"Land and Food Systems, Faculty of"@en . "DSpace"@en . "UBCV"@en . "Arbuckle, Lucille D."@en . "2008-09-25T22:29:20Z"@en . "1993"@en . "Doctor of Philosophy - PhD"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "Docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) are deposited in large amounts in membrane phospholipids of the developing central nervous system (CNS). High levels of 22:6n-3 are found in synaptic terminals and retina, and are important for normal visual development and function. 20:4n-6 and22:6n-3 are supplied in human milk. In contrast, infants fed formula rely completely on endogenous synthesis of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 from linoleic (18:2n-6) and a-linolenic (18:3n-3) acid, respectively. Levels of 22:6n-3 in the blood lipids of infants fed formula are lower than in infants fed human milk. Concern over the supply of 22:6n-3 led to clinical trials in which premature infants were fed formulas containing fish oils as a source of 22:6n-3. Piglets, which have a similar lipid metabolism and perinatal timing of the brain growth spurt to humans, have a lower percentage of 22:6n-3 in blood, liver and CNS tissues when fed formula with 30% of fatty acids as18:2n-6 and 0.8% 18:3n-3, compared to sow milk. It was hypothesized that the low blood and tissue 22:6n-3 in formula-fed piglets was due to inappropriate quantities and/or ratios of dietary 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 limiting the synthesis of 22:6n-3. Thus, the main objectives of this thesis were to determine. (1) if 22:6n-3 is an essential dietary nutrient for the term gestation piglet, (2) if appropriate quantities and ratios of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in formula will support CNS membrane accretion of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3, comparable to piglets fed varying amounts of 22:6n-3 in natural milk, and (3) if lower blood phospholipid 22:6n-3 consistently reflects reduced 22:6n-3 in the CNS.\r\nInitial studies (Experiment I) showed that formula with 4% 18:3n-3 supported a similar percentage of22:6n-3 in piglet liver and CNS membrane lipids to sow milk, but was associated with lower brain weight. Deposition of 22:6n-3 in brain was influenced by the formula 18:3n-3 content. The 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio (22:1and 37:1) seemed to be important, however, when formulas contained 1% 18:3n-3. Low levels of fish oil in formula, similar to those used in clinical trials, were effective in supplying 22:6n-3 to the developing piglet brain (Experiment II). The efficacy of 18:3n-3 in supporting the deposition of 22:6n-3 in the brain was estimated to be at least 20% that of dietary 20:5n-3 plus 22:6n-3. With increasing dietary fish oil, however, levels of eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) increased and 20:4n-6decreased in plasma, liver and retina, but not brain (Experiment III). This suggests regulatory mechanisms may exist to maintain relatively constant levels of 20:4n-6 and 20:5n-3 in brain. Milk 22:6n-3 varies with maternal intake of 22:6n-3. The effect of milk 22:6n-3 content was studied in piglets fed milk with 0.1% or 1.5% 22:6n-3 obtained from sows fed usual pig diets containing vegetable fats without or with fish oil, respectively (Experiment IV). Consumption of 1.5 vs 0.1% 22:6n-3 from sow milk resulted in 300% higher 22:6n-3 in liver and blood phospholipids and 11% higher 22:6n-3 in cerebrum of nursing piglets. Despite similar milk 20:4n-6, the % 20:4n-6 in tissues other than the brain was lower in piglets fed high22:6n-3 sow milk. Thus, high intakes of n-3 fatty acids decrease 20:4n-6 in piglet liver and blood lipids. The blood phospholipid % 22:6n-3 in piglets fed formulas containing 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 but not their long-chain derivatives, was lower than in piglets fed 22:6n-3 in natural milk, consistent with published findings in formula-fed infants. However, in contrast to circulating lipids, formulas with 4% 18:3n-3 maintained similar levels of 22:6n-3in the piglet CNS compared to milk. These studies show that blood phospholipid 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 are not specific indices of effects in CNS lipids. This thesis has shown (1) 22:6n-3 is not essential in the diet of the term piglet, if adequate 18:3n-3 is given, (2) fish oils are an effective source of 22:6n-3 for deposition in the developing brain, (3) high dietary n-3fatty acids interfere with 20:4n-6 metabolism, and (4) blood lipid 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 do not accurately reflect CNS fatty acids."@en . "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/2373?expand=metadata"@en . "8147185 bytes"@en . "application/pdf"@en . "THE DIETARY ESSENTIALITY OF n-3 POLYUNSATURATEDFATTY ACIDS IN INFANT NUTRITIONbyLUCILLE DIANNE ARBUCKLEB.H.E., University of Manitoba, 1987A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OFTHE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OFDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHYinTHE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES(School of Family & Nutritional Sciences)We accept this thesis as conformingto the\u00E2\u0080\u009E required standardTHE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIAJune 1993\u00C2\u00A9 Lucille Dianne Arbuckle, 1993DateDepartment of ^t.uyvv)-..-__The University of British ColumbiaVancouver, CanadakN,sz_^NS 3(1\yAg.\(\p\u00E2\u0080\u0098a Sao,In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanceddegree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make itfreely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensivecopying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of mydepartment or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying orpublication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my writtenpermission.(Signature)DE-6 (2/88)ABSTRACTDocosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) are deposited in large amounts inmembrane phospholipids of the developing central nervous system (CNS). High levels of 22:6n-3 are found insynaptic terminals and retina, and are important for normal visual development and function. 20:4n-6 and22:6n-3 are supplied in human milk. In contrast, infants fed formula rely completely on endogenous synthesisof 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 from linoleic (18:2n-6) and a-linolenic (18:3n-3) acid, respectively. Levels of 22:6n-3 inthe blood lipids of infants fed formula are lower than in infants fed human milk. Concern over the supply of22:6n-3 led to clinical trials in which premature infants were fed formulas containing fish oils as a source of22:6n-3.Piglets, which have a similar lipid metabolism and perinatal timing of the brain growth spurt to humans,have a lower percentage of 22:6n-3 in blood, liver and CNS tissues when fed formula with 30% of fatty acids as18:2n-6 and 0.8% 18:3n-3, compared to sow milk. It was hypothesized that the low blood and tissue 22:6n-3 informula-fed piglets was due to inappropriate quantities and/or ratios of dietary 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 limiting thesynthesis of 22:6n-3. Thus, the main objectives of this thesis were to determine . (1) if 22:6n-3 is an essentialdietary nutrient for the term gestation piglet, (2) if appropriate quantities and ratios of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 informula will support CNS membrane accretion of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3, comparable to piglets fed varying amountsof 22:6n-3 in natural milk, and (3) if lower blood phospholipid 22:6n-3 consistently reflects reduced 22:6n-3 inthe CNS.Initial studies (Experiment I) showed that formula with 4% 18:3n-3 supported a similar percentage of22:6n-3 in piglet liver and CNS membrane lipids to sow milk, but was associated with lower brain weight.Deposition of 22:6n-3 in brain was influenced by the formula 18:3n-3 content. The 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio (22:1and 37:1) seemed to be important, however, when formulas contained 1% 18:3n-3. Low levels of fish oil informula, similar to those used in clinical trials, were effective in supplying 22:6n-3 to the developing piglet brain(Experiment II). The efficacy of 18:3n-3 in supporting the deposition of 22:6n-3 in the brain was estimated tobe at least 20% that of dietary 20:5n-3 plus 22:6n-3.With increasing dietary fish oil, however, levels of eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) increased and 20:4n-6decreased in plasma, liver and retina, but not brain (Experiment III). This suggests regulatory mechanisms mayexist to maintain relatively constant levels of 20:4n-6 and 20:5n-3 in brain.iiMilk 22:6n-3 varies with maternal intake of 22:6n-3. The effect of milk 22:6n-3 content was studied inpiglets fed milk with 0.1% or 1.5% 22:6n-3 obtained from sows fed usual pig diets containing vegetable fatswithout or with fish oil, respectively (Experiment IV). Consumption of 1.5 vs 0.1% 22:6n-3 from sow milkresulted in 300% higher 22:6n-3 in liver and blood phospholipids and 11% higher 22:6n-3 in cerebrum of nursingpiglets. Despite similar milk 20:4n-6, the % 20:4n-6 in tissues other than the brain was lower in piglets fed high22:6n-3 sow milk. Thus, high intakes of n-3 fatty acids decrease 20:4n-6 in piglet liver and blood lipids. Theblood phospholipid % 22:6n-3 in piglets fed formulas containing 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 but not their long-chainderivatives, was lower than in piglets fed 22:6n-3 in natural milk, consistent with published findings in formula-fedinfants. However, in contrast to circulating lipids, formulas with 4% 18:3n-3 maintained similar levels of 22:6n-3in the piglet CNS compared to milk. These studies show that blood phospholipid 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 are notspecific indices of effects in CNS lipids.This thesis has shown (1) 22:6n-3 is not essential in the diet of the term piglet, if adequate 18:3n-3 isgiven, (2) fish oils are an effective source of 22:6n-3 for deposition in the developing brain, (3) high dietary n-3fatty acids interfere with 20:4n-6 metabolism, and (4) blood lipid 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 do not accurately reflectCNS fatty acids.TABLE OF CONTENTSFOREWARD ^ABSTRACT\u00E2\u0080\u00A2TABLE OF CONTENTS ^ t vABBREVIATIONS xLIST OF TABLES ^ xiLIST OF FIGURESACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ^ xv1 INTRODUCTION 11.1 Essential fatty acid metabolism ^ 31.1.1 Desaturation and elongation ^ 51.1.2 Oxidation ^ 61.1.3 Esterification 71.2 LCP and Neuronal Development ^ 91.3 The Role of LCP ^ 1113.1 The role of n-3 fatty acids in visual function ^ 121.3.2 The role of n-3 fatty acids in learning ability and behavior ^ 141.4 Origin and metabolism of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in the developing tissues 151.4.1 In situ CNS synthesis of LCP ^ 161.4.2 Synthesis in non-neural organs 171.4.3 Uptake of LCP from plasma (from diet or endogenous synthesis) ^ 171.5 Dietary supply of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids to the infant ^ 191.5.1 Natural milk ^ 191.5.2 Infant formula 201.53 Fish oil supplementation ^ 221.6 Plasma and RBC phospholipid fatty acids 231.7 Significance of study ^ 241.8 Rationale ^ 251.9 Research hypothesis ^ 271.10 Thesis objectives 281.11 Specific aims of the thesis ^ 282 METHODS AND MATERIALS 292.1 Chemicals ^ 292.2 Equipment 292.3 Pig-serum derived immunoglobulin ^ 302.4 Animals and diets ^ 302.4.1 Experiment I 332.4.2 Experiment II ^ 342.4.3 Experiment III 352.4.4 Experiment IV ^ 362.5 Tissue collection and preparation ^ 362.5.1 Cerebrum ^ 372.5.2 Synaptic plasma membrane ^ 372.5.3 Retina ^ 382.5.4 Liver 392.5.5 Blood ^ 392.6 Lipid extraction 392.7 Tissue protein and lipid content ^ 402.7.1 Protein content 402.7.2 Lipid content ^ 402.8 Fatty acid composition 402.8.1 Sow milk ^ 402.8.2 Formula 412.8.3 Cerebrum ^ 412.8.4 Synaptic plasma membrane and retina ^ 422.8.5 Liver, plasma and RBC ^ 432.8.6 Gas liquid chromatography 432.9 Statistical analyses ^ 442.9.1 Experiment I 442.9.2 Experiment II ^ 452.9.3 Experiment III 452.9.4 Experiment IV ^ 452.10 Evaluation of the effects of feeding formula with low 18:3n-3 and no 22:6n-3 on deposition of22:6n-3 in the developing liver and CNS and comparison of relationship between effects oncirculating lipids with that on the liver and CNS lipids 463 RESULTS ^ 473.1 Experiment I: Influence of formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 content and ratio on majorsaturated, monounsaturated, n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in the developing piglet CNS and liver ^ 473.1.1 Growth ^ 473.1.2 Plasma and tissue lipid and protein content ^ 483.1.3 Piglet tissue fatty acids ^ 483.1.3.1 Liver and CNS tissue saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids ^ 483.1.3.1.1 Levels of 16:0 in tissue membrane lipids ^ 483.1.3.1.2 Levels of 18:0 in tissue membrane lipids 523.1.3.1.3 Levels of total saturated fatty acids in tissue membrane lipids ^ 523.1.3.1.4 Levels of monounsaturated fatty acids in tissue membrane lipids .. ^ 533.13.2 Liver and CNS tissue n-6 fatty acids ^ 553.1.3.2.1 Levels of 18:2n-6 in tissue membrane lipids ^ 553.1.3.2.2 Levels of 20:4n-6 in tissue membrane lipids 553.1.3.2.3 Levels of 22:4n-6 in tissue membrane lipids ^ 563.1.3.2.4 Levels of 22:5n-6 in tissue membrane lipids 563.1.3.2.5 Predicted response of 20:4n-6 in liver and plasma phospholipidusing the Lands equation (1991) ^ 57vi3.1.3.3 Liver and CNS tissue n-3 fatty acids ^ 583.1.3.3.1 Levels of 18:3n-3 and 20:5n-3 in tissue membrane lipids ^ 583.1.3.3.2 Levels of 22:5n-3 in tissue membrane lipids ^ 583.1.3.3.3 Levels of 22:6n-3 in tissue membrane lipids 593.1.3.4 Liver and CNS tissue 22:6n-3:22:5n-6 ratio ^ 593.1.4 Relative importance of 18:3n-3 content compared to 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio informula on piglet tissue 22:6n-3 level ^ 603.2 Experiment II: Effect of feeding formula containing low or high 18:3n-3, or low 18:3n-3 plus fish oilon tissue n-6 and n-3 fatty acids ^ 613.2.1 Growth ^ 613.2.2 Piglet tissue n-6 and n-3 LCP ^ 613.2.3 Efficacy of 18:3n-3 and fish oil as a source of n-3 fatty acids for deposition of 22:6n-3in CNS lipids ^ 633.3 Experiment III: The relationship of formula n-3 LCP to the piglet tissue saturated, monounsaturated,n-6 and n-3 fatty acid composition ^ 633.3.1 Growth ^ 633.3.2 The effect of formula n-3 LCP content on saturated, monounsaturated, n-6 and n-3 fattyacids in piglet plasma, liver and CNS tissues ^ 643.3.2.1 Piglet plasma and tissue saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids ^ 643.3.2.2 Piglet plasma and tissue n-6 LCP ^ 6533.2.3 Piglet plasma and tissue n-3 LCP 663.3.2.4 Piglet plasma and tissue total LCP ^ 693.4 Experiment IV: The effect of maternal dietary n-3 fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of milkand the developing CNS and liver of piglets ^ 703.4.1 Milk fatty acid composition in response to maternal diet ^ 703.4.2 Growth ^ 703.4.3 Piglet plasma and liver lipid content ^ 723.4.4 Piglet plasma and tissue fatty acid composition ^ 723.4.4.1 Piglet plasma and tissue saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids ^ 723.4.4.2 Piglet plasma and tissue n-6 fatty acids ^ 723.4.4.3 Piglet plasma and tissue n-3 fatty acids 74vii3.5 Dietary adequacy of formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 for synthesis and deposition of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3in piglet tissues in relation to the range of tissue fatty acid compositions of piglets feddifferent milks ^ 763.5.1 Liver and CNS tissue 20:4n-6 ^ 763.5.2 Liver and CNS tissue 22:6n-3 763.6 Comparison of the relationship between the effects of milk and formula fatty acids on thecirculating lipids with that on the liver and CNS lipids ^ 794 DISCUSSION ^ 824.1 Effect of formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 content on liver and CNS phospholipid n-3 and n-6 fatty acids 824.2 The relative importance of 18:3n-3 content compared to 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio in formula on piglettissue levels of 22:6n-3 ^ 834.3 Effect of n-3 fatty acids in formula and milk on brain growth ^ 854.4 The relationship of formula n-3 LCP with tissue n-3 and n-6 LCP 874.5 The effect of maternal diet on the fatty acid composition of milk and the developing liver and CNSfatty acid composition in piglets ^ 914.5.1 Fatty acid composition of milk lipid ^ 914.5.2 Piglet tissue fatty acid composition 924.6 Effect of n-3 fatty acids in formula and milk on tissue levels of saturated and monounsaturatedfatty acid levels ^ 934.6.1 Saturated fatty acids ^ 934.6.2 Monounsaturated fatty acids 964.7 Approaches to study the dietary adequacy of n-3 fatty acids in infant nutrition ^ 974.7.1 Milk fatty acid composition ^ 974.7.2 Levels of 22:6n-3 in CNS tissues 984.7.3 Plasma and RBC phospholipid LCP: comparison to liver, cerebrum, synapticplasma membrane and retina ^ 994.8 Concluding remarks ^ 1005 REFERENCES 1046 APPENDIX ^ 117ABBREVIATIONSANOVA^analysis of varianceapo^apoproteinBF3^boron trifluorideC^carbon chain\u00C2\u00B0C^degrees celsiusCNS^central nervous systemEDTA^ethylenediamine tetraacetic acidEPL^ethanolamine phospholipidsg^gramGLC^gas liquid chromatographyh^hourHCl^hydrochloric acidHDL^high density lipoproteinHPTLC^high-performance thin-layer chromatographyIgG^immunoglobulin GK2CO3^potassium carbonateKC1^potassium chloridekg^kilogramL^litreLCP^long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: 20:4, 22:4, 22:5n-6; 20:5, 22:5, 22:6n-3LDL^low density lipoproteinm^metremeq^milliequivalentsMgC12^magnesium chlorideitg^microgramAl microlitreatmol^micromolemg^milligrammmol^millimoleml^millilitremm^millimetremin^minuteM^molarmol^molemRNA^messenger ribonucleic acidNaCI^sodium chloridePC^phosphatidylcholinePI^phosphatidylinositolPL^phospholipidPS^phosphatidylserinep^statistical probability of mean differences not existingR2^coefficient of multiple determinationsRBC^red blood cellSEM^standard error of meanTLC^thin-layer chromatographyTris HC1^tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane hydrochlorideVLDL^very low density lipoproteinv^volumevs^versuswt^weightLIST OF TABLES1.1 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 composition of rat cell CNS membranes and organelles ^ 22.1 Macronutrient composition of sow milk and experimental formulas ^ 322.2 Fatty acid composition of oils and oil blends used in pig formulas 322.3 Fatty acid composition of sow milk and formulas in Experiment I ^ 332.4 Fatty acid composition of sow milk and formulas in Experiment II 342.5 Macronutrient and fatty acid composition of formulas in Experiment III ^ 352.6 Fatty acid content of sow diets containing vegetable oil without or with fish oil 373.1 Birth wt, body and organ wt of 15 day-old piglets and formula intakes (Experiment I) ^ 473.2 Lipid and protein content of plasma, liver and CNS tissues of piglets fed formulas with varyingamounts of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, or sow milk. ^ 493.3 Results of 2-way ANOVA for significant differences due to interactive or independent effect offormula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 content ^ 503.4 Birth wt, body and brain wt of 15 day-old piglets and intakes of formula supplemented withincreasing amounts of fish oil (Experiment III) ^ 643.5 Fatty acid composition of sow milk total lipid, sn -2 triglyceride and phospholipid from sows feddiets containing vegetable oil without or with fish oil ^ 713.6 Fatty acid composition of plasma, liver and CNS lipids in piglets suckling milk from sows feddiets containing vegetable oil without or with fish oil ^ 736.1 Patterns of infant feeding in Canada from birth to 6 months 1176.2 National Research Council nutritional requirements for pigs ^ 1186.3 Fatty acid composition of cerebrum total lipid in 15 day-old piglets 1196.4 Fatty acid composition of cerebrum ethanolamine phospholipids in 15 day-old piglets ^ 1206.5 Fatty acid composition of cerebrum phosphatidylcholine in 15 day-old piglets ^ 1216.6 Fatty acid composition of synaptic plasma membrane total lipid in 15 day-old piglets ^ 1226.7 Fatty acid composition of synaptic plasma membrane ethanolamine phospholipidsin 15 day-old piglets ^ 1236.8 Fatty acid composition of synaptic plasma membrane phosphatidylcholine in 15 day-old piglets^1246.9 Fatty acid composition of retina total lipid in 15 day-old piglets ^ 1256.10 Fatty acid composition of retina ethanolamine phospholipids in 15 day-old piglets ^ 126xi6.11 Fatty acid composition of retina phosphatidylcholine in 15 day-old piglets ^ 1276.12 Fatty acid composition of liver triglyceride in 15 day-old piglets ^ 1286.13 Fatty acid composition of liver cholesterol esters in 15 day-old piglets 1296.14 Fatty acid composition of liver phospholipid in 15 day-old piglets ^ 1306.15 Fatty acid composition of liver ethanolamine phospholipids in 15 day-old piglets ^ 1316.16 Fatty acid composition of liver phosphatidylcholine in 15 day-old piglets ^ 1326.17 Fatty acid composition of plasma triglyceride in 15 day-old piglets 1336.18 Fatty acid composition of plasma cholesterol esters in 15 day-old piglets ^ 1346.19 Fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipid in 15 day-old piglets 1356.20 Fatty acid composition of red blood cell ethanolamine phospholipids in 15 day-old piglets ^ 1366.21 Fatty acid composition of red blood cell phosphatidylcholine in 15 day-old piglets ^ 137xiiLIST OF FIGURES1.1 A representation of the timing of the brain growth spurt in different mammals ^ 11.2 A schematic representation of the structure of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 ^ 41.3 An overview of major pathways of n-6 and n-3 fatty acid metabolism 41.4 Desaturation and elongation pathway of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 for synthesis of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3^61.5 Schematic representation of the structure of cell membranes ^ 113.1 Major saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids in liver and CNS lipids of piglets fed formulaswith varying amounts of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, or sow milk ^ 513.2 Major n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in liver and CNS lipids of piglets fed formulas with varyingamounts of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, or sow milk ^ 543.3 Observed and predicted values for liver and plasma phospholipid 20:4n-6 as a % of total LCPin piglets fed formulas with varying amounts of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 ^ 573.4 Ratio of 22:6n-3:22:5n-6 in liver and CNS lipids of piglets fed formulas with varying amountsof 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, or sow milk ^ 603.5 Relationship between the 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio in formulas fed and the % 22:6n-3 in liver andCNS tissues of piglets ^ 613.6 Effect of dietary 18:3n-3 and/or n-3 LCP, compared to sow milk, on n-6 and n-3 LCPcomposition of CNS lipids in piglets ^ 623.7 Effect of increasing fish oil in formula on total saturated and monounsaturated fatty acidsin piglet plasma, liver and CNS lipids ^ 653.8 Effect of increasing fish oil in formula on n-6 fatty acids in piglet plasma, liver and CNS lipids ^ 673.9 Effect of increasing fish oil in formula on n-3 fatty acids in piglet plasma, liver and CNS lipids ^ 683.10 Effect of increasing fish oil in formula on total LCP in piglet plasma, liver and CNS lipids ^ 693.11 Levels of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 in plasma, liver and CNS lipids of piglets suckling milk from sows feddiets with vegetable fats without or with 1% (wt/wt) fish oil added ^ 753.12 Levels of 20:4n-6 in blood, liver and CNS lipids of piglets fed formulas with varying amounts of 18:2n-6and 18:3n-3, compared to piglets fed milks with varying amounts of 22:6n-3 ^ 773.13 Levels of 22:6n-3 in blood, liver and CNS lipids of piglets fed formulas with varying amounts of 18:2n-6and 18:3n-3, compared to piglets fed milks with varying amounts of 22:6n-3 ^ 783.14 Levels of 22:5n-6 in blood, liver and CNS lipids of piglets fed formulas with varying amounts of 18:2n-6and 18:3n-3, compared to piglets fed milks with varying amounts of 22:6n-3 ^ 814.1 Liver phospholipid 20:4n-6 as a percentage of LCP observed and predicted from Lands equation(Lands 1991) in piglets fed formulas with varying amounts of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3compared to observed values in piglets fed sow milk ^ 83Forewar&Experiment I has been accepted for publication:Arbuckle, L.D., MacKinnon, M.J. & Innis, S.M. (1993) Formula 18:2(n-6) and 18:3(n-3) content and ratioinfluence long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the developing piglet liver and central nervous system. J.Nutr. (in press)Part of the work in Experiment I has been published:Arbuckle, L.D., Rioux, F.M., MacKinnon, M.J. & Innis, S.M. (1991) Formula a-linolenic (18:3(n-3)) andlinoleic (18:2(n-6)) acid influence neonatal piglet liver and brain saturated fatty acids, as well asdocosahexaenoic acid (22:6(n-3)). Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1125: 262-267.Experiment II has been published:Arbuckle, L.D. & Innis, S.M. (1992) Docosahexaenoic acid in developing brain and retina of piglets fed highor low a-linolenate formula with and without fish oil. Lipids 27: 89-93.Experiment III has been published:Arbuckle, L.D., Rioux, F.M., MacKinnon, M.J., Hrboticky, N. & Innis, S.M. (1991) Response of (n-3) and(n-6) fatty acids in piglet brain, liver and plasma to increasing, but low, fish oil supplementation of formula.J. Nutr. 121: 1536-1547.Experiment IV has been accepted for publication:Arbuckle, L.D. & Innis, S.M. (1993) Docosahexaenoic acid is transferred through maternal diet to milk andto tissues of natural milk-fed piglets. J. Nutr. (in press).'The author's contribution to these publications included animal care, tissue preparation, fatty acid analysis ofall tissues (with technical assistance for red blood cell and liver phospholipid fatty acid analysis) andstatistical analysis, in consultation with Murray MacKinnon from the Statistical Consulting Service of theResearch Centre. The manuscripts were written with consultation and editorial assistance from the researchsupervisor, Dr. Sheila M. Innis.\u00E2\u0080\u009EZ.( kj,i1 09 ,ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI would like to thank my research supervisor, Dr. Sheila Innis, whose door was always open, despite anincredibly hectic schedule. To my supervisory committee, including Dr. Peter Jones and Dr. Bruce Crawford,thank you for helping me meet a seemingly impossible deadline.I've been extremely fortunate to work with such a supportive research team and wonderful group ofpeople: France Rioux, Dr. Katharine Wall, Janette King, Lauric Nicol, ever-patient Roger Dyer, Dr. Neil Haaveand Dr. Jennifer Hamilton. I'd like to thank each of you for your help, and for politely listening to my daily \"cute-Adam\" stories. I'm going to miss you all.This thesis simply could never have come together without the love and support (and extensive \"grand-parenting\") of my two families: Bernice and Bob Arbuckle, and Millie and Tony Gasher. As well, I must thankour many friends who each took a turn looking after Adam for us in this hectic year. I would also like to thanka very special woman, Louise Smith, for feeding my body and soul.And finally, but most importantly, I want to express my love and gratitude to \"my boys\". Mike Gasherhas been my source of strength and calm throughout this thesis work. Your love and friendship have alwaysbeen there and are truly precious to me. My greatest achievement in these past six years is Adam Gasher.Thanks for being such a forgiving son and for those hugs that help keep things in perspective.xv+10 +20Age\u00E2\u0080\u009410 +30\u00E2\u0080\u009430Birth\u00E2\u0080\u009420AgeMan6-MonkeySheepRatRabbitPigrn::3( 4 -08a_Guinea pig2-1 INTRODUCTIONLarge amounts of long chain (20 and 22-carbon) polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP), particularly arachidonicacid (20:4n-6) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) are deposited in the central nervous system (CNS) duringdevelopment (Sastry 1985). Rapid rates of LCP accretion in the CNS coincide with the period of neuronaldifferentiation and maturation (Sastry 1985). This period of rapid brain growth in the human, as in the piglet,occurs perinatally, i.e. during the last trimester of gestation and throughout the first months after birth (Dobbing& Sands 1979). The equivalent developmental period in the rat is postnatal, and in the monkey and guinea pigis before birth, as shown in Figure 1.1. Particularly high levels of LCP, especially 22:6n-3, are found in the retinaand synaptic nerve endings (Table 1.1). Within the retina, 22:6n-3 is concentrated in the rod outer segments andrepresents 35 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 60% of the fatty acids in ethanolamine phospholipids (EPL). Reduced levels of 22:6n-3 in brainand/or retina lipids has been associated with altered learning (reviewed by Wainwright 1992) . and visual function(Bourre et al 1989, Neuringer et al 1984, Neuringer et al 1986) in animals deprived of dietary a-linolenic acid(18:3n-3).Figure 1.1 The brain growth spurt of 7 mammalian species expressed as first-order velocity curves of the increasein weight with age. The rates are weight gain as a percentage of adult weight for each unit of time. The unitsof time for each species are: guinea pig: days; rhesus monkeys: 4 days; sheep: 5 days; man: months; rat: days;rabbit: 2 days; pig: weeks. Reproduced with permission from Dobbing & Sands 1979.1Table 1.1Polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of cell membranes and organellesof rat central and peripheral nervous systems.Total PolyunsaturatedFatty Acids 20:4n-6 22:6n-3(% total fatty acids)Neurons 32 15 8Synaptosomes 33 18 12Oligodendrocytes 20 9 5Myelin 15 9 5Astrocytes 29 10 11Capillaries 35 16 10Mitochondria 30 16 12Microsomes 29 11 12Retina 45 5 35Photoreceptormembrane60 4 56Peripheral nerve 10 7 2Schwann Cells 22 11 5Adapted from Bourre et al 1991. Animals were fed a standard lab chow diet, containing both n-6 and n-3 fattyacids.LCP constitute about 2 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 4% of the total fatty acids in human and sow milk. Infant formulas, incontrast to milk, are devoid of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3, but do contain the 18-carbon (C18) dietary essential fattyacids, linoleic acid (18:2n-6) and 18:3n-3. Synthesis of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 occurs by desaturation and elongationof 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, respectively (Sprecher 1981, Voss et al 1991), and is influenced by both the amount andbalance of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in the diet (Holman 1986). Infants fed formula must rely completely onendogenous synthesis of LCP from 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 for accretion in all membrane lipids. Levels of 22:6n-3are lower in the plasma and red blood cell (RBC) phospholipids of infants fed formula than in infants fed humanmilk (Carlson et al 1986, Clark et al 1992, Innis et al 1990, Putnam et al 1982). This is of concern because lowercirculating levels of 22:6n-3 in premature infants have been associated with altered visual function (Birch et al1992, Carlson et al 1989, Carlson et al 1989a, Uauy et al 1990). It has been speculated that the desaturaseenzymes in the newborn are immature and that 22:6n-3 may therefore be an essential dietary nutrient for the2newborn (Carlson et al 1986, Clandinin et al 1981). However, the extent to which plasma and RBC phospholipid22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 reflect deposition in CNS lipids is not known. This concern over the supply of 22:6n-3 ledto clinical trials in which premature infants were fed formulas containing fish oils (Carlson et al 1987, Carlsonet al 1991, Liu et al 1987, Uauy et al 1990). Most fish oils, however, also contain high levels of eicosapentaenoicacid (20:5n-3) and this can result in replacement of 20:4n-6 by 20:5n-3 in tissue phospholipids.Piglets have lower levels of 22:6n-3 in blood, liver and CNS tissues when fed formula containing 30%18:2n-6' and 0.8% 18:3n-3, rather than sow milk (Hrboticky et al 1989, Hrboticky et al 1990, Hrboticky et al1991). The low blood and tissue lipid 22:6n-3 in these formula-fed piglets may have been due to inappropriatequantities and/or ratios of dietary 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 limiting the synthesis of 22:6n-3. Thus, it is possible that22:6n-3 is not essential in the diet of the newborn infant.1.1 Essential fatty acid metabolismThe fatty acid nomenclature gives the number of carbon atoms in the fatty acid followed by a colon andthe number of unsaturated carbon atoms. The notation \"n\" (equivalent to the Greek symbol w) is used toindicate the unsaturated fatty acid series and is based on the position of the first double bond counting thenumber of carbons from the methyl (CH 3) end of the fatty acid. For example, linoleic acid, 18:2n-6, has 18carbon atoms and 2 double bonds, with the first double bond occurring between the sixth and seventh carbonfrom the CH3 end of the fatty acid chain; a-linolenic acid, 18:3n-3 has 18 carbons and 3 double bonds, with thefirst double bond occurring between the third and fourth carbon from the CH 3 end of the fatty acid chain (Figure1.2). Fatty acids with double bonds at either the n-3 or n-6 positions cannot be synthesized by animals. Theyare, therefore, essential nutrients which must be supplied in the human diet (reviewed by Tinoco 1982). Thesefatty acids can be metabolized further by (1) desaturation and elongation to LCP: 20:4, 22:4 and 22:5n-6; 20:5,22:5 and 22:6n-3, (2) j3-oxidation for energy, or (3) direct esterification into phospholipids, triglycerides orcholesterol esters (Figure 1.3).'30% 18:2n-6 is an abbreviation for 30% (wt/wt) of fatty acids as 18:2n-6. This is consistently used throughoutthe thesis, unless specified as % of energy.3linoleic acid, 18:2n-6COOH18iCH 3^6^7linolenic acid, 18:3n-3183^4Figure 1.2 Schematic representation of linoleic acid (18:2n-6) and a-linolenic acid (18:3n-3) with the positionof the unsaturated carbon atoms shown.diet7 N.18:2n-6^18:3n-3directdesaturation//I \tissue triglycerideselongation cholesteryl estersacylation\\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 (LCP synthesis)^ phospholipidsB - oxidationFigure 1.3 Schematic representation of the major pathways of n-6 and n-3 fatty acid metabolism. The intensityof the arrow indicates the relative importance of the metabolic pathways in the absence of n-6 and/or n-3 fattyacid deficiency. Adapted from Innis 1991.directacylatio/tissue triglyceridecholesteryl estersphospholipidsB - oxidation41.1.1 Desaturation and elongationIt is now well known that in animals, the C18 unsaturated fatty acids are desaturated and elongated to C20and C22 LCP in the microsomal membranes of many tissues. Evidence suggests, however, that the microsomalfraction of brain cells from the developing rat accounts for less than half the total brain homogenate desaturaseactivity (Cook 1978). The proposed pathways of desaturation and elongation are shown in Figure 1.4. The 06desaturase introduces a double bond between C6 and C7 (i.e. 6 carbons from the carboxyl terminus) and isconsidered to be the rate-limiting step in the synthesis of 20:4n-6 from 18:2n-6 (Hassam 1976). After anelongation step, further desaturation to 20:4n-6 or 20:5n-3 is catalyzed by AS desaturase which inserts a doublebond between C5 and C6. In rat liver, the substrate fatty acid for 05 desaturase, 20:3n-6, can be either CoA-bound or phospholipid-bound, indicating that two different enzymes may exist (Pugh & Kates 1977). Althoughnever purified, 04 desaturase was believed to catalyze the last step in the synthesis of 22:6n-3 from 18:3n-3.Recent findings imply, however, that the synthesis of 22:6n-3, and possibly of 22:5n-6, in rat hepatocytes isindependent of a specific 04 desaturase enzyme (Voss et al 1991). The studies show chain elongation of 22:5n-3to 24:5n-3 and subsequent desaturation at position 6 to yield 24:6n-3. Significant accumulation of 24:6n-3 hasalso been found in retinoblastoma cells which are capable of synthesizing 22:6n-3 from 18:3n-3 (Rosenthal et al1991). Chain shortening, i.e. partial a-oxidation, of 24:6n-3 to 22:6n-3 may occur in the peroxisome. It is notyet known whether the same A6 desaturase is used for the two reactions: i.e. 18:3n-3 \u00E2\u0080\u0094> 18:4n-3 and 24:5n-3 -'24:6n-3. Competitive enzyme studies however, have shown that 18:3n-3 strongly inhibits the desaturation of24:5n-3 to 24:6n-3 with liver microsomes; therefore 22:6n-3 synthesis may be reduced as intracellular levels of18:3n-3 increase (Sprecher 1992).The desaturases and chain-elongates are common enzyme systems for the fatty acids of different series(n-9, n-6, n-3 series). In in vitro studies, the affinity of 06 desaturase for 18:3n-3 is higher than for 18:2n-6 andoleic acid (18:1n-9) (Brenner & Peluffo 1966). The inhibitory effect, in vitro, of 18:3n-3 on the conversion of18:2n-6 to 20:4n-6 is much greater than that of 18:2n-6 on the conversion of 18:3n-3 to 20:5n-3 (Holman 1964).This competition among potential substrates for a given desaturase enzyme suggests that the balance, as well asthe absolute amounts, of dietary 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 may impact on the synthesis of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3.518:4n-318:3n-620:4n-320:3n-620:5n-320:4n-64,elongation22:5n-322:4n-64,)3-oxidation22:5n-6^ 22:6n-3 <\u00E2\u0080\u0094M desaturationelongationOS desaturationelongation04 desaturation?---> 24:5n-36,6 desaturation^ 24:6n-3The desaturase enzymes are also inhibited by their reaction products, such as 20:4n-6, 20:5n-3 and22:6n-3 (Brenner et al 1969, Garg et al 1988, Grenn et al 1992). End-product inhibition, as well as competitionfor acylation (Voss et al 1992) results in increased deposition of 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 and decreased n-6 LCP intissue lipids of animals consuming dietary fish oils, which contain high levels of 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 (Bourre etal 1988, Bourre et al 1990, Huang et al 1992, Philbrick et al 1987, Swanson et al 1988, Wainwright et al 1992,Yeh et al 1990).18:2n-6^ 18:3n-3Figure 1.4 Schematic representation of the desaturation/elongation pathway of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in thesynthesis of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids.1.1.2 OxidationStudies of in vivo utilization of fatty acids suggest that 18:3n-3 enters pathways of /3-oxidation moreextensively than 18:2n-6, 18:1, n-3 or n-6 LCP (Anderson & Connor 1988, Dhopeshwarkar & Subramanian 1975,Leyton et al 1987). Differences in body pool size and specific activity in vivo of the 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3substrates, however, should also be considered in the interpretation of these data. Carnitine palmitoyltransferase6regulates the entry of long chain fatty acyl-CoA into the mitochondria for 13-oxidation. The activity of thisenzyme is highest towards 18:3n-3, and is relatively lower for stearic acid (18:0), and n-3 or n-6 LCP (Gavino& Gavino 1991, Clouet et al 1989). The fast oxidation rate and ready desaturation of 18:3n-3, as well as the lowactivity of acyltransferase with 18:3n-3 (Lands et al 1982), could explain the low proportion of 18:3n-3 in structurallipids compared to 18:2n-6. In contrast, 18:2n-6 is present at relatively high levels in tissue lipids and reflectsthe diet 18:2n-6 content (Bourre et al 1990a). Differences in the oxidation of the C18 fatty acids compared toLCP also occur; in the comparative study of Leyton et al (1987a), only 14% of the r 4C1 from [ 14q20:4n-6 wasrecovered in CO, compared to 48% [' 4C] recovered from [ 14q18:2n-6.1.1.3 EsterificationThe acylation of substrate fatty acids, mainly into phosphatidylcholine (PC), EPL and triglyceride, hasbeen shown to compete with the desaturation reaction (Brenner & Peluffo 1966). In rat liver lipids, 18:2n-6 and,to a lesser extent, 18:3n-3 were found to be incorporated into triglyceride. The triglycerides represent a storeof fatty acids for energy, but a proportion may also be transferred directly or indirectly to structural pools. Forexample, liver triglyceride of suckling rats contained about 25% LCP, compared to less than 8% in adult rats(Chen & Cunnane 1992, Sinclair & Crawford 1972) and could potentially serve as direct substrates for acylationof phospholipids (Cook 1981). The incorporation of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 into liver triglyceride, which has a rapidturnover rate, allows greater availability of these fatty acids, particularly n-3 fatty acids (Hagve & Christophersen1984), for fl-oxidation or further desaturation and elongation to LCP for membrane lipids. Unlike the C18 fattyacids, preferential acylation of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 into phospholipids rather than triglycerides has also been shown(Hagve & Christophersen 1984, Sinclair 1975). This, together with lower oxidation rates for LCP described insection 1.1.2, provides a reasonable biochemical explanation for repeated demonstrations that dietary 18:2n-6and 18:3n-3 are not equivalent in either their dietary or metabolic effects, to their longer-chain, more unsaturatedproducts (reviewed by Innis 1991).LCP are thought to be incorporated predominantly through deacylation of existing phospholipid byphospholipases, then reacylation of lysophospholipid by acyltransferases (reviewed by MacDonald & Sprecher1991). Distinctive phospholipid fatty acyl composition results from selective esterification related to a numberof acyltransferases, transacylases and phospholipases, each with its own substrate specificities (reviewed by7Rosenthal 1987). For example, large amounts of 20:4n-6 but only low levels of 20:5n-3 are found in most animaltissue lipids (reviewed by Innis 1991). Liver 1-acyl-GPC acyltransferase has a high selectivity for unsaturated fattyacids, but does not appear to discriminate among the C20 LCP of the n-6 and n-3 series (Lands et al 1982).Findings by Hagve and Christophersen (1984), however, suggest a specificity of phospholipases for 18:3n-3 and20:5n-3 in preference to 18:2n-6 or 20:4n-6. Chain elongation of both 20:4n-6 and 20:5n-3 by liver microsomesis now believed to proceed at similar rates (Sprecher 1991), but selective activation of 20:4n-6 by arachidonyl-CoAsynthetase (reviewed by MacDonald & Sprecher 1991), more extensive oxidation or esterification into triglyceridesof 20:5n-3 (Hagve & Christophersen 1984), and active chain shortening of 22:4n-6 to 20:4n-6 (Hagve &Christophersen 1984, Voss et al 1992) would also contribute to tissue phospholipid fatty acid compositionaldifferences. Partial replacement of 20:4n-6 by 20:5n-3 at the sn-2 position of liver phospholipids occurs whenhigh amounts of fish oil are fed (Voss et al 1992). Therefore, the reduced levels of 20:4n-6 in tissue lipids ofanimals fed diets with fish oil (Bourre et al 1988, Bourre et al 1990, Huang et al 1992, Philbrick et al 1987,Swanson et al 1988, Wainwright et al 1992, Yeh et al 1990) may be due to competition for acylation and/orinhibition of M desaturase, as discussed in section 1.1.1.In summary, relative rates of desaturation and elongation, oxidation and esterification of various n-6 andn-3 fatty acids depend on the absolute quantity and balance of the C18 fatty acid precursor and/or presence ofC20 or C22 end-products in the diet. The possible importance of the ratio of 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 and the amountof C20 or C22 LCP must be considered in establishing dietary requirements for n-3 and n-6 fatty acids for thenewborn. The inhibitory effects of end-products (20:4n-6, 20:5n-3, 22:6n-3) on n-6 and n-3 fatty acid metabolismmust also be recognized if supplementation is with only one series of fatty acids (i.e. either n-6 or n-3). Finally,due to differences in rates of oxidation and specificity of enzymes for esterification, and deacylation/reacylation,the relative efficacy of 18:3n-3 as a dietary source of n-3 fatty acids to achieve adequate desaturation/elongationto 22:6n-3 must be determined.81.2 LCP and Neuronal DevelopmentThe development of neurons in the CNS can be divided into four phases (reviewed by Herschkowitz1988). The first phase is the formation and proliferation of precursor cells of neurons (i.e. neuroblasts). Thesecond phase, neurogenesis, is the differentiation of the neuroblasts into postmitotic immature neurons. The thirdphase involves the migration of immature neurons from their sites of production to their final locations. Growthcones are found at the distal end of developing neurites and have been implicated in the guidance of growingaxons toward their targets (reviewed by Arenander & de Vellis 1989). The fourth phase includes dendriticdevelopment, formation of synaptic contacts and the synthesis of myelin. The first three phases are virtuallycomplete at time of birth in the human infant. The maturation of the settled neurons with the development ofcharacteristic membrane properties and synaptic specialization extends from birth to one year. This periodextends beyond one year of age for most parts of the human cerebral cortex (reviewed by Rees 1978).Studies have shown that LCP may be important at the time of neurite elongation and synaptogenesis.For example, growth cones are enriched with 20:4n-6 (Martin & Bazan 1992) which may possibly be importantin signal transduction systems that depend on the release of 20:4n-6 from the membrane (Garafalo & Pfenninger1986). The fatty acid composition of growth cones, with the exception of 20:4n-6, becomes similar to that of thesynaptic membrane by the beginning of synaptogenesis (Martin & Bazan 1992). These findings imply that deliveryand incorporation of specific fatty acids, including 22:6n-3, to nerve growth cones may be prerequisites for theformation of mature synapses (Martin & Bazan 1992). In addition, a role of membrane lipids, including 20:4n-6and 22:6n-3, for regulating the initiation, consolidation and final assembly of synaptic contacts during neuronaldifferentiation, has been suggested (Bourre et al 1983, Giesing & Zilliken 1980, Yavin et al 1975).The total fatty acid content of human brain increases 4 to 5-fold during the period of brain maturation,due to the rapid accretion of structural lipids (Santry 1985). Maximum rates of fatty acid accretion in the humanare reached towards the end of gestation, with more moderate rates of increase in the content of 22:6n-3continuing after birth until at least two years of age (Martinez 1992). Although the absolute amount of fatty acidsin brain increases with development, there are differences in the rates of assimilation of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 whenexpressed as a percentage of total fatty acids (Hrboticky et al 1990, Martinez 1992). In ethanolaminephospholipids, 22:6n-3 as percent of total fatty acids increases, whereas 20:4n-6 as a percentage decreases in9human cerebrum, retina and liver during the last trimester of gestation (Martinez 1992). A developmentalincrease in the percentage of n-3 LCP and decrease in the percentage of n-6 LCP is also seen postnatally in theretina and brain of monkeys (Neuringer et al 1986) and brain synaptosomal membranes of nursing piglets(Hrboticky et al 1989, Hrboticky et al 1990) and rodents (Foot et al 1982). This relative enrichment of brainand retina 22:6n-3 is consistent with the timing of rapid formation of synapses and dendritic spines and the rapiddevelopment of photoreceptor cells.Superimposed on these postnatal developmental changes in membrane fatty acids, the overall compositionof membranes is, to a certain extent, modified by dietary fat. Young rats born with low levels of 22:6n-3 in brain,but cross -fostered to dams fed diets with 5.3% 18:3n-3, achieved levels of 22:6n-3 in the brain, similar to thenatural young from these dams (Walker 1967). Differences in brain, synaptic plasma membrane, retina and liver22:6n-3 have also been shown between term gestation piglets fed formula containing 15% of energy as 18:2n-6and 0.4% of energy as 18:3n-3 and piglets fed sow milk for 15 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 25 days. Newborn monkeys fed a diet deficientin 18:3n-3 from birth had lower RBC phospholipid 22:6n-3 than monkeys fed a diet with 2.1% of energy as 18:3n-3(Connor et al 1992). The retina EPL 22:6n-3 composition in 3 year old deficient monkeys was only 29.4% thatof the value in monkeys fed the adequate diet with 2.1% of energy as 18:3n-3. This difference in 22:6n-3 wasaccompanied by altered visual function. The deficient animals also drank twice as much water and excreted 2-foldthe volume of urine compared to the control monkeys (Connor et al 1992). A recently reported account ofautopsy analysis of 20 term human infants who died within 43 weeks of birth indicated a lower proportion of22:6n-3 in the cerebral cortex of infants who had been fed formula rather than human milk (Farquharson et al1992). Together, this information suggests the dietary fatty acids received in the immediate postnatal periodinfluence the phospholipid fatty acid composition of the brain, its synaptic plasma membranes (Farquharson etal 1992, Hrboticky et al 1989, Hrboticky et al 1990, Walker 1967) and the retina (Connor et al 1992, Hrbotickyet al 1991). These studies emphasize the necessity of providing an adequate and optimal dietary intake of n-3fatty acids directly after birth.101.3 The role of LCPThe LCP, particularly 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 are found in large amounts in membrane phospholipids andtogether with other membrane components, they impart specific structure to membranes (Sastry 1985). Singerand Nicholson's fluid mosaic model of membrane structure (1972) is shown in Figure 1.5. The matrix orcontinuous part of a membrane structure is a polar lipid bilayer. The most abundant lipids are phospholipids,membraneproteinUSTA wrIi\tom phospholipidbilayermembraneproteinFigure 1.5 Schematic representation of Singer & Nicolson's fluid mosaic model (1972) of the structure of cellmembranes.which contain two fatty acids esterified to a polar headgroup, most usually PC, EPL, phosphatidyl-serine (PS)or -inositol (PI). There appears to be some specificity of fatty acids associated with particular phospholipid headgroups: 22:6n-3 is primarily found in EPL and PS, whereas 20:4n-6 is more prominent in the PI fraction of thebrain and retina (Sastry 1985, Fliesler & Anderson 1983). Phospholipid class asymmetry in plasma membranesand intracellular organelles has also been described in a variety of cells (reviewed in Houslay & Stanley 1982).A common feature is that the amino-containing phospholipids, PS and EPL, are limited chiefly to the cytosolicside, whereas PC is located on the extra-cytosolic surface (Cullis & Hope 1985). The small amount of EPL thatdoes exist in the outer layer contains predominantly monounsaturated fatty acids while polyunsaturated fatty acidsare more prominent in EPL in the inner surface (reviewed by Salem et al 1986).Interspersed in the lipid bilayer are proteins, which may be transport systems, receptors, or enzymes.LCP may possibly affect membrane protein function through an overall effect on membrane physical propertiesor a specific effect, for example, by preferential association of 22:6n-3-containing phospholipids with particularmembrane proteins (Weidmann et al 1988). The carbon chain length and degree of unsaturation of fatty acids11can influence the structure of membranes: the highly unsaturated LCP increase the disarrangement of themembrane. This may change the microenvironment of the particular proteins and thus the functional components.For example, alterations in neuronal membrane n-6 and/or n-3 fatty acid composition have been found toinfluence membrane-associated events, such as Na - K - ATPase activity (Sun & Sun 1974, Bourre et al 1989),acetylcholinesterase transition temperature (Hrboticky et al 1989), the regulation of neurotransmitter and drugreceptor binding (Loh & Law 1980), and ethanol (John et al 1980) and neurotoxin (Bourre et al 1989) tolerance.Alterations in anesthetic potency, however, have been associated with 20:4n-6, specifically in PI, with no apparenteffect of 22:6n-3 (Evers et al 1986). It is plausible, therefore, that LCP of each series may have a specificfunction(s).In addition to their role as structural components of biological membranes, long chain n-3 (20:5n-3) aswell as n-6 (20:3n-6, 20:4n-6) fatty acids are precursors for the synthesis of prostaglandins, prostacyclins,thromboxanes, and leukotrienes (reviewed by Smith 1989). Eicosanoids (Smith 1989) and 20:4n-6 secondmessenger systems (Axelrod et al 1988) are also important in normal brain metabolism. In addition, a possibleimportant role of 20:4n-6 in growth has recently been suggested, based on studies which found a positivecorrelation of plasma phospholipid 20:4n-6 (Carlson et al 1992, Leaf et al 1992) and triglyceride 20:4n-6 (Koletzko& Braun 1991) with body weight in premature infants. This statistical relationship of circulating lipid 20:4n-6and growth, however, does not necessarily imply a direct effect of 20:4n-6 on growth. It is plausible thatdifferences in blood lipid 20:4n-6 may be symptomatic of, for example, differences in growth related to nutritionalstatus of possibly zinc or protein.1.3.1 The role of n-3 fatty acids in visual functionIn the retina, 22:6n-3 is especially concentrated in the outer segments of photoreceptor cells andrepresents 35 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 60% of the fatty acids in EPL and PS, a proportion higher than in any other tissue (Andersonet al 1974, Stone et al 1979). The lipid environment of the rod outer segment accommodates a shift in theequilibrium of conformational states of the membrane protein rhodopsin, which allows binding of a G-proteinand the subsequent initiation of an enzyme cascade, thereby directly facilitating the process of visual signaltransduction (Brown & Gibson 1992). This may possibly occur as a result of the coupling of membrane thicknesschanges, which are related to the presence of 22:6n-3, to the conformational change of rhodopsin (Dratz & Holte121992). Docosahexaenoyl-phospholipids (Brown & Gibson 1992), particularly PS (reviewed by Salem et al 1986),are now known to be essential for optimum rhodopsin activity.The importance of 22:6n-3 in the visual process has also been investigated using the electroretinogram(ERG) and behavioral measures of visual acuity. The ERG measures the retinal evoked response to flashes oflight. The activity of the photoreceptors is specifically seen in the a wave, an early component of the ERGresponse, whereas the b wave is representative of the total electrical activity of the neural cells (Fliesler &Anderson 1983). The ERG is a standard measure of retinal function whereas visual acuity evaluates functionof both the retina and central visual pathways. Second or third-generation rats fed diets deficient in n-3 fattyacids (Bourre et al 1989, Watanabe et al 1987, Nouvelot et al 1985) had reductions in both retinal 22:6n-3 levelsand ERG amplitudes at high light intensity. The amplitude of the a and b waves in 4-week old rats fed dietswith 0.01% of energy as 18:3n-3 was 38% and 45%, respectively, that of animals fed 0.3% of energy as 18:3n-3(Bourre et al 1989). The differences in ERG response between the two groups of rats were less pronouncedby 6 weeks and, with the exception of a persistent effect on the a wave at the highest stimulus intensity, hadvirtually disappeared by adulthood (Bourre et al 1989). Studies in rhesus monkeys have shown lower plasma,RBC, retina and brain phospholipid levels of 22:6n-3 in monkeys fed a diet with 0.08% of energy as 18:3n-3, whencompared to monkeys fed a soybean oil (control) diet with about 2.1% of energy as 18:3n-3 and no preformed22:6n -3 (Connor et al 1984). A 50% decrease in retina 22:6n-3, with compensatory increased levels of C22 n-6fatty acids, particularly 22:5n-6, was associated with abnormalities in ERG recordings in these monkeys (Neuringeret al 1986). The a wave amplitudes of n-3 fatty acid deficient monkeys were lower at 3 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 4 months of age;however, as in the rat (Bourre et al 1989), differences in response amplitude from the control disappeared overtime (Neuringer & Connor 1989). The timing of the ERG response in the monkeys was also altered, withsignificant delays in the peak latencies (i.e. time to the b wave peak) of both rod and cone responses. A morespecialized test of ERG function revealed a marked effect of n-3 fatty acid deficiency on the speed of recoveryof the dark-adapted ERG response after a bright flash of light. This effect was present at 3 months and increasedin magnitude with age, unlike the effects on amplitude (Neuringer & Connor 1989). The visual acuity of thesemonkey infants, tested directly with behavioral methods, was 50% lower than in the control monkeys at 1 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 3months of age (Neuringer et al 1986). The decreased visual acuity may have been due entirely to effects on the13retina, or may also have involved changes in the visual pathways of the CNS. ERG abnormalities were not foundto be reversible by feeding fish oil, despite restoration of retinal 22:6n-3 content to normal (Connor et al 1992)or even supranormal levels (Connor & Neuringer 1988). This may indicate that early functional delays in visualdevelopment in 18:3n-3 deficient animals may have long-term effects.Transient differences in rod ERG thresholds and amplitudes have recently been reported in prematureinfants fed formula with 0.2% of energy as 18:3n-3 compared to those fed formulas with 0.5% of energy as n-3LCP from fish oil or human milk (Uauy et al 1990). Measurements of visual acuity showed that these fish oil-supplemented infants matched the performance of human milk-fed infants at 4 months corrected postnatal age(Birch et al 1992). Visual acuity in premature infants fed formulas containing 0 2 or 1.2% of energy as 18:3n-3,however, was significantly below the milk-fed and fish oil-supplemented group (Birch et al 1992). In a similarstudy, visual acuity, measured by the Teller Acuity Card procedure, was significantly lower in premature infantsfed formulas with 1.5% of energy as 18:3n-3 rather than formulas containing 0.5% of energy as n-3 LCP (Carlsonet al 1992). These early differences in visual acuity, however, were not present between 6 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 12 months correctedpostnatal age (Carlson et al 1992). The physiological significance of this transient increase in the rate of visualacuity development in premature infants is not known.1.3.2 The role of n-3 fatty acids in learning ability and behaviorStudies on the learning ability and behavior of animals specifically depleted of n-3 fatty acids have recentlybeen reviewed (Wainwright 1992). Studies have compared rats fed safflower oil (containing about 0.1% of fattyacids as 18:3n-3) as the dietary fat with those fed soybean or perilla oils, which are relatively rich in 18:3n-3(approximately 8% and 65%, respectively) for two or more generations. The n-3 fatty acid-deficient rats showedlower frequencies of behaviors usually interpreted as exploratory (Enslen et al 1987, Lamptey & Walker 1976)and took longer to learn discrimination problems (Bourre et al 1989, Lamptey & Walker 1976, Yamamoto etal 1987). More recently, the level of 22:6n-3 in the brain and liver was significantly higher in young rats weanedto their mother's diet containing 1.3% of energy as 18:3n-3; the learning ability, evaluated by a swimming test,was superior to that of rats fed n-3 fatty acid-deficient diets (Yonekubo et al 1993). The interpretation of theeffects on cognitive function is complicated by the use of a visual (black vs white, or brightness) discriminationor shock avoidance because differences in learning ability could have resulted from altered retinal function (Bourre14et al 1989, Neuringer et al 1986) or pain tolerance (Yehuda et al 1986), respectively. Independent of visualfunction, however, it took longer to extinguish the learned response in the n-3 fatty acid-deficient rats, when thefood reinforcement was removed (Yamamoto et al 1988).The effect of pre- and post-natal dietary fatty acid composition on behavioral development and functionalconsequences in the adult animal have been studied by use of cross-fostering designs (Wainwright et al 1991).Such studies have indicated a small developmental acceleration in eye opening in mice receiving n-3 fatty acidsbefore birth when compared to deficient animals. However, n-3 LCP supplementation during gestation andlactation had no apparent long-term effects on visual discrimination learning or visual acuity in later adulthood(Wainwright et al 1991). In rats borne and nursed by dams fed diets with 0.01% of energy as 18:3n-3, a completerecovery of synaptic plasma membrane and myelin fatty acid composition, similar to control chow-fed animals,was observed when animals were fed a diet with 0.9% of energy as 18:3n-3 from weaning (21 days) to 16 weeksof age (Enslen et al 1987). However, exploratory behavior in the 18:3n-3 deficient animals weaned to diets witheither 0.01 or 0.9% of energy as 18:3n-3 was significantly lower than control animals or those raised exclusivelyon diets providing 0.9% of energy as 18:3n-3. Thus, the lack of n-3 fatty acids during the early postnatal daysmay have a detrimental effect on normal behavioral development. However, altered visual perception cannotbe ruled out since exploratory activity may be modulated by light.In summary, LCP appear to play a role in normal neuronal development. Limitations in the supply ofn-3 fatty acids in prenatal and early postnatal life may result in functional perturbations in the CNS. Of particularconcern is that alterations in visual function (Connor & Neuringer 1988, Connor et al 1992) or behavioraldevelopment (Enslen et al 1991) may not be reversible after tissue levels of 22:6n-3 are restored to normal.Normal tissue levels of 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 may be necessary during infancy to support the development of properCNS function. Although the long term effects of dietary deprivation of n-3 fatty acids during CNS developmentare unknown, it is clearly important to ensure an appropriate supply and balance of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids tosupport CNS deposition of 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 in this vulnerable period.1.4 Origin and metabolism of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in the developing tissuesDesaturase activity is present in developing fetal rat brain and liver (Bourre et al 1990b, Clandinin etal 1985, Cook & Spence 1973, Cook & Spence 1973a, Purvis et al 1983, Sanders & Rana 1987, Strouve-Vallet15& Pascaud 1971). However, the available data suggest that the fetus acquires much of the LCP used in new tissuegrowth by transfer from the mother (reviewed by Innis 1991 and by Neuringer & Connor 1986). The exactmechanism for the assimilation of these fatty acids during prenatal life is not known, but human infants born atterm are well provided with LCP in the liver, as well as the brain (Martinez & Ballabriga 1987). Sufficient tissuelevels of LCP at birth, however, do not protect animals from decreases in brain 22:6n-3 if they are subsequentlyfed a diet deficient in n-3 fatty acids (Hrboticky et al 1989, Hrboticky et al 1990, Connor et al 1992, Walker 1967).This knowledge emphasizes the need for an adequate dietary intake of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in early postnatallife. The potential sources of n-6 and n-3 LCP for the developing CNS are (1) synthesis in situ in the CNS bydesaturation and elongation of dietary 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 derived from plasma, (2) uptake of LCP from plasmafollowing synthesis in some other tissue, and/or (3) uptake from plasma of preformed LCP derived from the diet.The relative importance of each to the accumulation of LCP in the developing CNS is not yet clear (reviewedby Innis 1991).1.4.1 In situ CNS synthesis of LCPDesaturase enzyme activity in brain is very high at birth, but decreases after about 7 days in thedeveloping rat (Bourre et al 1990b, Cook 1978, Strouve-Vallet & Pascaud 1971). A major portion of the labelof ' 4C-18:3n-3 and 14C-18:2n-6 administered to rats orally (Sinclair 1975) was found in LCP of brain tissues. Morecomplete removal of any effect of liver metabolism by intracranial injection of labelled 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 intothe brains of suckling rats has shown the synthesis of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3, respectively, in the developing brain(Dhopeshwarkar & Subramanian 1976, Dhopeshwarkar & Subramanian 1976a). Data from recent studies showconversion of 18:3n-3 to 22:6n-3 within the rat retina when [ 14C]18:3n-3 was introduced intravitreally (Wetzel etal 1991). Thus, the brain and retina have the capacity for synthesis of LCP from C18 essential fatty acids derivedfrom the diet.Cultured capillary endothelial cells take up similar amounts of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, however the rateof desaturation and elongation of 18:3n-3 in these cells far exceeds that of 18:2n-6 (Moore et al 1990). The majorproducts are 20:4n-6 and 20:5n-3, which are both incorporated into endothelial cell lipids and released into theculture medium. Preformed 20:4n-6 and 20:5n-3 are also taken up by the endothelial cells when they are availablein the extracellular fluid (Moore et al 1990). The brain capillary endothelial cells are almost completely16surrounded by processes of the astrocytes, whose long extensions make contact with several other types of braincells, including neurons. Astrocytes can take up preformed 20:4n-6 and 20:5n-3, or 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, convertthem to 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 and release these elongation/desaturation products into the interstitium of the brainfor uptake and incorporation into neuronal phospholipids (Moore et al 1991). Neurons themselves, however,are not capable of producing significant amounts of 22:6n-3 or 22:5n-6 (Moore et al 1991).1.4.2 Synthesis in non-neural organsThe liver has been implicated as a potential source of LCP for uptake by the developing CNS (Scott& Bazan 1989, Wetzel et al 1990, Li et al 1991, Wang et al 1992). In liver, 06 desaturase enzyme activity hasbeen shown to be similar to (Cook 1978, Strouve-Vallet & Pascaud 1971) or about 3-fold higher (Bourre et al1990, Sanders & Rana 1987) than in developing rat brain. In contrast to the brain, desaturase activity in the ratliver is maintained (Bourre et al 1990b, Strouve-Vallet & Pascaud 1971) and possibly even increased (Cook 1978)after weaning to standard chow diets. Introducing 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 through the gut or the peritoneal cavityresults in substantial elongation and desaturation of these fatty acids in the liver (Nouvelot et al 1986, Scott &Bazan 1989, Sinclair & Crawford 1972). 06 Desaturase enzyme activity has also been shown in homogenatesof rat jejunum and ileum, although enzyme activities were highest in liver relative to the activity in these intestinalsites (Garg et al 1988a). The intestinal mucosa, however, is a relatively large organ and may therefore contributesubstantially to the supply of LCP to other organs, through lipoproteins. Thus, the liver and intestine, as wellas the brain, are potentially important sites of 18:3n-3 desaturation during early postnatal development.1.43 Uptake of LCP from plasma (from diet or endogenous synthesis)A number of in vivo studies have provided evidence that brain uptake of 18:3n-3 may be greater thanfor 18:2n-6, and higher for 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 than for the C18 essential fatty acids (reviewed by Innis 1991).LCP are incorporated into brain lipids in vivo (Anderson & Connor 1988, Sinclair 1975) and 20:4n-6 is foundin brain phospholipid soon after intracerebral injection of the fatty acid (Yau & Sun 1974). Other in vivo (Wetzelet al 1991) and in vitro (Scott et al 1987) studies have shown developing retinas also incorporate exogenousradiolabeled 22:6n-3 into their lipids.17In considering the delivery of LCP to the brain, it has been suggested that newly synthesized 22:6n-3 isacylated into phospholipids and secreted by liver into blood in the form of lipoproteins (Scott & Bazan 1989).Information is not yet available, however, to describe the presence of a specific receptor(s) in the brain for aparticular fatty acid or lipoprotein pool in the plasma. Nouvelot et al (1986) demonstrated that increased amountsof 18:3n-3 in the dams' diet resulted in elevated levels of 22:6n-3-HDL in suckling rats and suggested that HDLmay be involved in delivery of 22:6n-3 to the rat brain. More recently, a significant progressive increase in theproportion of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 has been shown in serum phospholipids of nursing piglets in the order VLDL< LDL < HDL (Innis et al 1993). A number of lipases and lipoprotein receptors have been identified in brain,any or all of which might play a role in the transfer of plasma fatty acids to the developing CNS membrane lipids(reviewed by Innis 1991, Moore et al 1991).Selective uptake of C22 LCP may possibly occur in the brain and retina. Chain length alone, however,is not sufficient for the selectivity shown by these two tissues, as shown by the absence of 22:1 in the retina, despite2 to 8-fold greater circulating levels of 22:1 than 22:6n-3 (Wang et al 1992). Therefore, the degree of unsaturationand acyl chain length of the fatty acid are both important determinants in the selective uptake mechanism. Theaccumulation of 22:5n-6 in CNS tissues when 22:6n-3 is not available (i.e. n-3 fatty acid deficiency) suggests thatthe carrier may not be series specific and recognizes both n-6 and n-3 C22 LCP (Innis et al 1993). In contrastto C22 LCP, a specific mechanism has been proposed for the uptake of 20:4n-6 into the brain (Innis et al 1993).This would be consistent with the maintenance of high levels of 20:4n-6 and lack of 20:5n-3 accumulation in thebrain and brain capillary endothelial cells in the presence of high circulating 20:5n-3, as found with moderate levelsof fish oil supplementation (Bourre et al 1988, Bourre et al 1990, Kalm\u00C3\u00A4n et al 1992).The role of the blood-brain barrier in the uptake and retention of LCP is not presently known. Themanipulation of dietary essential fatty acids and LCP has been shown to result in changes in the compositionof acyl groups of phospholipids in isolated brain capillary endothelial cells (Brown et al 1984, Homayoun et al1988, K\u00C3\u00A2lman et al 1992), similar to those seen in brain cells and subcellular fractions (Bourre et al 1984). Thissimilarity to CNS tissues rather than plasma lipids suggests that the brain capillary endothelium is potentially animportant site for specific uptake mechanisms of C18 essential fatty acids and/or LCP. However, the possibilityof non-specific uptake of fatty acids into brain capillary endothelial cells, followed by formation of complex lipids18unique to the CNS, cannot be ruled out. In this regard, it has been suggested that the synthesis of triglyceridethrough diacylglycerol acyltransferase in glial plasma membranes may be important in transporting andremodelling fatty acids from plasma prior to transport into brain cells (Lin et al 1988).1.5 Dietary supply of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids to the infantFat represents the major portion of energy in most human milk and infant formulas, usually about 45\u00E2\u0080\u0094 50% of energy (reviewed by Jensen 1989). About 98% of the fat is triglycerides; phospholipids and plantlecithins make up the major portion of the remaining 2% of the fat in human milk and formula, respectively (Innis1992, Jensen 1989).1.5.1 Natural MilkHuman milk usually contains about 8 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 16% 18:2n-6, 0.5% 18:3n-3, 0.5 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 0.7% 20:4n-6 and 0.2 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 0.4%22:6n-3. The content of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in human milk reflects the quantity of these fatty acids in thematernal diet (Innis 1992). Human milk 20:4n-6, however, does not seem to be related to the milk 18:2n-6 (Innis& Kuhnlein 1988, reviewed by Jensen 1989 and Jensen et al 1992, Sanders & Reddy 1992), or to high dietaryor milk levels of n-3 LCP (Harris et al 1984, Henderson et al 1992, Innis & Kuhnlein 1988). Whether the contentof 20:4n-6 in milk is regulated by some specific metabolic process in the mammary tissue is not known.Levels of 22:6n-3 in milk as low as 0.1% of fatty acids have been reported for women consuming vegandiets devoid of LCP (Sanders & Reddy 1992). Levels as high as 1.3 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 1.4% of fatty acids, however, have beenfound in the milk of women consuming diets high in marine lipid (Innis & Kuhnlein 1988) or taking fish oilsupplements (Harris et al 1984). These wide variations in human milk 22:6n-3, which seem to be due at leastin part to differences in the mother's intake of preformed 22:6n-3 (Innis 1992, Jensen 1989, Henderson et al 1992,Sanders & Reddy 1992), also seem to be reflected in the RBC fatty acid composition of the nursing infant(Henderson et al 1992, Sanders & Reddy 1992). Intakes of fish oil over the wide range of 3 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 40% of dietaryenergy have been shown to increase 22:6n-3 in the milk of lactating rodents (Huang et al 1992, Wainwright etal 1992, Yeh et al 1990) and rabbits (Lin et al 1991) and to increase blood (Yeh et al 1990), brain (Wainwrightet al 1992), retina (Lin et al 1991) and organ (Huang et al 1992) lipid 22:6n-3 in the suckling young.19Infants fed human milk, therefore, are supplied with a wide dietary range of 18:2n-6 and n-3 LCP, becauseof differences in the mother's dietary fat practices. It is not known if the differences in intake of 22:6n-3 overthe range found in human milk (i.e. 0.1 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 1.4% of fatty acids) are reflected in CNS 22:6n-3. Furthermore, thewide variability in human milk fatty acids poses considerable problems in attempting to establish dietary fattyacid requirements from the infant fed human milk (Innis 1992).1.5.2 Infant formulaIn contrast to human milk, infant formulas in North America contain varying amounts and ratios of18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, and no 20:4n-6 or 22:6n-3. Infants fed formula, therefore, must rely completely onendogenous synthesis of LCP for deposition in membrane lipids. LCP synthesis is influenced by both the amountand balance of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in the diet (Holman 1986).The fat in infant formulas is provided as a blend of vegetable and oleo oils, usually corn, safflower,soybean, coconut and palm oil. Corn and soybean oils provide similar large amounts of 18:2n-6, about 50 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 60%of fatty acids, but differ substantially with regard to 18:3n-3, providing 1.1 and 7% 18:3n-3, respectively (Table2.1). Traditionally, many powdered infant formulas contained corn rather than soybean as the only unsaturatedoil because of the susceptibility of the large amounts of 18:3n-3 in soybean oil to oxidative degradation. Formulaswhich rely on soybean oil as the principal source of 18:2n-6 have 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratios within the range of 4:1to 10:1. In contrast, the high 18:2n-6 and low 18:3n-3 of corn oil result in high 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratios in formula(usually over 30:1) (Innis 1992, Ponder et al 1992).Term gestation infants receiving formulas containing 0.6 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 4.8% 18:3n-3 as the only dietary source ofn-3 fatty acids, with 13 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 45% 18:2n-6, have significantly lower 22:6n-3 in plasma and RBC phospholipids thaninfants receiving human milk containing preformed 22:6n-3 (Clark et al 1992, Olegard & Svennerholm 1971,Ponder et al 1992, Putnam et al 1982). It has been suggested that these differences may be due to immaturityof desaturase enzymes in the newborn infant (Carlson et al 1986). As higher dietary intakes of 22:6n-3 from milkare reflected in the RBC 22:6n-3 of nursing infants (Henderson et al 1992, Sanders & Reddy 1992), it is plausiblethat the lower circulating 22:6n-3 in formula-fed infants may merely reflect the absence of a dietary supply of22:6n-3. It is also possible, however, that the low amounts of 18:3n-3 and/or high 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio in some20formulas may not support adequate synthesis and incorporation of 22:6n-3 into tissues. Whether the lower bloodlipid 22:6n-3 in term gestation infants receiving formulas devoid of 22:6n-3 is an accurate predictor of lowersynthesis and deposition of 22:6n-3 in developing CNS tissues is not known.Neonatal piglets fed formulas with 0.8% fatty acids 18:3n-3 from corn oil, in an 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio of37:1, had a significantly lower proportion of 22:6n-3 in plasma and RBC (Hrboticky et al 1990), as well as in liver,brain (Hrboticky et al 1989, Hrboticky et al 1990) and retina phospholipids (Hrboticky et al 1991), than pigletsfed sow milk. Incorporation of n-6 LCP, particularly 20:4n-6 and 22:5n-6, in CNS membranes of formula-fedpiglets indicates that the desaturase enzymes are functional during this perinatal period (Hrboticky et al 1989,Hrboticky et al 1990, Hrboticky et al 1991). Lower brain 22:6n-3 has been reported from autopsy data of infantsfed formula rather than human milk (Farquharson et al 1992). Although significant differences were not foundamong the formula-fed groups, the lowest levels of 22:6n-3 in the brain appeared to occur in those infants fedformula with an 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio of 40:1, compared to 10:1, particularly after 20 weeks of age. Thus, thedecreased 22:6n-3 in the CNS tissues of piglets and human infants may have resulted from an inappropriate fattyacid blend, such as high 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio, or from an inadequate supply of 18:3n-3, rather than the previouslyspeculated fatty acid desaturase enzyme immaturity (Carlson et al 1986, Clandinin et al 1981, Putnam et al 1982).The effect of the formula content of 18:3n-3, or 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio, on the plasma and RBC levels of22:6n-3 in term infants has recently been studied (Clark et al 1992, Ponder et al 1992). Circulating levels of22:6n-3 and 22:5n-6 did not differ in 8 week old infants fed formulas with 0.8% or 4.8% of fatty acids as 18:3n-3in 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratios of 30:1 or 7:1, respectively, from birth (Ponder et al 1992). These findings are similarto earlier studies in infants who had received formulas with 1.2% and 5% 18:3n-3 in dietary 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratiosof 11:1 and 9:1, respectively, for 41/2 to 6 months (Putnam et al 1982). Two separate reasons may explain thesimilar low levels of 22:6n-3 in the blood lipids of infants fed the different formulas. Firstly, it is plausible that0.8% of fatty acids as 18:3n-3 may be too low to support sufficient 22:6n-3 synthesis. Secondly, high amountsof 18:2n-6 (i.e. 34% and 45%) (Ponder et al 1992, Putnam et al 1982) may inhibit desaturation of 18:3n-3 in theseinfants. Consistent with this suggestion, 50% lower levels of 22:6n-3 in liver have been reported from autopsydata of full-term infants who received an intravenous lipid emulsion containing 45% 18:2n-6 and 8% 18:3n-3 for4 to 12 days, compared to milk-fed infants (Martinez & Ballabriga 1987). Infants fed formula with 0.7% 18:3n-3,21and an 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio of 19:1, had significantly lower RBC total lipid 22:6n-3 than infants fed formula witheither 1.1 or 3.4% 18:3n-3, in 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratios of 4:1 (Clark et al 1992). The results of these studies suggestthat blood lipid 22:6n-3 may be influenced by the amount and balance of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in infant formula.However, studies in an appropriate animal model are required to determine if the effects of formula 18:3n-3 and18:2n-6 content and balance on blood lipids consistently extend to CNS n-3 and n-6 fatty acids.In summary, lower circulating lipid levels of 22:6n-3 in term gestation infants fed formulas with varyingamounts of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 and no LCP, compared to those fed human milk, cannot be assumed to beindicative of dietary essentiality of 22:6n-3. There is evidence to suggest that the lower circulating 22:6n-3 ininfants may be related to the absence of a dietary source of 22:6n-3. The low circulating and CNS phospholipid22:6n-3 in piglets fed formula with 0.8% 18:3n-3 and 30% 18:2n-6 may possibly have been due to an inadequateamount of formula 18:3n-3 (i.e. 0.8% of fatty acids = 0.4% of energy) and/or high 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratios (i.e.37:1), thus limiting adequate synthesis and incorporation of 22:6n-3.1.5.3 Fish oil supplementationThe early speculation of dietary essentiality of 22:6n-3 led to a series of clinical trials in which formulaswere supplemented with fish oils (Carlson et al 1987, Carlson et al 1989, Carlson et al 1991, Liu et al 1987, Uauyet al 1990). The use of fish oils as a source of 22:6n-3, however, also entails addition of high levels of 20:5n-3to the formula; this can result in replacement of 20:4n-6 by 20:5n-3 in tissue phosholipid (Voss et al 1992). Theaddition of fish oils to preterm formulas results in an increase in the plasma and RBC phospholipid 22:6n-3(Carlson et al 1987, Carlson et al 1991, Uauy et al 1990) and supports a transient increase in the maturation ofnormal visual acuity in premature infants fed formulas with 0.2% (Birch et al 1992) or about 1.5% of energy as18:3n-3 (Birch et al 1992, Carlson et al 1992). The increased blood phospholipid 22:6n-3 in infants fed the formulawith fish oil, however, was accompanied by increased plasma and RBC phospholipid 20:5n-3 and reduced 20:4n-6(Carlson et al 1992a) and poorer growth (Carlson et al 1992b) and psychomotor development (Carlson et al 1992).Although the functional significance of the high amounts of 20:4n-6 in membrane lipids of the liver andbrain is poorly understood, 20:4n-6 is known to be an important substrate for eicosanoid synthesis. Furthermore,diet-induced changes in hepatic membrane lipids result in alterations in receptor function and membrane-22associated enzyme activities (reviewed by Stubbs & Smith 1984), and the metabolism of xenobiotics (Christonet al 1988). Evaluation of the deposition of LCP in developing tissues of infants given a dietary source of n-3LCP in the absence of a dietary source of n-6 LCP is therefore important.1.6 Plasma and RBC phospholipid fatty acidsClinical studies have traditionally relied on measures of plasma and RBC phospholipid n-6 and n-3 fattyacids. The specificity of these measure as an index of deficiency in the developing organs of infants with differentdietary, and thus circulating n-6 and n-3 LCP is not known. Plasma phospholipids are components of lipoproteinsand consist primarily of PC and lysophosphatidylcholine. Plasma phospholipids represent 4 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 8% (wt/wt) ofchylomicrons, 10 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 20% of VLDL, 30% of LDL and 50% of HDL (reviewed by Scanu 1986). The fatty acidcomposition of plasma phospholipids reflects the transport of LCP absorbed from the diet (in chylomicrons andintestinal VLDL) and LCP secreted into the plasma (in endogenous VLDL, LDL and HDL) following synthesisfrom C18 precursors in organs such as the liver. Differences in the proportion of LCP have been shown indifferent serum lipoprotein fractions of animals (Innis et al 1993, Nouvelot et al 1986) and in the fed versus fastedstate of nursing piglets (Innis 1992b). Two-fold higher levels of 22:6n-3 in fasted compared to fed piglets mayreflect the low dietary intake of 22:6n-3 and relatively low amounts in chylomicrons and intestinal VLDL postabsorption, and an increased contribution from the liver of VLDL, LDL and HDL in fasting plasma. Progressiveenrichment of 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 also occurs as VLDL < LDL < HDL (Innis et al 1993). Changes in plasmaphospholipid fatty acid composition may be related to short-term fluctuations in the fat absorbed from the dietand transported in lipoproteins, as well as the rate of fatty acid uptake by the developing organs. It is unlikely,therefore, that measurement of plasma fatty acids would give an accurate indication of changes in CNS fatty acids.Mature RBCs are incapable of de novo phospholipid synthesis or chain elongation or desaturation offatty acids (Dise et al 1980). Therefore, the turnover of RBC fatty acids in situ is limited to exchange with plasmalipoproteins (Mulder & Van Deenen 1965) and deacylation of endogenous phospholipid followed by reacylationof the resulting lysophospholipid on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane (Dise et al 1980). It has beensuggested that only those phospholipids occupying the outer half of the RBC bilayer are exchangeable (Dise etal 1980). PC is mainly located in the outer monolayer (reviewed in Houslay & Stanley 1982). Similar changes23in fatty acid composition in the plasma phospholipid and RBC PC, therefore, probably reflect the renewal of RBCPC by exchange with plasma. Most of the EPL and all of the PS, which are enriched in 22:6n-3, are located inthe inner membrane and would be influenced by deacylation and reacylation on the cytosolic surface, as well asthe turnover of the RBC population. In addition, Marinetti & Cattieu (1982) identified a very small populationof EPL molecules on the outer half of the human RBC membrane that had a 4-fold more rapid turnover of theirfatty acids than the remaining EPL molecules.Selective transfer of 20:4n-6 into 1-acyl-PC of RBCs by the acyl-CoA:lysophospholipid acyltransferasehas been reported (Kaya et al 1984). The incorporation of n-3 LCP into the RBC membrane is also believedto be specific, with increases in PC, EPL, and PS, but not in PI and sphingomyelin, following dietarysupplementation with fish oil (Cartwright et al 1985). It seems reasonable to conclude that the fatty acidcomposition of mature RBCs is related to the fatty acids available for exchange, and the specificities of theenzymatic and exchange processes involved in red blood cell membrane turnover (reviewed by Innis 1992).In summary, 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 are lower in plasma and RBC membrane phospholipids of term (Clarket al 1992, Olegard & Svennerholm 1971, Ponder et al 1992, Putnam et al 1982) and preterm infants fed formularather than human milk (Carlson et al 1986, Innis et al 1990, Uauy et al 1990). Based on these findings, it isgenerally believed that high dietary intakes of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 cannot compensate for lack of LCP in formula.The fatty acid composition of plasma and RBCs is influenced by diet and organ uptake; thus, the degree to whichtheir analysis can reflect fatty acid changes in the CNS, liver or other organs, is uncertain. Therefore, informationregarding the adequacy of formula n-6 and n-3 fatty acids for deposition of LCP in the developing CNS requiresextrapolation from studies in the young of other species.1.7 Significance of studySurveys of infant formula usage by Canadian mothers has indicated that approximately 30% of infantsreceive formula during the first days of life in the hospital, at which time 18% are exclusively formula fed. Over50% of infants receive formula as the sole \"milk\" by 4 months of age (Table 6.1). The studies outlined in thisthesis are particularly relevant in that the formula blends used very closely resembled the most popular infantformulas on the Canadian market.24The supplementation of infant formulas with preformed LCP has not been shown to be requirednutritionally and may potentially have adverse effects. Feeding preformed 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 bypasses all theregulatory steps of desaturation. The membrane composition can only be controlled via acyltransferases andoxidation, thereby increasing the risk of attaining inappropriate tissue composition. Therefore, a logical alternativewould be to investigate the possibility of de novo synthesis of LCP by the infant when given 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3in appropriate amounts. If the infant is able to synthesize 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3, providing 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3in the formula may allow for control of LCP synthesis and lead to appropriate membrane composition. Thisinformation will be of importance in the development of guidelines for use of oil blends by industry in themanufacture of infant formula, and can be extended to the improvement of intravenous lipid compositions. Thesestudies will also contribute substantially to the fundamental knowledge on the dietary requirement for 18:3n-3and/or 22:6n-3 in the newborn.Clinical trials involved the supplementation of infant formulas with n-3 LCP from fish oils as a meansto maintain blood phospholipid 22:6n-3 in premature infants. The effects of these levels of fish oilsupplementation on the pattern of n-6 LCP or n-3 LCP accretion in brain, however, are not known. Therefore,the studies in Experiment III were undertaken to investigate any potential detrimental effects of fish oilsupplementation on the CNS, particularly with regard to 20:4n-6 and 20:5n-3.Current approaches to determine the dietary adequacy of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids include the analysis ofthe fatty acid composition of human milk and/or infant plasma and RBCs. Whether or not these are validmeasures of the dietary requirement for n-6 and n-3 fatty acids during growth and development needs to beclarified. Therefore, studies were carried to out to compare plasma and RBC phospholipid fatty acids with liverand CNS tissue 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 in piglets fed different formula and milk diets.1.8 RationaleIn the last 5 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 10 years several publications have suggested that the fat in infant formulas does not meetthe needs of infants for normal membrane LCP accretion (Carlson et al 1986, Clandinin et al 1980, Putnam etal 1982). The demonstration of lower LCP in plasma and RBC phospholipid of infants fed formula rather thanhuman milk (Carlson et al 1986, Clark et al 1992, Ponder et al 1992, Putnam et al 1982) has led to concern over25the supply of LCP for membrane lipid accretion in the CNS of infants fed formula, and to the speculation thatn-3 LCP are essential dietary nutrients for the newborn. Accretion of n-6 LCP in the brain and retina of theneonatal piglet, however, indicated that the newborn is capable of elongation/desaturation of 18:2n-6. The lowlevels of n-3 LCP seen in blood phospholipids of term infants (Clark et al 1992, Olegard & Svennerholm 1971,Ponder et al 1992, Putnam et al 1982) and in blood, liver and CNS tissues of piglets (Hrboticky et al 1989,Hrboticky et al 1990, Hrboticky et al 1991) may be due, then to inappropriate quantities and/or ratios of 18:2n-6and 18:3n-3 currently used in some infant formulas which may limit the synthesis of 22:6n-3. There is no evidenceas yet that 22:6n-3 is an essential dietary fatty acid for the term infant.Although RBCs and plasma are accessible for study in the human infant, their limitations as indicatorsof CNS lipids are evident. This emphasizes the need for an appropriate animal model in which direct analysisof organs such as the brain, retina and liver can be undertaken. The piglet offers several advantages over otherspecies for the study of lipid nutrition relevant to the term gestation human infant. These include the similarperinatal timing of the brain growth spurt (Figure 1.1) and brain myelination, similar intestinal development, fatdigestion and absorption and pathways of lipid and lipoprotein metabolism (reviewed by Innis 1993). As well,the lipid composition of sow milk, including 18:2n-6, 18:3n-3 and LCP, is very close to that of human milk(Hrboticky et al 1990).Of experimental importance, the piglet is easily raised from birth on formula, when supplemented withserum-derived immunoglobulins for the first 4 days of life (Innis 1993). This negates the need for any sow milk(colostrum) in the diet of the piglet, and therefore any difference in brain lipid accretion is likely to be largelydue to formula intake alone. The normal suckling duration is only 20 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 25 days and during this relatively shorttime, brain and body weight increase by c.a. 50% and 500%, respectively. This provides substantial tissue andtissue growth to allow analyses for the effects of diet on the fatty acid composition of highly purified CNS cellularor subcellular membranes (Innis 1993).The tissues selected for study to evaluate the dietary adequacy of n-3 fatty acids in the neonatal pigletwere the cerebrum, synaptic plasma membranes, retina, liver, plasma and RBCs. The initial studies analyzedthe fatty acid composition of cerebrum total lipid to allow comparison to other studies of n-3 fatty acidrequirement. Ethanolamine phospholipids of synaptic plasma membrane and retina were analyzed because thisphospholipid fraction of these specific CNS tissues is enriched in 22:6n-3. The liver has been implicated as a26possible source of 22:6n-3 for the developing brain and is therefore of interest in biochemical measures of fattyacids in the newborn. Plasma and RBC phospholipid fatty acids were measured in the piglets to allow comparisonand possible interpretation of findings in clinical trials which rely on these measures.Studies in Experiment I were carried out to determine if levels of LCP in the CNS (cerebrum and retina)equivalent to that of piglets fed sow milk could be achieved by feeding piglets an appropriate amount and balanceof 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3. The studies in Experiment II determined whether fish oil supplementation of formula,at the level used in clinical trials (Uauy et al 1990) was effective in supplying 22:6n-3 for deposition in developingCNS lipids. Increasing, but low, levels of fish oil were added to formulas in Experiment III in order to determinethe LCP response in CNS tissues and liver, as well as the plasma phospholipid. The levels of fish oil used weresimilar to those used in clinical trials with premature infants.In order to evaluate whether feeding formulas with 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 can result in \"normal\" levels of22:6n-3 in the CNS of piglets, comparison was made to a group of piglets consuming sow milk in ExperimentI. Analysis of the milk lipid, however, found very low levels of 22:6n-3 (0.1% of milk fatty acids) in the milk ofsows fed usual pig diets containing only vegetable fats. Milk 22:6n-3 levels vary with maternal intake of preformed22:6n-3, primarily from fish lipids (Henderson et al 1992, Innis 1992, Harris et al 1984). Therefore, \"normal\" milk-fed infants would receive widely different 22:6n-3 intakes from milk, depending on their mother's diet. Studiesin Experiment IV were undertaken to determine if tissue levels of 22:6n-3 would be increased in piglets inresponse to higher 22:6n-3 intakes from milk, and to provide a range of milk intake and tissue 22:6n-3compositions within which the adequacy of feeding formulas with 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 could be evaluated.Ethanolamine phospholipid (and PC) fatty acids were analyzed in all organs and tissues for the final evaluationand comparisons among piglets fed different formula and milk diets. This was based on a greater sensitivity ofmeasures in EPL rather than total lipid, which was determined in Experiment I,1.9 Research HypothesisDocosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) is not an essential dietary nutrient for the term gestation piglet271.10 Thesis ObjectiveTo use piglets as an appropriate animal model to determine if:appropriate quantities and ratios of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in infant formula will support normalmembrane accretion of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 in the CNS.1.11 Specific aims of thesisExperiment I: to determine if\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 increasing the amount of 18:3n-3 in formula from 1 to 4% fatty acids increases CNS and liver 22:6n-3\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 the amount of 18:2n-6 (18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio) in formula influences deposition of n-6 and n-3 LCPin piglet tissuesExperiment II: To determine whether fish oil supplementation of formula is effective in supplying 22:6n-3for deposition in CNS lipids.Experiment III:\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 to determine the relationship between the amount of n-3 LCP in formula and the composition of n-3and n-6 LCP in piglet tissues\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 to define inter-tissue differences in n-3 and n-6 LCP compositions in response to increasingamounts of n-3 LCP in formulaExperiment IV: To determine the effect of maternal dietary n-3 fatty acid intake on the fatty acidcomposition of milk and the developing CNS, liver and plasma phospholipids of nursing piglets.To use the data from Experiment I and Experiment IV to:\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 evaluate the effects of feeding formula with low or high 18:3n-3 and no 22:6n-3 on deposition of22:6n-3 in the developing CNS, in comparison to the range of tissue 22:6n-3 compositions found in naturalmilk-fed piglets.\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 compare the relationship between the effects of the different milk and formula diets on the plasmaand RBC phospholipid fatty acids and the effect on the liver and CNS lipid fatty acids.282 MATERIALS AND METHODS2.1 ChemicalsEnzymatic kits for assays of total cholesterol and triglycerides and of unesterified cholesterol wereobtained from Biopacific Diagnostics, North Vancouver, British Columbia, and Boehringer Mannheim CanadaLtd., Laval, Quebec, respectively. The iron-dextran complex, Pigtran 200, was from Tuco Products Co.,Orangeville, Ontario. All other chemicals were reagent grade and purchased from Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis,Missouri, and BDH Chemicals Canada Ltd., Vancouver, British Columbia. Authentic lipid standards for thin-layerchromatography (TLC) and gas liquid chromatography (GLC) were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co., St.Louis, Missouri and NuChek Prep, Elysian, Missouri.2.2 EquipmentPig immunoglobulin was concentrated with a Pellicon ultrafiltration system with a 100 000 nominalmolecular wt limit filter from Millipore Corp., Bedford, Massachusetts and lyophilized using a Dura-Top bulktray drier and Dura-Dry condenser module from FTS Systems, Inc., Stone Ridge, New York. Oil was added toformulas in Experiment III by sonication with Sonifier Cell Disrupter 350 from Branson Ultrasonics Corp.,Danbury, Connecticut. Pig liver was homogenized in an electric blender from Philips Electronic Industries, Ltd.,Vancouver, British Columbia. Liver and retina were homogenized in a 2 ml Potter-Elvehjem tissue grinder withPTFE pestle (Fisher Scientific, Vancouver, Canada) using a Con-Torque power unit for tissue homogenizationfrom Eberbach Corp., Ann Arbor, Michigan. Cerebrum homogenization was done with a 40 ml Dounce tissuegrinder, Wheaton \"200\", (pestles \"A\" and \"B\" with respective clearances of 0.025 - 0.075 and 0.063 - 0.088 mm),from VWR Scientific Canada Ltd., London, Ontario.Low-speed centrifugation ( <3,000g) was performed in a J-6B low-speed centrifuge with a swinging basketrotor from Beckman Instruments (Canada), Inc., Mississauga, Ontario. Centrifugation at 12,000g was performedin a B-20 International Refrigerated Centrifuge, using a model 870 rotor, (International Equipment Co.),purchased from Fisher Scientific, Vancouver, British Columbia. Centrifugation at 100,000g was done inultracentrifuges from Beckman Instruments (Canada), Inc., (model numbers L7-55, L8-55 and L8-70) using 7Beckman fixed-angle rotors (types 42.1 TI, 50.2 TI and 60 TI). Fatty acid methyl esters were separated andquantified by GLC using a dual-column 6000 gas liquid chromatograph from Varian Canada, Inc., Mississauga,29Ontario, equipped with flame ionization detection and a Varian 654 data system, or a Varian 3400 with an IBMcomputer system using Varian \"STAR\" software. Glass capillary SP 2330 columns (30m x 0.2 mm) from SupelcoCanada Ltd., Oakville, Ontario, were used.2.3 Pig serum-derived immunoglobulinPig serum-derived immunoglobulin was prepared according to the method of Drew and Owen (1988).Porcine blood for this procedure was obtained from Intercontinental Packers Ltd., Vancouver, British Columbia.The blood was collected in 6 x 20 L pails containing 200 ml of 2.5% (wt/v) sodium citrate as anticoagulant.The blood was centrifuged at 1,000g for 5 min to remove RBCs. Fibrin was precipitated by the addition of 60mL of calcium phosphate powder mixed in a small amount of water. After overnight precipitation, the resultingclot was chopped up and centrifuged (1,000g x 5 min). Serum was then fractionated using sodium polyphosphateglass (Calgon), a mixture of Na 15P 130,-Na,P 18055. One hundred millilitres of a solution containing 11.4% (wt/v)sodium polyphosphate glass and 8.5% (wt/v) NaCI was added to each litre of serum with constant stirring. AfterpH adjustment to 3.95 with 3 M HCI, the mixture was stirred for 10 min and allowed to equilibrate overnight.The mixture was then centrifuged at 3,000g for 5 min and the supernatant was subsequently filtered through sandand glass wool. The immunoglobulin in the supernatant was concentrated using a Pellicon ultrafiltration systemwith a 100,000 nominal molecular wt limit filter. The concentrated fraction was lyophilized and stored at -70\u00C2\u00B0C.The Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, generously quantified IgG in ourimmunoglobulin preparation using the double antibody sandwich enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)(Voller et al 1976).2.4 Animals and DietsMale Yorkshire piglets of normal term gestation and of minimum 1.0 kg weight, were obtained fromthe University of British Columbia, Department of Animal Science and Pitt Ineffable Growers Ltd., Pitt Meadows,British Columbia. Piglets receiving sow milk and used as a reference group for those fed formula, were kepton the farm and suckled from sows fed a typical 16% protein lactation feed (Ritchie-Smith Inc., Abbotsford,British Columbia) with about 2.5% (wt/wt) vegetable oils (soybean and canola oils) added. Milk samples weretaken from two sows, at 1 and 2 weeks lactation, frozen immediately, transported on ice to The Research Centre,30and stored at -70\u00C2\u00B0C until analysis. Seven piglets were taken at random from different litters at 15 or 16 dayspost partum. This represents about two-thirds of the normal 20 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 25 day suckling period.All piglets designated for formula feeding (Experiment I, II, III) were taken from the sow immediatelyafter birth, prior to receiving colostrum. Six to 8 non-littermate piglets for each of the formulas studied werebottle-fed immunoglobulin-supplemented formulas within 2 h of birth, and transported in sterilized cages to agerm-free animal containment unit at The Research Centre. Provision of passive immunity to the colostrum-deprived formula-fed piglets was continued with pig serum-derived immunoglobulin for the first 4 days of life.The pig immunoglobulin was added to the formulas to give an IgG content of 20 mg/ml (i.e. 40 mgimmunoglobulin preparation of 50% purity IgG/ml formula) for the first 48 h after birth and 5 mg/ml from 48h to 4 days after birth. This supplementation was based on previous published studies (Drew & Owen 1988,Hrboticky et al 1989). The contribution of fatty acids from immunoglobulins previously prepared by this method,at the high level of supplementation, was 0.065 mg per ml formula, containing 0.013 and 0.003% n-6 and n-3 LCP,respectively (Hrboticky et al 1989). Animals were housed in large plastic bins lined with woodshavings and givenfree access to drinking water. For the first 48 h, the piglets were housed together, and bottle-fed by hand every3 hours. Subsequently, they were housed in pairs, and bottle-fed by hand every 3 hours from 0700 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 2300 h until15 or 16 days of age. Room temperature was maintained at 27 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 29\u00C2\u00B0C. Spot heat lamps were attached abovethe cages to provide 24 h light and heat for the first 7 days. An 0700 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 1900 h light/1900-0700 h dark cycle wasmaintained from 8 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 15 days to parallel lighting conditions of sow milk-fed piglets. The animals were weighedevery 4 days. All the formula and sow milk-fed piglets received an intra-muscular injection of 100 mg of an irondextran complex on day 3 postpartum. The procedures used were approved by the University of British ColumbiaAnimal Care Committee and conformed to the guidelines of the Canadian Council on Animal Care.The macronutrient composition of the formulas (prepared and donated by Ross Laboratories, Columbus,Ohio) was based on that of infant formula, but modified to resemble the composition of sow milk (Table 2.1)and to meet National Research Council requirements (1979) for the growing pig (Table 6.2). The fat contributedabout 50% of dietary energy, similar to that provided by sow milk. The formula fats were blends of soy, coconut,corn, canola, high-oleic acid sunflower, and/or marine oils. The fatty acid composition and blend of oils usedin the formulas are in Table 2.2. After opening, the liquid, ready-to-feed formulas were kept at 4\u00C2\u00B0C for no longerthan 24 h.31Fatty acids^ (% of total fatty acids)14:0 0.1^77^ 1016:0^ 4 10^13^4^10^2016:1 0.3^ 0.1 0.1^1318:0^ 2 3^2^5^4 418:1n-9 61^7 25^80 22^1418:2n-6^21 2^58 7^55 118:3n-3 9^ 1.1^0.1 7^120:4n-6^ -^ 1.120:5n-3 1822:6n-3^ -^ -^ 9Formula Fat Blends16/1 + FO'16/116/430/135/4% (v/v)41^8^41^8^242 8 42 835^4()^ 15^1040^6040 60Table 2.1Macronutrient composition of sow milk' and experimental formulas 2Formula (% fatty acids) 18:2n-6/18:3n-3Sow milk 16/1 + FO'^16/1^16/4^30/1^35/4Protein (g/L)^55^56^55 55 55 59Fat (g/L) 50-60^60 59^59^60^60Lactose (g/L)^58 58^58 58 72 55Energy (kcal/L)^1000^992 995^987^1050^992'Values for sow milk from Hrboticky et al 1989.'Values for formula determined by Ross Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio.3F0, fish oil added to formula in manufacturing process.Table 2.2Fatty acid composition of oils' and blend of oils' used in pig formulasCanola^Coconut^Corn^High-Oleic^Soybean^MarineSafflower'adapted from Innis 19912information on oil blends was provided by Ross Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio'16/1 + FO formula: 16% fatty acids 18:2n-6 / 1% 18:3n-3 plus fish oil322.4.1 Experiment I: Influence of formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 content and ratio on n-6 and n-3 fatty acids indeveloping piglet CNS and liver.Competition between 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 for desaturation implies that not only the quantity, but alsothe balance, of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in infant formula may influence levels of n-3 and n-6 LCP in the CNS andliver. This was investigated by feeding formulas with different vegetable oil blends to achieve low (16% of fattyacids) or high (30 or 35%) 18:2n-6 and low (1%) or high (4%) 18:3n-3. Each level of 18:2n-6 was fed with low(1%) or high (4%) 18:3n-3 to allow study of possible independent or interactive effects of formula 18:2n-6 and18:3n-3 on tissue fatty acid composition. The formulas with (% 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3) 16/1, 30/1, 16/4 and 35/4had 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratios of 22:1, 37:1, 4:1 and 8:1, respectively. Piglets fed sow milk were included as thereference for comparison. The fatty acid composition of sow milk and of the four formulas is in Table 23. Theamount of saturated fatty acids was similar in all the formulas, but the percentage of C s. 14 and 18:1 werechanged inversely with 18:3n-3 and 18:2n-6, respectively. The formulas differed from sow milk in their higherpercentage of fatty acids with C s 14, lower % 16:0 and absence of n-3 and n-6 LCP.Table 23Fatty acid composition' of sow milk and formulas in Experiment IFormula (% fatty acids) 18:2n-6/18:3n-3Fatty Acid Sow Milk2 16/1 16/4 30/1 35/4(% of fatty acids)E C.14:03 4.0 32.2 28.3 38.9 27.516:0 30.5 8.1 7.9 10.4 10.418:0 4.4 3.4 3.8 2.8 4.618:1 37.5 38.6 40.1 17.3 17.218:2n-6 11.1 15.6 16.6 29.5 35.118:3n-3 1.1 0.7 3.9 0.8 4.520:4n-6 0.5 nd4 nd nd nd20:5n-3 0.1 nd nd nd nd22:5n-3 0.2 nd nd nd nd22:6n-3 0.1 nd nd nd nd18:2n-6:18:3n-3 10:1 22:1 4:1 37:1 8:1Tatty acid composition was determined by gas liquid chromatography after direct transesterification (Lepage& Roy 1986) as described in Materials and Methods.2Values for sow milk are the average of 2 milk samples from different sows collected at 1 and 2 wk post partumlactation.3total of 10:0, 12:0 and 14:0.4nd, not detected.332.42 Experiment II: Efficacy of formula 18:3n-3 compared to n-3 LCP in supporting deposition of 22:6n-3 inCNS lipids.The objective of this study was to determine if formula containing either 18:3n-3 as the only n-3 fattyacid, in amounts approximately equal to and four-fold greater than the total n-3 fatty acids in milk, or similar18:3n-3 to milk plus n-3 LCP from fish oil, could support equivalent deposition of 22:6n-3 in the CNS to sow milk.The formulas supplied similar amounts of 18:2n-6 (16%), but with low (1%) or high (4%) 18:3n-3 (16/1, 16/4formulas, respectively) or low 18:3n-3 with fish oil to provide 20:5n-3, 22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 in amounts of 0.4, 0.1and 0.3% of the total formula fatty acids, respectively (16/1 +FO formula). The fatty acid composition of thesow milk and formulas is given in Table 2.4. The four-fold greater 18:3n-3 was based on the work of Andersonet al (1990), which suggests 18:3n-3 was about three to four times less effective than 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 insupporting brain n-3 fatty acid deposition. Synaptic plasma membrane and retina EPL fatty acids were analyzedbecause these membranes are especially enriched in 22:6n-3.Table 2.4Fatty acid composition' of sow milk and formulas in Experiment 11Formula (% fatty acids) 18:2n-6/18:3n-3Fatty acids Sow milk 16/1^16/4 16/1 + F0 2(% of fatty acids)E C^14:03 4.0 32.2^28.3 34.616:0 30.5 8.1 7.9 7.818:0 4.4 3.4^3.8 3.318:1 37.5 38.6 40.1 38.418:2n-6 11.1 15.6^16.6 15.518:3n-3 1.1 0.7 3.9 0.620:4n-6 0.5 nd4^nd nd20:5n-3 0.1 nd nd 0.422:5n-3 0.2 nd^nd 0.122:6n-3 0.1 nd nd 0.318:2n-6:18:3n-3 10:1 22.3^4.3 25.8'Fatty acid composition of formulas was determined by gas liquid chromatography after direct transesterification(Lepage & Roy 1986), as described in Materials and Methods.2F0, fish oil3total 10:0, 12:0 and 14:04nd, not detected342.4.3 Experiment III: The relationship of formula n-3 LCP to n-3 and n-6 LCP in piglet tissues.The effect of supplementing formula with increasing amounts of fish oil on n-3 and n-6 LCP in the brainand its synaptic plasma membranes, retina, plasma and liver of piglets was investigated. The formula fat wasa 60/40 blend of corn-coconut oil (i.e. formula 30/1 in Experiment I) supplemented with 0 g (F diet), 2 g (F01diet) or 6 g (P03 diet) of refined menhaden oil (ICN Biomedicals Canada, Ltd., Montreal, Quebec) per litreof formula. The oil was dispersed in the formula by sonication using a Sonifier Cell Disrupter 350 with an outputcontrol of 7, percent cycle of 75 and a 1/2 inch tip for four 20 second intervals, exactly as described for studiesin the preterm infant (Carlson et al 1987). The macronutrient and fatty acid composition of the formulas is inTable 2.5. Addition of fish oil to the formula caused a small increase in energy density and % 16:1 and 20:4n-6.F01 and P03 diets had 0.8 and 23% n-3 LCP in formula fatty acids, respectively; the levels of 20:5n-3 were two-fold that of 22:6n-3. F01 and F03 diets were prepared fresh daily and stored at 4\u00C2\u00B0C for no longer than 24 h.Table 2.5Macronutrient and major fatty acid composition of formulas fed to piglets in Experiment III'F2 F012 F032Protein (g/l) 55 55 55Fat (g/l) 60 62 66Lactose (g/1) 72 72 72Energy (Kcal/1) 1050 1069 1104Fatty Acids (% of fatty acids)E C _. 14:0 3 38.9 38.4 36.616:0 10.4 10.5 11.016:1 nd4 0.4 2.418:0 2.8 2.9 3.518:1 17.3 17.4 16.718:2n-6 29.4 28.8 26.518:3n-3 0.8 0.8 0.820:4n-6 nd tr 0.120:5n-3 nd 0.5 1.422:5n-3 nd tr 0.222:6n-3 nd 0.3 0.7'Fatty acid composition determined by gas liquid chromatography after direct transesterification (Lepage & Roy1986), as described in Materials and Methods2F, 30/1 formula from Experiment I; F01, 30/1 formula + 2 g menhaden oil/L; P03, 30/1 formula + 6 gmenhaden oil/L added by sonication3total of 10:0, 12:0 and 14:04nd = not detected; tr = trace levels: 0.01 - 0.05% of total fatty acids352.4.4 Experiment IV: The effect of maternal diet n-3 fatty acids on fatty acid composition of milk and the fattyacids of the developing CNS and liver of piglets.Whether addition of fish oil to the sow's diet would increase 22:6n-3 in milk, and if this would beaccompanied by altered assimilation of n-3 and n-6 LCP into brain and synaptic plasma membranes, retina andliver of natural milk-fed piglets, was studied. Three pregnant Yorkshire sows (from Peter Hill Holdings, Langley,British Columbia) were fed a usual pig diet with 5% (wt/wt) soybean oil until 4 days before term gestation, then4% (wt/wt) soybean oil plus 1% (wt/wt) fish oil for the remainder of the study. The fish oil contained 24% offatty acids as 22:6n-3, 6% 20:5n-3 and 2% 20:4n-6, and was a gift from Ross Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio. Sixmale piglets suckled by the sows fed the fish oil diet (2 piglets per sow) were taken for study at 15 or 16 daysof age. Each piglet was nursed exclusively by its mother from birth and received no other food. Milk from eachof the three fish oil-fed sows was obtained at 1 and 2 weeks post-partum, frozen immediately, then transportedon ice to The Research Centre and stored at -70\u00C2\u00B0C until analysis. The fatty acid content of the sow diet with2.5% (wt/wt) vegetable oil added (soybean and canola oils) (from Experiment I) and of the diet with 4% (wt/wt)soybean oil plus 1% (wt/wt) fish oil is in Table 2.6. The notable difference in fatty acid content of the two sowdiets was higher 18:2n-6 and n-3 LCP, particularly 22:6n-3. Saturated fatty acids (C 14, 16:0 and 18:0) and oleicacid (18:1) were slightly lower and 18:3n-3 was higher in the diet supplemented with fish oil (Table 2.6).2.5 Tissue Collection and PreparationAt 15 or 16 days of age and within 1.5 to 2 h of the last feed, 10 ml of blood was collected from thepiglets by cardiac puncture with 15% (wt/v) EDTA in saline as the anticoagulant, using a 2-way stop-valve andsyringes. Ten ml of KCI (20 meq/10 ml) was then injected into the heart, killing the animal instantly. The pigletswere decapitated and the heads immediately transferred to ice. All the following procedures were carried outat 4\u00C2\u00B0C or on ice.Organs and tissues collected and prepared for study included the cerebrum, synaptic plasma membrane,retina, liver, plasma and red blood cell. Additional data for triglyceride and cholesterol ester fatty acids of plasmaand liver, and for PC fractions have been included in the Appendix (Tables 63 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 6.21) for completeness. Thefocus of this thesis was on the adequacy of formula fatty acids for the deposition of LCP in membranephospholipids. It is beyond the scope of this thesis to discuss each lipid class in detail.36Table 2.6Fatty acid content of sow diets containing vegetable oil only' or vegetable and fish oil'.Fatty acid Vegetable oil Vegetable oil+ fish oil(% of fatty acids)E C 514:02 1.0 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.016:0 17.7 12.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.316:1 0.8 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.118:0 6.0 2.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.118:1 31.2 23.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.618:2n-6 35.4 47.7 \u00C2\u00B1 1.118:3n-3 5.3 7.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.220:4n-6 tr4 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:5n-3 tr 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:5n-3 tr 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:6n-3 tr 2.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3'Values for the diet with vegetable oil are an average of duplicate analysis.2Values for the fish oil diet are mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM of samples taken from 6 different diet/oil mixes preparedthroughout the study period.'total of 10:0, 12:0 and 14:04tr = trace levels: 0.01 - 0.05% of total fatty acids.2.5.1 CerebrumThe cerebrum was removed within 5 min of death, visible vasculature and connective tissue was removedand cerebrum weight recorded. The cerebrum was placed in a chilled beaker and minced with scissors. Thecerebrum was homogenized in sections (6 - 8 g each) in 5 v/wt of 0.32 M sucrose-Tris HCI buffer (15 mM TrisHCI, 1mM EDTA, 1 mM MgCl2 , 1.5 mM glutathione, pH 7.4). Homogenization was with a 40 ml Dounce tissuegrinder, using 5 strokes with the loose (B) pestle and 8 strokes with the tight (A) pestle. The homogenates werecombined, and the total volume and total cerebrum wt homogenized were recorded and the ml homogenate/gcerebrum calculated. Aliquots of cerebrum homogenate were stored at -70\u00C2\u00B0C until analysis.2.5.2 Synaptic Plasma MembraneA volume of cerebrum homogenate equivalent to 30 g of cerebrum was used for the isolation of synapticplasma membranes, following the method of Cruz & Gurd (1978). Briefly, the 5% (wt/v) homogenate was diluted37to 9% (wt/v) by the addition of 4 mis homogenizing buffer per g of cerebrum used, and centrifuged at 3,000gfor 10 min. The supernatant was collected and centrifuged at 10,500g for 20 min. The resulting pellet was washed3 times in 4.5 mis homogenizing buffer/g cerebrum. This involved resuspending the pellet with 5 strokes of thetight pestle in a Dounce tissue grinder and subsequent centrifugation at 15,000g for 20 min. The washed pelletwas then suspended in 8 volumes of Tris HC1 buffer with 5 strokes of the tight pestle of the Dounce tissue grinder.After standing for 30 min at 4\u00C2\u00B0C, the suspension was centrifuged at 97,000g for 25 min. The pellet was suspendedwith 5 strokes of the tight pestle in 72 mis of 34% (wt/v) sucrose. Six mis of the suspension were aliquoted into30 ml ultracentrifuge tubes. A discontinuous sucrose gradient was set up by carefully layering 5 mis of 28.5%(wt/v) sucrose, then 5 mis of 24.0% (wt/v) sucrose, and finally 2 mis of 10.0% (wt/v) sucrose over the suspension.After balancing the tubes on a scale, they were centrifuged at 97,000g for 110 min. Using a glass syringe witha blunt needle, the 28.5%/34.0% (wt/v) density interface band was collected and resuspended in about 50 misof resuspension buffer (15 mM Tris HC1, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM MgCl 2, 1.5 mM glutathione, pH 7.4), using 5strokes of the tight pestle. The volume of the suspension was adjusted to 200 ml and centrifuged at 97,000g for30 min. The synaptic plasma membrane pellet was collected and resuspended in 5 mis of resuspension buffer,using a 5 ml Potter-Elvehjem tissue grinder with pestle. The fmal volume was recorded and aliquots of synapticplasma membranes were stored at -70\u00C2\u00B0C until analysis.The purity of synaptic plasma membrane preparations isolated by this procedure was previouslydetermined in this laboratory, using acetylcholinesterase and 5'-nucleotidase as marker enzymes. Marker enzymeswere not analyzed in the membrane preparations reported in this thesis. However, the fatty acid compositionof synaptic plasma membranes isolated from piglets fed sow milk and the 30/1 formula was very similar to thatof synaptic plasma membranes from respective piglet groups in previous studies which assessed membrane purity(Hrboticky et al 1989).2.5.3 RetinaWhole eyes were dissected within 15 min of death and kept on ice until retinas were removed with agentle stream of ice-cold saline. Retinas were stored at -70\u00C2\u00B0C until analysis. Preceding lipid extraction, retinaswere thawed on ice and homogenized in 1 ml of 0.9% (wt/v) NaCI. Homogenization was achieved with 5 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 638up and down strokes in a chilled 2 ml Potter-Elvehjem tissue grinder, using a Con-Torque power unit. Three10 Al samples were aliquoted for protein determination (Lowry et al 1951).2.5.4 LiverThe whole liver was immediately removed, perfused with ice-cold saline to remove the blood, blottedand weighed. In all but Experiment III, the whole liver was homogenized in a Philips electric blender with 50ml of ice cold saline plus 15% (wt/v) EDTA. Liver samples of about 1 g were taken from piglets used inExperiment III. Aliquots of crude liver homogenate and liver samples (Experiment III) were stored at -70\u00C2\u00B0Cuntil analysis. A volume of thawed crude homogenate or liver sample equivalent to approximately 1 g of liverwas homogenized in 2 ml saline in a chilled 2 ml Potter-Elvehjem tissue grinder, using a Con-Torque power unit.An aliquot was used for the determination of protein concentration (Lowry et al 1951) and the remaining liverhomogenate was extracted for lipid (see Section 2.6).2.5.5 BloodPlasma was separated from RBCs by centrifugation (3,000g for 5 min at 4\u00C2\u00B0C). RBCs were washed threetimes with an equal volume of 0.9% (wt/v) NaCI with 15% (wt/v) EDTA. Aliquots of plasma and packed RBCwere stored at -70\u00C2\u00B0C until analysis.2.6 Lipid ExtractionSow milk (for fatty acid compositional analyses of phospholipid and the sn -2 position of triglyceride),cerebrum, synaptic plasma membrane, liver and retina homogenates, and plasma total lipids were extracted usingthe method of Folch et al (1957). RBC lipids were extracted by the procedure of Rose and Oklander (1965) usingchloroform/isopropanol, because the use of isopropanol in place of methanol avoids attracting heme pigments.The total lipid extracts from cerebrum, synaptic plasma membrane and retina were redissolved in chloroform-methanol (2/1, v/v) and aliquoted for determination of total fatty acid composition, total cholesterol and lipidphosphorus content and for TLC. Liver lipid extract and plasma were aliquoted for total and free cholesterol,triglyceride and lipid phosphorus assays. Liver and RBC lipid extracts were aliquoted for TLC. All aliquots oflipid extract were stored at -70\u00C2\u00B0C until analysis.392.7 Tissue Protein and Lipid Content2.7.1 Protein ContentAliquots of cerebrum, liver, synaptic plasma membrane and retina homogenates were assayed accordingto Lowry et al (1951) with bovine serum albumin as the standard.2.7.2 Lipid ContentAliquots from total lipid extracts of all tissues for cholesterol determination were first dried down undernitrogen gas, then reconstituted in 50 Al isopropyl alcohol. Total cholesterol levels were quantified with anenzymatic kit. Quality control samples were run with each assay. The intraassay and interassay coefficients ofvariation were 3%. Plasma aliquots and standards for triglyceride and free cholesterol were made up to 50/A volume with distilled water and assayed using enzymatic kits with glycerol and cholesterol, respectively, asstandards. Hepatic triglyceride and free cholesterol levels were assayed similarly in an aliquot of total liver lipidextract after resuspension of the dried lipid in 50 Al isopropyl alcohol. The standards in this case were similarlyprepared, and for the assay of triglyceride was triolein rather than glycerol. Phospholipid phosphorus was assayedafter digestion of an aliquot of the tissue lipid extracts with 70% perchloric acid (Chen et al 1956).2.8 Fatty Acid Composition2.8.1 Sow milkFrozen milk samples were thawed in cold water and lipase activity prevented by rapidly heating to andmaintaining at 80\u00C2\u00B0C for 1 min (Bitman et al 1983). A 100 /41 aliquot of sow milk, equivalent to about 600 ii.gof lipid, and 500 pig of C17:0 internal standard were methylated with 2 ml methanol-benzene (4/1, v/v) by amodification of the direct transesterification method of Lepage & Roy (1986). While vortexing, 200 Al acetyl-chloride was added, then tubes capped tightly and heated at 100\u00C2\u00B0C for 1 h. During this hour, the tubes werevortexed at 15 min intervals. The sample was neutralized by the addition of 5 ml of 6% (wt/v) K 2CO 3 , thenrecapped and shook for 3 minutes. Methyl esters were recovered twice with 4 ml pentane. The pooled pentanelayers were dried under nitrogen gas and stored at -70\u00C2\u00B0C for later GLC analysis.The fatty acid composition of milk phospholipid and the sn -2 position of triglyceride were analyzed inthe following way. Aliquots of milk lipid extract equivalent to about 2 mg lipid were spotted on silica gel plates40(F-254 0.5 mm) under a gentle stream of nitrogen gas. Milk triglyceride and phospholipid were separated fromother lipid classes by TLC, using petroleum ether-diethyl ether-glacial acetic acid (85/15/3, v/v/v) as a solventsystem (Innis & Clandinin 1981). Phospholipid remained at the origin and was visualized under ultraviolet light.Triglyceride was identified by an authentic standard which was run simultaneously and visualized in iodine. Theselipid classes were scraped and eluted from the silica with chloroform-methanol (2/1, v/v). The distribution offatty acids at the sn -2 position of sow milk triglyceride was analyzed by a modified method of Kuksis (1984).Briefly, triglyceride was dissolved in 200 Al of petroleum ether and vortexed. After the addition of 600 Al of 1M Tris buffer (pH 8.0), 100 Al of 1 M CaCl2 and 50 Al of 0.19 M taurocholic acid, the mixture was sonicated,then vortexed. Incubation at 37\u00C2\u00B0C for 20 min with pancreatic lipase (100 ,uL of 20 mg/ml) allowed hydrolysisof the sn - 1 and -3 positions of the triglyceride. The lipids were extracted from the reaction mixture with 2 mldiethyl ether and purified by TLC on pre-run PK6F Whatman hard plates. The plates were developed in hexane-diethyl ether-acetic acid (60/40/1.5, v/v/v). The sn -2 monoglycerides were identified in relation to a monooleinlipid standard. Following addition of C17:0 internal standard, the sn -2 monoglyceride was methylated with 2 mlmethanol-benzene (4/1, v/v) by a modification of the direct transesterification method of Lepage & Roy (1986),as described for milk total lipid.2.8.2 FormulaAs for sow milk, 100 pc1 of formula, equivalent to about 600 itg of lipid, and 500 ,ug C17:0 internalstandard were vortexed in 2 ml methanol-benzene (4/1, v/v). Fatty acid methyl esters were prepared by the directmethylation procedure described in section 2.8.1.2.8.3 CerebrumA volume of total lipid extract equivalent to about 500 ,ug of cerebrum total lipid and 50 mg of C17:0standard were dried under nitrogen gas. Total fatty acids were determined by transmethylation in 1 ml methanolicHCl (1/5, v/v) at 100\u00C2\u00B0C for 90 min. The methyl esters were partitioned twice with 3 ml saline and 4 ml pentane.The pooled pentane layers were dried under nitrogen gas and stored at -70\u00C2\u00B0C for later GLC analysis. Wholecerebrum homogenate contains cerebroside and sulfatide which are not separated from EPL by one-dimensional41chromatography. Therefore, two-dimensional chromatography (Pollet et al 1978) was used to eliminatecontamination of EPL with sulphatide and cerebroside. Approximately 750 izg of total lipid extract was spottedon 10 x 10 cm high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) 60 F-254 Merck plates, under a gentlestream of nitrogen gas. The plate was developed in chloroform-methanol-water (70/30/4, v/v/v) from the bottomto the top of the plate. The plate was rotated counterclockwise 90\u00C2\u00B0 and placed in the second solvent system,chloroform-methanol (20/80, v/v); the solvent was allowed to run two-thirds the distance of the plate. In thesame direction, the plate was then developed in chloroform-methanol (60/30, v/v) from the bottom to the topof the plate. Finally, the plate was rotated clockwise back to its original position and developed in chloroform-methanol (60/30, v/v). The plates were dried for 15 min in the fume hood between each development. PC wasseparated from other phospholipid classes on HPTLC plates using chloroform-methanol-acetic acid-water(50/37.5/3.5/2, v/v/v/v) (Holub & Skeaff 1987) as the solvent system. The EPL and PC fractions were visualizedunder ultraviolet light after spraying with 2'7'-dichlorofluorescein and identified using authentic standards.Following scraping and elution with chloroform-methanol (2/1, v/v), fatty acids of EPL and PC were methylatedat 100\u00C2\u00B0C in 1 ml 14% boron trifluoride (BF 3)-methanol (Morrison & Smith 1961). EPL includes ether-containinganalogues (i.e. alkyl- and alkenyl-acyl- phosphoethanolamine), which are transesterified more slowly than the morecommon diacyl derivatives (Christie 1982). Therefore, EPL was methylated for 30 minutes, and PC for 10minutes. Methyl esters were recovered by pentane and saline partition as described above and stored at -70\u00C2\u00B0Cfor later GLC analysis.2.8.4 Synaptic Plasma Membrane and RetinaThe total fatty acid composition of synaptic plasma membrane and retina were determined as describedin Section 2.8.3. The separation of phospholipid classes was achieved on HPTLC plates using a solvent systemof chloroform-methanol-acetic acid-water (50/37.5/3.5/2, v/v/v/v) (Holub & Skeaff 1987). The atmosphere insidethe developing tank was allowed to saturate with solvent vapour for one hour before the plates were added; plateswere then developed for 21/2 hours. These conditions were strictly controlled for each set of plates. The bandscorresponding to EPL and PC were identified using authentic standards and were processed as described above.422.8.5 Liver, Plasma and RBCTotal phospholipid, triglyceride and cholesterol esters of plasma and liver lipid extracts were separatedby TLC using a solvent system of petroleum ether-diethyl ether-glacial acetic acid (85/15/3, v/v/v) (Innis &Clandinin 1981). Complete bands corresponding to triglyceride and cholesterol esters were visualized, scrapedand eluted as above. Triglyceride was transmethylated at 100\u00C2\u00B0C for 30 min in 1 ml BF,-benzene-methanol(25/20/55, v/v/v). Cholesterol esters were transmethylated at 100\u00C2\u00B0C for 45 min in 1 ml BF,-benzene-methanol(35/30/35, v/v/v). Half of the liver phospholipid band and the entire plasma phospholipid band were collectedand prepared for subsequent transmethylation in 1 ml methanol-HC1 (5/1, v/v) for 5 min at 100\u00C2\u00B0C. The otherhalf of the liver phospholipid band was scraped, eluted and dried down under nitrogen gas. The liver phospholipidextract and RBC lipid extract were separated into individual phospholipid classes by TLC on silica gel plates (F-254, 0.5 mm) using a chloroform-methanol-acetic acid-water (25/15/4/2/, v/v/v/v) solvent system (Skipski etal 1964). EPL and PC fractions were collected, eluted, transmethylated in 1 ml BF, for 10 min at 100\u00C2\u00B0C, andstored at -70\u00C2\u00B0C for GLC analysis.2.8.6 Gas Liquid ChromatographyFatty acid methyl esters were separated and quantified by GLC. Separation was achieved on 30 m x0.25 mm nonbonded, fused silica capillary SP 2330 columns. Helium was used as the carrier gas at a columnflow of 1 ml/min and inlet pressure of 15 pounds per square inch. The inlet splitter was set at 10 to 1. Sampleswere injected at 80\u00C2\u00B0C and the oven temperature programmed to remain at 80\u00C2\u00B0C for 2 min, then increase to 170\u00C2\u00B0Cat 20\u00C2\u00B0C/min, stabilize for 25 min, rise to 195\u00C2\u00B0C at 20\u00C2\u00B0C/min, and stabilize for 18 min. The column was thenheated to 245\u00C2\u00B0C at 20\u00C2\u00B0C/min and stabilized for 20 min prior to subsequent analyses. The injectors and detectorswere set at 240\u00C2\u00B0 and 260\u00C2\u00B0C, respectively. Fatty acid methyl esters were identified by comparison of retentiontimes with those of authentic standards. The identification of fatty acids did not include mass spectrometry.Identified fatty acids were comprised of the n-3 series 18:3, 20:5, 22:5 and 22:6; the n-6 series 18:2, 18:3,20:2, 20:3, 20:4, 22:4, 22:5; the n-7 series 16:1; the n-9 series 20:1, 22:1; and 10:0, 12:0, 14:0, 16:0, 18:0, 20:0, 22:0saturated fatty acids. Values for 18:1 fatty acid represented total isomers. Peak areas, wt percent fatty acidcomposition (of identified fatty acids) and tig values based on the amount of internal standard (C17) werecomputed by a chromatography data system (Varian 654 data system or a Varian 3400 with an IBM computer43system using Varian \"STAR\" software). The response of the detector to equivalent weightf of fatty acids acrossthe range of C16 to C22 fatty acids was similar. The consistency of the flame ionization detector response waschecked periodically by injecting a calibration mixture of equivalent amounts of C13, C17 and C23, and knownauthentic fatty acid methyl ester standard mixtures. The variance in response across the C16 to C23 fatty acidsdid not exceed 5% and was within the range of interassay reproducibility. Across the C8 to C14 fatty acids, theflame ionization detector response differed from the C13 and the C17 standards. Therefore, correction factorswere used for the lower response for C8 (0.75) and for C10, C12 and C14 fatty acids (0.895) in milk and formulafatty acid analyses.2.9 Statistical analysesData for all experiments was analyzed using the Number Cruncher Statistical System, version 5.01(Kaysville, Utah), under the supervision of the Statistical Consulting Service of The Research Centre.2.9.1 Experiment ITwo-way ANOVA (Montgomery 1984) was used to examine the effect of varying levels of 18:2n-6 and18:3n-3 in the formula, and their interaction with respect to effects on the tissue fatty acid composition. Wherean interaction between 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 was found (p < 0.05), post hoc contrasts were used to study the effectof 18:2n-6 level in the low or high 18:3n-3 formulas. These formal tests of differences were based on least squaresmeans and standard errors calculated from the ANOVA. Bonferroni corrections (0.05 / 6 contrasts) were usedto control the chance of error per experiment instead of per test (i.e. to keep the level of significance as low asintended), in determining which differences were of statistical significance (p < 0.008). Based on the smallnumbers of animals involved, the primary aim was not to infer too much from the data and therefore to reducethe chance of falsely claiming significant differences between groups (i.e. conserve the type I error).Regression analysis was also used to study the relationship between the tissue % 22:6n-3 and the ratioof 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 in the formula. R 2 from the two-way ANOVA and regression analyses were compared to givean indication of whether the variability in 22:6n-3 in tissues from the different groups was best explained by thelevel of 18:3n-3 or by the 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio of the formula. When a significant difference (p < 0.05) between44the sow milk-fed and formula-fed piglet groups was found by one-way ANOVA, mean levels of the fatty acidwere then compared using post hoc contrasts with a Bonferroni correction applied to set the level for statisticalsignificance for the four contrasts (p < 0.013) (Montgomery 1984).2.9.2 Experiment IIDifferences in the mean levels of each tissue fatty acid among the sow milk and formula groups wereinvestigated using one-way ANOVA. As described above, post hoc contrasts with Bonferroni corrections (0.05/6contrasts) within a fatty acid were used to determine which of these differences were statistically significant(p < 0.008).2.9.3 Experiment IIIThe changes in phospholipid LCP composition with increasing fish oil intake were characterized, usingorthogonal polynomial analyses (Montgomery 1984), as quadratic or linear. Analysis of variance was used to testfor differences in the response to the three levels (0, 2, 6 g/L) of fish oil. When the results of the one-wayANOVA showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the levels of the tissue fatty acid under consideration, twoorthogonal polynomial contrasts were used to describe the nature of the change in fatty acid level among F, F01and F03 diets (Montgomery 1984). The first contrast was used to determine if there was an overall increaseor decrease in the response to increasing dietary n-3 LCP. A second independent contrast was used to determinewhether the intermediate dose (F01 diet) response was inconsistent with a linear increase or decrease from Fdiet to F03 diet, and thus representative of a curvilinear (quadratic) trend.2.9.4 Experiment IVAnalyses for statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) between the milk fatty acid composition andthe tissue fatty acid composition of piglets suckling milk from sows fed diets with and without fish oil were doneusing unpaired Student's t test.452.10 Evaluation of the effects of feeding formula with low 18:3n-3 and no 22:6n-3 on deposition of 22:6n-3 inthe developing liver and CNS and comparison of relationship between effects on circulating lipids with that onthe liver and CNS lipids.The natural milk consumed by piglets nursed by two groups of sows fed diets containing vegetable oilwithout or with fish oil had 0.1% and 1.5% fatty acids 22:6n-3, a range compatible with that in human populations.The adequacy of formulas containing either 16 or 30% 18:2n-6 and either 1 or 4% 18:3n-3, with no 22:6n-3(Experiment I), with regard to deposition of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 in specific phospholipids (EPL and PC) of thedeveloping CNS and liver was analyzed. One-way ANOVA was used to compare the mean levels of tissue 20:4n-6,22:6n-3 and 22:5n-6 of the formula groups to those of piglets receiving milk from sows fed a vegetable oil diet.An independent one-way ANOVA was used for a similar comparison to piglets receiving milk from sows fed thefish oil diet. Bonferroni corrections (0.05 / 4 contrasts) within a fatty acid were used to set the level of statisticalsignificance (p < 0.013).The relationship between the plasma and RBC phospholipid 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 and the liver and CNSphospholipids was analyzed in piglets fed the different milks (Experiment IV) and formulas (Experiment I) todetermine if circulating fatty acids are a specific measure of the 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 status of developing organs.463 RESULTS3.1 Experiment I: Influence of formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 content and ratio on major saturated,monounsaturated, n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in the developing piglet CNS and liver3.1.1 GrowthThere was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in body or liver wt between the groups of 15 day-old pigletsfed formula or those fed sow milk (Table 3.1). Statistical analysis by two-way ANOVA found significantly lowercerebrum wt and cerebrum:body wt ratio in piglets fed formulas with 4% 18:3n-3 (16/4 and 35/4 formulas) ratherthan 1% 18:3n-3 (16/1 and 30/1 formulas). The cerebrum wt of piglets fed the 35/4 formula was significantlylower than that of piglets fed sow milk (p < 0.013). The differences among formula-fed piglets could not beattributed to differences in birth weight or in formula intake. The formula intake was similar among all groupsfrom days 0 - 5, 6 - 10, 11 - 15, and over the entire 15 day study period.Table 3.1Birth weight, body and organ weights of 15 day -old piglets and formula intakesFormula (% fatty acids) 18:2n-6/18:3n-3Sow milk(n = 7)16/1(n = 8)16/4(n = 7)30/1(n = 6)35/4(n = 6)Birth wt (kg) NA' 1.4 + 0.1 1.6 + 0.1 1.4 + 0.2 1.4 + 0.1Body wt (kg) 4.1 + 0.4 4.5 + 0.3 4.4 + 0.3 4.3 + 0.4 4.3 + 0.4Liver wt (g) 118 \u00C2\u00B1 13 121 \u00C2\u00B1 9 123 \u00C2\u00B1 7 118 \u00C2\u00B1 10 116 \u00C2\u00B1 11Cerebrum wtt (g) 35.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 35.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 32.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 34.4 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 31.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 *Cerebrum:body wt(x100) t0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1Formula intake (L)day 0 - 5 NA 2.6 + 0.2 2.5 + 0.1 2.6 + 0.2 2.4 + 0.2day 6 - 10 NA 4.0 + 0.4 3.4 + 0.3 3.5 + 0.3 3.2 + 0.4day 11 - 15 NA 4.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 4.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 3.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 3.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4Total volume NA 10.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 9.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 9.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 9.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9'NA, not available; n = number of animals/group1\"significant negative effect of formula 18:3n-3 (p < 0.03), determined by two-way ANOVA. -significantly differentfrom piglets fed sow milk (p < 0.013), determined by one-way ANOVA and post hoc contrast with Bonferronicorrection.473.1.2 Plasma and tissue lipid and protein contentThere was no evidence of a significant effect of milk or formula fatty acids on plasma and livertriglyceride concentration, or liver and cerebrum protein concentration of piglets (Table 3.2). Nor were theconcentrations of phospholipid and total cholesterol and the phospholipid:cholesterol ratio in piglet cerebrum,synaptic plasma membrane and retina significantly affected by dietary intake of milk or formula. All the groupsof piglets fed formula had significantly lower concentrations of total and free cholesterol in plasma (p^0.0002)and liver (p^0.0006) than piglets fed sow milk. These findings probably reflect the higher dietary intake ofcholesterol from sow milk, compared to negligible amounts of cholesterol in formula (Jones et al 1990). Theliver phospholipid concentration was significantly lower in piglets fed the 16/1, 16/4 and 30/1 formulas than inreference piglets; however, because of the lower concentration of cholesterol in these groups, there was nosignificant difference in the hepatic phospholipid:cholesterol (Amol:ktmol) ratio among the piglet groups.3.1.3 Piglet tissue fatty acidsThe significant effects on tissue fatty acid composition are described within each section as follows: (1)effects due to the amount of 18:2n-6 in the formula, (2) effects due to the amount of 18:3n-3 in the formula, and(3) interactive effects of formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, i.e. the magnitude of the effect due to the amount of 18:2n-6in the formula is different, depending on the accompanying amount of 18:3n-3 in the formula (1% or 4% 18:3n-3)(from Table 33). Where a significant interaction was found, individual group comparisons are given (fromFigures 3.1, 3.2, 3.4). Comparisons to the piglets fed sow milk are then described (from Fig. 3.1, 3.2, 3.3).3.1.3.1 Liver and CNS tissue saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids3.1.3.1.1 Levels of 16:0 in tissue membrane lipidsThere was no evidence of a significant effect of the amount of 18:2n-6 or 18:3n-3 in the formula onsynaptic plasma membrane and retina EPL % 16:0. The percentage of 16:0 in liver phospholipid, however, wassignificantly lower (p < 0.0001) in piglets fed the formula containing 4% 18:3n -3 (16/4 and 35/4) compared to1% 18:3n-3 (16/1 and 30/1). The effect of diet on cerebrum total lipid % 16:0 was different from that on the48Table 3.2Lipid and protein content of plasma, liver, cerebrum, synaptic plasma membrane and retina of 15 day-oldpiglets fed sow milk or formulas with varying amounts of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in Experiment 1'Formula (% fatty acids) 18:2n-6/18:3n-3Sowmilk^16/1^16/4^30/1^35/4Plasma^ (mmol/L plasma)Triglyceride 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3^1.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2^1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2^1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3Total cholesterol^5.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.82^2.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3^2.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^2.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3^2.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2Free cholesterol^2.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.42^1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1Liver^ (p.mol/g liver)Triglyceride^6.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8^5.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8^4.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4^6.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2^5.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4Total cholesterol^7.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.72^4.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4^5.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2^5.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2^5.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1Free cholesterol^6.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.42^3.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4^2.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3^2.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^2.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1Phospholipid 38.7 \u00C2\u00B1 3.22^27.6 \u00C2\u00B1 2.2b^28.2 \u00C2\u00B1 2.2b^28.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.9\"^33.4 \u00C2\u00B1 2.1'PL:cholesterol^5.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4^6.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3^5.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4^5.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3^6.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4(mg/ g liver)Protein^49.5 + 4.5^47.0 + 1.8^44.1 + 2.9^50.6 + 3.1^44.6 + 2.5Cerebrum (pmol/mg protein)Phospholipid^0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0Total cholesterol^0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0PL:cholesterol 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0(mg/g cerebrum)Protein^86.8 + 1.5^80.0 + 1.8^83.5 + 3.3^86.9 + 1.6^87.5 + 1.6Synaptic Plasma^ (pmol/mg protein)MembranePhospholipid^1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^1.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1Total Cholesterol^0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0PL:cholesterol 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^1.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^1.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0Retina^ (pmol/mg protein)Phospholipid^0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0Total cholesterol^0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0PL:cholesterol 2.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6^3.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1^3.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^3.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0^3.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1'Piglets were housed as described in Materials and Methods. Piglets received sow milk from sows fed a usualpig diet with c.a. 2.5% (wt/wt) vegetable oil. Quantitative analyses of triglyceride, cholesterol, phospholipid andprotein were performed as described in Materials and Methods. Values are means \u00C2\u00B1 SEM, n 6 for all groups.PL, phospholipid. The PL:cholesterol ratio is Amol:p.mol. Significant differences were determined using one-wayANOVA and post hoc contrasts with Bonferroni correction. Values within a row with a different superscriptletter are significantly different, (p < 0.005).49Table 33Results of 2-way ANOVA for significant differences due to interactive or independent effect of formula 18:2n -6 and 18:3n-3 contentTissue fatty acid^Liver Phospholipid^Cerebrum Total Lipid^Synaptic Plasma Membrane EPL`^Retina EPL(effect)^(p-value)^(effect)^(p-value)^(effect)^(p-value)^(effect)^(p-value)16:0^-18:3n-32^< 0.0001^18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3 3 0.05 NS4 NS18:0 NS + 18:2n-6^0.03 NS^18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3 0.04+ 18:3n-3 0.02E saturated fatty^+ 18:2n-6^0.01^18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3^0.03^ NS^-18:3n-3^0.05acids'^-18:3n-3 0.000118:1 -18:2n-6^< 0.0001^-18:2n-6^0.0006^-18:2n-6^0.03^-18:2n-6^< 0.0001-18:3n-3 0.0029E monounsaturated -18:2n-6^< 0.0001^-18:2n-6^< 0.0001^-18:2n-6^0.02^-18:2n-6^< 0.0001fatty acids'^ -18:3n-3 0.000718:2n-6 + 18:2n-6^< 0.0001^18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3^0.0002^+ 18:2n-6^0.002^+ 18:2n-6^< 0.0001+ 18:3n-3 0.000320:4n-6^-18:3n-3^0.02^+ 18:2n-6^0.0007^-18:3n-3^0.02^-18:3n-3^0.000822:4n-6 18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3 < 0.0001^+ 18:2n-6 0.003^-18:3n-3^0.004^18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3 0.001222:5n-6^+ 18:2n-6^0.0081^18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3^0.03^18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3 0.05 18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3 0.0002-18:3n-3 < 0.000122:5n-3^+ 18:3n-3^< 0.0001^+ 18:3n-3^< 0.0001^18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3 0.02^+ 18:3n-3^0.0122:6n-3 -18:2n-6 0.02^+ 18:3n-3^< 0.0001^+ 18:3n-3^0.0002^+ 18:3n-3^0.0001+ 18:3n-3^< 0.000122:6n-3: 22:5n-6^18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3^0.05^-18:2n-6^0.05^18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3 0.05^+18:3n-3^< 0.0001+ 18:3n-3 < 0.0001'EPL, ethanolamine phospholipids'independent effects of formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 designated as either positive (+) or negative (-)3 18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3 indicates significant interactive effect of formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-34NS, not statistically significant, p > 0.05'total saturated fatty acids: 14:0, 16:0, 18:0, 20:0 and 22:06total monounsaturated fatty acids: 14:1, 16:1, 18:1, 20:1 and 22:1.5015 -r10252015105504540504540383625a_^20a)150_LU0_V-)242810262430252030252028261025201534383634327. 16:0^% 18:0^% Total Saturates^% Total MonosSow milk EllFormula^I^I^16% 18:2n-6 1 % 18:3n-316% 18:2n - 6 4% 18:3n - 3mil 30% 18:2n-6 1% 18:3n-3min 35% 18:2n - 6 4% 18:3n - 3Figure 3.1 Major saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids (% total fatty acids) (mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM) in liverphospholipid (PL), brain total lipid (TL), synaptic plasma membrane ethanolamine phospholipids (SPM EPL)and retina EPL in 15 day-old piglets fed sow milk (solid bars) or formulas containing (% 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3):16/1 (open bars), 16/4 (horizontal bars), 30/1 (vertical bars), or 35/4 (crossed bars). Individual groupcomparisons were determined using post hoc contrasts with Bonferroni correction, where thep-value from Table3.3 indicated a significant interaction of the 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 (i.e. 18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3). Significant independenteffects of the formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 content are given in Table 3.3, and not indicated in the figure. Valuesfor formula-fed piglets with a different superscript letter are significantly different, p < 0.008. indicates valuessignificantly different (p < 0.013) from piglets fed sow milk.51liver in that it was influenced by the accompanying amount of 18:2n-6 in the formula (p < 0.05). Piglets fed theformulas containing 30 and 35% 18:2n-6 had significantly lower levels of 16:0 in cerebrum total lipid than pigletsfed the formulas containing 16% 18:2n-6. In contrast to the results in the liver, there was no significant differencein cerebrum % 16:0 in piglets fed the 35/4 and 30/1 formulas, but the level of 16:0 in cerebrum was significantlylower in piglets fed the 16/4 compared to the 16/1 formula.Compared to the piglets fed sow milk, the percentage of 16:0 in liver phospholipid was significantly lowerin piglets fed the 16/1, 16/4 and 35/4 formulas. Cerebrum total lipid % 16:0 was significantly higher than thereference milk-fed group in the piglets fed the 16/1 formula, and significantly lower in piglets fed the 35/4formula.3.1.3.1.2 Levels of 18:0 in tissue membrane lipidsThere was no evidence of a significant effect of formula 18:2n-6 or 18:3n-3 content on the percentageof 18:0 in liver phospholipid or synaptic plasma membrane EPL (Table 3.3). Unlike the % 16:0 which was lower,the level of 18:0 in cerebrum total lipid was significantly higher in piglets fed the formulas containing 30 or 35%18:2n-6 rather than 16% 18:2n-6 (p < 0.03). Levels were also higher in piglets fed the formulas containing 4%18:3n-3 compared to those fed formulas with 1% 18:3n-3 (p < 0.02). A similar effect of 4% 18:3n-3 in formulawas seen on the percentage of 18:0 in retina EPL, but was dependent on the amount of 18:2n-6 in the formula(p < 0.04). The proportion of 18:0 was significantly higher in retina EPL of piglets fed the 35/4 formulacompared to piglets fed the 30/1 formula, but not significantly different between piglets fed the 16/4 and the16/1 formula.The levels of 18:0 in all tissues of formula-fed piglets were not significantly different from piglets fedsow milk. The only exception was a significantly higher level of 18:0 in cerebrum total lipid of piglets fed the35/4 formula.3.1.3.1.3 Levels of total saturated fatty acids in tissue membrane lipidsThere was no significant effect of the amount of 18:2n-6 or 18:3n-3 in the formula on the percentageof total saturated fatty acids in synaptic plasma membrane EPL. The proportion of total saturated fatty acids52in liver phospholipid was significantly higher in piglets fed the formulas containing 30 or 35% 18:2n-6 rather than16% 18:2n-6 (p 0.0001). Piglets fed the formulas containing 4% 18:3n-3 had significantly lower total saturatedfatty acids in both liver phospholipid (p < 0.01) and retina EPL (p < 0.05) than piglets fed the formulascontaining 1% 18:3n-3. The effect of formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 on the level of total saturated fatty acids inthe cerebrum was inter-dependent; the level of saturated fatty acids was significantly lower in pigets fed the 30/1compared to the 16/1 formula, but not significantly different in piglets fed the 16/4 and 35/4 formulas.Piglets fed the 16/4 formula had significantly lower liver phospholipid total saturated fatty acids thanpiglets fed sow milk (Fig. 3.1). The level of total saturated fatty acids was not significantly different in the CNStissues of piglets fed formula or sow milk.3.1.3.1.4 Levels of total monounsaturated fatty acids in tissue lipidsConsistent significant changes in the proportion of total monounsaturated fatty acids, predominantly 18:1,were seen in all tissues, in response to the formula 18:2n-6 content (Table 3.3). To manipulate the amount of18:2n-6 in the formula, however, the amount of 18:1 in the formula was altered inversely (Table 2.3). Therefore,the changes in tissue levels of monounsaturated fatty acids, attributed to formula 18:2n-6, are probably mostappropriately discussed with respect to the amount of 18:1 in the formula. The percentage of 18:1 and totalmonounsaturated fatty acids was significantly lower in liver phospholipid (p < 0.0001), cerebrum total lipid (p0.0006), synaptic plasma membrane (p < 0.03) and retina EPL (p < 0.0001) in piglets fed the formulacontaining high amounts of 18:2n-6 (i.e. low 18:1) than it was in piglets fed formulas containing low amounts of18:2n-6 (i.e. high 18:1). The only tissue to show an effect of formula 18:3n-3, however, was cerebrum total lipid,with significantly lower levels of 18:1 and total monounsaturated fatty acids in piglets fed the formulas containing4% 18:3n-3 (16/4 and 35/4) than in piglets fed formulas containing 1% 18:3n-3 (16/1 and 30/1).The percentage of total monounsaturated fatty acids was significantly lower in liver phospholipid andcerebrum total lipid of piglets fed the 30/1 and 35/4 formulas (i.e. low 18:1 formulas) than in sow milk-fed piglets.Levels of monounsaturated fatty acids were significantly higher than reference piglets in liver phospholipid ofpiglets fed the 16/1 and 16/4 formulas (i.e. high 18:1 formulas).5320180.4 15*C% 18:2n-6^% 20:4n-625^ 2022:4n-6*a.^20a^a1.111unonb1510 16F-EL._-.0Q.)L-CD1 .0 20 2516^ 16% 18:2n-6 4% 18:3n-3351.5301 . 025LILD 30% 18:2n-6 1% 18:3n-3MEMMIOMEN! 35% 18:2n-6 4% 18:3n-3b1 . 0 I183.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1 .5 -Figure 3.2 Major n-6 and n-3 fatty acids (% fatty acids) (mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM) in liver phospholipid (PL), cerebrum total lipid (TL), synaptic plasma membraneethanolamine phospholipids (SPM EPL) and retina EPL from 15 day-old piglets fed sow milk (close\u00E2\u0080\u00A2J bars) or formulas containing (% 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3): 16/1(open bars), 16/4 (horizontal bars), 30/1 (vertical bars), or 35/4 (crossed bars). Individual group comparisons were determined using post hoc contrasts withBonferroni correction, where the p-value from Table 3.3 indicated a significant interaction of the 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 (i.e. 18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3). Significant independenteffects of the formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 content are given in Table 3.3 and are not indicated in the figures. Values for piglets fed formula with a differentsuperscript letter are significantly different, p < 0.008. *indicates values significantly different from piglets receiving sow milk, p < 0.013.543.1.3.2 Liver and CNS tissue n-6 fatty acids.3.1.3.2.1 Levels of 18:2n-6 in tissue membrane lipidsHigh amounts (30 and 35%) of 18:2n-6 in the formula fed to piglets resulted in significantly higher levelsof 18:2n-6 in liver phospholipid (p < 0.0001), synaptic plasma membrane (p < 0.002) and retina EPL (p < 0.0001)over those in piglets fed low amounts (16%) of dietary 18:2n-6. Piglets fed the formulas containing 4% 18:3n-3(16/4 and 35/4) had significantly higher levels of 18:2n-6 in the retina EPL (p < 0.0003) than piglets fed theformulas supplying 1% 18:3n-3 (16/1 and 30/1). In cerebrum total lipid, the effects of the formula 18:2n-6 and18:3n-3 on the percentage of 18:2n-6 were inter-dependent (p < 0.0002). Levels of 18:2n-6 in cerebrum totallipid were significantly higher in both piglet groups fed the formulas containing high amounts of 18:2n-6 (30/1and 35/4) than in those fed the formulas containing low amounts of 18:2n-6 (16/1 and 16/4). Although the levelof 18:2n-6 in cerebrum total lipid was significantly lower in piglets fed the 30/1 formula than in those fed the35/4 formula, there was no significant difference in piglets fed the 16/1 and 16/4 formulas.The proportion of 18:2n-6 was significantly higher in the liver phospholipid of all the groups of formula-fed piglets compared to piglets fed sow milk. The percentage of 18:2n-6 was also significantly increased in CNStissues in piglets fed the formula with 30 or 35% 18:2n-6 over that in piglets fed sow milk. The only exceptionto this general increase occurred in the synaptic plasma membrane EPL of piglets fed the 30/1 formula. In thiscase, the level of 18:2n-6 was not significantly different from the sow milk-fed reference group (p = 0.02) (Fig.3.2).3.1.3.2.2 Levels of 20:4n-6 in tissue membrane lipidsThe effect of dietary fatty acids on the level of 20:4n-6 in the cerebrum differed from that in the liverand other CNS tissues among formula-fed piglets. Cerebrum total lipid % 20:4n-6 was significantly higher inpiglets fed the formulas with 30 or 35% 18:2n-6 than in piglets fed the formulas containing 16% 18:2n-6 (p <0.0007). In contrast to the cerebrum, the level of 20:4n-6 in liver phospholipid, synaptic plasma membrane andretina EPL was not influenced by formula 18:2n-6, but was significantly lower in piglets fed formulas supplying4% 18:3n-3 (16/4 and 35/4) than in piglets fed the formulas containing 1% 18:3n-3 (16/1 and 30/1).The percentage of 20:4n-6 in the liver and CNS tissues from the four groups of piglets fed formula wasnot significantly different from that of piglets fed sow milk. Two exceptions, however, were significantly higher5520:4n-6 in the cerebrum total lipid of piglets fed the 30/1 formula, and significantly lower % 20:4n-6 in liverphospholipid of piglets fed the 16/1 formula, than in the sow milk-fed piglets.3.1.3.2.3. Levels of 22:4n-6 in tissue membrane lipidsThe changes in levels of 22:4n-6 in the cerebrum and synaptic plasma membrane closely paralleled thechanges in 20:4n-6 found in these tissues. The percentage of 22:4n-6 was significantly higher in cerebrum totallipid in piglets fed formulas with 30 or 35% 18:2n-6 than in piglets fed the formulas containing 16% 18:2n-6(p < 0.003). Levels of 22:4n-6 were significantly lower in synaptic plasma membrane EPL in piglets fed formulascontaining 4% 18:3n-3 compared to those fed formulas containing 1% 18:3n-3 (p < 0.004). The effects of formula18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 on 22:4n-6 composition in the liver and retina, however, were inter-dependent. The % 22:4n-6was significantly lower in piglets fed the 16/4 and 35/4 formulas compared with those fed the 16/1 and 30/1formulas, and significantly higher in piglets fed the 30/1 compared to the 16/1 formula (Fig. 3.2).The level of 22:4n-6 was significantly higher than sow milk-fed piglets in liver phospholipid and retinaEPL in piglets fed the 30/1 formula and significantly lower in liver phospholipid in piglets fed the 16/4 formula.3.1.3.2.4 Levels of 22:5n-6 in tissue membrane lipidsPiglets fed the formula with 30 or 35% 18:2n-6 had significantly higher levels of 22:5n-6 in liverphospholipid than piglets fed formulas containing 16% 18:2n-6 (p < 0.008). The percentage of 22:5n-6 in liverphospholipid was also significantly higher in piglets fed the formulas supplying 1% 18:3n-3 (16/1 and 30/1) thanin those fed formulas containing 4% 18:3n-3 (16/4 and 35/4) (p < 0.0001). Similar, but inter-dependent effectsof the amount of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in formula were seen in cerebrum total lipid (p S 0.03), synaptic plasmamembrane (p 0.05) and retina EPL (p 0.0002). The level of 22:5n-6 in CNS tissues was significantly higherin piglets fed the 16/1 and 30/1 formulas compared to those fed the 16/4 and 35/4 formulas. The only exceptionwas no significant difference (p = 0.009) in synaptic plasma membrane EPL between piglets fed the 16/1 formulaand the 30/1 formula. As in the liver, the level of 22:5n-6 in CNS tissues was significantly higher in piglets fedthe 30/1 formula than in those fed the 16/1 formula; however, there was no significant difference between pigletsfed the 16/4 and 35/4 formulas.Tissue levels of 22:5n-6 are known to increase in animals fed n-3 fatty acid-deficient diets. Piglets fed56the formulas with 1% 18:3n-3 (16/1 and 30/1) had significantly higher tissue levels of 22:5n-6 than piglets fedsow milk In contrast, there was no evidence of a significant difference in the level of 22:5n-6 in piglets fedformulas containing 4% 18:3n-3 (16/4 and 35/4) and those fed sow milk.3.1.32.5 Predicted response of 20:4n-6 in liver and plasma phospholipid using the Lands equation (1991)Levels of 20:4n-6 as a percentage of total LCP in piglet plasma and liver phosholipid were predicted bythe hyperbolic equation of Lands (1991), based on the % of energy from 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in the formula.This equation closely approximated the actual measured 20:4n-6 as a percentage of total LCP found in pigletsfed the formulas with 8, 9 or 15% of energy as 18:2n-6 (Figure 33). The predicted value for the plasma andliver phospholipid 20:4n-6 of piglets fed the formula with 8% of energy as 18:2n-6 (i.e. 16/1 formula) was withinthe range of the SEM (about 10% of the observed mean) of the measured value. These equations developedby Lands et al (1990) are based on experimental data from rats fed diets containing 0 to 13% of dietary energyfrom 18:2n-6 and 0 to 12% of energy from 18:3n-3. There was a discrepancy in the observed and predicted valuesfor both liver and plasma phospholipid of piglets fed the formula with 19% energy 18:2n-6 (i.e. 35/4 formula)(Fig. 33). The deviation of the predicted from the actual values was of similar magnitude for both plasma andliver phospholipid.\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 predicted value1 0080^Vobserved value,observed value,liver phospholipidplasma phospholipid\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u00A260 \u00E2\u0080\u00A26^8^10^14^16^18^20Formula 7. of energy as 18:2n-6Figure 33 Observed values for liver (open squares) and plasma (open triangle) phospholipid (PL) 20:4n-6 asa percentage of total LCP in piglets fed the formulas with (% of dietary energy) 8% (16/1 formula), 9% (16/4formula), 15% (30/1 formula) or 19% 18:2n-6 (35/4 formula) compared to values predicted (closed circles) bythe equation of Lands (1991): 100/ [1 + (0.07/energy % 18:2n-6) [1 + (energy % 18:3n-3/0.05 + energy % otherfatty acids/2 + energy % 18:2n-6/0.50)]]. The break in the axis designates the upper limit for which the equationswere devised (i.e. 13% of dietary energy as 18:2n-6) (Lands et al 1990).573.1.3.3 Liver and CNS tissue n-3 fatty acids3.1.3.3.1 Levels of 18:3n-3 and 20:5n-3 in tissue membrane lipidsThere was no significant effect of diet on the level of 18:3n-3 or 20:5n-3 in the synaptic plasma membraneand retina EPL (data not shown). Formula containing 4% 18:3n-3 was associated with a significantly higherproportion of 18:3n-3 in liver phospholipid and cerebrum total lipid than formula containing 1% 18:3n-3 (p <0.04); however, the level of 18:3n-3 in the liver and CNS tissue fatty acids was consistently 0.3% (data notshown). Levels of 20:5n-3 were 0.2% in CNS tissues (data not shown), irrespective of the formula or sow milkfed. The percentage of 20:5n-3 in liver phospholipid was influenced inter-dependently by formula 18:2n-6 and18:3n-3 (p < 0.0001). Piglets fed the 16/4 formula had a significantly higher level of 20:5n-3 (p < 0.0001) thanpiglets fed the 35/4 formula (0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1, 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 %, respectively). As well, the % 20:5n-3 in the liverphospholipid of piglets fed the 16/4 and 35/4 formulas was significantly higher than in piglets fed the 30/1 and16/1 formulas ( < 0.1% of fatty acids).3.1.3.3.2 Levels of 22:5n-3 in tissue membrane lipidsThe level of 22:5n-3 was significantly lower in liver phospholipid (p < 0.0001), cerebrum total lipid(p < 0.0001) and retina EPL (p < 0.01) of piglets fed the formulas containing 1% 18:3n-3 than in piglets fedthe formulas supplying 4% 18:3n-3. The synaptic plasma membrane EPL % 22:5n-3 was influenced inter-dependently by the formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 content (p < 0.02). The proportion of 22:5n-3 in synaptic plasmamembrane EPL was significantly lower in piglets fed the 16/1 and 30/1 formulas compared with those fed the16/4 and 35/4 formulas. It was also lower in piglets fed the 30/1 formula compared with piglets fed the 16/1formula (Fig. 3.2).Piglets fed the 16/1 and 30/1 formulas had significantly lower levels of 22:5n-3 than sow milk-fed pigletsin the liver and CNS tissues. Liver phospholipid % 22:5n-3 was also significantly lower in animals fed the 16/4and 35/4 formulas than in the milk-fed reference group (Fig. 3.2).583.1.3.3.3 Levels of 22:6n-3 in tissue membrane lipidsThe liver phospholipid, but not the CNS tissue 22:6n-3 was significantly lower in the piglets fed the 30/1and 35/4 formulas compared with those fed the 16/1 and 16/4 formulas (p < 0.02). The percentage of 22:6n-3was significantly higher (p 0.0002) in the liver and CNS tissues of piglets fed the formulas containing 4%18:3n-3 compared to 1% 18:3n-3.Piglets fed the 30/1 and 16/1 formulas had significantly lower tissue levels of 22:6n-3 than piglets fedsow milk. An exception was retina EPL % 22:6n-3 of piglets fed the 16/1 formula, which was not significantlydifferent from sow milk-fed piglets. The level of 22:6n-3 in liver phospholipid of piglets fed the 16/4 formula,and in cerebrum total lipid of piglets fed the 35/4 and 16/4 formulas, was significantly higher than in referencepiglets (Fig. 3.2).3.1.3.4 Liver and CNS tissue 22:6n-3:22:5n-6 ratioPiglets fed high amounts (30 and 35%) of 18:2n-6 in formula had a significantly lower 22:6n-3:22:5n-6ratio in cerebrum total lipid than piglets fed the formula with low amounts (16%) of 18:2n-6 (p < 0.05). Theratio of 22:6n-3 and 22:5n-6 in retina EPL was significantly lower in piglets fed the formulas containing 1% 18:3n-3compared with those fed formulas containing 4% 18:3n-3 (p < 0.0001). Inter-dependent effects of the formula18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 were found for synaptic plasma membrane EPL and liver phospholipid; the 22:6n-3:22:5n-6ratio was significantly higher in piglets fed the 16/4 and 35/4 formulas compared with piglets fed the 16/1 and30/1 formulas. The ratio of 22:6n-3 to 22:5n-6 was significantly lower in liver phospholipid of piglets fed the the35/4 formula compared with those fed the 16/4 formula.The ratio of 22:6n-3 and 22:5n-6 in tissue lipids has been proposed as a sensitive indicator of the dietaryn-3 fatty acid adequacy (Galli et al 1974). The 22:6n-3:22:5n-6 ratio in the liver and CNS tissue lipids was notsignificantly different between piglets fed the formulas with 4% 18:3n-3 and piglets fed sow milk, except for asignificantly higher 22:6n-3:22:5n-6 ratio in liver phospholipid of piglets fed the 16/4 formula. In contrast, thetissue lipid 22:6n-3:22:5n-6 ratio was significantly lower than sow milk-fed piglets, in liver and CNS tissues ofpiglets fed the formulas containing 1% 18:3n-3 (16/1 and 30/1).591 0 4030\u00E2\u0080\u0094 20\u00E2\u0080\u0094 1 0Cerebrum TL SPM EPL Retina EPL Liver PLFigure 3.4 Ratio of 22:6n-3 to 22:5n-6 (mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM) in cerebrum total lipid (TL), synaptic plasma membraneethanolamine phospholipids (SPM EPL), retina EPL and liver phospholipid (PL) fatty acids from 15 day-oldpiglets fed sow milk (solid bars), or formulas containing (% 18:2n-6 / 18:3n-3): 16/1 (open bars), 16/4(horizontal bars), 30/1 (vertical bars), or 35/4 (crossed bars). Individual group comparisons were determinedusing post hoc contrasts with Bonferroni correction, where thep-value indicated a significant interaction betweenthe formula 18:2n -6 and 18:3n-3 (i.e. 18:2n-6 x 18:3n-3). Values for piglets fed formula within a tissue with adifferent superscript letter are significantly different, p < 0.008. indicates values significantly different frompiglets receiving sow milk, p < 0.013.3.1.4 Relative importance of 18:3n-3 content compared to 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio in formula on piglet tissue 22:6n-3levelThe relationship between the proportion of 22:6n-3 in the piglet tissues and 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratios in theformula fed is in Figure 3.5. Evidence of a significant (p 0.0002) inverse linear relationship was found betweenthe level of 22:6n-3 in the piglet liver, cerebrum, synaptic plasma membrane and retina and the formula18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio. The R2, derived from the two-way ANOVA and regression analyses indicated that 81%of the variability in cerebrum total lipid 22:6n-3 could be explained by the formula 18:3n-3 content, whereas 65%of the variability could be explained by the 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio of the formula. The variability in tissue 22:6n-3accounted for by the amount of 18:3n-3 in the formula or the 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio, respectively, was 91% vs 83%for liver phospholipid, 57% vs 50% for synaptic plasma membrane EPL, and 58% vs 55% for retina EPL. Theseresults suggest that the dietary 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio may be relatively more important in synaptic plasmamembrane, retina and liver than in cerebrum total lipid, where the effect of the formula 18:3n-3 content is mostprominent.60 \u00E2\u0080\u0094\u00E2\u0080\u0094RetinaSPM\u00E2\u0096\u00A0 Brain^ Liver\u00E2\u0096\u00A00-0-35-o 3025020015K.) 0ElLOc^i 5N00^10^20^30^40Formula 1 8:2n-6:1 8:3n-3 ratioFigure 3.5 Relationship between the 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio in the formulas fed and the % 22:6n-3 in fatty acidsof liver phospholipid (open squares), cerebrum total lipid (closed squares), synaptic plasma membraneethanolamine phospholipids (open circles) and retina ethanolamine phospholipids (closed diamonds) in 15 day-oldpiglets. Points represent mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM (error bars do not signify because the SEM is smaller than the symbolshown).3.2 Experiment II: Effect of feeding formula containing low or high 18:3n-3, or low 18:3n-3 plus fish oil on tissuen-6 and n-3 fatty acids3.2.1 GrowthNo significant differences (p > 0.05) were found in body wt: (mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM) 4.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4, 4.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3, 4.4\u00C2\u00B1 0.3 and 4.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 kg, or in cerebrum wt: 35.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0, 35.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0, 32.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 and 33.3 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 g, in 15 day-oldpiglets fed sow milk, 16/1, 16/4 or 16/1+ FO formulas, respectively.3.2.2 Piglet tissue n-6 and n-3 LCPThe n-6 and n-3 LCP composition of synaptic plasma membrane and retina EPL of piglets fed sow milkor formulas containing 16% 18:2n-6 with 0.7% 18:3n-3 (16/1 formula), 3.9% 18:3n-3 (16/4 formula), or 0.6%18:3n-3 plus 0.8% n-3 LCP (16/1 + FO formula) are given in Figure 3.6. The results show, as in Experiment I(Fig. 3.2), significantly higher levels of 22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6 and lower 22:6n-3 in the synaptic plasma membraneEPL of piglets fed the 16/1 rather than 16/4 formula or sow milk. The inclusion of fish oil in the formularesulted in a significantly higher percentage of 22:6n-3 in the piglet synaptic plasma membrane EPL than in piglets6120:4 22:4 22:5 22:5 22:6n \u00E2\u0080\u00943n-6ab^a111 ia^\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 VA a * *3025201510Synaptic Plasma Membrane EPLRetina EPLFigure 3.6 Effect of dietary 18:3n-3 and/or n-3 LCP on n-6 and n-3 LCP composition of synaptic plasmamembrane and retina ethanolamine phospholipids (EPL) in 15 day-old piglets. The piglets were fed sow milk(closed bars) or formulas containing 16% 18:2n-6 with: 0.7% of fatty acids as 18:3n-3 (16/1, open bars), 3.9%18:3n-3 (16/4, horizontal bars), or 0.6% 18:3n-3 + 0.4, 0.1 and 0.3% of fatty acids as 20:5n-3, 22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3, respectively (16/1 + FO, hatched bars). Values are mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM (n = 6, 6 and 5, respectively). Values forformula-fed piglets with a different superscript (') are significantly different, (p < 0.017); *indicates valuessignificantly different from piglets receiving sow milk, p < 0.017.62fed the 16/1 and 16/4 formulas. The level of 22:6n-3 in piglets fed the 16/1 + FO formula or the 16/4 formula,however, was not significantly different from that of piglets fed sow milk. No significant differences were foundin retina EPL 22:6n-3 by one-way ANOVA.Feeding the 16/1 +FO formula resulted in a significantly lower percentage of 22:4n-6 in retina EPL,compared to piglets receiving sow milk or the 16/1 formula. The proportion of 20:4n-6 in the synaptic plasmamembrane and retina EPL, however, remained constant, irrespective of milk or formula feeding.3.2.3 Efficacy of 18:3n-3 and fish oil as a source of n-3 fatty acids for deposition of 22:6n-3 in CNS lipidsThe results of this study show that piglets fed formula containing 4% of fatty acids as 18:3n-3, and formulawith 0.6% 18:3n-3 plus 0.8% n-3 LCP from fish oil achieve levels of 22:6n-3 in the growing synaptic plasmamembranes and retina similar to that of piglets fed sow milk. Thus, dietary 18:3n-3 is at least 20% as efficientas n-3 LCP (i.e. 0.8/4 x 100%) in providing a source of n-3 fatty acids for synthesis and deposition of 22:6n-3in developing CNS lipids.3.3 Experiment III: The relationship of formula n-3 LCP to the piglet tissue saturated, monounsaturated, n-6 andn-3 fatty acid composition3.3.1 GrowthThe mean piglet birth wt, body and brain wt at 15 days and the intake of formula containing 30% 18:2n-6and 0.8% 18:3n-3 (F), formula + 2 g fish oil/L (F01) and formula + 6 g fish oil/L (F03) are given in Table3.4. No significant differences (p > 0.05) were found in body weight at birth, or at 15 days of age. The brainwt of F03-fed piglets was significantly less (p < 0.001) than that of all other groups. The brain:body wt ratio ofthe F03-fed group, however, was similar to that of the other piglet groups. The reason for the lower brain wt,and any possible relationship to the lower formula intake of the F03-fed group compared with the group fedthe F diet during the first 5 days after birth, is unclear. The formula intake did not differ among the groups fordays 6 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 10, 11 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 15, or when considered as the cumulative 15-day intake.63Table 3.4Birth weight, body and brain' weights and formula intake of 15 day-old piglets fed formula (F) orformula supplemented with 2 (FOl) or 6 (F03) g of fish oil/L 2F F01 F03Birth wt (kg) 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1Body wt (kg) 4.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 3.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 3.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2Brain wt (g) 42.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 39.5 \u00C2\u00B1 13 35.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9'Brain:body wt (x 100) 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1Formula intake (L)day 0 - 5 2.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3' 2.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2' 2.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2bday 6 - 10 3.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 3.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 2.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2day 11 - 15 3.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 3.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 3.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2Total volume 10.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 9.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 8.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5'Weight of entire brain, including the cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem2F, formula containing 30% 18:2n-6 and 0.8% 18:3n-3; FOl, formula + 2 g menhaden oil/L; F03, formula +6 g menhaden oil/L. Values are means \u00C2\u00B1 SEM, n =6 for all groups. Significant differences were determinedusing one-way ANOVA and post hoc contrasts with Bonferroni correction. Values with a different superscriptletter are significantly different, p < 0.017.3.3.2 The effect of formula n-3 LCP content on saturated, monounsaturated, n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in pigletplasma, liver and CNS tissues3.3.2.1 Piglet plasma and tissue saturated and monounsaturated fatty acidsThe effect of the formulas on the total saturated and monounsaturated fatty acid composition of the piglettissues is shown in Figure 3.7. The addition of fish oil to the formula had no significant effect on the saturatedor monounsaturated fatty acids in the tissues of piglets fed any of the formulas, except for the level ofmonounsaturated fatty acids in brain total lipid and retina EPL, which showed a linear decrease (p < 0.009) withincreased formula n-3 LCP.64\u00E2\u0096\u00A0 NS^INSNS0, NSNS403530a45a040\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0096\u00A0 L 0.003A A NS^ NS1210300a200-6 10046, NSL 0.009Total saturated fatty acidsTotal monounsaturated fatty acids0^2^6^0^2^6g FO/L g FO/LFigure 3.7 Effect of increasing fish oil addition [in g fish oil (F0)/L] to formula on % total saturated andmonounsaturated fatty acids in piglet plasma (closed triangle) and liver (open square) total phospholipid, braintotal lipid (closed square), and synaptic plasma membrane (open circle) and retina (closed diamond)phosphatidylethanolamine. Points represent mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM (where error bars do not signify, the SEM is smallerthan the symbol shown). p-values of orthogonal contrast analyses are given and results designated as linear (L),quadratic (0) or not statistically significant (p > 0.05) (NS).3.3.2.2 Piglet plasma and tissue n-6 LCPThe orthogonal contrast analyses demonstrated a significant linear decrease in the plasma phospholipid,brain total lipid, synaptic plasma membrane and retina EPL total n-6 LCP, and a non-linear (quadratic) decreasein the liver phospholipid total n-6 LCP with increased addition of fish oil to the formula (Figure 3.8). Thestatistical analysis to describe the nature of the significant changes in individual n-6 LCP showed that the decreasein the plasma and liver phospholipid 22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6 was curvilinear (quadratic); the decrease for the liverphospholipid and retina EPL % 20:4n-6 was linear (p 0.0001) from the F to F03 group. These results indicatethat maximum potential depletion of plasma, liver and retina n-6 LCP had not been reached.In contrast, the brain total lipid and synaptic plasma membrane EPL % 20:4n-6 was not significantlyaltered by the addition of fish oil to the formula. The brain total lipid, synaptic plasma membrane EPL and retinaEPL percentage of 22:4n-6 and the synaptic plasma membrane EPL 22:5n-6 showed significant linear decreases65with the increase from 0 to 6 g/L fish oil in the formula. Non-linear (quadratic) decreases in the percentageof 22:5n-6 in brain total lipid and retina EPL also occurred and are explained by a smaller decrease in 22:5n-6between the F01 and F03 dietary groups than between the F- and F01-fed groups. The greater decreasebetween the F- and F01-fed groups is probably a correction of the compensatory increase in n-6 LCP causedby an inadequate supply of n-3 fatty acids to support CNS 22:6n-3 accretion in piglets fed the F (30% 18:2n-6,1% 18:3n-3) formula, as determined in Experiment I (Fig. 3.2).33.2.3 Piglet plasma and tissue n-3 LCPIncreasing the level of n-3 LCP in the formula resulted in a significant quadratic, rather than linear,increase in the proportion of total n-3 LCP, 20:5n-3, 22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 in the plasma and liver phospholipidand brain total lipid, and in the percentage of total n-3 LCP and 22:6n-3 in retina EPL (Figure 3.9). Exceptionswere the liver phospholipid 22:5n-3 and brain total lipid 20:5n-3, which showed linear (p < 0.0001, p < 0.009,respectively) increases. The percent total n-3 LCP, 22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 increased linearly (p < 0.001) in thesynaptic plasma membrane EPL with increasing n-3 LCP in the formula. The shape of the curve (quadratic)describing the response of the tissue n-3 LCP to the dietary n-3 LCP for the brain differed from that for the othertissues. In plasma and liver phospholipid and retina EPL, the individual and total n-3 LCP showed an immediateand greater increase between the F and F01, than between the F01 and F03 dietary groups. In contrast, anapparent lag in response of the brain is suggested by the greater increase in brain 22:5n-3, 22:6n-3 and total n-3LCP from the F01 to F03 than from the F to F01 dietary groups. The significantly higher levels of 22:6n-3and total n-3 LCP in the plasma and liver phospholipid, brain total lipid and synaptic plasma membrane, but notretina EPL in piglets fed the F03 compared to F01 formula suggests that tissue saturation with n-3 LCP wasnot attained with the F03 diet. Thus, feeding higher amounts of fish oil could lead to excess accumulation ofthese fatty acids in tissues other than the retina.No significant difference was found in the synaptic plasma membrane EPL percentage of 20:5n-3 amongthe piglets fed the three formula diets; however, a significant linear increase in 20:5n-3 was found in retina EPL(Fig. 3.9). The 20:5n-3 represented < 0.5% of the fatty acids in the retina, as well as in the synaptic plasmamembrane EPL and brain total lipid. It seems unlikely, therefore, that the small, although significant, diet-relatedchanges in brain total lipid and retina EPL % 20:5n-3 were of any physiological significance.662520-15 -3530 -O L 0.004\u00E2\u0080\u00A2^ Q 0.01\u00E2\u0096\u00AA L 0.00425 -A A10 -12 -10\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 L <0.0001\u00E2\u0096\u00A0- \u00E2\u0096\u00A0 \u00E2\u0096\u00A0 L 0.0004A\u00E2\u0096\u00AA ^ Q 0.04-L 0.0001 20 -020:4n-61510 - a \u00E2\u0080\u0094A^ L 0.0001\u00E2\u0096\u00A0 NS\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Q 0.0422:4n-622:5n-61210 -8 -6 -\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 L 0.00126 - 0\u00E2\u0080\u00A2N4 -O L 0.0001\u00E2\u0080\u00A22 -\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Q 0.00030-0\u00E2\u0080\u00A2_0054302103-0\u00E2\u0080\u00A2-020100--\u00E2\u0096\u00A0 Q 0.01A ^ \0001II Q 0.0014 -0 0O L 0.002\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 L 0.0001002018 -16 -14 - \u00E2\u0080\u0094\u00E2\u0080\u00A2^0 NS5 --Q 0.0002Total n-6 LCP0^2^6^ 0^2^6g F0/L formula g FO/L formulaFigure 3.8 Effect of increasing fish oil addition [in g fish oil (FO)/L] to formula on % n-6 long chainpolyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) in piglet plasma (closed triangle) and liver (open square) total phospholipid,brain total lipid (closed square), and synaptic plasma membrane (open circle) and retina (closed diamond)phosphatidylethanolamine. Points represent mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM (where error bars do not signify, the SEM is smallerthan the symbol shown). p-values of orthogonal contrast analyses are given and results designated as linear (L),quadratic (Q) or not statistically significant (p > 0.05) (NS)67/ AL o .0 oo 1Q 0.04\u00E2\u0096\u00A0 Q 0.01-0150^100\"5503(y)0\u00E2\u0080\u00A2-0^2a010TJ^201^\u00E2\u0080\u00947)0-0 100550\u00E2\u0080\u009420:5n-3\u00E2\u0080\u0094\u00E2\u0080\u0094^ Q 0.0002\u00E2\u0096\u00A0 Q 0.0046 - - -^A Q 0.006A ----1040Q 0.000630 \u00E2\u0080\u009420 \u00E2\u0080\u0094) L 0.0010020 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 L 0.00010.4\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 L 0.0001NS\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 Q 0.0004100^2^6\u00E2\u0080\u0094 n0.2 \u00E2\u0080\u00940.0 ^2.0 ^1.5 \u00E2\u0080\u00941.0 \u00E2\u0080\u00940.5 \u00E2\u0080\u00940.0 40 ^30 \u00E2\u0080\u0094NSL 0.00010\u00E2\u0080\u0094 A Q 0.03\u00E2\u0080\u0094^ Q 0.003-\u00E2\u0096\u00A0 L 0.009\u00E2\u0080\u0094A1I22:5n-322:6n-3- Q 0.0001Q 0.008\u00E2\u0080\u00A2A Q 0.00080^2^6\u00E2\u0080\u0094\u00E2\u0080\u0094Total n-3 LCPg FO/L formula g FO/L formulaFigure 3.9 Effect of increasing fish oil addition [in g fish oil (F0)/L] to formula on % n-3 long chainpolyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) in piglet plasma (closed triangle) and liver (open square) total phospholipid,brain total lipid (closed square), and synaptic plasma membrane (open circle) and retina (closed diamond)phosphatidylethanolamine. Points represent mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM (where error bars do not signify, the SEM is smallerthan the symbol shown). p-values of orthogonal contrast analyses are given and results designated as linear (L),quadratic (0) or not statistically significant (p > 0.05) (NS).683002000\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 --- \u00E2\u0096\u00A0A -- A ^ L 0.009\u00E2\u0096\u00A0Q 0.004L 0.01Q 0.04C NS605550453.3.2.4 Piglet plasma and tissue total LCPThe similar total LCP in the synaptic plasma membrane EPL (Figure 3.10) among all the formula-fedpiglet groups, provides evidence for homeostatic control of membrane unsaturation, irrespective of the amountof n-3 fatty acids in the diets. In contrast, the total LCP levels of the plasma and liver phospholipid showed asignificant linear increase and a curvilinear (quadratic) increase in brain total lipid in response to the increasein fish oil from the F to F03 diet. The significantly higher proportion of total LCP in brain total lipid of pigletsfed the F03 rather than the F01 diet, but not of piglets fed the F01 rather than the F diet (quadratic change),indicates a lag (threshold) in response. The similar level of total LCP in the plasma and liver phospholipid ofthe F03- and F01-fed piglets may be interpreted as evidence of equivalent reduction in the n-6 LCP with theincrease in the diet-derived n-3 LCP in these lipids. In contrast to other tissues, the retina EPL showed a non-linear decrease in total LCP with the increase in dietary fish oil (Fig. 3.9). The quadratic change in retina EPLwas characterized by an increase in total LCP between the F and F01 dietary groups, followed by a decreasefrom the F01 to F03 group. The lower total LCP in retina EPL of piglets fed the F03 diet reflects thecontinuing linear decrease in n-6 LCP concomitant with a plateau in levels of 22:6n-3 in response to increasingdietary n-3 LCP.-oTotal LCP0^2^6^ 0^2^6g FO/L g F0/LFigure 3.10 Effect of increasing fish oil addition [in g fish oil (FO)/L] to formula on total n-6 plus n-3 long chainpolyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) in piglet plasma (closed triangle) and liver (open square) total phospholipid,brain total lipid (closed square), and synaptic plasma membrane (open circle) and retina (closed diamond)phosphatidylethanolamine. Points represent mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM (where error bars do not signify, the SEM is smallerthan the symbol shown). p-values of orthogonal contrast analyses are given and results designated as linear (L),quadratic (Q) or not statistically significant (p > 0.05) (NS).693.4 Experiment IV: The effect of maternal dietary n-3 fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of milk and thedeveloping CNS and liver of piglets3.4.1 Milk fatty acid composition in response to maternal diet.The notable difference in the fatty acid content of the two sow diets was the higher 18:2n-6 and n-3 LCP,particularly 22:6n-3, in the diet supplemented with fish oil (Table 2.6). Feeding 1% (wt/wt) of the diet as fishoil to the lactating sows resulted in 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1% of fatty acids as 22:6n-3 compared to 0.1% 22:6n-3 in the milktotal lipid of sows fed only vegetable oil (p < 0.0001) (Table 3.5). The levels of 18:2n-6, 18:3n-3 and 20:5n-3 werealso about 2-fold higher, and 18:1 lower in the milk of sows fed the diet with fish oil when compared to the milkfrom sows fed only vegetable oil. Levels of 16:0, 18:0 and 20:4n-6 in milk, however, were not altered by addingfish oil to the sow diet. As in the total lipid, the proportion of 22:6n-3 was higher in the sn-2 position oftriglyceride, and in phospholipid of the milk from sows fed diets with, rather than without fish oil (Table 3.5).Although no difference was seen in the level of 20:4n-6 in milk total lipid, the milk of sows fed diets with fishoil had markedly lower levels of 20:4n-6 in milk phospholipid (1.9 vs 4.8% in milk from sows fed diets with andwithout fish oil, respectively). In contrast to the milk LCP, the differences in the percentage of 18:2n-6 and18:3n-3 found in the milk total lipid were found in the sn-2 position of triglyceride, but were not found in milkphospholipid, which had similar levels of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 between the two groups.3.4.2 GrowthThe differences in the fatty acid composition of milk suckled was not associated with any significantdifferences in body wt of the piglets at 15 days of age; the body wt and cerebrum wt of the 15 day-old pigletsnursed by sows fed diets with vegetable oil only or with added fish oil was (mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM) 4.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 and 4.8 \u00C2\u00B10.2 kg, and 35.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 and 33.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 g, respectively. Cerebrum wt as a percentage of body wt, however, wassignificantly lower (p < 0.03) in piglets suckling from sows fed the diets with (0.71 \u00C2\u00B1 0.03%) compared to without(0.88 \u00C2\u00B1 0.05%) fish oil.70Table 3.5Fatty acid composition of sow milk total lipid, sn-2 monoglyceride of triglyceride and phospholipid from sows fed usual diets with andwithout added fish oilFatty acidTotal Lipid sn-2 position of Triglyceride Total PhospholipidReference milk' Fish oil milk\" Reference milk'^Fish oil milk Reference milk' Fish oil milk(% of milk fatty acids)E C.^14:0 3 4.0 2.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 4.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 3.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 03 \u00C2\u00B1 0.116:0 27.6 - 1.2 28.6 + 1.4 57.3 + 2.1 56.9 + 2.3 19.2 + 2.0 19.7 \u00C2\u00B1 1.016:1 8.3 - 9.7 7.6 + 0.5 8.5 + 0.3 6.4 + 0.1 2.0 + 0.4 1.6 + 0.218:0 4.4 - 4.5 4.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 3.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 4.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 23.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 22.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.818:1n-9 34.3 - 40.8 28.6 + 2.9 16.9 + 1.7 9.5 + 2.1 25.9 + 1.9 24.9 \u00C2\u00B1 3.218:2n-6 10.8 - 11.3 20.7 + 1.3 4.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 12.2 + 0.5 10.3 + 0.7 11.4 + 1.718:3n-3 1.1 2.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:4n-6 0.5 - 0.6 0.6 + 0.0 0.9 + 0.1 0.6 + 0.1 4.8 + 0.9 1.9 + 0.520:5n-3 0.0 - 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:5n-3 0.2 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.222:6n-3 0.1 1.5 + 0.1 tr 2.0 + 0.2 0.4 + 0.1 3.1 \u00C2\u00B10.5'Values for reference sow milk (from Experiment I) are 2 milk samples, collected at wk 1 and wk 2 lactation from sows fed diet containing 2.5% (wt/wt)vegetable oil (canola and soybean oil) from Pitt Ineffable Growers, Ltd., Pitt Meadows, British Columbia'Values are mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM for 6 samples of sow milk (from Peter Hill Holdings, Ltd., Langley, British Columbia), 3 samples collected at 1 wk and 3 samplescollected at 2 wk of lactation from sows fed a usual pig diet with (Fish oil milk) or without (Reference milk) 1% (wt/wt) fish oil added'total of 10:0, 12:0 and 14:0713.4.3 Piglet plasma and liver lipid contentThe well-known hypotriglyceridemic effect of 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 in dietary fish oil, attributed to areduction in liver triglyceride production and VLDL secretion (Nestel et al 1984), was found in the liver andplasma (p = 0.05) of the piglets fed the milk with high, rather than low, 22:6n-3 (mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM) (4.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 vs6.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 Amol/g liver, 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 vs 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 mmol/L plasma). There was no significant difference (p > 0.05)in liver and plasma total cholesterol (6.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 vs 7.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 Amolig liver, 3.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 vs 5.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 mmol/L plasma)or free cholesterol (5.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 vs 6.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 Amol/g liver, 2.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 vs 2.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 mmol/L plasma) between pigletssuckling milk from sows fed diets with or without fish oil, respectively.3.4.4 Piglet plasma and tissue fatty acid compositionThe % fatty acid composition of major saturated, monounsaturated, n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in the plasma,liver and CNS tissues of 15 day-old piglets nursed by the two groups of sows is in Table 3.6.3.4.4.1 Piglet plasma and tissue saturated and monounsaturated fatty acidsAlthough the levels of 16:0 in the sows' milk were similar (Table 3.5), the % 16:0 was significantly lowerin the liver phospholipid and higher in retina total lipid of piglets nursed by sows fed diets with fish oil ratherthan vegetable oil only (Table 3.6). The level of 18:0 was significantly increased in the plasma and cerebrum ofpiglets suckling milk from sows fed diets with fish oil compared to without it. The percentage of 18:1 in plasmaand liver lipids of piglets nursed by sows fed fish oil was significantly lower than in piglets nursed by sows notfed fish oil, reflecting the lower dietary intake of 18:1 in the milk (Table 3.5).3.4.4.2 Piglet plasma and tissue n-6 fatty acidsThe 2-fold higher level of 18:2n-6 in milk total lipid of sows fed the diet with added fish oil rather thanwith only vegetable oil had no significant effect on the percentage of 18:2n-6 in any of the piglet tissue lipidsreported, except for a small but significant increase in 18:2n-6 from 13.1 to 14.6% of fatty acids in liverphospholipid (Table 3.6). Significantly higher levels of 18:2n-6, however, were found in the triglyceride lipidfraction of plasma (19.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 vs 13.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2) and liver (21.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 vs 16.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.4) and in the cholesterol estersof plasma (48.6 \u00C2\u00B1 1.5 vs 31.9 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0) and liver (33.6 \u00C2\u00B1 1.9 vs 22.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.6) of piglets suckling milk from sows fed72Table 3.6Fatty acids of plasma and tissues in 15 day -old piglets suckling milk from sows fed diets with vegetable oil and without or with 1% (wt/wt) fish oil'Plasma Phospholipid Liver Phospholipid^Cerebrum Total Lipid Synaptic PlasmaMembrane Total LipidRetina Total LipidVegetable Vegetable oil Vegetable Vegetable oil Vegetable Vegetable oil Vegetable Vegetable oil Vegetable Vegetable oilFatty acid^oil^+ fish oil^oil^+ fish oil^oil^+ fish oil^oil^+ fish oil^oil^+ fish oil(% of fatty acids)16:0 23.7 + 0.8 23.8 + 1.2 17.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 15.5 + 0.4* 21.3 + 0.2 21.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 24.7 + 0.7 24.8 + 0.3 20.0 + 0.4 21.4 + 0.3 *18:0 20.5 + 0.4 22.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6* 26.8 + 0.9 25.4 + 0.3 23.5 + 0.1 24.4 + 0.2* 26.1 + 0.3 26.2 + 0.2 23.7 + 0.4 24.7 + 0.218:1 14.9 + 0.2 9.7 + 0.6* 10.9 + 0.4 6.9 + 0.4- 21.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 21.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 14.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 14.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 16.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 16.2 + 0.218:2n-6 20.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 19.7 + 0.8 13.1 + 0.6 14.6 + 0.1* 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:2n-6 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.r20:3n-6 0.6 + 0.1 1.1 + 0.1* 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:4n-6 11.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 9.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4* 18.6 + 0.5 15.4 + 0.2- 10.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 10.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 9.8 \u00C2\u00B1 03 9.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 9.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 9.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:4n-6 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.6 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0- 43 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 3.5 + 0.1* 4.9 + 0.3 4.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.0 + 0.1 1.6 + 0.0*22:5n-6 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0* 0.3 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0- 1.7 + 0.0 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1* 2.3 + 0.2 2.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0*18:3n-3 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.5 + 0.0- 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 nd* nd2 nd nd nd20:5n-3 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.1 + 0.1- 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 or 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 nd tr* tr 0.2 + 0.r22:5n-3 1.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 2.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2* 05 + 0.0 03 + 0.0* 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0* 0.7 + 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:6n-3 2.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 7.9 \u00C2\u00B1 02- 5.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 15.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6- 9.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 10.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2* 13.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 14.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1* 19.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 19.9 + 0.2'Values (mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM, n = 6) significantly different from piglets nursed by sows fed diet with vegetable oil only, *p < 0.05, p < 0.0001.2nd = not detected, tr = trace levels: 0.01 - 0.05% of total fatty acids.73the diets with, rather than without fish oil, respectively. The level of 20:3n-6 and 22:5n-6 in plasma phospholipidswas significantly higher in piglets nursed by sows fed diets containing vegetable oil only rather than with addedfish oil. The proportion of 22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6 was significantly lower in the liver and cerebrum, and 20:2n-6,22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6 were significantly lower in the retina of piglets suckled by sows fed fish oil compared to thosenursed by sows fed vegetable oil only (Table 3.6).Although the level of 20:4n-6 in the milk total lipid was not altered by the sows' diets (Table 3.5), pigletsfed milk from sows fed fish oil had significantly lower 20:4n-6 in the plasma and liver phospholipid than pigletssuckled by sows fed the diet without fish oil. Unlike the circulating and liver lipids, no significant differenceswere found in the levels of 20:4n-6 in the CNS tissues between the two groups of piglets (Table 3.6, Figure 3.11).3.4.4.3 Piglet plasma and tissue n-3 fatty acidsThe 2-fold higher proportion of 18:3n-3 in the milk of sows fed fish oil (Table 3.5) was associated withsignificantly higher levels of 18:3n-3 in the nursing piglet plasma phospholipid than in piglets nursed by sows notfed fish oil. This difference in 18:3n-3 between piglets receiving milk from sows fed diets with or without fishoil was not found in any other tissue (Table 3.6, Tables 6.3 - 6.21) or lipid class (Tables 6.12, 6.13, 6.17, 6.18).Piglets receiving the higher level of 20:5n-3 in milk had significantly higher levels of 20:5n-3 in plasma and liverphospholipid and retina total lipid (p < 0.0001) than piglets suckled by sows fed only vegetable oil. Pigletcerebrum total lipid 20:5n-3 was not altered by the composition of the sow milk. Although significant increaseswere seen in 20:5n-3 in the synaptic plasma membrane and retina total lipid, the proportion of 20:5n-3 was always0.2% of fatty acids. Despite a similar percentage of 22:5n-3 in the milk total lipid fatty acids, piglets nursedby sows fed fish oil had significantly lower (p < 0.05) levels of 22:5n-3 in liver, cerebrum and cerebrum synapticplasma membranes, than piglets nursed by sows not fed fish oil.Levels of 22:6n-3 were about 300% higher in plasma and liver phospholipid (p < 0.0001) of piglets nursedby sows fed fish oil than in piglets nursed by sows fed the diet with only vegetable oil (Table 3.6, Fig. 3.11). Asmaller (11%), but significant (p < 0.05) increase in 22:6n-3 was also found in the cerebrum and synaptic plasmamembrane. A similar trend which was not of statistical significance (p = 0.38) was found in the retina.74SPMLiver CerebrumPlasma/Retina1 20:4n-6-----22:6n-3*--*-2018V)1:1\u00E2\u0080\u00A2a16141210820-oaa1510O50Figure 3.11 Levels of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 in plasma and liver phospholipid, and cerebrum, synaptic plasmamembrane and retina total lipid of 15 day-old piglets suckling milk from sows fed diets with vegetable oils without(n =7, solid bars) or with 1 g% (wt/wt) fish oil added (n =6, hatched bars). Values represent mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM.Values for piglets suckling milk from sows fed fish oil are significantly different from piglets suckling milk fromsows fed only vegetable oils, *p < 0.05 and **p < 0.0001, by unpaired Student's t test.753.5 Dietary adequacy of formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 for synthesis and deposition of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 in piglettissues in relation to the range of tissue fatty acid compositions of piglets fed different milks3.5.1 Liver and CNS tissue 20:4n-6Tissue 20:4n-6 levels were not significantly different in any formula-fed group compared to piglets fedmilk containing 0.1% 22:6n-3 (Figure 3.12). Compared to the piglets fed milk containing 1.5% 22:6n-3, the levelof 20:4n-6 was significantly higher in synaptic plasma membrane and retina EPL in piglets fed the 16/1 and 30/1formulas, and in synaptic plasma membrane PC in piglets fed the 30/1 formula; the proportion of 20:4n-6 wassignificantly lower in retina EPL and PC in piglets fed the 16/4 formula and in retina PC in those fed the 35/4formula.Liver EPL and PC % 20:4n-6 was significantly lower in piglets receiving formula with 4% 18:3n-3compared to piglets nursed by sows fed diets with vegetable oil; there was no evidence of a significant difference,however, when compared to piglets receiving milk from sows fed diets with fish oil added. An exception wasthe percent 20:4n-6 in liver PC of piglets fed the 35/4 formula, which was similar to levels in both natural milk-fedgroups. Piglets fed formulas with 1% 18:3n-3 had significantly higher levels of 20:4n-6 in liver EPL and PC thanpiglets receiving milk from sows fed diets with or without fish oil. An exception was liver EPL % 20:4n-6 in thepiglets fed the 16/1 formula, which was not significantly different than in piglets receiving milk from sows feddiets with vegetable oil only.3.5.2 Liver and CNS tissue 22:6n-3Levels of 22:6n-3 were significantly lower in all tissues except synaptic plasma membrane PC andcerebrum EPL of piglets fed the 30/1 formula than in piglets receiving milk from sows fed diets with vegetableoil (Figure 3.13). Piglets fed the 16/1 formula had significantly lower levels of 22:6n-3 in retina EPL, cerebrumEPL and PC and synaptic plasma membrane and liver PC than those receiving milk from sows fed diets withvegetable oil added. There was no evidence of a significant difference between the levels of 22:6n-3 in any tissuestudied from piglets fed formulas with 4% 18:3n-3 and piglets fed sow milk with 0.1% 22:6n-3.When compared to piglets consuming milk from sows fed the diet with fish oil, the piglets fed theformulas with 1% 18:3n-3 had significantly lower levels of 22:6n-3 in liver EPL and PC and all CNS tissues. Theproportion of 22:6n-3 was significantly lower in cerebrum and liver EPL and PC of piglets fed formulas with 4%7620181614SPM42T-rT 65.04.54.03.55i1-t^tEPL43t*PCt16/1 formula 16/4 formulamm 30/1 formula35/4 formulaPlasmaPL% 20:4n-620Cerebrum 151 01816Retina 14121030Liver 2520108RBC 6421816Cerebrum 14121025SPM 201532Retina 3028257RBC 2102.51.51.0 \u00E2\u0080\u00942.01.51.00.51510514122.01.51.00.50.020 -t^t^t*t22:6n-3EPL^PCPL11 1 1110Figure 3.13 Levels of 22:6n-3 (% of fatty acids) in cerebrum, synaptic plasma membrane (SPM), retina, liverand red blood cell (RBC) ethanolamine phospholipids (EPL) and phosphatidylchofine (PC) and plasmaphospholipid (PL) in 15 day-old piglets. The piglets were fed formulas containing (%18:2n-6/%18:3n-3): 16/1(open bars), 16/4 (horizontal bars), 30/1 (vertical bars) or 35/4 (crossed bars). Values are mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM. Meanvalues for piglets receiving natural milk from sows fed diets with vegetable oil only (solid line) or with added fishoil (dashed line) are shown. The SEM of values for piglets fed natural milk represent 10% of the mean valueand are not included on the graph. Values for the formula-fed piglets are significantly different from piglets fednatural milk from sows fed diets with vegetable oil only (*p < 0.013) or with added fish oil (tp < 0.013).16/1 formula I 16/4 formula30/1 formula35/4 formula86Plasma 427818:3n-3. The level of 22:6n-3 in retina EPL and synaptic plasma membrane EPL and PC in piglets fed theformulas with 4% 18:3n-3, however, was not significantly different from that of piglets receiving milk from sowsfed diets with fish oil. One exception was significantly lower % 22:6n-3 in synaptic plasma membrane EPL ofpiglets fed the 16/4 formula, compared to those receiving milk with 1.5% 22:6n-3.3.6 Comparison of the relationship between the effects of milk and formula fatty acids on the circulating lipidswith that on the liver and CNS lipidsThe biochemical assessment of the adequacy of dietary n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in infants fed formulasvarying in the amount and balance of 18:n-6 and 18:3n-3 or with fish oil, is limited to plasma and RBC fatty acids.Knowledge of the sensitivity and specificity of these measures as indices of the adequacy of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3in the liver and CNS tissues is fundamental in the interpretation of the effect of milk and formula feeding onthe circulating lipids of infants.Plasma phospholipid % 20:4n-6 in piglets fed the 16/1, 16/4 and 35/4 formulas was significantly lowerthan in piglets fed milk fom sows fed diets with vegetable oil only (Fig. 3.12). In contrast, there was no evidenceof a significant difference in cerebrum, synaptic plasma membrane and retina EPL and PC % 20:4n-6 in pigletsfed formula, compared to piglets nursed by sows fed diets with vegetable oil. Therefore, changes in the plasmaphospholipid % 20:4n-6 did not reflect the maintenance of 20:4n-6 in CNS tissues, which was irrespective of theamount of 18:2n-6 or 18:3n-3 in the formula fed. The level of 20:4n-6 in RBC EPL and PC, as well as in theCNS, of piglets fed the 16/1, 30/1 and 35/4 formulas was not significantly different from piglets fed natural milk.However, piglets fed the 16/1 formula had significantly lower levels of 20:4n-6 in RBC EPL and PC, but similar20:4n-6 in CNS tissues compared to piglets fed milk from sows fed diets with vegetable oil. The differences inplasma phospholipid % 20:4n-6 in formula-fed and milk-fed piglets were of a similar magnitude and directionto those found in liver EPL and PC. However, there was no evidence of a significant difference in plasmaphospholipid 20:4n-6, whereas liver EPL and PC 20:4n-6 was significantly higher in piglets fed the 30/1 formularather than sow milk. The changes in RBC EPL and PC 20:4n-6 composition reflected the changes in liver EPLand PC in piglets fed the 16/4 formula, with significantly lower levels of 20:4n-6 than piglets fed sow milkcontaining 0 1% 22:6n-3. However, the measurement of 20:4n-6 in RBC EPL and PC did not indicate thesignificantly higher levels of 20:4n-6 in liver EPL or PC in piglets fed the 16/1 and 30/1 formulas.79The level of 22:6n-3 in plasma phospholipid and RBC EPL and PC of formula-fed piglets was significantlylower than piglets nursed by sows fed diets with fish oil (Fig. 3.13). However, there was no evidence of asignificant difference in synaptic plasma membrane EPL and PC and retina EPL % 22:6n-3 in piglets fed theformulas with 4% 18:n-3 and those fed natural milk. The plasma phospholipid and RBC EPL and PC percentageof 22:6n-3 did reflect the trend of lower 22:6n-3 in liver EPL and PC of piglets fed the formulas with 1% 18:3n-3than of piglets fed natural milk, and the significantly lower proportion of 22:6n-3 in liver EPL and PC of allformula-fed piglets, compared to piglets nursed by sows fed diets with fish oil. The significantly higher proportionof 22:5n-6 in plasma phospholipid and RBC PC in piglets fed the formulas containing 1% 18:3n-3 rather thansow milk was consistent with the changes in the cerebrum, synaptic plasma membrane, retina and liver EPL andPC 22:5n-6 (Figure 3.14). RBC EPL % 22:5n-6 in piglets fed the 16/1 formula, however, was not significantlydifferent from piglets fed sow milk.80PC\"-199:1191319'*Tt* t* t*1PLII1111111--22:5n \u00E2\u0080\u00946EPLCerebrum0.60.40.20.00.80 . 60.40.20.01 .51 .00.50.02 . 01.51.00.50.00.30.20. 10.01 .0Plasma 0.586^SPM^42064Retina2043^Liver^2101.0RBC^0 . 50.0* t *t-r-* tt*t\u00E2\u0080\u0094 *^ 16/1 formula 16/4 formula= 30/1 formula35/4 formula0.0Figure 3.14 Levels of 22:5n-6 (% of fatty acids) in cerebrum, synaptic plasma membrane (SPM) and retina, liverand red blood cell (RBC) ethanolamine phospholipids (EPL) and phosphatidylcholine (PC) and plasmaphospholipid (PL) in 15 day-old piglets. The piglets were fed formulas containing (%18:2n-6/%18:3n-3): 16/1(open bars), 16/4 (horizontal bars), 30/1 (vertical bars) or 35/4 (crossed bars). Values are mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM. Meanvalues for piglets receiving natural milk from sows fed diets with vegetable oil only (solid line) or with added fishoil (dashed line) are shown. The SEM of values for piglets fed natural milk represent 12% of the mean valueand are not included on the graph. Values for the formula-fed piglets are significantly different from piglets fednatural milk from sows fed diets with vegetable oil only (*p < 0.013) or with added fish oil (t p < 0.013).814 DISCUSSION4.1 Effect of formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 content on liver and CNS phospholipid n-3 and n-6 fatty acidsThe higher levels of 22:6n-3 in the CNS and liver phospholipid of piglets fed formulas with 4% ratherthan 1% 18:3n-3 (Fig. 3.1) provide evidence that young piglets can synthesize 22:6n-3 from 18:3n-3. Weanlingrodents (Bourre et al 1989, reviewed in Innis 1991) and young non-human primates (Connor & Neuringer 1988,Neuringer et al 1986) also accumulate 22:6n-3 in cerebrum and liver when fed diets with about 1 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 2% of energyas 18:3n-3 but no 22:6n-3. The lower level of 22:6n-3 in tissue lipids of piglets fed the formulas containing 1%of fatty acids as 18:3n-3 was accompanied by higher 22:5n-6 and lower 22:6n-3:22:5n-6 ratios. The ratio of thepercentage of 22:6n-3 and of 22:5n-6 has been suggested to be a more sensitive indicator of the dietary n-3 fattyacid adequacy than the percentage of 22:6n-3 or 22:5n-6 alone (Galli et al 1974). This increase in 22:5n-6 in tissuemembranes is a characteristic finding in n-3 fatty acid-deficient animals (reviewed in Innis 1991). The reciprocalreplacement of 22:6n-3 with 22:5n-6 resulted in similar levels of total LCP in the cerebrum total lipid (Table 6.3)and synaptic plasma membrane EPL (Table 6.7) among the piglet groups. This finding is consistent withpreviously published reports of constant percent and milligram quantities of total LCP in the brain (Hrbotickyet al 1990, reviewed by Innis 1991) and synaptic plasma membrane (Hrboticky et al 1989) of piglets fed formulacontaining 30% 18:2n-6 and 0.8% 18:3n-3, or sow milk. As levels of 20:4n-6 are relatively constant in the pigletbrain, the maintenance of total LCP in cerebral membranes is primarily due to changes in C22 LCP.Large amounts of dietary 18:3n-3 may result in competitive inhibition of the desaturation of 18:2n-6(Holman 1986). The proportion of 20:4n-6 in the liver, synaptic plasma membrane and retina was significantlylower in piglets fed the 16/4 and 35/4 formulas rather than the 16/1 and 30/1 formulas, despite amounts of18:2n-6 in formula well above the 3% of energy often suggested as the dietary requirement for n-6 fatty acids(Bourre et al 1989, Bourre et al 1990, Mohrhauer & Holman 1963, Mohrhauer & Holman 1963a). Equationshave been derived from studies in rats to predict the liver and plasma phospholipid 20:4n-6 as a percentage oftotal LCP at dietary intakes of up to about 13% of energy as 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 (Lands et al 1990, Lands 1991).The inhibition of 20:4n-6 incorporation into the piglet liver and plasma phospholipid accompanying the increasein formula 18:3n-3 content was accurately predicted by the Lands equation (1991) (Fig. 3.3), suggesting thatgeneral competitive interactions in desaturation, metabolic selectivities for fatty acid synthesis and esterificationinto glycerolipids are similar in rats and piglets. At about 19% of energy as 18:2n-6, however, the equation82predicted the tissue 20:4n-6 levels less accurately than at 8, 9 or 15% of energy as 18:2n-6 (Fig. 3.3). The equationpublished by Lands (1991) can be used to estimate the dietary levels of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, between 1 and 13%of energy, that would achieve liver phospholipid 20:4n-6 similar to that in piglets fed sow milk. Such estimatessuggest that the \"control\" level of 20:4n-6 as a percentage of the total LCP could be achieved by feeding formulawith about 1 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 15% of energy as 18:3n-3, in an 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio of about 6:1 to 8:1 (Figure 4.1). Theseabsolute and relative amounts are similar to the dietary intakes proposed to achieve adequate levels of 22:6n-3in developing tissues (Innis 1991, Neuringer & Connor 1986).Formula % of energy as 18:3n-3Figure 4.1 Liver phospholipid 20:4n-6 as a percentage of LCP observed (closed symbols) and predicted (opensymbols) from Lands equation (Lands 1991) in piglets fed formulas containing 0.4 or 2.1% of energy as 18:3n-3with either 8 and 9% of energy as 18:2n-6 (squares) (16/1 and 16/4 formulas) or 15 and 19% of energy as 18:2n-6(circles) (30/1 and 35/4 formulas) compared to observed values in piglets fed reference sow milk (dashed line).4.2 The relative importance of 18:3n-3 content compared to 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio in formula on piglet tissue levelsof 22:6n-3The effect of the 18:3n-3 content, and 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio in formula, on the ability of the newborn tosynthesize and incorporate 22:6n-3 into tissues, was of particular interest in these studies. The piglet formulaswith 4% of fatty acids as 18:3n-3 had 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratios of 4:1 and 8:1; the formulas with 1% 18:3n-3 had ratiosof 22:1 and 37:1. This encompasses the range found in many term infant formulas (Innis 1992, Ponder et al 1992).The higher 22:6n-3 in tissues of piglets fed the 16/4 and 35/4 compared to the 16/1 and 30/1 formulas couldbe explained by the low 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio, facilitating denaturation of 18:3n-3 to 22:6n-3 by decreasingcompetition by 18:2n-6 for the desaturase enzymes. The 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio and the absolute amount of 18:3n-383in the formula are closely associated. Some evidence as to the predominant influencing factor, however, can beobtained from the R2 when both the two-way ANOVA and regression analyses show highly significant effectsof the formula 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 content on the % 22:6n-3 in the tissue lipids. For example, feeding theformulas with 4% rather than 1% 18:3n-3 explained 81% of the variability, whereas the low rather than high ratio(4:1 and 8:1 vs 22:1 and 37:1) accounted for only 65% of the difference in 22:6n-3 in piglet cerebrum total lipid.These results suggest the higher amount of 18:3n-3 in formula (2.1 and 2.4% vs 0.4% of energy) was a majorfactor in determining the proportion of 22:6n-3 in the developing piglet cerebrum. The relative importance ofthe amount of 18:3n-3 and the 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio on the level of 22:6n-3 in the synaptic plasma membrane,retina and liver, however, appeared to be quite similar. The percentage of 22:6n-3 was lower and 22:5n-6 washigher in the tissues of piglets fed the 30/1 rather than 16/1 formula, with 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratios of 37:1 and 22:1,respectively. Consistent with this, studies by others have provided evidence that rat cerebrum (Ailing et al 1974,Sanders et al 1984), synaptosome (Bourre et al 1989, Bourre et al 1990a) and retina (Bourre et al 1989, Bourreet al 1990a, Sanders et al 1984) lipid 22:6n-3 and 22:5n-6 levels depend on the dietary 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio whenthe dietary 18:3n-3 intake is marginal (i.e. 0.2 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 0.4% of energy) or deficient. The level of 22:6n-3 in brain wassimilar among rats fed diets with 0.3% of energy as 18:3n-3 and 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratios between about 4:1 and10:1 (Bourre et al 1989), but appeared to decrease with dietary 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratios above 19:1. The proportionof 22:6n-3 in the retina of these animals did not differ with dietary 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratios between about 1:1 and6:1, but decreased at ratios between about 10:1 and 20:1 (Bourre et al 1989). Together with the data for pigletsprovided by this study, it seems that ratios of 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 above about 8:1 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 10:1 may further decrease thelow levels of 22:6n-3 in CNS tissues of rapidly growing animals which result from feeding diets containing deficientor marginal amounts of 18:3n-3.In summary, the results of these studies show formulas containing 4% of fatty acids as 18:3n-3 (2.1 and2.4% of energy) provide adequate n-3 fatty acids to achieve similar levels of 22:6n-3 in CNS membranephospholipids to that found in piglets fed sow milk from birth. Therefore, 22:6n-3 is not essential in the diet ofthe term gestation piglet, if adequate 18:3n-3 is provided. The levels of 18:3n-3 fed in these studies, however,did not support comparable brain weight to sow milk-fed piglets. It remains to be determined whether less than2% of energy as 18:3n-3 can provide adequate deposition of 22:6n-3 in the CNS and maintain normal braingrowth.84The relative efficacy of dietary 18:3n-3 as a source of n-3 fatty acids for deposition of 22:6n-3 in CNSmembrane lipids is at least 20% that of preformed dietary n-3 LCP, as shown in Experiment II. The ratio of22:6n-3 to 22:5n-6 in synaptic membranes and retina was a more sensitive index of the formula n-3 fatty acidadequacy than the percentage of 22:6n-3 or 22:5n-6 alone, or the 22:6n-3:22:5n-6 ratio in cerebrum total lipid.Deposition of 22:6n-3 in cerebrum seemed to be influenced by the quantity of 18:3n-3 in the diet more than the18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio. The ratio of 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 in the formula, however, was more important when the formula18:3n-3 was limiting (ie. 0.4% of energy). The effect of high formula 18:3n-3 in reducing levels of 20:4n-6 in pigletliver and plasma phospholipid could be predicted by theoretical published calculations. The accuracy of thepredicted compared to observed values was better for the formula with 8, 9 or 15% of energy as 18:2n-6 ratherthan 19% of energy as 18:2n-6.4.3 Effect of n-3 fatty acids in formula and milk on brain growthStudies in the rat (Anding & Hwang 1986, Bourre et al 1989, Mohrhauer & Holman 1963, 1963a), chick(Lin et al 1991a) and human (Bjerve et al 1988, Farquharson et al 1992) have evidenced that the dietaryrequirement for 18:3n-3 for maximum tissue levels of 22:6n-3 is in the range of 0.75 to 1% of dietary energy.The piglets fed the formulas with 2.1% or 2.4% of energy as 18:3n-3 had comparable tissue levels of 22:6n-3 tothat of piglets fed sow milk. This intake of 18:3n-3, however, was associated with a lower cerebrum weight.Similarly, the brain weight in piglets fed formulas with 1.2% of energy as n-3 LCP from fish oil (F03 diet inExperiment III) was significantly lower than in piglets receiving sow milk with about 0.7% of energy as 18:3n-3and 0.1% of energy as n-3 LCP. This is believed to be the first report of an adverse effect of excess dietary 18:3n-3 on brain growth. Results from several other studies, however, are available to suggest that high intakes of 11-3LCP may decrease brain growth. For example, high maternal intakes of n-3 LCP from fish oil throughoutgestation and lactation decreased brain weight in 10 day-old mouse pups (Wainwright et al 1989, Wainwright etal 1992). Recent studies have also reported lower head circumference in premature infants fed formula with about0.5% of energy as n-3 LCP from fish oil than in infants fed a similar formula without fish oil (Carlson et al 1992a).The cerebrum lipid and protein content of all piglets fed sow milk or formula were similar (Table 3.2).Therefore, feeding high n-3 fatty acids resulted in smaller cerebrums with consistent lipid and protein composition.The cerebrum 22:6n-3 content was 73.0 \u00C2\u00B1 5.5, 77.2 \u00C2\u00B1 2.7 and 75.6 \u00C2\u00B1 3.1 mg in piglets fed the 16/4 and 35/485formulas or sow milk containing 1.5% of fatty acids as 22:6n-3, respectively, and 66.0 \u00C2\u00B1 3.6, 62.9 \u00C2\u00B1 2.2, and 67.5\u00C2\u00B1 2.9 in piglets fed the 16/1 and 30/1 formulas or sow milk with 0.1% 22:6n-3, respectively. The higher amountof 22:6n-3 was the only notable difference in the cerebrum of piglets fed high compared to low n-3 fatty acids.An important role of 22:6n-3 is to maintain membrane fluidity and permeability, and possibly the function ofseveral membrane-bound enzymes and transport systems (Spector & Yorek 1985, reviewed by Stubbs & Smith1984, Yorek et al 1984). It is possible, therefore, that the lower cerebrum weight in piglets may be explainedby the increased amount of 22:6n-3 in the cerebrum membranes which could alter some transport process of theblood brain barrier.The 20:4n-6 composition and content of the cerebrum and synaptic plasma membranes does not appearto play a role in the reduced cerebrum growth because levels were not altered by the high dietary n-3 fatty acids.However, the level of 20:4n-6 in membranes does not have to vary to elicit a functional change. For example,isolated brain capillary endothelial cells from weanling rats fed 10% (wt/wt) fish oil for 4 weeks showed a similarmaintenance of 20:4n-6 accompanying the increased 22:6n-3 and decreased 22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6 (Kalman et al1992). Although the percentage of 20:4n-6 in the brain was similar, the amount of total [ I4C]20:4n-6 metabolites,such as eicosanoids, in these cells was markedly reduced (50%) in response to fish oil supplementation (Kalmanet al 1992). Furthermore, prostacyclin production is known to be inhibited by 22:6n-3 in endothelial cells(Hadjiagapiou & Spector 1987). It is conceivable, therefore, that altered eicosanoid metabolism in piglets fedhigh amounts of 18:3n-3 (or n-3 LCP) in formula may affect the functions of the blood brain barrier system,thereby affecting growth. Alternatively, it is possible that the proportion of 20:4n-6 was altered in some specificcell membrane or intracellular membranes not analyzed in the studies in this thesis. One example may be cellnuclei which are fundamental to brain growth and metabolism.Given the enrichment of brain membranes with highly unsaturated LCP such as 22:6n-3, and the highoxygen consumption of the brain, it is reasonable to believe the CNS is susceptible to oxidative damage.Antioxidant systems such as vitamin E, selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase or catalase exist in brain andother organs to prevent oxidative damage. The vitamin E content in the formulas fed to the piglets was twicethe NRC requirement for pigs (Table 6.2). The vitamin E requirement, however, is determined primarily by theconcentration and composition of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the tissues, and therefore is related to thepolyunsaturated fatty acid content of the diet (Nutrition Recommendations 1990). Thus, it is not known whether86the amount of vitamin E was adequate in formulas with high amounts of 18:3n-3, or n-3 LCP from fish oil. Also,selenium deficiency is known to occur in some piglets in the lower mainland of British Columbia and the formulasfed to the piglets did not contain selenium. Thus, the reduced cerebrum growth in piglets fed high n-3 fatty acidsmay be related to potentially compromised vitamin E and/or selenium-dependent antioxidant systems in the brain.4.4 The relationship of formula n-3 LCP with tissue n-3 and n-6 LCPThe inclusion of fish oil in formula with 16% 18:2n-6 and 0.6% 18:3n-3 (Experiment II) provided 0.8%n-3 LCP to piglets and resulted in significantly higher levels of 22:6n-3 in the synaptic plasma membrane EPL,and significantly lower levels of 22:4n-6 in retina EPL, than in piglets fed sow milk (Fig. 3.6). Clinical studieshave also shown that addition of fish oils to formula is an effective way to provide 22:6n-3 to infants fed formula(Carlson et al 1987, Carlson et al 1989, Liu et al 1987, Uauy et al 1990). However, most fish oils usually containsignificant amounts of 20:5n-3 and little n-6 LCP. Studies in premature infants fed formulas with 0.2 and 0.5%of energy as n-3 LCP from marine oil have shown decreased 20:4n-6:20:5n-3 ratios in plasma and RBCphospholipids (Carlson et al 1987, Carlson et al 1991, Liu et al 1987, Uauy et al 1990). Both 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3are known to inhibit synthesis of 20:4n-6 (Gronn et al 1992). The inclusion of large amounts of fish oil (3 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 6%of energy as 11-3 LCP) in the diet of animals has been shown to result in replacement of 20:4n-6 with 20:5n-3in structural lipids of the brain, retina (Connor & Neuringer 1988, Philbrick et al 1987) and liver (Bourre et al1988, Bourre et al 1990). The effect of including fish oil in formula over the low range of supplementation usedin clinical trials, on liver and CNS membrane lipids, however, was not previously known. Feeding formulas withincreasing, but low, levels of fish oil to piglets resulted in significantly higher 20:5n-3 and lower 20:4n-6 in thepiglet plasma and liver phospholipid (Fig. 3.8, 3.9). A similar increase in 20:5n-3 (and 22:6n-3) and decrease in20:4n-6 in plasma and liver phospholipids of piglets fed sow milk with 0.6% of fatty acids as 20:4n-6 and 1.5%22:6n-3 was shown in Experiment IV (Table 3.6). These results demonstrate that the intake of 20:4n-6 in milkdoes not protect against the effects of 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 on 20:4n-6 synthesis and/or acylation.The liver phospholipid level of 20:4n-6 in piglets fed the F03 formula (1.2% of energy as n-3 LCP) wasabout 20% lower than in piglets fed the F formula. The magnitude of difference is similar to that reported forliver EPL and PC of rats fed increasing dietary n-3 LCP from 0 to 1.4% of energy (Huang et al 1992). The lowerproportion of 20:4n-6 and higher 20:5n-3 in the liver may be explained by the well-known inhibition of 18:2n-687desaturation by n-3 LCP, as well as competition by the exogenous 20:5n-3 for incorporation in phospholipids(Hagve et al 1988). The orthogonal contrast analyses gave no evidence that maximum saturation of 20:5n-3 ordepletion of 20:4n-6 had occurred in the liver or plasma phospholipid or retina EPL. Thus, greater changes canbe expected to occur when higher levels of fish oil are fed. Indeed, 20:4n-6 in liver lipids was decreased by about55%, 75% and 83% in response to dietary fish oil intakes of 4% (Bourre et al 1990, Huang et al 1992), 5.5%(Barzanti et al 1990, Huang et al 1992), and 6.4% of energy, respectively (Bourre et al 1988). As well, lowerproportions of 20:4n-6 in retina phospholipids of rats (Philbrick et al 1987), rabbits (Lin et al 1991) and monkeys(Connor & Neuringer 1988) have been found in association with diets containing n-3 LCP from fish oils at 1.4to 6% of energy.Despite the marked changes in plasma and liver 20:5n-3 and 20:4n-6 found in piglets in Experiment III,no changes were found in the proportion of 20:5n-3 or 20:4n-6 in brain total lipid or synaptic plasma membraneEPL. A significant (p < 0.009) linear increase was found in the brain total lipid % 20:5n-3 of piglets fed the P03compared to F01 or F diet (Fig. 3.8). The accumulation of 20:5n-3 in the brain of piglets fed the F03 diet,however, did not result in levels of 20:5n-3 greater than 0.3% of fatty acids. The minimal amounts of 20:5n-3deposited in the brain and synaptic plasma membrane EPL of piglets fed the F03 diet suggests that 20:5n-3 wasexcluded from the brain at the relatively modest plasma phospholipid level of 20:5n-3 of about 2.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1% offatty acids. Alternatively, the low levels of 20:5n-3 in brain could be explained by uptake and rapid oxidation orelongation and desaturation to 22:6n-3. Hepatic peroxisomal a-oxidation of 20:5n-3 (Hagve & Christophersen1986) is known and may provide an explanation for the relatively low retention of dietary 20:5n-3. Whether ornot the peroxisomes known to be present in brain (Singh et al 1989) are important in preventing accumulationof 20:5n-3 in CNS lipids is unknown. All of the n-3 LCP in the brain total lipid showed a significant increasewith the increase in fish oil in the formula. This suggests that higher dietary intakes of fish oil, such as thoseused in studies with rodents and monkeys (Bourre et al 1988, Connor & Neuringer 1988, Swanson et al 1988),could override potential uptake regulation, or exceed the capacity of peroxisomal oxidation orelongation/desaturation pathways. Possible pharmacological doses of fish oil (3 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 6% of energy) could thereforeresult in significant excess accumulation of 20:5n-3 in brain.The level of 20:4n-6 in the brain total lipid and synaptic plasma membrane EPL was constant over anincreasing dietary intake of n-3 LCP from 0 (F diet) to 1.2% of energy (F03 diet). Similarly, high levels of n-388LCP in natural milk (Experiment IV) did not significantly alter the proportion of 20:4n-6 in the piglet brain andsynaptic plasma membrane total lipids (Fig. 3.10). Bourre and associates (1990) also found no significantdifference in brain total lipid % 20:4n-6 in adult rats fed n-3 LCP up to 1.6% of dietary energy. In contrast, adecrease of about 10 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 15% in the level of 20:4n-6 in brain EPL (Philbrick et al 1987, Wainwright et al 1992)and PC (Wainwright et al 1992) in rodents fed diets with about 1.4% of energy as n-3 LCP has been reported.In some cases, however, the rats were fed only 1.3% of energy as 18:2n-6 in the diet (Philbrick et al 1987),compared to 15% of energy in the piglets and about 8% of energy in other rat studies (Bourre et al 1990). Thislow level of 18:2n-6 may have been insufficient to allow desaturation/elongation of 18:2n-6 in the presence oflarge amounts of n-3 LCP. Although the energy density of n-3 LCP is similar to that of the F03 diet used here,the rat diet in these studies (Philbrick et al 1987, Wainwright et al 1992) contained less total fat (c.a. 20% ofdietary energy) and thus a higher percentage of fat as n-3 LCP than did the F03 piglet diet. Therefore, thegreater susceptibility of brain 20:4n-6 to diet-induced changes observed in these rats may be explained by loweramounts of dietary 18:2n-6 and/or different absolute and relative amounts of n-3 LCP fed, as well as possibleeffects of species differences.The ability to maintain brain 20:4n-6 at dietary n-3 LCP intakes of about s 1.5% of energy could beexplained by the presence of specific, high affinity transport systems for 20:4n-6 into brain, such as that postulatedfor a-fetoprotein-bound fatty acids (Uriel et al 1987). Highly specific CNS glycerophospholipid acyltransferasereactions, such as arachidonyl-CoA synthetase (Morand et al 1987, reviewed by Sastry 1985) could also beimportant to the maintenance of the structural lipid composition of nervous tissues. Retroconversion of 22:4n-6to 20:4n-6 has been shown for brain (Singh et al 1989), suggesting that 22:4n-6 may serve as a pool of n-6 fattyacids for maintenance of optimal 20:4n-6 levels. The significantly lower percentage of 22:4n-6 in the brain ofpiglets fed the F03 rather than any other diet (Fig. 3.8) is consistent with this suggestion. Of interest, inExperiment I, the changes in the level of 20:4n-6 in the cerebrum total lipid and synaptic plasma membrane EPLof piglets fed formula were similar to changes in 22:4n-6. Changes in the proportion of 22:4n-6 in the piglet liverphospholipid and retina EPL, in contrast, paralleled the changes in 22:5n-6. Whether this reflects a greatercontribution of 22:4n-6 to the maintenance of 20:4n-6 levels in cerebral tissues compared to a role of 22:4n-6 inmaintaining overall membrane unsaturation in extra-cerebral tissues is not known. Alternatively, it is possiblethat the significant decrease in the brain percentage of 22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6 in piglets in the F03 group, compared89to piglets fed the n-3 fatty acid-deficient F formula represented a return to normal levels with the concomitantelevation of brain 22:6n-3.The results of these studies with piglets show important differences in the incorporation of dietary n-3LCP from fish oil into growing piglet brain and retina when compared to liver or plasma, but a general similaritybetween the effects on plasma and liver. The greatest increase in the tissue levels of 22:6n-3 occurred betweenpiglets in the n-3 fatty acid-deficient F group compared to the F01 group (Fig. 3.9); smaller increases were foundbetween the F01 and F03 diet groups. An important exception was the brain total lipid % 22:6n-3, where anapparent lag in 22:6n-3 was found. That is, the increase from the F01 to F03 group was greater than from theF to F01 group. Others have shown no change in brain 22:6n-3 when dietary n-3 LCP was increased from 0to 0.6% of energy, but a large increase in brain 22:6n-3, similar to that in piglets fed the F03 diet, when dietaryn-3 LCP was increased from 0.6 to 1.6% of energy (Bourre et al 1990). Although brain phosholipid 22:6n-3 washigher in weanling rats fed 1.4% compared to 0% of energy as n-3 LCP, the difference was not of statisticalsignificance (Philbrick et al 1987) and others have found no difference in brain 22:6n-3 among rodents fed from1.4% to 4% of energy as n-3 LCP (Bourre et al 1990, Wainwright et al 1992). This lack of effect of increasingdietary n-3 LCP on the brain 22:6n-3 may be interpreted as evidence that brain 22:6n-3 was already maximal.By extrapolation from the studies with rodents, it seems likely that the level of 22:6n-3 in the brain total lipidof piglets fed the F03 diet was maximal, thus no further increase would be expected with fish oil supplementationup to about 4% of energy. The difference in the response between the brain and liver percentage of 22:6n-3 tofish oil supplementation possibly suggests the presence of specific uptake mechanisms which regulate the entryof 22:6n-3 into the brain, which are absent from liver. Levels of 22:6n-3 in the piglet retina EPL appeared toplateau between the F01 (0.4% of energy as n-3 LCP) and F03 (1.2% of energy) diets (Fig. 3.9), and seemedto be more tightly controlled than in other CNS tissues studied. This finding is consistent with selective uptakeand retention of 22:6n-3 in the retina, which is compatible with the probable specific role of 22:6n-3 in the visualprocess (reviewed by Neuringer & Connor 1989). Diets with 4% of energy as n-3 LCP, however, have beenfound to result in levels of 22:6n-3 in brain and retina above those in control animals receiving diets with 2.1%of energy as 18:3n-3 from soybean oil (Connor et al 1990). Possibly, the very high levels of 22:6n-3 in the retinafollowing repletion with fish oil may be a rebound effect in n-3 fatty acid -deficient animals. Alternatively, suchhigh intakes may represent a pharmacological rather than nutritional change at which normal regulatory processesof uptake are no longer functional.90In summary, providing 22:6n-3 from fish oil was effective in supplying 22:6n-3 to the developing CNS.Constant levels of 20:4n-6 and 20:5n-3 were maintained in the brain over an increasing dietary intake of n-3 LCPfrom 0 to 1.2% of energy. This occurred despite circulating levels of 20:5n-3 at 2.9% of fatty acids, similar tolevels in plasma PC of preterm infants fed fish oil (Carlson et al 1991). The level of 20:5n-3 was increased and20:4n-6 was decreased in the liver, as well as the plasma phospholipid, of piglets fed increasing levels of dietaryfish oil. These differences between the brain, and the liver and plasma could conceivably be explained by selectivehigh affinity mechanisms for uptake of 20:4n-6 into brain, but not into liver. The increase of 20:5n-3 in the liverwas not linear with increasing dietary n-3 LCP. This may possibly suggest regulatory mechanisms such as hepaticperoxisomal oxidation of 20:5n-3, or desaturation/elongation to 22:6n-3 to limit the accumulation of 20:5n-3 inthe liver phospholipid.4.5 The effect of maternal diet on the fatty acid composition of milk and the developing liver and CNS fatty acidcomposition in piglets4.5.1 Fatty acid composition of milk lipidData have been published to suggest that high dietary intakes of 22:6n-3 from fish oil or marine lipidsincrease 22:6n-3 in human milk (Harris et al 1984, Henderson et al 1992, Innis & Kuhnlein 1988). The findingsin Experiment IV confirm the transfer of 22:6n-3 from maternal diet to sow milk. Substantial amounts of 22:6n-3(1.5% of fatty acids), and 20:5n-3 (0.4% of fatty acids) were secreted in the milk of sows fed 1% (wt/wt) fishoil providing c.a. 35 mg 22:6n-3 and 10 mg 20:5n-3/kg body wt/day. The relative proportions of 22:6n-3 and20:5n-3 in the maternal diet and in the sow milk were similar, about 3:1. The percentages of 22:6n-3 and 20:5n-3found in the sow milk (Table 3.5) are similar to those reported for the milk of women taking fish oil supplements(providing c.a. 17 mg 22:6n-3 and 30 mg 20:5n-3/kg body wt/day) (Harris et al 1984), or consuming diets highin marine lipids (Innis & Kuhnlein 1988). Somewhat lower levels of 22:6n-3 (0.7% of milk fatty acids) haverecently been reported in the milk of women taking fish oil supplements (providing c.a. 12 mg 22:6n-3 and 18mg 20:5n-3/kg body wt/day) for 21 days (Henderson et al 1992).The sow milk composition of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 (Table 3.5) reflected the differences in the quantityof these fatty acids in the maternal diet (Table 2.6). Similar data concerning human milk have been published(Harris et al 1984, Innis 1992, Innis & Kuhnlein 1988, Jensen 1989, Jensen et al 1992, Sanders & Reddy 1992).91Despite the difference in dietary intake and milk levels of 18:2n-6 and n-3 fatty acids between the two groupsof sows, the proportion of 20:4n-6 in the sow milk total lipid was relatively constant at about 0.6% of fatty acids.Constant levels of 20:4n-6 (0.6% of fatty acids) have also been found in rabbit milk following dietarysupplementation with 2% (wt/wt) fish oil (Lin et al 1991). Similarly, human milk 20:4n-6 does not seem to berelated to the milk 18:2n-6 (Innis 1992, Innis & Kuhnlein 1988, Jensen 1989, Jensen et al 1992, Sanders & Reddy1992), or to the maternal dietary or milk levels of 22:6n-3 and 20:5n-3 (Harris et al. 1984, Innis 1992, Innis &Kuhnlein 1988). Whether the content of 20:4n-6 in milk total lipid is regulated by some specific metabolic processin the mammary tissue is not known. In contrast, the level of 20:4n-6 in milk phospholipid was lower in the milkfrom sows fed diets with, rather than without fish oil (1.9% vs 4.8% of fatty acids, respectively). This findingsuggests an effect of high n-3 LCP on phospholipid % 20:4n-6 in mammary epithelial cells, typical to that seenin other extra-cerebral tissues. That is, the lower proportion of 20:4n-6 in milk phospholipid may be explainedby competition for acylation by the high 22:6n-3 and/or 20:5n-3 in the milk phospholipid of sows fed the diet withadded fish oil (3.1% 22:6n-3 and 0.7% 20:5n-3) rather than vegetable oil only (0.4% 22:6n-3 and 0.3% 20:5n-3).It is not known, however, whether these changes in milk phospholipid fatty acids, which represent < 2% of milkfatty acids (Jensen 1989), are of significance to the nursing infant.4.5.2 Piglet tissue fatty acid compositionThe results of Experiment IV show 22:6n-3 was transferred from maternal diet to milk and from themilk to the plasma phospholipid of the nursing piglet. Furthermore, a high compared to very low intake of 22:6n-3from milk was accompanied by higher levels of 22:6n-3 in the liver and cerebrum, but not retina, of the sucklinganimal The increase in 22:6n-3 was several orders of magnitude greater in the plasma and liver phospholipidsthan in the cerebrum and its synaptic plasma membranes. These results are consistent with the known resistanceof cerebrum and retina 22:6n-3, relative to other organs, to dietary n-3 fatty acid manipulation (Stubbs & Smith1984). Published studies have reported that 22:6n-3 represents 15.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2% compared to 20.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9% retinatotal lipid fatty acids in newborn and adult pigs, respectively (Hrboticky et al 1991). A similar increase in n-3fatty acids was found in brain synaptosomal membranes from these animals (Hrboticky et al 1989). These resultssuggest that, as in the human infant (Martinez 1992), the newborn piglet retina and brain is compositionallyimmature at birth and therefore vulnerable to manipulation by the postnatal dietary supply of n-3 fatty acids92(Hrboticky et al 1989, Hrboticky et al 1991). The significantly higher levels of 22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6 in the cerebrumand retina of piglets fed the sow milk low in 22:6n-3 (Table 3.6) is a characteristic finding in animals fed dietsdeficient in n-3 fatty acids (reviewed by Innis 1991). These results, therefore, may suggest that piglets sucklingmilk containing 0.1% of fatty acids as 22:6n-3, with 1.1% as 18:3n-3, may have received an inadequate dietarysupply of n-3 fatty acids.Levels of 22:6n-3 in human milk plateau after several days of fish oil supplementation (Henderson etal 1992). Therefore, the sow diet was modified for 4 days before birth to ensure maximum effects of fish oilsupplementation on 22:6n-3 in the milk fed to newborn piglets. The degree to which differences in placentaltransfer of 22:6n-3 during the 4 days prior to birth (gestation about 116 days) contributed to differences in 22:6n-3in the CNS of the piglets is unknown. The brain weight and 22:6n-3 content (mean \u00C2\u00B1 SEM) was 25.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 gand 50.5 \u00C2\u00B1 2.4 mg, respectively, in newborn piglets (n = 2) and 39.8 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 g and 76.6 \u00C2\u00B1 3.1 mg, respectively, in15 day-old piglets from sows fed the diet with only vegetable oil added. This represents 40 and 50% increases,respectively, in brain weight and 22:6n-3 content from birth to 15 days. The increase in piglet body weightbetween birth and 15 days of age was also very large, about 300%. It seems unlikely, therefore, that the growthduring the last 4 days of gestation would contribute considerably to changes in CNS 22:6n-3 composition.In summary, the results of this study confirm the dependency of milk 22:6n-3 on the maternal dietaryintake of 22:6n-3. These studies show that an increase in the milk 22:6n-3 from 0.1 to 1.5% of fatty acids ledto increased 22:6n-3 in the circulating and liver phospholipids, and cerebrum and synaptic plasma membrane lipidsof natural milk-fed piglets. The considerable effect of maternal dietary fat composition on milk fatty acids inthe sow, and resultant differences in the proportion of 22:6n-3 in the developing piglet tissue and blood lipids,emphasize the difficulty of extrapolating dietary essential fatty acid requirements from the knowledge of the fattyacid composition of milk. The results also raise the questions of what the optimal level of 22:6n-3 is in thedeveloping brain, what optimal levels are in milk, and whether adequate levels are achieved in the developingyoung fed milk containing very low amounts of 22:6n-3.934.6 Effect of n-3 fatty acids in formula and milk on tissue levels of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids4.6.1 Piglet tissue saturated fatty acidsSaturated fatty acids can be synthesized de novo from acetyl CoA. The amount and composition ofsaturated fatty acids in membrane lipids play a role in determining the physical properties of structuralmembranes. The percentage of 16:0 in the liver phospholipid was lower in piglets fed the formula with high 18:3n-3 (Fig 3.1, Table 3.3), the formula with n-3 LCP from fish oil (Experiment III, data not shown), or milk with highlevels of n-3 LCP (Table 3.6). This decrease in the percentage of 16:0 was accompanied by an increase in theproportion of total LCP in piglets fed the formulas containing 4% 18:3n-3 and those fed milk with 1.5% 22:6n-3,compared to the respective comparison groups. However, quantitative differences in liver phospholipid 16:0 didexist between piglets fed the 16/1 versus 16/4 and between piglets fed the 30/1 versus 35/4 formulas (data notshown). These results may suggest that high dietary intakes of n-3 fatty acids from either formula or natural milkmay interfere with saturated fatty acid metabolism. The decrease in liver phospholipid % 16:0 could possiblybe related to decreased synthesis and/or increased utilization of 16:0. Several possible explanations are available.The formulas in Experiment I all contained similar low levels of 16:0 and 18:0 (8 and 4% of fatty acids,respectively), suggesting that the relatively high proportions of these fatty acids in the phospholipids of brain andliver are likely to have originated from de novo synthesis, or possibly from chain elongation of the formula 14:0.The quantity of fatty acids of 14 was 5 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 10% lower in the formulas with 4% 18:3n-3 than in the formulaswith 1% 18:3n-3 (Table 2.3). The medium chain fatty acids of C8 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C12 are known to be rapidly oxidized toacetyl-CoA. The acetyl-CoA produced by 0-oxidation may be a source of C2 units for de novo synthesis of fattyacids, or for use in elongation of 14:0 to 16:0, and 16:0 to 18:0 (Bach & Babayan 1982). Whether the differencein the amount of fatty acids of C 14 in the formulas with 1 compared to 4% 18:3n-3 could explain the differencein saturated fatty acid metabolism in the piglets is unclear.De novo synthesis of 16:0 is known to be inhibited by 18:3n-3, as a result of both short-term inhibitionof acetyl CoA carboxylase (Bloch & Vance 1977) and by a long-term adaptive response in which the activity andsynthesis of acetyl CoA carboxylase (Abraham et al 1983, Toussant et al 1981) and fatty acid synthetase (Abrahamet al 1983, Clarke et al 1977, Toussant et al 1981) are decreased. Dietary n-3 LCP from shellfish or as pure22:6n-3 have also been shown to decrease the activity of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, glucose-6-phosphatedehydrogenase and fatty acid synthetase in rat liver (Clarke et al 1976, Iritani et al 1980, Williams et al 1989).94LCP have been shown to depress fatty acid synthetase mRNA by inhibiting fatty acid synthetase gene transcription,specifically in the liver (reviewed by Clarke & Abraham 1992). Thus, it is plausible that lower proportions of16:0 in liver phospholipid may be explained by inhibition of fatty acid synthesis by the high dietary intakes of n-3fatty acids.In contrast to the findings reported in this thesis, the level of saturated fatty acids in adult rat liver didnot differ as a result of feeding increasing dietary 18:3n-3 (Hwang et al 1986) or n-3 LCP from fish oil (Bourreet al 1988, Bourre et al 1990). The discrepancy between the current data with piglets and those reported for adultrodents (Bourre et al 1988, Bourre et al 1990, Hwang et al 1986) may be related to more pronounced effectsevident in a rapidly growing animal with greater fatty acid needs for tissue growth than a mature animal.Unlike the liver, cerebrum total lipid percentage of 16:0 and of total saturated fatty acids were not alteredin piglets fed formula with high 18:3n-3 (Fig. 3.1, Table 3.3), formula with high n-3 LCP (Fig. 3.7) or sow milkwith high n-3 LCP (Table 3.6). An exception was a significantly lower percentage of 16:0 in cerebrum total lipidof piglets fed the 16/4 compared to 16/1 formula (Fig. 3.1). Published studies have shown the dietary 18:1 contentmay influence the tissue levels of other fatty acids (Wall et al 1992). It is reasonable to assume, therefore, thatthe high 18:1 content (40% of fatty acids) of the 16/4 formula may have contributed to the differences in thelevel of 16:0 in cerebrum total lipid, which were not seen when 4% 18:3n-3 was fed with low (17%) 18:1. Incontrast to the cerebrum, no changes were seen in the saturated fatty acid composition of the synaptic plasmamembrane at the high dietary intakes of n-3 fatty acids (Table 3.3, Table 3.6, Fig. 3.7). The cerebrum total lipid,however, included the structural lipids of myelin which contain large amounts of saturated and monounsaturatedfatty acids (reviewed by Sastry 1985). The analyses of cerebrum total lipid in these studies, therefore, reflectsthe developmental increase in the relative amount of myelin to the neural membranes, as well as maturation ordiet-modifications in the fatty acid composition of myelin and all other brain membranes from birth to 15 daysof age. The change in saturated fatty acids of cerebrum total lipid, but not synaptic plasma membrane, suggeststhat the differences in cerebrum total lipid may have resulted from changes in the myelin component of brain.It has been suggested that all of the saturated fatty acids required by the brain for membrane growth aresynthesized in situ (Marbois et al 1992). The findings in piglets in this thesis suggest that the deposition of fattyacids in brain may be modified by the dietary n-3 fatty acid intake.954.6.2 Piglet tissue monounsaturated fatty acidsSignificant changes in the total monounsaturated fatty acids, predominantly 18:1, of liver, cerebrum,synaptic plasma membrane and retina were seen in response to the amount of 18:2n-6 in the formula. Theamount of 18:2n-6 in the formula was adjusted by a reciprocal change in the amount of 18:1 (Table 2.3).Therefore, the changes in tissue 18:1 composition are probably most appropriately discussed with respect toformula content of 18:1. Levels of monounsaturated fatty acids in liver phospholipid and cerebrum total lipidwere about 50% and 5% lower, respectively, in piglets fed the formula containing low (17% of fatty acids) 18:1(i.e. 30/1 and 35/4 formulas) rather than high 18:1 (40% fatty acids) (i.e. 16/1 and 16/4 formulas) (Fig. 3.1, Table3.3). These values are very similar to the 60% and 8% lower proportion of total monounsaturated fatty acidsrecently reported in liver phospholipid and brain total lipid of 18 day-old piglets fed formulas with 11% comparedto 41% 18:1 (Wall et al 1992). Possibly, the more limited effect of the formula 18:1 content on the cerebrumthan liver is explained by de novo fatty acid synthesis by the oligodendrocytes, which are known to synthesize largeamounts of myelin lipid containing particularly high 18:1 (reviewed by Sastry 1985) during the first three weeksafter birth in the piglet (Sweasy et al 1976). Levels of monounsaturated fatty acids in cerebrum total lipid werealso lower in piglets fed the formulas with high 18:3n-3 (Fig. 3.1, Table 3.3) or increasing fish oil supplementationin formula (Fig 3.7). There was no evidence, however, of a significant effect of high n-3 fatty acids on theproportion of total monounsaturated fatty acids in the synaptic plasma membrane EPL of these piglets. Othershave reported that brain EPL percent 18:1 of suckling mice was significantly higher when dietary n-3 LCP wasincreased from 1.4 to 2.2% of energy; however, no difference was seen when n-3 LCP was increased from 0 to1.4% of energy (Wainwright et al 1992). Possibly, the discrepancy in these results is explained by apharmacological response at 2.2% of energy as n-3 LCP, or by the differences in the stage of brain developmentand myelination between the postnatal piglet and mouse (Dobbing & Sands 1979).In summary, formula and milk n-3 fatty acids have been shown to alter the levels of saturated fatty acidsin the piglet cerebrum, retina and liver. It is possible that the lower proportion of 16:0 in liver phospholipid maybe explained by inhibition of de novo fatty acid synthesis by high dietary n-3 fatty acids. Liver and CNSmonounsaturated fatty acids were increased with higher amounts of dietary 18:1. Changes were found in thecerebrum total lipid monounsaturated fatty acids in response to high dietary intakes of n-3 fatty acids, which may96possibly be explained by changes in the myelin component of brain, rather than the grey matter. Thedetermination of essential fatty acid requirements, specifically 18:3n-3, should take into consideration the possibleinfluences on the saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids which also play a role in determining the propertiesof structural membranes of important organs such as the liver.4.7 Approaches to study the dietary adequacy of n-3 fatty acids in infant nutritionThe amounts and relative ratios of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in infant formulas that provide the best outcomescannot be determined with certainty at present. The approaches used to study dietary adequacy of n-3 fatty acidsin infant nutrition that have been addressed in this thesis include (1) milk fatty acid composition, (2) body andorgan weight and tissue fatty acid composition (3) plasma and RBC fatty acid composition.4.7.1 Milk fatty acid compositionThe composition of mature human milk has been used in the development of recommendations for thelipid composition of infant formula. There are a number of factors which must be considered when using humanmilk as a model for other infant diets. For example, the fatty acid pattern of human (reviewed in Innis 1992 andin Jensen 1989) and, as shown in these studies, sow milk is influenced by the composition of the maternal diet.The dependence of milk 22:6n-3 on maternal diet can result in levels of 22:6n-3 as low as 0.1% of fatty acids inthe milk of women and sows consuming diets devoid of animal products and as high as 1.4% of fatty acids inthe milk of women and sows consuming diets of high marine lipid content. It is not known if current intakesof 22:6n-3 from milk represent optimal intakes for deposition of 22:6n-3 in the developing CNS. Secondly, theratio of total n-6:n-3 fatty acids in human milk is about 4:1 to 10:1 (reviewed by Jensen 1989). However, naturalmilk contains preformed LCP, which are more biologically active than the precursors 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 suppliedin formulas. The dietary 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio in formula is therefore not equivalent to the total n-6:n-3 fatty acidratio in human milk with preformed LCP. It would be useful to know the relative biological activity of 18:3n - 3to n -3 LCP, i.e. the amount of 18:3n-3 needed in formula to achieve equivalent metabolic effects to that of dietary22:6n-3. From the studies in this thesis, the biological activity of 18:3n-3 as a source of 22:6n-3 can be estimatedto be at least 20% that of n-3 LCP. Published studies have suggested this number may be as high as 33%97(Anderson et al 1990). In human milk, the total n-3 fatty acid content is normally 0.7 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 1.3% of energy, withthe n-3 LCP accounting for about half of this. Assuming a biological equivalency of 20 and 33%, formulasproviding 2.1 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 3.9% of energy or 1.4 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 2.6% of energy as 18:3n-3 could theoretically support deposition of 22:6n-3in the CNS, similar to that achieved by human milk with typical amounts of preformed LCP.4.7.2 Levels of 22:6n-3 in CNS tissuesChanges in the total lipid fatty acid composition of the brain or cerebrum are the most commonlyreported measures in animal studies of fatty acid requirements. These analyses in the initial studies allowedcomparison of the findings in piglets to studies of other species. The fatty acid composition of cerebrum EPLwas subsequently determined to allow comparison of the effects in different piglet tissues and organs, in a specificphospholipid fraction. It is notable that changes in cerebrum EPL percentage of n-3 LCP were similar to thosefound in cerebrum total lipids. In contrast, more subtle differences between the formula groups were detectedonly in the synaptic plasma membrane and retina. For example, the percentage of 22:6n-3 was significantly lowerin piglet synaptic plasma membrane EPL when the ratio of 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 in the formula fed was increased from22:1 (16/1 formula) to 37:1 (30/1 formula). Significant differences in 22:6n-3 composition between these twopiglet groups were not evident in cerebrum total lipid or cerebrum EPL.The studies in Experiment IV have shown a range of tissue 22:6n-3 composition exists among naturalmilk-fed piglets. It seems reasonable, therefore, to evaluate the deposition of 22:6n-3 in CNS tissues of pigletsfed formulas containing 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, but no long-chain derivatives, within this range. Otherwise, theinterpretation of the dietary adequacy of 18:3n-3 depends on the natural milk-fed group used for comparison.In this regard, levels of 22:6n-3 in cerebrum EPL of piglets fed formulas containing 4% 18:3n-3 fall within therange of natural milk-fed piglets (Fig. 3.13). However, if comparison is made to piglets consuming milk with 1.5%22:6n-3, all formulas would be considered inadequate to support deposition of 22:6n-3 in the cerebrum,comparable to natural milk.Together, these findings suggest that the sensitivity of measures of tissue LCP content as a method toevaluate the adequacy of the dietary 18:3n-3 supply depends on the organ, membrane and phospholipid fractionchosen for study, as well as the reference group used for comparison. For example, compositional changes insynaptic plasma membrane and retina EPL, rather than cerebrum total lipid or EPL appear to be more sensitive98to dietary changes of 18:3n-3. Therefore, the comparison of levels of 22:6n-3 in specific tissues of the CNS, suchas synaptic plasma membrane and retina EPL are probably most appropriate to evaluate the adequacy of formula18:3n-3 during growth and development.4.7.3 Plasma and RBC phospholipid LCP: Comparison to liver, cerebrum and retinaClinical studies on the adequacy of infant n-6 and n-3 fatty acid nutrition have traditionally relied oncomparative measures of plasma and RBC phospholipid fatty acids (Carlson et al 1986, Clark et al 1992, Inniset al 1990, Ponder et al 1992, Putnam et al 1982, Sanders et al 1992, Uauy et al 1990). Therefore, changes inthe proportion of 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 in plasma phospholipid and RBC EPL and PC in response to the differentmilk and formula diets were compared to assess the accuracy and potential limitations of these measures as indicesof the adequacy of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in developing organs.The significantly lower 22:6n-3 and higher 22:5n-6 in the RBC and plasma phospholipids of piglets fedformulas with 1% 18:3n-3 reflected the changes in the liver and CNS and appear, therefore, to be valid indicatorsof dietary n-3 fatty acid deficiency (Fig. 3.13 and 3.14). The circulating levels of 22:6n-3 (and 22:5n-6) in pigletsfed formulas with 4% 18:3n-3 and sow milk with very low levels of 22:6n-3 (0.1% of fatty acids) were also similar,as were levels of 22:6n-3 in the liver and CNS of these piglet groups. It is important to note, however, that theplasma and RBC phospholipid levels of 22:6n-3 showed a clear response to the dietary intake of 22:6n-3 (Fig.3.13), with 2 to 3-fold greater levels in piglets receiving milk with 1.5% compared to 0.1% 22:6n-3. The plasmaand RBC phospholipid percentage of 22:6n-3 in piglets fed formulas containing 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, but not theirlong-chain derivatives, was lower than in piglets fed 1.5% 22:6n-3 in natural milk. Therefore, based on lowerblood phospholipid 22:6n-3, all formulas fed to the piglets would be considered inadequate in n-3 fatty acids.However, in contrast to blood lipids, feeding formulas with 4% 18:3n-3 maintained similar levels of 22:6n-3 inthe CNS to natural milk. It is possible, therefore, that the lower plasma and RBC phospholipid 22:6n-3 reportedin infants fed formulas rather than human milk (Carlson et al 1987, Innis 1991, Liu et al 1987, Sanders & Reddy1992, Uauy et al 1990) may reflect the difference in dietary intake of 22:6n-3, which is negligible in infant formulaand typically 0.4% from human milk fatty acids (Innis 1992), but may not indicate lower levels in the CNS.Levels of 20:4n-6 in circulating and liver phospholipids were significantly lower in piglets fed the milkwith high rather than low 22:6n-3 (Fig. 3.12), despite similar intakes of 20:4n-6 from the milk (Table 3.5). Piglets99fed formulas containing 18:2n-6 but devoid of 20:4n-6 had a similar proportion of 20:4n-6 in RBC EPL and PCto piglets receiving 20:4n-6 from sow milk. Therefore, circulating lipid levels of 20:4n-6 do not reflect differencesin the dietary 20:4n-6 supply, but do seem to depend on the intake and type of n-3 fatty acids in the diet.Although marked differences in 20:4n-6 are evident in plasma and liver, this does not seem to alter the depositionof 20:4n-6 in the developing piglet cerebrum. The assimilation and avid retention of 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 incerebrum, at different intakes of n-3 fatty acids from formula, was not consistently or accurately reflected by thefatty acid composition of the plasma or RBC. These differences could be explained by selective, high affinitymechanisms for uptake of 20:4n-6 and C22 n-6 and n-3 fatty acids into brain, but not into RBCs or liver (reviewedby Innis 1992).In summary, low circulating 22:6n-3, when accompanied by increased 22:5n-6, seems to be a validindicator of low 22:6n-3 in the liver and CNS of term piglets fed formulas deficient in 18:3n-3. Low plasma andRBC phospholipid 22:6n-3 not accompanied by increased 22:5n-6, however, may merely reflect differences indietary intake of 22:6n-3 when comparison is made to piglets receiving high amounts of 22:6n-3 in milk.Differences in circulating 20:4n-6 do not reflect changes in CNS lipid 20:4n-6. Thus, the response of 22:6n-3 and20:4n-6 in piglet plasma and RBC is not a valid measure of adequacy of 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 in the developingCNS. This would preclude the use of plasma and RBC phospholipid 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 as an indicator ofdifferences in CNS 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 in formula-fed compared to milk-fed piglets or in human infants fed dietsvarying in fatty acid composition.4.8 Concluding remarksThe major findings of this thesis are: (1) 22:6n-3 is not essential in the diet of the term gestation piglet,if adequate 18:3n-3 is provided, (2) adequate synthesis and deposition of 22:6n-3 depends on both the absoluteamount of 18:3n-3 and ratios of 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 in the formula, (3) high intakes of 18:3n-3 and n-3 LCP mayadversely affect brain growth and possibly saturated fatty acid metabolism, (4) differences in the amount of 22:6n-3in milk, related to maternal dietary intake of 22:6n-3, extend to the liver lipids and, to a lesser extent, the CNSof the nursing young, (5) diet-related differences in plasma and RBC fatty acids do not accurately reflect changesin CNS 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6.100Lower cerebrum weight in animals fed high dietary 18:3n-3 has not been previously reported. Therefore,it is important to determine whether a similar effect on brain weight occurs in other species, or whether this effectis specific to piglets from the lower mainland of British Columbia, with potentially compromised vitamin E and/orselenium status. If observed in other species, the mechanism responsible for this effect on growth, seen specificallyin the brain and not other organs, needs to be studied. It is possible that the adverse effects on growth may berelated to fatty acid changes in a specific organelle or membrane, for example, microsomes, mitochondria ornuclei, that may not be detected in the analyses of cerebrum total lipids.The oil blends and 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 content of the formulas fed to piglets were selected to be relevantto commercially available infant formulas. Adequate synthesis and deposition of 22:6n-3 in CNS tissues occurredwhen formula contained 2.1% of energy, but not 0.4% of energy as 18:3n-3, compared to milk-fed animals. Thenext logical step, particularly given the potential adverse effects of high 18:3n-3 on brain growth, would be todetermine the lowest level of dietary 18:3n-3 required to support comparable deposition of 22:6n-3 in the CNS,in an 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio of about 8:1. The requirement for 18:3n-3 was shown to be > 0.4% of energy;however, tissue levels of 22:6n-3 were higher when the 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 ratio was lowered from 37:1 to 22:1. Itremains to be determined if 0.4% of energy as 18:3n-3 can support adequate synthesis of 22:6n-3 at dietary ratiosof 4:1 and 8:1.Studies have reported an interaction between dietary saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids and thedesaturation (Brenner & Peluffo 1966, Garg et al 1989) and tissue composition (Garg et al 1990, Wall et al 1992)of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids. However, this is believed to be the first report of a potential interaction between thedietary intake of 18:3n-3 and deposition of 16:0 in growing tissues. Further studies are required to determinehow the level and balance of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids alter the metabolism and incorporation of saturated andmonounsaturated fatty acids into brain and liver lipids. One possible area of research could be the potentialinhibitory effects of formula 18:3n-3 on de novo fatty acid synthesis.Limitations in several of the measures currently used to evaluate the adequacy of dietary n-3 fatty acidshave been revealed in these studies. For example, (1) milk 22:6n-3 levels in pigs vary with maternal dietary intakeof 22:6n-3, as they are known to do in humans. Milk levels of 22:6n-3, therefore do not necessarily reflect thespecific needs of the piglet, (2) plasma and RBC 22:6n-3 may reflect the dietary intake of the nursing young and101are not specific indices of brain 22:6n-3 in piglets, and (3) evaluation depends on which comparison group isconsidered \"normal\". One of the major difficulties in assessing optimal versus normal or typical levels of 22:6n-3in the brain or retina is the lack of a physiological measurement. It is possible that there is a small window of22:6n-3 composition in CNS membranes above and below which some membrane function may be altered.Further advances in the understanding of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in growth and development will require functionalmeasures of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 which accurately reflect deficiency or excess and adequacy of n-6 and n-3 LCPin growing membranes.These studies have shown differences in liver and cerebrum 22:6n-3 composition due to high maternalintakes of fish oil during lactation. The most rapid rate of assimilation of 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6 in the brain andretina, however, occurs in the human during the last trimester of gestation (Martinez 1992). It is not known towhat extent maternal diet throughout gestation affects fetal and newborn CNS levels of 22:6n-3. Therefore, itwould be useful to examine the CNS 22:6n-3 content and organ weights in fetal and newborn piglets from sowsfed diets differing in 22:6n-3 throughout gestation. Liver and CNS fatty acid composition could be comparedin fetal pigs at the beginning of the third trimester (about 80 days gestation), at birth and after nursing for 5,15 and 25 days. The sow diet would be manipulated to achieve milk 22:6n-3 levels of about 0.1, 0.4 and 1.4%of fatty acids, representing levels found in human milk from women consuming vegan, omnivorous and highmarine lipid diets, respectively. Such a study would show whether different fetal and infant reserves of fatty acidsare associated with maternal 22:6n-3 intakes, or whether selective mechanisms ensure an adequate supply and/orprevent an excessive supply of LCP to the developing fetus.The differences shown in milk 22:6n-3 were in response to extremely low and high intakes of 22:6n-3from vegan and fish oil diets, respectively. Milk 20:4n-6 is believed to be independent of dietary 18:2n-6 and20:4n-6 intake; however, studies of human populations with low and high intakes of 20:4n-6 have not been done.It is plausible that levels of 20:4n-6 in sow milk may be manipulated by including increasing levels of 20:4n-6 inthe sows' diet. These studies, however, would require large amounts of 20:4n-6, for which there is nocommercially feasible source at present.In conclusion, this thesis has contributed to the fundamental knowledge on the dietary requirement of18:3n-3 in the newborn. The information should be useful in determining acceptable quantities and ratios of18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in infant formula which will support membrane accretion of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 in the CNS,102similar to milk-fed comparison groups. Knowledge of the interactive effects of dietary 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 onCNS tissue LCP may also be applied to the design of intravenous lipids administered to infants. Possible speciesdifferences between piglets and humans in lipid metabolism, or due to differences in rate of growth however,do need to be considered. The adequacy of potential 18:2n-6:18:3n-3 contents and ratio should be verified withbiochemical and functional studies in infants. The finding that 22:6n-3 is not an essential dietary nutrient for theterm gestation piglet may negate the need for the addition of fish oil to formulas, thereby avoiding potentialdetrimental effects on growth and development. Although adequate synthesis of 22:6n-3 and deposition in theCNS has been demonstrated, the relative importance of in situ synthesis of 22:6n-3 in the brain or uptake of22:6n-3 synthesized in the liver, intestine, or some other organ is not known. Further studies are required toidentify the ligand and mechanism whereby 22:6n-3 that is synthesized in extra-cerebral tissues may be deliveredto and selectively taken up by the developing brain.1035 REFERENCESAbraham, S., Hillyard, LA., Lin, C.Y. & Schwartz, R.S. (1983) Effect of specific dietary faty acids on lipogenesisin the livers and mammary glands of lactating mice. Lipids 18: 820-829.Ailing, C., Bruce, A., Karlsson, I. & Svennerholm, L. (1974) The effect of different dietary levels of essential fattyacids on lipids of rat cerebrum during maturation. J. Neurochem. 23: 1263-1270.Anderson, G.J. & Connor, W.E. (1988) Uptake of fatty acids by the developing rat brain. Lipids 23: 286-290.Anderson, G.J., Connor, W.E. & Corliss, J.D. (1990) Docosahexaenoic acid is the preferred dietary n-3 fatty acidfor the development of the brain and retina. Pediatr. Res. 27: 89-97.Anderson, R.E., Benolken, R.M., Dudley, PA., Landis, D.J. & Wheeler, T.G. (1974) Polyunsaturated fatty acidsof photoreceptor membranes. Exp. Eye Res. 18: 205-213.Anding, R.H. & Hwang, D.H. (1986) Effects of dietary linolenate on the fatty acid composition of brain lipidsin rats. Lipids 21: 697-701.Arenander, A.T. & de Vellis, J. (1989) Development of the nervous system. In: Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular,Cellular, and Medical Aspects, 4th Edn. (Siegel, G., Agranoff, B., Albers, R.W. & Molinoff, P., eds.), pp. 479-506,Raven Press, New York, NY.Axelrod, J., Burch, R.M. & Jelsema, C.L. (1988) Receptor-mediated activation of phospholipase A, via GTP-binding proteins: arachidonic acid and its metabolites as second messengers. Trends Neurosci. 11: 117-123.Bach, A.C. & Babayan, V. (1982) Medium-chain triglycerides: an update. Am. J. ain. Nutr. 43: 745-751.Barzanti, V., Maranexi, M., Solaini, G. & Turchetto, E. (1990) Dietary lipid effects on microsome fatty acidcomposition of liver and brain, on liver glucose-6-phosphatase, and on brain 5'-nucleotidase activity in the rat.J. Nutr. Biochem. 1: 305-309.Birch, E.E., Birch, D.G., Hoffman, D.R. & Uauy, R. (1992) Dietary essential fatty acid supply and visual acuitydevelopment. Invest. Ophthmal. Vis. Sci. 33: 3242-3253.Bitman, J., Wood, L., Hamosh, M. & Mehta, N.R. (1983) Comparison of the lipid composition of breast milkfrom mothers of term and preterm infants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 38: 300-312.Bjerve, K.S., Thoresen, L., Borsting, S. (1988) N-3 fatty acids: a new essential growth factor in man. J. Parent.Ent. Nutr. 12: 521-525.Bloch, K. & Vance, D. (1977) Control mechanisms in the synthesis of saturated faty acids. Ann. Rev. Biochem.46: 263-298.Bourre, J.M., Faivre, A., Dumont, 0., Nouvelot, A., Loudes, C., Puymirat, J. & Tixier-Vidal, A. (1983) Effectof polyunsaturated fatty acids on fetal mouse brain cells in culture in a chemically defined medium. J. Neurochem.41: 1234-1242.Bourre, J.M., Pascal, G., Durand, G., Masson, M., Dumont, 0. & Piciotti, M. (1984) Alterations in the fatty acidcomposition of rat brain cells (neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes) and of subcellular fractions (myelinand synaptosomes) induced by a diet devoid of n-3 fatty acids. J. Neurochem. 43: 342-348.Bourre, J.M., Bonnell, M., Dumont, 0., Piciotti, M., Nalbone, G. & Lafont, H. (1988) High dietary fish oil altersthe brain polyunsaturated fatty acid composition. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 960: 458-461.104Bourre, J.M., Francois, M., Youyou, A., Dumont, 0., Piciotti, M., Pascal, G. & Durand, G. (1989) The effectsof dietary a-linolenic acid on the composition of nerve membranes, enzymatic activity, amplitude ofelectrophysiological paramaters, resistance to poisons and performance of learning tasks in rats. J. Nutr. 119: 1880-1892.Bourre, J.M., Bonneil, M., Dumont, 0., Piciotti, M., Calaf, R., Portugal, H., Nalbone, G & Lafont, H. (1990)Effect of increasing amounts of dietary fish oil on brain and liver fatty composition Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1043:149-152.Bourre, J.M., Piciotti, M., Dumont, 0., Pascal, G. & Durand, G. (1990a) Dietary linoleic acid and polyunsaturatedfatty acids in rat brain and other organs. Minimal requirements of linoleic acid. Lipids 25: 465-472.Bourre, J.M., Piciotti, M. & Dumont, 0. (1990b) O6 Desaturase in brain and liver during development and aging.Lipids 25: 354-356.Bourre, J.M., Dumont, 0., Piciotti, M., Clement, M., Chaudiere, J., Bonneil, M., Nabone, G., Lafont, J., Pascal,G. & Durand, G. (1991) Essentiality of ?i)3 fatty acids for brain structure and function. In: Health Effects of eo3Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Seafoods. World Rev. Nutr. Diet, 66: 103-117, Karger, Basel, Switzerland.Brenner, R.R. & Peluffo, R.O. (1966) Effect of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids on the desaturation in vitroof pamitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids. J. Biol. Chem. 241: 5213-5219.Brenner, R.R., Peluffo, R.O., Nervi, A.M. & Detomas, M.E. (1969) Competitive effect of a- and y-linolenyl-CoAand arachidonyl-CoA in linoleyl-CoA desaturation to y-linolenyl-CoA. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 176: 420-422.Brown, M.L., Marshal, L.A. & Johnson, PA. (1984) Alteration in cerebral and microvascular prostaglandinsynthesis by manipulation of dietary essential fatty acids. J. Neurochem. 43: 1392-1400.Brown, M.F. & Gibson, N.J. (1992) Biological functon of docsahexaenoic acid in the retinal rod disk membranes.In: Essential Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids: invited papers from the Third International Conference (Gibson, R.A.& Sinclair, A.J., eds.) pp. 134-138, Am. Oil Chemists' Soc., Champaign, IL.Carlson, S.E., Rhodes, P.G. & Ferguson, M.G. (1986) Docosahexaenoic acid status of preterm infants at birthand following feeding with human milk or formula. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 44: 798-804.Carlson, S.E., Rhodes, P.G., Rao, V.S. & Goldgar, D.E. (1987) Effect of fish oil supplementation on the n-3 fattyacid content of red blood cell membranes in preterm infants. Pediatr. Res. 21: 507-510.Carlson, S.E., Cooke, R.J., Werkman, S.H. & Peeples, J.M. (1989) Docosahexaenoate (DHA) andeicosapentaenoate (EPA) supplementation of preterm infants: Effects on phospholipid DHA and visual acuity.Fed. Proc. 3:A1056 (abstr.).Carlson, S.E., Cooke, R.J., Peeples, J.M., Werkman, S.H. & Tolley, E.A. (1989) Docosahexaenoate (DHA) andeicosapentaenoate (EPA) status of preterm infants: relationship to visual acuity in n-3 supplemented andunsupplemented infants. Pediatr. Res. 25: 285A (abstr.).Carlson, S.E., Cooke, R.J., Rhodes, P.G., Peeples, J.M., Werkman, S.H. & Tolley, EA. (1991) Long-term feedingof formulas high in linolenic acid and marine oil to very low birth weight infants: phospholipid fatty acids. Pediatr.Res. 30: 404-412.Carlson, S.E., Werkman, S.H., Peeples, J.M., Cooke, R.J., Tolley, EA. & Wilson, W.M. (1992) Growth anddevelopment of very low birth weight infants in relation to N-3 and N-6 essential fatty acid status. In: EssentialFatty Acids and Eicosanoids: invited papers from the Third International Conference (Gibson, R.A. & Sinclair, A.J.,eds.) pp. 192-196, Am. Oil Chemists' Soc., Champaign, IL.105Carlson, S.E., Werkman, S.H., Peeples, J.M., Cooke, R.J. & Wilson, W.M. (1992a) Plasma phospholipidarachidonic acid and growth and development of preterm infants. In: Recent Advances in Infant Feeding:symposium Leidschendam 1990, (Koletzko, B., Okken, A., Rey, J., Salle, B & Van Biervliet, J.P. eds.), pp. 22-27.Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart; New York.Carlson, S.E., Cooke, R.J., Werkman, S.H. & Tolley, EA. (1992b) First year growth of preterm infants fedstandard compared to marine oil n-3 supplemented formula. Lipids 27: 901-907.Cartwright, I.J., Pockley, A.G., Galloway, J.H., Greaves, M. & Preston, F.E. (1985) The effects of dietary Zo-3polyunsaturated fatty acids on erythrocyte deformability and blood viscosity in healthy volunteers. Atherosclerosis55: 267-281.Chen, P.S., Toribara, T.Y. & Warner, H. (1956) Microdetermination of phosphorus. Anal. Chem. 28: 1756-1758.Chen, Z.-U. & Cunnane, S.C. (1992) Early postnatal development in the rat is characterized by accumulationof highly unsaturated triacylglycerols. Pediatr. Res. 31: 47-51.Christie, W.W. (1982) Lipid Analysis, 2nd Edn. Pergamon Press, Oxford, England.Christon, R. Fernandez, Y., Cambon-Gros, C., Periquet, A., Deltour, P., Leger, C.L. & Mitjavila, S. (1988) Theeffect of dietary essential fatty acid deficiency on the composition and properties of the liver microsomalmembrane of rats. J. Nutr. 118: 1311-1318.Clandinin, M.T., Chappell, J.E., Leong, S., Heim, T., Swyer, P.R. & Chance, G.W. (1980) Extrauterine fatty acidaccretion in infant brain: implications for fatty acid requirements. Early Hum. Dev. 4: 131-138.Clandinin, M.T., Chappell, J.E. & Heim, T. (1981) Do low birthweight infants require nutrition with long chainelongation-denaturation products of essential fatty acids? Prog. Lipid Res. 20: 901-904.Clandinin, M.T., Wong, K. & Hacker, R. (1985) Synthesis of chain elongation-desaturation products of linoleicacid by liver and brain microsomes during development of the pig. Biochem. J. 226: 305-309.Clark, K.J., Makrides, M., Neumann, MA. & Gibson, RA. (1992) Determination of the optimal ratio of linoleicacid to a-linolenic acid in infant formulas. J. Pediatr. 120: S151-158.Clarke, S.D., Rosmos, D.R. & Leveille, GA. (1976) Specific inhibition of hepatic fatty acid synthesis exerted bydietary linoleate and linolenate in essential fatty acid adequate rats. Lipids 11: 485-490.Clarke, S.D., Romsos, D.R. & Leveille, G.A. (1977) Differential effects of dietary methyl esters of long-chainsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acid on rat liver and adipose tissue lipogenesis. J. Nutr. 107: 1170-1181.Clarke, S.D. & Abraham, S. (1992) Gene expression: nutrient control of pre- and posttranscriptional events.FASEB J. 6: 3146-3152.Clouet, P., Niot, I. & B6zard, J. (1989) Pathway of a-linolenic acid through the mitochondrial outer membranein the rat liver and influence on the rate of oxidation. Biochem. J. 263: 867-873.Connor, W.E., Neuringer, M., Barstad, L. & Lin, DA. (1984) Dietary deprivation of linolenic acid in rhesusmonkeys: effects on plasma and tissue fatty acid composition and on visual function. Trans. Assn. Am. Phys. 97:1-9.Connor, W.E. & Neuringer, M. (1988) The effects of n-3 fatty acid deficiency and repletion upon the fatty acidcomposition and function of the brain and retina. In: Biological Membranes: Aberrations in Membrane Structureand Function, pp. 275-294, Alan R. Liss, New York, NY.106Connor, W.E., Lin, D.S., Neuringer, M., Reisbick, S. & Anderson, G.J. (1992) The comparative importance ofprenatal and postnatal n-3 fatty acid deficiency: repletion at birth and later. In: Essential Fatty Acids andEicosanoids: invited papers from the Third International Congress. (Sinclair, A. & Gibson, R., eds.), pp. 156-160,Am. Oil Chemists' Soc., Champaign, IL.Cook, H.W. & Spence, M.W. (1973) Formation of monoenoic fatty acids by desaturation in rat brain homogenate.Some properties of the enzyme system of 10-day-old brain. J. Biol. Chem. 248: 1786-1793.Cook, H.W. & Spence, M.W. (1973a) Formation of monoenoic fatty acids by desaturation in rat brainhomogenate. Effects of age, fasting, and refeeding, and comparison with liver enzyme. J. Biol. Chem. 248: 1793-1796.Cook, H.W. (1978)/n vitro formation of polyunsaturated fatty acids by desaturation in rat brain: some propertiesof the enzymes in developing brain and comparisons with liver. J. Neurochem. 30: 1327-1334.Cook, H.W. (1981) Metabolism of triacylglycerol in developing rat brain. Neurochem. Res. 6: 1217-1229.Cruz, T.F. & Gurd, J.W. (1978) Reaction of synaptic plasma membrane sialoglycoproteins with intrinsic sialidaseand wheat germ agglutinin J. Biol. Chem. 253: 7314-7318.Cullis, P.R. & Hope, M.J. (1985) Physical properties and functional roles of lipids in membranes. In: Biochemistryof Lipids and Membranes, (Vance, D.E. & Vance, J.E., eds.), pp. 25-72. The Benjamins/Cummings PublishingCo., Inc., Menlo Park, California.Dhopeshwarkar, GA. & Subramanian, C. (1975) Metabolism of linolenic acid in developing brain: I: incorporationof radioactivity from 1-' 4C linolenic acid into brain fatty acids. Lipids 10: 238-241.Dhopeshwarkar, G.A. & Subramanian, C. (1976) Intracranial conversion of linoleic acid to arachidonic acid:evidence for lack of A8 desaturase in the brain. J. Neurochem. 26: 1175-1179.Dhopeshwarkar, GA. & Subramanian, C. (1976a) Biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the developingbrain: 1. Metabolic transformations of intracranially administered 1-' 4C linolenic acid. Lipids 11: 67-71.Dise, C.A., Goodman, D.B.P. & Rasmussen, H. (1980) Definition of the pathway for membrane phospholipidfatty acid turnover in human erythrocytes. J. Lipid Res. 21: 292-300.Dobbing, J. & Sands, J. (1979) Comparative aspects of the brain growth spurt. Early Human Dev. 3: 79-83.Dratz, E.A. & Holte, L.L. (1992) The molecular spring model for the function of docosahexaenoic acid (22:67.-3)in biological membranes. In: Essential Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids: invited papers from the Third InternationalConference (Gibson, R.A. & Sinclair, A.J., eds.) pp. 122-127, Am. Oil Chemists' Soc., Champaign, IL.Drew, M.D. & Owen, B.D. (1988) The provision of passive immunity to colostrum deprived piglets by bovineor porcine serum immunoglobulins Can. J. Animal Sci. 68: 1277-1284.Enslen, M., Milon, H. & Malniie, A. (1991) Effect of low intake of n-3 fatty acids during development on brainphospholipid composition and exploratory behavior in rats. Lipids 3: 203-205.Evers, A.S., Elliot, W.J., Lefkowith, J.B. & Needleman, P. (1986) Manipulation of rat brain fatty acid compositionalters volatile anesthetic potency. J. Clin. Invest. 77: 1028-1033.Farquharson, J., Cockburn, F., Patrick, W.A., Jamieson, E.C. & Logan, R.W. (1992) Infant cerebral cortexphospholipid fatty-acid composition and diet. Lancet 340: 810-813.107Fliesler, S.J. & Anderson, R.E. (1983) Chemistry and metabolism of lipids in the vertebrate retina. Prog. LipidRes. 22: 79-131.Folch. J., Lees, M. & Stanley, G.H.S. (1957) A simple method for total lipid extraction and purification. J. Biol.Chem. 226: 497-509.Foot, M., Cruz, T.F. & Clandinin, M.T. (1982) Influence of dietary fat on the lipid composition of rat brainsynaptosomal and microsomal membranes. Biochem. J. 208: 631-640.Galli, D., Agradi, E. & Paoletti, R. (1974) The (n-6) pentaene:(n-3) hexane fatty acid ratio as an index of linolenicacid deficiency. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 369: 142-145.Garg, M.L., Sebokova, E., Thomson, A.B.R. & Clandinin, M.T. (1988) A6-Desaturase activity in liver microsomesof rats fed diets enriched with cholesterol and/or Zo3 fatty acids. Biochem. J. 249: 351-356.Garg, M.L., Keelan, M., Thomson, A.B. & Clandinin, M.T. (1988a) Fatty acid desaturation in the intestinalmucosa. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 958: 139-141.Garg, M.L., Wierzbicki, A.A., Thomson, A.B.R. & Clandinin, M.T. (1989) Dietary saturated fat levels alter thecompetition between a-linolenic and linoleic acid. Lipids 24: 334-339.Garg, M.L., Thomson, A.B.R. & Clandinin, M.T. (1990) Interactions of saturated, n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturatedfatty acids to modulate arachidonic acid metabolism. J. Lipid Res. 31: 271-277.Garofalo, R.S. & Pfenninger, K.H. (1986) Phosphatidylinositol turnover in nerve growth cones isolated from theCNS. J. Cell Biol.130: 454 (abstr).Gavino, G.R. & Gavino, V.C. (1991) Rat liver outer mitochondrial carnitine palmitoyltransferase activity towardslong-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and their CoA esters. Lipids 26: 266-270.Giesing, M. & Zilliken, F. (1980) Lipid metabolism of developing central nervous tissues in organotypic culturesIII. Ganglionic control of glycerolipids and fatty acids in cortex grey matter. Neurochem. Res. 5: 257-267.Guinn, M., Christensen, E., Hagve, TA. & Christophersen, B.O. (1992) Effects of dietary purifiedeicosapentaenoic acid (20:5(n-3)) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6(n-3)) on fatty acid desaturation and oxidationin isolated rat liver cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1125: 35-43.Hadjiagapiou, C. & Spector, A.A. (1987) Docosahexaenoic acid metabolism and effect on prostacyclin productionin endothelial cells. Arch. Bioch. Biophys. 253: 1-12.Hagve, TA. & Christophersen, B.O. (1983) Linolenic acid desaturation and chain elongation and rapid turnoverof phospholipid n-3 fatty acids in isolated rat liver cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 753: 339-349.Hagve, TA. & Christophersen, B.O. (1984) Effect of dietary fats on arachidonic acid and eicosapentanoic acidbiosynthesis and conversion to C22 fatty acids in isolated rat liver cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 796: 205-217.Hagve, TA. & Christophersen, B.O. (1986) Evidence for peroxisomal retroconversion of adrenic acid (22:4(n-6))and docosahexaenoic acids (22:6(n-3)) in isolated liver cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 875: 165-173.Hagve, TA., Christensen E., Gronn, M. and Christophersen, B.O. (1988) Regulation of the metabolism ofpolyunsaturated fatty acids. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 48: Suppl. 191: 33-46.Harris, W.S., Connor, W.E. & Lindsey, S. (1984) Will dietary w-3 fatty acids change the composition of humanmilk? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 40: 780-785.108Hassam, A.G. (1976) The availability of long-chain polyenoic fatty acids for brain development in the rat. Biochem.Soc. Trans. 4: 233-234.Henderson, RA., Jensen, R.G., Lammi-keefe, C.J., Ferris, A.M. & Dardick, K.R. (1992) Effect of fish oil on thefatty acid composition of human milk and maternal and infant erythrocytes. Lipids 27: 863-869.Herschkowitz, N. (1988) Brain development in the fetus, neonate and infant. Biol. Neonate. 54: 1-19.Holman, R.T. (1964) Nutritional and metabolic interrelationships between fatty acids. Fed. Proc. 23: 1062-1067.Holman, R.T. (1986) Nutritional and biochemical evidences of acyl interaction with respect to essentialpolyunsaturated fatty acids. Prog. Lipid Res. 25: 29-39.Holub, B.J. & Skeaff, C.M. (1987) Nutritional regulation of cellular phosphatidylinositol. Methods Enzymol. 141:234-244.Homayoun, P., Durand, G., Pascal, G. & Bourre, J.M. (1988) Alterations in fatty acid composition of adult ratbrain capillaries and choroid plexus induced by a diet deficient in n-3 fatty acids: slow recovery after substitutionwith a nondeficient diet. J. Neurochem. 51: 45-48.Houslay, M.D. & Stanley, K.K. (1982) Dynamics of Biological Membranes: Influence on synthesis, structure andfunction. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., New York, NY.Hrboticky, N., MacKinnon, M.J., Puterman, M.L. & Innis, S.M. (1989) Effect of linoleic acid-rich infant formulaon brain synaptosomal lipid accretion and enzyme thermotropic behavior in the piglet. J. Lipid Res. 30: 1173-1184.Hrboticky, N., MacKinnon, M.J. & Innis, S.M. (1990) Effect of vegetable oil formula rich in linoleic acid on tissuefatty acid accretion in the brain, liver, plasma and erythrocytes of infant piglets. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51: 173-182.Hrboticky, N., MacKinnon, M.J. & Innis, S.M. (1991) Retina fatty acid composition of piglets fed from birth witha linoleic acid-rich vegetable-oil formula for infants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 53: 483-490.Huang, Y.S., Wainwright, P.E., Redden, P.R., Mills, D.E., Bulman-Fleming, B. & Horrobin, D.F. (1992) Effectof maternal dietary fats with variable n-3/n-6 ratios on tissue fatty acid composition in suckling mice. Lipids 27:104-110.Hwang, D.H., Boudreau, M. & Chanmugam, P. (1988) Dietary linolenic acid and longer-chain n-3 fatty acids:comparison of effects on arachidonic acid metabolism in rats. J. Nutr. 118: 427-437.Infant Nutrition, A study of Canadian mothers (1984) Cogemine Marketing Consulting and Research, Montreal,Quebec.Innis, S.M. & Clandinin, M.T. (1981) Dynamic modulation of mitochondria] inner-membrane lipids in rat heartby dietary fat. Biochem. J. 193: 155-167.Innis, S.M. & Kuhnlein, H.V. (1988) Long-chain n-3 fatty acids in breast milk of Inuit women consumingtraditional foods. Early Hum. Dev. 18: 185-189.Innis, S.M., Foote, K.D., MacKinnon, M.J. & King, D.J. (1990) Plasma and red blood cell fatty acids of low-birth-weight infants fed their mother's expressed breast milk or preterm-infant formula. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51: 994-1000.Innis, S.M. (1991) Essential fatty acids in growth and development. Prog. Lipid Res. 30: 39-103.Innis, S.M. (1992) Human milk and formula fatty acids. J. Pediatr. 120: S56-61.109Innis, S.M. (1992a) Tissue omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid relationships during differing intakes of saturated,monounsaturated, omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids from breast milks and formulae in the newborn. In: EssentialFatty Acids and Eicosanoids: invited papers from the Third International Congress (Gibson, R.A. & Sinclair, A.J.,eds.) pp. 183-191, Am. Oil Chemists' Soc., Champaign, IL.Innis, S.M. (1992b) Plasma and red blood cell fatty acids as indexes of essential fatty acids in the developingorgans of infants fed with milk or formulas. J. Pediatr. 120: S78-86.Innis, S.M. (1993) The colostrum-deprived piglets as a model for study of infant lipid nutrition. J. Nutr. 123: 386-390.Innis, S.M., Arbuckle, L.D. & Wall, K.M. (1993) Insights into possible mechanisms of essential fatty acid uptakeinto developing brain from studies of diet, circulating lipid, liver and brain N-6 and N-3 fatty acids. In: Lipids,Learning and the Brain (Dobbing, J., ed.), Ross Laboratories, Columbus, OH, in press.Iritani N., Inoguchi, K., Endo, M., Fukuda, E & Morita, M. (1980) Identification of shellfish fatty acids and theireffects on lipogenic enzymes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 618: 378-382.Jensen, R.G. (1989) Lipids in human milk - composition and fat soluble vitamins. In: Textbook of Gastroenterologyand Nutrition in Infancy, 2nd Ed. (Lebenthal, E. ed.) pp. 157-208. Raven Press, New York.Jensen, R.G., Lammi-Keefe, C.J., Henderson, RA., Bush, V.J. & Ferris, A.M. (1992) Effect of dietary intakeof n-6 and n-3 fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of human milk in North America. J. Pediatr. 120: S87-S92.John, G.R., Littleton, J.M. & Jones, P.A. (1980) Membrane lipids and ethanol tolerance in the mouse. Theinfluence of dietary fatty acid composition. Life Sci. 27: 545-555.Jones, P.J.H., Hrboticky, N., Hahn, P. & Innis, S.M. (1990) Comparison of breast-feeding and formula feedingon intestinal and hepatic cholesterol metabolism in neonatal pigs. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51: 979-984.Kalman, J., Geese, A., Farkas, T., JoO, F., Telegdy, G. & Lajtha, A. (1992) Dietary manipulation with high marinefish oil intake of fatty acid composition and arachidonic acid metabolism in rat cerebral microvessels. Neurochem.Res. 17: 167-172.Kaya, K. Miura, T. & Kubota, K. (1984) Different incorporation rates of arachidonic acid into alkenylacyl-alkylacyl- and diacylphosphatidylethanolamine of rat erythrocytes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 796: 304-311.Koblin, D.D., Dong, D.E., Deady, J.E. & Eger, E.I. (1980) Alteration of synaptic membrane fatty acid compositionand anesthetic requirement. J. Phannacol. Exp. Ther. 212: 546-552.Koletzko, B. & Braun, M. (1991) Arachidonic acid and early human growth: is there a relation? Ann. Nutr. Metab.35: 128-131.Kuksis, A. (1984) Quantitative and positional analysis of fatty acids. In: Lipid Research Methodology, pp. 77-131,Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York, NY.Lamptey, M.S. & Walker, B.L. (1976) A possible role for dietary linoleic acid in the development of the youngrat. J. Nutr. 106: 86-93.Lands, W.E., Inoue, M., Sugiura, Y. & Okuyama, H. (1982) Selective incorporation of polyunsaturated fatty acidsinto phosphatidylcholine by rat liver microsomes. J. Biol. Chem. 257: 14968-14972.Lands, E.M., Morris, A. & Libelt, B. (1990) Quantitative effects of dietary polyunsaturated fats on the compositionof fatty acids in rat tissues. Lipids 25: 505-516.110Lands, E.M. (1991) Dose-response relationships for w3/w6 effects. In: Health Effects of w3 Polyunsaturated FattyAcids in Seafoods, (Simopoulos, A.P., Kifer, R.R., Martin, R.E. & Barlow, S.M. eds). World Rev Nutr Diet. 66:177-194, Basel, Karger.Leaf, A.A., Leighfield, M.J., Ghebremeskel, K., Costeloe, K.L. & Crawford, M. (1992) Polyunsaturated fatty acidsin plasma choline phosphoglycerides of preterm infants. Third International Congress on Essential Fatty Acids andEicosanoids, Adelaide 1992, p. 77 (abstr.).Lepage, G. & Roy, C.C. (1986) Direct transesterification of classes of lipids in a one-step reaction. J. Lipid Res.27: 114-120.Leyton, J., Drury, P.J. & Crawford, M.A. (1987) In vivo incorporation of labeled fatty acids in rat liver lipids afteroral administration. Lipids 22: 553-558.Leyton, J., Drury, P.J. & Crawford, MA. (1987a) Differential oxidation of saturated and unsaturated fatty acidsin vivo in the rat. Brit. J. Nutr. 57: 383-393.Li, J., Wetzel, M.G. & O'Brien, P.J. (1992) Transport of n-3 fatty acids from the intestine to the retina in rats.J. Lipid Res. 33: 539-548.Lin, D.S., Anderson, G.J. & Connor, W.E. (1991) High levels of the (n-6) fatty acid 4,7,10,13,16-docosapentaenoate in the retinas of rabbits are reduced by feeding dietary fish oil from birth to adult life. J. Nutr.121: 1924-1931.Lin, D.S., Connor, W.E. & Anderson, G.J. (1991a) The incorporation of n-3 and n-6 essential fatty acids intothe chick embryo from egg yolks having vastly different fatty acid compositions. Pediatr. Res. 29: 601-605.Lin, T.N., MacQuarrie, R. & Sun, G.Y. (1988) Arachidonic acid uptake by phospholipids and triacylglycerols ofrat brain subcellular membranes. Lipids 23: 942-947.Liu, C.C.F., Carlson, S.E., Rhodes, P.G., Rao, V.S. & Meydrech, E.F. (1987) Increase in plasma phospholipiddocosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids as a reflection of their intake and mode of administration. Pediatr.Res. 22: 292-296.Loh, H.H. & Law, P.Y. (1980) The role of membrane lipids in receptor mechanisms. Ann. Rev. Phannacol.Toxicol. 20: 201-234.Lowry, 0.H., Rosebrough, N.J., Farr, A.L. & Randall, R.J. (1951) Protein measurement with the Folin phenolreagent. J. Biol. Chem. 193: 265-275.MacDonald, J.I.S. & Sprecher, H. (1991) Review: Phospholipid fatty acid remodeling in mammalian cells. Biochim.Biophys. Acta 1084: 105-121.Marbois, B.N., Ajie, H.O., Korsak, R.A., Sensharma, D.K. & Edmond, J. (1992) The origin of palmitic acid inbrain of the developing rat. Lipids 27: 587-592.Marinetti, G.V. & Cattieu, K. (1982) Asymmetric metabolism of phosphatidylethanolamine in the human redcell membrane. J. Biol. Chem. 10: 245-248.Martin, R.E. & Bazan, N.G. (1992) Changing fatty acid content of growth cone lipids prior to synaptogenesis.J. Neurochem. 59: 318-325.Martinez, M. & Ballabriga, A. (1987) Effects of parenteral nutrition with high doses of linoleate on the developinghuman liver and brain. Lipids 22: 133-138.111Martinez, M. (1992) Tissue levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids during early human development../. Pediatr. 120:S129-138.Mohrhauer, H. & Holman, R.T. (1963) Alteration of the fatty acid composition of brain lipids by varying levelsof dietary essential fatty acids. J. Neurochem. 10: 523-530.Mohrhauer, H. & Holman, R.T. (1963a) The effect of dose levels of essential fatty acids upon fatty acidcomposition of the rat liver. J. Lipid Res. 4: 151-159.Montgomery, D.C. (1984) Design and Analysis of Experiments. J. Wiley & Sons, New York, USA.Moore, S.A., Yoder, E., Murphy, S., Dutton, G.R. & Spector, A.A. (1991) Astrocytes, not neurons, producedocosahexaenoic acid (22:62\u00C2\u00B03) and arachidonic acid (20:42\u00C2\u00B06). J. Neurochem. 56: 518-524.Moore, S.A., Yoder, E. & Spector, A.A. (1990) Role of the blood-brain barrier in the formation of long-chain2\u00C2\u00B0-3 and 2\u00C2\u00B0-6 fatty acids from essential fatty acid precursors. J. Neurochem. 55: 391-402.Morand, 0., Carre, J.B., Homayoun, P., Niel, E., Baumann, N. & Bourre J.M. (1987) Arachidonyl-coenzyme Asynthetase and nonspecific acyl-coenzyme A synthetase activities in purified rat brain microvessels. J. Neurochem.48: 1150-1156.Morrison, W.R. & Smith, L.M. (1961) Preparation of fatty acid methyl esters and dimethylacetals from lipidswith boron fluoride-methanol. J. Lipid Res. 5: 600-608.Mulder, E. & Van Deenan, L.L.M. (1965) Metabolism of red-cell lipids I: incorporation in vitro of fatty acidsinto phospholipids from mature erythrocytes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 106: 106-117.Nestel, P.J., Connor, W.E., Reardon, M.R., Connor, S., Wong, S. & Boston, R. (1984) Suppression by diets richin fish oil of very low density lipoprotein production in man. J. Clin. Invest. 74: 72-89.Neuringer, M., Connor, W.E., Van Petten, C. & Barstad, L. (1984) Dietary omega-3 fatty acid deficiency andvisual loss in infant rhesus monkeys. J. Clin. Invest. 73: 272-276.Neuringer, M., Connor, W.E., Lin, D.S., Barstad, L. & Luck, S. (1986) Biochemical and functional effects ofprenatal and postnatal n-3 fatty acid deficiency on retina and brain in rhesus monkey. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA83: 4021-4025.Neuringer, M. & Connor, W.E. (1989) Omega-3 fatty acids in the retina. In: Dietary w3 and co6 Fatty Acids:Biological Effects and Nutritional Essentiality (Galli, C. & Simopoulos, A.P. eds.) pp. 177-190, Plenum Press, NewYork.Nouvelot, A., Dedonder, E., Dewailly, P. & Bourre, J.M. (1985) Influence des n-3 exogenes sur la compositinen acides gran polyinsatures de la retine, aspects structural et physiologique. Cah. Nutr. Diet. 20: 123-125.Nouvelot, A., Delbart, C. & Bourre, J.M. (1986) Hepatic metabolism of dietary alpha-linolenic acid in sucklingras, and its possible importance in polyunsaturated fatty acid uptake by the brain. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 30: 316-323.NRC, Sub-committee on Swine Nutrition (1979) Nutrient Requirements of Swine. 8th Edn., pp. 22-23, Natl. Acad.Press, Washington, DC.Nutrition Recommendations (1990) The Report of the Scientific Review Committee. Health & Welfare Canada,pp. 40-52.112Oleg\u00C3\u00A1rd, R. & Svennerholm, L. (1971) Effects of diet on fatty acid composition of plasma and red cellphosphoglycerides in three-month-old infants. Acta Pcediat. Scand. 60: 505-511.Philbrick, D.-J., Mahadevappa, V.G., Ackman, R.G. & Holub, B.J. (1987) Ingestion of fish oil or a derived n-3fatty acid concentrate containing eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) affects fatty acid compositions of individualphospholipids of rat brain, sciatic nerve and retina. J. Nutr. 117: 1663-1670.Pollet, S., Ermidou, S., Le Saux, F., Monge, M. & Baumann, N. (1978) Microanalysis of brain lipids: multipletwo-dimensional thin-layer chromatography. J. Lipid Res. 19: 916-921.Ponder, D.L., Innis, S.M., Benson, J.D. & Siegman, J.S. (1992) Docosahexaenoic acid status of term infants fedbreast milk or infant formula containing soy oil or corn oil. Pediatr. Res. 32: 683-688.Pugh, E.L. & Kates, M. (1977) Direct desaturation of eicosatrienoyl lecithin to arachidonoyl lecithin by rat livermicrosomes. J. Biol. Chem. 252: 68-73.Purvis, J.M., Clandinin, M.T. & Hacker, R.R. (1983) Chain elongation-desaturation of linoleic acid during thedevelopment of the pig. Implications for the supply of polyenoic fatty acids to the developing brain. Comp.Biochem. Physiol. 75B: 199-204.Putnam, J.C., Carlson, S.E., Devoe, P.W. & Barness, LA. (1982) The effect of variations in dietary fatty acidson the fatty acid composition of erythrocyte phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine in human infants.Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 36: 106-114.Rees, R.P. (1978) The morphology of interneuronal synaptogenesis: a review. Fed. Proceed. 37: 2000-2009.Rose, H.G. & Oklander, M. (1965) Improved procedure for the extraction of lipids from human erythrocytes.J. Lipid Res. 6: 428-431.Rosenthal, M.D. (1987) Fatty acid metabolism in isolated mammalian cells. Frog. Lipid Res. 26: 87-124.Rosenthal, M.D., Garcia, M.C., Jones, M.R. & Sprecher, H. (1991) Retroconversion and ZI 4 desaturation ofdocosatetraenoate (22:4(n-6)) and docosapentaenoate (22:5(n-3)) by human cells in culture. Biochim. Biophys.Acta 1083: 29-36.Salem, N. Jr., Hee-Yong, K. & Yergey, J.A. (1986) Docosahexaenoic acid: membrane function and metabolism.In: Health Effects of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Seafoods (Simopoulos, A.P., Kifer, R.R. & Martin, R.E., eds.)pp. 263-318. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, Florida.Sanders, T.A.B., Mistry, M. & Naismith, D.J. (1984) The influence of a maternal diet rich in linoleic acid on brainand retinal docosahexaenoic acid in the rat. Brit. J. Nutr. 51: 57-66.Sanders, T.A.B. & Rana, S.K. (1987) Comparison of the metabolism of linoleic and linolenic acids in the fetalrat. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 31: 349-353.Sanders, T.A.B. & Reddy, S. (1992) The influence of a vegetarian diet on the fatty acid composition of humanmilk and the essential fatty acid status of the infant. J. Pediatr. 120: S71-77.Sastry, P.S. (1985) Lipids of nervous tissue: composition and metabolism. Prog. Lipid Res. 24: 69-176.Scanu, A.M. (1986) Plasma lipoproteins: an overview. In: Biochemistry and Biology of Plasma Lipoproteins, (Scanu,A.M. & Spector, A.A., eds.), pp. 1-51, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY.113Scott, B.L., Reddy, T.S. & Bazan, N.G. (1987) Docosahexaenoate metabolism and fatty acid composition indeveloping retinas of normal and rd mutant mice. Exp. Eye Res. 44: 101-113.Scott, B.L. & Bazan, N.G. (1989) Membrane docosahexaenoate is supplied to the developing brain and retinaby the liver. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 2903-2907.Sinclair, A.J. & Crawford, MA. (1972) The accumulation of arachidonate and docosahexaenoate in the developingrat brain. J. Neurochem. 19: 1753-1758.Sinclair, A.J. (1975) Incorporation of radioactive polyunsaturated fatty acids into liver and brain of developingrat. Lipids 10: 175-184.Singer, S.J. & Nicolson, G.L. (1972) The fluid mosaic model of the structure of membranes. Science 175: 720-731.Singh, H. Usher, S. & Poulos, A. (1989) Mitochondrial and peroxisomal beta-oxidation of stearic and lignocericacid by rat brain. J. Neurochem. 53: 1711-1718.Skipski, V.P., Peterson, R.F. & Barkley, M. (1964) Quantitative analysis of phospholipids by thin-layerchromatography. Biochem. J. 90: 374-378.Smith, W.L. (1989) Review article: the eicosanoids and their biochemical mechanisms of action. Biochem. J. 259:315-324.Spector, AA. & Yorek, M.A. (1985) Membrane lipid composition and cellular function. J. Lipid Res. 26: 1015-1035.Sprecher, H. (1981) Biochemistry of essential fatty acids. Prog. Lipid Res. 20: 13-22.Sprecher, H. (1991) Enzyme activities affecting tissue lipid fatty acid composition. In: Health Effects of 0)3Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Seafoods. World Rev. Nutr. Diet, 66: 166-176, Karger, Basel, Switzerland.Sprecher, H. (1992) Interconversions between 20- and 22-carbon n-3 and n-6 fatty acids via 4-desaturaseindependent pathways. In: Essential Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids: invited papers from the Third InternationalCongress (Gibson, R.A. & Sinclair, A.J., eds.) pp. 18-22, Am. Oil Chemists' Soc., Champaign, IL.Stone, W.L., Farnsworth, C.C. & Dratz, E.A. (1979) A reinvestigation of the fatty acid content of bovine, rat andfrog retinal rod outer segment. Exp. Eye Res. 28: 387-397.Strouv6-Vallet, C. & Pascaud, M. (1971) Desaturation de l'acide linoleique par les microsomes du foie et ducerveau du rat en developpement. Biochintie 53: 699-703.Stubbs, C.D. & Smith, A.D. (1984) The modification of mammalian membrane polyunsaturated fatty acidcomposition in relation to membrane fluidity and function. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 779: 89-137.Sun, G.Y. & Sun, A.Y. (1974) Synaptosomal plasma membranes: acyl group composition of phosphoglyceridesand (Na + + K+ ) ATPase activity during fatty acid deficiency. J. Neurochem. 22: 15-18.Swanson, J.E., Black, J.M. & Kinsella, J.E. (1988) Dietary menhaden oil: effects on the rate and magnitude ofmodification of phospholipid fatty acid composition of mouse heart and brain. Brit. J. Nutr. 59: 535-545.Sweasy, D., Patterson, D.S.P. & Glancy, E.M. (1976) Biphasic myelination and the fatty acid composition ofcerebrosides and cholesterol esters in the developing central nervous system of the domestic pig. J. Neurochem.27: 375-380.114Tinoco, J. (1982) Dietary requirements and functions of alpha-linolenic acid in animals Prog. Lipid Res. 21: 1-45.Toussant, M.J., Wilson, M.D. & Clarke, S.D. (1981) Coordinate suppression of liver acetyl-CoA carboxylase andfatty acid synthetase by polyunsaturated fat. J. Nutr. 111: 146-153.Uauy, R.D., Birch, D.G., Birch, E.E., Tyson, J.E. & Hoffman, D.R. (1990) Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on retinalfunction of very low birth weight neonates. Pediatr. Res. 28: 485-492.Uriel, J., Naval, J. & Laborda, J. (1987) ce-Fetoprotein-mediated transfer of arachidonic acid into cultured clonedcells derived from a rat rhabdomyosarcoma. J. Biol. Chem.262: 3579-3585.Voller, A., Bidwell, D.E. & Bartlett, A. (1976) Enzyme immunoassays in diagnostic medicine. Bull. W.H.O. 53:55-65.Voss, A., Reinhart, M., Sankarappa, S. & Sprecher, H. (1991) The metabolism of 7,10,13,16,19-docosapentaenoicacid to 4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid in rat liver is independent of a 4-desaturase. J. Biol. Chem. 266: 19995-20000.Voss, A., Reinhart, M., Sankarappa, S. & Sprecher, H. (1992) Differences in the interconversion between 20-and 22-carbon (n-3) and (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids in rat liver. Biochirn. Biophys. Acta 1127: 33-40.Wainwright, P.E. (1992) Do essential fatty acids play a role in brain and behavioral development? Neuroscienceand Behavioral Reviews 16: 193-205.Wainwright, P.E., Huang, Y.S., Bulman-Fleming, B., Dalby, D., Mills, D.E., Redden, P. & McCutcheon, D. (1992)The effects of dietary n-3/n-6 ratio on brain development in the mouse: a dose response study with long-chainn-3 fatty acids. Lipids 27: 98-103.Wainwright, P.E., Huang, Y.S., Bulman-Fleming, B., Mills, D.E., Redden, P. & McCutcheon, D. (1991) The roleof n-3 essential fatty acids in brain and behavioral development: a cross-fostering study in the mouse. Lipids 26:37-45.Wainwright, P.E., Huang, Y.S., Mills, D.E., Ward, R.P. & McCutcheon, D. (1989) Interactive effects of prenatalethanol and n-3 fatty acid supplementation on brain development in mice. Lipids 24: 989-997.Walker, B.L. (1967) Maternal diet and brain fatty acids in young rats. Lipids 2: 497-500.Wall, K.M., Diersen-Schade, D. & Innis, S.M. (1992) Nonessential fatty acids in formula fat blends influence fattyacid metabolism and composition in plasma and organ lipid classes in piglets. Lipids 27: 1024-1031.Wang, N., Wiegand, R.D. & Anderson, R.E. (1992) Uptake of 22-carbon fatty acids into rat retina and brain.Exp. Eye Res. 54: 933-939.Watanabe, I., Kato, M., Anuma, H., Hashimoto, A., Naito, Y., Moriuchi, A. & Okuyama, H. (1987) Effect ofdietary alpha-linolenate/linoleate balance on the lipid composition and electroretinographic responses in rats.Adv. Biosci. 62: 563-570.Weidmann, T.S., Pates, R.D., Beach, J.M., Salmon, A. & Brown, M.F. (1988) Lipid-protein interactions mediatethe photochemical function of rhodopsin. Biochem. 27: 6469-6474.Wetzel, M.G., Richard, J.L., Alvarez, A., Anderson, R.E. & O'Brien, P.J. (1991) Metabolism of linolenic acidand docosahexaenoic acid in rat retinas and rod outer segments. Exp. Eye Res. 53: 437-4-46.115Williams, MA., Tinoco, J., Yang, Y.-T., Bird, M.I. & Hincenbergs, I. (1989) Feeding pure docosahexaenoate orarachidonate decreases plasma triacylglycerol secretion in rats. Lipids 24: 753-758.Yamamoto, N., Saitoh, M., Moriuchi, A., Nomura, M. & Okuyama, H. (1987) Effect of dietary a-linolenate/linoleate balance on brain lipid compositions and learning ability of rats. J. Lipid Res. 28: 144-151.Yamamoto, N., Hashimoto, A., Takemoto, Y., Okuyama, H., Nomura, M., Kitajima, R., Togashi, T. & Tamai,Y. (1988) Effect of the dietary a-linolenate/linoleate balance on lipid compositions and learning ability of rats.II. Discrimination process, extinction process, and glycolipid compositions. J. Lipid Res. 29: 1013-1021.Yau, T.M. & Sun, G.Y. (1974) The metabolism of 1-' 4C arachidonic acid in the neutral glycerides andphosphoglyceride of mouse brain. J. Neurochem. 23: 99-104.Yavin, E., Yavin, Z. & Menkes, J.H. (1975) Polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism in neuroblastoma cells inculture. J. Neurochem. 24: 71-77.Yeh, Y.-Y., Winters, B.L. & Yeh, S.-M. (1990) Enrichment of (n-3) fatty acids of suckling rats by maternal dietarymenhaden oil. J. Nutr. 120: 436-443.Yehuda, S., Leprohon-Greenwood, C.E., Dixon, L.M., Coscina, D.V. (1986) Effects of dietary fat on painthreshold, thermoregulation and motor activity in rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behay. 24: 1775-1777.Yonekubo, A., Honda, S., Okano, M. & Yamamoto, Y. (1993) Effect of dietary safflower oil or soybean oil onthe milk composition of the maternal rat and tissue fatty acid composition and learning ability of postnatal rats.Biosci. Biotech. Biochem. 57: 253-259.Yorek, M.A., Strom, D.K. & Spector, AA. (1984) Effect of membrane polyunsaturation on carrier-mediatedtransport in cultured retinoblastoma cells: alterations in taurine uptake. J. Neurochem. 42: 254-261.1165 Months6 Months0 10 6020 7 0 8030 40^50 90^100Breastfeed onlyBreastfeed + FormulaFormula onlyCow's milk onlyrajAiAlt//////,///In HospitalAt Home1 MonthAFr////////re Pr 'AA 07/A / //2 Months3 Months4 MonthsC///6 APPENDIXTable 6.1Patterns of infant feeding in Canada from birth to 6 months'Percentage'from Infant Nutrition: A study of Canadian mothers (1984).117Table 6.2National Research Council requirements for pigs'Mineral^ NRC Requirement (mg/dL)Calcium 255Phosphorus 200Magnesium^ 11.1Iron 4.2Zinc 2.3Copper^ 0.17Manganese 0.11Vitamin^ NRC Requirement (per dL formula)A 61 I.U.D 6.1 I.U.E 0.31 I.U.K 6\u00C2\u00B5gC^ no requirementB1 0.037 mgB2 0.083 mgB12^ 0.061 nNiacin 0.61 mgPyridoxine 40 itgFolate^ 1.7 figPantothenic Acid^ 0.37 mgBiotin 0.33 nCholine^ 30 mgAmino Acid NRC Requirement (g/dL) Lysine^ 0.36Arginine 0.09Histidine 0.09Isoleucine^ 0.23Leucine 0.28Methionine + Cystine^ 0.21Phenylalanine + Tyrosine 0.33Threonine^ 0.21Tryptophan 0.06Valine 0.23'from NRC, Sub-committee on Swine Nutrition (1979).118Table 63Fatty acid composition of cerebrum total lipid in 15 -day-old piglets fed sow milk or formula with varying % 18:2n -6 / % 18:3n-31Fatty acidReference milk(n = 7)Fish oil milk(n = 6)16/1 + FO(n = 5)16/1(n = 8)16 I 4(n = 7)30/1(n=6)35/4(n = 6)16:0 21.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 21.8 \u00C2\u00B1 02 19.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 21.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 20.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 19.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 19.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.418:0 23.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 24.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 24.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 23.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 24.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 24.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 24.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2E sats2 46.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 47.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 44.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 47.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 45.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 44.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 45.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.316:1 2.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 1.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.118:1 21.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 21.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 21.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 21.0 \u00C2\u00B1 02 20.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 203 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 19.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2E monos3 24.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 23.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 23.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 23.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 23.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 22.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 21.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.218:2n-6 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.118:3n-6 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:2n-6 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:3n-6 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:4n-6 10.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 10.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 10.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 10.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 10.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 11.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 10.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.222:4n-6 4.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 3.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 3.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 3.9 \u00C2\u00B1 03 4.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 4.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 4.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:5n-6 1.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 2.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 1.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 3.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1E n-6 LCP4 16.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 15.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 16.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 16.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 16.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 19.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 17.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.318:3n-3 0.1 + 0.1 nds 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr6 tr20:5n-3 0.2 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 02 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:5n-3 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:6n-3 9.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 10.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 11.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 8.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 10.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 8.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 10.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3E n-3 LCP 7 10.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 11.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 11.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 9.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 11.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 9.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 11.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.322:6n-3/22:5n-6 5.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 7.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 6.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 4.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 6.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 2.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 5.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4E LCP 26.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 26.6 + 0.3 28.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 25.8 + 0.6 27.8 + 0.3 28.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 28.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4UP 160 + 2 159 + 1 169 + 2 154 + 3 166 + 1 167 \u00C2\u00B1 1 171 + 2MChL9 18.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 18.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 18.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 18.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 18.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 18.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 18.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0'Piglets were fed and housed as described in Materials and Methods. Piglets received reference milk from sows fed usual pig diets with c.a. 2.5% (wt/wt) vegetableoil. Piglets received fish oil milk from sows fed usual pig diets with 5% (wt/wt) soybean oil throughout gestation and 4% (wt/wt) soybean oil plus 1% (wt/wt) fishoil from 4 days pre- to 15 days post-partum. Fatty acids were prepared and analyzed as described in Materials and Methods. n = number of animals per group.2E sats, sum of saturated fatty acids: 16:0, 18:0, 20:0 and 22:0. 3E monos, sum of monounsaturated fatty acids: 16:1, 18:1, 20:1 and 22:1. 4E n-6 LCP, sum of 20:4n-6,22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6. 5E n-3 LCP, sum of 20:5n-3, 22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3. 6nd, not detected. 7tr, trace levels 0.01 - 0.05% of total fatty acids. 8UI, unsaturation index= E (number of double bonds x % fatty acid). 9MChL, mean chain length of fatty acids = E (number of carbons x % fatty acid).119Table 6.4Fatty acid composition of cerebrum etha nolamine phospholipids (EPL) in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulaswith varying % 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3 1Fatty acidReference milk(n = 6)Fish oil milk(n = 6)16/1 + FO(n=5)16/1(n = 8)16/4(n=7)30/1(n =6)35/4(n =6)16:0 10.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 8.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 8.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 10.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 10.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 9.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 10.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.518:0 28.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 23.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 23.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 27.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 29.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 25.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 26.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8E cats 41.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 33.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 33.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 39.6 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 42.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 36.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 39.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.016:1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 03 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.118:1 14.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 18.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 19.9 \u00C2\u00B1 1.5 14.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 13.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 15.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 13.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6E monos 17.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 20.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 21.4 \u00C2\u00B1 1.6 17.5 + 0.5 15.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 17.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 16.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.718:2n-6 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 + 0.0 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.8 + 0.1 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.018:3n-6 nd nd tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:2n-6 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:3n-6 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:4n-6 15.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 15.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 16.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 15.9 + 0.4 15.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 16.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 15.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.322:4n-6 8.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 10.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 9.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 9.5 + 0.2 8.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 10.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 9.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0322:5n-6 2.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 3.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 2.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 4.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 23 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1E n-6 LCP 26.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 27.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 28.0 \u00C2\u00B1 13 28.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 25.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 31.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 26.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.518:3n-3 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:5n-3 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:5n-3 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:6n-3 13.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 16.6 + 0.6 14.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 11.9 + 0.6 13.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 11.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 13.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4E n-3 LCP 13.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 17.2 + 0.6 15.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 12.3 + 0.6 14.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 12.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 14.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.522:6n-3/22:5n-6 5.6 + 0.3 8.5 + 0.3 6.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 3.5 + 0.3 6.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 2.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 6.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5E LCP 40.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 45.1 + 1.2 43.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.9 41.1 + 1.0 40.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 43.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 41.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8UI 212 \u00C2\u00B1 6 240 \u00C2\u00B1 6 230 \u00C2\u00B1 8 214 \u00C2\u00B1 5 212 \u00C2\u00B1 5 224 \u00C2\u00B1 6 219 \u00C2\u00B1 4MChL 19.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 19.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 19.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 19.4 + 0.1 19.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 19.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 19.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0'See footnote to Table 6.3.120Table 6.5Fatty acid composition of cerebrum phosphatidylcholine (PC) in 15 -day-old piglets fed sow milk or formula with varying % 18:2n -6 / % 18:3n-3'Fatty acidReference milk(n =7)Fish oil milk(n = 6)16/1 + FO(n = 5)16/1(n=8)16/4(n = 7)30/1(n = 6)35/4(n=6)16:0 40.5 + 1.3 39.9 + 0.7 39.0 + 0.8 42.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 43.2 + 0.5 42.1 + 1.1 43.6 + 1.118:0 13.7 + 0.5 14.2 + 0.4 16.7 + 1.0 13.7 + 0.3 13.8 + 0.4 13.6 + 0.6 13.9 + 0.3E sats 56.0 + 1.2 55.2 + 0.4 56.9 + 0.7 57.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 59.1 + 0.5 57.5 + 1.3 60.0 + 1.016:1 1.4 + 0.1 1.4 + 0.1 1.2 + 0.1 1.4 + 0.1 1.3 + 0.0 1.4 + 0.1 1.4 + 0.118:1 33.0 + 1.2 31.8 + 0.4 31.6 + 0.8 31.3 + 0.6 29.8 + 0.5 30.8 + 1.4 27.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7E monos 35.2 + 1.2 34.0 + 0.5 335 + 0.6 33.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 31.9 + 0.5 32.8 + 1.4 29.8 + 0.618:2n-618:3n-61.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1tr1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2tr1.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1tr1.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1tr1.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1tr2.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1tr3.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1tr20:2n-6 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 + 0.020:3n-6 0.4 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 05 + 0.0 05 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 + 0.020:4n-6 4.1 + 0.1 4.6 + 0.2 43 + 0.1 4.4 + 0.1 4.1 + 0.1 4.3 \u00C2\u00B1 03 4.1 + 0.222:4n-6 0.6 + 0.0 0.8 + 0.1 0.7 + 0.1 0.7 + 0.1 0.6 + 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 + 0.122:5n-6 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 + 0.0E n-6 LCP 4.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 5.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 5.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 5.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 4.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 5.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 4.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.318:3n-3 tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr nd tr tr tr20:5n-3 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr tr tr tr tr tr22:5n-3 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:6n-3 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1E n-3 LCP 1.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:6n-3/22:5n-6 5.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 9.9 + 1.1 9.7 + 2.7 3.1 + 0.2 7.6 + 0.8 2.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 6.0 + 0.6E LCP 6.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 8.2 + 0.4 6.9 + 0.2 6.6 + 0.3 6.4 + 0.3 6.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 6.4 + 0.4Ul 70 + 2 78 + 1 71 + 1 69 + 2 67 + 1 69 + 2 68 + 2MChL 17.5 + 0.0 17.5 + 0.0 17.5 + 0.0 17.4 + 0.0 17.4 + 0.0 17.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 17.4 + 0.1'See footnote Table 6.3121Table 6.6Fatty acid composition of synaptic plasma membrane total lipid in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulas with varying % 18:2n -6 / % 18:3n -3 1Fatty acidReference milk(n=7)Fish oil milk(n=6)16/1 + FO(n=5)16/1(n=6)16/4(n=6)30/1(n=5)35/4(n=6)16:0 24.7 + 0.7 24.8 + 0.3 24.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 23.3 + 0.4 23.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 25.7 + 0.8 24.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.218:0 26.1 + 0.3 26.2 + 0.2 253 + 0.2 26.1 + 0.4 26.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 25.1 + 0.7 26.4 + 0.4E sats 51.6 + 0.9 52.0 + 0.3 50.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 50.2 + 0.6 50.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 52.1 + 0.7 51.9 + 0.416:1 0.6 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.1 0.5 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.018:1 14.5 + 0.2 14.1 \u00C2\u00B10.2 14.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 14.4 + 03 14.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 12.8 + 0.4 12.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2E monos 15.5 + 0.2 15.0 + 0.1 14.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 15.3 + 0.3 14.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 13.7 + 0.4 13.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.218:2n-6 0.8 + 0.1 0.7 + 0.1 0.8 + 0.0 0.8 + 0.1 0.9 + 0.1 1.0 + 0.1 1.3 + 0.118:3n-6 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr tr tr20:2n-6 0.2 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.120:3n-6 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 + 0.0 0.7 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.0 0.7 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.0 0.8 + 0.020:4n-6 9.8 + 0.3 9.5 + 0.2 9.8 + 0.1 10.4 + 0.2 10.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 10.5 + 0.3 9.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.222:4n-6 4.9 + 0.3 4.6 + 0.1 5.0 + 0.1 5.7 + 0.2 5.3 + 0.2 5.5 + 0.2 5.3 + 0.122:5n-6 2.3 + 0.2 2.1 + 0.0 2.4 + 0.2 3.3 + 0.2 2.3 + 0.2 3.8 + 0.2 2.4 + 0.2E n-6 LCP 17.0 + 0.7 16.1 + 0.2 17.1 + 0.3 19.4 + 0.5 17.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 19.8 + 0.6 17.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.418:3n-3 nd nd nd nd nd tr nd20:5n-3 nd tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 nd 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr nd22:5n-3 0.4 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 03 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.022:6n-3 13.3 + 0.5 14.7 + 0.1 14.6 + 0.3 12.9 + 0.3 14.2 + 0.3 11.7 + 0.3 13.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2E 11-3 LCP 13.7 + 0.5 15.1 + 0.1 15.1 + 0.4 13.1 + 0.3 14.7 + 0.3 11.9 + 0.3 14.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.222:6n-3/22:5n-6 5.8 + 0.2 7.0 + 0.2 6.4 + 0.8 4.0 + 0.4 6.4 + 0.5 3.1 + 0.1 5.8 + 0.5E LCP 30.7 + 1.2 31.2 + 0.2 32.2 + 0.3 32.5 + 0.3 32.4 + 0.8 31.7 + 0.8 31.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3UI 172 \u00C2\u00B1 5 175 \u00C2\u00B1 1 180 \u00C2\u00B1 1 179 \u00C2\u00B1 1 180 \u00C2\u00B1 4 173 \u00C2\u00B1 4 177 \u00C2\u00B1 1MChL 18.5 + 0.1 18.6 + 0.0 18.6 + 0.0 18.6 + 0.0 18.6 + 0.0 18.5 + 0.1 18.6 + 0.0'See footnote Table 6.3122Table 6.7Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of synaptic plasma membrane ethanolamine phospholipids (EPL) in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk orformulas varying in % 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3'Fatty acidReference milk(rt = 7)Fish oil milk(n = 6)16/1 + FO(n = 5)16/1(n = 6)16/4(it = 6)30/1(n=5)35/4(n = 6)16:0 8.7 + 0.5 7.3 + 0.7 8.4 + 0.3 8.6 + 0.4 9.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 8.6 + 0.7 8.9 + 0.418:0 26.2 + 0.4 26.7 + 0.9 26.5 + 0.2 26.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 26.6 + 0.4 26.5 + 0.5 26.3 + 0.5E sats 36.0 + 0.7 34.9 + 0.8 35.7 + 0.3 35.8 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 36.8 + 0.8 36.1 + 0.8 36.3 + 0.816:1 0.3 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.018:1 8.7 + 0.3 9.6 + 03 8.9 + 0.4 8.8 + 0.3 9.2 + 02 82 + 03 8.5 + 0.4E monos 9.5 + 0.4 10.4 + 0.3 9.7 + 0.4 9.6 + 0.3 10.0 + 0.2 8.9 + 03 9.2 + 0.418:2n-6 0.5 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.0 0.7 + 0.0 0.8 + 0.118:3n-6 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 nd 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:2n-6 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:3n-6 0.6 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.1 0.8 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.1 0.7 + 0.0 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.8 + 0.120:4n-6 17.8 + 0.3 16.8 + 0.4 17.6 + 0.2 18.3 + 0.2 17.8 + 0.3 18.3 + 0.4 17.2 + 0.322:4n-6 10.5 + 0.3 9.7 + 0.4 9.7 + 0.2 11.2 + 0.4 10.0 + 0.2 11.5 + 0.4 10.6 + 0.222:5n-6 3.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 2.9 + 0.1 3.4 + 0.4 5.0 + 0.4 3.2 + 0.2 6.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 3.2 + 0.3E n-6 LCP 31.9 + 0.6 29.3 + 0.5 30.7 + 0.5 34.5 + 0.8 31.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 36.0 + 0.5 31.0 + 0.518:3n-3 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr tr tr tr tr20:5n-3 tr 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr tr tr tr tr22:5n-3 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.7 + 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.7 + 0.022:6n-3 20.4 + 0.3 22.5 + 0.7 21.7 + 0.2 18.4 + 0.4 20.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 17.1 + 0.7 21.0 + 0.7E n-3 LCP 21.3 + 0.4 23.2 + 0.7 22.3 + 0.1 18.8 + 0.4 20.7 + 0.5 17.4 + 0.7 21.7 + 0.722:6n-3/22:5n-6 5.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 7.9 + 0.2 6.7 + 0.7 3.8 + 0.3 6.3 + 0.3 2.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 6.8 + 0.5E LCP 53.2 + 0.9 52.5 + 1.1 53.0 + 0.5 53.3 + 1.0 51.7 + 1.0 53.4 + 1.0 52.7 + 1.0UI 271 \u00C2\u00B1 4 271 \u00C2\u00B1 6 273 \u00C2\u00B1 2 268 \u00C2\u00B1 5 265 \u00C2\u00B1 5 267 \u00C2\u00B1 5 270 \u00C2\u00B1 5MChL 19.5 + 0.1 19.3 + 0.2 19.5 + 0.0 19.5 + 0.1 19.4 + 0.1 19.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 19.5 + 0.1'See footnote Table 6.3123Table 6.8Fatty acid composition (% of total fatty acids) in synaptic plasma membrane phosphatidylcholine (PC) in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk orformulas with varying % 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3'Fatty acidReference milk(n = 7)Fish oil milk(n = 6)16/1 + FO(n = 5)16/1(n = 6)16/4(n = 6)30/1(n = 5)35/4(n = 6)16:0 52.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 48.5 + 1.1 53.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 51.9 + 0.6 52.9 + 0.5 50.6 \u00C2\u00B1 1.7 53.4 + 0.718:0 11.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 13.5 + 0.3 11.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 11.7 + 0.1 11.6 + 0.3 12.7 + 0.7 11.5 + 0.1E sats 65.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 63.0 + 1.4 66.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 65.1 + 0.7 66.5 + 0.4 65.0 + 1.5 67.2 + 0.716:1 1.1 + 0.1 1.0 + 0.1 0.9 + 0.0 0.8 + 0.0 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.9 + 0.1 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.018:1 24.3 + 0.5 26.3 + 1.3 24.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 24.8 + 0.5 23.9 + 0.3 23.2 + 0.8 21.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3E monos 25.9 + 0.5 28.1 + 1.2 25.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 26.1 + 0.5 25.2 + 0.3 24.5 + 0.8 23.1 + 0318:2n-6 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 1.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.118:3n-6 0.1 + 0.0 tr 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 + 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:2n-6 0.2 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:3n-6 0.4 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.1 0.5 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:4n-6 4.1 + 0.2 3.8 + 0.1 3.8 + 0.1 4.2 + 0.2 3.8 + 0.1 4.5 + 0.3 4.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:4n-6 0.5 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:5n-6 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0E n-6 LCP 4.8 + 0.2 4.5 + 0.2 4.4 + 0.1 5.1 + 0.2 4.4 + 0.1 5.7 + 0.4 4.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.218:3n-3 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr tr tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:5n-3 nd 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr nd nd tr nd22:5n-3 tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr nd tr nd tr22:6n-3 1.4 + 0.1 1.6 + 0.1 1.5 + 0.1 1.2 + 0.1 13 + 0.0 1.2 + 0.1 1.5 + 0.1E n-3 LCP 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:6n-3/22:5n-6 6.0 + 0.3 8.7 + 0.7 7.3 + 0.7 3.4 + 0.3 7.3 + 0.8 2.3 + 0.1 6.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5E LCP 6.3 + 03 6.3 + 0.3 6.0 + 0.1 6.3 + 0.3 5.7 + 0.1 6.9 + 0.5 6.2 + 0.3UI 58 + 2 61 + 2 57 + 1 58 + 2 56 \u00C2\u00B1 1 61 + 4 58 \u00C2\u00B1 2MChL 16.9 + 0.1 17.0 + 0.1 17.0 + 0.0 17.0 + 0.0 17.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 17.0 + 0.1 16.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0`See footnote Table 6.3124Table 6.9Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of retina total lipid in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulasvarying in % 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3'Fatty acidReference milk(n = 7)Fish oil Milk(n = 6)16/1 + FO(n = 5)16/1(n = 6)16/4(n = 6)30/1(n = 5)35/4(n = 6)16:0 20.0 + 0.4 21.4 + 0.3 19.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 21.0 + 0.3 19.4 + 0.5 20.8 + 0.6 21.2 + 1.118:0 23.7 + 0.4 24.7 + 0.2 23.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 24.6 + 0.1 24.2 + 03 24.0 + 0.6 24.8 + 0.4E sats 44.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 47.3 + 0.4 43.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 47.1 + 0.3 44.5 + 0.7 46.5 + 0.8 47.3 + 1.216:1 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.118:1 16.8 + 0.4 16.2 + 0.2 17.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 17.8 + 0.2 17.8 + 0.2 15.9 + 0.2 15.0 + 0.2E monos 18.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 17.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 18.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 19.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 19.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 17.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 16.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.118:2n-6 2.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 3.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 3.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 4.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.218:3n-6 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.020:2n-6 03 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 03 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:3n-6 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 02 0.4 + 0.0 05 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 03 + 0.120:4n-6 9.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 9.3 + 0.1 10.3 + 0.2 9.7 + 0.1 10.2 + 0.3 10.6 + 0.2 9.7 + 0.222:4n-6 2.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.6 + 0.0 1.6 + 0.1 2.4 + 0.2 1.5 + 0.3 2.6 + 0.1 1.7 + 0.222:5n-6 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 + 0.0 0.8 + 0.1 1.6 + 0.2 0.8 + 0.1 2.3 + 0.1 0.7 + 0.1E n-6 LCP 12.8 + 0.5 11.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 12.7 + 0.3 13.7 + 0.4 12.5 + 0.6 15.5 + 0.3 12.1 + 0.418:3n-3 nd nd 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:5n-3 tr 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr nd 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr tr22:5n-3 0.7 + 0.1 0.7 + 0.0 0.8 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.0 0.7 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.0 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:6n-3 19.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 19.9 + 0.2 20.3 + 0.7 15.5 + 0.3 18.9 + 0.7 15.2 + 0.7 17.9 + 0.9E n-3 LCP 19.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 20.8 + 0.2 21.2 + 0.7 15.8 + 0.3 19.7 + 0.7 15.4 + 0.7 18.6 + 1.022:6n-3/22:5n-6 22.3 \u00C2\u00B1 2.8 37.3 + 1.4 28.1 + 3.4 10.0 + 1.0 253 + 3.2 6.6 + 0.1 283 + 53E LCP 32.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 323 + 0.3 33.8 + 0.9 29.5 + 0.6 32.2 + 1.1 30.9 + 0.8 30.7 + 1.3UI 199 \u00C2\u00B1 5 194 + 2 204 + 5 179 + 3 197 + 5 185 + 5 189 + 7MChL 18.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 18.7 + 0.0 18.8 + 0.0 18.6 + 0.0 18.8 + 0.1 18.7 + 0.1 18.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1`See footnote Table 6.3125Table 6.10Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of retina ethanolamine phospholipids (EPL) in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulas varying in% 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3'Reference milk Fish oil Milk 16/1 + FO 16/1 16/4 30/1 35/4Fatty acid (n=8) (n = 6) (ri = 5) (n = 6) (n = 7) (n = 6) (n = 6)16:0 8.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 9.4 + 0.4 9.3 + 0.7 8.7 + 0.4 8.5 + 0.3 8.1 + 0.7 9.4 + 0.418:0 25.6 + 0.7 27.9 + 0.7 26.7 + 0.2 25.8 + 0.3 26.0 + 0.3 24.6 + 0.7 26.8 + 0.3E sats 34.4 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 37.7 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 36.6 + 0.8 35.3 + 0.5 35.1 + 0.6 33.9 + 1.2 36.9 + 0.516:1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.018:1 9.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 9.8 + 0.3 9.5 + 0.2 9.5 + 0.4 10.3 + 0.4 8.1 + 0.2 8.4 + 0.3E monos 9.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 10.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 10.0 + 0.2 10.0 + 0.5 10.9 + 0.4 8.7 + 0.2 8.8 + 0.418:2n-6 1.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.118:3n-6 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr tr 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:2n-6 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:3n-6 03 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:4n-6 14.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 12.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 14.1 + 0.3 14.6 + 0.3 14.1 + 0.2 15.5 + 0.4 13.7 + 0.422:4n-6 3.8 + 0.2 3.7 + 0.5 2.9 + 0.2 4.0 + 0.1 3.3 + 0.1 5.3 + 0.2 3.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:5n-6 1.6 + 0.2 0.7 + 0.0 1.2 + 0.1 3.2 + 0.1 1.3 + 0.1 4.7 + 0.3 1.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2E n-6 LCP 20.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 17.3 + 0.4 18.1 + 0.5 21.8 + 0.4 18.7 + 0.3 25.5 + 0.5 18.2 + 0.218:3n-3 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 tr tr tr tr tr20:5n-3 0.1 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 nd 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.1 tr22:5n-3 1.6 + 0.1 1.0 + 0.0 1.1 + 0.1 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.2 + 0.1 1.0 + 02 13 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:6n-3 31.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 32.3 + 0.8 31.3 + 1.0 29.2 + 0.8 31.1 + 0.7 27.2 + 0.5 30.8 + 0.4E n-3 LCP 33.1 + 0.9 33.3 + 0.8 32.5 + 1.0 29.9 + 0.8 32.4 + 0.6 28.3 + 0.7 32.1 + 0.422:6n-3/22:5n-6 22.0 \u00C2\u00B1 2.5 46.1 \u00C2\u00B1 2.6 28.5 \u00C2\u00B1 4.2 9.1 \u00C2\u00B1 03 24.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.5 5.9 \u00C2\u00B1 03 26.1 \u00C2\u00B1 2.6E LCP 53.3 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 50.6 + 0.9 50.6 + 0.9 51.8 + 1.0 51.0 + 0.5 53.8 + 0.9 503 + 0.5UI 294 + 6 282 + 5 282 + 5 284 + 5 284 + 3 291 + 5 282 + 3MChL 18.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 17.8 + 0.1 17.9 + 0.1 17.9 + 0.1 17.8 + 0.1 18.2 + 0.0 18.1 + 0.1'See footnote Table 6.3126Table 6.11Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of retina phosphatklylcholine (PC) in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulasvarying in % 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3'Fatty acidReference milk(n = 7)Fish oil milk(n = 6)16/1 + FO(n = 5)16/1(n=6)16/4(n = 7)30/1(n=8)35/4(n = 6)16:0 37.7 + 1.1 32.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 40.0 + 0.7 37.8 + 0.5 38.0 + 0.6 37.6 + 1.1 39.8 + 0.518:0 18.2 + 0.2 19.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 18.0 + 0.4 18.6 + 0.4 18.7 + 0.4 18.4 + 0.2 18.8 + 0.1E sats 56.4 + 1.3 52.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 58.6 + 0.6 57.0 + 03 57.2 + 03 56.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 59.0 + 0.416:1 1.1 + 0.1 0.9 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.2 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.4 + 0.018:1 24.7 + 0.4 24.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 24.4 + 0.2 25.7 + 0.5 24.6 + 0.4 23.0 + 0.2 21.3 + 0.2E monos 263 + 0.5 25.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 25.4 + 0.3 26.6 + 05 25.6 + 0.4 24.5 + 0.4 22.0 + 0.218:2n-6 2.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 3.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 3.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 3.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 4.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 5.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.218:3n-6 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:2n-6 0.2 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:3n-6 0.4 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 03 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 05 + 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:4n-6 4.9 + 0.3 5.3 + 0.1 4.5 + 0.2 5.0 + 0.1 4.7 + 0.1 5.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 4.6 + 0.122:4n-6 0.6 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.9 + 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:5n-6 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 1.0 + 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0E n-6 LCP 5.8 + 0.4 5.8 + 0.1 5.0 + 0.1 63 + 0.1 5.3 + 0.1 7.1 + 03 53 \u00C2\u00B1 0.118:3n-3 tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:5n-3 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr tr tr 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr22:5n-3 0.5 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.1 03 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:6n-3 7.4 + 0.4 12.6 + 0.2 6.9 + 0.2 6.1 + 0.2 7.2 + 0.2 5.8 + 0.3 7.0 \u00C2\u00B1 03E n-3 LCP 7.9 + 0.5 13.0 + 0.3 7.2 + 0.2 6.2 + 0.2 7.5 + 0.2 6.2 + 0.3 7.3 + 0.322:6n-3/22:5n-6 24.3 + 3.3 81.1 + 11.2 50.5 + 16.5 9.9 + 0.3 36.2 + 2.0 6.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 33.7 \u00C2\u00B1 6.1E LCP 13.7 + 0.7 18.9 + 0.3 12.2 + 0.3 125 + 03 12.8 + 03 13.3 + 0.6 12.5 + 0.4UI 105 + 4 135 + 2 97 + 2 98 + 1 101 + 1 103 + 3 100 + 2MChL 17.7 + 0.1 18.0 + 0.0 17.6 + 0.0 17.7 + 0.0 17.7 + 0.0 17.7 + 0.0 17.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0'See footnote Table 63127Table 6.12Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of liver triglyce ride in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulas varying in % 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3'Fatty acidReference milk(n = 5)Fish oil Milk(n=6)16/1 + FO(n = 5)16/1(n = 6)16/4(n = 7)30/1(n = 6)35/4(n = 6)16:0 27.7 \u00C2\u00B1 1.5 27.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 16.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 16.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 14.3 + 05 21.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 15.1 + 0.418:0 6.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 6.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 6.0 + 0.4 6.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 6.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 6.9 + 0.7 5.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4E sats 36.8 \u00C2\u00B1 1.8 34.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 28.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.6 28.7 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 29.5 + 1.6 40.2 + 0.8 28.5 + 1.216:1 5.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 4.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 0.5 + 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 + 0.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.018:1 29.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.4 21.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 41.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 44.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 38.8 + 0.9 16.8 + 0.5 16.7 + 0.4E monos 35.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.7 26.6 \u00C2\u00B1 1.3 42.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 45.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 40.1 + 0.8 17.6 + 0.5 17.2 + 0.418:2n-6 16.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.4 21.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 19.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 17.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 19.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 32.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 40.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.518:3n-6 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:2n-6 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:3n-6 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:4n-6 5.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 5.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 42 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 4.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 4.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 5.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 5.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.622:4n-6 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:5n-6 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0E n-6 LCP 5.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 6.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 4.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 4.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 4.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 6.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 6.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.618:3n-3 1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 3.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:5n-3 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:5n-3 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 05 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:6n-3 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 5.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1E n-3 LCP 1.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 7.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 2.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.222:6n-3/22:5n-6 6.7 \u00C2\u00B1 1.8 20.4 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 38.5 \u00C2\u00B1 5.8 1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 11.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.3 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 7.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8E LCP 7.8 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 14.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 7.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 5.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 6.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 7.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 7.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8UI 110 + 4 147 \u00C2\u00B1 4 118 \u00C2\u00B1 5 108 + 2 119 \u00C2\u00B1 4 118 \u00C2\u00B1 3 148 + 4MChL 17.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 17.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 17.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 17.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 17.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 17.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 17.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1'See footnote Table 6.3128Table 6.13Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of liver cholesterol ester in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulasvarying in % 18:2n -6 / % 18:3n-3Fatty acidReference milk(n = 7)Fish oil milk(n = 6)16/1 + FO(n = 5)16/1(n = 7)16/4(n = 7)30/1(n = 6)35/4(n=6)16:0 23.8 + 1.0 23.7 \u00C2\u00B1 1.5 14.8 + 0.7 16.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 15.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 19.9 \u00C2\u00B1 1.4 17.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.718:0 8.1 + 1.3 7.0 + 0.7 6.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 8.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 6.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 9.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 7.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4E sats 34.3 \u00C2\u00B1 1.6 33.9 \u00C2\u00B1 2.5 24.4 \u00C2\u00B1 1.4 29.4 \u00C2\u00B1 2.4 26.9 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 333 \u00C2\u00B1 2.5 28.9 \u00C2\u00B1 1.216:1 5.0 + 0.8 3.3 + 0.4 2.1 + 0.2 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.218:1 31.9 + 1.6 14.8 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 31.1 + 2.4 33.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.8 31.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 18.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 16.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9E monos 33.6 \u00C2\u00B1 4.3 19.9\u00C2\u00B1 1.5 35.6 + 2.5 36.4 \u00C2\u00B1 1.3 33.9 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 21.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 18.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.818:2n-6 22.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.6 33.6 + 1.9 31.5 + 1.3 27.9 + 2.0 32.5 + 2.3 38.6 \u00C2\u00B1 3.2 42.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.818:3n-6 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.8 + 0.1 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.8 + 0.1 1.0 + 0.0 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:2n-6 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 + 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:3n-6 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.8 \u00C2\u00B10.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B10.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B10.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:4n-6 3.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 5.1 \u00C2\u00B10.2 2.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 2.8 \u00C2\u00B10.3 1.8 + 0.1 2.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 2.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.322:4n-6 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:5n-6 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 02 + 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 02 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1E n-6 LCP 4.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 5.3 + 0.2 2.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 3.2 + 0.3 2.3 + 0.2 2.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 3.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.318:3n-3 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 + 0.4 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 + 0.1 1.9 + 02 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 2.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:5n-3 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.2 + 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B10.0 0.1 + 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:5n-3 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B10.0 1.2 + 0.4 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.222:6n-3 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.9 + 0.2 0.9 + 0.1 0.6 + 0.2 1.3 + 0.4 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 13 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2E n-3 LCP 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 3.4 + 0.4 2.3 + 0.1 0.8 + 0.2 2.7 + 0.8 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 2.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.322:6n-3/22:5n-6 6.3 \u00C2\u00B1 1.8 20.5 \u00C2\u00B1 9.3 6.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 3.4 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 4.5 \u00C2\u00B1 13 5.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 73 \u00C2\u00B1 2.7E LCP 5.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 8.8 + 0.6 4.9 + 0.4 3.6 + 0.3 5.0 + 0.9 3.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 5.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5UI 109 + 2 138 \u00C2\u00B1 5 128 + 2 119 + 3 136 + 8 126 + 3 142 \u00C2\u00B1 3MChL 17.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 17.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 17.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 17.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 183 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 175 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 17.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0'See footnote Table 6.3129Table 6.14Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of liver total phospholipid in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulasvarying in % 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3 1Fatty acidReference milk(n=7)Fish oil Milk(n=6)16/1 + FO(n=5)16/1(n = 8)16/4(n = 7)30/1(n = 6)35/4(n=6)16:0 17.5 + 0.6 15.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 13.0 + 0.3 14.9 + 0.8 11.8 + 0.3 15.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 12.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.318:0 26.8 + 0.9 25.4 + 03 26.2 + 0.6 27.7 + 0.8 27.0 + 0.6 28.9 + 0.5 283 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7E sats 45.3 + 1.4 41.2 + 0.3 39.8 + 0.4 43.6 + 0.9 40.4 + 0.7 45.7 + 0.4 42.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.516:1 1.2 + 0.1 0.9 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 tr18:1 10.9 + 0.4 6.9 + 0.4 13.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 14.9 + 0.5 14.3 + 0.6 6.7 + 0.1 6.6 + 0.2E monos 12.4 + 0.4 7.9 + 0.5 13.4 + 0.4 16.0 + 0.5 14.6 + 0.6 7.0 + 0.1 6.8 + 0.218:2n-6 13.1 + 0.6 14.6 + 0.1 16.1 + 0.7 16.2 + 0.5 16.6 + 0.3 22.2 + 0.2 22.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.818:3n-6 0.2 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.020:2n-6 0.3 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.9 + 0.1 0.8 + 0.120:3n-6 0.7 + 0.1 1.0 + 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 + 0.1 0.8 + 0.1 0.6 + 0.1 0.6 + 0.020:4n-6 18.6 + 0.5 15.4 + 0.2 15.1 + 0.5 18.1 + 0.8 16.3 + 0.3 18.8 + 0.5 17.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.522:4n-6 0.6 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.7 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.0 1.1 + 0.1 0.5 + 0.022:5n-6 0.3 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.1 + 0.2 0.2 + 0.0 1.6 + 0.1 03 + 0.0E n-6 LCP 19.5 + 0.5 16.0 + 0.2 15.5 + 0.5 19.9 + 1.0 16.8 + 0.3 21.5 + 0.5 18.4 + 0.518:3n-3 0.1 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 03 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.0 02 + 0.120:5n-3 0.4 + 0.1 1.1 + 0.1 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr 0.8 + 0.1 tr 0.3 + 0.022:5n-3 2.3 + 0.3 1.4 + 0.2 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 + 0.1 1.4 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.0 1.6 + 0.122:6n-3 5.5 + 0.5 15.8 + 0.6 10.4 + 0.4 23 + 0.3 7.4 + 0.3 1.5 + 0.1 6.5 + 0.5E n-3 LCP 8.1 + 0.8 18.2 + 0.7 13.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 2.9 + 0.4 9.5 + 0.2 1.9 + 0.1 8.4 + 0.522:6n-3/22:5n-6 18.2 + 1.2 74.1 + 2.2 94.2 \u00C2\u00B1 8.3 2.3 + 0.2 38.2 + 3.8 0.9 + 0.1 22.3 + 2.5E LCP 27.6 + 1.2 34.2 + 0.6 28.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 22.8 + 1.3 26.4 + 0.4 23.4 + 0.5 26.8 + 0.9UI 167 + 6 213 + 3 188 + 2 149 + 6 175 + 1 154 \u00C2\u00B1 2 178 \u00C2\u00B1 3MChL 19.7 + 0.1 18.7 + 0.0 18.5+ 0.0 19.2 + 0.2 19.6 + 0.2 19.6 + 0.0 19.8 + 0.0'See footnote Table 6.3130Table 6.15Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of liver ethanolamine phospholipids (EPL) in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulas with varying% 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-31Reference milk Fish oil milk 16/1 + FO 16/1 16/4 30/1 35/4Fatty acid (n = 7) (n = 6) (n =5) (n = 8) (n = 7) (n = 6) (n = 6)16:0 10.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 10.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 9.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 7.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 8.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 7.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 9.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.518:0 31.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 26.5 + 0.6 26.8 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 27.8 + 1.0 31.1 + 1.2 29.0 + 1.7 32.6 + 1.3E sats 43.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 37.2 + 0.8 36.9 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 36.6 + 1.2 40.6 + 1.2 37.6 + 1.7 42.9 + 1.316:1 0.7 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.018:1 9.8 + 0.6 5.8 + 0.4 12.2 + 0.5 13.8 + 0.6 15.7 + 0.5 7.0 + 0.3 8.9 + 0.6E monos 11.0 + 0.6 6.7 + 0.4 12.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 14.4 + 0.6 16.2 + 0.5 7.3 + 0.3 9.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.618:2n-6 8.7 + 0.5 10.0 + 1.0 15.1 + 1.5 13.0 + 1.0 10.6 + 0.4 16.8 + 0.8 15.3 + 0.618:3n-6 0.1 + 0.0 tr 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:2n-6 0.3 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.0 0.9 + 0.1 0.7 + 0.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.0 + 0.2 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:3n-6 0.5 + 0.1 0.7 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:4n-6 24.0 + 0.4 19.8 + 0.5 18.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 25.5 + 1.0 20.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 26.9 + 0.7 20.7 + 0.322:4n-6 0.7 + 0.2 0.5 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 1.5 + 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.4 + 0.2 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.222:5n-6 0.5 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 2.0 + 0.2 0.2 + 0.0 3.4 + 0.4 0.4 + 0.1E n-6 LCP 25.1 + 0.5 20.6 + 0.5 18.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 29.0 + 0.9 21.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 32.7 + 1.1 21.8 + 0.418:3n-3 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.220:5n-3 0.4 + 0.1 1.4 + 0.1 1.5 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.0 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr 0.4 + 0.022:5n-3 2.8 + 0.3 1.9 + 0.1 1.5 + 0.2 0.9 + 0.1 1.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 + 0.1 1.5 + 0.222:6n-3 7.3 + 0.6 21.1 + 0.6 11.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 4.5 + 0.2 8.0 + 0.7 3.2 + 0.3 7.5 + 0.6E n-3 LCP 10.5 + 0.9 24.4 + 0.7 14.9 + 1.1 5.6 + 0.2 10.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 3.9 + 0.3 9.4 + 0.622:6n-3/22:5n-6 16.2 + 1.9 79.2 + 2.5 99.4 + 7.2 2.5 + 0.2 34.1 + 2.4 1.0 + 0.1 22.0 \u00C2\u00B1 2.6E LCP 35.6 + 1.2 45.0 + 0.6 33.6 + 1.8 34.6 + 1.0 31.4 + 0.8 36.6 + 1.1 31.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0UI 192 \u00C2\u00B1 5 255 \u00C2\u00B1 3 208 \u00C2\u00B1 7 195 \u00C2\u00B1 4 185 \u00C2\u00B1 5 202 \u00C2\u00B1 5 185 \u00C2\u00B1 5MChL 18.7 + 0.1 19.2 + 0.0 18.9 + 0.1 18.8 + 0.0 18.7 + 0.0 18.8 + 0.0 18.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0'See footnote Table 6.3131Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acid)Table 6.16of liver phosphatidylcholine (PC) in 15-day-old piglets fedwith varying % 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3sow milk or formulasFatty acidReference milk(n = 7)Fish oil milk(n = 6)16/1 + FO(n = 5)16/1(n = 7)16/4(n=7)30/1(n = 6)35/4(n = 6)16:0 23.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 20.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 16.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 15.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 17.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 16.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 18.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.418:0 26.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.7 24.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 26.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 26.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 27.4 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 27.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 29.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0E cats 50.1 \u00C2\u00B1 2.2 45.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 42.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 43.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 45.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.3 45.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 48.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.516:1 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.018:1 15.6 \u00C2\u00B1 1.4 8.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 15.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 17.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 17.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 8.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 7.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2E monos 17.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.4 9.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 16.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 182 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 17.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 8.7 \u00C2\u00B1 02 75 \u00C2\u00B1 0218:2n-6 12.6 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 15.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 17.3 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 16.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 17.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 22.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 24.9 \u00C2\u00B1 1.118:3n-6 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:2n-6 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B10.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B10.0 03 \u00C2\u00B10.0 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:3n-6 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 + 0.1 0.7 + 0.1 0.7 + 0.1 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:4n-6 12.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 11.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 10.4 + 0.5 15.7 + 0.8 10.0 + 0.5 16.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 11.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.722:4n-6 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.8 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.1 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:5n-6 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 1.1 + 0.2 0.2 + 0.0 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0E n-6 LCP 13.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 11.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 10.6 + 0.5 17.6 + 1.0 10.4 + 0.5 19.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 11.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.718:3n-3 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:5n-3 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:5n-3 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 13 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.2 + 0.1 0.6 + 0.2 1.0 + 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:6n-3 3.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 14.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 8.9 + 0.5 2.6 + 0.3 5.0 + 0.4 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 4.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5E n-3 LCP 5.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 16.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 11.2 + 0.5 3.3 \u00C2\u00B10.5 6.7 + 0.5 2.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 5.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.522:6n-3/22:5n-6 19.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.8 144.9 \u00C2\u00B1 30.7 144.0 \u00C2\u00B1 24.1 2.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 30.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.6 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 21.5 \u00C2\u00B1 2.4E LCP 18.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 27.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 21.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 20.9 \u00C2\u00B1 1.3 17.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 21.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 17.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1UI 131 \u00C2\u00B1 6 187 \u00C2\u00B1 1 163 + 3 145 + 4 139 + 5 149 + 1 142 + 3MChL 18.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 18.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 18.4 + 0.0 18.3 + 0.1 18.2 + 0.0 18.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 18.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0'See footnote Table 6.3132Table 6.17Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of plasma triglycewith varying % 18:2n-6ride in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulas/ % 18:3n-3'Fatty acidReference milk(n = 3)Fish oil milk(n =6)16/1 + FO(n =5)16/1(n = 6)16/4(n = 6)30/1(n = 6)35/4(it =5)16:0 29.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.8 28.9 \u00C2\u00B1 2.0 14.4 \u00C2\u00B1 1.4 12.3 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 12.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 18.2 \u00C2\u00B1 03 14.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.518:0 5.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 8.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.6 5.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 5.9 \u00C2\u00B1 03 5.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 5.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 5.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3E sats 36.8 \u00C2\u00B1 2.1 39.4 \u00C2\u00B1 3.3 27.2 \u00C2\u00B1 2.1 24.6 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 24.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.3 35.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 27.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.716:1 6.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 5.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.118:1 35.8 \u00C2\u00B1 2.4 26.9 \u00C2\u00B1 1.8 48.5 \u00C2\u00B1 2.2 51.4 +1.3 48.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 22.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 20.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9E monos 43.3 \u00C2\u00B1 2.0 33.9 \u00C2\u00B1 2.2 49.5 \u00C2\u00B1 2.1 52.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.4 49.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 23.3 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 21.6 \u00C2\u00B1 1.018:2n-6 13.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 19.5 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 18.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 19.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 18.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 36.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 41.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.818:3n-6 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 03 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:2n-6 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.3 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.1 0.3 + 02 0.1 + 0.1 03 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:3n-6 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 tr 0.2 + 0.2 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:4n-6 2.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 1.5 + 0.3 0.5 + 0.1 0.7 + 0.1 0.6 + 0.1 2.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 2.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.422:4n-6 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 + 0.2 0.2 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:5n-6 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0E n-6 LCP 2.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 2.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 2.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.418:3n-3 1.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 3.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 4.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:5n-3 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 + 0.2 0.5 + 0.2 0.1 \u00C2\u00B10.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B10.1 tr 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:5n-3 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.3 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.2 0.2 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:6n-3 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 2.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1E n-3 LCP 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 1.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.222:6n-3/22:5n-6 4.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.4 14.5 \u00C2\u00B1 2.1 13.9 \u00C2\u00B1 6.4 3.3 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 5.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 5.3 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1E LCP 3.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 4.8 + 0.9 2.4 + 0.2 1.6 + 0.5 1.8 + 0.3 3.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 3.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6UI 85 + 3 97 + 8 104 + 2 103 \u00C2\u00B1 1 109 + 3 114 \u00C2\u00B1 3 136 + 2MChL 17.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 17.5 + 0.1 17.5 + 0.1 17.5 + 0.0 17.6 + 0.1 17.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 17.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0'See footnote Table 6.3133Table 6.18Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of plasma cholesterol esters in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulaswith varying % 18:2n-6 18:3n-3'Fatty acidReference milk(n = 4)Fish oil milk(n = 6)16/1 + FO(n = 3)16/1(n = 7)16/4(n = 7)30/1(n = 6)35/4(n = 6)16:0 23.0 + 1.6 17.8 \u00C2\u00B1 1.5 12.4 + 0.7 11.4 + 0.3 10.9 + 0.3 11.3 + 0.5 11.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.218:0 4.0 + 0.3 2.9 + 0.4 2.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.0 + 0.2 1.9 + 0.1 2.0 + 0.2 2.0 + 0.2E sats 27.5 + 1.6 22.0 \u00C2\u00B1 2.0 16.3 + 1.0 15.3 + 0.5 14.8 + 0.3 15.6 + 0.9 14.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.416:1 6.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 3.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.118:1 27.5 + 2.6 16.5 + 1.2 30.6 + 1.2 30.4 + 0.3 26.2 + 0.4 13.2 + 0.4 11.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3E monos 34.0 + 2.3 20.1 + 1.4 31.8 + 1.2 31.7 + 0.4 27.6 + 0.4 14.4 + 0.5 12.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.418:2n-6 31.9 + 1.0 48.6 + 1.5 46.3 + 2.2 47.3 + 1.1 49.3 + 0.6 63.9 + 1.3 64.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.418:3n-6 0.9 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.8 + 0.1 0.8 + 0.1 0.8 + 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:2n-6 nd tr tr nd tr nd nd20:3n-6 0.2 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.3 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 03 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:4n-6 3.6 + 0.2 4.1 + 0.3 2.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 3.5 + 0.4 3.2 + 0.2 4.2 + 0.3 4.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.422:4n-6 0.3 + 0.1 0.8 + 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.1 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.122:5n-6 nd nd 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 nd tr tr ndE n-6 LCP 3.9 + 0.2 4.9 + 0.4 2.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 3.6 + 0.5 3.5 + 0.2 4.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 4.4 + 0.418:3n-3 1.3 + 0.0 1.4 + 0.1 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.6 + 0.0 3.0 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.0 2.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:5n-3 0.2 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.1 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr 0.2 + 0.0 tr 0.2 + 0.022:5n-3 nd tr tr tr tr tr nd22:6n-3 0.2 + 0.0 0.9 + 0.1 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.0 03 + 0.1 0.5 + 0.1E n-3 LCP 0.4 + 0.1 1.5 + 0.2 1.5 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.1 0.6 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.1 0.6 + 0.222:6n-3/22:5n-6 NA2 NA NA NA NA NA NAE LCP 4.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 6.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 4.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 3.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 4.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 4.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 5.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4UI 116 + 2 149 + 4 147 + 3 147 + 1 155 + 1 165 + 2 171 + 2MChL 17.7 + 01 17.8 + 0.0 17.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 17.9 + 0.0 17.9 + 0.0 17.9 + 0.0 17.9 + 0.1'See footnote Table 6.32NA, not available, due to negligible % 22:5n-6134Table 6.19Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of plasma total phospholipid in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulaswith varying % 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3'Fatty acidReference milk(n=5)Fish oil milk(n=6)16/1 + FO(n=5)16/1(n=5)16/4(2=7)30/1(n = 6)35/4(n = 6)16:0 23.7 + 0.8 23.8 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 16.9 + 0.9 16.7 + 0.3 15.5 + 03 19.2 + 0.9 17.0 + 0.418:0 20.5 + 0.4 22.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 23.6 + 0.8 22.9 + 0.4 23.3 + 0.6 24.3 + 0.8 25.7 + 0.5E sats 45.4 + 0.7 48.6 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 42.6 + 0.6 41.6 + 0.5 41.2 + 0.7 46.3 + 0.9 453 + 0.616:1 1.3 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.1 + 0.018:1 14.9 + 0.2 9.7 + 0.6 19.4 + 0.5 20.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 19.3 + 0.5 8.9 + 0.2 8.2 + 0.2E monos 16.5 + 0.3 10.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 19.9 + 0.5 21.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 19.7 + 0.4 8.4 + 0.6 8.4 + 0.218:2n-6 20.8 + 0.1 19.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 24.1 + 0.6 25.1 + 0.8 26.1 + 0.4 31.8 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 32.4 + 0.718:3n-6 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 tr tr tr tr tr tr20:2n-6 0.3 + 0.0 03 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.0 0.9 + 03 03 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.020:3n-6 0.6 + 0.1 1.1 + 0.1 0.6 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.1 0.5 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.0 03 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:4n-6 11.1 + 0.5 9.2 + 0.4 6.0 + 0.4 8.8 + 0.5 6.7 + 0.3 9.6 + 0.6 8.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.522:4n-6 0.4 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.0 0.8 + 0.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:5n-6 0.1 + 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.6 + 0.1 tr 0.8 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.1E n-6 LCP 11.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 10.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 6.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 9.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 7.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 11.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 9.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.618:3n-3 0.1 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 03 + 0.0 03 + 0.0 1.1 + 03 0.2 + 0.0 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.220:5n-3 0.4 + 0.1 1.1 + 0.1 1.7 + 0.1 0.1 + 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr 0.2 + 0.022:5n-3 1.8 + 0.2 1.2 + 0.2 0.8 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.1 0.7 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.1 0.9 + 0.122:6n-3 2.6 + 0.2 7.9 + 0.4 4.3 + 0.4 1.3 + 0.1 2.8 + 0.2 0.9 + 0.1 3.0 + 0.3E n-3 LCP 4.8 + 0.4 10.1 + 0.4 6.8 + 0.4 1.8 + 0.2 4.0 + 0.3 1.3 + 0.2 4.1 + 0.422:6n-3/22:5n-6 20.1 + 1.4 33.3 + 3.1 61.4 + 8.2 2.4 + 0.2 54.1 + 9.0 1.2 + 0.2 19.3 + 6.2E LCP 16.4 + 0.8 20.2 + 0.5 13.0 + 0.8 11.6 + 0.8 11.0 + 0.6 12.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 13.1 + 0.9UI 134 + 3 154 \u00C2\u00B1 3 134 + 3 124 \u00C2\u00B1 2 129 + 3 128 \u00C2\u00B1 2 137 + 4MChL 18.0 + 0.0 18.2 + 0.1 18.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 18.0 + 0.0 18.0 + 0.0 18.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 18.1 + 0.0'See footnote Table 6.3135Table 6.20Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of red blood cell (RBC) ethanolamine phospholipids (EPL) in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk orformulas with varying % 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3'Fatty acidReference milk(n =11)Fish oil milk(n = 6)16/1 + FO(n = 3)16/1(n = 5)16/4(n = 7)30/1(n=5)35/4(n = 5)16:0 24.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 24.6 + 0.7 20.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 17.7 + 0.6 19.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 22.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 21.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.618:0 6.7 + 0.2 6.5 \u00C2\u00B1 03 7.9 + 0.1 8.1 + 0.1 83 + 0.2 9.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 11.1 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0E sats 31.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 32.3 + 0.7 29.7 + 0.1 27.1 + 0.9 28.9 \u00C2\u00B1 02 33.8 + 1.3 34.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.016:1 2.1 + 0.3 2.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.5 + 0.1 0.8 + 0.2 0.8 + 0.1 1.0 + 0.1 0.9 + 0.118:1 36.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 32.7 + 0.9 47.2 + 0.5 46.6 + 0.3 45.6 + 0.5 32.4 + 0.8 26.8 \u00C2\u00B1 1.8E monos 39.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 35.0 + 1.0 48.0 + 0.5 47.9 + 0.4 47.0 + 0.5 34.0 + 0.7 28.1 \u00C2\u00B1 2.018:2n-618:3n-615.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4tr16.1 + 0.4tr13.1 + 0.2tr14.8 + 0.8tr14.4 + 0.7tr21.9 + 0.5tr24.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8tr20:2n-6 0.3 + 0.0 03 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 05 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.7 + 0.020:3n-6 0.4 + 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 + 0.020:4n-6 6.5 + 0.2 4.8 + 0.2 3.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 5.9 + 0.5 4.3 + 0.5 5.5 + 0.7 6.9 + 0.822:4n-6 0.8 + 0.1 1.1 + 0.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 1.0 + 0.2 0.4 + 0.0 0.7 + 0.3 0.8 + 0.122:5n-6 0.4 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.5 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.0 0.7 + 0.1 0.5 + 0.0E n-6 LCP 7.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 6.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 3.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 7.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 5.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 7.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 8.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.918:3n-3 0.5 + 0.1 0.6 + 0.1 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 + 0.0 0.8 + 0.1 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:5n-3 0.4 + 0.1 0.4 + 0.0 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 tr 0.1 + 0.0 tr 0.1 + 0.022:5n-3 2.2 + 0.1 1.8 + 0.0 1.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.5 + 0.1 0.9 + 0.1 0.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 1.1 + 0.122:6n-3 2.2 + 0.1 7.0 + 0.2 2.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 1.1 + 0.1 2.1 + 03 1.7 + 0.3 1.9 + 0.2E n-3 LCP 4.8 + 0.2 9.1 + 0.3 4.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 1.7 + 0.2 3.1 + 0.4 2.3 + 0.4 3.2 + 0.322:6n-3/22:5n-6 5.4 + 0.5 16.9 + 1.9 11.1 + 0.6 2.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 6.2 + 0.7 2.4 + 0.3 4.0 + 0.5E LCP 12.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 15.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 8.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 9.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 8.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.9 9.3 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 11.3 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1UI 131 + 1 149 + 1 117 + 3 120 + 4 118 + 3 122 + 6 133 + 4MChL 17.9 + 0.0 18.0 + 0.0 17.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 17.9 + 0.0 17.9 + 0.0 17.8 + 0.0 17.9 + 0.0'See footnote Table 6.3136Table 6.21Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of red blood cell (RBC) phosphatidylcholine (PC) in 15-day-old piglets fed sow milk or formulas withvarying % 18:2n-6 / % 18:3n-3'Fatty acidReference milk(n =9)Fish oil Milk(n =6)16/1 + FO(n=3)16/1(n =6)16/4(n =6)30/1(n =5)35/4(n=5)16:0 31.9 \u00C2\u00B1 1.2 38.4 + 0.4 31.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 313 + 0.8 31.0 + 0.7 35.2 + 1.2 32.4 + 0.218:0 13.3 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 9.5 + 0.3 10.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 9.9 + 0.3 11.1 + 0.3 12.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 13.6 + 0.3E sats 46.2 + 1.5 49.8 + 0.4 44.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 43.3 + 0.7 44.8 + 0.8 49.9 + 1.4 49.1 + 0.616:1 1.2 + 0.1 1.1 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.018:1 25.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 19.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 28.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 29.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 27.2 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1 175 \u00C2\u00B1 1.0 16.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3E monos 26.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 21.2 + 0.3 29.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.8 30.4 + 0.5 27.9 + 1.2 18.0 + 1.1 16.6 + 0.318:2n-618:3n-619.4 \u00C2\u00B1 1.1nd21.6 + 0.5nd21.4 \u00C2\u00B1 1.3tr21.0 + 0.6tr21.1 + 0.5tr26.9 + 1.9tr26.4 + 0.8tr20:2n-6 0.3 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.0 0.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.120:3n-6 0.4 + 0.0 0.4 + 0.0 0.3 + 0. 0 0.2 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:4n-6 4.8 \u00C2\u00B1 03 3.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 2.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 3.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 2.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 3.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.6 4.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.522:4n-6 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 nd 0.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 03 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 0.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.122:5n-6 tr tr tr 0.1 + 0.0 tr 0.2 + 0.0 trE n-6 LCP 5.0 + 0.3 3.5 + 0.3 2.1 + 0.2 4.0 + 0.4 3.1 + 0.3 4.0 + 0.7 4.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.518:3n-3 0.5 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.1 1.3 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.0 0.8 \u00C2\u00B1 0.020:5n-3 0.2 + 0.0 0.5 + 0.0 0.7 + 0.0 tr 0.2 + 0.0 nd 0.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:5n-3 0.6 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.0 03 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 0.3 + 0.0 0.1 + 0.0 03 \u00C2\u00B1 0.022:6n-3 0.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 2.0 + 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 0.4 + 0.1 0.8 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.1 1.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2E n-3 LCP 1.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.2 2.8 + 0.2 2.0 + 0.2 0.5 + 0.1 1.2 + 0.1 0.3 + 0.1 1.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.222:6n-3/22:5n-6 24.5 + 5.0 48.1 \u00C2\u00B14.3 23.1 + 4.5 2.9 + 0.3 16.5 + 2.6 1.3 + 0.1 13.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3E LCP 6.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 6.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 4.1 \u00C2\u00B1 0.3 4.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.5 4.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.4 4.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7 6.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.7UI 98 + 4 98 + 2 93 + 2 93 + 2 95 + 1 92 \u00C2\u00B1 5 101 + 2MChL 175 \u00C2\u00B1 0.1 175 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 17.5 + 0.0 17.5 + 0.0 17.5 + 0.0 17.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0 17.6 \u00C2\u00B1 0.0'See footnote Table 6.3137"@en . "Thesis/Dissertation"@en . "1993-11"@en . "10.14288/1.0098848"@en . "eng"@en . "Family and Nutritional Sciences"@en . "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en . "Graduate"@en . "The dietary essentiality of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant nutrition"@en . "Text"@en . "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/2373"@en .