e d , emphasizing p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e s w i t h scores of 3 \u00C2\u00BB 8 l , 5\u00C2\u00BB33\u00C2\u00BB and 1 .33 f o r the r e s p e c t i v e v a l u e - o r i e n t a -t i o n s . However, students p l a n n i n g c a r e e r s i n law and p e r -s o n n e l work tend t o d i s p e r s e t h e i r v a l u e p r e f e r e n c e s . Lawyers have weighted average scores of 3\u00C2\u00BB34 , 3\u00C2\u00AB26, and 3*98 f o r the three v a l u e - f o c i , w h i l e those e n t e r i n g p e r -s o n n e l work s c o r e 3 * 0 9 , 3\u00C2\u00BB64 and 3*59 f o r the same v a l u e s . The l a t t e r two groups tend t o h o l d e q u a l l y s t r o n g l y each of the three v a l u e - f o c i . One must conclude from t h i s t h a t e i t h e r these groups are heterogeneous i n compo s i t i o n o r - 1 6 8 -v a l u e - d i s p e r s e d . The l a t t e r seems to be the most p l a u s i b l e c o n c l u s i o n , i n view of the d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , the p r e s e n t w r i t e r wishes to i n t r o d u c e a new concept, t h a t of \"value energy.\" I t i s suggested t h a t each i n d i v i d u a l has a g i v e n amount of energy i n v e s t e d i n v a l u e s which he can c o n c e n t r a t e on a s m a l l s e c t o r of the continuum, to which he becomes t o t a l l y com-m i t t e d , o r d i s p e r s e over a l a r g e r range w i t h p r o p o r t i o n a t e -l y l e s s commitment to any one v a l u e or v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n . I t i s f e l t t h a t the r e l a t i v e d i s p e r s i o n o f v a l u e energy t o g e t h e r w i t h the g e n e r a l l o c a t i o n of the v a l u e s on the eontlnuum are both r e l a t e d to o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e . C e r t a i n occupations a l l o w f o r the e x p r e s s i o n of a wide range of v a l u e s , pharmacy being a case i n p o i n t , w h i l e others r e -q u i r e s t r o n g commitment to a l i m i t e d range of v a l u e s . I t i s hoped t h a t by p o i n t i n g out the problem of v a l u e d i s p e r -s i o n the a n a l y t i c u t i l i t y of the value continuum might be expanded. . Although the pharmacy student p o p u l a t i o n as a whole i s r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous w i t h r e s p e c t to E.P.I, v a l u e s , students do d i f f e r somewhat i n the o c c u p a t i o n a l values they h o l d , and these d i f f e r e n c e s are important i n a f f e c t -i n g the c h o i c e of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . The next s e c t i o n i s concerned w i t h such d i f f e r e n c e s . -169-B) VALUES AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND FACTORS F i n d i n g s 1. Sex With r e s p e c t to E.P.I, v a l u e s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r -ences can be found between males and females. D i f f e r e n c e s between the sexes are to be found p r i m a r i l y i n terms of b u s i n e s s , independence and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . These r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e shown i n Tables XXXIV and XXXV. TABLE XXXIV SEX AND OCCUPATIONAL VALUES: BUSINESS AND INDEPENDENCE \"t Percentage 8 , S t a t i n g Value Was \"Very\" o r \" F a i r l y \" Important i n Career D e c i s i o n Value Males Females Business A) \" C o n s i d e r a b l e merchandising and s e l l i n g \" B) \"A p r o f e s s i o n and business Ihdependence C) \"Your own boss\" 38 56 ...87 23 39 72 a N o t a l l students answered a l l the q u e s t i o n s . The percentages a r e based on the number of r e p l i e s t o each q u e s t i o n and range from 832 to 856 f o r males, and from 405 to 407 f o r females. A) X^ = B) X , = C) X 2 = 27.833\u00C2\u00AB d.f. 3 1 . 9 2 9 : d.f. 42 . 0 6 7 : d.f. 1: P<.001 1; P<.001 1: K . 0 0 1 -170-As can be seen from these t a b l e s , males are more concerned than females w i t h an occupation t h a t i n v o l v e s considerable \"merchandising and s e l l i n g \" (38 per cent compared w i t h 23 per cent) and one th a t i s both a \"pro-f e s s i o n and business\" (56 per cent compared w i t h 39 per c e n t ) , although i t must be remembered th a t these values are not s t r o n g l y h e l d by a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of the s t u d -e n t s . Males a l s o regard more h i g h l y the opportunity to be independent (\"your own bo s s \" ) , w i t h 87 per cent com-pared w i t h 72 per cent responding f a v o r a b l y to t h i s v a l u e . TABLE XXXV SEX AND ENTREPRENEURIAL VALUES . Percentage D e s i r i n g to \"Own and. Operate a Pharmacy\" T o t a l Sex \"Yes\" \"No\" \"Not Sure\" Cases Males 62 11 27 896 Females 26 48 26 421 X 2 = 244.699: d.f. = 2: P<.001 I t i s important to note t h a t n e a r l y two and one-h a l f times as many males as females want to own and op-erate a pharmacy and over f o u r times as many females as males d e f i n i t e l y do not want to engage i n such e n t r e -p r e n e u r i a l a c t i v i t y . I n general i t can be s a i d t h a t males h o l d business, -171-independence, and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s more s t r o n g l y than do females 2 . Socio-economic s t a t u s I t i s important t o note t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r -ences c o u l d be found among the s o c i a l c l a s s e s w i t h r e s p e c t to any of the f o u r types of o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s . 3\u00C2\u00AB R e l i g i o n The weighted average s c o r e 1 0 f o r each of the E.P.I, val u e s i s shown i n Table XXXVI f o r each of the three main r e l i g i o u s groups. I t w i l l be seen from t h i s t a b l e t h a t P r o t e s t a n t s , compared wi t h o t h e r s , tend to h o l d e x t r i n s i c v a l u e s , w i t h the h i g h e s t weighted average scor e f o r \" s a l a r y , \" second h i g h e s t f o r \" p r e s t i g e , \" \"meet the p u b l i c , \" and \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man,\" and the lowest scores f o r \" s c i e n t i f i c \" and \"use a l l knowledge.\" Roman C a t h o l i c s , on the ot h e r hand, tend t o be o r i e n t e d toward i n t r i n s i c v alues w i t h the low-e s t s c o r e s f o r \" s a l a r y , \" \" p r e s t i g e , \" and \"meet the p u b l i c , \" and the h i g h e s t s c o r e s f o r \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man\" and \"use a l l knowledge.\" Jewish students have the h i g h e s t scores f o r \" p r e s t i g e , \" \"meet the p u b l i c , \" and \" s c i e n t i f i c , \" and the lowest s c o r e s f o r \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man.\" With r e s p e c t t o E.P.I, values the d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o u s groups a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d as f o l l o w s : P r o t e s t a n t s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 p r i m a r i l y o r i e n t e d toward e x t r i n s i c v a l u e s w i t h a f a i r l y h i g h concern f o r the p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e s , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man\" and \"meet the p u b l i c . \" -172-TABLE XXXVI RELIGION* AND WEIGHTED AVERAGE SCORES ON OCCUPATIONAL VALUES: EXTRINSIC, PEOPLE-ORIENTED, INTRINSIC E x t r i n s i c People- \u00E2\u0080\u00A2oriented I n t r i n s i c \" S a l a r y \" \" P r e s t i g e \" \"Meet P u b l i c \" \" B e n e f i t F e l l o w Man\"- , \"Use \" S c i e n - A l l t i f l c \" Knowledge\" P-1.74 J-1.70 J-1.33 C-2.08 J-1.28 C-2.26 J-1.61 P-1.64 P-1.29 P-1.98 C-l.23 J-1.83 C-1.60 . C-1.29 C-l.03 J-1.69 P-1.09 P-1.82 Chi-square t e s t s performed on o r i g i n a l frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n s ; d . f . = 12 I n each case; \" s a l a r y \" X 2 = 9.929: P<.70; \" p r e s t i g e \" X 2 = 63.463: P<.001; \"meet p u b l i c \" X 2 = 24.160: P<.02; \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man\" X 2 \u00C2\u00BB 24.211: P<.02; \" s c i e n t i f i c \" Xd = 16.832: P<.20; \"use a l l knowledge\" X* = 43.306: P<.001. a C = C a t h o l i c J = Jewish P a P r o t e s t a n t Roman C a t h o l i c s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 p r i m a r i l y o r i e n t e d toward i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e concern f o r the peop l e -o r i e n t e d v a l u e , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man.\" J e w i s h \u00E2\u0080\u0094 o r i e n t e d toward e x t r i n s i c values and one of the p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e s , \"meet the p u b l i c . \" T h i s group i s a l s o concerned w i t h the i n t r i n s i c v a l u e , \" s c i e n t i f i c \" and i n t h i s r e s p e e t tends t o be bimodal. Although students w i t h d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o u s back-grounds vary i n terms of E.P.I, v a l u e s , d i f f e r e n c e s with -173-r e s p e c t t o bus i n e s s and independence val u e s are not over-l y s i g n i f i c a n t . Roman C a t h o l i c s tend to be s l i g h t l y more concerned than others w i t h business values and Jewish s t u d -ents show a g r e a t e r p r e f e r e n c e f o r independence, but the d i f f e r e n c e s f a l l t o a t t a i n the .05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e u s i n g the c h i - s q u a r e t e s t . However, d i f f e r e n c e s are ob-s e r v e d among the r e l i g i o u s groups w i t h r e s p e c t t o e n t r e -p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . Table XXXVII shows the r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l i g i o n and the d e s i r e to own and operate a pharm-acy. , . TABLE XXXVII RELIGION AND ENTREPRENEURIAL VALUES R e l i g i o n Percentage D e s i r i n g to Own and Operate . a Pharmacy . T o t a l Cases Roman C a t h o l i c 64 430 Jewish 55 106 P r o t e s t a n t 42 619 Other 46 46 X 2 = 55 .126: d.f. a 6: P<.001 From t h i s t a b l e i t can be seen t h a t Roman C a t h o l i c s a r e most concerned w i t h e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , w i t h near-l y t w o - t h i r d s of the group wanting t o own arid operate a pharmacy. S l i g h t l y more than one-half of the Jewish s t u d -ents c o n s i d e r ownership d e s i r a b l e , but t h i s v a l u e i s pos--174-i t i v e l y h e l d by only 42 per cent of the P r o t e s t a n t s . S i n c e the g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n of Roman C a t h o l i c s a t t e n d pharmacy sc h o o l s i n the p r o v i n c e of Quebec, i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t the f a c t o r of geographic r e g i o n may be respon-s i b l e f o r the d i f f e r e n c e s observed.' Table XXXVIII c o n t r o l s f o r t h i s f a c t o r and shows the r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l i g i o n and the d e s i r e t o own and operate a pharmacy e x c l u d i n g the p r o v i n c e of Quebec. I t w i l l be seen t h a t the r e l a t i o n s h i p TABLE XXXVIII RELIGION AND ENTREPRENEURIAL VALUES OF PHARMACY STUDENTS IN CANADA EXCEPT QUEBEC R e l i g i o n Percentage D e s i r i n g to Own and Operate a Pharmacy T o t a l Cases Roman C a t h o l i c 54 167 Jewish 44 79 P r o t e s t a n t 42 616 Other 47 45 X 2 = 12.697* d . f . = 6: P<.05 p r e v i o u s l y noted s t i l l h o l d s , but t h a t the p r o p o r t i o n of Roman C a t h o l i c s and Jewish students wanting t o own and operate a pharmacy d e c l i n e s from 64 per cent t o 54 per cent f o r the former and from 55 per cent t o 44 per cent f o r the l a t t e r . T h i s means t h a t of the 26-1 Roman Cath-o l i c s i n Quebec, 186 or 71 per cent-want to own and -175-operate a pharmacy. S i m i l a r l y , of the 27 Jewish students i n t h i s p r o v i n c e , 23 or 85 per cent consider ownership d e s i r a b l e . Geographic r e g i o n i s no doubt an important f a c t o r i n the d e s i r e to own and operate a pharmacy, but i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h i s , Roman C a t h o l i c s , more so than Jew-i s h students and P r o t e s t a n t s , consider ownership d e s i r a b l e . 4. Urban-rural residence Except f o r one of the E.P.I, v a l u e s , students coming from d i f f e r e n t - s i z e d centers of p o p u l a t i o n have b a s i c a l l y the same value p r o f i l e . Students coming from farms or r u r -a l d i s t r i c t s are more i n c l i n e d to h o l d the v a l u e , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man\" than are students from towns and c i t i e s . Of those from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s , 28 per cent consider t h i s value most Important, compared w i t h 20 per cent of those from towns, 17 per cent of those from s m a l l c i t i e s , and 16 per cent of those from l a r g e c i t i e s . Thus, the g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n c e i s between those coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s and a l l o t h e r s . The former are more con-cerned w i t h an o c c u p a t i o n which i s \"very u s e f u l and import-ant to s o c i e t y i n general and i n which you can d i r e c t l y b e n e f i t your f e l l o w man\" than the l a t t e r . 5. Geographic r e g i o n The weighted average score f o r each of the E.P.I, values i s shown i n Table XXXIX f o r students a t t e n d i n g the v a r i o u s schools of pharmacy. I f the f o u r schools w i t h the highest scores f o r each value are d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the f o u r schools w i t h the lowest s c o r e s , the f o l l o w i n g -176-TABLE XXXIX SCHOOL OF REGISTBATION^ AND OCCUPATIONAL VALUES EXTRINSIC, PEOPLE-ORIENTED, INTRINSIC E x t r i n s i c P e o p l e - \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 o r i e n t e d I n t r i n s i c \" S a l a r y \" \" P r e s t i g e \" \"Meet P u b l i c \" \" B e n e f i t F e l l o w Man\" \" S c i e n -t i f i c \" \"Use A l l Knowledge\" D-2.05 D-1.90 A-1.33 L-2.16 L-1.35 L-2 .38 A-1.95 M-1.82 S-1.33 T-2.09 T-1.28 Mt -2 .35 B-1.82 B-1.78 T-1.21 S-2.04 Mt-1 .26 T-1.98 M-1.75 A-1.66 D-1.19 M-2.03 M-1.21 M-1.91 S-1.72 T-1.62 M-l . 17 D-2.02 B-1.09 A-1.90 Mt-1 .58 S-1.58 B - l . l l A-1.99 A-1 .03 S-1.79 T-1.52 Mt- .99 Mt-1 .00 Mt-1 .97 S-1 .02 B-1.78 L - l . 5 1 L- .78 L- .88 B-1.59 D- .88 D-l.77 C h i - s q u a r e t e s t s p e r f o r m e d on o r i g i n a l f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s ; d . f . = 28 i n each c a s e ; \" s a l a r y \" X 2 = 49 . 5 2 5 : P<\u00C2\u00BB01; \" p r e s t i g e \" X 2 = 152.403: P<.001; \"meet p e o p l e \" X 2 = 45.386: P<.05; \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man\" X 2 == 51.758: P<.01; \" s c i e n t i f i c \" X 2 = 51.245: P<.01; \"use a l l knowledge\" X 2 = 62.408: P<.001. a A = U n i v e r s i t y o f A l b e r t a B = U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C olumbia D ss D a l h o u s i e U n i v e r s i t y L s= L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y M =s U n i v e r s i t y o f Ma n i t o b a Mt == U n i v e r s i t y o f M o n t r e a l S s= U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan T ss U n i v e r s i t y o f Toro n t o - 1 7 7 -g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s can be made: 1. Dalhousle U n i v e r s i t y - - S t u d e n t s a t t h i s u n i v e r s i t y -tend t o be o r i e n t e d toward e x t r i n s i c v a l u e s , hav-i n g the h i g h e s t scores f o r \" s a l a r y \" and \" p r e s t i g e \" and the lowest scores f o r \" s c i e n t i f i c \" and \"use a l l knowledge.\" 2. L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y \u00E2\u0080\u0094 S t u d e n t s a t t h i s u n i v e r s i t y are o r i e n t e d toward i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e concern f o r one o f i t h e p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e s , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man.\" These students have the lowest scores f o r \" s a l a r y , \" \" p r e s t i g e , \" and \"meet the p u b l i c , \" and the h i g h e s t scores f o r the r e -maining three v a l u e s . 3. U n i v e r s i t y of M o n t r e a l \u00E2\u0080\u0094 S t u d e n t s here tend to be o r i e n t e d toward i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s , being among the bottom f o u r s c h o o l s w i t h r e s p e c t to e x t r i n s i c and p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e s and among the top f o u r w i t h r e s p e c t t o the remainder. 4. U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o \u00E2\u0080\u0094 S t u d e n t s a t t h i s s c h o o l tend to be concerned w i t h p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d and i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s , being among the top f o u r s c h o o l s i n these two c a t e g o r i e s . 5\u00C2\u00BB U n i v e r s i t y of M a n i t o b a \u00E2\u0080\u0094 E x c e p t f o r the value \"meet the p u b l i c , \" t h i s s c h o o l i s among the top f o u r w i t h r e s p e c t to every v a l u e . However, i t s h o u l d be noted t h a t i n f o u r of the f i v e cases, students a t t h i s s c h o o l have the lowest s c o r e of the top f o u r . These -178-students might he characterized as \"medium\" with respect to o r i e n t a t i o n toward E.P.I, values. 6. University of Saskatchewan\u00E2\u0080\u0094Students at t h i s school tend to hold people-oriented values.* 7\u00C2\u00BB University of Alberta\u00E2\u0080\u0094Students here tend to be e x t r i n s i c value oriented. They are also concerned with \"meet the pu b l i c , \" the value f o r which they have the highest score. 8 . University of B r i t i s h Columbia\u00E2\u0080\u0094^Students at t h i s school are e x t r i n s i c value oriented. Students at d i f f e r e n t schools of pharmacy vary some-what with respect to business values. Those attending the u n i v e r s i t i e s i n the province of Quebec, Dalhousle Univers-i t y , and the University of Alberta tend to be oriented toward business values more so than those attending other schools. With respect to independence values, some d i f f e r -ences are observed among the schools, but the differences are not quite s i g n i f i c a n t at the .05 l e v e l . However, im-portant differences can be seen with respect to entre-preneurial values. Table XL shows the r e l a t i o n s h i p be-tween desire to own and operate a pharmacy and school of r e g i s t r a t i o n . I t w i l l be.seen from this table that the proportion of students p o s i t i v e l y holding t h i s value Is considerably higher at the French-speaking u n i v e r s i t i e s and Dalhousie. Approximately two-thirds of the students at these schools consider ownership desirable. In the remaining schools -179-TABLE XL SCHOOL OF REGISTRATION AND ENTREPRENEURIAL VALUES Percentage D e s i r i n g Pharmacy Students to Own and Operate T o t a l A t t e n d i n g a Pharmacy Cases U. of B.C. 46 127 U. of A l b e r t a 43 173 U. of Saskatchewan 49 188 U. of Manitoba 36 95 U. of Toronto 39 355 L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y 64 55 U. of Montreal 70 274 Dalhousle U n i v e r s i t y 68 .... 68 X z = 102.015: d . f . m 1 4 : P<.001 the p r o p o r t i o n wanting to own and operate a pharmacy v a r -i e s from 36 to 49 per c e n t . 6. Achieved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Two of the E.P.I, v a l u e s are s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d w i t h h i g h s c h o o l grades. These a r e : \"meet the p u b l i c \" and \" s c i e n t i f i c * \" I n g e n e r a l , the h i g h e r the grades, the l e s s l i k e l y one i s to h o l d the v a l u e , \"meet the p u b l i c , \" and the more l i k e l y he i s to be concerned w i t h \" s c i e n t i f i c \" v a l u e s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 High s c h o o l grades are a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d w i t h b u s i n e s s v a l u e s . I n g e n e r a l those w i t h h i g h grades a r e l e s s l i k e l y to be concerned w i t h business v a l u e s . -180-Th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the v a l u e of independence and h i g h s c h o o l grades i s not s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .05 l e v e l , a l though a t r e n d i s observed. The t r e n d I n d i c a t e s t h a t the lower the grades the more important i s the value of independence\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Of i n t e r e s t i s the r e l a t i o n s h i p between h i g h s c h o o l grades and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s which i s shown i n Table X L I . I t can be seen t h a t the h i g h e r the grades the l e s s l i k e l y i s an i n d i v i d u a l t o want to own and operate a phar-macy. While s l i g h t l y more than t w o - f i f t h s of those w i t h grades of 90 to 100 per cent want to own and operate a pharmacy, over two-thirds of those w i t h grades below 60 p e r cent c o n s i d e r ownership d e s i r a b l e . I n g e n e r a l those w i t h h i g h grades are more l i k e l y to want a Job which r e q u i r e s \"good knowledge of s c i e n c e and s c i e n t i f i c method,\" and are l e s s l i k e l y to be con-cerned w i t h meeting the p u b l i c , owning and o p e r a t i n g a pharmacy, or merchandising and s e l l i n g . With r e s p e c t to o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , no s i g -n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s are found between t h i s f a c t o r and any of the E.P.I, v a l u e s , business v a l u e s , o r the value of independence. However, some d i f f e r e n c e s a r e observed w i t h r e s p e c t to the d e s i r e to own and operate a pharmacy. I n g e n e r a l the g r e a t e r the extent of o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t -ance, the g r e a t e r i s the l i k e l i h o o d t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l w i l l c o n s i d e r ownership of a pharmacy d e s i r a b l e . While 63 per cent of those w i t h parents i n the p r o f e s s i o n want -181-TABLE.XLI HIGH SCHOOL GRADES AND ENTREPRENEURIAL VALUES Percentage D e s i r i n g to Own and Operate a Pharmacy High School Grades i n B a s i c Sciences \"Yes\" \"No\" HNot Sure\" T o t a l Cases 90 - 100 % 42 46 12 33 80 - 89 46 30 24 263 7 0 - 7 9 50 21 28 588 6 0 - 6 9 53 20 28 397 50 - 59 .68 10 22 41 No answer \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 9 T o t a l 50 23 27 1331 X 2 = 28.396: d.f. = 8: P<.001 to own and operate a pharmacy, only 51 per cent of those w i t h r e l a t i v e s and 48 per cent of those w i t h n e i t h e r par-ents nor r e l a t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n . c o n s i d e r such owner-s h i p d e s i r a b l e . The s i t u a t i o n w i t h respect to p r a c t i c a l experience i s e s s e n t i a l l y the same as that w i t h o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t -ance. While.no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between p r a c t i c a l experience and any of the E.P.I, v a l u e s , business v a l u e s , or the value of independence are to be found, d i f f e r e n c e s are observed w i t h respect to e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . The gr e a t e r the amount of p r a c t i c a l experience gained p r i o r -182-t o e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l the g r e a t e r i s the d e s i r e to own and operate a pharmacy. Of those w i t h more than one year of experi e n c e , 64 per cent want to own and operate a pharmacy, compared w i t h 47 per cent of those w i t h one year o r l e s s , and 45 p e r cent of those w i t h no p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . F i n d i n g s c oncerning the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s o c i a l background f a c t o r s and value s have been p r e s e n t e d i n the f i r s t p a r t of t h i s s e c t i o n . To f a c i l i t a t e r e f e r e n c e to these r e l a t i o n s h i p s l a t e r , the f i n d i n g s are summarized i n F i g u r e 5 . D i s c u s s i o n Values a re i n c u l c a t e d d u r i n g the s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o -cess and on t h i s account tend to var y w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l ' s s t a t u s e s and r o l e s . But d i f f e r e n c e s i n valu e s which are l i k e l y to be found i n the l a r g e r s o c i e t y , such as those e x i s t i n g between the sexes, may not be as e v i d e n t i n a pu r p o s i v e sample l i k e the one used i n t h i s s t udy. Stud-ents comprising the sample, s i n c e they make the same gen-e r a l c a r e e r c h o i c e , are l i k e l y t o h o l d s i m i l a r v a l u e s r e g a r d l e s s of s t a t u s e s and r o l e s . However, because pharm-acy i s a p r o f e s s i o n made up of a number of r a t h e r d i v e r s e s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d s , the valu e s t h a t students h o l d do vary somewhat, and these d i f f e r e n c e s a re r e l a t e d t o the s t a t u s e s and r o l e s of the i n d i v i d u a l . F u r t h e r , s i n c e the student c o m p o s i t i o n v a r i e s w i t h the s c h o o l of r e g i s t r a t i o n , occu-p a t i o n a l values espoused by students vary w i t h geographic -183-F i g u r e 5 Summary of R e l a t i o n s h i p s Between Values and S o c i a l Background F a c t o r s Indepen- Entrepren-S o c i a l Back- E.P.I. Business dence e u r i a l ground F a c t o r s V a l u e s a . Values Values Values Sex Males no s i g . Females d i f f -erence Socio-economic s t a t u s Upper Middle Lower R e l i g i o n P r o t e s t a n t C a t h o l i c Jewish U r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e Farm, r u r a l P-0-2 Town S m a l l c i t y Large c i t y +++ +++ +++ + + + nor. no no s i g . s i g . s i g . d i f f - d i f f - d i f f -erence erence erence no no no no s i g . s i g . s i g . s i g . d i f f . d i f f , d i f f . d i f f . Ex.&P.O. no no +::,.. In.&P-0-2 s i g . s i g . ++.+; Ex.&P-O-l d i f f . d i f f . ++\. &In - l a E x - l = \" s a l a r y \" ; Ex-2 = \" p r e s t i g e \" ; P-0-1 = \"meet p u b l i c \" ; P-0-2 = \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man\"; In-1 = \" s c i e n t i f i c \" ; In-2 = \"use a l l knowledge\". (+++) = above average (++) = average (+) = below average -184-F i g u r e 5 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t i n u e d Indepen- Entrepren-S o c i a l Back- E.P.I. Business dence e u r i a l ground F a c t o r s V a l u e s * Values Values Values Geographic r e g i o n U. B.C. E x t r i n s i c + D i f f - ++ U. A l b e r t a Ex.&P-O-l +++ erence ++ U. Sask. People-Or. + not ++ U. Manitoba Ex-P-O-In. ++ s i g - + U. Toronto In.&P-Or. + n i f i c a n t + L a v a l U. In.&P-0-2 +++ a t .05 +++ U. Montreal I n t r i n s i c t i \u00C2\u00BB T T T l e v e l of +++ Dalhousie Ex.&P-O-l +++ s i g n i f - +++ i c a n c e High s c h o o l grades High In-1 + d i f f . + ++ not ++ Low P-0-1 +++ s i g . +++ P r a c t i c a l experience More than \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 one y e a r no no no +++ One year s i g . s i g . s i g . o r l e s s d i f f - d i f f - d i f f - + None erence erence erence + O c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e Parent no no no +++ R e l a t i v e s i g . s i g . s i g . N e i t h e r d i f f . d i f f . d i f f . + Ex-1 = \" s a l a r y \" ; Ex-2 = \" p r e s t i g e \" ; P-O-l = \"meet p u b l i c \" ; . P-0-2 = \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man\"; In-1 = \" s c i e n t i f i c \" ; In-2 = \"use a l l knowledge\"; = above average = average = below average -185-r e g i o n . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the s e v e r a l s o c i a l background f a c t o r s and value s are b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d under the headings of the i n d i v i d u a l s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 1. Sex I n h i s study of values and o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e , Rosen-berg found t h a t among c o l l e g e students the sexes d i f f e r i n the va l u e s they h o l d , t h a t women, r e l a t i v e l y speaking, a re more p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d , and t h a t men are more e x t r i n s i c - r e -ward oriented.\" 1\"' 1' The f i n d i n g s I n the pre s e n t study do not i n d i c a t e such a r e l a t i o n s h i p and show no s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a -t i o n s between the sexes w i t h r e s p e c t to E.P.I, v a l u e s . Male and female pharmacy students a re e q u a l l y concerned w i t h s a l a r y , p r e s t i g e , meeting the p u b l i c , h e l p i n g o t h e r s , s c i e n c e , and an o p p o r t u n i t y to use a l l one's knowledge, t r a i n i n g and s k i l l s . S i n c e E.P.I, values d i f f e r w i t h sex among c o l l e g e students I n g e n e r a l , but hot among pharmacy s t u d e n t s , i t i s c o n j e c t u r e d t h a t the E.P.I, v a l u e p r o f i l e of the l a t t e r group i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o the ch o i c e of pharmacy as a p r o f e s s i o n . Although men and women i n pharmacy h o l d the same E.P.I, v a l u e s , they d i f f e r w i t h r e s p e c t t o b u s i n e s s , i n -dependence, and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . Men, r e l a t i v e l y s peaking, a re more l i k e l y to h o l d p o s i t i v e l y these v a l u e s ; they more o f t e n want t o own a pharmacy, be \"one's own boss,\" and work a t an o c c u p a t i o n t h a t i s both a p r o f e s s i o n and b u s i n e s s and one t h a t i n v o l v e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of merchandising and s e l l i n g . These d i f f e r e n c e s a r e -186-generally i n accord with Rosenberg's findings, which sug-gest that women do not expect to achieve occupational i n -dependence as independent entrepreneurs or professionals. Women apparently prefer to assume positions which are sub-ject to occupational supervision and domination. 2 . Socio-economic status It i s interesting to note that the occupational values used i n this study are independent of the social class background of the individual. Yet several studies show social class to be an Important determinate of values i n general and occupational values i n p a r t i c u l a r . 1 2 That this i s not the case among pharmacy students seems to i n -dicate that values are significant independent motivating factors and, further, that the particular complex of val-ues held by these students i s related i n an important way to the choice of pharmacy as a profession. 3. Religion , ^ Pharmacy students belonging to different faiths vary with respect to E.P.I, and entrepreneurial values. Prot-estants are primarily oriented toward extrinsic and people-oriented values, but are least l i k e l y of the three major religious groups to want to own and operate a pharmacy. At f i r s t glance this appears to reflect an ambivalence, since entrepreneurial values are positively related with extrinsic values and the value, \"meet the public.\" How-ever, i t is f e l t that the particular distribution of values among Protestant students is due to the greater proportion -187-of women of t h i s r e l i g i o n who, although s h a r i n g e x t r i n s i c and people-oriented values w i t h men, do not want to engage i n e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l a c t i v i t y . Roman C a t h o l i c s , on the other hand, are o r i e n t e d toward i n t r i n s i c values and one of the people-oriented v a l u e s , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man.\" I n a d d i t i o n , members of t h i s group are most l i k e l y to want t o own and operate a pharmacy, and t h i s a p p l i e s t o C a t h o l i c s regardless of the province i n which they r e s i d e . I t i s indeed s u r p r i s i n g to f i n d t h a t Roman C a t h o l i c s are most l i k e l y to want to engage i n e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l a c t i v i t y . I t i s f u r t h e r puzz-l i n g , s i n c e e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values are most n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d w i t h p r e c i s e l y those E.P.I, values which C a t h o l i c s h o l d s t r o n g l y . Because of the s t r e n g t h of these r e l a t i o n -s h i p s , i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t the C a t h o l i c pharmacy stud -ent p o p u l a t i o n i s heterogeneous i n composition. The only c o n c l u s i o n t h a t can be made from the data a v a i l a b l e i s t h a t C a t h o l i c s do h o l d p o s i t i v e l y values which are f e l t by others to be ambivalent. This would seem to e x p l a i n why members of t h i s f a i t h tend to choose p r e s c r i p t i o n pharm-acy as a f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n , a f i e l d which a l l o w s , on the one hand, f o r the expression of i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s , and on the other, the ownership of a r e t a i l establishment. While C a t h o l i c s are p r i m a r i l y i n t r i n s i c i n t h e i r value o r i e n t a t i o n , and Pr o t e s t a n t s e x t r i n s i c , Jewish pharmacy students appear t o be bimodal, w i t h h i g h weighted average scores f o r the va l u e s , \" p r e s t i g e , \" \"meet the -188-p u b l i c , \" and \" s c i e n t i f i c . \" I t might a l s o be argued that the E.P.I, value p r o f i l e espoused by Jewish students i s i n -t e r n a l l y ambivalent. However, the l a t t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s l e a s t l i k e l y to be the case, s i n c e when asked to i n d i c a t e the most important o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s , Jewish students more o f t e n than others are d i v i d e d between e x t r i n s i c and i n t r i n s -i c v a l u e s . F u r t h e r evidence to support the n o t i o n that Jewish students are bimodal Is seen i n the choice of f i e l d . Whereas Roman C a t h o l i c s tend to e f f e c t a reasonable r e s o l u -t i o n - of an apparent ambivalence i n v o l v i n g i n t r i n s i c and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values by choosing p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, Jewish student tend to be s p l i t between two choices which l i e a t opposite ends of the profession-business continuum, r e t a i l pharmacy and some \"other\" f i e l d . * The preceding i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the complex of values h e l d by Jewish students i s f u r t h e r supported by the f i n d -ings concerning e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . As a group Jewish students are more l i k e l y than P r o t e s t a n t s but l e s s l i k e l y than C a t h o l i c s to want to own arid operate a pharmacy. However, when students r e s i d i n g i n Quebec are excluded from the> t a b u l a t i o n , Jewish students resemble P r o t e s t a n t s i n t h e i r concern w i t h e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , 44 and 42 per cent, r e s p e c t i v e l y , wanting to own and operate a pharm-acy, compared w i t h 5^ per cent of the C a t h o l i c s . Of the Jewish students i n Quebec, 85 per cent consider ownership h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e , compared w i t h 44 per cent of students of Jewish f a i t h throughout the r e s t of.Canada. This would -189-seem to s u b s t a n t i a t e the c l a i m t h a t the Jewish student p o p u l a t i o n i s heterogeneous i n composition, some o r i e n t e d p r i m a r i l y toward the w o r l d of i d e a s and d e s i r i n g an occu-p a t i o n which r e q u i r e s a \"good knowledge of s c i e n c e and s c i e n t i f i c method,\" and others o r i e n t e d toward the b u s i n e s s world, from which they hope to d e r i v e \" p r e s t i g e , \" and i n which they expect to- f u n c t i o n as independent entrepreneurs who \"meet the p u b l i c and d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h the people.\" 4. U r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e Students coming from d i f f e r e n t - s i z e d communities, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of one v a l u e , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man,\" want b a s i c a l l y the same t h i n g s from an o c c u p a t i o n . I t might a l -so be noted t h a t the g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e w i t h r e s p e c t to t h i s v a l u e i s between those coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s and a l l o t h e r s , the former more o f t e n r e g a r d i n g the v a l u e h i g h l y . T h i s can be e x p l a i n e d by the f a c t t h a t r u r a l students are s p a t i a l l y i s o l a t e d from the p r o f e s s i o n and r e l y most h e a v i l y on i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d p h a r m a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n r e c r u i t m e n t media f o r i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . I t may be on account of the v i r t u a l absence of p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources t h a t students i n r u r a l a r e a s , who h o l d the afore-mentioned p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d value.,; ,are d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e -l y a t t r a c t e d t o the p r o f e s s i o n . 5\u00C2\u00AB Geographic r e g i o n Students a t t e n d i n g d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s of pharmacy va r y i n the v a l u e s they h o l d , but t h i s v a r i a t i o n can i n no way be a t t r i b u t e d to the f a c t o r of geographic r e g i o n by i t s e l f . - 1 9 0 -Although many c o n j e c t u r e s can be made about the c o n n e c t i o n between s c h o o l s of pharmacy and v a l u e s , the data c o l l e c t e d i n t h i s study cannot s u b s t a n t i a t e any claims to t h i s e f f e c t . However, some i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e s of these c o r r e l a t i o n s are worth n o t i n g , s i n c e , as w i l l be seen i n Chapter VI, v a l u e s h e l p to e x p l a i n the tendency of students a t the v a r i o u s s c h o o l s of pharmacy to make d i f f e r e n t c h o i c e s from the f i e l d s w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . Students o r i e n t e d toward i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s are more o f t e n found a t the two u n i v e r s i t i e s i n the p r o v i n c e of Quebec, the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, and to a l e s s e r extent a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba* E x t r i n s i c values, are more o f t e n h e l d by students a t t e n d i n g Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y , the U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , and the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, and p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e s tend to be h e l d by students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan, L a v a l U n i v e r s -i t y , the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, and to a l e s s e r extent a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba. Students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal,, L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y , and Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y s t r o n g l y h o l d business v a l u e s , and students a t t e n d i n g the l a t t e r t h r e e u n i v e r s i t i e s a l s o tend to r e g a r d ownership of a pharmacy d e s i r a b l e . 6. A c h i e v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s As the f i n d i n g s I n d i c a t e , students who e n t e r pharmacy s c h o o l w i t h s u p e r i o r academic records are more o f t e n con-cerned w i t h an o c c u p a t i o n t h a t r e q u i r e s a \"good knowledge of s c i e n c e and s c i e n t i f i c method,\" w h i l e those who e n t e r -191-w l t h lower grades p r e f e r a job where one can \"meet the p u b l i c and d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h people.\" The l a t t e r a re a l s o more l i k e l y than the former to espouse business and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . I t seems t h a t those who are a c a d e m i c a l l y i n c l i n e d a re more concerned w i t h the worl d of i d e a s , w h i l e the l e s s capable are more i n v o l v e d w i t h the b u s i n e s s w o r l d . Students who d i f f e r w i t h r e s p e c t to o c c u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l experience h o l d b a s i c a l l y the same o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s , except f o r the d e s i r e t o own and operate a pharmacy. I n g e n e r a l ; t h e g r e a t e r the amount of c o n t a c t w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n , as d e r i v e d from p r a c t i c a l e xperience o r o c c u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e , the more l i k e l y the i n d i v i d u a l i s t o c o n s i d e r ownership d e s i r a b l e . As mentioned e a r l i e r , by f a r the m a j o r i t y of c o n t a c t s w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n I s w i t h the r e t a i l f i e l d where ownership Is a common e x p e c t a t i o n of pharmacists, e s p e c i a l l y f o r men. Thus, i t i s not too s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d t h a t c o n t a c t w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n i s r e l a t e d w i t h e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . However, a q u e s t i o n a r i s e s as to the d i r e c t i o n of c a u s a t i o n . I s I t t h a t c o n t a c t w i t h the f i e l d l e a d s to the d e s i r e to own and operate a pharmacy, or i s i t t h a t the e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values motivate the i n d i v i d u a l t o e s t a b l i s h c o n t a c t w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n ? With r e g a r d to o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , the former seems to bes t e x p l a i n the c o n n e c t i o n between c o n t a c t w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n and v a l u e s . Growing up i n a f a m i l y i n which the f a t h e r Is an independent - 1 9 2 -entrepreneur may w e l l l e a d to the a d o p t i o n of e n t r e p r e n -e u r i a l v a l u e s . However, those who do not experience d i r e c t o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e but who e n t e r pharmacy s c h o o l w i t h more than one year of p r a c t i c a l experience may have been mo t i v a t e d by e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s to e s t a b l i s h t h i s form of c o n t a c t w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n . The d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n the study u n f o r t u n a t e l y cannot answer t h i s q u e s t i o n . Regardless of the p r e c e d i n g argument, d i f f e r e n t v a l -ues do l e a d to d i f f e r e n t c h o i c e s of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o -f e s s i o n . The next s e c t i o n i s devoted to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the c o n n e c t i o n between valu e s and c h o i c e . C) VALUES AND CHOICE OP FIELD F i n d i n g s 1 . E x t r l n s l c - p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d - i n t r i n s i c values By u s i n g a system of r a n k i n g , i t i s p o s s i b l e to show the emphasis p l a c e d upon each value by students p l a n n i n g to e n t e r d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s . The weighted average scores f o r students grouped a c c o r d i n g to the c h o i c e s they make are shown i n Table X L I I . I t can be seen from t h i s t a b l e t h a t students p l a n n i n g to e n t e r the r e t a i l f i e l d , g e n e r a l l y speaking, are o r i e n t e d toward e x t r i n s i c v a l u e s , but a l s o r e g a r d as h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e the o p p o r t u n i t y to \"meet the p u b l i c and d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h p e o p l e , \" a p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t t h i s group of students i s l e a s t concerned w i t h an o c c u p a t i o n t h a t r e q u i r e s a \"good knowledge of s c i e n c e -193-TABLE XLII WEIGHTED AVERAGE SCORES FOR EXTRINSIC, PEOPLE-ORIENTED, AND INTRINSIC VALUES BY CHOICE OF FIELD* E x t r i n s i c People-\u00E2\u0080\u00A2oriented I n t r i n s i c \" S a l a r y \" \" P r e s t i g e \" \"Meet P u b l i c \" \" B e n e f i t Fellow ''Man\" \"Scien-t i f i c \" \"Use A l l Knowledge\" R-l.75 R-l.59 R-l.42 H-2.24 0-1.38 P-2.28 P-1.68 P-l.55 P-l.14 P-2.03 P-l.19 0-2.22 H-l . 6 7 H-1.48 H- .85 R-l.94 H-1.18 H-2.01 0-1.54 0-1.35 0 - .84 0-1.92 . R-l.07 R-l.84 Chi-square t e s t performed on o r i g i n a l frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n s ; d . f . = 12 i n each case; \" s a l a r y \" X 2 = 19.661s P<.10; \" p r e s t i g e \" X 2 = 12.509: P<\u00C2\u00BB50; \"meet p u b l i c \" X 2 = 120.567s P<.001; \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man\" X 2 = 25.043: P<.02; \" s c i e n t i f i c \" X 2 = 49.262$ P<.001; \"use a l l knowledge\" X 2 = 35*257: P<.001. a H = H o s p i t a l 0 = Other P = P r e s c r i p t i o n R = R e t a i l and s c i e n t i f i c methods,\" or one i n which i t i s p o s s i b l e to \"use a l l your knowledge, t r a i n i n g , a p t i t u d e s and s k i l l s . \" Students choosing h o s p i t a l pharmacy are most con-cerned w i t h an o p p o r t u n i t y t o \" b e n e f i t your f e l l o w man,\" a p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e , but do not seem to care f o r an o c c u p a t i o n i n which one i s a b l e t o \"meet the p u b l i c and d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h people.\" Students e x p e c t i n g t o e n t e r p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy -194-tend t o be o r i e n t e d toward i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s p l a c i n g the g r e a t e s t emphasis on an o p p o r t u n i t y t o \"use a l l knowledge.\" Those choosing one of the \" o t h e r \" f i e l d s a l s o tend t o f a v o r i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s , having the second h i g h e s t weight average s c o r e f o r the v a l u e , \"use a l l knowledge,\" and the h i g h e s t s c o r e f o r the v a l u e , \"good knowledge of s c i e n c e and s c i e n t i f i c method.\" 2. Business v a l u e s As i n d i c a t e d i n Table X L I I I , students who emphasize busi n e s s v a l u e s are most l i k e l y t o expect t o e n t e r r e t a i l pharmacy and l e a s t l i k e l y to choose any of the remaining f i e l d s . Of those students who r e g a r d as \"very d e s i r a b l e \" one o r both of the busi n e s s v a l u e s , \"merchandising and s e l l i n g \" o r \" p r o f e s s i o n and b u s i n e s s , \" over '80 per cent choose the r e t a i l f i e l d , compared w i t h l e s s than one-half. (43 per cent) of those who are I n d i f f e r e n t t o e i t h e r of these v a l u e s . 3\u00C2\u00BB Independence values Table X L I I I a l s o shows the r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n -dependence val u e s and c h o i c e of f i e l d . Students who r e -gard h i g h l y the o p p o r t u n i t y of being one's \"own boss\" a re more l i k e l y to choose the r e t a i l f i e l d and l e s s l i k e l y t o p l a n on a c a r e e r i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy. Emphasis on t h i s v a l u e does not appear t o make a d i f f e r e n c e f o r the c h o i c e of p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy o r some \"o t h e r \" f i e l d , but i t must be remembered t h a t a l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n of the s t u d -ents c o n s i d e r independence d e s i r a b l e as opposed to un--195-TABLE XLIII BUSINESS, INDEPENDENCE, ENTREPRENEURIAL VALUES AND CHOICE OF FIELD Percentage Choosing: P r e s c r i p -R e t a i l t i o n H o s p i t a l T o t a l -Values Pharmacy Pharmacy Pharmacy Other Cases A. Business High 1 88 2 2 9 64 2 84 6 3 7 123 3 78 5 8 9 148 Low 4 43 10 20 27 925 Independence \"Very d e s i r a b l e \" 60 9 10 21 563 \" F a i r l y d e s i r a b l e \" 53 10 17 22 482 \" I n d i f f e r e n t o r u n d e s i r a b l e 43 9 29 19 217 E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l \"Own and operate pharmacy\" \"Yes\" 74 9 5 12 671 \"Not s u r e \" 40 9 20 31 355 \"No\".. 25 10 34 31 305 a I n d e x comprised of both business v a l u e s , \"merch-a n d i s i n g and s e l l i n g \" and \" p r o f e s s i o n and b u s i n e s s . \" A) X 2 = 1 5 1 . 7 9 3 : d . f . = 9: P<.001 B) X 2 = 46.946: d . f . = 6: P<.001 C) X 2 = 289.669: d . f . = 6: P<.001 -196-d e s i r a b l e . I t may s t i l l s e rve as a m o t i v a t i n g v a l u e f o r persons e n t e r i n g these l a t t e r f i e l d s . km E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values Students who have the d e s i r e t o own and operate a pharmacy are most l i k e l y t o be p l a n n i n g a c a r e e r i n the r e t a i l f i e l d , and l e s s l i k e l y to expect to e n t e r h o s p i t a l pharmacy o r one of the \" o t h e r \" f i e l d s (see Table X L I I I ) . Students who p l a c e d i f f e r e n t amounts of emphasis on t h i s v a l u e do not vary i n t h e i r c h o i c e of p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, but a g a i n , i t must be remembered t h a t i n g e n e r a l students are h i g h l y motivated by the p r o s p e c t of owning and o p e r a t -i n g a pharmacy and may make t h i s c h o i c e p r e c i s e l y t o r e a l i z e e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . Of those choosing r e t a i l pharmacy, 70 per cent c o n s i d e r ownership d e s i r a b l e , com-pared w i t h 50 per cent of those choosing p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, and o n l y 28 per cent of those p l a n n i n g to e n t e r some \" o t h e r \" f i e l d , as w e l l as 16 per cent of those choos-i n g h o s p i t a l pharmacy. D i s c u s s i o n As the f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e , students choosing v a r i o u s f i e l d s w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n tend t o emphasize d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s . Thus, the data g e n e r a l l y support the c o n t e n t i o n t h a t values p l a y a p a r t i n determining the c h o i c e . How-ever, by comparing the c h i - s q u a r e v a l u e s f o r these / r e -l a t i o n s h i p s , i t immediately w i l l be e v i d e n t t h a t some values are more s i g n i f i c a n t i n l e a d i n g t o d i f f e r e n t c h o i c e s -197-than o t h e r s . I t w i l l be noted t h a t the E.P.I, v a l u e s , \" s a l a r y \" and \"prestige,'\" although emphasized by p r o s p e c t i v e r e t a i l p h a r m a c i s t s , when c o r r e l a t e d w i t h c h o i c e of f i e l d , f a i l t o a t t a i n the accepted l e v e l s of s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h the ch i - s q u a r e t e s t . A t r e n d i s v i s i b l e , w i t h those choosing r e t a i l pharmacy, p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, h o s p i t a l pharmacy and some \" o t h e r \" f i e l d , i n t h a t o r d e r , i n d i c a t i n g a p r e f -erence f o r \" s a l a r y \" and \" p r e s t i g e , \" but the d i f f e r e n c e s a r e not s i g n i f i c a n t . What t h i s suggests i s t h a t these v a l u e s tend t o be shared by pharmacy s t u d e n t s , and, to some extent a t l e a s t , a re r e a l i z e d i n each of the spe-c i a l i z e d f i e l d s . Concerning E.P.I, v a l u e s , students v a r y i n g i n the c h o i c e of f i e l d d i f f e r most s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e i r concern f o r an o c c u p a t i o n which al l o w s one to \"meet the p u b l i c . \" The same g e n e r a l o r d e r of p r e f e r e n c e as was observed w i t h e x t r i n s i c v a l u e s i s seen here, but the d i f f e r e n c e s a re g r e a t e r . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t students who are most concerned w i t h t h i s v a l u e are p r o s p e c t i v e r e t a i l p h a r m a c i s t s , and, to a l e s s e r e x t e n t , those p l a n n i n g c a -r e e r s i n p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. But, f o r those who ex-p e c t to e n t e r h o s p i t a l pharmacy o r some \" o t h e r \" f i e l d , t h i s v a l u e has l i t t l e a p p e a l . I n f a c t , the n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e towards i t may be a f a c t o r i n the c h o i c e s made by the l a t t e r two groups. About 40 p e r cent of those choosing h o s p i t a l pharmacy or some \" o t h e r \" f i e l d are -198-i n d i f f e r e n t to the v a l u e , \"meet the p u b l i c , \" o r c o n s i d e r i t u n d e s i r a b l e , compared w i t h 2k and 15 per cent of those p l a n n i n g to e n t e r p r e s c r i p t i o n and r e t a i l pharmacy, r e s p e c -t i v e l y . D e s p i t e the l a c k of enthusiasm about the o p p o r t u n i t y to \"meet the p u b l i c , \" students e x p e c t i n g t o e n t e r h o s p i t a l pharmacy s t r o n g l y emphasize the oth e r p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l -ue;} \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man.\" T h i s of course r a i s e s some ques-t i o n s as t o whether these two values constitute a v a l u e -o r i e n t a t i o n , t h a t i s , whether they a re \" l i n k e d \" psycho-l o g i c a l l y such t h a t they tend to be accepted o r r e j e c t e d t o g e t h e r . T h i s i s o b v i o u s l y not the case f o r students who hope to p r a c t i s e t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n i n a h o s p i t a l d i s p e n -s a r y ; nor i s i t so f o r p r o s p e c t i v e r e t a i l pharmacists who p l a c e l i t t l e emphasis on the v a l u e , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man.\" Rosenberg, i n h i s study of c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s ' occu-p a t i o n a l c h o i c e s , found the v a l u e s , \" o p p o r t u n i t y to work w i t h people r a t h e r than t h i n g s \" and \" o p p o r t u n i t y t o be h e l p f u l to o t h e r s \" t o be s t r o n g l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h one another, and he l a b e l l e d the p a i r a \" p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d \" v a l u e complex. As d e s c r i b e d by Rosenberg: \"Respondents s e l e c t -i n g these v a l u e s tend t o view work l a r g e l y as an opportun-i t y f o r o b t a i n i n g g r a t i f i c a t i o n s t o be d e r i v e d from i n t e r -p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . w l 3 Although the statements designed t o tap p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e s i n the pr e s e n t study d i f f e r somewhat from those used by Rosenberg, the f i n d i n g s r a i s e some q u e s t i o n s about the c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of t h i s v a l u e - 1 9 9 -complex. I t would appear t h a t g r a t i f i c a t i o n d e r i v e d from i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s can be of a t l e a s t two k i n d s , de-pending on the i n t e r e s t s of the i n d i v i d u a l . I t seems reasonable to suggest t h a t one may i n t e r a c t w i t h people p r i m a r i l y w i t h a concern f o r the w e l f a r e of others o r w i t h a concern f o r one's own w e l f a r e . S u r e l y a salesman d e r i v e s g r a t i f i c a t i o n from i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , but i s t h i s e q u i v a l e n t to the p l e a s u r e d e r i v e d by a s o c i a l worker upon a i d i n g a needy f a m i l y ? I t i s suggested t h a t a d i s t r i b u t i o n needs to be made between \" s e l f - o r i e n t e d \" and \" c o l l e c t i v i t y -o r i e n t e d \" i n t e r a c t i o n 1 * 1 ' , and t h a t t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n be used to c o n c e p t u a l i z e two b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t types of people-o r i e n t e d v a l u e s . T h i s problem m e r i t s f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . Apart from E.P.I, v a l u e s , the f i n d i n g s show t h a t the c h o i c e of f i e l d v a r i e s w i t h the emphasis p l a c e d upon b u s i -ness, independence, and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . The f i r s t p o i n t to note i s t h a t , a l t h o u g h a l l three values are pos-i t i v e l y r e l a t e d w i t h the c h o i c e of r e t a i l pharmacy, they a r e e s s e n t i a l l y separate v a l u e s . Business v a l u e s are n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d w i t h the c h o i c e of p r e s c r i p t i o n pharm-acy, h o s p i t a l pharmacy, and some \" o t h e r \" f i e l d ; indepen-dence values are r e l a t e d n e g a t i v e l y w i t h the c h o i c e of h o s p i t a l pharmacy, but not w i t h the o t h e r two c h o i c e s ; and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s are n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d w i t h h o s p i t a l pharmacy as a c h o i c e of f i e l d and w i t h the r e -s i d u a l c a t e g o r y . - 2 0 0 -However d i f f e r e n t these three values may be, they a r e a l l p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the c h o i c e of the r e t a i l f i e l d and n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o the ch o i c e o f h o s p i t a l pharmacy. As f o r the o t h e r f i e l d s , the c h o i c e of p r e s c r i p -t i o n pharmacy i s n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d w i t h b u s i n e s s v a l u e s , but not wit h independence and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . As p o i n t e d out e a r l i e r the l a t t e r two may s t i l l serve as m o t i v a t i n g v a l u e s f o r students e x p e c t i n g to p r a c t i s e t h e i r chosen p r o f e s s i o n i n a p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. The ch o i c e of one of the \"o t h e r \" f i e l d s i s . i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d w i t h business and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , but not w i t h the va l u e of Independence. Thus, i t i s seen t h a t students making d i f f e r e n t c h o i c e s tend t o emphasize d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s . P r o s p e c t i v e r e t a i l pharmacists a re o r i e n t e d toward e x t r i n s i c v a l u e s and are concerned w i t h an o p p o r t u n i t y t o \"meet the p u b l i c and d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h people.\" I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s group p l a c e s s t r o n g emphasis on b u s i n e s s , independence, and en t r e p r e n -e u r i a l v a l u e s . Students p l a n n i n g to p r a c t i s e the p r o f e s s i o n i n a r e t a i l e s t a b l i s h m e n t d e a l i n g p r i m a r i l y i n p r e s c r i p t i o n s tend t o emphaslee i n t r i n s i c values and, to a much l e s s e r e x t e n t , independence and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , but they r e j e c t b u s i n e s s v a l u e s . . Those e x p e c t i n g to e n t e r h o s p i t a l pharmacy are concerned p r i m a r i l y w i t h the g r a t i f i c a t i o n d e r i v e d from the o p p o r t u n i t y t o \" b e n e f i t one's f e l l o w man,\" and tend t o r e j e c t b u s i n e s s , independence, and e n t r e p r e n -e u r i a l v a l u e s . F i n a l l y , students choosing some \"o t h e r \" - 2 0 1 -f i e l d s t r e s s i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s , are somewhat f a v o r a b l e to independence, and r e j e c t b u s i n e s s and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 To what extent w i l l these students r e a l i z e t h e i r v a l u e s i n t h e i r c h o i c e s of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n ? Although the p r e s e n t w r i t e r makes no c l a i m t o have exhaust-ed a l l the values which may have motivated students to make t h e . v a r i o u s c h o i c e s , some e s t i m a t i o n can be made of the extent to which s t u d e n t s ' o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s w i l l be r e a l i z e d i n t h e i r c h o i c e s . E x c e p t i n g the e x t r i n s i c values which a r e shared somewhat by a l l s t u d e n t s , p r o p e c t i v e r e -t a i l pharmacists would appear to have the b e s t chance of f u l f i l l i n g t h e i r v alue e x p e c t a t i o n s . The r e t a i l f i e l d a l l o w s one to \"meet the p u b l i c _and d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h p e o p l e , \" p r o v i d e s o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l a c -t i v i t y and o c c u p a t i o n a l independence, i n v o l v e s c o n s i d e r a b l e \"merchandising and s e l l i n g , \" and i s regarded as both a \" p r o f e s s i o n and b u s i n e s s . \" Next most l i k e l y t o r e a l i z e t h e i r v a l u e s are those who expect to work i n a p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. Although members of t h i s group may not be a b l e t o express f u l l y t h e i r I n t r i n s i c v a l u e s , they may f i n d s a t i s f a c t i o n jfcn owning and o p e r a t i n g a pharmacy and g a i n i n g o c c u p a t i o n a l independence. But more important, students who make t h i s c h o i c e p l a c e c o n s i d e r a b l e emphasis on each of the o t h e r E.P.I, v a l u e s , having the second h i g h e s t weighted average s c o r e s f o r f i v e of the s i x , and-the h i g h e s t s c o r e f o r the -202-s i x t h . These s t u d e n t s w i l l t e n d t o r e c e i v e s a t i s f a c t i o n f r o m an o p p o r t u n i t y t o \"meet the p u b l i c \" and \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man*\" as w e l l as p a r t i a l l y r e a l i z i n g o t h e r v a l u e s . S t u d e n t s p l a n n i n g t o p r a c t i s e t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n i n a h o s p i t a l d i s p e n s a r y t e n d t o emphasize one v a l u e , t h e g r a t i -f i c a t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man,\" but t h i s v a l u e appears t o pharmacy s t u d e n t s t o be r e a l i z a b l e (see T a b l e X X X I I I ) . Thus, i t would seem t h a t t h i s group would be more l i k e l y t h a n t h e n e x t t o r e a l i z e t h i s v a l u e e x p e c t a t i o n . L e a s t l i k e l y t o f u l f i l l t h e i r v a l u e e x p e c t a t i o n s a r e t h o s e p l a n n i n g t o e n t e r some \" o t h e r \" f i e l d . These s t u d e n t s a r e o r i e n t e d p r i m a r i l y t o w a r d i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s , w i t h t h e l o w e s t s c o r e f o r each of t h e o t h e r E . P . I , v a l u e s , and a r e somewhat c o n c e r n e d w i t h Independence. The f o r m e r v a l u e s , a c c o r d i n g t o pharmacy s t u d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s , a r e n o t o v e r l y r e a l i z a b l e i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n , and t h e l a t t e r , a l t h o u g h somewhat r e a l i z a b l e , r i s j l e s s i m p o r t a n t . Thus, t h e o r d e r o f l i k e l i h o o d of f u l f i l l i n g v a l u e e x p e c t a t i o n s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e e s t i m a t e , i s : r e t a i l pharmacy, p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, h o s p i t a l pharm-a c y , and some \" o t h e r \" f i e l d . I f t h i s i s i n f a c t t h e c a s e , t h e n one would e x p e c t t o f i n d s t u d e n t s c h o o s i n g d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s t o v a r y i n t h e i r a t t i t u d e s about t h e i r c a r e e r de-c i s i o n s . S t u d e n t s were a s k e d t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n : \"Once you made up y o u r mind t o become a p h a r m a c i s t , d i d you e v e r have any doubts t h a t t h i s was t h e r i g h t d e c i s i o n -203-f o r you a f t e r entering pharmacy school?\" (Question 28 b of Questionnaire, Appendix A). Replies to t h i s question by choice of f i e l d are shown i n Table XLIV. As expected, prospective r e t a i l pharmacists are least l i k e l y to have doubts about the career decision. Somewhat more l i k e l y to be i n doubt about the choice of pharmacy as a career are those who plan to enter h o s p i t a l pharmacy and those choosing some \"other\" f i e l d . Those hoping to work i n a p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy resemble prospective pharm-a c i s t s i n t h e i r a t t i t u d e s . Regardless of the extent to which various values are r e a l i z e d by pharmacy students, values do serve as indicators of the choices of f i e l d within the profession. In this s e c t i o n the relationships between values and choice were described. In the Chapter VI an attempt w i l l be made to TABLE XLIV DOUBTS ABOUT CAREER DECISION AFTER ENTERING PHARMACY SCHOOL Percentage with: Students Choosing \"Serious Doubts\" \"Sl i g h t Doubts\" \"No Doubt at A l l \" Total Cases R e t a i l pharmacy 14 44 42 712 P r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy 16 42 42 120 Hospital pharmacy 1 7 47 36 210 Other 24 43 33 283 X 2 = 18.124: d.f. = 6: P<~.01 -204-show how values, sources of information: and influence, and s o c i a l background factors operate together to determine whether a student w i l l choose r e t a i l pharmacy, p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, h o s p i t a l pharmacy or some \"other\" f i e l d * CHAPTER V TEMPORAL PATTERNS OF THE DECISION TO STUDY PHARMACY The choosing of an occupation Is not a s i n g l e event t h a t occurs at any one point i n time. Rather, i t i s a developmental process which extends over s e v e r a l years. I t may \"begin at an e a r l y age or l a t e r i n l i f e and i t may c r y s t a l l i z e i n t o a d e f i n i t e career d e c i s i o n at p r a c t i c a l l y any time a f t e r . However, the time at which a career i s f i r s t considered and f i n a l l y chosen i s not a r b i t r a r y , but depends on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s , some of which are explored I n t h i s chapter. Furthermore, these ages have important consequences f o r the i n d i v i d u a l ' s o r i e n t a t i o n to the occ u p a t i o n a l world. This chapter sets out to i n v e s t i g a t e the f a c t o r s which a f f e c t the age at which a career i n pharmacy i s f i r s t considered and f i n a l l y chosen and to examine the consequences of the l a t t e r f o r the pharmacy student. The p l a n i s to view these ages i n r e l a t i o n to s o c i a l back-ground f a c t o r s , sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , a t t i t u d e s and f e e l i n g s of students, and the choice of f i e l d . Of the main sets of f a c t o r s used i n t h i s study, values are omitted from t h i s chapter. This i s due prim--20 6-a r i l y to the f a c t that no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a -t i o n s h i p s could be found between values and the age of c o n s i d e r a t i o n or d e c i s i o n . Values appear to operate i n -dependently of temporal f a c t o r s . The f i r s t s e c t i o n focuses on the age at which a career i n pharmacy i s f i r s t considered. This i s f o l l o w e d by a s e c t i o n which concentrates on the age at which a d e f i n i t e d e c i s i o n i s reached. The l a s t s e c t i o n of t h i s chapter i s concerned w i t h the r e l a t i o n s h i p of the choice of f i e l d w i t h the age of c o n s i d e r a t i o n and the age of d e c i s i o n . A) AGE AT WHICH PHARMACY CAREER IS FIRST CONSIDERED Findings The age at which a career i s f i r s t considered depends on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s , one of which i s the occupation i t s e l f . Table XLV shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n of pharmacy students according to the age at which c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s f i r s t given to t h e i r chosen p r o f e s s i o n . The modal student f i r s t t h i n k s about a career i n pharmacy at 16 or 17 years of age, and only about a quarter of the students consider such a career before the age of 16 years. Although t h i s i s the case f o r students i n genera l , the age of f i r s t c o n s i d e r i n g a career i n pharmacy v a r i e s w i t h c e r t a i n s o c i a l background f a c t o r s . For the sake of comparison, both the s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t and i n s i g -n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s o c i a l background f a c t o r s - 2 0 7 -TABLE XLV AGE AT WHICH CAREER IN PHARMACY IS FIRST CONSIDERED Age Number of Students Percentage Younger than 10 years 46 3 10 - 13 years 94 7 14 - 15 years 205 15 16 - 17 years 439 33 18 - 19 years 352 26 S i n c e the age of 20 191 14 No answer 8 1 T o t a l 1335 99 and the age of f i r s t c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy are shown i n Table XLVT. Socio-economic s t a t u s , r e l i g i o n u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e , p r a c t i c a l e xperience, and o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t -ance are a l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d w i t h the age of f i r s t c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy. Perhaps the most s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s i n t h i s r e g a r d a re p r a c t i c a l experience and o c c u p a t i o n a l I n h e r i t a n c e . I n g e n e r a l , students who have c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t a c t w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n e i t h e r through experience o r by having a parent i n pharmacy more o f t e n t h i n k about such a c a r e e r a t an e a r l y age. - 2 0 8 -TABLE XLVI SOCIAL BACKGROUND FACTORS AND AGE AT WHICH PHARMACY CAREER IS FIRST CONSIDERED Percentage Considering Pharmacy Career E a r l y a Late' T o t a l Cases A. Sex Males Females 24 29 76 71 891 415 B. Socio-economic c l a s s Upper Middle Lower 35 24 24 65 76 76 200 557 410 C. R e l i g i o n Jewish P r o t e s t a n t Roman C a t h o l i c 34 29 22 66 71 78 103 617 422 D. Urban-rural residence Farm, r u r a l Town Small c i t y Large c i t y 17 25 29 28 83 75 71 72 211 216 387 497 a 1 5 years or younger. 1 316 years or o l d e r . A) X 2 = 3 .657: d.f. = 1 : P<.10 B) X 2 = 9 . 8 0 3 : d.f. = 2: P<.01 C) X 2 = 9 . 136: d.f. = 2: P<.02 D) X 2 =11.668: d.f. = 3 : P<-01 - 2 0 9 -TABLE XLVT\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued Percentage Considering Pharmacy Career T o t a l E a r l y a L a t e D Cases E. Geographic r e g i o n Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y U. of Manitoba U. of Toronto U. of A l b e r t a U. of Saskatchewan U. of B r i t i s h Columbia U. of Montreal L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y P. P r a c t i c a l experience More than one year One year or l e s s None G. Occupational i n h e r i t a n c e Parents R e l a t i v e s N e i t h e r H. High school grades 90 - 100 % 80 - 89 70 - 79 60 - 69 50 - 59 a 1 5 years or younger. * l 6 years or o l d e r . E) X 2 = 11 .561: d.f. = 7: P<.20 F) X 2 = 71 .805: d.f. = 2: P<.001 G) X 2 = 4 3 . 4 9 0 : d.f. = 2: P<.001 H) X 2 = 4 . 6 1 0 : d.f. = 4 : P<.50 36 64 67 30 70 94 29 71 348 26 74 171 25 75 172 23 77 124 23 77 269 15 85 54 41 59 328 29 71 274 18 82 720 48 52 140 28 72 223 22 78 943 24 76 33 30 70 262 26 74 587 22 78 394 29 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 71 41 -210-Table XLVTI shows the r e l a t i o n s h i p \"between the f a c -t o r s which are important i n the career d e c i s i o n (sources of i n f l u e n c e ) and the age at which a career i n pharmacy-i s f i r s t considered. Except f o r \" s p e c i a l speakers,\" TABLE XLVTI FACTORS IN DECISION AND AGE AT WHICH PHARMACY CAREER IS FIRST CONSIDERED Percentage Considering Career i n Pharmacy Most Important F a c t o r i n D e c i s i o n E a r l y a L a t e b T o t a l Cases Parent 33 6? 343 Pharmacist . 32 68 296 S p e c i a l speaker 28 72 36 \"Other\" 23 77 244 R e l a t i v e 22 78 83 Ph.A. recruitment media 20 80 103 H.S. teachers and co u n s e l l o r s 14 86 80 Frlends 13 87 46 Mass media 13 88 16 a 1 5 years or younger. 16 years or o l d e r . X 2 = 27*559: d.f. = 8 : P<.001 . p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources appear t o l e a d t o an e a r l y awakening of I n t e r e s t I n pharmacy, whereas ideology-o r i e n t e d sources tend to be important f o r those who con-s i d e r pharmacy l a t e r i n l i f e . Of those who r e l y on prac-t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources, n e a r l y o n e - t h i r d (31 per cent) t h i n k about a career i n pharmacy at 15 years of age or -211-younger, compared w i t h only 19 per cent of those who are most s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources and 21 per cent of those who u t i l i z e sources other than prac-t i c e - or i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d ( i . e . , u n c l a s s i f i e d ) . The preceding t a b l e s show that the age of c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy v a r i e s w i t h c e r t a i n s o c i a l background f a c t o r s and sources of i n f l u e n c e . I n t u r n , the age of c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy appears to have c e r t a i n consequences f o r the f e e l -ings and a t t i t u d e s pharmacy students have about t h e i r chosen p r o f e s s i o n . I n Question 2? of the q u e s t i o n n a i r e , students are asked to i n d i c a t e t h e i r f e e l i n g s about a career i n pharmacy. The p r o p o r t i o n s t a t i n g that pharmacy i s the \"only career that could r e a l l y s a t i s f y me\" i s shown f o r each category i n Table XLVTII. The f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e TABLE XLVTII AGE OF CONSIDERING PHARMACY AND FEELINGS ABOUT PHARMACY CAREER Age at Which Career Percentage Replying, i n Pharmacy i s F i r s t \"Only career that T o t a l Considered could r e a l l y s a t i s f y me\" Cases Before age of 14 years 35 140 At 14 or 15 years 30 205 At 16 or 1? years 28 ^39 At 18 or 19 years 17 352 Since age.of 20 years 15 191 X2 = 8 9 . 1 3 3 : d.f. = 2 0 : P<.001 - 2 1 2 -that the younger the student i s when he f i r s t t h i n k s about pharmacy as a career the more l i k e l y he i s to regard pharm-acy as the \"only career.\" I n Questions 30 (c) and (e) students are asked to i n d i c a t e f i r s t whether they would choose pharmacy again i f the c o n d i t i o n s of the d e c i s i o n were d i f f e r e n t , and sec-ond, whether they would make the same choice given t h e i r present knowledge of the p r o f e s s i o n . I n Table XLIX the p r o p o r t i o n answering \"yes\" to both questions i s shown according to the age at which a career i n pharmacy i s f i r s t considered. TABLE XLIX AGE OF CONSIDERING PHARMACY AND CAREER DECISION IF MADE AGAIN Age at Which Career i n ;. i> Pharmacy i s F i r s t Percentage Who Would T o t a l Considered Choose Pharmacy Again Cases Before the age of 14 years 55 134 At 14 or 15 years 47 200 At 16 or 17 years 46 427 At 18 or 19 years 33 345 Since the age of 20 30 188 X 2 = 3 7 . 7 8 5 : d.f. = 4: P<.001 The f i n d i n g s to t h i s p o i n t seem to suggest that the age of c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy depends on c e r t a i n s o c i a l back-ground c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and sources of i n f l u e n c e and has consequences f o r the a t t i t u d e s and f e e l i n g s students have about t h e i r chosen p r o f e s s i o n . These p o i n t s are more -213-f u l l y d iscussed i n the f o l l o w i n g s u b s e c t i o n . D i s c u s s i o n As suggested e a r l i e r , the age at which a p a r t i c u l a r career i s f i r s t considered depends, among other t h i n g s , on the occupation i t s e l f . F actors such as p r e s t i g e and v i s i b i l i t y , or \" s o c i a l p u b l i c i t y , \" of an occupation probably p l a y a part i n determining the age at which an occupation i s f i r s t considered. N a t a l i e Rogoff, i n a study of medical students at the U n i v e r s i t y of Pennsylvania, r e p o r t s a wide range of ages at which a career i n medicine i s f i r s t considered, but repor t s no p a r t i c u l a r concentra-t i o n i n any one age category. She f i n d s that 24 per cent f i r s t consider a career i n medicine at 10 years or younger, 2? per cent at 10 to 13 years, 18 per cent at 14 or 15 years, 17 per cent at 16 or 17 years, and 14 per cent at 18 years or older.\"*\" C l e a r l y t h i s i s not the case w i t h pharmacy students, who show a marked c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n the upper age groups. I f Rogoff's study can serve as a b a s i s of comparison, i t appears that pharmacy students f i r s t s t a r t t h i n k i n g about t h e i r career l a t e r I n l i f e than do medical students. Given the r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e i n pres-t i g e , and to some extent v i s i b i l i t y , between the two occupations, the f i n d i n g s are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the view t h a t the more p r e s t i g e f u l and more v i s i b l e occupations are f i r s t considered as career a l t e r n a t i v e s e a r l i e r i n l i f e . -214-Age of c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy and s o c i a l background f a c t o r s Despite the marked c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n the upper age c a t e g o r i e s , some students do consider a career i n pharmacy at an e a r l y age. As shown i n Table XLvT, the age of f i r s t c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d w i t h s e v e r a l s o c i a l background f a c t o r s , those being socio-economic s t a t u s , r e l i g i o n , u r b a n - r u r a l residence, p r a c t i c a l exper-i e n c e , and o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , the l a t t e r two per-haps being the most important. To account f o r the wide d i v e r s i t y of agesMat which a medical career i s f i r s t considered by medi.cal students at the U n i v e r s i t y of Pennsylvania, Rogoff p o i n t s to the d i f f e r e n c e s i n o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r l e a r n i n g about the s t a t u s and a c t i v i t i e s of the p h y s i c i a n and suggests that c l o s e and s u s t a i n e d contact enjoyed by students whose f a t h e r s or r e l a t i v e s are doctors g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n and more r e a d i l y brings about the i d e a 2 of becoming a par t of i t . From the p r e v i o u s l y mentioned t a b l e i t can be seen th a t students who have parents i n the p r o f e s s i o n begin t h i n k i n g about a career i n pharmacy a t an e a r l i e r age than o t h e r s , and that those who have more d i s t a n t r e l a t i v e s who are pharmacists begin t h i n k i n g about t h e i r chosen p r o f e s s i o n e a r l i e r than those who have n e i t h e r parents nor- r e l a t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n , although the d i f f -erence between the l a t t e r two groups i s not n e a r l y as l a r g e as t h a t observed between the former. Thus, as i n the case -215-of medicine, contact w i t h the f i e l d of pharmacy, as occasioned by having parents and/or r e l a t i v e s i n the pro-f e s s i o n , appears to f a c i l i t a t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n and to l e a d to an e a r l y c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the occupation as a career a l t e r n a t i v e . The extent of contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n as gained through p r a c t i c a l experience i s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d w i t h the age of c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy. I n g e n e r a l , the g r e a t e r the extent of p r a c t i c a l experience the more l i k e l y the i n d i v i d u a l i s to consider a career i n pharmacy a t an e a r l y age. This r e l a t i o n s h i p c ould develop i n two ways. An e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n the p r o f e s s i o n might l e a d one to seek employment i n a pharmacy. Gn the other hand, an i n d i v i d u a l may g a i n employment f o r other reasons and subsequently develop an i n t e r e s t i n the p r o f e s s i o n . Whatever the d i r e c -t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p , i t seems c e r t a i n t h a t an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n the p r o f e s s i o n i s connected w i t h the amount of p r a c t i c a l experience gained p r i o r to e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . I f c l o s e and s u s t a i n e d contact w i t h pharmacy, as occasioned by having parents and r e l a t i v e s i n the pro-f e s s i o n and as gained through p r a c t i c a l experience, leads to an: e a r l y awakening of i n t e r e s t , i t would f o l l o w that any other c o n d i t i o n which allows f o r greater contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n , a l l other f a c t o r s being equal, should s i m i l a r l y l e a d to an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n pharmacy. I t would be expected that individuals.who l i v e i n more i s o l a t e d -216-p a r t s of the country and who have l e s s contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n would be l e s s l i k e l y to t h i n k of pharmacy as a career at an e a r l y age. Thus, i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g to f i n d the f a c t o r of u r b a n - r u r a l residence r e l a t e d w i t h the age of c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy. I t w i l l be n o t i c e d , however, that the b i g d i f f e r e n c e i s between students coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s and a l l others. Since pharmacies can be found i n most sm a l l towns, only students who l i v e i n r u r a l areas away from even the s m a l l e s t centers of p o p u l a t i o n are deprived of contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n . I n any event, the f a c t o r of u r b a n - r u r a l residence appears to make a d i f f e r e n c e to the age at which pharmacy i s considered. The f i n d i n g s a l s o show a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l i g i o n and age' of c o n s i d e r i n g pharm-acy. This may be due p a r t l y to the d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e of o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e . Since Jewish students have the highest r a t e of d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t -ance, i t might be expected that students of t h i s f a i t h would develop an e a r l y I n t e r e s t i n the p r o f e s s i o n . However, t h i s f a c t o r does not e x p l a i n the d i f f e r e n c e between P r o t -estant and C a t h o l i c students, s i n c e t h e i r r a t e s of occu-p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e are s i m i l a r . Yet 29 per cent of the P r o t e s t a n t s and only 22 per cent of the C a t h o l i c s t h i n k about a career i n pharmacy at 15 years or younger. I t would appear th a t r e l i g i o n does pl a y some part i n a f f e c t -i n g the age at which a career i s f i r s t considered. -217-Table XLVT a l s o shows a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between socio-economic st a t u s and age of c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy, but i t w i l l be n o t i c e d that the d i f f e r e n c e i s between those of upper socio-economic st a t u s and a l l others. This can be a t t r i b u t e d almost e n t i r e l y to the d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e of o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , s i n c e of the 200 students of upper c l a s s background approximately two-thirds have parents i n the p r o f e s s i o n . Age of c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy and sources of i n f l u e n c e The preceding i l l u s t r a t e s that c e r t a i n s o c i a l back-ground f a c t o r s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n pharmacy p r i m a r i l y because they r e f l e c t g r eater opportun-i t i e s f o r l e a r n i n g about the p r o f e s s i o n . A f u r t h e r ques-t i o n that can be r a i s e d i s whether students who consider pharmacy e a r l y are i n f l u e n c e d i n t h e i r career choice by d i f f e r e n t sources from those u t i l i z e d by students who f i r s t t h i n k about pharmacy l a t e r i n l i f e . The f i n d i n g s show that students who are most s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources, excepting \" s p e c i a l speakers,\" tend to consider a career i n pharmacy at an e a r l y age. Whether t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s spurious or c a u s a l i s d i f f i c u l t to say from the data c o l l e c t e d , but i t may w e l l be that parents and pharmacists together w i t h s p e c i a l speakers, who p l a y a part i n the career d e c i s i o n , are a l s o important i n arousing an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n the p r o f e s s i o n . Except f o r s p e c i a l speakers, a l l other i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d -218-sources seem not t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n pharmacy. Whether p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources and s p e c i a l speakers ( o f t e n p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists who take an a c t i v e p a r t i n pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n a f f a i r s ) a c t u a l l y serve to b r i n g about an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n the p r o f e s s i o n , or whether an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n the p r o f e s s i o n increases the s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to these sources of i n f l u e n c e cannot be determined from the data. Age of c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy and f e e l i n g s about chosen p r o f e s s i o n Regardless of the sources of i n f l u e n c e , students who have an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n pharmacy f e e l d i f f e r e n t l y about t h e i r chosen p r o f e s s i o n w h i l e i n pharmacy s c h o o l . Compared w i t h those who f i r s t s t a r t t h i n k i n g about such a career l a t e r i n l i f e , students who become i n t e r e s t e d i n pharmacy e a r l y are more l i k e l y to f e e l that pharmacy i s the \"only career t h a t could r e a l l y s a t i s f y me,\" and to i n d i c a t e that w i t h t h e i r present knowledge of the p r o f e s s i o n they would make the same career choice r e g a r d l e s s of the co n d i t i o n s of the d e c i s i o n . I t seems that students who f i r s t consider pharmacy at an e a r l y age (and who subsequently enter the f i e l d ) are more committed to t h e i r chosen p r o f e s s i o n than those who consider a pharmacy career l a t e r . This s e c t i o n has attempted to show tha t the oppor-t u n i t i e s f o r l e a r n i n g about the p r o f e s s i o n made p o s s i b l e by v i r t u e of c e r t a i n s o c i a l background f a c t o r s a f f e c t the age at which a career i n pharmacy i s f i r s t considered. -219-An e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n the p r o f e s s i o n may stem from prac-t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f l u e n c e or may make the stud-ent r e c e p t i v e to such sources. I n e i t h e r case an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n pharmacy and a strong commitment to the pro-f e s s i o n seem to go together. B) AGE OF CAREER DECISION Findings Although a d e f i n i t e d e c i s i o n to enter a p a r t i c u l a r p r o f e s s i o n can occur at any time a f t e r the career i s f i r s t considered, i t most o f t e n takes i t s f i n a l form, f o r pharm-acy students, between the ages of 18 and 20 years. Table L shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n of pharmacy students according to the age at which the career d e c i s i o n i s reached. TABLE L AGE AT WHICH DECISION TO ENTER.PHARMACY IS REACHED Age Number of Students Percentage Before the age of 14 years 21 2 At 14 or 15 years 44 3 At 16 or 17 years 374 28 Between 18 - 20 years 663 50 Since the age of 21 years 222 17 No answer 11 1 T o t a l 1335 101 The age at which the d e c i s i o n to enter pharmacy i s reached v a r i e s w i t h c e r t a i n s o c i a l background f a c t o r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y sex, r e l i g i o n , geographic r e g i o n , p r a c t i c a l -220-experience, and high school grades, as shown i n Table LI. TABLE LI SOCIAL BACKGROUND FACTORS AND AGE AT WHICH DECISION TO ENTER PHARMACY IS REACHED Percentage Deciding on Pharmacy Career T o t a l E a r l y 8 , L a t e \" Cases A. Sex Males Females B. Socio-economic st a t u s Upper Middle Lower C. R e l i g i o n Jewish P r o t e s t a n t Roman C a t h o l i c D. Urban-rural residence Farm, r u r a l Town Small c i t y Large c i t y 27 73 888 48 52 415 36 65 200 33 ' 67 557 32 68 410 41 59 104 40 60 617 23 77 421 30 70 208 35 65 216 35 65 383 33 67 494 a 1 7 years or younger. b l 8 years or o l d e r . A) X 2 = 55 .378: d.f. = 1: P<.001 B) X 2 = . 7 0 0 : d.f. = 2: P<.80 C) X 2 = 3 5 . 0 5 9 : d.f. = 2: P<.001 D) X 2 = 1 .952: d.f. = 3 : P<\u00C2\u00AB70 - 2 2 1 -TABLE LI\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued Percentage Deciding on Pharmacy Career Total E a r l y a L a t e b Cases E. Geographic region . Dalhousie University U. of Manitoba U. of Alberta U. of Saskatchewan U. of Toronto U. of Montreal U. of B r i t i s h Columbia Laval University F. P r a c t i c a l experience More than one year One year or less None G\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Occupational inheritance Parents Relatives Neither H. High school grades 90 - 100 % 80 - 89 70 - 79 60 - 69 50 - 59 17 years or younger. 18 years or older. E) X 2 = 7 4 . 5 8 0 : d.f. = 7: P<.001 F) X 2 = 25 .325: d.f. = 2: P<.001 G) X 2 = 5 .212: d.f. = 2: P<.10 H) X 2 = 21 .335: d.f. = ' 4 : P<.001 54 46 67 52 48 95 42 58 172 38 62 185 34 66 354 21 79 269 19 81 124 13 87 54 38 62 328 43 57 272 27 73 719 42 58 139 34 66 224 32 68 940 43 58 33 41 59 262 35 65 587 26 74 394 24 76 41 - 2 2 2 -I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t the s o c i a l f a c t o r s which are important i n b r i n g i n g about an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n pharmacy are not n e c e s s a r i l y important i n l e a d i n g to an e a r l y d e c i s i o n . The age of c a r e e r d e c i s i o n i s a l s o r e l a t e d with the f a c t o r s t h a t are important i n the d e c i s i o n ( i . e . , sources of i n f l u e n c e ) as shown i n Table L I I . As w i t h the age of TABLE L I I FACTORS IN DECISION AND AGE AT WHICH DECISION TO ENTER PHARMACY IS REACHED Percentage D e c i d i n g on Pharmacy Career Most Important F a c t o r i n E a r l y 8 T o t a l D e c i s i o n L a t e D Cases S p e c i a l speakers 47 53 36 Parent 42 58 341 Pharmacist 33 67 296 R e l a t i v e 31 69 83 H.S. teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s 31 69 80 \"Other\" 30 70 24N Ph.A. r e c r u i t m e n t media 30 70 103 F r i ends 22 78 46 Mass media 19 81. 16 a 1 7 years or younger. 18 years or o l d e r . X 2 = 20 .169: d . f . = 8: P<.01 f i r s t c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy, p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s , e x c e p t i n g \" s p e c i a l speakers,\" tend t o b r i n g about an e a r l y c a r e e r d e c i s i o n , w h i l e i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources appear t o p l a y an important p a r t i n l a t e d e c i s i o n s . Of those who -223-f i n d p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources most important, 37 per cent decide on a career i n pharmacy at 17 years or younger, compared wi t h 33 per cent of those who emphasize ideology-o r i e n t e d sources and 28 per cent of those who s t r e s s \"un-c l a s s i f i e d \" sources. E a r l y and l a t e deciders d e r i v e t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n about the p r o f e s s i o n from s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t sources. P r a c t i c a l experience and pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n r e -cruitment media appear to be more important f o r e a r l y deciders (17 years or younger), and p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists and u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s tend to provide more i n f o r m a t i o n f o r l a t e deciders (18 years or o l d e r ) . Other d i f f e r e n c e s concerning sources of i n f o r m a t i o n are minimal. As w i t h the age of f i r s t c o n s i d e r i n g a career i n pharmacy, the age of the d e c i s i o n to enter the p r o f e s s i o n appears to a f f e c t the a t t i t u d e s and f e e l i n g s that pharmacy students have about t h e i r chosen career. Table L I I I shows the p r o p o r t i o n of students i n d i c a t i n g that pharmacy i s the \"only career that could r e a l l y s a t i s f y me,\" according to the age at which the d e c i s i o n to enter the p r o f e s s i o n i s reached. The f i n d i n g s show that the e a r l i e r the career d e c i s i o n i s reached the more l i k e l y a student Is to f e e l t hat pharmacy'is the'\"only career.\" The p r o p o r t i o n of students who, w i t h t h e i r present knowledge of the p r o f e s s i o n , would choose pharmacy again even i f the c o n d i t i o n s of the d e c i s i o n were d i f f e r e n t , -224-TABLE L I I I AGE AT WHICH DECISION TO ENTER PHARMACY IS REACHED AND FEELINGS ABOUT CAREER Percentage Re- Percentage De-p l y i n g \"Only c i d i n g on Pharm-Age of Career c a r e e r t h a t acy Because Most T o t a l D e c i s i o n c o u l d r e a l l y S a t i s f y i n g Career Cases s a t i s f y me\" Was U n a t t a i n a b l e Before the age of 14 years 57 0 21 At 14 or 15 years 36 2 44 At 16 or 17 years 30 9 .374 Between 18 and 20 years 22 15 663 S i n c e the age of . 21 years 16 21 222 x 2 = 58.176: d . f . = 16: P<.001 i s shown i n Table LI.V a c c o r d i n g to the age of the c a r e e r d e c i s i o n . The f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t e a r l y d e c i d e r s , more TABLE LIV AGE AT WHICH DECISION TO ENTER PHARMACY IS REACHED .-AND CAREER DECISION IF MADE AGAIN ... Percentage Who Would T o t a l Age of Career Decision.... Choose Pharmacy A g a i n Cases Before the age of 14 years 89 18 At 14 or 15 years 58 43 At 16 or 17 years 49 368 Between 18 and 20 years 37 647 S i n c e the age of 21 years 35 215 X 2 = 39.246: d . f . = 4 : P<.001 - 2 2 5 -o f t e n than l a t e d e c i d e r s , would choose pharmacy again. The a t t i t u d e s of students toward t h e i r chosen pro-f e s s i o n i s a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n the number of occupations s e r i o u s l y considered p r i o r to making the d e c i s i o n to enter pharmacy. Table LV shows the p r o p o r t i o n who had not s e r -i o u s l y considered another occupation, according to the age of career d e c i s i o n . TABLE LV AGE AT WHICH DECISION TO ENTER PHARMACY IS REACHED . AND SERIOUS.-CONSIDERATION.-OP OTHER ...CAREERS Percentage Who Had Not S e r i o u s l y Considered T o t a l Age ...of Career D e c i s i o n Another Career.. Cases Before the age of 14 years 50 20 At 14 or 15 years 43 44 At 16 or 17 years 20 374 Between 18 and 20 years 11 660 Since the age of 21....years._. - 6 220 X 2 = 7 8 . 5 5 3 : d.f. = 4 : P<.001 Late and e a r l y deciders a l s o d i f f e r i n t h e i r doubts about t h e i r career d e c i s i o n , before and a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l , as shown i n Table LVT. I n g e n e r a l , very l a t e and very e a r l y deciders have fewer doubts about t h e i r career choice both p r i o r to and a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . However, i t w i l l be n o t i c e d that i n each age.cat-egory the p r o p o r t i o n without doubt a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy school i s r s m a l l e r than the p r o p o r t i o n before e n t e r i n g . Fur-t h e r , the s h i f t i n doubt before and a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy school v a r i e s w i t h the age of the career d e c i s i o n . - 2 2 6 -Th e extent of the s h i f t i s r e f l e c t e d i n an index of doubt-^, and i s shown f o r each age category i n Table LVTI. TABLE LVT AGE AT WHICH DECISION TO ENTER PHARMACY IS REACHED AND DOUBTS BEFORE AND AFTER ENTERING. PHARMACY -SCHOOL . Percentage With No Doubts Age of Career Before E n t e r i n g A f t e r E n t e r i n g T o t a l D e c i s i o n Pharmacy Scho o l Pharmacy S c h o o l Cases At 15 years or younger 71 48 65 At 16 or 17 years 49 36 374 Between 18-20 years 40 35 656 S i n c e the age of 21 years 56 52 217 TABLE LVTI AGE AT WHICH DECISION TO ENTER PHARMACY IS REACHED AND CHANGE IN DOUBT BEFORE AND AFTER ENTERING PHARMACY SCHOOL Index of Doubt (Extent of Increase i n Doubt Age of Career Before and A f t e r E n t e r - T o t a l D e c i s i o n i n g Pharmacy School) . Cases At 15 years or younger 35-4 65 At 16 or 17 years 23.3 374 Between 18 - 20 years 1-3.1 656 S i n c e the age of 21 years 6.0 217 As p o i n t e d out i n the pre c e d i n g t a b l e s , the age a t which the d e c i s i o n to e n t e r pharmacy i s reached appears t o be a f f e c t e d by c e r t a i n s o c i a l background f a c t o r s and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , and i n t u r n seems -227-to have consequences f o r the a t t i t u d e s and f e e l i n g s of students about t h e i r career choice. A d i s c u s s i o n of these f i n d i n g s f o l l o w s . D i s c u s s i o n Age of career d e c i s i o n and s o c i a l background f a c t o r s Although d e f i n i t e career d e c i s i o n s occur over a l a r g e range of ages, they most f r e q u e n t l y take t h e i r f i n a l form at a time when they can be expressed b e h a v i o r a l l y , that i s , when the student-; i s about to enter u n i v e r s i t y or s e l e c t p r e r e q u i s i t e courses. To account f o r the marked c o n c e n t r a t i o n of ages at which a d e c i s i o n to study medicine i s reached, Rogoff suggests that the d e f i n i t e career choice i s geared to the i n s t i t u t i o n a l requirements of the educa-t i o n a l system. The data c o l l e c t e d i n the present study are p a r t i c u -l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r t e s t i n g t h i s hypothesis. The f i n d i n g s show that one h a l f of the students i n pharmacy reach a d e f i n i t e d e c i s i o n between the ages of 18 and 20.years and 78 per cent reach a d e c i s i o n between the ages of 16 and 20 years, at a time when plans to enter u n i v e r s i t y are about to be r e a l i z e d . However, s i n c e the educational systems vary from province to pr o v i n c e , the age of career d e c i s i o n should vary a c c o r d i n g l y , i f Rogoff's hypothesis i s c o r r e c t . Por entrance i n t o pharmacy s c h o o l , s e n i o r m a t r i c u l a -t i o n i s r e q u i r e d i n B r i t i s h Columbia, Ontario, A l b e r t a , Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. However, i n the f i r s t two -228-provinces t h i r t e e n years of s c h o o l i n g g e n e r a l l y are r e -q u i r e d f o r s e n i o r m a t r i c u l a t i o n , whereas i n the l a t t e r three provinces m a t r i c u l a t i o n u s u a l l y can be completed i n twelve years. I n the two schools of pharmacy i n the province of Quebec entrance requirements i n c l u d e some u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g beyond s e n i o r m a t r i c u l a t i o n , g e n e r a l l y a bachelor's degree. Entrance i n t o the pharmacy school at Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y can be gained a f t e r the completion of ?4.unior m a t r i c u l a t i o n which g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e s only twelve years of s c h o o l i n g . I t can be seen from Table LI that the d e c i s i o n to enter pharmacy i s made somewhat l a t e r by students a t t e n d -i n g L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y and the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal; only 13 per cent of the former and 21 per cent of the l a t t e r reached a d e f i n i t e d e c i s i o n before the age of 18 years. I t i s at these schools of pharmacy that the edu c a t i o n a l p r e r e q u i s i t e s i n c l u d e some t r a i n i n g beyond the s e n i o r m a t r i c u l a t i o n l e v e l and hence, r e q u i r e a g r e a t e r number of years f o r t h e i r completion. Students a t t e n d i n g schools of pharmacy i n i w h i c h the ed u c a t i o n a l entrance requirements can be completed i n twelve years, mainly the schools at the U n i v e r s i t i e s of A l b e r t a , Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, and Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y , reach a d e f i n i t e career d e c i s i o n c o n s i d e r a b l y e a r l i e r ; 54 per cent of the pharmacy students at Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y , 5 2 , 42, and 38 per cent of the pharmacy students a t t e n d i n g the U n i v e r s i t i e s of Manitoba, A l b e r t a and Saskatchewan, r e s p e c t i v e l y , reach a d e f i n i t e - 2 2 9 -career d e c i s i o n before the age of 18 years. Pharmacy students attending the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto reach the d e c i s i o n to enter pharmacy l a t e r than those a t t e n d i n g schools i n which the edu c a t i o n a l entrance requirements can be completed i n twelve years but e a r l i e r than those attend-i n g schools of pharmacy i n Quebec. B r i t i s h Columbia i s somewhat of an anomaly i n t h i s r e s p e c t . Although the edu c a t i o n a l entrance requirements can be completed i n t h i r t e e n years, students at t h i s u n i -v e r s i t y are r e l a t i v e l y l a t e i n reaching a career d e c i s i o n ; only 19 per cent are able to make up t h e i r minds before the age of 18 years. The only e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t can be g i v e n at the present time i s that a considerable number of students decide on pharmacy a f t e r attempting some other career and d i s c a r d i n g t h e i r f i r s t choice. To a question asking students to s t a t e t h e i r f e e l i n g s about t h e i r chosen p r o f e s s i o n , 12 per cent of the pharmacy students attending the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia i n d i c a t e that they decided to enter the p r o f e s s i o n because the career which would be most s a t i s f y i n g to them was u n a t t a i n a b l e . The p r o p o r t i o n of students d e c i d i n g on pharmacy as a second choice i s g r e a t e r than the above i n only one other pharm-acy s c h o o l , that being at the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal where 23 per cent of the students s t a t e that t h e i r f i r s t choice was u n a t t a i n a b l e . Although not e n t i r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y , t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n may help to account f o r the r e l a t i v e l y l a t e career d e c i s i o n s of pharmacy students at the U n i v e r s i t y - 2 3 0 -of B r i t i s h Columbia. Except f o r the case of B r i t i s h Columbia, the pharm-acy data appear t o s u b s t a n t i a t e the hypothesis t h a t a d e f i n i t e career d e c i s i o n i s geared to the i n s t i t u t i o n a l requirements of the educ a t i o n a l system. However, i n each of the pharmacy sch o o l s , regardless of the ed u c a t i o n a l entrance requirements, there are some students who decide on pharmacy r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y , at 15 years of age or young-er , w h i l e others delay the d e c i s i o n u n t i l l a t e r , a t 21 years of age or o l d e r . One of the f a c t o r s which might help account f o r the d i v e r s i t y of ages at which a c a r e e r - d e c i s i o n i s reached i s the student's r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n . Since one's view of l i f e , e s p e c i a l l y of the occupational world, i s shaped by r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s ^ , r e l i g i o u s background might be ex-pected to i n f l u e n c e the age at which a career d e c i s i o n i s reached. As shown i n Table L I , P r o t e s t a n t and Jewish students tend to decide on pharmacy e a r l i e r , than Roman C a t h o l i c s . I t might be argued t h a t these r e l i g i o u s groups are concentrated i n c e r t a i n provinces and that i t i s not the f a c t o r of r e l i g i o n but r a t h e r that of the i n s t i t u t i o n a l requirements of the educ a t i o n a l system that i n f l u e n c e the age of career d e c i s i o n . For example, s i n c e the d e c i s i o n to enter pharmacy i s reached l a t e r i n Quebec than i n most other p r o v i n c e s , and s i n c e Roman C a t h o l i c s are concentrated i n t h i s p r o v i n c e , one would expect members of t h i s group -231-to decide on a career i n pharmacy r e l a t i v e l y l a t e . How-ever, a n a l y s i s of the data show that only about 60 per cent of a l l Roman C a t h o l i c pharmacy students i n Canada atten d the schools of pharmacy i n Quebec and tha t approx-im a t e l y 81 per cent of a l l Roman C a t h o l i c students attend schools of pharmacy i n which a d e f i n i t e career d e c i s i o n i s reached r e l a t i v e l y l a t e ( Laval U n i v e r s i t y and the Uni-v e r s i t i e s of Montreal, Toronto and B r i t i s h Columbia). But, approximately 91 per cent of a l l Jewish pharmacy students a t t e n d the same u n i v e r s i t i e s . Yet Jewish stud-ents decide e a r l i e r than do Roman C a t h o l i c s . Hence, i t seems reasonable to conclude that i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e q u i r e -ments of the educ a t i o n a l system and r e l i g i o n a c t sep-a r a t e l y i n a f f e c t i n g the age at which a d e c i s i o n t o enter pharmacy i s reached. The i n s t i t u t i o n a l requirements of the educ a t i o n a l system d i r e c t l y a f f e c t the age at which a d e f i n i t e career d e c i s i o n i s made. They may a l s o have an i n d i r e c t e f f e c t . Since only those who s a t i s f y the academic entrance r e -quirements are admitted to the u n i v e r s i t y , the student's chances of e n t e r i n g the i n s t i t u t i o n of higher l e a r n i n g depend on h i s academic r e c o r d , and there i s no reason to b e l i e v e that high school students are unaware of the r e a l i t i e s of t h i s s i t u a t i o n . Thus, students w i t h s u p e r i o r academic records i n high school would perceive fewer l i m i t a t i o n s i n making an occupational choice, e s p e c i a l l y -232-one r e q u i r i n g u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g , and might be expected to decide on pharmacy at an e a r l i e r age. The f i n d i n g s seem to i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s i s i n f a c t so, th a t students w i t h s u p e r i o r grades i n hig h school tend t o a r r i v e at a career d e c i s i o n at an e a r l y age. The i n d i r e c t e f f e c t s of the ed u c a t i o n a l system ex-press themselves i n yet another form. Since women enter u n i v e r s i t y w i t h b e t t e r high school academic records than men, i t should not be s u r p r i s i n g to f i n d , as shown i n Table L I , that women decide on a career i n pharmacy ear-l i e r than men. This may be f u r t h e r accentuated by the f a c t that women g e n e r a l l y have fewer career a l t e r n a t i v e s to choose from and t h e r e f o r e are able to decide e a r l i e r . I t was shown i n the previous s e c t i o n that a person w i t h an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n the p r o f e s s i o n i s more l i k e l y to have gained some p r a c t i c a l experience i n a pharmacy p r i o r to beginning a formal t r a i n i n g program. Un f o r t -u n a t e l y , the data cannot show e x a c t l y when the p r a c t i c a l experience i s g e n e r a l l y gained, whether i t i s gained subsequent to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the p r o f e s s i o n , but p r i o r to the career d e c i s i o n , or whether i t i s gained a f t e r both c o n s i d e r a t i o n and d e c i s i o n have occurred. I n any event there e x i s t s a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p be-tween p r a c t i c a l experience and the age at ifhi c h the d e c i s i o n i s reached. I n g e n e r a l , the e a r l i e r the d e c i s i o n the gre a t e r i s the l i k e l i h o o d that the student w i l l enter pharmacy school - 2 3 3 -w i t h some p r a c t i c a l experience. Of those who decide be-f o r e the age of 15 years, more than three-quarters enter w i t h some experience, compared w i t h approximately one-h a l f of those who decide between the ages of 16 and 20 years of age and l e s s than o n e - t h i r d of those who decide s i n c e the age of 21 years of age. However, as shown i n Table L I , the extent of p r a c t i c a l experience i s not ne-c e s s a r i l y d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d w i t h an e a r l y d e c i s i o n . A l -though those w i t h no experience decide l a t e r than others, students w i t h one year or l e s s of experience decide e a r l i e r than those w i t h more than one year of experience. Thus, wh i l e some experience leads to an e a r l y d e c i s i o n (or v i c e v e r s a ) , a p o i n t i s reached where more experience seems to delay a d e f i n i t e d e c i s i o n . I t seems reasonable to suggest that some students decide on a career i n pharmacy p r i o r to g a i n i n g p r a c t i c a l experience, w h i l e others g a i n experience before making the d e c i s i o n . Information d e r i v e d from personal i n t e r v i e w s w i t h a number of students e n t e r i n g the f i r s t year of pharm-acy at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia i n the f a l l of 1962 tend? to support t h i s suggestion. Some students use t h e i r p r a c t i c a l experience to help them decide whether to enter the p r o f e s s i o n , w h i l e others make the d e c i s i o n f i r s t and then seek employment i n a pharmacy, o f t e n w i t h the view of f u l f i l l i n g p art or a l l of the a p p r e n t i c e s h i p r e -quirements. Data p e r t a i n i n g to the number of persons who decide not to enter pharmacy as a r e s u l t of p r a c t i c a l -234-experience gained t h e r e i n are not p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e . As p r a c t i c a l experience gained i n a drugstore i s one of the most important contacts w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n f o r a young man or woman about to make a career d e c i s i o n , i t would be u s e f u l to conduct f u r t h e r research along these l i n e s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that students who have gr e a t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r l e a r n i n g about the p r o f e s s i o n , t h a t i s , those who have parents or r e l a t i v e s i n pharmacy, do not n e c e s s a r i l y decide on such a career a t an e a r l y age. Although the f i n d i n g s show that a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n of students who experience d i r e c t o c cupational i n h e r i t a n c e decide on pharmacy before the age of 18 years, the d i f f e r -ences are not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . These f i n d i n g s are s i m i l a r to those reported by Rogoff i n reference to medical students. She concludes t h a t : \"For the sons of doctors who go i n t o medicine, i t i s as though t h e i r i n -t e r e s t i n medicine, o b j e c t i v e l y f a c i l i t a t e d by d i r e c t acquaintance w i t h the l i f e of a p h y s i c i a n , i s i n some p r o p o r t i o n of cases at odds w i t h t h e i r concern to e s t a b l i s h a separate i d e n t i t y of t h e i r own.\" Thus, f o r students of pharmacy and medicine, the cross-pressures of the tendency to f o l l o w the parents' occupational l i n e and the need to e s t a b l i s h a separate i d e n t i t y appear to delay a d e f i n i t e d e c i s i o n . - 2 3 5 -Age of career d e c i s i o n and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and Influence I n g e n e r a l , p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources are more important i n e a r l y d e c i s i o n s , but t h i s i s somewhat mis-l e a d i n g . From Table L I I , I t w i l l be seen that students who regard parents or s p e c i a l speakers as the most import-ant f a c t o r i n the career d e c i s i o n tend to reach a d e f i n i t e d e c i s i o n at an e a r l y age. However, only 36 students, or 3 per cent of the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n , a t t r i b u t e primary s i g -n i f i c a n c e to s p e c i a l speakers, so the high p r o p o r t i o n (47 per cent) of such students who decide on pharmacy at 17 years or younger may be due to the s m a l l number of cases. Thus, parents appear to be the most important s i n g l e f a c t o r i n e a r l y career d e c i s i o n s , w i t h 42 per cent of the students a t t r i b u t i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e to parents d e c i d i n g on pharmacy before the age of 18 years. I n her study of medical s t u d -ents, Rogoff r e p o r t s s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s and suggests t h a t f a t h e r s are important i n e a r l y career d e c i s i o n s p r i m a r i l y because of the greater intimacy between f a t h e r s and sons 7 during the e a r l y l i f e of the l a t t e r . The pharmacy data tend to support t h i s suggestion, although they cannot f u l l y s u b s t a n t i a t e i t . F r i e n d s , although seldom considered to be the most important f a c t o r i n the d e c i s i o n , exert t h e i r i n f l u e n c e more on l a t e d e c i d e r s , as would be expected. Except f o r mass media, the remaining f a c t o r s to which importance i s a t t r i b u t e d are s i m i l a r i n t h e i r e f f e c t s on the age at -236-which the d e c i s i o n i s reached. When the sources of i n f l u e n c e are grouped according to the p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d - i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d typology, e a r l y d e c i s i o n s appear to be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the former, but t h i s i s p r i m a r i l y due to the e f f e c t of one f a c t o r , t h a t of parents. With respect to sources of i n f o r m a t i o n , prac-t i c e - and i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources tend to be e q u a l l y asso-c i a t e d w i t h e a r l y d e c i s i o n s . While e a r l y deciders place a g r e a t e r emphasis on p r a c t i c a l experience and pharmaceut-i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media, l a t e deciders s t r e s s p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists and u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s . How-ever, i t i s indeed s u r p r i s i n g to f i n d that e a r l y deciders who tend l e s s to be i n f l u e n c e d i n t h e i r d e c i s i o n s by pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media should r e l y more h e a v i l y on t h i s source f o r i n f o r m a t i o n . I t seems that e a r l y deciders are most s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d i n t h e i r career d e c i s i o n s by s p e c i f i c persons, parents, pharmacists, and s p e c i a l speakers, but d e r i v e t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n about the p r o f e s s i o n from sources other than persons, p r a c t i c a l experience and pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media. Late d e c i d e r s , on the other hand, seem to a r r i v e at a career choice without the a i d of other persons, a t t r i b u t i n g importance t o pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media and some \"other\" sources (most o f t e n a personal d e c i s i o n ) . But l a t e deciders tend to seek i n f o r m a t i o n from s p e c i f i c persons, e s p e c i a l l y p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists and u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s . Thus, i t i s suggested that e a r l y career -237-d e c i s i o n s , a r r i v e d a t i n the context of i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , are more e m o t i o n a l l y charged than d e c i s i o n s made l a t e r . I t i s f e l t t h a t the l a t e d e c i s i o n may be more r a t i o n a l and may r e s u l t from a more c a r e f u l c o n s i d -e r a t i o n of c a r e e r a l t e r n a t i v e s . Late d e c i d e r s may then seek out persons connected w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n i n se a r c h of i n f o r m a t i o n . Age of c a r e e r d e c i s i o n and f e e l i n g s about chosen p r o f e s s i o n Although most students reach a d e f i n i t e c a r e e r c h o i c e a t a time when i t can be expressed b e h a v i o r a l l y , some a r r i v e a t a d e c i s i o n much e a r l i e r . One might expect e a r l y d e c i d e r s to be more committed to t h e i r c a r e e r c h o i c e and perhaps t o experience a g r e a t e r sense of \" c a l l i n g . \" Rogoff's study of m e d i c a l students r e v e a l s t h a t e a r l y d e c i d e r s are more l i k e l y t o f e e l t h a t a c a r e e r i n medicine i s the \"only one\" t h a t can r e a l l y p r o v i d e s a t i s f a c t i o n , are l e s s l i k e l y to have s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d o t h e r c a r e e r s , and are l e s s l i k e l y to have doubts about a medical c a r e e r . She concludes t h a t e a r l y d e c i d e r s are more e n t h u s i a s t i c , c e r t a i n , and l e s s 8 ambivalent about t h e i r c a r e e r c h o i c e . The pharmacy data tend t o support Rogoff's f i n d i n g s . Students who reach an e a r l y d e c i s i o n are more l i k e l y to r e g a r d pharmacy as the \"on l y c a r e e r t h a t c o u l d r e a l l y s a t i s f y me,\" as shown i n Table L I I I . Another i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e of t h i s t a b l e i s t h a t pharmacy i s l e s s o f t e n r e -garded as a second c h o i c e by those who reach a c a r e e r -238-decision early. Thus, i t appears that early deciders are more committed to the profession, and perhaps f e e l more p o s i t i v e l y about t h e i r career choice. Another way of viewing the commitment of students i s to consider t h e i r willingness to make the same choice again. As seen i n Table LIV, those who decide early are more w i l l i n g to choose pharmacy again, given t h e i r present knowledge of the profession and no l i m i t i n g conditions. Whereas 89 per cent of those who make a d e f i n i t e choice before the age of 14 years state that they would choose pharmacy again, only 35 P e r cent of those who decide since the age of 21 years make thi s claim. These findings d e f i n i t e l y help to substantiate the hypothesis that youth-f u l deciders f e e l a greater commitment to t h e i r chosen profession. As evidence f o r the greater certainty and enthusiasm which early deciders are believed to f e e l about t h e i r choice of medicine as a career, Rogoff c i t e s figures per-taining to the consideration of career a l t e r n a t i v e s . In general, the e a r l i e r the decision the less l i k e l y the stud-ent i s to have seriously considered other careers. The pharmacy data are very s i m i l a r , as seen i n Table LV. Of those who decide on pharmacy before the age of 14 years, 50 per cent state that they had not given serious consid-eration to-.another career, compared with only 6 per cent of those who decide at 21 years or older. As with medicine, students of pharmacy who make an early career choice -239-appear to have l i t t l e I n t e r e s t i n other occupations, d e s p i t e the f a c t that they have a longer time to wait be-f o r e expressing t h e i r career choice b e h a v i o r a l l y . Rogoff asked medical students the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n : \"Once you made up your mind to become a docto r , d i d you ever have any doubts t h a t t h i s was the r i g h t d e c i s i o n f o r you?\" Observing t h a t , except f o r the most recent d e c i d e r s , those who reach an e a r l y career d e c i s i o n are l e s s l i k e l y to have experienced doubts, she concludes t h a t , \"Apparently t h e i r [ y o u t h f u l deciders] enthusiasm f o r medicine not only enabled them to choose i t w i t h more a l a c r i t y , but made them l e s s wavering, l e s s ambivalent w h i l e w a i t i n g to put t h e i r choice Into a c t i o n . \" ^ I n the quest i o n n a i r e used i n t h i s study, pharmacy students are asked the same quest i o n , except that r e p l i e s are g i v e n before and a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . I n Table LvT i t w i l l be seen that i n both cases, except f o r the most recent d e c i d e r s , those d e c i d i n g a t 21 years or o l d e r , the age of the career d e c i s i o n i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to doubts about the career choice. The e a r l i e r the d e c i s i o n the g r e a t e r the l i k e l i h o o d t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l w i l l have no doubts about pharmacy before or a f t e r e n t e r i n g a formal t r a i n i n g program. However, i t should be noted t h a t i n each age category the p r o p o r t i o n of students without any doubts about t h e i r career d e c i s i o n a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy school i s s m a l l e r than the p r o p o r t i o n before e n t e r i n g . I n a l l cases students -240-are more doubtful about t h e i r career decision a f t e r enter-ing pharmacy school. Experience gained while i n pharmacy school appears to increase the amount of doubt that stud-ents have about t h e i r career decision. In some senses, th i s i s to be expected, since many students are probably i n doubt as to whether they w i l l be able to complete sat-i s f a c t o r i l y the work, required of them. In other words, they probably doubt t h e i r own a b i l i t i e s to pass examinations and to perform s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n laboratory assignments. However, i f doubt i s e n t i r e l y a function of one's a b i l i t i e s , then the change i n the amount of doubt, before and a f t e r entering pharmacy school, should be observed equally, re-gardless of the age at which a career decision Is reached. The data do not support the above and tend to suggest that the change i n the amount of doubt i s a function of the age of decision. The extent to which students i n the d i f f e r e n t age categories change to positions of greater doubt a f t e r entering pharmacy school i s represented by an index i n Table LvTI. I t appears that the e a r l i e r an i n d i v i d u a l reaches a d e f i n i t e career decision, the more l i k e l y he Is to be more i n doubt about his chosen profession a f t e r entering pharmacy school. This of course raises some questions as to whether youthful deciders are i n f a c t less ambivalent about t h e i r career decision, as Rogoff suggests. The answer may be found i n the character of early de-cisions \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 -241-I t Is suggested t h a t c a r e e r d e c i s i o n s vary i n terms of t h e i r emotional and r a t i o n a l c o n t e n t . Some i n d i v i d u a l s become \" a t t a c h e d \" to a ? - p a r t i c u l a r c a r e e r without s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s ; othersweigh the advantages and disadvantages of s e v e r a l c a r e e r s and e v e n t u a l l y choose one. The f i r s t type of c a r e e r c h o i c e probably i n v o l v e s -a h i g h l y \" r o m a n t i c i z e d \" i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h an o c c u p a t i o n and c a l l s out a h i g h degree of commitment and d e v o t i o n . The second type r e s u l t s from a s e r i e s of r a t i o n a l con-s i d e r a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g a b i l i t i e s , v a l u e s , o p p o r t u n i t i e s , e t c . , and i s perhaps l e s s e m o t i o n a l l y charged. A p a r t i c -u l a r c a r e e r c h o i c e probably i n v o l v e s elements of both types, but cho i c e s are l i k e l y to v a r y i n the extent to which one or the other i s s t r e s s e d . An e a r l y d e c i s i o n , reached a t a time when a r a t i o n -a l e v a l u a t i o n of c a r e e r a l t e r n a t i v e s Is next to i m p o s s i b l e , p r o b a b l y tends to be emoti o n a l . A c a r e e r c h o i c e o c c u r r i n g a t an e a r l y age i s f r e q u e n t l y made w i t h i n the context of the p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p and may not be a ch o i c e i n the sense of weighing a l t e r n a t i v e s , but r a t h e r may be a r o m a n t i c i z e d a t t r a c t i o n to a s i n g l e c a r e e r . T h i s does not mean t h a t the ch o i c e i s n e c e s s a r i l y u n r e a l i s t i c , but t h a t emotional f a c t o r s probably predominate over r a t i o n a l con-s i d e r a t i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e s . Thus, i n the case of pharmacy students e a r l y d e c i d e r s a r e more l i k e l y to r e g a r d pharmacy as the \"on l y c a r e e r , \" a r e more l i k e l y to i n d i c a t e t h a t they would make the same -242-career choice i f made again, are l e s s l i k e l y to have s e r i o u s l y considered a l t e r n a t i v e s , and are l e s s l i k e l y , when asked, to say that they have had doubts about t h i s career c h o i c e . I n every respect e a r l y deciders appear to be more emotionally committed to the p r o f e s s i o n , but t h i s should not be taken to mean that they are l e s s ambivalent about t h e i r c h o i c e , as Rogoff suggests w i t h medical s t u d -ents. I t may be p r e c i s e l y because of t h i s deep emotional commitment to the p r o f e s s i o n that e a r l y deciders s u f f e r g r e a t e r l a t e n t ambivalence, as i n d i c a t e d by the f a c t t h a t e a r l y deciders are more l i k e l y to change to p o s i t i o n s of g r e a t e r doubt a f t e r expressing t h e i r career choice be-h a v i o r a l l y by e n t e r i n g a school of pharmacy. G) AGE OF CAREER DECISION AND CHOICE OF. FIELD Findings Table LVTII below shows the r e l a t i o n s h i p between TABLE LVTII AGE AT WHICH DECISION TO ENTER PHARMACY IS REACHED . . AND CHOICE OF FIELD Percentage Choosing Age of Career R e t a i l P r e s c r i p t i o n H o s p i t a l C ,: T o t a l Decision^. Pharmacy Pharmacy Pharmacy Other Cases E a r l y 53 7 21 19 439 Late 54 10 13 23 885 a E a r l y = 17 years or younger; l a t e = 18 years or .-243-o l d e r . X 2 = 15 .623: d . f . = 3s P<.01 age o f c a r e e r d e c i s i o n and c h o i c e of f i e l d . I t w i l l be s e e n t h a t e a r l y d e c i d e r s t e n d t o choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy, w h i l e l a t e d e c i d e r s i n d i c a t e some p r e f e r e n c e f o r p r e s c r i p -t i o n pharmacy and one o f the r e s i d u a l f i e l d s . D i s c u s s i o n S i n c e p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s a r e more o f t e n a s s o c i -a t e d w i t h e a r l y c a r e e r d e c i s i o n s , i t was f e l t t h a t e a r l y d e c i d e r s would t e n d t o choose r e t a i l and, t o a l e s s e r ex-t e n t , p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. However, t h e f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t e a r l y d e c i d e r s more o f t e n e x p e c t t o work i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy. A c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n of the f i n d i n g s show t h a t , w h i l e p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s t e n d t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a r l y d e c i s i o n s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s due p r i m a r i l y t o one f a c t o r , t h a t of p a r e n t s . Remaining d i f f e r e n c e s a r e m i n i m a l . On t h e o t h e r hand, s o c i a l background f a c t o r s appear t o be v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n a f f e c t i n g the age a t w h i c h the d e c i s i o n i s made. I n t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n i t was s een t h a t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e e d u c a t i o n a l system, r e l i g i o n , h i g h s c h o o l g r a d e s , s e x , and a modicum of p r a c -t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e . Most o f t h e s e f a c t o r s w h i c h b r i n g about an e a r l y d e c i s i o n l e a d t o t h e c h o i c e of h o s p i t a l pharmacy. Thus, i t appears t h a t s o c i a l b a ckground f a c t o r s w h i c h a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e age o f -244-oareer d e c i s i o n p l a y a more important p a r t than sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and Influence i n shaping the o c c u p a t i o n a l f u t u r e of those who decide on pharmacy at d i f f e r e n t ages. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Throughout the preceding chapters data pertaining to pharmacy students i n general and the choice of f i e l d i n p a r t i c u l a r were presented and discussed. Although the factors used to characterize pharmacy students are essen-t i a l l y the same as those used to explain the choice of f i e l d , the data describing the group as a whole are gen-e r a l l y separated from those used to account f o r the choice. The former are summarized i n Section A of the present chapter. In Section B the factors Involved i n the choice of f i e l d are summarized and brought together i n an attempt to give a more coherent picture of the pro-cess by which pharmacy students select a f i e l d within the profession. Section C addresses i t s e l f s p e c i f i c a l l y to a discussion of the hypotheses set out i n Chapter I . A b r i e f concluding note to the entire study follows i n Section D. A) PHARMACY STUDENTS IN GENERAL The general plan was to describe pharmacy students as a group i n terms of four sets of fac t o r s , those being: ( i ) s o c i a l background, ( i i ) sources of information and -246-i n f l u e n c e , ( i i i ) v a l u e s , and (Iv) the age a t which a career i n pharmacy i s f i r s t considered and f i n a l l y chosen. Data p e r t a i n i n g to the group as a whole are summarized i n t h i s s e c t i o n under the above headings. 1. S o c i a l background f a c t o r s Since 1950 the enrolment of women i n Canadian schools of pharmacy has been i n c r e a s i n g s t e a d i l y * P r e s e n t l y about o n e - t h i r d of the pharmacy students i n Canada are women, but the p r o p o r t i o n v a r i e s by school of pharmacy from a\"high of 48 per cent a t the U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a and 40 per cent at the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba to a low of 13 per cent a t Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y and 16 per cent a t La v a l U n i v e r s i t y . This v a r i a t i o n can be explained p a r t l y a t l e a s t by the s e l e c t i o n procedures used by schools of pharmacy. When the enrolment quotas are reached, academic c r i t e r i a beyond the minimum entrance requirements are used as the basis of s e l e c t i o n and operate to increase the enrolment of women who tend to have higher academic q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . The i n -creased enrolment of women, r e s u l t i n g from the s e l e c t i o n p o l i c i e s of schools of pharmacy and the breakdown of the s o c i a l sex b a r r i e r which e x i s t e d a t the t u r n of the cen-t u r y , leads to the problem of premature r e t i r e m e n t , s i n c e the p r o f e s s i o n a l l i v e s of women are c o n s i d e r a b l y s h o r t e r than those of men. This a l s o brings about the problem of employment, s i n c e women p r e f e r to work i n ho s p i t a l -pharmacy where o p p o r t u n i t i e s are p r e s e n t l y l i m i t e d . -247-R e g a r d l e s s o f s e x , becoming a p h a r m a c i s t w i l l r e -p r e s e n t an i n c r e a s e i n s o c i a l s t a t u s o v e r t h a t o f t h e f a m i l y o f o r i e n t a t i o n f o r more t h a n 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s . The m a j o r i t y of t h e s e s t u d e n t s come from upper-l o w e r and l o w e r - m i d d l e c l a s s f a m i l i e s . A p p a r e n t l y pharm-ac y i s u n a p p e a l i n g t o t h o s e o f upper s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c l a s s e s and out o f r e a c h f o r t h o s e a t the v e r y bottom o f t h e s t a t u s l a d d e r . Of the pharmacy s t u d e n t s , 51 p e r c e n t a r e P r o t e s t a n t s , 36 p e r c e n t Roman C a t h o l i c s , 9 p e r c e n t J e w i s h , and 4 p e r c e n t a r e o t h e r t h a n t h e above. Compared w i t h t h e d i s t r i b u -t i o n i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n , J e w i s h s t u d e n t s a r e con-s i d e r a b l y o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d , P r o t e s t a n t s a r e somewhat o v e r -r e p r e s e n t e d , and Roman C a t h o l i c s a r e u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d . The p r o p o r t i o n v a r i e s w i t h g e o g r a p h i c r e g i o n as might be e x p e c t e d . The i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e i s t h a t o f t h e J e w i s h s t u d e n t s o n l y 14 p e r c e n t a r e women, compared w i t h 3\u00C2\u00A9 P e r c e n t o f t h e Roman C a t h o l i c s and 37 p e r c e n t of t h e P r o t -e s t a n t s . J e w i s h s t u d e n t s e n t e r pharmacy s c h o o l w i t h con-s i d e r a b l y more p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e t h a n P r o t e s t a n t s o r Roman C a t h o l i c s and have h i g h e r r a t e s o f d i r e c t and i n -d i r e c t o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e . N e a r l y o n e - h a l f o f t h e J e w i s h s t u d e n t s have e i t h e r a p a r e n t o r r e l a t i v e i n pharm-a c y , compared w i t h about o n e - q u a r t e r o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t s and Roman C a t h o l i c s . Thus, J e w i s h s t u d e n t s have c o n s i d -e r a b l y more d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p r o f e s s i o n . -248-Pharmacy r e c r u i t s i t s personnel from various-sized centers of population. Thirty-eight per cent come from large c i t i e s , 30 per cent from small c i t i e s , 16 per cent from towns, and 16 per cent from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s . This of course varies with geographic region, with a great-er proportion of students at the University of Saskatchewan coming from r u r a l d i s t r i c t s and small towns, and a larger proportion of those at the U n i v e r s i t i e s of Montreal and Toronto coming from large c i t i e s . Students coming from d i f f e r e n t - s i z e d centers vary i n the extent of d i r e c t contact with the profession. Those coming from smaller-sized, centers , e s p e c i a l l y farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s , enter pharmacy school with less p r a c t i c a l experience.and have a low rate of occupational inheritance. There are eight schools of pharmacy i n Canada with enrolments ranging from less than one hundred at Dalhousie University and Laval University to over three hundred at the University of Montreal and nearly four hundred at the University of Toronto. Students attending d i f f e r e n t schools vary i n the extent of p r a c t i c a l experience and occupational inheritance. Although the two factors are rela t e d , the extent of p r a c t i c a l experience i s determined i n part by the apprenticeship p o l i c i e s of p r o v i n c i a l pharmaceutical associations, with some associations re-quiring p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g to be taken p r i o r to enrol- . ment i n pharmacy school and others permitting i t to be taken subsequent to graduation. I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t to -249-note t h a t contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n as gained through o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l experience i s p r i m a r i l y contact w i t h the r e t a i l f i e l d . 2. Sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e Pharmacy students are more s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d i n t h e i r d e c i s i o n s to enter the p r o f e s s i o n by p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources (parents, pharmacists, r e l a t i v e s ) , than by i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources (pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media, high school teachers, s p e c i a l speakers), although a s i g n i f i c a n t number (18 per cent) c l a i m that the most important f a c t o r i n the career choice was a personal d e c i s i o n . Apart from the l a t t e r , p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists and parents are the most important s i n g l e sources of i n -f l u e n c e . However, although 26 per cent of the students a t t r i b u t e primary s i g n i f i c a n c e to one of the parents, only about 5 per cent r e l y on parents f o r i n f o r m a t i o n about the p r o f e s s i o n , which suggests t h a t i n f l u e n c e and i n f o r m a t i o n need not n e c e s s a r i l y be d e r i v e d from the same sources. As w i t h sources of i n f l u e n c e , p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n are g e n e r a l l y more important than i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources. P r a c t i c a l experience and prac-t i s i n g pharmacists are second i n importance only to per-s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n (ah u n c l a s s i f i e d source) but are more important as sources of i n f o r m a t i o n than u n i v e r s i t y pro-f e s s o r s and pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media. The f i v e sources mentioned- are a l l c o n s i d e r a b l y more important than parents and f a m i l y , high school teachers -250-and counsellors, mass media, friends, or relatives. Different sources provide information about d i f f e r -ent aspects of the profession. Practice-oriented sources seem to provide more information about the time spent i n the performance of the pharmacist's tasks, salary, and working conditions, while ideology-oriented sources tend to be more important i n providing information about prac-t i c a l training requirements and university curriculum, knowledge and training required for the adequate perform-ance of tasks, and the opportunities for employment. It appears that practice-oriented sources provide more i n -formation about thesmore visible everyday working aspects of the profession, while the ideology-oriented sources provide' more Information about the institutional require-ments and the opportunities for employment. It is sug-gested that practice-oriented sources are more important i n bringing about an i n i t i a l commitment to the profession which may be enhanced later or discouraged as the case may be by ideology-oriented sources. Since practice-oriented sources of information and influence tend to be more important than ideology-oriented sources, the students' images of the profession may be shaped more by the former than the latter. However, stud-ents do vary and these differences are important. Those who are affected by practice-oriented sources tend to derive a conception of the profession which is more aligned with the requirements of i t s actual practice (which i s -251-most o f t e n t h a t of the r e t a i l f i e l d ) , choose a r e t a i l pharmacist as a r o l e model, and are l e s s l i k e l y than others to be ambivalent about t h e i r career choice a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . Those who r e l y on i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources view pharmacy more i n terms of the goals toward which the p r o f e s s i o n i s s t r i v i n g than i t s a c t u a l p r a c t i c e . Such students tend to l a c k r o l e models and upon entering., pharmacy school and being confronted w i t h a c o n f l i c t i n g view of the p r o f e s s i o n tend to be more i n doubt about . t h e i r career choice. 3. Value p r o f i l e Pharmacy students as a group tend to h o l d p o s i t i v e l y values which, according to the f i n d i n g s of Morris Rosen-berg, belong to d i f f e r e n t v a l u e - f o c i and f a l l at some-dis t a n c e from each other on the value continuum, the l a t t e r being a continuum of p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e which represents the degree of probable mutual e x c l u s i o n or i n c l u s i o n of value alt e r n a t i v e s . \" 1 ' To t e s t f o r hetergeneity among the student p o p u l a t i o n , each value was c o r r e l a t e d w i t h each other value. Of the twelve p a i r s of values h e l d s i m u l -taneously by 80 per cent or more, s i x are combinations of values belonging to d i f f e r e n t v a l u e - f o c i , which i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t the p o p u l a t i o n as a whole tends to be homogeneous, but t h a t the value p r o f i l e , according to Rosenberg's f i n d -i n g s , tends to be i n t e r n a l l y ambivalent. This r a i s e s questions about the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of the value continuum among pharmacy students. C o r r e l a t i o n -252-c o e f f i c i e n t s were c a l c u l a t e d f o r a l l combinations of e i g h t values r e p r e s e n t i n g the three major v a l u e - o r i e n t a -t i o n s ( e x t r i n s i c , p eople-oriented, and i n t r i n s i c ) . I t was found that the values g e n e r a l l y \" l i n k i n t o \" each other to form a continuum of p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e , but the c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s are g e n e r a l l y low and there are , no negative c o r r e l a t i o n s . Thus, pharmacy students tend to h o l d p o s i t i v e l y and concomitantly values which, accord-i n g to the value continuum of Rosenberg, are ambivalent. I t i s suggested t h a t t h i s seemingly ambivalent value pro-f i l e i s r e l a t e d to the choice of pharmacy, a p r o f e s s i o n which i s comprised of a number of d i v e r s e elements. The choice of the occupation i s i t s e l f an expression of a value p r o f i l e which spans the e n t i r e range of the continuum of p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e , or a t l e a s t a good p o r t i o n of i t . Pharmacy students emphasize a number of s p e c i f i c v a l u e s , but not a l l are expressed i n the choice of t h i s p r o f e s s i o n . By comparing perceptions of the p r o f e s s i o n h e l d by pharmacy students w i t h the values of the l a t t e r , i t was p o s s i b l e to i s o l a t e important m o t i v a t i n g values;, t h a t i s , values which the students see as d e s i r a b l e and r e a l i z a b l e . I t was found that students are most s t r o n g l y motivated by the f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s : \" s e c u r i t y , \" \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man,\" \"your own boss,\" and \" p r e s t i g e , \" and to a l e s s e r extent, \" v a r i e t y and d i v e r s i t y of, t a s k s , \" and \" i n t e r e s t i n g c o l l e a g u e s . \" I t seems that pharmacy stud-ents, I n choosing t h i s p r o f e s s i o n , hope to d e r i v e - 2 5 3 -s e c u r i t y , independence, and p r e s t i g e , t o g e t h e r w i t h the s a t i s f a c t i o n from performing a s e r v i c e f o r others (\"ben-e f i t f e l l o w man\"), but are w i l l i n g to compromise t h e i r d e s i r e t o make f u l l use of t h e i r knowledge, t r a i n i n g , ap-t i t u d e s and s k i l l s , o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r advancement, and a good s a l a r y , i n a d d i t i o n to p u t t i n g up w i t h such u n d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the p r o f e s s i o n as c o m p e t i t i v e merchandis-i n g and r e t a i l s e l l i n g . 4. The age a t which a c a r e e r i n pharmacy i s f i r s t c o n s i d e r e d and f i n a l l y chosen Although the ages a t which a c a r e e r i n pharmacy i s f i r s t c o n s i d e r e d cover a wide range, the modal student; s t a r t s t h i n k i n g about h i s chosen p r o f e s s i o n a t the age of 16 or 17 y e a r s . Only about one-quarter of the students c o n s i d e r a c a r e e r i n pharmacy b e f o r e the age of 16 y e a r s . Compared w i t h medical s t u d e n t s 2 , students of pharmacy f i r s t t h i n k about t h e i r c a r e e r c h o i c e l a t e r i n l i f e . T h i s can be a t t r i b u t e d t o the r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r e s t i g e and v i s i -b i l i t y between the two p r o f e s s i o n s . D e s p i t e the marked c o n c e n t r a t i o n of students i n the upper age c a t e g o r i e s , some students do c o n s i d e r a c a r e e r i n pharmacy a t an e a r l y age. D i f f e r e n c e s a re due p r i m a r i l y to the o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r l e a r n i n g about the p r o f e s s i o n . Those who have parents and, to a l e s s e r e x t e n t , r e l a t i v e s , i n pharmacy b e g i n t h i n k i n g about such a c a r e e r e a r l i e r than those w i t h n e i t h e r parents nor r e l a t i v e s i n the p r o f e s s i o n . S i m i l a r l y , those w i t h p r a c t i c a l experience tend to t h i n k - 2 5 4 -about a pharmacy c a r e e r e a r l i e r t h a n those w i t h o u t ex-p e r i e n c e . Whether employment i n a pharmacy l e a d s t o an e a r l y i n t e r e s t o r v i c e - v e r s a i s d i f f i c u l t t o s a y , b u t i t seems r e a s o n a b l e t h a t f o r some s t u d e n t s e a r l y o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment b r i n g about an e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n t h e p r o -f e s s i o n . S i n c e s t u d e n t s o f d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o u s background and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s v a r y i n o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c l o s e and s u s t a i n e d c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p r o f e s s i o n , t h e y a l s o v a r y i n t h e age a t w h i c h t h e y f i r s t t h i n k about a c a r e e r i n pharmacy. J e w i s h s t u d e n t s and t h o s e f r o m the upper s o c i o -economic c l a s s e s e x p e r i e n c e g r e a t e r o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t -ance and t e n d t o t h i n k about pharmacy e a r l y . L a s t l y , t h e age o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n v a r i e s w i t h u r b a n - r u r a l r e s i d e n c e . S i n c e s t u d e n t s l i v i n g on farms o r r u r a l d i s t r i c t s a r e i s o l a t e d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y from d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h the p r o -f e s s i o n , and e x p e r i e n c e l e s s o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , t h e y t e n d t o t h i n k about pharmacy l a t e r i n l i f e . S t u d e n t s who a r e most s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s , e x c e p t i n g \" s p e c i a l s p e a k e r s , \" t e n d t o c o n s i d e r pharmacy a t an e a r l y age, w h i l e t h o s e who a r e a f f e c t e d more by i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s c o n s i d e r pharmacy l a t e r i n l i f e . R e g a r d l e s s of the p r e c e d i n g , t h o s e who c o n s i d e r pharmacy e a r l y a r e d i f f e r e n t f r om t h o s e who c o n s i d e r t h i s p r o f e s s i o n l a t e r . The f o r m e r a r e more l i k e l y t o f e e l t h a t pharmacy i s \"the o n l y c a r e e r t h a t c o u l d r e a l l y s a t i s f y me,\" and a r e more l i k e l y t o i n d i c a t e t h a t , w i t h t h e i r p r e s e n t - 2 5 5 -knowledge of the p r o f e s s i o n they would make the same career choice regardless of the co n d i t i o n s of the de-c i s i o n . The d e f i n i t e d e c i s i o n to enter pharmacy most o f t e n occurs between the ages of 18 and 20 years. While the age of c o n s i d e r i n g pharmacy i s a f f e c t e d by the o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r l e a r n i n g about the p r o f e s s i o n , the age of d e c i s i o n i s i n f l u e n c e d by the i n s t i t u t i o n a l requirements of the educa-t i o n a l system.' The d e c i s i o n most o f t e n takes i t s f i n a l form a t a time when I t can be expressed b e h a v i o r a l l y , t h a t i s , when plans f o r e n t e r i n g u n i v e r s i t y are about to be r e a l i z e d . Since the i n s t i t u t i o n a l requirements vary by pr o v i n c e , students a t t e n d i n g d i f f e r e n t schools of pharmacy l i k e w i s e vary i n the age a t which a d e f i n i t e career d e c i s i o n i s made. The d e c i s i o n to enter pharmacy I s reached some-what l a t e r by students a t t e n d i n g the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal and L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y , where the ed u c a t i o n a l p r e r e q u i s i t e s r e q u i r e a g r e a t e r number of years f o r t h e i r completion. On the other hand, students a t t e n d i n g u n i v e r s i t i e s where the e d u c a t i o n a l entrance requirements can be completed i n twelve years, mainly the U n i v e r s i t i e s of A l b e r t a , Saskatch-ewan, and Manitoba, and Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y , reach a d e f i n i t e career d e c i s i o n c o n s i d e r a b l y e a r l i e r . Regardless of the schools of pharmacy, some students s t i l l decide e a r l i e r than o t h e r s . Sex, r e l i g i o n , p r a c t i c a l experience, and high school grades appear to a f f e c t the age a t which the d e c i s i o n I s reached. -Those w i t h s u p e r i o r - 2 5 6 -academlc q u a l i f i c a t i o n s i n high school do not see the academic entrance requirements as a b a r r i e r and are able to reach a d e c i s i o n e a r l i e r . Since women tend to have b e t t e r academic records than men, members of the female sex g e n e r a l l y reach an e a r l i e r d e c i s i o n . E x a c t l y how r e -l i g i o n and p r a c t i c a l experience a f f e c t the age of d e c i s i o n i s not known. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to p o i n t out t h a t those w i t h par-ents or r e l a t i v e s i n pharmacy do not n e c e s s a r i l y decide on a career e a r l i e r than those who do not have such oppor-t u n i t i e s f o r l e a r n i n g about the p r o f e s s i o n . I t i s sug-gested t h a t the cross-pressures of the tendency to f o l l o w the parents' o c c u p a t i o n a l l i n e and the need to e s t a b l i s h an i d e n t i t y independent of parents operate to delay a d e f i n i t e d e c i s i o n f o r such i n d i v i d u a l s . Parents appear to be more important i n e a r l y career d e c i s i o n s and f r i e n d s , although seldom considered to be the most important f a c t o r , exert t h e i r I n f luence more' on l a t e d e c i d e r s . E a r l y deciders appear to be most s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by s p e c i f i c persons (parents, pharmacists, and s p e c i a l speakers), but d e r i v e t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n more from p r a c t i c a l experience and pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n r e -cruitment media. L a t e r d e c i d e r s , on the other hand, tend to be i n f l u e n c e d more by personal d e c i s i o n s and pharma-c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media, but d e r i v e t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n more from s p e c i f i c persons, e s p e c i a l l y prac-t i s i n g pharmacists and u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s . This -257-suggests that e a r l y d e c i s i o n s are more o f t e n made w i t h i n the context of i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s and, on t h i s account, may be more emotional than r a t i o n a l . E a r l y and l a t e deciders f e e l d i f f e r e n t l y about t h e i r chosen p r o f e s s i o n . E a r l y deciders\u00E2\u0080\u00A2appear to be more comm-i t t e d to the p r o f e s s i o n , as evidenced by the f a c t that they are more l i k e l y to regard pharmacy as the \"only career,\" are more w i l l i n g to choose pharmacy again, given t h e i r present knowledge of the p r o f e s s i o n and no l i m i t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , and are l e s s l i k e l y to have s e r i o u s l y considered other occupations. Except f o r very recent d e c i d e r s , e a r l y de-c i d e r s a l s o tend to. have fewer doubts about t h e i r career c h o i c e . However, e a r l y deciders are more l i k e l y to s h i f t to p o s i t i o n s of gre a t e r doubt a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . I t i s suggested t h a t e a r l y deciders emphasize emotional elements over r a t i o n a l ones, and on t h i s account tend to be more committed to the p r o f e s s i o n . However, e a r l y deciders seem to s u f f e r g r e a t e r l a t e n t ambivalence about t h e i r career choice a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l , and t h i s may be due p r e c i s e l y to t h e i r g r e a t e r emotional commitment to the p r o f e s s i o n . I n t h i s s e c t i o n an attempt has been made to summarize the various c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of pharmacy students i n ge n e r a l . I t i s now necessary to review the f a c t o r s which a f f e c t the choice of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . -258-B) SUMMARY OF FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF FIELD As mentioned i n the introduction, the general a n a l y t i c scheme attr i b u t e s independent causal s i g n i f i c a n c e to each of three sets of fac t o r s , s o c i a l background fa c t o r s , sources of information and influence, and values, and sug-gests that the l a t t e r two sets of factors are shaped by the former. Among the s o c i a l background f a c t o r s , achieved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are said to be rel a t e d to ascribed factors i n a given population. In thi s section an attempt i s made to show how the various factors operate together to a f f e c t the choice of f i e l d . Findings The factors a f f e c t i n g the choice of f i e l d are summar-i z e d i n Figure 6. The d i r e c t i o n of a rel a t i o n s h i p i s i n -dicated by plus signs (+), the number of signs i n d i c a t i n g the r e l a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e of a given f a c t o r . I t i s import-ant to note that the differences represent ordinal rather than i n t e r v a l measures. E.P.I, values are abbreviated as Ex., P-0., In., and sources of information and influence are indicated by the symbols Pr.-O. (practice-oriented) and Id.-O (ideology-oriented). An index which r e f l e c t s the r e l a t i v e emphasis of practice-oriented sources over ideology-oriented sources i s used i n two instances to i l l u s t r a t e differences among students with respect to sources of information and influence. -259-F i g u r e 6 Summary of Factors A f f e c t i n g Choice of F i e l d Achieved C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Sources Occup. of Inform-A s c r i b e d S o c i a l H.S. Inher- P r a c t i c a l a t i o n and Factors Grades i t a n c e Experience Influence\u00C2\u00AE Sex Males + _ +++ Pr.-O. Females +++ - + Id.-O. Socio-economic s t a t u s Upper +++ +++ _ Middle ++ ++ -Lower + + -R e l i g i o n P r o t e s t a n t ++ ++ ++ l . l ? b C a t h o l i c +++ ++ + 1.33 Jewish + +++ +++ 2.40 Urban - r u r a l residence Farm, r u r a l +. + Id.-O. Town ++ ++ -Small c i t y 4 ++ ++ -Large c i t y ++ ++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Geographic r e g i o n . Dalhousie U. +++ +++ 2.70 U. A l b e r t a + +++ 2.35 U. Toronto +++ H-++ 2.33 U. Montreal +++ ++ 2.32 U. Manitoba ++ ++ 1.13 U. B.C. + + .99 L a v a l U. - + + .90 U. Sask. + ... + .35 a P r . - 0 . = s t r e s s e s p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources; Id.-O. = s t r e s s i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources. 'index showing extent to which p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d -260-Figure 6\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued Values A s c r i b e d S o c i a l F actors E.P.I. Entre- Choice Indepen- preneur- of Business dence i a l F i e l d Sex Males Females +++ + +++ + R e t a i l Hosp. Socio-economic s t a t u s Upper - - - - -Middle - - - - -Lower - - - - - -R e l i g i o n P r o t e s t a n t Ex.&P-O _ _ + Hosp. C a t h o l i c In.&P-p-2 - - +++ Pres. Jewish Ex.&P-O-l - \u00E2\u0080\u0094 ++ R e t a i l & I n . - l Other Urban-rural residence Farm,' r u r a l P-0-2 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 _ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Hosp. Town . \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 - \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Small c i t y - - - - -Large c i t y \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 - \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Geographic r e g i on Dalhousie U. Ex.&P-O-l +++ +++ R e t a i l U. A l b e r t a . Ex.&P-O-l +++ - ++ R e t a i l U. Toronto In.&P-O. + . \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +. Other U. Montreal I n t r i n s i c +++ \u00E2\u0080\u0094 +++ Other, Pres. U. Manitoba Ex.-P-O-In. ++ - Other, Pres\u00E2\u0080\u00A2, Hosp. U. B.C. E x t r i n s i c + - ++ Pres., Hosp.. La v a l U. In.&P-0-2 +++ - +++ Other, Hosp. U. of Sask. . People-0. + - ++ Hosp. -261-sources are emphasized over i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources (see Appendix C). (+++) = above average (++) = average (+) = below average (-) = d i f f e r e n c e s not s i g n i f i c a n t E x . - l = \" s a l a r y \" ; Ex.-2 = \" p r e s t i g e \" ; P-0-1 = \"meet p u b l i c \" ; P-0-2 = \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man\"; I n . - l = \" s c i e n t i f -i c \" ; In.-2 = \"use a l l knowledge.\" D i s c u s s i o n As mentioned e a r l i e r , the various sets of f a c t o r s to which are a t t r i b u t e d causal s i g n i f i c a n c e are brought together i n t h i s s e c t i o n i n an attempt to e x p l a i n the choice of f i e l d . I t i s thought best to dis c u s s the oper-a t i o n of these f a c t o r s i n r e l a t i o n to the f i v e a s c r i b e d s o c i a l background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . 1. Sex As pointed out i n Chapter I I , women are e n t e r i n g the p r o f e s s i o n i n i n c r e a s i n g numbers, but the f i e l d of r e t a i l pharmacy i s s t i l l predominantly the domain of men. Women are more o f t e n found i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy, and the evidence seems to suggest that t h i s f i e l d i s considered more \" s o c i a l -l y a p p r o p r i a t e \" f o r the female sex. Thus, the s o c i a l d e f i n i t i o n of occu p a t i o n a l r o l e s i s the f i r s t f a c t o r that operates i n f a v o r of women choosing h o s p i t a l pharmacy and r e j e c t i n g the r e t a i l f i e l d . Women d i f f e r from men i n terms of two of the three achieved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , mainly, high school grades and p r a c t i c a l experience p r i o r to e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l . - 2 6 2 -As suggested i n Chapter I I , the f i r s t a f f e c t s the a c c e s s -i b i l i t y of c a r e e r a l t e r n a t i v e s , and the l a t t e r a f f e c t s the v i s i b i l i t y of the c e r t a i n f i e l d s . The h i g h e r the grades the more a c c e s s i b l e are the f i e l d s a t the p r o f e s s i o n end of the B-P continuum. P r a c t i c a l experience, on the other hand, s i n c e i t i s gained almost e x c l u s i v e l y i n the r e t a i l f i e l d f a c i l i t a t e s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the l a t t e r and leads to i t s s e l e c t i o n as a f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . S i n c e fewer women than men seek u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t i o n , i t seems reasonable to suggest t h a t the f a c t o r of academic h i s t o r y w i l l operate as a s e l e c t i v e f a c t o r f o r the female sex. Women e n t e r pharmacy s c h o o l w i t h h i g h e r h i g h s c h o o l grades, perform b e t t e r i n the academic s e t t i n g , and have a lower withdrawal r a t e . The h i g h e r academic q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of women i n c r e a s e t h e i r a c c e s s i b i l i t y to f i e l d s a t the p r o f e s s i o n end of the B-P continuum and l e a d to the s e l e c -t i o n of h o s p i t a l pharmacy r a t h e r than the r e t a i l f i e l d . The f a i l u r e of women to choose one of the f i e l d s i n the r e s i d u a l category can be e x p l a i n e d by the f a c t t h a t these f i e l d s r e q u i r e a g r e a t e r commitment on the p a r t of the i n d i v i d u a l , and women tend not to be as committed to the o c c u p a t i o n a l world to the extent t h a t men a r e . Women a l s o e n t e r pharmacy s c h o o l w i t h l e s s p r a c t i c a l e xperience than men, p a r t l y because the o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment i n a pharmacy are g r e a t e r f o r males. T h i s f a c -t o r f u r t h e r operates i n f a v o r of women r e j e c t i n g the r e -t a i l f i e l d and choosing h o s p i t a l pharmacy. -263-As pointed out i n Chapter I I I , women tend to rely-on i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , s p e c i f i c a l l y , pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media, w h i l e men tend to der i v e i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e more from p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources. This i s a t t r i b u t e d to two f a c t o r s . F i r s t , s i n c e pharmacy t r a d i t i o n a l l y has been r e -garded as a male occupation, women tend to d e r i v e informa-t i o n and i n f l u e n c e from o f f i c i a l i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources which are geared more to the f u t u r e than to the past. Second, pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media i s p a r t i c u l a r l y appealing to women, because i t tends to em-phasize the r o l e of the female i n pharmacy and s t r e s s e s o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment i n various f i e l d s apart from r e t a i l . I d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources, s i n c e they are geared to the i d e a l s of the p r o f e s s i o n which i n c l u d e an expansion -of employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n f i e l d s other than r e t a i l , l e a d to the choice of one of the f i e l d s a t the p r o f e s s i o n -a l end of the B-P continuum, e s p e c i a l l y h o s p i t a l pharmacy. P r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources, on the other hand, geared to the p r a c t i c e of the p r o f e s s i o n , which i s s t i l l p r i m a r i l y t h a t of r e t a i l pharmacy, leads to the s e l e c t i o n of t h i s f i e l d . I n t h i s manner sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e operate to a f f e c t the choice of f i e l d . Women, si n c e they r e l y on i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources, f a v o r a career i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy, wh i l e men, who are a f f e c t e d more by p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources, show a preference f o r the r e t a i l - 2 6 4 -f i e l d . The l a s t set of f a c t o r s which serves to i n f l u e n c e the choice of f i e l d of men and women i s t h a t of values. Although the sexes do not vary I n terms of E.P.I, v a l u e s , men and women are s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t w i t h respect to business, independence,, and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , the l a t t e r being more s t r o n g l y emphasized by men. As men-t i o n e d i n Chapter IV, business, independence, and entre-p r e n e u r i a l values are a l l p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d w i t h the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy and a l l n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d w i t h the choice of h o s p i t a l pharmacy. Of a l l the f i e l d s i n pharmacy,hospital pharmacy i s the l e a s t l i k e l y to al l o w f o r the r e a l i z a t i o n of these v a l u e s . H o s p i t a l pharmacy does not g e n e r a l l y i n v o l v e ownership of an establishment, i s h a r d l y a commercial business, and i s l e a s t l i k e l y to provide autonomy and independence. Thus, i t i s not at a l l s u r p r i s i n g to f i n d students who do not s t r e s s these values choosing h o s p i t a l pharmacy and r e j e c t i n g the r e t a i l f i e l d . That men and women show a preference f o r business, independence, and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values can be explained i n terms of the s o c i a l i z a t i o n process i n North American s o c i e t y . A woman's primary s o c i a l r o l e Is s t i l l t h at of a mother and housewife. Women seldom seek careers i n which they achieve occupational.independence as independent entre-preneurs or p r o f e s s i o n a l s . Apparently they have been s o c i a l i z e d to assume p o s i t i o n s I n the world of work which are subject to occu p a t i o n a l s u p e r v i s i o n and domination. i -265-As has been shown, t h e s o c i a l d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e fe m a l e sex r o l e , a c h i e v e d s o c i a l f a c t o r s , s o u r c e s o f i n -f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , and v a l u e s a l l o p e r a t e i n f a v o r o f women c h o o s i n g c a r e e r s i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy. On the o t h e r hand t h e s e same f a c t o r s l e a d t o the c h o i c e o f t h e r e t a i l f i e l d f o r men. 2. S o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s E x cept f o r o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , s t u d e n t s f r o m f a m i l i e s o f d i f f e r e n t s o c i o -economic s t a t u s do not v a r y i n terms o f the f a c t o r s w h i c h a f f e c t t h e c h o i c e o f f i e l d . C o n c e r n i n g s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m -a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , t h e main d i f f e r e n c e among s o c i a l c l a s s e s i s t h a t the upper c l a s s e s r e l y more on p a r e n t s , w h i l e t h e l o w e r c l a s s e s t e n d t o s e l e c t p r a c t i s i n g pharm-a c i s t s . Both s o u r c e s , b e i n g p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d , l e a d t o th e same c h o i c e s and t e n d t o b a l a n c e each o t h e r o u t , so t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e c h o i c e s o f d i f f -e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s can be o b s e r v e d . The g r e a t e r p a r t i -c i p a t i o n of upper c l a s s p a r e n t s i n c a r e e r d e c i s i o n s ; and the g r e a t e r r a t e of o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e among t h e upper c l a s s e s e x p l a i n s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p a r e n t s f o r s t u d -e n t s w i t h such backgrounds. Those i n the l o w e r c l a s s e s , l a c k i n g such d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n , r e l y more on p r a c t i s i n g p h a r m a c i s t s . S t u d e n t s coming from f a m i l i e s of d i f f e r e n t s o c i o -economic s t a t u s do not v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n terms of the o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s r e p o r t e d ^ i n t h i s s t u d y . They do not - 2 6 6 -vary i n terms of the values which l e a d to d i f f e r e n t choices w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n , and hence do not choose d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s . This p o i n t i s discussed more f u l l y i n the next s e c t i o n of t h i s chapter. 3\u00C2\u00BB R e l i g i o n . Students a f f i l i a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o n s tend to choose d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n , as shown i n Chapter I I . Jewish students choose r e t a i l pharmacy and some \"other\" f i e l d more o f t e n than o t h e r s , w h i l e P r o t e s t a n t s show a preference f o r h o s p i t a l pharmacy and Roman C a t h o l i c s em-phasize a career i n p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. Jewish students, having the highest r a t e of occupation-a l i n h e r i t a n c e , both d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t , and the highest r a t e of p r a c t i c a l experience, are most a f f e c t e d by p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . But w i t h r e -spect to o c c u p a t i o n a l values Jewish students appear to be bimodal, some emphasizing i n t r i n s i c values and others show-i n g a preference f o r e x t r i n s i c values and the v a l u e , \"meet the public.'\" The former l e a d to the choice of one of the f i e l d s i n the r e s i d u a l category and the l a t t e r tend to b r i n g about the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy. Thus, some Jewish s t u d -ents are bound f o r the world of ideas and others f o r the business world. P r o t e s t a n t students, 37 per cent of whom are women, experience l e s s o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e than Jewish s t u d -ents and enter pharmacy school w i t h l e s s p r a c t i c a l exper-i e n c e ; t h e r e f o r e , they r e s o r t to i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . Although P r o t e s t a n t s tend - 2 6 ? -to be e x t r i n s i c and people-oriented i n t h e i r value o r i e n t -a t i o n , they do not emphasize e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , probably due to the l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of women i n t h i s group. The e x t r i n s i c values which normally l e a d to the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy are counteracted by the e f f e c t s of the i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n -f l u e n c e and the r e j e c t i o n of e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . Thus, P r o t e s t a n t students as a group tend to choose hos-p i t a l pharmacy. Roman C a t h o l i c students enter pharmacy school w i t h l e s s o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l experience than P r o t e s t a n t students, but r e l y on p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e somewhat more than the l a t t e r . With respect to occupational v a l u e s , Roman C a t h o l i c s tend to be somewhat ambivalent, h o l d i n g on the one hand i n t r i n s -i c v a l u e s , which more o f t e n f i n d expression i n the f i e l d s a t the p r o f e s s i o n a l end of the B-P continuum, s p e c i f i c a l l y h o s p i t a l pharmacy and some \"other\" f i e l d , and on the other hand emphasizing e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values which tend to be r e a l i z e d i n the r e t a i l f i e l d . A r e s o l u t i o n of t h i s am-biva l e n c e appears to take the form of the choice of pre-s c r i p t i o n pharmacy as a f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n , which, besides a l l o w i n g f o r ownership of a r e t a i l establishment, i s thought by pharmacy students to provide f o r the r e a l i z a -t i o n of i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s . 4. Urban-rural residence Students r e s i d i n g i n d i f f e r e n t - s i z e d communities vary -268-w i t h respect to the choice of f i e l d , but the main d i f f e r -ence i s between those coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s , who tend to choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy, and a l l o t hers. Due to geographic i s o l a t i o n , the low r a t e of p r a c t i c a l exper-i e n c e , and the absence of parents or r e l a t i v e s i n the pro-f e s s i o n , students coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s r e l y h e a v i l y on i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and I n f l u e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y high school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s and pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media. Whether i n d i v i d u a l s coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s are gen-e r a l l y more people-oriented I n t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n a l values or whether those l i v i n g i n r u r a l areas, who h o l d such val>-: ues, tend to be i n f l u e n c e d by i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources and subsequently choose pharmacy, i s d i f f i c u l t to say from the data a v a i l a b l e . But the data do show that students coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s are very concerned w i t h the v a l u e , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man,\" which Is most o f t e n r e a l i z e d i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy. I t appears that f o r s t u d -ents coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s a l l the f a c t o r s operate i n f a v o r of t h e i r choosing a career i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 5* Geographic r e g i o n The choice of f i e l d v a r i e s w i t h the school of reg-i s t r a t i o n . I n Figure 6 the schools of pharmacy are arranged i n descending order according to the emphasis placed upon p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . -269-I t was suggested i n Chapter I I that the f a c t o r of geographic r e g i o n plays some p a r t i n the choice of f i e l d , t h a t the province i n which an i n d i v i d u a l r e s i d e s a f f e c t s the v i s i b i l i t y and a c c e s s i b i l i t y of career a l t e r n a t i v e s . The f i e l d s i n the r e s i d u a l category are more o f t e n chosen by students i n Ontario and Quebec, where pharmaceutical i n d u s t r y i s concentrated. H o s p i t a l pharmacy i s more o f t e n chosen by students i n Saskatchewan and Manitoba, where there i s a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of l i c e n c e d pharmacists en-gaged i n t h i s f i e l d . P r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy i s a popular choice among students at the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal, where a l a r g e number of p r a c t i t i o n e r s are employed i n pharmacies which have a high r a t i o of p r e s c r i p t i o n r e c e i p t s to t o t a l s a l e s . Although the data suggest that the f a c t o r of geograph-i c r e g i o n plays a p a r t i n the choice of f i e l d by a f f e c t i n g the v i s i b i l i t y and a c c e s s i b i l i t y of career a l t e r n a t i v e s , i t i s d i f f i c u l t w i t h the present data to e x p l a i n v a r i a t i o n s among the schools of pharmacy w i t h respect to the remaining f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n the choice. That i s , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to show why achieved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , sources of informa-t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , and values vary by school of r e g i s t r a -t i o n . However, by examining the r e l a t i o n s h i p s among these s e t s of f a c t o r s i n each school I t i s p o s s i b l e to get a b e t t e r p i c t u r e of how the f a c t o r s operate together to de-termine the choice of f i e l d . Even a quick glance a t Figure 6 w i l l r e v e a l patterns of r e l a t i o n s h i p s among these f a c t o r s . -270-Students a t t e n d i n g the pharmacy school a t Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y have a high r a t e of p r a c t i c a l experience and occu p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and t h e r e f o r e r e l y on p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . I n a d d i t i o n , students a t t e n d i n g t h i s school s t r e s s e x t r i n s i c , business, e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , and one people-oriented v a l u e , \"meet the p u b l i c , \" a l l of which are most n e a r l y r e a l i z e d i n the r e t a i l f i e l d . For students of Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y , achieved f a c t o r s , sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , and values a l l operate t o b r i n g about the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy. Nearly 7 out of 10 students at t h i s u n i v e r s i t y expect to enter the r e t a i l f i e l d . P l a c i n g only s l i g h t l y l e s s emphasis on the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy are the students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of A l -b e r t a , where 65 per cent i n d i c a t e i n t e n t i o n s t o enter t h i s f i e l d . Although these students do not experience a high r a t e of occ u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , they enter pharmacy school w i t h considerable p r a c t i c a l experience and r e l y h e a v i l y on p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . The value p r o f i l e of students a t t h i s p r a i r i e u n i v e r s i t y i s s i m i l a r to that of the students at Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y , except t h a t s l i g h t l y l e s s s t r e s s i s placed upon entrepren-e u r i a l v a l u e s . I n the main, the three sets of f a c t o r s s t i l l operate together to b r i n g about the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy. Students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto have ahhigh r a t e of occ u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l experience, ' -271-and on t h i s account tend to t u r n to p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources f o r i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . But students a t t e n d i n g t h i s school emphasize values which g e n e r a l l y do not find, e xpression i n the r e t a i l f i e l d , t hat i s , i n t r i n s i c and people-oriented v a l u e s , and r e j e c t business and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . Thus, although the extent of p r a c t i c a l experience and occupational i n h e r i t a n c e and the r e l i a n c e upon p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources operate to b r i n g about the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy, the e f f e c t s of these f a c t o r s appear to be overcome by the v a l u e - o r i e n t -a t i o n s of students at t h i s u n i v e r s i t y , r e s u l t i n g i n the choice of one of the r e s i d u a l f i e l d s , which more o f t e n provides f o r the r e a l i z a t i o n of i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s . A f f e c t e d s i m i l a r l y by achieved s o c i a l f a c t o r s and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e are the students a t t e n d i n g pharmacy school at the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal. With a high r a t e of occupational i n h e r i t a n c e , a f a i r l y high r a t e of p r a c t i c a l experience, and an emphasis on p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , these students might be expected to choose the r e t a i l f i e l d . F u r t h e r , students a t t e n d i n g t h i s u n i v e r s i t y show a strong preference f o r business and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l -ues which, as, mentioned e a r l i e r , are more o f t e n r e a l i z e d i n r e t a i l pharmacy. Yet, these students tend to choose p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy and some \"other\" f i e l d . This can be a t t r i b u t e d to t h e i r emphasis on i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s . I t appears t h a t some students, those who are most s t r o n g l y -272-i n f l u e n c e d \"by i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s , choose one of the r e s i d -u a l f i e l d s , where such values may f i n d expression. How-ever, i t seems th a t some students may be caught between the cross-pressures of divergent f'orces. The f a c t o r s of business and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , and p r a c t i c a l ex-perience and occu p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e operate to e f f e c t a choice of r e t a i l pharmacy, but i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s , es-poused by these students, seek expression i n other f i e l d s . The choice of p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy may be seen as a reasonable r e s o l u t i o n of t h i s dilemma. Students attending the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba choose p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, h o s p i t a l pharmacy, and some \"other\" f i e l d i n proportions which exceed the n a t i o n a l averages, but they tend to r e j e c t the r e t a i l f i e l d . These students have a lower r a t e of occupational i n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l experience than students attending the f o u r p r e v i o u s l y mentioned schools and are considerably l e s s p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d . i n t h e i r sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . I n a d d i t i o n , students at the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba tend to r e j e c t business and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , but, w i t h the exception of. one of the E.P.I, v a l u e s , are among the top f o u r schools w i t h respect to emphasis placed on ex-t r i n s i c , p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d , and i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s . Thus, none of the f a c t o r s operates i n fa v o r of t h e i r choosing r e t a i l pharmacy. At the same time, s o c i a l f a c t o r s , sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , and values a l l o w - 2 7 3 -f o r , i f not l e a d t o , the choices of p r e s c r i p t i o n or hos-p i t a l pharmacy or one of the f i e l d s i n the r e s i d u a l c a t -egory. Students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia have a low r a t e of occupational i n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l ex-perience and t h e r e f o r e tend to r e l y l e s s on p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . I n a d d i t i o n , these students s t r e s s e x t r i n s i c values but tend to r e j e c t business and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . Achieved s o c i a l f a c t o r s , sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e a f f e c t i n g these students, together w i t h the r e j e c t i o n of business and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , seem to l e a d to the choice of h o s p i t a l pharmacy. However, a considerable p r o p o r t i o n choose a career i n p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. This may be due to the emphasis placed upon e x t r i n s i c v a l u e s , which g e n e r a l l y f i n d e xpression i n r e t a i l f i e l d s . S i m i l a r to the students at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia w i t h respect to achieved s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e are the students a t t e n d i n g L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y . However, the l a t t e r d i f f e r from the former i n terms of occ u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s . Students a t L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y espouse i n t r i n s i c , business, and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values and one of the people-oriented v a l u e s , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man.\" The l a t t e r value i s h i g h l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the choice of h o s p i t a l pharmacy, and seems to operate w i t h the achieved s o c i a l f a c t o r s and the sources of i n f l u e n c e and i n f o r m a t i o n to b r i n g about t h i s c h o ice. - 2 7 4 -I n t r i n s i c values espoused by members of t h i s group f i n d e x p r e s s i o n i n the- c h o i c e of some \"o t h e r \" f i e l d . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t students a t t h i s u n i v e r s i t y emphasize business and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , as do the students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal, but f a i l t o g i v e e x p r e s s i o n to these v a l u e s i n the ch o i c e of r e t a i l o r p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. The onl y e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t can be g i v e n f o r t h i s i s t h a t the achieved s o c i a l background f a c -t o r s and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e u t i l i z e d by those a t L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y do not operate i n f a v o r of the ch o i c e of r e t a i l pharmacy. Thus, i t appears t h a t students a t L a v a l U n i v e r s i t y , l a c k i n g the E f f e c t s of o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , p r a c t i c a l e xperience, and p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , a re not caught be-tween the same c r o s s - p r e s s u r e s of d i v e r g e n t f o r c e s as those a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal. At l e a s t the p r e -ssures to choose a r e t a i l f i e l d a re not q u i t e as s t r o n g . F o r students a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan, a l l the f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n the choice l e a d to the s e l e c t i o n of h o s p i t a l pharmacy, which i n f a c t i s the expressed c h o i c e of these s t u d e n t s . They have very low r a t e s of o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l e xperience, r e l y more on i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and s i n f l u e n c e than o t h e r s , espouse p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d v a l u e s , and tend to r e j e c t business and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . By examining the r e l a t i o n s h i p s among the f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n the ch o i c e a t each u n i v e r s i t y , as attempted. -275-i n t h i s s e c t i o n , i t i s hoped th a t a b e t t e r understanding of the e f f e c t s of each i s made p o s s i b l e . F u r t h e r consid-e r a t i o n of the f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n the choice i s gi v e n i n the f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n of hypotheses. C) DISCUSSION OF HYPOTHESES Se v e r a l hypotheses p e r t a i n i n g to the f a c t o r s i n -volved i n the choice of f i e l d and the r e l a t i o n s h i p s among these f a c t o r s were set out i n Chapter I . A f t e r present-i n g the data concerning these hypotheses i t i s now ne-cessary to discuss the l a t t e r i n d i v i d u a l l y . These are considered under the same headings, as i n Chapter I.' 1. Values and choice of f i e l d Hypothesis 1.1 suggests a r e l a t i o n s h i p between the B-P continuum and the E.P.I.. value continuum, w i t h ex-t r i n s i c values l e a d i n g to a choice of f i e l d a t the business end of the B-P continuum and i n t r i n s i c values b r i n g i n g . about a choice of f i e l d a t the p r o f e s s i o n end. Except f o r p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, a c l e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between these continua i s observed, as i l l u s t r a t e d i n S e c t i o n C of Chapter IV. E x t r i n s i c values and the val u e , \"meet the p u b l i c , \" are c l e a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy; i n t r i n s i c values are connected w i t h the choice of some \"other\" f i e l d , and the people-oriented v a l u e , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man,\" i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d w i t h h o s p i t a l pharmacy. Students choosing p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy em-phasize i n t r i n s i c values, e s p e c i a l l y \"use a l l knowledge,\" -276-\" but do not n e c e s s a r i l y r e j e c t other E.P.I, v a l u e s . These f i n d i n g s l e a d the present w r i t e r to b e l i e v e that a r e l a -t i o n s h i p does e x i s t between E.P.I, values and choice of f i e l d as p r e d i c t e d , and that students choosing p r e s c r i p -t i o n pharmacy tend to be more \"value-dispersed\" i n t h e i r value p r o f i l e . I t was a l s o hypothesized t h a t business and entre-p r e n e u r i a l values would l e a d to choices at the business end of the B-P continuum (Hypotheses 1.2 and 1.3). The f i n d i n g s tend to s u b s t a n t i a t e these hypotheses, as shown i n Table X L I I I . Students who emphasize business and entre-p r e n e u r i a l values more o f t e n choose r e t a i l pharmacy and tend to r e j e c t h o s p i t a l pharmacy and some \"other\" f i e l d , and, to a much l e s s e r extent, p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. How-ever, i t i s important to note t h a t students planning to enter h o s p i t a l pharmacy tend to r e j e c t business and en t r e -p r e n e u r i a l values more so than those planning careers i n one of the r e s i d u a l f i e l d s , whereas the hypotheses pre-d i c t e d the re v e r s e . This may be explained p a r t l y by the f a c t that the r e s i d u a l category as o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d i n c l u d e s a number of career a l t e r n a t i v e s which r i g h t -f u l l y do not belong at the p r o f e s s i o n end of the B-P continuum, \" s a l e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e \" being a case i n p o i n t . Compared w i t h other f i e l d s , h o s p i t a l pharmacy Is l e a s t l i k e l y to provide autonomy and independence i n the work sphere. Thus, i t was hypothesized that students who emphasize the val u e , \"independence,\" would tend not to -277-choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy (Hypothesis 1.4). The f i n d i n g s s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s hypothesis, as seen i n Table X L I I I . Independence as a value Is p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d w i t h the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy, i s independent of p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy and some \"other\" f i e l d , and i s n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d to the choice of h o s p i t a l pharmacy. 2. Sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e and choice of f i e l d A continuum of sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e ranging from p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d to i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d was p o s t u l a t e d i n Chapter I . A r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h i s con-tinuum and the B-P continuum of choice of f i e l d was hypothesized, p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources supposedly l e a d -i n g to the s e l e c t i o n of f i e l d s a t the business end of the continuum and i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources l e a d i n g to choices a t the p r o f e s s i o n a l end (Hypothesis 2 ) . The f i n d i n g s show tha t those who are most s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d by p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources tend to choose the r e t a i l f i e l d , as predicted,, w h i l e those who r e l y on i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources more o f t e n expect to enter hos-p i t a l pharmacy, as was expected. However, the choices of p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy and some \"other\" f i e l d are more o f t e n made by students who a t t r i b u t e primary importance to sources which cannot be typed as p r a c t i c e - or i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d , most o f t e n a personal d e c i s i o n . That such a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of students would a t t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n c e to u n c l a s s i f i e d sources was unex--278-pected and may \"be explained by the suggestion that some students f i n d themselves I n the ambivalent s i t u a t i o n of being caught between the i n f l u e n c e s of both p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d and i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources. As poi n t e d out i n S e c t i o n C of Chapter I I I , the r e s o l u t i o n of t h i s dilemma may take the form of a d e c i s i o n to enter one of the f i e l d s i n the r e s i d u a l category or p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. I n the sense that p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources l e a d to the choice of the r e t a i l f i e l d , and i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources tend to b r i n g about the d e c i s i o n to enter h o s p i t a l pharmacy, the hypothesis concerning the e f f e c t s of the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e on the choice of f i e l d i s s u b s t a n t i a t e d . However, f u r t h e r research i s needed to explore the i n f l u e n c e s a f f e c t i n g those students who a t t r i b u t e primary s i g n i f i c a n c e to t h e i r personal d e c i s i o n s . 3\u00C2\u00BB S o c i a l background f a c t o r s and choice of f i e l d As p r e d i c t e d i n Hypothesis 3*1\u00C2\u00BB women more o f t e n expect to enter h o s p i t a l pharmacy. Although only 28 per cent of the women choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy, t h i s i s equiv-a l e n t to about two and one-half times the p r o p o r t i o n of men making t h i s choice. The sm a l l p r o p o r t i o n of students of e i t h e r sex choosing h o s p i t a l pharmacy i s explained by the f a c t that o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment i n t h i s f i e l d are a t present l i m i t e d . Only about 5 per cent of the - 2 7 9 -membership of the Canadian Pharmaceutical A s s o c i a t i o n i s engaged i n ^ h o s p i t a l pharmacy. Of t h i s 5 P e r cent, approx-i m a t e l y 45 per cent are women. Although the sex h a r r i e r s to women e n t e r i n g pharmacy may be breaking down, the f a c t remains that the r o l e of the independent r e t a i l d r u g g i s t i s s t i l l considered a male occupation. When asked to i n -d i c a t e a preference f o r a type of pharmacy from a l i s t c o n t a i n i n g \"independent r e t a i l drugstore,\" \"chain s t o r e pharmacy,\" \"pharmacy i n a department s t o r e , \" and \" h o s p i t a l pharmacy,\" 66 per cent of the males, but only 38 per cent of the females, show a preference f o r the independent r e -t a i l drugstore, w h i l e 53 per cent of the females, but only 25 per cent of the males, i n d i c a t e a d e s i r e to work i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy. The r e t a i l f i e l d , which o f t e n i n v o l v e s ownership, tends not to be \" s o c i a l l y s u i t a b l e \" f o r women, nor does i t a l l o w f o r the expression of values which women espouse i n North American s o c i e t y . On the other hand, i n d u s t r y , teaching or research i n v o l v e s considerable career commitment, f o r which women i n t h i s s o c i e t y are not noted. Thus, women who enter pharmacy g r a v i t a t e toward h o s p i t a l pharmacy as a choice w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n . Hypothesis 3*2 concerns a r e l a t i o n s h i p between s o c i o -economic s t a t u s and choice of f i e l d which, as noted i n Chapter I I , f a i l e d to be observed. The f a c t o r of s o c i o -economic s t a t u s which has been shown to pla y a p a r t i n i n i t i a l career choices does not appear to a f f e c t subsequent d e c i s i o n s concerning an i n d i v i d u a l ' s o c c u p a t i o n a l f u t u r e . -280-What t h i s suggests i s that d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s p l a y a p a r t i n d e c i s i o n s of occupational choice a t d i f f e r e n t stages of an I n d i v i d u a l ' s career. While socio-economic st a t u s may be important i n d e l i m i t i n g a broad range of occupa-t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r students i n high s c h o o l , i t may not p l a y a p a r t i n occu p a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s subsequent to the i n i t i a l career commitment which, f o r many students, l a c k s s p e c i f i c i t y . G e n e r a l l y neglected as a f a c t o r I n occu p a t i o n a l choice i s that of r e l i g i o n . As a t e s t of some general notions about r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n and economic be-h a v i o r , i t was hypothesized that Jewish students would s p l i t t h e i r choices between r e t a i l pharmacy and some \"other\" f i e l d , t hat P r o t e s t a n t s would f a v o r r e t a i l and p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy, and that C a t h o l i c s would emphasize a career i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy. The f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t Jewish students do i n f a c t s p l i t t h e i r choices be-tween r e t a i l pharmacy and one of the r e s i d u a l f i e l d s , but that P r o t e s t a n t s tend to f a v o r h o s p i t a l pharmacy and C a t h o l i c s more o f t e n than others expect to work i n pre-s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. The hypothesis was based on the assump-t i o n that Roman C a t h o l i c s are l e s s o r i e n t e d toward economic achievement and w o r l d l y success and are l e s s I n c l i n e d to take r i s k s i n v o l v i n g investment of money. Thus, i t was. thought that members of t h i s f a i t h would tend not to choose e i t h e r of the r e t a i l f i e l d s , but would gi v e express s s i o n to humanitarian values by s e l e c t i n g h o s p i t a l pharm-r -281-acy. The assumption i s f a l s e i n p a r t a t l e a s t , s i n c e Roman C a t h o l i c s s t r o n g l y d e s i r e to \"own and operate a pharmacy.\" I t i s f e l t t hat e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values t o -gether w i t h i n t r i n s i c values espoused by members of t h i s group f i n d expression i n the choice of p r e s c r i p t i o n pharm-acy. However, i t i s important to note th a t C a t h o l i c s a l s o s t r e s s the people-oriented v a l u e , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man,\" and a considerable p r o p o r t i o n expect to r e a l i z e t h i s value by choosing h o s p i t a l pharmacy. Over twice as many C a t h o l i c s as: Jews make t h i s c h o ice. Turning to geographic f a c t o r s , i t was f e l t t h a t the s i z e of the community of residence, as an i n d i c a t o r of the r e l a t i v e p r o x i m i t y to centers of i n d u s t r y and commerce, would a f f e c t the a c c e s s i b i l i t y and v i s i b i l i t y of career a l t e r n a t i v e s . I t was.thought th a t students coming from s m a l l towns or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s , because of t h e i r r e l a t i v e geographic i s o l a t i o n from l a r g e c e n t e r s , would have l e s s opportunity to come i n t o contact w i t h some of the f i e l d s a t the p r o f e s s i o n end of the B-P continuum, e s p e c i a l l y h o s p i t a l pharmacy, i n d u s t r y , teaching or research, and would be l e s s l i k e l y to i d e n t i f y w i t h such f i e l d s and, hence, would be l e s s l i k e l y to form the i d e a of en t e r i n g one. However, the f i n d i n g s do not s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s hypothesis (Hypothesis 3 - 4 ) . Students coming from farms and r u r a l d i s t r i c t s more o f t e n choose h o s p i t a l pharmacy. This i s explained by the f a c t that such students are cons i d e r a b l y i s o l a t e d from a l l d i r e c t contact w i t h the -282-p r o f e s s i o n and r e l y h e a v i l y upon i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , which of course l e a d to the choice of h o s p i t a l pharmacy. Hypothesis 3*5 claims that the choice of f i e l d w i l l vary by province depending upon the r e l a t i v e v i s i b i l i t y of career a l t e r n a t i v e s i n each. Although the data cannot f u l l y s u b s t a n t i a t e or r e j e c t the hypothesis, there i s some evidence i n support of i t . Students a t t e n d i n g schools i n Ontario and Quebec, where the bulk of Canadian pharmaceut-i c a l i n d u s t r y i s l o c a t e d , tend to choose one of the r e s i d -u a l f i e l d s . Those at t e n d i n g schools i n Saskatchewan and Manitoba, where the p r o p o r t i o n of p r a c t i s i n g h o s p i t a l pharmacists i s h i g h , more o f t e n s e l e c t t h i s f i e l d , w h i l e students a t t e n d i n g the U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal, i n which c i t y the number of p r e s c r i p t i o n s f i l l e d per pharmacist i s c o n s i d e r a b l y higher than i n other parts of Canada, tend to choose careers i n p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. Thus, w h i l e geographic r e g i o n may not t o t a l l y e x p l a i n the choice of f i e l d , i t appears to p l a y a p a r t by a f f e c t i n g the v i s i b i l i t y and a c c e s s i b i l i t y of career a l t e r n a t i v e s . Apart from geographic f a c t o r s , a r e l a t i o n s h i p was hypothesized between high school grades, which serve as f a i r l y adequate i n d i c a t o r s of performance i n pharmacy s c h o o l , and the B-P continuum. According to Hypothesis 3\u00C2\u00BB6, the higher the grades the more l i k e l y a student w i l l be to choose a f i e l d at the p r o f e s s i o n end of the B-P continuum. The f i n d i n g s , as shown i n S e c t i o n B of Chapter -283-I I , c l e a r l y s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s hypothesis. I t w i l l be seen from Table XIV that high school grades are d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d w i t h the choice of the r e s i d u a l f i e l d s and i n -v e r s e l y r e l a t e d w i t h the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy. I n a d d i t i o n , a p o s i t i v e but l e s s Impressive r e l a t i o n s h i p i s seen w i t h respect to h o s p i t a l pharmacy, and a b e l l -shaped d i s t r i b u t i o n i s observed i n the choice of pre-s c r i p t i o n pharmacy. C l e a r l y , a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s be-tween hig h school grades and the B-P continuum. I t was a l s o f e l t t hat contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n as gained through occupational i n h e r i t a n c e and/or prac-t i c a l experience would, by I n c r e a s i n g the v i s i b i l i t y of the r e t a i l f i e l d s , f a c i l i t a t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h f i e l d s a t the business end of the B-P continuum and, hence, l e a d to the choice of these f i e l d s , e s p e c i a l l y r e t a i l pharmacy. Hypotheses 3\u00C2\u00BB7 and 3\u00C2\u00BB8, concerning occupational i n h e r i t -ance and p r a c t i c a l experience, r e s p e c t i v e l y , are i n gen-e r a l s u b s t a n t i a t e d by the f i n d i n g s , as shown i n the pre-v i o u s l y mentioned t a b l e . The only p o i n t of note i s t h a t the i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between each of these f a c t o r s and the choice of h o s p i t a l pharmacy i s g e n e r a l l y stronger than the r e l a t i o n s h i p between these f a c t o r s and the choice of some \"other\" f i e l d . Thus, the o v e r - a l l r e l a t i o n s h i p between each of the f a c t o r s , p r a c t i c a l experience and o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e , and the B-P continuum, i s not as smooth as t h a t found between the l a t t e r and high school grades. -284-4. S o c i a l background f a c t o r s and values Hypothesis 4.1 suggests t h a t women, compared w i t h men, tend to h o l d people-oriented values and r e j e c t business, independence, and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , w h i l e men w i l l s t r e s s the l a t t e r three values together w i t h ex-t r i n s i c values.. The f i n d i n g s show that E.P.I, values do not d i f f e r by sex, but t h a t business, independence, and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values tend to be r e j e c t e d by women, as p r e d i c t e d . Since E.P.I, values vary by sex among c o l l e g e students, as shown by Rosenberg^, but not among the pharm-acy studento p o p u l a t i o n , i t would appear that the E.P.I, value p r o f i l e of pharmacy students i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e -l a t e d w i t h the choice of pharmacy as a career. That women i n pharmacy should r e j e c t business, independence and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values i n d i c a t e s t h a t , l i k e other members of the female sex, female pharmacy students do not a s p i r e to achieve o c c u p a t i o n a l independence as independent entre-preneurs or p r o f e s s i o n a l s . This i s apparently due to the s o c i a l i z a t i o n process and the s t r u c t u r e of North American 4 s o c i e t y . I t was thought at the outset t h a t , i f values are i n c u l c a t e d during the s o c i a l i z a t i o n process, they would tend to vary w i t h the socio-economic s t a t u s of the f a m i l y . The f i n d i n g s show no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the values used i n t h i s study and socio-economic s t a t u s , and thus, they f a i l to s u b s t a n t i a t e the hypothesis (Hypoth-e s i s 4.2). Since values have been shown to vary w i t h -285-soolo-economic s t a t u s among c o l l e g e students^, the f i n d -ings f u r t h e r support the n o t i o n t h a t the p a r t i c u l a r value p r o f i l e of pharmacy students i s connected i n a s i g n i f i c a n t way w i t h the choice of pharmacy. I f values are i n c u l c a t e d during the s o c i a l i z a t i o n process, then one would expect to f i n d values v a r y i n g w i t h r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n . Hypothesis 4 . 3 suggests that Jewish students w i l l s t r e s s both e x t r i n s i c and i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s , t h a t P r o t e s t a n t s w i l l emphasize e x t r i n s i c values and Cath-o l i c s w i l l more o f t e n i n d i c a t e a preference f o r people-o r i e n t e d v a l u e s . This hypothesis i s based on the assump-t i o n that Jewish people e x c e l i n the business world and i n the p r o f e s s i o n s , and t h a t P r o t e s t a n t s , compared w i t h Cath-o l i c s , tend to be more concerned w i t h economic achievement and w o r l d l y success. The f i n d i n g s show th a t Jewish s t u d -ents do i n f a c t s t r e s s both e x t r i n s i c and i n t r i n s i c values together w i t h one people-oriented v a l u e , \"meet the p u b l i c , \" which i s most s t r o n g l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the choice of r e t a i l pharmacy. C a t h o l i c students, on the other hand, emphasize one of the people-oriented v a l u e s , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man,\" as p r e d i c t e d , but a l s o s t r e s s i n t r i n s i c v a l u e s . The l a t t e r may be due to the f a c t t h a t Roman C a t h o l i c pharmacy stud -ents enter u n i v e r s i t y w i t h b e t t e r academic re c o r d s . P r o t -e s t a n t s , on the other hand, tend to emphasize e x t r i n s i c and people-oriented v a l u e s . The l a t t e r might be a t t r i b u t e d to the g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n of P r o t e s t a n t women i n pharmacy, but the f i n d i n g s show no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between -286-the sexes w i t h respect to E.P.I, v a l u e s . That P r o t -estants s t r e s s people-oriented values cannot be ex-p l a i n e d w i t h the present data. Based on the n o t i o n that P r o t e s t a n t s and Jews are o r i e n t e d toward economic success, Hypothesis k.k- suggests that members of these f a i t h s , compared w i t h C a t h o l i c s , w i l l emphasize business and e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s . The f i n d i n g s show t h a t , w h i l e business values do not vary s i g n i f i c a n t l y by r e l i g i o n , e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l values are most s t r o n g l y espoused by Roman C a t h o l i c s , a c l e a r r e f u t a t i o n of the hypothesis. Regardless of geographic r e g i o n , Cath-o l i c s are most l i k e l y to d e s i r e to \"own and operate a pharmacy.\" Although i t i s d i f f i c u l t to e x p l a i n these f i n d i n g s , i t seems q u i t e c l e a r that C a t h o l i c s , although perhaps o t h e r - w o r l d l y I n r e l i g i o u s outlook, are no l e s s o r i e n t e d toward economic achievement and w o r l d l y success than are Pr o t e s t a n t s and Jews. 5\u00C2\u00AB S o c i a l background f a c t o r s and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and Influence The f i n d i n g s g e n e r a l l y s u b s t a n t i a t e Hypothesis 5\u00C2\u00AB1 which s t a t e s t h a t women, compared w i t h men, w i l l tend to de r i v e i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e from i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources. As suggested i n the preceding s e c t i o n , s i n c e pharmacy t r a d i t i o n a l l y has been regarded as a male occu-p a t i o n , women tend to t u r n to i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d pharma-c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media and other o f f i c i a l sources which, i n a d d i t i o n to appealing to women, are -287-geared more to pharmacy's f u t u r e than to i t s past. Concerning sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , i t was a l s o hypothesized t h a t i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources would be more important f o r students coming from s m a l l centers of p o p u l a t i o n (Hypothesis 5 \u00C2\u00BB 2 ) . The f i n d i n g s show th a t the s m a l l e r the community of residence the more important are i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources, e s p e c i a l l y pharm-a c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n recruitment media,and high school teachers, thus s u b s t a n t i a t i n g the hypothesis. The r e l a -t i v e l a c k of d i r e c t contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n , e s p e c i a l -l y f o r those coming from \u00C2\u00A9arms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s . , makes i t necessary f o r such students to r e l y on recruitment media c i r c u l a t e d by pharmaceutical a s s o c i a t i o n s . D i r e c t contact w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n as gained by occup a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e and p r a c t i c a l experience leads to the s e l e c t i o n of p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of inform-a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , as hypothesized (Hypothesis 5*3 and 5'.4 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . Students l a c k i n g such d i r e c t contacts w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n must d e r i v e i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e from i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources. 6 . Age of career d e c i s i o n and choice of f i e l d S ince the f a c t o r s which enter a career d e c i s i o n vary w i t h the age at which the d e c i s i o n i s reached, and s i n c e the d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s g e n e r a l l y l e a d to d i f f e r e n t choices i n the p r o f e s s i o n , a r e l a t i o n s h i p between age of career d e c i s i o n and choice of f i e l d was hypothesized. S p e c i f --288-i c a l l y the hy p o t h e s i s was based on-the o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and I n f l u e n c e are more o f t e n u t i l i z e d by e a r l y d e c i d e r s . Thus, Hypoth-e s i s 6 s t a t e s t h a t the younger a student i s when he decides to e n t e r the p r o f e s s i o n the more l i k e l y he w i l l be to choose a f i e l d a t the business end of the B-P continuum. The f i n d i n g s show t h a t e a r l y d e c i d e r s do choose d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s but not i n the manner p r e d i c t e d . E a r l y d e c i d e r s more o f t e n expect to e n t e r h o s p i t a l pharmacy, w h i l e l a t e d e c i d e r s t e n d to f a v o r p r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy and one of the f i e l d s i n the r e s i d u a l c a t egory. The f a i l u r e to s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s a t t r i b u t e d t o the f a c t t h a t s o c i a l background f a c t o r s are more important i n deter m i n i n g the choice of f i e l d f o r those who decide on pharmacy a t d i f f e r e n t ages. F o r example, women, who de-c i d e on pharmacy e a r l i e r than, men, f a v o r h o s p i t a l pharm-acy; P r o t e s t a n t s who choose pharmacy a t an e a r l i e r age than C a t h o l i c s a l s o tend to s e l e c t h o s p i t a l pharmacy, and so f o r t h . Thus, although e a r l y d e c i d e r s are more o f t e n i n f l u e n c e d by p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d s o u r c e s , which g e n e r a l l y l e a d to the c h o i c e of the r e t a i l f i e l d s , the e f f e c t s of these sources are over-balanced by the impact of s o c i a l background f a c t o r s . D) CONCLUSIONS - 2 8 9 -Data p e r t a i n i n g to pharmacy students i n general and the choice of f i e l d i n p a r t i c u l a r have been presented and disc u s s e d . These have been summarized i n the preceding three s e c t i o n s of t h i s chapter, and they l e a d to the con-c l u s i o n s which f o l l o w . F i r s t , as s t a t e d i n the i n t r o d u c t o r y chapter, pharm-acy i s p r e s e n t l y i n a s t a t e of t r a n s i t i o n , attempting to ad j u s t to the changing requirements of an i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y . I d e o l o g i c a l l e a d e r s , i n an e f f o r t to preserve pharmacy's s t a t u s among the community of h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n s , have been attempting to r e c r u i t and prepare students f o r careers i n i n d u s t r y , t e a c h i n g , research, and h o s p i t a l pharmacy, and to re d e f i n e the r o l e of the t r a d i t i o n a l pharmacist. At the same time, t r a d i t i o n a l channels of recruitment ( i . e . , v i a d i r e c t contact w i t h the r e t a i l f i e l d ) s t i l l operate and encourage students to enter r e -t a i l pharmacy as i t i s p r e s e n t l y p r a c t i s e d . These fo r c e s are somewhat a n t i t h e t i c a l and produce a s t a t e of ambivalence f o r a number of students, most o f t e n those o r i e n t e d toward pharmaceutical i d e o l o g y . The f a c t that the l a t t e r , sufjfer t h i s ambivalence i s due to the present l a c k of o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r r e a l i z i n g the goals toward which the p r o f e s s i o n s t r i v e s . W i t h i n the pharmacy student p o p u l a t i o n c e r t a i n i n -d i v i d u a l s are o r i e n t e d more toward the f u t u r e t h a t pharm-acy e n v i s i o n s , w h i l e others are o r i e n t e d more toward the - 2 9 0 -t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e of the p r o f e s s i o n . A number of f a c t o r s a f f e c t the o r i e n t a t i o n s of students and hence determine the balance between the two types. Occupation-a l i n h e r i t a n c e , p r a c t i c a l experience, low high school grades, p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n -f l u e n c e , e x t r i n s i c , business, independence, and entre-p r e n e u r i a l v a l u e s , and e s p e c i a l l y the v a l u e , \"meet the p u b l i c , \" are a l l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the' t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e of the p r o f e s s i o n . Males r a t h e r than females, Jews (ex-c l u d i n g those who h o l d I n t r i n s i c values) r a t h e r than P r o t e s t a n t s or C a t h o l i c s , and students coming from towns and c i t i e s r a t h e r than those coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s , tend to be o r i e n t e d toward the t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e of the p r o f e s s i o n . Lack of d i r e c t contact w i t h pharmacy, high school grades of s u p e r i o r standing, i d e o l o g y -o r i e n t e d sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , i n t r i n s i c values and the v a l u e , \" b e n e f i t f e l l o w man,\" together w i t h the r e j e c t i n g of business, independence, and entrepreneur-i a l v a l u e s , serve to o r i e n t the i n d i v i d u a l toward the en-v i s i o n e d goals of the p r o f e s s i o n . The l a t t e r tend to a f f e c t females more than males, P r o t e s t a n t s and C a t h o l i c s r a t h e r than Jews (other than those espousing e x t r i n s i c v a l u e s ) , and students coming from farms or r u r a l d i s t r i c t s r a t h e r than those coming from towns and c i t i e s . The second c o n c l u s i o n that can be drawn from t h i s study i s t h a t the choice of f i e l d w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n i s a process s i m i l a r to that of choosing a p r o f e s s i o n from -291-among al t e r n a t i v e - . p r o f e s s i o n s and i n v o l v e s many of the same types of f a c t o r s ( s o c i a l background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , and occupational v a l u e s ) . Although some f a c t o r s are more important i n the i n i t i a l career commitment than i n the subsequent occupa-t i o n a l choice, socio-economic status being a good example, the same types of f a c t o r s can be used to analyse the l a t t e r . Perhaps d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s exert t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on occupa-t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s at d i f f e r e n t stages of the l i f e c y c l e and expend themselves much l i k e stages of a r o c k e t . T h i r d , i t i s concluded that the u t i l i t y of Rosenberg's value continuum as an a n a l y t i c t o o l could be enhanced i f the \" d i s p e r s i o n \" of value energy, I.e., the r e l a t i v e d i s -tance between p o s i t i v e l y h e l d v a l u e s , i s taken i n t o account i n a d d i t i o n to the l o c a t i o n of values on the continuum. I t i s suggested that some occupations a l l o w for,- even r e -q u i r e , the r e a l i z a t i o n of a broad spectrum of perhaps l o o s e l y h e l d and seemingly ambivalent v a l u e s , w h i l e others demand a strong commitment to a s m a l l range of h i g h l y i n t e g r a t e d v a l u e s . The p r e d i c t i v e p o t e n t i a l of the'value continuum could be incre a s e d i f the r e l a t i v e d i s p e r s i o n and l o c a t i o n of values were taken i n t o account. F i n a l l y , i t i s concluded t h a t sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e and va l u e s , although both shaped.somewhat by s o c i a l background f a c t o r s , are considerably independent of each other i n a f f e c t i n g the choice of f i e l d . As seen i n F i g u r e 6, there does not appear to be any immutable -292-connection between sources and values. Practice-oriented sources are u t i l i z e d at times by those who stress i n t r i n s i c values.as well as by those who stress e x t r i n s i c values. S i m i l a r l y , ideology-oriented sources are r e l i e d upon by those who emphasize i n t r i n s i c values as well as by those who emphasize e x t r i n s i c values. Thus, i t appears that the two factors act independently on the choice of f i e l d and sometimes are at odds with each other i n a f f e c t i n g the choice. -293-NOTES Chapter I 1 . E. Haryey, \"The Profe s s i o n s and So c i o l o g y : Some I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r Pharmacy,\" Western Druggist, J u l y , 1963, 21-23 . 2. I n the l i t e r a t u r e on occupational recruitment, a d i s t i n c t i o n i s i m p l i c i t l j r made between the processes of choice and s e l e c t i o n , the former, drawing a t t e n t i o n to those f a c t o r s i m p l i c a t e d i n the.career d e c i s i o n as seen from the per s p e c t i v e of the i n d i v i d u a l making the choice and the l a t t e r focusing.on the s o c i a l f orces e x t e r n a l to the i n -d i v i d u a l which a f f e c t the range of a l t e r n a t i v e s a s o c i e t y has to o f f e r at any p a r t i c u l a r time. G e n e r a l l y researchers confine themselves to one approach or the other, but Blau and a s s o c i a t e s propose a schema intended to c o n t a i n both processes; see Peter M. Blau et. a l . , \"Occupational Choice: A Conceptual Framework,\" I n d u s t r i a l and Labor R e l a t i o n s Review, IX (1956) , 531-543-3 . For a summary of the l i t e r a t u r e on occupational choice predominantly from.the.perspective of psychology see Anne Roe, The Psychology of Occupations (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1956), Chapter 21 . 4 . Morris Rosenberg, Occupations and Values (Glencoe The Free Pr e s s , 1957) ; Howard S. Becker and James W. Carper \"The.Development of. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h an Occupation,\" American J o u r n a l of So c i o l o g y , LXI (1956) , 289-298; see also.,. \"The. Elements, of. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h an Occupation,\" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXI (1956) , 341-348; R. A. H. Robson, \" S o c i o l o g i c a l Factors A f f e c t i n g Recruitment i n t o the Nursing P r o f e s s i o n \" ( r e p o r t to the Royal Commission on Health S e r v i c e s i n Canada, 1963); N a t a l i e Rogoff, \"The De c i s i o n to Study Medicine,\" i n R. K. Merton,. George. C. Reader, and P a t r i c i a L. K e n d a l l ( e d s . ) , The Student-Physi-c i a n (Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1957)\u00C2\u00BB PP\u00C2\u00BB 109-129; Wagner T h i e l e n s , Jr.,-\"Some Comparisons of Entrants to Medical and Law School,\" i b i d . , pp. 131-152; Oswald H a l l , \"The Stages of a Medical Career,\" i h Sigmund Nosow and W i l l i a m H. Form (ed s . ) , Man, Work, and S o c i e t y (New York: Bas i c Books, 1962) , pp. ^78-486; Howard S. Becker, \"The Career of the Schoolteacher,\" i b i d . , pp. 321-329; Thelma McCormick, \"The Druggist's Dilemma: Problems of a Marginal Occupation,\" American J o u r n a l of So c i o l o g y , LXI - 2 9 4 -NOTES Chapter I \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t i n u e d 5 . Harry K. Schwarzweller, \"Values and Oc c u p a t i o n a l Choice,\" S o c i a l F o r c e s , XXXIX ( i 9 6 0 ) , 126-135; Eugene B u r n s t e i n , Robert Moulton, P a u l L i b e r t y , J r . , \" P r e s t i g e vs.- E x c e l l e n c e as Determinants of Role A t t r a c t i v e n e s s , \" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXVIII ( 1963) , 212-217; D e l b e r t C. M i l l e r and W i l l i a m H. Form, I n d u s t r i a l S o c i o l -ogy; (New York: Harper & Row, 1964) , pp. 576-594; W i l l i a m H. Form and D e l b e r t C. M i l l e r , \" O c c u p a t i o n a l Career P a t t e r n as a S o c i o l o g i c a l Instrument,\" i n Nosow and Form ( e d s . ) , o p . c i t . , pp. 287-297; Andrew M. Gr e e l e y , \" I n f l u e n c e of the ' R e l i g i o u s F a c t o r ' on Career Plans and Oc c u p a t i o n a l Values of C o l l e g e Graduates,\" American J o u r n a l of S o c i o l -ogy, LXVIII ( 1963) , 6 5 8 - 6 7 I ; R i c h a r d L. Simpson and Ida Harper Simpson, \"Values, P e r s o n a l I n f l u e n c e and Occupa-t i o n a l Choice,\" S o c i a l . F o r c e s , XXXIX ( I 9 6 0 ) , 116-125; F r e d E. Kat z , \" O c c u p a t i o n a l Contact Networks,\" S o c i a l F o r c e s , XXXVII (1958), 52-55; Raymond W. Mack, \"Occupa-t i o n a l Ideology and the Determinate Role,\" S o c i a l F o r c e s , XXXVI (1957) , 37-44; W i l l i a m H. Sew.ell, \"Community of Residence and C o l l e g e P l a n s , \" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXIX (1964) , 24 - 3 8 ; C. Norman Alexander, J r . , and Er n e s t Q. Campbell, \"Peer I n f l u e n c e s on Ado l e s c e n t E d u c a t i o n a l A s p i r a t i o n s and Attainments,\" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXIX ( 1964) , 568-575; Edward L. M c D i l l and James Coleman, \"High S c h o o l S o c i a l S t a t u s , C o l l e g e P l a n s , and I n t e r e s t i n Academic Achievement: A Panel A n a l y s i s , \" American S o c i o -l o g i c a l Review, XXVIII ( 1963) . 905-918. 6. Robert J . Smith, Charles E. Ramsey and G e l i a C a s t i l l o , \" P a r e n t a l A u t h o r i t y and Job Choice: Sex D i f f e r -ences i n Three C u l t u r e s , \" American J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y , LXIX ( 1963) , 143-149; see a l s o Seymour M. L i p s e t , Reinhard Bendix, and F. Theodore Malm, \"Job Plans and E n t r y i n t o the Labor Market,\" i n Nosow and Form ( e d s . ) , op. c i t . , PP. 297 - 3 0 5 . 7. S i n c e Ginzberg's attempt to develop a theory of o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e i n 1951, students have g e n e r a l l y ac-cepted the n o t i o n of o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e as a developmental process b e g i n n i n g i n c h i l d h o o d and ..extending over time. See E l i Ginzberg et a l . , O c c u p a t i o n a l Choice: An Approach to a General Theory (New York: Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1951); f o r a condensed v e r s i o n of t h i s theory, see E l i Ginzberg, \"Toward a Theory of Oc c u p a t i o n a l Choice,\" Occupations, XXX ( 1952) , 491-494. - 2 9 5 -NOTES Chapter I \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t i n u e d 8. Robson, op., c i t . ; Ginzberg, op. c i t . ; Rosenberg, op. c i t ' . ; Rogoff,\" op. c i t . ; Schwarzweller, op. c i t . ; B u r n s t e i n et a l . , op. c i t . 9\u00C2\u00AB Richard L. Simpson and Ida Harper Simpson, \" S o c i a l O r i g i n s , Occupational Advice, Occupational Values and Work Careers,\" S o c i a l Forces, XL ( 1962) , 264-271; Seymour M a r t i n L i p s e t and F. Theodore Malm, \" F i r s t . Jobs and Career P a t t e r n s , \" American J o u r n a l of Economics and S o c i o l o g y , XIV (1955), 247-261; Howard S. Becker and ' A n s e l m L . S t r a u s s , \"Careers, P e r s o n a l i t y , and Adult S o c i a l -i z a t i o n , \" American J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y , LXII ( 1 9 5 6 ) , - 2 5 3 -263; K a t z , op. c i t . ; Mack, op. c i t . ; M i l l e r and-Form, op. c i t . ; Form and M i l l e r , op. c i t . ; H a l l , op. c i t . 10. Ginzberg, op. c i t . ; Rogoff, op. c i t . ; Robson, op. c i t . ; T h i e l e n s , J r . , op. c i t . 11. Fred E. Katz and Harry W. M a r t i n , \"Career Choice Processes,\" S o c i a l Forces, XLI ( 1962) , 149-154; David G o t t l i e b , \"Process of S o c i a l i z a t i o n i n American Graduate S c h o o l s ^ \" . S o c i a l Forces, XL ( 1 9 6 l ) , 124-131; Simpson and Simpson, \" S o c i a l O r i g i n s . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 .\"; Becker and Carper, \"The Development . . .\"; L i p s e t and Malm, op. c i t . ; Becker-, op. c i t . 12. Simpson and Simpson, \" S o c i a l O r i g i n s . j. .\"; -L i p s e t and Malm, op. c i t . ; Schwarzweller, op. c i t . ; Rogoff, op. c i t . ; S e w e l l , op. c i t . ; Rosenberg, op. c i t . 13. Smith et a l . , op. c i t . ; Schwarzweller, op. c i t . ; Robson, op. c i t . ; S e w e l l , op. c i t . ; M c D i l l and Campbell, op. c i t . ; Rosenberg, op. c i t . i . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 . 14. G r e e l y , op. c i t . 1 5 . Schwarzweller, op. c i t . ; Robson, op. c i t . ; . S e w e l l , op. c i t . ' For a summary of the l i t e r a t u r e on the r e l a t i o n -s h i p between community of residence and a s p i r a t i o n a l l e v e l , see i b i d . 16. Schwarzweller, op. c i t . ; Robson, op. c i t . 17. Robson, op. c i t . 18. Becker and Carper, \"The Development \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 .\" - 2 9 6 -NOTES Chapter I \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t i n u e d 19. F i n l a y A. Morrison, \"Recruitment, Education, and U t i l i z a t i o n of Pharmacists i n Canada\" (re p o r t to the Royal Commission on Health S e r v i c e s i n Canada, 1963)* 2 0 . Robson, op. c i t . 21 . I b i d . 2 2 . Simpson and Simpson, \"Values . . .\"; a l s o , \" S o c i a l O r i g i n s . . .\"; Rogoff, op. c i t . ; Robson, op. c i t . 2 3 . Robson, op. c i t . ; . Alexander and Campbell, op. c i t . ; M o D l l l and Coleman, op. c i t . 24. Becker and Carper, \"The Development . . .\"; Ka t z , op. c i t . ; G o t t l i e b , op. c i t . ; Rogoff, op. c i t . ; Robson, op. c i t . ; Hall-, op. c i t . ; T h i e l e n s , J r . , op. c i t . 25\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Robson, op. c i t . i t . . \u00C2\u00BB 26. Becker and Carper, \"The Development . Mack, op. c i t . ; G o t t l i e b , op. c i t . 27. Robson, op. c i t . 2 8 . Rosenberg, op. c i t . ; Simpson and Simpson, \"Values'. . .\"; a l s o , \" S o c i a l O r i g i n s . . .\"; Greely, op. o i t . ; Schwarzweller, op. c i t . ; B u r n s t e i n et a l . , op. c i t ' . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 2 9 . Mack, op. c i t . ; Rosenberg, bp. c i t . . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ' -\u00E2\u0080\u00A2' \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 3 0 . B u r n s t e i n et a l . , op. c i t . ; Rosenberg, op. c i t . ; a l s o , see summary of p s y c h o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e on occupa-t i o n a l choice i n Roe, op. c i t . 31 . The value concept has been g i v e n the character o r ends, means, norms, o b j e c t s , and a c t i o n s . For example, W i l l i a m A. S c o t t views a value as an end, ah i d e a l s t a t e of a f f a i r s to which i n d i v i d u a l s o r i e n t themselves (\"Em-p i r i c a l Assessment of Values and I d e o l o g i e s , \" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXV.(1959), 299-310. S t u a r t . C . Dodd claims t h a t values are \". . . objects of p o s i t i v e or negative d e s i r i n g . . . [and] . . . i n c l u d e whatever people s t r i v e f o r both as ends and as means\" (\"On C l a s s i f y i n g - 2 9 7 -N 0 T E 3 Chapter I\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued 31\u00C2\u00BB\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued\u00E2\u0080\u0094Human Values: A Step i n the Pre-d i c t i o n of Human Valuing,\" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XVI ( 1 9 5 D , 646-653). For Ethel M. Albert, a value i s \" . . . a general l a b e l f o r a heterogeneous class of norm-ative factors not a simple conceptual un i t \" (\"The Class-i f i c a t i o n of Values: A Method and I l l u s t r a t i o n , \" American Anthropologist. LVTII (1956), 221-245). Thomas and Znaniecki see values as \" . . . more or less e x p l i c i t 'rules' of behavior by which the group tends to maintain, to regul-ate, and to make more' general and more frequent the corr-esponding types of action among i t s members.\" (W. I. Thomas and F l o r i a n Znaniecki, The P o l i s h Peasant i n Europe and\u00E2\u0080\u00A2America (Boston? 1918-1920), I, 21-22; c i t e d i n Howard Becker and A l v i n Boskoff (eds.), Modern S o c i o l o g i c a l Theory (New York: The Dryden Press, 1957), P\u00C2\u00AB 9 3 ) . Kluckhohn, Rose, and Parsons also a t t r i b u t e normative s i g -n ificance to the* value concept (Clyde Kluckhohn, \"Values \u00E2\u0080\u00A2' and Value-Orientation i n the Theory of Action: An Explana-t i o n i n D e f i n i t i o n and C l a s s i f i c a t i o n , \" i n Talcott Parsons and Edward A. ShiIs (eds.), Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954), pp. 388-43'N; Arnold M. Rose, \"Sociology and the Study of Values,\" B r i t i s h Journal of Sociology, VII (1956) ,..1-17; Talcott Parsons, Structure and Process i n Modern Societies (Glencoe: Free Press, I960), p. 171). Values have also been concept-u a l i z e d as objects, as the things desired. For example, Dodd defines a value as \". . . a desideratum, i . e . , any-thing desired or chosen by someone sometime\" (op. c i t . , 646). Sometimes a value i s a \"conception of the desirable\" (Kluckhohn, op. c i t . , p. 395, William R. Catton, J r . , \"A Theory o f Value,\" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXIV (1959), 310-317)* And f o r Franz Adler, the value concept i s super-fluous; the meaning of an action'exists i n i t s r e l a t i o n to* other actions (\"The Value Concept In Sociology,\" American. Journal of Sociology, LVII (1956), 272-279). 3 2 . \" See note 28 above. 33* 'Sidney M. Willhelm, Urban Zoning and Land-Use Theory (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1962), p. 36. 34. Kluckhohn, op. c i t . , p. 396. -298-NOTES Chapter I \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t i n u e d 3-5 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Simpson and Simpson, \"Values . . .\"; a l s o , \" S o c i a l O r i g i n s . . .\"; Becker and Carper, \"The Develop-ment .. . .\"; Rogoff, op. cit\u00C2\u00BB; Robson, op. c i t . ; ^Alexander and Campbell, op. c i t . ; M c D i l l and'Coleman, op. c i t . ; K a t z , op. c i t . ; G o t t l i e b , op. c i t . ; Hall.,, op. c i t . ; T h i e l e n s , J r . , op. c i t . 36. I t may be argued that o c c u p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e i s a f a c t o r over which the i n d i v i d u a l has l i t t l e c o n t r o l , and t h e r e f o r e should be i n c l u d e d w i t h the a s c r i b e d s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . However, t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c does not apply to t h e , i n d i v i d u a l u n t i l he p e r s o n a l l y makes the de-c i s i o n to enter an occupation engaged i n by e i t h e r of h i s parents. Therefore, i t seems reasonable to. c l a s s i f y the f a c t o r of occu p a t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e as an achieved s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . 37* H. J . F u l l e r , \"C. Ph. A. Annual.Survey of R e t a i l Pharmacy,\" Canadian Pharmaceutical J o u r n a l , September, 1962, i - x x x i . 38. The f i e l d s of pharmacy are c l a s s i f i e d along a bu s i n e s s - p r o f e s s i o n continuum i n accordance w i t h the a t t -r i b u t e s of a p r o f e s s i o n set out.by Ernest Greenwood (\"Att-r i b u t e s of. a P r o f e s s i o n , \" i n Nosow and Form, op. c i t . , pp. 206-218), e s p e c i a l l y the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of p r o f e s s i o n a l a u t h o r i t y . 39* Rosenberg, op.- c i t . , p. 4... 40. I n Question 43, concerning the formal education, of the f a t h e r , a value of \"4\" was assigned to response category\u00C2\u00AB3, \"completed high school or i t s e q u i v a l e n t , \" and a value of \"3\" was given to response category 4, \"vo c a t i o n -a l or t e c h n i c a l school or e q u i v a l e n t . \" The remaining v a l -ues used to co n s t r u c t the socio-economic s t a t u s index correspond to the numbers preceding the response c a t e g o r i e s . 41. Rosenberg, op. c i t . , pp. 16-19. 42. I b i d . , p. 48. 43. ' I b i d . , pp. 48^52. . 44. Greeley, op. c i t . - 2 9 9 -NOTES Chapter I \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t i n u e d 4 5 . Raymond W. Mack, Raymond J . Murphy, and Seymour Y e l l i n , . . \"The P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c , L e v e l of A s p i r a t i o n , and S o c i a l M o b i l i t y : An E m p i r i c a l Test,\" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXI (1956) , 295-300. 46. Greeley, op. c i t . 4 7 . A survey of the academic records of a l l past graduates of the F a c u l t y of Pharmacy at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, conducted by the present w r i t e r i n 1962, shows that performance i n pharmacy school i s d i r e c t l y r e -l a t e d w i t h academic entrance average (unpublished r e s e a r c h ) . 48. Rosenberg, op. c i t . , p. 5 0 . 4 9 . A l e x I n k e l e s , \" I n d u s t r i a l Man: The R e l a t i o n of Status to Experience, P e r c e p t i o n , and Value,\" American J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y , LXVI (I960), 1-31. 5 0 . Rogoff, op. c i t . 51* Roy W. Hornosty, \"A S o c i o l o g i c a l Study of the P r o f e s s i o n of Pharmacy\" (unpublished paper). 5 2 . Merton, Reader and K e n d a l l , op. c i t . , pp.' 313-351'. 53.\u00C2\u00AB F i n l a y A. Morrison, \"Recruitment, Education, and U t i l i z a t i o n of Pharmacists I n Canada,\" ( r e p o r t to the Royal Commission on Health S e r v i c e s , 1963) . 5 4 . W. G. Cochran, \"Some Methods f o r Strengthening the Common X 2 Tests,\" B i o m e t r i c s , X (1954), 417-451. Chapter I I 1. Among the pharmacy students, 46 per cent s e r i o u s l y considered only one occupation, and 72 per cent considered one or two occupations, other than pharmacy, before making t h e i r career d e c i s i o n s ; 14 per cent d i d not s e r i o u s l y consider a s i n g l e ' other occupation p r i o r to choosing pharmacy. - 3 0 0 -NOTES Chapter I I \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t i n u e d 2. Dominion Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s , #81-204, \" F a l l Enrolment i n . U n i v e r s i t i e s and Co l l e g e s , \" 1961. 3* Grading procedures i n high school are not stand-a r d i z e d among the provinces and th e r e f o r e can be expected to vary w i t h the f a c t o r of geographic r e g i o n . 4. Dominion Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s , op. c i t . 5* Figures concerning the r e j e c t i o n of a p p l i c a n t s were obtained from the deans and d i r e c t o r s of the eigh t pharmacy schools i n Canada. 6.- A survey of the academic records of a l l past graduates of the F a c u l t y of Pharmacy a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, conducted by the present w r i t e r i n 1962, shows th a t women perform b e t t e r academically and have lower withdrawal r a t e s from pharmacy s c h o o l . However, when aca-demic entrance averages are c o n t r o l l e d , no d i f f e r e n c e s between men and women can be observed, which suggests that the b e t t e r performance of women i s due to t h e i r s u p e r i o r academic q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and not to any c h a r a c t e r i s t i c which i s p e c u l i a r to the femal sex (unpublished r e s e a r c h ) . 7 - Morris Rosenberg, Occupations and Values j G l e n c o e : The Free P r e s s , 1957) . 8. Figures p e r t a i n i n g to the employment of.pharm* a c i s t s are obtained from Mr. T. M. Ross, Executive Sec-r e t a r y of the Canadian Pharmaceutical A s s o c i a t i o n , who conducted a survey of manpower needs and supply i n pharm-acy (\"Pharmacist Manpower i n Canada,\" rep o r t to the Royal Commission on Health S e r v i c e s , 1963) . 9\u00C2\u00AB Information about the u t i l i z a t i o n of pharmacists' time i s . d e r i v e d from the que s t i o n n a i r e used by Mr. Ross i n h i s manpower study ( i b i d . ) . 10. H. J . F u l l e r , \"C. Ph. A. Annual Survey of R e t a i l Pharmacy,\" Canadian Pharmaceutical J o u r n a l , September, 1962, i - x x x i . r 3 0 1 -NOTES Chapter II--Continued 11. An examination of the membership of the Canadian Pharmaceutical A s s o c i a t i o n shows that the p r o p o r t i o n of p r a c t i s i n g pharmacists engaged i n h o s p i t a l pharmacy i n Saskatchewan and Manitoba i s 9.6 and 6.2 per cent r e s p e c t -i v e l y , compared w i t h a n a t i o n a l average of 5 per cent. Chapter I I I 1. For a d i s c u s s i o n of the concept \" r o l e model,\" see Wagner T h i e l e n s , J r . , \"Some Comparisons of Entrants to Medical and Law School,\" i n Robert K. Merton, George G. Reader, and P a t r i c i a L. K e n d a l l (eds.), The Student- P h y s i c i a n (Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 7 ) , pp. 137-139. 2. The reader i s r e f e r r e d to pp. 151-153 of the present chapter f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s p o i n t . 3. T a l c o t t Parsons, \"Age and Sex i n the S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e of the United S t a t e s , \" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, VII ( 1 9 4 2 ) , 604-616. 4. B.C.Ph.A. B u l l e t i n , VII (October, 1 9 6 4 ) , PP. 2-3-Chapter IV 1. Morris Rosenberg, Occupations and Values (Glencoe: The Free Pr e s s , 1 9 5 7 ) . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 2. I b i d . , p. 13. 3. I b i d . , pp. 14-15. 4. I b i d . , p. 13. 5\u00C2\u00AB The va l u e , \" o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r women,\" was ex-cluded from these t a b u l a t i o n s , g i v i n g 153 p a i r s of values . 6. Thelma McCormick, \"The Druggi s t t s Dilemma: Problems of a Marginal Occupation,\" American J o u r n a l of So c i o l o g y . LXI ( 1 9 5 6 ) , 308-3JL5. -302-N0TE3 Chapter I V \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t i n u e d ?. Report of address made by L. Douglas Schoening, Marketing Manager of N a t i o n a l Drug and Chemical Co. a t the Maritime Pharmaceutical A s s o c i a t i o n Convention, Canadian Pharmaceutical J o u r n a l , XCVT ( 1963) , 339. 8 . Yves Menard, \" P r o f e s s i o n a l i s m A p p l i e d to Commer-c i a l Operations,\" Canadian Pharmaceutical J o u r n a l , XCVII (1964) , 4 8 9 . 9 . Rosenberg, op. c i t . , pp. 16-19. 10. The weighted average score was c a l c u l a t e d accord-i n g to the f o l l o w i n g : a weight of 4 was assigned f o r the s e l e c t i o n of values as \"most important,\" 3 f o r the s e l e c t i o n of values as \"next most important,\" 2 f o r values r a t e d \"very d e s i r a b l e , \" 1 f o r values regarded as \" f a i r l y d e s i r a b l e , \" and 0 f o r a l l other choices. 11. Rosenberg, op. c i t . , p. 49* 12. A l e x I n k e l e s , \" I n d u s t r i a l Man: The R e l a t i o n of Status to Experience, P e r c e p t i o n , and Value,\" American J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y , LXVI ( i 9 6 0 ) , 1-31; see a l s o Rosenberg, op. c i t . . pp. 53-59. 13. I b i d . , p. 11. 14. See T a l c o t t Parsons and Edward A. S h i l s , \"Values, Motives, and Systems of A c t i o n , \" i n Toward a General Theory of A c t i o n (Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1954), e s p e c i a l l y pp. 80-81. Chapter V 1. N a t a l i e Rogoff, \"The D e c i s i o n to Study Medicine,\" i n Robert K. Merton, George G. Reader, and P a t r i c i a L. K e n d a l l , The Stu d e n t - P h y s i c i a n (Cambridge: Harvard Univers-i t y P r e s s , 1957) , 109-129-2. I b i d . , p. 112. 3 . The reader i s r e f e r r e d to pp. 103-104 i n Chap-t e r I I I f o r d e s c r i p t i o n of the index of doubt. - 3 0 3 -NOTES Chapter V \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C o n t i n u e d 4. Rogoff, op. c i t * . p. 115\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 5 . A l b e r t J \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Mayer and Harry Sharp, \" R e l i g i o u s Preference and Worldly Success,\" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXVII (1962), 218-227. 6. ' Rogoff, op. c i t . . p. 119* 7. I b i d . , p. 122. 8. * I b i d . , pp. 119-122. ' 9 . I b i d . , p. 121. Chapter VI 1. Morris Rosenberg, Occupations and Values (Glencoe: The F r e e P r e s s , 1957), PP* 13-15* 2..' N a t a l i e Rogoff, \"The D e c i s i o n to Study Medicine,\" i n R. K. Merton,. George G. Reader, and P a t r i c i a L. K e n d a l l ( e d s . ) , The St u d e n t - P h y s i c i a n (Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1957), PP\u00C2\u00AB 109-129* 3 . Rosenberg, op', c i t * , pp. 48-53* 4. ' Ibid., 5 . I b i d . , pp. 53-59 - 3 0 4 -LITEHATURE CITED A d l e r , F r a n z . \"The Value Concept i n S o c i o l o g y , \" American J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y . LVTI (1956) , 272-279. A l b e r t , E t h e l M. \"The C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of V a l u e s : A Method and I l l u s t r a t i o n , \" American A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , LVTII , (1956) , 221-245. Becker, Howard S. \"The Career, of the S c h o o l t e a c h e r , \" i n Man, Work, and S o c i e t y , ed. Sigmund Nosow and W i l l i a m H. Form. New York: B a s i c Books, 1962, pp. 321-329. Becker, Howard S., and Anselm L. S t r a u s s . \"Careers, Per-.. s o n a l l t y , and A d u l t S o c i a l i z a t i o n , \" American J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y , LXII (1956) , 253-263. Becker, Howard S., and James W. Carper. \"The Development of I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h an Occupation,\" American J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y , LXI (1956), 289-298\". Becker, Howard S., and James W. Carper. \"The Elements of I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h an Occupation,\" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXI (1956) , 341-348. B l a u , P e t e r M., et a l . \" O c c u p a t i o n a l Choice: A Conceptual Framework,\" I n d u s t r i a l and Labor R e l a t i o n s Review, IX (1956) , 531-543. B r i t i s h Columbia Pharmaceutical A s s o c i a t i o n B u l l e t i n . VII (October, 1964). B u r n s t e i n , Eugene, Robert Moulton, and P a u l L i b e r t y , J r . \" P r e s t i g e v s . E x c e l l e n c e as Determinants of Role A t t r a c t i v e n e s s , \" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, x x v i i i (1963) , 212-217. Canadian Pharmaceutical J o u r n a l . XCVI ( 1963) , 338-339. A r e p o r t of an address made by L. Douglas Schoening, Marketing Manager of the N a t i o n a l Drug and Chemical Company a t the Maritime Pharmaceut-i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n Convention. Catton, William.R., J r . \"A Theory of Value,\" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXIV (1959) , 310-317. Cochran, W. G. \"Some Methods f o r S t r e n g t h e n i n g the Common X 2 T e s t s , \" B i o m e t r i c s , X (1954) , 417-451. - 3 0 5 -LITERATURE CITED\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued Dodd, S t u a r t C. \"On C l a s s i f y i n g Human Values: A Step I n the P r e d i c t i o n of Human V a l u i n g , \" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XVI (1951), 646-653. Dominion Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s . \" F a l l Enrolment i n Univers-i t i e s and C o l l e g e s . \" No. 81-204, 1 9 6 l . Form, W i l l i a m H., and Delbert C. M i l l e r . \"Occupational Career P a t t e r n as a S o c i o l o g i c a l Instrument,\" i n Man, Work, and S o c i e t y , ed. Sigmund Nosow and W i l l i a m H. Form. New York: Basic Books, 1962, pp. 287-297. F u l l e r , H. J . \"Canadian Pharmaceutical A s s o c i a t i o n Annual Survey of R e t a i l Pharmacy,\" Canadian Pharmaceutical J o u r n a l , XCV (September, 1962), i - x x x i . Ginzberg, E l i . \"Toward a Theory of Occupational Choice,\" Occupations, XXX (1952) , 491 -494. Ginzberg, E l i , et. a l . Occupational Choice: An Approach to a General Theory. New York: Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P ress, 1951. G o t t l i e b , David. \"Process of S o c i a l i z a t i o n I n American Graduate Schools,\" S o c i a l Forces, XL (1961) , 124-131. Greeley, Andrew M. \"Influence of the ' R e l i g i o u s F a c t o r ' on Career Plans and Occupational Values of College Graduates,\" American J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y , LXVIII (1963) , 658-07IT ~ : \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Greenwood, Ernest. \" A t t r i b u t e s of a P r o f e s s i o n , \" i n Man, Work, and S o c i e t y , ed. Sigmund Nosow and' W i l l i a m H. Form. New York: Basic Books, 1962, pp. 206-218. H a l l , Oswald. \"The Stages of a Medical Career,\" i n Man, Work, and S o c i e t y , ed. Sigmund Nosow and W i l l i a m H. Form. New York: Basic Books, 1962, pp. 478-486. Harvey, E. \"The P r o f e s s i o n and S o c i o l o g y : Some I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r Pharmacy,\" Western Druggist ( J u l y , 1963), 21-23 Hornosty, Roy W. \"A S o c i o l o g i c a l Study of the P r o f e s s i o n of Pharmacy.\" (Unpublished paper.) - 3 0 6 -LITERATURE CITED\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued I n k e l e s , A l e x . \" I n d u s t r i a l Man: The R e l a t i o n of Status to Experience, P e r c e p t i o n , and Value,\" American J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y , LXVT ( i 9 6 0 ) , 1-31. K a t z , Fred E. \"Occupational Contact Networks,\" S o c i a l Forces, XXXVII ( 1958) , 52-55-K a t z , Fred E., and Harry W. M a r t i n . \"Career Choice Processes,\" S o c i a l Forces, XLI ( 1962) , 149-154. Kluckhohn, Clyde. \"Values and V a l u e - O r i e n t a t i o n i n the Theory of A c t i o n : An E x p l a n a t i o n i n D e f i n i t i o n and C l a s s i f i c a t i o n , \" i n Toward a General Theory of A c t i o n , ed. T a l c o t t Parsons and Edward A. S h i l s . Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1954, pp. 388-434. L l p s e t , Seymour M a r t i n , and F. Theodore Malm. \" F i r s t Jobs and Career P a t t e r n s , \" American J o u r n a l of Economics and S o c i o l o g y , XIV ( 1955) , 247-261. L i p s e t , Seymour Martin,. Reinhard Bendix, and F. Theodore Malm. \"Job Plans.and.Entry i n t o the Labor Market,\" i n Man, Work, and S o c i e t y , ed. Sigmund Nosow and William*H. Form. New York: Bas i c Books, 1962, pp. 297-305. Mack, Raymond W. \"Occupational Ideology and the Determinate Role,\" S o c i a l Forces, XXXVI (1957), 37-44. Mack, Raymond W., Raymond J . Murphy, and Seymour Y e l l e n . \"The P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c , L e v e l of A s p i r a t i o n , and S o c i a l . - M o b i l i t y : An E m p i r i c a l Test,\" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXI (1956), 295-300. Mayer, A l b e r t J . , and Harry Sharp. \" R e l i g i o u s Preference -and Worldly Success,\" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, x x v i i ( 1962) , 218-227. McCormick,. Thelma. \"The Druggist's Dilemma: Problems of a Marginal Occupation,\" American J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y , LXI ( 1956) , 308-315. M c D i l l , Edward L., and James Coleman. \"High School S o c i a l S t a t u s , College P l a n s , and I n t e r e s t i n Academic Achievement:- A Panel A n a l y s i s , \" American S o c i o l o g -i c a l Review, XXVIII (1963) , 905-91^*; -307-\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 LITERATURE CITED\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued Menard, Yves. \" P r o f e s s i o n a l i s m A p p l i e d to Commercial Operations,\" Canadian Pharmaceutical J o u r n a l . XCVII ( 1964) , 478-479; 4 8 9 . M i l l e r , Delbert C , and W i l l i a m H. Form. I n d u s t r i a l S o c i o l o g y . New York: Harper & Row, 1964. Morrison, F i n l a y A. \"Recruitment, Education, and U t i l i z a -t i o n of Pharmacists i n Canada.\" A r e p o r t to the Royal Commission on Health S e r v i c e s i n Canada, 1963* Parsons, T a l c o t t . \"Age and Sex i n the S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e of the United S t a t e s , \" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, VII (1942), 604-616. . Structure.and Process i n Modern S o c i e t i e s . Glencoe: Free P r e s s , I960. Parsons, T a l c o t t , and Edward A. S h i l s , eds. \"Values, Motives,, and Systems of A c t i o n , \" i n Toward a Gen-e r a l Theory of A c t i o n . Cambridge: Harvard Univers-i t y P r e s s , 1954, pp. 47-233* Robson, R. A. H. \" S o c i o l o g i c a l Factors A f f e c t i n g R e c r u i t -ment i n t o . t h e Nursing P r o f e s s i o n . \" A r e p o r t to the Royal Commission on Health S e r v i c e s i n Canada, 1963. Roe, Anne. The Psychology of Occupations. New York: Wiley and S ons, 1956\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Rogoff, N a t a l i e . \"The D e c i s i o n to Study Medicine,\" i n The Student-Phys 1cian, ed. Robert K. Merton, George G. Reader, and P a t r i c i a ' L. K e n d a l l . Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1957, PP* 109-129. Rose,,Arnold M..\"Sociology and the Study of Values,\" B r i t i s h J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y , VII (1956) , I - 1 7 . Rosenberg, M o r r i s . Occupations and Values. Glencoe: The Free P r e s s , 1957. Ross, T. M. \"Pharmacist Manpower i n Canada.\" A r e p o r t to the Royal Commission on Health S e r v i c e s , 1963. Schwarzweller, Harry'K. \"Values and Occupational Choice,\" S o c i a l Forces. XXXIX ( I 9 6 0 ) , 126-135. V -308-LITERATURE CITED\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued S c o t t , W i l l i a m A. \" E m p i r i c a l Assessment of Values and Id e o l o g i e s , \" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXV (1959) , 299-310. S e w e l l , W i l l i a m H. \"Community of \"Residence and College P l a n s , \" American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XXIX ( 1964) , 568-575-Simpson, Richard L., and Ida Harper Sampson. \" S o c i a l O r i g i n s , Occupational Advice, Occupational Values and Work Careers,\" S o c i a l Forces, XL ( 1962) , 264-271. Simpson, Richard L., and Ida Harper Simpson. \"Values, Per-sonal I n f l u e n c e and Occupational Choice,\" S o c i a l Forces, XXXIX ( I 9 6 0 ) , 116-125. Smith, Robert J . , Charles E. Ramsey, and G e l i a C a s t i l l o . \" P a r e n t a l A u t h o r i t y and Job Choice: Sex D i f f e r -ences, i n Three C u l t u r e s , \" American J o u r n a l of So c i o l o g y , LXIX ( 1963) , 143-149. T h l e l e n s , Wagner, J r . \"Some Comparisons of Entrants to Medical and Law School,\" i n The Stude n t - P h y s i c i a n , ed. Robert K. Merton, George G. Reader, and P a t r i c i a L. K e n d a l l . Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1957, PP. 131-152. Thomas, W.. I . , and F l o r i a n Z n a n i e c k i . The P o l i s h Peasant i n Europe and America. I , 21-22. Boston: 1918-1920. C i t e d i n Howard Becker and A l v i n Boskoff, eds. Modern . S o c i o l o g i c a l Theory. New York: The Dryden Pre s s , 1957, P. 93. -Wl l l h e l m , Sidney M. Urban Zoning and Land-Use Theory. Glencoe: The Free P r e s s , 1962. - 3 0 9 -APPENDIX A ROYAL COMMISSION ON HEALTH SERVICES QUESTIONNAIRE TO STUDENTS OP PHARMACY I N CANADA INSTRUCTIONS. The answers you g i v e t o t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e a r e t o be use d i n a s t u d y o f the r e c r u i t m e n t , e d u c a t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n o f p h a r m a c i s t s i n Canada conducted under t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e R o y a l Commission on H e a l t h S e r v i c e s .which was a p p o i n t e d by the Government o f Canada. I t i s not an e x a m i n a t i o n , and i n many cases t h e r e a r e no o b j e c t i v e l y c o r r e c t answers. What we want a r e y o u r o p i n i o n s , i m p r e s s i o n s and f e e l i n g s on the sub-j e c t . A l l i n d i v i d u a l a n s w e r s . w i l l be k e p t s t r i c t l y c o n f i d e n -t i a l . 1. S i n c e the s t u d y i n * i t s e n t i r e t y has a p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r pharmacy i n Canada, p l e a s e make a s p e c i a l p o i n t t o answer each q u e s t i o n as s i n c e r e l y as p o s s i b l e . 2. P l e a s e r e a d the i n s t r u c t i o n s t o each q u e s t i o n v e r y c a r e f u l l y and be s u r e t h e q u e s t i o n i s c l e a r b e f o r e a n s w e r i n g . 3\u00C2\u00AB C o n s i d e r e a c h \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 q u e s t i o n and g i v e the answer t h a t b e s t r e f l e c t s y o u r p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n . We r e a l i z e t h a t many o f t h e resp o n s e c a t e g o r i e s a r e v e r y b r o a d and t h a t i t w i l l be d i f f i -c u l t f o r you t o - answer some q u e s t i o n s . B u t s i n c e t h i s i s the f i r s t s t u d y o f i t s k i n d i n Canada, and p r o b a b l y i n t h e w o r l d , t h e c a t e g o r i e s , o f n e c e s s i t y , must be b r o a d . 4. P l e a s e choose the response t h a t i s c l o s e s t t o the one you would l i k e t o g i v e . You may add q u a l i f i c a t i o n s i n - t h e m a r g i n o p p o s i t e t h e q u e s t i o n i f you w i s h . -310-No. 1. Year i n which you are now r e g i s t e r e d as a pharmacy s t u dent. (Please c i r c l e a ppropriate number) 12 3 4 Graduate 2. Your age l a s t b i r t h d a y . (Please check one) 1\u00C2\u00BB 19 years or younger 2. 20 or 21 years 3. 22 or 23 years 4. _____ 24 or 25 years 5- \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 26 t o 29 years 6. 30 years or o l d e r 3. Sex: Male Female 4. a) M a r i t a l s t a t u s : (Check- one) 1. S i n g l e 2. Married 3* Engaged 4. Divorced, separated, or widowed b) I f married, were you\"married: (Please check one) 1. .... before e n t e r i n g pharmacy school 2. a f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy s c h o o l , but before graduation 3* a f t e r graduation from pharmacy school c) I f married, do you have any c h i l d r e n ? Yes No d) I f married, i s your w i f e (or husband) employed? 1\u00C2\u00AB f u l l time 2. p a r t time 3\u00C2\u00BB not at a l l 5. I n which province of Canada d i d you l i v e the longest before going to c o l l e g e or u n i v e r s i t y ? (Please check one) -311-1 # \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 B r i t i s h Columbia 2. A l b e r t a 3\u00C2\u00BB : \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 - Saskatchewan - \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Manitoba 5 ' ______ Ontario 6. . . Quebec 7. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 New Brunswick . 8. Nova S c o t i a 9\u00C2\u00BB . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 P r i n c e Edward I s l a n d 10. Newfoundland a) Regard-less of whether you grew up i n Canada, i n what k i n d of community d i d you l i v e the gr e a t e s t p a r t of your l i f e ? (Check one) 1. _ on a farm or i n a r u r a l d i s t r i c t 2. i n a town w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of 5>000 or ... l e s s 3 . i n a c i t y of 5 ,000 to 25,000 4 . i n a c i t y of 25,000 to 50,000 5 . i n a c i t y of 50,000 to 100,000 6 * I n a c i t y of 100,000 to 200,000 7. i n a c i t y of over 200,000 people b) Approximately how many years d i d you l i v e i n t h i s community? (Check one) 1. . 5 years'or l e s s 2. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 between 5 - 1 0 years 3' \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 between 10 - 15 years 4 . . . . between 15 - 20 years 5\u00C2\u00BB _ over 20 years c) I n which country i s t h i s community located? (Check one) 1. Canada 2. U. S. A. 3\u00C2\u00BB Great B r i t a i n 4 . i n some other European country 5\u00C2\u00BB ' i n a Non-European country Compared to the other students i n your c l a s s , how hard would you say tha t you have worked i n your s t u d i e s dur-i n g the present academic year? (Check one) 1* considerably harder than average 2* somewhat harder than average 3\u00C2\u00AB ______ about average 4\u00C2\u00BB somewhat l e s s than.average 5* . con s i d e r a b l y l e s s than average -312-8. How much c o m p e t i t i o n do you f i n d among your classmates i n pharmacy school? (Check one) 1. : a great d e a l of c o m p e t i t i o n 2,\u00C2\u00BB _______ a f a i r amount 3\u00C2\u00BB ________ on l y a l i t t l e 4. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 - \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 none a t a l l 9 . a) How d i f f i c u l t i s i t f o r you to f i n a n c e your pharmacy education? (Check one) 1. very d i f f i c u l t 2. . f a i r l y d i f f i c u l t 3 . ... . . not very d i f f i c u l t 4. . not a t a l l d i f f i c u l t b) To what extent d i d the f o l l o w i n g a s s i s t i n f i n a n c i n g the t o t a l c o s t of your e d u c a t i o n ( i . e . , I n c l u d i n g t u i -t i o n , room and board, t r a v e l , books, p e r s o n a l expenses, etc.) f o r the p r e s e n t academic year? ( P l e a s e check the a p p r o p r i a t e column f o r each source) SOURCES OP FINANCE EXTENT OF ASSISTANCE IN % OF TOTAL COST 20$ or 21 to 41 to 6 l to 8 l to none l e s s k0% 60% 80% 100% 1. Family, r e l a t i v e s and p e r s o n a l b e n e f a c t o r s 2. Employment d u r i n g . ' v a c a t i o n s 3 . P a r t or f u l l time employment . w h i l e a t t e n d i n g pharmacy s c h o o l ' 4. Government s c h o l -a r s h i p s , bur-s a r i e s or grants 5. U n i v e r s i t y s c h o l -arship's , bur-s a r i e s or grants 6. Loans from u n i v e r -s i t i e s or o t h e r sources . 7. Wife (or husband) i s employed \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 - 3 1 3 -SOURCES OF FINANCE EXTENT OF ASSISTANCE\" IN % OF TOTAL COST 20$ or 21 ...to 41. to 6.1 to 8.1 to none less tog 60$ 80$ 100$ 8. Government p r o v i -sions, other than scholarr ships and grants (R.O.T.P., ' . -C.O.T.C., etc.) \ 9\u00C2\u00BB Personal savings from previous . . years 10. Other (Please specify). . 10. Has either of your parents ever practised the profession of \"Pharmacy? Yes No 11. Have any of your\"relatives ever practised the profession of Pharmacy? _______ Yes No 12. a) Do you know a p r a c t i s i n g pharmacist who, i n your opinion, comes close to being an i d e a l pharmacist? Yes No b) I f \"Yes\", how many such pharmacists do you know? (Check one) 1. one 2. . two 3\u00C2\u00BB three or four 4. more than four NOTE; QUESTION-13 BELOW TO BE ANSWERED BY WOMEN ONLY. 13* a) I f you are presently unmarried, do you expect that you w i l l get married i n the future? -314-Yes No Don't know b) Do you p l a n to continue working i n your p r o f e s s i o n i f and when you are married? Yes . . No Don't know c) I f you p l a n to continue working i n your p r o f e s s i o n when you are married,, do you expect t h a t you w i l l s (Please check the one which i s c l o s e s t the answer you would l i k e to give.) 1. work f u l l time i n d e f i n i t e l y 2. work p a r t time i n d e f i n i t e l y 3\u00C2\u00AB work f u l l time u n t i l you have c h i l d r e n and - . . . work p a r t time l a t e r 4. work f u l l time u n t i l you have c h i l d r e n and then q u i t 5\u00C2\u00BB work f u l l time during e a r l y p a r t of marriage and then work p a r t time regardless of whether you have c h i l d r e n or not 6. work f u l l or p a r t time during e a r l y p a r t of marriage and then q u i t regardless of whether you have c h i l d r e n or not 7. work only i f f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s i -t a t e i t 14. Please estimate the average percentage mark which you maintained i n the b a s i c sciences and other courses during your LAST TWO YEARS of high school and place a check mark i n the blank opposite the category which most c l o s e l y approximates i t . Note: I f the high school which you attended used l e t t e r grades ( i . e . , A-, B+, e t c ) , please t r a n s l a t e them i n t o percentage averages as best you can. Average $ mark obtained during l a s t two years of high s c h o o l : a) I n BASIC SCIENCE courses was: (Check one only) (Basic Sciences i n -clude: Chemistry, B i o l o g y , P h y s i c s , Botany, Zoology, Geology) 90-1 80-89$ 70-79$ 60-69$ 50-59$ below This space f o r c a l c u -l a t i o n i f necessary 50 - 3 1 5 -b) I n ALL OTHER courses was: (Check one only) 15\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Regardless of which f i e l d of. pharmacy you expect-to enter a f t e r graduation, and. assuming, that, i t was necessary f o r you to s e l e c t o n l y from the f o l l o w i n g f o u r p l a c e s to work, which would you p r e f e r ? 1. Independent r e t a i l d r u gstore 2. .. .. Chain s t o r e pharmacy 3. . Pharmacy i n a department s t o r e k. H o s p i t a l pharmacy 1 6 . Would you l i k e to own and operate a pharmacy? . . Yes _ __ No Not sure 1 7 . a) Which f i e l d of pharmacy do you expect to enter a f t e r graduation? (Please check one only) 1. R e t a i l pharmacy 2. . H o s p i t a l pharmacy 3* P r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy (one h a n d l i n g o n l y p r e s c r i p t i o n s and m e d i c i n a l s ) 4 . . Armed S e r v i c e s 5\u00C2\u00BB \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Government s e r v i c e 6 . . Sa l e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f o r drug f i r m 7 . I n d u s t r i a l manufacturing o r r e s e a r c h 8 . Teaching or r e s e a r c h i n a u n i v e r s i t y . 9 ' \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Leave pharmacy and go i n t o another f i e l d (What, f i e l d ? .) ... 1 0 . Other (Please s p e c i f y ) b) How d e f i n i t e are you about your ex p e c t a t i o n ? (Check one) -1. very d e f i n i t e 2. f a i r l y d e f i n i t e 3\u00C2\u00BB t e n t a t i v e c) How long do you expect to st a y i n the above mentioned o c c u p a t i o n a l f i e l d ? Do you expect to s t a y : (Check one) 1. t e m p o r a r i l y 2. permanently 3\u00C2\u00BB don't know 90-1005* 80-89% 7 0 - 7 9 $ 6 0 - 6 9 $ 5 0 - 5 9 $ below 50$ -316-17* d) I f . y o u expect-.to stay i n the above mentioned f i e l d only t e m p o r a r i l y , what f i e l d ' d o you p l a n to enter ' eventually?. Answer by p l a c i n g i n the provided space below, the NUMBER of the statement i n Question 1?, par t Ca), which best describes your f u t u r e i n t e n t i o n s . DO NOT PLACE ANY ADDITIONAL CHECK MARKS IN QUESTION 1?, par t ( a ) . , Number 18. Regardless of which f i e l d of pharmacy you expect to enter a f t e r graduation, and assuming that you had an equal op-p o r t u n i t y to enter any of .the f o l l o w i n g , which would you pr e f e r ? (Please check one only) 1. Independent r e t a i l pharmacy 2. . H o s p i t a l pharmacy 3\u00C2\u00BB _ P r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy 4. ._ Chain s t o r e pharmacy S' _ Pharmacy i n a department s t o r e 6. Armed S e r v i c e or government s e r v i c e 7\u00C2\u00AB _ I n d u s t r i a l manufacturing or research 8. Teaching or research i n a u n i v e r s i t y 19' a) Have you worked i n a pharmacy at any time BEFORE be-gin n i n g your s t u d i e s at pharmacy school? Yes No b) I f \"Yes\", how long? (Check one) 1. from one to s i x months 2. from s i x months to a year 3\u00C2\u00BB between one and two years k. more than two years c) What o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n s have you held? (Check those that are a p p l i c a b l e ) 1. Apprentice 2. D e l i v e r y boy or stock boy 3\u00C2\u00BB Clerk - e i t h e r f u l l or p a r t time k. Other (Please s p e c i f y ) 20. How many months do you have l e f t to serve of your statu' teory i n t e r n s h i p ( a p p r e n t i c e s h i p ) ? (Please check one) 1. 12 months or. .more 2. 10 or 11 months 3\u00C2\u00BB . 8 or 9 months 4. 6 or 7 months -317-5\u00C2\u00BB 4 or 5 months 6. . .. ... 2 or 3 months 7. less than 2 months 21. a) Do you Intend to do graduate work a f t e r completing your undergraduate studies? Yes No Maybe Don't know b) I f \"Yes\" or \"Maybe\", i n which f i e l d would you l i k e to study? 1. . ... Pharmaceutics 2. Pharmaceutical Chemistry 3- . Pharmacology 4., . .... - Pharmacognosy 5.. Hospital Pharmacy 6. Biochemistry 7. Microbiology or \"Bacteriology 8.. .... Biology, Botany, or Zoology 9. ... Physiology 10. Other (Please specify) 22. What three things or a c t i v i t i e s i n the l i s t below do you expect w i l l give you the most sa t i s f a c t i o n ? (Please write the. number \"1\" i n the blank preceding the a c t i v i t y which i s most s a t i s f y i n g ; the number \"2\" i n the blank preceding the next most s a t i s f y i n g ; and the number \"3\" i n the blank preceding the t h i r d most sa t i s f y i n g . ) 1. - Working toward national and/or in t e r n a t i o n a l betterment of people 2. Leisure time a c t i v i t i e s 3\u00C2\u00BB Your l i f e with your wife (or husband) and family 4. Your career i n pharmacy 5\u00C2\u00BB P a r t i c i p a t i n g i n community a c t i v i t i e s 6. Religious b e l i e f s and/or r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s 7\u00C2\u00AB. - Personal relationships with other individuals 23\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 a) At what age did you f i r s t think of becoming a pharma-c i s t ? (Check one) 1. ' Before the age of 10 2. Between 10- and 13 years of age 3\u00C2\u00BB \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 At 14 or 15 years of age 4.- At 16 or 17 years of age 5\u00C2\u00BB At 18 or 19 years of age 6.- Since the age of 20 -318-b) At. what age d i d you d e f i n i t e l y decide to study phar-macy? \" 1. .. . . Before the age of 14 2. At 14 or 15 years of age 3. At 16 or 17 years of age 4. Between 18 and 20 years of age 5* Since the age of 21 24. a) How d i d your father-.feel, about, your occupational choice when y/ou d e f i n i t e l y decided to enter pharmacy? (Please check one) 1. . . very pleased 2. f a i r l y pleased 3. _ __ i n d i f f e r e n t 4. .. ., somewhat d i s p l e a s e d - 5* very d i s p l e a s e d 6. . .. ... don't know 7\u00C2\u00AB does not apply How d i d your mother,, f e e l , about your occupational choice when you d e f i n i t e l y decided to enter pharmacy? (Please check one\") 1. very pleased 2. f a i r l y pleased 3. i n d i f f e r e n t 4. somewhat d i s p l e a s e d 5\u00C2\u00AB . . . very d i s p l e a s e d 6. . don't know 7\u00C2\u00BB does not apply How important a r o l e d i d each of the f o l l o w i n g , p l a y I n your d e c i s i o n to enter the p r o f e s s i o n of pharmacy? Please i n d i c a t e the importance of each i n your d e c i -s i o n by w r i t i n g i n the provided blanks: \"A\" f o r those which were \"B\" f o r those which were \"C\" f o r those which were of \"D\" f o r those which were \"E\" f o r cases where the above Very. Important. F a i r l y Important Minor Importance. Not At A l l Impor-; Does Not Apply 1. __ Mother 2. Father 3\u00C2\u00AB Other r e l a t i v e s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2+* . Friends and acquaintances who are pharmacists 5\u00C2\u00BB Friends and acquaintances who are not i n the p r o f e s s i o n 6. High school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s -319-7* ________ Books.,., movies.,... T,.V...,.-plays and l i t e r a t u r e i n general c i r c u l a t i o n 8. F i l m s , pamphlets, calendars, brochures and other l i t e r a t u r e c i r c u l a t e d by pharmaceu-t i c a l , a s s o c i a t i o n s and other agencies d i r e c t l y connected w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n -9\u00C2\u00BB S p e c i a l speakers connected w i t h the p r o f e s -\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ... _ s i o n 10. [ Other (Please s p e c i f y ) b) Which two of these were of most importance i n your d e c i s i o n to become a pharmacist? ( L i s t the appropriate numbers i n order of importance) No. . (most important) No. (next most important) 26. Since\u00E2\u0080\u00A2you made.the. d e c i s i o n , how much has each of the f o l l o w i n g encouraged you to become a pharmacist? Please i n d i c a t e how much encouragement you r e c e i v e d from each one by w r i t i n g i n the provided blanks: \"AM f o r those which provided Strong Encouragement \"B\" f o r those which provided S.light^.Encouragement \"C\" f o r those which expressed No-.Opinion ... \"D\" f o r those which provided S l i g h t Opposition \"E\" f o r those which provided Strong -Opposition \u00C2\u00ABp\u00C2\u00AB f o r cases where the above Does Not Apply 1. _____ Mother 2. Father 3\u00C2\u00AB Wife or husband 4. Brother or s i s t e r 5\u00C2\u00BB Other r e l a t i v e s ' 6 . Other pharmacy students 7\u00C2\u00BB Friends and acquaintances who are pharmacists 8. Friends and acquaintances who are not i n the p r o f e s s i o n 9\u00C2\u00AB U n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s 10. High school teachers and c o u n s e l l o r s 27* Which one of the f o l l o w i n g statements best describes the way you f e e l about a career i n pharmacy? (Check one) 1. I t ' s the only career that could r e a l l y s a t -i s f y me 2-. I t ' s the one of s e v e r a l careers .which I could f i n d almost e q u a l l y s a t i s f y i n g 3\u00C2\u00BB I t ' s not the most s a t i s f y i n g career I can t h i n k o f , everything considered. 4. A career I decided on without c o n s i d e r i n g whether I would f i n d i t the most s a t i s f y -i n g -320-5\u00C2\u00BB A career I decided on because the career which would be most s a t i s f y i n g to me was u n a t t a i n a b l e . 28. Once you made up your mind to become a pharmacist, d i d you ever have any doubts that t h i s was the r i g h t d e c i s i o n f o r you? a) Before e n t e r i n g pharmacy school? (Check one) 1 . Yes, se r i o u s doubts 2. Yes, s l i g h t doubts 3' \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 No, no doubt at a l l b) 'A f t e r e n t e r i n g pharmacy school? 1 . Yes, seriou s doubts 2. Yes, s l i g h t doubts 3\u00C2\u00BB No, no doubt a t a l l 29\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Which of the f o l l o w i n g statements comes c l o s e s t to de-s c r i b i n g the way you f e e l about pharmacy school? (Please check one) 1 . . B a s i c a l l y , i t i s an enjoyable experience, though i t means ve r y hard work a t times. 2. . B a s i c a l l y , i t ' s a tough, four-year g r i n d , but I manage to enjoy i t somehow. 3\u00C2\u00BB I t ' s not a very enjoyable experience, but \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 i t serves as a means to an end. 30. a) Before d e c i d i n g on pharmacy, d i d you ever s e r i o u s l y consider any other occupation or pro f e s s i o n ? Yes No b) I f \"yes\", which occupations or pr o f e s s i o n s d i d you consider? (Check as many as apply) 1 . Engineering 2. D e n t i s t r y 3\u00C2\u00AB Medicine 4* - Nursing 5\u00C2\u00BB Business, 6. Elementary or high school teaching. 7 \u00C2\u00BB College or u n i v e r s i t y teaching ( w h a t . f i e l d ? ) 8. S c i e n t i f i c , research (what field?.) 9- Government s e r v i c e (what f i e l d ? ) -321-10. Other (Please s p e c i f y ) c) The occupational choice one makes i s dependent upon such c o n d i t i o n s as h i s m a r i t a l s t a t u s , f i n a n c i a l con-d i t i o n , a v a i l a b i l i t y of t r a i n i n g , innate a b i l i t i e s and so f o r t h . I n some cases, an i n d i v i d u a l , might. have,.^cho-sen ..another .occupation i f the co n d i t i o n s of h i s d e c i - s i o n were d i f f e r e n t . I f you had the opportunity to enter any occupation or p r o f e s s i o n you wanted, would you s t i l l have chosen pharmacy? Yes _____ No Don't know d) I f you answered \"No\" to pa r t c ) , which occupation or p r o f e s s i o n would you choose? Of the l i s t of occupa-t i o n s above \"in p a r t b ) , place i n the blank below the NUMBER of the occupation you would choose. Number e) I f you had to. make.-your, .occupational, .choice over, .again and i f the co n d i t i o n s of. your d e c i s i o n were the, .same, would you s t i l l choose pharmacy f o r a career, given what you know of the p r o f e s s i o n as of now? . ... ' Yes ___ No Don't know f ) I f you answered \"No\" to pa r t e ) , which occupation or p r o f e s s i o n would you choose? Of the l i s t of occupa-t i o n s above i n p a r t b ) , place i n the blank below, the NUMBER of the occupation you would choose. Number U n i v e r s i t y students f e e l that they do not always have enough time to\"do a l l the things they want. I f by some strange m i r a c l e the day were extended to 28 hours and everything e l s e were kept the same, what would you do w i t h the e x t r a time? Please check TWO a c t i v i t i e s i n which you would most l i k e l y p a r t i c i p a t e d u r i n g t h i s e x t r a time.. 1. Spend more time w i t h w i f e (or husband), f a m i l y , g i r l f r i e n d , boy f r i e n d , personal friend's. 2. Read more pharmaceutical j o u r n a l s , medical j o u r n a l s , and other p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r a -t u r e . - 3 2 2 -3 . Partake i n more l e i s u r e time a c t i v i t i e s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 hobbies, s p o r t s , movies, e t c . 4. .. Spend more time studying p r e s c r i b e d courses and preparing f o r exams. 5 . Read more novels, short s t o r i e s , magazines , of i n t e r e s t , but which are not d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to pharmacy. 6. I n v e s t i g a t e new areas i n pharmacy, medical science and r e l a t e d f i e l d s which have aroused your c u r i o s i t y . 7. Devote more time to r e l i g i o u s d u t i e s or a c t i v i t i e s . 8. P a r t i c i p a t e more i n community a c t i v i t i e s . 3 2 . I n your o p i n i o n , which FIVE of the f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s -t i c s , are the most Important f o r making a s u c c e s s f u l phar- macist I n p r a c t i c e , d e a l i n g w i t h the p u b l i c ? From the l i s t of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s below, s e l e c t FIVE, i n order of preference, and place t h e i r NUMBERS i n the spaces provided. 1. Most important 2. . Next most important 3 . ... T h i r d most important 4. _____ Fourth most important 5\u00C2\u00BB F i f t h most important CHARACTERISTICS 1. Humanitarian i n t e r e s t i n the h e a l t h and welfare of the p u b l i c . 2. Warm and p l e a s i n g p e r s o n a l i t y . 3 . Knowledge of and i n t e r e s t i n sc i e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y medical s c i e n c e s . 4. C i t i z e n s h i p , general i n t e r e s t i n community and muni c i p a l a f f a i r s . 5\u00C2\u00BB C l e a n l i n e s s and neatness of appearance. 6. Business acumen, a keen understanding of the p r i n c i p l e s of business. 7\u00C2\u00BB Be informed about the newest and l a t e s t advancements i n pharmaceutical products. 8. Have a good knowledge of \"over the counter\" products. 9* Make a s u b s t a n t i a l p r o f i t i n h i s business. 10. Honesty, s i n c e r i t y and i n t e g r i t y . 11. T e c h n i c a l competence and p r e c i s i o n of s k i l l , exactness, accuracy, manual d e x t e r i t y y . 12. A b i l i t y to meet the p u b l i c and get along w i t h people. 13\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 D e d i c a t i o n to pharmacy. 14. High i n t e l l i g e n c e . . . 15\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Other (Please s p e c i f y ) , -323-i) People look f o r d i f f e r e n t things i n a career. Ideally, that i s , i f you had a completely free choice i n the matter, what kind of career would you choose? Indicate below how desirable each of the following characteris-t i c s would be f o r YOUR IDEAL.occupation, by. writing i n the provided blanks, the l e t t e r : \"A\" f o r those which are \"B\" f o r those which are \"G\" f o r those you are \"D\" f o r those which are \"E\" f o r those which are 1. 2. 4 . 5. 6. 8 . '9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 1 4 . 15-16. Very. Desirable.... F a i r l y , Desirable Indifferent.. ..To, - Somewhat .Undesirable Very Undesirable A job that provides a very good salary and one i n which you work regular hours and have regular holidays.. A career that i s considered a worthy one and has prestige and high standing i n the com-munity. A job that consists of a variety and diver-s i t y of tasks and a c t i v i t i e s . An occupation that provides good opportuni-t i e s f o r advancement. A job where you are pretty well \"your own boss\" i n that you are not always under the guidance and supervision of someone else. A career that, i s both a profession and a commercial business. A career that i s very useful and important to.society i n general and i n which you can d i r e c t l y benefit your fellow man. A career that provides security of employment i n that work i s always a v a i l a b l e . A job that i s highly competitive. A career which provides good opportunities fo r women and one which can be maintained a f t e r marriage. A career that requires a good knowledge of science and s c i e n t i f i c method. A job where you have the chance to. exercise leadership through the supervision and con-t r o l of people under you. A career that does not take so much of your time that i t encroaches upon\" your s o c i a l and family l i f e . A career where you are free from pressures to conform i n your personal and s o c i a l l i f e . A job which involves a considerable amount of merchandising or r e t a i l s e l l i n g . A career where you w i l l have associates or colleagues who have the same general i n t e r -ests and whose company you f i n d extremely - 3 2 4 -s t i m u l a t i n g . 17. A job i n which you can meet the p u b l i c and dea l d i r e c t l y w i t h people. 1 8 . A job t h a t e n t a i l s a great d e a l of responsi-. b i l i t y and one i n which you have to accept r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r important d e c i s i o n s . 19. An occupation i n which you can use a l l your knowledge, t r a i n i n g , a p t i t u d e s and s k i l l s and one which allows you to develop and e x c e l i n these areas... 2 0 . Other (Please s p e c i f y ) b) Which three c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the above l i s t i n Ques-t i o n 33\u00C2\u00BB pa r t a) are the most important f o r your i d e a l career? Please w r i t e i n the appropriate blanks below, the NUMBERS of the three most important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i n order of preference. . Most important . - Next most important T h i r d most important I n YOUR OPINION how accurate i s each of the f o l l o w i n g statements regarding pharmacy as i t i s p r a c t i s e d today..?. In the space preceding each statement, w r i t e the l e t t e r : \"A\" i f you consider the statement Very...-Ac curate \"B\" i f you consider the statement F a i r l y . .Accurate \"C\" i f you consider the statement Not...Very Accurate At A l l 1 . Pharmacy, as an occupation, provides a very good s a l a r y , regular.hours of employment and r e g u l a r h o l i d a y s . 2. ' Pharmacy i s considered a worthy career and has p r e s t i g e and high standing i n the com-munity. 3\u00C2\u00BB Pharmacy, as an occupation, c o n s i s t s of a v a r i e t y and d i v e r s i t y of tasks and a c t i v i -t i e s . 4 . Pharmacy i s an occupation that provides good o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r advancement. 5\u00C2\u00BB A pharmacist, working i n an establishment d e a l i n g w i t h the p u b l i c i s p r e t t y w e l l \" h i s own boss\" i n tha t he i s not always under the guidance and s u p e r v i s i o n of someone e l s e . 6. Pharmacy i s a career t h a t i s . both a p r o f e s s i o n and a commercial business. _ ,. 7\u00C2\u00BB Pharmacy, as i t is_ p r a c t i s e d today, i s a career t h a t i s very u s e f u l and important to s o c i e t y i n general and one tha t d i r e c t l y -325-8. Pharmacy i s a career that provides s e c u r i t y of employment i n that work i s always a v a i l -a b l e . 9\u00C2\u00BB R e t a i l , pharmacy, as i t i s p r a c t i s e d today,- i s . . h i g h l y competitive. 10. Pharmacy i s a career which provides good op-p o r t u n i t i e s f o r women and one which can be maintained a f t e r marriage. 11. The p r a c t i c e of pharmacy re q u i r e s a good .. - knowledge of science and s c i e n t i f i c method. 12. Pharmacy i s an occupation where one has the chance to ex e r c i s e l e a d e r s h i p through su-p e r v i s i o n and c o n t r o l of the people under .. him. 13* Pharmacy, as a career, does: not take so much of one's time that i t encroaches upon one's s o c i a l and f a m i l y l i f e . 14. Pharmacy i s a career where one i s f r e e from pressures to conform i n h i s personal and s o c i a l l i f e . 15. Pharmacy, as i t i s p r a c t i s e d today, i n v o l v e s a considerable amount of merchandising or r e t a i l s e l l i n g . 16. Pharmacy i s a career which allows one to as s o c i a t e with people and colleagues who have the same general i n t e r e s t and whose . . company one f i n d s extremely s t i m u l a t i n g . 17\u00C2\u00AB A pharmacist has to meet the p u b l i c and .deal d i r e c t l y w i t h people. 18. A pharmacist, p r a c t i s i n g today, has a great d e a l of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and has to accept r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r important, d e c i s i o n s . 1.9\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Pharmacy, as i t i s p r a c t i s e d today.,.. i s an occupation i n which one can use a l l h i s knowledge, t r a i n i n g , a ptitudes and s k i l l s and one which allows-him to develop and ex c e l i n these areas. 20'. Pharmacy i s a s u i t a b l e career f o r women. I n your o p i n i o n , which three statements i n the.above l i s t i n Question 3 ,^ p a r t a ) , best describe the char- a c t e r of pharmacy as i t i s p r a c t i s e d today? Please w r i t e i n the appropriate blanks below,, i n order of preference, the NUMBERS of the three statements which you t h i n k provide the best d e s c r i p t i o n of the p r a c t i c e of pharmacy today. 1. Best D e s c r i p t i o n 2. Next Best D e s c r i p t i o n 3\u00C2\u00AB T h i r d Best D e s c r i p t i o n -326-The average pharmacist i s i n v o l v e d w i t h a v a r i e t y of d a i l y t a s k s , many of which are l i s t e d , .below.. Please i n d i c a t e how much you l i k e or d i s l i k e each one by w r i t i n g i n the blanks provided: \"A\" f o r those you L i k e - Very. ...Much \"B\" f o r those you' Like. Somewhat \"C\" f o r those you are I n d i f f e r e n t . About \"D\" f o r those y/ou D i s l i k e Somewhat-\"E\" f o r those you D i s l i k e Very Much 1. F i l l i n g p r e s c r i p t i o n s ( i n c l u d i n g f i l i n g , packaging.,, .recording, l a b e l i n g , .etc..) 2. R e t a i l s e l l i n g of n o n - p r e s c r i p t i o n medicinals i n c l u d i n g \" f r o n t shop\" medicinals (cough ..medicines ,..stomach, p r e p a r a t i o n s , etc.) R e t a i l s e l l i n g of non-medicinals (cosmetics, newspapers and magazines, t o y s , ornaments, ... gif-ts ,....etc). Management of personnel ( i n c l u d i n g s u p e r v i -s i o n and t r a i n i n g of ap p r e n t i c e s , c l e r k s , . d e l i v e r y boys,,,, and other s t a f f ) Management of cash ( i n c l u d i n g d a i l y r e p o r t s , \u00E2\u0080\u0094.. deposits.,..change., etc..) .\".'.. .. . Management-of \" f r o n t s t o r e \" stock ( i n c l u d i n g buying, s e l l i n g , storage, i n v e n t o r i e s , sales., promotions.,., . e t c ) , Management of dispensary stock ( i n c l u d i n g o r d e r i n g , storage, i n v e n t o r i e s , s a l e s pro-motions.,...etc.)... Accumulation of i n f o r m a t i o n regarding new developments i n pharmaceutical and' m e d i c i n a l products, methods, e t c , and i n c l u d i n g such tasks as the f i l i n g of product i n f o r m a t i o n , reading l i t e r a t u r e , meeting pharmaceutical r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , t a k i n g r e f r e s h e r courses, etc.) P r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and advice to the pub-l i c , the doctor, and other members of the h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n s . Research, product development and.manufac- t u r i n g of pharmaceuticals on i n d i v i d u a l or la r g e s c a l e b a s i s . The pharmacist i s engaged i n a v a r i e t y of d a i l y tasks both at work and at home. I n your o p i n i o n how many hours does the AVERAGE PHARMACIST spend PER WEEK i n each of these a c t i v i t i e s ? I n the spaces preceding each of the a c t i v i -t i e s l i s t e d below, please place the LETTER of the cate-gory which most c l o s e l y approximates your answer and NOT the numberical average. 3-4. 5-6. 7. 8. 9-10. - 3 2 7 -Eesponse Categories (A) - one hour, or l e s s (F) - from 12-16 hours (B) \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 - from 1-2 hours \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 (G)-- from 1 6 - 2 0 .hours (G) - from' 2-4; hours (H) - from 20-26 hours (D) - from .4-8 .hours (I) - from 26-32 hours (E) - from 8-12 hours (J) - more than 32 hours TASKS 2. 4 . 6 . 8 . 9-10. F i l l i n g p r e s c r i p t i o n s (jincluding f i l i n g , packaging.,., recording,,., labeling., etc.. ) R e t a i l s e l l i n g of n o n - p r e s c r i p t i o n . m e d i c i n a l s i n c l u d i n g \" f r o n t shop\" medicinals (cough medicines,, stomach.'..preparations, etc.) R e t a i l s e l l i n g of non-medicinals (cosmetics, newspapers and magazines, toys, ornaments, g i f t s , etc.) Management of personnel ( i n c l u d i n g s u p e r v i -s i o n ..and t r a i n i n g of a p p r e n t i c e s , c l e r k s , . d e l i v e r y boys, and other s t a f f ) Management'of cash ( i n c l u d i n g d a i l y r e p o r t s , . .deposits, .change,. .etc.) Management;of.\"front s t o r e \" stock ( i n c l u d i n g buying, s e l l i n g , .storage, i n v e n t o r i e s , s a l e s promotions., etc..) _ Management of dispensary stock ( i n c l u d i n g o r d e r i n g , storage, i n v e n t o r y , dispensary ... p r i c e , .book, .etc..) \u00E2\u0080\u00A2; ... ._ . ... ... Accumulation of i n f o r m a t i o n regarding new developments i n pharmaceutical and ..medi-c i n a l products, methods, e t c . , and i n c l u -ding such tasks as the f i l i n g of product i n f o r m a t i o n , reading l i t e r a t u r e , meeting pharmaceutical r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , t a k i n g .. . r e f r e s h e r courses., etc.. P r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and advice to the pub-l i c , the doctor, and other members of the h e a l t h professions.. Research, product development and manufactur- i n g of pharmaceutics on i n d i v i d u a l or l a r g e s c a l e b a s i s . 37* Every p r o f e s s i o n c o n s i s t s of viti.es.. and i t i s conceivable i s r e q u i r e d f o r the adequate more..than i t i s f o r others. o p i n i o n , how necessary i s a performance of each of the f placing , i n the blank precedi the statement which best des a v a r i e t y of tasks or a c t i -t h at a u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g performance of some.' tasks Broadly speaking, i n your u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g f o r the o l l o w i n g tasks? Answer by ng each task:; the LETTER of c r i b e s your o p i n i o n . -328-U n i v e r s i t y T r a i n i n g I s s (A) - Very Necessary .(B) - F a i r l y Necessary (C) \u00E2\u0080\u0094 U s e f u l but not Necessary (D) - Ne i t h e r U s e f u l nor Necessary !\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ' F i l l i n g p r e s c r i p t i o n s ( i n c l u d i n g f i l i n g , . . packaging.,, r e c o r d i n g , .labeling.,., etc....): 2. R e t a i l s e l l i n g of n o n - p r e s c r i p t i o n -medicinals i n c l u d i n g \" f r o n t shop\" medicinals (cough . - -medicines.,...stomach, p r e p a r a t i o n s , etc.) 3. R e t a i l s e l l i n g of non-medicinals (cosmetics, newspapers and magazines, t o y s , ornaments, gif..ts.,.. .etc..) . 4. Management of personnel ( i n c l u d i n g s u p e r v i -s i o n and t r a i n i n g of a p p r e n t i c e s , c l e r k s , .delivery boys., and other s t a f f ) 5 . Management of cash ( i n c l u d i n g d a i l y r e p o r t s , .. deposits.,-.change.,...etc..) 6 . Management ot \" f r o n t s t o r e \" stock ( i n c l u d i n g buying, storage, i n v e n t o r i e s , s e l l i n g , sales,, promotion, e t c . 7 . Management of dispensary stock ( i n c l u d i n g o r d e r i n g , storage, i n v e n t o r y , dispensary price., book, ...etc..) 8. Accumulation.of i n f o r m a t i o n regarding new developments i n pharmaceutical and medi-c i n a l products,.methods, e t c . , and i n c l u -ding such tasks as the f i l i n g o f product, i n f o r m a t i o n , reading l i t e r a t u r e , meeting pha r m a c e u t i c a l . r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , t a k i n g refresher, courses ,. e t c . 9* P r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and advice to the pub-l i c , the doctor, and other members of the . .-.health professions... 10. Research, product development and manufac-t u r i n g of pharmaceuticals on i n d i v i d u a l or l a r g e s c a l e b a s i s . Every p r o f e s s i o n provides rewards and compensations f o r i t s members, though various members may d e r i v e d i f f e r i n g amounts of s a t i s f a c t i o n from d i f f e r e n t rewards. 1.Which THREE rewards i n the l i s t below .do you expect w i l l pro-v i d e the most s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r you during your career i n pharmacy? Please w r i t e the number \"1\" i n the space pre-ceding the most s a t i s f y i n g ; the number \"2\" i n the space preceding the next most sat i s f y i n g . ; , and the number \"3\" i n the space preceding the t h i r d most s a t i s f y i n g . Please s e l e c t only three and leave the r e s t blank. -329-1. _____ The s a l a r y y/ou w i l l r e c e i v e f o r your s e r v i c e s 2. _____ The, . s a t i s f a c t i o n of performing an humanitar-i a n r o l e , one which d i r e c t l y b e n e f i t s and t \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ............ serves....your f e l l o w man. 3. The pres.tige which pharmacists r e c e i v e and the standing of the' p r o f e s s i o n i n the com-muni t y \" ' 4. S e c u r i t y , s t a b i l i t y , and a v a i l a b i l i t y , of employment. . 5. Pleasure d e r i v e d from working with medical . . sciences and h e a l t h problems... 6. The prospect of someday being independent . and working f o r oneself.. , 7 . The. . . t h r i l l of .being a p r o f e s s i o n a l and a business man ...at. the, same...time. 8. Pleasure of meeting the p u b l i c and d e a l i n g w i t h people. -9. Prospect of being a f i n a n c i a l success. 10. P l e a s u r e . d e r i v e d from doing a v a r i e t y and d i v e r s i t y of d a i l y t a s k s . 39. During the l a s t two or three years, the pharmacist, pre-s c r i p t i o n drugs, and the drugstore i n general have been subjects..of....considerable controversy and p u b l i c i t y . I n your o p i n i o n , what k i n d of e f f e c t has t h i s had on the pro-f e s s i o n of. pharmacy? (Check one) 1. . Very b e n e f i c i a l ' 2. . . Somewhat b e n e f i c i a l 3. L i t t l e or no e f f e c t . ' . 4\u00C2\u00AB . - Somewhat d e t r i m e n t a l 5\u00C2\u00AB . .. Very d e t r i m e n t a l 6. Have no o p i n i o n 40. I n the f o r e g o i n g , you have been answering questions d e a l -i n g w i t h c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the p r o f e s s i o n of pharmacy. With re s p e c t . t o these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , we would l i k e to know the sources which have been l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i -b l e f o r p r o v i d i n g you w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n . I n the space pre-ceding each c h a r a c t e r i s t i c appearing i n Column I I , place . the LETTER: of. the source (Column I ) which has provided you w i t h the greatest amount of i n f o r m a t i o n i n each case. Note: You may use any one source as o f t e n as i s necessary or you may use a d i f f e r e n t source i n each case, but please give only ONE answer f o r each c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Column I iColumn I I A - Parents and members of 1. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Working c o n d i t i o n s p a r e n t a l f a m i l y of the pharmacist B - Other r e l a t i v e s and the nature of - 3 3 0 -G - Own observation D - Friends and acquain- 2. tances i n pharmacy \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 3\u00C2\u00AB E - Friends and. acquain-tances not i n the p r o f e s s i o n .4. F - High school teachers or guidance coun-s e l l o r s G - U n i v e r s i t y p r o f essors 5\u00C2\u00AB and s t a f f members H - Books, movies, plays and l i t e r a t u r e .in. . general c i r c u l a t i o n . 6. I - F i l m s , pamphlets, c a l -endars , brochures, and other l i t e r a t u r e c i r c u l a t e d by pharma- 7-c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , u n i v e r s i t i e s .and..other agencies d i r e c t l y con-nected w i t h the pro-f e s s i o n 8, J - P r a c t i c a l experience w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n \u00E2\u0080\u0094 having worked i n a pharmacy, e t c . the work he does S a l a r y of a pharmacist .Opportunities f o r em-ployment i n the f i e l d of pharmacy P r e s t i g e of the pharm-a c i s t and the stand-i n g of the p r o f e s s i o n i n the community Time spent i n the per-formance of the pharmacist's d a i l y tasks Knowledge\u00E2\u0080\u00A2and t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d f o r the ade-quate performance of these tasks Personal q u a l i t i e s , a b i l i t i e s and s k i l l s necessary to become a s u c c e s s f u l pharma-c i s t Information regarding' academic t r a i n i n g , p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g , and u n i v e r s i t y cur-r i c u l u m 4 l . A l l things considered, how do you t h i n k pharmacy t r a i n i n g compares w i t h t r a i n i n g required- for. other, p r o f e s s i o n s ? Are s t u d i e s i n pharmacy more d i f f i c u l t , l e s s d i f f i c u l t , \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 or about the same? Please read the statements below and UNDERLINE your answer i n each case. 1. Studying to be a medical doctor i s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 more d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 l e s s d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 about the same \u00E2\u0080\u0094 as studying to be a pharmacist. 2. Studying to be a lawyer i s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 more d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 l e s s d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 about the same \u00E2\u0080\u0094 as studying to be a pharmacist. 3\u00C2\u00AB Studying to be an engineer i s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 more d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 l e s s d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 about the same \u00E2\u0080\u0094 as studying to be a pharmacist. 4. Studying to be a d e n t i s t i s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 more d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 l e s s d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 about the same \u00E2\u0080\u0094 as studying to be a pharmacist,. 5. Studying to be an a r c h i t e c t i s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 more d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 l e s s d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 about the same \u00E2\u0080\u0094 as studying to be a pharmacist.. 6. Studying to be a nurse i s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 more d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 l e s s d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 about'the same \u00E2\u0080\u0094 as studying to be a pharmacist. - 3 3 1 -7 . Studying to \"be. an accountant i s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 more d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 l e s s d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 about the same \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a s studying to be a pharmacist.. 8 . Studying to be 'a m i n i s t e r i s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 more d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 l e s s d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 about the same \u00E2\u0080\u0094 as studying to be a pharmacist.. 9... Studying to be a p s y c h o l o g i s t i s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 more d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 l e s s d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 about the same \u00E2\u0080\u0094 as study-i n g to be a pharmacist........ 10. Studying to be a school teacher i s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 more d i f f i -c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 l e s s d i f f i c u l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 about the same \u00E2\u0080\u0094 as studying to be a pharmacist. With respect to. ...the .profession of pharmacy i n ge n e r a l , what k i n d of impression d i d you d e r i v e from each of the f o l l o w i n g sources? Please i n d i c a t e the impression you de r i v e d from each by w r i t i n g i n the appropriate spaces the LETTER; \"A\" - f o r those which provided a Very... Favourable Im-pres s i o n \"B\" - f o r those which provided a F a i r l y .Favourable Im-. , pres s i on .. \"G\" - f o r those which provided a Mixed Impression \u00C2\u00AB\u00C2\u00BBD\u00C2\u00AB\u00C2\u00AB - f o r those which provided a Somewhat. .Unfavourable . . Impression. \"E\" - f o r those which provided a Very:..Unfavourable Im-.... pres s i on.. , \"F\" - f o r those which, to the No. Impression Whatso-best of your knowledge, ever provided 1. . . Mother 2. . . Father 3\u00C2\u00AB . Brother or s i s t e r h. Husband or w i f e ( i f a p p l i c a b l e ) 5\u00C2\u00AB Other r e l a t i v e s 6. . Own observation 7 . . . Pharmacy students i n general 8 . Friends and acquaintances i n . t h e p r o f e s s i o n 9. \"Friends and acquaintances not i n the pro-f e s s i o n 1\u00C2\u00B0* High school teachers and guidance c o u n s e l l o r s 11. Books.,., movies.,... T.V..,. plays and l i t e r a t u r e i n general c i r c u l a t i o n 12. F i l m s , pamphlets, calendars, brochures, and other l i t e r a t u r e c i r c u l a t e d by pharma-c e u t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s and other agencies d i r e c t l y connected w i t h the p r o f e s s i o n 13 ' U n i v e r s i t y p r o f essors 14. S p e c i a l speakers connected w i t h the p r o f e s -s i o n -332-15. Advertisements i n newspapers, magazines, et c . 16. Any source d e a l i n g w i t h the h i s t o r y of the p r o f e s s i o n of pharmacy 17. A t t i t u d e s of the general p u b l i c 43. How much formal education d i d your f a t h e r receive? (Please check one) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7-Grade eig h t or l e s s Some work i n high school Completed high school or i t s equivalent V o c a t i o n a l or t e c h n i c a l school or equivalent Some c o l l e g e or u n i v e r s i t y work Completed c o l l e g e or u n i v e r s i t y w i t h B.S., B . S c , or equivalent Received M.A., M.Sc, or equivalent 8 . Received Ph.D., M.D., or equivalent 44. a) This question r e f e r s to the p r i n c i p a l wage earner i n your parental, f a m i l y . Please look through the f o l l o w -ing- ten. occupational categories and check . the. .one,.which best describes the k i n d of work he or she normally does. To help you decide, we have g i v e n you a. number of il-l u s t r a t i o n s i n each case. I f the occupation you are l o o k i n g for. i s not l i s t e d , please choose the category which l i s t s the occupations which are most l i k e the one that a p p l i e s , and check the appropriate blank. 1. Manual Worker \u00E2\u0080\u0094 i n c l u d i n g Farm la b o u r e r , Logger, Fisherman, Longshoreman, Miner, Labourer 2. A g r i c u l t u r a l Worker \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Independent farmer, . .. Farm manager 3. S k i l l e d Worker \u00E2\u0080\u0094 TooLmaker, M a c h i n i s t , Sheet Metal worker, Welder, Metalworker, Mechanic, Repairman, E l e c t r i c i a n , B u l l dozer, crane, and other equipment operator, Factory f p r e -. . . man *. 4. C r a f t s m a n \u00E2\u0080\u0094 B r i c k l a y e r , Carpenter, P a i n t e r , Plumber, and other b u i l d i n g trades workers, But-cher, Baker, T a i l o r , P r i n t e r , J e w e l l e r , and Watchmaker 5\u00C2\u00BB S e r v i c e Occupations \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Policeman, Mailman, Fireman, Guard, S e r v i c e s t a t i o n attendant, Barber, Waiter, Cook, P o r t e r , Bus or t a x i d r i v e r , R a i l r o a d engineer,,. Truck d r i v e r 6. C l e r i c a l and Sales Occupations \u00E2\u0080\u0094'\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Salesman (Insurance, Real e s t a t e , e t c . ) , Sales c l e r k , Commercial t r a v e l l e r , Bookkeeper and Cash-i e r , O f f i c e worker, Stock c l e r k , Shipping c l e r k - 3 3 3 -7. P r o p r i e t o r s , and. ..Managers-: of Small Business Establishments - \u00E2\u0080\u0094 .Owner, of small.'business (grocery s t o r e , conf e c t i o n a r y , \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 hardware s t o r e , antique shop, e t c . ) , Cafe or r e s t -.. aur.ant manager.,. Pool. h a l l , .operator..,:., etc...)- -8'. Managers.,.. O f f i c i a l s , .and Owners of Large B u s i -ness Establishments -- Bank manager, O f f i c e manager,.International union o f f i c i a l , C r e d i t manager, Member of the board of .. d i r e c t o r s , .of. a large.-corporation 9. Semi-Professi.onal Workers \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Newspaper c o l -umnist, P u b l i c school teacher, Musicians, - ;Artists,,.....Writers , e t c . 10. P r o f e s s i o n a l -.- occupations which g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e u n i v e r s i t y d e g r e e s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Doctor, Den-t i s t , Lawyer, P r o f e s s o r , U n i v e r s i t y - t r a i n e d engineer, Economist, e t c . b) What type of. work d i d he or she do at the time when you were \"born? Please look over the l i s t of occupational ca t e g o r i e s i n question. 4.4..,. p a r t a ) , and place i n the blank provided, the number of the category\"which best describes the k i n d of work he or she d i d when you were born. Number Please estimate the average annual Income of your f a t h e r or c h i e f wage earner i n your f a m i l y . (Check one) 1. l e s s than $2,000 2. $2,000 to $3,999 3\u00C2\u00AB $4.,ooo to |;5,999 4. $6,000 to :?7.999 5 . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 -- $8,000 to $9,999 6. $10,000 to $14,999 7- _ . $15,000 to $19,999 8. $20,000 to $29,999 9\u00C2\u00AB over $30,000 a) Of what r a c i a l or n a t i o n a l o r i g i n i s your f a t h e r ? (Check one) 1. B r i t i s h I s l e s O r i g i n \u00E2\u0080\u0094 E n g l i s h , I r i s h , S c o t t i s h , e t c . 2. _____ French 3* Czech and Slovak 4. A s i a t i c O r i g i n \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Chinese, Japanese, East I n d i a n , Korean, e t c . 5\u00C2\u00BB .. - P o l i s h 6. Scandinavian \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Danish, I c e l a n d i c , Norwegian, Swedish -334-7. Russian 8. _____ U k r a i n i a n 9 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 German 10. . . .' Hungarian 11. I t a l i a n 12. Jewish 13. _____ Dutch 14. Other European -S p e c i f y 15. Other Non-European . S p e c i f y b) Was he born i n : (Check one) 1. Canada 2* United-States 3. Great B r i t a i n 4. i n some other European country 5- i n a Non-European country 47. a) Are you a f f i l i a t e d w i t h any r e l i g i o n ? Yes No b) I f \"Yes\", i s t h i s r e l i g i o n : (Check one) United Church Roman C a t h o l i c A n g l i c a n Lutheran Jewish P r e s b y t e r i a n B a p t i s t Greek Orthodox Other ( C h r i s t i a n ) . .. . S p e c i f y ____ Other (Non-Christian). ' .... S p e c i f y c) I f \"Yes\", on the average, how o f t e n do you attend the a c t i v i t i e s of t h i s r e l i g i o n ? 1. ______ attend o f t e n (about once a week or more) 2. : attend f a i r l y o f t e n (once or twice a month) 3. attend sometimes (once or twice a year) 4. never attend _ 48. I n which county\" d i d you l i v e the longest before goingto c o l l e g e or u n i v e r s i t y ? (Answer i f a p p l i c a b l e ) County: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7-8. 9 . 10. -335-49. We are i n t e r e s t e d i n knowing your thoughts, views and f e e l i n g s regarding the f o l l o w i n g : a) the f a c t o r s and the people who were most important to you i n your d e c i s i o n to enter pharmacy -b)' any problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h your choice of occupa-tionand7or\"~your entry i n t o pharmacy school c) your thoughts and f e e l i n g s regarding any aspects of the course c u r r i c u l u m at your pharmacy school and any changes you would l i k e to see put i n t o e f f e c t d) your f e e l i n g s about the p r o f e s s i o n of pharmacy i n gene r a l , the way i t i s p r a c t i s e d today, and any changes you would l i k e to see i n the f u t u r e e) any other p o i n t of i n t e r e s t regarding pharmacy If_ you would l i k e to comment on any of the above, you may do so on ,this page now or, i f you wish, you may.detach t h i s page and m a i l your comments d i r e c t l y t o : Mr. R. W. Homos ty 575-West 10 Avenue Vancouver 9> B r i t i s h Columbia any time before June 1, 1962. Please f e e l f r e e to express y o u r s e l f as openly as you wish and i n the manner most conveni-ent f o r you. You may answer i n E n g l i s h or French, and you may use a d d i t i o n a l pages but PLEASE BEGIN YOUR ANSWER ON THIS PAGE. Thank you very much f o r your cooperation and f o r the tr o u b l e you have taken i n answering these questions. We wish you the best of luck i n your forthcoming examinations. Code No. -336-APPENDIX B TABLE I CHOICE' OF. FIELD. IN PHARMACY Percentage of Number of Choice of F i e l d Total Students R e t a i l pharmacy 53\u00E2\u0080\u00A26 716 Pr e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy 9*0 120 Hospital pharmacy 15*9 212 Armed service 1.1 15 Government \"\"service 1.3 18 Sales representative f o r drug f i r m 3.0 40 I n d u s t r i a l Manufacturing or reaearch 7\u00C2\u00AB3 97 Teaching or research i n a u n i v e r s i t y 3*3 44 Other 1.1 15 Leave pharmacy and go Into another f i e l d 3.4 46 No answer .9 12 Total 99.9 1335 -337-APPENDIX B\u00E2\u0080\u0094Continued TABLE I I CHOICE OF FIELD IN PHARMACY BY SEX Males .. Females Choice of F i e l d Percentage of T o t a l Percentage of T o t a l R e t a i l pharmacy 58.8 41 . 7 P r e s c r i p t i o n pharmacy 7*6 11.8 H o s p i t a l pharmacy 10 .5 28.0 Armed s e r v i c e 1 . 3 0 .7 Government s e r v i c e 1.2 1 .7 Sales r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f o r drug f i r m 3\u00C2\u00AB3~ 2.4 I n d u s t r i a l manufactur-i n g or research 7*9 6.2 Teaching or research i n a u n i v e r s i t y 3*2 3\u00C2\u00AB6 Other 1.2 0 .9 Leave pharmacy and go i n t o another f i e l d 4.0 2.1 No answer 0 .9 0 .9 T o t a l 99*9 100.0 (N = 898) (N = 422) -338-APPENDIX C CALCULATION OF INDEX SHOWING RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PRACTICE- AND IDEOLOGY-ORIENTED SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND INFLUENCE The index used to d e p i c t the r e l a t i v e importance of p r a c t i c e - and i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources f o r a p a r t i c -u l a r group- of students was c a l c u l a t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g way; F i r s t , s i n c e some sources are g e n e r a l l y more import-ant than o t h e r s , i t was necessary to express d i f f e r e n c e s among the sources. To show the r e l a t i v e importance among sources of i n f o r m a t i o n , the I.S. (Table XVIII) f o r each source was expressed as a f r a c t i o n of 1.0, the base being the t o t a l of I.S.'s f o r a l l p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d and ideology o r i e n t e d sources ( i . e . , e x cluding u n c l a s s i f i e d s o u r c e s ) . To determine the r e l a t i v e importance among sources of i n -f l u e n c e , the number of persons c o n s i d e r i n g each source most important i n the career d e c i s i o n (Table XVI) was ex-pressed as a f r a c t i o n of 1.0, the base being the t o t a l number of cases, excluding those i n d i c a t i n g u n c l a s s i f i e d sources. Thus, each source of Information and Influence was assigned a value l e s s than one which r e f l e c t s i t s o v e r - a l l importance. The emphasis placed on each source of i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e by d i f f e r e n t groups, as i n d i c a t e d by the number of plus signs (\"+\") i n Figures 3 and 4, was then taken i n t o account. The number of plus signs f o r a gi v e n source f o r each group was m u l t i p l i e d by the r e l a t i v e - 3 3 9 -o v e r - a l l importance value of the p a r t i c u l a r source. The t o t a l of the r e s u l t i n g values f o r i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources was subtracted from the t o t a l of the r e s u l t i n g values for, p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d sources, thus g i v i n g an index which r e f l e c t s the r e l a t i v e importance of p r a c t i c e -o r i e n t e d sources over i d e o l o g y - o r i e n t e d sources f o r each group. "@en . "Thesis/Dissertation"@en . "10.14288/1.0104610"@en . "eng"@en . "Sociology"@en . "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en . "Graduate"@en . "A study of pharmacy students in Canada with particular emphasis on the factors involved in the choice of field within the profession"@en . "Text"@en . "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/36931"@en .