"Arts, Faculty of"@en . "History, Department of"@en . "DSpace"@en . "UBCV"@en . "Keerawella, Gamini Bandara"@en . "2010-09-30T20:21:16Z"@en . "1988"@en . "Doctor of Philosophy - PhD"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "The Indian Ocean has experienced a process of profound change in its political and strategic map since World War II. This began with the British withdrawal from East of Suez, and was followed by the entry of the superpowers into the Indian Ocean, the growth of superpower naval rivalry, and the proliferation of security problems of the states in the region. The essence of these developments is the transformation of the Indian Ocean from the stability of one-power domination to the instability of superpower rivalry. The thesis examines the process of this transformation and the Sri Lankan response from a historical perspective.\r\nThe transformation of the power structure in the Indian Ocean was essentially an outcome of the changes in power configurations in world politics. The growth of superpower rivalry in the Indian Ocean must be understood in relation to the evolution of political, economic, and strategic interests of the superpowers, advances in weapons systems and naval technology, and political developments in the region.\r\nThe superpower naval rivalry has three interrelated elements, viz, naval deployments, weapons deals, and jockeying for bases/logistic support in the region. It evolves in three phases: from 1968 to the 1973 oil crisis; from the oil crisis to 1978; and since 1978.\r\nThere are definite linkages between superpower naval rivalry and the conflict patterns in the region. The states in the region count on the superpowers for their security because of the inherent weaknessess of the ruling elites in the region, the limits of their security options, and economic dependence. The invariable outcome is a chain reaction resulting in military pacts, puppet governments, political supression, and proxy war, which forms the texture of the international politics of the Indian Ocean region.\r\nSri Lankan responses to superpower naval rivalry can be explained in relation to the geo-political framework of her strategic thinking, and her internal political and economic processes. In the period 1948-56, Sri Lanka identified herself with the British defence structure in the Indian Ocean. With the changes introduced by the M.E.P. regime, non-alignment became the foreign policy approach of Sri Lanka after 1956. In accordance with the growth of superpower naval presence, Sri Lanka became more sensitive to Indian Ocean strategic issues in the 1960s. After 1970, Sri Lankan policy towards the Indian Ocean took a more coherent form and was designed to balance two\r\nconsiderations - first, at the sub-regional level, how to deal with India; and at the Indian Ocean level, how to check superpower naval rivalry and the increasing militarization of the Indian Ocean. This was reflected in Sri Lanka's proposal for an Indian Ocean Peace Zone (IOPZ). After 1977, under the changed internal and international situation, Sri Lanka soft-pedalled her earlier more articulated position regarding superpower naval riavlry in the Indian Ocean."@en . "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/28843?expand=metadata"@en . "THE GROWTH OF SUPERPOWER NAVAL RIVALRY IN THE INDIAN OCEAN AND SRI LANKAN RESPONSE By GAMINI BANDARA KEERAWELLA B.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f S r i L a n k a , 1975 M.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f W i n d s o r , 1982 A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES ( D e p a r t m e n t o f H i s t o r y ) We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA S e p t e m b e r 1988 ( o)Gamini B a n d a r a K e e r a w e l l a , 1988 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of H I-S T g * ^ The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada Date A3 - IO -DE-6 (2/88) ABSTRACT The Indian Ocean has experienced a process of profound change i n i t s p o l i t i c a l and strategic map since World War II. This began with the B r i t i s h withdrawal from East of Suez, and was followed by the entry of the superpowers into the Indian Ocean, the growth of superpower naval r i v a l r y , and the p r o l i f e r a t i o n of security problems of the states in the region. The essence of these developments i s the transformation of the Indian Ocean from the s t a b i l i t y of one-power domination to the i n s t a b i l i t y of superpower r i v a l r y . The t h e s i s examines the process of t h i s transformation and the S r i Lankan response from a h i s t o r i c a l perspective. The transformation of the power structure in the Indian Ocean was e s s e n t i a l l y an outcome of the changes i n power confi g u r a t i o n s i n world p o l i t i c s . The growth of superpower r i v a l r y i n the Indian Ocean must be understood i n relation to the evolution of p o l i t i c a l , economic, and strategic interests of the superpowers, advances i n weapons systems and naval technology, and p o l i t i c a l developments in the region. The superpower naval r i v a l r y has three i n t e r r e l a t e d elements, v i z , naval deployments, weapons deals, and jockeying for bases/logistic support i n the region. It evolves in three phases: from 1968 to the 1973 o i l c r i s i s ; from the o i l c r i s i s to 1978; and since 1978. There are definite linkages between superpower naval r i v a l r y and the c o n f l i c t patterns i n the region. The states i n the i i region count on the superpowers for th e i r security because of the inherent weaknessess of the ruling e l i t e s i n the region, the limits of th e i r security options, and economic dependence. The invariable outcome i s a chain reaction resulting in military pacts, puppet governments, p o l i t i c a l supression, and proxy war, which forms the texture of the international p o l i t i c s of the Indian Ocean region. S r i Lankan responses to superpower naval r i v a l r y can be explained i n r e l a t i o n to the g e o - p o l i t i c a l framework of her s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g , and her i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l and economic processes. In the period 1948-56, S r i Lanka i d e n t i f i e d herself with the B r i t i s h defence structure in the Indian Ocean. With the changes introduced by the M.E.P. regime, non-alignment became the foreign policy approach of S r i Lanka after 1956. In accordance with the growth of superpower naval presence, S r i Lanka became more sensitive to Indian Ocean strategic issues in the 1960s. After 1970, S r i Lankan policy towards the Indian Ocean took a more coherent form and was designed to balance two considerations - f i r s t , at the the sub-regional l e v e l , how to deal with India; and at the Indian Ocean le v e l , how to check superpower naval r i v a l r y and the increasing m i l i t a r i z a t i o n of the Indian Ocean. This was reflected in S r i Lanka's proposal for an Indian Ocean Peace Zone (IOPZ). After 1977, under the changed internal and international situation, S r i Lanka soft-pedalled her e a r l i e r more articulated position regarding superpower naval r i a v l r y i n the Indian Ocean. i i i T A B L E OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT i i TABLE OF CONTENTS i v LIST OF TABLES ' v ABBREVIATIONS v i MAP OF THE INDIAN OCEAN v i i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ix CHAPTER I. The H i s t o r i c a l and Theoretical Setting 1 II. The B r i t i s h Withdrawal from the Indian Ocean, 1945-68 25 III . The United States i n the Indian Ocean - 1945-68: from the B r i t i s h Umbrella to the Application of Naval Power 81 IV. The Soviet Naval Entry into the Indian Ocean 126 V. The Beginning of Superpower Naval Rivalry in the Indian Ocean, 1968-73 181 VI. The S t a b i l i z a t i o n of Superpower Naval Positions in Indian Ocean: From the O i l C r i s i s to the NALT 242 VII. The New Wave of Superpower Naval R i v a l r y and M i l i t a r i z a t i o n of the Indian Ocean 297 VIII. Conclusion. 350 BIBLIOGRAPHY 382 iv L I S T OF T A B L E S I. The U.S. Strategic SLBMs 164 II. Reported Soviet Naval Presence by Months (1968-71) . 198 III. Deployment of General Purpose U.S. and U.S.S.R. Naval Ships in the Indian Ocean (1968-73)......200 IV. The U.S. and U.S.S.R Naval Presence in the Indian Ocean (1968-73) 201 V. Major Sources of Arms Purchase by the Persian Gulf Countries 1975-79... 251 VI. The Soviet Naval Presence i n the Indian Ocean (1973-77) 266 VII. Arms Transfers to the Indian Ocean Region (1973-77) 270 VIII. FY 1981-84 MILCON Expansion of Diego Garcia 321 v Abbreviations ABM - A n t i - B a l l i s t i c Missiles ADGES - A i r Defence Ground Environment System (India) AGOR - Oceanographic Research Ship AGS - Survey Ship AREN - Army Radio Engineering Network (of India) ASEAN - Association of South-East Asian Nations AWACS - Airborne Warning and Control System BARC - Bhabha Atomic Research Center BIOT - B r i t i s h Indian Ocean Territory CGN - Guided Missile Submarines CIA - Central Intelligence Agency CINCLANT - Commander-in-Chief Atlantic CINCPAC - Commander-in-Chief P a c i f i c CENTO - Central Treaty Organization CENTCOM - Contral Command (U.S) CER - Circular Error Brobability CP (S.L) - Communist Party of S r i Lanka FRELIMO - Frente de Liberacca de Mozambique HAL - Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd ICBM - Inter-Continental B a l l i s t i c Missiles IOPZ - Indian Ocean Peace Zone proposal JVP - Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (People's Liberation Front) LSSP - Lanka Sama Samaja Party MAD - Mutual Assured Destruction v i MEP - Mahajana Eksath Peramuna (People's United Front) MILCON - M i l i t a r y Construction Programme MIRV - Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle MSO - Minesweepers NALT - Naval Arms Limitation Talks NAM - Non-Alligned Movement OAU - Organization of African Unity OAPEC - Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries OPEC - Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries RAF - Royal A i r Force RDJTF - Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force SAARC - South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation SAC - Strategic A i r Command SAM - Surface-to-Air Missiles SEATO - South East Asian Treaty Organization SLBM - Sea-Launched B a l l i s t i c Missiles SANFZ - South Asian Nuclear Free Zone SLFP - S r i Lanka Freedom Party SPR - Strategic Petroleum Reserve SSBN - B a l l i s t i c Missile Submarines SSC - Second Strike Capability SSM - Surface-to-Surface Missile UNCLOS III - Third U.N. Conference on the Law of the Sea UNP - United National Paty ZANU - Zimbabwe African National Union ZAPU - Zimbabwe African People's Union v i i T5*E BO* m Pof I SudanT - \u00E2\u0080\u009E' Aseft Djibouti SeaUnea, Strahd & Services ^ r>- IndW Ocean Region Thanwit \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ,J / ARABIAN SEA> tSecotra Mogadishu * I f \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 * Maha Is SEYCHELLES INDIAN OCEAN , f CHRISTMAS v< *7 '.\u00E2\u0080\u00A2rlf0' MAURtTIUS \"mmoii I* VLFartwa. Rarth I M S \u00E2\u0080\u00A2A> TRACKING * COMMUNICATION \u00E2\u0080\u0094 STRAIT ^ NAVAL BASE / FACILITY 4 AIR ' ' \" \u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00C2\u00BB SE ALANS AMSTERDAM Source: V i v L. Forbes, \"Of Sealanes, S t r a i t s and ( M i l i t a r y ) Services: Indian Ocean Region\", The Indian Ocean Review, 1:2 (June 1988), p. 13. v i i i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my gratitude and thanks, f i r s t of a l l , to Prof. Peter Harnetty, my thesis supervisor. I also wish to express my gratitude to Prof. John Conway, and Prof. John Wood, members of my thesis committee. Their valuable comments and suggestions are greatly appreciated. Prof.Mark Zacher always encouraged me and I benefitted from frequent discussions with him. I owe gratitude and thanks to Drs. Rohan Samarajiwa, Dr. P.V.J. Jayasekera, (Mrs) Needra Karunaratne and Veranja Karunaratne f o r t h e i r encouragement and help i n my research. My studies at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia have been made p o s s i b l e by successive awards of Teaching Assistantships from the Department of History. I express my gratitude to the Federic H. Soward Memorial Fellowship Fund and to Prof. Unger, Chairman of the Department of History, for granting me the 1987-88 fellowship. WUS-Canada and WUS-UBC shared the cost of my a i r - t r a v a l and other expenses to come back to U BC for the thesis defence. I am grateful to the Department of History of the University of Peradeniya for granting me required study leave. My friends, Chitra and Nimal Rajapakse, Mala and Keerti Fernando who very kindly took care of me during the f i n a l stage of my stay at UBC. The warmness and c o r d i a l i t y with which they welcome me at their homes i s greatly appreciated. Not l e a s t am I g r e a t f u l to my Wife, N a l i n i , and daughter, Asvini, for the understanding and patience with which they created an ideal domestic environment to persue my academic work. ix C h a p t e r I The H i s t o r i c a l and Theoretical Setting I t has a l w a y s been a r e s t l e s s g i a n t , t h i s I n d i a n O c e a n ; b e a u t i f u l , v i o l e n t , o f t e n m y s t i f y i n g . B u t t o d a y , s y m b o l i c a l l y a t l e a s t , i t simmers as n e v e r b e f o r e . 1 I n t h e l a s t few d e c a d e s t h e I n d i a n Ocean has undergone a f u n d a m e n t a l change i n i t s i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l power r e l a t i o n s and has come t o t h e f o r e f r o n t as a p i v o t a l g e o s t r a t e g i c r e g i o n i n t h e power c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f m t e r t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . The d i s s o -l u t i o n o f t h e o l d f o r m s o f c o l o n i a l e m p i r e s i n t h e f a c e o f t h e g r o w i n g s t r e n g t h o f n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n movements a f t e r W o r l d War I I gave b i r t h t o a h o s t o f p o s t - c o l o n i a l s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n . The s e l f - a s s e r t i o n o f t h e s e new e n t r a n t s t o t h e g l o b a l s t a t e s y s t e m i n r e g i o n a l and w o r l d a f f a i r s added a new d i m e n s i o n t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . The B r i t i s h , who had d o m i n a t e d t h e I n d i a n Ocean f o r more t h a n one and a h a l f c e n t u r i e s , f i n a l l y d e c i d e d t o w i t h d r a w f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n 1968. W h i l e t h e o c e a n i c r e g i m e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h B r i t i s h n a v a l o v e r l o r d s h i p was l o s i n g i t s v i t a l i t y , new d e f e n c e a n d s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m s i n h e r e n t i n t h e p e r i o d o f n a t i o n s t a t e f o r m a t i o n began t o e n g u l f t h e r e g i o n . I n t h i s c hanged p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c m i l i e u , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s \u00E2\u0080\u00A2'\u00E2\u0080\u00A2Bart M c D o w e l l , \" C r o s s c u r r e n t s Sweep a S t r a t e g i c Sea,\" N a t i o n a l G e o g r a p h i c , 160:4 ( O c t o b e r 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 423. F o l l o w i n g S a u l Cohen, g e o s t r a t e g i c r e g i o n i s d e f i n e d h e r e as \" t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e w o r l d i n t e r m s o f l o c a t i o n , movement, t r a d e o r i e n t a t i o n , and c u l t u r e o r i d e o l o g i c a l b onds\". See, S a u l Cohen, Geography and P o l i t i c s i n a W o r l d D i v i d e d (New Y o r k , 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 64. 1 and t h e S o v i e t U n i o n e n t e r e d i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean t o p u s h t h e i r own p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t s , t h e r e b y t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e f o r m e r ^ B r i t i s h l a k e ' i n t o an a r e n a o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n . T h i s T h e s i s w i l l e x a m i n e t h e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean f r o m t h e s t a b i l i t y o f o n e - p o w e r d o m i n a t i o n t o t h e i n s t a b i l i t y o f s u p e r p o w e r r i v a l r y ; a n d w i l l e x p l a i n a n d a n a l y s e S r i L a n k a n r e s p o n s e s t o t h e g r o w t h o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I t w i l l a r g u e t h a t changes t h a t t o o k p l a c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1945 t o 1982 were e s s e n t i a l l y an outcome o f changes i n power c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n w o r l d p o l i t i c s . S r i L a n k a n r e s p o n s e w i l l be e x p l a i n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o h e r s e c u r i t y p e r c e p t i o n s c o n c e i v e d i n h e r g e o - p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t , d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e s t r a t e g i c l a n d s c a p e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean, and h e r i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l and e c o nomic d y n a m i c s . T h i s s t u d y i s i n t e n d e d as a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s t u d y o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s o f r e g i o n s . The g r o w t h o f t h e s t u d y o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s o f r e g i o n s i s a r e s u l t o f t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f a r e a s t u d i e s a f t e r t h e Second W o r l d War. A t f i r s t , some s c h o l a r s i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s who w o r ked w i t h a s y s t e m s p e r s p e c t i v e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y d i s t i n c t g r o u p s o f s t a t e s as s u b s y s t e m s o r s u b o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s . L e o n a r d B i n d e r can be c o n s i d e r e d as t h e p i o n e e r t o use t h e s u b s y s t e m a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f r e g i o n s . ^ L a t e r , he was f o l l o w e d b y a number o f s c h o l a r s s u c h as M i c h a e l A EC r B r e c h e r , W i l l i a m Z a r t m a n , a n d L a r r y W. Bowman. T o d a y ^ L e o n a r d B i n d e r , \"The M i d d l e E a s t as a S u b o r d i n a t e I n t e r n a t i o n a l System,\" W o r l d P o l i t i c s , 10 ( A p r i l 1 9 5 8 ) , pp. 408-29. 4 M i c h a e l B r e c h e r , \" I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s ( c o n t i . . t o p. 3) 2 t h e s t u d y o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s o f r e g i o n s c o n s t i t u t e s and r e c o g n i z e d as an i m p o r t a n t b r a n c h i n t h e a c a d e m i c s t u d y o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . These r e g i o n a l s t u d i e s , as W i l l i a m L. Dowdy has p o i n t e d o u t , \"have gone beyond t h e a r e a s t u d i e s t r a d i -t i o n o f i n t e n s e i n t e r e s t i n one p a r t i c u l a r a r e a f o r i t s own sake t o w a r d s a h e i g h t e n e d i n t e r e s t i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e 7 g l o b a l s y s t e m and r e g i o n a l s u b s y s t e m s \" . I n t h e 1970s, t h e I n d i a n Ocean became one o f t h e h i g h l y v o l a t i l e a r e a s i n w o r l d p o l i t i c s . The t h i r d I n d o - P a k i s t a n war and t h e emergence o f B a n g l a d e s h i n 1971, t h e A r a b - I s r a e l i war and s u b s e q u e n t O r g a n i z a t i o n o f A r a b P e t r o l e u m E x p o r t i n g C o u n t r i e s (OAPEC) o i l embargo i n 1973, t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e E m p i r e i n A f r i c a , t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n i n 1979, r e p e a t e d l y c h a n g e d t h e p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c l a n d s c a p e and made t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f o c a l p o i n t o f g l o b a l c o n c e r n . I n v i e w o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s , t h e I n d i a n Ocean, as a g e o s t r a t e g i c r e g i o n , has a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f many s c h o l a r s and g a i n e d r e c o g n i t i o n as a v i a b l e u n i t o f a n a l y s i s . W r i t i n g on r e g i o n a l s u b s y s t e m s , ( c o n t i . . f r o m p. 2) and A s i a n S t u d i e s : The S u b o r d i n a t e S t a t e S ystem o f S o u t h e r n A s i a , \" W o r l d P o l i t i c s , 15 ( J a n u a r y 1 9 6 3 ) , pp. 213-35. W i l l i a m Zartman, \" A f r i c a as a S u b o r d i n a t e S t a t e System i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , \" I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n , 21 (Summer 19 6 7 ) , pp. 545-64. ^ L a r r y W. Bowman, \"The S u b o r d i n a t e S t a t e System o f S o u t h e r n A f r i c a , \" I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s Q u a r t e r l y , 13 (September 1 9 6 8 ) , pp. 231-63. 7 W i l l i a m L. Dowdy, \"The I n d i a n Ocean R e g i o n as C o n c e p t and R e a l i t y , \" i n The I n d i a n O c e a n - P e r s p e c t i v e s on a S t r a t e g i c A r e n a , W i l l i a m L. Dowdy and R u s s e l l B. T r o o d , e d s . (Durham: Duke U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 8 5 ) , p. 4. 3 W i l l i a m R. Thompson p r e s e n t e d f o u r c o n d i t i o n s t o i d e n t i f y a r e g i o n a l S u b s y s t e m . ^ The I n d i a n Ocean meets t h e s e f o u r n e c e s s a r y and s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n s . ^ However, s c h o l a r s s u c h as B a r r y Buzan c h a l l e n g e t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n as an a n a l y t i c a l u n i t b e c a u s e o f t h e \" p r o b l e m s o f o m i s s i o n and s u p e r f i c i a l i t y w h i c h a r i s e f r o m t h e s c a l e and d i v e r s i t y o f 1 n t h e a r e a \" . The p r o b l e m s a r i s i n g o u t o f i t s e x p a n s e and d i v e r s i -t y c o u l d be h a n d l e d by i d e n t i f y i n g s u b - r e g i o n a l s u b s y s t e m s . B e s i d e s , more i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s t h e m s e l v e s and t h e e x t e r n a l powers, e s p e c i a l l y t h e s u p e r p o w e r s , p e r c e i v e t h e I n d i a n Ocean as a u n i t , a ' d i s t i n c t i v e t h e a t r e o f o p e r a t i o n ' . A p r e c i s e g e o g r a p h i c a l d e f i n i t i o n has been a moot p o i n t i n d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. However, t h i s q u e s t i o n was r e s o l v e d by t h e e x p e r t c o m m i t t e e a p p o i n t e d by t h e U.N. S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l i n 1 9 7 4 . 1 1 A c c e p t i n g t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , t h i s s t u d y i d e n t i f i e s t h e I n d i a n Ocean as t h e body o f w a t e r t h e n o r t h e r n f r o n t i e r s o f w h i c h a r e c l e a r l y marked by t h e A s i a n l a n d mass. The d i v i d i n g l i n e between t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e A t l a n t i c s h o u l d be \u00C2\u00B0They a r e : 1, The a c t o r s ' p a t t e r n o f r e l a t i o n s o r i n t e r a c -t i o n e x h i b i t a p a r t i c u l a r d e g r e e o f r e g u l a r i t y and i n t e n s i t y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t a change a t one p o i n t i n t h e s u b s y s t e m a f f e c t s o t h e r p o i n t s ; 2, The a c t o r s a r e g e n e r a l l y p r o x i m a t e ; 3, I n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l o b s e r v e r s and a c t o r s r e c o g n i z e t h e s u b s y s t e m as a d i s t i n c t i v e a r e a o r ' t h e a t r e o f o p e r a t i o n ' ; 4,The s u b s y s t e m l o g i c a l l y c o n s i s t s o f a t l e a s t two a n d q u i t e p r o b a b l y more a c t o r s . See W i l l i a m R. Thompson, \"The R e g i o n a l S u b s y s t e m - A C o n c e p t u a l E x p l i c a t i o n and a P r o p o s i t i o n a l I n v e n t o r y , \" I n t e r n a - t i o n a l S t u d i e s Q u a r t e r l y , 17 (March 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 101. q ^ F o r a good d i s c u s s i o n on t h i s p o i n t s e e , Dowdy and T r o o d , op. c i t . , pp. 4-23. i o B a r r y Buzan, \"Book R e v i e w - The I n d i a n Ocean i n G l o b a l P o l i t i c s o f Bowman and C l a r k , \" S u r v i v a l , 24 ( J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y 1 9 8 2 ) , p. 44. 1 3-U.N. Doc A/AC.159/1. 4 t h e M e r i d i a n o f Cape A g u l h u s ( 2 0 . 0 ' E ) , and between t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e P a c i f i c s h o u l d be t h e M e r i d i a n o f t h e S o u t h e a s t Cape o f Tasmania (147.O'E), t h e w e s t e r n e x i t o f t h e Bas s S t r a i t , and t h e M e r i d i a n l i n e between n o r t h - w e s t A u s t r a l i a and t h e M a l a y P e n i n s u l a . F o r t h e s o u t h , t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e between t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e A n t a r c t i c s h o u l d be 60.0' S. A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e two g r e a t b a y s on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e I n d i a n s u b - c o n t i n e n t , t h e Bay o f B e n g a l i n t h e e a s t and t h e A r a b i a n Sea i n t h e w e s t , w i t h i t s arms, t h e G u l f o f Aden and Oman, b e l o n g t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Hence, t h e Red Sea and t h e P e r s i a n G u l f may be c o n s i d e r e d as e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The b e d o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean a t t a i n s d e p t h s up t o 2,000 f a t h o m s , v e r y i m p o r t a n t when c o n s i d e -r i n g t h e d e p l o y m e n t o f n u c l e a r s u b m a r i n e s . The w a t e r s p a c e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s a l s o d o t t e d w i t h about a t h o u s a n d i s l a n d s . H i s t o r i c a l Setting The b e g i n n i n g o f n a v i g a t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean goes b a c k t o 1 7 p r o t o h i s t o r y . As t r a d e and o t h e r forms o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e v e -l o p e d between c e n t r e s o f a n c i e n t c i v i l i z a t i o n s b o r d e r i n g t h e I n d i a n Ocean, a t t e m p t s were made t o d e v e l o p s e a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s and t o c o n t r o l a d j a c e n t s e a a r e a s . I n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e r i s e and f a l l o f a n c i e n t e m p i r e s , t h e i m p e r i u m i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean moved f r o m one c e n t r e t o a n o t h e r . However, no i m p e r i a l power was a b l e t o d o m i n a t e t h e e n t i r e I n d i a n Ocean p r i o r t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e t h a l a s s o c r a c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a i n t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y . I t i s a w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d f a c t t h a t t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e Cape x F o r a good s u r v e y o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean p a s t see A u g u s t T o u s s a i n t , H i s t o r y o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean (London: R o u t l e d g e and Kegan P a u l , 1961) . 5 r o u t e was a m a j o r t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. From t h e v e r y o u t s e t t h e P o r t u g u e s e c o n c e i v e d i t as a s i n g l e s t r a t e g i c u n i t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e y d i d n o t l i m i t t h e i r a c t i -v i t i e s t o one r e g i o n . I n t h e W e s t e r n I n d i a n Ocean, t h e y c a p t u r e d Mozambique and K i l w a on t h e A f r i c a n c o a s t and S o c o t r a and Ormuz i n t h e A r a b i a n Sea. On t h e W e s t e r n c o a s t o f I n d i a , t h e P o r t u g u e s e began w i t h C o c h i n and moved t o Goa, Daman, and D i u . I n t h e e a s t e r n p a r t , t h e y a p p r o a c h e d t h e K o t t e Kingdom i n S r i La n k a , M a s u l i p a t a m and Nagapatam on t h e I n d i a n e a s t c o a s t and, more i m p o r t a n t l y , M a l a c c a , an A l e x a n d r i a i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. \" I t had t a k e n t h e P o r t u g u e s e about two c e n t u r i e s t o d i s c o v e r t h e Cape r o u t e . I t t o o k them l e s s t h a n f i f t e e n y e a r s t o s e c u r e a l l t h e key p o s i t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean\". J A l f o n s o d ' A l b u q u e r q u e , t h e s e c o n d P o r t u g u e s e V i c e r o y o f I n d i a (1508-1515), was t h e a r c h i t e c t o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e m a r i t i m e s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. H i s n a v a l s t r a t e g y e n t a i l e d e s t a b l i s h i n g b a s e s a t t h e gateways t o t h e O c e a n a n d b u i l d i n g b a s e s o r s t r o n g h o l d s a t s t r a t e g i c p o i n t s a l o n g t h e t r a d e r o u t e s , m a k i n g a l l i a n c e s w i t h r u l e r s o f t e r r i t o -r i e s i m p o r t a n t f o r t r a d e . I t was t r u e t h a t t h e P o r t u g u e s e were t h e m a s t e r s o f the' I n d i a n Ocean f o r o v e r a c e n t u r y b u t t h e i r t h a l a s s o c r a c y was n o t a l w a y s a n d e v e r y w h e r e e f f e c t i v e . The P o r t u g u e s e c o n s t a n t l y c o n f r o n t e d r e s i s t a n c e f r o m some r e g i o n a l f o r c e s . On t h e A f r i c a n c o a s t t h e c e n t e r o f r e s i s t a n c e was Mombasa. I n t h e w e s t e r n I n d i a n Ocean t h e y c o u l d n o t p r e v e n t t h e G u j a r a t i m e r c h a n t s f r o m t r a d i n g w i t h Sumatra. I n t h e M a l a y P e n i n -s u l a t h e P o r t u g u e s e s t r o n g h o l d o f M a l a c c a was opposed by t h e S u l t a n o f A c h i n i n Sumatra. However, by u s i n g s u p e r i o r s h i p s , \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ^ T o u s s a i n t , H i s t o r y o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean, p. 104. 6 w e l l d e v e l o p e d m a r i t i m e s t r a t e g y , a n d e x p l o i t i n g r e g i o n a l r i v a l r i e s t o t h e i r own a d v a n t a g e , t h e P o r t u g u e s e were a b l e t o p r e v a i l o v e r l o c a l r u l e r s . A t v a r i o u s t i m e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y , o t h e r E u r o p e a n powers namely, t h e D u t c h , t h e B r i t i s h , t h e F r e n c h , and t h e Danes a l s o e n t e r e d i n t o c o m m e r c i a l c o m p e t i t i o n and f o r t h i s p u r p o s e f o r m e d t h e i r own E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o T o u s s a i n t , t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e f a l l o f M a l a c c a t o t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e B r i t i s h c o n q u e s t i n 1815 was r e a l l y one l o n g i n t e r r e g n u m . ^ D u r i n g t h i s i n t e r r e g n u m some r e g i o n a l r u l e r s s u c h as t h e Omani r u l e r o f Muscat and t h e A c h i n r u l e r o f Sumatra r e -e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r power i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a r e a s . The s t r u g g l e among t h e E u r o p e a n powers i n t h e p e r i o d o f i n t e r r e g n u m f o l l o w i n g t h e P o r t u g u e s e d e c l i n e \"marked t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e use o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean as a t h e a t r e where r i v a l r i e s among f o r e i g n n a v i e s were t h r a s h e d o u t and where e x t r a - r e g i o n a l wars and a l l i a n c e s c o u l d a f f e c t l o c a l s e c u r i t y \" . ^ The r e a l s t r u g g l e f o r t h e m a s t e r y o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean was c a r r i e d on between t h e B r i t i s h and t h e F r e n c h . The B r i t i s h began f r o m a s m a l l t r a d i n g p o s t a t S u r a t i n t h e G u l f o f Cambay and one a t M a s u l i p a t a m on t h e Coromandal c o a s t . L a t e r t h e y moved t o Bombay, Madras and C a l c u t t a . The c h i e f F r e n c h b a s e was P o n d i c h e r y n e a r M a d r a s . L o o k i n g f o r a h a l t i n g p l a c e on t h e way t o I n d i a , t h e F r e n c h f i r s t a t t e m p t e d t o e x p e l t h e D u t c h f r o m t h e Cape. A f t e r t h i s f a i l e d t h e y o c c u p i e d M a u r i t i u s , where t h e y f o u n d a n a t u r a l 1 4 T o u s s a i n t , \" S h i f t i n g Power B a l a n c e s , \" p. 7. ^ M e l i n d a W. Cooke, \" S t r a t e g i c C o n s i d e r a t i o n s , \" i n I n d i a n Ocean: F i v e I s l a n d C o u n t r i e s , F r e d e r i c a Bunge, ed. ( W a s h i n g t o n : A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 252. 7 h a r b o u r - P o r t L o u i s . I n t h e Bay o f B e n g a l t h e main F r e n c h base was C h a n d e r n a g o r e w h i l e C a l c u t t a was t h e B r i t i s h . The A n g l o - F r e n c h d u e l f o r t h e m a s t e r y o f t h e w o r l d ' s oceans l a s t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y and o n l y came t o an end i n 1815 when B r i t i s h n a v a l supremacy was f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. A f t e r t h e i r n a v a l supremacy was e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e B r i t i s h a d h e r e d t o t h e c l a s s i c a l a s s u m p t i o n o f f r e e d o m o f t h e s e a . I t was i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t t h e B r i t i s h r e d i s c o v e r e d G r o t i u s and Mare L i b e r u m w h i c h t h e y had b u r i e d 200 y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y . Now, f r e e d o m o f t h e s e a became t h e c a t c h - w o r d o f B r i t i s h n a v a l supremacy. But i n h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y , as R ene-Jean Dupuy o b s e r v e d , \" o n l y t h e g r e a t m a r i t i m e powers were a b l e t o make use o f i t (freedom) . Freedom o f t h e s e a has been a k i n t o 'freedom o f l a b o u r ' i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l E u r o p e o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y ; i n e f f e c t t h e r i g h t o f t h e 1 6 g r e a t was l i c e n c e , t h a t o f t h e p o o r was s u b m i s s i o n . \" D L a t e r on, t h e s u p e r p o w e r s t h e m s e l v e s u s e d t h i s c o n c e p t i n o r d e r n o t t o e n d o r s e t h e I n d i a n O c e a n P e a c e Zone P r o p o s a l a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s a f t e r 1971. From t h e Peace S e t t l e m e n t o f V i e n n a i n 1815 u n t i l W o r l d War I I t h e I n d i a n Ocean was p r a c t i c a l l y a B r i t i s h l a k e . T o u s s a i n t o b s e r v e s : A d o p t i n g d ' A l b u q u e r q u e ' s i d e a s a n d e v e n g i v i n g t h e m a new t w i s t , f o r d' A l b u q u e r q u e h a d n o t f o r e s e e n i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s m , t h e E n g l i s h were t o s e t up i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean t h e most a b s o l u t e hegemony o f a l l t i m e , and were t o impose upon A s i a a y o k e w h i c h was t o be s h a k e n o n l y b y J a p a n e s e cannon a c e n t u r y and a h a l f l a t e r . 1 7 The o p e n i n g o f t h e Suez c a n a l i n 1868 and t h e w i d e s p r e a d use o f \u00E2\u0080\u00A2^Rene-Jean Dupuy, The Law o f t h e Sea: C u r r e n t P r o b l e m s ( L e i d e n : Oceana P u b l i c a t i o n s I n c . , 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 3. T o u s s a i n t , H i s t o r y o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean, p. 188. 8 s t e a m s h i p s i n t h e l a t e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y opened up a new phase i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The ocean became even c l o s e r t o E u r o p e w i t h t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s . B r i t i s h c o n t r o l o v e r G i b r a l t a r , M a l t a , P o r t S a i d and Aden and t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f E g y p t and t h e a n n e x a t i o n o f C y p r u s b r o u g h t t h e S u e z r o u t e u n d e r t h e f i r m c o n t r o l o f B r i t a i n . A f t e r 1870, t h e Germans and t h e I t a l i a n s e n t e r e d i n t o t h e c o l o n i a l r a c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a w i t h t h e t h r u s t o f t h e \"new i m p e r i a l i s m \" . N e v e r t h e l e s s , no power a t t h e t i m e was c a p a b l e o f p o s i n g an e f f e c t i v e c h a l l e n g e t o t h e B r i t i s h n a v a l hegemony i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Germany, w h i c h was l a t e t o e n t e r t h e c o l o n i a l f r a y , f o u n d t h a t t h e A t l a n t i c and t h e Red Sea r o u t e s t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean were v i r t u a l l y c l o s e d . Thus, t h e y a t t e m p t e d t o r e a c h t h e I n d i a n Ocean o v e r l a n d and p l a n n e d t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l B e r l i n - B a g h d a d r a i l w a y l i n e . I t was an a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t o f t h e Germans \" t o o u t f l a n k s t r a t e g i c a l l y B r i t i s h s e a 1 R c o n t r o l \" . T h o u g h Germany p o s e d a f o r m i d a b l e c h a l l e n g e t o B r i t i s h n a v a l power i n t h e e a r l y 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , W o r l d War I e f f e c t i v e l y f r u s t r a t e d German p l a n s . The W a s h i n g t o n N a v a l C o n f e r e n c e i n 1922 marked t h e end o f B r i t a i n ' s e x c l u s i v e m a r i t i m e supremacy, a t l e a s t i n t h e o r y , by e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' n a v a l p a r i t y w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n . T h a t , however, d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e B r i t i s h p o s i t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n t h e p e r i o d between t h e end o f W o r l d War I t o about 1935, t h e f o c u s o f a t t e n t i o n was E a s t A s i a i n v i e w o f t h e r a p i d g r o w t h o f J a p a n e s e n a v a l power. S e v e r e l o s s e s s u f f e r e d by t h e R o y a l Navy i n 1941 and e a r l y i n 1942 s i g n a l l e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f ^ M o n o r a n j a n B e z b o r u a h , U.S. S t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean: The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Response (New Y o r k : P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 7 7 ) , p. 5. 9 t h e end o f t h e B r i t i s h p h a s e i n I n d i a n Ocean h i s t o r y . I n t h e y e a r s f o l l o w i n g W o r l d War I I t h e d e f e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean once a g a i n r e m a i n e d w i t h B r i t a i n b u t , i n p r a c t i c e , t h e days o f B r i t i s h t h a l a s s o c r a c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean were o v e r . Under t h e new power c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n w o r l d p o l i t i c s a f t e r t h e war i t was c l e a r t h a t B r i t a i n c o u l d n o t c o n t i n u e t o p l a y t h e r o l e o f g u a r d i a n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean f o r l o n g . As was t h e c a s e a f t e r t h e P o r t u g u e s e d e c l i n e , t h e w a n i n g o f B r i t i s h power s e t i n m o t i o n n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n among t h e o t h e r e x t e r n a l powers i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean; t h i s t i m e i t was t h e s u p e r -p o w e r s . I t i s n o t s i m p l y t h a t t h e n a v a l hegemony o f a s i n g l e d o minant power was r e p l a c e d by t h e s t r a t e g i c p a r i t y o f t h e s u p e-p o w e r s . The l i t t o r a l s t a t e s c o l l e c t i v e l y and i n d e p e n d e n t l y a l s o began t o a s s e r t t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e a f f a i r s i n t h e r e g i o n . As s u c h , t h e y have become an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t i n t h e new power b a l a n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. One s t r i k i n g a s p e c t o f t h i s power e q u a t i o n i s t h e a c q u i s i t i o n by c e r t a i n l i t t o r a l s t a t e s , n o t a b l y I n d i a , o f \" b l u e w a t e r \" n a v a l p o w e r a n d n u c l e a r c a p a b i l i t y , m a k i n g t h e p a t t e r n o f p o t e n t i a l c o n f l i c t more complex. T h e r e f o r e , what i s g o i n g on i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n c o n s t i t u t e s an i m p o r t a n t s u b j e c t i n r e g i o n a l as w e l l as i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . The s i g n i -f i c a n c e o f t h i s q u e s t i o n s h o u l d be v i e w e d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k d r o p o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . P o l i t i c a l and Strategic Importance of the Indian Ocean The I n d i a n Ocean has become an i m p o r t a n t g e o s t r a t e g i c r e g i o n i n c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d p o l i t i c s . The s t r e n g t h o f t h e human r e s o u r -c e s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t h o u g h i t r a n k s t h i r d i n s i z e i n w o r l d 10 o c e a n s , s h o u l d be n o t e d f i r s t . One i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e p o s t -W o r l d War I I i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t b r o u g h t a b o u t d e c i s i v e changes i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n was t h e t i d e o f n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n f o r c e s w h i c h e x p e d i t e d t h e d e - c o l o n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s . As a r e s u l t , f o r m e r c o l o n i e s g a i n e d p o l i t i c a l i n d e p e n d e n c e one by one a n d e n t e r e d i n t o w o r l d p o l i t i c s as autonomous a c t o r s . O n e - t h i r d o f t h e g l o b a l p o p u l a t i o n and a l s o o n e - t h i r d o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s b e l o n g t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n . B e c a u s e o f t h e n u m e r i c a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s , b o t h s u p e r p o w e r s g i v e h i g h p r i o r i t y t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e i r e f f o r t t o w i e l d power and i n f l u e n c e i n w o r l d p o l i t i c s . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d , however, t h a t most s t a t e s l o c a t e d i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l s y s t e m o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e e c o n o m i c a l l y weak and p o l i t i c a l l y v u l n e r a b l e . I n a s e n s e , t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s a x t h i r d W o r l d ' Ocean b e c a u s e v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n a r e e c o n o m i c a l l y u n d e r d e v e l o p e d a n d p o l i t i c a l l y p o s t -c o l o n i a l . T h e r e i s no s i n g l e r e g i o n a l s t a t e t h a t i s c a p a b l e o f e x t e n d i n g i t s power o v e r t h e e n t i r e I n d i a n Ocean. I n t h e r e g i o n a l s u b - s y s t e m s , medium powers s u c h as I n d i a may e x e r c i s e c o n s i d e r a b l e p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f power. T h e i r s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e , however, does n o t e x t e n d b e y o n d t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s u b - s y s t e m s . Many l i t t o r a l s t a t e s a r e weak i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s , t o o . They a r e s t i l l i n t h e p r i m a r y s t a g e i n t h e s t a t e - b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s . The i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s o f many o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s a r e so weak t h a t p o l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t y has become a p e r v a s i v e f e a t u r e o f t h e r e g i o n . I n many c a s e s , p o s t - c o l o n i a l a t t e m p t s a t n a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n have p r o v e d t o be 11 l e s s t h a n s u c c e s s f u l . These f e a t u r e s i n h e r e n t t o t h e r e g i o n have c o n t r i b u t e d t o i t s v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o e x t r a - r e g i o n a l m a c h i n a t i o n s . The h i s t o r y o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean s i n c e t h e Second W o r l d War i s f r a u g h t w i t h v i o l e n t p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t s . T h ey c a n n o t be s o l e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s . S h o r t c o m i n g s , i f n o t f a i l u r e s , i n t h e p o s t - i n d e p e n d e n c e s t r a t e g i e s and p r o c e s s e s o f n a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n and s t a t e b u i l d i n g , b o u n d a r y d i s p u t e s and e t h n i c d i v i s i o n s , c u t a c r o s s n a t i o n a l l i n e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e e x t r a - t e r r i t o r i a l l o y a l t i e s o f t h e e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e p o s t - c o l o n i a l s t a t e s t o i n t e g r a t e them i n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , p l a y a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t i n t h e v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t s p r e v a l e n t i n t h e r e g i o n . An o u t s t a n d i n g example o f t h i s i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e T a m i l m i n o r i t y i n S r i L a n k a w i t h I n d i a . B e c a u s e o f t h e m u l t i p l e l i n k a g e s o f t h e s e c o n f l i c t s w i t h t h e c e n t r a l s t r a t e g i c b a l a n c e between t h e s u p e r p o w e r s , r e g i o n a l c o n f l i c t s have g l o b a l r e p e r c u s -s i o n s . The I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n i s n o t a t a l l p o l i t i c a l l y p a s s i v e , s u b m i t t i n g i t s e l f t o e x t r a - r e g i o n a l p r e s s u r e s . H a v i n g r e f u s e d t o f a l l i n l i n e w i t h C o l d War p o l a r i z a t i o n , t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean t o o k t h e l e a d i n d e v e l o p i n g an a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r s e o f a c t i o n i d e n t i f i e d as n o n - a l i g n m e n t . W i t h t h e p a s s a g e o f t i m e , t h e n o n - a l i g n e d movement g a i n e d momentum and began t o p l a y a l e a d i n g r o l e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l forums t o p u s h f o r w a r d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e ' n e g l e c t e d m a j o r i t y ' . The h e r i t a g e o f t h e c o l o n i a l p a s t , p r o b l e m s o f u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t , and economic dependence on t h e i n d u s t r i a l c e n t e r s have g i v e n a common i d e n t i t y t o t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e r e g i o n i n s p i t e o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f c l e a r d i v i s i o n s on p o l i t i c a l , 12 r e l i g i o u s and e t h n i c l i n e s . The economic i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r e g i o n s h o u l d n o t be u n d e r -e s t i m a t e d b e c a u s e o f i t s w i d e s p r e a d u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t . The economy o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n i s an o r g a n i c and an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e w o r l d e c o nomic o r d e r . Economic changes s e t i n m o t i o n d u r i n g t h e c o l o n i a l p a s t i n t e g r a t e d t h e r e g i o n e c o n o m i c a l l y w i t h t h e i n d u s t r i a l c e n t r e s o f t h e w e s t . T h e r e f o r e , any change i n t h e e c o n omic o r g a n i z a t i o n and r e l a t i o n s i n t h e r e g i o n w o u l d have w o r l d w i d e s i g n i f i c a n c e . S i n c e t h e y g a i n e d p o l i t i c a l i n d e p e n d e n c e , I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s have been a t t e m p t i n g t o r e s t r u -c t u r e t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t e economic r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e i n d u s t r i a l c e n t r e s . T h i s a t t e m p t i s embodied i n t h e demand f o r a new i n t e r -n a t i o n a l e c o nomic o r d e r and i n t h e N o r t h - S o u t h d e b a t e i n w h i c h the- I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s p l a y a l e a d i n g r o l e . The m a j o r i s s u e i n t h e d e b a t e on t h e new i n t e r n a t i o n a l e c o n o mic o r d e r and t h e n o r t h - s o u t h d i a l o g u e i s t h e u n e q u a l t r a d e p a t t e r n . I n t h e i m p o r t - e x p o r t o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e c o l o n i a l p a s t , t h e e c o n o m i e s o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s w e re s t r u c t u r e d t o s u p p l y p r i m a r y a g r i c u l t u r a l goods t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . The c o l o n i a l p o w e r s c o n d u c t e d t h e i r t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e i r c o l o n i e s i n a way t h a t made t h e l a t t e r s e r v e as s p o k e s t o a m e t r o p o l i t a n hub. D u r i n g t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d , t h e s e t r a d e s p o k e s r e m a i n e d u n c o n n e c t e d t o e a c h o t h e r . Once t h e c o l o n i a l yoke was removed, t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s a t t e m p t e d t o d e v e l o p i n t r a - r e g i o n a l t r a d e and e s t a b l i s h e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f r e g i o n a l e c o nomic c o o p e r a -t i o n s u c h as ASEAN, GCC, and SAARC, But t h e s e s p o k e s a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y i n t e r - c o n n e c t e d so t h a t t h e c o u n t r i e s i n t h e r e g i o n r e m a i n h e a v i l y d e p e n d e n t on o c e a n w a t e r s f o r t h e i r e x t e r n a l 13 t r a d e . S i m i l a r l y , i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s a r e a l s o dependent f o r some i m p o r t a n t raw m a t e r i a l s on t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e ocean f o r t h e t r a d e o f t h e l i t t o r a l s d e r i v e s f r o m i t s g e o g r a p h y . The I n d i a n Ocean i s s i t u a t e d as a huge bay w i t h few s t r a t e g i c e x i t p o i n t s . Due t o t h e s c a r c i t y o f good o v e r l a n d t r a d e r o u t e s between t h e l i t t o r a l s , t h e ocean i s t h e m a j o r a r t e r y f o r them. T h e r e f o r e , whoever c o n t r o l s t h e I n d i a n Ocean c o n t r o l s t h e t r a d e o f t h e r e g i o n and t h e r e f o r e n o t o n l y t h e economies o f t h e l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s b u t a l s o t h o s e o f many i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s . The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f some i m p o r t a n t m i n e r a l r e s o u r c e s i n t h e r e g i o n i s one o f t h e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e g e o s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. C o u n t r i e s b o r d e r i n g on t h e I n d i a n Ocean have c o n s i d e r a b l e s t o c k s o f n e a r l y t w e n t y s t r a t e g i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t raw m a t e r i a l s , among t h e m u r a n i u m , t h o r i u m , b a u x i t e , manganese, t i n , m i c a , c h r o m i t e , n i c k e l , and c o b a l t . I n a d d i t i o n , o i l r e s o u r c e s have made t h e I n d i a n Ocean a p i v o t a l r e g i o n i n t h e w o r l d economy. Today, t h e I n d i a n Ocean c o n t r i b u t e s n e a r l y 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l o i l p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e w o r l d . J a p a n i m p o r t s n e a r l y 85 p e r c e n t and W e s t e r n E u r o p e 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r o i l f r o m t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . F o r a l o n g p e r i o d t h e s e r e s o u r c e s were e x t e n s i v e l y c o n t r o l l e d by W e s t e r n m u l t i n a t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e s . A f t e r t h e y a t t a i n e d i n d e p e n d e n c e , s o m e o f t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s a t t e m p t e d t o b r i n g t h e s e r e s o u r c e s u n d e r t h e i r c o n t r o l t h r o u g h n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y h a v e come f o r w a r d t o use t h e i r e c o n o m i c r e s o u r c e s as a weapon t o i n f l u e n c e t h e p o l i c i e s o f t h e m a j o r p o w e r s . A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s i o n o f t h e economic r e s o u r c e s o f t h e 14 I n d i a n Ocean i s deep s e a b e d m i n e r a l r e s o u r c e s . Though manganese n o d u l e s a r e t h e most p r o m i s i n g known r e s o u r c e s o f t h e s e a - b e d , o t h e r m i n e r a l s s u c h as c o p p e r , a l u m i n i u m , n i c k e l , and c o b a l t a r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s . But most s t a t e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n a r e t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y weak so t h a t t h e y a r e n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o e x p l o i t o r c o n t r o l s u c h r e s o u r c e s . The UNCLOS I I I c o n v e n t i o n i n 1982 g r a n t e d l i t t o r a l s t a t e s 2 0 0 - m i l e e x c l u s i v e e c o n o m i c z o n e s . B u t i n o r d e r t o e x p l o i t r e s o u r c e s , e s p e c i a l l y o f f - s h o r e o i l and s e a - b e d m i n e r a l s , t h e s e s t a t e s need t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e f o r m o f r o y a l t y c o n t r a c t s o r j o i n t v e n t u r e s f r o m t e c h n i c a l l y a d v a n c e d c o u n t r i e s . The f i s h i n g i n d u s t r y h a s a l s o made t h e I n d i a n O c e a n e c o n o m i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e m a j o r m a r i t i m e powers who have d e v e l o p e d w o r l d - w i d e f i s h i n g f l e e t s c o m p r i s e d o f h u n d r e d s o f f a c t o r y s h i p s w i t h s o n a r t o l o c a t e t h e c a t c h . S e c u r i n g a c c e s s t o t h e f i s h r e s o u r c e s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s i m p o r t a n t t o s e v e r a l e x t r a - r e g i o n a l powers, n o t a b l y t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , J a p a n , T a i w a n , and S o u t h K o r e a , w h i c h o p e r a t e f i s h i n g f l e e t s i n t h e h i g h s e a s t h r o u g h o u t t h e a r e a . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n p r o v i d e s an i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t f o r t h e arms i n d u s t r i e s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s and o t h e r m a j o r arms e x p o r t e r s . The demand f o r arms i n t h i s c o n f l i c t - r i d d e n a r e a i s e x t r e m e l y h i g h . O n l y a few s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n , namely S o u t h A f r i c a , A u s t r a l i a , and I n d i a , have t h e i r own m i l i t a r y - i n d u s t r i a l s t r u c t u r e s . I n o r d e r t o t r a c e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e arms t r a d e and su p e r p o w e r i n v o l v e m e n t , two f e a t u r e s s h o u l d be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t ; e c o n o m i c a n d m i l i t a r y - s t r a t e g i c . On e c o n o m i c g r o u n d s i t i s a l u c r a t i v e s o u r c e o f p r o f i t . On t h e o t h e r hand, 15 arms d e a l s a r e a m a j o r i n s t r u m e n t o f p r e s s u r e on l i t t o r a l s t a t e s t o l e n d l o g i s t i c s u p p o r t f o r s u perpower m i l i t a r y p l a n s . S u p p l y i n g arms i s a l s o a m a j o r means o f s o l v i n g b a l a n c e o f payment p r o b l e m s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i n f l o w o f e s s e n t i a l raw m a t e r i a l s f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n . F o r t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , arms d e a l s w i t h t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e r e g i o n a r e a p r i n c i p a l d e v i c e f o r s o l v i n g h e r h a r d c u r r e n c y p r o b l e m . The i n t e r a c t i o n between p o l i t i c a l and e c o nomic i n t e r e s t s and m i l i t a r y p l a n s i s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d . The t h r e e e l e m e n t s a r e i n t e r -r e l a t e d a s p e c t s o f t h e phenomenon o f power p o l i t i c s w h i c h i s a c e n t r a l theme i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . The m i l i t a r y i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean f o r t h e s u p e r p o w e r s has a d u a l b a s i s . F i r s t , a t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l , i n o r d e r t o be p o l i t i c a l l y p o w e r f u l , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o be i n a p o s i t i o n t o f l e x m i l i t a r y m u s c l e . S e c o n d l y , a t t h e g l o b a l l e v e l , m i l i t a r y p o s i t i o n s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean f i g u r e l a r g e l y i n t h e c e n t r a l s t r a t e g i c b a l a n c e between t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . D e v e l o p m e n t s i n weapons t e c h n o l o g y , e s p e c i a l l y i n m i s s i l e s y s t e m s , and t h e g l o b a l r e a c h o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s ' n a v i e s have made t h e I n d i a n Ocean an e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r i n t h e g l o b a l m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i e s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . A m a j o r t e n d e n c y i n m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i e s i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t t h a t has g i v e n t h e Ocean an added m i l i t a r y i m p o r t a n c e s h o u l d be n o t e d a t t h i s p o i n t : t h e i n c r e a s i n g m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l v e s and ocean f l o o r s . The n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean s h o u l d be v i e w e d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h i s s u r v e y o f t h e p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , and m i l i t a r y i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e w o r l d ' s t h i r d l a r g e s t w a t e r body. 16 Descriptive and Analytical Questions The changes and main p r o c e s s e s t h a t t o o k p l a c e i n power p o l i t i c s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g W o r l d War I I c a n be s ummarized i n t e r m s o f f o u r b r o a d themes: t h e B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l o f t h e R o y a l Navy f r o m E a s t o f Suez; t h e e n t r y o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean; t h e g r o w t h o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y and t h e i n c r e a s i n g m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e r e g i o n ; and, f i n a l l y , t h e i n t r u s i o n o f t h e p o s t - c o l o n i a l s t a t e s i n t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e r e g i o n . I n 1947, t h e I n d i a n Ocean c o n t i n u e d t o be a B r i t i s h l a k e a n d d i d n o t f a l l w i t h i n t h e p r i m a r y s t r a t e g i c c o n c e r n s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . Two d e c a d e s l a t e r , i n 1968, B r i t a i n r e t r e a t e d f r o m h e r t r a d i t i o n a l p o s i t i o n as t h e g u a r d i a n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean and was p o i s e d t o w i t h d r a w h e r n a v a l f o r c e s f r o m t h e r e g i o n . S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e I n d i a n O c e a n e n t e r e d i n t o t h e s t r a t e g i c c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s , as r e f l e c t e d i n t h e p l a n o f t h e U.S. C h i e f s o f S t a f f p l a n f o r a b a s e on D i e g o G a r c i a and i n t h e S o v i e t d e c i s i o n t o d e p l o y n a v a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Ten y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1978, s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n and c o n s e q u e n t m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean became a m a j o r a s p e c t o f power p o l i t i c s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The e s s e n c e o f t h e s e p r o c e s s e s i s t h e d emise o f t h e e a r l i e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e g i m e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e n a v a l hegemony o f G r e a t B r i t a i n by t h e n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . The o b j e c t o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o a n a l y s e and e x p l a i n t h e s e p r o c e s s e s . The b a s i c q u e s t i o n t o be a n s w e r e d i s why t h e B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l was f o l l o w e d by a n o t h e r f o r m o f e x t e r n a l , n a m e l y s u p e r p o w e r , n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n . To be s p e c i f i c , what were t h e main o b j e c t i v e s and i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and a l s o what have been t h e m a j o r components and c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean? I n o r d e r t o answer t h e s e q u e s t i o n s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p l a c e them i n a b r o a d e r h i s t o r i c a l , p o l i t i c o - e c o n o m i c , and m i l i t a r y - s t r a t e g i c c o n t e x t . The p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e o f t h e a n a l y s i s i s an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . The i m m e d i a t e q u e s t i o n i n t h i s c o n t e x t i s why t h e B r i t i s h d i d n o t a d j u s t t h e d e f e n c e s y s t e m d e s i g n e d i n t h e i m p e r i a l framework t o s u i t t h e p o s t - i m p e r i a l o r d e r soon a f t e r t h e war u n d e r a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l and r e g i o n a l power c o n f i g u r a t i o n ? Thus, what was t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e p o l i t i c a l w i t h d r a w a l and t h e d e f e n c e c o n t r a c t i o n i n B r i t i s h p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean? I n o r d e r t o answer t h e s e q u e s t i o n s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t r a c e t h e s t a g e s o f B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l and t h e r e a s o n s f o r t a k i n g e a c h s t e p . T h i s i s done i n c h a p t e r two. The a n a l y s i s o f t h e U.S. e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean s h o u l d b e g i n w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f why t h e A m e r i c a n s d i d n o t e n t e r i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s f o l l o w i n g t h e war when t h e y assumed t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e w e s t e r n camp i n o t h e r a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d . A t t h e h e i g h t o f C o l d War t e n s i o n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was more o r l e s s i n s u l a t e d f r o m t h e U S - S o v i e t c o n f l i c t . Though t h e A m e r i c a n s d i d n o t e n t e r n a v a l l y i n t o t h e Ocean, t h e y p l a y e d a l e a d i n g r o l e i n t h e A s i a n c o n t i n e n t by e x t e n d i n g t h e c o n t a i n m e n t p o l i c y t o t h e a r e a . The U n i t e d S t a t e s p u r s u e d a p o l i c y o f a c t i n g u n d e r t h e B r i t i s h n a v a l u m b r e l l a f o r about one and' a h a l f d e c a d e s . A f t e r t h e Suez c r i s i s , t h e U.S. changed t h i s p o l i c y and d e c i d e d t o p r o j e c t n a v a l power d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e r e g i o n . What 18 a c c o u n t s f o r t h i s change i s a b a s i c q u e s t i o n a d d r e s s e d i n c h a p t e r t h r e e , w h i c h p r o v i d e s an a n a l y s i s o f t h e US e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The w e s t e r n monopoly o f seapower i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was d e c i s i v e l y c h a l l e n g e d by t h e e n t r y o f S o v i e t n a v a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n 1968 . Any a n a l y s i s o f t h e S o v i e t move i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean has t o b e g i n by a n s w e r i n g one p r i m a r y q u e s t i o n : was t h e r e any r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e e a r l i e r i m p e r i a l R u s s i a n and S o v i e t (under S t a l i n ) moves and t h e 1968 S o v i e t n a v a l e n t r y ? I f t h e answer i s n e g a t i v e o r o n l y p a r t i a l l y r e l e v a n t , how can we e x p l a i n t h e S o v i e t move i n 1968? I n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h i s , c h a p t e r f o u r e x a m i n e s S o v i e t o b j e c t i v e s and g o a l s o f a c h i e v i n g n a v a l p o w e r i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . What was t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e S o v i e t p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g y v i s - a - v i s t h e t h i r d w o r l d and t h e m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i c moves on t h e one hand and t h e A m e r i c a n n a v a l a d v a n c e s and S o v i e t n a v a l r e s p o n s e s on t h e o t h e r ? A f t e r a d d r e s s i n g i s s u e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l and A m e r i c a n and S o v i e t e n t r i e s , i n c h a p t e r s f i v e , s i x , and s e v e n we come t o t h e c e n t r a l theme o f t h e s t u d y - t h e g r o w t h o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The a n a l y s i s f i r s t c o n c e p t u a l i s e s s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y by a t t e m p t i n g t o i d e n t i f y t h e m a j o r e l e m e n t s o f t h a t r i v a l r y . As t h e f o c u s o f t h e s t u d y i s on t h e g r o w t h o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y , a t t e n t i o n w i l l be p a i d t o t r a c i n g t h e s t a g e s i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h i s r i v a l r y and t h e f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i t . The c o r r e l a t i o n between d e v e l o p m e n t s w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n and t h e e v o l u t i o n o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y a l s o needs t o be e x a m i n e d . What were t h e f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e d e c i s i o n o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h i s r e g a r d ? Which was 19 p r i m a r y : t h e g e n e r a l p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s o f t h e p o l i c y - m a k i n g c e n t e r , t h e d e c i s i o n s o f t h e a d v e r s a r y , o r d e v e l o p m e n t s a t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l ? I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e s e f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e d t o e a c h d e c i s i o n . These q u e s t i o n s f i n a l l y t a k e us t o a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e p r o b l e m a t i c , namely, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e g i o n a l d y n a m i c s and g l o b a l mechanisms. S r i L a nkan r e s p o n s e s t o t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean have t o be e x a m i n e d i n t h e b r o a d e r c o n t e x t o f r e g i o n a l r e s p o n s e s . How do r e g i o n a l powers p e r c e i v e and r e a c t t o t h e e x t e r n a l n a v a l p r e s e n c e ? Why do some s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n depend on e x t e r n a l powers i n t h e i r s e a r c h f o r s e c u r i t y ? I s t h i s due t o e c o n o m i c d e p e n d e n c e , o r t o t h e l i m i t s o f s e c u r i t y o p t i o n s , o r t o i n h e r e n t l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e i r i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s ? The a p p r o a c h e s o f t h e r e g i o n a l powers t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s s u e c o n v e r g e a t one p o i n t , t h a t i s , t h e I n d i a n Ocean Peace Zone p r o p o s a l . As s u c h , a t t e n t i o n w i l l be p a i d t o e x a m i n i n g t h e o r i g i n s , e v o l u t i o n , and d i v e r g e n t i n t e p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e P e a c e Zone c o n c e p t . I n o r d e r t o examine S r i L ankan r e s p o n s e s , f i r s t o f a l l , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t r a c e m a j o r e l e m e n t s o f S r i L a n k a ' s d e f e n c e and s e c u r i t y p e r c e p t i o n s as a s m a l l i s l a n d s t a t e s t r a t e -g i c a l l y l o c a t e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. T h i s w i l l show how t h e i m p e r a t i v e o f g e o - p o l i t i c s o f S r i L a n k a ' s l o c a t i o n a n d t h e i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l and e c o nomic p r o c e s s e s i n f l u e n c e S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s . An Overview of Existing Theoretical/Analytical Trends Many c o n s t i t u e n t a s p e c t s o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean have been s u b j e c t e d t o d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t h e 20 l a s t two d e c a d e s . However, t h e main f o c u s o f e x i s t i n g s t u d i e s has g e n e r a l l y been c o n f i n e d t o t h e n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s o f e x t r a - r e g i o n a l powers o r t h e medium powers i n t h e a r e a . S t u d i e s on t h e r e g i o n a l s e c u r i t y d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l p r e s e n c e a r e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y by t h o s e s c h o l a r s who r e p r e s e n t t h e 1 Q p o i n t o f v i e w o f medium power s . N o t h i n g s u b s t a n t i a l has been done on t h i s s u b j e c t f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e p e a c e and s e c u r i t y o f t h e s m a l l e r s t a t e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. T h i s t h e s i s i s i n t e n d e d t o f i l l t h i s gap by e x a m i n i n g t h e p r o b l e m i n a S r i L a nkan p e r s p e c t i v e . The dominant t r e n d i n t h e e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e i s t o e x p l a i n t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o n c e p t s o f power vacuum and r e c i p r o c a l e s c a l a t i o n . u A c c o r d i n g t o t h e power vacuum c o n c e p t , t h e B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean c r e a t e d a power vacuum i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean w h i c h p r o m p t e d t h e s u p e r p o w e r s t o p r o j e c t t h e i r n a v a l power i n t o t h e r e g i o n i n o r d e r n o t t o l e t t h e I n d i a n Ocean f a l l i n t o t h e hands o f t h e a d v e r s a r y by d e f a u l t . C l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e power vacuum c o n c e p t i s t h e t h e o r y o f r e c i p r o c a l e s c a l a t i o n . The a c t i o n o f one s u p e r p o w e r i s s u f f i c i e n t t o e x p l a i n a c t i o n o f t h e o t h e r s u p e r p o w e r , a c c o r d i n g \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ^ F o r t h e P a k i s t a n p o s i t i o n s e e , P. I q b a l Cheema, C o n f l i c t and C o o p e r a t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean; P a k i s t a n ' s I n t e r e s t s and C h o i c e s ( C a n b e r r a : S t r a t e g i c and D e f e n c e S t u d i e s C e n t r e , 1 9 8 0 ) , a n d R a u l Bux R a i s , The I n d i a n O c e a n a n d t h e S u p e r p o w e r s : E c o n o m i c , P o l i t i c a l , and S t r a t e g i c P e r s p e c t i v e s (London: Croom Helm, 1 9 8 6 ) . F o r t h e I n d i a n p o s i t i o n see K. Subrahmanyam, I n d i a n S e c u r i t y P e r s p e c t i v e s (New D e l h i : ABC P u b l i s h i n g House, 1 9 8 2 ) , and K.R. S i n g h , The I n d i a n Ocean: B i g Power P r e s e n c e and L o c a l Response (New D e l h i : Manohar, 1 9 7 7 ) . ^ F o r example s e e , A n t h o n y H a r r i g a n , \" S o v i e t s may 'own' I n d i a n Ocean i f US Does Not Make Countermove,\" Navy: The magazine o f Sea Power, (December 1 9 6 9 ) , p. 15. 21 t o t h i s e s c a l a t i o n t h e o r y . The c o n f r o n t a t i o n a l p a r a d i g m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h power vacuum i s f r a u g h t w i t h many s e r i o u s c o n c e p t u a l and e m p i r i c a l p i t f a l l s . F i r s t o f a l l , t h e t h e o r y o f power vacuum i s b a s e d on t h e assum-p t i o n t h a t t h e I n d i a n Ocean s h o u l d be d o m i n a t e d by some one. I t n e i t h e r e x p l a i n s why t h e B r i t i s h d e c i d e d t o w i t h d r a w f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean, n o r t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e i r m i l i t a r y p o s i t i o n a f t e r W o r l d War I I . T h i s t h e s i s w i l l p r e s e n t t h e h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e t h a t c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h a t t h e su p e r p o w e r e n t r y i n t o t h e r e g i o n was t a k i n g p l a c e w e l l b e f o r e t h e B r i t i s h announcement o f t h e i r w i t h d r a w a l . I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s t h e o r y i g n o r e s t h e economic and p o l i t i c a l d i m e n s i o n s o f s u p e r p o w e r i n v o l v e m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e economic i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e r e g i o n a r e n o t a l w a y s c o n f l i c t u a l . L a s t , b u t n o t l e a s t , t h e power vacuum c o n c e p t does n o t a t t e m p t t o e x a m i n e l i n k a g e s b e t w e e n r e g i o n a l e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , a n d s e c u r i t y d y n a m i c s and s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l s t r a t e g y . S o v i e t e n t r y and S o v i e t p o l i c i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean have 9 9 g e n e r a t e d an i m p r e s s i v e body o f l i t e r a t u r e . One s c h o o l s t i l l The m a j o r i t y o f w r i t i n g s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r e p r e s e n t t h i s v i e w . N e v e r t h e l e s s , some s e r i o u s s c h o l a r s have c h a l l e n g e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n a l p a r a d i g m s . F o r example, Howard W r i g g i n s a r g u e s t h a t A m e r i c a n e f f o r t s t o i n c r e a s e i t s n a v a l f o r c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e u n d e s i r a b l e b o t h f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e r e g i o n . See, Howard W r i g g i n s , \" H e a d i n g O f f a New Arms Race: L e t ' s T r y t o N e u t r a l i z e t h e I n d i a n Ocean,\" War/Peace R e p o r t , (September 1 9 7 1 ) , pp. 7-11. 9 9 F o r a good i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e l e a d i n g h y p o t h e s e s t h a t have been a d v a n c e d t o e x p l a i n S o v i e t m o t i v a t i o n s s e e , R o b e r t H. D o n a l d s o n , \"The USSR, t h e S u b c o n t i n e n t , and t h e I n d i a n Ocean: N a v a l Power and P o l i t i c a l I n f l u e n c e , \" i n The S u b c o n t i n e n t i n W o r l d P o l i t i c s z. I n d i a , I t s N e i g h b o r s , a n d t h e G r e a t Powers, Lawrence Z i r i n g , e d. (New Y o r k : P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 7 8 ) , pp. 168-93. 22 m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e S o v i e t e n t r y i s an o u t g r o w t h o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e s i r e o f t h e R u s s i a n s t o have a c c e s s t o warm w a t e r s . The S o v i e t i n t e r v e n t i o n i n A f g h a n i s t a n has s h e d new l i g h t on t h i s a p p r o a c h . W r i t i n g s w i t h an o r t h o d o x c o l d war a p p r o a c h s t i l l c o n s t i t u t e a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e works on t h e S o v i e t e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. These w r i t i n g s e m p h a s i s e t h e S o v i e t i n t e n t i o n t o a c q u i r e m i l i t a r y c a p a b i l i t y i n o r d e r t o d i s r u p t w e s t e r n o i l s u p p l y and o t h e r w e s t e r n e c onomic and p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s ; ^ b u t s c h o l a r s i n t h e r e v i s i o n i s t t r a d i t i o n have p r e s e n t e d a n a l y s e s i n w h i c h a t t e m p t s a r e made t o u n d e r s t a n d S o v i e t e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s and a l s o s t r a t e g i c n e c e s s i t i e s as g r o w i n g o u t o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ' s c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . ^ On t h e p a r t o f S r i L a n k a , i t i s s u r p r i s i n g t o know t h a t t h e a t t e n t i o n o f s c h o l a r s t o i s s u e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e c o u n t r y ' s d e f e n c e and s e c u r i t y have been meagre e s p e c i a l l y i n v i e w o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s u b j e c t t o s u c h a s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d c o u n t r y . A l t h o u g h a few s t u d i e s on S r i L ankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y a r e a v a i l a b l e , i t s d e f e n c e and s e c u r i t y d i m e n s i o n s a r e a n e g l e c -t e d a r e a . The o n l y p u b l i s h e d w o r k i s one w r i t t e n by S.U. 3 5 K o d i k a r a . I t i s a g e n e r a l s u r v e y o f s t r a t e g i c f a c t o r s i n i n t e r -s' ^ ^ J S e e A l v i n J C o t t e r e l l and R.M. B u r r e l l , \" The S o v i e t Navy and t h e I n d i a n Ocean,\" S t r a t e g i c R eview, 2:4 ( F a l l 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 25-35. T h i s i s t h e w i d e l y p r e v a l e n t v i e w i n t h e U.S. S e r v i c e D e p a r t m e n t s . The w r i t i n g s o f R o b e r t J.Hanks, R o n a l d I S p i e r s , and W i l l i a m F. Hickman c o u l d be c i t e d as a x a m p l e s . p c See works by J u k e s , O l e s Smolansky, M c C o n n e l l , and M c cGwire c i t e d i n t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y o f t h i s t h e s i s . . 2^S.U. K o d i k a r a , S t r a t e g i c F a c t o r s i n I n t e r s t a t e R e l a t i o n s i n S o u t h A s i a ( C a n b e r r a , S t r a t e g i c and D e f e n c e S t u d i e s C e n t r e , 1979) . s t a t e r e l a t i o n s i n S o u t h A s i a . The m a j o r e x i s t i n g works d e a l w i t h o 7 t h e e v o l u t i o n o f I n d o - S r i L a n k a r e l a t i o n s and S r i L a n k a ' s r o l e i n n o n - a l i g n m e n t o r p r e s e n t g e n e r a l s u r v e y s o f S r i L a n k a ' s O Q f o r e i g n r e l a t i o n s . No s u b s t a n t i a l s t u d y h a s h i t h e r t o b e e n c a r r i e d o ut on S r i L a n k a ' s d e f e n c e and s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f I n d i a n Ocean p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c framework. T h i s s t u d y i s an a t t e m p t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f i l l i n g a s t r i k i n g l y f e l t l a c u n a e x i s t i n g i n t h e a r e a o f s e c u r i t y s t u d i e s i n S r i L a n k a . o 7 ^ I b i d . , I n d o - C e y l o n R e l a t i o n s S i n c e Independence (Colombo: The C e y l o n I n s t i t u t e o f W o r l d A f f a i r s , 1 9 6 5 ) . ^\u00C2\u00B0Ibid., F o r e i g n P o l i c y o f S r i L a n k a . A T h i r d W o r l d P e r s p e c - t i v e (New D e l h i : Chanakya P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 8 2 ) , H.S.S. N i s s a n k a , S r i L a n k a ' s F o r e i g n P o l i c y - A S t u d y o f N o n - A l i g n m e n t (New D e l h i : V i k a s P u b l i s h i n g House, 1 9 8 4 ) . 24 C h a p t e r I I The B r i t i s h Withdrawal from the Indian Ocean, 1945-1968 The I n d i a n Ocean was p r a c t i c a l l y a B r i t i s h l a k e f r o m t h e t i m e t h e B r i t i s h d e f e a t e d t h e F r e n c h i n t h e l a t e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . A f t e r f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h i n g h e r hegemony i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n , B r i t a i n m a i n t a i n e d an i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e g i m e b a s e d on 'freedom o f t h e s e a ' w h i c h was u n d e r w r i t t e n by B r i t i s h n a v a l supremacy. The d e f e n c e s t r u c t u r e t h a t B r i t a i n r a i s e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h i s l a r g e r d e s i g n o f o c e a n i c r e g i m e . F o r n e a r l y one and a h a l f c e n t u r i e s , u n t i l t h e Second W o r l d War, B r i t a i n was a b l e t o d e c i d e and impose p r i n c i p l e s , norms, and r u l e s and c a r r y o u t d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e d u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e 'Mare L i b e r u m ' c o n c e p t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The s t r e n g t h o f t h e R o y a l Navy, t h e p o l i t i c a l a d v a n t a g e s a c c r u i n g t o B r i t a i n as t h e p r e d o m i n a n t c o l o n i a l power, and h e r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e gateways t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean s u s t a i n e d t h e d e f e n c e s t r u c t u r e w i t h o u t a s e r i o u s c h a l l e n g e d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . However, w i t h t h e changes i n power c o n s t e l -l a t i o n i n t h e p o s t - w a r w o r l d p o l i t i c s and t h e emergence o f new s t a t e s as a r e s u l t o f t h e d e - c o l o n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n , t h i s o c e a n i c r e g i m e g r a d u a l l y began t o l o s e i t s v i t a l i t y a f t e r 1945. The B r i t i s h d e c i s i o n i n 1968 t o w i t h d r a w t h e i r n a v a l f o r c e s f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean was t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e s s and i t s y m b o l i c a l l y marked t h e end o f an e r a i n n a v a l p o l i t i c s i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f B r i t i s h d e f e n c e p o l i c y i n t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1945 t o 25 1968 p r o v i d e s t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r t h e i n q u i r y i n t o s u p e r -power n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and S r i L a n k a ' s r e s p o n s e t o i t . B r i t i s h Defence Structure i n the Indian Ocean Before 1947 The d e f e n c e s y s t e m B r i t a i n d e v e l o p e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was h i s t o r i c a l l y d e s i g n e d f o r t h e s t r a t e g i c r e q u i r e m e n t s o f d e f e n d i n g h e r c o l o n i a l e m p i r e i n A s i a and t h e s e a l a n e s t o A u s t r a l i a and New Z e a l a n d . As t h e B r i t i s h e m p i r e expanded f r o m t h e Red Sea t o t h e M a l a y P e n i n s u l a , t h e i s o l a t e d d e f e n c e measures t a k e n by t h e B r i t i s h t o m a i n t a i n t h e s e c u r i t y o f d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e e m p i r e i n A s i a f i n a l l y e v o l v e d i n t o an u n i f i e d s y s t e m o f d e f e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. T h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d o f t h e Second E m p i r e , I n d i a was c o n s i d e r e d t h e j e w e l o f t h e B r i t i s h e m p i r e ; hence i t s p r o t e -c t i o n was c o n s i d e r e d a p r i m e n e c e s s i t y . The u n i q u e s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n o f I n d i a made h e r t h e n a t u r a l c e n t e r p i e c e o f t h e d e f e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. From h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , B r i t i s h p o l i c y -makers were aware t h a t t h e s e c u r i t y o f I n d i a c o u l d be t h r e a t e n e d b o t h f r o m l a n d and s e a . T h e r e f o r e , B r i t a i n ' s E a s t o f Suez d e f e n c e s t r a t e g y encompassed b o t h t h e o c e a n i c as w e l l as t h e l a n d - b a s e d d e f e n c e a r r a n g e m e n t s . As f o r t h e o v e r l a n d t h r e a t , t h e most l i k e l y c h a l l e n g e r was R u s s i a . As a r e s u l t , B r i t i s h B a l k a n a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n p o l i c y s o u g h t t o c h e c k R u s s i a n e x p a n s i o n t o t h e s o u t h . The p o l i c y o f m a i n t a i n i n g p r o t e c t o r a t e s and b u f f e r s t a t e s a r o u n d I n d i a was a means o f n e u t r a l i s i n g t h e o v e r l a n d t h r e a t . As f a r as o c e a n i c s t r a t e g y was c o n c e r n e d , B r i t i s h p o l i c y was b a s e d upon two f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t i o n s : f i r s t , t h a t o f n o t a l l o w i n g any g r e a t power t o e s t a b l i s h b a s e s and f o r t i f i e d p o r t s i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n ; s e c o n d , t h a t B r i t a i n s h o u l d a l w a y s c o n t r o l t h e n a v a l g a t e w a y s t o t h e r e g i o n . T h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d I n d i a was t h e k e y s t o n e o f t h e a r c h o f d e f e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. However, once t h e o c e a n i c r e g i m e b a s e d on B r i t i s h n a v a l power was e s t a b l i s h e d and t h e gateways t o t h e ocean were f i r m l y l a t c h e d , s e c u r i t y c o n c e r n s o f t h e s p o k e s o f t h e d e f e n c e s y s t e m , r a t h e r t h a n t h e hub i t s e l f , assumed g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e . F o r example, t h e e a s t e r n and w e s t e r n f l a n k s , t h e M i d d l e E a s t and t h e F a r E a s t , became i m p o r t a n t i n t h e i r own r i g h t o v e r t i m e . W i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o l o n i a l e c o n omic o r d e r and t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f c o l o n i e s as o r g a n i c b u t dependent u n i t s i n t o i t s w o r k i n g s , e a c h c o l o n y a c q u i r e d an i m p o r t a n c e o f i t s own. As a r e s u l t o f l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t s d e f e n c e a r r a n g e m e n t s became more c o m p l i c a t e d , and, as Darby p o i n t s o u t , \" t h e d e t a i l o f s e t t l e m e n t and a n n e x a t i o n , m a r i t i m e a c t i v i t y and d i p l o m a t i c m a n o e u v r i n g a d m i t s no n e a t o r d e r \" . On t h e w h o l e , t h e B r i t i s h d e f e n c e s t r u c t u r e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean c o m p r i s e d t h r e e b a s i c e l e m e n t s , namely, b a s e s , t e r r i t o r i a l commands, and t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f t r o o p s by s e a . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e , however, t h a t t h e d e f e n c e s t r u c t u r e t h e B r i t i s h m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was n o t as t i g h t as i t a p p e a r e d and t h a t t h e key s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n s h a d n o t a l l been f o r t i f i e d a d e q u a t e l y . S t a b i l i t y and s e c u r i t y o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean were t a k e n t o o much f o r g r a n t e d . A t t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e F i r s t W o r l d War, t h e I n d i a n Ocean d e f e n c e s y s t e m c o u l d n o t be s u s t a i n e d a u t o n o m o u s l y o f B r i t i s h f o r c e s i n o t h e r a r e a s . As A d m i r a l T e r e n c e i P h i l i p D arby, B r i t i s h D e f e n c e P o l i c y E a s t o f Suez (London: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 3. 2 I b i d . , p. 2. 27 L e w i n p o i n t e d o u t \" i n 1914 t h e German c r u i s e r Emden gave w a r n i n g o f what c o u l d happen i f t h a t s t a b i l i t y and s e c u r i t y were t a k e n t o o much f o r g r a n t e d \" . W i t h t h e p a s s a g e o f t i m e t h e d e f e n c e s y s t e m l o s t i t s o r i g i n a l c o m p u l s i o n . D e f e n c e i s s u e s t e n d e d t o be d e a l t w i t h i n an i s o l a t e d manner. However, t h e I n d i a n Ocean d i d r e t a i n t h e s t a t u s o f a s i n g l e u n i t i n s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g . The d e c i s i v e c h a l l e n g e t o B r i t i s h n a v a l supremacy i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean f i n a l l y came d u r i n g t h e Second W o r l d War a f t e r t h e J a p a n e s e e n t r y i n t o t h e war. W i t h a s i n g l e s t r o k e , J a p a n was a b l e t o p u t t h e B r i t i s h p o s i t i o n i n t h e a r e a a t j e o p a r d y . The l o s s o f HMS P r i n c e o f Wales and HMS R e p u l s e soon a f t e r P e a r l H a r b o u r and t h e sudden and c a t a c l y s m i c c o l l a p s e o f S i n g a p o r e i l l u s t r a t e d t h e f r a g i l i t y o f t h e B r i t i s h d e f e n c e p o s t u r e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n f a c e o f a r e a l t h r e a t . A c c o r d i n g t o M i c h a e l Howard, on t h e day t h e J a p a n e s e Army t o o k S i n g a p o r e a l o n g w i t h 130,000 p r i s o n e r s o f war, t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e , as K i p l i n g had known i t , came t o an end.^ W i t h o u t g o i n g t h a t f a r , i t was o b v i o u s t h a t B r i t a i n c o u l d n o t r e t u r n t o t h e p r e - w a r p o s i t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f t e r t h e war. The Second W o r l d War was a s e v e r e s e t b a c k t o t h e c o l o n i a l e m p i r e s i n A s i a . N a t i o n a l i s t and a n t i - c o l o n i a l f o r c e s i n A s i a g a i n e d a huge momentum d u r i n g t h e war. Though t h e c o l o n i a l powers r e g a i n e d most o f t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s soon a f t e r t h e war, t h e i r r u l e c o u l d n o t be r e s t o r e d i n i t s p r e - w a r f o r m . The n a t i o n a l i s t t i d e 3 J L e w i n , \"The I n d i a n Ocean and Beyond: B r i t i s h I n t e r e s t s Y e s t e r d a y and Today,\" A s i a n A f f a i r s , I X : 3 ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 7 8 ) , p. 250. ^ H o w a r d , \" B r i t a i n ' s S t r a t e g i c P r o b l e m s E a s t o f S u e z , \" I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , 42:2 ( A p r i l , 1 9 6 6 ) , p. 179. 28 c o u l d n o t be r e v e r s e d . The change i n S o u t h A s i a was n o t as d r a m a t i c as t h a t i n S o u t h - E a s t A s i a . The g r a d u a l d e v e l o p m e n t and e v o l u t i o n i n t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s made t h e t r a n s f e r o f power i n t h e B r i t i s h S o u t h A s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s t a k e a l e s s c o n f l i c t i v e f o r m . Though d i f f e r e n t i n f o r m , t h e ' p e a c e f u l ' S o u t h A s i a n and t h e ' v i o l e n t ' S o u t h - E a s t A s i a n d e v e l o p m e n t s were p a r t s o f one and t h e same p r o c e s s . The emergence o f new s t a t e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n had e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t l o n g t e r m c o n s e q u e n c e f o r B r i t i s h d e f e n c e p o l i c i e s i n t h e a r e a . These d e v e l o p m e n t s i n A s i a , i . e . t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f o l d f o r m s o f e m p i r e i n t h e f a c e o f r e s u r g e n t n a t i o n a l i s m , w e r e contemporaneous t o t h e E a s t - W e s t p o l a r i z a t i o n p r o c e s s t h a t l a t e r came t o be d e s c r i b e d as t h e C o l d War. I n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s emerged as t h e u n d i s p u t e d l e a d e r o f t h e W e s t e r n B l o c i n t h e C o l d War. The E u r o p e a n powers, i n t h e p o s t - w a r p e r i o d , had t o r e l y on t h e U.S., e c o n o m i c a l l y as w e l l as m i l i t a r i l y . B r i t a i n ' s p o s i t i o n i n t h e w o r l d power b a l a n c e s i g n i f i c a n t l y c h anged i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f W o r l d War I I . F i r s t l y , B r i t a i n h ad become a s e c o n d a r y power i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e U.S. and t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . S e c o n d l y , B r i t a i n was b e s e t w i t h s e v e r e e c o nomic p r o b l e m s a r i s i n g f r o m an a c u t e b a l a n c e o f payments c r i s i s . The d e c l i n i n g e c o n o m i c s t r e n g t h o f B r i t a i n became a key f a c t o r t h a t d e t e r m i n e d h e r p o s i t i o n i n w o r l d a f f a i r s . I n t h i s c o n t e x t B r i t a i n was n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o p l a y an i n d e p e n d e n t r o l e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean as she had done e a r l i e r . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o p l a c e t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e S o u t h A s i a n c o l o n i e s i n t h e b r o a d e r c o n t e x t o f t h e changed r e g i o -n a l and g l o b a l p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t i n o r d e r t o gauge i t s r e a l 29 s i g n i f i c a n c e . The e n d i n g o f c o l o n i a l r u l e o v e r t h e S o u t h A s i a n c o l o n i e s was a lan d m a r k b o t h i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s and i n B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l p o l i c y i n t h e r e g i o n . I t s i g n i f i e d t h e emergence o f a new m i l i e u i n I n d i a n Ocean p o l i t i c s . The s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e p l a y e d by t h e I n d i a n c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e I n d i a n Ocean d e f e n c e s t r u c t u r e i n t h e p r e - i n d e p e n d e n c e p e r i o d was n a t u r a l l y a b s e n t a f t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e . The w i t h d r a w a l o f B r i t i s h f o r c e s f r o m I n d i a r e l e a s e d n e a r l y 50,000 men who c o u l d be d e p l o y e d e l s e w h e r e . B u t t h i s a d v a n t a g e was n e g a t e d by t h e l o s s o f c o n t r o l o v e r t h e I n d i a n army w h i c h a c t e d as a p e a c e t i m e s t r a t e g i c r e s e r v e f o r t h e p r o t e c -t i o n o f B r i t i s h p o s i t i o n s i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t and t h e F a r E a s t . I n d i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e meant n o t o n l y t h e l o s s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r o f I n d i a n manpower b u t a l s o t h e l o s s o f economic r e s o u r c e s , a i r -f i e l d s , m i l i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s , and c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l argument, I n d i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e , on i t s own, was t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t i n B r i t i s h I n d i a n Ocean p o l i c y . As Darby p u t s i t , I n d i a was t o some e x t e n t b o t h o b j e c t and s o u r c e o f B r i t i s h power E a s t o f Suez. W i t h t h e t r a n s f e r o f power t o I n d i a a n d P a k i s t a n , t h e b a s i s o f B r i t a i n ' s p o s i t i o n as an i m p e r i a l power was gone. \" W i t h o u t t h e I n d i a n e m p i r e , B r i t a i n m i g h t s t i l l be a g r e a t power b u t i t was no l o n g e r an i m p e r i a l power i n t h e f u l l s e n s e o f t h a t t e r m \" . The B r i t i s h had, i t i s a r g u e d , c e r t a i n r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s even a f t e r I n d i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e , i . e . t h a t o f a s s i s t i n g i n t h e d e f e n c e o f A u s t r a l i a and New Z e a l a n d , m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r dominance i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t and t h e F a r E a s t , and p r o t e c t i n g t h e l i n e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . The t r a n s f e r ^ Darby, op. c i t . p. 15. 30 o f power i n S o u t h A s i a n e c e s s i t a t e d a r e a p p r a i s a l o f t h e i m p e r i a l r o l e and t h e r e a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e B r i t i s h d e f e n c e s t r u c t u r e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e p o s t -i m p e r i a l o r d e r . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n i t i s s u r p r i s i n g t h a t no s u c h r e a p p r a i s a l t o o k p l a c e . Darby e x p l a i n s t h i s f a i l u r e as due t o \"a c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l f a c t o r s , e x t e r n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s and p a t t e r n s o f t h o u g h t w h i c h o n l y s l o w l y l o s t t h e i r h o l d on d e c i s i o n m a k i n g i n W h i t e h a l l \" . ^ The q u e s t i o n o f why B r i t a i n f a i l e d t o r e a p p r a i s e t h e r o l e o f t h e s p o k e s i n t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n hub a f t e r 1947 i s r a i s e d and a l s o a n s w e r e d i n c o r r e c t l y by m i s r e a d i n g t h e B r i t i s h p o s i t i o n and t h e i r s e c u r i t y o b j e c t i v e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. F i r s t o f a l l i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e B r i t i s h e m p i r e needs t o be c o n c e p t u a l i s e d n o t o n l y as a p o l i t i c a l u n i t b u t a l s o as an economic e n t i t y . I n t h a t s e n s e , t h e economies o f most o f t h e I n d i a n O c e a n c o u n t r i e s a f t e r 1947 w e r e s t i l l s p o k e s o f t h e B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l e c o nomic hub, w h e t h e r t h e y were i n d e p e n d e n t o r n o t . Even i n a f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l s e n s e , t h e B r i t i s h s t i l l had an e m p i r e a r o u n d t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l . The h u b - s p o k e s metaphor as i t was u s e d t o a n a l y s e t h e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m was a c t u a l l y n o t v a l i d i n 1945. I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e E a s t e r n and W e s t e r n f l a n k s o f t h e d e f e n c e s y s t e m were f i r s t d e v e l o p e d as s p o k e s o f t h e I n d i a n hub. However, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between I n d i a and t h e s e f l a n k s i n t h e d e f e n c e s t r u c t u r e i n 1947 was by no means t h a t o f a hub and s p o k e s . One and a h a l f c e n t u r i e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t had g i v e n t h e s e c o l o n i e s an i n d e p e n d e n t i m p o r t a n c e and a p l a c e i n t h i s s t r u c t u r e . The o v e r e m p h a s i s on t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f I n d i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e i s ^ Loc c i t . 31 b a s e d upon a m i s c o n c e p t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f I n d i a i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean d e f e n c e s t r u c t u r e . I n r e a l i t y , B r i t a i n d i d n o t need t o r e d e f i n e t h e s t r u c t u r e j u s t t h e n b e c a u s e o f h e r c o n t i n u i n g i n t e r e s t s and commitments i n t h e r e g i o n . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d why t h e B r i t i s h d e f e n c e s t r u c t u r e c o n t i n u e d w i t h o u t a s u b s t a n t i a l change f o r some p e r i o d a f t e r 1947, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o examine B r i t a i n ' s c o n t i n u i n g i n t e r e s t s and commitments i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. B r i t i s h Interests and Commitments i n the Indian Ocean after 1947 The t r a n s f e r o f p o w e r i n S o u t h A s i a o n l y m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e d e c o l o n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n and B r i t a i n d i d n o t i m m e d i a t e l y c e a s e t o be a c o l o n i a l power i n t h e r e g i o n as a whole i n 1947. B r i t a i n , i n f a c t , had a number o f c o l o n i e s b o r d e r i n g t h e I n d i a n Ocean even a f t e r 1947. These i n c l u d e d t h e E a s t A f r i c a n c o l o n i e s o f T a n g a n y i k a , Uganda, Kenya and Z a n z i b a r , whose s e c u r i t y depended on t h e power b a l a n c e i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . M o r e o v e r , i n t h e W e s t e r n I n d i a n O c e a n B r i t a i n h ad t h e c o l o n i e s o f M a u r i t i u s , Aden, t h e S e y c h e l l e s , and i n t h e E a s t e r n I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n , M a l a y a , S i n g a p o r e , B r u n e i , Sabah, Sarawak and Hong Kong. I n 1947, i t was c o n s i d e r e d t h a t i n d e p e n d e n c e f o r t h e s e o t h e r c o l o n i e s was n o t l i k e l y i n t h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e . B r i t a i n h a d t o g r a p p l e w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s o f t h e s e c o l o n i a l t e r r i t o r i e s e.g. i t was r e q u i r e d t o w i n t h e M a l a y a n war and t o p u t down t h e Mau Mau i n Kenya. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e f o r m a l c o l o n i a l commitments B r i t a i n had c e r t a i n r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n h e r p r o t e c t o r a t e s i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f and t h e M i d d l e E a s t . B r i t a i n was c o m m i t t e d t o t h e d e f e n c e o f K u w a i t , B a h r a i n , Q a t a r , t h e T r u c i a l C o a s t , M u s c a t , Oman, and o t h e r S o u t h 32 A r a b i a n S t a t e s t h r o u g h v a r i o u s n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y d e f e n c e a g r e e m e n t s . Even i n S o u t h A s i a t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e e m p i r e d i d n o t d i s a p p e a r w i t h t h e f o r m a l t r a n s f e r o f power. I t was c o n s i -d e r e d , t h o u g h n o t c l e a r l y s p e l l e d o u t , t h a t i t was B r i t a i n ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e s e c u r i t y f o r t h o s e n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r i e s . I n t h e c a s e o f Burma and S r i L a n k a t h e t r a n s f e r o f power was a c c o m p a n i e d by f o r m a l d e f e n c e a g r e e m e n t s . The t r e a t y b etween t h e Government o f B r i t a i n and t h e P r o v i s i o n a l Government o f Burma was s i g n e d i n London on 1 7 t h O c t o b e r 1947. A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s agreement, B r i t a i n was \" t o p r o v i d e a N a v a l , M i l i t a r y and A i r F o r c e m i s s i o n t o Burma and t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s i n h i s M a j e s t y ' s 7 e s t a b l i s h m e n t s f o r p e r s o n n e l o f Burma F o r c e \" . The Government o f Burma a g r e e d \" t o r e c e i v e a N a v a l , M i l i t a r y and A i r F o r c e M i s s i o n f r o m t h e U.Kl Government and n o t f r o m any government o u t s i d e t h e Q B r i t i s h Commonwealth\". I n S r i L a n k a , t h e U n i t e d Kingdom was even more d e e p l y commi-t t e d t o t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e c o u n t r y t h r o u g h two t r e a t i e s - t h e D e f e n c e Agreement and t h e E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s Agreement - s i g n e d on 1 5 t h N o v e m b e r 1947 a t C o l o m b o a s a p p e n d i c e s t o t h e C e y l o n : P r o p o s a l f o r C o n f e r r i n g on C e y l o n f u l l y r e s p o n s i b l e s t a t u s w i t h i n t h e B r i t i s h Commonwealth o f N a t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e D e f e n c e A g r e e m e n t , b o t h g o v e r n m e n t s \" w i l l g i v e t o e a c h o t h e r s u c h m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e f o r s e c u r i t y o f t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s f o r d e f e n c e a g a i n s t e x t e r n a l a g g r e s s i o n and f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f 7 U n i t e d K i n g d o m , F o r e i g n o f f i c e , T r e a t y b e t w e e n t h e Government o f t h e U n i t e d Kingdom and t h e P r o v i s i o n a l Government o f Burma (Cmd 7 2 4 0 ) , 1947, p a r a 4. 8 I b i d . , p'ara 8. 33 e s s e n t i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s as i t may be i n t h e i r m u t u a l i n t e r e s t s t o p r o v i d e \" . ^ As f o r I n d i a n Ocean d e f e n c e , a r t i c l e two o f t h e s a i d agreement s t a t e s : The G o v e r n m e n t o f C e y l o n w i l l g r a n t t o t h e Government o f t h e U n i t e d Kingdom a l l t h e n e c e s s a r y f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e o b j e c t s m e n t i o n e d i n A r t i c l e I as may be m u t u a l l y a g r e e d . These f a c i l i t i e s w i l l i n c l u d e t h e use o f n a v a l and a i r b a s e s and p o r t s a n d m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a n d t h e u s e o f t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t i e s , and t h e r i g h t o f s e r v i c e c o u r t s and a u t h o r i t i e s t o e x e r c i s e s u c h c o n t r o l and j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r members o f t h e s a i d F o r c e s as t h e y e x e r c i s e a t p r e s e n t . 1 0 I n a d d i t i o n t o m i l i t a r y a n d p o l i t i c a l c o m m i t m e n t s , t h e B r i t i s h had wide economic i n t e r e s t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m i l i t a r y a n d p o l i t i c a l c o m m i t m e n t s a n d economic i n t e r e s t s was n o t a l w a y s a p p a r e n t . I n t h e M i d d l e E a s t , S o u t h A s i a a n d F a r E a s t t h e B r i t i s h h a d d i f f e r e n t e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s . These n e c e s s i t a t e d B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e i n t h e a r e a and s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e i r p o l i t i c a l commitments. The P e r s i a n G u l f r e m a i n e d b a s i c a l l y a B r i t i s h e c o n o m i c e n c l a v e and B r i t a i n ' s main s o u r c e o f o i l . O i l i m p o r t f i g u r e s p l a i n l y r e v e a l B r i t a i n ' s dependence on P e r s i a n G u l f o i l . F o r example, i n t h e f i n a n c i a l y e a r 1949-50, B r i t a i n ' s i m p o r t s o f c r u d e o i l f r o m K u w a i t and B a h r a i n were v a l u e d a t \u00C2\u00A322.1 m i l l i o n and a t \u00C2\u00A325.4 m i l l i o n f r o m S a u d i A r a b i a , I r a q and I r a n . T o t a l i m p o r t s f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d a m o u n t e d o n l y t o \u00C2\u00A38.4 i i . m i l l i o n . B r i t i s h dependence upon P e r s i a n G u l f o i l was one ^ U n i t e d Kingdom, C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , C e v l o n : P r o p o s a l f o r C o n f e r r i n g on C e y l o n F u l l y R e s p o n s i b l e S t a t u s w i t h i n t h e Commonwealth o f N a t i o n s (Cmd 7 2 5 7 ) , 1947, p a r a 1. 1 0 I b i d . , p a r a 2. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2^Economic C o o p e r a t i o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , The S t e r l i n g A r e a : an 34 A m e r i c a n A n a l y s i s (London: ECA, 1 9 5 1 ) , p. 257. a s p e c t o f t h e p i c t u r e . The o t h e r a s p e c t was B r i t a i n ' s s t a k e i n t h e m a j o r o i l c o m p a n i e s by d i r e c t i n v e s t m e n t . B r i t i s h o i l c o m p a n i e s s u c h a s t h e K u w a i t O i l Company, A n g l o - I r a n i a n O i l Company, and I r a q P e t r o l e u m C o r p o r a t i o n , c o n t r o l l e d a l a r g e p a r t o f M i d d l e E a s t e r n o i l s u p p l i e s and b r o u g h t huge p r o f i t s b a c k home. I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t i f A r a b n a t i o n a l i s m were p e r m i t t e d t o r u n u n c h e c k e d , B r i t a i n ' s o i l s u p p l i e s and t h e s e c u r i t y o f B r i t i s h 1 7 i n v e s t m e n t s i n o i l companies w o u l d be i n d a n g e r . The t r a n s f e r o f power i n S o u t h A s i a d i d n o t i n any way h u r t B r i t a i n ' s e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s t h e r e . T h e s e i n t e r e s t s c a n be e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f p r i v a t e i n v e s t m e n t a n d f o r e i g n t r a d e . I n d i a ' s f o r e i g n t r a d e was n o t h e a v i l y dependent on B r i t a i n as was t h e c a s e w i t h S r i L a n k a whereas B r i t i s h i n v e s t m e n t i n I n d i a was s i g n i f i c a n t . I n t h e S r i L ankan c a s e , B r i t i s h dominance i n t h e economy was e ven more o b v i o u s . The i s l a n d ' s e x p o r t - i m p o r t t r a d e was h e a v i l y L o n d o n - c e n t e r e d . I n t h e p e r i o d 1935-1947, S r i L a n k a ' s t r a d e w i t h B r i t a i n and o t h e r s t e r l i n g a r e a s came t o more t h a n s i x t y - f i v e p e r 1 3 c e n t o f t o t a l t r a d e . I n t h e t e a i n d u s t r y , w h i c h g e n e r a t e d two-t h i r d s o f S r i L a n k s ' s e x p o r t e a r n i n g s , even t w e n t y - f o u r y e a r s a f t e r t h e t r a n s f e r o f power, i . e i n 1972, S t e r l i n g Companies owned 2 6.46 p e r c e n t o f a l l t e a l a n d s i n t h e c o u n t r y . Though t h e d a t a r e l a t i n g t o B r i t i s h i n v e s t m e n t i n S o u t h - E a s t A s i a i s n o t s a t i s f a c t o r y , t h e r e was no doubt t h a t i n v e s t m e n t i n M a l a y a , 1 7 Darby, o p . c i t . , p. 26 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ^ C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 3 , 9 J u l y 1948, c c . 984-94 1 4 A d m i n i s t r a t i v e R e p o r t o f t h e Tea C o n t r o l l e r 1972 (Colombo: G o v t . P r i n t e r , 1 9 7 4 ) . e s p e c i a l l y i n t i n and r u b b e r p l a n t a t i o n s , was immense. A.C. A l l e n c a l c u l a t e d t h a t i n 1939 t o t a l W e s t e r n i n v e s t m e n t s i n M a l a y a were abo u t U.S.$455 m i l l i o n and s e v e n t y p e r c e n t o f t h i s was B r i t i s h . 1 5 A f t e r t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f I n d i a , P a k i s t a n and S r i L a n k a t h e L a b o u r l e a d e r s i n B r i t a i n b e l i e v e d t h a t B r i t i s h e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n o f f e r e d a good r e a s o n f o r t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a B r i t i s h p r e s e n c e E a s t o f S u e z . 1 ^ The L a b o u r i n s i d e r , R i c h a r d Crossman, r e c a l l s t h a t E r n e s t B e v i n r e m i n d e d t h e P a r l i a m e n t a r y c a u c u s t h a t B r i t a i n h a d t o h o l d on E a s t o f Suez f o r 1 7 p u r e l y economic r e a s o n s . C o n t i n u e d e conomic i n t e r e s t s and t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e c o u n t r i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n r e s u l t e d i n e f f o r t s t o p r o t e c t t r a d e r o u t e s and c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n e s . The 1953 S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e s t a t e s : No m a t t e r what t h e f u t u r e may h o l d , t h e Oceans o f t h e w o r l d must a l w a y s be k e p t f r e e f o r t h e p a s s a g e o f o u r merchant s h i p p i n g . No n a t i o n i n t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d c a n a f f o r d t o f o r g e t t h a t t h e l i f e and commerce o f i t s i n d u s t r i a l and t r a d i n g s o c i e t i e s depends on u n m o l e s t e d movement o f s h i p p i n g on t h e h i g h s e a s . 1 8 The f a c t t h a t t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n e s t o A u s t r a l i a a n d New Z e a l a n d l a y a c r o s s t h e I n d i a n O c e a n f u r t h e r a d d e d t o t h e 1 5 G . C . A l l e n a n d A . D o n n i t h o r n e , W e s t e r n E n t e r p r i s e s i n I n d o n e s i a and M a l a y a (New Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n , 1 9 5 7 ) , p. 290. l 6 1 D B e z b o r u a h b r i n g s o u t t h i s p o i n t c l e a r l y , see M o n o r a n j a n B e z b o r u a h , U.S. S t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean - The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Response (New Y o r k : P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 7 7 ) , p. 15 1 7 R i c h a r d H.S. Crossman, \"Western D e f e n c e i n t h e 1960's\" J o u r n a l o f t h e R o y a l U n i t e d S e r v i c e s I n s t i t u t e , (August 19 6 1 ) , p. 238. 1 ft \u00C2\u00B0United K i n g d o m , M i n i s t r y o f D e f e n c e , S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 1963 - R e p o r t on t h e Navy (Cmnd 193 6 ) , 1963, p a r a 4. 36 i m p o r t a n c e o f c o n t r o l l i n g t h a t o c e a n . As o r i g i n a l members o f t h e Commonwealth and t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n s o f E n g l i s h s o c i e t y , B r i t a i n had b o t h a f o r m a l a n d a m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n t o p r o t e c t t h e s e c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n e s t o A u s t r a l i a a n d New Z e a l a n d . T h u s , t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f a B r i t i s h p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n was i n t e g r a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s . The Early Post-War Defence Scheme P l a i n l y , B r i t a i n h ad e n d u r i n g i n t e r e s t s and commitments i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f t e r t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f I n d i a , P a k i s t a n , S r i L a n k a , a n d Burma. But t h e r e were o t h e r r e a s o n s f o r t h e c o n t i n u e d B r i t i s h p r e s e n c e . I n t h e C o l d War c o n t e x t o f a w o r l d d i v i d e d i n t o s p h e r e s o f i n f l u e n c e , t h e I n d i a n Ocean was c o n s i d e r e d by w e s t e r n C o l d War s t r a t e g i s t s a B r i t i s h s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e . B r i t a i n ' s d u t y was t o keep t h e I n d i a n Ocean s a f e f r o m Communist e x p a n s i o n . The e a r l y p o s t - w a r B r i t i s h p o l i c y o f a t t e m p t i n g t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n was abandoned a t t h e end o f 1947. Then i t was assumed t h a t a war w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n was a s t r o n g p o s s i b i l i t y and s u b s e q u e n t D e f e n c e W h i t e P a p e r s were p r e s e n t e d i n t e r m s o f p o s s i b l e war w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . The D e f e n c e W h i t e P a p e r 1953, f o r e xample, s t a t e s : The e f f o r t we a r e m a k i n g f a l l s b r o a d l y i n t o two p a r t s , t h o u g h t h e s e t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t o v e r l a p . F i r s t , t h e r e a r e o u r o v e r s e a s o b l i g a t i o n s and o u r commitments i n r e s i s t i n g t h e Communist campaign known as t h e C o l d War; and s e c o n d , t h e r e a r e t h e p r e p a r a t i o n s w h i c h we must make t o g e t h e r w i t h o u r Commonwealth p a r t n e r s and o u r a l l i e s a g a i n s t t h e r i s k t h a t Communist p o l i c y , w h e t h e r by a c c i d e n t o r d e s i g n , m i g h t f o r c e us t o d e f e n d o u r s e l v e s a g a i n s t a d i r e c t a t t a c k . I n t o t h e f i r s t p a r t f a l l t h e f o r c e s w h i c h t h e U n i t e d Kingdom m a i n t a i n s i n o v e r s e a s t h e a t r e s ...20 2 0 I b i d . , S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e , 1953 (Cmd 8 7 6 8 ) , 1953, p r . 31 37 Thus, t h e d e f e n c e i n i t i a t i v e s B r i t a i n t o o k i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e p o s t - w a r y e a r s u n t i l 1956 s h o u l d be p l a c e d i n t h e g e n e r a l framework o f B r i t i s h C o l d War s t r a t e g y . The c o n c e r n i n d e f e n c e t h i n k i n g i n t h i s c o n t e x t was E u r o p e . C h u r c h i l l p u t t h i s v e r y p l a i n l y i n a BBC t a l k i n A u g u s t 1950, \"My e yes a r e n o t f i x e d upon K o r e a ... t h e supreme p e r i l i s i n E u r o p e . We must t r y t o c l o s e t h e h i d e o u s gap on t h e E u r o p e a n f r o n t \" 2 1 P h i l i p Darby e x p l a i n e d t h e i m p a c t o f t h i s p e r c e p t i o n on t h e I n d i a n Ocean v e r y l u c i d l y : The v a r i o u s moves on t h e I n d i a n Ocean c h e s s - b o a r d were v i e w e d [by B r i t a i n ' s p o l i c y makers] a g a i n s t a b a c k g r o u n d o f E u r o p e , o f t h e Communist t h r e a t , and o f t h e f e a r o f g l o b a l w a r . The p i c t u r e t h a t emerges i s o f t h e t h r e e s e r v i c e s t a k i n g up t h e r e m n a n t o f t h e i m p e r i a l s y s t e m , m a k i n g s u c h a d j u s t m e n t s as t h e p o s t - w a r d e v e l o p m e n t s n e c e s s i t a t e d , and a t t e m p t i n g t o r e l a t e t h e whole t o t h e g l o b a l war theme.22 A c c o r d i n g l y , B r i t a i n m a i n t a i n e d h e r p a s t s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n w h i c h d e p e n d e d u p o n b a s e s , t e r r i t o r i a l commands, a n d t r a n s p o r t i n g t r o o p s by s e a . U n t i l t h e Suez c r i s i s c h a l l e n g e d i t s v a l i d i t y , t h i s scheme c o n t i n u e d w i t h o u t s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e . However, t h e l o s s o f t h e I n d i a n b a s e s and t e r r i t o r i a l commands n e c e s s i t a t e d c e r t a i n a d j u s t m e n t s t o t h e scheme. A t t h e t i m e o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f I n d i a and P a k i s t a n , t r a n s i t and o v e r f l i g h t r i g h t s were n e g o t i a t e d w i t h t h o s e two c o u n t r i e s . An agreement was s i g n e d w i t h t h e I n d i a n Government o v e r t h e Dum-Dum ba s e a t C a l c u t t a . Above a l l , t h e l o s s o f I n d i a n b a s e s was s u b s t a n t i a l l y overcome by t h e D e f e n c e Agreement w i t h S r i L a n k a w h i c h e n s u r e d 21 O b s e r v e r ( L o n d o n ) , 27 A u g u s t 1950, Quoted i n Darby, ., p. 45. op. c i t 22 D arby, op. c i t p. 10. 38 c o n t i n u e d use o f n a v a l f a c i l i t i e s a t T r i n c o m a l e e , a s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d n a t u r a l h a r b o u r , and t h e a i r f a c i l i t y a t K a t u n a y a k e . The b a s i c p r o b l e m i n t h e F a r E a s t was l a c k o f c o o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e s e r v i c e s . The n a v a l h e a d q u a r t e r s was i n Hong Kong w h i l e ,the A i r and Army h e a d q u a r t e r s were a t S i n g a p o r e . I n 1948, i t was d e c i d e d t o move N a v a l H e a d q u a r t e r s t o ne w l y f o r t i f i e d S i n g a p o r e . I n t h e M i d d l e E a s t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n was i n t h e Suez c a n a l a r e a and t h e Army and A i r f o r c e h e a d q u a r t e r s were s i t u a t e d t h e r e . The R o y a l A i r F o r c e (R.A.F.) m a i n t a i n e d f i v e sub-commands i n t h i s a r e a . I n t h e M i d d l e E a s t , Aden p l a y e d a key r o l e a n a l o -gous t o S i n g a p o r e i n t h e F a r E a s t . F u r t h e r , B r i t a i n r e t a i n e d t h e Simonstown b a s e i n S o u t h A f r i c a w h i c h was one o f t h e two s e n t i n e l s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. B r i t a i n d i d n o t i n t e n d t o p l a y an u n i l a t e r a l r o l e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean d e f e n c e s t r u c t u r e and e x p e c t e d c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h Commonwealth p a r t n e r s . A t e v e r y a n n u a l Commonwealth c o n f e r e -nce i n t h e l a t e 1940s t h e need f o r c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n between Commonwealth c o u n t r i e s i n I n d i a n Ocean d e f e n c e was d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l . I n 1948 B r i t a i n , A u s t r a l i a , and New Z e a l a n d s i g n e d t h e ANZAM agreement w h i c h c o v e r e d A u s t r a l i a , New Z e a l a n d , M a l a y a and t h e a d j a c e n t a r e a . The t h r e e c o u n t r i e s a g r e e d t o a c t c o o p e r a t i v e -l y , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f g r o w i n g i n s t a b i l i t y i n S o u t h E a s t A s i a , f o r d e f e n c e o f t h e a r e a . J I n 1949, a New Z e a l a n d F l i g h t o f D a k o t a s was s t a t i o n e d a t S i n g a p o r e and t h e A u s t r a l i a n A i r F o r c e a r r i v e d i n M a l a y a i n 1950. B r i t a i n hoped t o g e t A u s t r a l i a and New Z e a l a n d i n t o t h e M i d d l e E a s t , t o o . A f t e r a c o n f e r e n c e i n London i n 1951 ^ F o r d e t a i l s see R o y a l I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , C o l l e c t i v e D e f e n c e i n S o u t h E a s t A s i a : t h e M a n i l a T r e a t y and I t s I m p l i c a t i o n s (London: R I I A , 1 9 5 8 ) . 39 A u s t r a l i a and New Z e a l a n d a g r e e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n an a l l i e d command i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t w i t h B r i t a i n , t h e U.S., F r a n c e , and T u r k e y t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z e t h e Suez b a s e . I n t h e f a c e o f o p p o s i t i o n f r o m E g y p t , t h e p l a n was n o t i m p l e m e n t e d . However, d e s p i t e t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f t h e A r a b s t a t e s , a Commonwealth A i r U n i t was e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t . I n 1951 an A u s t r a l i a n A i r F o r c e F i g h t e r Wing was s e n t t h e r e . The C o n s e r v a t i v e government t h a t came t o power i n O c t o b e r 1951 q u e s t i o n e d t h e v i a b i l i t y o f t h e c o s t l y rearmament programme i n i t i a t e d by t h e L a b o u r government. The new government b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e o n l y way t o match m i l i t a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h B r i t a i n ' s l i m i t e d e c o n omic c a p a b i l i t y was t o r e l y on n u c l e a r weapons. I n 1952, t h e C h i e f s o f S t a f f p r e s e n t e d a r e p o r t on d e f e n c e a t t h e i n v i t a t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t . The f i r s t p a r t o f t h e r e p o r t e m p h a s i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e . The s e c o n d s e c t i o n d e a l t w i t h NATO and c o n c l u d e d t h a t manpower p r o b l e m s c o u l d be s o l v e d by i n t r o d u c i n g n u c l e a r weapons. The t h i r d s e c t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t e x a m i n e d B r i t a i n ' s I n d i a n Ocean and o t h e r OA o v e r s e a s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . T h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n marked t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e r a o f B r i t i s h n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e . From t h i s t i m e t o 1959, t h e f o c a l theme o f d i s c u s s i o n s o f B r i t i s h d e f e n c e s t r a t e g y was n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e . Regional Alliance Systems and Collective Defence The heavy r e l i a n c e on n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e i n B r i t i s h d e f e n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n t h e 1950s meant t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c i t y o f I n d i a n Ocean m i l i t a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s was o v e r l o o k e d . However, B r i t i s h 2 4 F o r d e t a i l s o f t h i s u n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t s e e . 'Defence and S t r a t e g y , ' F o r t u n e , (December 19 5 3 ) , pp. 77-84, and Darby, op. c i t . , pp. 46-47. 40 p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e d e f e n c e a l l i a n c e s s p o n s o r e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t h e S o u t h E a s t A s i a n T r e a t y O r g a n i z a t i o n (SEATO) and t h e Baghdad P a c t , a d d r e s s e d t h e i s s u e o f s p e c i f i c i t y o f I n d i a n Ocean s e c u r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s f r o m t h e B r i t i s h p o i n t o f v i e w . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e and t h e s o u r c e o f s t r e n g t h o f t h e s e a l l i a n c e s was t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e y s h o u l d be v i e w e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e U.S. C o l d War s t r a t e g y o f t h e c o n t a i n m e n t o f Communism. N e v e r t h e -l e s s , as a t r a d i t i o n a l l y i m p e r i a l power i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e j u n i o r p a r t n e r i n t h e w e s t e r n C o l d War s t r a t e g y , B r i t a i n ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n SEATO and t h e Baghdad P a c t came as p a r t o f t h e n o r m a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s . Even t h o u g h t h e I n d i a n Ocean was s t i l l t a k e n as a s i n g l e u n i t m a i n l y b e c a u s e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e w i n g s o f t h e p a s t d e f e n c e s y s t e m , namely t h e M i d d l e E a s t and t h e F a r E a s t , began t o r e a p p e a r as s e p a r a t e s t r a t e g i c e n t i t i e s i n t h e e a r l y 1950s. I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t e a c h a r e a had s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s o f i t s own a n d t h e y s h o u l d be d e a l t w i t h s e p a r a t e l y w i t h due c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r s p e c i f i c t h r e a t s a n d f o r t h e p r e v a l e n t p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e C o l d War b o t h a r e a s , t h e M i d d l e E a s t and t h e F a r E a s t , were c o n s i d e r e d v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n s e c u r i t y t e r m s . They were h e l d t o be c r u c i a l t o t h e p o l i c y o f c o n t a i n i n g communist e x p a n s i o n and t h e i r d e f e n c e was t h u s a m a t t e r o f w o r l d w ide s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s t a t u s quo a g a i n s t a l l e g e d Communist s u b v e r s i o n s was n o t o n l y B r i t a i n ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b u t t h a t o f t h e West as a w h o l e . The p e r i o d i n w h i c h B r i t a i n h a d p l a y e d a u n i l a t e r a l r o l e h a d come t o an end. 41 The t i m e h a d come f o r B r i t a i n t o go i n t o t h e a l l i a n c e b u s i n e s s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. B o t h t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e a n d L a b o u r p a r t i e s a c c l a i m e d t h e a l l i a n c e s as a s i g n i f i c a n t a c h i e v e m e n t o f B r i t i s h E a s t o f Suez p o l i c y . SEATO a n d t h e B a g h d a d P a c t s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e d B r i t i s h o b l i g a t i o n s i n t h e a r e a . F o r i n s t a n c e , u n d e r A r t i c l e I V o f t h e SEATO P a c t B r i t a i n as a s i g n a t o r y a g r e e d t o \" a c t t o meet common d a n g e r i n t h e e v e n t o f armed a t t a c k i n t h e t r e a t y a r e a a g a i n s t o t h e r s i g n a t o r y s t a t e s . \" J E v e n t h o u g h t h e SEATO a n d CENTO ( t h e s u c c e s s o r o f t h e Baghdad p a c t ) p a c t s f u r t h e r e d B r i t i s h commitments t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a , B r i t a i n n e i t h e r f o r m u l a t e d a s t r a t e g y t a k i n g t h e d i s t i n c t i v e m i l i t a r y needs o f t h e a r e a i n t o a c c o u n t n o r a l l o c a t e d t h e m a t e r i a l and r e s o u r c e s n e c e s s a r y t o make h o n o u r i n g t h o s e commitments p o s s i b l e . T h i s n e g l e c t was p a r t l y due t o t h e o v e r -e m p h a s i s on n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e . E v e n t h o u g h t h e r e was a r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean m i l i t a r y r o l e i n some q u a r t e r s o f t h e D e f e n c e M i n i s t r y , t h i s was overs h a d o w e d by p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e t h e r m o n u c l e a r bomb. S t i l l , t h e main c o n c e r n o f d e f e n c e t h i n k i n g was t h e g l o b a l war w i t h t h e C o m m u n i s t s ; v a r i o u s moves i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n t h e a t r e w e r e e v a l u a t e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f g l o b a l war and n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e . The 1954 D e f e n c e W h i t e P a p e r , l i k e t h a t o f t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r , f r a m e d t h e i s s u e s i n t e r m s o f a n u c l e a r war w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . P a r a g r a p h 9 o f t h e W h i t e P a p e r s t a t e s : F i r s t , we must m a i n t a i n o u r r e s i s t a n c e t o w o r l d communism a n d t o c o m m u n i s t a d v e n t u r e s a n d ^ U n i t e d Kingdom, F o r e i g n O f f i c e , S o u t h E a s t A s i a C o l l e c t i v e T r e a t y (Cmnd 2 6 5 ) , 1957, a r t i c l e i v . d i s c h a r g e o u r o t h e r p e a c e t i m e o b l i g a t i o n s o v e r s e a s . S e c o n d l y , we must, w i t h o t h e r a l l i e s , b u i l d up t h e most e f f e c t i v e p o s s i b l e d e t e r r e n t a g a i n s t a m a j o r a g g r e s s i o n w h i c h w o u l d l e a d t o a g l o b a l war. T h i r d l y , we must do a l l we c a n , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f o u r r e s o u r c e s , t o be p r e p a r e d t o meet s u c h an a g g r e s s i o n s h o u l d o u r e f f o r t s t o p r e v e n t i t f a i l . 2 6 A t t h i s t i m e t h e C e n t r a l S t r a t e g i c R e s e r v e (C.S.R.), l a t e r t o become t h e c e n t r a l e l e m e n t o f t h e B r i t i s h d e f e n c e scheme, was e s t a b l i s h e d . The i d e a o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a s t r a t e g i c r e s e r v e w h i c h c o u l d be a i r l i f t e d t o t r o u b l e d a r e a s when needed goes b a c k t o 1946. S i n c e t h e n , s u c c e s s i v e D e f e n c e S e c r e t a r i e s had d i s c u s s e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a C e n t r a l S t r a t e g i c R e s e r v e (C.S.R.), b u t due t o manpower s h o r t a g e i t was d e f e r r e d . The w i t h d r a w a l o f t r o o p s f r o m t h e Suez C a n a l Zone and K o r e a gave t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e s t a b l i s h t h e R e s e r v e . The S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n c e , L o r d A l e x a n d e r , announced t h e p l a n t o e s t a b l i s h t h e C.S.R. on 27 J a n u a r y 1954. The main p r o b l e m w i t h t h e C.S.R. was m o b i l i t y . The 1955 S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e a n n o u n c e d t h a t t h e C.S.R. was t o be a i r l i f t e d . B u t t h e a i r l i f t i n g c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e R.A.F. was e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d a t t h i s t i m e . The t r a n s p o r t command had about 40 o b s o l e t e H a s t i n g s a n d 50 V a l e t t a s . T h o u g h a n o t h e r 20 B e v e r l e y s were o r d e r e d , t h e p r o b l e m o f t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e C.S.R. was n o t r e s o l v e d . The R.A.F. was p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e V-bomber programme and i t was n o t keen t o assume an o v e r s e a s r o l e . A n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r t h e R.A.F.'s r e l u c t a n c e t o p r o v i d e m o b i l i t y t o t h e 2 ^ I b i d . , M i n i s t r y o f D e f e n c e , S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 1954' (Cmd 9 0 7 5 ) , 1954, p a r a . 9. 2 7 U n i t e d Kingdom, House o f L o r d s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 1 9 0 , 17 M a r c h 1954, c. 465. 43 C.S.R. was t h e heavy and b u l k y equipment s t i l l u s e d by t h e Army. I t was a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t t h e A d m i r a l t y came f o r w a r d t o p r o v i d e a n a v a l s o l u t i o n t o t h e t r a n s p o r t p r o b l e m o f t h e C.S.R. I n e a r l y 1954 L o r d M o u n t b a t t e n became F i r s t Sea L o r d and t h e A d m i r a l t y t o o k a f r e s h l o o k a t i t s o v e r s e a s r o l e . The E x p l a n a t o r y S t a t e m e n t o f t h e Navy E s t i m a t e s f o r 1955-56 s t a t e s I n p e a c e t i m e , n a v a l power p l a y s a p r o m i n e n t p a r t i n s u p p o r t i n g n a t i o n a l p o l i c y o v e r s e a s a n d i n e n s u r i n g t h a t o u r w o r l d - w i d e t r a d e c o n t i n u e s u n m o l e s t e d . I n war, two o u t s t a n d i n g q u a l i t i e s o f seapower become even more e v i d e n t ; namely m o b i l i t y and r e l a t i v e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f l a n d b a s e s . 2 8 The d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s p o s i t i o n i n t o an a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g y c o u l d be s e e n a f t e r t h e Suez c r i s i s . The Suez c r i s i s marked a w a t e r s h e d i n B r i t i s h d e f e n c e p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n many r e s p e c t s b u t b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g t o d i s c u s s p o s t - S u e z d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t r a c e t h e B r i t i s h - S r i L a n kan d e f e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p , b e c a u s e t h e p e r i o d between 1948 and 1956 p r e s e n t s a d i s t i n c t s t a g e i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . Anglo-Sri_Lankan Defence Relationship, 1948-1956 The g r a n t i n g o f i n d e p e n d e n c e t o S r i L a n k a i n 194 8 d i d n o t make any s i g n i f i c a n t change i n S r i L a n k a ' s d e f e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e U n i t e d Kingdom as i t had e v o l v e d d u r i n g t h e c o l o n i a l p a s t . I n t h e p e r i o d 1948-1956, S r i L ankan p o l i c y was b a s e d on c l o s e d e f e n c e c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h h e r f o r m e r c o l o n i a l m a s t e r . T h i s d e f e n c e a l l i a n c e between t h e two u n e q u a l p a r t n e r s was f u r t h e r r e i n f o r c e d by t h e Commonwealth l i n k and t h e t r a d e r e l a t i o n s h i p . O Q \u00C2\u00B0ibid.,Ministry o f D e f e n c e , E x p l a n a t o r y S t a t e m e n t on t h e Navy E s t i m a t e s 1955-56 (Cmd 9 3 9 6 ) , 1955, p a r a . 3. 44 The n a t u r e o f t h e t r a n s f e r o f power i n S r i L a n k a , t h e g e n e r a l c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c a l o u t l o o k and d e f e n c e p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e new S r i Lankan r u l i n g e l i t e s , and t h e D e f e n c e Agreement (and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t t h e E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s Agreement) c o n c l u d e d on t h e eve o f i n d e p e n d e n c e k e p t t h e two p a r t i e s c l o s e and k e p t S r i L a n k a i n t h e B r i t i s h d e f e n c e n e t w o r k i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The n a t u r e o f t h e t r a n s f e r o f power i n S r i L a n k a was d e t e r -m i n ed t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t by t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i n d e p e n -dence movement i n S r i L a n k a . The i n d e p e n d e n c e movement was by and l a r g e o v e r s h a d o w e d by t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e f o r m a g i t a t i o n , and i t s l e a d e r s h i p was d o m i n a t e d by t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e s e c t i o n o f t h e S r i La n k a n e l i t e s . L a c k i n g any b r o a d e r c o n c e p t o f n a t i o n a -l i s m , t h e i r p o l i t i c a l a g i t a t i o n was l i m i t e d t o t h e s e r i e s o f p e t i t i o n s and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t o W h i t e h a l l , e n t r e a t i n g i t t o g r a n t them g r e a t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e l e g i s l a t i v e c o u n c i l s . The p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e o f D.S. Senanayake, who l e d t h e f i n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r o f power, was D o m i n i o n S t a t u s and he f i r m l y b e l i e v e d t h a t \" t h i s s h o u l d be a t t a i n e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h r a t h e r t h a n i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e B r i t i s h \" . ^ I n t h e p r o c e s s o f n e g o t i a t i o n s , D.S. Senanayake made h i s p o s i t i o n q u i t e c l e a r : \" t h e o n l y s a t i s f a c t o r y a r r a n g e m e n t - s a t i s f a c t o r y t o e i t h e r government - w o u l d be one i n w h i c h t h e C e y l o n government was A c c o r d i n g t o B. G a j a m e r a g e d e r a \" ( T ) h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e movement was, as i s w e l l known, t h a t i t c o n s t i t u t e d an e x c l u s i v e u p p e r c l a s s e n t e r p r i s e , s u p p o r t e d by u p p e r - m i d d l e c l a s s p r o f e s s i o n a l s and s u c h v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s as t h e newspaper e s t a b l i s h m e n t s i n Colombo, t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h and r u r a l g e n t r y s o c i a l s t r a t a whose f o r t u n e i n v a r i a b l y depended on t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y ' . Modern S r i L a n k a S t u d i e s , 1:2 (December 1 9 8 6 ) , p. 1. 3 0K.M. de S i l v a , A H i s t o r y o f S r i L a n k a (New D e l h i : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 449. 45 c o l l a b o r a t i n g w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l government\". One o f t h e main f e a t u r e s o f t h e Independence S e t t l e m e n t , as B. G a j a m e r a g e d e r a c o r r e c t l y o b s e r v e s , was t h a t i t \"embodied an o u t s t a n d i n g d e g r e e o f community o f i n t e r e s t s between t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e l e a d e r s h i p o f S r i L a n k a and t h e B r i t i s h a u t h o r i t i e s \" . B r i t i s h a u t h o r i t i e s and B r i t i s h b u s i n e s s i n t e r e s t s , b o t h i n London and Colombo, were q u i t e c e r t a i n t h a t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s were bound t o r e m a i n s a f e i n t h e hands o f t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e l e a d e r s h i p o f S r i L a n k a . I n sum, t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e s e t t l e m e n t i n S r i L a n k a d i d n o t mark any s i g n i f i c a n t b r e a k i n t h e p a s t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e U n i t e d Kingdom. I t r a t h e r r e p r e s e n t e d a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e economic and d e f e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p d e v e l o p e d u n d e r B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l r u l e . The D e f e n c e Agreement u n d e r w h i c h B r i t a i n m a i n t a i n e d a n a v a l b a s e i n T r i n c o m a l e e and an a i r b a s e i n K a t u n a y a k e was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e p a c k a g e . Under t h e changed i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d n a t i o n a l a t m o s p h e r e f o l l o w i n g t h e S e c o n d W o r l d War, a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n t o e f f e c t t h e t r a n s f e r o f power i n S r i L a n k a was c o n s i d e r e d i n o r d e r by t h e mid-1940s. A m a j o r i s s u e o f c o n c e r n , p e r h a p s t h e p i e c e de r e s i s t a n c e . was t h e s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e o f S r i L a n k a t o t h e I m p e r i a l - Commonwealth d e f e n c e n e t w o r k i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. D.S. Senanayake was a l s o w e l l aware o f t h e s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e o f S r i L a n k a t o B r i t a i n i n h e r b a s e -s t r a t e g y o f I n d i a n Ocean d e f e n c e and i n t h e I m p e r i a l - C o m m o n w e a l t h C e y l o n D a i l y News, C e y l o n ' s P a t h t o Freedom (Colombo: Lake House, 1 9 4 8 ) , p. 14. o p J B . G a j a m e r a g e d a r a , op. c i t . , p. 3. 3 3 I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t d u r i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r o f power t o S r i L a n k a t h e C e y l o n e s e A s s o c i a t i o n o f London, w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t s i n S r i L a n k a and t h e l o c a l B r i t i s h b u s i n e s s c o m m u n i t y , a s k e d f o r no s a f e g u a r d s . 46 c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n e s . He was t h u s p r e p a r e d t o o f f e r a D e f e n c e Agreement t o B r i t a i n t o i n d u c e . h e r t o g r a n t S r i L a n k a D o m i n i o n s t a t u s as e a r l y as 1945. D.S. Senanayake d e c l a r e d i n t h e S t a t e C o u n c i l : We s h o u l d be r e a d y and a n x i o u s t o g i v e a l l t h e a s s i s t a n c e a n d a l l t h e f a c i l i t i e s t h a t H i s M a j e s t y ' s government m i g h t r e q u i r e , p r o v i d e d t h a t we were g i v e n c o n t r o l o f o u r own c o u n t r y . ... I s a i d I was r e a d y t o p l e d g e my c o l l e a g u e s .. t o any r e a s o n a b l e agreement about d e f e n c e as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f any agreement f o r D o m i n i o n s t a t u s and, i n d e e d , I went t o t h e l e n g t h o f p r e p a r i n g t h e d r a f t o f s u c h an a g r e e m e n t t o g o v e r n t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n C e y l o n a n d U n i t e d K i n g d o m , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n m a t t e r s o f d e f e n c e and e x t e r n a l a f f a i r s , on l i n e s w h i c h w o u l d be a c c e p t a b l e t o S t a t e C o u n c i l . 3 4 By a b o u t 1947 i t was o b v i o u s t h a t B r i t a i n w o u l d n o t be i n a p o s i t i o n t o d i s m a n t l e h e r d e f e n c e scheme i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean f o r sometime t o come. T h e r e f o r e , B r i t a i n had t o f a c e t h e p r o b l e m o f m a i n t a i n i n g a d e f e n c e n e t w o r k a f t e r t h e t r a n s f e r o f power t o h e r S o u t h A s i a n c o l o n i e s . B r i t a i n h a d no d o u b t s a b o u t D.S. Senanayake's l o y a l t y . He was a c k n o w l e d g e d as a t r u s t e d f r i e n d o f B r i t a i n . S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r t h e C o l o n i e s A r t h u r C r e e c h - J o n e s a c k n o w l e d g e d i n t h e H ouse o f Commons t h a t \" C e y l o n h a s c o n s i s t e n t l y c o - o p e r a t e d w i t h B r i t a i n and has t a k e n p r i d e i n h e r l o y a l t y , h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e war and h e r t i e s w i t h t h e U n i t e d Kingdom\". However, t h e Deputy Permanent Under S e c r e t a r y l a t e r s t a t e d : From t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e B r i t i s h Government, t h e q u e s t i o n was n o t q u i t e as s i m p l e as a l l t h a t . T h e r e were, t o b e g i n w i t h , d e f e n c e i n t e r e s t s o f B r i t a i n and h e r a l l i e s . C e y l o n was v i t a l a p o i n t . I f i n d e p e n d e n c e were once g r a n t e d , t h e r e c o u l d be no g o i n g b a c k : E v e r y one was p r e p a r e d t o t r u s t C e y l o n D a i l y News, C e y l o n ' s P a t h , p. 12. 47 Mr. Senanayake, b u t he had y e t t o be e l e c t e d , and even i f he were, an i n d e p e n d e n t C e y l o n m i g h t w e l l a t some f u t u r e t i m e come und e r t h e c o n t r o l o f a Government w h i c h was n o t f r i e n d l y t o B r i t a i n . 3 5 T h e r e f o r e , f r o m t h e B r i t i s h p o i n t o f v i e w , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o f o r m a l i s e t h e d e f e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p by e n t e r i n g i n t o a d e f e n c e a g r e e m e n t . F r o m D.S. S e n a n a y a k e ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , he h a d t o p r o d u c e some p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s f r o m h i s s t r a t e g y o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n . B e c a u s e o f t h e g r o w i n g o p p o s i t i o n f r o m t h e r a d i c a l l e f t t o t h e c o l l a b o r a t i v e s t r a t e g y a n d t h e d i s c o n t e n t w i t h i n t h e C e y l o n N a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s i t s e l f , any d e l a y i n t r a n s f e r i n g power w o u l d be d i s a s t r o u s t o b o t h p a r t i e s . D.S. Senanayake, t h u s \" r e p e a t e d h i s o f f e r o f agreements on d e f e n c e and e x t e r n a l a f f a i r s and u r g e d t h a t t h e d r a f t s o f s u c h agreement s h o u l d be r e a d y f o r c o n s i d e r a -3 fi t i o n by t h e C e y l o n C a b i n e t as soon as i t came i n t o o f f i c e . \" I t i s wrong t o a r g u e t h a t t h e D e f e n c e Agreement was imp o s e d u p o n S r i L a n k a u n i l a t e r a l l y b y B r i t a i n . I n d e e d , t h e d e f e n c e agreement s e r v e d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s o f S r i La n k a w e l l . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d what t h e y e x p e c t e d f r o m t h e D e f e n c e A g r e e m e n t , one n e e d s t o e x a m i n e t h e i r d e f e n c e a n d s e c u r i t y p e r c e p t i o n s a t t h e t i m e o f i n d e p e n d e n c e . One o f t h e m a j o r f a c t o r s t h a t s h a p e d t h e d e f e n c e and s e c u r i t y p e r s p e c t i v e o f S r i Lankan d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s was t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e o f S r i L a n k a ' s l o c a t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e s e n s e o f i n s e c u r i t y i n v i e w o f t h e l i m i t e d d e f e n c e c a p a c i t y o f t h e c o u n t r y . D.S. Senanayake, t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r o f S r i L a n k a who was 3 R S i r C h a r l e s J e f f r i e s , C e y l o n z. The P a t h t o Independence (London : P a l l M a l l P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 ) , p. 115. 3 6 I b i d . , p. 117. 48 a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e f e n c e , s t a t e d t h a t : The d e f e n c e o f t h e c o u n t r y i s one o f t h e p r i m a r y o b l i g a t i o n s o f an i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e , and t h i s i s n o t t h e s o r t o f w o r l d i n w h i c h s m a l l n a t i o n s c a n be s e c u r e w i t h o u t l a r g e a n d e x p e n s i v e a r m e d f o r c e s . We a r e i n a s p e c i a l l y d a n g e r o u s p o s i t i o n , b e c a u s e we a r e i n one o f t h e s t r a t e g i c h i g h w a y s o f t h e w o r l d . The c o u n t r y w h i c h c a p t u r e s C e y l o n w o u l d d o m i n a t e t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Nor i s i t o n l y a q u e s t i o n o f p r o t e c t i n g o u r s e l v e s a g a i n s t i n v a s i o n and a i r a t t a c k . I f we has no i m p o r t s f o r t h r e e months, we w o u l d s t a r v e , and we have t h e r e f o r e t o p r o t e c t o u r s e a and a i r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . 3 7 I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t S r i L a n k a r e q u i r e d p r o t e c t i o n f r o m a g r e a t power. S r i Lankan r u l e r s saw no c o u n t r y o t h e r t h a n B r i t a i n who c o u l d f u l f i l l t h a t r o l e . The C e v l o n D a i l y News, a p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e L ake House Group w h i c h had c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s , a s k e d : \" ( C ) a n i t be had on b e t t e r t e r m s f r o m a c o u n t r y w h i c h may be i n t e r e s t e d i n d o m i n a t i n g C e y l o n t h a n f r o m a c o u n t r y w h i c h has v o l u n t a r i l y and handsomely y i e l d e d power and 3 R. r e n o u n c e d i t s a u t h o r i t y . ? \" . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r c o n s e r v a t i v e o u t l o o k and s t r o n g p r o - B r i t i s h s e n t i m e n t , t h e r u l e r s o f t h e g o v e r n i n g U n i t e d N a t i o n a l P a r t y f e l t s e c u r e u n d e r t h e B r i t i s h d e f e n c e u m b r e l l a . P r i m e M i n i s t e r D.S. Senanayake f u r t h e r s t a t e d : L e t us c o n f e s s t h a t o u r f r e e d o m d e p e n d s on somebody o r o t h e r u n d e r t a k i n g t o h e l p us d e f e n d o u r s e l v e s . Nor can we a f f o r d t o pay anybody t o d e f e n d u s . As I l o o k a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e w o r l d , I see a t t h e moment o n l y one c o u n t r y w i t h s u f f i c i e n t i n t e r e s t i n us t o d e f e n d us a t t h e i r e x p e n s e , and t h a t c o u n t r y i s G r e a t B r i t a i n . . . F o r t u n a t e l y o u r s e c u r i t y i s i n v o l v e d i n h e r s e c u r i t y . She must keep t h e I n d i a n Ocean open t o h e r s h i p s and a i r c r a f t . These s h i p s and a i r c r a f t C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , v o l . 1, 1 December 1947, c. 444. o o C e y l o n D a i l y News, 15 November 1947. 49 c a r r y t h e g r e a t mass o f s u p p l i e s w h i c h f e e d and c l o t h e us.39 The U.N.P. l e a d e r s h i p was c e r t a i n , i n t h e w o r l d scene as w e l l as i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e n a , t h a t S r i La n k a c o u l d s e c u r e p r o t e c t i o n u n d e r t h e B r i t i s h d e f e n c e u m b r e l l a . S r i La n k a u n d e r D.S. Senanayake's p r e m i e r s h i p p e r c e i v e d h e r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y c o n c e r n s m a i n l y i n t e r m s o f t h e i m m e d i a t e g e o - p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n S o u t h A s i a . C e r t a i n e l e m e n t s o f S r i L a n k a ' s t r a d i t i o n a l t h r e a t p e r c e p t i o n s about I n d i a a p p e a r t o have r e v i v e d a t t h e t i m e o f i n d e p e n d e n c e . S r i La n k a b e l i e v e d t h a t B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l f r o m S o u t h A s i a w o u l d c r e a t e a power vacuum i n t h e r e g i o n and f e a r e d t h a t I n d i a m i g h t a t t e m p t t o f i l l i t . The U.N.P. l e a d e r s h i p was v e r y e x p l i c i t i n e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r a p r e h e n s i o n o f p o s s i b l e I n d i a n d o m i n a t i o n . D.S. Senanayake, f o r example, s t a t e d : We c o n s i d e r I n d i a t o be one o f t h e g r e a t e s t n a t i o n s i n t h e w o r l d , b u t we do n o t e x p e c t I n d i a t o p l a y t h e r o l e t r y i n g t o e s t a b l i s h r i g h t s where t h e y have no r i g h t s , o r p r i v i l e g e s where t h e y have no p r i v i l e g e s o r o f t r y i n g t o d e p r i v e o t h e r c o u n t r i e s o f t h e i r r i g h t s . 4 0 I t i s t r u e t h a t m e m o r i e s o f I n d i a n i n v a s i o n s i n t h e p a s t i n f l u e n c e d t o some e x t e n t t h i s k i n d o f p e r c e p t i o n b u t t h e main f a c t o r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f e a r o f I n d i a c o u l d be f o u n d i n c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c s . I v o r J e n n i n g s e l u c i d a t e s t h e S r i Lan k a n a t t i t u d e t o I n d i a a t t h e t i m e o f i n d e p e n d e n c e a s : I n d i a t h u s a p p e a r s as a f r i e n d l y b u t p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s n e i g h b o u r t o whom one must be p o l i t e b u t a l i t t l e d i s t a n t ... I t i s n o t t h a t I n d i a and I n d i a n s a r e u n p o p u l a r , b u t t h a t t h e C e y l o n e s e , w h i l e a d m i r i n g much t h a t i s I n d i a n , and f e e l i n g t h e m s e l v e s r a c i a l l y a k i n t o I n d i a n s have a 3 Q C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 1 , 1 December 1947, c. 445. 4 0 I b i d . , V o l . 5, 9 December 1948, c. 427. 50 s e n s a t i o n o f l i v i n g u n d e r a m o u n t a i n w h i c h m i g h t s e n d down d e s t r u c t i v e a v a l a n c h e s . 4 1 The q u e s t i o n s y e t t o be r e s o l v e d by t h e two n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t r i e s , s u c h as t h e i s s u e o f c i t i z e n s h i p f o r T a m i l p l a n t a t i o n w o r k e r s o f I n d i a n o r i g i n , s t r e n g t h e n e d t h i s t h i n k i n g . The m a j o r f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o S r i L ankan p e r c e p t i o n o f I n d i a as a t h r e a t was some pronouncements by t h o s e who were c l o s e t o t h e I n d i a n p o l i c y - m a k i n g p r o c e s s a b o u t I n d i a n s t r a t e g i c d e s i g n s w h i c h i n c l u d e d S r i L a n k a i n I n d i a ' s d e f e n c e p l a n s . S a r d a r P a n i k k a r , I n d i a ' s f o r e m o s t p r o p o n e n t o f o c e a n i c s t r a t e g y and a l s o a c l o s e a s s o c i a t e o f N e hru, a d v o c a t e d t h e s t r a t e g i c u n i t y o f I n d i a , S r i L a n k a , and Burma p r i o r t o i n d e p e n d e n c e . The p r e r e q u i s i t e t o a r e a l i s t i c p o l i c y o f I n d i a n d e f e n c e , f o r P a n i k k a r , was an i n t e g r a t e d d e f e n c e a r r a n g e m e n t among I n d i a , Burma a n d S r i 4 ? L a n k a . P a n i k k a r a b a n d o n e d t h i s scheme a f t e r S r i L a n k a ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e . Y e t , P a t t a b h i S i t a r a m a y a , t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s i n 1949, was r e p o r t e d t o have s u g g e s t e d t h a t I n d i a and S r i L a n k a s h o u l d have common d e f e n c e s t r e n g t h , r e s o u r c e s , and s t r a t e g y . 4 3 To a n o t h e r I n d i a n w r i t e r , K.B. V a i d y a , \" ( T ) h e f i r s t and p r i m a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s t h a t b o t h Burma and C e y l o n must f o r m w i t h I n d i a t h e b a s i c f e d e r a t i o n f o r m u t u a l d e f e n c e w h e t h e r t h e y w i l l l i k e i t o r n o t \" . 4 4 S i t a r a m a y a ' s 4 1 S i r I v o r J e n n i n g s , The Commonwealth i n A s i a (London: C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 5 1 ) , p. 113. 4 7 K.M. P a n i k k a r , I n d i a and t h e I n d i a n Ocean: An E s s a y on t h e I n f l u e n c e o f Sea Power on I n d i a n H i s t o r y (London: A l l e n & Unwin, 1962) p. 95. 4 3 C e v l o n D a i l y News. 23 A p r i l 1949. 4 4 K . B . V a i d y a , The N a v a l D e f e n c e o f I n d i a (Bombay: T h a c k e r and Company, 194 9 ) , p. 30. 51 s t a t e m e n t a r o u s e d h o s t i l e r e s p o n s e i n S r i L a n k a . P a n d i t Nehru was v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e r e a c t i o n s i n S r i L a n k a t o s u c h 4 f, s t a t e m e n t s . T h e r e f o r e Nehru s e n t a s p e c i a l message t o a s s u r e S r i L a n k a t h a t I n d i a h a d no d e s i g n s on h e r a n d w o u l d n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h h e r s o v e r e i g n t y . ^ 7 But t h i s was n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o a l l e v i a t e S r i L a n k a ' s f e a r s . The P r i m e M i n i s t e r o f S r i L a n k a , S i r J o h n K o t e l a w a l a , s t a t e d i n P a r l i a m e n t i n 1953: What I am w o r r i e d a b o u t i s t h a t Mr. P a n i k k a r has made s e v e r a l s t a t e m e n t s i n one o f h i s b o o k s t h a t I n d i a must have T r i n c o m a l e e f o r i t s s a f e t y . ... He was a l s o s u p p o s e d t o know P a n d i t Nehru's t h o u g h t s and has s a i d t h a t I n d i a , C e y l o n and Burma must have a Monroe D o c t r i n e , t h a t I n d i a w i l l be t h e f a t h e r o f two c h i l d r e n , Burma and C e y l o n . We do n o t want t h a t f a t h e r l y a d v i c e n o r t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n . 4 8 The U.N.P v i e w e d t h e Commonwealth as t h e c o u n t e r p o i s e t o I n d i a n d o m i n a t i o n . On t h e one hand, Commonwealth membership gave S r i L a n k a some s t a t u s o f f o r m a l e q u a l i t y w i t h I n d i a . On t h e o t h e r , i t was b e l i e v e d t o p r o v i d e a measure o f m i l i t a r y s e c u r i t y . The S r i ^\u00C2\u00B0Times o f C e y l o n , 27 A p r i l 1949. D P r i m e M i n i s t e r P a n d i t Nehru s t a t e d i n t h e Lok Sabha i n M a r c h 1953 t h a t (T)he d i f f i c u l t y o f a p l a c e l i k e C e y l o n , more so t h a n o t h e r s , i s t h e f e a r t h a t C e y l o n has o f I n d i a . . ., Here i s a g r e a t b i g c o n t i n e n t l y i n g a s t r i d e n o r t h o f C e y l o n , and t h e y a r e , I am s o r r y , I t h i n k u n r e a s o n a b l y , j u s t a f r a i d o f b e i n g swamped o r s w a l l o w e d by I n d i a , o r by t h e I n d i a n p e o p l e ... I have s e e n t h a t t h e r e a l d i f f i c u l t y one h a s t o f a c e i s t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i f f i c u l t y o f t h e p e o p l e o f C e y l o n ... a f e a r t h a t t h i s g r e a t and b i g c o n t i n e n t o f a c o u n t r y m i g h t overwhelm them, and t h a t f e a r a n d t h a t a p p r e h e n s i o n come i n t h e i r way' ., q u o t e d i n B. G a j a m e r a d e r a , 'The D e f e n c e P o l i c y o f S r i L a n k a 1948-1956'Seminar, f o r A s i a n S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f P e r a d e n i y a , D i s c u s s i o n p a p e r No. 1987/40, p. 6-7. 4 7 S . U . K o d i k a r a , F o r e i g n P o l i c y o f S r i L a n k a A T h i r d W o r l d P e r s p e c t i v e (New D e l h i : Chanakya P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1 9 8 2 ) , p. 36. 4 P. C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 20, 7 Sep. 1954, c. 51. 52 Lankan l e a d e r s h i p began t o l o o k a t t h e D e f e n c e Agreement w i t h B r i t a i n a s t h e b e s t s t r a t e g y t h a t c o u l d k e e p I n d i a u n d e r r e s t r a i n t . Some w r i t e r s have p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e U.N.P. l e a d e r s h i p l o o k e d a t t h e D e f e n c e Agreement as a p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e A Q p o s s i b l e i n t e r n a l d i s o r d e r t h a t t h e l e f t w o u l d c r e a t e . 3 I t i s t r u e t h a t government spokesmen b r a n d e d t h e l e f t as t h e t r o u b l e makers o f t h e c o u n t r y who had i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n n e c t i o n s . The P r i m e M i n i s t e r h i m s e l f made s e v e r a l s t a t e m e n t s t o t h a t e f f e c t . However, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o go bey o n d t h e f a c e v a l u e o f s u c h p o l i t i c a l r h e t o r i c . I n e f f e c t , r u l e r s were n o t w o r r i e d about t h e S r i Lankan l e f t w h i c h was d i v i d e d on i d e o l o g i c a l as w e l l as on p e r s o n a l l i n e s . D.S. Senanayake once made i t p l a i n t h a t \"as f a r as Reds i n C e y l o n a r e c o n c e r n e d , no one seemed t o be w o r r i e d a t a l l \" . What t h e y were r e a l l y w o r r i e d about was t h e g e n e r a l i n s t a b i l i t y t h e n e x i s t i n g i n t h e w h o l e r e g i o n o f S o u t h a n d S o u t h e a s t A s i a . I n t h i s c o n t e x t t h e d e f e n c e a l l i a n c e w i t h B r i t a i n was e x p e c t e d t o p r o v i d e some s e c u r i t y t o t h e S r i La n k a n r u l i n g c l a s s . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e argument t h a t t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e D e f e n c e Agreement was m o t i v a t e d by t h e t h r e a t f r o m t h e l e f t . The e u p h o r i a a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e D e f e n c e Agreement d i d n o t go b e y o n d t h e government b e n c h e s . The c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s and D e f e n c e A g r e e m e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e l a t t e r , came u n d e r s e v e r e a t t a c k f r o m t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y o p p o s i t i o n . T hey 4 ^ D e n z i l P e i r i s , 1956 and A f t e r (Colombo: A s s o c i a t e d News-p a p e r s , 1 9 5 8 ) , p. 20-21 and a l s o see The T r i b u n e . 2 June 1956. \" ^ C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s . V o l . 5, 15 March 1949, c. 1846. c h a r g e d t h a t t h e D e f e n c e A g r e e m e n t was d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e d e c l a r e d s t a t u s o f i n d e p e n d e n c e and s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e c o u n t r y , and v i e w e d t h e e n t i r e p a c k a g e o f t h e Independence S e t t l e m e n t \"as a shady t r a n s a c t i o n w h i c h was n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n b a r t e r i n g away o f s i t h e c o u n t r y \" . There was a s t r o n g s u s p i c i o n a t t h e t i m e t h a t t h e r e c o u l d be some s e c r e t a n n e x u r e s t o t h e Agreement. The l e f t f e a r e d t h a t t h e B r i t i s h t r o o p s s t a t i o n e d i n S r i L a n k a u n d e r t h e D e f e n c e Agreement c o u l d be u s e d i n t h e i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f t h e C O c o u n t r y , e s p e c i a l l y t o s a f e g u a r d B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t s . S e c o n d l y , t h e l e f t c r i t i c i s e d t h e D e f e n c e Agreement c l a i m i n g t h a t i t w o u l d l i n k S r i L a n k a t o t h e wagon t a i l o f w e s t e r n m i l i t a r y p l a n s and, t h r o u g h i t , w o u l d u n n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e S r i L anka i n C o l d War p o l i t i c s . C o l v i n R. De S i l v a , t h e d e p u t y l e a d e r o f t h e L.S.S.P, d e c l a r e d t h a t \"we a r e b e i n g p l a n n e d n o t o n l y as t h e cannon f o d d e r o f t h e n e x t war b u t a l s o as t h e m i l i t a r y b a s e s f o r I do n o t know c o what c o n t e m p l a t e d a t t a c k \" . J T h i r d l y and more i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e o p p o s i t i o n q u e s t i o n e d t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e a n t i - I n d i a n s e n t i m e n t i n t h e government d e f e n c e p e r s p e c t i v e s . By e m p h a s i s i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f h a v i n g g o o d r e l a t i o n s w i t h I n d i a , N.M. P e r e r a , t h e L e a d e r o f t h e O p p o s i t i o n , p o i n t e d o u t , T h e r e i s a f e e l i n g among s e c t i o n s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e U.N.P. t h a t we h a v e t o s a f e g u a r d o u r s e l v e s a g a i n s t I n d i a t h a t we have t o f i g h t a g a i n s t I n d i a and t h e r e f o r e i t i s n e c e s s a r y 5 1 C e v l o n D a i l y News, 19 November 1947 C 9 C e y l o n House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d 7 s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 1, 1 December 1947, c. 445. 5 3 I b i d . , V o l . 8, 4 J u l y 1950, c. 273. 54 t h a t we must l e a n upon B r i t a i n f o r t h e p u r p o s e ... I say t h a t i t i s p o l i t i c a l m yopia o f t h e w o r s t t y p e . I t may be t h a t I n d i a a t t h e p r e s e n t moment i s g o i n g t h r o u g h t r o u b l e d t i m e s . But Hon. members a r e o b l i v i o u s o f t h e f a c t t h a t f i f t e e n and t w e n t y y e a r s hence I n d i a w i l l l i k e c o l o s s u s b e s t r i d e t h i s n a r r o w w o r l d , and i t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t we l i v e i n a m i t y and a m i c a b l e r e l a t i o n s w i t h I n d i a , and n o t t o c r e a t e S u d e t e n l a n d p r o b l e m f o r C e y l o n by l e a v i n g so much h a t r e d and b i t t e r n e s s among a l a r g e s e c t i o n o f I n d i a n s w i t h c o n n e c t i o n s i n C e y l o n . 5 4 From h i n d s i g h t i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c e r n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t a k i n g t h e r e a l i t i e s o f g e o p o l i t i c s i n S o u t h A s i a i n t o a c c o u n t i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f S r i L a n k a ' a d e f e n c e p o l i c y as p o i n t e d o u t by Dr. N.M. P e r e r a i n 1947. R i d i c u l i n g D.S. Senanayake f o r h i s f a i t h i n B r i t a i n , P e r e r a r e m a r k e d t h a t \" i n t h i s m a t t e r t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r had been c o n s i s t e n t - t h a t (he) s u f f e r s f r o m two d i s e a s e s : one i s I n d o p h o b i a and t h e o t h e r i s A n g l o m a n i a . Whereas t h e S r i L ankan d e f e n c e p e r s p e c t i v e was c o n d i t i o n e d t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e by t h e D e f e n c e Agreement w i t h B r i t a i n , t h e Commonwealth l i n k p r o v i d e d t h e framework f o r f o r e i g n p o l i c y t h i n k i n g t o t h e U.N.P. l e a d e r s h i p . A c o r n e r s t o n e o f S r i L ankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y u n d e r t h e f i r s t U.N.P. r e g i m e (1948-1956) was t h e Commonwealth framework. By e m p h a s i z i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f Common-w e a l t h membership, i n h i s s p e e c h t o t h e P a r l i a m e n t , t h e G o v e r n o r -G e n e r a l s t a t e d t h a t : Government i s k e e n l y aware o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e and u n i t y o f p u r p o s e o f t h e Commonwealth i n t h e e f f o r t t o p r e s e r v e p e a c e i n t h e p o s t - w a r w o r l d and w i l l u s e i t s u t m o s t e n d e a v o u r t o c h e r i s h and s a f e g u a r d t h e s e v a l u a b l e a s s o c i a t i o n s . 5 6 5 4 I b i d . , V o l . 4, 19 A u g u s t , 1948, c. 1696. 5 5 I b i d . , c. 1695. ^ C e y l o n , S e n a t e , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 4, 20 June 1950, c.5. 55 The e c o n o m i c p o l i c y o f t h e U.N.P g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e c o u n t r y ' s economic l i n k s w i t h B r i t a i n f u r t h e r r e i n f o r c e d S r i L a n k a ' s c o r d i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h B r i t a i n . The U.N.P l e a d e r s h i p b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e c o u n t r y depended on t h e t r a d e t i e s w i t h t h e wes t , m a i n l y w i t h B r i t a i n , and made no a t t e m p t t o r e m o d e l t h e c o l o n i a l e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e w i t h w h i c h t h e i r i n t e r e s t s were a l s o i d e n t i f i e d . G r e a t B r i t a i n was S r i L a n k a ' s main t r a d e p a r t n e r t a k i n g about o n e - t h i r d (Rs.m. 335.3) t h e v a l u e o f e x p o r t s , and a c c o u n t i n g f o r o v e r o n e - s i x t h (Rs.m. 185.3) t h e v a l u e o f t o t a l i m p o r t s . D.S. S e n a n a y a k e c o u n t e d h e a v i l y on B r i t a i n f o r f o r e i g n p o l i c y g u i d e l i n e s and was r e a d y t o f o l l o w B r i t a i n ' s l e a d . S r i L a n k a r e c o g n i z e d t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a j u s t one day a f t e r B r i t a i n d i d . T h i s was n o t a s i m p l e c o i n c i d e n c e . As S.W.R.D. B a n d a r a n a i k e l a t e r r e v e a l e d , even o v e r t h e I n d o n e s i a n i s s u e i n 1947 he was i n s t r u c t e d t o f o l l o w t h e l i n e t h a t B r i t a i n h a d a d o p t e d . 5 8 I n sum, d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f 1948-1956 S r i La n k a became an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e B r i t i s h d e f e n c e s t r u c t u r e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean t h r o u g h the. b a s e s m a i n t a i n e d u n d e r t h e D e f e n c e Agreement. F o r i n s t a n c e B r i t i s h B e a u f i g h t e r s u s e d S r i Lankan a i r f i e l d s i n t h e c o u r s e o f war manoeuvers a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e M a l a y a n a n t i -g u e r i l l a c a m p a i g n . 5 When t h e I r a n i a n G o v e r n m e n t d e c i d e d t o n a t i o n a l i z e o i l w e l l s i n 1951, i t was f r o m T r i n c o m a l e e t h a t t h e 5 7 C e y l o n Y e a r b o o k 1949, p. 41. C Q \u00C2\u00B0\u00C2\u00B0Ceylon, House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 12, 17 June 1952, c. 76. 5 9 I b i d . , V o l . 4. 2 S e p t . 1948, c. 2008. 56 B r i t i s h s e n t a c r u i s e r t o I r a n t o show m i l i t a r y m u s c l e on b e h a l f o f t h e A n g l o - I r a n i a n o i l c o m p a n y . T h i s d e f e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p between S r i L a n k a and B r i t a i n changed a f t e r 1956 w i t h t h e d e f e a t o f t h e U.N. P. Government a t t h e hands o f t h e Mahajana E k s a t h Peramuna (MEP) l e d by S.W.R.D. B a n d a r a n a i k e and w i t h t h e B r i t i s h d e b a c l e a t Suez. Changes i n the Anglo-Sri Lankan Defence Relationship After 1956 The d e f e a t o f t h e U.N.P. government i n 1956 a t t h e hands o f t h e M a hajana E k s a t h Peramana (MEP) l e d by S.W.R.D. B a n d a r a n a i k e was i n many r e s p e c t a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e p o s t - i n d e p e n d e n c e p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f S r i L a n k a . I n t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y f i e l d , t h e new government p l e d g e d t o r e v e r s e t h e p r o - w e s t e r n p o l i c y o f t h e U.N.P. government. The t r u e p e r s p e c t i v e o f S r i Lankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y s i n c e t h a t t i m e may be c a l l e d \"dynamic non-a l i g n m e n t \" . As a r e s u l t , S r i L a n k a ' s c l o s e d e f e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h B r i t a i n underwent a change. I n o r d e r t o p l a c e t h e new d i r e c t i o n s o f S r i La n k a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y a f t e r 1956 i n t h e i r b r o a d e r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e changed i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n -ment i n S r i L a n k a i n t h e mid-1950s and t h e n a t u r e o f t h e 1956 p o l i t i c a l change as w e l l as t h e p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l c o m p l e x i o n o f t h e new r e g i m e and i t s f o r e i g n p o l i c y p e r c e p t i o n s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o remember t h a t t h e MEP r o d e t o power on a huge n a t i o n a l i s t i c wave. The p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l make up o f t h e MEP 5 9 I b i d . , v o l . 10, 27 June 1951, c. 213. ^ F o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n on t h e 1956 p o l i t i c a l change s e e W. H o w a r d W r i g g i n s , C e y l o n ; D i l e m m a s o f a. New N a t i o n ( P r i n c e t o n , N . J . : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 0 ) . 57 was t o o complex t o g i v e a p l a i n a n a l y s i s . B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s S r i Lan k a Freedom P a r t y , t h e main p a r t n e r i n t h e MEP c o a l i t i o n , was a l e f t - o f - c e n t e r p a r t y w i t h s t r o n g p o p u l i s t l e a n i n g s . On t h e one hand t h e MEP i n c l u d e d t h e l e f t V i p l a v a k a r i L a n k a Sama Samaja P a r t y - t h e most r u r a l - b a s e d o f l e f t p a r t i e s a t t h e t i m e - l e d by P h i l i p Gunawardena. On t h e o t h e r hand, g r o u p s and g r o u p l e t s l e d by r i g h t w i n g p e r s o n a l i t i e s s u c h as W. Dahanayake and I.M-R.A. I r i y a g o l l a were a l s o i n c l u d e d . As f a r as s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d was c o n c e r n e d , i t was a m u l t i - c l a s s c o a l i t i o n w i t h s t r o n g b a c k i n g f r o m t h e r u r a l p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e . The 1956 p o l i t i c a l change was i n t e r p r e t e d as a v i c t o r y o f t h e 'common man' o v e r t h e 'Brown S a h i b s ' r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e U.N.P.. The most s i g n i f i c a n t outcome o f t h e MEP v i c t o r y was t h a t t h e g e n e r a l masses and t h e r u r a l i n t e l l i g e n t s i a p e r h a p s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e came t o g r i p s w i t h t h e 61 r e a l i t i e s o f p o l i t i c a l power. I n e c o nomic p o l i c y a l s o t h e MEP wanted t o t u r n away f r o m t h e l a i s s e z - f a i r e e c o n omic d o c t r i n e o f t h e p r e v i o u s government. The f i r s t Throne Speech o f t h e MEP government d e c l a r e d t h a t \" ( I ) n p u r s u a n c e o f i t s s o c i a l i s t p o l i c y my government w i l l t a k e e v e r y s t e p , where t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f t h e c o u n t r y so r e q u i r e , t o ft 2 n a t i o n a l i s e c e r t a i n e s s e n t i a l s e r v i c e s s u c h as t r a n s p o r t \" . R e a l i z i n g t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f r e l y i n g h e a v i l y on t h e p l a n t a t i o n s e c t o r , t h e government i n i t i a t e d a modest programme o f i n d u s t r i a -l i z a t i o n t h r o u g h i m p o r t s u b s t i t u t i o n . ^ A . J . W i l s o n , E l e c t o r a l P o l i t i c s i n an Emergent S t a t e z. The C e y l o n G e n e r a l E l e c t i o n o f may 1970 ( L o n d o n : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 23. 6 2 C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s p a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 24, 20 A p r i l 1956, c. 26. 58 One i m p o r t a n t i s s u e d u r i n g t h e e l e c t i o n campaign was t h e p r o - w e s t e r n n a t u r e o f t h e U.N.P. government. S r i L a n k a ' s d e f e n c e l i n k w i t h B r i t a i n loomed l a r g e i n t h e e l e c t i o n d e b a t e . The MEP p r o m i s e d t o g e t t h e B r i t i s h b a s e s o ut o f t h e c o u n t r y . They even t a l k e d o f t h e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f f o r e i g n - o w n e d p l a n t a t i o n s and o f maki n g S r i L a n k a a r e p u b l i c . J I n i t s f o r e i g n p o l i c y t h e MEP wanted S r i L a n k a t o be a f r i e n d o f a l l , an enemy o f none. The new g o v e r n m e n t t o o k s t e p s t o o p e n d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e s o c i a l i s t b l o c . E m p h a s i z i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p u r s u i n g a non-a l i g n e d p o l i c y , B a n d a r a n a i k e s t a t e d t h a t t h e i d e a l p o s i t i o n f o r S r i L a n k a s h o u l d be a \" S w i z t e r l a n d i n A s i a \" . B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , two i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y o u t l o o k c o u l d be i d e n t i f i e d : f i r s t was h i s p r a g m a t i c a p p r o a c h t o f o r e i g n p o l i c y i s s u e s and t h e s e c o n d was h i s s t r o n g s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y w i t h t h e A f r o - A s i a n w o r l d . One i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e new d i r e c t i o n o f S r i Lankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y a f t e r 1956 was t h e changed a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s I n d i a . The new r e g i m e d i d n o t s u b s c r i b e t o i t s p r e d e c e s s o r ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h r e a t f r o m I n d i a . S.W.R.D. B a n d a r a n a i k e wanted t o c u l t i v a t e c l o s e and a m i c a b l e r e l a t i o n s w i t h I n d i a . R e g a r d i n g t h e e a r l i e r h e l d f e a r p e r c e p t i o n o f I n d i a , B a n d a r a n a i k e s t a t e d t h a t \" I have no d u t y c a s t upon me t o meet t h e u n r e a s o n a b l e f e a r s o f t h e p e o p l e and I do hope t h e p r e s e n t c o r d i a l and f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s between I n d i a and C e y l o n w i l l be p r e s e r v e d and m a i n t a i n e d \" . ^ He ^ 3D.M. P r a s a d , C e y l o n ' s F o r e i g n P o l i c y u n d e r t h e B a n d a r a n a i k e s (1956-65) A P o l i t i c a l A n a l y s i s (New D e l h i : Chand & Co., 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 61. ^ ^ C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . . 14, 1953, c. 509. 6 5 T h e H i n d u , 12 J u l y 1956. was an a d m i r e r o f Nehru's n o n - a l i g n e d p o l i c y l i n e and, w i t h t h e change o f d i r e c t i o n o f S r i L ankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y a f t e r 1956, b o t h c o u n t r i e s came c l o s e r t o e a c h o t h e r . Soon a f t e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e P r e m i e r s h i p , B a n d a r a n a i k e s t a t e d i n an i n t e r v i e w w i t h t h e B.B.C.: I am g e n e r a l l y i n agreement w i t h t h e s p i r i t o f P a n d i t N e h r u ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . He h a s b e e n a f r i e n d o f mine o f many y e a r s ' s t a n d i n g and we had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e p o l i c i e s on more t h a n one o c c a s i o n . I f e e l g e n e r a l l y t h a t h i s a p p r o a c h i s t h e c o r r e c t one.66 T h i s changed a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s I n d i a i n f l u e n c e d S r i L ankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y . P r i o r t o 1956 S r i L a n k a has l o o k e d t o London f o r f o r e i g n p o l i c y g u i d e l i n e s ; t h e new r e g i m e e m p h a s i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c o n s u l t i n g I n d i a i n t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y a r e a . \"New D e l h i , r a t h e r t h a n London o r W a s h i n g t o n , t h u s becomes t h e new 6 7 c e n t r e o f C e y l o n ' s f u t u r e d i p l o m a t i c a c t i v i t y \" . The change o f d i r e c t i o n i n S r i L ankan r e l a t i o n s w i t h I n d i a a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d i m m e nsely t o w a r d s s h a p i n g d e f e n c e t h i n k i n g a l s o . I n i t s f i r s t p o l i c y s t a t e m e n t , t h e new government d e c l a r e d t h a t \" i t w i l l n o t a l i g n w i t h any power b l o c s . The p o s i t i o n o f t h e b a s e a t K a t u n a y a k e a n d T r i n c o m a l e e w i l l be r e v i e w e d . E v e r y e n d e a v o u r w i l l be made t o e s t a b l i s h t h e s e r e l a t i o n s and c o o p e r a -t i o n w i t h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s \" . B a n d a r a n a i k e b e l i e v e d t h a t c o n t i -n u a t i o n o f B r i t i s h b a s e s on S r i L ankan s o i l was c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o h i s d e c l a r e d p o l i c y o f n e u t r a l i t y and n o n - a l i g n m e n t as w e l l as a d e r o g a t i o n f r o m S r i L a n k a ' s i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t u s . 6 6 C e v l o n D a i l y News, 23 A p r i l 1956. 6 7 I b i d . , 24 J u l y 1956. ^ ^ C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 24, 20 A p r i l 1956, c. 26. 60 A d m i r a l L o r d M o u n t b a t t e n p a i d an i n f o r m a l v i s i t t o S r i L a n k a i n 1956 and B a n d a r a n a i k e communicated t o him S r i L a n k a ' s p o s i t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e b a s e s . B a n d a r a n a i k e a l s o had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o d i s c u s s t h e m a t t e r w i t h t h e B r i t i s h P r i m e M i n i s t e r , S i r A n t h o n y Eden, a p e r s o n a l f r i e n d o f h i s d u r i n g h i s days a t O x f o r d , when he v i s i t e d London i n June 1956 t o a t t e n d t h e Commonwealth P r i m e M i n i s t e r s ' C o n f e r e n c e . A t t h e d i s c u s s i o n i t was a g r e e d \" B r i t a i n s h o u l d hand o v e r t h e b a s e s b u t be a l l o w e d t o r e t a i n f a c i l i t i e s 7 0 f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , movements and s t o r a g e \" . A team o f B r i t i s h o f f i c i a l s a r r i v e d i n S r i L a n k a t o work . o u t d e t a i l s o f t h e hand o v e r . I t was now c l e a r t h a t no s e c r e t annexes were a t t a c h e d t o t h e D e f e n c e Agreement as S.W.R.D. B a n d a r a n a i k e h a d o r i g i n a l l y s u s p e c t e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , as t h e D e f e n c e Agreement c o n t a i n e d no r e f e r e n c e t o b a s e s i t was n o t n e c e s s a r y t o a b r o g a t e i t . T h e r e were two i s s u e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e hand o v e r o f b a s e s : f i r s t , t h e \"rundown p r o c e s s \" w i t h l i m i t e d u s e o f f a c i l i t i e s and, se c o n d , t h e f i n a n c i a l i s s u e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e p u r c h a s i n g o f some i n s t a l l a t i o n s on t h e b a s e s b y t h e S r i L a n k a n g o v e r n m e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e agreement r e a c h e d between S r i L a n k a and t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, c o n s i s t i n g o f an exchange o f l e t t e r s d a t e d 7 t h J u l y 1957, t h e n a v a l b a s e a t T r i n c o m a l e e and t h e R o y a l A i r F o r c e S t a t i o n a t K a t u n a y a k e were f o r m a l l y handed o v e r t o S r i L a n k a on 15 t h O c t o b e r 1957 and 1 November 1957 r e s p e c t i v e l y . S u b j e c t t o t h e g e n e r a l c o n t r o l o f t h e S r i Lankan government, t h e U n i t e d Kingdom government w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o use c e r t a i n f a c i l i t i e s f o r a 6 9 I b i d . , c. 45-46. i o W.C.B. T u r n s t a l l , The Commonwealth and R e g i o n a l D e f e n c e (London : t h e A t h l o n e P r e s s , 1956, 1 9 5 9 ) , p. 55 61 l i m i t e d t i m e r e f e r r e d t o as \" t h e rundown\". The use o f some o f t h e f a c i l i t i e s w o u l d c e a s e i n two o r t h r e e y e a r s and t h e r e s t by 1 s t 71 M a r c h 1962. x The i n s t a l l a t i o n s on t h e b a s e s were e s t i m a t e d a t Rs.98 m i l l i o n by t h e B r i t i s h o f f i c e r s and S r i L a n k a d e c i d e d t o p u r c h a s e a l a r g e p a r t o f them. However, S r i L a n k a o f f e r e d o n l y a sum o f Rs.22 m i l l i o n w h i c h t h e B r i t i s h f i n a l l y a g r e e d t o . T h i s sum was t o be p a i d i n f i v e a n n u a l i n s t a l l m e n t s o f a l i t t l e o v e r 7 2 Rs .4 m i l l i o n p e r annum. One o f t h e s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s o f t h e e n t i r e t r a n s a c t i o n was t h e c o r d i a l i t y and f r i e n d l i n e s s w i t h w h i c h b o t h p a r t i e s b e h aved. The t e r m i n a t i o n o f d e f e n c e l i n k s d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e c l o s e d i p l o m a t i c and e c o nomic r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e two c o u n t r i e s . I n a way i t s t r e n g t h e n e d them by r e m o v i n g a s o r e p o i n t on t h e p a r t o f S r i L a n k a . A d d r e s s i n g t h e Commonwealth P r e s s A s s o c i a t i o n on 5 J u l y 1956, B a n d a r a n a i k e e x p l a i n e d : I n p u r s u i t o f t h i s p o l i c y - n o t m o t i v a t e d by any d i s l i k e o r h a t r e d o f t h i s c o u n t r y [ t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m ] , o f whose p e o p l e we have, a l l , my c o u n t r y a n d m y s e l f , p e r s o n a l l y , a h i g h r e g a r d - t h e p r e s e n t Government o f C e y l o n has e x p r e s s e d i t s i n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e b a s e s i n C e y l o n o f B r i t a i n s h o u l d c e a s e t o e x i s t . 7 3 B o t h p a r t i e s had v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s i n t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f good r e l a t i o n s . The U n i t e d Kingdom s t i l l h a d m a s s i v e i n v e s t m e n t s i n U n i t e d Kingdom, F o r e i g n O f f i c e , Exchange o f L e t t e r s Between t h e Government o f C e y l o n and t h e Government o f t h e U n i t e d Kingdom r e g a r d i n g U n i t e d Kingdom S e r v i c e E s t a b l i s h m e n t s i n C e y l o n , 7 June 1957, (Cmnd 1 9 7 ) , 1957. 7 2 C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 29, 30 J u l y 1957, c. 85-86. 7 3 T h e F o r e i g n P o l i c y o f C e y l o n - E x t r a c t s f r o m S t a t e m e n t s by t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r , The Hon. S.W.R.D. B a n d a r a n a i k e ( C e y l o n : I n f o r m a t i o n Dept., n . d . ) , p. 15. 62 t h e i s l a n d m a i n l y i n t e a p l a n t a t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g t o one e s t i m a t e t h e t o t a l B r i t i s h i n v e s t m e n t s i n S r i L a n k a amounted t o about Rs 4,255 m i l l i o n . 7 4 I n v i e w o f t h e M.E.P. g o v e r n m e n t ' s g e n e r a l p o l i c y o f i n t e r v e n i n g i n t h e m a j o r s e c t o r s o f t h e economy, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f B r i t i s h t e a p l a n t a t i o n s was a l s o t h e r e . On t h e o t h e r hand S r i L a n k a ' s t r a d e was s t i l l o v e r -w h e l m i n g l y w i t h B r i t a i n and h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a n s a c t i o n s were i n B r i t i s h c u r r e n c y . As s u c h , b o t h p a r t i e s had good r e a s o n s t o come t o an agreement o v e r t h e b a s e s w i t h o u t j e o p a r d i s i n g m u t u a l e c onomic i n t e r e s t s . B a n d a r a n a i k e a l s o wanted S r i L a n k a t o be a R e p u b l i c b u t 7 5 w i t h i n t h e Commonwealth as he h i g h l y v a l u e d t h e Commonwealth r e l a t i o n s h i p . He had many p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n s : I do n o t t h i n k we ought t o i n d u l g e i n mere s l o p p y s e n t i m e n t a l i t y o v e r t h e Commonwealth. I do n o t t h i n k we h a v e much t o g a i n b y t h a t t y p e o f s e n t i m e n t a l s t a t e m e n t o v e r t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h . T h e r e f o r e , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n o b v i o u s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e Commonwealth - b e l o n g i n g econom-i c a l l y t o t h e S t e r l i n g b l o c , t h e a d v a n t a g e we g a i n f r o m m u t u a l c o n s u l t a t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n s on a f r i e n d l y b a s i s and v a r i o u s p r o b l e m s and so on.7 6 A f t e r t h e K a t u n a y a k e a i r b a s e was handed o v e r , t h e U n i t e d Kingdom d e v e l o p e d a R.A.F. s t o p p i n g p o i n t a t Gan i s l a n d i n t h e M a l d i v e s , S r i L a n k a ' s s o u t h e r n n e i g h b o u r . S r i L a n k a d i d n o t oppose t h e U.K.'s l e a s e o f Gan i s l a n d f o r a h u n d r e d y e a r s and i t s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a B r i t i s h a i r b a s e was n o t c o n s i d e r e d a s e c u r i t y t h r e a t . 7 4 F a r E a s t e r n Economic Review, V o l . 36, 24 May 1962, p. 405. 7 5 C e y l o n D a i l y News, 5 J u l y 1956. 7 ^ T h e F o r e i g n P o l i c y o f C e v l o n , op. c i t . , p. 23-24. 63 S r i L a n k a ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h e Suez c r i s i s was a good m a n i f e s -t a t i o n o f t h e changed n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e two c o u n t r i e s . F r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c r i s i s S r i L a n k a e n d o r s e d t h e r i g h t o f E g y p t t o n a t i o n a l i z e t h e S u ez C a n a l Company. S r i L a n k a was i n t e r e s t e d i n d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e Suez a r e a f o r two r e a s o n s . F i r s t , i t amounted t o t h e a s s e r t i o n o f n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y and i n d e p e n d e n c e o f an A f r o - A s i a n s t a t e v i s -a - v i s t h e f o r m e r c o l o n i a l power. Second, and more i m p o r t a n t , i n B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s words, \"we a r e a l s o c o n c e r n e d w i t h c e r t a i n u s e s t h a t we make o f t h e Suez c a n a l f o r o u r t r a d e , i n c o m i n g as w e l l as 7 7 o u t g o i n g \" . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d between t h e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e Suez C a n a l Company i n J u l y and t h e j o i n t F r e n c h , B r i t i s h , and I s r a e l i m i l i t a r y a c t i o n s i n O c t o b e r 1956 S r i L a n k a was a c t i v e i n t r y i n g t o f i n d a p e a c e f u l s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m . She p a r t i c i -p a t e d i n t h e c o n f e r e n c e c o n v e n e d i n London t o d i s c u s s how t o r e a c h a p e a c e f u l s o l u t i o n and v e h e m e n t l y o p p o s e d t h e i n t e r n a -t i o n a l c o n t r o l o f t h e c a n a l p r o p o s e d by B r i t a i n and F r a n c e . The c o n f e r e n c e d i d n o t p r o d u c e any a c c e p t a b l e s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m 7 ft t h o u g h S r i L a n k a p r o d u c e d a t h r e e - p o i n t p r o p o s a l . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d B a n d a r a n a i k e was i n c l o s e and r e g u l a r t o u c h w i t h t h e C o l o m b o p o w e r s ( I n d i a , P a k i s t a n , B urma, a n d I n d o n e s i a ) . The B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h m i l i t a r y a c t i o n a g a i n s t E g y p t g e n e r a t e d h o s t i l e r e a c t i o n s i n S r i L a n k a . S r i L a n k a o f f i c i a l l y e x p r e s s e d h e r d i s a p p r o v a l o f B r i t a i n a t t h e U.N. and s u p p o r t e d t h e U.S. s p o n s o r e d r e s o l u t i o n demanding an i m m e d i a t e c e a s e f i r e and 7 7 C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s . V o l . 25, 30 J u l y 1956, c c . 1103-05. 7 8 C e y l o n D a i l y News, 17 A u g u s t 1956. 64 e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a U.N. Emergency F o r c e t o keep t h e b e l l i g e r e n t s a p a r t . F u r t h e r , B a n d a r a n a i k e d e c l a r e d S r i Lanka w o u l d r e m a i n 7 Q n e u t r a l i n t h e e v e n t o f a m a j o r war o v e r t h e c r i s i s . She i d e n t i f i e d h e r s e l f c l o s e l y w i t h t h e C o l o m b o p o w e r s a n d h e r r e s p o n s e s were c h a n n e l l e d t h r o u g h them. The Colombo powers met i n New D e l h i on November 12-14 t o d i s c u s s t h e s i t u a t i o n and t h e j o i n t communique e x p r e s s e d t h e i r \" s t r o n g d i s a p p r o v a l and d i s t r e s s a t t h e a g g r e s s i o n o f and t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n by t h e g r e a t powers a g a i n s t weaker c o u n t r i e s . F u r t h e r , i t demanded t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f a l l f o r e i g n f o r c e s f r o m E g y p t \" . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t K a t u n a y a k e and T r i n c o m a l e e were s t i l l i n t h e hands o f t h e U n i t e d Kingdom when t h e m i l i t a r y h o s t i l i t i e s e r u p t e d and t h e S r i Lankan P r i m e M i n i s t e r o b t a i n e d an a s s u r a n c e f r o m t h e U n i t e d Kingdom t h a t t h e s e b a s e s w o u l d n o t be u s e d f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t E g y p t . T h i s b e h a v i o u r d u r i n g t h e Suez c r i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d t h e new t y p e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p e v o l v i n g between S r i L a n k a and t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, t h e s e n i o r Commonwealth p a r t n e r , w h i c h became t h e n o r m a l p a t t e r n a f t e r w a r d s . S r i L a n k a ' s C o m m o n w e a l t h t i e s p o s e d no h i n d r a n c e t o oppose, v e r y s t r o n g l y , t h e p o l i c y o f t h e s e n i o r Commonwealth member o v e r t h e Suez i s s u e . I t f u r t h e r m a n i f e s t e d t h e c h a n g i n g n a t u r e o f t h e Commonwealth. Post Suez Developments The y e a r 1956 marked a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e S r i L a n k a n -B r i t i s h d e f e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e c a u s e o f t h e e l e c t i o n v i c t o r y o f t h e MEP w h i c h i n i t i a t e d a p o l i c y o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t i n S r i Lankan 7 Q C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 27, 21 September 1956, c. 426. 8 0New Y o r k Times, 15 November 1956. f o r e i g n a f f a i r s . The same y e a r marked a w a t e r s h e d i n p o s t - w a r B r i t i s h d e f e n c e p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean b e c a u s e o f t h e i m p l i -c a t i o n s o f t h e Suez c r i s i s . The t r a n s f e r o f power i n t h e S o u t h A s i a n c o u n t r i e s s h o u l d i n r e a l i t y have been a more i m p o r t a n t e v e n t t h a n t h e Suez c r i s i s i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e B r i t i s h p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. But more t h a n I n d i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e i t was t h e l e s s o n s o f t h e Suez d e b a c l e t h a t made B r i t i s h p o l i c y makers open t h e i r e y e s t o t h e r e a l i t i e s o f t h e new i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n . I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e i m m e d i a t e p o s t - S u e z y e a r s d i d n o t mark a s h a r p b r e a k o r s u b s t a n t i a l change i n B r i t a i n ' s I n d i a n Ocean p o l i c y . B u t t h e f a c t o r s p i n p o i n t e d by t h e Suez c r i s i s , n amely t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p o s t - c o l o n i a l n a t i o n a l i s m i n A s i a , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s , and t h e d e c l i n i n g p o l i t i c a l and economic s t r e n g t h o f B r i t a i n came f o r w a r d t o r e s h a p e B r i t i s h p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The e x p e r i e n c e s o f Suez r e v e a l e d c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t s h o r t -comings o f B r i t i s h d e f e n c e t h i n k i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. F i r s t o f a l l i t r e v e a l e d t h e i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f n u c l e a r f o r c e i n l i m i t e d c o n f l i c t s . The dilemma B r i t a i n f a c e d was t h a t where n u c l e a r f o r c e c o u l d n o t be u s e d t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r c e s w e r e i n a d e q u a t e . I n t h e m i l i t a r y s p h e r e , i t r e v e a l e d t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f s e a and a i r m o b i l e f o r c e s . T h i s c l e a r e d t h e g r o u n d f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f ' l i m i t e d war' t h e o r y i n t h e e a r l y 1960s and f o r a change i n s t r a t e g y . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f S u e z e x p o s e d t h e p r e c a r i o u s n e s s and f r a g i l i t y o f t h e b a s e s t r a t e g y . The l i m i t s p l a c e d upon t h e use o f b a s e s by L i b y a , J o r d a n , and S r i L a n k a d u r i n g t h e Suez c r i s i s b r o u g h t home t o B r i t a i n t h e r e a l i t i e s o f 66 d e c o l o n i z a t i o n i n A s i a . Much more i m p o r t a n t were t h e p o l i t i c a l r e p e r c u s s i o n s o f t h e Suez o p e r a t i o n i n A s i a . B r i t i s h a c t i o n s were v i e w e d as i m p e r i a l i s t and were s e r i o u s l y condemned by A s i a n l e a d e r s . D e s p i t e t h e C o l d War r h e t o r i c o f a l l e g e d Communist a g g r e s s i o n , A s i a n c o u n t r i e s began t o r e - e x a m i n e t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h B r i t a i n . I n t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n t h e S u e z c r i s i s a n d t h e K u w a i t i o p e r a t i o n i n 1961, B r i t i s h d e f e n c e t h i n k i n g on t h e I n d i a n Ocean u n d e r w e n t a s e r i e s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . F i r s t o f a l l , a g e o g r a p h i c a l r e o r i e n t a t i o n was c l e a r l y e v i d e n t . I n t h e e a r l y 1950s, i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f an i m p e n d i n g w o r l d war w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , t h e main g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n was E u r o p e . A f t e r 195 6 t h i s s i t u a t i o n g r a d u a l l y began t o change and t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a assumed a h i g h i m p o r t a n c e i n B r i t i s h o v e r s e a s d e f e n c e . S e c o n d l y , B r i t a i n h ad t o d e f i n e t h e p u r p o s e o f i t s m i l i t a r y r o l e i n t h e a r e a . The B r i t i s h p r e s e n c e was p r i m a r i l y d i r e c t e d t o p r e s e r v e t h e s t a t u s quo, by a i d i n g r u l e r s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t s t o m a i n t a i n i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y and l o c a l s t a b i l i t y . T h i r d l y , t h e s e r v i c e d e p a r t m e n t s d e v e l o p e d new m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i e s f o r l i m i t e d c o n f l i c t s as a g a i n s t t h e e a r l i e r n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e s t r a t e g i e s . Even a f t e r 1947, B r i t a i n was a b l e t o c o n t r o l a l l a i r r o u t e s a c r o s s t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The Suez c r i s i s changed t h i s s i t u a t i o n f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . A f t e r Suez, t h e a i r r o u t e s a c r o s s t h e M i d d l e E a s t became h i g h l y v u l n e r a b l e and u n c e r t a i n . I n t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n -c e s , e x i s t i n g a i r c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n e s between t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n had t o be r e v i s e d . There were two a l t e r n a -t i v e s : t h e T u r k i s h - I r a n i a n c o r r i d o r t o t h e n o r t h ; a n d t h e 67 s o u t h e r n r o u t e v i a L i b y a and Sudan. Owing t o p r o b l e m s stemming f r o m d i f f i c u l t t e r r a i n and f r o m p o o r a i r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s e r v i c e , t h e T u r k i s h - I r a n i a n c o r r i d o r d i d n o t p r o v i d e an a c c e p t a b l e s o l u t i o n . I t s c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o t h e S o v i e t b o r d e r was a n o t h e r f a c t o r t o be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The s e c o n d a l t e r n a t i v e was a l s o n o t q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y b e c a u s e i t depended upon t h e r a t h e r f r a g i l e g o o d w i l l o f t h e r u l e r s o f t h e two c o u n t r i e s c o n c e r n e d . A t t h e same t i m e , B r i t a i n had t o r e v i s e h e r S o u t h A s i a n a i r r o u t e s . I n S o u t h A s i a t h e main B r i t i s h s t a g i n g p o s t s were t h e K a t u n a y a k e A i r F o r c e b a s e and t h e T r i n c o m a l e e n a v a l b a s e i n S r i L a n k a , and, t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , t h e b a s e s a t Dum-Dum i n I n d i a and K a r a c h i i n P a k i s t a n . B r i t a i n a t t e m p t e d t o overcome t h e l o s s o f K a t u n a y a k e b y m o v i n g t h e a i r c o m m u n i c a t i o n r o u t e f u r t h e r s o u t h w a r d s and d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p a m i l i t a r y a i r b a s e on Gan i s l a n d i n t h e M a l d i v e s g r o u p . The d i s t a n c e between Gan and Penang i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t between Penang and K a t u n a y a k e o r Dum-Dum b u t t h e r a n g e o f t h e e x i s t i n g a i r c r a f t , namely t h e H a s t i n g s and t h e Comets, was a d e q u a t e . A t t h e same t i m e A u s t r a l i a d e v e l o p e d a m a j o r a i r f i e l d on t h e Cocos I s l a n d s . The c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n e w i t h A u s t r a l i a now l a y a c r o s s Mombasa, t h e M a l d i v e s and t h e Cocos I s l a n d s . C o n s i d e r i n g i t s u n i q u e l o c a t i o n , t h e l o s s o f T r i n c o m a l e e was s t r i k i n g l y f e l t . The B o a r d o f A d m i r a l t y r e a c t e d t o t h e l o s s o f T r i n c o m a l e e by amending t h e I n d i a n Ocean N a v a l Command s t r u c t u r e . I n 1958 t h e A d m i r a l t y d e c i d e d t o a b o l i s h t h e E a s t I n d i e s Command and t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e d i s m a n t l e d Command were d i v i d e d b e t w e e n t h e C o m m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f o f t h e F a r E a s t Command i n 68 S i n g a p o r e and t h e Commander o f t h e n e w l y e s t a b l i s h e d A r a b i a n Sea and P e r s i a n G u l f s t a t i o n a t Aden. A n o t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e o f Suez was t h e move t o c u t d e f e n c e e x p e n d i t u r e . Even b e f o r e t h e Suez c r i s i s , f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s h a d f o r c e d t h e B r i t i s h government t o f r e e z e t h e d e f e n c e budget as, a f i r s t s t e p . A f t e r t h e c r i s i s d e f e n c e e x p e n d i t u r e became t h e c e n t r e o f d e b a t e . Some b e l i e v e d t h a t B r i t a i n was n o t g e t t i n g maximum b e n e f i t o u t o f h e r d e f e n c e e x p e n d i t u r e s . When t h e new P r i m e M i n i s t e r , H a r o l d M a c M i l l a n , assumed o f f i c e i n J a n u a r y 1957 i t was e x p e c t e d t h a t d e f e n c e s p e n d i n g w o u l d be r e v i s e d . M a c M i l l a n , an a d v o c a t e o f l o w e r d e f e n c e s p e n d i n g and n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e , a p p o i n t e d Duncan Sandys, a s t r o n g b e l i e v e r i n n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e , as S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r D e f e n c e and gave him wide powers t o e f f e c t t h e n e c e s s a r y r e v i s i o n s . The D e f e n c e P a p e r , D e f e n c e : O u t l i n e o f F u t u r e P o l i c y , p r e s e n t e d by Duncan Sandys i n A p r i l 1957, was i m p o r t a n t n o t b e c a u s e i t marked any change i n d e f e n c e t h i n k i n g b u t b e c a u s e i t p r e s e n t e d e x i s t i n g d e f e n c e t h i n k i n g i n a c o h e r e n t f o r m . The P a p e r s t a t e d : The t i m e has come t o r e v i s e n o t m e r e l y t h e s i z e , b u t t h e whole c h a r a c t e r o f t h e d e f e n c e p l a n . The C o m m u n i s t t h r e a t r e m a i n s , b u t i t s n a t u r e h a s changed; i t i s now e v i d e n t t h a t , on b o t h m i l i t a r y and e conomic g r o u n d s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o make a f r e s h a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m and t o a d o p t a new a p p r o a c h t o w a r d s i t . 8 1 The u n d e r l y i n g theme o f t h e W h i t e P a p e r was n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e : t h e r m o - n u c l e a r weapons w o u l d be added t o t h e e x i s t i n g a t o m i c armoury; t h e V-bomber w o u l d be s u p p l e m e n t e d by b a l l i s t i c o -i U n i t e d Kingdom, M i n i s t e r o f D e f e n c e , D e f e n c e : O u t l i n e o f F u t u r e P o l i c y (Cmnd 1 2 4 ) , 1957, p a r a 4. 69 m i s s i l e s as t h e y became a v a i l a b l e ; c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r c e s were t o be s m a l l b u t b e t t e r e q u i p p e d and more m o b i l e ; c o n s c r i p t i o n was t o be ended by 19 62 and s e r v i c e manpower w o u l d be r e d u c e d f r o m 6 90,000 t o 3 7 5 , 0 0 0 by t h a t y e a r . F u r t h e r , i t d e c l a r e d t h e i n t e n t i o n t o r e d u c e o v e r s e a s g a r r i s o n s . A c e n t r a l r e s e r v e was t o be m a i n t a i n e d i n B r i t a i n and r e i n f o r c e m e n t s were t o be s e n t where p p n e c e s s a r y on s h o r t n o t i c e . Manpower r e d u c t i o n s d i d n o t mean f u t u r e r e d u c t i o n s o f B r i t a i n ' s o v e r s e a s c o m m i t m e n t s . S a n d y s c l e a r l y s t a t e d t h a t B r i t a i n was n o t c o n t r a c t i n g o u t o f h e r o b l i -g a t i o n s . However, h i s I n d i a n Ocean s t r a t e g y was b a s e d on two r a t h e r f l i m s y p r e m i s e s : t h e use o f t a c t i c a l n u c l e a r weapons and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a i r l i f t i n g s t r a t e g i c r e s e r v e s . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e B o a r d o f A d m i r a l t y t u r n e d t o t h e l i m i t e d war s t r a t e g y f r o m g e n e r a l war d o c t r i n e s . The p a r t p l a y e d by t h e R o y a l Navy i n t h e Suez c r i s i s made i t p o s s i b l e t o a r g u e a s t r o n g c a s e f o r a m a j o r r o l e f o r t h e N a v y i n s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s . W i t h t h e A d m i r a l t y ' s change o f s t r a t e g y f r o m g e n e r a l war t o l i m i t e d war, t h e r e was a s h i f t i n f o c u s f r o m NATO and E u r o p e t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. P a r a g r a p h s 37 t o 39 o f t h e W h i t e P a p e r o u t l i n e d a new c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e N a v y i n w h i c h t h e A d m i r a l t y ' s p l a n f o r c a r r i e r g r o u p s was a p p r o v e d . A c a r r i e r g r o u p c o n s i s t e d o f an a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r and a number o f d e s t r o y e r s and f r i g a t e s . One c a r r i e r g r o u p w o u l d be s t a t i o n e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The p o l i t i c a l t e n s i o n t h a t emerged i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a i n t h e e a r l y 1960s p r o v i d e d an o p p o r t u n i t y t o t e s t t h e p o s t - S u e z s t r a t e g i c a p p a r a t u s and d e f e n c e d o c t r i n e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e 8 2 I b i d . 70 l i m i t e d war. I n t h e e a r l y 1960s, B r i t a i n i n t e r v e n e d i n a number o f r e g i o n a l c o n f l i c t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean - K u w a i t 1961, T h a i l a n d May 1962, E a s t A f r i c a (Kenya, T a n g a n a y i k a , Uganda) J a n u a r y 1963. I t f u r t h e r r e v e a l e d t h e p r a c t i c a l r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e p o s t - c o l o n i a l p e r i o d . The f i r s t i n t e r v e n t i o n , t h e K u w a i t o p e r a t i o n , p r o v e d t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e new s t r a t e g y a n d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e s t r a t e g i c m o b i l e f o r c e . A c r i s i s d e v e l o p e d soon a f t e r K u w a i t was g r a n t e d i n d e p e n d e n c e i n 1 9 6 1 . I r a q d e c l a r e d h e r t e r r i t o r i a l c l a i m s on K u w a i t , r e f u s e d t o r e c o g n i z e K u w a i t ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e , and t h r e a t e n e d an i n v a s i o n . B r i t a i n ' s s t a k e h e r e was v e r y h i g h . B r i t a i n i m p o r t e d a l m o s t h a l f o f i t s o i l f r o m K u w a i t . I n a d d i t i o n , h e r economic i n v e s t m e n t i n K u w a i t was s u b s t a n t i a l . P r i m e M i n i s t e r M a c M i l l a n b e l i e v e d t h a t K u w a i t was r e a l l y t h e key t o t h e o v e r a l l M i d d l e E a s t o i l p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m . J B r i t a i n r e s p o n d e d v e r y p r o m p t l y and s u c c e s s f u l l y t o t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e K u w a i t i r u l e r f o r a s s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t a t h r e a t f r o m I r a q . B r i t a i n a s s e m b l e d h e r f o r c e s a n d t r a n s p o r t e d t h e m t o K u w a i t by s e a a n d a i r w i t h u n p r e c e d e n t e d s p e e d . The Commando F o r c e s and R o y a l M a r i n e s l a n d e d f r o m HMS B u l w a r k and a s q u a d r o n o f C e n t u r i o n t a n k s d i s e m b a r k e d Q A f r o m HMS S t r i k e r w i t h i n 24 h o u r s . B r i t i s h f o r c e s were a b l e t o t a k e up a l l d e f e n s i v e p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n t h r e e days and d e c l a r e d t h e i r r e a d i n e s s t o h a n d l e any a t t a c k f r o m I r a q . By A u g u s t 1962, t h e t h r e a t d i s s i p a t e d i n t h e f a c e o f t h e A r a b L e a g u e ' s p o O J D w i g h t D. E i s e n h o w e r d i s c u s s e s M a c M i l l a n ' s a t t i t u d e o v e r t h e K u w a i t i i s s u e c l e a r l y i n h i s The W h i t e House y e a r s (New Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , 1963-65), p. 123. p A U n i t e d Kingdom, M i n i s t r y o f D e f e n c e , E x p l a n a t o r y S t a t e m e n t on t h e Navy E s t i m a t e s 1962-63 (Cmd 162 9 ) , p a r a 3. 71 r e c o g n i t i o n o f K u w a i t ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e and i t s a d m i s s i o n t o t h e A r a b League. The B r i t i s h f o r c e s were a b l e t o w i t h d r a w s h o r t l y a f t e r . B r i t i s h p o l i c y - m a k e r s were c o m p l a c e n t t h a t t h e way t h e K u w a i t o p e r a t i o n was h a n d l e d m i g h t e n c o u r a g e n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s t o r e l y on B r i t i s h a s s i s t a n c e . A f t e r t h e K u w a i t o p e r a t i o n , t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n between P a t h e t Lao and T h a i f o r c e s on t h e T h a i b o r d e r i n May 1962 b r o u g h t home t o B r i t a i n t h e e x t e n t o f h e r commitment u n d e r t h e SEATO P a c t . B r i t a i n r e s p o n d e d p r o m p t l y t o a T h a i r e q u e s t f o r t r o o p s and equipment and h e r a c t i o n i n s e n d i n g f o r c e s t o T h a i l a n d on a b i l a t e r a l r e q u e s t i n d i c a t e d t h a t she had a c c e p t e d t h e U.S. v i e w t h a t SEATO o b l i g a t i o n s w e r e b o t h i n d i v i d u a l a n d c o l l e c t i v e . S i m i l a r l y , B r i t i s h f o r c e s i n t e r v e n e d i n B r u n e i t o s u p p r e s s t h e A z a h a r i r e b e l l i o n i n J u l y 1962. The S u l t a n o f B r u n e i d e c i d e d t o a c c e p t t h e i n v i t a t i o n t o e n t e r t h e M a l a y s i a n F e d e r a t i o n . B u t A z a h a r i , t h e l e a d e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l i s t P a r t y t h a t c o n t r o l l e d a l l e l e c t e d s e a t s i n t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l , d e c i d e d t o l a u n c h d i r e c t a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h i s move. The f i g h t i n g began i n December and t h e S u l t a n r e q u e s t e d h e l p . B r i t i s h f o r c e s i n t e r v e n e d p r o m p t l y t o s u p p r e s s t h e r e b e l l i o n . Even a f t e r t h e A z a h a r i r e b e l l i o n was q u e l l e d t h e F a r E a s t e r n h e a d q u a r t e r s h a d t o keep f o r c e s on a c o n t i n u o u s a l e r t b e c a u s e o f I n d o n e s i a n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e M a l a y s i a n F e d e r a t i o n . I n t h e S i n o - I n d i a n war o f O c t o b e r 1962, B r i t a i n q u i c k l y e x p r e s s e d h e r w i l l i n g n e s s t o s u p p o r t I n d i a . The K e n n e d y - M a c M i l l a n agreement a t Nasau i n December r e s u l t e d i n an o f f e r o f $42 m i l l i o n i n m i l i t a r y a i d t o I n d i a . B r i t a i n and o t h e r Commonwealth c o u n t r i e s were t o c o n t r i b u t e h a l f and t h e o t h e r h a l f was t o come f r o m t h e U.S.. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g B r i t a i n ' s r e a d y 72 r e s p o n s e s t o t h e I n d i a n r e q u e s t f o r h e l p a n d s t a t e m e n t s on B r i t a i n ' s r e a d i n e s s t o h e l p I n d i a t h e r e were no l o n g - t e r m commit-m e n t s made. I n d i a ' s r e l u c t a n c e t o r e l y on B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h p a r t l y e x p l a i n s t h i s . I n t h e same p e r i o d , B r i t a i n had t o m i l i t a r i l y i n t e r v e n e i n t h e W e s t e r n I n d i a n Ocean. I n E a s t A f r i c a , f o l l o w i n g a coup i n Z a n z i b a r u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f A b d u l Karume, s s e r i e s o f m u t i n i e s b r o k e o u t i n c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s o f t h e a r m i e s o f Kenya, T a n g a n y i k a , and Uganda. The t h r e e g overnments r e q u e s t e d B r i t i s h a s s i s t a n c e i n J a n u a r y 1963 and B r i t i s h f o r c e s were d e p l o y e d . D e s p i t e i m m e d i a t e s a t i s f a c t i o n a t t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s , c e r t a i n n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e s t r a t e g y began t o a t t r a c t more a t t e n t i o n . The m i l i t a r y c o s t o f l a n d i n g e ven s m a l l f o r c e s was n o t i n s i g n i f i c a n t . As Darby p o i n t e d o u t \" t o l a n d and m a i n t a i n a s m a l l f o r c e had n e c e s s i t a t e d d r a w i n g t r o o p s , a i r c r a f t , a n d n a v a l u n i t s f r o m B r i t i s h e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d \" . 8 ^ A s m a l l g r o u p o f r e b e l s c o u l d c r e a t e an emergency t h a t c o u l d r e q u i r e a l a r g e - s c a l e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f B r i t i s h m o b i l e f o r c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t o s u p p r e s s t h e A z a h a r i r e b e l l i o n , t h e B r i t i s h h ad t o a l e r t h a l f t h e s t r a t e g i c r e s e r v e i n B r i t a i n and t o ft f, p l a n t o employ t h e F i f t h F i e l d Regiment o f t h e R o y a l A r t i l l e r y . 0 0 D e f e n c e b u d g e t l i m i t a t i o n s p o s e d t h e most s e r i o u s p r o b l e m . R a p i d a d v a n c e s i n m i l i t a r y t e c h n o l o g y and t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o m p l e x i t y and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f weapons s y s t e m s n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e r e - e q u i p m e n t o f B r i t i s h f o r c e s whereas B r i t a i n was n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o f i n a n c e 8 5 D a r b y . op. c i t . , p. 245. 8 ^ U n i t e d Kingdom, House o f Commons, H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 673, 4 march 1963, c. 46. 73 s u c h a huge r e - e q u i p m e n t programme. The s u c c e s s o f t h e new s t r a t e g y depended on two f a c t o r s : c o o r d i n a t i o n and m o b i l i t y . S i n c e t h e commando o p e r a t i o n s were j o i n t v e n t u r e s , c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e s e r v i c e s was e s s e n t i a l . By 1963 e f f o r t s w e r e made t o d e v e l o p g r e a t e r c o o p e r a t i o n . T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t c a n be seen i n t h e D e f e n c e W h i t e P a p e r - C e n t r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r D e f e n c e - p r e s e n t e d i n J u l y 1963. The main p r o b l e m i n t h e a r e a o f m o b i l i t y was n o t c a p a c i t y b u t t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e s t a g i n g p o s t s . The e x p e r i e n c e s o f Suez showed t h a t p o s t - c o l o n i a l s t a t e s c o u l d deny B r i t a i n s t a g i n g r i g h t s a t any t i m e . The c o n c e p t o f an i s l a n d c h a i n o f s t a g i n g p o s t s , w h i c h became v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o l a t e r I n d i a n O c e a n p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s , was p r o p o s e d a t t h i s p o i n t . The c o n c e p t f i r s t a p p e a r e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a i r b a r r i e r s i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t a f t e r t h e Suez c r i s i s . The i d e a o f a c h a i n o f i s l a n d b a s e s as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o c a r r i e r a i r power a t t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n a f t e r t h e m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n s i n e a r l y 1960s. I n 1964, t h e i s l a n d s w h i c h a l r e a d y had f a c i l i t i e s were c o n s i d e r e d as p o s s i b l e s t a g i n g p o s t s . M a s i r a , M a u r i t i u s , Gan i n t h e M a l d i v e s , and t h e Cocos I s l a n d s a l r e a d y had s t a g i n g f a c i l i t i e s . S o c o t r a , t h e S e y c h e l l e s , A l d a b r a , D i e g o G a r c i a , a n d P r i n c e E d w a r d I s l a n d s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d a s c a n d i d a t e s f o r d e v e l o p m e n t . I n 1964 t h e U.S. e n t e r e d t h e p i c t u r e and d i s c u s s i o n s commenced on t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f j o i n t B r i t i s h -U.S. s t a g i n g p o s t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. D u r i n g J u l y and A u g u s t an A n g l o - A m e r i c a n g r o u p s u r v e y e d p r o s p e c t i v e i s l a n d s and c o n c l u d e d t h a t D i e g o G a r c i a and A l d a b r a were most a p p r o p r i a t e . J o i n t a c t i o n by t h e U.S. and B r i t a i n was c o n s i d e r e d t o be i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f 74 b o t h c o u n t r i e s . B r i t a i n hoped t o r e d u c e h e r f i n a n c i a l b u r d e n by s h a r i n g t h e c o s t w i t h t h e U.S. The Final Retreat A f t e r t h e L a b o u r P a r t y v i c t o r y i n t h e O c t o b e r 1964 e l e c t i o n t h e d e b a t e o v e r B r i t a i n ' s r o l e i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n r e a c h e d a n o t h e r s t a g e . B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h e I n d i a n O c e a n now became an i t e m i n t h e agenda o f d e f e n c e d e b a t e . A t f i r s t t h e new government showed no marked d i f f e r e n c e f r o m i t s p r e d e c e s s o r s on t h e I n d i a n Ocean p o l i c y and a d h e r e d t o t h e c o n c e p t o f B r i t a i n ' s w o r l d r o l e . The L a b o u r P a r t y h a d b e e n a s e v e r e c r i t i c o f B r i t a i n ' s I n d i a n Ocean r o l e a f t e r Suez. However, L a b o u r p o l i c y had u ndergone a r e m a r k a b l e change i n 1963 and t h e P a r t y now saw t h e B r i t i s h m i s s i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean n o t as t h a t o f l e a v i n g b u t o f s t a y i n g . A f t e r 1964, however, c r i t i c s o f t h i s I n d i a n Ocean p o l i c y began t o s w e l l w i t h i n t h e r a n k s o f t h e L a b o u r P a r t y as w e l l as o u t s i d e . Soon a f t e r t h e L a b o u r P a r t y assumed o f f i c e , P r i m e M i n i s t e r W i l s o n s t a t e d t h a t \" w h a t e v e r a c t i o n s t h e government m i g h t t a k e i n t h e f i e l d o f c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s , v a l u e f o r money and a s t r i n g e n t r e v i e w o f e x p e n d i t u r e , B r i t a i n c o u l d n o t a f f o r d t o r e l i n q u i s h i t s w o r l d r o l e \" . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s g r a n d c o n c e p t i o n o f B r i t a i n ' s w o r l d r o l e , p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e U.S. government p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n L a b o u r ' s d e c i s i o n t o c o n t i n u e w i t h t h e I n d i a n O c e a n r o l e . The U.S. p r e s s u r e t o m a i n t a i n s u c h a r o l e can be seen as e a r l y as 1961. The B r i t i s h government u s e d i t s ' I n d i a n Ocean r o l e ' t o m a i n t a i n i t s ' s p e c i a l 8 7 I b i d . , V o l . 704, 16 December 1964, c. 423-4. 75 r e l a t i o n s h i p ' w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n December 1964, P r i m e M i n i s t e r W i l s o n and U.S. P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n d i s c u s s e d B r i t a i n ' s r o l e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and r e p o r t e d l y a g r e e d on t h e n a t u r e o f t h a t r o l e . A f t e r t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s , W i l s o n s t a t e d i n t h e House o f Commons on 1 6 t h December 1964 t h a t t h e government was c o n s i d e r i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a p l a n f o r n u c l e a r b a l a n c e i n A s i a and t h a t a p o r t i o n o f t h e V-bomber f o r c e s w o u l d be s t a t i o n e d i n t h e I n d i a n o cean t o g u a r a n t e e t h e s e c u r i t y o f n o n - n u c l e a r powers a g a i n s t p p n u c l e a r a t t a c k . 0 0 B u t a s e v e r e e c o nomic c r i s i s f o r c e d t h e government t o c u t b a c k on d e f e n c e e x p e n d i t u r e . E v e n b e f o r e t h e new g o v e r n m e n t assumed o f f i c e t h e T r e a s u r y had p r e p a r e d a r e p o r t a r g u i n g f o r r e d u c t i o n s i n d e f e n c e s p e n d i n g . The c a b i n e t a c c e p t e d t h e r e p o r t and began r e v i e w i n g t h e d e f e n c e programme. The f i r s t s t e p i n t h e r e v i e w was c u t t i n g down t h e weapons programme and t h e r e s e r v e f o r c e s . As t h e r e v i e w p r o c e e d e d t h e e x i s t i n g c o m m i t m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s were r e - e v a l u a t e d . The dilemma t h e government was f a c i n g , namely t h e r e l u c t a n c e t o r e d u c e commitments i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e i n a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e r e s o u r c e s t o meet t h o s e commitments, can be seen i n t h e S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e E s t i m a t e s 1965. Though t h e W h i t e P a p e r e m p h a s i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f k e e p i n g up B r i t a i n ' s w o r l d r o l e , i t f u r t h e r s t a t e d t h a t \" ( I ) f some o f o u r b u r d e n s can be assumed o r s h a r e d by o u r a l l i e s , we may n o t n e e d t h e f u l l r a n g e o f m i l i t a r y p Q power we s h o u l d r e q u i r e t o c a r r y them a l l a l o n e \" . 8 8 I b i d . , c. 434-42. p q ^ U n i t e d Kingdom, M i n i s t r y o f D e f e n c e , S t a t e m e n t on t h e D e f e n c e (Cmnd 2 5 9 2 ) , 1965, p a r a . 21. 76 A f t e r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 1965, t h e c r i t i c s o f t h e B r i t i s h I n d i a n Ocean r o l e w i t h i n t h e L a b o u r P a r t y p a r l i a m e n t a r y g r o u p became more v o c i f e r o u s . The b e n e f i t o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean r o l e was q u e s t i o n e d n o t j u s t by b a c k b e n c h e r s i n t h e L a b o u r P a r t y b u t even by t h e shadow S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n c e o f t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e P a r t y - Enoch P o w e l l - who q u e s t i o n e d t h e l o n g t e r m v a l u e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean b a s e s . By 1966, t h e q u e s t i o n o f B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean had been r a i s e d and d i s c u s s e d i n newspapers and i n a c a d e m i c c i r c l e s . M i c h a e l H o w a r d a n d A l a s t a i r B u c h a n , t h e most n o t e d B r i t i s h D e f e n c e a n a l y s t s , a g r e e d on t h e need f o r B r i t i s h w i t h d r a -w a l . 9 1 Howard a r g u e d t h a t w i t h d r a w a l s h o u l d t a k e a g e n e r a t i o n w h i l e Buchan p o i n t e d out t h a t i t m i g h t o c c u r w i t h i n a p e r i o d o f f o u r t o t e n y e a r s . I n t h e f a c e o f g r o w i n g o p p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e L a b o u r P a r t y P a r l i a m e n t a r y g r o u p , f u e l l e d by t h e p r e s s u r e s o f t h e economic c r i s i s , t h e government began t o t h i n k o f f u r t h e r s c a l i n g down I n d i a n Ocean commitments i n e a r l y 1966. The S t a t e m e n t o f D e f e n c e E s t i m a t e s 1966, P a r t I j . D e f e n c e R e v i e w a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t B r i t a i n h a d i m p o r t a n t e c o nomic i n t e r e s t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n b u t s t a t e d t h a t m i l i t a r y f o r c e was n o t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e method o f p r o t e c t i n g them. B r i t a i n w o u l d m a i n t a i n h e r m i l i t a r y c a p a c i t y o u t s i d e E u r o p e b u t i t w o u l d be s u b j e c t t o t h r e e m a j o r l i m i t a t i o n s : F i r s t , B r i t a i n w i l l n o t u n d e r t a k e m a j o r o p e r a t i o n s o f war e x c e p t i n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h a l l i e s . S e c o n d l y , we w i l l n o t a c c e p t an o b l i g a t i o n t o 9 0 C . J . B a r t l e t t , The Long R e t r e a t (London: M a c m i l l a n , 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 216 9 1 S e e a r t i c l e s by Howard and Buchan i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , 42:2 ( A p r i l 1 9 6 6 ) , pp. 179-183, 184-193. 77 p r o v i d e a n o t h e r c o u n t r y w i t h m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e u n l e s s i t i s p r e p a r e d t o p r o v i d e us w i t h f a c i l i t i e s we need t o make s u c h a s s i s t a n c e e f f e c t i v e i n t i m e . F i n a l l y , t h e r e w i l l be no a t t e m p t t o m a i n t a i n d e f e n c e f a c i l i t i e s i n an i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r y a g a i n s t i t s w i s h e s . 9 2 The W h i t e P a p e r a l s o a n n o u n c e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s d e c i s i o n t o abandon t h e Aden b a s e when Aden became i n d e p e n d e n t (as S o u t h Yemen) i n 1968. I n t h e d e b a t e i n t h e House o f Commons o v e r t h e D e f e n c e E s t i m a t e s i n F e b r u a r y 1967, D e n n i s H e a l e y , t h e t h e n S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n c e , s t a t e d t h a t h i s d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h c r i t i c s was n o t about w i t h d r a w a l b u t about t h e f i x i n g o f a d a t e i n a d v a n c e . J A f t e r t h e D e f e n c e W h i t e P a p e r o f 1967 and t h e p a r l i a -m e n t a r y d e b a t e s i t was c l e a r t h a t t h e government w o u l d r e d u c e B r i t i s h i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . By t h e end o f M a r c h 1967 t h e D e f e n c e and O v e r s e a s P o l i c y W o r k i n g P a r t y p r e s e n t e d i t s r e p o r t on d e f e n c e r e v i e w t o t h e D e f e n c e and O v e r s e a s P o l i c y c o m m i t t e e headed by t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r . I n A p r i l , t h e government d e c i d e d t o r e d u c e t h e f o r c e s i n t h e F a r E a s t t o h a l f t h e e x i s t i n g number by 1970-71 and t o w i t h d r a w t o t a l l y by t h e m i d - s e v e n t i e s . The S u p p l e m e n t a r y S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e P o l i c y 1967 announced t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s d e c i s i o n s . 9 ' * Towards t h e end o f 19 67 government was a g a i n s p e c u l a t i n g on a s h o r t t i m e t a b l e f o r t h e w i t h d r a w a l . The announcement came on 1 6 t h J a n u a r y 1968. The P r i m e M i n i s t e r d e c l a r e d i n J a n u a r y 1968 i n t h e House o f Commons 5 U n i t e d Kingdom, M i n i s t r y o f D e f e n c e , S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e E s t i m a t e s 1966 (Cmnd 2 9 0 1 ) , 1966, p a r a 19. no U n i t e d Kingdom, House o f Commons, H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 742, 27 F e b r u a r y 1967, c c . 115-18. ^ U n i t e d K i n g d o m , M i n i s t r y o f D e f e n c e , S u p p l e m e n t a r y S t a t e m e n t o f D e f e n c e P o l i c y 1967 (Cmnd 3 3 5 7 ) , 1967. 78 t h a t B r i t i s h f o r c e s would, be w i t h d r a w n f r o m E a s t o f Suez. \u00C2\u00B0 T h i s d i d n o t mean t h a t B r i t a i n was t o w i t h d r a w h e r f o r c e s f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean c o m p l e t e l y . B r i t a i n d i d n o t g i v e up a number o f s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d s t a g i n g p o s t s . Those i n c l u d e d Gan I s l a n d i n t h e M a l d i v e s , M a s i r a i s l a n d , t h e S e y c h e l l e s g r o u p , M a u r i t i u s , and t h e B r i t i s h I n d i a n Ocean T e r r i t o r y w h i c h c o n s i s t e d o f t h e i s l a n d s o f t h e Chagos A r c h i p e l a g o . The i m m e d i a t e r e a s o n s f o r t h e d e c i s i o n t o h a s t e n t h e w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean were, no d o u b t , e c o n o m i c . The b a l a n c e o f payments p r o b l e m f o r c e d t h e government t o r e d u c e d e f e n c e e x p e n d i t u r e s d r a s t i c a l l y . The i n e v i t a b l e o u t c o m e o f B r i t a i n ' s i n a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e r e s o u r c e s f o r d e f e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s was t h e s c a l i n g down o f h e r d e f e n c e o b l i g a t i o n s . The dilemma o f t h e B r i t i s h d e f e n c e p o l i c y , as f a r as t h e I n d i a n Ocean was c o n c e r n e d , was t h e i m b a l a n c e between commitments and r e s o u r c e s . I n 1966 t h e S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e d e c l a r e d t h a t \" t o m a i n t a i n a l l o u r c u r r e n t m i l i t a r y t a s k s and c a p a b i l i t i e s o u t s i d e E u r o p e w o u l d impose an u n a c c e p t a b l e s t r a i n on o u r o v e r s t r e t c h e d f o r c e s , and b e a r t o o h e a v i l y b o t h on o u r d o m e s t i c economy a n d on o u r r e s o u r c e s o f f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e \" . The r e a s o n s f o r B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean c a n n o t be e x p l a i n e d o n l y i n t e r m s o f B r i t i s h i n a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e r e s o u r c e s t o keep up h e r I n d i a n Ocean r o l e . As t h e S t a t e m e n t on t h e D e f e n c e E s t i m a t e s 19 6 6 a d m i t t e d , d e f e n c e s h o u l d be t h e s e r v a n t o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y n o t i t s m a s t e r . I n a w i d e r s e n s e , t h e ^ U n i t e d Kingdom, House o f Commons, H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , v o l . 760, 16 J a n u a r y 1968, c c . 1580-85. 9 6 o p . c i t . , (Cmnd 2 9 0 1 ) , 1966, p a r a . 19. 79 d e c i s i o n o f 1968 t o w i t h d r a w f o r c e s can be seen as t h e c u l m i n a -t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s o f a d j u s t i n g t h e B r i t i s h p o s i t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean t o t h e p o s t - i m p e r i a l o r d e r . The main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c hanged i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n - namely, t h e d e c l i n e o f o l d forms o f c o l o n i a l i s m , t h e emergence o f new s t a t e s , t h e r i s i n g t i d e o f n a t i o n a l i s m , t h e emergence o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and t h e U.S. a s t h e p r i n i c p a l w o r l d p o w e r s , a n d t h e C o l d War p o l a r i z a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d , had a d e l a y e d b u t d e c i s i v e i m p a c t upon t h e B r i t i s h p o s i t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. F o r some t i m e a f t e r 1947, t h e B r i t i s h r o l e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was r a t i o n a l i z e d by B r i t i s h e c o n omic i n t e r e s t s i n t h e a r e a , a l l i a n c e o b l i g a t i o n s , and m o r a l commitments. By t h e mid-1960s t h i s r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n c o u l d no l o n g e r s t a n d . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b etween economic i n t e r e s t s and m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e was q u e s t i o n e d . Some c r i t i c s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean r o l e p o i n t e d o u t t h e e c o n omic s u c c e s s o f West Germany and J a p a n d e s p i t e t h e l a c k o f a m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t o r e f u t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Q7 economic i n t e r e s t s and m i l i t a r y power. W i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p o s t - c o l o n i a l s t a t e s , t h e B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, w i t h i t s t a i n t o f an i m p e r i a l p a s t , became more and more u n a c c e p t a b l e . As I n d i a , S r i L a n k a , and Burma began t o l a u n c h on an i n d e p e n d e n t c o u r s e a n d t o p u t f o r w a r d t h e n o n - a l i g n e d s t r a t e g y , t h e c o n c e p t o f m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n l o s t i t s g r o u n d t o o . 9 7 B a r t l e t t , op. c i t . , p. 217. 80 C h a p t e r I I I The United States i n the Indian Ocean - 1945-1968: from B r i t i s h Umbrella to the Application of Naval Power. The U n i t e d S t a t e s emerged as a n a v a l and p o l i t i c a l power i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean o n l y a f t e r t h e Second W o r l d War b u t h e r a s s o c i a -t i o n w i t h i t can be t r a c e d b a c k i n h i s t o r y t o t h e days o f t h e g r e a t c l i p p e r s h i p s . I t i s w e l l known t h a t \"New E n g l a n d w h a l e r s v e n t u r e d t h r o u g h t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e 1 8 t h and w e l l i n t o t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y \" . 1 These e a r l y c o n t a c t s l e d t o t h e f i r s t U.S. t r e a t y w i t h an I n d i a n Ocean S t a t e , t h e S u l t a n a t e o f Muscat and Oman, i n 1832. U.S. i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , however, was v e r y meagre and she was n o t i n v o l v e d i n t h e power s t r u g g l e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e l a t e 1 8 t h and e a r l y 1 9 t h c e n t u r i e s . When t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s emerged as an i m p e r i a l power a t t h e c l o s e o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y , t h e I n d i a n Ocean was f i r m l y u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f B r i t a i n w h i c h h a d t r a n s f o r -med i t i n t o a B r i t i s h l a k e . I n 1908, P r e s i d e n t Theodore R o o s e v e l t s e n t h i s 'Great W h i t e F l e e t ' a r o u n d t h e w o r l d m a r k i n g t h e e n t r y o f a new n a v a l power i n t o t h e w o r l d o c e a n s . As Commander Gary S i c k (U.S. Navy) r e m a r k e d \" t h a t b r i e f p a s s a g e may have r e p r e s e n -p t e d t h e f i r s t i n t r o d u c t i o n o f U.S. n a v a l f o r c e i n t o t h e a r e a . U.S., C o n g r e s s , House, Sub-Committe on t h e Near E a s t and S o u t h A s i a , Committee on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n o f U.S. M i l i t a r y F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . t e s t i m o n y o f Seymour W e i s s , 9 3 r d Cong., 2nd S e s s . , ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O. 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 22 . 2 G a r y S i c k , \"The E v o l u t i o n o f U.S. S t r a t e g y t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n Ocean and P e r s i a n G u l f R e g i o n s , \" i n The G r e a t Game -R i v a l r y i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f and S o u t h A s i a , A l v i n Z. R u b i n s t e i n , ed. (New Y o r k : P r a e g e r , 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 49. 81 I t was d u r i n g t h e Second W o r l d War t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s moved i n t o t h e I n d i a n O c e a n on a l a r g e s c a l e , t h o u g h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e d e f e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e B r i t i s h . I t assumed c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e U.S. war s t r a t e g y as a m a j o r s u p p l y r o u t e o f l e n d - l e a s e weapons t o t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . I n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e s e s e a l a n e s and meet t h e a d v a n c i n g J a p a n e s e f o r c e s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d e v e l o p e d h e r n a v a l s t r e n g t h i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean s u b s t a n t i a l l y . An A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y m i s s i o n was a t t a c h e d t o t h e I m p e r i a l I r a n i a n Government i n 1943 and t h e s u p p l y o f l e n d - l e a s e a i d was e x t e n d e d t o S a u d i A r a b i a . A t t h e same t i m e t h e U.S. A i r F o r c e c o n s t r u c t e d an a i r f i e l d a t B a h r a i n a n d t h e U.S. N a v y l e a s e d t h e Kagnew n a v a l b a s e i n Asmara, E t h i o p i a , f r o m G r e a t B r i t a i n . 4 Thus, by t h e end o f W o r l d War I I , A m e r i c a n i n t e r e s t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean had a l r e a d y been d e m o n s t r a t e d . The Indian Ocean in the Cold War I n t h e e a r l y p h a s e o f t h e C o l d War t h e main t h e a t r e o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n between t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a p p e a r e d t o be E u r o p e . Hence, U.S. s t r a t e g y was c o n c e r n e d m a i n l y w i t h t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , t h e A t l a n t i c , and t h e P a c i f i c , l e a v i n g t h e I n d i a n Ocean once a g a i n t o t h e B r i t i s h . The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e A z e r b a i j a n and K u r d i s t a n S o c i a l i s t R e p u b l i c s i n N o t h e r n I r a n by S o v i e t t r o o p s i n 1946 t r i g g e r e d t h e f i r s t d i r e c t c o n f l i c t 3 R e a r A d m i r a l R o b e r t J . Hanks (USN), \" The I n d i a n Ocean N e g o t i a t i o n s : R o cks and S h o a l s , \" S t r a t e g i c R eview, V I : 1 ( W i n t e r 1 9 7 8 ) , p. 20. 4 M o n o r a n j a n B e z b o r u a h , U . S . S t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean-The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Response (New Y o r k : P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 7 7 ) , p. 34. 82 between t h e two s i d e s . However, i n t h e f a c e o f w e s t e r n d i p l o m a t i c p r e s s u r e , b a c k e d by t h e U.S. m i l i t a r y power, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n d e c i d e d t o w i t h d r a w . The I r a n i a n e p i s o d e , a l o n g w i t h S o v i e t c l a i m s t o t h e t e r r i t o r i e s o f K a r z and A r d a h a n i n T u r k e y , h i g h l i g -h t e d t h e U.S. s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t i n t h e o i l - r i c h P e r s i a n G u l f a r e a . I n 1947, a U.S. m i l i t a r y a d v i s o r y m i s s i o n was a t t a c h e d t o t h e I m p e r i a l I r a n i a n G e n d a r m e r i e . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e Truman a d m i n i s t r a t i o n n e g o t i a t e d t h e l e a s e o f B r i t i s h f a c i l i t i e s a t B a h r a i n t o e s t a b l i s h a s m a l l n a v a l f o r c e i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f known as t h e M i d - E a s t F o r c e . \" T h i s s m a l l f o r c e c o n s i s t e d o f a f l a g - s h i p h o m e - p o r t e d a t f a c i l i t i e s made a v a i l a b l e by t h e B r i t i s h a t B a h r a i n w i t h two d e s t r o y e r s p e r i o d i c a l l y d e p l o y e d on a r o t a t i o n a l b a s i s f r o m t h e A t l a n t i c f l e e t \" . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n o f U.S. p o l i c y was a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e p r e -e m i n e n t p o s i t i o n o f G r e a t B r i t a i n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, d i p l o m a t i -c a l l y as w e l l as m i l i t a r i l y . The U.S. i n t e n d e d t o p r o t e c t i t s i n t e r e s t s u n d e r t h e B r i t i s h u m b r e l l a w h i c h a r o u s e d l e s s h o s t i l e f e e l i n g s and w h i c h seemed t o have g a i n e d l e g i t i m a c y and a c c e p t a n -ce m e r e l y as an h i s t o r i c a l f a c t . Z u r h e l l e n , Deputy D i r e c t o r o f t h e U.S. Arms C o n t r o l and Disarmament Agency, s t a t e s t h a t W h i l e t h e B r i t i s h were t h e r e i n t h e a r e a , many o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t s c o i n c i d e d w i t h o u r s (U.S.) and we were, t h e r e f o r e , a b l e i n t h e main, t o t a i l o r o u r p r e s e n c e a l o n g w i t h t h e i r p r e s e n c e so t h a t t o g e t h e r we were a c c o m p l i s h i n g v e r y much o f a U.S., C o n g r e s s , House, Committee on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t -i o n s , The P e r s i a n G u l f , 1975: The C o n t i n u i n g Debate on Arms S a l e s , S t a t e m e n t by Amos A. J o r d a n , 9 4 t h C o n g . , 1 s t S e s s . , ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O., 19 7 5 ) , p. 121. ^ R o n a l d I . S p i e r s , \"US N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y P o l i c y and t h e I n d i a n Ocean A r e a , \" Department o f S t a t e B u l l e t i n , A u g u s t 23, 1971, p. 200. 83 common i n t e r e s t between us.7 U.S. s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g i n t h e i m m e d i a t e p o s t - w a r p e r i o d d i d p n o t p e r c e i v e t h e I n d i a n Ocean as a s e p a r a t e s t r a t e g i c e n t i t y and U.S. p o l i c y v i s - a - v i s t h e I n d i a n Ocean was o n l y p a r t o f h e r g e n e r a l g l o b a l s t r a t e g y a r i s i n g o u t o f C o l d War i m p e r a t i v e s . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d U.S. m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e C o l d War, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e weapons s y s t e m s a t t h e t i m e . A i r power a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n u c l e a r weapons o c c u p i e d a p r e - e m i n e n t p o s i t i o n i n U.S. s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e Second W o r l d War. U.S. s t r a t e g y was b a s e d on l o n g - r a n g e b o m b e r s , c a r r y i n g n u c l e a r weapons ( S t r a t e g i c A i r Command), s u p p l e m e n t e d by f o r c e s g a r r i -s o n e d a t t h e most l i k e l y p o i n t s o f l a n d c o n f r o n t a t i o n . 9 E s t a b -l i s h m e n t o f b a s e s f o r S t r a t e g i c A i r Command bombers became a P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n o f U.S. M i l i t a r y F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t e s t i m o n y by J . Owen Z u r h e l l e n , p. 10. p \u00C2\u00B0Neither t h e Department o f D e f e n s e n o r t h e Department o f S t a t e h a d a desk d e a l i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n Ocean as a w h o l e . I n t h e Department o f D e f e n s e , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e I n d i a n Ocean was d i v i d e d between t h e Com m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f A t l a n t i c (CINCLANT) and t h e Com m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f P a c i f i c (CINCPAC). I n t h e Department o f S t a t e , t h r e e r e g i o n a l d e s k s d e a l t w i t h I n d i a n Ocean a f f a i r s . C l e m e n t J . Z a b l o c k i , C h a i r m a n , S u b - C o m m i t t e e on N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y P o l i c y and S c i e n t i f i c Development ( 1 9 7 1 ) , s t a t e d \" ( F ) o r most A m e r i c a n s , t h e I n d i a n Ocean has a s p l i t p e r s o n a l l y , o u r maps o f t h e w o r l d c e n t e r e d as t h e y a r e upon t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , p r o v i d e an i n t a c t v i e w o f b o t h t h e A t l a n t i c and P a c i f i c Oceans, b u t s e v e r t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t o two. T h i s g e o g r a p h i c a l b i f u r c a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d ' s t h i r d l a r g e s t body o f w a t e r i s an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e f r a g m e n t e d v i e w w h i c h we have had o f t h e . I n d i a n Ocean and i t s l i t t o r a l \" . See U.S., C o n g r e s s , House, Sub-Committee on N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y P o l i c y and S c i e n t i f i c D e velopment,Committee on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , The I n d i a n Ocean j _ P o l i t i c a l and S t r a t e g i c F u t u r e , S t a t e m e n t b y C l e m e n t J . Z a b l o c k i , 92nd C o n g . 1 s t S e s s . , ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O., 197 1 ) , p. i i i . 9K.R. S i n g h , The I n d i a n Ocean: B i g Power P r e s e n c e and L o c a l R esponse (New D e l h i : Manohar, 1 9 7 7 ) , p. 14. 84 m a j o r e l e m e n t o f U.S. s t r a t e g y . D i p l o m a t i c manoeuvres t o f a c i l i -t a t e accommodation o f s u c h b a s e s became an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e g l o b a l s t r a t e g y . A c c o r d i n g l y , d e f e n c e n e t w o r k s e n c i r c l i n g t h e S o v i e t U n i o n were s e t up w h i c h i s i d e n t i f i e d as t h e p o l i c y o f c o n t a i n m e n t . The I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l , n o t t h e ocean i t s e l f , was t h e a r e a where t h e p o l i c y o f c o n t a i n m e n t was t o be i m p l e m e n t e d . A f t e r 1948, t h e U.S. e x t e n d e d v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s o f t h e c o n t a i n m e n t p o l i c y , as embodied i n t h e 'Truman D o c t r i n e ' , t o A s i a . I n 1951, u n d e r an a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h t h e S a u d i A r a b i a n Government, a S t r a t e -g i c A i r Command r e c o v e r y b a s e was e s t a b l i s h e d i n B a h r a i n . I n a d d i t i o n , b i l a t e r a l d e f e n c e agreements were n e g o t i a t e d w i t h I r a n i n 1950 and w i t h P a k i s t a n i n 1954. M i l i t a r y a d v i s o r y and t r a i n i n g m i s s i o n s were s e n t t o a number o f I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l S t a t e s i n c l u d i n g I r a n , S a u d i A r a b i a , and E t h i o p i a . 1 ^ The s u p p l y o f arms t o s e l e c t e d l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e c o n -t a i n m e n t p o l i c y . These m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s were r e i n f o r c e d by s u b s t a n t i a l U.S. e c o nomic a i d . The o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e p o s t - w a r U.S. s t r a t e g y was t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r i d e a l s a n d v a l u e s s u c h a s ' d e m o c r a c y ' , ' f r e e s o c i e t y ' , a n d ' p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e ' as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o Communist i d e o l o g y . \"The c o n t i n u i n g i n t e r a c t i o n b etween t h e s e i d e a l s and t h e p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f t h e C o l d War f o r m s a s k e i n i n A m e r i c a n p o l i c i e s t o w a r d s t h e T h i r d W o r l d w h i c h 11 i s n o t e a s y t o d e f i n e i n n e a t p h r a s e s \" . 1 0 S p i e r s , op. c i t . , p. 200. 1 ]-Shahram C h u b i n , \"The U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e T h i r d W o r l d : m o t i v e s , o b j e c t i v e s , p o l i c i e s , \" A d e l p h i P a p e r s - 167 (Summer 1981 ) , p. 1. 85 S r i Lanka's Intimacy with the Western Camp Thus, t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c e n e i n t o w h i c h S r i L a n k a e n t e r e d as a f o r m a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t a c t o r i n 1948 was h i g h l y p o l a r i z e d between two o p p o s i n g camps. A c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a t t e r n o f p o l a r i -z a t i o n b a s e d on p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g i e s c o u l d be s e e n i n t h e i n t e r -n a l p o l i t i c s o f S r i L a n k a . The g r o u p w h i c h g a i n e d power a f t e r t h e t r a n s f e r o f power was h i g h l y a n g l i c i z e d , e x t r e m e l y c o n s e r v a t i v e , and h a d economic i n t e r e s t s t h a t were s t r o n g l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e c o l o n i a l e c o n omic o r d e r . The o p p o s i t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f M a r x i s t p a r t i e s a d v o c a t i n g s t r u c t u r a l changes i n t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s e t up. A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e r u l i n g p a r t y and t h e o p p o s i t i o n h a d d i a m e t -r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e f o r e i g n p o l i c y p o s i t i o n s , g i v i n g r i s e t o i n t e n s e d e b a t e s i n P a r l i a m e n t . B o t h t h e r u l i n g p a r t y and t h e o p p o s i t i o n were w e l l aware o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean b e c a u s e o f t h e s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n o f S r i L a n k a and t h e i \u00C2\u00B0 v u l n e r a b i l i t y d e r i v i n g f r o m i t . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t , b e c a u s e o f t h e D e f e n c e A g r e e m e n t w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n w h i c h a l l o w e d t h e B r i t i s h t o m a i n t a i n an a i r b a s e and a n a v a l b a s e i n t h e i s l a n d , S r i L a n k a became an i n t e g r a l l i n k i n t h e Commonwealth d e f e n s e n e t w o r k and i n t h e g l o b a l d e f e n c e s t r a t e g y o f t h e West. As N i c h o l a s M ansergh c o r r e c t l y o b s e r v e s \" ( T ) h e 1947 D e f e n c e A g r e e m e n t f o r m a l l y a s s o c i a t e d C e y l o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d o f t h e C o l d War w i t h t h e s e n i o r Commonwealth p a r t n e r , who was a l s o a p r i n c i p a l a s s o c i a t e 1 ? D.S. Senanayake, t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r and L e a d e r o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n a l P a r t y s t a t e d i n December 1947 t h a t he had s a t i n t h e War C o u n c i l f o r t h r e e y e a r s w i t h o u t l e a r n i n g t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f C e y l o n ' s s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n . C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , Vo. 1, 1 December 1947, c. 444. 86 i n t h e N o r t h A t l a n t i c t r e a t y O r g a n i z a t i o n \" . However, t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t h a t S r i Lankan r u l e r s had r e a l i z e d t h e i m p l i -c a t i o n s o f t h i s d e f e n c e l i n k i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e C o l d War. As S.U. K o d i k a r a p o i n t s o u t , \" S r i L a n k a ' s a f f i n i t y t o t h e West a t t h i s t i m e was more a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e p o s t - I n d e p e n d e n c e 'honeymoon p e r i o d ' w i t h t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n power t h a n an i d e n t i f i -c a t i o n w i t h t h e b l o c p o l i t i c s o f t h e W e s t e r n a l l i a n c e \" . 1 4 The Speeches f r o m t h e Throne r e p e a t e d l y d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e p o l i c y o f t h e Government was b a s e d on t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e B r i t i s h Commonwealth c o u n t r i e s and t h e d e s i r e t o l i v e i n p e a c e w i t h a l l n a t i o n s . However, t h e two t y p e s o f r e l a t i o n s were n o t e l u c i d a t e d i n d e t a i l . The P r i m e M i n i s t e r h i m s e l f s t a t e d t h a t S r i L a n k a wanted t o be on t h e f r i e n d l i e s t t e r m s w i t h e v e r y c o u n t r y o f t h e w o r l d . ^ I n p r a c t i c e , h o w e v e r , S r i L a n k a ' s f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s were c o n f i n e d t o non-Communist c o u n t r i e s . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , P i e t e r Keuneman, t h e O p p o s i t i o n Communist P a r t y spokesman on f o r e i g n a f f a i r s s t a t e d : I n t h e p a s t f o u r s p e e c h e s t h e members o f t h e f r o n t b e n c h e s a l w a y s spoke about t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s o f m a i n t a i n i n g r e l a t i o n s w i t h a l l n a t i o n s . Of c o u r s e , t h e i r knowledge o f g e o g r a p h y was v e r y l i m i t e d . A p p a r e n t l y f o r them i t was t h e A n g l o - S a x o n c o u n t r i e s and W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s and t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n h e m i s p h e r e w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e d t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e G l o b e . 1 6 J N . Mansergh, The M u l t i - R a c i a l Commonwealth (London: R I I A , 1955) p. 37. 1 4 S . U . K o d i k a r a , F o r e i g n P o l i c y o f S r i L a n k a (New D e l h i : Chanakya, 1 9 8 2 ) , p. 82. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ^ C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 4, 3 r d A u g u s t 1948, c. 105. 1 5 I b i d , v o l . 10, 27 June 1950, c.205. 87 I n J a n u a r y 1951 D. S. Senanayake announced a f t e r t h e Common-w e a l t h P r i m e M i n i s t e r s ' C o n f e r e n c e h e l d i n L o n d o n , t h a t h i s G o v e r n m e n t was f o l l o w i n g t h e p o l i c y o f t h e ' m i d d l e way' a s r e g a r d s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . The P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c o n c e p t o f ' m i d d l e way' c a n n o t be c i t e d as a f o r e s h a d o w i n g o f S r i L a n k a ' s n o n - a l i g n m e n t . The P a r l i a m e n t a r y d e b a t e o v e r t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s s t a t e m e n t c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e t e r m t h e 'm i d d l e way' was u s e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e B u d d h i s t c o n c e p t o f ' M a j j i m a P r a t i p a d a ' ( m i d d l e p a t h ) . When t h e o p p o s i t i o n demanded t h a t t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r e x p l a i n what t h e c o n c e p t m i d d l e way meant, he s t a t e d t h a t p e o p l e who d i d n o t b e l i e v e i n r e l i g i o n c o u l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d ' M a j j i m a P r a t i p a d a ' . S r i L a nkan f o r e i g n p o l i c y began t o assume a d e c i d e d l y p r o -U.S. t i l t a f t e r 1950. The t r e n d o f d r a w i n g c l o s e r t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f i r s t became e v i d e n t i n i d e o l o g i c a l p r o n o u n c e m e n t s made by t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r and o t h e r s i n P a r l i a m e n t . D.S. Senanayake s t a t e d t h a t \" (A) s f a r as t h e U.S. i s c o n c e r n e d t h e r e i s n o t t h e s l i g h t e s t doubt t h a t she h o l d s t h e v i e w t h a t we h o l d . That i s , 1 Pi t h e y a r e f o r d e m o c r a c y \" . \u00C2\u00B0 I n t h e c o u r s e o f d e b a t e on t h e government's f o r e i g n r e l a t i o n s , J.R. Ja y e w a r d e n a , M i n i s t e r o f F i n a n c e , went f u r t h e r and s t a t e d : I n t h i s w o r l d t o d a y t h e r e a r e r e a l l y two p o w e r f u l f a c t o r s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a and t h e U.S.S.R. We have t o f o l l o w e i t h e r t h e one o r t h e o t h e r . There c a n be no h a l f way house i n t h e m a t t e r . We have d e c i d e d , and we i n t e n d as l o n g as we a r e i n power, t o f o l l o w t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a and i t s d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s . 1 9 1 7 I b i d . 1 8 I b i d . , V o l . 8, 7 J u l y 1950, c.487 1 9 I b i d . , 4 J u l y 1950, c.293 88 The o u t b r e a k o f t h e K o r e a n War, t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e Colombo P l a n , and t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e Agreement f o r T e c h n i c a l Co-o p e r a t i o n u n d e r t h e P o i n t F o u r Programme w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n f l u e n c e d S r i Lankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y . When t h e K o r e a n War b r o k e out t h e main S r i L a n k a newspaper e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , t h e Times o f C e v l o n and Lake House, w h i c h had i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e r u l i n g p a r t y , a d o p t e d a v e r y s t r o n g p r o - U . S . s t a n d . 2 ^ They i n t e r p r e t e d t h e war as a s t r u g g l e between a g g r e s s i v e Communism a n d t h e d e m o c r a t i c f o r c e s h e a d e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The p 1 Colombo P l a n , x and e s p e c i a l l y t h e Agreement f o r T e c h n i c a l C o - o p e r a t i o n , e nhanced e x p e c t a t i o n s o f economic b e n e f i t s t h a t S r i pp L a n k a c o u l d o b t a i n f r o m t h e West. The pro-U.S. t i l t i n S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y was m a n i f e s -t e d i n a number o f ways. D u r i n g t h e K o r e a n War, S r i L a n k a p r o -s' 3 v i d e d h a r b o u r f a c i l i t i e s t o a U.S. f l o t i l l a i n t h e war. J The O p p o s i t i o n wanted t o know why t h e Government d i d n o t f o l l o w t h e p r o c e d u r e a d o p t e d i n t h e I n d o n e s i a n c r i s i s i n 1949 and r e f u s e t o g r a n t any f a c i l i t i e s t o t h e s e s h i p s . The P r i m e M i n i s t e r d i d f o r 2 0 S e e C e v l o n D a i l y News, 4 J u l y 1950. Times o f C e y l o n , 5 J u l y 1950. p i -^\"\u00E2\u0080\u00A2The Colombo P l a n o r i g i n a t e d m t h e Commonwealth framework b u t Burma, L a o s , Cambodia, T h a i l a n d , V i e t n a m and f i n a l l y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s j o i n e d t h e p r o j e c t e x t e n d i n g i t b e y o n d Commonwealth b o r d e r s . 77 The e n t h u s i a s m a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Agreement f o r T e c h n i c a l C o - o p e r a t i o n u n d e r t h e P o i n t F o u r Programme w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p r o v e d t o be s h o r t - l i v e d . S r i L ankan e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r more U.S. a i d were f r u s t r a t e d when t h e U.S. C o n g r e s s p a s s e d t h e Kem Amendment t o t h e T h i r d S u p p l e m e n t a r y A p p r o p r i a t i o n s B i l l by w h i c h S r i L a n k a bacame i n e l i g i b l e t o r e c e i v e U.S. a i d b e c a u s e o f r u b b e r t r a d e w i t h C h i n a . p \"3 ^ C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 8, 7 A u g u s t 1950, c. 857. 89 h i s p a r t n o t see any r e a s o n why f a c i l i t i e s w h i c h were a v a i l a b l e 9 A t o t h e A m e r i c a n s m t h e p a s t s h o u l d n o t be made a v a i l a b l e now. ^ F u r t h e r , d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r s t a g e s o f t h e b a t t l e o f D i e n B i e n Phu i n t h e I n d o - C h i n a War, t h e S r i Lankan government a l l o w e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o use K a t u n a y a k e f o r A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t 9 c c a r r y i n g F r e n c h t r o o p s between F r a n c e and H a n o i . I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e D e f e n c e Agreement w i t h B r i t a i n l i n k e d S r i L a n k a o r g a n i c a l l y t o t h e s t r a t e g y o f t h e West b u t i t a l o n e i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o e x p l a i n t h e p r o - W e s t e r n t i l t i n S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . The i d e o l o g y and t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e r u l i n g c l a s s p l a y e d a more i m p o r t a n t r o l e . The r u l i n g p a r t y ' s a t t i t u d e s on i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s s u e s w e r e h i g h l y c o n d i t i o n e d by a n t i -9 jT Communism. D F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s t r u g g l e o f t h e I n d o - C h i n e s e p e o p l e a g a i n s t F r e n c h d o m i n a t i o n was n o t c o n s i d e r e d an a n t i -c o l o n i a l f r e e d o m f i g h t s i m p l y b e c a u s e i t was l e d by Communists b u t t h e S r i L ankan government e x t e n d e d i t s u n r e s e r v e d s u p p o r t t o t h e I n d o n e s i a n s t r u g g l e f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e b e c a u s e i t was l e d by non-Communist e l e m e n t s . I t goes w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t t h e S r i L ankan r u l i n g c l a s s s h a r e d a s t r o n g i d e o l o g i c a l a f f i n i t y w i t h t h e West. T h e i r s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d , e conomic i n t e r e s t s , and p o l i t i c a l s c h o o l i n g made them n a t u r a l a l l i e s o f t h e West. The i d e a l s a d v o c a t e d by t h e West s u c h as democracy, f r e e s o c i e t y and f r e e economy were v e r y 2 4 I b i d . , c o l . 1860. 2 5 T i m e s o f C e y l o n , 24 A p r i l 1954, p. 6. 2 ^ I t was r e p o r t e d t h a t S i r J o h n K o t e l a w e l a s t a t e d t h a t he w o u l d even j o i n t h e d e v i l h i m s e l f i n o r d e r t o oppose Communism. See C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 17, 7 May 1954, c. 536. 90 a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e r u l e r s o f t h e c o u n t r y . They b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e c o u n t r y l a y i n t r a d e t i e s o 7 w i t h t h e West. Y e t , i t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t S r i L a n k a h e s i t a t e d t o i d e n t i f y s q u a r e l y w i t h t h e b l o c p o l i t i c s o f t h e .West. The f a c t o r s s u c h as I n d i a ' s r e f u s a l t o e n t e r i n t o t h e b l o c p o l i t i c s o f t h e C o l d War and t h e A s i a n s o l i d a r i t y framework, m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e A s i a n R e l a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e c a l l e d by Nehru i n M a r c h 1947 and o t h e r s u b s e q u e n t g a t h e r i n g s i n w h i c h S r i L a n k a t o o k p a r t , t h w a r t e d an u n c h e c k e d movement t o w a r d s one b l o c . Extension of Regional Defence Alliances into the Indian Ocean I n t h e e a r l y 1950s new d e v e l o p m e n t s c o u l d be s e e n i n U.S. s t r a t e g y v i s - a - v i s t h e l i t t o r a l s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean as t h e new S e c r a t a r y o f S t a t e i n t h e E i s e n h o w e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , J o h n F o s t e r D u l l e s , i n i t i a t e d t h e e x t e n s i o n o f r e g i o n a l c o l l e c t i v e d e f e n c e a l l i a n c e s t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. By about 1950 m i l i t a r y p l a n n e r s i n t h e West r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e C o l d War w o u l d s t a b i l i z e f o r some t i m e i n s t e a d o f m o ving t o w a r d s a g e n e r a l war w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n as e a r l i e r t h o u g h t . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e two w i n g s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l , namely t h e M i d d l e E a s t and F a r E a s t assumed a g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e s e c u r i t y c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e West. The M i d d l e E a s t was s e e n as a b a s e a r e a w h i c h c o u l d be u s e d t o a t t a c k t h e S o v i e t s o u t h e r n f l a n k i f d e t e r r e n c e f a i l e d . The F a r E a s t was t h e a r e a where Communist i n f i l t r a t i o n t h r o u g h C h i n a c o u l d be c h e c k e d . The Communist t h r e a t i n t h e two a r e a s was b e l i e v e d t o be d i f f e r e n t i n f o r m - i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t t h e d a n g e r was s o u t h w a r d 71 A . J . W i l s o n , E l e c t o r a l P o l i t i c s i n an Emergent S t a t e \_ The C e y l o n G e n e r a l E l e c t i o n o f May 1970 (London: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 14. 91 expansion by the Soviet Union to gain c o n t r o l over the o i l f i e l d s ; i n the Far East i t took the form of i n t e r n a l subversion. In a d d i t i o n to these Cold War considerations the maintenance of the status quo became necessary i n both areas because of U.S. economic i n t e r e s t s . It was b e l i e v e d that U.S. m i l i t a r y pressure was necessary to safeguard the economic i n t e r e s t s . The f i r s t move i n the d i r e c t i o n of forming r e g i o n a l defence a l l i a n c e s dates back to May 1950. At the urging of the United S t a t e s the P h i l i p p i n e s government convened a c o n f e r e n c e of c e r t a i n Asian countries at the P h i l i p p i n e h e a l t h r e s o r t of Baguio O Q with the aim of forming a m i l i t a r y - p o l i t i c a l b l o c . The main o b j e c t i v e was not a c h i e v e d due to the o p p o s i t i o n of I n d i a , Indonesia, Burma and S r i Lanka, but the United States was able to conclude b i l a t e r a l pacts with Thailand and the P h i l i p p i n e s . In 1951 a c o l l e c t i v e defence t r e a t y known as ANZUS was entered i n t o by the United States, A u s t r a l i a and new Zealand. In 1954 the United States r e v i v e d i t s i n i t i a t i v e f o r a c o l l e c t i v e defence b l o c f o r South E a s t A s i a . The immediate cause was the c o l l a p s e of the French c o l o n i a l system i n Indo-china a f t e r the b a t t l e of Dien Bien Phu. The United States feared that the f i g h t i n g i n Indo-China would spread to other countries i n the region during the e a r l y months of 1954. In t h i s context the U.S. i n i t i a t e d the move by i n v i t i n g the French and B r i t i s h Governments to issue a warning to China as a f i r s t step and then to set about organizing a c o l l e c t i v e defence of South-East A s i a . The issue was taken up during the B e r l i n Conference of January Alexander Larventyev, U.S.A. and A s i a (New D e l h i : S t e r l i n g P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1982), p. 34. 92 1954 and. was f o l l o w e d by f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s i n London i n A p r i l between D u l l e s and S i r A n t h o n y Eden. A f t e r t h e m e e t i n g t h e two g o v e r n m e n t s i s s u e d a s t a t e m e n t i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e e x a m i n i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a c o l l e c t i v e d e f e n c e p Q agreement i n S o u t h - E a s t A s i a . However, B r i t a i n w i s h e d t o w a i t u n t i l t h e end o f t h e o n - g o i n g Geneva n e g o t i a t i o n s on I n d o - C h i n a , t h i n k i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s w o u l d be p r e j u d i c e d . The U n i t e d S t a t e s and B r i t a i n d i f f e r e d on t h e i s s u e o f membership. B r i t a i n w a n t e d t o e x t e n d t h e p r o p o s e d c o l l e c t i v e d e f e n c e t o A s i a n Commonwealth c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d i n g I n d i a . C h u r c h i l l and Eden met E i s e n h o w e r i n W a s h i n g t o n i n J u l y and t h e j o i n t communique on t h e d i s c u s s i o n s i s s u e d on t h e 2 8 t h J u l y s t a t e d t h a t t h e two c o u n t r i e s were r e a d y t o go ahead w i t h p l a n s f o r c o l l e c t i v e d e f e n c e i n S o u t h - E a s t A s i a i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e o u t c o m e o f G e n e v a 31 n e g o t i a t i o n s . A f t e r t h e G e n e v a t a l k s wound up, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and B r i t a i n p r o c e e d e d q u i c k l y , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p l a n , t o e s t a b l i s h a d e f e n c e a l l i a n c e . T here f o l l o w e d a b u s y p e r i o d o f s e l l i n g t h e p l a n t o S o u t h and S o u t h e a s t A s i a n c o u n t r i e s . F i r s t o f a l l , B r i t a i n a p p r o a c h e d t h e f i v e Colombo Pow e r s : I n d i a , P a k i s t a n , S r i L a n k a , Burma, and I n d o n e s i a . I n d i a , Burma and I n d o n e s i a c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e f u s e d any i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e p r o p o s e d a l l i a n c e . The S r i Lankan P r i m e M i n i s t e r was more s y m p a t h e t i c b u t f i n a l l y d e c l i n e d , f o r r e a s o n s t h a t w i l l be e x p l a i n e d s h o r t l y . P a k i s t a n a c c e p t e d t h e i n v i t a t i o n . p q , J S i r A n t h o n y E d e n , F u l l C i r c l e : M e m o i r s o f t h e R t . H o n o u r a b l e S i r A n t h o n y Eden (London: C a s s e l l , 1960) pp. 97-98 Darby, op. c i t . , p. 61 3 1 I b i d . 93 On 8 t h S e p t e m b e r 1954 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , B r i t a i n , F r a n c e , P a k i s t a n , T h a i l a n d , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , A u s t r a l i a , and New Z e a l a n d met i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and s i g n e d t h e M a n i l a T r e a t y t o e s t a b l i s h t h e S o u t h E a s t A s i a n T r e a t y O r g a n i z a t i o n (SEATO). The SEATO T r e a t y made i t o b l i g a t o r y f o r t h e s i g n a t o r i e s t o c o n s u l t e a c h o t h e r on measures f o r common d e f e n c e i n t h e e v e n t o f any t h r e a t t o t h e i n v i o l a b i l i t y o r t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e t e r r i t o r y , s o v e r e i g n t y o r p o l i t i c a l i n d e p e n d e n c e o f any s i g n a t o r y p a r t y o r t e r r i t o r y c o v e r e d by t h e t r e a t y . B u t , as R o b e r t E. Osgood o b s e r v e d , t h e p o l i t i c a l - m i l i t a r y c o n s e n s u s i n SEATO was l i m i t e d i n r e a l i t y : The P h i l i p p i n e s , T h a i l a n d , a n d P a k i s t a n w e r e i n c l u d e d p a r t l y t o g i v e t h e t r e a t y t h e s a n c t i o n o f A s i a n membership. Y e t t h e t i e s o f i n t e r e s t s among t h e s e S t a t e s a r e e x t r e m e l y t h i n o r n o n - e x i s t e n t , a n d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o a s s i s t e a c h o t h e r i s n e g l i g i b l e . F o r t h e A s i a n members, SEATO c o n s t i t u t e d a c h a n n e l and c l a i m f o r p r e f e r e n t i a l e c o n o m i c a s s i s t a n c e b u t n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t i n s t r u m e n t o f m i l i t a r y s e c u r i t y , a p a r t f r o m i t s f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a n commitment.32 I n t h e c a s e o f t h e M i d d l e E a s t , i t was B r i t a i n w h i c h f i r s t s u g g e s t e d c o l l e c t i v e d e f e n c e . The B r i t i s h s u g g e s t i o n i n O c t o b e r 1951 f o r an A n g l o - A m e r i c a n a l l i e d M i d d l e E a s t e r n Command w i t h h e a d q u a r t e r s i n C a i r o f a i l e d due t o E g y p t ' s r e f u s a l t o j o i n t h e scheme. A f t e r t h e f a i l u r e o f t h i s a t t e m p t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o o k t h e i n i t i a t i v e . I n t h e s p r i n g o f 1953, D u l l e s made a f a c t - f i n d i n g t o u r t o t h e M i d d l e E a s t t o e x p l o r e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x p a n d i n g h i s scheme o f r e g i o n a l d e f e n c e p a c t s t o t h e a r e a . H i s M i d d l e E a s t m i s s i o n c o n v i n c e d him t h a t t h e r e was no p o s s i b i l i t y f o r a b r o a d -JO R o b e r t E. Osgood, A l l i a n c e s and A m e r i c a n F o r e i g n P o l i c y ( B a l t i m o r e : The Jo h n s H o p k i n s P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , pp. 81-2. 94 M i d d l e E a s t e r n a l l i a n c e . As a r e s u l t , D u l l e s p u t f o r w a r d h i s ' N o r t h e r n T i e r ' p l a n w h i c h was aimed a t T u r k e y , I r a n , I r a q and P a k i s t a n . The f i r s t s t e p i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n was t h e s i g n i n g o f a s e c u r i t y and f r i e n d s h i p t r e a t y w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s by P a k i s t a n and T u r k e y . I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t I r a q w o u l d r e m a i n o u t s i d e t e m p o r a r i l y , h o p i n g t o b r i n g o t h e r A r a b S t a t e s i n t o t h e a l l i a n c e . However, t h e r e was a U . S . - I r a q m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e agreement i n o p e r a t i o n f r o m A p r i l 1954. As t h e e f f o r t t o b r i n g i n o t h e r c o u n-t r i e s f a i l e d , N u r i P a s h a , I r a q ' s P r i m e M i n i s t e r , s i g n e d an a g r e e -ment w i t h T u r k e y i n F e b r u a r y 1955. Up t o t h i s p o i n t B r i t a i n had some r e s e r v a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e P a k i s t a n - T u r k e y P a c t as she d i d n o t want t o a n t a g o n i z e I n d i a . A f t e r t h e I r a q - T u r k e y P a c t B r i t a i n made up h e r mind and d e c i d e d t o a c c e d e t o i t i n A p r i l 1955. T h i s became known as t h e Baghdad P a c t . P a k i s t a n a c c e d e d t o t h e Baghdad P a c t i n September and I r a n i n O c t o b e r . The Baghdad P a c t , w h i c h was renamed t h e C e n t r a l T r e a t y O r g a n i z a t i o n (CENTO) a f t e r I r a q ' s w i t h d r a w a l i n 1958, d i f f e r e d f r o m t h a t o f SEATO. A l t h o u g h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had b i l a t e r a l m i l i t a r y a g r eements w i t h a l l t h e s i g n a t o r y p a r t i e s o f t h e Baghdad P a c t she was n o t a d i r e c t p a r t y t o i t . What d i d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e x p e c t f r o m t h e SEATO and t h e Baghdad P a c t ? As J a n s e n p o i n t s o u t , t h e r e was no need f o r A s i a n manpower f r o m t h e m i l i t a r y p o i n t o f v i e w b u t o n l y f o r b a s e s i n o r d e r t o e n c i r c l e t h e Communist powers i n t h e s t r a t e g y o f c o n t a i -nment. F u r t h e r , he n o t e s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d i d n o t e s t a b l i s h 3 3 m i l i t a r i l y i m p o r t a n t b a s e s i n I r a n , P a k i s t a n o r T h a i l a n d . J On 3 3 J . H. J a n s e n , A f r o - A s i a n N o n - A l i g n m e n t (London: F a b e r & f a b e r , 1966) , p.135. 95 t h e o t h e r hand, s i n c e t h e U.S. had b i l a t e r a l t r e a t i e s w i t h a l l t h e s e powers she c o u l d have o b t a i n e d what she needed w i t h o u t g r o u p i n g t h e s e powers i n t o a m u l t i l a t e r a l a l l i a n c e . The U.S. m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h S a u d i A r a b i a i s a good example i n t h i s r e g a r d . T h e r e i s no doubt t h a t m u l t i l a t e r a l a l l i a n c e s make c o -o r d i n a t e d p l a n n i n g more c o n v e n i e n t . Even t h e n , SEATO o r t h e Baghdad P a c t d i d n o t e s t a b l i s h a j o i n t c e n t r a l command as was t h e c a s e i n NATO. The U n i t e d S t a t e s d i d n o t i n c r e a s e i t s l o c a l l y -b a s e d m i l i t a r y power i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e m i l i t a r y commitments o f t h e a l l i a n c e s . The m u t u a l d e f e n c e agreements r e l i e d on g l o b a l U.S. m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h r a t h e r t h a n t h e p r e s e n c e o f any U.S. f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a . These a l l i a n c e s p r o v i d e d , f i r s t a l e g a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l framework t o p r o j e c t U.S. d e t e r r e n t power a g a i n s t Communist e x p a n s i o n , and s e c o n d l y , a p o l i t i c a l f r a m e w o r k t o o p p o s e i n t e r n a l t h r e a t s t o t h e i r l o c a l a l l i e s . Osgood w r i t e s : They a r e an a g g r e g a t i o n o f d i s p a r a t e f o r m a l i z e d s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t have no l i n k a g e o t h e r t h a n t h e i r common p u r p o s e t o c l a r i f y and s a n c t i o n t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f A m e r i c a n d e t e r r e n t power a l o n g t h e p e r i p h e r y o f E u r a s i a a n d t o p r o v i d e t h e p o l i t i c a l framework f o r f o s t e r i n g i n d i g e n o u s l o c a l r e s i s t a n c e t o Communist p e n e t r a t i o n i n a h i g h l y d i v e r s i f i e d , f r a g m e n t e d a n d r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t i n h a b i t e d by weak S t a t e s . 3 4 F u r t h e r m o r e , SEATO and CENTO o r g a n i c a l l y l i n k e d t h e a r e a s t o t h e U.S. m i l i t a r y c o m m u n i c a t i o n s n e t w o r k . As Commander Gary S i c k p o i n t s o u t : Much more i m p o r t a n t was t h e s c a t t e r i n g o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s and i n t e l l i g e n c e - g a t h e r i n g s i t e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e g i o n t h a t t i e d t h e a r e a i n t o a g l o b a l U.S. m i l i t a r y c o m m u n i c a t i o n s n e t w o r k and p r o v i d e d i n v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n about S o v i e t and Osgood, op. c i t . , p. 85. 96 C h i n e s e s t r a t e g i c w eapons d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t e s t i n g . 3 5 Response of the Kotelawela Government to the Formation of SEATO The r e s p o n s e o f t h e S r i Lankan government t o t h e SEATO p r o p o s a l was a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e dilemma t h a t t h e government f a c e d i n t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y a r e n a . A f t e r t h e E d e n - D u l l e s communique o f A p r i l 1954 S i r C e c i l S y e r s , B r i t i s h H i g h C o m m i s s i o -n e r i n Colombo, i n f o r m e d t h e S r i Lankan a u t h o r i t i e s o f t h e p l a n f o r t h e c o l l e c t i v e d e f e n c e o f S o u t h E a s t - A s i a . 3 ^ A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e S r i L a nkan a u t h o r i t i e s and t h e B r i t i s h H i g h C o m m i s s i o n e r had ' f r a n k and c o r d i a l ' d i s c u s s i o n s two days l a t e r . D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e d e b a t e on e x t e r n a l a f f a i r s i n P a r l i a m e n t on 7 t h May 1954, two government s p e a k e r s , J.R. J a y e w a r d e n a , t h e n M i n i s t e r o f A g r i c u l t u r e , and V. N a l l i a h , J u n i o r M i n i s t e r f o r D e f e n c e and E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s , r e v e a l e d t h e E d e n - D u l l e s p l a n f o r c o l l e c t i v e 3 ft d e f e n c e . I t bacame c l e a r l y e v i d e n t d u r i n g t h e d e b a t e t h a t some e l e m e n t s i n t h e government were i n f a v o u r o f t h e p l a n . On 3 0 t h J u l y 1954, S i r A n t h o n y Eden s e n t a message t o t h e Colombo powers f o r m a l l y i n v i t i n g them t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e p r o p o s e d c o l l e c t i v e d e f e n c e . The r e s p o n s e s o f t h e o t h e r s e x c e p t S r i L a n k a were q u i c k and c l e a r . The i n v i t a t i o n c r e a t e d a dilemma f o r P r i m e M i n i s t e r K o t e l a w e l a . The P l a n , no d o u b t , was a t t r a c t i v e t o him as a b u l w a r k a g a i n s t communism. I n t h i s c o n t e x t he s e n t p e r s o n a l 3 5 S i c k , op. c i t . , p. 52 3 6 T h e H i n d u , 21 A p r i l 1954 3 7 I b i d . , 25 A p r i l 1954 3 ft C e y l o n , H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 17, 17 May 1954, c c . 561-566. messages t o t h e Colombo powers p r o p o s i n g t h a t t h e y s h o u l d c o n f e r \" p r o b a b l y t h e C e y l o n P r e m i e r , i n a s k i n g f o r t h i s m e e t i n g so soon a f t e r t h e Colombo C o n f e r e n c e , i n t e n d e d t o f o r c e Mr. Nehru t o a r t i c u l a t e an a l t e r n a t i v e s e c u r i t y scheme f o r t h e r e g i o n \" . 4 ^ S i r John K o t e l a w e l a a p p a r e n t l y m i s r e a d t h e I n d i a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e on t h i s i s s u e a n d b e l i e v e d t h a t he h a d an a l t e r n a t i v e t o SEATO. 4 1 I n d i a and I n d o n e s i a d e c l i n e d t o c o n s i d e r an a l t e r n a t i v e b u t c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e j e c t e d j o i n i n g any a l l i a n c e . The f a i l u r e o f K o t e l a w e l a ' s d i p l o m a c y l e f t i n d i v i d u a l d e c i s i o n s up t o t h e government. A f t e r a p e r i o d o f v e e r i n g t o w a r d s a c c e p t a n -c e , t h e P r e m i e r f i n a l l y d e c i d e d n o t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n SEATO. He s t a t e d t h a t t h e government was p r e p a r e d t o m a i n t a i n an open mind on t h e s u b j e c t a l t h o u g h i t w o u l d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n i t . 4 2 The t e r m \" t o m a i n t a i n an open mind\" i s i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e SEATO l e f t i t open t o n o n - s i g n a t o r y powers t o j o i n l a t e r i f t h e y so w i s h e d . G i v e n K o t e l a w e l a ' s g e n e r a l p o l i c y t i l t t o w a r d s t h e West, p a r t i c u l a r l y t o w a r d s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , and h i s anti-Communism, a d e c i s i o n t o j o i n SEATO w o u l d n o t have been s u r p r i s i n g . Why d i d he d e c i d e t o t h e c o n t r a r y ? The f l a t r e f u s a l o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e Colombo powers, no d o u b t , had a heavy b e a r i n g on K o t e l a w e l a . The p r e d o m i n a n t mood a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e Colombo Powers h e l d as r e c e n t l y as A p r i l 1954 was a g a i n s t any a l l i a n c e w i t h power b e f o r e r e p l y i n g t o t h e B r i t i s h o f f e r . 39 A c c o r d i n g t o J a n s e n 39 New Y o r k Times, 3 A u g u s t 1954, p. 5 40 J a n s e n , op. c i t p.169. 41 K o d i k a r a , op. c i t p.90 42 The C e y l o n D a i l y News, 14 A u g u s t 1954, p . l . 98 b l o c s . Even t h e a n t i - C o m m u n i s t U Nu o f Burma r e v e a l e d on h i s way t o t h e c o n f e r e n c e t h a t about a y e a r e a r l i e r Burma had t u r n e d down a U.S. o f f e r o f ' m u t u a l s e c u r i t y a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d h a d a l s o u n e q u i v o c a l r e j e c t i o n o f SEATO had r e s t r i c t e d t h e S r i Lankan P r e m i e r ' s room f o r manoeuvre. B e c a u s e o f t h e g e o - p o l i t i c a l f r a m e -work o f S r i L a n k a ' s d e f e n c e t h i n k i n g and t h e c l i m a t e o f I n d o -C e y l o n r e l a t i o n s a t t h e t i m e , S r i L a n k a was n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o i g n o r e I n d i a ' s s t a n d c o m p l e t e l y . The C e y l o n D a i l y News q u o t e d t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r as s a y i n g : We want f r i e n d s . We want t o have I n d i a , P a k i s t a n , I n d o n e s i a and Burma as o u r f r i e n d s b e c a u s e we now f o r m a new c l a n . T h e r e f o r e , we w i l l d i s c u s s t h e m a t t e r and come t o a d e c i s i o n u n a n i m o u s l y , as we have done i n t h e p a s t . 4 4 A p o w e r f u l s e c t i o n o f t h e r u l i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t i t s e l f came f o r w a r d t o oppose S r i L a n k a j o i n i n g SEATO. D u r i n g t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s p e r i o d o f i n d e c i s i o n t h i s e l e m e n t , g e n e r a l l y i d e n t i f i e d as t h e S e n a n a y a k e f a c t i o n , o p e n l y v o i c e d i t s o p p o s i t i o n t o j o i n i n g t h e P a c t . R.G. Senanayake, f o r m e r J u n i o r M i n i s t e r f o r D e f e n c e and E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s and t h e M i n i s t e r f o r T r a d e i n t h e K o t e l a w e l a government u n t i l he r e s i g n e d f r o m t h e c a b i n e t on t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y i s s u e , s t a t e d t h a t \" i f we j o i n SEATO on a d e f e n c e b a s i s and l e n d o u r s e l v e s t o o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n , I t h i n k we w i l l go c o n t r a r y t o t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s l a i d down by o u r l a t e P r i m e M i n i s t e r and t h o s e o f o u r p a r t y f r o m t h e t i m e o f r e j e c t e d f u r t h e r economic a s s i s t a n c e . 43 S p e c i f i c a l l y , Nehru's 43 J a n s e n , op. c i t p.147. 44 The C e y l o n D a i l y News, 4 A u g u s t 1954. 99 i t s i n c e p t i o n \" . 4 ^ F u r t h e r , D u d l e y S e n a n a y a k e , f o r m e r P r i m e M i n i s t e r , warned K o t e l a w e l a \"do n o t be c a u g h t up i n any w o r l d c r u s a d e a g a i n s t Communism\". 4^ A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r was t h e s t r o n g o p p o s i t i o n o f S.W.R.D B a n d a r a n a i k e a n d a l s o o f t h e L e f t . B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s o p p o s i t i o n t o SEATO was b a s e d on t h r e e a r g u m e n t s . F i r s t , e n t e r i n g i n t o a m i l i t a r y p a c t s u c h as SEATO w o u l d v i o l a t e t h e government's d e c l a r e d p o l i c y o f t h e 'm i d d l e way'. Second, s i n c e t h e p u r p o s e o f SEATO was c o n t a i n m e n t o f C h i n a , S r i L a n k a ' s e n t r y w o u l d a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e S r i L a n k a - C h i n a R u b b e r - f o r - R i c e Agreement. F i n a l l y , he a r g u e d t h a t SEATO was d o m i n a t e d by n o n - A s i a n powers and what was needed was a n o n - a g g r e s s i o n p a c t among A s i a n p o w e r s . 4 7 The l e f t p a r t i e s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 Communist P a r t y , Nawa L a n k a Sama Samaja P a r t y , and V i p l a v a k a r i Sama Samaja P a r t y \u00E2\u0080\u0094 were u n i t e d i n o p p o s i n g SEATO. Dr. N.M. P e r e r a , t h e l e a d e r o f t h e L a n k a Sama Samja P a r t y , c h a l l e n g e d t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r t o e l u c i d a t e how SEATO c o u l d be r e c o n c i l e d w i t h t h e ' P a n c h a S e e l a ' t h a t t h e C o l o m b o P o w e r s t h o u g h t w o u l d e n a b l e them t o m a i n t a i n p e a c e i n t h e w o r l d . 4 8 On November 25, 1954, P r e m i e r K o t e l a w e l a h a d a d i s c u s s i o n w i t h t h e B r i t i s h F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y , S i r A n t h o n y Eden. A t t h e s u b s e q u e n t p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e K o t e l a w e l a s t a t e d t h a t SEATO d i d n o t o f f e r t h e b e s t method o f p r e s e r v i n g p e a c e i n A s i a and t h a t t h e m a c h i n e r y a d o p t e d by SEATO was v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m what was 4 S ^ C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 19, 4 A u g u s t 1954. c. 484. 4 6 I b i d . , c c . 483-484. 4 7 I b i d . , c c . 452-462. 4 8 I b i d . , c. 471. 100 needed f o r p e a c e f u l c o - e x i s t e n c e i n A s i a . What was needed was n o n - a g g r e s s i o n among A s i a n c o u n t r i e s . He f u r t h e r s t a t e d t h a t what A s i a needed most was a f a i r e conomic d e a l , c o n s i s t i n g e s p e c i a l l y 4 Q o f a f a i r m a r k e t t o h e l p h e r d e v e l o p . Emergence of S r i Lanka's Policy of Non Alignment The d e f e a t o f t h e p r o - W e s t e r n K o t e l a w e l a government c r e a t e d l i t t l e e n t h u s i a s m i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n i t s e d i t o r i a l o f 8 A p r i l 1956, The New Y o r k Times, s t a t e d \" f r o m a l m o s t e v e r y a n g l e i t l o o k s l i k e a s e t - b a c k f o r t h e c o u r s e o f f r e e w o r l d \" . 5 1 The U n i t e d S t a t e s was n o t q u i t e p r e p a r e d t o t o l e r a t e i n 1956 t h e p o l i c y o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t and n e u t r a l i t y on t h e p a r t o f t h e ne w l y i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r i e s . To t h e U.S. S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , J o h n F o s t e r D u l l e s , n e u t r a l i t y was \"an i m m o r a l and s h o r t - s i g h t e d c o n c e p t i o n \" . B u t e v e n t s soon showed t h e r e was no r e a s o n f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o be d i s p l e a s e d a t t h e 1956 p o l i t i c a l change i n S r i L a n k a . T r u e , M.E.P. government u n d e r B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s P r e m i e r -s h i p b r o k e down t h e c o r d o n t h a t had e x i s t e d between S r i L a n k a and t h e S o c i a l i s t b l o c a n d d e v e l o p e d g o o d r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h o s e c o u n t r i e s . However, B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y was by no means a n t i - A m e r i c a n . When he v i s i t e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1956, a f t e r t h e Suez C r i s i s , B a n d a r a n a i k e h i g h l y commended t h e r o l e p l a y e d by t h e U.S. d u r i n g t h a t c r i s i s t o oppose B r i t i s h , F r e n c h and I s r a e l i a c t i o n . B e c a u s e o f B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s p o l i t i c a l u p b r i n g i n g , he was r a t h e r c l o s e t o w e s t e r n p o l i t i c a l i d e a l s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s . 4 9 C e v l o n T o d a y , ' V o l . I l l , No. 12, Dec. 1954, p. 10. 5 1 Q u o t e d i n P r a s a d , op. c i t . , p. 53 5 2 C e y l o n D a i l y News, 14 June 1956. F u r t h e r m o r e , he d e c l a r e d t h a t \"we a r e c l o s e r t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e c a u s e we b e l i e v e i n a d e m o c r a t i c way o f l i f e \" . A f t e r 1956 S r i L a n k a ' s economic r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e x p e r i e n c e d a s u b s t a n t i a l g r o w t h . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e p r o - W e s t e r n U.N.P. government was n o t q u i c k l y f o r g i v e n by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r c o n c l u d i n g a t r a d e p a c t w i t h C h i n a . I n e a r l y 1955 t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m o d i f i e d t h i s p o s i t i o n and d e c i d e d t o e x t e n d a $5 m i l l i o n a i d p a c k a g e t o S r i L a n k a f o r t h e y e a r 1955-1956. The MEP r e g i m e became t h e b e n e f i c i a r y o f t h i s d e c i s i o n . D u r i n g t h e l a t e r p e r i o d o f B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s p r e m i e r s h i p , A m e r i c a n p o l i c y i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t became a m a t t e r o f c o n c e r n e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r t h e e n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e E i s e n h o w e r D o c t r i n e and U.S. m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n Lebanon. A f t e r t h e coup i n I r a q i n 1958, w h i c h r e p l a c e d a p r o - w e s t e r n r e g i m e w i t h a n a t i o n a l i s t i c m i l i t a r y r e g i m e , d i s t u r b a n c e s s p r e a d t o Lebanon and J o r d a n . The E i s e n h o w e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i c h o b t a i n e d a u t h o r i t y f r o m C o n g r e s s t o use f o r c e s i n West A s i a , s e n t armed f o r c e s t o Lebanon and, a t t h e same t i m e , B r i t a i n s e n t t r o o p s t o J o r d a n . A c c o r d i n g t o B a n d a r a n a i k e , t h i s was an i n t e r v e n t i o n by one c o u n t r y i n t h e a f f a i r s o f a n o t h e r . He s t a t e d i n P a r l i a m e n t : O b v i o u s l y , i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f p e a c e - we a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n p e a c e , we a r e i n t e r e s t e d t h r o u g h o u r g e n e r a l p o l i c y o f a n t i - C o l o n i a l i s m and t h r o u g h o u r a d h e r e n c e o f t h e Bandung r e s o l u t i o n s one o f t h e m ost i m p o r t a n t o f w h i c h was t h a t we o p p o s e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f one c o u n t r y i n i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f a n o t h e r - we f e e l t h a t t h e s e f o r c e s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d U n i t e d K i n g d o m f o r c e s , must be w i t h d r a w n w i t h o u t d e l a y . 5 4 ^ ^ C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 32, 14 A u g u s t 1958, c. 318. 5 4 I b i d . 102 A t t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o f t h e U.N. S r i Lanka s u p p o r t e d t h e r e s o l u t i o n moved b y t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w h i c h c a l l e d f o r t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f B r i t i s h and U.S. f o r c e s f r o m West A s i a . Though t h e M.E.P. r e g i m e o f 195 6 was more s e n s i t i v e t o d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n , t h e n a v a l b u i l d - u p by e x t e r n a l powers h ad n o t emerged as an i s s u e as y e t . N a v a l b u i l d up by o t h e r w o r l d powers became a m a j o r i s s u e o n l y a f t e r 1960. I t was n o t S.W.R.D. B a n d a r a n a i k e b u t S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e who had t o g r a p p l e w i t h t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t . The Projection of U.S. Naval Power into the Indian Ocean The b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 196 0 s m a r k e d a new s t a g e i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f U.S. s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. H i t h e r t o U.S. s t r a t e g y had been b a s i c a l l y d i p l o m a t i c , e c o n o m i c , and p o l i t i c a l , r a t h e r t h a n m i l i t a r y i n n a t u r e . J The U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t e n d e d t o s e c u r e i t s i n t e r e s t s u n d e r t h e shade o f t h e B r i t i s h u m b r e l l a and U.S. p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a c k n o w l e d g e d B r i t a i n ' s n a v a l p r e -e minence. B r i t a i n was s t i l l t h e i m p e r i a l g r e a t power o f t h e r e g i o n . A f t e r 1960, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s began t o p r o j e c t i t s n a v a l p o w e r d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . T h i s s h i f t i n U.S. s t r a t e g y s h o u l d be v i e w e d i n t h e l i g h t o f p o s t - S u e z c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e a r e a and a l s o d e v e l o p m e n t s i n weapon and d e l i v e r y s y s t e m s . The 1956 Suez c o n f l i c t t a u g h t a number o f p o l i t i c a l and m i l i t a r y l e s s o n s t o A m e r i c a n s t r a t e g i s t s . The Suez e p i s o d e h i g h l i g h t e d t h e p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f t h e d e c o l o n i z a t i o n e r a . I t e m p h a s i z e d t h e power o f p o s t - c o l o n i a l n a t i o n a l i s m on t h e one hand and t h e e r o s i o n o f B r i t a i n ' s h i s t o r i c p o s i t i o n as t h e i m p e r i a l 5 5 S i c k , op. c i t . , p. 52. 103 g r e a t power i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean on t h e o t h e r . Suez p r o m p t e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o l o o k anew a t t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The f a i l u r e o f B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y a c t i o n r a i s e d s e r i o u s d o u b t s about t h e e f f i c a c y o f r e l y i n g on B r i t a i n t o p r o t e c t w e s t e r n i n t e r e s t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a . The most i m p o r t a n t m i l i t a r y l e s s o n o f t h e Suez c r i s i s was t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e b a s e s t r a t e g y t h a t u n d e r l a y B r i t a i n ' s n a v a l p o l i c y . As B e z b o r u a h r e m a r k e d , The d e n i a l o f v a r i o u s b a s e f a c i l i t i e s and o v e r -f l i g h t p r i v i l e g e s t o t h e B r i t i s h by t h e l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s b r o u g h t home t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e x t e n s i v e p a r a p h e r n a l i a f o r l o g i s t i c s u p p o r t m i g h t n o t be a u t o m a t i c a l l y a v a i l a b l e i n t h e e v e n t o f any U.K. - U.S. p e a c e k e e p i n g r o l e i n t h e f u t u r e . 5 6 The changes i n U.S. s t r a t e g y i n t h e e a r l y 1960s s h o u l d a l s o be v i e w e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f new d e v e l o p m e n t s i n weapons s y s t e m s . A d v a n c e s i n m i l i t a r y t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f o r m e d t h e p o s t - w a r weapons sy s t e m s by t h e end o f 1950s. S u p e r s o n i c f i g h t e r s , more s o p h i s t i -c a t e d s y s t e m s o f r a d a r s t o d e t e c t enemy bombers, and c o u n t e r -e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e s h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , manned b o m b e r s were s u p p l e m e n t e d by I n t e r m e d i a t e Range B a l l i s t i c M i s s i l e s (IRBM) and I n t e r - C o n t i n e n t a l B a l l i s t i c M i s s i l e s (ICBM). However, t h e c o n c u r r e n t d e v e l o p m e n t o f s i m i l a r m i s s i l e s y s t e m s by t h e S o v i e t U n i o n h i g h l i g h t e d t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f f i x e d g r o u n d b a s e s . As t h e C i r c u l a r E r r o r P r o b a b i l i t y (CEP) o f t h e s e m i s s i l e s was l e s s t h a n a m i l e , t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e e n t i r e s y s t e m was depen-d e n t on t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e a n t i - b a l l i s t i c m i s s i l e (ABM) programme. However, t h e ABM programme a t t h e t i m e was n o t c a p a b l e o f p r o v i d i n g f u l l c o v e r a g e t o g r o u n d b a s e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e e f f o r t s o f m i l i t a r y p l a n n e r s were d i r e c t e d t o d e v e l o p i n g a new ^\u00C2\u00B0Bezboruah, op. c i t . , p. 35. 104 weapon s y s t e m whereby t h e m i s s i l e p l a t f o r m w o u l d be u n d e t e c t a b l e y e t c a p a b l e o f d e l i v e r i n g l o n g r a n g e m i s s i l e s . The Navy came f o r w a r d a t t h i s p o i n t . I n I 9 6 0 , t h e U.S. Navy i n i t i a t e d t h e S u b m a r i n e - L a u n c h e d B a l l i s t i c M i s s i l e System (SLBM), a l s o known as t h e P o l a r i s p r o g r a m m e . N u c l e a r - p o w e r e d s u b m a r i n e s c a p a b l e o f f i r i n g l o n g r a n g e m i s s i l e s w i t h o u t s u r f a c i n g were i n t r o d u c e d i n 1961 u n d e r t h e SLBM programme. However, t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e S ystem depended on an e f f i c i e n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s n e t w o r k . ^ 7 I n t h e f a c e o f d e v e l o p m e n t s i n n a v a l and m i l i t a r y t e c h n o l o g y t h e oceans began t o a c q u i r e renewed i m p o r t a n c e i n U.S. s t r a t e g i c c a l c u l a t i o n s . The U.S. Navy, w h i c h was s e a r c h i n g f o r a b i g g e r r o l e , s e i z e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o p u s h f o r a g r e a t e r s h a r e o f U.S. b u d g e t a r y a l l o c a t i o n s . The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e S t r a t e g i c A i r Com-mand (SAC) b a s e s was o v e r s h a d o w e d by t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n n a v a l t e c h n o l o g y . As a r e s u l t , f r o m a m i l i t a r y p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e g r a d u a l s h i f t o f U.S. i n t e r e s t s f r o m t h e l i t t o r a l t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean p r o p e r i s c l e a r l y e v i d e n t a f t e r 1960. T h i s s h i f t was r e f -l e c t e d by two d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, namely t h e b e g i n -n i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s o f p r o j e c t i n g U.S. n a v a l power d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e emergence o f t h e s t r a t e g i c i s l a n d s b a s e s c o n c e p t f r o m t h e d e b a t e on U.S. I n d i a n Ocean s t r a t e g y w i t h i n U.S. s e r v i c e c i r c l e s . I n 1960, an A m e r i c a n a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r , t h e U.S.S. Bon Homme R i c h a r d , v i s i t e d t h e I n d i a n Ocean f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . A r o u n d t h e same t i m e , some e l e m e n t s i n t h e U.S. s e r v i c e s v o i c e d t h e need f o r m i l i t a r y f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. However, t h e t h e n S 7 . F o r a v i v i d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f m i l i t a r y t e c h n o l o g y on U.S. s t r a t e g y see K.R. S i n g h , op. c i t . , pp. 19-24. 105 S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n c e , R o b e r t McNamara, was n o t i n f a v o u r o f t h e e x t e n s i o n o f U.S. n a v a l power i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. McNamara t h o u g h t i t w o u l d be d i s a s t r o u s t o become c o m m i t t e d t o a n o t h e r o c e a n . \u00C2\u00B0 D e s p i t e t h i s r e l u c t a n c e , t h e U.S. Navy and t h e S t a t e Department p u s h e d t h e I n d i a n Ocean c a s e v e r y h a r d and a r g u e d t h a t t h e e x t e n s i o n o f U.S. n a v a l power w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . I n v i e w o f t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f l a n d - b a s e d f a c i l i t i e s due t o t h e n a t i o n a l i s t i c u p s u r g e and t h e g r o w i n g t i d e o f n o n - a l i g -nment i n c o u n t r i e s a l o n g t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l , a t t e n t i o n was d i r e c t e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f b a s e s i n u n p o p u l a t e d o r s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e d i s l a n d s i n t h e ocean t h a t were \" s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d and t h a t m i g h t be e x p e c t e d t o r e m a i n r e l a t i v e l y immune t o t h e n a t i o n a l i s t i c p r e s s u r e b e i n g f e l t on o v e r s e a s b a s e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d \" . 5 9 T h e r e were a number o f d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e e a r l y 1960s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e p r o c e s s o f p r o j e c t i n g n a v a l power i n t o t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . W i t h t h e d i r e c t U.S. m i l i t a r y i n v o l v e m e n t i n V i e t n a m a f t e r 1962, t h e I n d i a n Ocean d i r e c t l y e n t e r e d i n t o U.S. s t r a t e g i c c a l c u l a t i o n s . The I n d i a n g overnment's r e q u e s t f o r U.S. a i r d e f e n c e a s s i s t a n c e d u r i n g t h e S i n o - I n d i a n war o f 1962 s t r e n -g t h e n e d t h e p r o p o n e n t s o f a more a c t i v e U.S. n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. D u r i n g t h e S i n o - I n d i a n war i n O c t o b e r 1962 a p a r t o f t h e U.S. S e v e n t h F l e e t s t a t i o n e d i n t h e P a c i f i c was o r d e r e d i n t o t h e Bay o f B e n g a l . But t h e war ended b e f o r e t h e f l e e t c o u l d c r o s s t h e M a l a c c c a S t r a i t . As S i c k r e m a r k s : Darby, op. c i t . , p. 265. S i c k , op. c i t . , p. 53. 106 p a r t l y as a r e s u l t o f t h e I n d i a n e x p e r i e n c e , t h e Department o f S t a t e became c o n v i n c e d o f t h e need t o have a U.S.. m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e t o l e n d m u s c l e t o A m e r i c a n d i p l o m a c y i n t h e r e g i o n and t o u n d e r l i n e , f o r o u r f r i e n d s i n t h e r e g i o n , U.S. a b i l i t y t o meet i t s commitments\".60 In 1963 t h e r e was a g r o w i n g movement w i t h i n U.S. d e f e n c e c i r c l e s t o i n j e c t U.S. n a v a l power i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. T h i s was shown f i r s t by t h e v i s i t o f G e n e r a l M a x w e l l T a y l o r t o t h e a r e a and h i s s p e c u l a t i o n i n New D e l h i on what t h i s w o u l d mean i n t e r m s o f s h i p s . U.S. p r e s s o p i n i o n a d v a n c e d t h i s i d e a s t i l l f u r t h e r . 6 2 F i n a l l y , t h e U.S. S e c r e t a r y o f t h e Navy, P a u l N i t z e , j u s t i f i e d i t on t h e g r o u n d t h a t t h e r e was a power vacuum i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean w h i c h , by i m p l i c a t i o n a t l e a s t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t e n d e d t o f i l l . A t t h e end o f 19 63 t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was o b v i o u s l y on t h e way t o p r o j e c t i n g h e r n a v a l power i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The a i r -c r a f t c a r r i e r U.S.S. E s s e x and a n a v a l t a s k g r o u p p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e M i d - L i n k n a v a l e x e r c i s e o f CENTO i n November 1963 i n t h e A r a b i a n Sea. I n e a r l y 1964, P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n a u t h o r i z e d e n t r y o f a c a r r i e r t a s k f o r c e i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean w h i c h h i g h l i g h t e d A m e r i c a n i n t e n t i o n s t o e x t e n d t h e i r n a v a l p o w e r t h e r e . A c c o r d i n g l y , C o n c o r d Squadron, composed o f a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r 6 0 I b i d . , p. 54 6 1 A t t h e P a l a m A i r p o r t , New D e l h i , on 19 December 1963, G e n e r a l T a y l o r was r e p o r t e d t o have s t a t e d t h a t \" t h e U.S. t a s k f o r c e ( t o be s t a t i o n e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean) m i g h t c o m p r i s e one a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r , two o r t h r e e d e s t r o y e r s and one o i l t a n k e r \" . F o r d e t a i l s see S i n g h , op. c i t . . , p. 24. New Y o r k Times, f o r i n s t a n c e , r e m a r k e d t h a t \" i t seems c l e a r t h a t n a v a l power o f some s o r t must u l t i m a t e l y be a s s i g n e d t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean, and t o d a y t h i s c a n o n l y mean U.S. n a v a l power, f o r no o t h e r n a t i o n i n t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d has t h e s t r e n g t h o r c a p a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e i t \" . 23 December 1963, p. 24. 107 Bon Homme R i c h a r d , f o u r d e s t r o y e r s , and one f l e e t t a n k e r e n t e r e d t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n e a r l y A p r i l 1964. The C o n c o r d Squadron s p e n t a b o u t s i x weeks i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and c o n d u c t e d manoeuvres named O p e r a t i o n D e l a w a r e f o r t h r e e days i n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h I r a n . J The U n i t e d S t a t e s a t l a s t was p r e p a r i n g t o a p p l y h e r n a v a l power i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. C o n c o m i t a n t t o t h e commencement o f t h e d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n n a v a l power i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean t h e s t r a t e g i c i s l a n d s b a s e s c o n c e p t came t o t h e f o r e f r o n t i n A m e r i c a n n a v a l s t r a t e g i c d e s i g n s i n t h e r e g i o n w h i c h l a t e r became a m a j o r component o f t h e A m e r i c a n s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The Origin and Development of the Strategic Island Bases Concept The o r i g i n o f t h e c o n c e p t o f s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d i s l a n d b a s e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean d a t e s b a c k t o t h e e a r l y p o s t - w a r 6 4 y e a r s . P r o b a b l y i t was an i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s t r a t e g y w h i c h A m e r i c a n s were a l r e a d y u s i n g i n t h e P a c i f i c . I n t h e e a r l y 1960s an \" o f f s h o r e b a s e s t u d y team\" f r o m t h e P e n t a g o n u n d e r t o o k p l a n -n i n g o f t h e f i r s t s t a g e . D i e g o G a r c i a was f o u n d t o be t h e most s u i t a b l e b e c a u s e o f i t s p r o t e c t e d l a g o o n and t h e n e c e s s a r y s p a c e f o r an a i r s t r i p , i n a d d i t i o n t o i t s s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n . ^ 5 A d m i r a l L a Rocque s t a t e d t o t h e C o n g r e s s : 6 3 S i n g h , K.R. op. c i t . , p. 24. fi A The Sunday Times (London) i n an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d 'Diego G a r c i a , The I s l a n d s B r i t a i n S o l d ' p o i n t e d out t h a t \" t h e i s l a n d s o f t h e Chagos A r c h i p e l a g o f i r s t swam i n t o t h e c o l l e c t i v e c o n -s c i o u s n e s s o f w e s t e r n d e f e n c e ' s t r a t e g i s t s i n t h e l a t e f i f t i e s \" . The S u n d a y T i m e s , 21 S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 5 . F o r t h e o r i g i n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o n c e p t s e e , U.S., C o n g r e s s , House, S p e c i a l Sub-Committee on I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e Committee on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , D i e g o G a r c i a , 1975: The Debate o v e r t h e Base and t h e I s l a n d ' s Former I n h a b i t a n t s , , 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t S e s s . , 1975, p. 95. ^ B e z b o u r u a h , op. c i t . , p. 58. 108 P l a n s f o r moving i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean d a t e b a c k t o t h e e a r l y 1960s and even b e f o r e . Q u i e t e f f o r t s were u n d e r t a k e n t o s e a r c h f o r new b a s e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and o t h e r a r e a s . I p a r t i c i p a t e d i n some o f t h a t s e a r c h w h i l e I was i n S t r a t e g i c P l a n s i n t h e Navy D e p a r t m e n t . Many p l a n s t o e s t a b l i s h s e v e r a l new o v e r s e a s n a v a l b a s e s were k e p t h i g h l y s e c r e t i n o r d e r n o t t o a l a r m f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s o r t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e a n d C o n g r e s s . D i e g o G a r c i a emerged as t h e i d e a l l o c a t i o n f o r c o v e r a g e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean.66 F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e t h e n c i v i l i a n A s s i s t a n t D i r e c t o r o f t h e Long-Range O b j e c t i v e Group o f t h e C h i e f o f N a v a l O p e r a t i o n s (1954-1 9 7 0 ) , S t u a r t B. B a r b e r , a d m i t t e d t h a t he ( D ) e t e c t e d a vacuum o f r e a l i s t i c p l a n n i n g t o meet p o s s i b l e f u t u r e n a t i o n a l and Navy needs i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, and i n 1960 i n i t i a t e d t h r o u g h A d m i r a l B u r k e [ A r l e i g h B u r k e ] U.S.N. (Retd) t h e p o l i t i c a l e f f o r t s w h i c h k e p t D i e g o G a r c i a u n d e r B r i t i s h c o n t r o l ( r a t h e r t h a n a u t o m a t i c a l l y b e c o m i n g a dependency o f remote M a u r i t i u s ) and l e d t o t h e r e m a r k a b l y g e n e r o u s b a s e r i g h t s agreement.67 The two a s p e c t s o f U.S. s t r a t e g y , namely, t h e p e r i o d i c n a v a l p r e s e n c e and t h e s e a r c h f o r s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d i s l a n d b a s e s , p r o c e e d e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b u t i n d e p e n d e n t l y i n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e 1960s. U.S. c a r r i e r t a s k f o r c e s were c l a i m e d t o be s e l f c o n t a i n e d and n o t r e q u i r i n g i n d e p e n d e n t b a s e s u p p o r t and t h e p r o p o s e d s t r a t e g i c i s l a n d b a s e s were v i e w e d as an i n v e s t m e n t f o r t h e f u t u r e . 6 8 I n November 1963, a' new j o i n t command f o r t h e M i d d l e E a s t , A f r i c a , and S o u t h A s i a was e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n o f CINE STRIKE, an a i r f o r c e command, and s t r a t e g i c p l a n n i n g was p l a c e d u n d e r t h i s command. 0 0 U.S., C o n g r e s s . , house, P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n o f M i l i t a r y F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, op. c i t . 67 I b i d . , P. 174 . 68 S i c k . , op. c i t p. 54. 69 C. B e a z l e y and I a n C l a r k , ( C o n t i . . . t o p. 116) 109 I n 1964 a j o i n t U.S.-U.K. team s u r v e y e d a number o f i s l a n d s t a t e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n r e g a r d t o t h e p r o p o s e d s t r a t e g i c 7 n i s l a n d b a s e s . The t a s k o f t h e j o i n t s u r v e y team was t o s e l e c t a few s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d i s l a n d s t o c r e a t e a c h a i n o f i s l a n d s t e p p i n g s t o n e s a c r o s s t h e I n d i a n O c e a n i n d e p e n d e n t o f 7 1 p r o b l e m a t i c l a n d b a s e s . A f t e r t h e i r s u r v e y i n J u l y and A u g u s t 1964, t h e j o i n t U.S.-U.K. s u r v e y team s e l e c t e d D i e g o G a r c i a and 7 2 A l d a b r a as p o s s i b l e c a n d i d a t e s f o r d e v e l o p m e n t . W h i l e t h e U.S. Navy f a v o u r e d D i e g o G a r c i a , t h e U.S. A i r F o r c e ' s c h o i c e was 7 3 A l d a b r a . I n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Aden b a s e h a d t o be p h a s e d o u t as B r i t a i n ' s main b a s e west o f S i n g a p o r e , \" t h e x t h i n r e d l i n e ' o f A n g l o - A m e r i c a n p e a c e k e e p i n g w o u l d a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y be a n c h o r e d on one o r two I n d i a n Ocean b a s e s \" . 7 4 The c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and l e g a l framework t o p r o c e e d w i t h t h e p l a n had t o be t a k e n by B r i t a i n . Hence, t h e M i n i s t e r o f S t a t e f o r t h e C o l o n i e s , A n t h o n y G r e e n w o o d , a n n o u n c e d i n t h e H o u s e o f Commons on 1 0 t h o f November 19 65 t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a new c o l o n y c a l l e d t h e B r i t i s h I n d i a n Ocean T e r r i t o r y (BIOT) w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e t h r e e i s l a n d s o f D i e g o G a r c i a , P e r a s Banchos, and Solomon o f t h e Chagos A r c h i p e l a g o d e t a c h e d f r o m M a u r i t i u s , and t h e i s l a n d s o f A l d a b r a , D e s c h a r e s , and F a r q u a h a r t a k e n f r o m t h e ( c o n t i . . . f r o m p.115) P o l i t i c s o f I n t r u s i o n : The Super Powers and t h e I n d i a n Ocean, (Sydney: A l t e r n a t i v e Pub., 1979 ) , p. 7. 7 0 T h e New Y o r k Times, 30 A u g u s t 1964, p. 16. 7 1 C h r i s t i a n S c i e n c e M o n i t o r , 22 A p r i l 1965, p. 11. 7 2 Darby, op. c i t . , p. 265. 7 3 J B e z b o r u a h , op. c i t . , p. 61. 7 4 C h r i s t i a n S c i e n c e M o n i t o r , 22 A p r i l 1965, p. 11. 110 S e y c h e l l e s . A f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e BIOT f o r m a l d i s c u s s i o n s were c o n d u c t e d between t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e U n i t e d Kingdom and an agreement was r e a c h e d by exchange o f n o t e s s i g n e d a t L o n d o n on 30 December 1966 b e t w e e n G e o r g e B r o w n , S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r F o r e i g n A f f a i r s f o r B r i t a i n , and D a v i d B r u c e , U.S. Ambassador i n London f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The A g r e e m e n t o f 1966 f o r ' A v a i l a b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n I n d i a n O c e a n I s l a n d s f o r D e f e n c e P u r p o s e s ' p r o v i d e s t h a t t h e i s l a n d s o f t h e Chagos A r c h i p e l a g o as w e l l as o t h e r i s l a n d s c o m p r i s i n g BIOT w o u l d be made a v a i l a b l e as r e q u i r e d t o meet t h e need f o r b o t h g o v e r -nments f o r d e f e n c e . A r t i c l e I I o f t h e Agreement s t a t e s : A c c o r d i n g l y , a f t e r an i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f 50 y e a r s t h i s A g r e e m e n t s h a l l c o n t i n u e i n f o r c e f o r a f u r t h e r p e r i o d o f t w e n t y y e a r s u n l e s s , n o t more t h a n two y e a r s b e f o r e t h e end o f t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d e i t h e r government s h a l l have g i v e n n o t i c e o f t e r m i n a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r , i n w h i c h c a s e t h i s agreement s h a l l t e r m i n a t e two y e a r s f r o m t h e d a t e o f s u c h n o t i c e . 7 5 The Agreement s t a t e d t h a t \" t h e r e q u i r e d s i t e s s h a l l be made 7 Fi a v a i l a b l e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a u t h o r i t i e s w i t h o u t c h a r g e \" . H o w e v e r , t h e r e w e r e s e c r e t a n n e x e s u n d e r w h i c h t h e U.S. government a g r e e d t o p r o v i d e one h a l f o f t h e c o s t e s t a b l i s h i n g 7 7 BIOT, b u t n o t e x c e e d i n g US $14 m i l l i o n . U.S. f i n a n c i n g was p r o v i d e d by w a i v i n g t o t h e e x t e n t o f US $14 m i l l i o n , t h e 5% r e s e a r c h and de v e l o p m e n t s u r c h a g e a c c r u i n g i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e 7 8 U.K. p u r c h a s e o f t h e P o l a r i s m i s s i l e System. \u00C2\u00B0 7 S U.S., C o n g r e s s , House, D i e g o G a r c i a 1975, p. 51. 7 6 I b i d . , p. 50 7 7 I b i d . , p. 57. 7 R I b i d . , R e p o r t on t h e R e s e t t l e m e n t o f I n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e Chagos A r c h i p e l a g o , p. 43. From t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g t h e p l a n s f o r D i e g o G a r c i a were n o t 7 9 l i m i t e d m e r e l y t o an a u s t e r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s t a t i o n . y A c c o r d i n g t o A d m i r a l La Rocque \"Diego G a r c i a was s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f i t s c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n and p o t e n t i a l f o r a m a j o r n a v a l b a s e r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l y b e c a u s e i t c o u l d s e r v e as a s i t e f o r a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t y . 8 0 The U.S. f e l t v e r y s t r o n g l y t h a t t h e i s l a n d s s h o u l d be de-p o p u l a t e d . The B r i t i s h government, w h i c h r e t a i n e d f u l l s o v e r e i -g n t y o v e r t h e BIOT u n d e r t h e agreement, assumed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r r e l o c a t i o n o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s . Detachment c o s t s i n c l u d e d c o m p e n s a t i o n t o M a u r i t i u s f o r l o s s o f s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r t h e Chagos A r c h i p e l a g o a n d f o r t h e r e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y one t h o u s a n d i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e A r c h i p e l a g o . I n 1967 t h e B r i t i s h government p u r c h a s e d t h e l e a s e h o l d o f t h e c o p r a p l a n t a t i o n on t h e i s l a n d h e l d by t h e Chagos A g a l e g a Company. I t was hoped t h a t t h e c l o s i n g down o f c o p r a p l a n t a t i o n s , w h i c h p r o v i d e d a means o f l i v e l i h o o d t o t h e i n h a b i t a n t s , w o u l d e a s e t h e i r r e l o c a t i o n i n p p P o r t - L o u i s , M a u r i t i u s . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t no c o m p e n s a t i o n r e a c h e d t h e I l o i s , i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e Chagos A r c h i p e l a g o s , u n t i l 1978, by w h i c h t i m e l a n d p r i c e s i n M a u r i t i u s had r i s e n d r a s t i c a l -p o l y . H a v i n g d i s r u p t e d t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l way o f l i f e t h e s e I l o i s w e r e f o r c e d t o l i v e i n s q u a l o u r i n g h e t t o e s i n P o r t - L o u i s , 7 9 w B e z b o r u a h , op. c i t . , p. 62. P> 0 P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n o f M i l i t a r y F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, op. c i t . , p. 90. 8 1 D i e g o G a r c i a , The I s l a n d e r s B r i t a i n s o l d , o p . c i t . , p. 95. 8 2 I b i d . 8 3 B a r t M c D o w e l l , \" C r o s s c u r r e n t s Sweep a S t r a t e g i c S e a , \" N a t i o n a l G e o g r a p h i c , 160:4 ( O c t o b e r 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 440. 112 p e r i o d i c a l l y t a k i n g p a r t i n d e m o n s t r a t i o n s and h u n g e r s t r i k e s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e D i e g o G a r c i a p r o j e c t was o r i g i n a l l y i d e n t i f i e d as a j o i n t U.K.-U.S. p r o j e c t . I n r e a l i t y , t h e B r i t i s h l e n t t h e i r name t o t h e p r o j e c t as a c o v e r f o r a c t u a l Q A A m e r i c a n c o n t r o l . P u t b l u n t l y , as Darby s t a t e d , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had h i r e d t h e B r i t i s h F l a g . 8 5 However, once t h e g r o u n d was c l e a r e d and t h e p l a n p r o c e e d e d , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s came f o r w a r d t o s h o u l d e r t h e w e i g h t o f t h e p r o j e c t a l m o s t u n i l a t e r a l l y . The r o l e o f t h e U n i t e d Kingdom became more and more m a r g i n a l . I n t h e summer o f 1967, t h e J o i n t C h i e f s o f S t a f f p r e s e n t e d a l i m i t e d p r o p o s a l f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f f u e l l i n g f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e U.S. Navy on D i e g o G a r c i a . 8 6 Even t h i s r a n i n t o s t o r m y o p p o s i t i o n f r o m w i t h i n t h e A m e r i c a n p l a n n i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t and ft 7 t h e p r o p o s a l was r e j e c t e d . A f t e r t h i s u n e x p e c t e d r e j e c t i o n , t h e U.S. Navy t r i e d a g a i n i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1968, t h i s t i m e p r o p o s i n g a n a v a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t y and a f o r w a r d b a s e f o r d e p l o y i n g n u c l e a r s u b m a r i n e s . T h i s t i m e , o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e p r o p o s a l were s e t a s i d e . R o b e r t McNamara had been r e p l a c e d by C l a r k C l i f f o r d as t h e S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e and f o r m e r S e c r e t a r y o f t h e Navy, P a u l N i t z e , was t h e D e puty S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e . D e s p i t e o b j e c t i o n s f r o m t h e s y s t e m s a n a l y s t s , t h e new P e n t a g o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a p p r o v e d O p t i o n B and i n c l u d e d t h e $2 6 m i l l i o n r e q u e s t i n t h e 1969 d e f e n c e b u d g e t . I t Q A \" P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n o f M i l i t a r y F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, op. c i t . , p. 91. 8 5 D a r b y , op. c i t . , p. 294. 8 6 P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n o f M i l i t a r y F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, op. c i t . , p. 82. 8 7 I b i d , p. 83. 113 was a c l e a r v i c t o r y f o r t h e U.S. Navy i n i t s s e c t o r a l s t r u g g l e t o s t a k e out i t s c l a i m s t o be i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a . A l o n g w i t h o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t s i n 1968, namely, t h e U n i t e d Kingdom's d e c i s i o n t o w i t h d r a w f o r c e s e a s t o f Suez, and t h e e n t r y o f S o v i e t n a v a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t h e U.S. d e c i s i o n t o c o n s t r u c t a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s t a t i o n on D i e g o G a r c i a u s h e r e d i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. S r i Lanka's Role i n Indian Ocean P o l i t i c s i n the Early 1960s The s h i f t o f U.S. I n d i a n Ocean s t r a t e g y f r o m t h a t o f a c t i n g u n d e r t h e B r i t i s h u m b r e l l a , t o t h a t o f d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n o f n a v a l power s t a r t e d i n 1960. I n S r i L a n k a , 1960 marked t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r o f S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e , a champion o f t h e p o l i c y o f dynamic n o n - a l i g n m e n t . The S r i Lankan g o v e r n m e n t u n d e r h e r p r e m i e r s h i p p l a y e d an a c t i v e r o l e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s p r e s e n t i n g t h e S r i L a n k a n r e s p o n s e t o d e v e l o p m e n t s i n I n d i a n Ocean n a v a l p o l i t i c s . S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e came t o power i n 1960 v o w i n g t o f o l l o w t h e p a t h o f h e r l a t e h u s b a n d i n t h e f i e l d o f f o r e i g n a f f a i r s . She d e c l a r e d t h a t h e r g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d p u r s u e a p o l i c y o f n o n -a l i g n m e n t w i t h power b l o c s and n e u t r a l i s m and c o e x i s t e n c e . 8 8 The p o l i c y o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t r e q u i r e d more e l a b o r a t i o n d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d b e c a u s e o f new d e v e l o p m e n t s . On t h e one h a n d , t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f U.S. n a v a l power d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean added a new d i m e n s i o n t o t h e n a v a l - s t r a t e g i c s e t up o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e f a m i l y o f N o n - A l i g n e d n a t i o n s expanded r a p i d l y due t o t h e p r o c e s s o f d e c o l o n i z a t i o n . The Non-8 8 C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 39, 12 A u g u s t 1960, c. 51. 114 A l i g n e d movement a l s o g a i n e d more s t r e n g t h and r e c o g n i t i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . Under S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e S r i L anka i d e n t i f i e d s q u a r e l y w i t h t h e ' p o l i t i c a l c l u b ' o f t h e ' T i e r s Monde' a n d b e g a n t o p l a y a l e a d i n g r o l e i n t h e movement. C o n s e q u e n t l y , S r i L a n k a ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s went t h r o u g h a d i f f i c u l t p e r i o d . A f t e r S r i L a n k a n a t i o n a l i z e d t h e i m p o r t a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o i l , w h i c h was a monopoly o f t h r e e f o r e i g n companies - C a l t e x ( U . S . ) , ESSO ( U . S . ) , and S h e l l ( U . K . / H o l l a n d ) , some p e t r o l s t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e A m e r i c a n and B r i t i s h c ompanies were a c q u i r e d by t h e government i n A p r i l and May 1962. T h i s was done u n d e r t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e C e y l o n P e t r o l e u m C o r p o r a t i o n A c t (28 o f 1 9 6 1 ) . 8 9 The S r i L ankan G o v e r n m e n t a s s u r e d t h e c o m p a n i e s t h a t c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e a c q u i r e d p r o p e r t i e s w o u l d be p a i d a f t e r p r o m p t a n d a d e q u a t e a s s e s s m e n t o f what was due. However, t h e p a r t i e s c o u l d n o t a g r e e on t h e amount o f c o m p e n s a t i o n . The o i l companies demanded Rs.42 m i l l i o n f o r t h e p r o p e r t y a c q u i r e d by t h e government w h i l e t h e government o f f e r e d Rs.12 m i l l i o n . M e a n w h i l e , t h e U.S. government warned t h a t , u n d e r t h e H i c k e n l o o p e r Amendment t o t h e F o r e i g n A i d A c t , a i d t o S r i L a n k a w o u l d be c u t o f f u n l e s s s t e p s were t a k e n t o compensate U.S. o i l c o m p a n i e s . 9 ^ O f f i c i a l s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e two g o v e r nments met on t h e 3 r d and 6 t h J a n u a r y , 1963 t o r e s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m . D e s p i t e a n o t h e r m e e t i n g b e i n g s c h e d u l e d f o r t h e 1 1 t h J a n u a r y , t h e U.S. government c o n v e y e d i t s d e c i s i o n t o c u t o f f a i d on t h e 8 t h o f t h e same month. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e S r i L ankan g o v e r n m e n t c a l l e d o f f n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e p a y m e n t o f 8 9 I b i d . , V o l . 42, 1961, c. 4372. 9 0 T h e Times, 9 J a n u a r y 1963, p. 1. 115 c o m p e n s a t i o n . 9 1 A w i d e s p e c t r u m o f p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n i n S r i L a n k a condemned t h e U.S. d e c i s i o n t o s u s p e n d a i d . Even J.R. J a y e w a r d e n a s t a t e d t h a t \" t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , as f a r as we can s e e , was t o o h a s t y . I t s h o u l d have c o n s i d e r e d more c a r e f u l l y b e f o r e t a k i n g s u c h a s t e p Q p as s t o p p i n g a i d ' . P r i m e M i n i s t e r S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e s t a t e d : (T)hough we a r e a p o o r n a t i o n we c a n n o t p e r m i t any i n t r u s i o n i n o u r i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s b e c a u s e we a r e bound t o m a i n t a i n and i n d i c a t e o u r s e l f - r e s p e c t as a f r e e and a p r o u d n a t i o n . 9 3 N e g o t i a t i o n s o v e r c o m p e n s a t i o n and t h e r e s u m p t i o n o f a i d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o o k p l a c e l a t e r , b u t n o t d u r i n g t h e S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e r e g i m e . The P r i m e M i n i s t e r v i s i t e d C h i n a i n J a n u a r y 1963 and a t a b a n q u e t i n h e r h o n o u r i n B e i j i n g s h e o p e n l y e x p r e s s e d h e r d i s e n c h a n t m e n t w i t h t h e West. She s t a t e d : The n a t i o n s t h a t have n e w l y emerged i n A s i a and A f r i c a must s t a n d t o g e t h e r i n t h e i r s t r u g g l e o r must r u n t h e r i s k o f s u c c u m b i n g once more t o t h e r a p a c i o u s d e s i g n s o f t h e West. The o l d s a y i n g t h a t ' u n i t e d we s t a n d d i v i d e d we f a l l ' a p p l i e s w i t h e q u a l f o r c e t o n a t i o n s a s i t d o e s t o i n d i v i d u a l s . 9 4 Her c r i t i c s a t home c l a i m e d t h a t t h e t e r m ' r a p a c i o u s d e s i g n s o f t h e West' was t o o h a r s h and t h a t h e r p o l i c y o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t was t i t l e d t o w a r d s t h e Communist powers a t t h e e x p e nse o f t h e West. I n P a r l i a m e n t , she r e a f f i r m e d t h a t t h i s t h r e a t was b a s i c a l l y a 9 1 C e y l o n D a i l y News, 9 F e b r u a r y 1963, p. 1. q p C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 50, 22 F e b r u a r y 1963, c. 2038 9 3 C e y l o n D a i l y News, 4 M a r c h 1963. 9 4 C h i n a Today, Feb. 1963, p. 12. 116 t h r e a t that could only come from some Western countries, as recent i n t e r n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y had shown. J Soon a f t e r Mrs. Bandaranaike returned from B e i j i n g , rumours emanating from S o v i e t b l o c sources suggested t h a t she had d i s c u s s e d w i t h the Chinese the p o s s i b i l i t y of g r a n t i n g them permission to e s t a b l i s h a naval base i n S r i Lanka i n return f o r s u b s t a n t i a l l o n g term economic a s s i s t a n c e . The M i n i s t r y of Defence and External A f f a i r s issued a d e n i a l on 8th February 1963 and s t a t e d that the news report was absolutely f a l s e and without found a t i o n . ^ u In the p e r i o d 1960-65, S r i Lanka under Mrs. Bandaranaike's leadership came forward to play a leading r o l e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s of the region. On the one hand, S r i Lanka i n c r e a s i n g l y i d e n t i f i e d h e r s e l f w i t h the T h i r d World and i t s p o l i t i c a l movement, non-alignment. On the other hand, S r i Lanka began to take care of her n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s i n a broader framework of an Indian Ocean s e t t i n g . It was c l e a r i n the e a r l y 1960s that the United Kingdom would not be able to maintain her p o s i t i o n and r o l e i n the Indian Ocean f o r long. In accordance with the changes i n the power c o n s t e l l a t i o n i n world p o l i t i c s , power r e l a t i o n s i n the Indian Ocean would change, c r e a t i n g an interregnum there. In such circumstances, developments i n the Indian Ocean would be c r u c i a l to the s e c u r i t y of a s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d i s l a n d country l i k e S r i Lanka. Mrs. Bandaranaike was very s e n s i t i v e to these matters. The b a s i c elements of her f o r e i g n 9 5 C e y l o n , Senate, Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Vol.19 23 January, 1964, c. 2421. 9 6 C e v l o n Today, March 1963, p. 2. 117 p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s I n d i a n Ocean p o l i t i c s , w h i c h d e v e l o p e d i n f u l l s c a l e i n t h e p e r i o d 1970-77, t o o k i n i t i a l f o r m d u r i n g h e r f i r s t p r e m i e r s h i p f r o m 1 9 6 0 - 6 5 . B a n d a r a n a i k e p e r c e i v e d S r i L a n k a ' s d e f e n c e and s e c u r i t y c o n c e r n s a t two l e v e l s - t h e S o u t h A s i a n s u b - r e g i o n a l l e v e l and t h e b r o a d e r I n d i a n Ocean l e v e l . A t t h e s u b - r e g i o n a l l e v e l , one o f t h e main e l e m e n t s o f Mrs. B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s p o l i c y was t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f c l o s e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a w h i l e , a t t h e same t i m e , h a v i n g g o o d r e l a t i o n s w i t h S r i L a n k a ' s g i a n t n e i g h b o u r - I n d i a . M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e v e r y c a r e f u l l y p l a y e d t h i s b a l a n c i n g game a n d b r o u g h t t h e C h i n a l i n k as a c o u n t e r v a i l i n g d e v i c e t o t h e dominant power i n t h e S o u t h A s i a n s e t - u p . T h e r e were many f a c t o r s i n f a v o u r o f c l o s e S r i L a n k a - C h i n a r e l a t i o n s . C h i n a ' s g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t a n c e a c t e d d e f i n i t e l y as an a d v a n t a g e b e c a u s e S r i L a n k a f e l t t h a t t h e r e was no r e a s o n t o f e a r d o m i n a t i o n . There were a l s o l o n g - s t a n d i n g h i s t o r i c a l l i n k s and r e l i g i o u s r e l a t i o n s between t h e two c o u n t r i e s . S t r o n g e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s h a d d e v e l o p e d between t h e two c o u n t r i e s i n w h i c h C h i n a was v e r y g e n e r o u s t o S r i 9 7 L a n k a , e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f 1960-65. F i n a l l y , geo-p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s b r o u g h t t h e two c o u n t r i e s c l o s e r . D u r i n g t h e S i n o - I n d i a n war M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e r e s i s t e d t h e p r e s s u r e , f r o m w i t h i n h e r p a r t y and o u t s i d e , t o b r a n d C h i n a t h e a g g r e s s o r . A t t h e end o f M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s government S r i L a n k a ' s c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h C h i n a became an i s s u e i n i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s , t o o . The c o n t r o v e r s y c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h e S r i L a n k a -9 7 F o r d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n on S r i L a n k a ' s economic r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a , s e e . D. H. P r a s a d , C e y l o n ' s F o r e i g n P o l i c y u n d e r t h e B a n d a r a n a i k e ( 1 9 5 6 - 6 5 ) , (New D e l h i : S. Chand & Co. ( P v t . ) L t d . , 1973 ) , pp. 337-395. 118 C h i n e s e M a r i t i m e Agreement c o n c l u d e d i n J u l y 1963 w h i c h gave xmost f a v o u r e d n a t i o n ' t r e a t m e n t t o c o m m e r c i a l v e s s e l s engaged i n c a r g o and p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e s o f b o t h c o u n t r i e s . I n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e b u l k o f S r i L a n k a - C h i n a t r a d e was c a r r i e d on t h r o u g h T r i n c o m a l e e , t h e M a r i t i m e Agreement a r o u s e d many s p e c u l a -t i o n s . The O p p o s i t i o n , t h e U.N.P., c h a r g e d t h a t t h e r e was a s e c r e t agreement w i t h C h i n a t o l e n d T r i n c o m a l e e as a C h i n e s e n a v a l b a s e . The government c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e j e c t e d s u c h c h a r g e s . The P r i m e M i n i s t e r e x p l a i n e d t h a t \" t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n C e y l o n and C h i n a c a n n o t depend on t h e r e l a t i o n s between I n d i a and C h i n a \" . 9 8 S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e was v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o g r e a t power moves i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n a n d t h e i r i m p a c t on S r i L a n k a ' s s e c u r i t y . A m e r i c a n d e c i s i o n s t o e x t e n d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l s p h e r e o f t h e S e v e n t h F l e e t t o i n c l u d e t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t o s e n d a n a v a l t a s k f o r c e i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n 1964 were c o n s i d e r e d t o be m a t t e r s o f g r e a t c o n c e r n . The S r i Lankan government b e l i e v e d t h a t s u c h a d e c i s i o n w o u l d t r i g g e r s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y w h i c h w o u l d make I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s p a s s i v e v i c t i m s o f t h e power p o l i t i c s o f e x t e r n a l p o w e r s . On 16 December 1963, t h e S r i Lankan government e x p r e s s e d i t s c o n c e r n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o v e r a r e p o r t t h a t a n u c l e a r t a s k f o r c e was t o be s e n t t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The A m e r i c a n s b r u s h e d a s i d e t h e s e c o n c e r n s and s a i d t h a t t h e i r s h i p s w o u l d n o t v i s i t Colombo i f t h e r e were o b j e c t i o n s on Q Q t h e p a r t o f S r i L a n k a . The S r i L a n k a n g o v e r n m e n t t h e n C e y l o n , S e n a t e , P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , 23 J a n u a r y 1964, V o l . 19, c. 2415. \" i b i d . , 23 J a n u a r y 1964, c c . 2402-3. 119 d e c i d e d n o t t o a l l o w n a v a l v e s s e l s o r a i r c r a f t c a r r y i n g n u c l e a r weapons t o e n t e r S r i Lankan s e a p o r t s , a i r p o r t s , o r t e r r i t o r i a l w a t e r s a n d c o n v e y e d t h e d e c i s i o n t o a l l d i p l o m a t i c m i s s i o n s a c c r e d i t e d t o t h e c o u n t r y 1 0 0 S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e r a i s e d t h e i s s u e a t t h e S e c o n d C o n f e r e n c e o f Heads o f S t a t e s and Governments o f N o n - A l i g n e d c o u n t r i e s h e l d a t C a i r o i n O c t o b e r 1964. S r i L a n k a s p o n s o r e d t h r e e s p e c i f i c p r o p o s a l s a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e w h i c h were d i r e c t l y l i n k e d t o d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The f i r s t r e s o l u t i o n recommended t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d e - n u c l e a r i s e d zones c o v e r i n g t h e o ceans o f t h e w o r l d w h i c h had h i t h e r t o been f r e e f r o m n u c l e a r weapons, i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d e s i r e s e x p r e s s e d by t h e s t a t e s and p e o p l e s c o n c e r n e d . The s e c o n d r e s o l u t i o n r e q u e s t e d non-a l i g n e d s t a t e s t o t a k e i m m e d i a t e a c t i o n t o c l o s e t h e i r p o r t s and a i r f i e l d s t o s h i p s and a i r c r a f t c a r r y i n g n u c l e a r weapons. The t h i r d r e s o l u t i o n r e q u e s t e d c o l o n i a l powers t o l i q u i d a t e e x i s t i n g b a s e s and t o r e f r a i n f r o m e s t a b l i s h i n g new b a s e s i n c o l o n i a l t e r r i t o r i e s . u A l l t h e s e r e s o l u t i o n s w e r e a c c e p t e d a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e Programme f o r Peace and I n t e r n a t i o n a l Co-o p e r a t i o n a d o p t e d by t h e C o n f e r e n c e . The Programme s t a t e s : The C o n f e r e n c e condemns t h e e x p r e s s e d i n t e n t i o n o f i m p e r i a l i s t p o w e r s t o e s t a b l i s h b a s e s i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n , as a c a l c u l a t e d a t t e m p t t o i n t i m i d a t e t h e e m e r g i n g c o u n t r i e s o f A f r i c a and A s i a and u n w a r r a n t e d e x t e n s i o n o f t h e p o l i c y o f n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m and i m p e r i a l i s m . 1 0 2 1 0 0 I b i d . 1 0 1 C e y l o n D a i l y News, 12 November 1964. u N o n - A l i g n e d C o n f e r e n c e s : B a s i c Documents, 1961-1975, (Colombo: B a n d a r a n a i k e C e n t r e f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s , 1 9 7 6 ) , p. 30. 120 The s u r v e y o f c e r t a i n i s l a n d s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, i n c l u d i n g D i e g o G a r c i a , by a j o i n t A n g l o - A m e r i c a n team d i d n o t go u n n o t i c e d i n S r i L a n k a . Some l e f t - o r i e n t e d n e w s l e t t e r s a n d j o u r n a l s r e p o r t e d t h e B r i t i s h d e c i s i o n t o make s e v e r a l B r i t i s h i s l a n d s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a v a i l a b l e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r n a v a l and* a i r b a s e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e T r i b u n e , a Colombo-based news r e v i e w , c a r r i e d a r t i c l e s on U.S. s t r a t e g i c c o n c e r n s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and s t a t e d t h a t S r i L a n k a seemed t o be i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e n u c l e a r zone o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . U J B o t h t h e U.S. and t h e U.K. g o v e r n m e n t s r e j e c t e d t h e s e c o n c e r n s . 1 ^ 4 B u t t h i s d i d n o t a l l e v i a t e c o n c e r n o v e r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f h a v i n g n u c l e a r b a s e s c l o s e t o S r i L a n k a . I t was i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e p r e s e n t e d t h e t h i r d r e s o l u t i o n t o t h e C a i r o C o n f e r e n c e and t h e f i n a l communique i n c l u d e d i t as The c o n f e r e n c e c o n s i d e r s t h e m a i n t e n a n c e a n d f u t u r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f f o r e i g n m i l i t a r y b a s e s and t h e s t a t i o n i n g o f f o r e i g n t r o o p s on t h e t e r r i t o r i e s o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , a g a i n s t t h e e x p r e s s e d w i l l o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s , as a g r o s s v i o l a t i o n o f s o v e r e i g n t y o f S t a t e s , a n d as a t h r e a t t o f r e e d o m and i n t e r n a t i o n a l peace.105 S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e e l a b o r a t e d on t h e s e c o n c e p t s i n 1970 when she p r e s e n t e d h e r I n d i a n Ocean Peace Zone P r o p o s a l ' . The o r i g i n o f t h i s p r o p o s a l c a n c l e a r l y be s e e n i n t h e s e r e s o l u t i o n s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e Second N o n - A l i g n e d Summit. I n 1964, t h e s e p r o p o s a l s were made i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e x t e n s i o n o f U.S. 1 0 3 T r i b u n e (Colombo), V o l . 10, 5 September 1964, p. 6. 1 Q 4 C e v l o n D a i l y News, 18 September 1964 ^\u00E2\u0080\u00A2Q^Non-Aligned C o n f e r e n c e s : B a s i c Documents., op. c i t . , p. 29. 121 n a v a l power i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean and were b a s i c a l l y d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t U.S. n a v a l a c t i v i t i e s . A f t e r S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s d e f e a t i n t h e g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n o f 1965, D u d l e y Senanayake became P r i m e M i n i s t e r as t h e head o f a c o a l i t i o n government d o m i n a t e d by h i s U n i t e d N a t i o n a l P a r t y . The r e t u r n t o power o f t h e U.N.P. d i d n o t r e s u l t i n t h e c o m p l e t e r e v e r s i o n o f S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y t o i t s p r e - 1 9 5 6 s t a t e . The new g o v e r n m e n t h a d t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e new d i r e c t i o n s i n i t i a t e d a f t e r 1956 and i t a f f i r m e d i t s a d h e r e n c e t o t h e p o l i c y o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t . However, i t wanted t o d i s s o c i a t e i t s e l f f r o m t h e p o l i c i e s o f t h e p r e v i o u s government and a d v o c a t e d a p o l i c y o f ' s t r i c t n o n - a l i g n m e n t ' . D u d l e y Senanayake d e c l a r e d : I h a v e a l w a y s s t a t e d t h a t my c o n c e p t o f n o n -a l i g n m e n t i s r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e c o n c e p t o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t o f t h e p r e v i o u s G o v e r n m e n t . I b e l i e v e i n b e i n g t h r o u g h l y n o n - a l i g n e d . F o r i n s t a n c e , my c o n c e p t o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t does n o t v a r y w i t h t h e n a t u r e o f t h e power b l o c t h a t does a wrong a c t . 1 0 6 U n d e r t h e r u l e o f t h e U . N . P . - l e d c o a l i t i o n g o v e r n m e n t , c e r t a i n changes o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y were c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e . I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e 1965-70 U.N.P. r e g i m e d i d n o t s h a r e t h e v i s i o n o f a c r u s a d e a g a i n s t w o r l d communism; b u t r e l a t i o n s w i t h Communist c o u n t r i e s d e t e r i o r a t e d r a p i d l y t o t h e p o i n t o f n e a r break-down 10 7 w i t h t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a . The government was more c o n c e r n e d w i t h m a i n t a i n i n g c o r d i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e West i n g e n e r a l , and w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n p a r t i c u l a r . One o f t h e f i r s t s t e p s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n was t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f an agreement 1 0 ^ C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 60, 23 A p r i l 1965, c. 1165 1 0 7 S e e K o d i k a r a , op c i t . , pp. 119-120. 122 w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r e g a r d i n g t h e i s s u e o f c o m p e n s a t i o n t o t h e n a t i o n a l i z e d o i l c o m p a n i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e agreement s i g n e d w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n June 19 65, t h e S r i Lankan government 1 0 R a g r e e d t o pay Rs.55 m i l l i o n o v e r a p e r i o d o f f i v e y e a r s . The N a t i o n a l Government l e d by D u d l e y Senanayake p l a c e d h i g h hopes on U.S. a i d and economic a s s i s t a n c e f o r i t s de v e l o p m e n t s t r a t e g y . I n d e e d , t h e government was a b l e t o o b t a i n m a s s i v e a i d as w e l l as l o a n s f r o m t h e West. I n F e b r u a r y 1966, an agreement was s i g n e d w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s by w h i c h S r i L a n k a o b t a i n e d U.S.$7.5 m i l l i o n . 1 ^ * 9 I t seemed t h a t o b t a i n i n g economic a i d had p r i o r i t y o v e r p u r s u i n g a c o n s i s t e n t l i n e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a -11 n t i o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , on V i e t n a m , D u d l e y Senanayake b a s i c a l l y m a i n t a i n e d t h e p o l i c y l a i d down by S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e . Soon a f t e r he resumed o f f i c e , he s i g n e d a j o i n t a p p e a l f o r pea c e i n V i e t n a m made by s e v e n t e e n heads o f N o n - A l i g n e d s t a t e s i n p u r s u a n -ce o f t h e 1964 C a i r o D e c l a r a t i o n . 1 1 1 When t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e x t e n d e d bombing t o t h e o i l i n s t a l l a t i o n s i n H a n o i and H a i p h o n g i n 1966, D u d l e y Senanayake e x p r e s s e d h i s deep c o n c e r n and s t a t e d t h a t I f e e l t h a t an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e b o m b i n g must i n e v i t a b l y h a r d e n p o s i t i o n s a n d r e t a r d t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h i s o b j e c t i v e o f a n e g o t i a t e d p e a c e . I t w o u l d f u r t h e r l e a d t o a w i d e n i n g o f t h e c o n f l i c t w i t h s e r i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e pea c e 1 no x u o K e e s i n c r ' s C o n t e m p o r a r y A r c h i v e s , V o l . 15, J u l y 10-17, 1965, p. 2081. 1 0 9 I b i d . , V o l . 16, March 5-12, 1966, p. 212-72 1 1 ( ^ K o d i k a r a , op. c i t . , p. 126 1 1 : L I b i d . . p. 126 123 o f o u r r e g i o n and t h e w i d e r w o r l d community.112 I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e V i e t n a m i s s u e had huge r e p e r c u s s i o n s i n S r i L a n k a n p o l i t i c s . L e f t - o r i e n t e d s t u d e n t b o d i e s and t r a d e u n i o n s and a l s o many p o w e r f u l B u d d h i s t o r g a n i z a -t i o n s were v o c i f e r o u s a g a i n s t A m e r i c a n a c t i o n s i n V i e t n a m and made t h i s a l i v e i s s u e i n i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s . I n s u c h a c o n t e x t , D u d l e y Senanayake had t o s p e l l o ut h i s g overnment's s t a n d . I n g e n e r a l , D u d l e y Senanayake seemed t o be l e s s c o n c e r n e d w i t h U.S. n a v a l a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The U.S.-U.K. agreement o v e r t h e BIOT was by no means a s e c r e t i n S r i L ankan p o l i t i c s . The l e f t p a r t i e s r a i s e d t h e i s s u e a n d v e h e m e n t l y o p p o s e d i t . The S r i L ankan government's r e m a r k a b l e s i l e n c e was n a t u r a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d as t a c i t s u p p o r t f o r U.S. n a v a l p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. To sum up, t h e 1948-1968 p e r i o d w i t n e s s e d an i m p o r t a n t change i n U.S. s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n 1945, t h e I n d i a n Ocean d i d n o t f a l l w i t h i n t h e p r i m a r y s t r a t e g i c c o n c e r n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The A m e r i c a n d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o e x t e n d i t s d i r e c t n a v a l power i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean was i n d i c a t e d by t h e J o i n t C h i e f s o f S t a f f ' s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b a s e on D i e g o G a r c i a . T h i s p e r i o d f r o m 1948-1968 can be d i v i d e d i n t o two p h a s e s . D u r i n g t h e f i r s t p h a s e , f r o m 1945-1960, t h e U.S. was c o n t e n t t o p r o t e c t i t s i n t e r e s t s u n d e r t h e shade o f t h e B r i t i s h u m b r e l l a i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n t h e e a r l y 1950s, as p a r t o f t h e c o n t a i n m e n t p o l i c y a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , t h e U.S. engaged i n a l l i a n c e b u i l d i n g i n t h e I n d i a n 1 1 2 P r e s s Communique, M i n i s t r y o f D e f e n c e a n d E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s , 30 June 1966, q u o t e d by K o d i k a r a , op. c i t . , p. 128. 124 O c e a n l i t t o r a l . A m e r i c a n p o l i c y up t o 1960 was b a s i c a l l y p o l i t i c a l and d i p l o m a t i c r a t h e r t h a n m i l i t a r y . The Suez c r i s i s b r o u g h t home t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f r e l y i n g on B r i t a i n t o p r o t e c t w e s t e r n i n t e r e s t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. A f t e r 1960, a new phase b e g a n i n U.S. s t r a t e g y and t h e U.S. i n c r e a s e d i t s a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n t h e l i g h t o f a d v a n c e s i n m i l i t a r y t e c h n o l o g y i n t h e l a t e 1950s and e a r l y 1960s t h e ocean a c q u i r e d a g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e i n U.S. s t r a t e g i c c a l c u l a t i o n s . A f t e r 1960 t h e U.S. s t a r t e d s e n d i n g i t s n a v a l t a s k f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. A t t h e same t i m e , t h e U.S. m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i s t s d e v e l o p e d t h e S t r a t e g i c I s l a n d B a s e s c o n c e p t and p u s h e d h a r d t o g e t i t a p p r o v e d by t h e p o l i c y m a r k e r s . The a p p r o v a l o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a b a s e on D i e g o G a r c i a i n 1968 marked a new s t a g e i n U.S. n a v a l p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. That y e a r a l s o marked t h e f i r s t e n t r y o f S o v i e t N a v a l U n i t s i n t o t h e r e g i o n . 125 C h a p t e r IV The Soviet Naval Entry into the Indian Ocean The d i s p a t c h o f a s m a l l n a v a l f l o t i l l a c o n s i s t i n g o f a c r u i s e r , a g u i d e d m i s s i l e d e s t r o y e r , and a n o t h e r d e s t r o y e r i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n M a r c h 1968 opened up a new phase i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f S o v i e t s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. S i n c e t h e n , t h e r e g u l a r a n n u a l d e p l o y m e n t o f a S o v i e t n a v a l s q u a d r o n has become a permanent f e a t u r e i n t h e s t r a t e g i c l a n d s c a p e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The S o v i e t e n t r y s e t i n m o t i o n a new phase i n n a v a l p o l i t i c s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean by e n d i n g t h e monopoly o f seapower 1 e n j o y e d by t h e West f o r c e n t u r i e s . I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s a f t e r t h e Second W o r l d War t h e I n d i a n Ocean d i d n o t f i g u r e i n S o v i e t s t r a t e g i c c a l c u l a t i o n s . The move i n M a r c h 1968 h i g h l i g h t e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e I n d i a n Ocean had come t o o c c u p y an i m p o r t a n t p l a c e i n S o v i e t s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g , as w e l l as i n t h e g l o b a l r e a c h o f h e r n a v y . The r e a s o n s f o r s u c h a change i n S o v i e t n a v a l s t r a t e g y and f o r t h e S o v i e t e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean c o n s t i t u t e s an i m p o r t a n t s u b j e c t o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e i m p a c t t h e s e changes have had on power p o l i t i c s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and on t h e c e n t r a l s t r a t e g i c b a l a n c e between t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . The p a u c i t y o f i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m S o v i e t s o u r c e s makes t h i s a d i f f i c u l t a r e a o f s t u d y and t h e work done so f a r has had a s i g n i f i c a n t s p e c u l a t i v e component. i J a p a n p o s e d a s e r i o u s c h a l l e n g e t o w e s t e r n n a v a l hegemony i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean d u r i n g t h e Second W o r l d War. B u t a f t e r t h e war, t h e w e s t e r n powers r e - e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r p o s i t i o n . 126 'Legacy' of the H i s t o r i c a l Russian Thrust to Warm Waters The w i d e l y p r e v a l a n t e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e p r o c e s s o f ' f o r w a r d d e v e l o p m e n t ' o f t h e S o v i e t n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s t h a t i t i s a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l R u s s i a n t h r u s t t o warm w a t e r s d a t i n g b a c k t o t h e days o f t h e T s a r s . C o t t r e l l and B u r r e l l , f o r example, w r i t e : S o v i e t i n t e r e s t i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n i s t h e e x t e n s i o n o f an o l d C z a r i s t t h r u s t f o r an o u t l e t t o t h e s o u t h . . . The d r i v e f o r warm w a t e r p o r t s and an o u t l e t t o t h e g r e a t w a t e r s o f t h e w o r l d c a n be t r a c e d b a c k t o t h e days o f P e t e r t h e G r e a t and C a t h e r i n e . 2 E v i d e n c e , r a n g i n g f r o m r e m a r k s made by P e t e r t h e G r e a t on t h e nee d f o r warm w a t e r p o r t s t o t h e M o l o t o v - R i b b e n t r o p t a l k s i n 1940, i s c i t e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c o n n e c t i o n between p r e s e n t - d a y S o v i e t a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e T s a r i s t i n t e n t i o n s v i s - a - v i s t h a t a r e a . V i e w e d i n i t s h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , i t i s c l e a r t h a t P e t e r t h e G r e a t d i d n o t i n t e n d t o o b t a i n an o u t l e t t o t h e I n d i a n OCean when he s t r e s s e d t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a warm w a t e r p o r t . I t i s t r u e t h a t R u s s i a u n d e r t h e T s a r s r e p e a t e d l y a t t e m p t e d t o d e v e l o p a r o u t e t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean t o a c q u i r e h e r s h a r e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean t r a d e . However, R u s s i a d i d n o t have t h e c a p a b i l i t y t o g a i n a c c e s s t o t h e E l Dorado i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. A f t e r B r i t a i n e s t a b l i s h e d i t s n a v a l supremacy t h e r e , R u s s i a n p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n Ocean z A l v i n J . C o t t r e l l and R.M. B u r r e l l , \"The S o v i e t Navy and t h e I n d i a n Ocean,\" S t r a t e g i c R eview, 2:4 ( F a l l 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 25. ^ D u r i n g t h i s t i m e R u s s i a ' a o n l y c o a s t l i n e was on t h e B a l t i c w h i c h was d o m i n a t e d by Sweden and P o l a n d . P e t e r ' s i n t e n t i o n was t o o b t a i n n a v a l a c c e s s t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n t h r o u g h p o r t s on t h e B l a c k Sea w h i c h were t h e n d o m i n a t e d by T u r k e y . F o r a v i v i d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s p o i n t , see G e o f f r e y J u k e s , The I n d i a n Ocean i n S o v i e t N a v a l P o l i c y , A d e l p h i P a p e r 87, ( L o n d o n : I I S S , May 197 2 ) , p. 1. 127 was c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o E u r o p e a n p o l i t i c s p a r t i c u l a r l y t o B r i t i s h p o l i c y r e g a r d i n g t h e B a l k a n s . T h e r e f o r e , R u s s i a n p l a n s t o make i n r o a d s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y s h o u l d be v i e w e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f E u r o p e a n power p o l i t i c s . F o r i n s t a n c e , a f t e r t h e T r e a t y o f B e r l i n 1878, w h i c h a n n u l l e d R u s s i a n g a i n s f r o m T u r k e y u n d e r t h e e a r l i e r San S t e f a n o T r e a t y , c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s i n t h e R u s s i a n s t a t e , s u c h a s G e n e r a l S k o b e l e v , a d v o c a t e d s e n d i n g an army i n t o I n d i a by l a n d w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f s e t t i n g o f f an u p r i s i n g . S u b s e q u e n t l y , i n v i e w o f t h e r i s i n g t h r e a t f r o m Germany, b o t h I m p e r i a l R u s s i a and B r i t a i n d e c i d e d t o r e s o l v e - t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s and c o n c l u d e d t h e P e t e r s b u r g C o n v e n t i o n i n 1907. Early Bolshevik Regime and the Indian Ocean Area I t i s c l a i m e d t h a t \" ( T ) h e B o l s h e v i k R e v o l u t i o n o f 1917 d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e i m p e r i a l l e g a c y o f t h e T s a r s \" . 4 The B o l s h e v i k s were i n f a c t v e r y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e ' C o l o n i a l and s e m i - C o l o n i a l W o r l d o f t h e E a s t ' b u t t h e c o n t e x t was d i f f e r e n t . No s o o n e r was B o l s h e v i k r u l e e s t a b l i s h e d i n R u s s i a , t h a n t h e S o v i e t Government i s s u e d an 'Appeal t o a l l M u s l i m w o r k e r s o f R u s s i a and t h e E a s t ' on December 3, 1917. The s t a t e m e n t embodied t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s p r o c l a i m e d by t h e 'Decree on Pe a c e and D e c l a r a t i o n o f R i g h t s o f t h e P e o p l e o f R u s s i a ' and r e q u e s t e d 'Muslims o f R u s s i a n C e n t r a l A s i a , P e r s i a n s , T u r k s , A r a b s and H i n d u s ' f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t f o r t h e r e v o l u t i o n . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s u c h an a p p e a l i n t h e p r e -4 R a s u l Bux R a i s , The I n d i a n Ocean i n Superpower S t r a t e g i e s , u n p u b l i s h e d Ph.D. t h e s i s , 1981, U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a , p. 145. ^ I n s t i t u t e o f O r i e n t a l S t u d i e s o f t h e USSR Academy o f ( c o n t i . . . t o p. 135) 128 b r o a d c a s t i n g e r a was n e g l i g i b l e . The s t r a t e g y o f r e v o l u t i o n i n t h e c o l o n i a l and s e m i - c o l o n i a l c o u n t r i e s was d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l by t h e N a t i o n a l and C o l o n i a l C o m m i s s i o n o f t h e Second C o m i n t e r n C o n g r e s s h e l d i n J u l y 1920. I n h i s d r a f t t h e s i s t o t h e C o n g r e s s on n a t i o n a l and c o l o n i a l q u e s t i o n s , L e n i n p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e Communist I n t e r n a t i o n a l s h o u l d s u p p o r t b o u r g e o i s - d e m o c r a t i c movements i n t h e b a c k w a r d c o u n t r i e s i n t h e n a t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n t o e s t a b l i s h i n d e p e n d e n c e . A f t e r t h e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s , t h e C o m i n t e r n c o n v e n e d t h e C o n g r e s s o f t h e P e o p l e o f t h e E a s t a t Baku i n September 1920. T h e r e Z i n o v i e v c a l l e d f o r \"an u p r i s i n g a g a i n s t B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l i s m \" . I n i t s r e s o l u t i o n , t h e Baku C o n g r e s s u r g e d t h e w o r k i n g masses o f A f r i c a and A s i a t o f i g h t a g a i n s t c o l o n i a l i s m : \"We a r e now c a l l i n g on you t o f i g h t t h e f i r s t g e n u i n e H o l y War u n d e r t h e r e d b a n n e r o f t h e C o m m u n i s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l \" . N e v e r t h e l e s s , S o v i e t i n f l u e n c e i n t h e c o l o n i a l w o r l d was a l m o s t Q n o n - e x i s t e n t . As J u k e s p o i n t s o u t : ( c o n t i . . . f r o m p.134) S c i e n c e , L e n i n and N a t i o n a l L i b e r a t i o n i n t h e E a s t (Moscow: P r o g r e s s P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 7 8 ) , p. 44. 6 F o r t h e d r a f t t h e s i s , s e e . V . I . L e n i n , L e n i n on t h e N a t i o n a l and C o l o n i a l Q u e s t i o n s ( P e k i n g : F o r e i g n Languages P r e s s , 1 9 7 0 ) , pp. 20-29. 7 L o u i s F i s c h e r , The S o v i e t s i n W o r l d A f f a i r s 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 9 ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 1 ) , p. 283. 8Communist I n t e r n a t i o n a l , No. 15, 1920, p. 3148, Quoted i n I n s t i t u t e o f O r i e n t a l S t u d i e s o f USSR Academy o f S c i e n c e , o p . c i t . p.79. ^ F i s c h e r w r i t e s : \" D e s p i t e t h i s o a t h o f arms, t h e H o l y War was c o n c e i v e d as a n o n - m i l i t a r y o f f e n s i v e d i r e c t e d by t h e C o u n c i l o f P r o p a g a n d a and A c t i o n c r e a t e d by t h e C o n g r e s s t o match t h e C o u n c i l o f A c t i o n o f t h e B r i t i s h t r a d e u n i o n s . The i n f a n t r y o f t h e E a s t w o u l d r e i n f o r c e t h e c a v a l r y o f t h e W e s f ' . o r i ^ c i t . , p . 2 8 4 . 129 D u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e S o v i e t r e g i m e , t h e B o l s h e v i k s a t t a c h e d some i m p o r t a n c e , as had G e n e r a l S k o b e l e v b e f o r e them, t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g r e b e l l i o n i n t h e E a s t , e s p e c i a l l y i n I n d i a , as a means o f w e a k e n i n g t h e B r i t i s h - t h e m oving s p i r i t b e h i n d a n t i - B o l s h e v i k f o r c e s ... as t h e B r i t i s h abandoned t h e i r s u p p o r t o f t h e R u s s i a n ' w h i t e s ' , t h e u r g e n c y o f t h e need t o c r e a t e an a n t i - B r i t i s h d i v e r s i o n d i m i n i s h e d . 1 0 T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t s u s t a i n e d S o v i e t i n t e r e s t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e R e v o l u t i o n . Molotov-Ribbentrop Secret Protocol Those who p o s t u l a t e a c o n t i n u i t y between R u s s i a n i n t e n t i o n s u n d e r t h e T s a r s and t h e p r e s e n t S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a l s o h i g h l i g h t t h e M o l o t o v - R i b b e n t r o p P a c t and t h e S e c r e t P r o t o c o l t o d i v i d e t h e B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l e m p i r e -- a \" g i g a n t i c w o r l d - w i d e e s t a t e i n b a n k r u p t c y \" \u00E2\u0080\u0094 between Germany, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , I t a l y , and J a p a n . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e P r o t o c o l , Germany and I t a l y were t o b u i l d t h e i r e m p i r e s i n A f r i c a . J a p a n w o u l d i n h e r i t B r i t i s h p o s s e s s i o n s i n t h e P a c i f i c b a s i n . A r t i c l e 4 o f t h e S e c r e t P r o t o c o l r e v e a l s t h a t \" t h e S o v i e t U n i o n d e c l a r e s t h a t i t s t e r r i t o r i a l a s p i r a t i o n s c e n t e r s o u t h o f t h e n a t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean\". O b s e r v i n g c u r r e n t S o v i e t n a v a l s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, T.B. M i l l a r o b s e r v e s t h a t \" r e c e n t S o v i e t a c t i v i t i e s do f o r m a p a t t e r n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e S e c r e t P r o t o c o l t o t h e D r a f t 1940 F o u r Power P a c t ...\" 1 2 i n J u k e s , op. c i t . , p. 2. 1 : 1-R.J. S o n t a g and J.S. B e d d i e , e d s . N a z i - S o v i e t R e l a t i o n s 1939-1941. The Documents f r o m t h e A r c h i v e s o f t h e German F o r e i g n O f f i c e ( W a s i n g t o n D.C.: Department o f S t a t e , 1 9 4 8 ) . 1 2 T . B . M i l l a r , The I n d i a n and P a c i f i c Oceans; Some S t r a - t e g i c C o n s i d e r a t i o n s , A d e l p h i P a p e r s , 57 (London: I I S S , 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 5 130 I n e x a m i n i n g t h e S e c r e t P r o t o c o l o f t h e F o u r Power P a c t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p o i n t o u t , f i r s t o f a l l , t h a t t h e p r o p o s a l came f r o m R i b b e n t r o p and n o t f r o m t h e S o v i e t s i d e . I n t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e F u h r e r ...' R i b b e n t r o p w r o t e t o 'my d e a r H e r r S t a l i n ' on 14 O c t o b e r 1940' ... t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , I t a l y , J a p a n and Germany adopt a l o n g r a n g e p o l i c y and t o c a r r y o u t a ' d e l i b e r a t i o n o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t s on a w o r l d wide s c a l e ' . 1 3 The c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e d r a f t P r o t o c o l was p r e s e n t e d i s a l s o v e r y i m p o r t a n t . By O c t o b e r 1940, Germany was a l r e a d y p l a n n i n g t h e i n v a s i o n o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . The f i r s t s t e p i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n was t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e N a z i power i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e . H i t l e r s t a r t e d t a k i n g s t e p s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n by s e n d i n g t h e Wehrmacht i n t o Romania and F i n l a n d . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e c o m p e t i t i o n between t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and Germany o v e r t h e B a l k a n s became open. The i n t e n t i o n o f R i b b e n t r o p ' s d r a f t p r o t o c o l was t h a t o f d i v e r t i n g S o v i e t a t t e n t i o n f r o m t h e B a l k a n a r e a . M o l o t o v was w e l l aware o f t h e t r a p and he w r o t e t o t h e S o v i e t Ambassador i n London t h a t \" t h e Germans and J a p a n e s e w o u l d a p p a r e n t l y v e r y much l i k e t o p u s h us i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e P e r s i a n G u l f and I n d i a . We have d e c l i n e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s q u e s t i o n b e c a u s e we b e l i e v e s u c h a d v i c e on Germany's p a r t t o be i n a p p r o p r i a t e \" . \" ' \" 4 M o l o t o v ' s b e h a v i o u r w h i l e he was i n B e r l i n i n November 194 0 t o d i s c u s s t h e p r o p o s e d P r o t o c o l r e v e a l s how S t a l i n b r i e f e d him f o r t h e m i s s i o n : \" M o l o t o v was t o l i s t e n a t t e n t i v e l y , w i t h a f r i e n d l y mien, t o a l l s u g g e s t i o n s , t o a c c e p t no new commitments, 13 I s s a c D e u t s c h e r , S t a l i n ( M i d d l e s e x : P e n g u i n B o o k s , 19 6 1 ) , p. 440 1 4 Q u o t e d i n H. A d o m e i t , \" S o v i e t P o l i c y i n \" t h e M i d d l e E a s t : P r o b l e m s o f A n a l y s i s \" , S o v i e t S t u d i e s , X X X I I I : 2 ( A p r i l 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 296. 131 and t o b a r g a i n h a r d o v e r t h e B a l k a n S t a t e s \" . 1 5 A t t h e d i s c u s s i o n s i n B e r l i n , M o l o t o v ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n was t h e p r o b l e m o f d i s e n t a n -g l i n g t h e S o v i e t and t h e German s p h e r e s o f i n f l u e n c e i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e . To M o l o t o v , i n D e u t s c h e r ' s words, \" ( 0 ) n e B a l k a n b i r d i n t h e hand was w o r t h a l l t h e o r i e n t a l b i r d s i n a l l t h e bushes o f t h e B r i t i s h e m p i r e \" . The S o v i e t r e s p o n s e t o t h e s e c r e t p r o t o c o l was a c l e a r d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e S o v i e t i n t e n t i o n o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e Germans i n t h e same c u r r e n c y . S t a l i n was n o t i n p r i n c i p l e o p p o s e d t o R i b b e n t r o p ' s s u g g e s t i o n b u t c o n d i t i o n e d a c c e p t a n c e o f i t t o (1) w i t h d r a w a l o f German f o r c e s f r o m F i n l a n d ; (2) r e c o g n i -t i o n t h a t B u l g a r i a b e l o n g e d t o t h e S o v i e t s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e ; (3) h e l p i n o b t a i n i n g a l o n g t e r m l e a s e o f b a s e s i n t h e B l a c k Sea s t r a i t s . H i t l e r w o u l d a c c e p t s u c h t e r m s o n l y i f he abandoned h i s p l a n s t o a t t a c k t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . A c c o r d i n g l y , S t a l i n ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h e S e c r e t P r o t o c o l c a n n o t be c o n s t r u e d as an a c c e p -t a n c e . Soon a f t e r t h e Second W o r l d War, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n d i d n o t w i t h d r a w i t s f o r c e s f r o m N o r t h I r a n and a l s o made t e r r i t o r i a l 17 c l a i m s o v e r t h e K a r s and A r d a h a n a r e a s o f E a s t e r n T u r k e y . \"When S t a l i n was c o n f r o n t e d w i t h w e s t e r n o p p o s i t i o n t o c l a i m s b e y o n d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ' s s o u t h e r n b o r d e r s , he was p r e p a r e d n o t t o p u r s u e t h e m \" 1 8 As Gh e b h a r d t p o i n t e d o u t , f r o m 1940 u n t i l 1968 1 5 D e u t s c h e r , S t a l i n , p. 440 1 6 I b i d . , p. 441. 1 7 F o r S o v i e t t e r r i t o r a l c l a i m s t o t h e K a r s and A r a d a h a n a r e a s o f E a s t e r n T u r k e y , see K e e s i n q ' s C o n t e m p o r a r y A r c h i v e s , 1976, pp. 7737-8 and 8076. 1 8 K i m C. B e a z l e y and I a n C l a r k , The P o l i t i c s o f I n t r u s i o n . The S u p e r P o w e r s a n d t h e I n d i a n O c e a n ( S y d n e y : A l t e r n a t i v e P u b l i s h i n g C o r p o r a t i o n , 1 9 7 9 ) , p. 71. t h e S o v i e t U n i o n d i d n o t make any c l a i m s t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean and m i l i t a r y w r i t i n g d o e s n o t g i v e a s i n g l e h i n t o f p o t e n t i a l i n t e r e s t o r c o n c e r n w i t h t h e a r e a i n q u e s t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s m i s l e a d i n g t o draw a c o n n e c t i o n between t h e S o v i e t n a v a l e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n 1968 and p a s t R u s s i a n and S o v i e t i n i t i a t i v e s t o w a r d s t h a t Ocean. The c o n t e x t o f t h e S o v i e t d e c i s i o n t o s e n d h e r n a v a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n 1968 i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e p a s t . I n s t e a d o f v i e w i n g i t as an i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f h e r h i s t o r i c a l d e s i r e t o have an o u t l e t t o t h e warm w a t e r s , i t i s p r o p o s e d t o v i e w t h e S o v i e t n a v a l e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e c o n t e x t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e S o v i e t d e c i s i o n t o s e n d t h e i r n a v a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean was by no means a sudden o r hapha-z a r d move. I n o r d e r t o c o n s t r u e t h e p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c c o n t e x t o f t h e S o v i e t n a v a l e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a n a l y s e i t on two p l a n e s . F i r s t , i t s h o u l d be ex a m i n e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f S o v i e t p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s b e c a u s e t h e S o v i e t d e c i s i o n was an outcome o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f S o v i e t r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h o s e c o u n t r i e s . Second, on t h e n a v a l s t r a t e g i c p l a n e , i t s h o u l d be v i e w e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f S o v i e t n a v a l s t r a t e g y , S o v i e t i n i t i a t i v e s , as w e l l as r e s p o n s e s t o A m e r i c a n moves, s i n c e W o r l d War I I . The Emerging Third World and the Soviet Strategy P r i o r t o t h e Second W o r l d War S o v i e t s t r a t e g y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a was t w o f o l d . F i r s t , t h e S o v i e t s h a d t o 1 9 A l e x a n d e r 0. G h e b h a r d t , \" S o v i e t and U.S. I n t e r e s t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean\", A s i a n S u r v e y , XV:8 (August 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 673. 133 g r a p p l e w i t h t h e b a s i c p r o b l e m o f f o r m u l a t i n g a p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e n a t i o n a l i s t movements i n A s i a . S e c o n d l y , t h e y had t o d e v e l o p a s t r a t e g y f o r r e v o l u t i o n a r y advancement o f s o c i a l i s m i n t h e c o l o n i a l w o r l d . The p r e - W o r l d War I I S o v i e t p o l i c y t o w a r d s A s i a s h o u l d be v i e w e d i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k o f n a t i o n a l d e m o c r a t i c r e v o l u t i o n . The c o n t e x t changed a f t e r 1945. The emergence o f t h e new s t a t e s as autonomous a c t o r s i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l a r e n a as a r e s u l t o f t h e t r a n s f e r o f power t o f o r m e r c o l o n i e s added a new d i m e n s i o n t o w o r l d p o l i t i c s . S t a l i n f a i l e d t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s p r o c e s s and was r e l u c t a n t t o a c c e p t t h e s e s t a t e s as t r u l y i n d e p e n d e n t . Thus, S t a l i n b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e t r a n s f e r o f power amounted t o a f a l s e i n d e p e n d e n c e i n t e n d e d t o d e c e i v e t h e p e o p l e . The S o v i e t R e p r e s e n -t a t i v e a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , J . M a l i k , s t a t e d i n t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l i n 1948 t h a t : The U n i t e d N a t i o n s and t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l must d i s t i n g u i s h between r e a l s o v e r e i g n t y and i n d e p e n -dence and sham i n d e p e n d e n c e . The r e a l meaning o f t h e l a t t e r w o u l d be t h a t a c o l o n i a l p e o p l e w o u l d c o n t i n u e i n i t s f o r m e r s t a t e o f dependence, w i t h t h e s i n g l e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t t h i s c o n d i t i o n w o u l d be s a n c t i o n e d and l e g a l i z e d by t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s w h i c h by c l o s i n g i t s e y e s t o t h e r e a l f a c t s o f t h e c a s e s , w o u l d m e r e l y h e l p t o g i v e an i l l u s i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n c e t o t h e n a t i o n c o n c e r n e d . 2 0 I n t h i s c o n t e x t t h e S o v i e t a t t i t u d e d u r i n g t h e e a r l y p o s t - w a r y e a r s t o w a r d s n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s was somewhat h o s t i l e . 2 1 The C o l d War t e n s i o n a f t e r 1947 a l s o c a u s e d S t a l i n t o down p l a y t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e ' n e u t r a l t h i r d b l o c ' . As was t h e c a s e w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e S o v i e t a t t i t u d e was a l s o t h a t \"he who i s 2 n UU.N. S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l , O f f i c i a l R e c o r d s . 315 m e e t i n g , 18 A u g u s t 1948, p. 14. 2 1 S e e J a n s e n , op. c i t . , p. 230-231. 134 n o t w i t h us i s a g a i n s t u s \" . A t t h e i n a u g u r a l m e e t i n g o f t h e Communist I n f o r m a t i o n B u r e a u (Cominform), A n d r e i Zhadanov, t h e head o f t h e F o r e i g n Department o f t h e C e n t r a l Committee o f t h e C.P.S.U., d i v i d e d t h e w o r l d i n t o o n l y two camps, an a n t i - i m p e r i a -l i s t camp c o m p r i s i n g t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and h e r a l l i e s , and t h e i m p e r i a l i s t camp w h i c h i n c l u d e d w e s t e r n c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s as 9 9 w e l l as t h e n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s . I n t h i s a n a l y s i s , t h e r e c o u l d be no room f o r a n e u t r a l t h i r d f o r c e . A c c o r d i n g l y , the\" a t t i t u d e o f t h e n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r i e s t o w a r d s t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n t h e e a r l y p o s t - w a r y e a r s was a l s o f a r f r o m f r i e n d l y . An e x a m i n a t i o n o f S r i L a n k a n - S o v i e t r e l a t i o n s i n t h e p e r i o d 1948 -1956 c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h i s . S r i Lankan Attitude towards the Soviet Union; 1948-1956 As i n many a s p e c t s o f S r i L ankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y , t h e p e r i o d between 1948 and 1956 can be r e g a r d e d as one pha s e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f S r i L a n k a - S o v i e t r e l a t i o n s . B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , S r i L a n k a n p o l i c y c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t o w a r d s n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s . W h i l e t h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p s t u c k w i t h t h e d o g m a t i c 'two-camps t h e o r y ' , t h e U.N.P. l e a d e r s h i p i n S r i L a n k a p u r s u e d a h i g h l y a r t i c u l a t e d a n t i - S o v i e t p o l i c y . The v e t o e x e r c i s e d by t h e S o v i e t U n i o n o v e r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f S r i L a n k a f o r membership o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n 1949 was o f t e n h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e U.N.P. l e a d e r s h i p t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h e i r a n t i - S o v i e t a t t i t u d e . I n e x e r c i s i n g t h e v e t o t h e S o v i e t spokesman s t a t e d : F o r a L a s t i n g P e a c e , F o r a P e o p l e ' s Democracy. 10 Nov., 1947, pp. 2-4. 135 (W)e do n o t know enough about t h e n a t i o n a l s t a t u s o r C o n s t i t u t i o n o f C e y l o n , and t h e r e i s a t o t a l l a c k o f e v i d e n c e t h a t C e y l o n i s a s o v e r e i g n and i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e ; on t h e c o n t r a r y , we a r e i n f o r m e d i n p a r t i c u l a r by t h e p r e s s t h a t C e y l o n i s n o t a s o v e r e i g n s t a t e b u t r e m a i n s t o a l l i n t e n t s and p u r p o s e s a B r i t i s h c o l o n y . 2 3 The S r i Lankan a p p l i c a t i o n f o r a d m i s s i o n t o t h e U n i t e d .Nations was e n t a n g l e d i n C o l d War p o l i t i c s a t t h e U.N. I n 1949 t h e S o v i e t U n i o n o p p o s e d e x c l u s i v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f S r i L a n k a ' s a p p l i c a t i o n and u s e d t h e v e t o power t o b l o c k i t . L a t e r on, however, when a p a c k a g e o f t h i r t e e n c o u n t r i e s was p r e s e n t e d t o t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l w h i c h i n c l u d e d S o v i e t b l o c c o u n t r i e s s u c h as Hungary, Romania and B u l g a r i a a l o n g w i t h S r i L a n k a , i t was b l o c k e d by t h e West. F r e q u e n t l y t h e U.N.P. l e a d e r s h i p made use o f t h e o r i g i n a l S o v i e t v e t o i n U.N. t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h e i r i n h e r e n t a n t i p a t h y t o t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . The U.N.P. government r e p e a t e d l y r e f u s e d t o have d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n on t h e argument -\"how c o u l d we s e n d an Ambassador t o R u s s i a when she does n o t 9 4 a c c e p t t h e f a c t t h a t we a r e an i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r y ? \" However, t h e r e were s e v e r a l f a c t o r s and c o n d i t i o n s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e a n t i - S o v i e t p o l i c y o f U.N.P. g o v e r n m e n t s . Among them t h e s o c i a l c o m p o s i t i o n and p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y o f t h e r u l i n g U.N.P. were i m p o r t a n t . The U.N.P. l e a d e r s h i p r e p r e s e n t e d m a i n l y t h e u p p e r c r u s t o f t h e p r o p e r t i e d c l a s s o f S r i L a n k a who were c o m m i t t e d t o p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y and f r e e e n t e r p r i s e . They i d e n t i f i e d t h e S o v i e t u n i o n w i t h t h e s o c i a l i s t s y s t e m w h i c h was t h e a n t i t h e s i s o f t h e i r v a l u e s y s t e m . 2 3U.N. S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l , O f f i c i a l R e c o r d s , 3 5 1 s t M e e t i n g , 18 A u g u s t 1948, p. 11. 2 4 C e y l o n , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , V o l . 8, 7 J u l y 1950, c. 462. 136 The a n t i - S o v i e t i s m o f t h e U.N.P. government was f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e i r c l o s e i n t i m a c y w i t h t h e West i n g e n e r a l and P r i m e M i n i s t e r D.S. S e n a n a y a k e ' s l o y a l t y t o B r i t a i n i n p a r t i c u l a r . I t i s w e l l - k n o w n t h a t D.S. Senanayake depended on t h e U n i t e d Kingdom f o r g u i d e l i n e s f o r h i s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . B r i t i s h n a v a l and a i r b a s e s i n T r i n c o m a l e e and K a t u n a y a k e l i n k e d S r i Lan k a w i t h t h e g l o b a l d e f e n c e n e t w o r k o f t h e West. S r i L a n k a ' s economic r e l a t i o n s were o v e r w h e l m i n g l y w i t h t h e West. I n t h e b i -p o l a r w o r l d s i t u a t i o n , t h e zero-sum game m e n t a l i t y o f t h e e a r l y c o l d war y e a r s i n f l u e n c e d t h e t h i n k i n g o f t h e U.N.P. l e a d e r s h i p . The e x c e p t i o n was t h e C h i n a - S r i L a n k a R i c e - f o r - R u b b e r P a c t s i g n e d i n 1952. S r i L a n k a e n t e r e d i n t o t h e p a c t u n d e r s e r i o u s economic c o m p u l s i o n and t h e U.N.P. l e a d e r s h i p c l e a r l y s t a t e d t h a t what t h e y wanted was t r a d e and t h a t was a l l . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e main p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n t h e U.N.P. c o n -f r o n t e d d o m e s t i c a l l y i n 1948 was t h e M a r x i s t l e f t . Thus, t h e U.N.P. was c o m p e l l e d t o l a u n c h an i d e o l o g i c a l s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t i t . T h i s p r o p a g a n d a war i n v a r i a b l y t o o k an a n t i - S o v i e t f o r m . The U.N.P. c l a i m e d t o be t h e g u a r d i a n o f n a t i o n a l v a l u e s and h e r i -t a g e , l i b e r t y , and democracy f r o m t h e t h r e a t o f Communism. T h e r e f o r e , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e U.N.P. w o u l d have d e v e l o p e d f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a l l i e s o f t h e i r i n t e r n a l e n e m i e s . The government o f t e n a l l e g e d t h a t t h e Communist P a r t y r e c e i v e d f u n d s f r o m t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . K o t e l a w e l a s t a t e d t h a t ^ F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s i g n i n g o f C h i n a - S r i L a n k a R i c e - R u b b e r P a c t , s e e , K o d i k a r a , op. c i t . , pp. 60-64. 137 ( I ) f we a l l o w o u r enemy No. 1, R u s s i a , who has been a g a i n s t us a l l t h e t i m e , t o use t h e COMINFORM t a c t i c s t o se n d b u n d l e s o f c u r r e n c y n o t e s t o o u r f r i e n d , t h e head o f t h e Communist p a r t y , t h e n we w o u l d a u t o m a t i c a l l y become R u s s i a n s t o o g e s . 2 6 Though t h e U.N.P. c a r r i e d o u t i d e o l o g i c a l and p r o p a g a n d a wars a g a i n s t Communism t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t h a t i t c o n s i -d e r e d t h e M a r x i s t o p p o s i t i o n i n S r i La n k a as p o s i n g a s e v e r e t h r e a t t o i t s e x i s t e n c e . H o w e v e r , t h e U.N.P. was e x t r e m e l y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e g r o w i n g t i d e o f armed Communist u p r i s i n g s i n I n d i a and S o u t h - E a s t A s i a . The Communist P a r t i e s i n S o u t h - E a s t A s i a a d o p t e d a m i l i t a n t s t r a t e g y a f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e 'two-camps t h e o r y ' by Z h a d a n o v a t t h e COMINFORM m e e t i n g i n September 1947 and a l s o w i t h t h e S o u t h - E a s t A s i a Y o u t h C o n f e r e n c e i n C a l c u t t a i n F e b r u a r y 1948. I n I n d i a , C o m m u n i s t - l e d u p r i s i n g s b r o k e o ut i n T e l e n g a n a , and i n West B e n g a l and T r a v a n c o r e - C o c h i n . I n Burma, a l s o , Communist armed r e v o l t s f o l l o w e d i n d e p e n d e n c e . Communist r e s i s t a n c e t o o k t h e f o r m o f g u e r i l l a w a r f a r e i n M a l a y a . The U.N.P. government r e a d i l y s u p p o r t e d n o t o n l y t h e Burmese n a t i o n a l i s t government b u t a l s o t h e B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y campaign t o s u p p r e s s t h e M a l a y a n i n s u r g e n c y . As D.S. Senanayake a d m i t t e d i n P a r l i a m e n t , B r i t i s h B e a u f i g h t e r s u s e d a i r f i e l d s i n S r i L a n k a i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e i r m i l i t a r y campaign a g a i n s t M a l a y a n p 7 g u e r i l l a s . The U.N.P. v i e w e d t h e s e u p r i s i n g s as m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f a c e n t r a l l y p l a n n e d w o r l d - w i d e C o m m u n i s t c o n s p i r a c y . The B r i t i s h F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y , E r n e s t B e v i n , d e c l a r e d a t t h e Common-w e a l t h F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r s ' C o n f e r e n c e i n Colombo i n 1950, t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t u r n e d h e r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e E a s t a f t e r h e r d e s i g n s 2 6 C e y l o n , H a n s a r d ' s , op. c i t . , V o l . 21, 21 June 1955, c. 162. 2 7 I b i d . , V o l . 4, 2 September 1948, c. 2008. 138 i n Europe had been f r u s t r a t e d by the p o l i c y of the West. He fu r t h e r s t a t e d that Soviet p o l i c y \"was not simply Communist but a p p n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y expansionism\". \u00C2\u00B0 The U.N.P. government appeared to have taken the warning s e r i o u s l y . In a d d i t i o n , the f a c t that the Soviet Union as yet was not economically a t t r a c t i v e as an a i d - g i v e r also contributed to keep S r i Lanka away from the Soviet Union. As had been pointed out e a r l i e r , the Soviet Union \"entered the a i d diplomacy only a f t e r S t a l i n ' s demise. The a n t i - S o v i e t p o l i c y during the U.N.P. r u l e from 1948-1956 manifested i t s e l f i n many ways. Throughout the period, S r i Lanka refused to have diplomatic r e l a t i o n s with the Soviet Union and other Communist c o u n t r i e s . The U.N.P. government wanted to keep these countries at a distance as f a r as p o s s i b l e . Therefore, S r i Lanka refused to grant v i s a f a c i l i t i e s to people from the Soviet Union and other Communist c o u n t r i e s . Even a Soviet f o o t b a l l team (Spartak) was r e f u s e d v i s a s t o e n t e r S r i Lanka because, i n Kotelawela's words, \"government's d e s i r e to keep to the l e a s t as f a r as p o s s i b l e c o n t a c t between Ceyl o n and Communist 7 Q c o u n t r i e s \" . Further, i n 1955, S r i ,Lanka refused to allow Soviet s c i e n t i s t s to enter the country to watch a s o l a r e c l i p s e whereas permission was granted to s c i e n t i s t s from the United States and B r i t a i n . The other aspect of t h i s p o l i c y was banning the importation of books, magazines, f i l m s and other p o l i t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e from o p Commonwealth Meeting on Foreign A f f a i r s , Jan.1950, Minutes of Meeetings and Memoranda, Colombo, Government Press,1950. p q Ceylon, Hansard's P a r i i a m e n t a r v Debates, House of Representatives, V o l . 20, 1 February 1955, c. 1887. 139 t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . But t h e U.S. embassy i n Colombo was a l l o w e d t o d i s t r i b u t e a n t i - S o v i e t l i t e r a t u r e t o t h e p u b l i c t h r o u g h goverment K a c h c h e r i e s , D i v i s i o n a l Revenue O f f i c e s , and V i l l a g e Headmen. The Government a d m i t t e d t h a t t h i s was done w i t h t h e a p p r o b a t i o n o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f Home A f f a i r s a n d R u r a l \u00E2\u0080\u00A23 1 Development. The c r u s a d e a g a i n s t Communism was a l s o an i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f a n t i - S o v i e t p o l i c y . The U.N.P. spokesmen were v e r y l o u d i n d e n o u n c i n g S o v i e t c o l o n i a l i s m . The P r i m e M i n i s t e r , D u d l e y Senanayake, e x p l a i n e d i n 1953 t h a t \" ( J ) u s t as we w o u l d l i k e t o s u p p o r t t h e l i b e r a t i o n movement o f t h e c o l o n i a l c o u n t r i e s we w o u l d l i k e t o s u p p o r t t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f t h e I r o n C u r t a i n 3 9 c o u n t r i e s t o o \" . A c c o r d i n g t o V. N a l l i a h , P a r l i a m e n t a r y S e c r e t a r y t o t h e M i n i s t e r o f D e f e n c e a n d E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s , \" ( C ) o l o n i a l i s m [Western] i s a d y i n g f o r c e w h i l e Communism i s a d e v e l o p i n g one. Between t h e two we do n o t want t o make any d i f f e -3 3 r e n t i a t i o n , we a r e oppose d t o b o t h \" . J A n o t h e r l e a d i n g member o f t h e C a b i n e t e x p l a i n e d \" ( I ) f t h e a c t o f a g g r e s s i o n i s n o t i n K o r e a , i t w i l l be i n I n d o - C h i n a . There i s a p e r s o n by t h e name o f Ho C h i - M i n h who has t a k e n l e s s o n s i n S o v i e t R u s s i a and i s a t t e m -p t i n g t o o v e r - r u n t h e government o f Bao D a i \" 3 4 I t i s i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t t h e U.S. G l o b e m a s t e r a i r c r a f t c a r r y i n g F r e n c h 30 K o d i k a r a , op. c i t p. 58 C e y l o n , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , V o l . 10, 1 A u g u s t 1951, c. 1713. 32 I b i d V o l . 14, 16 J u l y 1953, c. 553. 33 I b i d V o l . 17, 4 May 1954, c. 5187. 34 I b i d S e n a t e , V o l . 4, 1950, c. 430-38. 140 p a r a t r o o p e r s t o V i e t n a m w a r - f r o n t s were p e r m i t t e d t o use f a c i l i -t i e s a t K a t u n a y a k e a i r p o r t i n A p r i l 1954. J The c r u s a d e a g a i n s t Communism r e a c h e d i t s p e a k u n d e r K o t e l a w a l a ' s p r e m i e r s h i p . He p u s h e d t h e i s s u e o f t h e t h r e a t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l Communism v e r y h a r d a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e o f Colombo Powers i n Colombo i n A p r i l 1954 and a t Bogor i n December 1954. A t t h e Colombo C o n f e r e n c e , K o t e l a w e l a p r e s e n t e d a s t r o n g l y worded d r a f t r e s o l u t i o n on t h e menace o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l Communism. B u t he f a i l e d t o o b t a i n e n d o r s e m e n t f r o m I n d i a a n d I n d o n e s i a . 3 6 K o t e l a w e l a r a i s e d t h e i s s u e once a g a i n a t t h e Bandung C o n f e r e n c e i n A p r i l 1955. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t S r i L a n k a was one o f t h e c o n v e n o r s o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e and C h i n a (PRC) was a l s o i n v i t e d . Chou E n - L a i u t i l i z e d t h e C o n f e r e n c e f u l l y t o a l l e v i a t e t h e f e a r s o f C h i n a and K o t e l a w e l a h i m s e l f d e s c r i b e d Chou as a p l e a s a n t and \u00E2\u0080\u00A23 7 a f f a b l e n e i g h b o u r . B u t K o t e l a w e l a was a more d e t e r m i n e d c r u s a d e r a g a i n s t S o v i e t c o l o n i a l i s m . I n h i s a d d r e s s t o t h e p o l i t i c a l c o m m i t t e e he s t a t e d : ( T ) h e r e i s a n o t h e r f r o m o f c o l o n i a l i s m , however, a b o u t w h i c h many o f us r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e a r e p e r h a p s l e s s c l e a r i n o u r minds and t o w h i c h some o f us w o u l d p e r h a p s n o t a g r e e t o a p p l y t h e t e r m c o l o n i a l i s m a t a l l . T h i n k , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e s e s a t e l l i t e s t a t e s u n d e r C o m m u n i s t d o m i n a t i o n o f C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e . . . A r e n o t t h e s e c o l o n i e s a s much as a n y o f t h e c o l o n i a l t e r r i t o r i e s i n A f r i c a and A s i a ? And i f we a r e u n i t e d i n o u r o p p o s i t i o n t o c o l o n i a l i s m , s h o u l d i t n o t be o u r d u t y o p e n l y t o d e c l a r e o u r o p p o s i t i o n - \" i b i d . , House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , V o l . 1 7 , 4 May 1954, c.172. 3 6 J . H . J a n s e n , A f r o - A s i a and N o n - A l i g n m e n t (London: F a b e r and F a b e r , 1 9 6 6 ) , p. 158-59. 3 7 J . L . K o t e l a w e l a , An A s i a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s S t o r y (London, George & H a r p e r , 1 9 5 6 ) , p. 176. 141 t o S o v i e t c o l o n i a l i s m as much as t o W e s t e r n i m p e r i a l i s m . 3 8 F u r t h e r , a t t h e P r e s s C o n f e r e n c e on 2 1 s t A p r i l 1955 a t Bandung, K o t e l a w e l a demanded t h a t t h e COMINFORM be d i s b a n d e d b e c a u s e 3 9 p e a c e f u l c o - e x i s t e n c e and COMINFORM c o u l d n o t e x i s t t o g e t h e r . A c c o r d i n g t o N i s s a n k a , K o t e l a w e l a p r e p a r e d s p e e c h e s on t h e s e i s s u e s i n Colombo and t o o k enough c o p i e s w i t h him. As he d i d n o t g e t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e , \"he b u s i e d h i m s e l f o u t s i d e t h e C o n f e r e n c e a t s u c h p r i v a t e o c c a s i o n s as l u n c h e o n s and d i n n e r s and p u b l i c ones s u c h as p r e s s i n t e r v i e w s t o d i s c u s s t h e s e i s s u e s . \" 4 0 K o t e l a w e l a ' s b e h a v i o u r a t Bandung was i m m e d i a t e l y p r a i s e d by t h e West as c a n d i d a n d b o l d . H i s t a l k r e c e i v e d w o r l d - w i d e p u b l i c i t y . Time maga z i n e r e p o r t e d t h a t \" ( O ) t h e r p r o v e n f r i e n d s o f t h e West ( T u r k e y , I r a q , P a k i s t a n , T h a i l a n d and P h i l i p p i n e s ) spoke e f f e c t i v e l y f o r t h e West a t Bandung. The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f S i r John K o t e l a w e l a ' s s p e e c h was t h a t i t came f r o m a n e u t r a l i s t , who, p e r c e i v i n g t h e b o g u s n e u t r a l i t y o f N e h r u ' s a n t i - c o l o n i a l i s m , c l e a r l y d e f i n e d t h e i s s u e \" . 4 1 The r o l e o f K o t e l a w e l a a t Bandung was s u b j e c t e d t o s e v e r e c r i t i c i s m by t h e o p p o s i t i o n i n S r i L a n k a . He had t o f a c e a no c o n f i d e n c e m o t i o n i n P a r l i a m e n t t a b l e d by t h e o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s j o i n t l y . B a n d a r a n a i k e c r i t i c i z e d t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r f o r h i s l a c k 3 8 J . L . K o t e l a w e l a , Bandung 1955 (Colombo, Department o f I n f o r m a t i o n , 1 9 5 5 ) , p. 18. 3 9 J . L . K o t e l a w e l a , An A s i a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s S t o r y (George & H a r p e r , 1 9 5 6 ) , p. 176. 4 0 H . S . S . N i s s a n k a , S r i L a n k a ' s F o r e i g n P o l i c y (New D e l h i : V i k a s P u b l i s h i n g House, 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 43. 4 1 T i m e , 2 May 1955. 142 o f d i p l o m a t i c c o u r t e s y . S i n c e S r i L a n k a was a h o s t c o u n t r y she s h o u l d h a v e f o l l o w e d o t h e r C o l o m b o p o w e r s , a n d a v o i d e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s s u c h as S o v i e t c o l o n i a l i s m b e c a u s e \"we do n o t have a c t u a l f a c t \" . He f u r t h e r s t a t e d : I s a y o f t h e h e r o o f Bandung, t h a t h i s c o u r a g e i s n o t h i n g more t h a n t h e c o u r a g e o f t h e f o o l who r u s h e d i n w h e r e e v e n a n g e l s s u c h as t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , f e a r e d t o t r e a d . 4 2 K o t e l a w e l a ' s w e l l - p u b l i c i z e d t o u r t o t h e West f o u r months b e f o r e t h e C o n f e r e n c e and h i s t a l k s w i t h P r e s i d e n t E i s e n h o w e r , D u l l e s , and H a r o l d S t a s s e n , p r o v i d e d room f o r s u s p i c i o n t h a t \" t h e r e was a 'hand o f J a c o b ' b e h i n d t h e ' v o i c e o f E s a u ' \" . 4 3 The f o r e i g n p o l i c y p o s i t i o n s o f b o t h c o u n t r i e s , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and S r i L a n k a , began t o change i n t h e m i d - f i f t i e s . I n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , t h e T w e n t i e t h CPSU C o n g r e s s i n 1956 marked t h e b r e a k f r o m t h e p a s t t h o u g h t h e t r a c e s o f c h a n g e c o u l d be d i s c e r n e d by t h e end o f S t a l i n ' s r u l e . I n S r i L a n k a , t h e M.E.P. v i c t o r y i n 1956 marked t h e change. Changing Soviet Attitude Vis-a-vis the Third World The l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S o v i e t p o l i c y o f n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e n e u t r a l i t y o f t h e n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s and t h e d o g m a t i c 'two camps' t h e o r y became c l e a r l y e v i d e n t by t h e end o f t h e S t a l i n e r a . I t was a p p a r e n t by t h e -mid-1950s t h a t C o l d War t e n s i o n w o u l d p e r s i s t f o r some t i m e w i t h o u t l e a d i n g t o a d i r e c t m i l i t a r y c l a s h between t h e two s u p e r p o w e r s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n had s u c c e s s f u l l y b r o k e n t h e n u c l e a r monopoly o f 4 ? C e y l o n , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , V o l . 20, 27 A p r i l 1955, c. 4315. 4 3 P r a s a d , op. c i t . , p. 177. 143 t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s by t h a t t i m e . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s t a b i l i z a -t i o n o f t h e C o l d War, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n as a superpower was c o n t e -n d i n g w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o enhance h e r i n f l u e n c e i n w o r l d p o l i t i c s . The n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s p r o v i d e d enormous o p p o r t u -n i t i e s t o t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n t h i s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e w e s t e r n powers b u r d e n e d w i t h t h e l e g a c y o f a c o l o n i a l p a s t . The S o v i e t U n i o n , however, had t o a c t w i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g s y s t e m o f n a t i o n s t a t e s , r e c o g n i z e t h e new e n t r a n t s t o t h e s y s t e m , a n d make a l l i a n c e s w i t h some o f them. The S o v i e t U n i o n had s e v e r e d o u b t s about t h e g e n u i n e n e s s o f t h e p r o f e s s e d n e u t r a l i t y o f t h e n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s . However, t h e s t a n d t a k e n by them on t h e I n d o n e s i a n q u e s t i o n i n 1949, and more i m p o r t a n t l y , I n d i a ' s p o s i t i v e r o l e d u r i n g t h e K o r e a n War, b r o u g h t home t o t h e S o v i e t s t h e i m p o r t a n c e a n d u t i l i t y o f t h e n e u t r a l i t y o f t h e s e s t a t e s i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e b r o a d e n i n g o f t h e membership o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s by t h e e n t r y o f t h e n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s had t h e r e s u l t o f c u r t a i l i n g U.S. hegemony i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . M i l i t a r y - s t r a t e g i c n e c e s s i t i e s a l s o f o r c e d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t o abandon h e r e a r l i e r p o l i c y and come t o t e r m s w i t h some o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s . From a m i l i t a r y - s t r a t e g i c p o i n t o f v i e w , b e t t e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s were n e c e s s a r y t o b r e a k down t h e c o r d o n s a n i t a i r e i m p o s e d by t h e U.S. on t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ' s s o f t u n d e r - b e l l y on h e r s o u t h e r n f l a n k . The p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n f o r t h e i n i t i a l S o v i e t i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, a c c o r d i n g t o D i e t e r B r a u n , was \" t h e need f o r r e c i p r o c a l a r r a n g e -m e n t s w h i c h w o u l d a s s i s t i t s a t t e m p t s t o b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e 144 w e s t e r n c o n t a i n m e n t p o l i c y o f i t s l o n g s o u t h e r n f l a n k \" . A l v i n , Z. R u b i n s t e i n s t a t e s : A t t h e t i m e o f S t a l i n ' s d e a t h i n M a r c h 1 9 5 3 , S o v i e t s t r a t e g i s t s had been uneasy o v e r t h e U.S. p o l i c y o f s e e k i n g t o e s t a b l i s h a n e t w o r k o f m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e s w i t h n a t i o n s l o c a t e d i n t h e g e n e r a l r e g i o n t o t h e s o u t h o f t h e U.S.S.R's u n d e r b e l l y i n o r d e r t o e x p l o i t i t s v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o p e n e t r a t i o n by n u c l e a r - a r m e d l o n g - r a n g e bombers. T h i s t h r e a t was r e a s o n enough i n t h e p r e -m i s s i l e age t o d i s c a r d S t a l i n ' s d e l e t e r i o u s l e g a c y o f h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d s n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t b o u r g e o i s - n a t i o n a l i s t r e g i m e s i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t and S o u t h A s i a . 4 5 Even b e f o r e S t a l i n ' s d e a t h , t h e p r e - e m i n e n c e o f t h e two-camps t h e o r y and t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f war began t o e r o d e . 4 ^ However, t h e o p p o r t u n i t y came a f t e r S t a l i n ' s d e a t h . The b e h a v i o u r o f t h e M a l e n k o v - K h r u s h c h e v l e a d e r s h i p r e f l e c t e d t h i s change. F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n e x t e n d e d t h e hand o f f r i e n d s h i p t o t h e s t a t e s t h a t r e f u s e d t o j o i n t h e U.S. s p o n s o r e d m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e s i n t h e a r e a . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , I n d i a , I n d o n e s i a , A f g h a n i s t a n , and Burma a t t r a c t e d S o v i e t a t t e n t i o n . The new S o v i e t P r i m e M i n i s t e r , M a l e n k o v , i n h i s s p e e c h t o t h e Supreme S o v i e t i n A u g u s t 1953 h i g h l y a p p r e c i a t e d I n d i a ' s r o l e i n b r i n g i n g D i e t e r B r a u n , The I n d i a n Ocean z R e g i o n o f C o n f l i c t o r 'Peace Zone'? (London: C. H u r s t & Company, 198 3 ) , p. 23. 4 5 A l v i n Z. R u b i n s t e i n , \" S o v i e t P o l i c y Towards S o u t h and S o u t h e a s t A s i a : S t r a t e g i e s and P o l i t i c a l A s p e c t s , \" i n The G r e a t Game: R i v a l r y i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f and S o u t h A s i a , A l v i n Z. R u b i n s t e i n , ed. (New Y o r k : P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 8 3 ) , p.82. 4 ^ I n E c o n o m i c P r o b l e m s o f S o c i a l i s m i n t h e U.S.S.R., p u b l i s h e d by t h e F o r e i g n Language P u b l i s h i n g House i n Moscow s h o r t l y b e f o r e h i s d e a t h , S t a l i n r e v e a l e d a g r a d u a l move f r o m t h e e a r l i e r s t a n d . B e f o r e t h a t , i n A p r i l 1952, f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h e d e p a r t i n g I n d i a n Ambassador, V.P. R a d h a k r i s h n a n and h i s s u c c e s s o r K.P.S. Menon, were r e c e i v e d by S t a l i n . T h i s was a r a r e o c c u r r e n -ce i n h i s l a s t y e a r s . 145 t h e K o r e a n War t o an end. F u r t h e r , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n s t r o v e h a r d t o s e a t I n d i a a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e on I n d o - C h i n a , t h e K o r e a n P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , a n d t h e D i s a r m a m e n t S u b - C o m m i s s i o n o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . W e s t e r n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e s e moves p u s h e d I n d i a c l o s e r t o t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . R e g i o n a l r i v a l r i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l p r o v i d e d a c o n d u c i v e c l i m a t e f o r t h e S o v i e t e f f o r t . The I n d o - P a k i s t a n r i v a l r y and t h e A f g h a n - P a k i s t a n i d i s p u t e o v e r t h e N o r th-West F r o n t i e r P a t h a n s p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o l e . The f a c t t h a t P a k i s t a n became a r e c i p i e n t o f l a r g e s c a l e m i l i t a r y a i d as a r e s u l t o f h e r a d h e r e n c e t o U.S.- s p o n s o r e d m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 SEATO and t h e Baghdad P a c t - made I n d i a and A f g h a n i s t a n amenable t o S o v i e t a d v a n c e s . The y e a r 1955 m a r k e d a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n I n d o - S o v i e t r e l a t i o n s . I n F e b r u a r y , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n e n t e r e d i n t o an a g r e e -ment w i t h I n d i a t o b u i l d a s t e e l p l a n t i n B h i l a i . I n J u n e , P r i m e M i n i s t e r J a w a h a r l a l Nehru made a 16-day v i s i t t o t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and a d d r e s s e d p u b l i c m e e t i n g s i n a number o f S o v i e t c i t i e s i n c l u -d i n g Moscow, L e n i n g r a d , and K i e v . The I n d i a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s v i s i t \"was g i v e n more p l a y i n t h e S o v i e t p r e s s t h a n t h a t o f any f o r e i g n l e a d e r , Communist o r non-Communist, e v e r t o v i s i t t h e U.S.S.R.\" 4 8 A f t e r 1955, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n s t e p p e d - u p d i p l o m a t i c - m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s w i t h some I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s . The e x p a n s i o n o f S o v i e t e f f o r t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e 4 7 F o r a L a s t i n g P e a c e , F o r a P e o p l e ' s Demoracv, 14 A u g u s t 1953, p. 3. 4 8 C h a r l e s B. McLane, S o v i e t - A s i a n R e l a t i o n s (London: C e n t r a l A s i a n R e s e a r c h C e n t r e , 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 55. 146 f o r m u l a t i o n o f a t h e o r e t i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n . The i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n , and t h e c u r r e n t s t a g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l i n p a r t i c u l a r , had t o be a n a l y s e d anew. I n h i s R e p o r t t o t h e 2 0 t h C o n g r e s s o f t h e CPSU h e l d i n F e b r u a r y 1956, K h r u s h c h e v p r e s e n t e d t h e t h e o r y . He r e j e c t e d t h e 'two camps' t h e o r y and t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f war w i t h t h e i m p e r i a l i s t West. K h r u s h c h e v d i v i d e d t h e w o r l d i n t o a 'zone o f war' , composed o f a d v a n c e d c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s and members o f U.S. m i l i t a r y a l l i a -n c e s , and a 'zone o f p e a c e ' , f o r m e d by t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , h e r a l l i e s , as w e l l as n e u t r a l c o u n t r i e s . * F u r t h e r , he c l a i m e d t h a t war between s o c i a l i s m and i m p e r i a l i s m was no l o n g e r i n e v i t a b l e b e c a u s e s o c i a l i s m was v e r y s t r o n g . 5 ^ A n u c l e a r war w o u l d be e x t r e m e l y h a r m f u l t o t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and t h a t s h o u l d be a v o i d e d . R e j e c t i n g t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f war between t h e two s y s t e m s , he b e l i e v e d t h a t p e a c e f u l c o - e x i s t e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l s y s t e m s was a p o l i c y t h a t c o u l d be p u r s u e d p e r m a n e n t l y . 5 1 The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e n e u t r a l i t y o f t h e A f r o - A s i a n n a t i o n s was r e c o g n i z e d w i t h a p p r e c i a t i o n . I n h i s s p e e c h a t t h e N i n t h S e s s i o n o f t h e Supreme S o v i e t h e l d i n December 1957, K h r u s h c h e v A q J K e e s i n a ' s C o n t e m p o r a r y A r c h i v e s , 10-17 M a r c h 19 5 6 , p. 14745. J U I n M a r c h 1957 t h e e d i t o r i a l b o a r d o f t h e U.S. newspaper G r a n d R a p i d s H e r a l d a s k e d K h r u s h c h e v ( t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e i d e l o g i c a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n between t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ) w h e t h e r he r e g a r d e d war as i n e v i t a b l e . K h r u s h c h e v r e p l i e d : \"No, c e r t a i n l y n o t , we b e l i e v e t h a t war i s n o t a f a t a l i s t i c i n e v i t a b i l i t y . The r e c e n t e v e n t s i n E g y p t h a v e r e a f f i r m e d t h a t t h e f o r c e s s t a n d i n g f o r m a i n t e n a n c e o f p e a c e can c u r b t h e a g g r e s s o r s and a v e r t war\". N.S. K h r u s h c h e v , Speeches and I n t e r v i e w s on W o r l d P r o b l e m s , 1957 (Moscow: F o r e i g n Language P u b l i s h i n g House, 19 5 8 ) , p. 28. \u00E2\u0080\u0094 K e e s i n g ' s C o n t e m p o r a r y A r c h i v e s , 10-17, March 1956, p. 14746. 147 s t a t e d t h a t \"we s a l u t e s u c h o u t s t a n d i n g s t a t e s m e n a s P r i m e M i n i s t e r Nehru o f I n d i a , P r e s i d e n t Sukarno o f I n d o n e s i a , P r i m e M i n i s t e r U Nu o f Burma, P r e s i d e n t N a s s e r o f E g y p t , P r e s i d e n t C O K u w a t l y o f S y r i a and o t h e r s who a r e w o r k i n g h a r d f o r p e a c e \" . I n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e d o c t r i n a l r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n f o r t h e S o v i e t a i d programme and p o l i t i c a l - m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e non-Communist l i t t o r a l s t a t e s , S o v i e t t h e o r i s t s d e v e l o p e d t h e c o n c e p t o f ' n a t i o n a l democracy'. The s t a t e t h a t w o u l d q u a l i f y f o r t h e t e r m ' n a t i o n a l d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e ' was t h e one t h a t u p h e l d i t s p o l i t i c a l and economic i n d e p e n d e n c e , s t r u g g l e d a g a i n s t p e n e t r a -t i o n o f i m p e r i a l i s t c a p i t a l i s m , r e j e c t e d d i c t a t o r i a l and d e s p o t i c f o r m s o f government, and b r o a d e n e d t h e d e m o c r a t i c r i g h t s o f t h e p e o p l e . 5 3 Sekou T o u r e ' s G u i n e a , Kwame N'Krumah's Ghana, Modido K e i t a ' s M a l i , A b d e l N a s s e r ' s E g y p t , Ben B e l l a ' s A l g e r i a , Ne Win's Burma, a n d Achmed S u k a r n o ' s I n d o n e s i a w e r e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s c a t e g o r y . I t was c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e was an i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a g e l e a d i n g t o t h e p e o p l e ' s d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e a l o n g t h e p a t h o f n o n - c a p i t a l i s t d e v e l o p m e n t . The non-c a p i t a l i s t p a t h o f d e v e l o p m e n t f o r t h e n a t i o n a l d e m o c r a c i e s was f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e p o w e r f u l s o c i a l i s t camp. The p o s t - 1 9 5 6 p e r i o d w i t n e s s e d a s h a r p e x p a n s i o n o f S o v i e t e c o nomic and m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e s o - c a l l e d p r o g r e s s i v e 5 2 N . S . K h r u s h c h o v , Speeches and I n t e r v i e w s on W o r l d P r o b l e m s z. 1957 (Moscow: F o r e i g n Language P u b l i s h i n g House, 1 9 5 8 ) , p. 364. 5 3 F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t o f N a t i o n a l Democracy, s e e , W.T. S h i n n , \"The N a t i o n a l D e m o c r a t i c S t a t e : C o m m u n i s t Programme f o r L e s s d e v e l o p e d A r e a s \" , W o r l d P o l i t i c s ( A p r i l 1 9 6 3 ) . 148 r e g i m e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l . q The K h r u s h c h e v i a n o v e r t u r e s t o n o n - a l i g n e d I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s were w e l l r e c e i v e d i n S r i L a n k a a f t e r t h e p o l i t i c a l change i n 1956. I t opened up a new e r a i n S r i L a n k a - S o v i e t r e l a t i o n s . S r i Lanka-Soviet Relations after 1956 The a t t i t u d e o f t h e new P r i m e M i n i s t e r , B a n d a r a n a i k e , t o w a r d s t h e S o v i e t U n i o n was s h a r p l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e r e j e c t e d t h e n o t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l Communist c o n s p i r a c y t o w h i c h t h e p r e v i o u s r e g i m e had e a g e r l y s u b s c r i b e d . He was p e r h a p s s h a r p e n o u g h t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e Communism, a p o l i t i c a l d o c t r i n e , f r o m t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , a member o f t h e s y s t e m o f n a t i o n s t a t e s . B e c a u s e o f t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n he was a b l e t o m a i n t a i n c o r d i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w i t h o u t a c c e p t i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l d o c t r i n e o f Communism. A t t h e m e e t i n g t o commemorate t h e 4 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e B o l s h e v i k R e v o l u t i o n B a n d a r a n a i k e r a i s e d t h e i s s u e s h a r p l y : \" ( S ) h o u l d n o t we a d m i r e t h e R u s s i a n System w h e t h e r we l i k e t o o r n o t ? S i n c e C e y l o n has so many l e s s o n s t o l e a r n f r o m R u s s i a , c a n n o t we f o l l o w R u s s i a w i t h o u t g o i n g C o m m u n i s t ? \" . 5 5 B a n d a r a n a i k e b e l i e v e d t h a t \" i t i s p o s s i b l e t o come t o r e a s o n a b l y h o n o u r a b l e t e r m s w i t h t h e Communist w o r l d by way o f p e a c e f u l c o - e x i s t e n c e on t h e b a s i s o f 5 4 ^ The S o v i e t U n i o n c o n c l u d e d e c o nomic a i d a g reements w i t h I n d i a (1956-$125 m i l l i o n c r e d i t agreement on s t e e l p l a n t , 1959-$25 m i l l i o n c r e d i t agreement f o r B a r u n i O i l R e f i n e r y , 1960-$125 m i l l i o n s u p p l e m e n t a r y c r e d i t agreement f o r T h i r d F i v e Y e a r P l a n ) ; I n d o n e s i a ( 1 9 6 0 - $ 1 0 0 m i l l i o n c r e d i t a g r e e m e n t ) ; Burma ( 1 9 6 6 -c r e d i t agreement f o r t r a c t o r p l a n t ) ; S r i L a n k a (1958-$40 m i l l i o n c r e d i t agreement f o r s t e e l and t y r e p l a n t s , and f l o u r m i l l ) ; and arms agreements w i t h A f g h a n i s t a n ( 1 9 5 6 ) , Yemen (1 9 5 6 ) , I n d o n e s i a ( 1 9 5 6 ) , I r a q ( 1 9 6 8 ) , I n d i a (1960 and 1 9 6 2 ) , and S o m a l i a (1963) \u00E2\u0080\u0094 C h a r l e s B. McLane, S o v i e t A s i a n R e l a t i o n s (London: C e n t r a l A s i a n R e s e a r c h C e n t r e , 1 9 7 3 ) , pp. 145-147. 5 5 C e y l o n D a i l y News, 7 November 1957. 149 ' P a n c h a s i l a ' \" . O D The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e government and t h e Communist P a r t y o f S r i L a n k a a l s o changed a f t e r 1956. The M.E.P. c o a l i t i o n c o n c l u d e d a n o - c o n t e s t p a c t w i t h t h e Communist P a r t y p r i o r t o t h e e l e c t i o n . The Communist P a r t y o c c u p i e d t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e n c h e s a f t e r t h e e l e c t i o n b u t t h e y r e n d e r e d c r i t i c a l s u p p o r t t o t h e government w h i c h t h e y c a t e g o r i z e d as p r o g r e s s i v e . I n t h i s c o n t e x t t h e government d i d n o t have t o c a r r y o ut an i d e o l o g i c a l war w i t h Communism. The d e f e a t o f t h e pro-West U.N.P. was a m a t t e r f o r r e j o i c i n g f o r t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . I t i m p l i e d t h a t t h e M.E.P. r e g i m e had t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a \" n a t i o n a l d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e \" . The r e m o v a l o f B r i t i s h a i r and n a v a l b a s e s by t h e M.E.P. r e g i m e , i t s n a t i o n a l i -z a t i o n p o l i c y , and t h e i n c r e a s e d s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n i n economic a f f a i r s were c i t e d i n t h i s r e s p e c t . I n i t s v e r y f i r s t p o l i c y s t a t e m e n t , t h e M.E.P. government d e c l a r e d i t s i n t e n t i o n t o exchange d i p l o m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w i t h C Q c o u n t r i e s where S r i La n k a was n o t r e p r e s e n t e d so f a r . One o f t h e f i r s t s t e p s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n was t o e s t a b l i s h d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and C h i n a i n e a r l y 1957. A f t e r 1956 S r i L a n k a ' s economic and c u l t u r a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n grew r a p i d l y . I n F e b r u a r y 1958 a C r e d i t A g r e e -ment was s i g n e d i n w h i c h S r i L a n k a r e c e i v e d a l o n g - t e r m c r e d i t o f - ^ P r a s a d , op. c i t . , p. 173. S 7 See, I z v e s t i a , 12 A p r i l 1956, a r t i c l e by V. V a s i l y e u was r e p r o d u c e d i n News and V i e w s f r o m t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , No. 14, 17 A p r i l 1956, p. 4. ^ C e y l o n , H a n s a r d ' s P a r 1 i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , V o l . 24, 20 A p r i l 1956, c. 25. 150 $30 m i l l i o n repayable i n 12 years at 2 per cent i n t e r e s t f o r a Tyre and Tube Factory. (Kelaniya) , an Iron and S t e e l P l a n t (Oruwela), and a F l o u r M i l l (Colombo). In June 1956, S r i Lanka l i f t e d the ban imposed on the importation of l i t e r a t u r e from the Soviet Union. ^ Free exchange of delegates, scholars, and students between the two countries commenced. In January 1958, they signed a c u l t u r a l agreement. However, the Hungarian question i n 1956 posed a serious c h a l l e n g e to Bandaranaike's n o n - a l i g n e d p o l i c y . As K o d i k a r a p o i n t e d out, t h r e e d i s t i n c t stages can be d i s c e r n e d i n the e v o l u t i o n of S r i Lankan p o l i c y . In the f i r s t stage, S r i Lanka was rather r e l u c t a n t to condemn the Soviet m i l i t a r y a c t i o n and abstained from v o t i n g i n the U.N. on the r e s o l u t i o n sponsored by the United States, and also d i d not vote on two other s i m i l a r r e s o l u t i o n s . In the second stage, a f t e r mid-November, S r i Lanka came forward to c r i t i c i z e the S o v i e t a c t i o n and s e r v e d as Chairman of a S p e c i a l Commission on the problem of Hungary which was e s t a b l i s h e d to report on the question to the United Nations. The S r i Lankan representative to the United Nations\"stated at the General Assembly that However, f i n a l l y S r i L a n k a went b a c k t o t h e p r e v i o u s p o l i c y o f p a s s i v e n e u t r a l i s m . When t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d t h e p r o b l e m We cannot s i t i d l e when a s i t u a t i o n of such a grave nature has taken place i n a small country with a h i s t o r i c past, a proud t r a d i t i o n of c u l t u r e and a f i n e people.61 59 Kodikara, op. c i t . < P. 67. 60 I b i d . t P- 68. D U.N. General Assembly, O f f i c i a l Records, 11th Sess Plenary Meeting, 9 January 1957, p. 827. 633 b a s e d on t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e Committee, S r i L a n k a r e s o r t e d t o a p a s s i v e s t a n d a n d a b s t a i n e d f r o m v o t i n g on t h e r e s o l u t i o n condemning S o v i e t a c t i o n . \" T h i s was r a t h e r odd b e h a v i o u r f o r a c o u n t r y w h i c h had been r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f i v e - n a t i o n s p e c i a l c o m m i t t e e a n d w h i c h h a d s i g n e d i t s u n a n i m o u s r e p o r t on H u n g a r y . \" ^ 2 B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s v a c i l l a t i o n on t h e H u n g a r i a n i s s u e was s u b j e c t e d t o c r i t i c i s m s i n many q u a r t e r s . D u r i n g t h e f i r s t s t a g e , h i s lukewarm p o l i c y was c r i t i z e d by s e c t i o n s o f t h e U.N.P. as e v i d e n c e o f d o u b l e s t a n d a r d s i n h i s n o n - a l i g n e d p o l i c y as a p p l i e d t o t h e E a s t and t h e West. B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s q u i c k c o n d e m n a t i o n o f B r i t a i n and F r a n c e o v e r t h e i r Suez i n t e r v e n t i o n was compared w i t h t h e d e l a y e d and p a s s i v e r e s p o n s e on t h e H u n g a r i a n i s s u e . D u r i n g t h e s e c o n d s t a g e , S r i L a n k a n p o l i c y was c r i t i z e d by t h e Communist P a r t y as w e l l as some e l e m e n t s i n t h e government p a r l i a m e n t a r y g r o u p i t s e l f . Keuneman c h a r g e d t h a t S r i L a n k a p l a y e d w i l f u l l y i n t o t h e hands o f t h e U.S.A.^ 3 B a n d a r a n a i k e was bound by many c o n s t r a i n t s i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n . He d i d n o t want t o j e o p a r d i z e n e w l y e s t a b l i s h e d r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . He had t o s i l e n c e some e l e m e n t s w i t h i n h i s p a r l i a m e n t a r y g r o u p a n d t o a n s w e r t h e c r i t i c i s m s d i r e c t e d f r o m a w i d e r r a n g e o f o p p o s i t i o n . B a n d a r a n a i k e d e c i d e d t o t a k e a p o s i t i v e r o l e o n l y a f t e r t h e i s s u e was d i s c u s s e d by t h e Colombo powers a t t h e i r m e e t i n g i n New D e l h i i n November 1956. A t f i r s t , he t h o u g h t t h a t t h e p r o b l e m c o u l d be r e s o l v e d by t h e ^ 2 K o d i k a r a , op. c i t . , p. 70-71. \u00C2\u00B0^Ceylon, H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , V o l . 29, 30 J u l y 1957, c c . 155-162. 152 m e d i a t i o n o f t h e U.N.. L a t e r h i s a t t i t u d e was t h a t \" t h e S o v i e t U n i o n s h o u l d be d e a l t w i t h on t h i s i s s u e i n a f r i e n d l y manner r a t h e r t h a n a n t a g o n i z i n g h e r \" . A f t e r B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s a s s a s s i n a t i o n S o v i e t a n a l y s t s p r a i s e d h i s r e g i m e . S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s e l e c t i o n v i c t o r y i n J u l y 1960 was a l s o h i g h l y a p p r o v e d by Moscow. F o r example, D. V o l s k y , p o l i t i c a l commentator o f t h e New Times (Moscow), w r o t e t h a t \" t h e v i c t o r y s c o r e d by t h e C e y l o n e s e p a t r i o t i c f o r c e s i s o f v a s t i m p o r t a n c e , and n o t o n l y f o r t h i s i s l a n d c o u n t r y \" . 6 6 The S.L.F.P. government u n d e r S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e vowed t o f o l l o w t h e p o l i c y o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t w i t h p o w e r b l o c s a n d o f n e u t r a l i s m and c o - e x i s t e n c e - p o l i c i e s l a i d down by h e r l a t e h u sband. I t a l s o s t r e n g t h e n e d d i p l o m a t i c , e c o n o m i c , and c u l t u r a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . I n M a r c h 1961, F e l i x D i a s B a n d a r a n a i k e , t h e F i n a n c e M i n i s t e r , v i s i t e d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and was r e c e i v e d by K h r u s h c h e v and K o s y g i n . D u r i n g h i s s t a y , he had t a l k s w i t h t h e S o v i e t a u t h o r i t i e s on f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n o f e c o n o m i c a n d t e c h n i c a l c o - o p e r a t i o n a n d t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f e a r l i e r S o v i e t c r e d i t t o S r i L a n k a . 6 7 The P r i m e M i n i s t e r , S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e , v i s i t e d Moscow i n O c t o b e r 1963. D u r i n g h e r t e n - d a y v i s i t she c o n d u c t e d d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h K h r u s h c h e v a n d B r e z h n e v on v a r i o u s i s s u e s r a n g i n g f r o m m a t t e r s p e r t a i n i n g t o w o r l d p e a c e and g e n e r a l disarmament t o 6 4 N i s s a n k a , op. c i t . , p. 136. 6 5See,New Times (Moscow), No. 52, December 1959, pp. 12-13, 6 6 I b i d . , No. 31, J u l y 1960, p. 13. 6 7 T a s s , \" R e p o r t on F e l i x D i a s B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s v i s i t t o t h e U.S.S.R. as r e p r o d u c e d i n News and V i e w s f r o m t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , 4 A p r i l 19 61, p. 5. 153 . b i l a t e r a l e conomic r e l a t i o n s . Among o t h e r p o i n t s d i s c u s s e d was t h e need t o e s t a b l i s h d e n u c l e a r i z e d zones i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . T h i s was g i v e n e x p l i c i t e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e f i n a l fi P. communique. S o v i e t - S r i L ankan economic r e l a t i o n s a l s o w i t n e s s e d a r a p i d g r o w t h a t t h i s t i m e . A f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e S t a t e P e t r o l e u m C o r p o r a t i o n , a f i v e - y e a r c o n t r a c t f o r i m p o r t o f $1.25 m i l l i o n w o r t h o f p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s f r o m t h e U.S.S.R. was s i g n e d i n J a n u a r y 1 9 6 2 . I n N o v e m b e r , an a g r e e m e n t was s i g n e d t o e s t a b l i s h a r e g u l a r s h i p p i n g s e r v i c e between S r i L a n k a n p o r t s and fi 9 t h e S o v i e t p o r t s o f Odessa and N o v o r o s s i y s k . y By 1964, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n was t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t c o n t r i b u t o r o f f o r e i g n a i d t o S r i L a n k a , w i t h a commitment o f Rs.45,250,000. u S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n r e g i o n a l and w o r l d a f f a i r s was a p p r e c i a t e d by Moscow. Her avowed s u p p o r t f o r t h e n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n movements, most o f them l e d by e i t h e r Communists o r p r o g r e s s i v e s , and h e r a n t i - c o l o n i a l s i m gave h e r a p r o g r e s s i v e image i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . Her a n t i - c o l o n i a l s l o g a n s were a g a i n s t t h e W e s t e r n powers who e i t h e r had had o r s t i l l had c o l o -n i a l p o c k e t s i n A f r i c a and A s i a . The government was n o t c o n v i n c e d o f S o v i e t c o l o n i a l i s m i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e . As P r a s a d p o i n t e d o u t , S r i L a n k a was r e a d y t o g i v e t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e d oubt t o t h e 71 S o v i e t U n i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n had f a v o u -^ 8 J o i n t Communique by t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r s o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and C e y l o n , r e p r o d u c e d i n J a i n , op. c i t . , pp. 315-317. 69 J a i n , op. c i t . / P- 438 70 P r a s a d , op. c i t . , p. 144. 71 I b i d ., p. 112. 154 r a b l e comments on Mrs. B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s r u l e . I z v e s t i a r e p o r t e d : C e y l o n was t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e d i f f i c u l t t a s k o f l i q u i d a t i n g t h e v e s t i g e s o f c o l o n i a l i s m , e l i m i n a t i n g i t s economic c o n s e q u e n c e s and c r e a t i n g n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r y . The new g o v e r n m e n t e m b a r k e d u p o n t h e i n d e p e n d e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y . 7 2 The r e t u r n o f t h e U.N . P . - l e d c o a l i t i o n government i n 1965, however, d i d n o t r e s u l t i n a r e t u r n t o t h e a n t i - c o m m u n i s t p o l i c y o f t h e p r e - 1 9 5 6 U.N.P. r e g i m e . Compared w i t h p r e - 1 9 5 6 p o l i c y , c e r t a i n d i f f e r e n c e were d i s c e r n i b l e i n t h e p o l i c y o f t h e 1965 U.N.P. r e g i m e . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1 948-56 t h e a n t i - C o m m u n i s t c r u s a d e was m a i n l y d i r e c t e d a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and t h e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s C h i n a was somewhat s o f t . T h i s t i m e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s were w i t h C h i n a and r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n were c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m o o t h . I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e r e w e r e c e r t a i n s e t - b a c k s i n d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s between t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and S r i L a n k a , b u t eco n o m i c r e l a t i o n s p r o c e e d e d s m o o t h l y . Some t r a c e s o f t h e anti-Communism o f t h e p r e v i o u s U.N.P. r e g i m e l i n g e r e d a f t e r 1 9 6 5 . They r e i m p o s e d t h e b a n on t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f Communist l i t e r a t u r e . Soon a f t e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f o f f i c e , D u d l e y Senanayake a s k e d t h e S o v i e t and C h i n e s e E m b a s s i e s t o r e d u c e t h e i r s t a f f s t o t h e b a r e minimum. O t h e r w i s e , r e l a t i o n s b etween t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and S r i L a n k a r e m a i n e d n o r m a l . The S r i L a n k a n g o v e r n m e n t ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e C z e c h o s l o v a k c r i s i s i n 1968 c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y p r i o r i t i e s o f t h e government. I t d i d n o t r u s h t o condemn t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . I n a p r e s s s t a t e m e n t i s s u e d l a t e r , t h e government f o r m a l l y d i s a p p r o v e d t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e U.S.S.R. 7 2 I z v e s t i a , 2 F e b r u a r y 19 62, r e p r o d u c e d i n J a m , op. c i t . , p. 311. 155 and o t h e r Warsaw P a c t members i n C z e c h o s l o v a k i a . J ( T ) h e g u a r d e d n a t u r e o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t pronouncement may p e r h a p s be e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Government was a t t h i s t i m e n e g o t i a t i n g a i d f o r s e v e r a l i n d u s t r i a l p r o j e c t s f r o m t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and E a s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s . 7 4 I n sum, t h e p o l i c y o f t h e 1 965-70 U.N.P. g o v e r n m e n t e x h i b i t e d some p r o - W e s t e r n f l i r t a t i o n s ; b u t t h e y w e r e more c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r a c t i c a l e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s r a t h e r t h a n m a i n t a i n i n g a c o n s i s t e n t p o l i t i c a l l i n e \" . Pragmatic Adjustments under Brezhnev A t t h e e n d o f t h e K h r u s h c h e v e r a , t h e e x t r a v a g a n t e x p e c t a t i o n s o f a s o c i a l i s t o r i e n t a t i o n by t h e n a t i o n a l d e m o c r a t i c r e g i m e s r e a c h e d i t s h e i g h t . The S o v i e t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e o f t h e Cuban r e v o l u t i o n p a r t l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s e u p h o r i a . W i t h t h e f a l l o f K h r u s h c h e v i n 1964, t h e i n f l a t e d e x p e c t a t i o n s p l a c e d upon n a t i o n a l d e m o c r a t i c r e g i m e s began t o be q u e s t i o n e d and more o r t h o d o x f o r m u l a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g s o c i a l i s t c o n s t r u c t i o n came t o t h e f o r e . A f t e r 1965, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n r e a s s e s s e d h e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h 7 S t h e T h i r d W o r l d . J The e a r l i e r o p t i m i s t i c v i e w o f t h e p r o g r e s s i v e c o u r s e o f t h e n a t i o n a l d e m o c r a c i e s gave way , t o more c a u t i o u s f o r m u l a t i o n s . The o v e r t h r o w o f S u k a r n o i n I n d o n e s i a a n d t h e t o p p l i n g o f Nkrumah o f Ghana c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h i s r e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e . Under t h e B r e z h n e v - K o s y g i n l e a d e r s h i p , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n r e -7 3 C e y l o n D a i l y News, 25 A u g u s t 19 68 7 4 K o d i k a r a , op. c i t . , p. 133. 7 R . . . F o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e c h a n g e s , s e e , C l a r k and B e a z e l e y , op. c i t . , p. 75-81. 156 a r r a n g e d h e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y p r i o r i t i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e T h i r d W o r l d . K h r u s h c h e v was w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t economic c o s t s f o r e x p e c -t e d p o l i t i c a l g a i n s . I n t h e new r e g i m e , t h e i m p o r t a n c e g i v e n t o o u t r i g h t e c o nomic a i d d i m i n i s h e d and t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c o s t e f f e c -7 fi t i v e n e s s began t o p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e . As s u c h , c o n c e p t s s u c h as \" c o - o r d i n a t e d p l a n n i n g , j o i n t v e n t u r e s , g e a r i n g T h i r d W o r l d p r o d u c t i o n t o t h e s p e c i f i c needs o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and v i c e v e r s a , e f f e c t i v e use o f raw m a t e r i a l s , b a l a n c e d i n d u s t r i a l , 7 7 a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t s . . . were i n t r o d u c e d \" . I n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e f o r a f o r r e g u l a r c o n s u l t a t i o n s and t o work o u t l o n g - t e r m p l a n s , b i l a t e r a l e c o n omic c o m m i s s i o n s were s e t - u p w i t h c o u n t r i e s s u c h as I n d i a , I r a n , E g y p t , A l g e r i a , A f g h a n i s t a n and I r a q . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e o p t i m i s t i c p o l i t i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n s h e l d by t h e S o v i e t U n i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o g r e s s i o n o f n a t i o n a l d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e s began t o d i m i n i s h . The t e r m \" n o n - c a p i t a l i s t p a t h o f d e v e l o p m e n t \" was u s e d more c a u t i o u s l y . I t was no l o n g e r a p r e s c r i p t i o n programme f o r r a p i d s h o r t - c u t s t o s o c i a l i s m b u t a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a l o n g e r t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d . The a b o v e r e a s s e s s m e n t y i e l d e d a more p r a g m a t i c p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e T h i r d W o r l d . As a r e s u l t , S o v i e t d i p l o m a t i c a c t i v i -t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l gave p r i m a c y t o t h e need f o r good r e l a t i o n s w i t h a g r e a t e r number o f s t a t e s , d e - e m p h a s i z i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e i n t e r n a l c o m p l e x i o n s o f t h e 7 fi \" F o r t h e changed a t t i t u d e o f t h e new S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p r e g a r d i n g e c onomic a i d , s e e . P r a v d a , e d i t o r i a l 27 O c t o b e r 1965, t i t l e d \"The Supreme I n t e r n a t i o n a l Duty o f a S o c i a l i s t C o u n t r y \" . 7 7 U.S., C o n g r e s s , House, Committee on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a -t i o n s , The S o v i e t U n i o n and t h e T h i r d W o r l d : A W a t e r s h e d i n G r e a t P o w e r R i v a l r y - R e p o r t p r e p a r e d by t h e S e n i o r S p e c i a l i s t D i v i s i o n , C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e s , L i b r a r y o f C o n g r e s s ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O. 19 7 7 ) , p. 31. r e g i m e s . The m i l i t a r y - s t r a t e g i c r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n warranted, a t t e m p t s t o n o r m a l i z e r e l a t i o n s w i t h ' s t r a t e g i c a l l y c r i t i c a l ' b u t r e a c t i o n a r y r e g i m e s s u c h a s T u r k e y , I r a n , a n d P a k i s t a n . The d i m i n i s h e d v a l u e o f l a n d - b a s e d s t r a t e g i c d e t e r r e n c e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n l i g h t o f t h e new S u b m a r i n e - L a u n c h e d B a l l i s t i c M i s s i l e s - (SLBM) weapons s y s t e m e n a b l e d t h e S o v i e t 7 R U n i o n t o n o r m a l i z e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e ' n o r t h e r n t i e r ' s t a t e s . The i m p a c t o f t h e S i n o - S o v i e t r i f t on S o v i e t s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a s h o u l d a l s o be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . W i t h t h e g r o w i n g S i n o - S o v i e t c o n f l i c t , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n had t o compete n o t o n l y w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b u t a l s o w i t h C h i n a . C h i n a r e s o l u t e l y s t r o v e t o i d e n t i f y h e r s e l f w i t h t h e T h i r d W o r l d . The C h i n e s e l e a d e r s h i p a d v o c a t e d t h e t h e o r y o f t h e t h r e e w o r l d s w h i c h p o s t u -l a t e d t h a t t h e two s u p e r - p o w e r s i n t e n d e d t o j o i n t l y d o m i n a t e t h e T h i r d W o r l d . B e c a u s e o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ' s p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c m a n o e u v r i n g became more c o m p l i c a t e d . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , power c o n s i d e r a t i o n s assumed a g r e a t e r r o l e i n S o v i e t p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a . As D i e t e r B r a u n p o i n t s o u t , \" i t was i n t h i s framework, i n w h i c h i d e o l o g y and power p o l i t i c s s t a n d i n r e l a t i o n t o e a c h o t h e r , t h a t S o v i e t p o l i c y on t h e I n d i a n Ocean must be a n a l y s e d \" . He f u r t h e r s t a t e s : S o v i e t p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n e x h i b i t s i n t y p i c a l f a s h i o n t h i s m i x t u r e o f i d e o l o g y and power p o l i t i c s as i t d e v e l o p e d i n t h e 1970s o u t o f t h e S o v i e t t w i n c l a i m s t o a say i n g l o b a l a f f a i r s and t o i t s r o l e o f u n r e s t r i c t e d l e a d e r s h i p i n t h e S o c i a l i s t camp. I n any a s s e s s m e n t o f S o v i e t c o n d u c t b o t h t h e s e f a c t o r s must be v i e w e d t o g e t h e r . 7 g 71 'K.R. S i n g h , The I n d i a n Ocean j _ B i g Power P r e s e n c e and L o c a l Response (New D e l h i : Manohar, 19 7 7 ) , p. 63 7 Q ^ B r a u n , op. c i t . , p. 50 158 The S o v i e t d e c i s i o n t o c a r r y out ' f o r w a r d d e p l o y m e n t ' o f h e r n a v a l f o r c e s r e g u l a r l y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f t e r 1968 came i n t h i s c o n t e x t . To be a p o l i t i c a l power i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i t was e s s e n t i a l t o be a n a v a l power i n t h e r e g i o n . As A d m i r a l Elmo Zumwalt (U.S.N. R e t i r e d ) p o i n t e d o u t , n a v a l p r e s e n c e c o u l d be e f f e c t i v e as \"a g e s t u r e o f f r i e n d s h i p , a n o t e o f a s s u r a n c e , i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h r e a t , g l i m p s e o f power T h i s i s e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e S o v i e t n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l p o w e r a n d m i l i t a r y - s t r a t e g i c b e n e f i t s i s r e c i p r o c a l : p o l i t i c a l power b r i n g s m i l i t a r y - s t r a t e g i c b e n e f i t s and m i l i t a r y power i n f l u e n c e s p o l i t i c a l b e n e f i t s . F o r a p r o p e r h i s t o r i c a l and a n a l y t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e S o v i e t d e c i s i o n t o s e n d h e r n a v a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean needs t o be l o c a t e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f S o v i e t p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e T h i r d W o r l d i n g e n e r a l and t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s i n p a r t i c u l a r . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e S o v i e t n a v a l e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean s h o u l d be v i e w e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f S o v i e t n a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n programmes and h e r r e s p o n s e s t o t h e U.S. n a v a l s t r a t e g y . The Evolution of Soviet Naval Policy A t t h e c l o s e o f t h e Second W o r l d War t h e m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n was b a s e d on h e r c o n v e n t i o n a l l a n d f o r c e s . I n v i e w o f t h e n a v a l s t r e n g t h o f h e r a d v e r s a r i e s and t h e weak s t a t e o f h e r n a v a l c a p a b i l i t i e s , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n gave h i g h p r i o r i t y t o n a v a l d e v e l o p m e n t . I n 1948 an a m b i t i o u s 2 0 - y e a r n a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n programme was l a u n c h e d . I t was p l a n n e d t o c o n s t r u c t Of) Quoted i n B e z b o r u a h , US S t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, p. 36. 159 d i e s e l a t t a c k s u b m a r i n e s , f r i g a t e s , d e s t r o y e r s and c r u i s e r s . What was r e m a r k a b l e was t h e s h e e r s i z e o f t h e p r o p o s e d f l e e t . Not l e s s t h a n 1,200 s u b m a r i n e s , 200 e s c o r t s , 200 d e s t r o y e r s , 30 c r u i s e r s , 4 b a t t l e s h i p s , and 4 a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r s were t o be b u i l t . T h i s n a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n programme a p p e a r e d o f f e n s i v e b e c a u s e o f i t s immense s i z e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e s i z e o f t h e s u b m a r i n e f l e e t , b u t c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e a c t u a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r o p o s e d f l e e t r e v e a l s t h e d e f e n s i v e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o g r a m m e . The s u b m a r i n e s were medium-range W - c l a s s v e s s e l s and t h e i r t a s k was t o mount an a n t i - c a r r i e r s c r e e n t o c o u n t e r t h e U.S. s t r i k e f o r c e \" b e f o r e t h e y were c l o s e enough t o S o v i e t t e r r i t o r y t o l a u n c h p 9 t h e i r a i r c r a f t a g a i n s t c i t y t a r g e t s \" . The l a c k o f a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r s ( o n l y 4) and i n a d e q u a c y o f a n t i - a i r c r a f t armament on s u r f a c e s h i p s f o r c e d them t o c o u n t on s h o r e - b a s e d a i r c o v e r a g e . As s u c h , t h e b l u e - w a t e r n a v a l c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e navy was v e r y l i m i t e d . The f a c t t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l a r e a o f t h e navy was c o n f i n e d t o t h e B a l t i c and B l a c k s e a s i s a n o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n o f i t s d e f e n s i v e n a t u r e . A f t e r t h e d e a t h o f S t a l i n , t h i s n a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n programme was r e v i e w e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e g e n e r a l d e b a t e o v e r t h e d e f e n c e p o s t u r e o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n u n d e r t h e new l e a d e r s h i p . The d e b a t e o v e r t h e f u t u r e shape and t h e p r o p e r r o l e o f t h e S o v i e t N a v y c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 5 0 s , w i t h i n S o v i e t d e f e n c e c i r c l e s and t h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p i n t h e c o n t e x t o f c o n t i n u o u s a d v a n c e s i n n a v a l t e c h n o l o g y . A t t h e same t i m e , c e r t a i n changes 8 1 M i c h a e l M c c G w i r e , \"The R a t i o n a l e f o r t h e D e v e l o p m e n t s o f S o v i e t Seapower\", U.S. N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r o c e e d i n g s , 106:5 (May 1 9 8 0 ) , p. 157. 8 2 J u k e s , The I n d i a n Ocean i n S o v i e t N a v a l P o l i c y , p. 4. 160 o c c u r r e d i n t h e S o v i e t t h r e a t p e r c e p t i o n . I n t h e e a r l y p o s t - w a r y e a r s t h e b e l i e f was t h a t t h e p o s s i b l e t h r e a t f r o m t h e West w o u l d be i n t h e f o r m o f an a m p h i b i o u s i n v a s i o n aimed a t t h e S o v i e t h e a r t l a n d . I n t h e m i d - 1 9 5 0 s t h e t h r e a t f r o m t h e West was p e r c e i v e d as a s u r p r i s e n u c l e a r a t t a c k by c a r r i e r - b o r n e l o n g -r a n g e b o m b e r s on s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d c r i t i c a l p o i n t s . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t w e s t e r n m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g y was by now h e a v i l y b a s e d on n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e a n d t h e S t r a t e g i c i c A i r Command (SAC). The changes i n t h e S o v i e t t h r e a t p e r c e p t i o n a l s o n e c e s s i -t a t e d a r e v i e w o f t h e e x i s t i n g s t r a t e g y o f t h e Navy. A f t e r 1954, t h e 2 0 - y e a r n a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n programme i n i t i a t e d by S t a l i n was s c a l e d down d r a s t i c a l l y . The b u i l d i n g o f c r u i s e r s was c h e c k e d i n m i d -c o u r s e ; mass p r o d u c t i o n o f medium-type s u b m a r i n e s , t h e n b u i l d i n g a t 72 u n i t s a y e a r was s h a r p l y t a p e r e d t o a h a l t ; a n d w h i l e t h e d e s t r o y e r , e s c o r t , and s u b c h a s e r programmes r a n t h e i r f u l l c o u r s e , t h e i r s u c c e s s o r c l a s s e s were p u t b a c k f o u r y e a r s . 8 3 The r e d u c t i o n and s c a l i n g down o f t h e mass n a v a l p r o d u c t i o n programme f i t t e d i n t o a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f t h e t h i n k i n g o f t h e j o i n t l e a d e r s h i p - K h r u s h c h e v and M a l e n k o v . P r i m e M i n i s t e r M a l e n k o v c l a i m e d t o be c o m m i t t e d t o t h e improvement o f l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s o f t h e S o v i e t p e o p l e . The r e d u c t i o n o f t h e n a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n programme r e l e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l r e s o u r c e s t o t h e d o m e s t i c economy. A f t e r t h e n a v a l r e v i e w i n 1954 t h e S o v i e t U n i o n p l a n n e d t o r e p l a c e t h e v a s t f l e e t , w h i c h p r o v i d e d t a c t i c a l m o b i l i t y , w i t h l o n g r a n g e c r u i s e m i s s i l e s ( w h i c h were y e t t o be d e v e l o p e d ) c a r r i e d by s u r f a c e s h i p s a n d d i e s e l s u b m a r i n e s w i t h t h e 8 3 S e e M c c G w i r e , \" R a t i o n a l f o r t h e Development\", p. 157. 161 a s s o c i a t e d o p e r a t i o n a l c o n c e p t s o f r e a c h , p a y l o a d , and a c c u r a c y . S e r g e i G o r s h k o v , who was t h e a r c h i t e c t o f t h e S o v i e t Navy i n t h e n u c l e a r age, came t o t h e f o r e f r o n t w i t h t h e n a v a l r e v i e w . K h r u s h c h e v b r o u g h t i n t h e t h e n 4 5 - y e a r - o l d G o r s h k o v , who had worked w i t h him on t h e S o u t h e r n F r o n t d u r i n g t h e war t o r e p l a c e N i k o l a i K u z n e t z o v as C o m m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f o f t h e S o v i e t Navy. G o r s h k o v was a s s i g n e d t h e t a s k o f i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e d e c i s i o n s t a k e n by t h e n a v a l r e v i e w . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p o s t - 1 9 5 3 S o v i e t n a v a l d e b a t e and r e p e a t e d c a n c e l l a t i o n s and r e d e s i g n s o f S o v i e t n a v a l p r o c u r e m e n t programmes i n t h e i r p r o p e r c o n t e x t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t r a c e how t h e S o v i e t U n i o n r e s p o n d e d t o t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e s o f t h e U.S. Navy and t h e r e s u l t i n g changes i n U.S. n a v a l i n i t i a t i v e s . I n 1952, t h e U.S. Navy l a u n c h e d a programme o f new l a r g e a t t a c k c a r r i e r s . I n t h e 1952-58 p e r i o d , 7 new c a r r i e r s were i n t r o d u c e d a n d t h r e e o l d e r c a r r i e r s w e r e h e a v i l y m o d e r n i z e d . Two new c a r r i e r s were d e p l o y e d i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n w i t h t h e U.S. 6 t h f l e e t . By 1954, t h e U.S. Navy i n t r o d u c e d t h e T e r r i e r and T a r t e r c l a s s s u r f a c e - t o - a i r g u i d e d m i s s i l e s a n d s u r f a c e - t o - s u r f a c e c r u i s e m i s s i l e s - t h e R e a u l u s . The o p e r a t i o n a l c o n c e p t o f t h e S o v i e t Navy a f t e r 1954 was b a s e d on t h e d e s i g n o f c o u n t e r i n g enemy c a r r i e r s w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f s h o r e - b a s e d a i r c o v e r a g e . However, i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s u p e r s o n i c f i g h t e r s a n d f u r t h e r a d v a n c e s i n t h e r a n g e o f c a r r i e r - b o r n e a i r c r a f t a t t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 5 0 s f r u s t r a t e d t h e p l a n o f 8 4 I b i d . p c J a n e ' s F i g h t i n g S h i p s 1 9 6 8 - 6 9 ( L o n d o n : Sampson, Low, M a r s t o n & Co. L t d . , 19 6 9 ) , pp. 352-60. 162 c o u n t e r i n g U.S. c a r r i e r s w i t h s h o r e - b a s e d a i r - c o v e r a g e . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f l o n g - r a n g e a i r c r a f t - t h e S k y w a r r i o r and t h e V i g i l a n t e - by t h e U.S. N a v y 8 ^ e n a b l e d them t o s t r i k e S o v i e t t a r g e t s coming f r o m b e y o n d t h e r e a c h o f S o v i e t a i r c o v e r . T h i s was t h e c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h t h e d e b a t e o v e r t h e navy was resumed i n 1958 i n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . The S o v i e t navy d e c i d e d t o c o u n t on n u c l e a r s u b m a r i n e s t o meet t h e U.S. t h r e a t . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e d i e s e l s u b m a r i n e c o n s t r u c t i o n programme was c a n c e l l e d and t h e H o t e l and November c l a s s n u c l e a r s u b m a r i n e programmes were a c c e -l e r a t e d t o 10 b o a t s a y e a r . Though t h e d i e s e l s u b m a r i n e s were c a n c e l l e d , t h e i r l o n g - r a n g e m i s s i l e s y s t e m s \"were u s e d t o r e c o n f i g u r e n u c l e a r s u b m a r i n e s as SSGN: t h e E c h o c l a s s e s . M e a n w h i l e , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a h o r i z o n - r a n g e s u b m a r i n e m i s s i l e w i t h i t s own t a r g e t l o c a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y was p u t i n hand\". Emergence of the Polaris Threat The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e SLBM s y s t e m by t h e U.S. Navy i n t h e e a r l y 1960s opened up a new s t a g e i n m i s s i l e d e l i v e r y s y s t e m s . The f i r s t v e r s i o n o f t h e SLBM s y s t e m , P o l a r i s A - l , w h i c h had a p p r a n g e o f 1200 n a u t i c a l m i l e s became o p e r a t i o n a l i n 1961. I n o r d e r t o h i t Moscow and L e n i n g r a d , t h e P o l a r i s A - l m i s s i l e had t o be f i r e d f r o m p o s i t i o n s i n t h e B a l t i c , t h e B l a c k Sea o r t h e B a r e n t s Sea. T h i s o p e r a t i o n was f e a s i b l e o n l y f r o m t h e B a r e n t s Sea. The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e H o l y L o c h P o l a r i s b a s e i n S c o t l a n d i n 1961 e n a b l e d t h e U.S. Navy t o t a r g e t Moscow and L e n i n g r a d f r o m 86 I b i d . , 529-30. 87 M c c G w i r e , \"The R a t i o n a l e f o r Development II / P- 158. 8 8 J a n e s F i g h t i n g S h i p s , 1968-1969, pp. 344-45. 163 t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . The K e n n e d y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i c h assumed o f f i c e i n 1961, a c c e l e r a t e d t h e P o l a r i s programme. The s e c o n d v e r s i o n , t h e P o l a r i s A-2, w h i c h had a r a n g e o f 1,600 n a u t i c a l m i l e s , became o p e r a t i o n a l i n June Q Q 1962. y The P o l a r i s A-2 c o u l d c o v e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i a l c e n t e r s i n U k r a i n e , t h e Baku o i l f i e l d s and a f a i r p o r t i o n o f S o v i e t C e n t r a l A s i a f r o m t h e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . Thus, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e n t e r e d i n t o an agreement w i t h S p a i n t o e s t a b l i s h a b a s e a t R o t a t o m o n i t o r P o l a r i s s u b m a r i n e s d e p l o y e d i n t h e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . The f i n a l v e r s i o n o f t h e P o l a r i s f a m i l y , A-3, came i n t o o p e r a t i o n i n September 1 9 6 4 . \" S i n c e t h e A-3 had a r a n g e o f 2,500 n a u t i c a l m i l e s t h e I n d i a n O c e a n became a p o s s i b l e d e p l o y m e n t a r e a . F u r t h e r m o r e i t was p l a n n e d t o d e v e l o p a n o t h e r c l a s s o f SLBMs, t h e P o s e i d o n . TABLE-I U.S. Strategic SLMBs Name Lau n c h P l a t f o r m ( T u b e s / L a u n c h e r s Range N a u t i c a l M i l e s ( K m ) Y e a r o f c h a r a c t e r i n i t i a l d e p l o y m e n t P o l a r i s A-2 L a f a y e t t e (16) s u b m a r i n e s 1, 500 (2,775) 1962 T h e r m o n u c l e a r ; b e i n g r e p l a c e d by P o s e i d o n P o l a r i s A-3 E t h a n A l l e n George W a s h i n g t o n 2,500 (5,652) 1964 T h e r m o n u c l e a r ; MRV warhead. P o s e i d o n C-3 L a f a y e t t e A p p r o x . 2,500 (4,625) 1971 T h e r m o n u c l e a r ; MIRV warhead S o u r c e : J a n e ' s F i a h t i n a S h i p s , 1976-77 W a t t s , ( 1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 522-38 (New Y o r k , F r a n k l i n g 8 9 I b i d . 9 0 I b i d 164 A t t h e same t i m e , t h e U.S. Navy i n t r o d u c e d n u c l e a r p r o p u l s i o n t o s u r f a c e v e s s e l s and d e v e l o p e d s t r i k e c a r r i e r s . Two K i t t y Hawk c l a s s c a r r i e r s and t h e n u c l e a r powered E n t e r p r i s e e n t e r e d s e r v i c e i n 1961. Thus, t h e U.S. was a b l e t o m a i n t a i n h e r l e a d i n n u c l e a r p r o p u l s i o n , g u i d e d m i s s i l e s , and SLBMs i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s . 9 1 The d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e P o l a r i s c l a s s SLBM m i s s i l e s by t h e U.S. Navy p o s e d a s e v e r e c h a l l e n g e t o t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . The SLBM s y s t e m gave t h e U.S. Navy a c o n s i d e r a b l e l e a d o v e r t h e S o v i e t Navy. Q u i t e o b v i o u s l y , S o v i e t n a v a l s t r a t e g i s t s h a d t o t a k e t h e t h r e a t v e r y s e r i o u s l y . T h i s t h r e a t m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f i n many f o r m s . One o f t h e p r o m i n e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e P o l a r i s s y s t e m was i t s i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y o r , i n m i l i t a r y t e r m s , i t s ' a s s u r e d r e s p o n s e ' . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e new s y s t e m p r e s e n t e d a s e v e r e c h a l l e n g e t o S o v i e t n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e t h e o r y b e c a u s e t h e P o l a r i s c o u l d be u s e d as a ' s t r a t e g i c r e s e r v e ' w h i c h i n v e s t e d t h e U.S. Navy w i t h a 'Second S t r i k e C a p a b i l i t y ' (SSC) . A p a r t f r o m t h e e x t e n d e d c o v e r a g e , P o l a r i s m i s s i l e s c o u l d be l a u n c h e d f r o m submerged s u b m a r i n e s . T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r e p r e s e n t e d a s e r i o u s c h a l l e n g e t o t h e S o v i e t s i n t e r m s o f d e t e c t i o n , l o c a t i o n , and c o n t i n u o u s t r a c k i n g . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e s u b m a r i n e s c o u l d be d e t e c t e d by v a r i o u s f o r m s o f f i x e d s y s t e m s s u c h as b o t t o m mounted o r moored a r r a y s ; by d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f a i r b o r n e s u r v e i l l a n c e s y s t e m s c a r r i e d b y s a t e l l i t e s o r a i r c r a f t and i n c l u d i n g t h e use o f l a r g e m i d - o c e a n f i e l d s o f d r i f t i n g o r f l o a t i n g s e n s o r s ; by v a r i o u s t y p e s o f t r a p p i n g b a r r i e r s e s t a b l i s h e d a t n a t u r a l choke p o i n t s o r o u t s i d e y S i n g h , The I n d i a n Ocean: B i g Power P r e s e n c e and L o c a l R e s ponse, p. 21. 165 P o l a r i s b a s e s ; and by c o n t i n u o u s t r a c k i n g by s u b m a r i n e , s u r f a c e s h i p o r a i r c r a f t . 9 2 However, t h e S o v i e t Navy was n o t c a p a b l e o f m o b i l i z i n g t h e s e t e c h n i c a l r e s o u r c e s . The d e b a t e o v e r t h e f u t u r e shape o f t h e Navy i n 1957/58 f u r t h e r d i s r u p t e d t h e n a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n programme. N a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n resumed o n l y i n 1961. The s h i p s c o n s t r u c t e d a f t e r 1961 were i n n o v a t i v e b u t b u i l t i n s m a l l e r numbers. The l o n g p r o d u c t i o n r u n s o f u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d s h i p s were r e p l a c e d by s h o r t e r r u n s o f l a r g e r d e s t r o y e r - t y p e s h i p s . The e m phasis s h i f t e d f r o m guns t o m i s s i l e s . S u r f a c e - t o - a i r (SAM) ( t h e K o t l i n , t h e K a n i n and t h e K a s h i n c l a s s ) and s u r f a c e (SSM) ( t h e K i l d i n and t h e Krupny Q \"5 c l a s s ) m i s s i l e s were i n t r o d u c e d . J However, a t t h e t i m e t h e U.S. Navy l a u n c h e d i t s P o l a r i s programme i n 1961, t h e S o v i e t n u c l e a r s u b m a r i n e f l e e t was i n i t s f o r m a t i v e s t a g e . The U.S. Navy's SLBM c h a l l e n g e s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e hand o f G o r s h k o v e n o r m o u s l y i n t h e i n t e r - s e r v i c e c o m p e t i t i o n . 9 4 I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e P o l a r i s c h a l l e n g e , t h e n u c l e a r s u b m a r i n e f l e e t f i g u r e d l a r g e i n S o v i e t c a l c u l a t i o n s . G o r s h k o v , a l o n g - t i m e p r o p o n e n t o f a m i s s i l e - c a r r y i n g n u c l e a r s u b m a r i n e f l e e t , s e i z e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o f u r t h e r h i s c a u s e . 9 2 M c c G w i r e , \"The E v o l u t i o n o f S o v i e t N a v a l P o l i c y : 1960-74\", i n S o v i e t N a v a l P o l i c y O b j e c t i v e s a n d C o n s t r a i n t s , M i c h a e l M c c G w i r e , Ken B o o t h , J o h n M c D o n n e l l , e d s . (New Y o r k : P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , 1975) p. 512. 9 3 J a n e ' s F i g h t i n g S h i p s 1967/68. p. 616-19. q / F o r a good d i s c u s s i o n o f i n t e r s e r v i c e r i v a l r y , see O l e s M. S molansky, i n \" S o v i e t E n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean : An A n a l y s i s \" M i c h a e l M c c G w i r e , ed., S o v i e t N a v a l D e v e l o p m e n t s . op. c i t . , pp. 289-403. 166 The Polaris Threat and the Indian Ocean The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e P o l a r i s A-3 c l a s s SLBMs i n c r e a s e d t h e s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean b e c a u s e t h e n o r t h -west p a r t o f t h e Ocean became a p o s s i b l e d e p l o y m e n t s i t e f o r t h e U.S. Navy. C e r t a i n U.S. i n i t i a t i v e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s c o r r o b o r a t e d S o v i e t f e a r s . I n 1 9 6 3 , t h e A m e r i c a n s e n t e r e d i n t o an agreement w i t h A u s t r a l i a t o e s t a b l i s h a b a s e on t h e N o r t h West Cape o f A u s t r a l i a . The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h i s b a s e was i n t e r p r e t e d as b e i n g i n l i n e w i t h t h o s e i n H o l y L o c h i n S c o t l a n d and R o t a i n S p a i n . A f t e r 1963, t h e l o w f r e q u e n c y commu-n i c a t i o n s t a t i o n a t t h e N o r t h West Cape o f A u s t r a l i a became an i m p o r t a n t l i n k i n t h e U.S. g l o b a l d e f e n c e n e t w o r k . One o f i t s f u n c t i o n s i s t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w i t h U.S. s u b m a r i n e s i n t h e a r e a . A c c o r d i n g t o R e a r A d m i r a l L a Rocque (U.S.N, r e t d . ) \" t h e r e c e n t a d d i t i o n o f an Omega S t a t i o n a t N o r t h West Cape a l l o w s s u b m a r i n e s w i t h m i s s i l e s n o t o n l y t o l o c a t e t h e i r s t a t i o n s a t s e a b u t a l s o t o p e r f o r m t h e v a l u a b l e t a s k o f i n - f l i g h t c o u r s e c o r r e c t i o n f o r m i s s i l e s \" . 9 5 The S o v i e t U n i o n i n t e r p r e t e d t h e Omega S t a t i o n as t h e f o r e r u n n e r o f U.S. P o l a r i s 9 6 s u b m a r i n e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The s u r v e y o f i s l a n d s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean by a j o i n t U.K.-U.S. team i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e s t r a t e g i c i s l a n d b a s e s c o n c e p t i n 1964 f u r t h e r h i g h l i g h t e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e I n d i a n Ocean was 9 7 l o o m i n g l a r g e i n U.S. s t r a t e g i c c l a c u l a t i o n s . The i s l a n d s s u r v e y e d , n a m e l y t h e S e y c h e l l e s , A l d e b r a , a n d D i e g o G a r c i a , Q R Quoted i n B e z b o r u a h , U.S. S t r a t e g y , p. 154. 9 6New Times (Moscow), 22 May 1963, p. 23. 9 7New Y o r k Times, 30 A u g u s t 1964, p. 16. 167 r e v e a l e d t h a t A m e r i c a n a t t e n t i o n was m a i n l y c e n t e r e d on t h e n o r t h w e s t p a r t o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean- t h a t was c o n s i d e r e d most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e d e p l o y m e n t o f P o l a r i s s u b m a r i n e s . The U.K.-U.S. p l a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a new c o l o n y , t h e B r i t i s h I n d i a n Ocean T e r r i t o r y , was c o n s i d e r e d a m a t t e r o f g r a v e c o n c e r n by t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . The e n t r y o f t h e U.S. n a v a l t a s k f o r c e , C o n c o r d Squadron, t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n A p r i l 19 64 was i n t e r p r e t e d by Moscow as an a c c l i m a t i z a t i o n e x e r c i s e . A c c o r d i n g t o S o v i e t a n a l y s t s : The d e p l o y m e n t o f A m e r i c a n n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean assumed a p l a n n e d c h a r a c t e r i n 1964 when t h e new P o l a r i s A-3 s t r a t e g i c m i s s i l e was i n t r o d u c e d . T h i s m i s s i l e was i n t e n d e d f o r t h e new a t o m i c s u b m a r i n e s t h e n u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y was t o r e p l a c e t h e s m a l l e r r a n g e P o l a r i s A - l and P o l a r i s A-2 m i s s i l e s i n s t a l l e d on e x i s t i n g submarines.98 T h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e doubt as t o w h e t h e r t h e P o l a r i s A-3 s u b m a r i n e s were d e p l o y e d o r n o t i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . \" \" F o r s t r a t e g i c r e a s o n s , t h e U.S. p o l i c y r e g a r d i n g a l l n u c l e a r d e p l o y m e n t i s n e i t h e r t o c o n f i r m n o r deny\". x^0 A c c o r d i n g t o t h e map a t t a c h e d t o t h e R e p o r t on M i l i t a r y P o s t u r e 1976 o f t h e U.S. C o n g r e s s House Committee on Armed S e r v i c e s , a p a r t o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean was u s e d by t h e U.S. SLBMs. P r o p o n e n t s o f t h e d e p l o y m e n t v i e w n o t e t h a t t h e U.S. N a v y L e a g u e m a g a z i n e Sea P o w e r a c k n o w l e d g e d i n F e b r u a r y 1974 t h a t t h e N o r t h West Cape s t a t i o n s e n d s c l a s s i f i e d messages t o P o l a r i s s u b m a r i n e s d e p l o y e d i n t h e Q Q I . Redko and N. S h a s k o l s k y , The I n d i a n Ocean j _ A Sphere o f T e n s i o n s o r a Zone o f Peace (Moscow: Nauks P u b l i s h e r s , 1983, p.30 \" R o d n e y W. J o n e s , \" B a l l i s t i c S u b m a r i n e s and Arms C o n t r o l i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean,\" A s i a n S u r v e y , XX:3 (March 1980), pp. 269-279. 1 ( ^ ^ I n d i a , The U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e I n d i a n Ocean - R e p o r t o f t h e I n d o - A m e r i c a n Task F o r c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean ( W a s h i n g t o n : C a r n e g i e Endowment f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e a c e , 1985), p. 13. 168 1 0 1 I n d i a n Ocean. These f a c t o r s a l o n e do n o t s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e v i e w t h a t t h e U.S. Navy has d e p l o y e d P o l a r i s / P o s e i d o n s u b m a r i n e s r e g u l a r l y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. There i s no doubt t h a t \" i n a t r a n s i t s t a g e one 1 n o has c r o s s e d t h e I n d i a n Ocean a t one p o i n t o r o t h e r \" . ^ But r e g u l a r d e p l o y m e n t i s a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r . I t i s c l e a r t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e p l o y s u b m a r i n e s on a r e g u l a r b a s i s w i t h o u t s u b m a r i n e t e n d e r s . T h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e U.S. Na v y m a i n t a i n s s u b m a r i n e t e n d e r s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The U.S. member o f t h e I n d o - A m e r i c a n Task F o r c e on t h e I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s : When t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d e p l o y s b a l l i s t i c m i s s i l e s u b m a r i n e s t o an a r e a t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n s i g n s w h i c h go w i t h t h a t ... Take t h e c a s e o f t h e U.S. m i s s i l e f a c i l i t i e s a t R o t a , o r Guam, any p l a c e where m i s s i l e s u b m a r i n e s o p e r a t e on p a t r o l on a r e g u l a r b a s i s . These c a n n o t be c o n c e a l e d . They a r e q u i t e w e l l known. There i s no s u c h f a c i l i t y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. C o n t r a r y t o a g r e a t d e a l o f r h e t o r i c a bout D i e g o G a r c i a p e r f o r m i n g t h a t f u n c t i o n , i t does n o t . 1 0 3 Whether t h e U.S. P o l a r i s s u b m a r i n e s have been d e p l o y e d o r n o t , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n h a s s u f f i c i e n t c a u s e t o be c o n c e r n e d . As B e z b o r u a h c o r r e c t l y p o i n t s o ut \"non-deployment c a n n o t be u s e d as a r e l e v a n t argument a g a i n s t S o v i e t c o n c e r n \" . 1 0 4 Even i f P o l a r i s s u b m a r i n e s a r e n o t d e p l o y e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a t p r e s e n t , t h e r e i s no a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h e y w o u l d n o t come t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . From t h e S o v i e t p o i n t o f v i e w 1 0 1 U . S . C o n g r e s s House, Sub-Committee on t h e Near E a s t and S o u t h A s i a , Committee on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n o f U.S. M i l i t a r y F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t e s t i m o n y o f L a Rocque, 2 3 r d Cong., 2nd S e s s . , 1974. 1 0 2 I n d i a , The U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e I n d i a n Ocean, p. 15. 1 0 3 I b i d . , p. 14. 104 B e z b o r u a h , U.S. S t r a t e g y , p. 138 169 A n o t h e r t h i n g t h a t made t h e I n d i a n O c e a n a t t r a c t i v e t o A m e r i c a n s t r a t e g i s t s was t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w o u l d f i n d i t mos t d i f f i c u l t t o d e p l o y a n t i - s u b m a r i n e f o r c e s t h a t c o u l d r e d u c e t h e A m e r i c a n t h r e a t o f a t t a c k f r o m t h e s e a . W h i l e i n t h e A t l a n t i c and t h e P a c i f i c t h e S o v i e t Navy can a t t e n d t o t h e c o u n t r y ' s d e f e n c e needs by r e l y i n g on t h e s y s t e m s o f b a s e s on i t s c o a s t . I n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, i t has no s u c h b a s e s . 1 0 5 I n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n had two o p t i o n s . I n t h e r e a l m o f d i p l o m a c y , i t c o u l d r e a c h a m u t u a l agreement t o r e f r a i n f r o m e m p l o y i n g n u c l e a r weapons i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The o t h e r o p t i o n was t o se n d n a v a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a c o u n t e r v a i l i n g s c r e e n , as was done i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n i n 1963. The S o v i e t U n i o n f i r s t p u r s u e d t h e f o r m e r o p t i o n . The a d v a n t a g e s o f t h i s c o u r s e o f a c t i o n were enormous, even t h o u g h t h e p r o s p e c t o f s u c c e s s was remote. I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e d e n u c l e a r i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h i s c o n t e x t w o u l d be d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s \"as t h e Ocean [ I n d i a n ] d i d n o t o f f e r a r a n g e o f t a r g e t s f o r S o v i e t m i s s i l e s u b m a r i n e s c o m p a r a b l e t o t h o s e i t o f f e r e d t h e P o l a r i s F o r c e \" . 1 0 6 S e c o n d l y , t h e p r o p o s a l t o d e n u c l e a r i z e t h e I n d i a n Ocean w o u l d b r i n g t h e i s s u e o f s u p e r -power n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean t o t h e f o r e f r o n t and w o u l d m o b i l i z e t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s who were s e n s i t i v e t o s u c h d e v e l o p m e n t s . I n December 1964, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n p r e s e n t e d a memorandum t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , xOn measures f o r f u r t h e r e a s i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l 1 0 5 R e d k o and S h a s k o l s k y , The I n d i a n Ocean, p. 30. 1 0 6 G e o f f r e y J u k e s , \" S o v i e t P o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean,\" i n S o v i e t - N a v a l P o l i c y : O b j e c t i v e s and C o n s t r a i n t s . M.MccGwire, Ken B o o t h and John M c D o n n e l l , e d s . (New Y o r k , P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 312. 170 t e n s i o n and r e s t r i c t i n g t h e arms r a c e ' . P a r a g r a p h 6 o f t h e memorandum t i t l e d ' E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f n u c l e a r f r e e z o n e s ' s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n be d e n u c l e a r i z e d . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e memorandum commended t h e S r i Lankan g o v e r n m e n t f o r b a n n i n g f o r e i g n s h i p s a n d a i r c r a f t c a r r y i n g n u c l e a r weapons f r o m S r i L a n k a n p o r t s and a i r f i e l d s . T h e r s i s no doubt t h a t t h e S o v i e t memorandum had some p r o p a g a n d a c o n t e n t b u t , as J u k e s p o i t s o u t , \" i t c o n t a i n e d a number o f i d e a s w h i c h 1 A p have s u b s e q u e n t l y f o r m e d t h e b a s i s o f s e r i o u s n e g o t i a t i o n s \" . N o t u n e x p e c t e d l y , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d i d n o t a g r e e t o t h e p r o p o s a l . The S o v i e t n a v a l e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n M a r c h 1968 was t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e c o n d o p t i o n : s e n d i n g n a v a l f o r c e s t o t h e a r e a where t h e p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t had emerged. The S o v i e t n a v a l r e s p o n s e i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n i n 1963 was v e r y s w i f t ; i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i t l a g g e d f o u r y e a r s . The P o l a r i s t h r e a t i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n became c o n c r e t e w i t h t h e U.S. Navy m o v i n g f r o m p i l o t p r o j e c t t o r e g u l a r d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f R o t a P o l a r i s b a s e . Such u r g e n c y was n o t t h e r e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean as t h e t h r e a t was s t i l l a p o t e n t i a l one. The S o v i e t Navy had t o become a c c l i m a t i z e d t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean w h i c h was an e n t i r e l y new a r e a . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e S o v i e t Navy had a c c e s s t o b a s e f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n and t h e B l a c k Sea F l e e t was n o t t o t a l l y u n p r e p a r e d f o r s u c h a r o l e . 1 0 7 S o v i e t News (L o n d o n ) , 15 December 1964, pp. 145-47. 1 0 8 F o r e x a m p l e , s e c t i o n 4 o f t h e memorandum t i t l e d ' P r e v e n t i o n o f t h e F u r t h e r S p r e a d o f N u c l e a r Weapons p a v e d t h e way f o r t h e N o n - P r o l i f e r a t i p n T r e a t y ' , s e e , J u k e s , The I n d i a n Ocean i n S o v i e t N a v a l P o l i c y , p. 8. 171 I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n B r i t i s h p o l i c y E a s t o f Suez a f t e r 1964 a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d t o w a r d s t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ' s t a k i n g a d i f f e r e n t c o u r s e o f a c t i o n . A f t e r t h e L a b o u r v i c t o r y i n O c t o b e r 1964, t h e B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean became a s u b j e c t o f d e b a t e i n B r i t i s h p o l i t i c s . A f t e r 1964, t h e r a n k s o f t h e c r i t i c s o f B r i t a i n ' s r o l e E a s t o f Suez began t o s w e l l v e r y r a p i d l y w i t h i n t h e L a b o u r P a r t y . The B r i t i s h D e f e n c e W h i t e P a p e r o f 1965 h i g h l i g h t e d t h e i m b a l a n c e b e t w e e n c o m m i t m e n t s a n d r e s o u r c e s . 1 0 9 The q u e s t i o n o f B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean had been r a i s e d and d i s c u s s e d i n newspapers and i n a c a d e m i c c i r c l e s by 1965. The S o v i e t U n i o n f e a r e d t h a t any p r e c i p i t a t e a c t i o n on h e r p a r t w o u l d s t r e n g t h e n t h e p r o p o n e n t s o f an E a s t o f Suez r o l e . I n M a r c h 1968, a f l o t i l l a d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e S o v i e t P a c i f i c F l e e t e n t e r e d t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n o r d e r t o pay a g o o d w i l l v i s i t t o I n d i a . The F l e e t c o n s i s t e d o f t h e K r u p n y c l a s s g u i d e d m i s s i l e d e s t r o y e r G o r d y y, t h e S v e r d l o v - c l a s s c r u i s e r D i m i t r y P o s h a r s k y and t h e K a s s h i n - c l a s s d e s t r o y e r S t e r g u i s h c h i n y . A f t e r v i s i t i n g M a d r a s a n d Bombay, G o r d v v r e t u r n e d t o V l a d i v o s t o k . D i m i t r y P o s h a r s k y and S t e r g u i s h c h i n y went on t o v i s i t p o r t s i n S o m a l i a , P a k i s t a n and S r i L a n k a . T h i s was t h e b e g i n n i n g o f r e g u l a r d e p l o y -ments o f S o v i e t n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. B e c a u s e o f t h e t i m e s e q u e n c e , some t e n d t o draw a c o n n e c t i o n between t h e B r i t i s h d e c i s i o n t o w i t h d r a w f r o m E a s t o f Suez and t h e S o v i e t d e c i s i o n t o d e p l o y n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean on t h e b a s i s o f a p o s t hoc e r g o p r o p t e r hoc r a t i o n a l e . A c c o r d i n g t o 1 0 9 U n i t e d Kingdom, M i n i s t r y o f D e f e n c e , S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e E s t i m a t e s 1965 (Cmnd 2 5 9 2 ) , p a r a g r a p h 21. 172 t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n , w h i c h i s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e power vacuum t h e o r y , B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l c r e a t e d a power vacuum i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e S o v i e t i n t e n t i o n was t o f i l l t h i s v a c u u m u t i l i z i n g t h e o p p o r t u n i t y . The power vaccum t h e o r y i s i n vogue e s p e c i a l l y i n U.S. s e r v i c e c i r c l e s . R e a r A d m i r a l R o b e r t J . H a n k s (U.S.N.) w r i t e s : ( T ) h a t d e c i s i o n t a k e n i n 1968 - w i t h d r a w a l s h o u l d be c o m p l e t e d by t h e e n d o f 1971 - c r e a t e d a m i l i t a r y and p o l i t i c a l power vacuum, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . B e c a u s e o f i t s f a i l u r e t o r e c o g n i z e r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g A m e r i c a n r e l i a n c e on o i l f l o w i n g f r o m t h e M i d d l e E a s t - p a r t i c u l a r l y f r o m t h e P e r s i a n G u l f - W a s h i n g t o n d i d n o t i m m e d i a t e l y p e r c e i v e t h e n e c e s s i t y t o f i l l t h i s power vaccum b e f o r e i t c o u l d be e x p l o i t e d by an u n f r i e n d l y s t a t e . 1 1 0 W i l l i a m F. H i c k m a n (U.S.N.) v e r y p l a i n l y s t a t e s t h a t \" ( T ) h e S o v i e t r a p i d r e s p o n s e s t o t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t g a v e a s t r o n g i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e i r i n t e n t i o n t o s t e p i n t o t h e shoes o f t h e v a c a t i n g R o y a l N a v y \" . 1 1 1 The power vaccum t h e o r y i g n o r e s t h e p r o c e s s o f U.S. n a v a l e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d a i n Ocean begun i n t h e e a r l y 1960s. An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e S o v i e t d e c i s i o n r e v e a l s t h a t t h e a c t i o n t h a t p r o m p t e d t h e S o v i e t s t o s e n d t h e i r n a v a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean was t h e p e r c e i v e d P o l a r i s t h r e a t , and n o t t h e B r i t i s h w i t h d r a w a l . The power vaccum t h e o r y r e f l e c t s x t h e z e r o - s u m game' m e n t a l i t y o f t h e c o l d - w a r w a r r i o r s . 1 1 0 R o b e r t J . Hanks, The U.S. M i l i t a r y P r e s e n c e i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t : P r o b l e m s a n d P r o s p e c t s ( M a s s a c h u s e t t s : I n s t i t u t e f o r F o r e i g n P o l i c y S t u d i e s , 1 9 8 2 ) , p.2. i l l . . . . W i l l i a m F. Hickman, \" S o v i e t N a v a l P o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean,\" U.S. N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r o c e e d i n g s , 105:8 A u g u s t 1 9 7 9 ) , p. 43. 1 1 2 J . K . H o l l o w a y . \"The P o s t - V i e t n a m Navy: The R h e t o r i c and t h e R e a l i t i t i e s . \" U . S . N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r o c e e d i n g s , 98:8 (August 1 9 8 2 ) , p. 58. 173 The S o v i e t t h r e a t t o t h e westbound s e a l a n e s i n g e n e r a l and t o t h e o i l r o u t e s i n p a r t i c u l a r i s a n o t h e r i s s u e i n t h e d e b a t e o v e r t h e S o v i e t n a v a l e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The c o n c e r n o v e r t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e s e a l a n e s a c r o s s t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e t h e l i f e l i n e o f t h e W e s t e r n e c o n o m i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e a l i s t p e r s p e c t i v e , s e a power means t h e a b i l i t y t o d e p r i v e t h e u s e o f t h e s e a l a n e s t o t h e 113 o p p o n e n t . J I t i s a r g u e d t h a t one o f t h e i n t e n t i o n s ( i f n o t t h e m a j o r one) o f S o v i e t e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean was t o a c q u i r e t h e a b i l i t y t o d i s r u p t t r a d e l a n e s e i t h e r by i n t e r d i c t i o n , 114 b l o c k a d e , o r s i n k i n g v e s s e l s . R o n a l d T. S p i e r s , D i r e c t o r , B u r e a u o f P o l i t i c o - M i l i t a r y A f f a i r s o f t h e Department o f S t a t e s t a t e d i n 1971 t o a c o n g r e s s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e : ( T ) h i s [ t h e U.S.S.R.] n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean c a l l s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e g r o w i n g S o v i e t n a v a l c a p a b i l i t y i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s o - c a l l e d c h o k e -p o i n t s w h i c h c o n t r o l i n g r e s s and e g r e s s t o and f r o m t h e ocean . . . The p r a c t i c a l e f f e c t o f t h e S o v i e t p r e s e n c e a t h w a r t l i n e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w o u l d , o f c o u r s e , be a c t u a l l y f e l t i n t h e c a s e o f a l l - o u t h o s t i l i t i e s . A S o v i e t a t t e m p t t o b l o c m a r i t i m i e r o u t e s i n pe a c e t i m e c o u l d , o f c o u r s e , l e a d t o a m a j o r w o r l d c r i s i s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e b a s i n g a n d / o r e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p o l i t i c a l p r o m i n e n c e i n t h e s e f u n n e l a r e a s , S o v i e t d o m i n a t i o n o f t h e most c r i t i c a l o f t h e s e c h o k e -p o i n t s f a l l s w i t h i n t h e r e a l m o f p o s s i b i l i t y . 1 1 5 The C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e o f t h e L i b r a r y o f t h e U.S. C o n g r e s s o b s e r v e d i n 1981 t h a t \" S o v i e t i n t e r e s t s i n t h i s r e g i o n 1 1 3 X J S e e J o h n P. C r a n w e l l , The D e s t i n y o f Sea Power and t h e I n f l u e n c e on Land Power and A i r Power (New Y o r k : N o r t o n , 1 9 4 1 ) . 114 1 1 \" A n d e r s , C. S j a a s t a d , \"The I n d i a n Ocean and t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , \" N o r s k M i l i t a n t T i d s k r i f t ( O s l o ) , O c t o b e r 1971. T r a n s l a t e d i n C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o r d , M a r c h 30, 1972, p.E 3145. 1 1 5 R o n a l d I . S p i e r s , \"U.S. N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y P o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean A r e a , \" Department o f S t a t e B u l l e t i n , A u g u s t 23, 1971, p. 201-202. 174 have been c l o s e l y w a t c h e d as a p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t t o W e s t e r n o i l s u p p l i e s \" . 1 1 6 P r i o r t o t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e S o v i e t t h r e a t t o s e a l a n e s , some p o i n t s s h o u l d be c l a r i f i e d . What does t h e t h r e a t t o s e a l a n e s mean? As B e z b o r u a h p o i n t s out \"one has t o keep i n mind t h a t s e a l a n e s a r e an a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t . I t i s t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e s h i p s 117 t h a t i s a c t u a l l y a t s t a k e \" . A c c o r d i n g l y , S o v i e t d i s r u p t i o n o f s e a l a n e s c o u l d be i n t h e f o r m o f e i t h e r t h e a b i l i t y t o s h u t o f f i n g r e s s a n d e g r e s s t o t h e I n d i a n O c e a n o r t h e a b i l i t y t o p h y s i c a l l y a t t a c k s h i p s . I n o r d e r t o b l o c k i n g r e s s and e g r e s s t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n has t o c o n t r o l t h e c h o k e -p o i n t s a n d s t r a i t s . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , Bab e l Mandeb a t t h e s o u t h e r n e n t r a n c e t o t h e Red Sea, t h e S t r a i t o f Hormuz a t t h e mouth o f t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , t h e Cape o f Good Hope, and t h e S t r a i t s o f M a l a c c a and Sunda a r e i m p o r t a n t . I t i s p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o c o n t r o l t h e Cape r o u t e as t h e r e i s no need t o t o u c h t h e Cape and no one c o u l d b l o c k t h e h i g h s e a s between t h e Cape and t h e s o u t h e r n i c e c a p . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o remember t h a t t h e b a s e o f Simonstown i s f i r m l y i n t h e hands o f t h e West. As f o r B a l e l Mandeb, i t became p l a i n a f t e r t h e p r o l o n g e d c l o s u r e o f t h e Suez C a n a l f r o m 1967 t o 1975 t h a t t h e Suez r o u t e i s n o t c r i t i c a l f o r t h e e c o nomic s u r v i v a l o f t h e West. B l o c k a d e o f B a l e l Mandeb w o u l d c a u s e o n l y an i n c o n v e n i e n c e as t h e Cape a l t e r n a t i v e i s a v a i l a b l e . W i t h r e g a r d t o o i l f l o w s f r o m t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , t h e 1-'-^U.S. C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e o f t h e L i b r a r y o f C o n g r e s s , S o v i e t P o l i c y and U n i t e d S t a t e s Response i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d , R e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r t h e C o m m i t t e e on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s ( W a s h i n g t o n D.C., U.S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 49. 1 ]-' 7Bezboruah, U.S. S t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, p. 38. 175 most c r i t i c a l p o i n t i s t h e S t r a i t o f Hormuz. I t i s a b o u t 21 m i l e s w ide and o n l y 19 m i l e s a t t h e n a r r o w e s t p o i n t . The d e p t h i s between 120-210 f e e t . 1 1 8 A c c o r d i n g t o C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e Agency (CIA) o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e S t r a i t o f Hormuz i s \" t o o deep and wide t o be b l o c k e d by sunken s h i p s and t o o wide t o be e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o -l l e d by c o a s t a r t i l l e r y \" . 1 1 9 I n o r d e r t o b l o c k t h e S t r a i t , a t l e a s t \"100 s u p e r t a n k e r s w o u l d have t o be sunk i n a l i n e , p r o b a b l y w i t h a s e c o n d l i n e on t o p i n t h e d e e p e s t p o i n t s , and t h e b a r r i e r w o u l d t h e n have t o be d e f e n d e d f o r s e v e r a l months u n t i l i 7 n W e s t e r n o i l s t o c k s r u n o u t \" . The s e c o n d o p t i o n , a t t a c k s on s h i p s , i s t e c h i n a l l y p o s s i b l e . T h e r e i s no doubt t h a t an a t t a c k on a s h i p i n t h e open s e a w o u l d be t a n t a m o u n t t o a d e c l a r a t i o n o f war w i t h t h e West. I f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n d e c i d e s t o a t t a c k s h i p p i n g t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s n o t t h e b e s t p l a c e f o r i t . Such a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n c a n be more e f f e c t i v e l y c a r r i e d o u t e i t h e r c l o s e t o W e s t e r n d e s t i n a t i o n s o r where S o v i e t n a v a l power i s s t r o n g e r . I t s h o u l d be remembered t h a t t h e a s s u r a n c e o f u n h i n d e r e d p a s s a g e f o r s h i p s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f b o t h t h e West and t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . U.S. and S o v i e t t r a d e a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean do n o t c o n s t i t u t e a zero-sum game. The f r e e p a s s a g e o f m e r chant m a r i n e b e n e f i t s b o t h s u p e r p o w e r s . The I n d i a n 1 1 8 S e e R o u h o l l a h K. Ramazani, \"The S t r a i t o f Hormuz : The G l o b a l C h o k e - p o i n t , \" i n The I n d i a n Ocean i n G l o b a l P o l i t i c s . L a r r y W. Bowman and I a n C l a r k , e d s . , ( B o u l d e r : West V i e w P r e s s , 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 7-20. 3U.S., C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e Agency, A t l a s : I s s u e s i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t ( W a s h i n g t o n : Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 3 ) , p.39. 1 2 0 J e o f f r e y J u k e s , \" S o v i e t n a v a l p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean,\" i n The I n d i a n Ocean i n G l o b a l P o l i t i c s , op. c i t . , p.182. 176 Ocean p r o v i d e s an a l l - w e a t h e r s u p p l y r o u t e between t h e S o v i e t West and E a s t . The o n l y i n l a n d s u p p l y l i n e , t h e T r a n s - S i b e r i a n R a i l w a y , i s o v e r b u r d e n e d and r u n s c l o s e t o t h e b o r d e r . The B a i k a l -Amur M a i n L i n e i s i n t e n d e d t o overcome t h e p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e T r a n s - S i b e r i a n L i n e . S t i l l , t h e I n d i a n Ocean a c q u i r e s i n c r e a s e d i m p o r t a n c e as an a l t e r n a t i v e a l l - w e a t h e r r o u t e t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e B l a c k Sea w i t h V l a d i v o s t o k . The S o v i e t U n i o n has e x t e n s i v e t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s . I n 1971, about 21 p e r c e n t o f t h e merchant s h i p s t r a n s i t i n g t h e 121 I n d i a n Ocean were S o v i e t . The S o v i e t merchant m a r i n e u s e s t h e I n d i a n Oean e x t e n s i v e l y . I n a d d i t i o n , a huge S o v i e t f i s h i n g f l e e t o p e r a t e s t h e r e . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t f i s h p r o v i d e s 70 p e r c e n t o f t h e p r o t e i n r e q u i r e m e n t o f t h e S o v i e t d i e t and t h e S o v i e t i 1 9 ? c a t c h i s t h e t h i r d l a r g e s t i n t h e w o r l d . The f o c a l p o i n t o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e S o v i e t t h r e a t i s t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . A s t a f f s t u d y m i s s i o n o f t h e Committee on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s (U.S.) t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , M i d d l e E a s t , and t h e H orn o f A f r i c a r e p o r t e d t h a t S o v i e t d e s i g n s on P e r s i a n G u l f o i l f o c u s on two p o s s i b i l i t i e s : (1) c u r t a i l i n g s u p p l y t o t h e West by b l o c k i n g t h e S t r a i t o f Hormuz o r i n t e r d i c t i n g t a n k e r s ; (2) g a i n i n g p h y s i c a l c o n t r o l o f o i l -p r o d u c i n g a r e a s , a more s e r i o u s t h r e a t s u b s t a n t i a t e d by r e p o r t s i n d i c a t i n g i n c r e a s e d need a n d d e c r e a s i n g h a r d c u r r e n c y . The l a t t e r c o n t i n g e n c y c o u l d p e r m i t t h e S o v i e t s t o a c t as \" g u a r a n t o r \" o f t h e r e g i o n ' s o i l , s e l l i n g i t t o t h e West i n ways t h a t i n c r e a s e d S o v i e t p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s w o r l d wide.123 l z \u00C2\u00B1 S p i e r s , op. c i t . , p. 202. 1 2 2 U . N . S t a t i s t i c a l Y e a r b o o k 1968, pp. 157-58. i 9 r> , , U.S. C o n g r e s s , House, Committee on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , U.S. S e c u r i t y I n t e r e s t s i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , R e p o r t o f a S t u d y M i s s i o n , ( W a s h i n g t o n D.C.: U.S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i e , 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 8. 177 The r a t i o n a l e g i v e n f o r t h e p e r c e i v e d S o v i e t a c t i o n i s t h e o i l s h o r t a g e t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and E a s t e r n E u r o p e w o u l d f a c e i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e S o v i e t i n t e n t i o n t o c u t o f f W e s t e r n o i l s u p p l i e s . As p o i n t e d out e a r l i e r , s i n k i n g o f o i l e r s and b l o c k i n g o u t t h e S t r a i t s a r e n o t p o s s i b l e s h o r t o f a war s i t u a t i o n . Even i n an a l l - o u t war s i t u a t i o n o i l c a n n o t be u s e d as a weapon due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e West has o i l s t o c k s ( t h e S t r a t e g i c P e t r o l e u m Reserve-SPR) , f o r s e v e r a l months. By t h a t t i m e , t h e outcome o f t h e n u c l e a r war w o u l d be c l e a r l y d e c i d e d and, i n o t h e r n o n - n u c l e a r war s c e n a r i o s , c o u n t e r a c t i o n s w o u l d be c o n t e m p l a t e d and be e x e c u t e d . Whether t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w o u l d f a c e an a c u t e o i l s h o r t a g e i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e has n o t been e s t a b l i s h e d . I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e Baku o i l f i e l d s a r e d y i n g o u t and t h a t t h e S o v i e t s i m p o r t o i l and n a t u r a l gas f r o m I r a q and I r a n f o r t h e Baku o i l r e f i n e r i e s . However, i t s h o u l d n o t be f o r g o t t e n t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n has c o n s i d e r a b l e o i l r e s o u r c e s i n S i b e r i a . The a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w o u l d s e i z e o i l - p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s t o e n s u r e c o n t i n u i n g o i l s u p l i e s i s n o t a p l a u s i b l e one. As J u k e s p o i n t s o u t v i v i d l y , \"most s t a t e s have no o i l , and t h e i r n o r m a l r e c o u r s e 1 7 A i s t o buy i t , n o t s e i z e i t \" . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l and m i l i t a r y c o s t s o f s e i z i n g o i l r e s o u r c e s and a l s o t h e c o s t s o f d e f e n c e a g a i n s t i n e v i t a b l e r e s i s t a n c e , i t i s b o t h e c o n o m i c a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y a d v a n t a g e o u s f o r t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t o buy o i l i n t h e open m a r k e t . A l t h o u g h i t i s t e c h n i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o s h u t o f f t h e I n d i a n 1 2 4 J u k e s , \" S o v i e t U n i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean,\" i n The I n d i a n Ocean G l o b a l P o l i t i c s , Bowmen and C l a r k , e d s . op. c i t . , p. 180. 178 Ocean t r a d e l a n e s c o m p l e t e l y , a t t a c k i n g v e s s e l s a t random c o u l d make t h e c a s u a l t y r a t e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean p a s s a g e v e r y h i g h and p a r a l y s e a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n o f t h e t r a d e i n t h a t r e g i o n . I n v i e w o f t h e p o l i t i c a l , m i l i t a r y , and economic c o s t s i n v o l v e d , i t i s r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t o b e l i e v e t h e S o v i e t s w o u l d do s u c h a t h i n g . However, i t s a c t u a l e x e c u t i o n and t h e S o v i e t c a p a b i l i t y . f o r d o i n g i t a r e two d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s . The a c q u i s i t i o n o f s u c h a c a p a b i l i t y s t r e n g t h e n s S o v i e t b a r g a i n i n g power v i s - a - v i s t h e West. Such a c a p a b i l i t y i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n h e r m a n o e u v r i n g on t h e c h e s s - b o a r d o f w o r l d p o l i t i c s . I n t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l m o t i v e s o f S o v i e t n a v a l e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p o l i t i c a l b e n e f i t s g a i n e d by t h e S o v i e t s f r o m t h e i r p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean as a n a v a l power. As a r e s u l t o f t h e r a p i d g r o w t h o f r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s i n t h e p o s t - S t a l i n e r a , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n had become a d i p l o m a t i c p r i n c i p a l i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a by t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 1960s. The S o v i e t U n i o n i s engaged i n a c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r i n f l u e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a . I n s u c h a c o m p e t i t i o n t h e r e a r e many a d v a n t a g e s s e c u r e d by a n a v a l p r e s e n c e . I n pea c e t i m e , ' s h o w i n g t h e f l a g ' and v i s i t s t o t h e l i t t o r a l p o r t s by t h e S o v i e t Navy enhance h e r p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e and s t r e n g t h e n h e r f r i e n d l y r e l a -t i o n s i n t h e a r e a . I n a c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n , t h e n a v a l f o r c e s can be u s e d t o s i g n a l S o v i e t s u p p o r t t o h e r r e g i o n a l a l l i e s and a l s o t o c o u n t e r - b a l a n c e t h e n a v a l f o r c e s o f t h e power w h i c h i s b a c k i n g t h e r e g i o n a l a d v e r s a r y . The d i s p a t c h o f S o v i e t n a v a l f o r c e s t o t h e Bay o f B e n g a l d u r i n g t h e I n d o - P a k i s t a n war i n 1971 t o c o u n t e r b a l a n c e U.S. n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e a r e a , and t h e v i s i t by t h e 179 S o v i e t navy t o I r a q d u r i n g t h e I r a q - K u w a i t i b o r d e r d i s p u t e , c a n be c i t e d as e x a m p l e s . The S o v i e t n a v a l e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean f u r t h e r s t r e n -t h e n e d t h e S o v i e t p o s i t i o n i n d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n o r d e r t o make an e q u a l b a r g a i n w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n as a s u p e r p o w e r had t o d e v e l o p h e r m i l i t a r y c a p a b i l i t i e s i n a r e a s where t h e y were r e l a t i v e l y weak. A d m i r a l o f t h e F l e e t S e r g e i G o r s h k o v , e m p h a s i z e d v e r y f o r c e f u l l y t h e v a l u e o f a navy f o r a w o r l d power. He s t a t e d t h a t \" ( T ) h e need t o have a p o w e r f u l n a v y c o r r e s p o n d i n g b o t h t o t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l p o s i t i o n o f o u r c o u n t r y and t o i t s p o l i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e as a g r e a t w o r l d power h a s a l r e a d y l o n g b e e n u n d e r s t o o d . \" 1 2 6 T h i s l i n e o f t h i n k i n g m o t i v a t e d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t o s t r i v e t o become a n a v a l power i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. To r e c a p i t u l a t e , t h e e n t r y o f S o v i e t n a v a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean c a n n o t be a t t r i b u t e d t o a s i n g l e o b j e c t i v e o r t o a s i n g l e f a c t o r . R a t h e r , i t was c a u s e d by a number o f f a c t o r s , s i t u a t i o n s , and f o r c e s o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n t h e S o v i e t s y s t e m and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . On t h e p o l i t i c a l p l a n e , i t s h o u l d be v i e w e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f S o v i e t p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l and h e r c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean w o r l d . On t h e n a v a l - s t r a t e g i c p l a n e , i t s h o u l d be l o c a t e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e S o v i e t n a v a l p r o c u r e m e n t programme and h e r r e s p o n s e s t o t h e U.S. n a v a l s t r a t e g y . 1 2 6 S . G . G o r s h k o v , \" N a v i e s i n war and i n p e a c e , \" U.S. N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r o c e e d i n g s , 100:11 (November 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 60 180 C h a p t e r V The Beginning of Superpower Naval Rivalry i n the Indian Ocean, 1968-1973 The w i d e n i n g o f t h e p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , and m i l i t a r y -s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, as w e l l as t h e p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a , d e a l t w i t h i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , b r o u g h t t h e I n d i a n Ocean t o t h e f o r e f r o n t o f t h e s t r a t e g i c c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s a t t h e end o f t h e 1960s. The n a v a l s t r a t e g i c i n i t i a t i v e s t h e y t o o k i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e p e r i o d 1968-69 made i t c l e a r t h a t a new e r a o f n a v a l h i s t o r y had begun i n t h e r e g i o n . The B r i t i s h d e c i s i o n t o w i t h d r a w f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n J a n u a r y 1968, t h e e n t r y o f t h e S o v i e t n a v a l f o r c e s i n March 1968, t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e r e v i s e d D i e g o G a r c i a p l a n by t h e U.S. Navy i n 1969, and t h e new em p h a s i s by t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n on n a v a l m o b i l i t y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean s e t t h e s t a g e f o r new n a v a l s t r a t e g i c d e v e l o p m e n t s t h e r e a f t e r 1968. The p e r i o d between 1968 and 1973 was marked by i n c r e a s i n g a c t i v i t y by t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e commencement o f n a v a l r i v a l r y between them i n t h a t a r e a . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n h i s t o r y , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a t t e m p t e d t o d e f i n e and e v a l u a t e h e r i n t e r e s t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. T h i s a t t e m p t was e x p r e s s e d i n t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e o f 1969. D i s e n c h a n t e d w i t h l a n d - b a s e d p o l i t i c a l i n v o l v e -ments, 7American s t r a t e g y began i n c r e a s i n g l y t o be b a s e d on n a v a l power and s t r a t e g i c m o b i l i t y . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e U.S. Navy came 181 f o r w a r d t o p l a y a p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n i n f l u e n c i n g p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The d e v e l o p m e n t o f s u p erpower a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , however, was r e s t r a i n e d . C o n g r e s s i o n a l o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e c o m i n g i n v o l v e d i n a n o t h e r ocean s u c c e s s f u l l y b l o c k e d t h e Navy's p l a n f o r a n a v a l b a s e on D i e g o G a r c i a . On t h e S o v i e t s i d e , t h e n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t begun i n 1968 became e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . H o w e v e r , S o v i e t d i p l o m a t i c i n i t i a t i v e s f o r t h e A s i a n C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y P l a n r e c e i v e d a v e r y d i s a p p o i n t i n g r e s p o n s e f r o m t h e r e g i o n . The o t h e r i m p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e p e r i o d was t h e g r o w t h o f a r e g i o n a l c o n s e n s u s a g a i n s t s u p e r p o w e r a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n . The o r g a n i z e d o p p o s i t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s t o t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l b u i l d up l e d t o t h e ' D e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean as a Zone o f P e a c e ' (IOPZ) a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n 1971. New Directions i n US Foreign Policy W i t h t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n J a n u a r y 1969, US f o r e i g n p o l i c y t o o k a new t u r n . N i x o n b e l i e v e d t h a t \" A m e r i c a needed t o change t h e p h i l o s o p h y and p r a c t i c e o f i t s f o r e i g n p o l i c y i n J a n u a r y 1 9 6 9 \" . S u c h a r e a p p r a i s a l was n e c e s s i t a t e d by t h e changes i n t h e power c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f t h e p o s t - w a r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s t e m and a l s o by t h e c hanged mood o f t h e US p u b l i c r e g a r d i n g t h e US r o l e i n w o r l d l e a d e r s h i p . C o n s e q u e n t l y , N i x o n r e m a r k e d , \" t h e p o s t - w a r p e r i o d i n 1 . . . R i c h a r d M. N i x o n , U n i t e d S t a t e s F o r e i g n P o l i c y f o r t h e 1970s j _ S h a p i n g a D u r a b l e Peace - A R e p o r t t o t h e C o n g r e s s . May 3, 1973. ( W a s h i n g t o n : GPO, 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 1. 182 i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s has ended\", and a new e r a t h a t demanded a f r e s h a p p r o a c h t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s was u n f o l d i n g . A number o f d e v e l o p m e n t s marked 'the end o f t h e p o s t - w a r e r a ' i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . F i r s t o f a l l , t h e c o n t e x t o f US n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y p o l i c y was f u n d a m e n t a l l y a l t e r e d b y d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f war by h e r a d v e r s a r y . The p r e s i d e n t s t a t e d t h a t \" (F)rom t h e m i d 1940s t o t h e l a t e 1960s [ t h e U.S.] has moved f r o m n u c l e a r monopoly and s u p e r i o r i t y t o r o u g h s t r a t e g i c b a l a n c e w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n \" . I n v i e w o f t h e r a p i d a d v a n c e s i n t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f n u c l e a r war, t h e US - S o v i e t n u c l e a r p a r i t y c r e a t e d f r e s h c h a l l e n g e s t o U.S. s e c u r i t y and demanded new c a l c u l a t i o n s i n US d i p l o m a c y . S e c o n d l y , more complex, m u l t i - p o l a r power r e l a t i o n s were e m e r g i n g a n d r e p l a c i n g t h e s i m p l e b i - p o l a r a l i g n m e n t s t h a t e p i t o m i s e d power r e l a t i o n s i n t h e 'post-war e r a ' . The new p a t t e r n o f m u l t i - p o l a r i t y was a r e s u l t o f t h r e e d e v e l o p m e n t s ; namely, t h e e c o n o m i c r e c o v e r y and p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y o f W e s t e r n E u r o p e and J a p a n , t h e b r e a k down o f t h e u n i t y o f t h e Communist b l o c , and t h e i n c r e a s i n g s e l f - r e l i a n c e o f t h e new s t a t e s e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e c o l o n i a l e m p i r e s . 4 I n t h e b i - p o l a r w o r l d s i t u a t i o n o f t h e 1950s, i n N i x o n ' s words, \" ( 0 ) u r n a t i o n s had l o o k e d t o A m e r i c a f o r i d e a s and r e s o u r c e s , and t h e y f o u n d us R i c h a d M. N i x o n , U n i t e d S t a t e s F o r e i g n P o l i c y f o r t h e 1970s _L A New S t r a t e g y f o r P e a c e , A R e p o r t t o t h e C o n g r e s s , Feb., 18, 1970 ( W a s h i n g t o n : GPO, 1 9 7 0 ) , p. 2. J N i x o n , S h a p i n g a D u r a b l e P e a c e , p. 2. ^ R i c h a r d M. N i x o n , U n i t e d S t a t e s F o r e i g n P o l i c y f o r t h e 1970s j _ The E m e r g i n g S t r u c t u r e o f P e a c e , A R e p o r t t o t h e C o n g r e s s Feb. 9, 1972 ( W a s h i n g t o n : GPO, 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 3. 183 [U.S.] a w i l l i n g p r o v i d e r o f b o t h \" . By 1969, o t h e r s were r e a d y f o r a g r e a t e r r o l e i n s h a p i n g t h e i r own s e c u r i t y . F i n a l l y , t h e changed mood o f t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e r e f l e c t e d t h e end o f t h e p o s t - w a r e r a i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h a t p e r i o d t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l i c had s u p p o r t e d t h e 'burden' o f g l o b a l l e a d e r s h i p w i t h e n t h u s i a s m . N i x o n r e m a r k e d \"but a f t e r a l m o s t t h r e e d e c a d e s o u r e n t h u s i a s m was w a n i n g a n d r e s u l t s o f o u r g e n e r o s i t y were b e i n g q u e s t i o n e d . Our p o l i c i e s need change, n o t o n l y t o match new r e a l i t i e s i n t h e w o r l d b u t a l s o t o meet a new mood i n A m e r i c a \" . Soon a f t e r t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a s s u m e d o f f i c e , i t i n i t i a t e d a m a j o r r e v i e w o f US p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a . The c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e r e v i e w was c o n d u c t e d was i m p o r t a n t . The i m p a c t o f t h e V i e t n a m War was f e l t n o t o n l y by t h e p u b l i c b u t a l s o by US d e f e n c e p l a n n e r s . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1965-70, V i e t n a m c a u s e d a wave o f i n t e n s i f i e d p r o t e s t movement i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . 'No more V i e t n a m s ' s t a r t e d t o s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y . 6 I n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e r e a s s e s s m e n t o f US p o l i c y i n o r d e r t o a v o i d f u t u r e V i e t n a m s r e c e i v e d h i g h p r i o r i t y i n t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y agenda o f t h e new a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . F u r t h e r , t h e V i e t n a m e x p e r i e n c e s were r e p o r t e d t o have t a u g h t t h e US d e f e n c e - p l a n n e r s t h a t \" i t i s b e t t e r t o f i g h t p o t e n t i a l A s i a n a d v e r s a r i e s on t h e s e a and i n t h e a i r , where t h e y a r e v i s i b l y weaker t h a n on 5 N i x o n , S h a p i n g a D u r a b l e P e a c e , p. .3. DWhen a 1969 G a l l u p P o l l a s k e d s u b j e c t s t o l i s t t h e two o r t h r e e i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m s f a c i n g t h e n a t i o n , 63 p e r c e n t m e n t i o n e d V i e t n a m and 2 p e r c e n t t h e d a n g e r o f n u c l e a r war. See P a u l B o y e r , \"From a c t i v i t i e s t o a p a t h y : A m e r i c a and t h e n u c l e a r i s s u e 1963-1980,\" B u l l e t i n o f t h e A t o m i c S c i e n t i s t s , No. 40:7 (Aug. - S e p t . 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 20. 184 t h e l a n d where t h e y seem t o be s t r o n g e r ' . T h i s gave an i m p e t u s t o an ocean s t r a t e g y i n US d e f e n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The V i e t n a m war b r o u g h t t o t h e f o r e f r o n t t h e p r o b l e m a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l a n d - b a s e d i n v o l v e m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n l i t t o r a l . I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n b a s e f a c i l i t i e s , t h e P e n t a g o n had t o come t o some agreement w i t h t h e c r i s i s - r i d d e n s t a t e s o f t h e l i t t o r a l . As S t u a r t B. B a r b e r r e p o r t e d t o t h e C o n g r e s s , \" f o r t h e s e a g r e e m e n t s , we [U.S.] w i l l pay u n d e r t h e t a b l e t h r o u g h c o s t l y arms s u p p l y d e a l s , and more i m p o r t a n t , t h e y [ f r i e n d l y l i t t o r a l s t a t e s ] c o u l d i n v o l v e us i n l o c a l q u a r r e l s , and o b l i g a t e us t o s u p p o r t a new c r o p o f i n e f f e c t i v e d i c t a t o r i a l r e g i m e s i n p t h e S a i g o n s t y l e \" . I n o r d e r t o a v o i d s u c h p r o b l e m s , t h e n e e d t o t u r n t o w a r d s t h e ocean and t o r e l y on t h e navy and s t r a t e g i c m o b i l i t y became a m a j o r theme i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f U.S. p r i o r i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f t e r 1968. The r e v i e w o f A m e r i c a n p r i o r i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e came a t t h i s j u n c t u r e . The Nixon Doctrine and the Indian Ocean A t t h e end o f an A s i a n t o u r , t h e A m e r i c a n P r e s i d e n t f i r s t o u t l i n e d what came t o be c a l l e d t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e a t Guam on 2 5 t h J u l y 1969. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t N i x o n ' s s t a t e m e n t a t Guam was n o t a b l u e p r i n t f o r p o l i c y b u t a s e t o f b r o a d p r i n c i p l e s . Though t h e Guam s t a t e m e n t was h e r a l d e d as a f i r s t 7 M o n o r a n j a n B e z b o r u a h , U.S. Strat-eay i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean _L The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Response (New Y o r k : P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 7 0 ) , p. 50 . ^ P r o p o s e d e x p a n s i o n o f U.S. M i l i t a r y F a c i l i t i e s , p. 17 8. 185 s t e p i n t h e r e a s s e s s m e n t o f U.S. p o l i c y , \" u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d o c t r i n e was c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e manner i n w h i c h t h e P r e s i d e n t has Q p r e s e n t e d i t : r e p o r t e r s were f o r b i d d e n t o q u o t e him d i r e c t l y \" . However, f o r m a l e n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e c o u l d be seen i n h i s f i r s t f o r e i g n p o l i c y message t o t h e C o n g r e s s i n F e b r u a r y 1970. The N i x o n D o c t r i n e r e m a i n e d t h e r e c u r r i n g theme o f h i s l a t e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y s t a t e m e n t s . N i x o n r e s t a t e d i n 1970 t h e main e l e m e n t s o f t h e U.S. a p p r o a c h o u t l i n e d a t Guam i n 1969: F i r s t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w i l l keep a l l o f i t s t r e a t y commitments. We w i l l a d j u s t t h e manner o f o u r s u p p o r t f o r o u r a c t i o n s on a r e a l i s t i c a s s e s s m e n t o f o u r i n t e r e s t s , Second, we w i l l p r o v i d e a s h i e l d i f a n u c l e a r power t h r e a t e n s t h e f r e e d o m o f a n a t i o n a l l i e d w i t h u s , o r o f a n a t i o n whose s u r v i v a l we c o n s i d e r v i t a l t o o u r s e c u r i t y . T h i r d , i n c a s e s i n v o l v i n g o t h e r t y p e s o f a g g r e s s i o n , we s h a l l f u r n i s h m i l i t a r y and e c o nomic a s s i s t a n c e when r e q u e s t e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h o u r t r e a t y commit-ments. But we s h a l l l o o k t o t h e n a t i o n d i r e c t l y t h r e a t e n e d t o assume p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r d e f e n c e and d e v e l o p m e n t . 1 0 The N i x o n D o c t r i n e e m p h a s i s e d t h e n e e d t o r e c a s t U.S.. s e c u r i t y a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h i t s a l l i e s t o s e c u r e more e q u i t a b l e s h a r i n g o f t h e m a t e r i a l a n d p e r s o n n e l c o s t s . The A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a l l i e s i n t h e r e g i o n w o u l d change f r o m one o f 'predominance' t o one o f ' p a r t n e r s h i p ' . The key n o t e o f t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e was t h e b a l a n c e d U.S. r o l e i n o r d e r t o a v o i d f u t u r e ^ C o n g r e s s and t h e N a t i o n , V o l . I l l , 1969-72, A R e v i e w o f Government and P o l i t i c s d u r i n g N i x o n ' s F i r s t Term ( W a s h i n g t o n : C o n g r e s s i o n a l Q u a r t e r l y S e r v i c e 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 869. 1 0 N i x o n , U . S . F o r e i g n P o l i c y f o r t h e 1970s:A New S t r a t e g y f o r P e a c e - A R e p o r t t o t h e C o n g r e s s (Washington:G.P .0., 1970) p. 2. 186 V i e t n a m s : \" t h e U.S. w o u l d m a i n t a i n i t s t r e a t y commitments b u t w o u l d n o t assume a p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as a w o r l d p o l i c e m a n \" . 1 1 N i x o n a s s e r t e d t h a t \" A m e r i c a c a n n o t - and w i l l n o t - c o n c e i v e a l l t h e p l a n s , d e s i g n a l l t h e programmes, e x e c u t e a l l t h e d e c i s i o n s and u n d e r t a k e a l l t h e d e f e n s e o f t h e f r e e n a t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d \" . 1 2 A n o t h e r a s p e c t o f t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e was t o remove i d e o l o g y f r o m f o r e i g n p o l i c y . He s t a t e d t h a t t h e key r o l e o f t h e new U.S. p o l i c y was accommodation o f t h e d i v e r s i t y o f t h e w o r l d community. U.S. p o l i c y t o w a r d s a s t a t e w o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d by t h a t s t a t e ' s f o r e i g n r a t h e r t h a n i t s d o m e s t i c p o l i c y . The r u l e s o f R e a l p o l i t i k were b r o u g h t t o t h e f o r e f r o n t o f U.S. s t r a t e g y more d i r e c t l y by N i x o n . I n t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y message t o t h e C o n g r e s s , t h e t h r e e p r i n c i p l e s g u i d i n g U.S. f o r e i g n p o l i c y were i d e n t i f i e d : p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h a l l i e s , s t r e n g t h w i t h r e g a r d t o p o t e n t i a l e n e m i e s , a n d a w i l l i n g n e s s t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h t h e C o m m u n i s t P o w e r s . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , d i p l o m a c y a c q u i r e d i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t a n c e . I n t e r m s o f r e a l p o l i t i k , d i p l o m a c y i s t h e l a n g u a g e o f i 3 power and a l s o \" t h e a r t o f r e s t r a i n i n g t h e e x e r c i s e o f power\". I t was i n t e n d e d t o l a u n c h new d i p l o m a t i c v e n t u r e s a t t h r e e l e v e l s . A t t h e S o v i e t - A m e r i c a n l e v e l , r e s t r a i n i n g t h e e x e r c i s e o f power became a m a j o r f o c u s o f d i p l o m a t i c d e a l i n g s . Peace c o u l d n C o n a r e s s and t h e N a t i o n , V o l . I l l , 1969-1972, (A R e v i e w o f Government and P o l i t i c s d u r i n g N i x o n ' s F i r s t Term), ( W a s h i n g t o n : C o n g r e s s i o n a l Q u a r t e l y S e r v i c e , 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 865. 1 2 I b i d . , p. 869. \" 1 3 H e n r y A. K i s s i n g e r , A W o r l d R e s t o r e d j _ M e t t e r n i c h , C a s t l e - r e a t h a n d t h e P r o b l e m s o f P e a c e 1812-22 ( B o s t o n : H o u g h t o n M i f f i n , 1 9 5 7 ) , P. 2, q u o t e d i n W a l t e r F. Hahn, \"The N i x o n Doc-t r i n e , D e s i g n and Dilemmas,\" O r b i s , XVI:2 (Summer, 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 367. 187 n o t depend s o l e l y on an uneasy e q u i l i b r i u m between two n u c l e a r p o w e r s . W i t h r e s p e c t t o C h i n a , i t was a d i p l o m a c y o f d i a l o g u e . The e m p h a s i s o f t h e t h i r d l e v e l o f d i p l o m a c y , a d d r e s s e d t o U.S. a l l i e s , was on c o n s u l t a t i o n . Under t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had t o r e a r r a n g e h e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y p r i o r i t i e s and i n v o l v e m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a c c o r d i n g t o a r e a l i s t i c a s s e s s m e n t o f h e r i n t e r e s t s . F i r s t o f a l l , i t was c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n O c e a n was n o t c r i t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o t h e n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o r t o t h e s t r a t e g i c b a l a n c e between t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . The I n d i a n Ocean was s t i l l a l o w p r i o r i t y a r e a . T h i s v i e w o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was p r e s e n t e d by R o n a l d S p i e r s a s , We do c o n s i d e r t h a t o v e r t h e n e x t 5 y e a r s o u r i n t e r e s t s t h e r e [ I n d i a n O c e a n ] w i l l be o f a s u b s t a n t i a l l y l o w e r o r d e r t h a n t h o s e i n e i t h e r o f t h e g r e a t e r o c e a n b a s i n s , t h e A t l a n t i c and t h e P a c i f i c ... t h e s t a t e s o f t h e s e a r e a s a r e f o r t h e m ost p a r t e c o n o m i c a l l y , p o l i t i c a l l y , a n d m i l i t a r i l y more i m p o r t a n t t o us t h a n t h o s e on t h e I n d i a n Ocean. T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a p p e a r s t o be no r e q u i r e m e n t a t t h i s t i m e f o r us t o f e e l i m p e l l e d t o c o n t r o l , o r even d e c i s i v e l y i n f l u e n c e , any p a r t o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean o r i t s l i t t o r a l . 1 4 I t was b e l i e v e d , however, t h a t t h e I n d i a n Ocean m e r i t e d c l o s e a t t e n t i o n . U.S. p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was i n t e n d e d t o g r a p p l e w i t h t h r e e c o n c e r n s . The f i r s t was how t o r e s p o n d t o t h e i n c r e a s e d S o v i e t n a v a l p r e s e n c e t h e r e and t o m a i n t a i n t h e a b i l i t y t o e x e r t m i l i t a r y i n f l u e n c e w i t h o u t s t i m u l a t i n g a c o m p e t i t i v e b u i l d up o f f o r c e s . The s e c o n d was how t o e n c o u r a g e m a i n t a i n i n g i n t h e c o u n t r i e s a r o u n d t h e I n d i a n Ocean economic p o l i c i e s and R o n a l d S p i e r s , \"US N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y P o l i c y and t h e I n d i a n Ocean,\" Department o f S t a t e B u l l e t i n , 23 A u g u s t , 1971, p. 203. 188 p o l i t i c a l s e t - u p s d e s i r a b l e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t o l i m i t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f f o r c e s h o s t i l e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The t h i r d c o n c e r n was t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f f r e e n a v a l p a s s a g e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n t h e r e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e U.S. r o l e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t h e c o n t a i n m e n t o f Communism was no l o n g e r t h e main p r e o c c u p a t i o n o f U.S s t r a t e g y . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , N i x o n p r o p o s e d a model o f a r e g i o n a l m u l t i - b a l a n c e o f power - a b a l a n c e o f S o v i e t , C h i n e s e and W e s t e r n i n f l u e n c e b a s e d on p e a c e f u l c o m p e t i t i o n . He s t a t e d t h a t - t h e S o v i e t U n i o n s t i l l d e s i r e d t o l i m i t U.S. i n f l u e n c e and i n c r e a s e h e r own i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a b u t t h a t t h e r e was no i r r e c o n c i l a b l e c o n f l i c t between S o v i e t i n t e r e s t s i n A s i a and t h o s e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . ^ As l o n g as a new s y s t e m was b a s e d on d i s t r i b u t i v e b a l a n c e o f power o f t h e m a j o r power c e n t e r s , a l l w o u l d work t o p r e s e r v e i t b e c a u s e a l l r e c o g n i z e d t h e i r s t a k e i n i t s p r e s e r v a t i o n . The aim was t o a v o i d c o n f l i c t between t h e m a j o r powers i n a r e a s o f l e s s e r i m p o r t a n c e . I t i s b e l i e v e d , however, t h a t i n some c a s e s w h e r e W e s t e r n i n t e r e s t s w e r e p o o r l y r e p r e s e n t e d , t h e U.S. had t o p r o j e c t i t s power i n o r d e r t o b a l a n c e S o v i e t i n f l u e n c e . C l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f b a l a n c e was p a r t n e r -s h i p . More e m p h a s i s was p l a c e d on m i l i t a r y c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h f r i e n d l y s t a t e s . The m i d d l e powers o f t h e a r e a and o t h e r o u t s i d e powers w i t h i n t e r e s t s i n t h e a r e a were e x p e c t e d t o assume more r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e s e c u r i t y and w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e r e g i o n . B e c a u s e o f t o o much d i v e r s i t y and i t s s i z e , t h e I n d i a n Ocean 1 5 D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e B u l l e t i n , L X V I , 20 March 1972, p. 436. 189 c o u l d n o t be r e g a r d e d as a s i n g l e u n i t , and t h r e e s u b - s y s t e m s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d , i . e . S o u t h e a s t A s i a , S o u t h A s i a , a n d t h e P e r s i a n G u l f / W e s t e r n I n d i a n Ocean. I n S o u t h e a s t A s i a , t h e U.S. w o u l d be a b l e t o b a l a n c e S o v i e t and C h i n e s e i n f l u e n c e even a f t e r U.S. g r o u n d f o r c e s were w i t h d r a w n f r o m V i e t n a m . I t was e x p e c t e d t h a t J a p a n , I n d o n e s i a , a n d A u s t r a l i a w o u l d s h o u l d e r more r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e r e g i o n . The F i v e - P o w e r D e f e n c e Agreement r e a c h e d i n 1971 by B r i t a i n , M a l a y s i a , S i n g a p o r e , A u s t r a l i a and New Z e a l a n d , was v i e w e d as an i m p r e s s i v e e x a m p l e o f A s i a n s l o o k i n g t o t h e i r own s e c u r i t y needs and t h e i r own m e a sures. I t a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d d r a m a t i c a l y how i m p o r t a n t a v i g o r o u s A u s t r a l i a n and New Z e a l a n d r o l e w o u l d be t o t h e f u t u r e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e r e g i o n . D I n d o n e s i a was a l s o t o be a s s i g n e d t h e r o l e o f a m i d d l e p o w e r i n t h e a r e a . A f t e r 1 9 6 5 , I n d o n e s i a became t h e r e c i p i e n t o f huge A m e r i c a n a i d . R e g i o n a l e c o nomic o r g a n i z a t i o n s namely, ASEAN, c o m p r i s e d o f p r o - W e s t e r n r e g i m e s i n t h e r e g i o n , r e c e i v e d h i g h a p p r o b a t i o n f r o m t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . S o u t h A s i a was a r e l a t i v e l y l o w p r i o r i t y a r e a . A c c o r d i n g t o P a l m e r , \" S o u t h A s i a , f o r a l l i t s s i z e and i m p o r t a n c e , has been r e l a t i v e l y 1 7 . n e g l e c t e d by t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n \" . The i n c r e a s e d S o v i e t i n f l u e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n s u b - c o n t i n e n t was a c c e p t e d w i t h e q u a n i m i t y and S o v i e t power was v i e w e d as a s t a b i l i z i n g f a c t o r . The r e v i e w o f U.S. p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n i t i a t e d by t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o c u s e d m a i n l y on t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . The r e v i e w was c o m p l e t e d i n l a t e 1970. I n c o n t r a s t t o common p a r l a n c e \u00E2\u0080\u00A2^Department o f S t a t e B u l l e t i n , LXIV, 22 M a r c h 1972, p. 380. 1 7 1 Norman D. P a l m e r , \" A l t e r n a t i v e F u t u r e s f o r S o u t h A s i a and U n i t e d S t a t e s P o l i c y , \" O r b i s , XV:1 ( S p r i n g 1 9 7 1 ) , p. 352. 190 t h e r e v i e w c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e r e was n o t much o f a power vacuum i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f b e c a u s e o f t h e B r i t i s h i n t e n t i o n o f r e t a i n i n g much o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e r e g i o n . The p r o b l e m s c o n f r o n t i n g t h e G u l f were p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r t h a n m i l i t a r y . As s u c h , U.S. m i l i t a r y power was n o t r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e p r o b l e m s a r i s i n g o u t o f i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t y i n t h e G u l f s t a t e s . The main U.S. c o n c e r n i n t h e G u l f was o i l . As U.S. o i l i m p o r t s f r o m t h e G u l f were j u s t 10 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l o i l i m p o r t s and amounted t o o n l y 3 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l U.S. o i l c o n s u m p t i o n , i t was b e l i e v e d t h a t P e r s i a n G u l f o i l s h o u l d m a i n l y be t h e c o n c e r n o f U.S. a l l i e s who were more dependent on P e r s i a n G u l f o i l t h a n on t h e U.S. i t s e l f . 1 8 The P e r s i a n G u l f was t h e a r e a where t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e was p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e most c l e a r l y . The g i s t o f t h e U.S. s t r a t e g y was s e c u r i t y c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h c o n s e r v a t i v e r e g i o n a l s t a t e s , m a i n l y w i t h I r a n and S a u d i A r a b i a . U.S. s t r a t e g y i n t h e G u l f was so h e a v i l y r e l i e d on by t h e s e two s t a t e s t h a t U.S. p o l i c y i n t h e 1 9 G u l f was r e f e r r e d t o as a \"two p i l l a r \" p o l i c y . C o o p e r a t i o n w i t h I r a n became a c o r n e r s t o n e o f U.S. p o l i c y i n t h e G u l f . The N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o u n d an e x e m p l a r y p r o -W e s t e r n m i d d l e power i n I r a n , w i t h whom i t e n v i s a g e d s e c u r i t y c o -i p \u00C2\u00B0See Gary S i c k , op. c i t . , pp. 62-63. n o , , , A c c o r d i n g t o S i c k t h e two p i l l a r p o l l i c y h ad f o u r key e l e m e n t s : p r o m o t i o n o f c o - o p e r a t i o n between I r a n and S a u d i A r a b i a as a d e s i r a b l e b a s i s f o r s t a b i l i t y i n t h e G u l f , w h i l e r e c o g n i z i n g I r a n as t h e p r e d o m i n a n t power; t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f a t i n y U.S. n a v a l p r e s e n c e w i t h o u t c h a n g e ; e x p a n s i o n o f U.S. d i p l o m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e G u l f t o promote U.S. t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e ; and r e s t r a i n e d U.S. s a l e s t o l o w e r G u l f s t a t e s who w o u l d be e n c o u r a g e d t o l o o k p r i m a r i l y t o t h e B r i t i s h f o r t h e i r s e c u r i t y s e c u r i t y n e e d s . See S i c k , op. c i t . p. 58. 191 o p e r a t i o n . N i x o n v i s i t e d I r a n i n May 1972 and i n f o r m e d t h e Shah o f h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o s e l l I r a n F-14 and F-15 a i r c r a f t . I n J u l y , N i x o n was p r e p a r e d t o o f f e r I r a n t h e l i b e r t y o f d e t e r m i n i n g what weapons s y s t e m she c o u l d p u r c h a s e a t h e r d i s c r e t i o n . As a s t a f f r e p o r t f o r t h e U.S. S e n a t e F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s Committee p o i n t e d o u t , \" t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s d e c i s i o n t o s e l l I r a n v i r t u a l l y any weapon s y s t e m i t w a n t e d was u n p r e c e d e n t e d f o r a n o n - i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r y \" . u The n o r m a l p r a c t i c e o f r e v i e w i n g t h e i m p a c t o f arms s a l e s t o one c o u n t r y on t h e s e c u r i t y c o n c e r n s o f t h e r e c i p i e n t ' s n e i g h b o u r s p r i o r t o s u c h an arms s a l e was n o t f o l l o w e d i n d e a l i n g w i t h I r a n . C o n c o m i t a n t l y , I r a n came f o r w a r d t o p l a y a b i g g e r r o l e i n t h e G u l f . As e a r l y as March 1971 t h e Shah h i n t e d a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a j o i n t n a v a l d e f e n c e o f t h e p i r e g i o n . I r a n ' s w i l l i n g n e s s t o c o o p e r a t e i n r e g i o n a l d e f e n c e was shown by t h e i n c r e a s e o f n a v a l e x p e n d i t u r e f r o m $5.5 m i l l i o n f o r 1963-68 t o $55 m i l l i o n f o r t h e 1968-73 p e r i o d . 2 2 F u r t h e r , I r a n commenced c o n s t r u c t i o n o f $600 m i l l i o n a i r and n a v a l b a s e s , a t P -3 Chah B a h r on t h e A r a b i a n Sea c l o s e t o t h e P a k i s t a n b o r d e r . I n sum, t h e N i x o n d o c t r i n e p r e s e n t e d a r a t h e r r e l a x e d v i e w o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The U.S. had a r e l a t i v e l y l o w l e v e l o f i n t e r e s t and t h e y hoped t o m a i n t a i n a l o w p r o f i l e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean b a s e d on g e n e r a l d e t e r r e n c e , p a r t n e r s h i p , and b a l a n c e . p n ^ UU.S. C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , Sub-Committee on F o r e i g n A s s i s t a n c e o f t h e Committee on F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s , U.S. M i l i t a r y S a l e s t o I r a n - S t a f f R e p o r t ( W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., G.P.O. 1976 ) , p. 41. 2 1 N e w M i d d l e E a s t , A p r i l 1971, p. 21-23, Quoted i n S i n g h , o p . c i t . , p. 136 2 2 U . S . M i l i t a r y S a l e s t o I r a n , p. 20. 2 3 S i n g h , op. c i t . , p. 136. P a r a l l e l l t o t h e p r o p o s e d r e d u c t i o n o f l a n d - b a s e d s e c u r i t y i n v o l -vements and a b a l a n c e d U.S. p r o f i l e u n d e r t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e , t h e U.S. Navy and s t r a t e g i c m o b i l i t y a c q u i r e d i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n c e i n U.S. s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n p r a c t i c e , what t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e a d v o c a t e d was b a s i c a l l y a \" b l u e w a t e r s t r a t e g y \" . However, t u r n i n g t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n Ocean and g r e a t e r r e l i a n c e on t h e navy i n U.S. s t r a t e g y was by no means a sudden move. I n a s e n s e , t h e N i x o n d o c t r i n e marked t h e o f f i c i a l a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e b l u e w a t e r s t r a t e g y w h i c h was g a i n i n g r e c o g n i t i o n i n A m e r i c a n s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g f r o m t h e e a r l y 1960s. The N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d i d n o t s e t abo u t any new m i l i t a r y i n i t i a t i v e s e x c e p t t h e D i e g o G a r c i a c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t . I t was a l s o by no means a new i n i -t i a t i v e , b e i n g a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a p l a n i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e p a s t . Diego Garcia Project The U.S. n a v y ' s p r o p o s a l f o r b u i l d i n g a b a s e on D i e g o G a r c i a was a p p r o v e d by t h e P e n t a g o n d e s p i t e o b j e c t i o n s f r o m t h e s y s t e m s a n a l y s t s o f t h e S t a t e Department i n 1969. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e navy had t o l i m i t t h e p r o p o s a l t o a modest p l a n f o r a l o g i s t i c f a c i l i t y . The navy r e q u e s t e d i n 1969, f o r t h e f i s c a l y e a r 1970, new o b l i g a t i o n s a u t h o r i t y o f $9,556,000 f o r t h e f i r s t i n c r e m e n t o f a n a v a l f a c i l i t y on D i e g o G a r c i a . T h i s s u b m i s s i o n was a p p r o v e d by b o t h Armed S e r v i c e s C ommittees o f t h e C o n g r e s s and a l s o by t h e H o u s e A p p r o p r i a t i o n s C o m m i t t e e . H o w e v e r , t h e M i l i t a r y A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Committee o f t h e S e n a t e was v e r y much oppos e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e c o m i n g c o m m i t t e d t o a n o t h e r n a v a l b a s e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. T h e r e f o r e , t h e M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n Sub-Committee and t h e f u l l c o m m i t t e e d e l e t e d t h e n a v y ' s p r o p o s a l f r o m t h e 193 m i l i t a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n a p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r t h e f i s c a l y e a r 1970. The n a v y ' s s u b m i s s i o n was t a k e n t o c o n f e r e n c e w i t h t h e House and t h e S e n a t e ' s p o s i t i o n p r e v a i l e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e D i e g o G a r c i a P r o j e c t was s t r u c k o f f t h e A p p r o p r i a t i o n B i l l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , an o r a l agreement was r e a c h e d w h e r e i n t h e navy was i n s t r u c t e d t o come bac k i n t h e f i s c a l y e a r 1971 f o r a new a p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s t a t i o n on D i e g o G a r c i a . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e C o n g r e s s came f o r w a r d t o p l a y an a c t i v e r o l e i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f U.S. s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and a c t e d as a r e s t r a i n i n g f o r c e on t h e n a v y ' s p l a n r e g a r d i n g D i e g o G a r c i a . Some i n f l u e n t i a l members o f b o t h Houses o f C o n g r e s s , s u c h as Lee H a m i l t o n and C l a i b o r n e P e l l , b e l i e v e d t h a t a U.S. n a v a l b u i l d - u p i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean w o u l d e s c a l a t e n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n an a r e a w h i c h was o f modest s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The c o n c e r n o f t h e U.S. C o n g r e s s w i t h s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s r e f l e c t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t C o n g r e s s e x a m i n e d i s s u e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e I n d i a n p c Ocean t h r e e t i m e s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1971-1973. As i n s t r u c t e d by t h e C o n g r e s s , i n 197 0 t h e navy r e q u e s t e d , f o r t h e e n s u i n g f i s c a l y e a r , $5.4 m i l l i o n a s t h e f i r s t i n s t a l l m e n t f o r an a u s t e r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t y a t D i e g o G a r c i a . The need t o have s u c h a f a c i l i t y was r a t i o n a l i z e d by U.S. C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , Sub-Committee on M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c -t i o n , C o m m i t t e e on A p p r o p r i a t i o n s , S e c o n d S u p p l e m e n t a r y A p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r F i s c a l Y e a r 1974, 2 3 r d Cong., 2nd Sem. 1974, p. 214. 2 5 I n 1971 t h e Sub-Committee on N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y P o l i c y and S c i e n t i f i c Development had a s e r i e s o f h e a r i n g s e n t i t l e d xThe I n d i a n Ocean P o l i t i c a l and S t r a t e g i c F u t u r e ' and i n 1972 and 1973 t h e Sub-Committee on Near E a s t and S o u t h A s i a h e l d s e v e r a l h e a r i n g s . 194 c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d p r o b a b l y have t o w i t h d r a w f r o m t h e m a i n c o n t i n e n t o f A f r i c a , t h e l a r g e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t y t h a t i t m a i n t a i n e d a t A s m a r a , E t h i o p i a [Kagnew S t a t i o n ] . 2 ^ The C o n g r e s s s u p p o r t e d t h e Navy's r e q u e s t as \"an a p p r o p r i a t e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e U.S. p r e s e n c e \" i n t h e a r e a i n November 1971. I t a p p r o v e d a s e c o n d i n c r e m e n t o f $8.95 m i l l i o n t o w a r d t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n f a c i l i t y f o r t h e f i s c a l y e a r 1972. I n O c t o b e r 1972, C o n g r e s s a p p r o v e d t h e $6.1 m i l l i o n r e q u e s t e d as t h e t h i r d i n c r e m e n t f o r t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n f a c i l i t y . I n t h r e e a p p r o p r i a t i o n s , t h e C o n g r e s s v o t e d $20.45 m i l l i o n f o r t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s t a t i o n on D i e g o G a r c i a . I n J a n u a r y 1971, an advance p a r t y f r o m t h e N a v a l M o b i l i t y C o n s t r u c t i o n B a t t a l i o n ( S e a b e e s ) l a n d e d on D i e g o G a r c i a t o c o n f i r m p l a n i n f o r m a t i o n and t o s u r v e y b e a c h l a n d i n g a r e a s . L e s s t h a n s i x months a f t e r t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e Seabees, t h e i n t e r i m a i r f i e l d was c o m p l e t e d and i n J u l y 1971 t h e f i r s t C-130 f l i g h t p 7 l a n d e d on a 3,500 f o o t a i r s t r i p . I n v i e w o f t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o n c l u d e d a new agreement w i t h B r i t a i n t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e e a r l i e r one on t h e B.I.O.T. The new agreement, s i g n e d i n London on 24 O c t o b e r 1972, gave t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e r i g h t t o c o n s t r u c t , m a i n t a i n , a n d o p e r a t e a l i m i t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t y on D i e g o G a r c i a . \"The f a c i l i t y s h a l l c o n s i s t o f t r a n s m i t t i n g and r e c e i v i n g s e r v i c e s , an a n c h o r a g e , a i r f i e l d , a s s o c i a t e d l o g i s t i c s u p p o r t and s u p p l y and p e r s o n a l 2^U.S. C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , Committee on A p p r o p r i a t i o n s , Second S u p p l e m e n t a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r FY 1974 j_ H e a r i n g on H.R. 14013, 9 3 r d C o n g r e s s , 2nd S e s s . , 1974, p. 2114. 2 7 K i r b y H a r r i s o n , \" D i e g o G a r c i a : The Seabees a t Work,\" U.S. N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r o c e e d i n g s , 105:8 (August 1 9 7 9 ) , p. 54. 195 a c c o m m o d a t i o n \" . 0 The d e c l a r e d p u r p o s e s o f t h e D i e g o G a r c i a s t a t i o n were: 1. t o f i l l t h e U.S. n a v a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n gap i n t h e c e n t r a l a n d n o r t h w e s t e r n r e g i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean, 2. t o l i n k t h e U.S. c o m m u n i c a t i o n b a s e i n E t h i o p i a w i t h t h a t on t h e N o r t h W e s t e r n C o a s t o f A u s t r a l i a and t h u s , 3. t o l i n k up t h e I n d i a n Ocean w i t h t h e g l o b a l U.S. m i l i t a r y command and c o n t r o l system.29 The I n d i a n Ocean was s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d a l o w - p r i o r i t y a r e a o f modest s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The U.S. navy was v e r y e a g e r t o p l a y an a c t i v e r o l e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. But t h e r e were many r e s t r a i n i n g f o r c e s . Among them, t h e C o n g r e s s was i m p o r t a n t . Clement Z a b l o c k i , C h a i r m a n o f t h e House Sub-Committee on N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y P o l i c y and S c i e n t i f i c D evelopment, r e m a r k e d i n 1971 t h a t what was r e q u i r e d was d i p l o m a t i c f i n e s s e r a t h e r t h a n m i l i t a r y p o w e r i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. u The W h i t e House and t h e Department o f S t a t e more o r l e s s s h a r e d t h i s v i e w . The U.S. navy o f t e n h i g h l i g h t e d t h e S o v i e t t h r e a t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean b u t t h e C o n g r e s s was more c a u t i o u s . Some i n f l u e n t i a l f i g u r e s i n C o n g r e s s were r e l u c t a n t t o go w i t h t h e n a v y . F o r example, S e n a t o r R u s s e l l , t h e C h a i r m a n o f t h e ^\u00C2\u00B0U.S. Department o f S t a t e , \" N a v a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n s F a c i l i t y on D i e g o G a r c i a , \" T r e a t i e s and o t h e r I n t e r n a t i o n a l A c t s , S e r i e s , 7481, ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 2. 2 Q ^U.S. C o n g r e s s , House, Committee on Armed S e r v i c e s , F u l l C ommittee C o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f H.R. 12565, 93 Cong., 2nd S e s s . , 1974, p. 107. 3 0 U.S. C o n g r e s s , House, Sub-Committee on N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y P o l i c y and S c i e n t i f i c D e v e l o p m e n t s , Committee on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , The I n d i a n Ocean j_ P o l i t i c a l and S t r a t e g i c F u t u r e . 92nd Cong., 1 s t S e s s . , 1971, p. I V . 196 A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Committee, was v e r y much opposed t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o m m i t t i n g t h e Navy t o s u s t a i n e d o p e r a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . The D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e h a d t o a s s u r e t h e C o n g r e s s about t h e l i m i t e d n a t u r e o f n a v a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. T h i s p o l i t i c a l - s t r a t e g i c c l i m a t e r a d i c a l l y c hanged o n l y a f t e r 1973. The Yom K i p p u r War i n O c t o b e r 1973 and t h e s u b s e q u e n t o i l c r i s i s u n l e a s h e d f o r c e s h e l d i n c h e c k by t h e C o n g r e s s so f a r . B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t s a f t e r t h e o i l c r i s i s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o examine two o t h e r e l e m e n t s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean s c e n a r i o - S o v i e t s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean f r o m 1968-73 and t h e g r o w i n g o p p o s i t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s t o s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l a c t i v i t i e s . Soviet Strategy after 1968 The y e a r 1968 a l s o marked t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a new phase i n S o v i e t s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. As i t e v o l v e d a f t e r 1968, t h r e e e l e m e n t s were c l e a r l y v i s i b l e . F i r s t , t h e S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean begun i n 1968 a c q u i r e d a r e g u l a r p a t t e r n . Second, t h e S o v i e t d e s i r e t o e n t e r e f f e c t i v e l y i n t o t h e p o l i t i c s o f d i p l o m a c y was marked by t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m f o r A s i a by B r e z h n e v i n 1969 and t h e d i p l o m a t i c campaign a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t . F i n a l l y , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n e n t e r e d i n t o b i l a t e r a l d e f e n c e and f r i e n d s h i p t r e a t i e s w i t h some o f t h e n o n - C o m m u n i s t l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s i n t h e r e g i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n came f o r w a r d t o p l a y a more p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f t e r 1968, Out o f t h e t h r e e w a r s h i p s t h a t s a i l e d i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean 197 i n l a t e M a r c h 1968, t h e g u i d e d m i s s i l e d e s t r o y e r Gorddy r e t u r n e d home i n A p r i l soon a f t e r i t s p o r t - c a l l i n g i n I n d i a ; t h e o t h e r two, t h e c r u i s e r and t h e d e s t r o y e r , r e m a i n e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean t i l l m i d - J u l y , v i s i t i n g p o r t s i n S o m a l i a , P a k i s t a n , a n d t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . The s e c o n d S o v i e t n a v a l detachment e n t e r e d t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n November 1968 and r e m a i n e d t h e r e t i l l A p r i l 1969. T h i s became an e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n i n w h i c h S o v i e t s h i p s were d e p l o y e d f o r 6 months on a r o t a t i o n b a s i s . The m a j o r f o r c e , c o n s i s t i n g o f a c r u i s e r and one o r two d e s t r o y e r s , a r r i v e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n December-January and r e m a i n e d i n t h e a r e a t i l l A p r i l - J u l y . The m i n o r f o r c e c o n s i s t i n g o f one o r two d e s t r o y e r s a r r i v e d j u s t b e f o r e t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e e a r l i e r f o r c e . By 1970 T a b l e I I Reported Soviet Naval Presence by Months 1968-71 J a n . Feb. Mar. A p r . May J u n . J u l y Aug. Sep. O c t . Nov. Dec. 1968 0 0 3 3 2 2 2 0 0 0 3 5 1969 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 4 4 3 3 1970 6 2 2 5 8 5 2 2 2 2 4 4 1971 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 2 2 2 3 S o u r c e : J o i n t Committee on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , R e p o r t on t h e I n d i a n Ocean R e g i o n , A u s t r a l i a n F e d e r a l P a r l i a m e n t . t h e l e v e l o f S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t a p p e a r e d t o be s t a b i l i l z e d a t f o u r t o s i x s u r f a c e s h i p s and two t o t h r e e s u b m a r i n e s . These numbers, however, d o u b l e d d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f c r i s i s s u c h as t h e M i d d l e E a s t War i n 1973. I t i s b e t t e r t o a n a l y s e t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d mode o f o p e r a t i o n o f n a v a l v e s s e l s r a t h e r t h a n r u s h i n t o s w e e p i n g a s s u m p t i o n s b a s e d on mere numbers i n o r d e r t o have a r e a l i s t i c 198 a s s e s s m e n t o f S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The b a ckbone o f t h e S o v i e t n a v a l f l e e t was t h e aged S v e r d l o v c l a s s c r u i s e r and K o t l i n c l a s s d e s t r o y e r s . These b u l k y v e s s e l s , b u i l t i n 19 60, were n e a r i n g t h e end o f t h e i r l i v e s and t h e i r armaments were o b s o l e t e . However, d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f r e g i o n a l c r i s i s , more p o w e r f u l a n d m o d e r n K y n d a a n d K r e s t a c l a s s c r u i s e r s w e r e d e p l o y e d . A n o t h e r p r o m i n e n t f e a t u r e o f S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e p r e - 1 9 7 3 p e r i o d , was t h e added p r e s e n c e o f a l a r g e number o f a u x i l i a r i e s a n d s u p p o r t v e s s e l s . The S o v i e t p r a c t i c e o f r e l y i n g on i t s own a u x i l i a r i e s f o r f u e l , p r o v i s i o n s , a n d r e p a i r s due t o l a c k o f r e l i a b l e a n d s e c u r e s h o r e - b a s e d s u p p o r t f a c i l i t i e s e x p l a i n s t h e h i g h number o f s u p p o r t v e s s e l s . M a j o r c o m b a t a n t s were l e s s t h a n 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l n a v a l p r e s e n c e , e x c e p t i n c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s u b m a r i n e e l e m e n t s w e r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t e n o u g h t o s u g g e s t t h a t S o v i e t d e p l o y m e n t p o s e d a r e a l t h r e a t t o s e a l a n e s so f a r . The S o v i e t n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y , q u a n t i t a t i v e l y a n d q u a l i t a t i v e l y , a t t i m e s o f r e g i o n a l c r i s i s . T h i s was l a r g e l y i n r e s p o n s e t o U.S. n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t s . The S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean has been e x a g g e r a t e d f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g . Elmo Zumwalt o f t h e U.S. Navy, f o r example, s t a t e d i n 1974 t h a t S o v i e t s u p p o r t i n i t i a t i v e s and t h e tempo o f t h e i r n a v a l a c t i v i t y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean s i n c e 1968 had e xpanded a t a d e l i b e r a t e p ace w h i c h c o u l d n o t be r e l a t e d e i t h e r i n t u n e o r i n s c o p e t o any c o m p a r a b l e e x p a n s i o n o f U.S. a c t i v i t y . S t a t i s t i c s o f s h i p d a y s and t o n n a g e r e l a t e d t o b o t h n a v i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean were p r e s e n t e d t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s v i e w . T a b l e I I I Deployment of General Purpose Naval Ships i n the Indian Ocean. 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 S h i p - d a v s S o v i e t U n i o n 1106 2022 3726 3149 7096 8262 U n i t e d S t a t e s 1150 1150 1150 1350 1150 2109 Tonnage ( i n t h o u s a n d s ) S o v i e t U n i o n 3200 4300 5000 U n i t e d S t a t e s 1197 1145 1665 S o u r c e : U.S. C o n g r e s s , P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n , p. 30 The c r i t e r i a o f s h i p d a y s t o measure n a v a l a c t i v i t i e s i s f r a u g h t w i t h s e v e r a l s h o r t c o m i n g s . S h i p d a y - c o m p a r i s o n i g n o r e s t h e a c t u a l n a t u r e o f t h e s h i p s ; f o r example, a u x i l i a r i e s a r e e q u a t e d w i t h a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r s . The s h i p d a y s o f t h e S o v i e t Navy i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean were v e r y h i g h b u t most o f t h e S o v i e t s h i p s were non-combatant a u x i l i a r i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , s h i p d a y s c r i t e r i o n does n o t t a k e s u b m a r i n e s i n t o a c c o u n t . M e a s u r e m e n t o f p o r t - c a l l s i s c o m p a r a t i v e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y t h o u g h i t i s n o t d e v o i d o f l i m i t a t i o n s . P o r t - c a l l s a r e c a l c u l a t e d by a d d i n g e v e r y e n t r y o f e a c h n a v a l s h i p i n t o a f o r e i g n p o r t b u t i t does n o t r e f l e c t t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e v i s i t w h i c h v a r i e s f r o m one day t o 18 months. I n some c a s e s , t h e same p o r t m i g h t be f r e q u e n t l y v i s i t e d by t h e same g r o u p o f s h i p s a d d i n g numbers t o t h e t o t a l p o r t - c a l l s . As s u c h i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o breakdown t h e p o r t - c a l l s u n d e r t y p e o f s h i p s and p o r t s v i s i t e d t o have a c l e a r i d e a o f t h e n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t o f b o t h n a v i e s . 200 T a b l e IV U n i t e d S t a t e s and S o v i e t Navy P r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, 1968-73 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 U.S. USSR U.S. USSR U.S. USSR U.S. USSR U.S. USSR U.S. USSR Carriers 6 0 0 0 5 0 6 0 23 0 80 0 Surface Combatants* 1382 403 1006 644 867 787 669 1028 944 2381 1312 28 Amphibious 0 0 0 106 0 302 183 291 23 273 18 2 Auxiliaries 210 445 261 877 219 1070 329 1245 424 2704 672 43 HSC Auxiliaries/USSP. Naval Assoc.Merships 190 * 28 * 155 * 146 404 423 780 72 4 AGS/AGOR 0 814 0 642 0 417 0 102 0 490 0 11 AGL 0 98 0 8 0 24 0 12 0 31 0 -Submarines Torpedo Attack 0 ** 0 ** 0 ** 14 ** 8 ** 79 ** Cruise Missile Attack 0 ** 0 ** 0 ** 0 ** 0 ** 0 ** Total 1788 +* 1315 ** 1246 ** 1357 ** 1445 ** 2-1 \u00C2\u00A3 3 0233 ** Cruiser, destroyers, destroyer escorts and minesweepers * No record ** deleted Source: Statement by Adm. Elmo Zumwalt, U.S. Navy, Chief of Naval operations. Hearing before the Ccrrdttee on Foreign Relations, U.S., Senate. 93rd Congress 2nd Sess. The n o t i o n t h a t t h e s h e e r g r o w t h o f S o v i e t n a v a l d e p loyment h a d o u t r u n U.S. n a v a l p o w e r i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s n o t c o r r o b o r a t e d by T a b l e IV. However, i t c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h a t t h e S o v i e t navy i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean had now become a m a j o r e l e m e n t t h a t had t o be r e c k o n e d w i t h i n any a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t r a t e g i c l a n d s c a p e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. W h i l e S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a c q u i r e d 201 a r e g u l a r p a t t e r n a f t e r 1968, t h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p o u t l i n e d new i n i t i a t i v e s i n t h e d i p l o m a t i c f i e l d i n p r e s e n t i n g a p r o p o s a l f o r A s i a n c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y . S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t and d i p l o m a t i c i n i t i a t i v e s were c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o two a s p e c t s o f t h e S o v i e t s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n . The Soviet Proposal for a Collective Security System in Asia The manner i n w h i c h t h e c o n c e p t o f A s i a n c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y was p r e s e n t e d by t h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p i s i n d i c a t i v e o f S o v i e t r e a d i n g o f t h e d i p l o m a t i c a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n and a l s o o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t t h e S o v i e t s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e p r o p o s a l . I n h i s s p e e c h t o t h e w o r l d c o n f e r e n c e o f Communist and W o r k e r s ' P a r t i e s i n Moscow i n June 1968, B r e z h n e v , a f t e r e m p h a s i -s i n g S o v i e t commitment t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f a s y s t e m o f c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y i n t h o s e a r e a s where t h e d a n g e r s o f t h e a n o t h e r W o r l d War were c o n c e n t r a t e d , s t a t e d t h a t \"we a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s i s a l s o p u t t i n g on t h e agenda t h e t a s k o f c r e a t i n g a s y s t e m o f c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y i n A s i a \" . B r e z h n e v ' s t e r s e pronouncement o f an A s i a n C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System was l i m i t e d o n l y t o t h e above s e n t e n c e and no e l a b o r a t i o n came a f t e r -w a r ds. A month l a t e r , however, Gromyko, i n h i s R e p o r t on F o r e i g n P o l i c y t o t h e Supreme S o v i e t o f t h e U.S.S.R., s t a t e d t h a t t h e p r o p o s a l f o r a C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System i n A s i a \"demands p r o p e r d i s c u s s i o n and c o n s u l t a t i o n among i n t e r e s t e d s t a t e s i n o r d e r t o work o u t m u t u a l l y a c c e p t a b l e s o l u t i o n s \" . The S o v i e t government w o u l d , i n t h e c o u r s e o f s u c h c o n s u l t a t i o n s , e x p r e s s i t s c r e a t i v e J Dendra K a u s h i k and S a t y e n d r a P eerthum, Towards C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y i n A s i a (New D e l h i : A l l i e d P u b l i s h e r s P r i v a t e L i m i t e d , 1973) , p. 67. 202 v i e w s . He f u r t h e r r e b u t t e d t h e n o t i o n t h a t \" t h e s e t t i n g up o f a C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System i n A s i a w o u l d be aimed a t a c e r t a i n c o u n t r y o r a g r o u p o f c o u n t r i e s and t h i s i s a q u e s t i o n o f t h e c o l l e c t i v e e f f o r t s o f a l l A s i a n s t a t e s o f s a f e - g u a r d i n g s e c u r i t y O p i n t h e i r common i n t e r e s t s \" . Gromyko once a g a i n r a i s e d t h e i s s u e o f t h e s e t t i n g up o f a C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System i n A s i a i n h i s a d d r e s s t o t h e 2 4 t h s e s s i o n o f t h e U.N. G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y i n September 1969. These s t a t e m e n t s , however, d i d n o t p r o v i d e any d e t a i l s about t h e shape, s c o p e , and s u b s t a n c e o f t h e p r o p o s e d C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System f o r A s i a . What i s r e m a r k a b l e i s t h e s u b s e q u e n t , p r o l o n g e d s i l e n c e on t h e p a r t o f t h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p . T h i s d e l i b e r a t e i n a r t i c u l a t i o n c l e a r l y p o i n t s t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e S o v i e t p r o p o s a l was \"a g i g a n t i c t r i a l b a l l o o n t e s t i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e f o r a S o v i e t i n i t i a t i v e whose u l t i m a t e shape, scope and s u b s t a n c e w o u l d depend e n t i r e l y on 33 e v e n t s and r e a c t i o n s \" . I n o r d e r t o a n a l y s e S o v i e t i n t e n t i o n s i n p r o p o s i n g a C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System, o b s e r v e r s depend on t h e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h i t was p r e s e n t e d b e c a u s e o f l a c k o f e l a b o r a t i o n f r o m t h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p . The t h r e e e l e m e n t s o f t h e ' c o u r s e o f e v e n t s ' a r e i d e n t i f i e d . Most i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e S i n o - S o v i e t c o n f l i c t t o t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f an armed c l a s h was i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d . I n March 1969, f i e r c e f i g h t i n g f l a r e d up o v e r a d i s p u t e d i s l a n d i n t h e U s s u r i r i v e r on t h e common b o r d e r . 3 2 I b i d . 3 3 A r n o l d L. H o r e l i c k , \"The S o v i e t U n i o n ' s A s i a n C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y P r o p o s a l : A C l u b i n S e a r c h o f Members, P a c i f i c A f f a i r s , 47:3 ( F a l l 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 273. 203 C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e p o l i t i c a l campaign a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r r e a c h e d i t s h e i g h t i n 1969. The a n t i - C h i n e s e s l a n t a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e Communist and W o r k e r s ' P a r t i e s was c l e a r l y v i s i b l e and a m a j o r p o r t i o n o f B r e z h n e v ' s s p e e c h was d e v o t e d t o an a t t a c k on C h i n a . S e c o n d l y , t h e B r i t i s h d e c i s i o n i n 1968 t o w i t h d r a w t h e i r f o r c e s f r o m E a s t o f Suez was a l s o i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d . The N i x o n d o c t r i n e w h i c h e n v i s a g e d a low p r o f i l e f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n A s i a came a month l a t e r , b u t t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n had made p l a i n i t s i n t e n t i o n t o w i t h d r a w U.S. f o r c e s f r o m V i e t n a m . F i n a l l y , i t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ' s n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean had begun on a r e g u l a r b a s i s i n 1968. I n a n a l y s i n g t h e p r o p o s a l f o r a C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System i n A s i a i n t h e c o n t e x t o f s u c h a ' c o u r s e o f e v e n t s ' , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d C h i n a i n t e r p r e t e d i t as one d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e m . A m e r i c a n c o m m e n t a t o r s v i e w e d i t as a p o l i t i c a l campaign t o s q u e e z e t h e w e s t e r n p r e s e n c e o u t o f A s i a and i n t e r p r e t e d i t as a r a t h e r t r a n s p a r e n t e f f o r t t o p l a y on t h e n a t i o n a l i s t i c s e n t i m e n t s o f t h e r e g i o n a l s t a t e s and t o add a p o l i t i c a l d i m e n s i o n t o t h e i n c r e a s e d S o v i e t m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e . O v e r e m p h a s i s on t h e S o v i e t i n t e n t i o n o f c o n t a i n i n g C h i n a , r e i n f o r c e d by B e i j i n g ' s l o u d s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as t h e t a r g e t o f t h e p r o p o s e d A s i a n C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System, i s somewhat m i s l e a d i n g t o o . The S o v i e t s knew q u i t e w e l l t h a t t h e p r o s p e c t s o f f o r m i n g a U n i t e d F r o n t d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t C h i n a were v e r y r e m o t e . A l l t h e C o m m u n i s t - r u l e d s t a t e s i n A s i a e x c e p t M o n g o l i a had t a k e n n e u t r a l o r n o n - c o m m i t a l s t a n d s i n t h e S i n o - S o v i e t c o n f l i c t so f a r and i t was d i f f i c u l t t o e x p e c t t h a t t h e y w o u l d j o i n hands i n any a n t i - C h i n e s e scheme. T h i s was t h e c a s e w i t h C h i n a ' s non-204 Communist n e i g h b o u r s , t o o . I n f a c t , one o f t h e main o b s t a c l e s t h a t t h e p r o p o s a l f a c e d was i t s a l l e g e d a n t i - C h i n e s e s l a n t . B e i n g c o n s c i o u s o f t h i s o b s t a c l e , t h e S o v i e t s e n d e a v o u r e d t o r e b u t s u c h a c c u s a t i o n s . 3 4 B r e z h n e v , i n h i s r e p o r t on t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e 5 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e U.S.S.R. i n O c t o b e r 1972, s t a t e d t h a t \" i t i s b e i n g a l l e g e d i n some c a p i t a l s t h a t o u r p r o p o s a l i s d e s i g n e d t o ' c o n t a i n ' o r ' e n c i r c l e ' C h i n a . Such a l l e g a t i o n s a r e t o t a l l y g r o u n d l e s s . As we c o n c e i v e t h e i d e a , t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a w i l l become an e q u a l p a r t n e r i n s u c h a s y s t e m \" . ^ A c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e S o v i e t s t a t e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e A s i a n C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System does n o t f a i l t o r e v e a l t h e S o v i e t U n i o n s t r i v i n g t o i d e n t i f y h e r s e l f as an A s i a n power. S t i l l , A s i a n c a p i t a l s were r e l u c t a n t t o a c c e p t , w h o l e h e a r t e d l y , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n as an A s i a n power. The p r o p o s e d C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System i n w h i c h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w o u l d a l s o be a l e a d i n g p a r t n e r w o u l d p r o v i d e sound q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t o become an A s i a n power. That w o u l d g i v e t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a l e g i t i m a t e r i g h t t o be a c t i v e i n A s i a n p o l i t i c s , s o m e t h i n g t h a t she e a g e r l y s o u g h t . A c l o s e l i n k between t h e f o r w a r d d e p l o y m e n t o f S o v i e t n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and B r e z h n e v ' s p r o p o s a l o f a C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System i n A s i a i s a l s o n o t d i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h . The S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t c a u s e d c o n c e r n i n many 3 4 F o r e x a m p l e , Moscow R a d i o b r o a d c a s t i n C h i n e s e on 21 December 1970 e m p h a s i z i n g t h a t C h i n a s h o u l d be a p a r t n e r i n a C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y S y s t e m i n A s i a a n d i t was n o t d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t h e r . B . B . C . Summary o f W o r l d B r o a d c a s t e r s , P t . 1, S u 7 3 5 6 7 / A 3 / l , q u o t e d i n J u k e s , S o v i e t U n i o n i n A s i a , o p. c i t . , p . 2 5 3 5 K a u s h i k and Peerthum, Towards C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y , p. 70 205 c o u n t r i e s i n t h e l i t t o r a l . V i e w i n g t h e S o v i e t d e c i s i o n i n 1968 a l o n g w i t h t h e a c c e n t on t h e navy i n U.S. s t r a t e g y , i t was c l e a r t h a t a new p h a s e o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was i n t h e m a k i n g and t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n was a l s o c h a r g e d as b e i n g e q u a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c h a n g i n g t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t o a s p h e r e o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l c o n f l i c t . The A s i a n C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i -t y P r o p o s a l was i n t e n d e d t o l e s s e n t h e a n g e r d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and i t was o f t e n c i t e d , t h o u g h u n s u c c e s s f u l l y , as p r o o f o f S o v i e t c o n c e r n f o r t h e p e a c e and s e c u r i t y o f t h e r e g i o n . I n o r d e r t o have a p r o p e r p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e p r o p o s e d c o l l e -c t i v e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m i n A s i a , i t s h o u l d be v i e w e d i n l i g h t o f t h e new d i r e c t i o n o f S o v i e t r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e n e w l y - i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s a f t e r 1964. The S o v i e t U n i o n showed more i n t e r e s t a f t e r 1964 i n c u l t i v a t i n g s t a t e - t o - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l c o m p l e x i o n o f t h e s t a t e . The l e v e l l i n g p r o c e s s o f S o v i e t r e l a t i o n s , begun u n d e r B r e z h n e v ' s l e a d e r s h i p , s h a p e d S o v i e t a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l i n t h e l a t e 1960s. The T a s h k e n t Summit e s t a b l i s h e d t h e USSR'S r e p u t a t i o n as a peacemaker i n t h e I n d i a n s u b - c o n t i n e n t . I n h i s s p e e c h a t t h e 2 3 r d C o n g r e s s o f t h e CPSU i n A p r i l 1966, Gromyko r e m a r k e d t h a t \" r e c o g -n i t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , r e s -p e c t f o r i t s p o l i c y , r e s u l t e d i n t h e r e c e n t m e e t i n g i n T a s h k e n t where two g r e a t A s i a n s t a t e s d i s p l a y e d t r u s t i n t h e i m p a r t i a l i t y o f o u r c o u n t r y \" . 3 6 I n t h i s c o n t e x t , n e x t i n l i n e was a p r o p o s a l f o r a c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m c o v e r i n g a v a s t m a j o r i t y o f t h e A s i a n s t a t e s : 3 6 S o v i e t R e v i e w , No. 31 ( 2 3 r d A p r i l 1 9 6 6 ) , p. 4. 206 The i n i t i a l r e s p o n s e s o f t h e A s i a n s t a t e s t o t h e p r o p o s a l were r e a l l y d i s a p p o i n t i n g . Even Communist s t a t e s showed no i n t e -r e s t a t a l l . S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , C h i n a l a u n c h e d a v i r u l e n t a t t a c k a g a i n s t t h e p r o p o s a l . So f r u s t r a t i n g were t h e r e s p o n s e s o f t h e A s i a n s t a t e s t h a t t h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p abandoned i t w i t h o u t even m e n t i o n i n g i t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1970-71. I n 1971, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n e n t e r e d i n t o b i l a t e r a l t r e a t i e s o f Peace and F r i e n d s h i p w i t h a number o f s t a t e s i n c l u d i n g E g y p t ( A p r i l 1971) and I n d i a (August 1971) . I n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f 1971, t h e p r o p o s a l f o r a c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m a g a i n came t o t h e f o r e f r o n t i n S o v i e t s t a t e m e n t s . C h i n a - U . S . Rapprochement and K i s s i n g e r ' s v i s i t t o C h i n a i n J u l y 1971 t o a r r a n g e t h e \"Nixon-Mao hand s h a k e \" was t h e i m m e d i a t e b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e r e v i v a l o f t h e p r o p o s a l f o r c o l l e c -t i v e s e c u r i t y i n A s i a . B i l a t e r a l t r e a t i e s o f Peace and F r i e n d s h i p were v i e w e d as b u i l d i n g b l o c k s f o r t h e s y s t e m o f c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y . The outcome o f t h e I n d o - P a k i s t a n War i n 1971 s t r e n -g t h e n e d t h e S o v i e t h a n d e n o r m o u s l y . T h a t d e m o n s t r a t e d , i n H o r e l i c k ' s words, \" b o t h t h e w i l l and c a p a c i t y o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t o e x e r t s t r o n g m i l i t a r y a n d p o l i t i c a l l e v e r a g e on t h e 3 7 c o n t i n e n t \" . A f t e r a l o n g s i l e n c e , b o t h K o s y g i n and B r e z h n e v r a i s e d t h e i s s u e o f an A s i a n C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System i n M a r c h 1972. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e e a r l i e r l a c o n i c s t a t e m e n t s , b o t h e n u n c i a t e d a s e t o f p r i n c i p l e s as g u i d e l i n e s o f t h e p r o p o s e d s y s t e m . B r e z h n e v s t a t e d : 3 7 A r n o l d L. H o r e l i c k , \"The S o v i e t U n i o n ' s A s i a n C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y P r o p o s a l : A C l u b i n S e a r c h o f Members,\" P a c i f i c A f f a i r s , 47:3 ( F a l l 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 274. 207 C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y i n A s i a must i n o u r v i e w be b a s e d on s u c h f o u n d a t i o n s as t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f r e n u n c i a t i o n o f f o r c e i n r e l a t i o n s between s t a t e s , r e s p e c t f o r s o v e r e i g n t y a n d i n v i o l a b i l i t y o f f r o n t i e r s , n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e i n e a c h o t h e r ' s i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s and wide d e v e l o p m e n t o f economic and o t h e r forms o f c o - o p e r a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f c o m p l e t e e q u a l i t y and m u t u a l b e n e f i t . 3 8 I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o p o i n t o ut t h e c l o s e s i m i l a r i t y between t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s and t h e f i v e p r i n c i p l e s e n u n c i a t e d a t t h e Bandung C o n f e r e n c e - P a n c h a s i l a . However, t h i s e l a b o r a t i o n , a c c o m p a n i e d by d i p l o m a t i c p r e s s u r e , b o r e no f r u i t . The o n l y c o u n t r i e s t h a t r e s p o n d e d f a v o u r a b l y t o t h e S o v i e t p r o p o s a l were A f g h a n i s t a n , I r a n , and t h e M o n g o l i a n R e p u b l i c . I n d i a n r e l u c t a n c e t o e n d o r s e i t was c r u c i a l . The r e a s o n s f o r t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e S o v i e t e f f o r t were q u i t e c l e a r . C h i n a ' s v i r u l e n t o p p o s i t i o n and h e r s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as t h e t a r g e t p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n k e e p i n g C h i n a ' s non-Communist n e i g h b o u r s and A s i a n Communist s t a t e s away f r o m t h e p r o p o s e d scheme. S o v i e t r e a d i n g o f t h e A s i a n d i p l o m a t i c c l i m a t e was n o t q u i t e a c c u r a t e . O b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e A s i a n p o l i t i -c a l t h e a t r e were n o t c o n g e n i a l t o s u c h a c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m i n a p a n - A s i a n f o r m . S i n c e t h e r e were many p o i n t s o f c o n f l i c t among A s i a n s t a t e s , i t i s r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d t h e common d e n o m i n a t o r f o r a c o l l e c t i v e g r o u p i n g . Though b i l a t e r a l t r e a t i e s were i n t e r p r e t e d as a f i r s t s t e p i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f o r m i n g a c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m , e a c h t r e a t y s h o u l d be v i e w e d on i t s own m e r i t s . Most i m p o r t a n t among t h e b i l a t e r a l t r e a t i e s s i g n e d by t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was t h e I n d o - S o v i e t t r e a t y . I t s h o u l d be v i e w e d i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e 3 8 K a n s h i k and Peerthum, Towards C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y , p. 69. 208 m u t u a l i n t e r e s t s [ s t r a t e g i c , p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m i c ] , o f b o t h p a r t i e s r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e p r o p o s e d c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m i n A s i a . Though t h e S o v i e t campaign a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System i n A s i a a p p e a r e d t o be an u n s u c c e s s f u l v e n t u r e , i t r e f l e c t e d t h e S o v i e t i n t e n t i o n t o p l a y a p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n I n d i a n Ocean p o l i t i c s . A f t e r 1968 a new phase i n S o v i e t s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean commenced and came d i r e c t l y i n t o S o v i e t s t r a t e g i c c a l c u l a t i o n s . From h i n d s i g h t , i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a l o n g w i t h t h e new e m p h a s i s on n a v a l power i n U.S. s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean s e t i n m o t i o n a new e r a o f o c e a n p o l i t i c s . Superpower n a v a l r i v a l r y h a d become a m a j o r e l e m e n t i n t h e new phase o f ocean p o l i t i c s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Superpower Naval Rivalry i n the Indian Ocean The n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n between t h e s u p e r p o w e r s c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e i n t e r - r e l a t e d e l e m e n t s , i . e . c o m p e t i t i v e n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, weapons d e a l s , and d e f e n c e agreements w i t h t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s , t h e l a t t e r two e l e m e n t s d a t i n g b a c k t o t h e e a r l y p o s t - w a r y e a r s . The U n i t e d S t a t e s made arms d e a l s u n d e r t h e M i l i t a r y A s s i s t a n c e Programme (MAP) and a r r a n g e d b i l a t e r a l and m u l t i - l a t e r a l d e f e n c e a l l i a n c e s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e ' c o n t a i n m e n t ' p o l i c y . A f t e r 1956, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a l s o came f o r w a r d t o compete w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e d i p l o m a t i c f i e l d . U n t i l t h e 1 9 6 0 s , t h e S o v i e t - A m e r i c a n c o m p e t i t i o n was c o n f i n e d t o t h e A s i a n m a i n l a n d . A t t h e end o f t h e 1960s, i n t h e new s t r a t e g i c a t m o s p h e r e , s u p e r p o w e r c o m p e t i t i o n r e a c h e d t h e 209 I n d i a n Ocean. To be s u r e , t h e m a j o r e l e m e n t o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y was f o r w a r d d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e i r n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. N e v e r t h e l e s s , weapons d e a l s and d e f e n c e agreements between t h e s u p e r p o w e r s and t h e I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s c o n c e i v e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y , a r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e same p r o c e s s . However, i t i s v e r y common t o d e f i n e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y v e r y n a r r o w l y a n d t o i n c l u d e o n l y t h e n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s and t o s e p a r a t e i t f r o m arms d e a l s r> q and m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e s . From t h e economic p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e arms d e a l s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s w i t h I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s s h o u l d be v i e w e d w i t h i n t h e b r o a d e r framework o f N o r t h - S o u t h t r a d e . The U n i t e d S t a t e s and o t h e r W e s t e r n powers a r e dependent on e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s and o t h e r s t r a t e g i c m i n e r a l s f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n . Arms s a l e s c o n s t i t u t e an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e b a l a n c e o f payments o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e i r t r a d e w i t h t h e l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s . 4 0 Though t h e S o v i e t U n i o n was l e s s dependent on s t r a t e g i c m i n e r a l s coming f r o m t h e I n d i a n O c e a n r e g i o n , S o v i e t - I n d i a n O c e a n t r a d e h a s become an i m p o r t a n t means o f s o l v i n g t h e h a r d c u r r e n c y p r o b l e m s t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n f a c e s i n h e r t r a d e w i t h t h e West. I n 197 6 S o v i e t weapons s a l e s amounted t o 10 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l S o v i e t e x p o r t s and she w o u l d r u n a $1.2 b i l l i o n t r a d e d e f i c i t w i t h t h e - ^ P a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s who a r e v e r y v o c i f e r o u s a g a i n s t s u p e r p o w e r a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean t e n d t o s c a l e down t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y o n l y t o n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t . T h i s i s c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d i n t h e d e l i b e r a t i o n s i n t h e U.N. ad hoc Committee on t h e I n d i a n Ocean Pe a c e Zone P r o p o s a l . 4 0 F o r a v i v i d d i s c u s s i o n , see A l i M a z r u i , The B a r r e l o f t h e Gun and t h e B a r r e l o f O i l i n t h e N o r t h S o u t h E q u a t i o n (New Y o r k : I n s t i t u t e f o r W o r l d O r d e r , 1 9 7 8 ) . 210 t h i r d w o r l d w i t h o u t h e r arms s a l e s . The p o l i t i c a l and m i l i t a r y a s p e c t s o f t h e arms t r a d e a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t . The arms d e a l s p r o v i d e a c o n v e n i e n t d e v i c e t o t h e s u p e r p o w e r s t o e x t e n d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s i n t h e t h i r d w o r l d . Arms s a l e s h a v e become a c h i e f t o o l o f d i p l o m a c y . The p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e e n g e n d e r e d by arms s a l e s i s u t i l i z e d t o o b t a i n b a s e s and o t h e r l o g i s t i c s u p p o r t f o r n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t . Such a l i n k enhances t h e s t r a t e g i c p o s t u r e o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s , r e g i o n a l l y as w e l l as g l o b a l l y . F o r example, as W a l t e r I s a a c s o n r e p o r t e d , \" t h e s u p e r p o w e r s t r u g g l e on t h e s t r a t e g i c H o r n o f A f r i c a h a s l e d t h e U.S. t o p r o p o s e arms s u p p l i e s , i n r e t u r n f o r t h e r i g h t t o use n a v a l and a i r f a c i l i t i e s i n Kenya and S o m a l i a d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e two c o u n t r i e s a r e 4 0 b i t t e r e n e m i e s \" . George W. S h e p h e r d u s e d a p o l i t i c a l economy model c a l l e d ' t r i b u t e s y s t e m ' t o b e s t e x p l a i n arms d e a l s between t h e s u p e r p o w e r s a n d t h e I n d i a n O c e a n l i t t o r a l s . The t r i b u t e s y s t e m i s b a s e d on t h e a n c i e n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e s t r o n g p r o t e c t t h e weak f o r a p r i c e . \"These t r i b u t e s y s t e m s c o n s i s t o f an arms t r a n s f e r and s t r a t e g i c p o l i c y on t h e one hand and a t r a d e and r e s o u r c e s p o l i c y on t h e o t h e r \" . 4 3 I n o r d e r t o a n a l y s e a l l a s p e c t s o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t h e r o l e o f t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s o f t h e 4 x D e f e n s e M o n i t o r . J a n u a r y 1979. Quoted i n S h e p h e r d , G. W., \" D e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n P r o p o s a l s f o r t h e I n d i a n Ocean,\" i n The I n d i a n Ocean i n G l o b a l P o l i t i c s . L a r r y Bowman and I a n C l a r k , e d s . ( C o l o r a d o : W e s t v i e w P r e s s , 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 244. 4 2 W a l t e r I s a a c s o n , \"Arming t h e W o r l d , \" Time, (26 O c t o b e r 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 32. 4 3 S h e p h e r d , \" D e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n P r o p o s a l s , \" p. 228. l i t t o r a l s t a t e s i n t h e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n p r o c e s s s h o u l d be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . The r e d u c t i o n o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y o n l y t o t h e c o m p e t i t i v e d e p l o y m e n t o f n a v a l f o r c e s , i s o l a t i n g i t f r o m arms d e a l s and m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e s , i s d e l i b e r a t e . I n s u c h an a n a l y s i s t h e blame f o r t h e e s c a l a t i n g arms r a c e and m i l i t a r i z a -t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean can s o l e l y be a t t r i b u t e d t o e x t e r n a l p o w e r s . To be s u r e , arms d e a l s and m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e s a r e n o t s i m p l y one-way p r o c e s s e s , n o r a r e l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s mere p a s s i v e r e c i p i e n t s o f arms t r a n s f e r s by t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . The arms d e a l s and m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e s s e r v e t h e p o l i t i c a l and s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s o f t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s who a c t as l o c a l a g e n t s o f t h e exchange s y s t e m o f t h e arms/goods t r a d e . The f a c t t h a t r u l i n g e l i t e s i n most c o u n t r i e s o f t h e r e g i o n have t o r e l y on s u p p o r t f r o m t h e s u p e r p o w e r s f o r t h e i r own e x i s -t e n c e p r o v i d e s a c o n v e n i e n t c l i m a t e f o r s u p e r p o w e r manoeuvres. I n many c a s e s t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s o f t h e l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s l a c k t h e b r o a d s u p p o r t o f t h e p e o p l e . They r e p r e s e n t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y and, hence, c o n s t a n t l y f a c e c h a l l e n g e s f r o m t h e i r own p o p u l a t i o n . I t i s a f a c t t h a t most s t a t e s a r e n a k e d l y r e p r e s s i v e and m a i n t a i n a w i d e -s p r e a d , r e p r e s s i v e s t a t e m a c h i n e . B e c a u s e o f t h e i n h e r e n t w i d e -n e s s o f t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s , t h e y t e n d t o depend on o u t s i d e powers f o r p r o t e c t i o n f r o m t h e i r own p o p u l a t i o n . They a r e r e a d y t o p l a y t h e r o l e o f p r o x y f o r a s u p e r p o w e r i n exchange f o r arms and s u p p o r t w h i c h a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r them t o s t a y i n power. Even s t a t e s w i t h an a p p a r e n t d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c a l s e t up a r e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h m a s s i v e p r o b l e m s i n p r o v i d i n g t h e b a s i c needs o f t h e p e o p l e . B e c a u s e t h e y a r e c a u g h t up i n t h e b a r r i e r s o f u n d e r -d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e r u l e r s o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s have l i t t l e s u c c e s s i n e f f e c t i v e l y a d d r e s s i n g t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c demands g e n e r a t e d by r a p i d s o c i a l change. The p e r p e t u a t i o n o f u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e economy and t h e e l i t i s t n a t u r e o f t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t e n f r u s t r a t e t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e e m e r g i n g s o c i a l f o r c e s . As t h e e x i s t i n g s y s t e m , by and l a r g e , i d e n t i f i e s t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s , t h e y a r e n o t e a g e r t o t a k e s t e p s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s i n t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c o r d e r s o as t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e masses. T h e r e f o r e , t h e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , t h o u g h a p p a r e n t l y d e m o c r a t i c , l a c k s l e g i t i m a c y o r autonomy o v e r t h e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s o f t h e c o u n t r y . When t h e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m i s i n c a p a b l e o f accommodating emergent s o c i a l f o r c e s , t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s t o v i o l e n t p o l i t i c a l p r o t e s t i s g r e a t . I n s u c h a s i t u a t i o n , t h o u g h t h e y a r e v e h e m e n t l y o p p o s e d t o t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e r e g i o n i n p r i n c i p l e , t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s t h e m s e l v e s seek s u p p o r t and p r o t e c t i o n f r o m s u p e r p o w e r s . S r i L a n k a , f o r i n s t a n c e , w h i c h f i r s t p u t f o r w a r d t h e I n d i a n Ocean Pe a c e Zone P r o p o s a l a t t h e N o n - A l i g n e d Summit a t L u s a k a i n September 1970, r e q u e s t e d and s o u g h t m i l i t a r y a i d f r o m b o t h s u p e r p o w e r s and o t h e r o u t s i d e powers t o s u p p r e s s t h e u p r i s i n g o f y o u t h s i n 1971 w h i c h was e x c l u s i v e l y l o c a l i n o r i g i n . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between arms d e a l s and p o l i t i c a l c o r r u p t i o n i s v e r y c l o s e . The r u l e r s t h e m s e l v e s o r t h e i r c l o s e a s s o c i a t e s who a c t as l o c a l a g e n t s o f t h e arms d e a l e r s b e n e f i t e n o r m o u s l y f r o m s u c h d e a l s i n t h e f o r m o f k i c k - b a c k s and c o m m i s s i o n s . As K. Subrahmanyam, D i r e c t o r o f t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r D e f e n c e S t u d i e s and A n a l y s i s i n New D e l h i , s t a t e d , \" t h e y ( r u l i n g e l i t e s ) i n v e s t 213 h e a v i l y i n armament p u r c h a s e w h i c h r e s u l t s i n c l o s e t i e - u p s w i t h m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l p o w e r s , a n d a l s o p e r h a p s i n s i z e a b l e k i c k - b a c k s \" . 4 4 Most arms d e a l s o f m i l i t a r y i n d u s t r i a l c o m p l e x e s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l w o r l d and t h e t h i r d w o r l d a r e more s e c r e t t h a n n o r m a l c o m m e r c i a l d e a l s ; t h e y p r o v i d e most l u c r a t i v e c h a n n e l s f o r p o l i t i c a l c o r r u p t i o n . Once i n v o l v e d i n them, t h e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f murky d e a l s i s so g r e a t t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o g e t out o f them. I t i s n o t a l w a y s t r u e t h a t t h e s u p e r p o w e r s m a n i p u l a t e I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s f o r t h e i r own a d v a n t a g e . I n some c a s e s t h e s u p e r -powers a r e c a u g h t up i n t h e r i v a l r i e s o f t h e i r c l i e n t s t a t e s w h i c h a r e b a s i c a l l y o f l o c a l o r i g i n . The l i t t o r a l s t a t e s seek p r o t e c t i o n f r o m t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n s i t u a t i o n s o f r e g i o n a l p o l i t i -c a l c o n f l i c t a n d t h e s u p e r p o w e r s a c t a s r e s t r a i n i n g f o r c e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , most I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s a r e b a s i c a l l y m u l t i - e t h n i c s o c i e t i e s and e t h n i c t e n s i o n between d i f f e r e n t c o m m u n i t i e s i s v e r y h i g h . I n d e e d , t h e r e c e n t h i s t o r y o f many I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s i s r e p l e t e w i t h r e c o r d s o f v i o l e n t communal c l a s h e s . E x t r a -t e r r i t o r i a l l o y a l t i e s o f t h e e t h n i c c o m m u n i t i e s p r o v i d e room f o r n e i g h b o u r i n g s t a t e s t o meddle i n t h e a f f a i r s o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . A g a i n , S r i L a n k a i s an e x a m p l e . The s e p a r a t i s t t e n d e n c i e s b a s e d on e t h n i c l i n e s o f t e n f l a r e up i n p r o l o n g e d v i o l e n t a r m e d s t r u g g l e s . They o f t e n g e t s u p p o r t and p r o t e c t i o n f r o m a n o t h e r s o i l . I n s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s weaker s t a t e s t e n d t o seek r e f u g e i n a s u p e r p o w e r a g a i n s t t h e t h r e a t o f a r e g i o n a l power. 4 4 K . Subrahmanyam, I n d i a n S e c u r i t y P e r s p e c t i v e s , (New D e l h i : ABC P u b l i s h i n g House, 19 8 2 ) , p.. 33. 214 As t h e t e r m \" superpower n a v a l r i v a l r y \" i s d e f i n e d b r o a d l y t o i n c l u d e a l l i t s b e a r i n g s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a n a l y s e t h e r o l e o f t h e I n d i a n O c e a n s t a t e s a n d t h e s y m m e t r y a n d a s y m m e t r y o f i n t e r e s t s between t h e s u p e r p o w e r s and t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s o f t h e s e s t a t e s . I n t h e words, i t i s i n a c c u r a t e t o v i e w s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y as j u s t a t h i n g i m p o s e d f r o m above by t h e s u p e r p o w e r s on t h e r e g i o n . The e q u a t i o n o f how a l o c a l c o n f l i c t and r e g i o n a l s u p e r p o w e r - l i n k l e d t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f n a v a l d i p l o m a c y / c o m p e t i t i v e n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t was d r a m a t i c a l l y i l l u s t r a t e d d u r i n g t h e I n d o - P a k i s t a n War i n 1971. Indo-Pakistan War i n 1971 and the Superpower Naval Deployment The s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t i n t h e Bay o f B e n g a l d u r i n g t h e I n d o - P a k i s t a n War r e v e a l e d t h a t a new e r a o f n a v a l p o l i t i c s had been r e a c h e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n o r d e r t o have a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f t h e p r o c e s s , i t i s u s e f u l , f i r s t l y , t o p r e s e n t t h e sequence o f e v e n t s . When war b r o k e o u t t h e r e were t h r e e b l u e w a t e r n a v i e s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean - B r i t i s h , S o v i e t , and A m e r i c a n . B r i t i s h n a v a l c o n t i n g e n t s were t h e l a r g e s t , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e a t t a c k c a r r i e r E a g l e , t h e commando C a r r i e r A l b i o n , and a t l e a s t s i x d e s t r o y e r s and e s c o r t s . J As t h e B r i t i s h t o o k a n e u t r a l s t a n d i n t h e war and t h e B r i t i s h n a v a l p r e s e n c e h a d n o t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e c r i s i s i n t h e s u b - c o n t i n e n t , t h e y c o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d a d e c i s i v e f a c t o r i n t h e power e q u a t i o n . The S o v i e t and A m e r i c a n n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was 4 5 J a m e s M. M c C o n n e l l and Anne M. K e l l y , \"Superpower N a v a l D i p l o m a c y i n t h e I n d o - P a k i s t a n C r i s i s \" i n S o v i e t N a v a l D e v e l o p - ments : C a p a b i l i t y and C o n t e x t , M i c h a e l M c cGwire, ed. (New Y o r k : P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 443. 215 n o r m a l a t t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e war. The U n i t e d S t a t e s had two d e s t r o y e r s and a s e a p l a n e t e n d e r a t B a h r a i n . The S o v i e t U n i o n had a d e s t r o y e r , a c o n v e n t i o n a l a t t a c k s u b m a r i n e , a minesweeper and a l a n d i n g s h i p i n t h e Bay o f B e n g a l - t h e d e s t r o y e r and t h e m inesweeper had a l m o s t ended t h e i r s i x - m o n t h d e p l o y m e n t r o t a t i o n . As t h e y w e r e l e a v i n g t h e I n d i a n O c e a n , r e l i e f c o n t i n g e n t s , c o n s i s t i n g o f a d e s t r o y e r e q u i p p e d w i t h SAM m i s s i l e s a n d a m inesweeper, c r o s s e d t h e S t r a i t o f M a l a c c a t o r e p l a c e them on t h e 5 t h December. I n v i e w o f t h e e s c a l a t i n g c r i s i s i n t h e I n d i a n s u b - c o n t i n e n t , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n u s e d r o u t i n e r o t a t i o n t o r e i n f o r -ce h e r f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean \" c o n s i s t i n g o f a v a r i e t y o f p l a t f o r m s f o r c o - o r d i n a t e d a n t i - c a r r i e r o p e r a t i o n s a n d s e l f 4 6 p r o t e c t i o n \" . D The U.S. r e a c t i o n came on t h e 1 0 t h December i n t h e f o r m o f Task F o r c e 74, c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e n u c l e a r - p o w e r e d a t t a c k c a r r i e r E n t e r p r i s e , t h e h e l i c o p t e r c a r r i e r T r i p o l i , t h r e e g u i d e d m i s s i l e e s c o r t s , f o u r d e s t r o y e r s and a n u c l e a r a t t a c k s u b m a r i n e . T h e s e s h i p s t o o k p o s i t i o n o f f S i n g a p o r e . The S o v i e t U n i o n r e s p o n d e d q u i c k l y and s e n t a n o t h e r a n t i - c a r r i e r t a s k f o r c e f r o m t h e P a c i f i c F l e e t s e v e r a l d a y s a f t e r E n t e r p r i s e l e f t Y a n k e e S t a t i o n t o f o r m Task F o r c e 7 4 . 4 7 Though i t was o f f i c i a l l y p r o f e s s e d by t h e U.S. a u t h o r i t i e s , e v a c u a t i o n o f f o r e i g n e r s was n o t t h e m i s s i o n f o r w h i c h Task F o r c e 74 was f o r m e d . I t i s h i g h l y u n l i k e l y t h a t S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t was t h e main t a r g e t . I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e U.S. move was p r o m p t e d 4 6 I b i d . , p. 444 4 7 T h e \"Soviet N a v a l Task F o r c e , f i r s t o b s e r v e d i n t h e S t r a i t o f T s u s h i m a on t h e 1 5 t h , i n c l u d e d a K r e s t a SSM c r u i s e r , a K a s h i n SAM d e s t r o y e r , and a p a i r o f s u b m a r i n e s , p r e s u m a b l y one w i t h and one w i t h o u t SSMs. I b i d . 216 by t h e r e i n f o r c e d S o v i e t n a v a l p r e s e n c e and t h e A m e r i c a n s t o o k c a r e n o t t o g i v e t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t h e p r i v i l e g e o f an u n c h e c k e d g r e e n l i g h t . As M c C o n n e l l and K e l l y have p o i n t e d o u t \" t h e Task F o r c e 74 was f o r m e d t o o l a t e t o be a r e a c t i o n t o t h e s m a l l S o v i e t r e l i e f f o r c e w h i c h f o r t u i t o u s l y a r r i v e d on 5 December and i t p r e c e d e d a l l t h e o t h e r S o v i e t u n i t s i n r e a c h i n g t h e I n d i a n 4 8 Ocean\". \u00C2\u00B0 The t a r g e t seemed t o be I n d i a . I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e U.S. i n t e n d e d t o show i t s n a v a l m u s c l e t o l i m i t I n d i a n war a i m s . On t h e b a s i s o f C.I.A. r e p o r t s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o p i n e d t h a t I n d i a i n t e n d e d t o e l i m i n a t e P a k i s t a n ' s t a n k a n d a i r f o r c e c a p a b i l i t y , and t o dismember P a k i s t a n . P a k i s t a n had been t h e l o n g s t a n d i n g U.S. a l l y i n t h e s u b - c o n t i n e n t . N i x o n , e s p e c i a l l y , was an o l d f r i e n d o f P a k i s t a n ' s and h i s p r o - P a k i s t a n i t i l t was w e l l d o c u m e n t e d . I t became p u b l i c t h a t K i s s i n g e r w a r n e d i n D e c e m b e r 1971 a t t h e W a s h i n g t o n S p e c i a l A c t i o n G r o u p (WSAG) m e e t i n g t h a t he was \" g e t t i n g h e l l e v e r y h a l f h o u r f r o m t h e 4 Q P r e s i d e n t t h a t we a r e n o t b e i n g t o u g h enough on I n d i a \" . ^ The U.S. r o l e d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s was v e r y c o n t r o v e r s i a l and was s u b j e -c t e d t o s e v e r e c r i t i c i s m s . C h r i s t o p h e r Van H o l l e n w r i t e s , The N i x o n - K i s s i n g e r g e o - p o l i t i c a l a p p r o a c h t o S o u t h A s i a was f l a w e d b o t h i n c o n c e p t i o n a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . By a t t e m p t i n g t o r e s o l v e an e s s e n t i a l l y r e g i o n a l d i s p u t e t h r o u g h g l o b a l g e o p o l i t i c s , t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d h i s N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y A d v i s o r d e - e m p h a s i z e d o r m i s i n t e r p r e t t e d t h e p o l i t i c a l d y n a m i c s i n t h e s u b - c o n t i n e n t and e x a g g e r a t e d t h e r o l e and i n f l u e n c e o f t h e m a j o r e x t e r n a l p o w e r s . 4 8 I b i d . , p. 445. 4 9 Q u o t e d i n C h r i s t o p h e r Van H o l l e n , \"The T i l t P o l i c y R e v i s i t e d : N i x o n - K i s s i n g e r G e o p o l i t i c s and S o u t h A s i a , \" A s i a n S u r v e y , XX:IV ( A p r i l 1 9 8 0 ) , p. 229. 5 0 I b i d . , p.255. 217 The U.S. a c t i o n i n s e n d i n g t h e E n t e r p r i s e t o t h e Bay o f B e n g a l , was s i g n i f i c a n t as t h e f i r s t m a j o r q u a s i - o p e r a t i o n a l d e p loyment o f a m a j o r n a v a l f o r c e t o t h e a r e a i n a r e g i o n a l c r i s i s s c e n a r i o . Whether t h e U.S. Task F o r c e had any s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t on t h e war i s h i g h l y d o u b t f u l b u t I n d i a v i e w e d i t as an a p p l i c a t i o n o f gun-b o a t d i p l o m a c y by a s u p e r p o w e r t o a l o c a l c r i s i s . The l a r g e d e p l o y m e n t o f S o v i e t n a v a l f o r c e s d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d c l e a r l y t h a t S o v i e t n a v a l power was a f a c t o r t o be r e c k o n e d w i t h i n any s t r a t e g i c c a l c u l a t i o n s i n t h e I n d a i n Ocean. The S o v i e t s r e s p o n d e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n p r o m p t l y by s e n d i n g an a d d i t i o n a l n a v a l f o r c e t o shadow t h e U.S. n a v a l f o r c e s . T h i s S o v i e t c o u n t e r - d e p l o y m e n t f o r c e r e m a i n e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean u n t i l t h e U.S. T a s k F o r c e d e p a r t e d t h e a r e a , d e p r i v i n g one s u p e r p o w e r o f t h e monopoly o f n a v a l power. The i m p a c t o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t on t h e l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s i s i m p o r t a n t . The p e r c e p t i o n t h a t n u c l e a r weapons were u s e d t o t h r e a t e n I n d i a s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e h a n d s o f t h o s e who a d v o c a t e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a m i l i t a r y n u c l e a r c a p a b i l i t y by I n d i a . The f a c t t h a t t h e t h r e a t came f r o m t h e s e a was d u l y n o t e d by I n d i a n s t r a t e g i s t s . H e n c e f o r t h , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f I n d i a n n a v a l power r e c e i v e d h i g h p r i o r i t y . I n g e n e r a l , t h e n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s b r o u g h t home t o t h e l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s more f o r c e f u l l y t h e d a n g e r s o f n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e I n d i a n Ocean zone o f p e a c e i d e a p u t f o r w a r d by S r i L a n k a a c q u i r e d momentum and s t r e n g t h e n e d r e g i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e p r o p o s a l . 218 S r i Lankan Security Perceptions of Superpower Naval Rivalry S r i L a nkan r e s p o n s e s t o w a r d s power p o l i t i c s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, p a r t i c u l a r l y t o s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y , t o o k a more c o h e r e n t f o r m o n l y a f t e r 1970 a l t h o u g h S r i L a n k a h a d b e e n s e n s i t i v e t o t h e p o l i t i c a l and m i l i t a r y - s t r a t e g i c d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t had t a k e n p l a c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean s i n c e h e r i n d e p e n d e n c e and r e s p o n d e d t o them f r o m t i m e t o t i m e i n an ad hoc manner. A f t e r 1970, S r i L a n k a came f o r w a r d t o p l a y a more p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n o r g a n i z i n g and p r e s e n t i n g l i t t o r a l c o n c e r n s and r e s p o n s e s t o s u p e r p o w e r r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. D e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e e a r l y 197 0s b r o u g h t home t o S r i Lankan p o l i c y - m a k e r s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p u r s u i n g a w e l l - d e f i n e d I n d i a n Ocean p o l i c y f o r t h e s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s o f t h e c o u n t r y . F i r s t , t h e n a v a l a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n c r e a s e d a t a r a p i d p a ce a f t e r 1970. T h e i r c o m p e t i t i o n and i t s d i v e r s e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s became a m a j o r e l e m e n t i n t h e p o w e r p o l i t i c s o f t h e r e g i o n . S r i L a n k a c o u l d n o t i g n o r e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s b e c a u s e o f h e r s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n . S e c o n d , t h e S o u t h A s i a n b a l a n c e o f p o w e r c h a n g e d d r a s t i c a l l y i n 1971 and I n d i a emerged as t h e p r e p o n d e r a n t power i n S o u t h A s i a as a r e s u l t o f t h e I n d o - P a k i s t an War. The s u b j e c t i v e f a c t o r t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o S r i L a n k a ' s p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n I n d i a n Ocean p o l i t i c s a f t e r 1970 was t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d F r o n t G o v e r n m e n t u n d e r t h e p r e m i e r s h i p o f M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e l o w - p r o f i l e p o l i c y o f t h e p r e v i o u s g o v e r n m e n t s , M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e was more e a g e r t o p l a y a p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s . Even d u r i n g h e r f i r s t 219 t e r m as p r e m i e r f r o m 1960-65, she had p l a y e d a l e a d i n g r o l e a t N o n - A l i g n e d Summit M e e t i n g s i n B e l g r a d e i n 1961, and e s p e c i a l l y i n C a i r o i n 1964, where she p r o p o s e d a n u c l e a r - f r e e zone i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and r e g i s t e r e d h e r p r o t e s t a t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f b a s e s by e x t r a n e o u s powers t h e r e . More e x p e r i e n c e d i n 1970, Mrs. B a n d a r a n a i k e was r e a d y t o p l a y an even more p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e o n - g o i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n r e g i o n . I n o r d e r t o p l a c e S r i L ankan p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e n a v a l compe-t i t i o n o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f t e r 1970 i n i t s p r o p e r p e r s p e c t i v e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t r a c e t h e f a c t o r s and c o n d i t i o n s t h a t i n f l u e n c e d t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y o f S r i L a n k a i n t h e 1970s. U r m i l a P h a d n i s s t a t e s t h a t \"as i n t h e c a s e o f any o t h e r c o u n t r y , c h a n g i n g i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , as w e l l as t h e c h a r a c t e r and p e r s o n a l i t y o f i t s d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g have i n f l u e -n e e d S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y p e r s p e c t i v e s \" . Two b r o a d f a c t o r s t h a t s h a p e d S r i L ankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y p e r s p e c t i v e s c a n be i d e n t i f i e d i n t h i s c o n t e x t : f i r s t , t h e g e n e r a l p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d F r o n t Government and t h e b a l a n c e o f f o r c e s o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n t h e Government; n e x t , t h e c h a n g i n g geo-p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e S o u t h A s i a n g e o - p o l i t i c a l f ramework, i n w h i c h S r i L a n k a p e r c e i v e d h e r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s . D J - U r m i l a P h a d n i s , \" F o r e i g n S e v e n t i e s , \" The I n s t i t u t e f o r J o u r n a l , V I I I : 1 ( J u l y - S e p t e m b e r , P o l i c y i n S r i L a n k a i n t h e D e f e n c e S t u d i e s and A n a l y s i s 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 93 220 Internal P o l i t i c a l Processes and th e i r Impact on Foreign Policy Outputs after 1970 i n S r i Lanka. I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n t e r n a l i n p u t s o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y f o r m a t i o n u n d e r Mrs. B a n d a r a n a i k e we s h o u l d pay a t t e n t i o n , f i r s t o f a l l , t o t h e e l e c t i o n campaign o f t h e U n i t e d F r o n t i n 1970. The U n i t e d F r o n t c a r r i e d on a c o n s p i c u o u s l e f t - o r i e n t e d e l e c t i o n campaign and won a r e s o u n d i n g v i c t o r y w i t h a t w o - t h i r d s m a j o r i t y . V e r y v o c i f e r o u s a n t i - c o l o n i a l , a n t i - i m p e r i a l r h e t o r i c was h e a r d v e r y o f t e n f r o m t h e e l e c t i o n p l a t f o r m s o f t h e U n i t e d F r o n t . The p o l i c y o f t h e N a t i o n a l Government was c r i t i c i z e d as b e i n g p r o -i m p e r i a l i s t / p r o - A m e r i c a n , a n d , i n c o n t r a s t , t h e U n i t e d F r o n t p l e d g e d t o f o l l o w a p r o g r e s s i v e f o r e i g n p o l i c y . B a s i c f e a t u r e s o f t h e p r o g r e s s i v e f o r e i g n p o l i c y e n u n c i a t e d by t h e U n i t e d F r o n t i n c l u d e d a c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s U.S. f o r e i g n p o l i c y , an i n d e p e n d e n t s t a n d i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e W o r l d Bank and o t h e r i n t e r -n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s and i n v o l v e m e n t s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e r e g i o n , s u p p o r t t o t h e n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n s t r u g g l e s , and an em p h a s i s on ' S o u t h - S o u t h ' e conomic r e l a t i o n s and t h i r d w o r l d s o l i d a r i t y v i s -a - v i s e c o nomic d o m i n a t i o n by t h e West. I n an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t i n f l u e n c e d t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y p e r s p e c t i v e s o f S r i L a n k a , t h e i m p a c t o f t h e V i e t n a m War s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d . The V i e t n a m War was t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e v e n t t h a t h a d t h e d e e p e s t i m p a c t on S r i L a n k a ' s i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t i n t h e l a t e 1960s. I t g e n e r a t e d a n t i - A m e r i c a n s e n t i m e n t , e s p e c i a l l y among p o l i t i c a l l y a c t i v e y o u t h and r a d i c a l e l e m e n t s . V i e t n a m s o l i d a r i t y m e e t i n g s and r a l l i e s were o r g a n i z e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y and t h e l e a d e r s 221 o f t h e U n i t e d F r o n t were i n v i t e d t o a d d r e s s them. They d i d n o t m i s s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y and a n t i - A m e r i c a n f e e l i n g f i g u r e d l a r g e l y a t t h e s e m e e t i n g s . The p l e d g e by t h e U n i t e d F r o n t i n i t s e l e c t i o n m a n i f e s t o t o r e c o g n i s e t h e P r o v i s i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n a r y Government o f S o u t h V i e t n a m was a c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t t h e V i e t n a m War had on S r i L ankan p o l i t i c s . T h i s a n t i - Y a n k e e s e n t i m e n t s t r e n -g t h e n e d f u r t h e r t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e m i l i t a r y i n v o l v e m e n t s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e r e g i o n . I t i s n o t e a s y t o i d e n t i f y t h e c o m p e t i n g f o r c e s o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n t h e U n i t e d F r o n t Government. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e many f o r c e s o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n t h e government, c o n s t a n t r e a l i g n m e n t s o f f o r c e s and changes i n t h e b a l a n c e o f power i n t h e C o a l i t i o n made t h e t a s k more d i f f i c u l t . The t h r e e p r i m a r y components o f t h e U n i t e d F r o n t C o a l i t i o n - t h e S r i L a n k a Freedom P a r t y ( S L F P ) , t h e La n k a Sama Samaja P a r t y ( L S S P ) , and t h e Communist P a r t y (CP) -had t h e i r own s o i - d i s a n t f o r e i g n p o l i c y p e r c e p t i o n s t h o u g h t h e y w e r e n o t i n v a r i a b l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y . The S L F P , t h e d o m i n a n t p a r t n e r , was a l e f t - o f - c e n t e r p a r t y w i t h s t r o n g p o p u l i s t l e a n i n g s . I t s f o r e i g n p o l i c y t h i n k i n g was c o n d i t i o n e d b y c l a s s i c a l n o n - a l i g n m e n t , a n t i - c o l o n i a l i s m , and v a g u e l y - d e f i n e d t h i r d w o r l d s o l i d a r i t y . The LSSP, w i t h i t s T r o t s k y i t e b a c k g r o u n d , a d v o c a t e d an i n d e p e n d e n t s o c i a l i s t f o r e i g n p o l i c y . By 1970 t h e y were p r e p a r e d t o e n d o r s e n o n - a l i g n m e n t as t h e main p r i n c i p l e o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y r a t h e r t h a n T r o t s k y i t e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m . : The CP a l s o a c c e p t e d a n o n - a l i g n e d f o r e i g n p o l i c y b u t i t s p r o - S o v i e t a t t i t u d e was c l e a r l y a p p a r e n t . I t s n o n - a l i g n m e n t was d i r e c t e d m a i n l y a g a i n s t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e West; t h e S o v i e t U n i o n was r e g a r d e d as a f r i e n d l y f o r c e . The d e c i s i v e e l e m e n t i n t h e 222 f o r e i g n p o l i c y d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s was t h e S L F P . A v e r y s t r o n g p r o - C h i n e s e l o b b y was a c t i v e w i t h i n t h i s p a r t y , e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r t h e U n i t e d F r o n t assumed o f f i c e i n 1970. T h i s l o b b y was l a t e r c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h e p a r t y n e w s p a p e r J a n a v e a a v a a n d c o n s i s t e d o f many i n f l u e n t i a l f i g u r e s i n t h e SLFP p a r l i a m e n t a r y c 9 g r o u p and t h e p a r t y . ^ Under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f C h i n e s e p r o p a g a n d a , t h i s g r o u p was c r i t i c a l o f ' S o v i e t h e g e m o n i s m a n d S o v i e t m a c h i n a t i o n ' i n t h e t h i r d w o r l d . B e c ause t h e p r o - C h i n e s e l o b b y was o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n t h e SLFP, and b e c a u s e some o f i t s members were v e r y c l o s e t o t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r (who was i n c h a r g e o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s ) , t h e i r i n f l u e n c e was e f f e c t i v e l y f e l t i n t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s m e n t i o n e d above, t h e i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e b u r e a u c r a c y o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s s h o u l d a l s o be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . Though t h e g e n e r a l g u i d e l i n e s f o r p o s i t i o n p a p e r s and r e p o r t s were g i v e n by t h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e b u r e a u c r a t s who p r e -p a r e d t h e s e p a p e r s was c o n s i d e r a b l e . T h e r e were many ways i n w h i c h t h e y c o u l d i n f l u e n c e t h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p . I n many i n s t a n c e s t h e y a c t e d as a ' b a l a n c i n g f o r c e ' o r b r a k e t o t h e p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e s . S i n c e t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r , M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e , was p e r s o n a l l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean Peace Zone P r o p o s a l , most o f f i c e r s i n t h e M i n i s t r y j o i n e d i n t h e c h o r u s s u p p o r t i n g t h e c 9 The p r o m i n e n t f i g u r e s o f t h e J a n a v e a a v a g r o u p w e r e S u n e t h r a B a n d a r a n a i k e and Kumar R u p a s i n g h e . D u r i n g t h e hey day o f t h i s g r o u p ( 1 9 7 3 - 1 9 7 5 ) ' i t a t t r a c t e d many r a d i c a l members o f P a r l i a m e n t and p a r t y o f f i c i a l s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e J a n a v e g a y a g r o u p , some v e t e r a n members o f t h e p a r t y , s u c h as R a t n a D e s h a p r i y a S e n a n a y a k e , J u n i o r M i n i s t e r f o r P l a n a n d P l a n I m p l e m e n t a t i o n , were n o t e d f o r t h e i r p r o - C h i n e s e l e a n i n g s . 223 p r o p o s a l . However, some c a r e e r o f f i c e r s i n t h e M i n i s t r y a d v o c a t e d m a i n t a i n i n g g o o d r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e West a n d s t r e s s e d t h e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f a n t a g o n i z i n g t h e W e s t e r n P o w e r s . I n t h e M i n i s t r y t h e y were i d e n t i f i e d as t h e p r o - W e s t e r n l o b b y . A l l t h e s e f o r c e s a f f e c t e d t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y - m a k i n g p r o c e s s i n a number o f ways. I n g e n e r a l , t h e a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t , a n t i -h e g e m o n i c s t a n d was c l e a r l y v i s i b l e . As v a r i e d f o r c e s w e re a c t i v e , t h e mechanism o f b a l a n c i n g e a c h o t h e r was a l s o a p p a r e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e p r o - S o v i e t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e CP ( S . L . ) was b a l a n c e d by t h e s t r o n g p r o - C h i n e s e l o b b y l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e SLFP and v i c e - v e r s a . T h i s h e l p e d S r i L a n k a t o m a i n t a i n a k i n d o f e q u i d i s t a n c e f r o m b o t h s u p e r p o w e r s . Though a n t i - c o l o n i a l r h e t o r i c was l o u d a t t h e t i m e , i t i s wrong t o t h i n k t h a t S r i L a n k a ' s non-a l i g n m e n t p o l i c y was d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e West i n f a v o u r o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . The t e r m ' s u p e r p o w e r hegemonism', w h i c h S r i L a n k a opposed, i n c l u d e d S o v i e t a c t i v i t i e s as w e l l . Geo-Political Framework of S r i Lankan Security Perspectives The o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s m o u l d i n g S r i L ankan r e s p o n s e s t o t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s t h e geo-p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t o f S r i L a n k a ' s s e c u r i t y p e r s p e c t i v e s . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o v i e w S r i L a n k a n p o l i c y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e S o u t h A s i a n s u b - s y s t e m . S e p a r a t e d f r o m I n d i a by a n a r r o w s t r i p o f w a t e r , l e s s t h a n 20 m i l e s i n b r e a d t h , S r i L a n k a i s c l o s e enough t o be i n f l u e n c e d by I n d i a , b u t u n l i k e t h e o t h e r s m a l l s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n w h i c h J J I n t h e f i r s t two y e a r s o f t h e UF government t h e i r i n f l u e n c e was weak. L a t e r on, t h e y g a i n e d s t r e n g t h and by 1975 t h e i r i n f l u e n c e was v e r y g r e a t . a r e g e o g r a p h i c a l l y l i n k e d t o t h e I n d i a n l a n d mass, she i s d i s t a n t enough t o m a i n t a i n h e r own i d e n t i t y . The d i s p a r i t y o f t h e two c o u n t r i e s i n s i z e , p o p u l a t i o n , a n d p o w e r i s q u i t e e n o r m o u s . G e o g r a p h i c a l l y , I n d i a i s about 50 t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n S r i Lanka and h e r p o p u l a t i o n i s about 43 t i m e s l a r g e r . I n a d d i t i o n , where i n d u s t r i a l and n a v a l power a r e c o n c e r n e d , I n d i a o c c u p i e s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t p l a c e i n S o u t h A s i a . I n 1970, t h e I n d i a n Navy was e q u i p p e d w i t h an a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r , t h e V i k r a n t , two l i g h t c r u i s e r s , f o u r s u b m a r i n e s , s i x t e e n d e s t r o y e r s and f r i g a t e s , and s i x m i n e s w e e p e r s . N a v a l a v i a t i o n i n c l u d e d 12 F r e n c h - b u i l t A l i z e a n t i - s u b m a r i n e a i r c r a f t , 30 B r i t i s h - b u i l t Sea Hawk f i g h t e r s , and C A an a s s o r t m e n t o f o t h e r s m a l l s h i p - b a s e d a i r c r a f t . The I n d i a n b l u e - w a t e r n a v a l c a p a b i l i t y c o n t i n u e d t o grow i n t h e 1970s and I n d i a became t h e o n l y n a v a l power o f c o n s e q u e n c e i n t h e r e g i o n . The l o c a t i o n o f T r i n c o m a l e e , on t h e e a s t c o a s t o f S r i L a n k a f a c i n g t h e Bay o f B e n g a l , one o f t h e b e s t n a t u r a l h a r b o u r s i n t h e w o r l d , i s a n o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t e l e m e n t i n t h e g e o - s t r a t e g i c l a n d s c a p e . As K o d i k a r a p o i n t s o u t , \" a l t h o u g h T r i n c o m a l e e no l o n g e r p l a y s a r o l e as a n a v a l b a s e , i t s s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n makes i t a m a t t e r o f much i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n c e r n , and I n d i a w h i c h has no c o m p a r a b l e h a r b o u r on i t s E a s t C o a s t , i s most c o n c e r n e d a b o u t i t s p o t e n t i a l s t a t u s and u s e s \" . 5 5 The I n d i a n i n t e r e s t i n T r i n c o m a l e e seems t o be n e g a t i v e . Her c o n c e r n i s t h a t T r i n c o m a l e e s h o u l d n o t be i n t h e hands o f an I n d i a n a d v e r s a r y . What i s i m p o r t a n t h e r e i s t h e f a c t t h a t S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y t h i n k i n g i s i n f l u e n c e d 5 4 C a p t a i n A.P.S. B i n d r a ( I n d i a n N a v y ) , \"The I n d i a n Ocean as seen by an I n d i a n , \" U.S. N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r o c e e d i n g s , 96:3 (May, 1970) F.N., p. 193. 225 by t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t T r i n c o m a l e e i s v i e w e d by I n d i a n s t r a t e g i s t s as i m p o r t a n t i n I n d i a n s e c u r i t y c a l c u l a t i o n s . The e m p h a s i s on t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e ' s t r a t e g i c u n i t y ' o f S o u t h A s i a by I n d i a n m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i s t s f u r t h e r c o n t r i b u t e s t o S r i L a nkan c o n c e r n s . A . f o r m e r C o m m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f o f t h e I n d i a n Navy, R a v i K a u l , w r o t e i n 1974 t h a t S r i L a n k a i s as i m p o r t a n t s t r a t e g i c a l l y t o I n d i a as E i r e i s t o t h e U n i t e d Kingdom o r T aiwan t o C h i n a ... As l o n g as S r i L a n k a i s f r i e n d l y o r n e u t r a l , I n d i a has n o t h i n g t o w o r r y a b o u t b u t i f t h e r e be any d a n g e r o f t h e i s l a n d f a l l i n g u n d e r t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f a power h o s t i l e t o I n d i a , I n d i a c a n n o t t o l e r a t e s u c h a s i t u a t i o n e n d a n g e r i n g h e r t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y . 5 6 The i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e b i g and t h e s m a l l i n t h e same sub-s y s t e m c o n t a i n s many ' s o f t b e l l i e s ' . I n d i a n s t r a t e g i s t s o f t e n c o m p l a i n t h a t I n d i a g i v e s u n w a n t e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n a n d u ndue i m p o r t a n c e t o h e r s m a l l n e i g h b o u r s and t h a t she n e v e r g e t s any c 7 g r a t i t u d e f o r i t . I t i s n a t u r a l t h a t s m a l l c o u n t r i e s , who l i v e i n t h e shade o f b i g powers, have a p s y c h o l o g i c a l o b s e s s i o n a b o u t b i g - b r o t h e r ' s e x p a n s i o n i s m . The C e n t r a l A m e r i c a n R e p u b l i c s can be \u00C2\u00B0\u00C2\u00B0S.U. K o d i k a r a , F o r e i g n P o l i c y o f S r i L a n k a - A T h i r d W o r l d P e r s p e c t i v e , (New D e l h i : Chanakya P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1 9 8 2 ) , p. 22. 5 6 R a v i K a u l , \"The I n d i a n Ocean : A S t r a t e g i c P o s t u r e f o r I n d i a , \" i n I n d i a n Ocean Power R i v a l r y ; ed. T.T. P o u l o u s e , (New D e l h i : Young A s i a P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 66. 57 On t h i s , see t h e w r i t i n g s o f K. Subrahmanyam. He a s s e r t s t h a t I n d i a , \" w i t h i t s p o p u l a t i o n , s i z e , r e s o u r c e s and i n d u s t r i a l o u t p u t , w i l l be a d o m i n a n t c o u n t r y o f t h e r e g i o n j u s t as t h e U.S., S o v i e t U n i o n and C h i n a happened t o be i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a r e a s \" . He f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t I n d i a ' s \" n e i g h b o u r s w i l l be p r e p a r e d t o g r a n t i t a b i g n a t i o n s t a t u s t o o b t a i n what t h e y want b u t i n a l l o t h e r r e s p e c t s i n s i s t on t r e a t i n g i t as an e q u a l ... T h e r e i s no r e c i p r o c i t y o f commitment between I n d i a and i t s n e i g h b o u r s i n r e g a r d t o e a c h o t h e r ' s s e c u r i t y \" K. Subrhamanyam, I n d i a n S e c u r i t y P e r s p e c t i v e s (New D e l h i : ABC P u b l i s h i n g House, 1982) pp. 211-214. 226 B a n d a r a n a i k e and Mrs G a n d h i , d e s p i t e t h e i r common i d e n t i t y as two women P r i m e m i n i s t e r s , and d e s p i t e p e r f u n c t o r y r e f e r e n c e s t o a s h a r e d h e r i t a g e o f Buddhism i n t h e i r j o i n t communiques, f e a r and s u s p i c i o n loomed l a r g e i n d e a l i n g s between t h e two c o u n t r i e s . The u n e a s y m a r r i a g e between I n d i a and S r i L a n k a was f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e e x i s t e n c e o f c e r t a i n key i s s u e s i n S r i Lankan p o l i t i c s r e g a r d i n g w h i c h I n d i a h o l d s l e v e r a g e . The most i m p o r t a n t among them i s t h e q u e s t i o n o f c i t i z e n s h i p o f t h e T a m i l e s t a t e w o r k e r s o f I n d i a n o r i g i n i n S r i L a n k a . 5 9 Under t h e S i r i m a v o -S h a s t r i Agreement, s i g n e d between I n d i a and S r i L a n k a i n 1964, S r i L a n k a a g r e e d t o g r a n t c i t i z e n s h i p t o 300,000 I n d i a n T a m i l s and I n d i a a g r e e d t o t a k e b a c k 525,000 out o f t h e e s t i m a t e d t o t a l o f 975,000 s u c h p e r s o n s . Though i t was a m a j o r s t e p i n r e s o l v i n g t h e w r a n g l e s between t h e two c o u n t r i e s , t h e Agreement l e f t many p o i n t s o f d i s c o r d . F i r s t o f a l l , 150,000 p e r s o n s were n o t d e a l t w i t h by t h e Agreement. F u r t h e r , t h e p r o c e s s o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e Agreement d i d n o t p r o c e e d s m o o t h l y due t o numerous p o l i t i c a l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i f f i c u l t i e s . E v e n i n 1970 t h e i s s u e o f c i t i z e n s h i p and p r o b l e m s i n i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e Agreement had become a m a j o r s u b j e c t i n I n d o - S r i L ankan n e g o t i a t i o n s . The o t h e r i m p o r t a n t i s s u e t h a t emerged i n I n d o - S r i L ankan r e l a t i o n s i n t h e e a r l y 1970s was t h e d e m a r c a t i o n o f t h e m a r i t i m e 5 9 T h e C i t i z e n s h i p A c t (No. 3) o f 1949 d e f i n e d t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r c i t i z e n s h i p o f S r i L a n k a and d e b a r r e d t h e T a m i l e s t a t e w o r k e r s who came r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y t o work on p l a n t a t i o n s f r o m b e i n g c i t i z e n s o f S r i L a n k a . But i t l e f t t h e q u e s t i o n u n r e s o l v e d . I n t h e e a r l y p o s t - i n d e p e n d e n c e p e r i o d , f i r s t D u d l e y Senanayake and t h e n S i r John K o t e l a w e l a h a d a s e r i e s o f d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h I n d i a t o come t o an agreement o v e r t h i s i s s u e . F i n a l l y , S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e was a b l e t o r e a c h an a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e t h e n I n d i a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r , L a i B a h a d u r S h a s t r i , i n 1964 t o s o l v e t h i s p r o b l e m . 228 adduced as a c a s e i n p o i n t . I n some r e s p e c t s , however, t h e S o u t h A s i a n s i t u a t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t . Though I n d i a i s a p r e p o n d e r a n t power i n S o u t h A s i a she i s n o t a g r e a t power. T h e r e f o r e , h e r p o s i t i o n i s n o t s e c u r e and she f e a r s t h a t t h e o t h e r s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n w i l l c o n d u c t t h e i r e x t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s so as t o harm I n d i a n s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s . T h e r e f o r e , power r e l a t i o n s between t h e medium power and t h e s m a l l powers i n S o u t h A s i a a r e g o v e r n e d by f e e l i n g s o f s u s p i c i o n and f e a r . S u s p i c i o n and f e a r i n v o l v e , f i r s t l y , s u s p i c i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e medium power t h a t s m a l l s t a t e s w i l l b r i n g e x t r a - r e g i o n a l powers i n t o t h e power b a l a n c e o f t h e a r e a , and, s e c o n d l y a p p r e h e n s i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e s m a l l s t a t e s o f b e i n g d o m i n a t e d by t h e medium power. T h i s c r e a t e s an i n e v i t a b l e s e n s e o f i n s e c u r i t y among b o t h medium a n d s m a l l s t a t e s . T h e r e f o r e , as Cohen has p o i n t e d o u t , t h e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m o f S o u t h A s i a i s b a s i c a l l y a s y s t e m o f i n s e c u r i t y . 5 8 As has been shown e a r l i e r ( c h a p t e r I I ) , t h e f e a r o f ' b i g -b r o t h e r ' was one o f t h e main e l e m e n t s o f t h e d e f e n c e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e f i r s t UNP r e g i m e o f 1948-56. A f t e r S.W.R.D. B a n d a r a n a i k e came t o power i n 1956, t h i s f e a r p s y c h o s i s a p p e a r e d t o have f a d e d away. As I n d i a e x t e n d e d h e r d e f e n c e p e r i m e t e r s c o n c o m i t a n t w i t h t h e g r o w t h o f h e r m i l i t a r y - i n d u s t r i a l p o t e n t i a l , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e 1970s, S r i L a n k a a g a i n began t o f e e l t h e ' I n d i a n g i a n t ' was l y i n g a s t r i d e n o r t h o f S r i L a n k a . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f Mrs. B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s s e c o n d p r e m i e r s h i p , w h i c h b e g a n i n 1 9 7 0 , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two c o u n t r i e s a p p e a r e d v e r y smooth. H o w e v e r , d e s p i t e e x c e l l e n t p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n M r s 5 8 C i t e d i n G.S. B h a r g a v e , S o u t h A s i a n S e c u r i t y A f t e r A f g h a n i s t a n , ( T o r o n t o : L e x i n g t o n B o o k s , 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 187. 227 b o u n d a r y between t h e two c o u n t r i e s i n t h e P a l k S t r a i t and t h e G u l f o f Mannar. I n v i e w o f t h e g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e t e r r i t o r i a l s e a and c o n t i g u o u s zone a f t e r t h e UNCLOS I I C o n v e n t i o n i n 1958, t h e d e m a r c a t i o n o f t h e m a r i t i m e b o u n d a r y between t n e two c o u n t r i e s o c c u p i e d a h i g h p r i o r i t y i n t h e agenda o f I n d o - S r i Lankan d e a l i n g s . I n 1967 b o t h c o u n t r i e s e x t e n d e d t h e i r t e r r i t o r i a l w a t e r s t o 12 n a u t i c a l m i l e s , o v e r l a p p i n g e a c h o t h e r i n t h e P a l k S t r a i t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e e x t e n s i o n o f c o n t i g u o u s z o n e s demanded a m u t u a l l y a c c e p t e d b o u n d a r y t o a v o i d a c l a s h o f i n t e r e s t s . ^ 0 The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e q u i t e a p p a r e n t e t h n i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b etween S r i Lankan T a m i l s , who a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d m a i n l y i n t h e N o r t h and t h e E a s t o f t h e i s l a n d , and t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n S o u t h I n d i a , must be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n any a n a l y s i s o f t h e b r o a d g e o - p o l i t i c a l c a n v a s on w h i c h t h e p a t t e r n o f b e h a v i o u r o f b o t h c o u n t r i e s i s p a i n t e d . The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o u l d be v i e w e d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f w o r s e n i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e two p r i n c i p a l c o m m u n i t i e s i n S r i L a n k a - t h e S i n h a l e s e and t h e T a m i l s . The h i s t o r y o f p o s t - i n d e p e n d e n t S r i L a n k a was m a r r e d b y s p o r a d i c , v i o l e n t communal c l a s h e s . The f a i l u r e o f t h e p o s t - i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e t o i n t e g r a t e p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e S r i L a n k a n T a m i l s i n t o t h e m a i n s t r e a m o f p o l i t i c s k e p t b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s s u s p i c i o u s o f e a c h o t h e r . \"The T a m i l s f e e l t h a t t h e y may be swamped by t h e S i n h a l e s e and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e T a m i l s i n S o u t h I n d i a a n d S r i L a n k a g r o s s l y ^\u00C2\u00B0The a c t u a l i s s u e was t h e o w n e r s h i p o f an o v a l - s h a p e d i s l a n d w i t h a c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f t h r e e m i l e s named K a c h c h a t i v u i s l a n d , s i t u a t e d 10.5 m i l e s o f f S r i L a n k a and 12.5 m i l e s f r o m I n d i a . 229 outnumber t h e S i n h a l e s e i s se e n by t h e l a t t e r as a p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t t o t h e i r e x i s t e n c e \" . 6 1 S r i Lanka f e a r s t h a t a l l e g e d e x t r a - t e r r i t o r i a l l o y a l t i e s o f t h e T a m i l s i n S r i L a n k a p r o v i d e l e v e r a g e t o I n d i a t o meddle i n S r i Lankan a f f a i r s and t h a t t h e T a m i l community i n S r i L a n k a w o u l d a c t as t h e T r o j a n h o r s e . There were many c r o s s - c u r r e n t s b e n e a t h t h e t r a n q u i l s u r f a c e o f I n d o - S r i L ankan r e l a t i o n s i n t h e 1970s. On t h e p a r t o f I n d i a t h e s u s p i c i o n was t h a t S r i L a n k a w o u l d become o r was p r o n e t o become a s o u t h e r n l i n k o f an a n t i - I n d i a n n e t w o r k e n c i r c l i n g I n d i a . Soon a f t e r M r s . I n d i r a G a n d h i v i s i t e d S r i L a n k a i n 1973, t o d i s c u s s many u n r e s o l v e d i s s u e s e x i s t i n g between t h e two c o u n -t r i e s , D e n z i l P e i r i s r e p o r t e d t h e c l i m a t e as f o l l o w s : T h e r e was a g h o s t l y Siamese t w i n a t t h e I n d o - S r i L a n k a t a l k s , one t h a t has h a u n t e d a l l p r e v i o u s e n c o u n t e r s a t e v e r y l e v e l . T h i s i s t h e l i n k e d body o f S r i L a n k a ' s f e a r o f d o m i n a t i o n and e x p a n s i o n by I n d i a and t h e I n d i a n s u s p i c i o n t h a t S r i L a n k a s e e k s a l i g n m e n t s , as a c o u n t e r v a i l i n g f o r c e t o i t s g i a n t n e i g h b o u r , w i t h p o w e r s u n f r i e n d l y t o I n d i a . 6 2 B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , t w o g e n e r a l g u i d e l i n e s a r e v i s i b l e i n S r i Lankan b e h a v i o u r w i t h r e g a r d t o I n d i a . F i r s t , t h e r e was t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t S r i L a n k a c a n n o t a f f o r d t o a n t a g o n i z e I n d i a . Second, m o t i v a t e d by t h e f e a r syndrome, S r i L a n k a t r i e d t o b u i l d s a f e g u a r d s i n t h e f o r m o f c o u n t e r v a i l i n g f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t f r o m t h e ' b i g b r o t h e r ' . Thus t h e C o l o m b o - B e i j i n g a x i s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e C o l o m b o - K a r a c h i a x i s , a c q u i r e d 6 1D.M. P r a s a d , \" I n d o - S r i L a n k a R e l a t i o n s : M u t u a l P r o b l e m s and Common A p p r o a c h e s , \" i n S t u d i e s i n I n d i a ' s F o r e i g n P o l i c y , S u r e n d r a C h o p r a , ed. ( A m r i t s a r : Guru Nanak Dev U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 297. 6 2 F a r E a s t e r n E c o n omic R e v i e w , May 21, 1973, p. 26. 230 i m p o r t a n c e i n S r i Lankan s t r a t e g y . S r i L a n k a ' s s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a r e c e i v e d h i g h i m p o r t a n c e i n t h i s c o n t e x t . ^ S r i L a n k a ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h e 1971 I n d o - P a k i s t a n war was a c l e a r i l l u s -t r a t i o n o f h e r a t t e m p t t o m a i n t a i n a b a l a n c e o f power i n t h e fi 4 S o u t h A s i a n p o l i t i c a l s e t - u p . The S r i L ankan r e s p o n s e t o s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y s h o u l d be v i e w e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e S o u t h A s i a n g e o - p o l i t i c a l f r a m e -work. A c c o r d i n g l y , S r i L ankan p o l i c y w i t h r e s p e c t t o s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y was i n t e n d e d t o d e a l w i t h t w o c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . F i r s t , S r i L a n k a c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e e s c a l a t i o n o f t h i s r i v a l r y , e s p e c i a l l y c o m p e t i t i v e n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t , was a m a t t e r o f g r a v e c o n c e r n f o r a s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d c o u n t r y whose h i s t o r y was r e p l e t e w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f f a l l i n g p r e y t o g r e a t p o w e r r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Second, S r i L a n k a was c o n c e r n e d w i t h how t o d e a l w i t h I n d i a , w h i c h was i n c r e a s i n g l y b e c o m i n g a b l u e w a t e r n a v a l power i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. S r i L a n k a ' s p o l i c y t o w a r d s s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y was e v o l v i n g w h i l e S r i L a n k a was r e s p o n d i n g t o d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean by b a l a n c i n g t h e s e two c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , S r i L a n k a ' s main c o n c e r n , a t f i r s t , ( r o u g h l y up t o 1974) was t h e f o r m e r . She wanted t h e I n d i a n Ocean t o be f r e e f r o m s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y and t o be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a zone o f p e a c e . From t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , fi 3 D ~ V i j a y Kumar t o u c h e s on t h i s p o i n t , see I n d i a and S r i L a n k a - C h i n a R e l a t i o n s ( 1 9 4 8 - 8 4 ) , (New D e l h i : U p p a l P u b l i s h i n g House, 19 8 6 ) , pp. 113-153. fi 4 D u r i n g t h e war S r i L a n k a a s s e r t e d a s t r i c t l y n e u t r a l s t a n d b u t some I n d i a n w r i t e r s a l l e g e d t h a t d e s p i t e p r o f e s s e d n e u t r a l i t y , S r i L a n k a l e a n e d t o w a r d s P a k i s t a n , see U r m i l a P h a d n i s and S.D. M u n i , \"Emergence o f B a n g l a d e s h - R e s p o n s e s o f C e y l o n and N e p a l , \" S o u t h A s i a n S t u d i e s , 7:2 ( J u l y 1 9 7 2 ) , pp. 171-192. 231 however,. S r i L a n k a a r t i c u l a t e d a p o s i t i o n s u b t l y d i s t i n c t f r o m t h a t o f I n d i a . I n v i e w o f S r i L a n k a ' s l i m i t e d power p o t e n t i a l , she has been w e l l aware o f t h e f a c t t h a t h e r a b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e t h e s u p e r p o w e r s and t h e m a j o r l i t t o r a l s by i n d e p e n d e n t u n i l a t e r a l a c t i o n w o u l d be s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d . As s u c h , S r i L a n k a had t o r e l y on t h e mechanisms o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o p r e s e n t t h e s m a l l i s l a n d p e r s p e c t i v e on s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. She e f f e c t i v e l y u s e d i n t e r n a -t i o n a l forums s u c h as t h e N o n - A l i g n e d Summit M e e t i n g s , t h e Commo-n w e a l t h g a t h e r i n g s and t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s t o m o b i l i z e i n t e r n a t i o -n a l o p i n i o n on t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s s u e . S r i Lanka and the Indian Ocean Peace Zone Proposal The o r i g i n o f t h e IOPZ can be t r a c e d b a c k t o t h e C a i r o Summit o f t h e Heads o f N o n - A l i g n e d s t a t e s i n 1964. The t h r e e r e s o l u t i o n s p r e s e n t e d by S r i L a n k a t o t h e C o n f e r e n c e marked an e a r l y m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e p e a c e zone c o n c e p t . A g a i n i n 1970 M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e t o o k t h e i n i t i a t i v e and d e v e l o p e d t h e e a r l i e r p r o p o s a l o f a n u c l e a r f r e e zone t o t h e b r o a d e r c o n c e p t o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean Peace Zone. I n p r e s e n t i n g t h e p r o p o s a l t o t h e T h i r d Summit o f t h e Heads o f N o n - A l i g n e d s t a t e s i n L u s a k a i n 1970, M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e s t a t e d t h a t : By t h e t i m e o f o u r s e c o n d m e e t i n g i n C a i r o , a n u c l e a r b a l a n c e had been e s t a b l i s h e d between t h e g r e a t p o w e r s . B u t we f o u n d o u r s e l v e s v u l n e r a b l e t o a v a r i e t y o f p r e s s u r e s upon o u r i n d e p e n d e n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y where g r e a t power i n t e r e s t s were n o t i n d i r e c t c o n f l i c t . We were w i t n e s s e s a t t h a t t i m e t o d i s p u t e s w h i c h had been l e f t o v e r f r o m c o l o n i a l t i m e s b e i n g e x p l o i t e d by n e o - c o l o n i a l f o r c e s i n t h e i r l o n g t e r m i n t e r e s t s . 6 5 6 5 C e v l o n Today, XIX:9-10 ( S e p t . - O c t . , 1970) p. 4. 232 A t t h e L u s a k a C o n f e r e n c e , M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e d i d n o t e l a b o r a t e on t h e Peace Zone P r o p o s a l . The i n t e n t i o n was j u s t t o i n t r o d u c e t h e c o n c e p t and m o b i l i z e t h e o p i n i o n o f n o n - a l i g n e d s t a t e s o v e r t h e i s s u e o f t h e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean as a r e s u l t o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y . The L u s a k a Summit e n d o r s e d t h e p r o p o s a l and t h e F i n a l D e c l a r a t i o n on P e a c e , Independence, Development and D e m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , c a l l e d u p o n a l l s t a t e s , t o c o n s i d e r and r e s p e c t t h e I n d i a n Ocean as a Zone o f P e a c e f r o m w h i c h g r e a t p o w e r r i v a l r y a n d c o m p e t i t i o n as w e l l as b a s e s c o n c e i v e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f s u c h r i v a l r i e s and c o m p e t i t i o n , e i t h e r army, navy o r a i r f o r c e s b a s e s a r e e x c l u d e d . The a r e a s h o u l d a l s o be f r e e o f n u c l e a r weapons.66 A f t e r t h e L u s a k a Summit, t h e S i n g a p o r e C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e H e a d s o f G o v e r n m e n t s o f t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h c o u n t r i e s , h e l d i n J a n u a r y 1971, p r o v i d e d a good o p p o r t u n i t y t o d i s c u s s t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s s u e , b e c a u s e t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s c o n s t i t u t e d t h e b u l k o f t h e membership o f t h e Commonwealth and a l s o B r i t a i n was s t i l l among t h e m a j o r powers i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e f a c e o f i n c r e a s i n g s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e a r e a became a m a j o r i s s u e o f d i s c u s s i o n a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e . S r i L a n k a t o o k t h e l e a d once a g a i n and p r e s e n t e d t o t h e C o n f e r e n c e a 'Memorandum on t h e I n d i a n Ocean S e c u r i t y ' e l a b o r a t i n g on t h e c o n c e p t o f a zone o f p e a c e . The Memorandum p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e I n d i a n Ocean f o r m s a g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l e n t i t y , l i n k s b e t w e e n c o u n t r i e s i n t h e r e g i o n a r e weak. I n e f f e c t a p e a c e zone w o u l d 6 fi \u00C2\u00B0 \u00C2\u00B0Non-Alianed C o n f e r e n c e s : B a s i c D o c u m e n t s 1 9 6 1 - 1 9 7 5 . (Colombo: B a n d a r a n a i k e C e n t r e f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s , 1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 50-51. 233 p r o v i d e t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l minimum c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e de v e l o p m e n t o f an ' I n d i a n Ocean Community' i n w h i c h p r o b l e m s o f s e c u r i t y w o u l d be d e a l t w i t h by o r d e r l y and i n s t i t u t i o n a l means f o r promo-t i n g p e a c e f u l change. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e memorandum, The u l t i m a t e o b j e c t o f t h e Peace Zone w o u l d be t o e s t a b l i s h t h e I n d i a n Ocean as a power vacuum so t h a t t h e a b r a s i v e c o n f l i c t s o f t h e ' c o l d war' do n o t e n t e r i t and t h e r e g i o n c o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e s o l u t i o n o f i t s m a j o r p r o b l e m s o f s e c u r i t y , u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t , e t c . 6 7 I n h e r s p e e c h t o t h e C o n f e r e n c e , t h e S r i Lankan P r i m e M i n i s t e r e x p l a i n e d why S r i L a n k a was i n t e r e s t e d i n I n d i a n Ocean i s s u e s . \"We a r e a s m a l l c o u n t r y . . . s i n c e t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y we have been i n v a d e d , o c c u p i e d and c o l o n i z e d ... We know t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n f o r t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n o f C e y l o n was i t s g e o g r a p h i c a l l y s t r a t e g i c s i t u a t i o n \" . She e x p l a i n e d t h a t \"The s u b s t a n c e o f o u r p o s i t i o n i s t h a t weapons a t t r a c t weapons, and b a s e s w h a t e v e r t h e y may be c a l l e d , w i l l a t t r a c t b a s e s f r o m t h e o p p o s i n g p a r t i e s . I f e i t h e r o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s e s t a b l i s h e s a n a v a l b a s e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, i t w i l l o n l y be a m a t t e r o f t i m e b e f o r e t h e o t h e r f o l l o w s fi 8 s u i t \" . The Memorandum f o u n d g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e b u t B r i t a i n a n d A u s t r a l i a h a d some r e s e r v a t i o n s . However, t h e f i n a l communique s t a t e d t h a t Commonwealth c o u n t r i e s \" a g r e e d on t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e m a i n s an a r e a o f p e a c e a n d s t a b i l i t y \" . 6 9 The S i n g a p o r e fi 7 C e v l o n ' s Memorandum on I n d i a n Ocean S e c u r i t y , r e p r i n t e d i n D e v e n d r a K a n s h i k , The I n d i a n Ocean Towards a Peace Zone (New D e l h i : V i k a s Pub., 19 7 2 ) , App. I I , p. 188. fi ft \u00C2\u00B0\u00C2\u00B0Text o f Speech made by Mrs. B a n d a r a n a i k e a t t h e M e e t i n g o f t h e Commonwealth Heads o f Government i n S i n g a p o r e on 21 J a n u a r y 1971, I b i d . , App. I l l , p. 191. 6 9 T h e Times, (London), 23 J a n u a r y 1971, p. 4. 234 C o n f e r e n c e marked a n o t h e r s t e p i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean Peace Zone C o n c e p t . The vague c o n c e p t i n t r o d u c e d a t t h e L u s a k a Summit o b t a i n e d some s u b s t a n c e a t t h e S i n g a p o r e C o n f e r e n c e . The w e l l - f o r m u l a t e d c o n c e p t o f an I n d i a n Ocean Peace Zone c o u l d be f o u n d when S r i L a n k a p r e s e n t e d t h e p r o p o s a l t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . I n O c t o b e r 1971, t h e S r i Lankan P r i m e M i n i s t e r a p p e a r e d b e f o r e t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s t o p r e s e n t t h e p r o p o s a l f o r a zone o f p e a c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n h e r s p e e c h t o t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y , she e l a b o r a t e d on t h e c o n c e p t , and on what s t e p s s h o u l d be t a k e n t o implement t h e p r o p o s a l . The c o n c e p t o f a Zone o f Pe a c e i s i n h e r e n t i n t h e i d e a o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t w h i c h r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e l a n d t e r r i t o r i e s , a i r s p a c e , and t e r r i t o r i a l w a t e r s o f n o n - a l i g n e d s t a t e s must be c l o s e d t o g r e a t p o w e r c o n f l i c t s and r i v a l r i e s . I n e m p h a s i z i n g t h e need f o r a Zone o f Pea c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, she s t a t e d t h a t i t was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e l a r g e r d e s i g n o f w o r l d p e a c e and s e c u r i t y and o f g e n e r a l and c o m p l e t e d i s a r m a m e n t . The p r o p o s a l r e q u i r e d u n i v e r s a l a c c e p t a n c e b e c a u s e o f i t s g l o b a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . I t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e S r i Lankan P r i m e M i n i s t e r s t a t e d t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean, as d i s t i n c t f r o m o t h e r r e g i o n s o f t h e w o r l d , was s p e c i a l l y c o n d u c i v e t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a Zone o f Peace t o t h e a r e a f o r two r e a s o n s : 1. T h e r e i s no n u c l e a r power o r any m a j o r n a t i o n among t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean; 2. The m i l i t a r y and n a v a l f o r c e s o f t h e g r e a t powers i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean have n o t y e t assumed s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n s and t h e a d o p t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean Pe a c e Zone p r o p o s a l w o u l d n o t i n v o l v e us i n t h e n e c e s s i t y o f m a k i n g e l a b o r a t e p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e 235 d i s m a n t l i n g o f e x i s t i n g m i l i t a r y b a s e s a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n s , as w o u l d be t h e c a s e w i t h o t h e r a r e a s . 7 0 A t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s she l a i d down f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e what t h e Peace Zone w o u l d mean i n d e t a i l : The e s s e n c e o f o u r p r o p o s a l i s t h a t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a d e f i n e d a r e a s h a l l be d e c l a r e d be a zone o f p e a c e and r e s e r v e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r p e a c e f u l p u r p o s e s u n d e r an a p p r o p r i a t e r e g u l a t o r y s y s t e m . W i t h i n t h e z o n e no armament o f any k i n d , d e f e n s i v e a n d o f f e n s i v e , may be i n s t a l l e d on o r i n t h e s e a , on t h e s u b j a c e n t s e a bed o r l a n d a r e a s . S h i p s o f a l l n a t i o n s may e x e r c i s e t h e r i g h t o f t r a n s i t b u t w a r s h i p s a n d s h i p s c a r r y i n g w a r l i k e e q u i p m e n t i n c l u d i n g s u b m a r i n e s , may n o t s t o p f o r o t h e r t h a n emergency r e a s o n s o f a t e c h n i c a l , m e c h a n i c a l o r h u m a n i t a r i a n n a t u r e . No manoeuvres by w a r s h i p s o f any k i n d s h a l l be p e r m i t t e d . N a v a l i n t e l l i g e n c e o p e r a t i o n s s h a l l be f o r b i d d e n . No weapon t e s t o f any k i n d may be c o n d u c t e d . The r e g u l a t o r y s y s t e m t o be e s t a b l i s h e d w i l l be u n d e r e f f e c t i v e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t r o l . 7 1 A f t e r Mrs. B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s a p p e a l , t h e permanent r e p r e s e n t a -t i v e o f S r i L a n k a a t t h e UN, S h i r l e y A m e r a s i n g h e , f o r m a l l y r e q u e s t e d t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l on 1 O c o t o b e r 1971 t h a t t h e ' D e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n OCean as a Zone o f P e a c e ' be i n c l u d e d on t h e Agenda o f t h e 2 6 t h S e s s i o n . T a n z a n i a j o i n e d l a t e r , on 6 O c t o b e r 1971, as a c o - s p o n s o r . The p l e n a r y m e e t i n g o f t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y i n c l u d e d t h e agenda r e q u e s t and i t was r e f e r r e d t o t h e F i r s t Committee t o c o n s i d e r and r e p o r t b a c k . The o r i g i n a l p r o p o s a l made by S r i L a n k a i n t h e ' F i r s t C ommittee was v e r y c o m p r e h e n s i v e and i t r e l a t e d as much t o t h e n a v a l f o r c e s o f t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s as t o t h e f o r c e s o f t h e o u t s i d e p o w e r s . I t e n v i s a g e d t h e e x c l u s i o n o f armaments, / u C e y l o n Today, XX: 9-10 ( S e p t . - O c t . 1 9 7 1 ) , p. 13. 7 1 I b i d . , p. 14. 236 d e f e n s i v e a n d o f e n s i v e , a n d m i l i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s f r o m t h e p r e s c r i b e d a r e a . As P h i l i p Towle p o i n t e d o u t , t h e s t r o n g I n d i a n Ocean c o u n t r i e s \" b r o u g h t p r e s s u r e on t h e S r i Lankans b e h i n d t h e s c e n e s t o s l a n t t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n o n l y a g a i n s t t h e G r e a t 7 7 p o w e r s \" . Thus, S h i r l e y A m e r a s m g h e s t a t e d : I n t h e c o u r s e o f o u r c o n s u l t a t i o n s i t became a p p a r e n t t h a t members o f t h e Committee were n o t r e a d y f o r s u c h \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 a c o m p r e h e n s i v e scheme f o r t h e d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . . . o u r p r o p o s a l a n d o u r a p p r o a c h h a v e t h e r e f o r e u n dergone a r a d i c a l change i n d e f e r e n c e t o t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s e x p r e s s e d by o u r c r i t i c s . 7 3 C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e o r i g i n a l S r i Lankan r e s o l u t i o n had t o be m o d i f i e d . The r e s o l u t i o n c a l l e d upon t h e g r e a t powers t o e n t e r i n t o i m m e d i a t e c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean w i t h a v i e w t o e l i m i n a t i n g f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean a l l b a s e s , m i l i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s , l o g i s t i c a l s u p p l y f a c i l i t i e s , t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f n u c l e a r weapons and weapons o f mass d e s t r u c t i o n and any m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f G r e a t Power m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean c o n c e i v e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f G r e a t Power r i v a l r y . 7 4 The d r a f t r e s o l u t i o n was p r e s e n t e d t o t h e F i r s t Committee on December 1 s t and p u t t o a v o t e on t h e 1 4 t h . F i f t y members v o t e d f o r t h e r e s o l u t i o n , none a g a i n s t i t , b u t f o r t y - n i n e a b s t a i n e d . On 1 6 t h D e c e m b e r t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y p a s s e d t h e r e s o l u t i o n w i t h o u t any changes w i t h s i x t y - o n e members f o r t h e r e s o l u t i o n , 7 7 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 P h i l i p Towle, N a v a l Power i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean: T h r e a t s , B l u f f and F a n t a s i e s , ( C a n b e r r a : The S t r a t e g i c and D e f e n c e S t u d i e s C e n t r e , 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 57. 7 3 U N , F i r s t Committee, 1834 M e e t i n g , 23 November 1971. 7 4 U N G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y , 2 6 t h S e s s i o n . R e s o l u t i o n 2832 ( X X V I ) , 16 December 1971. 237 none a g a i n s t and f i f t y - f i v e a b s t a i n e e s . Though t h e UN d e c l a r e d t h e I n d i a n Ocean a Zone o f Peace by v i r t u e o f t h e T h i r d W o r l d m a j o r i t y , t h e r e was a l o n g way t o go i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f i m p l e m e n t i n g i t . R e s o l u t i o n 2832 (XXVI) r e q u e s t e d \" t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l t o r e p o r t t o t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a t i t s t w e n t y - s e v e n t h s e s s i o n on t h e p r o g r e s s t h a t has b e e n made w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h i s D e c l a r a t i o n \" . 7 6 The S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l a s k e d on 1 0 t h F e b r u a r y 1972 t o be i n f o r m e d o f what measures needed t o be t a k e n r e g a r d i n g t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e r e s o l u t i o n . The r e s p o n s e was n o t s a t i s f a c t o r y . The r e s o l u t i o n on t h e IOPZ was once a g a i n i n c l u d e d i n t h e UN Agenda i n 1972. Once i t came up f o r d i s c u s s i o n t h e S e c r e t a r y -G e n e r a l r e p o r t e d t h a t ' c o n s u l t a t i o n s ' as e n v i s a g e d i n t h e R e s o l u t i o n 2832 (XXVI) h ad n o t t a k e n p l a c e . The m a j o r i s s u e a t t h e d e l i b e r a t i o n s on t h e r e s o l u t i o n was how t o o p e r a t i o n a l i z e i t . S r i L a n k a ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , S h i r l e y A m e r a s i n g h e , p o i n t e d o ut t h a t t h r e e s u g g e s t i o n s were made abou t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e P e a c e Zone R e s o l u t i o n . They were A. t h e m a t t e r s h o u l d be r e f e r r e d t o t h e C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e Committee on Disarmament. B. t o a s k s t a t e s t o e n t e r i n t o c o n s u l t a t i o n s , a p o i n t w h i c h h a d been made i n t h e 1971 r e s o l u t i o n . \u00C2\u00B0Both W e s t e r n and E a s t e r n b l o c c o u n t r i e s a b s t a i n e d and among I n d i a n O c e a n l i t t o r a l a n d h i n t e r l a n d c o u n t r i e s , A u s t r a l i a , M a d a g a s c a r , New Z e a l a n d , P e o p l e ' s D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c o f Yemen, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , \" S i n g a p o r e , S o u t h A f r i c a , and T h a i l a n d a b s t a i n e d . 7 6U.N. R e s o l u t i o n 2832 ( X X V I ) . 238 C. l i t t o r a l s t a t e s o f t h e 1.0. s h o u l d r e a c h an agreement among t h e m s e l v e s . A l l t h e s u g g e s t i o n s were n o t p r o d u c t i v e o r f e a s i b l e . The f i r s t 7 7 s u g g e s t i o n was t a n t a m o u n t t o t h e speedy demise o f t h e p r o p o s a l . The r e s o l u t i o n i n 1972 j u s t r e p e a t e d t h e e a r l i e r one b u t , most i m p o r t a n t , i t p r o p o s e d t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f an Ad Hoc Committee c o n s i s t i n g o f f i f t e e n members. The t a s k a s s i g n e d t o t h e Ad Hoc Committee was t o s t u d y t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e p r o p o s a l w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p r a c t i c a l measures t h a t may be t a k e n i n f u r t h e r a n c e o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e r e s o l u t i o n , h a v i n g due r e g a r d t o t h e s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s o f t h e l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e i n t e r e s t s o f any o t h e r s t a t e s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p u r p o s e and p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e C h a r t e r o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . 7 8 The Ad Hoc Committee was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r e p o r t i n g t o t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a t i t s 2 0 t h S e s s i o n . The R e s o l u t i o n d i d n o t s p e c i f y t h e a c t u a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e Committee. S r i L a n k a ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , S h i r l e y A m e r a s i n g h e , s u g g e s t e d t h a t , i n s t e a d o f t h e n o r m a l p r a c t i c e o f e q u i t a b l e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , p r i n c i p l e s o f i n t e r e s t s , a n x i e t y , and i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e c o u n t r i e s s h o u l d be t a k e n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e membership o f t h e Ad Hoc C o m m i t t e e . 7 9 I n \"U.N. G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y , 2 7 t h S e s s i o n , Doc. A/C. 1/PV. 1904. 2 9 November 1972. 7 8U.N. G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y , 2 7 t h S e s s i o n , R e s o l u t i o n 2992 ( X X V I I ) . 15 December 1972. 7 9 ^The c r i t e r i o n o f i n t e r e s t r e a l l y c o n c e r n s t h e l i t t o r a l h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s ; t h e c r i t e r i o n o f a n x i e t y c o n c e r n s t h o s e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s w h i c h have c e r t a i n p r o b l e m s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t , t h o s e w h i c h have m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e s o r o t h e r a r r a n g e m e n t s o r whose n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s m i g h t i n some way o r o t h e r be j e o p a r d i z e d ; and t h e c r i t e r i o n o f i n v o l v e m e n t c o n c e r n s t h e G r e a t Powers b e c a u s e i t i s t h e y w h i c h a r e i n v o l v e d i n t h e a r e a , \" U.N. G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y , Doc A//PV. 1904, 29 Nov. 1972, p. 17. 239 1972 t h e s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean Zone o f Peace p r o p o s a l p r o l i f e r a t e d , t h o u g h t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e m a r i t i m e powers t o t h e p r o p o s a l d i d n o t change. As t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y p a s s e d t h e R e s o l u t i o n by 72 v o t e d t o none w i t h 35 a b s t e n t i o n s , a 15-member Ad Hoc Committee was d e s i g n a t e d w i t h S r i L a n k a ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , S h i r l e y A m e r a s i n g h e , as t h e C h a i r m a n . A f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e Ad Hoc Committee, i t became t h e hub o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s on t h e IOPZ a t t h e U.N.. The Ad Hoc Committee h e l d e l e v e n m e e t i n g s between 2 7 t h F e b r u a r y and 4 t h O c t o b e r 1973. The Committee s u b m i t t e d a r e p o r t , w h i c h i n c l u d e d a w o r k i n g p a p e r p r e p a r e d by S r i L a n k a . T h i s w o r k i n g p a p e r was a v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n s . I t d i s c u s s e s v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s r e l a t i n g t o t h e I O P Z . One i n t e g r a l l y r e l a t e d i s s u e was d e n u c l e a r i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . S r i L a n k a s u g g e s t e d a t h r e e - p o i n t p r o p o s a l i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f d e n u c l e a r i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. F i r s t , as f a r as t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e r e g i o n a r e c o n c e r n e d , t h e y had t o commit t h e m s e l v e s t o a p o l i c y o f d e n u c l e a r i z a t i o n w h i c h w o u l d e n t a i l t h e permanent r e n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e n u c l e a r o p t i o n ; s e c o n d , t h e I n d i a n Ocean c o u n t r i e s w o u l d be u n d e r an o b l i g a t i o n t o deny t h e use o f t e r r i t o r y , t e r r i t o r i a l w a t e r s , and a i r s p a c e t o n u c l e a r weapons b e l o n g i n g t o o t h e r s t a t e s . T h i r d , t h e n u c l e a r powers had t o u n d e r t a k e an o b l i g a t i o n n o t t o d e p l o y n u c l e a r weapons i n t h e p e a c e z o n e a r e a . u T h i s scheme i s i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e i t h i g h l i g h t e d t h e o b l i g a t i o n s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s i n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n \" o f t h e IOPZ. U.N. G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y , 2 8 t h S e s s i o n , Supplement No. 29. p. 10. 240 The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e A d Hoc C o m m i t t e e m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a new s t a g e i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f IOPZ. I t was t h e f i r s t c o n c r e t e a c t i o n t a k e n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e p r o p o s a l . The C o m m i t t e e p r o v i d e d a c o n v e n i e n t f o r u m t o p r e s e n t t h e d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and o p t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s t h e m s e l v e s , c o n c e i v e d w i t h i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e i r own s e c u r i t y c o n t e x t s . The d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s t h e m s e l v e s came t o t h e s u r f a c e when i t came t o c o n c r e t e a c t i o n . A f t e r t h e M i d d l e E a s t War i n O c t o b e r 1973, t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g i c c l i m a t e o f t h e I n d i a n O c e a n c h a n g e d r a d i c a l l y . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a n u c l e a r c a p a b i l i t y by I n d i a i n 1974 was an i m p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e s t r a t e g i c e n v i r o n m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. A f t e r 1973 t h e Ad Hoc Committee h ad t o g r a p p l e w i t h t h e p r o b l e m s a r i s i n g o u t o f t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s . 241 C h a p t e r V I The Stabilization of Superpower Naval Positions i n the Indian Ocean : From the O i l C r i s i s to the NALT The o u t b r e a k o f t h e M i d d l e E a s t War (Yom K i p p u r ) i n O c t o b e r 1973 and t h e s u b s e q u e n t o i l embargo and p r i c e - h i k e d r a s t i c a l l y c h anged t h e p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c c l i m a t e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The U n i t e d S t a t e s ' r e s p o n s e t o t h e use o f o i l as a p o l i t i c a l weapon by t h e OPEC c o u n t r i e s marked a d i s t i n c t d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e e a r l i e r r a t h e r r e s t r a i n e d U.S. p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n r e s t r o s p e c t , i t i s c l e a r t h a t n o t o n l y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Yom K i p p u r war i n O c t o b e r 1973 and o i l embargo b u t a l s o some o t h e r e v e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d i n 1974 marked a new phase i n power p o l i t i c s i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . The e x p l o s i o n o f a p l u t o n i u m d e v i c e i n P o k h a r a n , R a j a s t h a n by I n d i a n s c i e n t i s t s o f t h e Bhabha A t o m i c R e s e a r c h C e n t e r (BARC) i n I n d i a on 18 May 1974 was c r u c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t . 1 The emergence o f a n u c l e a r power f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s has r a d i c a l l y changed t h e s t r a t e g i c l a n d s c a p e t h e r e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean Peace Zone p r o p o s a l has a l s o changed s i n c e 1974. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e l e f t w i n g m i l i t a r y coup i n P o r t u g a l i n A p r i l 1974 e x p e d i t e d t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e e m p i r e i n S o u t h e r n A f r i c a w h i c h s e t t h e s u p e r \u00E2\u0080\u00A2'\u00E2\u0080\u00A2For a good d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e I n d i a n a t t e m p t t o a c q u i r e n u c l e a r c a p a b i l i t y , s e e : Syhan B h a t i a , I n d i a ' s N u c l e a r Bomb ( G h a z i a b a d : V i k a s P u b l i s h i n g House ( P v t ) L t d . , 19 7 9 ) , p. 1-165. 242 power competition i n motion i n another area of the Indian Ocean l i t t o r a l . The Soviet Union entered f o r c e f u l l y i n t o the p o l i t i c s of Southern A f r i c a with the process of v i o l e n t b i r t h of new s t a t e s out of the a n t i q u a t e d Portuguese empire. The r e v o l u t i o n a r y m i l i t a r y p u t s c h and the c o l l a p s e of the H a i l e S e l a s s i e regime i n E t h i o p i a a l t e r e d the s t r a t e g i c s i t u a t i o n i n the Horn of A f r i c a . These developments on the Western flank of the Indian Ocean had a d e c i s i v e impact on the p o l i t i c s of the e n t i r e region. Impact of the October War The Arab o i l embargo against the United States and other p r o - I s r a e l i States during the October war was responsible f o r br i n g i n g about many changes i n U.S. s e c u r i t y perceptions i n the Indian Ocean. It i s important to note that the thre a t to U.S. i n t e r e s t s i n the Indian Ocean emerged not from any a c t i o n of the Soviet Union but from the c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n of some of the l i t t o r a l s t ates which were h i t h e r t o considered conservative and pro-Western i n t h e i r f o r e i g n p o l i c y outlook. The OPEC o i l embargo and the OPEC p r i c e hike shattered the e a r l i e r confidence that the United States and other Western countries shared regarding the continuous o i l supply mainly from the Persian Gulf. The West was quite aware of the importance of the o i l , the l i f e l i n e of t h e i r i n d u s t r i a l economies, but t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e was based on the b e l i e f t h a t o i l - p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s would not j o i n hands t o challenge the economic power of the i n d u s t r i a l world. Joseph Sisco, A s s i s t a n t Secretary of State f o r Middle East A f f a i r s , f o r instance, asserted before Congress i n the summer of 1973 that 243 \" t h e m u t u a l i t y o f c o m m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s between ( o i l ) p r o d u c e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s was s u f f i c i e n t t o i n s u l a t e t h i s e s s e n t i a l c o m m e r c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p f r o m p o l i t i c a l e f f e c t s o f t h e A r a b / I s r a e l p d i s p u t e \" . T h i s o v e r c o n f i d e n c e p r o v e d b a s e l e s s a f t e r O c t o b e r 1973. The d i r e economic c o n s e q u e n c e s and m a s s i v e d i s r u p t i o n s i n d o m e s t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s b r o u g h t on by t h e o i l embargo and t h e p r i c e - h i k e r e v e a l e d t h a t w e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s w e r e more v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f o i l s u p p l y t h a n p r e v i o u s l y s u p p o s e d . I t became e v i d e n t t h a t even i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , i m p o r t i n g o n l y a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l p o r t i o n o f h e r o i l r e q u i r e -ments f r o m t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , l e t a l o n e i n t o t a l l y dependent c o u n t r i e s s u c h as J a p a n , t h a t a r e d u c t i o n o f a \" h a n d f u l o f p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s made a b i g d i f f e r e n c e a t t h e gas pumps\". As a r e s u l t , a g u a r a n t e e d c o n t i n u o u s s u p p l y o f o i l became a v e r y i m p o r t a n t s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t o f t h e West, as t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d e c o n omies was s o l e l y dependent on an u n i n t e r r u p t e d s u p p l y . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e war and t h e o i l c r i s i s t r a n s f o r m e d t h e e a r l i e r ' m i n i m a l i s t ' v i e w o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean and U.S n a v a l s t r a t e g i s t s came f o r w a r d t o v i e w i t as an \" a r e a w i t h p o t e n t i a l t o i n f l u e n c e a m a j o r s h i f t i n t h e g l o b a l power b a l a n c e o v e r t h e n e x t d e c a d e \" . 4 p C i t e d i n G a ry S i c k , op. c i t . , p. 62. U.S., C o n g r e s s , H o u s e , P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n o f M i l i t a r v F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, p. 24. 4 U . S . C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , C o m m i t t e e on F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s , B r i e f i n g on D i e g o G a r c i a and P a t r o l F r i g a t e , S t a t e m e n t o f Adm. Elmo Zumwalt, 9 3 r d C o n g r e s s , 2nd s e s s . ( W a s h i n g t o n : Government P r i n t i n g O f i c e , 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 2; and a l s o I b i d . , Second S u p p l e m e n t a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r FY 1974, op. c i t . , p. 2118. C o n g r e s s i o n a l h e a r i n g s i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g t h e o i l c r i s i s c l e a r l y r e v e a l t h a t p o l i c y - m a k e r s i n t h e Department o f D e f e n s e c o n s i d e r e d t h e O c t o b e r war as a w a t e r s h e d i n t h e s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g on t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . The Yom K i p p u r war h a s b e e n h i g h l i g h t e d as one t h a t t a u g h t many s t r a t e g i c and p o l i t i c a l l e s s o n s . The war p r o v e d t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was n o t m i l i t a r i l y s u f f i c i e n t l y p r e p a r e d t o h a n d l e t h e s i t u a t i o n i n O c t o b e r 1973. F i r s t l y , \" t h e emergency d e s p a t c h o f t h e c a r r i e r -b a s e d n a v a l power d u r i n g t h e h e i g h t o f t h e 1973 war f a i l e d t o i n f l u e n c e e v e n t s i n f a v o u r o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s \" . 5 S e c o n d l y , t h e p r o b l e m o f l o g i s t i c c o n s t r a i n t s became a m a j o r p r o b l e m t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f a c e d i n O c t o b e r 1973 as was t h e c a s e w i t h t h e B r i t i s h d u r i n g t h e Suez c r i s i s i n 1956. The c u t - o f f o f f u e l s u p p l y t o U.S n a v a l f o r c e s f o r c e d them t o depend on i m p r o v i s e d o i l s u p p l i e s f r o m t a n k e r s 4, 000 m i l e s away a t S u b i c Bay i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . A d m i r a l G r o j e a n , USN, e x p l a i n e d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a s : The r e l i a n c e o f a n a v a l t a s k g r o u p i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean on g e n e r a l s u p p o r t f r o m p r e s e n t U.S b a s e s ( s u c h as S u b i c ) p r e s e n t s s e v e r e o p e r a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s . M o b i l e L o g i s t i c S u p p o r t F o r c e (MLSF) s u p p o r t o f a t a s k g r o u p w h i c h 1 o p e r a t e s c o n t i n u o u s l y r e q u i r e s t o t a l d e d i c a t i o n o f a l l SEVENTHFLT MLFS a s s e t s due t o t h e l e n g t h o f t h e l o g i s t i c s t a i l i n v o l v e d . D u r i n g p a s t o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t h e Navy has r e s o r t e d t o t h e use o f M i l i t a r y S e a l i f t Command (MSC) c h a r t e r t a n k e r s , R o y a l F l e e t A u x i l i a r y o i l e r s , c i v i l i a n r e s o u r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n o t h e r n a v a l commitments i n t h e W e s t e r n P a c i f i c . 6 B e z b o r u a h , op. c i t . , p. 69. 6U.S., C o n g r e s s , House, Sub-Committee o f t h e Committee on A p p r o p r i a t i o n s , Second S u p p l e m e n t a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n B i l l , 1974, 9 3 r d C o n g r e s s , 2 n d S e s s i o n ( W a s h i n g t o n : G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 63. 245 The war a l s o b r o u g h t home t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e p r e c a r i o u s n e s s o f t h e i r e x i s t i n g l o g i s t i c f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n l i t t o r a l . The S u l t a n o f B a h r a i n demanded t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e use o f B a h r a i n by M i d E a s t F o r . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t , i n r e s p o n s e t o ' U . S . n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n d o u b l e d t h e number o f i t s w a r s h i p s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, w h i c h b r o u g h t home t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o n c e a g a i n a n d more f o r c e f u l l y t h e s t a r k r e a l i t y t h a t t h e e r a o f W e s t e r n monopoly o f seapower i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean had ended. P o l i t i c a l l e s s o n s o f t h e war were e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t . The u n w i l l i n g n e s s o f U.S a l l i e s t o l e n d a s s i s t a n c e d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s c a u s e d much c o n c e r n . I t was f e l t t h a t b a s i c a l l y o i l was t h e i n t e r e s t o f U.S. a l l i e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h e r s e l f and t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e a d v o c a t e d t h e need t o s h a r e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e d e f e n c e o f W e s t e r n i n t e r e s t s w i t h t h e a l l i e s . The b a s i c judgement a f t e r t h e war was t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d have t o go i t a l o n e r a t h e r t h a n r e l y on a l l i e d s u p p o r t . The r e f u s a l o f U.S. a l l i e s , e x c e p t P o r t u g a l , o f o v e r f l i g h t f a c i l i t i e s i n s u p p o r t o f I s r a e l i s a c l e a r r e m i n d e r o f how t h e A r a b - I s r a e l i c o n f l i c t overwhelms t h e p o l i t i c s o f t h e M i d d l e E a s t . The sudden o u t b r e a k o f t h e war and t h e a c t i o n s o f h i t h e r t o p r o - W e s t e r n s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e U.S. f o o t i n t h e q u i c k - s a n d o f t h e M i d d l e E a s t had n o t been f i r m . U.S. Responses to the October War The i m m e d i a t e r e s p o n s e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o t h e c r i s i s was t h e d e s p a t c h o f a c a r r i e r t a s k f o r c e l e d by U.S.S. Hancock i n t o t h e A r a b i a n Sea i n November 1973. T h i s i n c r e a s e d n a v a l 246 p r e s e n c e was m a i n t a i n e d u n t i l A p r i l 1974. I n December t h e U.S.S. Hancock was r e p l a c e d by O r i s c a n y . A n o t h e r t a s k f o r c e l e d by K i t t y Hawk e n t e r e d t h e a r e a i n March 1974 . The m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e c a r r i e r t a s k f o r c e even a f t e r t h e c e a s e - f i r e was c o n c l u d e d , b u t w h i l e t h e o i l embargo c o n t i n u e d , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e U.S. i n t e n t i o n i n s e n d i n g a t a s k f o r c e was gunboat d i p l o m a c y , i . e . t o c o e r c e t h e G u l f S t a t e s t o abandon t h e o i l embargo. I t was l i f t e d i n M a r c h and t h e t a s k f o r c e l e f t t h e a r e a i n A p r i l 1974. However, t h e S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e , James S c h l e s i n g e r , announced i n December 1973 t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had d e c i d e d t o r e - e s t a b -l i s h t h e p a t t e r n o f r e g u l a r v i s i t s o f t h e U.S. Navy t o t h e I n d i a n p Ocean. I n J a n u a r y 1974, he warned t h e A r a b s t h a t \" t h e S t a t e s i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t a r e r u n n i n g t o o h i g h a r i s k i f t h e y s o u g h t t o use t h e o i l weapon t o c r i p p l e t h e l a r g e r mass o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l w o r l d \" . 9 S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e Henry K i s s i n g e r d e c l a r e d i n December 1974 t h a t We s h o u l d have l e a r n e d f r o m V i e t n a m t h a t i t i s e a s i e r t o g e t i n t o war t h a n g e t o u t o f i t . I am n o t s a y i n g t h e r e i s no c i r c u m s t a n c e where we w o u l d n o t use f o r c e . B u t i t i s one t h i n g t o use i t i n t h e c a s e o f a d i s p u t e o v e r p r i c e s , i t i s a n o t h e r where t h e r e i s some a c t u a l s t r a n g u l a t i o n o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l w o r l d . 1 0 C l a r k and B e a z l e y , The P o l i t i c s o f I n t r u s i o n , p. 30. p U.S., C o n g r e s s , P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n o f M i l i t a r y F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, op. c i t . , p. 39. q T e l e v i s i o n I n t e r v i e w o f S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e S c h l e s i n g e r by Hugh S i d n e y , W a s h i n g t o n S t r a i g h t T a l k , J a n u a r y 7, 1974. 1 0 UU.S., L i b r a r y o f C o n g r e s s , C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e , O i l F i e l d s as M i l i t a r y O b j e c t i v e s z. h F e a s i b i l i t y S t u d y , p r e p a r e d f o r t h e S p e c i a l Sub-Committee on I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e Committee on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t S e s s . ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O. 1975 ) , p. 79. 247 Whether t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f U.S. m i l i t a r y power a l t e r e d t h e course' o f a c t i o n o f t h e A r a b c o u n t r i e s o r d i r e c t l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c e s s a t i o n o f h o s t i l i t i e s between t h e main b e l l i g e r e n t s was v e r y d o u b t f u l . U.S. o f f i c e r s o f t h e Department o f D e f e n s e a s s e r t e d t h a t \" i t p l a y e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e w h i c h m i l i t a r y power s h o u l d i i p l a y , t h a t o f s u p p o r t i n g d i p l o m a t i c i n i t i a t i v e s \" . However, i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t , as C l a r k o b s e r v e s , E g y p t a g r e e d t o a c e a s e - f i r e b e c a u s e i t s p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s i n g o i n g t o war h a d b e e n 1 ? a c h i e v e d and were p l a c e d i n j e o p a r d y by t h e d a n g e r o f d e f e a t . \" The l i f t i n g o f t h e o i l e m b a r g o was a t t r i b u t e d p a r t l y t o K i s s i n g e r ' s s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t i n b r i n g i n g c o n s e r v a t i v e A r a b 1 3 s t a t e s i n t o h i s p e a c e n e g o t i a t i o n s and p a r t l y t o w i l l i n g n e s s on t h e p a r t o f c o n s e r v a t i v e A r a b r u l e r s t o come t o t e r m s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The most o b v i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f m i l i t a r y m u s c l e was t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f l o c a l h o s t i l i t y and i t was v i e w e d by t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s as a c l a s s i c example o f t h e use o f gunboat d i p l o m a c y by. a s u p e r p o w e r t o t h r e a t e n a g r o u p o f t h i r d w o r l d s t a t e s i n o r d e r t o i n f l u e n c e t h e i r a c t i o n s i n f a v o u r o f t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s u p e r p o w e r . By A p r i l 1974 t h e s i t u a t i o n began t o be n o r m a l and t h e i n i t i a l d u s t seemed s e t t l e d . K i s s i n g e r ' s i n t e n s e d i p l o m a t i c e f f o r t s r e s u l t e d i n t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f d i s e n g a g e m e n t agreements and i n mending f e n c e s between t h e U n i t e s S t a t e s and A r a b S t a t e s . ^ U . S . C o n g r e s s , P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n o f M i l i t a r y F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, op. c i t . , p. 24. 1 2 C l a r k and B e a z e l e y , P o l i t i c s o f I n t r u s i o n , p. 31. 1 3 D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e B u l l e t i n , 71, 2 December 1975, ( t h e S t a t e m e n t by A l f r e d A t h e r t o n ) . 248 I t was now t i m e t o c o n s i d e r s e r i o u s l y t h e l o n g t e r m p o l i c y o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f i n p a r t i c u l a r and i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n g e n e r a l . I t was g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i s e d t h a t an i n c r e a s e d m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e s h o u l d be a m a j o r e l e m e n t o f U.S. p o l i c y w i t h t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t u n i n t e r r u p t e d o i l s u p p l y f r o m t h e G u l f was a c r u c i a l n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . U.S. p o l i c y - m a k e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t A m e r i c a n n a v a l m u s c l e e n h a n c e d t h e U.S. p o s t u r e i n t h e a r e a and p r o v i d e d n e c e s s a r y w e i g h t t o t h e d i p l o m a t i c m a n o e u v r e s . 1 4 What was needed now was t o i n s t i t u t i o n a -l i z e t h e c o n t i n g e n c y n a v a l a c t i o n s t a k e n d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s . As Commander G a r y S i c k , USN, R t d . , r e c a l l e d , t h o s e c o n t i n g e n c y a c t i o n s had p r o v e d o p e r a t i o n a l l y f e a s i b l e and much o f t h e p o l i t i c a l c o s t h a d a l r e a d y been p a i d . Thus, i t was d e c i d e d t o m a i n t a i n a c o n t i n g e n c y n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e f o r m o f p e r i o d i c d e p l o y m e n t f r o m t h e P a c i f i c F l e e t . I n p r a c t i c e , i t t o o k t h e f o r m o f t h r e e d e p l o y m e n t s p e r y e a r , w i t h e v e r y o t h e r t a s k f o r c e t o i n c l u d e an a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r . 1 5 U.S. d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o m a i n t a i n n a v a l s t r e n g t h i n t h e W e s t e r n I n d i a n O c e a n was c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e CENTO M i d l i n k e x e r c i s e i n November 1974. T h i s was t h e l a r g e s t CENTO e x e r c i s e so f a r . The a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r USS C o n s t e l l a t i o n w h i c h was p a r t i -c i p a t i n g i n t h e n a v a l e x e r c i s e i n t h e A r a b i a n Sea \" ( S ) u d d e n l y b r o k e o f f f r o m t h e e x e r c i s e and c o n d u c t e d a i r o p e r a t i o n s d u r i n g See T e s t i m o n i e s o f Owen Z u r h e l l e n , Deputy D i r e c t o r o f U.S. Arms C o n t r o l and Diasarmament Agency, Seymour W e i s s , D i r e c t o r , B u r e a u o f P o l i t i c o M i l i t a r y A f f a i r s o f t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t , James H. Noyes, Deputy A s s i s t a n t S e c r a t a r y o f S t a t e f o r Near E a s t e r n , A f r i c a n and S o u t h A s i a n A f f a i r s , and Elmo Zumwalt, A d m i r a l o f t h e U.S. Navy i n t h e House H e a r i n g s b e f o r e t h e Sub-Co m m i t t e e s , U.S., C o n g r e s s i n 1974 and 1975. 1 5 G a r y S i c k , op. c i t . , p. 65. 249 t h e 3 6 - h o u r c i r c u m n a v i g a t i o n o f t h e G u l f \" . 6 D e s p i t e t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l t r a i t s o f t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e r e m a i n e d w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n s t h e framework o f U.S. p o l i c y a f t e r 1974 w i t h t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e d i p l o m a t i c e f f o r t s o f t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , Henry K i s s i n g e r . The c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h e m a j o r r e v i e w o f U.S. i n t e r e s t s and p o l i c y o p t i o n s i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f c o n d u c t e d i n 1972 u n d e r t h e framework o f t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e i 7 were s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d t o be v a l i d . The p r i n c i p l e s e n u n c i a t e d i n NSSM 238, a c c o r d i n g t o E m i l e A N a k h l e h , \"have r e m a i n e d f o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e b a s i s o f U.S. p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e P e r s i a n G u l f / A r a b i a n P e n i n s u l a / I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n f o r a d e c a d e \" . 1 8 The a c c u m u l a t i o n o f p e t r o - d o l l a r r e v e n u e on a phenomenal s c a l e i n t h e hands o f t h e P e r s i a n G u l f s t a t e s a f t e r t h e OPEC p r i c e - h i k e added a new d i m e n s i o n t o t h e p o l i t i c s o f t h e r e g i o n . I n v i e w o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t , A l f r e d L. A t h e r t o n , J r . , A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r N e a r E a s t e r n and S o u t h A s i a n A f f a i r s , p o i n t e d o u t t h a t one o f t h e U.S. o b j e c t i v e s i n t h e G u l f was \" t o a s s i s t and e n c o u r a g e t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e r e g i o n t o r e c y c l e t h e s u r p l u s r e v e n u e i n t o t h e w o r l d economy i n an o r d e r l y and -I Q u n i n t e r r u p t e d manner\". T h i s f u r t h e r r e q u i r e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s 1 6 I b i d . , p. 64. 1 7 , , , , T h i s r e v i e w was c o n t a i n e d i n a c l a s s i f i e d i n t e r n a l N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y S t u d y Memorandum - NSSM 238. However, a summary o f t h e s e b r o a d p r i n c i p l e s was o u t l i n e d by t h e A s s i s t a n t S e c r a t a r y o f S t a t e f o r Near E a s t e r n and S o u t h A s i a n A f f a i r s , J o s e p h S i s c o , b e f o r e C o n g r e s s i n A u g u s t 1972. E m i l e A. N a k h l e h , The P e r s i a n G u l f and A m e r i c a n P o l i c y (New Y o r k : P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 8 2 ) , p. 101. 1 9 U . S . C o n g r e s s , House, Sub-Committee on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , The P e r s i a n G u l f , 1974 j_ P o l i t i c s , Arms and Power, 2 3 r d C o n g r e s s , 2nd S e s s . ( W a s h i n g t o n : Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 73. 250 t o come t o a ra p p r o a c h m e n t w i t h t h e A r a b S t a t e s . The p r o c e s s o f Arab-U.S. r a p p r o a c h e m e n t p r o c e e d e d r a p i d l y w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f j o i n t c o m m i s s i o n s i n economic and s e c u r i t y f i e l d s between t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and S a u d i A r a b i a and I r a n . The P e r s i a n G u l f s t a t e s o f f e r e d an i m p o r t a n t arms market f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . As a r e s u l t , t h e p e t r o - d o l l a r and arms s a l e c y c l e a c q u i r e d f u l l r h y t h m a f t e r 1973. A m e r i c a n arms s a l e s t o t h e G u l f s t a t e s amounted t o $125 m i l l i o n i n 1970; t h i s r o s e t o $492 m i l l i o n i n 1971, $860 m i l l i o n i n 1972, $2,193 m i l l i o n i n 1973, $4,400 m i l l i o n i n 1974 and $4, 492 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 7 5 . 2 0 As T a b l e V i n d i c a t e s , I r a n and S a u d i A r a b i a became t h e m a j o r b u y e r s o f U.S. arms who l a u n c h e d m a j o r schemes o f r e o r g a n i z i n g t h e i r armed f o r c e s . L e s s e r G u l f S t a t e s a l s o i n i t i a t e d a m b i t i o u s arms p r o c u r e m e n t programmes. T a b l e V Major Sources of Arms Purchases by the Gulf Countries, 1975-79 ($mn) C o u n t r y T o t a l U.S.S.R U.S F r a n c e W. Germany S a u d i A r a b i a 3, 600 \u00E2\u0080\u0094 1, 800 290 900 I r a n 8,700 650 6, 600 200 310 I r a q 6, 800 4, 900 - 410 20 K u w a i t 800 50 350 150 210 Q a t a r 70 - 5 50 10 Oman 370 - 10 - 330 UAE 410 - 10 350 30 B a h r a i n 20 10 T o t a l 20,770 5, 600 8, 775 1460 1810 S o u r c e : US Arms C o n t r o l and Disarmament Agency, W o r l d M i l i t a r y E x p e n d i t u r e and Arms T r a n s f e r s 1970-1979 (Wash i n g t o n D.C., 1979) 251 I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e c o n o m i c a s p e c t s o f t h e arms t r a d e ( i l l u s t r a t e d i n C h a p t e r 4) , t h e l i n k between t h e arms s a l e s and U.S. m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i c p o l i c y i s v e r y c l e a r . F o r example, t h e S u l t a n o f Oman v i s i t e d W a s h i n g t o n i n J a n u a r y 1974, s u c c e s s f u l l y m e n d i n g f e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e two c o u n t r i e s a n d l a y i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r an Oman-U.S. s e c u r i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p . M ore i m p o r t a n t was t h e s a l e o f two a n t i - t a n k m i s s i l e s y s t e m s t o Oman, and t h e S u l t a n ' s w i l l i n g n e s s t o p e r m i t U.S. a i r c r a f t t o use o -i M a s i r a h I s l a n d . The A m e r i c a n p o s i t i o n and i n f l u e n c e a f t e r t h e O c t o b e r War c o u l d n o t be e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e d i r e c t t h r e a t t o use c o e r c i v e m i l i t a r y power. The U.S. even c o n d u c t e d a f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y on o i l f i e l d s as m i l i t a r y o b j e c t i v e s . But t h e G u l f S t a t e s were n o t t o t a l l y u n p r e p a r e d t o meet t h e c h a l l e n g e . I n March 1975, OPEC c o u n t r i e s d e c l a r e d \" t h e i r r e a d i n e s s t o c o u n t e r a c t [ U . S . / A l l i e d ] t h r e a t s w i t h a u n i f i e d r e s p o n s e whenever t h e nee d a r i s e s , n o t a b l y i n t h e c a s e o f a g g r e s s i o n \" . ^ I t was t h e hand o f economic c o -o p e r a t i o n and arms d e a l s t h a t b r o u g h t t h e P e r s i a n G u l f s t a t e s ( e x c e p t I r a q ) u n d e r U.S. hegemony. C o n s e r v a t i v e r u l e r s o f t h e r e g i o n were r e a d y t o buy t h e economic p a c k a g e and e n t e r i n t o t h e 'arms-goods' c i r c l e b e c a u s e i t a l s o s e r v e d t h e i r p o l i t i c a l and O A ^ u o p . c i t . , S p e c i a l Sub-Committee on I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e Committee on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , The P e r s i a n G u l f , 1975 j_ t h e C o n t i n u i n g Debate on Arms S a l e s , H e a r i n g s , 2 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , ( W a s h i n g t o n : Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 19. O 1 Gary S i c k , op. c i t . , p. 67. U.S. C o n g r e s s , House, Sub-Committee on I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e Committee on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e , O i l F i e l d s as M i l i t a r y O b j e c t i v e s , A F e a s i b i l i t y S t u d y . 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t S e s s . , ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O., 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 16. 252 e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s . However, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s by no means abandoned t h e m i l i t a r y o p t i o n . I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t a \" m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e can s u p p o r t d i p l o m a c y w i t h o u t i t e v e r h a v i n g t o be u s e d \" . U.S. m i l i t a r y p r e p a r e d n e s s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was e x p e c t e d t o be e n h a n c e d by t h e r e g u l a r d e p l o y m e n t o f n a v a l f o r c e s and, more i m p o r t a n t l y , by e x p a n s i o n o f t h e D i e g o G a r c i a b a s e f a c i l i t i e s . The Expansion of Diego Garcia Base F a c i l i t i e s The e x p a n s i o n o f D i e g o G a r c i a f r o m an a u s t e r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s t a t i o n t o a f u l l - f l e d g e d b a s e c a p a b l e o f p r o v i d i n g f a c i l i t i e s f o r f o r w a r d d e p l o y m e n t o f a c a r r i e r t a s k f o r c e was t h e m a j o r d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m t h e m i l i t a r y p o i n t o f v i e w on t h e p a r t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n t h e p e r i o d 1974-75, t h e d e b a t e o v e r U.S. s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n c e n t e r e d m a i n l y a r o u n d t h e c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r t h e e x p a n s i o n o f D i e g o G a r c i a . The ' l e s s o n s ' o f t h e O c t o b e r war were em p l o y e d by t h e U.S.Navy t o n e u t r a l i z e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e D i e g o G a r c i a b a s e . They a l l e g e d t h a t t h e l o g i s t i c c o n s t r a i n t s c r e a t e d by t h e l a c k o f s e c u r e b a s e f a c i l i t i e s and u n w i l l i n g n e s s on t h e p a r t o f t h e U.S. a l l i e s t o s u p p o r t U.S. e f f o r t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e war h i g h l i g -h t e d t h e need f o r e x p a n d i n g t h e D i e g o G a r c i a Base f a c i l i t i e s . The U.S. D e f e n s e Department e x p l o i t e d t h e changed a t m o s p h e r e a f t e r t h e Yom K i p p u r war and p r e s e n t e d t h e D i e g o G a r c i a e x p a n s i o n p l a n on a p r i o r i t y b a s i s . I t r e q u e s t e d a u t h o r i z a t i o n u n d e r M i l i t a r y P r o c u r e m e n t S u p p l e m e n t a l f o r F i n a n c i a l Y e a r 1974; i t a l s o r e q u e s -t e d a $29 m i l l i o n a u t h o r i z a t i o n f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an 2 3 I b i d . , P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n o f M i l i t a r y F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, p. 24. 253 e x p a n s i o n p r o j e c t . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s e x p a n s i o n was p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e r e q u e s t as M i s s i o n and P r o j e c t : t h e n a v a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s t a t i o n p r o v i d e s f l e e t b r o a d c a s t i n g , a n d i s a c r i t i c a l l i n k i n t h e D e f e n s e C o m m u n i c a t i o n System. A new m i s s i o n i s b e i n g a s s i g n e d t o t h i s S t a t i o n t o s u p p o r t p e r i o d i c p r e s e n c e o f an I n d i a n Ocean Task G r o u p . T h i s p r o j e c t p r o v i d e s f a c i l i t i e s t o i m p r o v e D i e g o G a r c i a f o r l o g i s t i c a l l y s u p p o r t i n g t h e t a s k group.24 The r e q u e s t was a p p r o v e d by t h e House b u t was r e j e c t e d by t h e S e n a t e . L a t e r j o i n t c o n f e r e n c e s d e c i d e d t o d e f e r t h e m a t t e r f o r a c o m p l e t e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n r e q u e s t u n d e r t h e 1975 M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n B i l l w i t h o u t \" p r e j u d i c e t o m e r i t s 9 c o f t h e p r o j e c t . \" ^ 0 A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e $29 m i l l i o n r e q u e s t o f t h e Navy and an a d d i t i o n a l $3.3 m i l l i o n f o r t h e A i r F o r c e were i n c l u d e d i n t h e M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A u t h o r i z a t i o n B i l l o f f i s c a l y e a r 1975. The House Armed S e r v i c e s Committee a p p r o v e d t h e amount b u t t h e S e n a t e Armed S e r v i c e s Committee r e d u c e d t h e navy a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o $14.8 m i l l i o n , t h o u g h i t l e f t t h e A i r f o r c e a u t h o r i z a t i o n a t $3.3 m i l l i o n and i n s e r t e d a q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n i t s Committee R e p o r t . Some i n f l u e n t i a l S e n a t o r s , s u c h as C l a i r b o r n P e l l (D - Rhode I s l a n d ) , E d w a r d M. Kennedy (D - M a s s a c h u s e t t s ) , J.W. F u l l b r i g h t (D - A r k a n s a s ) and George McGovern (D - S o u t h Dakota) were a c t i v e l y o p p o s e d t o t h e a p p r o v a l o f t h e $29 m i l l i o n ^ 4U.S., C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , Committee on A p p r o p r i a t i o n s , 2nd S u p p l e m e n t a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r FY 1974, 9 3 r d Cong., 2nd S e s s . ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O., 19 7 4 ) , p. 2115. on A r m e d S e r v i c e , C ong . , 1 s t S e s s . / b U . S . , C o n g r e s s , H o u s e , C o m m i t t e e o f C o n f e r e n c e , Department o f D e f e n s e R e p o r t No. 94-1064, 9 3 r d Cong., 2nd S e s s . , W a s h i n g t o n , G.P.O., 1974 ) , p. 9. \u00C2\u00B0U.S., C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , C o m m i t t e e S e l e c t e d M a t e r i a l s on D i e g o G a r c i a , 9 4 t h ( W a s h i n g t o n , G.P.O., 19 7 5 ) , p. 3. 254 r e q u e s t . S e n a t o r F u l l b r i g h t , C h a i r m a n o f t h e S e n a t e F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s Committee was r e p o r t e d t o have s a i d \" we s t a r t e d o f f w i t h $29 m i l l i o n . B u t i t p r o b a b l y w i l l be $2 b i l l i o n b e f o r e we a r e t h r o u g h . The S t a t e Department o b v i o u s l y i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n d e t e n t e . We a r e d e t e r m i n e d t o g e t a b a s e i n D i e g o G a r c i a and no doubt t h i s w i l l e n c o u r a g e t h e S o v i e t s t o do t h e same e l s e w h e r e . \" The j o i n t c o n f e r e n c e a g r e e d o n l y t o a u t h o r i z e $14.8 m i l l i o n f o r t h e navy and $5.3 m i l l i o n f o r t h e A i r F o r c e w i t h q u a l i f y i n g p p l a n g u a g e w h i c h a p p e a r s i n P u b l i c Law 93-552. \u00C2\u00B0 The j o i n t C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e House and S e n a t e A p p r o p r i a t i o n s C o m m i t t e e s came t o t h i s d e c i s i o n w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t i f n e i t h e r House a d o p t e d a r e s o l u t i o n d i s a p p r o v i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s i n D i e g o G a r c i a , f u l l c o n s t r u c t i o n f u n d s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e N a v y a n d t h e A i r F o r c e f o r D i e g o G a r c i a i n t h e A p p r o p r i a t i o n A c t 1975 m i g h t be u t i l i z e d f o r t h e e x p a n s i o n p r o j e c t . 2 9 On 12 May 1975 P r e s i d e n t G e r a l d F o r d s e n t t h e c e r t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e e x p a n s i o n o f D i e g o G a r c i a b a s e t o t h e C i t e d i n K.S. J a w a t k a r , D i e g o G a r c i a i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l D i p l o m a c y , (Bombay: P o p u l a r P r a k a s h a n , 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 46. p p ^ S e c . 6 1 3 . (a) None o f t h e f u n d s a u t h o r i z e d t o be a p p r o p r i a t e d by t h i s A c t w i t h r e s p e c t t o any c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t w i t h r e s p e c t o b l i g a t e d u n l e s s - (1) t h e P r e s i d e n t has (A) a d v i s e d t h e C o n g r e s s i n w r i t i n g t h a t a l l m i l i t a r y and f o r e i g n p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e need f o r U n i t e d S t a t e s f a c i l i t i e s a t D i e g o G a r c i a have been e v a l u a t e d by him, and (B) c e r t i f i e d t o t h e C o n g r e s s i n w r i t i n g t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f any s u c h p r o j e c t i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ; (2) 60 d a y s o f c o n t i n u o u s s e s s i o n o f t h e C o n g r e s s h a v e e x p i r e d f o l l o w i n g t h e d a t e on w h i c h c e r t i f i c a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o s u c h p r o j e c t i s r e c e i v e d by t h e C o n g r e s s , and (3) N e i t h e r House o f C o n g r e s s has a d o p t e d , w i t h i n s u c h 60-days p e r i o d , a r e s o l u t i o n d i s a p p r o v i n g s u c h p r o j e c t s . \" S e l e c t e d M a t e r i a l s on D i e g o G a r c i a \" , p. 4. 2 9 I b i d . , p. 5. 255 C o n g r e s s . He c e r t i f i e d t h a t I have e v a l u a t e d a l l t h e m i l i t a r y and f o r e i g n p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e need f o r U n i t e d S t a t e s f a c i l i t y a t D i e g o G a r c i a . On t h e b a s i s o f t h i s e v a l u a t i o n and i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h S e c t i o n 613 (a) (1) (B) , I h e r e b y c e r t i f y t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s u c h f a c i l i t i e s i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . 3 0 T h i s n o t e i s i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e , i n Commander S i c k ' s words, \" t h i s was t h e f i r s t h i g h - l e v e l p o l i c y s t a t e m e n t i n d i c a t i n g t h a t e s s e n t i a l U.S. i n t e r e s t s w e re a t s t a k e i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n 31 r e g i o n \" . J A p p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e C o n g r e s s o v e r t h e U.S. n a v a l e x p a n s i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was t h e m a j o r r e s t r a i n i n g f o r c e . Some l i b e r a l D e m o c r a t s , who were c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p r o s p e c t o f arms l i m i t a -t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, w i s h e d t o p r e v e n t a n a v a l r a c e i n t h e r e g i o n . They were r e a d y t o use e v e r y d e v i c e a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l n o t t o a l l o w t h e D e p a r t m e n t s o f D e f e n s e a n d t h e N a v y an u n c h e c k e d c o u r s e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The C o n g r e s s l o o k e d a t t h e i s s u e f r o m p o l i t i c a l a n d d i p l o m a t i c a n g l e s . The t r a u m a o f V i e t n a m i n v a r i a b l y c o n d i t i o n e d t h e i r t h i n k i n g . They were more r e c e p t i v e t o p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e e l e c t o r a t e . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f U.S. S e r v i c e D e p a r t m e n t s were c o n d i -t i o n e d m a i n l y by t h e s c i e n c e o f war. As s u c h t h e y l o o k e d a t t h e i s s u e f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f m i l i t a r y l o g i s t i c s . The t u g - o f - w a r between C o n g r e s s and t h e S e r v i c e D e p a r t m e n t s d i d n o t end w i t h P r e s i d e n t F o r d ' s c e r t i f i c a t i o n . On 19 May 1975, M i k e M a n s f i e l d , t h e C h a i r m a n o f t h e S e n a t e M i l i t a r y 3 0 I b i d 3 1 G a r y S i c k , op. c i t . , p. 66 C o n s t r u c t i o n Sub-Committee, i n t r o d u c e d a r e s o l u t i o n d i s a p p r o v i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a t D i e g o G a r c i a . S. Res. 160 - R e s o l v e d , t h a t t h e S e n a t e does n o t a p p r o v e t h e p r o p o s e d c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t on t h e i s l a n d o f D i e g o G a r c i a , t h e need f o r w h i c h was c e r t i f i e d by t h e P r e s i d e n t and t h e c e r t i f i c a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o w h i c h was r e c e i v e d by t h e S e n a t e on May 12, 1975.32 The M a n s f i e l d r e s o l u t i o n l e d t o an open h e a r i n g i n t h e S e n a t e Committee on Armed S e r v i c e s on 10 June 1975. The w i t n e s s e s who t e s t i f i e d i n f a v o u r o f t h e e x p a n s i o n o f D i e g o G a r c i a b a s e i n c l u d e d James R. S c h l e s i n g e r , S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e , G e n e r a l George S. Brown, C h a i r m a n o f t h e J o i n t C h i e f s o f S t a f f , and G e o r g e S. V e s t , D i r e c t o r o f t h e B u r e a u o f P o l i t i c o - M i l i t a r y A f f a i r s o f t h e D epartment o f S t a t e . The most i m p o r t a n t t e s t i m o n y was t h a t o f S c h l e s i n g e r . The main t h r u s t o f h i s argument was t h e u r g e n t need t o c o u n t e r t h e S o v i e t t h r e a t e m a n a t i n g f r o m t h e b a s e c o n s t r u c t i o n a t B e r b e r a , S o m a l i a . I n o r d e r t o p r o v e t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n was e x p a n d i n g f a c i l i t i e s a t B e r b e r a , he p r o d u c e d a number o f p h o t o g r a p h s t a k e n by r e c o n n a i s s a n c e m i s s i o n s f r o m v e r y h i g h a l t i t u d e a t t h e end o f A p r i l 1975. T h i s t e s t i m o n y and t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s were m a i n l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r n e u t r a l i z i n g much o f t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e a l l o c a -t i o n o f f u n d s f o r t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e D i e g o G a r c i a b a s e . On 17 June 1975 t h e Committee v o t e d a g a i n s t t h e M a n s f i e l d r e s o l u t i o n The Committee e m p h a s i z e d t h a t as t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had v i t a l 3 9 U.S., C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , S e n a t e R e s o l u t i o n 160, C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o r d , 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t S e s s . , May 19, 1975, pp. 8651-652. C i t e d i n B e z b o r u a h , op. c i t . , p. 73. 3 3 U . S . C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , C o m m i t t e e on A r m e d S e r v i c e s , H e a r i n g s , D i s a p p r o v e C o n s t r u c t i o n P r o j e c t s on t h e I s l a n d o f D i e g o G a r c i a , 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t S e s s . , ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O, 1975, p. 7. 257 i n t e r e s t s i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n a r e a , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l o g i s t i c a l f a c i l i t i e s a t D i e g o G a r c i a was a p r u d e n t a c t i o n w h i c h w o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o b o t h t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f U.S. i n t e r e s t s and t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f s t a b i l i t y . 3 4 M e a n w h i l e , t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e r e s t r u c t u r e d t h e p r o j e c t t o i n c l u d e $13.8 m i l l i o n i n t h e F i s c a l Y e a r 1976 and $15.9 m i l l i o n i n t h e F i s c a l Y e a r 1977, a t o t a l o f $37.8 m i l l i o n a l t o g e t h e r . J The Navy's r e q u e s t f o r $13.8 m i l l i o n f o r F i s c a l Y e a r 1976 was a p p r o v e d by t h e House as u s u a l b u t i n t h e S e n a t e , S e n a t o r J o h n C u l v e r o f Iowa t a b l e d an amendment t o t h e A p p r o p r i a t i o n B i l l o f 1976 d e f e r r i n g t h e s p e n d i n g o f t h e a d d i t i o n a l amount a l l o c a t e d u n d e r F i s c a l Y e a r 1976 u n t i l J u l y 1, 1976. He s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s p e r i o d s h o u l d be u t i l i z e d t o e x p l o r e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e a c h i n g an agreement w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n on l i m i t i n g t h e arms r a c e i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . 3 ^ The C u l v e r amendment was a p p r o v e d and once a g a i n t h e i s s u e went t o t h e J o i n t C o n f e r e n c e Committee. T h i s t i m e , t h e C o n f e r e n c e a g r e e d t o m o d i f y t h e S e n a t e amendment w i t h t h e f i r m e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w o u l d r e p o r t t o C o n g r e s s b e f o r e 15 A p r i l 1976 r e g a r d i n g n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n on arms c o n t r o l i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . The i n t e n t i o n o f t h e C o n f e r e e s was \" t o 3 4 U . S . , C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , C o m m i t t e e on A r m e d S e r v i c e s , D i s a p p r o v i n g C o n s t r u c t i o n P r o j e c t s on t h e I s l a n d o f D i e g o G a r c i a R e p o r t ( t o a c c o m p a n y S. R e s . 1 6 0 ) . 9 4 t h C o n g . , 1 s t S e s s . , ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O. 19 7 5 ) , pp. 18-19. 3 S U.S., C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , C o m m i t t e e on A r m e d S e r v i c e s , S e l e c t e d - M a t e r i a l s on D i e g o G a r c i a , p. 6. 3^U.S., C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o r d , 9 4 t h Cong., V o l . 121 : No. 164, 6 November 1975. 258 p r o h i b i t c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p r o j e c t s on D i e g o G a r c i a u s i n g F i s c a l Y e a r 1975 f u n d s b e f o r e A p r i l 15, 1976 b u t n o t t o d e l a y p l a n n i n g t h e p r o c u r e m e n t o f l o n g lead, t i m e i t e m s \" . The S t a t e Department s u b m i t t e d t h e r e p o r t r e q u i r e d u n d e r t h e m o d i f i e d C u l v e r amendment on t h e I n d i a n Ocean arms l i m i t a t i o n on 15 A p r i l 1976. The r e p o r t c o n c l u d e d t h a t an i n i t i a t i v e f o r an I n d i a n Ocean arms l i m i t a t i o n s agreement on t h e p a r t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was n o t a p p r o p r i a t e a t t h a t p o i n t e s p e c i a l l y i n v i e w o f t h e S o v i e t i n v o l v e m e n t i n A n g o l a . Such an i n i t i a t i v e , t h e r e p o r t s t a t e d \"might convey t h e m i s t a k e n i m p r e s s i o n t o t h e S o v i e t s and o u r f r i e n d s and a l l i e s t h a t we w e r e w i l l i n g t o a c q u i e s c e i n t h i s t y p e o f S o v i e t o p b e h a v i o r \" . F i n a l l y , a f t e r a p r o t r a c t e d b a t t l e w i t h t h e C o n g r e -s s i o n a l o p p o s i t i o n , t h e Department o f D e f e n s e was a b l e t o o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y a p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e D i e g o G a r c i a b a s e f a c i l i t i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , S e c t i o n 407 (a) o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y A s s i s t a n c e and Arms E x p o r t C o n t r o l A c t o f 1976, P u b l i c Law 911-329, a d v i s e d t h e P r e s i d e n t t o u n d e r t a k e t o e n t e r i n t o n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n r e g a r d i n g l i m i t i n g arms f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I t was t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i c h assumed o f f i c e i n 1977, t h a t moved a c c o r -d i n g t o t h e r e q u e s t . When we l o o k b a c k f r o m t h e v a n t a g e p o i n t o f 1988 i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s t r e n g t h e n e d h e r n a v a l s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n 37 U.S., C o n g r e s s , House, Committee o f C o n f e r e n c e , M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r FY 1976, C o n f e r e n c e R e p o r t No. 94-655 t o accompany H.R. 10029, 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t S e s s . ( W a s h i n g t o n , G.P.O., 19 7 5 ) , p. 7. \u00E2\u0080\u00A23 p U.S., Department o f S t a t e , R e p o r t on I n d i a n Ocean Arms L i m i t a t i o n , . L e t t e r t o C o n g r e s s , O f f i c e o f t h e S e n a t o r J o h n C u l v e r r e l e a s e , A p r i l 21, 1976, c i t e d i n B e z b o r u a h , op. c i t . , p. 76. 259 i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e p e r i o d between 1973 t o 1978. The O c t o b e r war d i d n o t c a u s e any f u n d a m e n t a l change i n t h e p o l i c y framework l a i d down by t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e i n 1969. A l l t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n U.S. p o l i c y a f t e r 1973 were e a s i l y accommodated i n t o t h e scheme d e v e l o p e d e a r l i e r by t h e N i x o n - K i s s i n g e r l e a d e r s h i p . I n d e e d , e m p h a s i s on n a v a l power i n p r o t e c t i n g U.S. i n t e r e s t s i n t h e r e g i o n was t h e tempo o f t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e . The t w o - p i l l a r p o l i c y i n t h e G u l f , a f t e r a momentary d i s t u r b a n c e f o l l o w i n g t h e O c t o b e r War, r e m a i n e d i n t a c t . From t h e m i l i t a r y p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e m a j o r d e v e l o p m e n t on t h e p a r t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e D i e g o G a r c i a b a s e t o a f u l l -f l e d g e d l o g i s t i c s u p p o r t c e n t e r . T h e r e were g r o w i n g c o n c e r n s a b o u t S o v i e t a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n . S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s a n d S o v i e t n a v a l f a c i l i t i e s a t B e r b e r a a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f U.S. m i l i t a r y p l a n n e r s . However, d e t e n t e b e t w e e n t h e s u p e r p o w e r s c o n t r i b u t e d t o m a i n t a i n an a p p r o p r i a t e b a l a n c e o f power a t s u b - r e g i o n a l l e v e l s . I n t h e p e r i o d between 1973 and 1978 t h e t e s t o f t h e w o r k a b i l i t y o f t h e scheme b a s e d on t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e seemed s u c c e s s f u l . I t s c u l m i n a t i o n was t h e N a v a l Arms L i m i t a t i o n T a l k s (NALT) i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean between t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n 1977-78. B e f o r e g o i n g on t o examine t h e s e t a l k s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o l o o k a t t h e e v o l u t i o n o f S o v i e t s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e same p e r i o d . The Evolution of Soviet Naval Policy after 1973 The p o s t - 1 9 7 3 p e r i o d w i t n e s s e d t h e i n c r e a s i n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e navy as an i n s t r u m e n t o f S o v i e t p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. 260 T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t s h o u l d be v i e w e d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k d r o p o f t h e r a p i d g r o w t h o f S o v i e t n a v a l power on t h e one hand and p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g i c d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n a n d S o v i e t i n v o l v e m e n t s i n t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n on t h e o t h e r . The f u l l i m p a c t o f t h e m a j o r d e c i s i o n s t a k e n i n 1961 t o r e o r g a n i z e t h e navy and t h e n a v a l programmes l a u n c h e d i n 1963/64 became c l e a r l y v i s i b l e by 1975. The r a p i d g r o w t h o f S o v i e t n a v a l power was i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e e n t r y i n t o s e r v i c e o f new c l a s s e s o f 3 9 more s o p h i s t i c a t e d s h i p s ~ ^ and, most i m p o r t a n t l y , by O p e r a t i o n Okean 1975 - t h e most c o n s p i c u o u s and i m p r e s s i v e d i s p l a y o f S o v i e t n a v a l power. E m p l o y i n g o v e r 220 s h i p s and s u b m a r i n e s , O p e r a t i o n Okean 1975 i n v o l v e d n a v a l e x e r c i s e s by S o v i e t n a v a l g r o u p s s t r e t c h e d a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g a convoy s e r i a l i n t h e N o r t h A t l a n t i c , a c r u i s e r g r o u p i n t h e w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , ' i n house' s q u a d r o n s i n t h e B l a c k Sea, a f o r c e i n t h e A r a b i a n Sea, and f o u r g r o u p s i n t h e W e s t e r n P a c i f i c . 4 0 W r i t i n g on t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e Okean f l e e t e x e r c i s e o f 1 9 7 5 , A d m i r a l S t a n s f i e l d T u r n e r , USN, Co m m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f o f t h e NATO f l e e t i n S o u t h e r n E u r o p e , s t a t e d t h a t , \" ( I ) n l e s s t h a n 30 y e a r s t h e S o v i e t Navy had d e v e l o p e d f r o m an i n s i g n i f i c a n t c o a s t a l d e f e n c e f o r c e t o one t h a t a s p i r e d t o : (1) s t r a t e g i c d e t e r r e n c e ; (2) n a v a l p r e s e n c e and (3) s e a d e n i a l \" . 4 1 3 9 F o r a v i v i d d i s c u s s i o n on t h i s p o i n t see M i c h a e l M c cGwire, \"The E v o l u t i o n o f S o v i e t N a v a l P o l i c y \" , pp. 530-540. 4 0 U . S . C o n g r e s s , H o u s e , C o m m i t t e e on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , The S o v i e t U n i o n and t h e T h i r d W o r l d j_ A W a t e r s h e d i n G r e a t Power P o l i c y ? . R e p o r t by t h e S e n i o r S p e c i a l i s t s D i v i s i o n o f C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e , L i b r a r y o f C o n g r e s s ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O., 19 7 7 ) , p. 95. 4 1 I b i d . 261 By t h e mid-1970s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c o u n t e r i n g t h e d i r e c t t h r e a t t o t h e n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n e m a n a t i n g f r o m t h e p o t e n t i a l d e p l o y m e n t o f U.S. P o l a r i s s u b m a r i n e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean - t h e a l l e g e d r a t i o n a l e f o r s e n d i n g S o v i e t n a v a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n 1968 - r e d u c e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . The c o n t i n u o u s a d v a n c e s i n m i s s i l e t e c h n o l o g y , e s p e c i a l l y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e P o s e i d o n m i s s i l e ( w i t h a r a n g e o f 2500 n a u t i c a l m i l e s w i t h MIRV warheads) and t h e programming o f T r i d e n t I and I I m i s s i l e s ( w i t h a r a n g e o f 4000 and 6000 n a u t i c a l m i l e s r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , d e c r e a s e d t h e e x c l u s i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean as t h e o n l y a r e a f r o m w h i c h t h e C e n t r a l S o v i e t U n i o n c o u l d be t a r g e t t e d . As a r e s u l t o f t h e i n c r e a s e d r a n g e o f t h e SLBM s y s t e m s , i t was now p o s s i b l e t o keep enemy t a r g e t s u n d e r t h r e a t w i t h o u t even l e a v i n g t e r r i t o r i a l w a t e r s . As J u k e s p o i n t s o u t , \" t h e o p t i o n o f k e e p i n g t h e s u b m a r i n e s a t home i s u n d o u b t e d l y c h e a p e r , as w e l l as more c o s t e f f e c t i v e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t s u b m a r i n e s i n home w a t e r s c a n be more e x t e n s i v e l y p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t enemy a t t a c k t h a n i f t h e y a r e i n d i s t a n t a r e a s \" . 4 2 As one o f t h e o r i g i n a l c o m p u l s i o n s r e c e d e d i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d , t h e r o l e o f t h e S o v i e t navy as an i n s t r u m e n t ' o f e x t e n d i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l , d i p l o m a t i c , a n d s t r a t e g i c e n d s o f S o v i e t f o r e i g n p o l i c y , w a r r a n t e d by h e r l a t e l y r e c o g n i z e d s t a t u s o f p a r i t y as a s u p e r p o w e r v i s - a - v i s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , came t o t h e f o r e f r o n t . The w i d e r a n g i n g f u n c t i o n s o f t h e navy g a i n e d r e c o g n i t i o n . T h i s was i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s p u b l i s h e d by A d m i r a l S e r g e i G o r s h k o v , C o m m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f o f t h e 4 2 \" S o v i e t N a v a l P o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean\", p. 178. 262 S o v i e t Navy, i n t h e h i g h l y r e s p e c t e d and w i d e l y r e a d M o r s k o i S b o r n i k ( N a v a l D i g e s t ) e n t i t l e d \" N a v i e s i n War and P e a c e \" d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d F e b r u a r y 1972 - F e b r u a r y 1973. He s t a t e d : An a n a l y s i s o f t h e a l i g n m e n t o f f o r c e s i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a t o d a y and t h e s h a r p i n c r e a s e i n t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f modern n a v i e s t o have a d e c i s i v e e f f e c t on a l l f r o n t s o f an armed s t r u g g l e p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s t o a s s e r t t h a t t h e a b s o l u t e and r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f n a v a l w a r f a r e i n t h e o v e r a l l c o u r s e o f a war has i n d i s p u t a b l y grown . . Today o u r armed f o r c e s have a f u l l y modern Navy e q u i p p e d w i t h e v e r y t h i n g n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l p e r f o r m a n c e o f a l l m i s s i o n s l a i d upon i t on t h e e x p a n s e s o f t h e W o r l d Oceans.43 A c c o r d i n g t o G o r s h k o v , d u r i n g p e a c e t i m e , t h e S o v i e t navy has t o f u l f i l l i m p o r t a n t m i s s i o n s t o f u r t h e r S o v i e t p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s s u c h as l e n d i n g a s s i s t a n c e t o n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n s t r u g g l e s and d e t e r r i n g i m p e r i a l i s t p o w e r s f r o m t h r e a t e n i n g p r o g r e s s i v e r e g i m e s . I n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n h e r i n f l u e n c e and c r e d i b i l i t y as a d i p l o m a t i c p r i n c i p a l i n t h e a r e a , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n needs t o p l a y t h e r o l e t h a t a s u p e r p o w e r i s e x p e c t e d t o p l a y . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , e x t e n d i n g s u p p o r t f o r r e g i o n a l c l i e n t s t a t e s , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e y a r e i n v o l v e d i n c l a s h e s w i t h t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s , and d e n y i n g t h e p r i v i l e g e o f monopoly o f n a v a l power t o t h e w e s t e r n powers, became i m p o r t a n t i n S o v i e t p o l i c y o b j e c t i v e s . Hence, d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n p u s h e d f o r w a r d h e r i n t e r e s t s i n r e l a t i o n t o U.S. s t r a t e g i c moves on t h e one h a n d a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l on t h e o t h e r . The m a j o r i n s t r u m e n t o f S o v i e t n a v a l s t r a t e g y was t h e r e g u l a r d e p l o y m e n t o f n a v a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Though S.G. G o r s h k o v , A d m i r a l o f t h e F l e e t o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , \" N a v i e s i n War and P e a c e , \" U.S. N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r o c e e d i n g s , V o l . 100:11 (Nov. 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 66. 263 i t was b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e o p e n i n g o f t h e Suez C a n a l w o u l d e s c a l a t e S o v i e t d e p l o y m e n t , t h e e a r l i e r p a t t e r n d i d n o t change. The S o v i e t s d i d n o t use t h e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e Suez C a n a l t o s h o r t e n t h e r o u t e between t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e B l a c k Sea. T h e i r d e p l o y m e n t o f n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n c r e a s e d o n l y d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f c r i s i s . T h i s was m a i n l y i n r e s p o n s e t o U.S. n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t s . The S o v i e t Navy i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean f u l f i l l e d many f u n c t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n t o s h o w i n g t h e f l a g , t h e S o v i e t f o r w a r d u n i t s p r o v i d e d p r o t e c t i o n a n d n a v i g a t i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e f o r a i r l i f t and s e a l i f t o p e r a t i o n s i n r e g i o n a l c r i s e s s u c h as t h e A n g o l a n c i v i l war i n 1974/75 and t h e Ogaden war i n 1977/78. Compared w i t h t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e 1973, a r e m a r k a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t i n n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t a f t e r t h a t d a t e was t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y more a d v a n c e d v e s s e l s i n t o t h e a r e a . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1975 t h e b u l k o f t h e d e s t r o y e r / f r i g a t e s were t h o s e o f t h e P e t y a and K a n i n c l a s s e s . P e t v a s a r e l i g h t ASW ( a n t i - s u b m a r i n e w a r f a r e ) s h i p s . A t t h e end o f 1975 t h e S o v i e t s d e p l o y e d K r i v a k c l a s s d e s t r o y e r s t o t h e r e g i o n . K r i v a k c l a s s d e s t o y e r s were t h e l a t e s t ASW s h i p s o f t h i s s i z e e q u i p p e d w i t h t h e l a t e s t SAM m i s s i l e s . 4 4 The o t h e r m a j o r d e v e l o p m e n t i n S o v i e t s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f t e r 1973 was t h e a t t e m p t t o o b t a i n b a s e f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n . H i t h e r t o t h e S o v i e t navy r e l i e d on permanent f l o a t i n g moorages i n t h e open s e a . Now t h e need f o r b a s e s was a c u t e l y f e l t . T h i s can be seen i n t h e t a b l e V I w h i c h shows t h e s t e a d i l y 4 4D.O. V e r r a l e , \" S o v i e t N a v a l A c t i v i t y \" . A u s t r a l i a n O u t l o o k , No. 31 (August 1 9 7 7 ) , p. 208. 264 i n c r e a s i n g n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f t e r 1973. S o v i e t e n d e a v o u r s t o o b t a i n b a s e r i g h t s b e f o r e 1973 had met w i t h no s u c c e s s . A c c o r d i n g t o M i c h a e l M c cGwire, \" A d m i r a l S e r g e e v , C h i e f o f N a v a l S t a f f , was a s k e d r e c e n t l y what h i s g r e a t e s t p r o b l e m was w i t h t h e S o v i e t n a v y ' s s h i f t t o f o r w a r d d e p l o y m e n t . He r e p l i e d 4 5 w i t h o u t h e s i t a t i o n : ' B a s e s ' \" . The S o v i e t U n i o n r e n e w e d d i p l o m a t i c e f f o r t s t o o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y b a s e f a c i l i t i e s . R e g i o n a l c o n f l i c t s o f f e r e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o t h e S o v i e t s as was t h e c a s e w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The S o v i e t U n i o n m i s s e d no chan c e t o o b t a i n t h e b e n e f i t s o f c o e r c i v e d i p l o m a c y . \" S u p p l y i n g arms and s h o w i n g t h e f l a g on b e h a l f o f r e g i m e s c o n f r o n t e d by d o m e s t i c t u r m o i l and f o r e i g n enemies m i g h t make them s u f f i c i e n t l y d e pendent t o a c q u i e s c e i n S o v i e t r e q u e s t s f o r m i l i t a r y f a c i l i -t i e s , [and] t o s u p p o r t t h e U.S.S.R. d i p l o m a t i c a l l y \" . 4 6 The S o v i e t U n i o n was a b l e t o a c q u i r e a n d / o r d e v e l o p b a s e f a c i l i t i e s a t B e r b e r a ( S o m a l i a ) , Aden ( S o u t h Yemen), and Umm Qasr ( I r a q ) . The most i m p o r t a n t , and c o n t r o v e r s i a l among them was t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e b a s e a t B e r b e r a , S o m a l i a . When S e c r e t a -r y o f D e f e n s e S c h l e s i g n e r p r o d u c e d a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s o f S o v i e t n a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n a t B e r b e r a t o C o n g r e s s i n o r d e r t o overcome i t s o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e U.S. b a s e a t D i e g o G a r c i a , 4 5 M c c G w i r e , op. c i t . , p. 533 4 fi K. A n d e r s e n , \" S o v i e t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean: Much Ado About S o m e t h i n g - B u t What?,\" A s i a n S u r v e y , XXIV:9 (September 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 915. 265 T a b l e V I Soviet Naval Presence i n the Indian Ocean 1973-77 T y p e / C l a s s J . F. M. A. M. J . J . A. S. 0. N. D 1973 C r u s i e r s 1 1 1 1 D e s t r o y e r s / F r i g a t e 1 1 2 2 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 S u b m a r i n e s - - - - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M i n e s w e e p e r s 2 2 - 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 L a n d i n g S h i p s - - - - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 O t h e r s 6 8 7 7 5 5 5 6 5 6 6 8 1974 C r u s i e r s 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 D e s t r o y e r s / F r i g a t e 4 4 3 3 5 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 S u b m a r i n e s 4 4 4 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 M i n e s w e e p e r s 2 2 2 2 - 9 2 2 2 2 2 2 L a n d i n g S h i p s 1 1 1 1 1 - - - 1 1 1 1 O t h e r s 7 4 5 6 5 8 8 9 10 10 7 7 1975 C r u s i e r s 1 1 1 1 1 1 D e s t r o y e r s / F r i g a t e 2 3 4 5 5 4 4 3 3 5 5 6 S u b m a r i n e s 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 M i n e s w e e p e r s 2 2 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 L a n d i n g S h i p s 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 3 3 O t h e r s 10 12 12 10 11 11 10 9 10 10 9 12 1976 C r u s i e r s 1 n 1 1 D e s t r o y e r s / F r i g a t e 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 3 3 3 2 S u b m a r i n e s 2 1 1 1 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 M i n e s w e e p e r s 3 2 ( 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 L a n d i n g S h i p s 2 1 1 3 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 O t h e r s 13 13 16 17 14 14 14 14 14 12 12 15 1977 C r u s i e r s 1 1 1 1 D e s t r o y e r s / F r i g a t e 2 4 4 3 S u b m a r i n e s 2 2 2 2 2 1 M i n e s w e e p e r s 2 2 3 3 3 1 - - - - - -L a n d i n g S h i p s 1 1 1 1 2 1 - - - - - -O t h e r s 15 15 14 15 13 10 - - - - - -S o u r c e : p r e p a r e d by t h e a u t h o r u s i n g U.S. C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o r d s and A u s t r a l i a n F e d e r a l P a r l i a m e n t Committee R e p o r t s . 266 t h e S o m a l i a n government denied, t h e a l l e g a t i o n and i n v i t e d b o t h t h e House and t h e S e n a t e members t o v i s i t S o m a l i a and c h e c k t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e c h a r g e . On b e h a l f o f t h e Armed S e r v i c e s o r Committee, S e n a t o r B a r t l e t t a g r e e d t o make t h e v i s i t . Accompa-n i e d by some s p e c i a l i s t s , B a r t l e t t v i s i t e d S o m a l i a i n J u l y 1975. A f t e r t h e v i s i t he r e p o r t e d t o C o n g r e s s t h a t \" t h e Department o f D e f e n s e was r e m a r k a b l y a c c u r a t e i n t h e i r a s s e s s m e n t o f S o v i e t f a c i l i t i e s a t B e r b e r a . What we saw a b s o l u t e l y c o n f i r m s t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i s e x p a n d i n g B e r b e r a i n t o a m a j o r m i l i t a r i l y c a p a b -l e a i r and n a v a l p o r t \" . 4 7 Some i n d e p e n d e n t i n q u i r i e s , s u c h as t h e E x p e r t Committee a p p o i n t e d by t h e U.N. S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l i n 1974, c o n f i r m e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t i e s a t 4 R B e r b e r a , S o m a l i a . \u00C2\u00B0 However, t h e S o v i e t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a t t h e U.N. a r g u e d t h a t \" n o r m a l d u t y c a l l s by n a v a l s h i p s a t v a r i o u s p o r t s f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f r e p l e n i s h i n g t h e i r s u p p l i e s need n o t be t e n d e n t i o u s l y d e p i c t e d as t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f S o v i e t b a s e s i n 4 Q t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n \" . 5 I n t h e F a l l o f 1975 a f l o a t i n g d r y -dock was a l s o p o s i t i o n e d t o u p g r a d e p o r t f a c i l i t i e s t h e r e . A f t e r t h e S o v i e t s ' f i r m b a c k i n g o f I r a q d u r i n g t h e b o r d e r c o n f l i c t w i t h h e r n e i g h b o u r , K u w a i t , i n March 1973, S o v i e t p o r t c a l l s a t Umm Q a s r i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y . The s e n d i n g o f S o v i e t n a v a l v e s s e l s t o Umm Qasr d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s was a c l e a r n o t e o f S o v i e t s u p p o r t f o r h e r r e g i o n a l a l l y . The S o v i e t U n i o n was p e r m i t t e d 4 7 U . S . C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , Committee on Armed S e r v i c e s , S o v i e t M i l i t a r y C a p a b i l i t y i n B e r b e r a , S o m a l i a - R e p o r t o f S e n a t o r B a r t l e t t ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O., 19 7 5 ) , p. 1 4 8U.N., Doc. A/AC/159/1. 4 9U.N. Doc. A/AC. 159/1, 3 May 1974, p. 12-15. 267 e x c l u s i v e use o f t h e n a v a l b a s e o f Umm Qasr w h i c h was u p g r a d e d w i t h S o v i e t a s s i s t a n c e . The S o v i e t U n i o n e n j o y e d v e r y s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s w i t h S o u t h Yemen. The v a l u e o f t h e s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d f o r m e r B r i t i s h n a v a l b a s e a t A d e n a t t h e m o u t h o f t h e R e d Sea i s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e C.I.A D i r e c t o r , W.E. C o l b y , u n t i l 1974, r e p a i r f a c i l i t i e s a t t h e n a v a l b a s e a t Aden were n o t u s e d by S o v i e t w a r s h i p s , a l t h o u g h s u p p o r t s h i p s , and o c c a s i o n a l l y , s m a l l w a r s h i p s s t o p p e d t h e r e f o r r e f u e l l i n g and r e p l e n i s h m e n t . 5 0 However, l a t e r on t h e S o v i e t s began t o u s e Aden e x t e n s i v e l y e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e Ogaden war i n t h e Horn o f A f r i c a i n 1978-79. A f t e r t h e l a s t u n s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t i n 1973, t h e S o v i e t s d i d n o t a t t e m p t t o r e v i v e B r e z h n e v ' s A s i a n C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System anymore. The S o v i e t U n i o n seemed p r e p a r e d t o go w i t h l e s s c o m p r e h e n s i v e b i l a t e r a l t r e a t i e s w i t h some s e l e c t e d c o u n t r i e s i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n l i t t o r a l . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e F r i e n d s h i p t r e a t i e s w i t h I n d i a ( 1 9 7 1 ) , E g y p t (1 9 7 1 ) , and I r a q ( 1 9 7 2 ) , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n c o n c l u d e d P e a c e a n d F r i e n d s h i p T r e a t i e s w i t h S o m a l i a ( 1 9 7 4 ) , A n g o l a ( 1 9 7 6 ) , Mozambique ( 1 9 7 7 ) , V i e t n a m ( 1 9 7 8 ) , E t h i o p i a ( 1 9 7 8 ) , A f g h a n i s t a n ( 1 9 7 8 ) , and t h e P e o p l e ' s D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c o f Yemen ( 1 9 7 9 ) . However, E g y p t and S o m a l i a l a t e r u n i l a t e r a l l y a b r o g a t e d t h e i r T r e a t i e s . I t i s now q u i t e c l e a r t h a t t h o s e t r e a t i e s were n o t t h e b u i l d i n g b l o c k s o f an A s i a n C o l l e c t i v e S e c u r i t y System. \"These t r e a t i e s were a t t r a c t i v e t o C A U.S. C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , C o m m i t t e e on A r m e d S e r v i c e s , D i s a p p r o v i n g C o n s t r u c t i o n P r o j e c t on t h e I s l a n d o f D i e g o G a r c i a , op. c i t . , p. 30. 268 t h e v a r i o u s s i g n a t o r i e s b e c a u s e o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f S o v i e t a s s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t some r e g i o n a l a d v e r s a r y - h a r d l y a f o u n d a t i o n f o r a m u l t i l a t e r a l agreement i n t e n d e d t o u s h e r i n a p e r i o d o f p e a c e i n A s i a . \" J O t h e r i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u m e n t s o f S o v i e t d i p l o m a c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean were m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e and arms, d e a l s (see T a b l e V I I ) . The I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s a c c o u n t f o r a s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e t o t a l S o v i e t s u p p l i e s t o t h e T h i r d W o r l d . Arms d e a l s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n were a t t r a c t i v e f o r many r e a s o n s . S o v i e t c r e d i t t e r m s w e r e g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d e a s y . S o v i e t i n t e r e s t r a t e s were as low as 2% and t h e repayment p e r i o d was as l o n g as 8 t o 10 y e a r s . A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f S o v i e t arms d e a l s a p p e a l i n g t o T h i r d W o r l d p u r c h a s e r s was t h e S o v i e t p r a c t i c e o f d i s c o u n t i n g . \"Some s o u r c e s e s t i m a t e d t h e d i s c o u n t f a c t o r on S o v i e t arms d e l i v e r i e s t o T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s as l a r g e as 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e l i s t e d p r i c e \" . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1973-77 about 62 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l S o v i e t arms s u p p l i e s were r e c e i v e d by o n l y f o u r c o u n t r i e s - S o m a l i a ($260 mn), E t h i o p i a ($300 mn), I r a q ($2,600 mn), and I n d i a ($1,100 mn). The b ackbone o f t h e S o v i e t -I n d i a n m i l i t a r y l i n k i s t h e MIG p r o j e c t . U n t i l 1970, H i n d u s t a n A e r o n a u t i c s L t d . (HAL) m e r e l y a s s e m b l e d e n t i r e k i t s i m p o r t e d f r o m t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e agreement s i g n e d i n 1972, w h i c h marked a n o t h e r s t a g e i n t h e MIG p r o j e c t , i t was a g r e e d t h a t I n d i a c o u l d m a n u f a c t u r e an i m p r o v e d v e r s i o n o f t h e MIG 21 M w i t h 5 1 A n d e r s e n , op. c i t . , p. 917. 5 2 U . S . C o n g r e s s , H o u s e , C o m m i t t e e on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , The S o v i e t U n i o n and t h e T h i r d W o r l d , op. c i t . , p. 71. 269 i n d i g e n o u s components. T h i s v e r s i o n became o p e r a t i o n a l i n 1974 and t h e t h r e e HAL f a c t o r i e s l o c a t e d a t Hydera b a d , K o r a p u r and N a s i k t o o k c h a r g e o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y u n d e r t h e MIG l i c e n c e . 5 3 T h i s r e p r e s e n t e d an i m p o r t a n t t r a n s f e r o f t e c h n o l o g y f o r I n d i a . T a b l e V I I Arms Transfers to the Indian Ocean Region ( 1 9 7 3 - 1 9 7 7 ) ($ mm) R e g i o n USA USSR FRANCE UK FRG PRC OTHERS A f r i c a 123 650 470 45 20 70 325 West A s i a 10,735 4,410 1,215 1,265 625 20 1,845 S o u t h and S o u t h E a s t A s i a 627 1,165 270 165 60 210 495 I s l a n d S t a t e s 2 15 - - - 15 10 A u s t r a l i a 344 - 10 90 40 - 10 H i n t e r l a n d S t a t e s - 410 10 10 10 20 55 T o t a l 11,831 6,650 1,975 1,575 ,755 335 2,740 S o u r c e : N a m b o o d i r i , P.K.S., A n a n d , J . P . , S r e e d h a r -I n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, (New D e l h i : ABC P u b l i s h i n g House, 1982, p. 94. However, t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n o v e r t h e r e c i p i e n t s t a t e s s h o u l d n o t be o v e r e s t i m a t e d . 5 4 The E g y p t i a n and S o m a l i a n 5 3 I n d i a , M i n i s t r y o f D e f e n c e , D e f e n c e R e p o r t 1974-75 (New D e l h i : Government o f I n d i a P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 68. F o r a good a n a l y s i s o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f S o v i e t Arms D i p l o m a c y , see I a n C l a r k , \" S o v i e t Arms S u p p l i e s and I n d i a n Ocean D i p l o m a c y \" i n L a r r y W. Bowman and I a n C l a r k , e d s . The I n d i a n Ocean i n G l o b a l P o l i t i c s ( C o l o r a d o : W e s t v i e w P r e s s , 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 149-172. He a r g u e s t h a t \" t h e c r e a t i o n o f ( C o n t i . . . . t o p. 177) 270 break-away f r o m t h e S o v i e t o r b i t showed t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h T h i r d W o r l d s t a t e s . I n d i a was a b l e t o w i t h s t a n d a n d S o v i e t p r e s s u r e f o r g r a n t i n g b a s e f a c i l i t i e s a t V i s a g a p a t n a m . The t h r e e main i n t e r - r e l a t e d e l e m e n t s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s ' n a v a l r i v a l r y , namely, t h e f o r w a r d d e p l o y m e n t o f n a v a l f o r c e s , j o c k e y i n g f o r b a s e f a c i l i t i e s a n d r e l a t e d d i p l o m a t i c m a n o e u v e r i n g , and t h e arms d e a l s c o n s t i t u t e t h e m a j o r component o f S o v i e t n a v a l s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. S i n c e 1973, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n h a s i n c r e a s i n g l y u s e d n a v a l p o w e r t o i n f l u e n c e e v e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n r e g i o n a n d t o i n t e r v e n e more f o r c e f u l l y on b e h a l f o f h e r r e g i o n a l a l l i e s . S o v i e t n a v a l a c t i v i t i e s a f t e r 1968 p r o v i d e d t h e c a t a l y s t f o r t h e more a s s e r t i v e n a v a l s t r a t e g y s i n c e 1974. T h i s s i g n a l l e d a new phase i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f S o v i e t n a v a l s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The L i t t o r a l Diplomacy and the Indian Ocean Peace Zone The U.N. Ad Hoc Committee on t h e I n d i a n Ocean became t h e m a j o r t h e a t r e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean P e a c e Zone drama f r o m i t s e s t a b l i s h m e n t a t t h e end o f 1972. A f t e r a s s i d u o u s work u n d e r t h e C h a i r m a n s h i p o f S h i r l e y A m e r a s i n g h e , t h e A d Hoc C o m m i t t e e s u b m i t t e d i t s r e p o r t t o t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a t i t s X X V I I I S e s s i o n i n 1973. The r e p o r t was d i s c u s s e d i n t h e F i r s t Committee a n d t h e P l e n a r y M e e t i n g a n d t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a d o p t e d ( C o n t i . . . f r o m p. 276) i m p o r t a n t and l o n g l a s t i n g m i l i t a r y s u p p l y n e t w o r k has n o t e n s u r e d t h e p o l i t i c a l c o m p l i a n c e o f t h e r e c i p i e n t s t a t e w i t h t h e USSR's g e n e r a l I n d i a n Ocean p o l i c i e s . . and p e r h a p s even more s t r i k i n g , i n no c a s e has t h e ' m i l i t a r y s u p p l y nexus p r e v e n t e d t h e r e c i p i e n t f r o m e m b a r k i n g on more o r l e s s a m b i t i o u s p o l i c e s o f w e s t e r n d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o r even f r o m u n d e r t a k i n g m a j o r r e o r i e n t a t i o n i n i t s arms p u r c h a s e p o l i c y \" . I b i d . , p. 168. 271 r e s o l u t i o n 3080 i n December 1973. The R e s o l u t i o n n o t e d \" w i t h s a t i s f a c t i o n t h e p r o g r e s s made by t h e Ad Hoc Committee i n f u l f i l -l i n g i t s mandate\" and r e q u e s t e d i t \" t o c o n t i n u e i t s work, t o c a r r y o u t c o n s u l t a t i o n s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h i t s mandate and t o r e p o r t w i t h r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t o t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a t i t s t w e n t y - n i n t h s e s s i o n \" . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e R e s o l u t i o n r e q u e s t e d t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l \" t o p r e p a r e a f a c t u a l s t a t e m e n t o f t h e g r e a t power' m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e , i n a l l i t s a s p e c t s , i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t s , c o n -c e i v e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f g r e a t power r i v a l r y \" . J The s t a t e m e n t s h o u l d be b a s e d on a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l and p r e p a r e d w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f q u a l i f i e d e x p e r t s . One o f t h e main d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t t h e Ad Hoc Committee c o n f r o n t e d was t h e v i r t u a l non c o - o p e r a t i o n o f t h e m a r i t i m e powers who m a i n t a i n e d a n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n s p i t e o f r e p e a t e d r e q u e s t s , t h e r e q u i r e d c o n s u l t a t i o n s d i d n o t m a t e r i a l i z e . Under t h e t e r m s o f t h e R e s o l u t i o n , t h e S e c r e t a r y -G e n e r a l a p p o i n t e d an E x p e r t Committee t o p r e p a r e a f a c t u a l s t a t e m e n t . The Committee c o n s i s t e d o f F r a n k B a r n a b y , D i r e c t o r , S t o c k h o l m I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e a c e R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , Shams S a f a v i , r e t i r e d A d m i r a l o f t h e R o y a l I r a n i a n Navy, and K. Subrahmaniam, D i r e c t o r , I n s t i t u t e o f D e f e n c e S t u d i e s and A n a l y s i s , New D e l h i . They s u b m i t t e d t h e i r r e p o r t on 3 May 1 9 7 4 . 5 6 The c o n t r o v e r s y g e n e r a t e d by t h e E x p e r t s ' r e p o r t was a c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d e ven w i t h t h e c l a r i f i c a t i o n 5 5U.N., Doc. A/Res/3080 ( X X V I I I ) . 5 6 I b i d . . A/AC/159/1. 272 o f t h e i s s u e . The U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , G r e a t B r i t a i n , F r a n c e , T a n z a n i a , S o m a l i a , Yemen, M a d a g a s c a r , a n d E t h i o p i a , e x p r e s s e d t h e i r o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e r e p o r t i n w r i t i n g . The c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s were b a s e d on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h e x t r a - r e g i o n a l powers were n o t i n t e r -p r e t e d c o r r e c t l y . I n f a c e o f t h e s e c r i t i c i s m s , t h e S e c r e t a r y -G e n e r a l a s k e d t h e E x p e r t s t o r e v i s e t h e r e p o r t and a p p o i n t e d W i l l i a m E p s t e i n , a f o r m e r D i r e c t o r o f t h e UN Disarmament D i v i -s i o n , t o do t h i s . The r e v i s e d r e p o r t was more r e s t r a i n e d and h a l f t h e s i z e o f t h e o r i g i n a l one. ' I t was d i s c u s s e d and a c c e p t e d by t h e Ad Hoc Committee i n September and O c t o b e r 1974. T here were many l i m i t a t i o n s i n t h e r e p o r t . I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t was b a s e d on l i m i t e d s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n . The mandate t o t h e E x p e r t s i n c l u d e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e g r e a t power m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e \" i n a l l i t s a s p e c t s , c o n c e i v e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f g r e a t power-r i v a l r y . \" The r e p o r t i n t e r p r e t e d \" m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e \" i n a n a r r o w way and d i d n o t b r i n g t h e m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s w i t h t h e e x t r a - r e g i o n a l powers i n t o p r o p e r c o n -t e x t . The d e s i r e o f t h e c o n c e r n e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e l i t t o -r a l s t a t e s t o i g n o r e t h i s a s p e c t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , f o r s u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s f i l l t h e i r n e eds, t o o . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e d i f f i c u l -t i e s o f t h e t a s k , t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e r e p o r t were u n a v o i d a b l e . Once a g a i n t h e 2 9 t h S e s s i o n o f t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y d i s c u s -s e d x t h e D e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean as a p e a c e zone' and p a s s e d R e s o l u t i o n 3259 (XXIX) on 9 t h December 1974 w i t h a swee-p i n g T h i r d W o r l d m a j o r i t y as u s u a l . The r e s o l u t i o n s t a t e d t h a t t h e c r e a t i o n o f a p e a c e zone i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e q u i r e s : 5 7 I b i d . , A / AC/159/l/Rev i . 273 (a) The e l i m i n a t i o n o f a l l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f g r e a t power m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e i n t h e r e g i o n c o n c e i v e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f g r e a t power r i v a l r y . (b) C o - o p e r a t i o n among t h e r e g i o n a l s t a t e s t o e n s u r e c o n d i t i o n s o f s e c u r i t y w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n as e n v i s a g e d i n t h e D e c l a r a t i o n . P a r a g r a p h 4 o f t h e R e s o l u t i o n r e q u e s t e d \" t h e l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean t o e n t e r , as s oon as p o s s i b l e , i n t o c o n s u l t a t i o n s w i t h a v i e w t o c o n v e n i n g a c p c o n f e r e n c e on t h e I n d i a n Ocean\". I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r t h e Ad Hoc Committee was v e r y a c t i v e i n p r e p a r i n g t h e b a c k g r o u n d f o r c o n v e n i n g t h e C o n f e r e n c e on t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s h e l d e i g h t i n f o r m a l m e e t i n g s a t U.N. H e a d q u a r t e r s , c h a i r e d by S h i r l e y A m e r a s i n g h e , t o work out a f o r m u l a f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e . S h i r l e y A m e r a s i n g h e , as t h e C h a i r m a n o f t h e Ad Hoc C o m m i t t e e , s e n t l e t t e r s n o t o n l y t o t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s b u t a l s o t o t h e m a r i t i m e powers r e q u e s t i n g t h e i r p a r t i c p a t i o n i n t h e p r e p a r a t o r y work o f t h e C o n f e r e n c e . The s u p e r p o w e r s and t h e o t h e r e x t r a - r e g i o n a l u s e r s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean, e x c e p t C h i n a and J a p a n , d i d n o t a c c e p t t h e i n v i t a t i o n and e x t e n d e d no c o o p e r a t i o n . The r e s p o n s e s o f t h e l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s r e f l e c t e d t h e i r d i v e r s e p o i n t s o f v i e w . B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g t h e r e were two p o i n t s o f v i e w o v e r t h e i s s u e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e f i r s t p o s i t i o n , t h e f o c u s s h o u l d be t o m o b i l i z e o p i n i o n t o e l i m i n a t e m i l i t a r y b a s e s i n o r d e r t o t r a n -s f o r m t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t o a zone o f p e a c e . The m a j o r p r o p o n e n t o f t h i s v i e w was I n d i a . The s e c o n d p o s i t i o n e n v i s a g e d t h a t t h e 5 8 I b i d . , A/Res/3259 ( X X X I X ) . C Q See e s p e c i a l l y Y.B. Chavan's a d d r e s s t o t h e U.N. . G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y on 26 September 1975. ( C o n t i . . . t o p. 280) 274 I n d i a n Ocean peace zone s h o u l d a s s u r e t h e r e g i o n a l s t a t e s a g a i n s t t h r e a t s f r o m b o t h w i t h i n and o u t s i d e t h e r e g i o n . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e P a k i s t a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t a t e d i n t h e F i r s t Committee t h a t \" t h e a r r a n g e m e n t f o r s e c u r i t y among t h e l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s c o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h a p o l i t i c a l r e g i m e a n d e x p r e s s e d i n t h e f o r m o f a code o f c o n d u c t t o g u i d e t h e r e l a t i o n s among t h e I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s . \" ^ 0 The r e n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e n u c l e a r weapons o p t i o n by t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s i s a m a j o r e l e m e n t o f t h i s code o f c o n d u c t . The S r i Lankan p o s i t i o n was c l o s e r t o t h e s e c o n d one. A f t e r s e v e n m e e t i n g s between 5 t h June and 7 t h O c t o b e r 1975 t h e Ad Hoc Committee recommended a d r a f t r e s o l u t i o n t o t h e F i r s t C o mmittee. A f t e r a p p r o v a l by t h e F i r s t Committee and t h e P l e n a r y M e e t i n g o f t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y i t was i n c l u d e d i n t h e Agenda o f t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y . The R e s o l u t i o n was a p p r o v e d by a h u n d r e d and s i x v o t e s t o n i l w i t h t w e n t y - f i v e a b s t e n t i o n s . ' P a r a g r a p h 2 o f t h e R e s o l u t i o n n o t e d t h a t \"an agreement i n p r i n c i p l e on t h e c o n v e n i n g o f a C o n f e r e n c e on t h e I n d i a n Ocean has emerged among t h e l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean\". F u r t h e r , p a r a g r a p h 3 o f t h e R e s o l u t i o n r e q u e s t e d t h e I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r c o n s u l t a t i o n t o t h i s e n d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s i x - p o i n t p u r p o s e o f a c o n f e r e n c e on t h e I n d i a n O c e a n ; d a t e a n d d u r a t i o n ; v e n u e ; p r o v i s i o n a l a g e n d a ; p a r t i c i p a t i o n ; and l e v e l o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n . The mandate o f t h e ( C o n t i . . . f r o m p. 279) U.N. G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y , O f f i c i a l R e c o r d s , A/PV/2364. '26 September 1975, p. 81. 6 0U.N. Doc A / C / l / P V / 2 0 9 8 , 26 November 1975, pp. 48-50. 6 1 I b i d . , A/PV/2437, 11 December 1975, p. 23. 275 Ad Hoc Committee was e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e a r e q u e s t t o c o n t i n u e i t s work and c o n s u l t a t i o n s and t o s u b m i t t o t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y (TO a t i t s t h i r t y - f i r s t s e s s i o n a r e p o r t on i t s work. W i t h t h e a d o p t i o n o f R e s o l u t i o n 34 68 (XXX) on 11 December 1975 one phase o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean p e a c e p r o p o s a l a t t h e UN was c o m p l e t e . U n t i l now t h e I n d i a n Ocean Peace (IOPZ) p r o p o s a l had p r o g r e s s e d a n n u a l l y d e s p i t e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f many o b s t a c l e s . A f t e r 1975 t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e IOPZ p r o p o s a l a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s came t o a h a l t . The p r o b l e m s and o b s t a c l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t came t o t h e f o r e f r o n t and began t o o b s t r u c t p r o g r e s s w i t h t h e d e l i b e r a t i o n s o f p r a c t i c a l measures i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f c o n v e n i n g t h e C o n f e r e n c e . The o b s t a c l e s t o t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e IOPZ p r o p o s a l a r e b a s i c a l l y t h r e e - f o l d : n o n - c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s ; l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e p e a c e zone c o n c e p t ; and d i v i s i o n and d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s t h e m s e l v e s . The m a j o r o b s t a c l e i s t h e o p p o s i t i o n a n d n o n -c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s a n d o t h e r p r i n c i p a l m a r i t i m e p o w e r s . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t b o t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e S o v i e t U n i o n were u n i t e d i n n o t e n d o r s i n g t h e pea c e zone c o n c e p t . B o t h c l a i m e d t h a t i t v i o l a t e s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w o f xMare L i b e r u m ' . NATO as w e l l as WARSAW P a c t c o u n t r i e s a b s t a i n e d f r o m v o t i n g f o r t h e UN R e s o l u t i o n on t h e IOPZ u n t i l 1 9 7 8 . C o m m e n t i n g s c o r n f u l l y on t h i s i n 1 9 7 2 , S h i r l e y A m e r a s i n g h e s t a t e d t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e g r e a t powers, e x c e p t C h i n a , t o t h e IOPZ was x t h a t o f a b a s h f u l b r i d e o r r e l u c t a n t 6 2 I b i d . , A/Res/3468 (XXX). 276 v i r g i n ' . J T h e r e f o r e , a t an e a r l y s t a g e t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n o v e r t h e IOPZ i s s u e more o r l e s s t r a n s m u t e d i n t o t h e N o r t h - S o u t h d i v i s i o n . The I n d i a n Ocean c o u l d be t e r m e d as t h e T h i r d W o r l d ocean b e c a u s e t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s c o n s t i t u t e t h e b u l k o f t h e T h i r d W o r l d . The I n d i a n Ocean Peace Zone p r o p o s a l t o o k t h e f o r m o f a s t r u g g l e o f t h e T h i r d W o r l d a g a i n s t t h e i n d u s t r i a l l y and m i l i t a r i l y p o w e r f u l N o r t h . B e c a u s e o f t h e 'one s t a t e one v o t e ' s y s t e m a t t h e U.N., t h e d e c l a r a t i o n s a n d r e s o l u t i o n s o f t h e IOPZ w e r e a p p r o v e d w i t h s w e e p i n g T h i r d W o r l d m a j o r i t i e s . However, w i t h o u t t h e c o o p e r a -t i o n o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s a n d o t h e r m a r i t i m e p o w e r s , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o i m p l e m e n t them. I f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s d e c i d e t o i g n o r e t h e r e s o l u t i o n s n o t h i n g c o u l d be done e f f e c t i v e l y t o i m plement them. I n e f f e c t what t h e IOPZ i n t e n d s t o do i s t o c r e a t e an i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e g i m e f o r t h e I n d i a n Ocean b a s e d on t h e p e a c e zone p r i n c i p l e . Oran Young, i n e x p l a i n i n g t h e r i s e and f a l l o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e g i m e s , i d e n t i f i e s t h r e e o r d e r s t h a t p r o v i d e t h e b a s e o f t h r e e t y p e s o f r e g i m e s - s p o n t a n e o u s , nego-t i a t e d and i m p o s e d . I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s c o u l d n o t c r e a t e an i m p o s e d r e g i m e b e c a u s e t h e y do n o t have t h e power c a p a b i l i t i e s o r u n a n i m i t y t o do s o . The o n l y p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a -t i v e i s a n e g o t i a t e d o r d e r . T h i s i n v a r i a b l y r e q u i r e s t h e c o o p e r a t i o n and a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f a l l s t a t e s . I t r e q u i r e s an e x t e n s i v e b a r g a i n i n g p r o c e s s . Adamant n o n - c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e 6 3 U . n . Doc. A / C / l / P V / 1 9 0 4 , 29 November 1972, p. 11. C i t e d i n M i s r a , op. c i t . , p. 75. ^ S t e p h e n D. K r a s n e r , ed., I n t e r n a t i o n a l Regimes ( I t h a c a : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 8 2 ) , p. 98. 277 g r e a t p o w e r s a b o r t s t h e p r o s p e c t f o r a n e g o t i a t e d r e g i m e a l t e r n a t i v e t o o . O t h e r m a j o r o b s t a c l e s a r e t h e c o n c e p t u a l v a g u e n e s s o f t h e p e a c e z o n e c o n c e p t , l a c k o f c o n f o r m i t y on t h e p a r t o f t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s o v e r t h e c o n c e p t , a n d r e g i o n a l r i v a l r y a n d i n h e r e n t f e e l i n g o f i n s e c u r i t y o f t h e I n d i a n O c e a n l i t t o r a l s t a t e s . A l t h o u g h a l m o s t a l l o f them s u p p o r t t h e I n d i a n Ocean p e a c e zone p r o p o s a l i n p r i n c i p l e , t h e r e a r e a c u t e d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n when i t comes t o a c t u a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . I n o r d e r t o f o r m a u n i f o r m l i t t o r a l c o n s e n s u s o v e r t h e IOPZ i t i s n e c e s s a r y , f i r s t o f a l l , t o r e s o l v e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t i n g among l i t t o r a l s t a t e s t h e m s e l v e s o v e r t h e d e f i n i t i o n and t h e method o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e IOPZ. I n o r d e r t o be a v i a b l e programme, IOPZ s h o u l d be much more t h a n a p o l i t i c a l c l i c h e . Though no s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n come f o r w a r d t o oppose t h e IOPZ, as t h i s i s c o n s i d e r e d t a n t a m o u n t t o c o m m i t t i n g a p o l i t i c a l s i n , t h e h a r d f a c t i s t h a t a l a r g e amount o f g r o u n d work has t o be done t o f o r m a u n i f o r m v o i c e o v e r t h e IOPZ. T h i s was c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d by t h e d i s c o r d o v e r t h e r e p o r t o f t h e e x p e r t s a p p o i n t e d by t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l o f t h e U.N. on t h e g r e a t power n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n 1973. The IOPZ p r o p o s a l s h o u l d be c o n c e p t u a l l y i m p r o v e d i n o r d e r t o make i t a c o h e r e n t and v i a b l e f o r m u l a . Two main c o n c e p t u a l s h o r t c o m i n g s are, d i s c e r n i b l e . F i r s t , t h e IOPZ i s p r e s e n t e d o n l y a g a i n s t t h e e x t r a - r e g i o n a l n a v a l p r e s e n c e and n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I t i s i m p l i e d t h a t t h e zone o f p e a c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean c o u l d be a t t a i n e d when t h e g r e a t powers w i t h d r a w t h e i r n a v a l i n s t a l l a t i o n s and r e f r a i n f r o m n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n . 278 B u t G r e a t Power r i v a l r y was n o t t h e o n l y s o u r c e o f t e n s i o n and c o n f l i c t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. R e g i o n a l r o o t s o f c o n f l i c t have n o t been a d d r e s s e d i n t h e IOPZ. What t h e c o n c e p t o f \"zone o f p e a c e \" meant has n o t been d e f i n e d p r e c i s e l y . Q u e s t i o n s s u c h a s , w h e t h e r i t means a c o m p r e h e n s i v e d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean o r n o t , and w h e t h e r d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n i s a p p l i c a b l e . b o t h t o o u t s i d e r s and l i t t o r a l s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean o r n o t i s n o t a d e q u a t e l y a d d r e s s e d . S e c o n d l y , e v e n t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i s d e f i n e d v e r y n a r r o w l y t o i n c l u d e o n l y c o m p e t i t i v e n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t and m a i n t e n a n c e o f b a s e s . I t has been p o i n t e d o u t e a r l i e r t h a t s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y c a n n o t be s c a l e d down o n l y t o n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t s . The m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s w i t h t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s as w e l l as arms d e a l s a r e i g n o r e d by t h e IOPZ. B e c a u s e o f t h e l a c k o f c l a r i t y and t h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h e IOPZ some l i t t o r a l s t a t e s m a i n t a i n a l l i a n c e s w i t h t h e s u p e r p o w e r s t h a t go a g a i n s t t h e IOPZ c o n c e p t w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e t h e s e s t a t e s v e h e m e n t l y a d v o c a t e t h e v e r y p r o p o s a l . R e g i o n a l c o n f l i c t s and t h e i n h e r e n t f e e l i n g o f i n s e c u r i t y o f t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s o f f e r c o n c l u s i v e c i r c u m s t a n c e s f o r t h e s u p e r -powers t o impose t h e i r r i v a l r y on a r e g i o n a l b a s i s . There a r e t h r e e l e v e l s o f c o n f l i c t and r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean o f w h i c h t h e f i r s t l e v e l i s t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e a r e a . S e c o n d l y , e a c h s u b - r e g i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s marked w i t h a r e g i o n a l c o n f l i c t : I n d o - P a k i s t a n r i v a l r y i n S o u t h A s i a , I r a n - I r a q c o n f l i c t i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , ^ 5 E t h i o p i a n - S o m a l i a n r i v a l r y i n ^ F o r i n t e r n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e r e g i o n a l r i v a l r i e s s e e : F o r I r a n - I r a q r i v a l r y R a p h a e l D a n z i g e v , \"The N a v a l Race i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , \" ( C o n t i . . . t o p. 286) 279 t h e Horn o f A f r i c a , A r a b - I s r a e l i c o n f l i c t i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t , Vietnam-ASEAN h o s t i l i t y i n S o u t h E a s t A s i a . Superpower i n v o l v e -ment i n t h e s e c o n f l i c t s a r e v i t a l and i n d i s p e n s a b l e . However, r e g i o n a l r o o t s o f t h e c o n f l i c t s s h o u l d a l s o be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . They a r e o f two t y p e s ; ' t h e l e g a c i e s o f t h e c o l o n i a l p a s t and t h e p o s t - i n d e p e n d e n c e s t r a t e g i e s and p r o c e s s e s o f n a t i o n and s t a t e b u i l d i n g . The t h i r d l e v e l o f c o n f l i c t i s between t h e s m a l l s t a t e s and t h e medium powers o f t h e same s u b - s y s t e m . The power r e l a t i o n s among t h e s e s t a t e s a r e g o v e r n e d by t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f f e a r and s u s p i c i o n . As i s t h e c a s e between S r i L a n k a and I n d i a , f e a r and s u s p i c i o n i n v o l v e , f i r s t l y f e a r on t h e p a r t o f s m a l l s t a t e s o f b e i n g d o m i n a t e d and overawed by t h e medium power and s e c o n d l y s u s p i c i o n s on t h e p a r t o f medium powers t h a t s m a l l s t a t e s w o u l d b r i n g e x t r a - r e g i o n a l powers i n t o t h e power b a l a n c e o f t h e a r e a as a c o u n t e r p o i s e t o t h e medium power. T h i s c r e a t e s an i n n a t e f e e l i n g o f i n s e c u r i t y among a l l s t a t e s . T here i s a f o u r t h l e v e l o f c o n f l i c t , t h a t between t h e s t a t e and d i s s i d e n t g r o u p s w i t h i n . T h i s t y p e o f i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t , w h i c h o f t e n f l a r e s up i n v i o l e n t armed u p r i s i n g s b a s e d on c l a s s , r e g i o n a l , o r e t h n i c l i n e s i s v e r y w i d e s p r e a d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a . The b a s e o f t h e s e c o n f l i c t s s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l f o r m a t i o n s b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i n k a g e s , t h e s e b u s h f i r e s h a v e s e r i o u s ( C o n t i . . . f r o m p. 285) U.S. n a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r o c e e d i n g s , M a r c h 1982, pp. 93-98' F o r E t h i o p i a n - S o m a l i a n r i v a l r y Mohamed A y o o b \"The H o r n o f A f r i c a \" i n A y o o b , e d . , C o n f l i c t a n d I n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d (New D e l h i : V i k a s P u b l i s h i n g House, 1 9 8 0 ) , pp. 136-170; I n d o - P a k i s t a n r i v a l r y , S.D. M u n i , 'South A s i a ' , I b i d . , pp. 38-72. 280 r e p e r c u s s i o n s on r e l a t i o n s among t h e s t a t e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. These d i s s i d e n t movements a r e e x p l o i t e d by r i v a l s t a t e s i n o r d e r t o u n dermine t h e s e c u r i t y and s t a b i l i t y o f o t h e r s t a t e s . As s u c h , c h r o n i c i n s e c u r i t y o f s t a t e s b o t h s m a l l and medium c o n s t i -t u t e s a m a j o r a s p e c t o f t h e t e x t u r e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. S t e p h e n Cohen once s t a t e d t h a t \" t h e S o u t h fi f A s i a n s e c u r i t y s y s t e m i s an i n s e c u r i t y s y s t e m . \" The a p h o r i s m i s a p t l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e e n t i r e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n . B e c a u s e o f t h i s i n s e c u r i t y , s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n seek r e f u g e u n d e r t h e s u p e r p o w e r u m b r e l l a . I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t a l l p e a c e and s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a c a n n o t be a t t r i b u t e d t o s u p e r -power n a v a l r i v a l r y . I n o r d e r t o gauge t h e r o l e o f t h a t r i v a l r y i n t h e d e s t a b l i l i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p o s i t i t i n t h e p r o p e r e q u a t i o n o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y , r e g i o n a l c o n f l i c t s , and i n s e c u r i t y o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between one phenomenon and o t h e r s i s n o t a s i m p l e one-way p r o c e s s ; i t i s i n v a r i a b l y r e c i p r o c a l . (See c h a r t b e l o w ) . A = Superpower n a v a l r i v a l r y B = R e g i o n a l c o n f l i c t s C = I n s e c u r i t y o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean Any c o m p r e h e n s i v e p e a c e zone p r o p o s a l s h o u l d t a k e a c c o u n t o f sub-l e v e l s o f c o n f l i c t s and t h e i r l i n k a g e s t o t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e s e l i n k a g e s i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d t h e l e a s t common d e n o m i n a t o r t o r a l l y t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s . I t i s more c o n v e n i e n t t o 6 6 C i t e d i n G.S. B h a r g a v a , S o u t h A s i a n S e c u r i t y A f t e r A f g h a n i s t a n ( T o r o n t o : D.C. H e a t h and Company, 198 3 ) , p. 187. 281 a t t r i b u t e a l l t h e s i n s t o o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e . E a c h s t a t e i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n p e r c e i v e s i t s s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f i t s own g e o - p o l i t i c a l i m p e r a t i v e s . A c c o r d i n g l y e a c h one r e s p o n d s t o t h e su p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f i t s own g e o - p o l i t i c a l s e t up and as i t p e r c e i v e s i t s own s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m s . The e a r l i e r e b u l l i e n c y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e IOPZ began t o f a d e away a f t e r 1975 when t h e s t r a t e g i c and s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s o f t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s began t o c l a s h w i t h e a c h o t h e r and when c o n c r e t e s t e p s t o w a r d s t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f IOPZ came t o be d i s c u s s e d . E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e S r i L a n k a n r e s p o n s e t o t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e v e a l s how changes i n t h e a c c e n t o f p o l i c y o c c u r a c c o r d i n g t o d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e r e g i o n a l g e o - p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t and t h r e a t p e r c e p t i o n s . S r i Lanka Response to the Superpower Rivalry As i n t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d , S r i L a n k a c o n t i n u e d t o p l a y a l e a d i n g r o l e a t t h e U.N. and o u t s i d e m a k i n g p r o v i s i o n f o r i m p l e -m e n t i n g t h e 1971 U.N. d e c l a r a t i o n on t h e IOPZ. As t h e Ad Hoc Committee became t h e m a j o r f o r u m o f d i s c u s s i o n s and c o n s u l t a t i o n on t h e IOPZ, S r i L a n k a o c c u p i e d an i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n a t t h e c e n t r e o f d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s s u e . S r i Lanka p l a y e d a d u a l r o l e a t t h e U.N. On t h e one hand, she assumed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as t h e C h a i r m a n o f t h e Ad Hoc Committee t o promote IOPZ i n g e n e r a l . On t h e o t h e r hand, S r i L a n k a h ad t o r e p r e s e n t h e r own n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s a n d c o m m u n i c a t e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f a s m a l l i s l a n d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n s o v e r t h e IOPZ i s s u e . The wide e x p e r i e n c e and t h e r e c o g n i t i o n e n j o y e d by h e r 282 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , S h i r l e y A m e r a s i n g h e , was a r e a l a s s e t t o S r i L a n k a i n t h i s r e g a r d . S r i L a n k a was v e r y c o n c e r n e d o v e r t h e new s u r g e o f n a v a l b u i l d up i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean d e s p i t e r e p e a t e d U.N. d e c l a r a t i o n s on t h e IOPZ. She was e s p e c i a l l y d i s t u r b e d when t h e U.S. D e f e n s e Department r e q u e s t e d a $29 m i l l i o n a u t h o r i z a t i o n f o r FY 1974 t o e x pand D i e g o G a r c i a t o a f u l l - f l e d g e d b a s e f a c i l i t y . On 8 F e b r u a r y 1974, P r i m e M i n i s t e r S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e d e s p a t c h e d a p e r s o n a l message o f p r o t e s t t o P r e s i d e n t N i x o n and t h e B r i t i s h P r i m e M i n i s t e r , Edward H e a t h , r e q u e s t i n g them t o r e c o n s i d e r t h e d e c i s i o n t o e xpand t h e D i e g o G a r c i a b a s e . S r i L a n k a e x e r t e d p r e s s u r e n o t o n l y on t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b u t a l s o on t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . D u r i n g h e r s t a t e v i s i t t o t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n November 1974, M r s . B a n d r a n a i k e c o n d u c t e d t a l k s w i t h P r i m e M i n i s t e r A.N. K o s y g i n , and F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r A.A. Gromyko, on a v a r i e t y o f i s s u e s r a n g i n g f r o m b i l a t e r a l c o o p e r a t i o n t o r e g i o n a l s e c u r i t y and w o r l d d i s a r m a m e n t . One o f t h e i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s o f d i s c u s s i o n was t h e I n d i a n Ocean p e a c e zone p r o p o s a l . The S r i L ankan i n t e n t i o n was t o p e r s u a d e t h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p t o change i t s p o s i t i o n on t h e IOPZ p r o p o s a l . But t h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p was n o t r e s p o n s i v e , c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e p r o p o s a l went c o n t r a r y t o e s t a b l i s h e d p r i n c i p l e s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e f r e e d o m o f n a v i g a t i o n . I n t h e J o i n t S o v i e t - S r i L a n k a communique on 17 N o v e m b e r 1974 b o t h s i d e s m e r e l y c o n f i r m e d t h e i r \" p r e p a r e d n e s s t o p a r t i c i p a t e t o g e t h e r w i t h a l l i n t e r e s t e d s t a t e s on a b a s i s o f e q u a l i t y i n s e a r c h f o r a f a v o u r a b l e s o l u t i o n t o t h e 6 7 J o i n t S o v i e t - S r i L a n k a Communique, 17 November, 1974, News R e l e a s e f r o m t h e M i n i s t r y o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s , S r i L a n k a . 283 q u e s t i o n o f t u r n i n g t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t o a zone o f peace i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h p r i n c i p l e s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w \" . ^ 8 I n v i e w o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e a t t a c h e d by S r i L a n k a t o t h e IOPZ, i n c l u s i o n o f t h e above c l a u s e r e f l e c t e d n o t h i n g more t h a n an e x p r e s s i o n o f d i p l o m a t i c c o u r t e s y . A f t e r 1974, two s u b t l e d e v e l o p m e n t s can be d i s c e r n e d i n t h e S r i L a nkan a p p r o a c h t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean p r o b l e m . F i r s t l y , t h e e a r l i e r , more c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e t o t h e West began g r a d u a l l y t o m e l l o w . The c r i t i c a l l a n g u a g e t h a t Mrs. B a n d a r a n a i k e had u s e d t o w a r d s t h e West a t t h e L u s a k a C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e n o n - a l i g n e d s t a t e s i n 1970 and a t t h e Commonwealth C o n f e r e n c e i n 1971 i n S i n g a p o r e was a b s e n t f r o m h e r s p e e c h a t t h e C o l o m b o Summit C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e N o n - A l i g n e d S t a t e s i n A u g u s t 1976. S e c o n d l y , and more i m p o r t a n t l y , S r i L a n k a gave g r e a t e r p r o m i n e n c e t o h e r s e c u r i t y c o n c e r n s i n S o u t h A s i a . A c c o r d i n g l y , S r i L a n k a c a r e f u l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d h e r p o s i t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e IOPZ f r o m t h a t o f t h e d ominant medium power i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. F o r example, S h i r l e y A m e r a s i n g h e s t a t e d i n t h e F i r s t Committee t h a t : We do n o t want any g r e a t powers t h e r e . By t h e same t o k e n , we do n o t i n t e n d t h a t we s h o u l d d r i v e o u t S a t a n by B e e l z e b u b and a l l o w some o t h e r powers w i t h i n t h e g r o u p o f l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s t o t a k e t h e p l a c e o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . 6 9 When P a k i s t a n i n i t i a t e d t h e p r o p o s a l f o r a N u c l e a r F r e e Zone f o r S o u t h A s i a i n 1974, S r i L a n k a became a s t r o n g s u p p o r t e r . T h i s i n v a r i a b l y c a u s e d i r r i t a t i o n and a n x i e t y i n I n d i a . I n a s e n s e , t h e s e changes a r e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n s o f t h e t r e n d s t h a t were 6 8 I b i d . 6 9U.N. Doc A/C/PV.2096, November 1976, p. 36. 284 a p p e a r i n g f r o m 1970. Two f a c t o r s a r e m a i n l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s e changes i n t h e S r i L a nkan r e s p o n s e t o s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The f i r s t i s t h e s u c c e s s f u l d e t o n a t i o n o f a 15 K i l o t o n P l u t o n i u m d e v i c e by I n d i a i n May 1974. Though I n d i a r e p e a t e d l y d e c l a r e d t h a t she i n t e n d e d t o use n u c l e a r power o n l y f o r p e a c e f u l p u r p o s e s , h e r n e i g h b o u r s , i n c l u d i n g S r i L a n k a , c o n s i d e r e d i t a c r u c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t . I n o r d e r t o gauge t h e i m p a c t o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t on t h e s e c u r i t y p e r c e p t i o n s o f S r i L a n k a , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o l o c a t e i t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f an h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d x l o v e - h a t e ' r e l a t i o n s h i p between I n d i a and S r i L a n k a . F e a r o f t h e x b i g b r o t h e r ' has a l w a y s been an e l e m e n t o f t h e S r i L a nkan p s y c h e . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , I n d i a ' s n u c l e a r e x p l o s i o n was c o n s i d e r e d by S r i L a n k a as a m a t t e r o f g r a v e c o n c e r n . A f t e r t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f n u c l e a r c a p a b i l i t y b y I n d i a , one o f t h e t w o c o n d i t i o n s t h a t M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e p r e s e n t e d as a f a c t o r c o n d u c i v e t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f IOPZ i n 1971 was changed. The s e c o n d f a c t o r was t h e a c u t e l y f e l t n eed f o r e c o nomic a s s i s t a n c e f r o m t h e West t o o v e r c o m e t h e s e r i o u s e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m s w h i c h c o n f r o n t e d S r i L a n k a a f t e r 1974. The e c o nomic s t r a t e g y d e c l a r e d a t t h e b e g i n i n g o f t h e U n i t e d F r o n t Government i n 197 0 was b a s e d on i n w a r d - l o o k i n g i m p o r t s u b s t i t u t i o n and t i g h t s t a t e c o n t r o l . The U n i t e d F r o n t (UF) Government p l e d g e d t o \" r e s t r u c t u r e t h e economy t h r o u g h s t a t e c o n t r o l o f t h e e n t i r e economy i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r a b l y e x t e n d e d \" and t o \"put an end t o t h e p o l i c i e s o f e c o n o m i c dependence and n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m w h i c h have c h a r a c t e r i z e d 285 t h e p r e v i o u s r e g i m e . \" I n t h i s e conomic s t r a t e g y , l i t t l e r e l i a -nce was p l a c e d on f o r e i g n and p r i v a t e i n v e s t m e n t . T h i s \" s h o r t t e r m p a i n f o r l o n g t e r m g a i n \" s t r a t e g y e n c o u n t e r e d many s t r u c t u -r a l and m a n a g e r i a l p r o b l e m s f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e w o r l d f o o d c r i s i s i n 1973, t h e economic d i s l o c a -t i o n and p a i n s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e government's economic p o l i c y were so s t r o n g t h a t t h e r e g i m e was on t h e v e r g e o f c o l l a p s e . The goverment f o r e s a w a more r u g g e d p a t h ahead w i t h t h e OPEC o i l p r i c e - h i k e i n O c t o b e r 1973. C o n s e q u e n t l y , c e r t a i n changes were made i n economic s t r a t e g y a f t e r 1974. The e a r l i e r c o n f i d e n c e i n s e l f r e l i a n c e and i m p o r t s u b s t i t u t i o n and p u b l i c s e c t o r economic v e n t u r e s began t o w i t h e r away. T h i s change i n government e c o n o -m i c s t r a t e g y c o i n c i d e d w i t h changes i n t h e power b a l a n c e o f t h e UF Government. The r i g h t w i n g e l e m e n t s g a i n e d more s t r e n g t h and began t o d o m i n a t e t h e government. The changes i n t h e power c o n s t e l l a t i o n d e v e l o p e d i n t o a c r i s i s w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n t h e o u s t e r o f t h e L a n k a Sama Samaja P a r t y ( L S S P ) , one o f t h e s o c i a -l i s t j u n i o r p a r t n e r s o f t h e g o v e r n i n g c o a l i t i o n . T h i s f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h e r n e d t h e f o r c e s b e h i n d t h e changes i n government s t r a -t e g y . The Budget Speech o f 1975 marked a c l e a r d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e e a r l i e r p o l i c y . New r i g h t w i n g F i n a n c e M i n i s t e r , F.R. D i a s B a n d a r a n a i k e , s t a t e d t h a t \" I do n o t a c c e p t f o r a moment t h a t o u t of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f e a r t h a t s u b v e r s i o n c o u l d a r i s e f r o m f o r e i g n c o m p a n i e s t o o u r e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , we s h o u l d 71 t h e r e f o r e e x c l u d e f o r e i g n i n v e s t m e n t \" . He e m p h a s i z e d t h e need \" f o r t h e i n f u s i o n o f new e x t e r n a l c a p i t a l f r o m p r i v a t e s o u r c e s t o 7 n C e y l o n . H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s , H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , V o l . 90, 14 June 1970, C. 110. 286 be u s e d i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f new e n t e r p r i s e s \" . M e asures were t a k e n t o a t t r a c t f o r e i g n i n v e s t m e n t and an a t t e m p t was made t o o b t a i n f o r e i g n a i d : F o r e i g n i n v e s t m e n t s were g i v e n g u a r a n t e e s u n d e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w i n v o l v i n g t h e r i g h t o f a p p e a l f r o m S r i Lankan c o u r t s t o t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t r e f o r I n v e s t m e n t D i s p u t e s i n W a s h i n g t o n . A new l a w was announced i n e a r l y J a n u a r y (1976) t o remove o b s t a c l e s t o f o r e i g n i n v e s t m e n t s by amending t h e B u s i n e s s A c q u i s i t i o n A c t . 7 2 The p r o s p e c t o f o b t a i n i n g l a r g e - s c a l e f o r e i g n i n v e s t m e n t and f o r e i g n a i d f r o m t h e S o v i e t b l o c was b e l i e v e d t o be r e m o t e . W e s t e r n economic a s s i s t a n c e began t o f i g u r e on a l a r g e s c a l e i n t h e e c o n omic t h i n k i n g o f t h e Government. I t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c e r n l i n k a g e d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e changes i n i n t e r n a l e conomic S t r a t e g y and changes i n t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y f i e l d . T h i s was shown by a m e l l o w i n g o f t h e c r i t i c i s m o f t h e West and a c o n s p i c u o u s l y m o d erate s t a n d on t h e n o n - a l i g n e d p o l i t i c a l s t a g e . As P.V.J. J a y a s e k e r a p o i n t e d o u t : The c e n t r a l o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s r o l e as f a r as S r i L a n k a i s c o n c e r n e d i s t o m a i n t a i n and enhance t h e f l o w o f a i d f r o m t h e W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s - an i m p e r a t i v e need upon w h i c h t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s p r e s e n t e c onomic s t r a t e g y depends.73 The most i m p o r t a n t s i n g l e e v e n t i n t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y f i e l d a f t e r 1974 was t h e F i f t h C o n f e r e n c e o f Heads o f S t a t e s o r G o v e r -nments o f N o n - A l i g n e d c o u n t r i e s h e l d i n Colombo i n A u g u s t 1976, a t w h i c h t i m e S r i L a n k a assumed l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e movement / J-F.R. D i a s B a n d a r a n a i k e , M.P., B u d g e t S p e e c h 1976. (Colombo: R e p u b l i c o f S r i L a n k a , 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 12. 7 2 P . V . J . J a y a s e k e r a , \" S r i L a n k a i n 1976: C h a n g i n g S t r a t e g i e s and C o n f r o n t a t i o n , \" A s i a n S u r v e y . X V I I : 2 ( F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 7 ) , p. 209. 7 3 I b i d . , p. 217 287 f o r t h e n e x t t h r e e y e a r s . M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s more moderate r o l e a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e was i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e changes i n t h e e a r l i e r i d e l o g i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d ' a n t i - W e s t e r n ' f o r e i g n p o l i c y . A t t h e Con-f e r e n c e , IOPZ was a m a j o r i t e m o f d i s c u s s i o n . One s e s s i o n o f t h e C o n f e r e n c e d i s c u s s e d t h e IOPZ p r o p o s a l and a p p r o v e d a R e s o l u t i o n i n s u p p o r t o f e s t a b l i s h i n g s u c h a zone. However, t h i s d i d n o t go b e y o n d a n o t e o f s u p p o r t and c e r e m o n i a l a p p r o v a l as u s u a l . S r i L a nkan p o l i c y t o w a r d s s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and IOPZ became a m a t t e r o f d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e N a t i o n a l S t a t e A s s e m b l y when w a r s h i p s a t t a c h e d t o t h e US S e v e n t h F l e e t v i s i t e d C o l o m b o i n O c t o b e r 1 9 7 5 . Two m i s s i l e - c a r r y i n g d e s t r o y e r s o f t h e US Navy - t h e USS Warden, and t h e USS T u r n e r J o y - and a US F l e e t r e p l a c e m e n t v e s s e l a r r i v e d i n Colombo f o r a f o u r - d a y r o u t i n e v i s i t . 7 4 The LSSP, now i n o p p o s i t i o n , a t t e m p t e d t o make use o f t h e e v e n t t o d i s c r e d i t t h e Government and a s k e d t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r how t h e g r a n t i n g o f p o r t v i s i t s t o t h e n a v a l v e s s e l s o f t h e US S e v e n t h F l e e t c o u l d be r e c o n c i l e d w i t h t h e Government's p r o f e s s e d p o l i c y f o r t h e IOPZ. Mr s . B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s r e p l y was v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g and marked a s h a r p b r e a k f r o m h e r e a r l i e r p e r s p e c t i v e . She d e c l a r e d T h e r e i s n o t h i n g i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e IOPZ D e c l a r a t i o n i n a f o r e i g n w a r s h i p , i n c l u d i n g t h a t o f t h e G r e a t P o w e r s , v i s i t i n g S r i L a n k a p o r t s f o r any p u r p o s e n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a t h r e a t o r use o f f o r c e a g a i n s t any c o a s t a l o r h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean p r o v i d e d a l s o t h a t t h e v i s i t s a r e n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h any b a s e f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e s e v e s s e l s i n S r i Lanka.75 7 4 S r i L a n k a , J a t i k a R a i v a S a b a V i v a d a , D e b a t e s o f t h e N a t i o n a l S t a t e C o u n c i l ) V o l . 15: No. 15, 4 November 1975, p. 2567 . 7 5 I b i d . , p. 2571. 288 The e x p l a n a t i o n does n o t c o n t r a d i c t t h e l e t t e r o f t h e 1971 UN D e c l a r a t i o n on t h e IOPZ b u t i n d i c a t e d c l e a r l y t h e b a c k - p e d a l l i n g on t h e e a r l i e r s t a n d . As S r i L a n k a s e c u r i t y c o n c e r n s came t o t h e f o r e f r o n t , S r i L a n k a n p o l i c y became more d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h a t o f I n d i a . S r i L a n k a l i n k e d IOPZ w i t h t h e S o u t h A s i a n N u c l e a r F r e e Zone i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e I n d i a n s t a n d w h i c h s e p a r a t e d t h e two i s s u e s and c o n c e n t r a t e d m a i n l y on e x t e r n a l n a v a l a c t i v i t i e s . The d e n u c l e a r i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be an i n h e r e n t p a r t o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean Peace Zone programme. The i s s u e was d i s c u s s e d by t h e AD Hoc Committee i n 1973. Some c o u n t r i e s i n t h e l i t t o r a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y S r i L a n k a , P a k i s t a n , and I n d o n e s i a were o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t one way o f a c h i e v i n g t h e IOPZ was t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f n u c l e a r f r e e zones i n t h e v a r i o u s s u b -s y s t e m s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. A c c o r d i n g l y , r e g i o n a l s t a t e s s h o u l d g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e y w o u l d n o t m a n u f a c t u r e o r b r i n g n u c l e a r weapons i n t o t h e a r e a . A f t e r t h e e x p l o s i o n o f a n u c l e a r d e v i c e by I n d i a , t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n u c l e a r f r e e zone i n S o u t h A s i a r e c e i v e d new i m p e t u s . P a k i s t a n t o o k t h e l e a d , p a r t l y t o d i s c r e d i t I n d i a , and i n t r o d u c e d a p r o p o s a l t o t h e U.N. G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y i n 1974 t o d e c l a r e S o u t h A s i a a n u c l e a r f r e e zone. I n d i a s t r o n g l y opposed t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l agreement i n t h i s r e g a r d and i n t r o d u c e d i t s own r e s o l u t i o n w h i c h u r g e d c o u n t r i e s i n S o u t h A s i a t o t a k e t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e s t o w a r d s a n u c l e a r f r e e zone. As s u c h a S o u t h A s i a n n u c l e a r f r e e zone became an i s s u e i n t h e C o l d War between I n d i a and P a k i s t a n . The U.N. G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a p p r o v e d b o t h r e s o l u t i o n s ( S r i L a n k a v o t e d f o r b o t h ) and r e q u e s t e d t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l t o convene a m e e t i n g o f t h e s t a t e s o f t h e S o u t h 289 A s i a n r e g i o n , a n d o t h e r i n t e r e s t e d n e i g h b o u r i n g n o n - n u c l e a r s t a t e s t o i n i t i a t e c o n s u l a t i o n s w i t h a v i e w t o e s t a b l i s h i n g a n u c l e a r f r e e zone i n S o u t h A s i a . But d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n , m a i n l y between I n d i a and P a k i s t a n , were so s t r o n g t h a t t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l d i d n o t convene t h e m e e t i n g e n v i s a g e d . The I n d i a n p o s i t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e S o u t h A s i a n n u c l e a r f r e e zone i s t h a t t h e s t a t e s o f t h e r e g i o n must f i r s t a g r e e among t h e m s e l v e s about t h e b a s i c c o n d i t i o n s o f a n u c l e a r f r e e zone b e f o r e b r i n g i n g t h e q u e s t i o n t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g t o I n d i a , S o u t h A s i a c o u l d n o t be t r e a t e d i n i s o l a t i o n and i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s e c u r i t y e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e r e g i o n as a w h o l e . The e x i s t e n c e o f n u c l e a r weapons i n A s i a and t h e P a c i f i c and t h e p r e s e n c e o f f o r e i g n m i l i t a r y b a s e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean c o m p l i c a t e d t h e s e c u r i t y e n v i r o n m e n t and made t h e s i t u a t i o n i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n u c l e a r f r e e 7 fi zone i n t h e s u b - r e g i o n o f S o u t h A s i a . \u00C2\u00B0 P a k i s t a n a g r e e d i n p r i n c i p l e t o c o n s u l t a t i o n as a c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f a S o u t h A s i a n n u c l e a r f r e e zone b u t p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e r e was no b a r t o G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e m a t t e r . F u r t h e r , P a k i s t a n s t a t e d t h a t i f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f n u c l e a r weapons i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f S o u t h A s i a t h r e a t e n e d t h e s e c u r i t y o f S o u t h A s i a n s t a t e s , a r r a n g e m e n t s c o u l d be made t h r o u g h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a d e n u c l e a r i z e d z o n e t o o b t a i n b i n d i n g u n d e r t a k i n g s f r o m t h e n u c l e a r weapon s t a t e s n o t t o i n t r o -77 duce s u c h weapons i n t o t h e r e g i o n . 7 \" Y e a r b o o k o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , V o l . 29, 1975 (New Y o r k : Department o f P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n , 1 9 7 8 ) , p. 42. 7 7 I b i d . 290 S r i L a n k a l i n k e d t h e c o n c e p t o f a n u c l e a r f r e e zone w i t h IOPZ as e a r l y as 1964 . L o o k i n g a t t h e p r o b l e m f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f a s m a l l i s l a n d s t a t e , S r i L a n k a ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , S h i r l e y A m e r a s i n g h e , s t a t e d on 11 November 1974 t h a t \" i f a new n u c l e a r -weapon power were t o emerge i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n , t h e d e n u c l e a r i z a t i o n and a l s o t h e d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e a r e a w o u l d 7 8 be s e r i o u s l y j e o p a r d i z e d \" . Though S r i L a n k a v o t e d i n f a v o u r o f b o t h r e s o l u t i o n s , she was somewhat c r i t i c a l o f t h e I n d i a n d r a f t f o r i t d i d n o t h a v e any o p e r a t i o n a l p a r a g r a p h f o r c o n c r e t e a c t i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, she p o i n t e d out t h a t t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y had a l r e a d y e n d o r s e d i n p r i n c i p l e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f n u c l e a r - w e a p o n f r e e z o n e s . S r i L a n k a ' s p o s i t i o n i s c l e a r l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e ; she had t o m a i n t a i n a d e l i c a t e b a l a n c e w h i l e p u s h i n g t h r o u g h h e r own a t t i t u d e t o t h e i s s u e . Naval Arms Limitations Talks i n the Indian Ocean A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1977 s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean seemed t o have r e a c h e d a p o i n t o f s t a l e m a t e . S u p e r -power s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean had s t a b i l i z e d . The IOPZ p r o p o s a l had bogged down i n f a c e o f t h e d i v i s i o n s and c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . T h i s c l i m a t e i n I n d i a n Ocean p o l i t i c s s u d d e n l y changed w i t h t h e commencement o f t h e N a v a l Arms L i m i t a t i o n T a l k s (NALT) on t h e I n d i a n Ocean between t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n mid-1977. The p r o s p e c t f o r b i l a t e r a l arms c o n t r o l i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean had been d i s c u s s e d f r o m t i m e t o t i m e by b o t h powers s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1970s. I n t h e s p r i n g o f 1971 t h e S o v i e t Ambassador i n 7 8U.N. Doc. A/C/PV 2015, p. 12 291 W a s h i n g t o n , A n a t o l y D o b r y n i n , r a i s e d t h e i s s u e o f m u t u a l n a v a l r e s t r a i n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean w i t h t h e U.S. S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , W i l l i a m R o g e r s . Three months l a t e r , i n June 1971 B r e z h n e v , i n h i s E l e c t i o n Eve Speech, h i n t e d t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w o u l d be p r e p a r e d t o d i s c u s s n a v a l c o n t r o l i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. He s t a t e d t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n \"do n o t t h i n k now t h a t i t i s an i d e a l s i t u a t i o n when t h e n a v i e s o f g r e a t powers a r e s a i l i n g f o r a l o n g t i m e a t t h e o t h e r end o f t h e w o r l d - I n d i a n Ocean -, away f r o m t h e i r n a t i v e c o a s t s . We a r e r e a d y t o s o l v e t h i s p r o b l e m b u t t o make an e q u a l b a r g a i n \" . 7 9 I n J u l y , t h e U.S. Ambassador i n Moscow, J a c o b Bean, i n f o r m e d t h e S o v i e t F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a c c e p t e d i n p r i n c i p l e an a g r e e m e n t t o r e s t r a i n n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and w o u l d l i k e t o know \"more about what t h e S o v i e t s had i n mind. Gromyko r e s p o n d e d t h a t he had n o t been b r i e f e d and s u g g e s t e d t h a t he w o u l d l o o k i n t o i t . The m a t t e r was n e v e r a g a i n r a i s e d by t h e S o v i e t s . \" o u Nor d i d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p u r s u e t h e m a t t e r . N e i t h e r power wanted an agreement on m u t u a l r e s t r a i n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a t t h a t j u n c t u r e . The i s s u e o f I n d i a n Ocean arms c o n t r o l was r a i s e d once a g a i n i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e c o n g r e s s i o n a l c h a l l e n g e t o t h e D i e g o G a r c i a e x p a n s i o n p l a n i n 1975. A t t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e C o n g r e s s , t h e D epartment o f S t a t e e x a m i n e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m u t u a l n a v a l arms r e s t r a i n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and r e p o r t e d t h a t \" a p p r o a c h i n g t h e S o v i e t s on I n d i a n Ocean arms c o n t r o l w o u l d be i n a p p r o p r i a t e s i n c e 7 9 W a s h i n q t o n P o s t . 12 June 1971. 8 0 S i c k , op. c i t . , p. 61. 292 i t m i g h t s e r v e t o l e g i t i m i z e S o v i e t a c t i v i t i e s t h a t were c o n s i -d e r e d h a r m f u l t o U.S. i n t e r e s t s \" . F i n a l l y , t h e a u t h o r i z a t i o n f o r t h e D i e g o G a r c i a e x p a n s i o n p r o j e c t was a p p r o v e d b u t s e c t i o n 407(a) s t i p u l a t e d t h a t I t i s t h e s e n s e o f C o n g r e s s t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t s h o u l d u n d e r t a k e t o e n t e r i n t o n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n t e n d e d t o a c h i e v e an agreement l i m i t i n g t h e d e p l o y m e n t o f n a v a l , a i r and l a n d f o r c e s o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean\".82 The F o r d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d i d n o t t a k e any a c t i o n and i t was t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t h a t t o o k t h e i n i t i a t i v e . A t f i r s t , P r e s i d e n t C a r t e r s t a t e d t h a t he f a v o u r e d t h e c o m p l e t e d e m i l i t a r i -z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. L a t e r he m o d i f i e d t h i s t o r e f e r t o \"arms l i m i t a t i o n s \" . I n h i s a d d r e s s t o t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n March 1977 P r e s i d e n t C a r t e r d e c l a r e d , \"We w i l l s e ek t o e s t a b l i s h S o v i e t w i l l i n g n e s s t o r e a c h agreement w i t h us p o on m u t u a l m i l i t a r y r e s t r a i n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean\". The S o v i e t U n i o n r e s p o n d e d t o t h e U.S. i n i t i a t i v e s p o s i t i v e l y . T h i s t i m e b o t h s i d e s were r e a d y t o c a r r y out m e a n i n g f u l n e g o t i a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g m u t u a l arms r e s t r a i n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Th e r e were s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . I n t h e c u r r e n t p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e b o t h powers were c o n t e n t w i t h t h e i r s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n s i n t h e 0 1 A . B e s t , J r , \" I n d i a n Ocean Arms C o n t r o l , \" U.S. N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r o c e e d i n g s , 106:2 (Feb., 1 9 8 0 ) , p. 44. p p U.S., C o n g r e s s , House, Committee on Armed S e r v i c e s , I n d i a n O c e a n F o r c e s L i m i t a t i o n a n d C o n v e n t i o n a l Arms T r a n s f e r L i m i t a t i o n s - R e p o r t , 9 5 t h Cong., 2nd S e s s . , ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O., 1979) , p. 13 p r> O J R e a r A d m i r a l R o b e r t J . Hanks, USN, d i s c u s s e s e v o l u t i o n o f P r e s i d e n t C a r t e r s p o s i t i o n i n \"The I n d i a n Ocean N e g o t i a t i o n s : R o c k s and S h o a l s , \" S t r a t e g i c R eview, V I : 1 ( W i n t e r 1 9 7 8 ) , pp. 18-27. 293 Indian Ocean. The United States hoped that t h e i r i n t e r e s t s could be adequately protected by the Diego Garcia base and close co-operation with Iran and Saudi Arabia. On the other hand, the Soviet Union \"by b u i l d i n g up Berbera and other m i l i t a r y i n s t a l -l a t i o n s i n Somalia created a counter-weight to Diego Garcia, along with a bargaining counter f o r use i n b i l a t e r a l mutual l i m i t a t i o n t a l k s \" . Thus, both p a r t i e s were i n t e r e s t e d i n main-t a i n i n g the status quo. In a d d i t i o n , the Indian Ocean area was s t i l l not a major area with regard to force presence. As Dr. L e s l i e H. Gelb, D i r e c t o r , P o l i t i c o - M i l i t a r y A f f a i r s of the U.S. Department of State put i t : Given the importance and growing U.S. and Soviet i n t e r e s t s i n the Indian Ocean there i s c l e a r l y a p o t e n t i a l f o r a major i n c r e a s e i n m i l i t a r y presence. Any increase i n the m i l i t a r y presence of one side could lead to a r e a c t i v e increase by the other. S t a b i l i z i n g and perhaps eventually r e t r i e v -ing m i l i t a r y l e v e l s would pre-empt the development of an arms race.85 Against t h i s backdrop, four rounds of negotiations were held between the two governments from June 1977 to February 1978. The f i r s t took place i n Moscow i n July 1977 where the b a s i c framework of the n e g o t i a t i o n s was concluded. S i g n i f i c a n t progress was made at the second round of n e g o t i a t i o n s h e l d i n Washington i n September 1977. A d r a f t was p r e p a r e d aiming at s t a b i l i z i n g e x i s t i n g naval force l e v e l s as a f i r s t step with the i n t e n t i o n of \" I n d i a n Ocean: Region of C o n f l i c t or 'Peace Zone' P.69 p c \"U.S., Congress, House, Subcommittee on the I n t e l l i g e n c e and M i l i t a r y A p p l i c a t i o n of Nuclear Energy, Committee on Armed S e r v i c e s , I n d i a n Ocean Arms L i m i t a t i o n s and M u l t i l a t e r a l Cooperation on R e s t r a i n i n g Conventional Arms Transfers, Hearings, 95th Cong., 2ns Sess., (Washington: G.P.O., 1979), p. 6. 294 s u b s e q u e n t r e d u c t i o n . \"Under a s t a b l i z a t i o n agreement n e i t h e r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s n o r t h e S o v i e t U n i o n c o u l d i n c r e a s e t h e s i z e o f i t s m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean o r s i g n i f i c a n a t l y a l t e r i t s p a t t t e r n o f d e p l o y m e n t s \" . 8 ^ The S o v i e t U n i o n was p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t D i e g o G a r c i a . T h i s o p t i m i s m d i d n o t l a s t l o n g . Due t o d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e Horn o f A f r i c a , n e g o t i a t i n g p o s i t i o n s began t o change. F o r t h e t h i r d r o u n d o f n e g o t i a t i o n s , b o t h p a r t i e s met i n B e r n e i n December 1977. By t h a t t i m e t h e S o v i e t U n i o n had been f o r c e d t o g i v e up B e r b e r a . \"Moscow now demanded d r a s t i c r e d u c -t i o n s i n A m e r i c a n a c t i v i t i e s i n D i e g o G a r c i a t o r e s t o r e t h e l o s t ft \"7 b a l a n c e . \" 0 On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o n c e n t r a t e d m a i n l y on s t a b i l i z a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n r e d u c t i o n . Though t h e r e were d i f f e r e n c e s , b o t h p a r t i e s a g r e e d t o meet a g a i n i n F e b r u a r y 1978 i n B e r n e . Meantime, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n [and Cuba] were m i l i t a r i l y i n v o l v e d i n p o l i t i c s i n t h e Horn A f r i c a g i v i n g m a s s i v e s u p p o r t t o E t h i o p i a (sea l i f t and a i r l i f t ) . When b o t h p a r t i e s met i n B e r n e i n F e b r u a r y 1978 t h e p r o b l e m o f I n d i a n Ocean b a s e s and w i d e s p r e a d U.S. o p p o s i t i o n t o S o v i e t m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e Horn o f A f r i c a loomed l a r g e . As a r e s u l t , U.S. C h i e f N e g o t i a t o r P a u l Warneke b r o k e o f f n e g o t i a t i o n s . The U.S. S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , Vance, l a t e r s t a t e d t h a t t h e t a l k s h ad o n l y been p o s t p o n e d and w o u l d be resumed t o s t a b i l i z e t h e m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e o f b o t h s i d e s a t t h e l e v e l s w h i c h p r e v a i l e d u n t i l r e c e n t months, and t h e n t o c o n s i d e r p o s s i b l e r e d u c t i o n \" . 8 8 L a t e r , i n June 1979, P r e s i d e n t 8 ^ I n d i a n Ocean Arms L i m i t a t i o n and M u l t i l a t e r a l C o o p e r a t i o n ; op. c i t . , p. 6. 8 7 I b i d . 8 8 U . S . W i r e l e s s B u l l e t i n , 11 A p r i l 1978, p. 4. 295 Carter assured the Soviet side that the t a l k s would be resumed i n the near futu r e . This, however, d i d not m a t e r i a l i z e . In the changed p o l i t i c a l context, n e i t h e r side wanted to pursue an agreement on r e s t r a i n i n g naval forces i n the Indian Ocean. On the contrary, both s t a r t e d strengthening t h e i r naval power i n the Indian Ocean. 296 Chapter VII The New Wave of Superpower Naval Rivalry and Increased M i l i t a r i z a t i o n i n the Indian Ocean The breakdown o f t h e N a v a l Arms L i m i t a t i o n T a l k s (NALT) s e t i n m o t i o n a new s t a g e o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n t h e p e r i o d between t h e s u s p e n s i o n o f NALT and t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e C a r t e r D o c t r i n e i n J a n u a r y 1980, t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d n a v a l - s t r a t e g i c s i t u a t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n cha n g e d d r a s t i c a l l y . W i t h t h e c o n v u l s i v e p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e Horn and s o u t h e r n A f r i c a , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n e n t e r e d more a s s e r t i v e l y i n t o t h e p o l i t i c s o f t h e r e g i o n . The e x p l o s i o n o f t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n i n J a n u a r y 197 9 and t h e S o v i e t i n t e r v e n -t i o n i n A f g h a n i s t a n i n December 1979 p r o v i d e d c a t a l y s t s t o change t h e s t r a t e g i c s i t u a t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The p o l i t i c a l and m i l i t a r y r e s p o n s e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s u s h e r e d i n a new p h a s e i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f A m e r i c a n p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The c o l l a p s e o f t h e Shah's r e g i m e i n I r a n marked t h e end o f t h e t w i n p i l l a r p o l i c y i n t h e G u l f , and S o v i e t i n t e r -v e n t i o n i n A f g h a n i s t a n s h a t t e r e d t h e r e m a i n i n g hope o f h a v i n g m u t u a l b a l a n c e and r e s t r a i n t o f n a v a l a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n . The b r e a k d o w n o f NALT a n d t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f s u p e r p o w e r r e l a t i o n s were c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l s and e n s u i n g v o l a t i l i t y i n t h e s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e v a r c o f c r i s i s ' as t h e a r e a f r o m E t h i o p i a t h r o u g h Yemen a n d I r a n t o A f g h a n i s t a n was d u b b e d by Z b i g n i e v B r z e z i n s k i . 297 I n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e 1970s, t h e Horn and s o u t h e r n A f r i c a came i n c r e a s i n g l y u n d e r s u p e r p o w e r c o m p e t i t i o n . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t h e s e t w o r e g i o n s w e r e s u b j e c t e d t o r a d i c a l p o l i t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . N a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n f o r c e s began t o overwhelm t h e a r e a r e s u l t i n g i n a s t a t e o f f l u x w h i c h t h r e a t e n e d W e s t e r n p o s i t i o n s i n t h e r e g i o n . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n e n t e r e d r a p i d l y i n t o t h e p o l i t i c s o f t h i s r e g i o n . The w e a k e n i n g o f t h e g r a s p o f c o l o n i a l i s m i n A f r i c a , a f t e r t h e C a e t a n o d i c t a t o r s h i p i n P o r t u g a l was o v e r t h r o w n i n 1974, e x p e d i t e d t h e d e c o l o n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s and s t r e n g t h e n e d n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n movements. I n t h e l a t e r p a r t o f 1970s, n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n movements i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s had g r e a t e r s u c c e s s i n a c h i e v i n g p o l i t i c a l p o w e r . A t t h e same t i m e , f r a t r i c i d a l s t r u g g l e s e r u p t e d among t h e l i b e r a t i o n g r o u p s t h e m s e l v e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n A n g o l a and Zimbabwe. I n t h e Horn o f A f r i c a , t h e E t h i o p i a n r e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e H a i l e S e l a s s i r e g i m e , a l o n g - s t a n d i n g and s t a u n c h w e s t e r n a l l y , e r o d e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l w e s t e r n p o s i t i o n c o n s i d e r a b l y . The s p r e a d o f S o v i e t i n f l u e n c e i n t h i s s t r a t e g i c a l l y and e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t a r e a was v i e w e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s as an a l a r m i n g t h r e a t t o i t s own p o s i t i o n . These changes i n t h e p o l i t i c a l l a n d s c a p e b r o u g h t t h e a r e a , w h i c h had h i t h e r t o been l e s s a f f e c t e d , d i r e c t l y w i t h i n t h e p u r v i e w o f s u p e r p o w e r c o m p e t i t i o n . Superpower c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e Horn and s o u t h e r n A f r i c a h ad many a s p e c t s . B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , as L a r r y W. Bowman o b s e r v e d , t h r e e l e v e l s o f c o n c e r n s h a p e d t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f s u p e r p o w e r 298 r i v a l r y i n t h e a r e a . F i r s t was t h e c o m p e t i t i o n f o r p o l i t i c a l , e c onomic and s t r a t e g i c i n f l u e n c e i n t h e r e g i o n , w h i c h was i t s e l f e x p e r i e n c i n g a p e r i o d o f c r u c i a l p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a -t i o n . The s e c o n d l e v e l o f c o n c e r n r e l a t e d t o t h e s t r a t e g i c s t a k e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean p e r s e . O b v i o u s l y , t h e w e s t e r n f l a n k o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l i s i m p o r t a n t f o r c o n t r o l o f t h e s t r a t e g i c p o i n t s and s e a l i n e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a c r o s s t h e Ocean. These c o n c e r n s i n v o l v e , t o q u o t e Bowman, \" t h e i n t e r p l a y among n a v a l s t r a t e g i e s , l a n d - b a s e d p o l i c i e s , t h e q u e s t f o r b a s e s ( o r f a c i l i t i e s ) , and g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n o f armament on and u n d e r t h e I n d i a n Ocean.\" F i n a l l y , b o t h s u p e r p o w e r s v i e w e d t h e r i v a l r i e s and e a c h o t h e r ' s p o l i c y i n t h e a r e a i n t h e c o n t e x t o f g l o b a l s u p e r p o w e r c o m p e t i t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , a t t h e t h i r d l e v e l , e v e r y move o f one s u p e r p o w e r i n t h e w e s t e r n I n d i a n Ocean was i n t e r -p r e t e d by t h e o t h e r on t h e b r o a d c h e s s b o a r d o f g l o b a l s t r a t e g i c b a l a n c e . The l i n k a g e s b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e l e v e l s a r e q u i t e o b v i o u s . The S o v i e t e n t r y i n t o t h e p o l i t i c s o f s o u t h e r n A f r i c a i s i n d e e d a r e c e n t phenomenon. I t had u n t i l r e c e n t l y been g i v e n a low p r i o r i t y i n S o v i e t p o l i c y . However, S o v i e t i n t e r e s t s and i n v o l v e m e n t s i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y i n t h e 1970s. S e v e r a l f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ' s f o r w a r d p o l i c y . A t f i r s t , t h e S o v i e t i n v o l v e m e n t a r o s e f r o m t h e i r s u p p o r t t o n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n movements. I n Mozambique, t h e S o v i e t s c u l t i v a t e d 1 . L a r r y W. Bowman, \" A f r i c a n C o n f l i c t a n d S u p e r p o w e r I n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e W e s t e r n I n d i a n Ocean,\" i n I n d i a n Ocean i n G l o b a l P o l i t i c s , L a r r y W. Bowman and I a n C l a r k , e d s . ( C o l o r a d o : W e s t v i e w P r e s s , 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 88. 2 I b i d . 299 r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e most p o w e r f u l l i b e r a t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n , F r e n t e de L i b e r a c c a de Mozambique ( F r e l i m o ) , and r e n d e r e d m a t e r i a l and p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t P o r t u g u e s e r u l e . I n A n g o l a , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n s u p p o r t e d MP LA o v e r t h e o t h e r r i v a l g r o u p s , t h e FLNA and UNITA. S o v i e t m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e and S o v i e t - b a c k e d Cuban t r o o p s were c r u c i a l f o r t h e MPLA i n t h e i r r i s e t o power. I n Zimbabwe, t h e Zimbabwe A f r i c a n N a t i o n a l U n i o n (ZANU) was b a c k e d by t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n i t s f r a c t r i c i d a l s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e Zimbabwe A f r i c a n P e o p l e s ' U n i o n (ZAPU). I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n was a b l e t o i n t e r v e n e i n t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e r e g i o n b e c a u s e o f i t s e n h a n c e d m i l i t a r y c a p a b i l i t y o v e r t h e p a s t d e c a d e . The r a p i d g r o w t h o f S o v i e t n a v a l and a i r l i f t c a p a b i l i t y gave them t h e a b i l i t y t o s h i p t r o o p s and m a t e r i a l f u r t h e r f r o m t h e i r b o r d e r s t h a n t h e y c o u l d b e f o r e . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n had many a d v a n t a g e s o v e r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Once t h e S o v i e t - b a c k e d n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n g r o u p s g a i n e d s t a t e power t h e y were g e n e r a l l y s y m p a t h e t i c t o t h e USSR. The S o v i e t U n i o n was e a g e r t o use i t s e a r l i e r c o n n e c t i o n s t o - o b t a i n a f a v o u r e d p o s i t i o n compared w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e r e w e r e many l i m i t a t i o n s , t o o . T h e s e n e w l y - i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s , Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and A n g o l a , were c a r e f u l n o t t o succumb c o m p l e t e l y t o t h e S o v i e t i n f l u e n c e , t h o u g h t h e y c l a i m e d t o f o l l o w s o c i a l i s m . The m a j o r a d v a n t a g e t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o u l d m u s t e r was i t s e c o nomic s t r e n g t h . These s t a t e s were i n u r g e n t need o f e c o nomic a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e i r s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t 3 F o r a good d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m s f a c e d by t h e s e s t a t e s see A n g r e A s t r o w , Zimbabwe j_ A R e v o l u t i o n t h a t L o s t I t s Way? (London : Zed P r e s s , 1 9 8 3 ) . 300 c h r o n i c u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t . However, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o n f r o n t e d m a j o r p r o b l e m s . W e s t e r n m u l t i - n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s p l a y e d a dominant r o l e i n t h e economic l i f e o f t h e r e g i o n and when t h e new r e g i m e s a t t e m p t e d t o g e t economic r e s o u r c e s u n d e r t h e i r c o n t r o l t h e y c l a s h e d w i t h t h e s e m u l t i - n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s . E a r l i e r A m e r i c a n i n d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e l i b e r a t i o n movements and c o n t i n u i n g r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n r e g i m e h i n d e r e d c u l t i v a t i o n o f c l o s e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t s o u t h e r n A f r i c a n s t a t e s . As s u c h , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h ad t o compete w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t o r e t a i n h e r p o s i t i o n a n d i n f l u e n c e i n t h e p o l i t i c a l l y v i b r a n t r e g i o n u n d e r u n f a v o u r a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . S o v i e t a c t i v i t i e s i n s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a have been c o n c e n -t r a t e d on t h r e e a r e a s v i z . , A n g o l a , Mozambique, and t h e Horn o f A f r i c a . The S o v i e t and Cuban i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e A n g o l a n c i v i l war on b e h a l f o f t h e MP LA was t h e f i r s t m a j o r S o v i e t m i l i t a r y o f f e n s i v e i n A f r i c a . I n O c t o b e r 1976, t h e USSR s i g n e d a f r i e n d s h i p and c o o p e r a t i o n t r e a t y w i t h A n g o l a . A c c o r d i n g t o C.I.A e s t i m a t e s , \"as o f 1978, Moscow had a r o u n d 1000 a d v i s e r s i n A n g o l a who w e r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f A n g o l a n m i l i t a r y . Cuba has m a i n t a i n e d a f o r c e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20,000 men i n A n g o l a \" . 4 As f a r as I n d i a n Ocean s t r a t e g i c d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e c o n c e r n e d S o v i e t r e l a t i o n s w i t h M o z a m b i q u e w e r e more i m p o r t a n t . From 1976 m a s s i v e S o v i e t m i l i t a r y a i d t o t h e Samora M a c h a l r e g i m e b r o u g h t t h e two c o u n t r i e s c l o s e r . I n 1977 t h e 4 C . I . A . , \" C o m m u n i s t A i d A c t i v i t i e s i n N o n - C o m m u n i s t L.D.C.'s,\" 1978, p. 4. q u o t e d i n U.S., C o n g r e s s , House Committee on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , S o v i e t P o l i c y and U n i t e d S t a t e s Response i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d - R e p o r t p r e p a r e d by t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e s , L i b r a r y o f C o n g r e s s , 97 C o n g r e s s , 1 s t S e s s . , ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O., 1981 ) , p. 60. 301 S o v i e t U n i o n c o n c l u d e d a f r i e n d s h i p and c o o p e r a t i o n t r e a t y . T h i s S o v i e t - M o z a m b i q u e l i n k made t h e h a r b o u r s o f Maputo, B e i r a and N a c a l a a v a i l a b l e t o t h e S o v i e t Navy. I n t h e Horn o f A f r i c a , t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e 1970s w i t n e s s e d a r e v e r s a l o f t h e p a t t e r n o f a l l i a n c e s . A f t e r t h e E t h i o p i a n r e v o l u t i o n , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n g o t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o have c l o s e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e M a r i a n M e n g i s t u r e g i m e i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e S a i d B a r r e government o f S o m a l i a . I n December 1976, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a g r e e d , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , t o e x t e n d $100 m i l l i o n i n m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e t o E t h i o p i a . P a r a l l e l t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f S o v i e t - E t h i o p i a n r e l a t i o n s , A m e r i c a n -E t h i o p i a n r e l a t i o n s d e t e r i o r a t e d r a p i d l y . E t h i o p i a t e r m i n a t e d i t s m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n A p r i l 1977. When S o m a l i a u s i n g S o v i e t arms i n v a d e d Ogaden, a r e g i o n i n E t h i o p i a i n h a b i t e d l a r g e l y by e t h n i c S o m a l i s , i n J u l y 1977, t h e S o v i e t s r e a d i l y came f o r w a r d t o a s s i s t E t h i o p i a , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e b r e a k d o w n o f S o v i e t - S o m a l i a n r e l a t i o n s . I n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 7, E t h i o p i a made i n t o a n o t h e r m i l i t a r y agreement w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n v o l v i n g t h e d e l i v e r y o f 48 MIG-21 f i g h t e r s , t a n k s , SAM 3 and SAM 7 m i s s i l e s , t o g e t h e r v a l u e d a t $385 m i l l i o n . 5 I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n u s e d h e r n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean t o a i r l i f t armaments t o E t h i o p i a d u r i n g t h e Ogaden wa r . A m p h i b i o u s a s s a u l t s h i p s , w h i c h b r o u g h t m a t e r i a l s i n , o p e r a t e d j u s t o u t s i d e t h e h a r b o u r o f Massawa. The S o v i e t U n i o n c o n c l u d e d a f r i e n d s h i p and c o o p e r a t i o n t r e a t y w i t h E t h i o p i a i n November 1977. The U n i t e d S t a t e s v i e w e d t h e g r o w t h o f S o v i e t i n f l u e n c e as t a n t a m o u n t t o a d e c l i n e o f h e r own p o s i t i o n and f e a r e d t h a t i t 5 I b i d . , p. 58. 302 w o u l d r e s u l t i n f u t u r e l o s s o f a c c e s s t o s t r a t e g i c m i n e r a l s and r e s o u r c e s . A c c o r d i n g t o a C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e ( L i b r a r y o f C o n g r e s s ) r e p o r t : t h e c o u n t r i e s on t h e Horn have been a p r i m e S o v i e t t a r g e t . M i l i t a r i l y , a f o o t h o l d on t h i s r e g i o n : (1) o f f e r s a g r e a t e r a b i l i t y t o d i s r u p t o n g o i n g w e s t e r n m i l i t a r y and c o m m e r c i a l t r a f f i c ; (2) a f f o r d s g r e a t e r p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ' s own a c c e s s t o t h e I n d i a n O c e a n ; a n d (3) e n a b l e s t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t o e s t a b l i s h a f o r w a r d l o g i s t i c b a s e f o r S o v i e t n a v a l s q u a d r o n s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean.7 The m a s s i v e a i r l i f t o f m a t e r i a l s by t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t o E t h i o p i a and t h e S o v i e t - b a c k e d Cuban m i l i t a r y i n v o l v e m e n t i n A n g o l a were i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s as a d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t o u p s e t t h e b a l a n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. N e v e r t h e l e s s , some A m e r i c a n p o l i c y makers, s u c h as t h e ambassador t o t h e U.N., Andrew Young, t r i e d t o i n s u l a t e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n A f r i c a f r o m g e n e r a l E a s t - W e s t r e l a t i o n s . However, t h e g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y was t o v i e w them t h r o u g h t h e m i r r o r o f S o v i e t - A m e r i c a n g l o b a l c o m p e t i t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , S o v i e t -A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean d e t e r i o r a t e d m a r k e d l y a f t e r 1977, b r e a k i n g down n a v a l d e t e n t e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. When t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n assumed o f f i c e i n 1977, t h e P r e s i d e n t r e i t e r a t e d h i s c o m m i t m e n t t o n a v a l d e t e n t e i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . I n i t s f i r s t y e a r t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n r e t a i n e d t h e b a s i c p o l i c y framework o f t h e N i x o n and F o r d a d m i n i -s t r a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e I n d i a n Ocean w i t h o u t any s u b s t a n t i a l change. T h i s i n v o l v e d t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e \" c o n s t r u c t i o n o f D i e g o G a r c i a n a v a l b a s e , modus o p e r a n d i o f t h e M i d d l e E a s t 6Bowman, \" A f r i c a n C o n f l i c t , \" p. 90. 7 S o v i e t P o l i c y and U n i t e d S t a t e s Response, p. 58 303 Command, t r i a n n u a l t a s k f o r c e d e p l o y m e n t f r o m t h e 7 t h F l e e t and P t h e two p i l l a r p o l i c y i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f \" . B e f o r e l o n g , t h e v i o l e n t c o l l a p s e o f t h e Shah's r e g i m e i n I r a n i n t h e f a c e o f I s l a m i c r e v o l u t i o n l e d by A y a t o l l a h Khomeni r a d i c a l l y changed t h e p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean l e a d i n g t o a c r i s i s i n A m e r i c a n p o l i c y i n t h e r e g i o n . Iranian Revolution and Its Impact on U.S. Policy F o r a l o n g p e r i o d , t h e Shah had been c o n s i d e r e d by t h e A m e r i c a n s as a b a s t i o n o f s t a b i l i t y and w e s t e r n i n t e r e s t i n t h e s t r a t e g i c a l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t P e r s i a n G u l f a r e a . Hence, one o f t h e c o r n e r s t o n e s o f U.S p o l i c y was c l o s e s e c u r i t y c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h I r a n . The sudden and c a t a c l y s m i c c o l l a p s e o f t h i s m a j o r p i l l a r o f A m e r i c a n p o l i c y i n t h e G u l f was t h e f i n a l b l o w t o t h e N i x o n - K i s s i n g e r d e f e n c e schema, w h i c h h ad a l r e a d y been s h a k e n by t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e Horn and S o u t h e r n A f r i c a . I n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t A m e r i c a n p o l i c y i n t h e r e g i o n h a d r e l i e d h e a v i l y on I r a n , t o q u o t e S i c k , \"when t h e S h a h ' s r e g i m e c o l l a p s e d , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was l e f t s t r a t e g i c a l l y n a k e d , w i t h Q no s a f e t y n e t \" . The c a u s e s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l were b a s i c a l l y i n t e r n a l . M a s s i v e U.S. s u p p o r t , m a t e r i a l a n d o t h e r w i s e , was u n a b l e t o p r e v e n t t h e r e g i m e f r o m c o l l a p s e . The a n t i - S h a h movement g a i n e d momentum w i t h i n a s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e . Even a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1978 i t was l i m i t e d t o t h e u r b a n m i d d l e c l a s s b u t w i t h i n t h e p e r i o d o f a y e a r i t a c q u i r e d huge momentum t o t h e p o i n t 8 G a r y S i c k , \" E v o l u t i o n o f U.S. S t r a t e g y , \" p. 68. 9 o p . c i t . , p. 70. 304 o f b e i n g a m a s s i v e s o c i a l movement. The manner i n w h i c h t h e Shah's r e g i m e c o l l a p s e d h i g h l i g h t e d t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f a c e d i n i t s p o l i c y o f c o l l a -b o r a t i o n w i t h pro-U.S. b u t o v e r t l y a u t h o r i t a r i a n , r e p r e s s i v e and u n p o p u l a r r e g i m e s i n t h e r e g i o n . The U n i t e d S t a t e s p e r c e i v e d t h e Shah's r o l e as t h a t o f p r o t e c t i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e r e g i o n i n t h e r e g i o n a l c o n t e x t o f I r a n - A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s and g l o b a l E a s t -West s t r a t e g i c b a l a n c e . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p gave t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had g i v e n a b l a n k cheque t o t h e Shah. The r e a l i t y was, however, t h a t t h e Shah e v a d e d A m e r i c a n p r e s s u r e t o r e s t r a i n h i s a m b i t i o u s m i l i t a r y b u i l d up i n many i n s t a n c e s . I n t h e e yes o f o r d i n a r y I r a n i a n s , t h e Shah was an A m e r i c a n p u p p e t who f a i t h f u l l y e x e c u t e d o r d e r s g i v e n by h i s \"Yankee M a s t e r s \" a t t h e e x p e nse o f I r a n i a n n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s . I n t h e l o n g r u n , t h e U.S. l i n k m a i n t a i n e d by t h e S h a h u n d e r m i n e d h i s l e g i t i m a c y i n s t e a d o f p r o v i d i n g s t r e n g t h t o h i s r e g i m e . A t f i r s t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was n o t p r e p a r e d t o r e s p o n d p o s i t i v e l y t o t h e t y p e o f c h a l l e n g e m a n i f e s t e d by t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n . I t became e v i d e n t t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g d e f e n s e a r r a n g e -ments were n o t a d e q u a t e t o d e a l w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n . Thus, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d t o be n o t h i n g b u t a s p e c t a t o r o f e v e n t s . F u r t h e r , t h e c a p t u r e o f t h e U.S. Embassy and t h e t a k i n g o f 1 0 F r e d H a l l i d a y i d e n t i f i e s t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f r e v o l t s embodied i n t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n : f i r s t , a p o l i t i c a l r e v o l t a g a i n s t t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s o f m o n a r c h i c a l d i c t a t o r s h i p ; s e c o n d , a s o c i a l r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e i n c r e a s i n g i n e q u i t i e s and m a t e r i a l p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p a t t e r n o f c a p i t a l i s t d e v e l o p m e n t i n I r a n ; and t h i r d , a n a t i o n a l i s t and I s l a m i c r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f w e s t e r n a d v i s e r s and c u l t u r e upon I r a n , c o u p l e d w i t h I r a n ' s s u b s e r v i e n c e t o W a s h i n g t o n i n r e g i o n a l a f f a i r s \" . F r e d H a l l i d a y , S o v i e t P o l i c y i n t h e A r c o f C r i s i s ( W a s h i n g t o n : I n s t i t u t e f o r P o l i c y S t u d i e s , 1981) , p. 80 . 305 h o s t a g e s , a n d a l s o t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e r e s c u e m i s s i o n , c o n s i d e r a b l y e r o d e d A m e r i c a n c r e d i b i l i t y i n t h e r e g i o n . The s t r a t e g i c i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n were f a r more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e p o l i t i c a l o nes. I t marked t h e demise o f t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e , b o t h as an o p e r a t i o n a l scheme and a geo-p o l i t i c a l d o c t r i n e . One o f t h e m a j o r p r e m i s e s o f t h e N i x o n D o c t r i n e was s e c u r i t y c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e p r o - w e s t e r n medium powers t o s a f e g u a r d w e s t e r n s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s . As t h e f o r m e r N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l member, W i l l i a m Quandt, s t a t e d i n 1980 t o t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l Committee: \" ( T ) h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n has b r o u g h t home t h e f u t i l i t y o f t r y i n g t o depend on s u r r o g a t e s t o l o o k a f t e r v i t a l i n t e r e s t s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . These i n t e r e s t s a r e v i t a l , i n c l u d i n g as t h e y do o i l and t h e a b i l i t y t o c o n t a i n t h e e x p a n s i o n o f S o v i e t power\". x The y e a r 197 9 began w i t h t h e f a l l o f t h e Shah i n J a n u a r y and ended w i t h t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n i n December. The p e r i o d i n between t h e s e two e v e n t s was crowded w i t h i n c i d e n t s t h a t k i n d l e d A m e r i c a n c o n c e r n t h a t t h e i r p o s i t i o n and i n f l u e n c e were f a s t e r o d i n g . I n F e b r u a r y , b o r d e r c l a s h e s between M a r x i s t S o u t h Yemen and S a u d i - b a c k e d N o r t h Yemen e r u p t e d . I n f a c e o f t h e r i s i n g t i d e o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y f e r v o r i n I r a n , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and c o n s e r v a t i v e r e g i m e s i n t h e r e g i o n s u c h as S a u d i A r a b i a f e a r e d t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w o u l d c a p i t a l i z e on t h e s i t u a t i o n f o r i t s own a d v a n t a g e . T h o u g h l a t e r i n f o r m a t i o n c a s t c o n s i d e r a b l e d oubt on t h e a c t u a l f i g h t i n g a l o n g t h e b o r d e r , U.S., C o n g r e s s , House, Sub-Committee on Eu r o p e and t h e M i d d l e E a s t o f t h e Committee on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , U.S. I n t e r e s t s i n and P o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , H e a r i n g s , 9 6 t h Cong., 2nd S e s s . , ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O., 19 8 0 ) , p. 135. 306 t h e S a u d i s t o o k i t s e r i o u s l y . The U n i t e d S t a t e s r e s p o n d e d h u r r i e d l y : a c a r r i e r t a s k f o r c e was d i s p a t c h e d t o t h e A r a b i a n Sea; a p a c k a g e o f m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e ($390 m) i n c l u d i n g 12 F-5E f i g h t e r a i r c r a f t was g r a n t e d t o Yemen; AWAC a i r c r a f t w e r e emp l o y e d i n S a u d i A r a b i a . A t t h e same t i m e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n I r a n were f a s t moving i n a d i r e c t i o n a d v e r s e t o A m e r i c a n i n t e r e s t s . A t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e h o s t a g e c r i s i s , t h e G r a n d Mosque i n Mecca was a t t a c k e d , a d d i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y t o t h e g e n e r a l c o n f u s i o n . I r a n r a d i o a c c u s e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s a t t a c k . T h i s t r i g g e r e d a s e r i e s o f a s s a u l t s on U.S. c i t i z e n s and p r o p e r t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e g i o n , f o r c i n g a p a r t i a l e v a c u a t i o n o f U.S. d i p l o m a t i c p e r s o n n e l . The G r a n d Mosque a s s a u l t b r o u g h t t o t h e f o r e f r o n t t h e i s s u e o f t h e s e c u r i t y and s t a b i l i t y o f t h e S a u d i r e g i m e i n t h e f a c e o f a M u s l i m f u n d a m e n t a l i s t t i d e . I n i t i a t i v e s t o d e v i s e a new s t r a t e g y f o r t h e I n d i a n Ocean a p p e a r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . As Commander Gary S i c k r e c a l l s , t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y a d v i s e r , B r z e z i n s k i \" i n i t i a t e d a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s w i t h i n t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l t o b e g i n t o i d e n t i f y t h e e l e m e n t s o f a s t r a t e g i c a p p r o a c h as i t became e v i d e n t t h a t 1 2 t h e Shah r e g i m e was d i s i n t e g r a t i n g \" . As s u c h , he c o m m i s s i o n e d a r e v i e w o f t h e o v e r a l l U.S. m i l i t a r y p o s t u r e v i s - a - v i s t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . I t was t h i s s t u d y , c o n d u c t e d by Samuel P. H u n t i n g t o n , t h a t l e d t o t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l R e v i e w Memorandum - 10, a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y , t o t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l D i r e c t i v e - 18. As t h e p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e i n West A s i a was c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f U.S. s t r a t e g y i n t h e r e g i o n were i n t e n s i v e l y d e b a t e d w i t h i n U.S. o f f i c i a l c i r c l e s . 1 2 S i c k , \" E v o l u t i o n o f U.S. P o l i c y , \" p. 71. 307 As f a r as A m e r i c a n p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was c o n c e r n e d two l i n e s o f t h i n k i n g were p r e s e n t i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The f i r s t s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g , r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e S e c r e t a r y o f s t a t e , B r z e z i n s k i , t h e S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e , B r o w n , a n d NSC member, Komer, e m p h a s i z e d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f u p g r a d i n g t h e U.S. c a p a b i l i t y t o i n t e r v e n e w i t h m i l i t a r y m u s c l e t o c h e c k S o v i e t e x p a n s i o n i s m and a t t e m p t s t o f i s h i n t r o u b l e d w a t e r s . T h e i r main s t r o n g h o l d s were t h e Department o f D e f e n s e and t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l . However, C y r u s Vance and D a v i d Newsom, who r e p r e s e n t e d t h e s e c o n d l i n e o f t h i n k i n g , were n o t c o n v i n c e d by t h e s e arguments and a d v o c a t e d a more c a u t i o u s p o l i c y . The d e b a t e between t h e two f a c t i o n s c o n t i n u e d i n 1979 b u t t h e g r o w i n g West A s i a n c r i s i s s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e hands o f t h o s e a d v o c a t i n g a m i l i t a n t p o s t u r e . 1 3 I n F e b r u a r y Brown v i s i t e d S a u d i A r a b i a and o t h e r M i d d l e E a s t e r n S t a t e s . A c c o r d i n g t o some P e n t a g o n s o u r c e s , d u r i n g h i s v i s i t , \"Brown b r o a c h e d t h e s e n s i t i v e s u b j e c t o f r e g i o n a l b a s i n g f a c i l i t i e s s h o u l d A m e r i c a n f o r c e s have t o r e a c t t o a S o v i e t t h r e a t i n t h e a r e a \" . 1 4 On 28 F e b r u a r y 1979 t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l met a n d d i s c u s s e d t h e s t r a t e g i c i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e g r o w i n g p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s i n t h e G u l f and p r o p o s e d a new s t r a t e g i c 1 -5 T h o s e who r e p r e s e n t e d t h e f i r s t l i n e o f t h i n k i n g w e r e a c t i v e e ven b e f o r e t h e f a l l o f t h e Shah. The Deputy S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e , C h a r l e s Duncan, s u b m i t t e d a r e p o r t on 'U.S. power i n t h e G u l f a f t e r he v i s i t e d t h e P e r s i a n G u l f i n November 1978. As a r e s u l t o f t h i s s u b m i s s i o n , t h e S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e , B r o w n , r e q u e s t e d t h e C h i e f s o f S t a f f t o p r e p a r e a p o s i t i o n p a p e r on m i l i t a r y o p t i o n s t o p r o t e c t U.S. i n t e r e s t s i n t h e G u l f . 1 4 M a x w e l l Orme J o h n s o n , The M i l i t a r y as an I n s t r u m e n t o f U.S. P o l i c y i n S o u t h w e s t A s i a z. t h e R a p i d Deployment J o i n t t a s k F o r c e , 1979-1982, ( C o l o r a d o : W e s t v i e w P r e s s , 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 13. 308 p o l i c y . I n t h i s p o l i c y memorandum c o n c r e t e p l a n s f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f a r a p i d r e s p o n s e f o r c e f o r use i n t h i s r e g i o n were 1 R i n c l u d e d ' . I n A p r i l 1979, t h e c a b i n e t - l e v e l S p e c i a l C o o r d i n a -t i n g Committee i n t h e W h i t e House exam i n e d U.S. p o l i c y i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f and \" s e t i n m o t i o n t h e i n t e r - a g e n c y p r o c e s s t o a s s e m b l e t h e p o l i t i c a l , d i p l o m a t i c , e c o n o m i c a n d m i l i t a r y e l e m e n t s o f a new S e c u r i t y f r a m e w o r k \" . 1 0 S i c k e x p l a i n s : By t h e e n d o f 1 9 7 9 , w e l l b e f o r e t h e S o v i e t i n t e r v e n t i o n i n A f g h a n i s t a n , t h e o u t l i n e s o f a s t r a t e g y had been s k e t c h e d i n , i n c l u d i n g i n i t i a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f U.S. f o r c e s f o r a r a p i d d e p l o y m e n t f o r c e , o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g f o r an i n c r e a s e d U.S. m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e , and p r e l i m i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h Oman, Kenya, and S o m a l i a about p o s s i b l e u s e o f some f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e s e n a t i o n s . ^ 7 The e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e sequence o f p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h a t , by t h e t i m e o f t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n i n December 1979, t h e new d i r e c t i o n o f U.S. s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean had been l a i d down. The S o v i e t m i l i t a r y a c t i o n i n A f g h a n i s t a n p r o v i d e d t h e c a t a l y s t f o r t h e new p o l i c y r a t h e r t h a n a c a u s e . T h i s does n o t u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e s t r a t e g i c i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e S o v i e t m i l i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n . F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e s i n c e W o r l d War I I , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n e x t e n d e d i t s m i l i t a r y f o r c e b e y o n d t h e S o v i e t b l o c i n A f g h a n i s t a n . The c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t s e t t h e s t a g e f o r t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n need t o be u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s i n A f g h a n i s t a n a f t e r t h e M a r x i s t p u t s c h i n A p r i l J o h n s o n , op. c i t . , p. 15 1 ^ S i c k , op. c i t . , p. 72. 1 7 I b i d . 309 1978. A f t e r t h e Saur R e v o l u t i o n , t h e new r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e g i m e m a i n t a i n e d v e r y c l o s e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n and e n t e r e d i n t o a 20 y e a r t r e a t y o f f r i e n d s h i p i n D e c e m b e r 1978. H i s t o r i c a l l y , A f g h a n i s t a n had been on t h e b o r d e r o f R u s s i a n / S o v i e t - W e s t c o n f r o n t a t i o n . The f a l l o f A f g h a n i s t a n i n t o t h e S o v i e t s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e i n e v i t a b l y c a u s e d c o n c e r n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b u t i t was n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o i n t e r v e n e e f f e c t i -v e l y a t t h e t i m e . The new r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e g i m e , however, was b e s e t w i t h i n t e r n e c i n e f e u d s and power s t r u g g l e s b a s e d on more p a r o c h i a l l o y a l t i e s i n h e r e n t i n A f g h a n p o l i t i c s . From t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e K h a l q f a c t i o n a n d t h e Parcham f a c t i o n o f communists w i t h i n t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e g i m e were a p p a r e n t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e A f g h a n r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e g i m e had a s t o r m y e x i s t e n c e f r o m i t s i n c e p t i o n . T hey a t t r i b u t e d t h e i r p r o b l e m s t o e x t e r n a l , m a i n l y w e s t e r n , i n t r i g u e s . By t h e b e g i n -n i n g o f 1979, A f g h a n i s t a n was b e s e t by a r e b e l l i o n l e d by t h e m u l l a h s who were i n s p i r e d by t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t r e v i v a l i n I r a n . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e K a r a k o r a m h i g h w a y i n 1979 t h a t l i n k e d C h i n a w i t h P a k i s t a n and p r o v i d e d B e i j i n g w i t h a c c e s s t o t h e S o u t h - E a s t e r n b o r d e r o f A f g h a n i s t a n , added a new d i m e n s i o n t o t h e p i c t u r e . The i m m e d i a t e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t p r o m p t e d S o v i e t m i l i t a r y a c t i o n a r e n o t c l e a r . B e c a u s e o f a number o f c o n t r a d i c -t o r y r e p o r t s and t h e r a p i d sequence o f e v e n t s i n t h e m i s t y p o l i -t i c a l c l i m a t e o f t h e A f g h a n h i l l s , i t i s r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t o g e t a c l e a r p i c t u r e . A v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e S o v i e t s r e c e i v e d an i n v i t a t i o n f r o m H a f i z u l l a h Amin, whose r e g i m e was u n d e r p r e s s u r e f r o m r i v a l f a c t i o n s a n g e r e d by h i s r a d i c a l p o l i c i e s on l a n d r e f o r m , e d u c a t i o n f o r women, and so on. Hence, 310 Amin i n v o k e d A r t i c l e 4 o f t h e A f g h a n - S o v i e t F r i e n d s h i p T r e a t y . B u t one o f t h e f i r s t f u n c t i o n s o f t h e S o v i e t t r o o p s was t o d i s p l a c e Amin and i n s t a l l B a b r a k K a r m a l i n power. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f S o v i e t i n t e n t i o n s i n o c c u p y i n g A f g h a n i s t a n a r e v e r y d i v e r g e n t - A c c o r d i n g t o one l i n e o f t h o u g h t , t h e S o v i e t a c t i o n was b a s i c a l l y d e f e n s i v e . T h i s i n t e r -p r e t a t i o n e m p h a s i z e s t h e r e a c t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e S o v i e t move and i t s l i m i t a t i o n t o A f g h a n i s t a n . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e o t h e r l i n e v i e w s t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n as an o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n w h i c h marked a q u a l i t a t i v e change i n S o v i e t p o l i c y and t h e o p e n i n g up o f a new 1 9 e r a o f S o v i e t a g g r e s s i o n . To B r z e z i n s k i , i t r e p r e s e n t e d \"a q u a l i t a t i v e new s t e p i n S o v i e t f o r e i g n p o l i c y w i t h d i s t u r b i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a t r e a c h f a r b e y o n d t h e S o v i e t e f f o r t t o c r u s h a 2 fi r e b e l l i o n o f I s l a m i c t r i b e s m e n \" . u The main t h r u s t o f argument o f t h e d e f e n s i v e s c h o o l i s t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e S o v i e t s moved t h e i r m i l i t a r y f o r c e s m a i n l y t o p r o t e c t t h e s t r a t e g i c i n t e g r i t y o f t h e i r s o u t h e r n b o r d e r . I n v i e w o f t h e s t r o n g p o s s i b i l i t y o f m i l i t a r y a c t i o n by t h e U n i t e d \u00C2\u00B0The S o v i e t e x p l a n a t i o n was g i v e n by B r e z h n e v . He s t a t e d \" u n c e a s i n g armed i n t e r v e n t i o n and f a r - r e a c h i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e c o n s p i r a c y o f t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s o f r e a c t i o n c r e a t e d a r e a l d a n g e r t o A f g h a n i s t a n l o s i n g i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e and b e i n g t u r n e d i n t o an i m p e r i a l i s t m i l i t a r y b r i d g e h e a d on o u r c o u n t r y ' s s o u t h e r n b o r d e r s . . . A c t i n g o t h e r w i s e w o u l d h a v e meant p a s s i v e l y w a t c h i n g t h e c r e a t i o n on o u r s o u t h e r n b o r d e r o f a s o u r c e o f s e r i o u s d a n g e r t o t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e S o v i e t S t a t e \" . See \" L e o n i d B r e z h n e v ' s answers t o q u e s t i o n s p u t by P r a v d a , \" New Times, 3, J a n u a r y , 1980, p. 5-7. And a l s o Moscow Tass I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e r v i c e i n R u s i a n , 1549, GMT, Dec. 28, 1979, FBIS D a i l y R e p o r t : S o v i e t U n i o n , V o l . 3, Dec. 31, 1979, p.D5. 1 9 U . S . , C o n g r e s s , House, F o r e i g n A f f a i r s Committee, S o v i e t P o l i c y and U n i t e d S t a t e s Response i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d , R e p o r t , 9 7 t h Cong. 1 s t S e s s . , ( W a s h i n g t o n : G.P.O., 19 8 1 ) , p. 94. 2 0 S o v i e t P o l i c y and U n i t e d S t a t e s R e sponse, op. c i t , p. 90. 311 S t a t e s i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , t h e c h a l l e n g e o f A f g h a n r e b e l s t o t h e ' S o c i a l i s t r e g i m e ' was t a k e n s e r i o u s l y . The q u e s t i o n o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s o c i a l i s t r e g i m e i n t h e f a c e o f Mujahadeen g u e r r i l l a s was o n l y one a s p e c t o f t h e i s s u e . More i m p o r t a n t was t h e i n t e r n a l c r i s i s o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e g i m e i t s e l f . A c c o r d i n g t o B h a r g a v a , \"Amin's s u c c e s s i n t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u g g l e o p e n e d a p r o s p e c t o f a n o t h e r Y u g o s l a v i a , i f n o t C h i n a , i n A f g h a n i s t a n - l o s s o f A f g h a n i s t a n i n s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s w o u l d have 7 1 c a u s e d more t h a n a r i p p l e i n S o v i e t C e n t r a l A s i a n R e p u b l i c s \" . _ W h a t e v e r t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n , as a U.S. C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e s e a r c h team p o i n t e d o u t , \" t h e r e a l i t y i s t h a t t h e S o v i e t s a r e i n A f g h a n i s t a n , and g i v e n t h e t e n a c i t y o f t h e I s l a m i c r e s i s t a n c e , t h e y w i l l p r o b a b l y be 77 t h e r e f o r sometime\". I n d e e d , t h e d i v i s i o n between d e f e n c e and o f f e n c e i s n o t r i g i d . An o r i g i n a l l y d e f e n s i v e s t a n c e c o u l d be c hanged t o an o f f e n s i v e one w i t h t h e p a s s a g e o f t i m e u n d e r c h a n -ged c i r c u m s t a n c e s . I n r e t r o s p e c t i t i s c l e a r now t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n has p a i d a d e a r p r i c e f o r t h e i r m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n A f g h a n i s t a n . However, t h e y were p r e p a r e d t o pay t h a t p r i c e when t h e i r s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s were o r seemed t o be i n d a n g e r . Even i f t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n was n o t a c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t o f a l a r g e r S o v i e t d e s i g n o f m i l i t a r y o f f e n s i v e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean t h e s t r a t e g i c i m p a c t o f t h i s move on t h e I n d i a n Ocean c a n n o t be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . S o v i e t g r o u n d f o r c e s have n e v e r been c l o s e r t o 71 G.S. B h a r a g a v a , S o u t h A s i a n S e c u r i t y a f t e r A f g h a n i s t a n , ( T o r o n t o : D.C. H e a t h and Company, 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 170. 2 2 I b i d . , p. 95. 312 t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n was m a i n t a i n i n g a n n u a l n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t h e s t a t i o n i n g o f S o v i e t g r o u n d f o r c e s a t arm's l e n g t h o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean w a t e r s s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e S o v i e t m i l i t a r y p o s t u r e t h e r e . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c r e p e r c u s -s i o n s o f t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o pay a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r e a c t i o n s t o t h e S o v i e t move. The w i d e s p r e a d c o n d e m n a t i o n o f t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n by t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s s t u n n e d t h e S o v i e t s . Most n o n - a l i g n e d , e x c e p t I n d i a , and I s l a m i c s t a t e s j o i n e d hands t o condemn t h e S o v i e t a c t i o n as one d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t a n o n - a l i g n e d c o u n t r y . A t t h e I s l a m a b a d C o n f e r e n c e , c o n v e n e d i n 1980, t o d i s c u s s t h e A f g h a n q u e s t i o n , e ven h i t h e r t o p r o - S o v i e t s t a t e s l i k e I r a q condemned t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . The w i d e s p r e a d c o n d e m n a t i o n o f t h e S o v i e t a c t i o n by I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s was a s e v e r e b l o w t o t h e c a r e f u l l y c u l t i v a t e d image o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n as a s u p p o r t e r o f n a t i o n a l s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n . Now, t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f S o v i e t f o r c e s f r o m A f g h a n i s t a n became a m a j o r i s s u e i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e I n d i a n Ocean P e a c e Zone. I s s u e s s u c h as d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n and m u t u a l r e d u c t i o n o f n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean became c o n d i t i o n a l on t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f S o v i e t t r o o p s . The C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n r e s p o n d e d i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h a number o f a c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g s h e l v i n g t h e SALT I I t r e a t y , h a l t i n g t h e s a l e o f h i g h t e c h n o l o g y and s t r a t e g i c i t e m s t o t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , and r e f u s i n g t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e Summer O l y m p i c s i n Moscow i n 1980. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e S o v i e t move had a h u g e i m p a c t on A m e r i c a n p u b l i c o p i n i o n , w h i c h , \" s h a r p l y c r i t i c a l o f S o v i e t p o l i c y and r e f l e c t i n g d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t about 313 t h e f u t u r e c o u r s e o f r e l a t i o n s , t o o k a d e c i d e d downward t u r n as t h e n a t i o n (U.S.) seemed t o be swept up i n a new s p i r i t o f 2 3 b e l l i c o s i t y \" . J I t was i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t P r e s i d e n t C a r t e r d e l i v e r e d h i s famous S t a t e o f t h e U n i o n A d d r e s s on 23 J a n u a r y 1980 w h i c h i s commonly known as t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e C a r t e r D o c t r i n e . He s t a t e d : an a t t e m p t by any o u t s i d e f o r c e t o g a i n c o n t r o l o f t h e P e r s i a n G u l f r e g i o n w i l l be r e g a r d e d as an a s s a u l t on t h e v i t a l i n t e r e s t s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and s u c h an a s s a u l t w i l l be r e p e l l e d by any means n e c e s s a r y , i n c l u d i n g m i l i t a r y f o r c e . 2 4 I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e C a r t e r D o c t r i n e was a h u r r i e d r e s p o n s e t o t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n . However, when t h e C a r t e r D o c t r i n e i s l o c a t e d i n i t s p r o p e r c o n t e x t i t i s n o t d i f f i -c u l t t o d i s c e r n t h a t i t d i d n o t grow o u t o f l a s t m i n u t e p r e s s u r e f o r a p r e s i d e n t i a l s p e e c h . I n s t e a d , ( I ) t was a measured r e s p o n s e , a c o o r d i n a t e d p o l i c y c o n c e i v e d o v e r a p e r i o d o f s e v e r a l months a t t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l s o f government. M o r e o v e r i t had e v o l v e d i n s e v e r a l s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d w i t h i n t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l , C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e A g e n c y , S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t a n d t h e P e n t a g o n d u r i n g t w o y e a r s p r e c e d i n g i t s p r o c l a m a t i o n . 2 5 A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n d i d n o t make a f u n d a m e n t a l change i n t h e A m e r i c a n d e f e n c e p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r a new m i l i t a r i s t i c t u r n h a d a l r e a d y b e e n l a i d down p r i o r t o t h e S o v i e t move. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s t i l l n eeded t h e r e q u i s i t e 2 3 I b i d . , p. 98. 2 A P r e s i d e n t Jimmy C a r t e r , \" S t a t e o f t h e U n i o n A d d r e s s , \" C o n g r e s s i o n a l W e e k l y R e p o r t , 38:4 ( W A s h i n g t o n : C o n g r e s s i o n a l Q u a r t e r l y P r e s s ) 26 J a n u a r y 1981, p. 201. 2 5 J o h n s o n , M i l i t a r y as an I n s t r u m e n t o f U.S. P o l i c y , p. 8. 314 m i l i t a r y c a p a b i l i t y t o e n f o r c e t h e C a r t e r D o c t r i n e . The R a p i d Deployment J o i n t Task F o r c e (RDJTF) came t o t h e f o r e f r o n t i n t h i s c o n t e x t . The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e RDJTF u s h e r e d i n a new phase i n t h e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The RDJTF and the new wave of m i l i t a r i z a t i o n i n the Indian Ocean The p l a n s f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a R a p i d Deployment F o r c e had been i n t h e a i r f r o m t h e t i m e t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l i n t r o d u c e d t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l R e v i e w memorandum - 10 i n J u l y 9 c 1977. D The R a p i d Deployment J o i n t Task F o r c e became o f f i c i a l l y o p e r a t i o n a l a t t h e M a c D i l l a i r f o r c e b a s e , Tampa, F l o r i d a f r o m 1 M a r c h 1980. As t h e RDJTF i s b a s i c a l l y a p l a n n i n g and command o r g a n i z a t i o n no new f o r c e s were c r e a t e d . However, t h e e s t a b l i s -hment o f t h e RDJTF r e q u i r e d two t h i n g s : f i r s t , a s t r a t e g i c a l l y m o b i l e m i l i t a r y f o r c e e q u i p p e d f o r d e s e r t w a r f a r e ; s e c o n d , l o g i s t i c s u p p o r t . The p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l o g i s t i c s u p p o r t were d i s c u s s e d a t t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l m e e t i n g h e l d on 4 December 1979 and i t was d e c i d e d t o c o n d u c t a s t u d y t o l o c a t e p o t e n t i a l p 7 m i l i t a r y b a s e f a c i l i t i e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e d i r e c t e d a g r o u p headed by R e g i n a l d B a r t holomew, A s s t . S e c r e t a r y p c ^ D T h e c o n c e p t u a l h i s t o r y o f R a p i d Deployment F o r c e goes b a c k t o t h e e a r l y 1960s. The S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e o f t h e Kennedy a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , R o b e r t McNamara, p r o p o s e d a b r u s h f i r e b r i g a d e p o s i t i o n e d i n t h e w e s t e r n P a c i f i c . T h i s F o r w a r d F l o a t i n g Depot, t h e t e r m u s e d i n o f f i c i a l r e c o r d s , was t e s t e d i n 1964 i n t h e e x e r c i s e Q u i c k R e l e a s e . I t was b e l i e v e d t o be s u c c e s s f u l . I n t h e f a c e o f c o n g r e s s i o n a l o p p o s i t i o n and lukewarm s u p o r t f r o m t h e P e n t a g o n t h e i d e a was abandoned. 2 7 W a s h i n a t o n P o s t , 24 J a n u a r y 1980. 315 o f S t a t e f o r P o l i t i c a l M i l i t a r y A f f a i r s , t o v i s i t E g y p t , S a u d i A r a b i a , Oman, S o m a l i a , and Kenya t o d i s c u s s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o b t a i n i n g a c c e s s t o l o g i s t i c f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e f o r t h c o m i n g RDJTF. A f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e C a r t e r D o c t r i n e , B a r t h o l o m e w made a s e c o n d t r i p t o t h e s e c o u n t r i e s i n F e b r u a r y 1980 w i t h s p e c i f i c p r o p o s a l s f o r due c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f q u i d p r o q u o s e x p e c t e d by e a c h c o u n t r y . The f i r s t a g r e e m e n t c o n c l u d e d i n t h i s c o n t e x t was w i t h Kenya, s i g n e d on 26 J u l y 1980. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e agreement, Kenya o f f e r e d a i r f i e l d s a t N a i r o b i and N a n y u k i and t h e p o r t o f Mombasa. T h i s p o r t has an a i r f i e l d c a p a b l e o f t a k i n g C-141 s t r a t e g i c t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t and a h a r b o u r o f 17 p i e r - s i z e d b e r t h s and a n c h o r a g e s . I n r e t u r n , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a g r e e d t o p r o v i d e a t o t a l o f $50 m i l l i o n i n economic and f o o d a i d and $27 m i l l i o n i n m i l i t a r y s a l e s c r e d i t o v e r t h e n e x t 2 y e a r s . The d i s t a n c e t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f p r e v e n t e d Kenyan b a s e s b e i n g u s e d as j u m p i n g -o f f p o i n t s f o r t h e f o r w a r d a s s a u l t e c h e l o n s o f t h e RDJTF, b u t t h e y c o u l d be u s e d f o r r e a r s t a g i n g and r e i n f o r c e m e n t p u r p o s e s . Kenya's good f i e l d t r a i n i n g a r e a s c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e RAF and R o y a l M a r i n e s and h e r d e v e l o p e d i n f r a - s t r u c t u r a l a s s e t s s u c h as modern m e d i c a l f a c i l i t i e s were among t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f Kenya. One o f t h e main o b j e c t i v e s i n Kenya was t o p r o v i d e R e s t and R e c r e a t i o n (R & R) f o r s h i p ' s c rews d e p l o y e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Though Kenya e n t e r e d i n t o t h i s agreement, she was s e n s i t i v e t o t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f m i l i t a r y i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h 2 8 U . S . , C o n g r e s s , House, Committee on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , U.S. S e c u r i t y I n t e r e s t s i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f - R e p o r t o f a S t a f f S t u d y m i s s i o n t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , M i d d l e E a s t and Horn o f A f r i c a , 9 7 t h Cong., 1 s t S e s s . , 16 March 1981, p. 44. 316 t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n k e e p i n g w i t h i t s d e s i r e t o p r e s e r v e i t s n o n - a l i g n e d s t a t u s \"Kenya i s d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e agreement be i m p l e m e n t e d i n a l o w - p r o f i l e manner and w i t h l i m i t e d permanent U.S. m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e \" . The Kenyan agreement was f o l l o w e d by t h e S o m a l i a n - U.S. agreement s i g n e d on 22 A u g u s t 1980. B e c a u s e o f S o m a l i a n i r r e d e n -t i s t c l a i m s o v e r Ogaden as w e l l as h e r d i s p u t e w i t h Kenya, C o n g r e s s was n o t i n f a v o u r o f t h e agreement w i t h S o m a l i a . 3 0 I t gave t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e r i g h t t o use f a c i l i t i e s i n M o g a d i s h u and B e r b e r a . Though B e r b e r a i s r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f and s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d , i t s i n f r a - s t r u c t u r a l f a c i l i t i e s were n o t w e l l d e v e l o p e d . Under t h e agreement t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a g r e e d t o p r o v i d e S o m a l i a w i t h a t o t a l o f $53 m i l l i o n i n economic a i d and $40 m i l l i o n i n m i l i t a r y s a l e s c r e d i t o v e r a t w o - y e a r p e r i o d . However, t h e arms c r e d i t was a p p r o v e d w i t h t h e c a v e a t t h a t t h e s e arms w o u l d n o t be u s e d a g a i n s t t h e t e r r i t o r i e s o f any 31 n e i g h b o u r i n g s t a t e . Agreement w i t h Oman was c r u c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e o f i t s s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n c l o s e t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . However, Oman p r o v e d t o be a d i f f i c u l t c u s t o m e r . A f t e r s e v e n m o n t h s o f p r o t r a c t e d n e g o t i a t i o n s an agreement was r e a c h e d on 4 June 1980 2 9 I b i d . 30 J U T h e House A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Sub-committee on F o r e i g n O p e r a -t i o n s r e f u s e d t o a p p r o v e any m i l i t a r y a i d f o r S o m a l i a u n t i l a l l S o m a l i t r o o p s h a d b e e n w i t h d r a w n f r o m O g a d e n . The A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r A f r i c a n A f f a i r s a s s u r e d t h e C o n g r e s s t h a t S o m a l i f o r c e s were n o t i n t h e Ogaden b e f o r e C o n g r e s s a p p r o v e d t h e m i l i t a r y a i d p a c k a g e t o S o m a l i a . See W a s h i n g t o n P o s t , 3 S e p t . 1980. 3 1 O u a r t e r l v Weekly R e p o r t , 39/4, 24 J a n u a r y 1981, p. 171. 317 w h i c h p e r m i t t e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a c c e s s t o Omani m i l i t a r y b a s e s , i n c l u d i n g Seeb a i r p o r t , M a s i r a h and T h u m r i t a i r f i e l d s , S a l a l a h a i r f i e l d and p o r t , Khasab a i r f i e l d , and Qaboos p o r t . From t h e U.S. p o i n t o f v i e w t h e Oman agreement was t h e l i n c h p i n o f t h e 3 ? RDJTF. These f a c i l i t i e s p r o v i d e d s t a g i n g p o s t s f o r f o r w a r d a s s a u l t e c h e l o n s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , f a c i l t i e s i n M u s c a t a n d S a l a l a h were i d e a l f o r f o r w a r d d e p l o y m e n t o f n a v a l f o r c e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e l o g i s t i c a l f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n , t h e E g y p t i a n p o r t o f Ras Banas on t h e Red Sea p r o v i d e d r e a r s t a g i n g f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e RDJTF t h o u g h t h e r e was no f o r m a l agreement w i t h E g y p t . The U.S. C o n g r e s s a l l o c a t e d $187 m i l l i o n i n f u n d s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n a t Ras Banas i n FY-1981. The c a s e w i t h S a u d i A r a b i a was d i f f e r e n t . The S a u d i s were more s e n s i t i v e t o t h e p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e RDJTF i n a f o r m a l way. T h e r e f o r e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was n o t s u c c e s s f u l i n g e t t i n g t h e S a u d i s i n t o a m i l i t a r y a g r e e m e n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e S a u d i - U . S . m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p was v e r y c l o s e . As p a r t o f t h e AWACS p l a n s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s u n d e r t o o k a huge p r o j e c t t o m o d e r n i z e f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e S a u d i a i r f o r c e and army. I t i s c l e a r t h a t \" t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s a p p e a r t o be f a r i n e x c e s s o f what t h e S a u d i m i l i t a r y w o u l d e v e r u s e i n t h e f u t u r e . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s m i g h t one day be u s e d by t h e R D J T F \" . 3 3 . W i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e RDJTF, P a k i s t a n - U . S . r e l a t i o n s a c q u i r e d a new s t r a t e g i c d i m e n s i o n . The Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o o J o h n s o n , M i l i t a r y as an I n s t r u m e n t . p. 43. 3 3 I b i d . , p. 26. 318 was e s p e c i a l l y keen t o have a m i l i t a r y l i n k w i t h P a k i s t a n I n June 1981 a p a c k a g e o f $3.2 b i l l i o n i n economic and m i l i t a r y a i d t o P a k i s t a n , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s a l e o f 40 F-16 a i r c r a f t , was a n n o u n c e d b y t h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . A l e x a n d e r H a i g was r e p o r t e d t o have d i s c u s s e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f home p o r t i n g a c a r r i e r i n K a r a c h i and a c q u i r i n g an a i r f o r c e s t a g i n g b a s e i n B a l u c h i s t a n . 3 4 I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t some n o t a b l e p r o - A m e r i c a n s t a t e s , s u c h as S a u d i A r a b i a , r e f u s e d t o a c c e d e t o any f o r m a l agreement b e c a u s e o f i n t e r n a l and r e g i o n a l p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . The agreement w i t h Oman was d e l a y e d b e c a u s e o f i t s d i s a p p r o v a l by t h e G u l f C o - o p e r a t i o n C o u n c i l . Even t h o s e c o u n t r i e s t h a t s i g n e d a c c e s s a greements wanted t h e U.S. t o implement them i n a l o w p r o f i l e manner. The m a j o r i n s t r u m e n t t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s u s e d t o prompt t h o s e s t a t e s t o g r a n t RDJTF t h e a c c e s s f a c i l i t i e s was arms s a l e s . Hence, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d i s p e n s e d arms p a c k a g e s and m i l i t a r y a i d t o t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e r e g i o n . M a x w e l l Orme J o h n s o n w r i t e s : a b a s i c agreement f o r a c c e s s t o a p o r t f a c i l i t y w o u l d be made i n r e t u r n f o r s a l e o f an a d v a n c e d w e a p o n s s y s t e m . T h i s w eapons s y s t e m w o u l d n e c e s s i t a t e t h e added p r e s e n c e o f a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f A m e r i c a n s u p p o r t p e r s o n n e l , t e c h n i c i a n s , t r a i n e e s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n t h e h o s t n a t i o n . Once t h e h o s t n a t i o n became a c c u s t o m e d t o t h i s p r e s e n c e , m o d e s t e x p a n s i o n c o u l d t a k e p l a c e , p e r h a p s c o n c u r r e n t w i t h a d d i t i o n a l w eapons p u r c h a s e s i n r e t u r n f o r expanded f a c i l i t i e s u sage a g r e e m e n t s . 3 5 The i n e v i t a b l e o u t c o m e o f t h i s p o l i c y was t h e i n c r e a s e d 3 4 \" N a v y May Homeport C a r r i e r i n K a r a c h i , P a k i s t a n , \" Armed F o r c e s J o u r n a l I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( A p r i l 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 75. 3 5 J o h n s o n , M i l i t a r y as an I n s t r u m e n t , p. 24. 319 m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e r e g i o n . Upgrading of the Diego Garcia Base F a c i l i t i e s The agreements t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e n t e r e d i n t o w i t h Oman, Kenya and S o m a l i a and t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s w i t h E g y p t , S a u d i A r a b i a a n d P a k i s t a n t h a t o f f e r e d n a v a l a n d a i r f a c i l i t i e s a p p a r e n t l y s o l v e d t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e t h e p r o b l e m o f l o g i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e RDJTF. However, a c c e s s t o t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n a c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n , m i g h t depend on t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e r u l e r o f t h e c o u n t r y . I n t h i s r e s p e c t t h e o n l y s e c u r e d b a s e t h a t t h e U.S. f o r c e s c o u l d c o u n t on was D i e g o G a r c i a . T h e r e f o r e , D i e g o G a r c i a c o n t i n u e d as t h e m a j o r p i l l a r o f U.S. m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g y i n t h e r e g i o n . Once t h e h u r d l e o f c o n g r e s s i o n a l o p p o s i t i o n t o t r a n s f o r m D i e g o G a r c i a t o a f u l l - f l e d g e d b a s e was overcome i n 1976, D i e g o G a r c i a underwent a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i t s m i l i t a r y f a c i -l i t i e s . A f t e r 1977 a p p r o p r i a t i o n s , t h e a i r s t r i p was d o u b l e d i n l e n g t h up t o n e a r l y 12,000 f t . and h a r d - s t a n d i n g ramps were c o m p l e t e d i n 1980 t o a c c o m o d a t e B-52 S t r a t e g i c A i r Command bombers. A new s t a g e i n t h e u p g r a d i n g o f f a c i l i t i e s on D i e g o G a r c i a began i n 1980 w i t h t h e l a u n c h i n g o f a number o f p r o j e c t s . The f i r s t and t h e l a r g e s t was t h e d r e d g i n g p r o j e c t f o r w h i c h $13 m i l l i o n i n 1981 and a n o t h e r $12 m i l l i o n i n 1982 was a l l o c a t e d . A r e a s o f t h e l a g o o n were d r e d g e d t o a d e p t h o f 45 f t . 3 ^ S e c o n d l y a i r b a s e f a c i l i t i e s were u p g r a d e d w i t h t h e a l l o c a t i o n o f $30 m i l l i o n and $16 m i l l i o n f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an AC p a r k i n g a p r o n and p a r a l l e l t a x i w a y r e s p e c t i v e l y (See T a b l e V I I I ) . 3 \" M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r FY 1981. p.564 320 F i n a l l y , t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s y s t e m on t h e i s l a n d was e l e c t r o n i c a l l y u p g r a d e d a n d l o c k e d i n t o t h e g l o b a l D e f e n c e C o m m u n i c a t i o n s Network (DCN) s y s t e m so t h a t i t was c a p a b l e o f c a r r y i n g o u t i n t e n s i f i e d o c e a n s u r v e i l l a n c e a n d s a t e l l i t e t r a c k i n g . The POL s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y was n e a r l y d o u b l e d by a d d i n g 4 new t a n k s . The FY 85 r e q u e s t f o r D i e g o G a r c i a MILCON, a t o t a l o f $22.9 m i l l i o n , was f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c o n v e n t i o n a l m u n i t i o n s t o r a g e and m a i n t a n a n c e f a c i l i t i e s as w e l l as p r o v i s i o n f o r 58 T a b l e V I I I FY 81-84 MiIcon expansion of Diego Garcia E x e c u t i o n FY ($000, 000) P r o j e c t D e s c r i p t i o n and S c o r e 81 82 83 84 D r e d g i n g 2.5 m i l CY 13 D r e d g i n g 3.5 m i l Cy 12 AC P a r k i n g A p r o n 220,000 SY 33 T a x i w a y 75x10500 87,500 SY 16 HI C a p a c i t y R e f u s a l H y d r a n t 8 e a c h 6 AC H z a r d o u s Cargo A r e a 8600 SY 2 P i e r - E a r t h F i l l 200,000 SY 24 .2 POL S t o r a g e (4 Tanks) 400,000 BBL 16.5 Upgrade Water System LS P l a n n i n g / D e s i g n 5 2.5 10.9 T o t a l ( 1 4 0 . 1 ) 18 71.5 40.7 10.9 S o u r c e U.S. C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , S u b - C o m m i t t e e on m i l i t a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n and S t o c k p i l e s o f t h e Committee on Armed S e r v i c e , M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A u t h o r i z a t i o n FY 1981, h e a r i n g , 5 M a r c h 1980, p. 223. 321 GEODSS (Ground-Based E l e c t r o O p t i c a l Deep Space S u r v e i l l a n c e \u00E2\u0080\u00A23 7 System) p e r s o n n e l . As a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e s e f a c i l i t y c o n s t r u c t i o n programs t h e m i s s i o n o f D i e g o G a r c i a changed f r o m a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c e n t e r and modest s u p p l y s t a t i o n t o a m a j o r b a s e c a p a b l e o f h a n d l i n g a l m o s t e v e r y n e e d o f t h e n a v a l t a s k f o r c e i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n . O b s e r v i n g t h e f u t u r e p o t e n t i a l o f D i e g o G a r c i a , Rear-Adm, A.S. Morean, D i r e c t o r , S t r a t e g y , P l a n s and P o l i c y D i v i s i o n o f t h e o f f i c e o f D e p u t y - C h i e f o f N a v a l O p e r a t i o n s , r e m a r k e d t h a t \" w i t h i t s s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n and p r e s e n t s t a t e o f d e v e l o p m e n t , D i e g o G a r c i a w i l l be an a d v a n t a g e o u s s u p p o r t f a c i l i t y , f o r t h e navy f o r many y e a r s t o come\". C o n c u r r e n t w i t h t h e s u r g e o f arms s a l e s , l o g i s t i c a c c e s s a g r e e m e n t s , a n d t h e u p g r a d i n g o f t h e D i e g o G a r c i a b a s e f a c i l i t i e s , a r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n t h e d e p l o y m e n t o f U.S. N a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was c l e a r l y v i s i b l e i n t h e 1980s. I n F e b r u a r y 1979, i n t h e wake o f t h e Yemen c r i s i s , t h e a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r USS C o n s t e l l a t i o n was d e s p a t c h e d t o t h e W e s t e r n I n d i a n Ocean f r o m t h e P a c i f i c , e s t a b l i s h i n g a new b a s e l i n e o f U.S. n a v a l p r e s e n c e . A l m o s t a y e a r l a t e r , i n F e b r u a r y 1980, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a g a i n d e s p a t c h e d a m a r i n e t a s k f o r c e t o t h e A r a b i a n Sea. T h i s t a s k g r o u p c o n s i s t e d o f a h e l i c o p t e r c a r r i e r , an a m p h i b i o u s a s s a u l t s h i p , and a t a n k l a n d i n g s h i p , e s c o r t e d by t h e g u i d e d \u00E2\u0080\u00A2} 7 J U.S. C o n g r e s s , H o u s e , C o m m i t t e e on A r m e d S e r v i c e s , M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r 1985 - P e r s i a n G u l f and P a c i f i c C o n s t r u c t i o n Programme, p. 579. 3 8 M i l i t a r v C o n s t r u c t i o n A p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r FY 81_, p. 564. 3 9 W a s h i n g t o n P o s t , 7 M a r c h 1979 , P.A1 a n d a l s o S i c k , o p . c i t . , p. 71. 322 m i s s i l e C r u i s e r G r i d l e y and t h e f r i g a t e B e r b e v . I t j o i n e d t h e two n a v a l t a s k g r o u p s a l r e a d y i n o p e r a t i o n i n t h e a r e a i n M a r c h 1 9 8 0 . 4 0 I t r e m a i n e d i n t h e A r a b i a n Sea f o r t h r e e months and i n June was r e p l a c e d by a n o t h e r t a s k g r o u p l e d by t h e h e l i c o p t e r c a r r i e r G u a d a l c a n a l . T h i s became a n o r m a l p a t t e r n i n t h e 1980s when an a m p h i b i o u s t a s k g r o u p w i t h a b o u t 1800 m a r i n e s was s t a t i o n e d i n t h e A r a b i a n Sea on a r o t a t i o n a l b a s i s a l o n g s i d e t h e two n a v a l g r o u p s . 4 1 An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f A m e r i c a n p o l i c y a f t e r 1977 r e v e a l s t h a t t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n and t h e S o v i e t a d v a n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e A f g h a n o c c u p a t i o n were n o t t h e s o l e r e a s o n s f o r t h e new m i l i t a r y t h r u s t i n A m e r i c a n p o l i c y i n t h e r e g i o n . The r e s o r t t o a more m i l i t a n t p o l i c y was a l s o a r e a c t i o n t o some o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t s w h i c h t h r e a t e n e d e s t a b l i s h e d w e s t e r n p o s i t i o n s i n t h e r e g i o n . A f t e r t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f f o r m a l c o l o n i a l r u l e f r o m t h e w e s t e r n I n d i a n Ocean i s l a n d s , r a d i c a l and l e f t p o l i t i c a l c u r r e n t s began t o sweep t h e r e g i o n . I n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p -ments i n M a d a g a s c a r , t h e S e y c h e l l e s , and M a u r i t i u s a r e i m p o r t a n t . M a d a g a s c a r , u n d e r P r e s i d e n t D i d i e r R a t s i r a k a , began t o t a k e a r a d i c a l l e f t t u r n a f t e r 1 9 7 6 . I n t e r n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was r e o r g a n i z e d and l a r g e l y s e l f - g o v e r n i n g l o c a l c o l l e c t i v e s known as t h e f o k o n o l o n a were made t h e u n i t o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . F a r - r e a c h i n g s o c i a l measures were i n i t i a t e d i n o r d e r t o p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e t h e 4 0 U . S . A s s t . S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e ( P u b l i c A f f a i r s ) , Memorandum f o r C o r r e s p o n d e n t s , 17 M a r c h 1980, c i t e d i n E. A s a B a t e s , \"The R a p i d Deployment F o r c e - F a c t o r F i c t i o n ? , \" RUSI -J o u r n a l o f t h e R o y a l U n i t e d S e r v i c e s I n s t i t u t e f o r D e f e n c e S t u d i e s , 126:2 (June 1 9 8 1 ) , p. 29. 4 1 I b i d . 323 p r i n c i p l e s o f M a l a g a s y s o c i a l i s m o u t l i n e d i n t h e C h a r t e r o f t h e 4 \u00C2\u00B0 M a l a g a s y S o c i a l i s t R e v o l u t i o n . ^ The R a t s i r a k a r e g i m e d e c l a r e d i t w o u l d f o l l o w an ' a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t ' a n d ' a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t ' f o r e i g n p o l i c y . As a r e s u l t , F r a n c e l o s t i n f l u e n c e o v e r h e r f o r m e r c o l o n y and a l s o t h e n a v a l b a s e a t D i e g o S u a r e z . The S e y c h e l l e s , a f t e r t h e l e f t i s t ' r e v o l u t i o n ' i n 1977 u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f F r a n c A l b e r t Rene, t o o k a d e c i d e l y l e f t t u r n i n i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s and f o r e i g n p o l i c y . A f t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e i n 1968, M a u r i t i a n p o l i t i c s was d o m i n a t e d by t h e p r o - w e s t e r n L a b o u r P a r t y and i t s l e a d e r , S i r Seewoosagur Ramgoolam. A t t h e end o f t h e 1 9 7 0 s , a r a d i c a l l e f t - w i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n , Mouvement M i l i t a n t M a u r i c i e n (MMM), g a i n e d momentum. I n t h e 1982 e l e c t i o n s MMM, l e d by P a u l B e r e n g e r , won a s p e c t a c u l a r e l e c t i o n v i c t o r y . The new B e r e n g e r government renewed t h e campaign t o g e t b a c k s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r t h e Chagos A r c h i p e l a g o . I n t e r n a l l y t h e s e i s l a n d s t a t e s i n t h e w e s t e r n I n d i a n Ocean vowed t o f o l l o w s o c i a l i s t p o l i c i e s w h i l e t h e i r d e c l a r e d f o r e i g n p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n was n o n - a l i g n m e n t . These t h r e e g overnments v e h e m e n t l y o p p o s e d any e x t e r n a l n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e r e g i o n , hence, became a r d e n t s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e IOPZ. These d e v e l o p m e n t s no doubt a l s o a c t e d as c a t a l y s t s f o r t h e new m i l i t a r i s t i c a p p r o a c h o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n . I t i s c l e a r t h a t a new p h a s e i n s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y emerged a f t e r 1978 w i t h t h e new m i l i t a r i s t i c a c c e n t i n A m e r i c a n p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and t h e more a g g r e s s i v e r o l e o f t h e 4 7 F o r t h e i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e s e i s l a n d s t a t e s see F r e d e r i c a M. Bunge, ed., I n d i a n Ocean: F i v e I s l a n d C o u n t r i e s , ( W a s h i n g t o n : A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y F o r e i g n A r e a S t u d i e s , 1983) . C h a p t e r 6, S t r a t e g i c C o n s i d e r a t i o n s ( 2 5 1 - 2 8 5 ) , by M i l i n d W. Cooke i s v e r y u s e f u l . 324 S o v i e t U n i o n i n t h e Horn and t h e I n d i a n Ocean. T h i s new phase o f n a v a l r i v a l r y o c c u r r e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f g r a v e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s between t h e two s u p e r p o w e r s , w h i c h has been r e f e r r e d t o as t h e 'New C o l d War' . I n t h i s p o l i t i c a l a t mosphere s u c h t e r m s as d e t e n t e , d i s a r m a m e n t , and arms c o n t r o l sounded o u t o f p l a c e and more and more m i l i t a n t e x p r e s s i o n s o f c o n f r o n t i n g and c o n t a i n i n g ' m i s b e h a v i n g ' R u s s i a n s c h a r a c t e r i z e d U.S. o f f i c i a l 4 3 u t t e r i n g s . Stalemate at the United Nations P a r a l l e l t o t h e a d v e n t o f a new p h a s e i n s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y and t h e a t t e n d a n t m i l i t a r i z a t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t h e p r o s p e c t f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f a Peace Zone became more and more re m o t e . The e f f o r t o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s t o a r r e s t t h e n a v a l b u i l d up by e x t e r n a l powers seemed t o f a i l . A f t e r 1977 a l l t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e Ad Hoc Committee on t h e I n d i a n Ocean were d i r e c t e d t o t h e one g o a l o f c o n v e n i n g t h e c o n f e r e n c e r e q u e s t e d by t h e UN R e s o l u t i o n 31/88 o f 14 December 1976 t o implement t h e 1971 D e c l a r a t i o n o f IOPZ. However, t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e Ad Hoc Committee were c o n s t a n t l y h i n d e r e d by two o b s t a c l e s . F i r s t and most c o n s p i c u o u s was t h e l a c k o f c o o p e r a -t i o n f r o m t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . The s e c o n d was t h e d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t i n g among l i t t o r a l s t a t e s t h e m s e l v e s o v e r t h e key a s p e c t s r e l a t i n g t o t h e p e a c e zone c o n c e p t . As a f i r s t s t e p t o w a r d s c o n v e n i n g t h e c o n f e r e n c e , t h e UN G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y d e c i d e d i n November 1978, on t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n 4 3 H a l l i d a y , S o v i e t P o l i c y i n t h e A r c o f C r i s i s , pp.7-10. 325 o f t h e Ad Hoc Committee, t o convene a m e e t i n g o f t h e l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean w i t h a v i e w t o h a r m o n i z i n g t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n . A t t h e m e e t i n g c o n v e n e d a t UN H e a d q u a r t e r s f r o m 2 t o 13 J u l y 1979 i t was o b v i o u s t h a t t h e r e were wide d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n among t h o s e s t a t e s . The m e e t i n g recommended i n i t s f i n a l document t h a t , f i r s t , t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a t i t s 1979 s e s s i o n f i x t h e d a t e and venue f o r t h e p r o p o s e d c o n f e r e n c e , s e c o n d , t o i n v i t e t h e permanent members a n d o t h e r m a j o r m a r i t i m e p o w e r s t o s e r v e on t h e e x p a n d e d Committee, and t h i r d , t h e Ad Hoc Committee t o u n d e r t a k e t h e p r e p a r a t o r y work f o r t h e c o n f e r e n c e . A c c o r d i n g l y , R e s o l u t i o n 34/80 B o f 11 December 197 9 recommended t h e c o n v e n i n g o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n 1981 i n Colombo, S r i L a n k a . From t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1980 t h e s u p e r p o w e r s and o t h e r m a j o r m a r i t i m e powers a c c e p t e d t h e i n v i t a t i o n on s e r v e on t h e Ad Hoc Committee. The expanded c o m m i t t e e met between 4 F e b r u a r y and 30 O c t o b e r , 1980 and d i s c u s s e d v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e IOPZ w i t h i n t h e framework o f an i n f o r m a l l i s t o f i s s u e s w h i c h i n c l u d e d geo-g r a p h i c a l l i m i t s , f o r e i g n m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e , n u c l e a r weapons, s e c u r i t y , p e a c e f u l s e t t l e m e n t o f d i s p u t e s , and use o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean by f o r e i g n v e s s e l s and a i r c r a f t . 4 4 On 12 December 1980, t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a d o p t e d a r e s o l u t i o n (Res. 35/150) p r o p o s e d by t h e Ad Hoc Committee w i t h o u t a v o t e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n i t s h i s t o r y . 4 5 4 4 Y e a r b o o k o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s 1980, V o l . 34 (New Y o r k : D ept. o f P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n (UN), 198 3 ) , p. 81. 4 5 T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e m p h a s i z e d ( c o n t . . . . t o page 333) D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s u p e r p o w e r s and o t h e r m a j o r m a r i -t i m e powers began t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e Ad Hoc Committee and a c q u i e s c e d i n t h e r e s o l u t i o n s on t h e IOPZ, t h e p r o s p e c t f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a p e a c e zone seemed f u r t h e r remote w i t h t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e 1980s. The S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e RDJTF, and t h e f a i l u r e on t h e p a r t o f t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s t o r e s o l v e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s on t h e p e a c e zone c o n c e p t and r e l a t e d i s s u e s were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s t a t e o f s t a g n a t i o n o f t h e P e a c e Zone p r o c e s s . The S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n added a new d i m e n s i o n t o t h e w h ole d e b a t e o v e r t h e IOPZ by p r o v i d i n g c o n d i t i o n s t o b r i n g l a n d power v e r s u s s e a power l o g i c t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n s . The A f g h a n i s t a n i s s u e c r e a t e d a huge g u l f n o t o n l y between t h e s u p e r -4 ft powers b u t a l s o among t h e l i t t o r a l s t h e m s e l v e s . A f t e r 1980 t h e Ad Hoc Committee i t s e l f became an i n s t r u m e n t o f s u p e r p o w e r p o l i t i c s and, t o q u o t e an A m e r i c a n s t r a t e g i s t , \"one ( C o n t i . f r o m p. 332) t h a t she was a b l e t o j o i n t h e c o n s e n s u s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e by h e r p l a c i n g h e r own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n on some o f t h e r e s o l u t i o n ' s p r o v i s i o n s . They were 1, t h e r e f e r e n c e t o a 1981 c o n f e r e n c e was a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e A s s e m b l y ' s 1972 r e s o l u t i o n on t h e t o p i c and n o t a c a l l t o convene t h e C o n f e r e n c e ; 2, t h e Ad Hoc Committee was n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y bound t o s e t a d a t e f o r t h e c o n f e r e n c e ; 3, t h e Committee w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o t a k e i t s d e c i s i o n s by c o n s e n s u s ; 4, f o r c e s d e p l o y e d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e U.N. C h a r t e r ' s p u r p o s e s and p r i n c i p l e s d i d n o t u n d e r m i n e t h e i n t e n t o f t h e zone o f p e a c e , and f i n a l l y i t was r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e t h r e a t t o r e g i o n a l s e c u r i t y d i d n o t emanate s o l e l y f r o m t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e g r e a t powers. I b i d . , p. 82. 4 ^ L u x e m b o u r g , s p e a k i n g on b e h a l f o f t h e E u r o p e a n Community, made t h e p o i n t t h a t a r e f e r e n c e t o o t h e r r e c e n t r e l e v a n t r e s o l u t i o n s i n a p r e a m b u l a r p a r a g r a p h as i n c l u d i n g r e s . ES-6/2 o f 14 J a n u a r y 1980, c a l l i n g f o r w i t h d r a w a l o f f o r e i g n f o r c e s f r o m A f g h a n s i t a n . 327 a l o n g p o l e m i c a l c i r c u s \" . The Ad Hoc Committee as a p r e p a r a t o r y c o m m i t t e e f o r t h e p r o j e c t e d c o n f e r e n c e h e l d two s e s s i o n s i n 1981. These d e l i b e r a t i o n s p r o v e d t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f h a r m o n i z i n g t h e v i e w s on i s s u e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e c o n v e n i n g t h e c o n f e r e n c e . I t was even d i f f i c u l t t o come t o a c o n s e n s u s o v e r t h e d a t e o f t h e c o n f e -r e n c e . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e Ad Hoc Committee, most o f them I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s , e m p h a s i z e d t h e u r g e n t need f o r c o n v e n i n g t h e c o n f e r e n c e i n 1981, as s c h e d u l e d , i n v i e w o f t h e g r a v e d e t e -r i o r a t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l and s e c u r i t y c l i m a t e i n t h e r e g i o n . They f e l t t h a t c o m p l e t e h a r m o n i z a t i o n o f v i e w s was n o t e s s e n t i a l b e c a u s e t h e c o n f e r e n c e i t s e l f w o u l d be a s t a g e i n t h i s p r o c e s s . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e m a r i t i m e powers c o n s i d e r e d i t p r e m a t u r e t o s e t t h e d a t e . I n t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e Ad Hoc Committee d e c i d e d t o p o s t p o n e t h e d a t e f o r t h e c o n f e r e n c e . T h i s was t h e b e g i n n i n g o f r e p e a t e d p o s t p o n e m e n t s . The F i r s t Committee d e b a t e on R e s o l u t i o n A 36/29, w h i c h p o s t p o n e d t h e d a t e o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e t o n o t l a t e r t h a n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1983, was v e r y r e f l e c t i v e o f t h e d i v e r g e n -ce o f o p i n i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s and m a j o r m a r i t i m e 48 p o w e r s . I n d i a , The U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e I n d i a n Ocean, p. 74. 4 P. \u00C2\u00B0India s t a t e d t h a t ' s e t t i n g p r e c o n d i t i o n s w i t h r e g a r d t o h a r m o n i z a t i o n o f v i e w s o r t h e p o l i t i c a l and s e c u r i t y c l i m a t e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a were m e r e l y p r e t e x t s t o k i l l t h e p r o p o s a l f o r a C o n f e r e n c e ' . The S e y c h e l l e s was o f t h e v i e w t h a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e s h o u l d be h e l d d u r i n g t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1982 . A c c o r d i n g t o M a d a g a s c a r , a c o m p l e t e a g r e e m e n t n e e d n o t be a c h i e v e d b e f o r e t h e c o n f e r e n c e and i t s j o i n i n g t h e c o n s e n s u s on t h e r e s o l u t i o n d i d n o t s i g n i f y i t s a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e argument t h a t t h e A f g h a n s i t u a t i o n j u s t i f i e d t h e p o s t p o n e m e n t . The U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e E u r o p e a n Community, Canada, and J a p a n q u e s t i o n e d t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e e x i s t i n g c o n c e p t o f IOPZ and c a l l e d f o r a change i n t h e A d Hoc c o m m i t t e e ' s m a n d a t e t o e n a b l e i t t o e x p l o r e e l e m e n t s f o r a zone o f p e a c e and f a c i l i t a t e ( C o n t i . . . t o p. 335) 328 I n t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i t was n o t r e a l i s t i c t o e x p e c t t h a t t h e p r o j e c t e d c o n f e r e n c e w o u l d p r o d u c e p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s even i f t h e p r o s p e c t o f c o n v e n i n g a p p e a r e d v e r y s l i m . The U n i t e d S t a t e s made i t v e r y p l a i n t h a t she w o u l d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e c o n f e r e n c e u n l e s s t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w i t h d r e w i t s f o r c e s f r o m A f g h a n i s t a n and a l s o c a l l e d f o r a h a r m o n i z a t i o n o f v i e w s on t h e agenda w i t h i n t h e c o m m i t t e e as a p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r h o l d i n g t h e c o n f e r e n c e . The A f g h a n i s s u e e x p e d i t e d t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e N o n - A l i g n e d movement, w h i c h was t h e v e h i c l e o f t h e p e a c e zone c o n c e p t , i n t o t h r e e g r o u p i n g s - p r o - S o v i e t , m o d e r a t e , and c o n s e r v a t i v e . The p r o -S o v i e t s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n , n o t a b l y I n d i a , were r e l u c t a n t t o i n c l u d e t h e A f g h a n i s s u e on t h e agenda o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e on t h e I n d i a n Ocean. T h e i r main c o n c e r n was t h e U.S. m i l i t a r y b u i l d up, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e D i e g o G a r c i a b a s e a n d t h e R D J T F . The c o n s e r v a t i v e a n d p r o - U S s t a t e s who h a d c o n c l u d e d a c c e s s a g r e e m e n t s w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e S o v i e t m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e i n A f g h a n i s t a n was a m a j o r p r o b l e m t h a t must be d i s c u s -s e d a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e . They c r i t i c i z e d I n d i a f o r i t s f a i l u r e t o condemn t h e S o v i e t a c t i o n d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t a f e l l o w N o n - A l i g n e d member. M o d e r a t e s l i k e M a u r i t i u s wanted t o i n c l u d e b o t h t h e A f g h a n and D i e g o G a r c i a i s s u e s on t h e agenda o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e . Small States versus Medium powers on the Peace Zone I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r o - w e s t e r n , p r o - S o v i e t and moderate d i v i s i o n s , d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e medium powers and t h e s m a l l C o n t i . . . . f r o m p. 334) c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e r e g i o n as w e l l as w i t h o u t s i d e p o w e r s . The S o v i e t U n i o n a s s e r t e d t h a t s t a t e s s h o u l d r e f r a i n f r o m i m p o s i n g p r e c o n d i t i o n s f o r c o n v e n i n g t h e c o n f e r e n c e . See Y e a r b o o k o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , 1981, V o l 35, (New Y o r k : Department o f P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n ( U . N . ) , 1 9 8 5 ) , p.94-5. 329 s t a t e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e a l s o a p p a r e n t . The c l a s h o f i n t e r e s t s between t h e medium and s m a l l s t a t e s c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h r e e main i s s u e s : t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t ; t h e r e c i p r o c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e r e g i o n a l s t a t e s i n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e p e a c e zone; and, f i n a l l y , t h e s cope o f t h e IOPZ. S e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s and d e f e n c e p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e medium powers a r e l u c i d -l y m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e I n d i a n a p p r o a c h t o t h e IOPZ. I n d i a d e f i n e s t h e IOPZ as an a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t o f I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s t o p r e v e n t t h e I n d i a n Ocean b e c o m i n g an a r e n a f o r s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y . A c c o r d i n g l y , g o i n g n a r r o w l y w i t h t h e 1971 d e c l a r a t i o n , I n d i a wants t o d i r e c t t h e IOPZ o n l y a g a i n s t s u p e r p o w e r s . S e c o n d l y , I n d i a i s a g a i n s t t h e a s s i g n i n g o f any r e c i p r o c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e c o u r s e o f i m p l e m e t i n g t h e IOPZ. T h i r d l y , t h e IOPZ c o v e r s o n l y t h e w a t e r column b u t n o t t h e l i t t o r a l s . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e s m a l l s t a t e s a r e c o n c e r n e d n o t o n l y w i t h t h e n a v a l a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s b u t a l s o w i t h t h e n a v a l b u i l d up o f t h e r e g i o n a l p o w e r s . S m a l l s t a t e s do n o t want t o see t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e p l a c e d by t h e r e g i o n a l m i d d l e p o w e r s . R e p r e s e n t i n g t h e p e a c e and s e c u r i t y p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e s m a l l p o w e rs, S r i L a n k a s t a t e d i n t h e F i r s t Committee o f t h e UN i n 1977 t h a t \"we a r e no l e s s c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r e v e n t i n g m i l i t a r y c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e powers o f t h e 4 9 r e g i o n i t s e l f \" . J T h e r e i s no doubt t h a t t h e r o o t s o f p o l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t y and c h r o n i c i n s e c u r i t y i n t h e r e g i o n c a n n o t s o l e l y be a t t r i b u t e d t o s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The 4 9 U N Disarmament Y e a r b o o k , V o l . 2, 1977 (New Y o r k ; Dept. o f P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n , 1 9 7 8 ) , p. 259. 330 I r a n - I r a q war p r o v i d e s a c a s e i n p o i n t . The i n v o l v e m e n t o f e x t e r n a l powers i n t h e war has been v e r y p e r i p h e r a l i f n o t n e g l i -g i b l e . I f t h e r e g i o n a l powers a r e a l s o a c c o u n t a b l e f o r l a c k o f p e a c e i n t h e r e g i o n , t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e r e g i o n a l p o w e r s i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a p e a c e z o n e comes n a t u r a l l y . A c c o r d i n g t o K.R. S i n g h , a l e a d i n g I n d i a n s t r a t e g i c a n a l y s t , a c c e p t a n c e o f some r e s p o n s i b i l i t y by t h e r e g i o n a l powers i s t a n t a m o u n t t o e q u a t i n g t h e s e w i t h t h e g r e a t p o w e r s a n d \" a c c e p t i n g t h e e q u a t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f G r e a t Powers and r e g i o n a l powers was b a d d i p l o m a c y \" . 5 0 I n c o n t r a s t , t h e s m a l l s t a t e s demand t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d be some a b i d i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y by t h e r e g i o n a l powers i n o r d e r t o g u a r a n t e e p e a c e and s e c u r i t y i n t h e r e g i o n . T h e r e f o r e , s m a l l s t a t e s e a g e r l y p u t f o r w a r d p r o p o s a l s s u c h as t h o s e o f n u c l e a r f r e e z o n e s , m u t u a l a n d b a l a n c e d arms r e d u c t i o n a t a r e g i o n a l l e v e l , code o f c o n d u c t and norms o f c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n , a l o n g w i t h t h e IOPZ, t h a t b i n d r e g i o n a l powers as w e l l . From t h e I n d i a n p o i n t o f v i e w \" t h e y were n e i t h e r n e c e s s a r y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e g r e a t power r i v a l r y n o r e n v i s a g e d e a r l i e r by t h e NAM i n i t s c o n c e p t o f I O P Z \" . 5 1 However, S r i L a n k a a l w a y s a d v o c a t e d t h e l i n k a g e between r e g i o n a l and g l o b a l d i s a r m a m e n t . She s u g g e s t e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , a t t h e m e e t i n g o f t h e L i t t o r a l and H i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s i n 1979 h e l d i n New Y o r k , t h a t t h e I n d i a n Ocean s t a t e s s h o u l d a d o p t a code o f c o n d u c t K.R. S i n g h , \" E m e r g i n g I s s u e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean: The P o l i t i c a l D i m e n s i o n , \" IPSA J o u r n a l , X V I I : 4 ( A p r i l - J u n e 1 9 8 5 ) , p. 396 5 1 I b i d . , p. 392. 331 w h i c h could, i n c l u d e a commitment t o t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e C O U.N. c h a r t e r . F i n a l l y comes t h e i s s u e o f g e o g r a p h i c a l s c o p e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean Peace zone P r o p o s a l . I n d i a and A u s t r a l i a want t o a d h e r e s t r i c t l y t o t h e n a r r o w d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e 1971 r e s o l u t i o n - t h e O c e a n a n d i t s n a t u r a l e x t e n s i o n s o n l y . The i s s u e o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l l i m i t s o f t h e IOPZ comes up r e p e a t e d l y i n t h e UN d e b a t e s and a t t h e NAM c o n f e r e n c e s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t b e c a u s e o f t h e l i n k a g e s between s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l s t r a t e g i e s and p o l i c i e s o f t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s , c o n f l i c t s on l a n d e v e n t u a l l y s l i p i n t o t h e o c e a n , u n l e s s t h e IOPZ c o v e r s t h e l a n d mass. T h i s i s s u e was d i s c u s s e d a t t h e Colombo Summit o f t h e N o n - A l i g n e d Movement and t h e s u b s e q u e n t m i n i s t e r i a l - l e v e l NAM m e e t i n g s w h i c h came t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e p e a c e z o n e i n c l u d e s t h e I n d i a n Ocean and i t s n a t u r a l e x t e n s i o n s t o t h e l i t t o r a l and h i n t e r l a n d s t a t e s . The d o m i n a t i n g a t t i t u d e o f I n d i a as a medium power i n t h e r e g i o n became more a p p a r e n t w i t h t h e g r o w t h o f h e r n a v a l c a p a b i l i t y . W h i l e a d v o c a t i n g t h e I n d i a n Ocean Peace Zone, I n d i a has been s t r i v i n g t o a c h i e v e b l u e w a t e r n a v a l c a p a b i l i t y . 5 3 The p e r c e i v e d r o l e o f t h e I n d i a n Navy has been e n l a r g e d e n o r m o u s l y i n 5 2 U N Disarmament Y e a r b o o k , V o l . 4, 1979. (New Y o r k : Dept. o f P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n , 1 9 8 0 ) , p. 304-5. S3 F o r , a good d i s c u s s i o n on d e b a t e w i t h i n t h e I n d i a n N a v a l h i e r a r c h y o v e r t h e s i z e and c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e n a v a l f o r c e s r e q u i r e d t o meet t h e c o u n t r y ' s s t r a t e g i c o b j e c t i v e s , See, J e r r o l d F. E l k i n and W. Andrew R i t e z e l , \" I n d o - P a k i s t a n M i l i t a r y B a l a n c e , \" A s i a n S u r v e y XXVI:5 (May 1 9 8 6 ) , p. 518-538. 332 t h e p a s t two d e c a d e s . \u00C2\u00B0 The s u p e r c i l i o u s a t t i t u d e o f I n d i a as a medium power t o w a r d s t h e s m a l l s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n i s c l e a r l y r e f l e c t e d when I n d i a ' s t o p s t r a t e g i c t h i n k e r , K. Subrahmanyam, D i r e c t o r o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f D e f e n c e S t u d i e s and A n a l y s i s , s t a t e s t h a t \" ( W ) h i l e no doubt i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community a l l s t a t e s a r e e q u a l i t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o b e a r i n mind t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f o n e - s e v e n t h o f h u m a n i t y w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n c a n n o t be e q u a t e d o b j e c t i v e l y w i t h t h o s e o f a f r a c t i o n o f t h i s p o p u l a t i o n \" . ^ I n t h i s c o n t e x t , a s K o d i k a r a o b s e r v e s , \" t h e I n d i a n Ocean came t o be l o o k e d upon as a 'Mare Nostrum' by I n d i a n s p o k e s p e r s o n s . \" 5 6 I n t h e d i a l o g u e between U.S. and I n d i a n 'Task F o r c e s ' c o n d u c t e d i n New D e l h i f r o m 25 November t o 1 December 1984 t h e i s s u e o f t h e a p p r e h e n s i o n on t h e p a r t o f s m a l l s t a t e s o v e r p o s s i b l e medium power d o m i n a t i o n came up. The I n d i a n answer was q u i t e s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y ; \" t h e y [ s m a l l s t a t e s ] w i l l l i v e w i t h us and t h e y w i l l l e a r n t o l i v e w i t h us l i k e y o u r [ U n i t e d S t a t e s ] n e i g h b o u r s have l e a r n t t o l i v e w i t h y o u ' \" . I t i s i n t h i s c l i m a t e t h a t t h e s m a l l s t a t e s need some s o r t o f s a f e g u a r d s i n t h e f o r m o f norms o f c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n t h a t b i n d l i t t o r a l s a l i k e . 5 4 A s S a l m a t A l i r e m a r k e d \" ( T ) h e I n d i a n b r a s s ' s s t r a t e g i c p e r c e p t i o n s a r e r o o t e d i n t h e p r e c e p t s o f t h e i r s e n i o r s , who were t r a i n e d a t t h e o l d I m p e r i a l D e f e n c e C o l l e g e i n London. They b e l i e v e I n d i a c a n n o t be d e f e n d e d i n t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n I n d o -G a n g e t i c p l a i n s a g a i n s t a m a j o r m i l i t a r y a d v e r s a r y , t h a t t h e S u b c o n t i n e n t i s a s t r a t e g i c a l l y i n d i v i s i b l e u n i t and t h a t i t must be d e f e n d e d a t t h e H i n d u Kush, t h e H i m a l a y a s , t h e M a l a c c a S t r a i t s and B a d - e l Mandab, i f n o t Suez\". F a r E a s t e r n Economic R e v i e w, 31 May 1984, p. 27. 5 5Subrahmanyam, I n d i a n S e c u r i t y P e r s p e c t i v e s , p. 222. 5 6 K o d i k a r a , F o r e i g n P o l i c y i n S r i L a n k a , pp. 22-26. I n d i a , The U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e I n d i a n Ocean, p. 78. 333 I n r e s t r o s p e c t i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f IOPZ has u n d e r -gone a c o n t e x t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s p o l i t i c a l f r amework. I n 1971 t h e IOPZ was p r o p o s e d t o t h e U.N. i n t h e c o n t e x t o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t and d i r e c t e d p u r e l y a g a i n s t s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y . The main t h r u s t o f t h e p r o p o s a l i n t e n d e d t o e l i m i n a t e t h e i n g r e d i e n t s o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l p r e s e n c e , m a i n l y , b a s e s and d e p l o y m e n t o f n a v a l f o r c e s , c o n c e i v e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f g r e a t power r i v a l r y . S i n c e t h e n , a number o f i s s u e s i n t e g r a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a zone o f p e a c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean came t o t h e f o r e f r o n t and t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e IOPZ expanded w i d e l y . I t i s t r u e t h a t a number o f i s s u e s a r e i n one b a s k e t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a l l i s s u e s a r e o r g a n i c a l l y r e l a t e d and i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o d i s s o c i a t e them i n a m e a n i n g f u l manner. As a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a decade o f e v o l u t i o n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e IOPZ has c h a n g e d f r o m n o n - a l i g n m e n t t o d i s a r m a m e n t . Once t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e IOPZ changed t o t h a t o f d i s a r m a m e n t , i t s e s t a b l i s h m e n t became i n e v i t a b l y l i n k e d t o t h e g l o b a l s t r a t e g i c b a l a n c e between t h e s u p e r p o w e r s on t h e one hand and r e g i o n a l - l e v e l d i sarmament on t h e o t h e r . As so much w a t e r has f l o w e d u n d e r t h e b r i d g e s i n c e 1971, i t i s r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t o go b a c k t o t h e o r i g i n a l NAM framework. Changing P r i o r i t i e s Under Jayewardena's Leadership C o n c u r r e n t l y w i t h t h e changes i n t h e p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c c l i m a t e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a t t h e end o f 1970s and t h e a d v e n t o f a new s t a g e i n s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, S r i L a n k a a l s o r e a r r a n g e d h e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y p r i o r i t i e s and d e v i a t e d f r o m some o f t h e e a r l i e r p o l i c y p o s i t i o n s . T h i s change came about a f t e r t h e m a s s i v e and u n p r e c e d e n t e d e l e c t i o n v i c t o r y o f t h e 334 U.N.P. l e d by J.R. J a y e w a r d e n a i n t h e g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n i n 1977 w h i c h , i n many r e s p e c t s , marked a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n S r i Lankan p o l i t i c s . As f a r as f o r e i g n p o l i c y i s c o n c e r n e d t h e r e a r e some c o n t i n u i t i e s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e c o u n t r y ' s g e o - p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t and o t h e r c o n s t a n t v a r i a b l e s o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y - m a k i n g . However, i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e changes o f p r i o r i t i e s a s s i g n e d by t h e U.N.P. r e g i m e t o f o r e i g n p o l i c y g o a l s , some n o t a b l e changes i n S r i La n k a ' s p o l i c y p o s t u r e s c a n be se e n s i n c e 1977. I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e changes i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o t r a c e t h e f a c t o r s and s i t u a t i o n s t h a t d e c i d e d S r i Lankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y a f t e r 1977. I t i s a f a c t t h a t t h e U.N.P. h i s t o r i c a l l y had a p r o - w e s t e r n o r i e n t a t i o n i n i t s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . J.R. J a y e w a r d e n a e s p e c i a l l y had been n o t e d f o r h i s pro-U.S. l e a n i n g s . A f t e r t h e r e o r g a n i z a -t i o n o f t h e U.N.P. f o l l o w i n g t h e d e a t h o f D u d l e y Senanayake i n 1972, J.R. J a y e w a r d e n a emerged as t h e dominant and u n d i s p u t e d l e a d e r o f t h e p a r t y . H i s dominance and a u t h o r i t a r i a n i m p r i n t were v i s i b l e i n e v e r y a s p e c t o f p a r t y o r g a n i z a t i o n and p o l i c y f o r m a t i o n . By t h i s t i m e , i n t h e c h a n g e d d o m e s t i c a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e U.N.P. had come f o r w a r d t o e n d o r s e n o n - a l i g n m e n t i n p r i n c i p l e as t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y . They c r i t i c i s e d S i r i m a v o B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s p o l i c y as h a v i n g h a d a p r o - S o v i e t a n d a n t i - W e s t e r n b i a s . The m a i n c r i t i c i s m was t h a t S r i L a n k a u n d e r M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e was e x t r a v a -g a n t l y h y p e r - a c t i v e i n a way t h a t a s m a l l c o u n t r y c o u l d n o t a f f o r d . A t t h e g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n i n 1977 t h e UNP wanted t o p u t t h e t h e n government on t h e d e f e n s i v e n o t on f o r e i g n p o l i c y i s s u e s b u t on i t s economic p o l i c y , c o r r u p t i o n , and mismanagement o f 335 s t a t e a f f a i r s . A f t e r i t came t o power, t h e UNP government e s t a b -l i s h e d a s e p a r a t e M i n i s t r y o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s i n p l a c e o f t h e p r e v i o u s a r r a n g e m e n t s w h i c h had f o r e i g n a f f a i r s u n d e r t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r . A l t h o u g h S h a u l Hameed was a p p o i n t e d M i n i s t e r , i n r e a l i t y , i t was f r o m J.R. J a y e w a r d e n a t h a t a l l t h e i m p o r t a n t p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e s emanated. P r i o r t o c o m i n g t o p o w e r , J.R. J a y e w a r d e n a was n o t e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t t h e IOPZ. He c o n s i d e r e d i t i d e a l i s t i c and i m p r a c t i c a l . When t h e IOPZ was d i s c u s s e d a t t h e t w e n t i e t h C o m m o n w e a l t h P a r l i a m e n t a r y C o n f e r e n c e h e l d i n C o l o m b o i n September 1974, J.R. J a y e w a r d e n a as L e a d e r o f t h e O p p o s i t i o n , e x p r e s s e d h i s g r a v e r e s e r v a t i o n s on two g r o u n d s . F i r s t l y , he s t a t e d t h a t a p e a c e zone i n t h e Ocean w o u l d n o t be s u f f i c i e n t t o g u a r a n t e e p e a c e i n t h e a r e a . He a s k e d : A r e we t h i n k i n g o n l y i n t e r m s o f n a v a l b a s e s o r armed s h i p s ? A r e t h e r e n o t o t h e r methods whereby war i s d e a l t a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , a r m i e s ? I t was t h r o u g h K h y b e r P a s s t h a t A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t came t o I n d i a . C e n t u r i e s a f t e r t h a t N a d i r Shah o f P e r s i a c a p t u r e d New D e l h i . We know t h a t J a p a n t o o i n v a d e d t e r r i t o r i e s o f I n d i a t h r o u g h Assam and c e n t u r i e s ago t h e S o u t h e r n I n d i a n s , t h e C h o l a s , t h e P a n d i a n s and t h e T a m i l s i n v a d e d S r i Lanka.58 S e c o n d l y , he r a i s e d t h e i s s u e o f t h e s e c u r i t y o f s m a l l s t a t e s w h i c h l i v e i n t h e shade o f dominant medium power s . I n d i a was a p e a c e f u l c o u n t r y , s a i d J a y e w a r d e n a , and h e r g r e a t P r i m e M i n i s t e r d e s e r v e d r e s p e c t and h o n o u r . He f u r t h e r a s k e d : ( B ) u t c a n we s a y t h a t e v e r y d a y I n d i a w i l l have a p e a c e f u l r u l e r ? T h e r e may be a d i c t a t o r l i k e R e p o r t o f P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e Twent i e t h C o m m o n w e a l t h P a r l i a m e n t a r y C o n f e r e n c e h e l d i n Colombo, September 1974 (London: Commonwealth P a r l i a m e n t a r y A s s o c i a t i o n , n . d . ) , p. 43. 336 T i p u S u l t a n o f M y s o r e o r t h e r e may be some d i c t a t o r l i k e Yahya Khan o f P a k i s t a n . And how a r e t h e p e o p l e who l i v e i n t h e s m a l l c o u n t r i e s a r o u n d t h e I n d i a n Ocean t o d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s a g a i n s t a huge and m i g h t y n a t i o n o f f i v e h u n d r e d m i l l i o n p e o p l e l e d by a d i c t a t o r o f t h a t n a t u r e ? 5 9 I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e , however, t h a t a f t e r coming t o power J a y e w a r d e n a d i d n o t e x p r e s s any r e s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t t h e IOPZ. A more i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r t h a t d e t e r m i n e d t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e p o s t - 1 9 7 7 U.N.P. r e g i m e was i t s e c o n o m i c s t r a t e g y w h i c h marked a s w e e p i n g d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e s t r a t e g y o f \" s e l f - r e l i a n t d e v e l o p m e n t \" o f t h e p r e v i o u s government. The open economic p a c k a g e ' i n t r o d u c e d by t h e U.N.P. r e g i m e a f t e r 1977 had many e l e m e n t s . A c c o r d i n g t o J.R. J a y e w a r d e n a , f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e new economy was t h e a d o p t i o n o f a r e a l i s t i c r a t e f o r t h e S r i fi Ci L a n k a n r u p e e . The r u p e e was a l l o w e d t o f l o a t . Consumer f o o d s u b s i d i e s a n d r a t i o n i n g w e r e w i t h d r a w n . T r a d e a n d p a y m e n t c o n t r o l s were d i s m a n t l e d . Most s t a t e t r a d i n g m o n o p o l i e s were a b o l i s h e d . I n v e s t m e n t p r o m o t i o n zones ( F r e e T r a d e Zones) t o a t t r a c t p r i v a t e f o r e i g n c a p i t a l f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y f o r t h e e x p o r t m a r k e t were e s t a b l i s h e d . An a c c e l e r a t e d M a h a v e l i d e v e l o p m e n t programme t o e x p e d i t e t h e de v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t was i n i t i a t e d . I n t h e new economic s t r a t e g y , heavy r e l i a n c e was p l a c e d on f o r e i g n a i d and f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t , m a i n l y f r o m W e s t e r n i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s , J a p a n , a n d o t h e r E a s t A s i a n c o u n t r i e s . A s . W.D. Lakshman p o i n t e d o u t : t h e P o s t - 1 9 7 7 r e g i m e does n o t even c l a i m t o be f o l l o w i n g a s t r a t e g y f o r s e l f - r e l i a n c e and 5 9 I b i d . , p. 44. 6 0 S r i L a n k a F o r e i g n A f f a i r s R e c o r d , 2:1, J u l y - S e p t e m b e r 1979, pp. 19-22. autonomous d e v e l o p m e n t . I t s a p p r o a c h seems t o be, d e l i b e r a t e o r o t h e r w i s e , t o w i d e n and deepen t h e c o u n t r y ' s dependence on t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d and p u r s u e a c l e a r l y dependent c a p i t a l i s t s t r a t e g y , w i t h t h e a p p a r e n t p i o u s hope o f g e t t i n g o u t o f t h a t dependence i n an u n s p e c i f i e d f u t u r e d a t e . 6 1 I n t h i s e c o n omic p o l i c y , f o r e i g n a i d and l o a n s became c r u c i a l i n two r e s p e c t s . As a t o t a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e new economic p o l i c y S r i L a n k a s t a r t e d t o r u n l a r g e c u r r e n t a c c o u n t d e f i c i t s a f t e r 1979. I t s t e r m s o f t r a d e d e t e r i o r a t e d by more t h a n 30 p e r c e n t cp between 1977 and 1981. The government r e l i e d o v e r w h e l m i n g l y on f o r e i g n a i d t o meet b a l a n c e o f payment p r o b l e m s . I n t h e p e r i o d between A u g u s t 1977 and J u l y 1981, IMF g r a n t s t o f i n a n c e b a l a n c e o f payment d e f i c i t s c r e a t e d by l i b e r a l i z a t i o n o f i m p o r t s amounted fi 3 t o R s . 8 6 5 7 . 4 m i l l i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t s ' s m a i n d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s , n a m e l y A c c e l e r a t e d M a h a v e l i D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m m e , G r e a t e r C o l o m b o D e v e l o p m e n t Scheme, a n d I n t e g r a t e d R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s , s o l e l y depended on t h e i n f l o w o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i n t h e f o r m o f l o a n s and g r a n t s . I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t o b t a i n i n g t h a t t y p e o f f o r e i g n a i d i n s u c h a p r o p o r t i o n was p o s s i b l e o n l y f r o m t h e w e s t e r n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . As an o b v i o u s outcome o f t h i s e conomic s t r a t e g y , U .S.-dominated i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s DXW.D. Lakhsman, \" S t a t e P o l i c y i n S r i L a n k a and i t s Economic I m p a c t 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 8 5 : S e l e c t e d Themes w i t h S p e c i a l R e f e r e n c e t o D i s t r i b u t i v e I m p l i c a t i o n s o f P o l i c y , \" U p a n a t h i (1) J a n u a r y 1 9 8 6 ) , p. 19. 5 2 W o r l d Bank, W o r l d Development R e p o r t 1983 (London: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 66. \" ^ C e y l o n D a i l y News, 1 December 1981, and a l s o see T e r r e n c e Savundranayagam \" B a l a n c e o f Payments,\" i n F a c e t s o f D e v e l o p m e n t s i n I n d e p e n d e n t S r i L a n k a , W. R a s a p u t r a , W.M. T i l e k a r a t n a , S.T.G. F e r n a n d o , L.E.N. F e r n a n d o , e d s . , (Colombo: M i n i s t r y o f F i n a n c e and P l a n n i n g , 1 9 8 6 ) , pp. 83-108. 338 s u c h as t h e IMF and t h e W o r l d Bank came t o e x e r t d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e on t h e economic l i f e o f t h e c o u n t r y . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , a t t r a c t i n g f o r e i g n c a p i t a l become a m a j o r f o r e i g n p o l i c y g o a l . The p o s t - 1 9 7 7 r e g i m e was p r e p a r e d t o g i v e h i g h p r i o r i t y t o t h i s g o a l a t t h e e x p e nse o f more p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s w h i c h were o f a n t i - w e s t e r n c o m p l e x i o n . I n sum, t h e J a y e w a r d e n a r e g i m e hoped t o g i v e S r i L ankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y a new o r i e n t a t i o n , t o q u o t e M i n i s t e r o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s S h a u l Hameed, \" w i t h s t r o n g e c o nomic fi 4 u n d e r t o n e s \" . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e new d i r e c t i o n o f p o s t - 1 9 7 7 S r i L a n k a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y and i t s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n i t s p r o p e r c o n t e x t , i t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o l o c a t e i t a g a i n s t t h e b a c k d r o p o f t h e changed i n t e r -n a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , b e c a u s e , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i n t e r n a l d e t e r -m i n a n t s , changes i n t h e e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t c o n d i t i o n e d S r i L a n k a n p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . T h r e e e l e m e n t s i n t h e c hanged p o l i t i c a l s c e n a r i o s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean t h e a t r e s h o u l d be n o t e d i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n . F i r s t , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y 1970s, s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l p r e s e n c e and t h e t h r e e e l e m e n t s o f t h e n a v a l c o m p e t i t i o n had become s t a b i l i z e d by t h e end o f t h e d e c a d e . The d e t e n t e e r a o f s u p e r p o w e r r e l a t i o n s was v i r t u a l l y o v e r and a new wave o f n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean began a f t e r 1978, d e s p i t e r e p e a t e d U.N. r e s o l u t i o n s c a l l i n g f o r t h e IOPZ. A t t h e same t i m e , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e IOPZ a p p e a r e d f u r t h e r remote i n v i e w o f t h e s t a l e m a t e a t t h e UN Ad Hoc Committee on t h e I n d i a n Ocean. S e c o n d l y , changes t h a t a p p e a r e d w i t h i n t h e n o n - a l i g n e d movement a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t . On t h e one h a n d , t h e n o n - a l i g n e d movement expanded r a p i d l y w i t h t h e j o i n i n g 339 o f a h o s t o f n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s . The membership o f t h e Movement i n c r e a s e d f r o m 53 t o 93 i n t h e p e r i o d 1970 - 1983. On t h e o t h e r hand, s h a r p d i v i s i o n s d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n t h e movement on k e y i n t e r n a t i o n a l e v e n t s . O v e r t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n , t h e Kam p u c h e a n i s s u e , t h e Camp D a v i d A g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n E g y p t a n d I s r a e l , t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e n o n - a l i g n e d movement was i n t e n s e . I t s i n i t i a l v i g o u r and e n t h u s i a s m s t a r e d t o w i t h e r away a t t h e t i m e t h e UNP assumed power i n S r i L a n k a i n 1977. The t h i r d i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t o f t h e changed p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c s i t u a t i o n s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s t h e r a p i d emergence o f I n d i a as a b l u e - w a t e r n a v a l power. I t i s a l s o w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t t h e UNP government o f 1977 c o u l d n o t c o m p l e t e l y g e t r i d o f t h e l e g a c y o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s u n d e r t a k e n by t h e p r e v i o u s government. Thus S r i L a n k a r e t a i n e d t h e c h a i r m a n s h i p o f t h e N o n - A l i g n e d Movement f o r t h e p e r i o d 197 6-7 9 and a l s o t h a t o f t h e Ad Hoc Committee on t h e I n d i a n Ocean. These two r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s more o r l e s s c o n d i t i o n e d , a t l e a s t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y b e h a v i o u r o f t h e Jayewardane r e g i m e . When t h e UNP was i n o p p o s i t i o n t h e y were c r i t i c a l , t h o u g h i t was n o t c l e a r l y s p e l l e d o u t , o f h a v i n g t h e F i f t h Summit C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e N o n - A l i g n e d Movement i n Colombo, w h i c h , as N i s s a n k a p o i n t e d o ut \"was d e s c r i b e d by them c o n t e m p t u o u s l y as x K a b e r i M a g u l a ' w h i c h means \"a f e s t i v a l o f N i g g e r s \" However, J.R. J a y e w a r d e n e , as t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r o f S r i L a n k a , h a d t o assume t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e N o n - A l i g n e d Movement b e s t o w e d upon ^ 4 S r i L a n k a , N a t i o n a l S t a t e A s s e m b l y , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i m e n t a r v D e b a t e s , V o l . 2 5 ( 1 ) : 2 , 6 December 1977, c. 418. \" ^ N i s s a n k a , S r i L a n k a ' s F o r e i g n P o l i c y , p. 322. 340 S r i L a n k a a t t h a t v e r y summit. As t h e C h a i r m a n o f t h e movement, J.R. Jayewardene was e x p e c t e d t o behave i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a w i t h i n t h e p o l i c y framework o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t . H i s i n t e n t i o n was t o be l e s s c o n t r o v e r s i a l , as f a r as p o s s i b l e , u n t i l t h e c h a i r m a n s h i p was h a n d e d o v e r i n 1979 . A t t h e UN, S h i r l e y A m a r a s i n g h e , a w e l l - r e s p e c t e d and w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d spokesman o f t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e T h i r d W o r l d , was r e p l a c e d by B . J . F e r n a n d o , an unknown l a w y e r , as t h e permanent S r i Lankan r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t o t h e U.N. soon a f t e r t h e U.N.P. assumed o f f i c e i n 1977. The a r d u o u s r o l e p l a y e d by S h i r l e y A m e r a s i n g h e as t h e C h a i r m a n o f t h e Ad Hoc Committee has been n o t e d . The ab s e n c e o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e d d i p l o m a t was d e e p l y f e l t . As f a r as t h e IOPZ i s c o n c e r n e d , S r i L a n k a c o n t i n u e d t o s u p p o r t t h e p r o p o s a l i n p r i n c i p l e b u t t h e e a r l i e r e n t h u s i a s m d e c l i n e d s h a r p l y a f t e r 1977. Some e l e m e n t s o f U.N.P. d e f e n c e p e r c e p t i o n s i n r e g a r d t o t h e p e a c e zone were a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d e c l i n i n g i n t e r e s t . F i r s t l y , t h e U.N.P. b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e IOPZ p r o p o s a l was u n r e a l i s t i c and i d e a l i s t i c . H a r i n d r a C o r e a , t h e J u n i o r M i n i s t e r F o r P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , p u t i n t o words t h e w i d e l y h e l d o p i n i o n o f t h e government: When we s a i d t h e I n d i a n Ocean must be c l e a r o f f o r e i g n n a v i e s , we f o r g e t t h a t as l o n g as t r a d e goes on between E a s t and West we c a n n o t have a zone o f p e a c e . I t i s no n s e n s e t o dream o f a zone o f p e a c e u n l e s s t h e w o r l d ' s s t r u g g l e s c l e a r up.66 S e c o n d l y , t h e g o v e r n m e n t was a p p a r e n t l y o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t w i t h d r a w a l o f f o r e i g n powers f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean w o u l d g i v e a g r e e n l i g h t t o t h e medium powers t o d o m i n a t e t h e r e g i o n . The 6 6 S r i L a n k a , N a t i o n a l S t a t e A s s e m b l y , H a n s a r d ' s P a r l i m e n t a r y D e b a t e s . V o l . 2 5 ( 1 ) : No. 2, 6 December 1977, p. 375. F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , S h a u l Hameed, i s v e r y e x p l i c i t on t h i s p o i n t : I f t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s t o be made a zone o f p e a c e we want t o make i t q u i t e c l e a r t h a t a l l t h e b o r d e r i n g s t a t e s must p l e d g e t h e m s e l v e s t o a c t w i t h a s e n s e o f r e s t r a i n t i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f p e a c e and t r a n q u i l i t y . I do n o t want t o see a s t a g e w h e r e t h e b o r d e r i n g s t a t e s w i l l be t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f t h e vacuum.67 I n t h i s c o n t e x t , S r i L a n k a u n d e r J a y e w a r d e n a ' s l e a d e r s h i p b e l i e v e d t h a t i t w o u l d be more a p p r o p r i a t e and r e a l i s t i c t o have a ' b a l a n c e d p r e s e n c e ' i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. T h i s w o u l d c r e a t e a s i t u a t i o n f o r m u t u a l r e s t r a i n t between t h e s u p e r p o w e r s , between t h e r e g i o n a l powers and t h e s u p e r p o w e r s , and among t h e r e g i o n a l powers t h e m s e l v e s . The t h e s i s o f ' b a l a n c e d p r e s e n c e ' r e c e i v e d a p p r o b a t i o n f r o m S i n g a p o r e and A u s t r a l i a . A t t h e same t i m e , S r i L a n k a b e g a n t o p l a c e more e m p h a s i s on d i s a r m a m e n t a n d arms c o n t r o l . J a y e w a r d e n a made an a p p e a l t o e s t a b l i s h a W o r l d Disarmament A u t h o r i t y , f i r s t a t t h e r e g i o n a l m e e t i n g o f Common-w e a l t h Heads o f Governments h e l d i n Sydney i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8 , ^ 9 and l a t e r a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . An e x a m i n a t i o n o f S r i L ankan r e s p o n s e s t o t h e n a v a l / m i l i t a r y i n i t i a t i v e s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f t e r 1977 does n o t f a i l t o r e v e a l a p r o - w e s t e r n t i l t . S r i L a n k a d i d n o t make any f o r m a l p r o t e s t t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r i t s e nhanced n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e RDJTF. T h i s i n a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e U.N.P. Government i s s t r i k i n g when compared w i t h S r i L a n k a n r e a c t i o n s u n d e r M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e 6 7 I b i d . , p. 420. \u00C2\u00B0^P.K.S. N a m b o o d i r i , J.P'. Anand, S r e e d h a r , I n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, (New D e l h i : A B C P u b l i s h i n g House, 1 9 8 2 ) , p. 238. 6 9 C e y l o n D a i l y News, 15 F e b r u a r y , 1978. 342 i n 1974 when t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s e n t a c a r r i e r t a s k f o r c e i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. N e v e r t h e l e s s , S r i L a n k a was v o c i f e r o u s a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n and e q u a l l y condemned t h e S o v i e t 7 n U n i o n i n i t s communique o f 3 J a n u a r y 1980. u I n v i e w o f t h e g e n e r a l p r o - w e s t e r n t i l t o f t h e U.N.P. government, t h e r e were s p e c u l a t i o n s t h a t S r i L a n k a was m o ving t o w a r d s an a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e U.S. I n 1981, a d e b a t e o v e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e U.N.P. f o r e i g n p o l i c y c e n t e r e d on f o u r i s s u e s : S r i L a n k a ' s a l l e g e d o f f e r o f b a s e f a c i l i t i e s t o t h e U.S. Navy a t T r i n c o m a l e e ; t h e g r a n t o f an o i l f a r m c o n t r a c t t o t h e U.S. C o a s t a l C o r p o r a t i o n ; t h e a t t e m p t o f S r i L a n k a t o j o i n t h e ASEAN; and t h e V o i c e o f A m e r i c a [VOA] Agreement. There was s p e c u l a t i o n i n 1980 t h a t S r i L a n k a had o f f e r e d b a s e f a c i l i t i e s t o t h e A m e r i c a n Navy a t T r i n c o m a l e e . The i s s u e was d e b a t e d i n t h e N a t i o n a l S t a t e A s s e m b l y and b o t h g o v ernments c a t e g o r i c a l l y d e n i e d t h e t r u t h o f s u c h r e p o r t s . The U.S. Navy c o n s t a n t l y h a d p o r t - c a l l s a n d r e c e i v e d R & R f a c i l i t i e s a t T r i n c o m a l e e . P r e s i d e n t J a y a w a r d e n a e x p l a i n e d t h i s p o s i t i o n : \"we a r e d o i n g n o t h i n g o f t h a t k i n d (base f a c i l i t i e s ) . Of c o u r s e , we a r e a l l o w i n g w a r s h i p s o f a l l c o u n t r i e s , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e 7 1 U n i t e d S t a t e s , t o c a l l a t o u r p o r t s \" . x S r i L a n k a ' s f l i r t a t i o n w i t h ASEAN was v i s i b l e f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e J a y e w a r d e n a r e g i m e . P r i m e M i n i s t e r Premadasa was k e e n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n j o i n i n g ASEAN and e x p r e s s e d i t many t i m e s . T h i s a t t e m p t t o j o i n ASEAN c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c s . Tyronne F e r n a n d o , t h e 7 0 I b i d . , 15 J a n u a r y , 1980. 7 1 S u n , 1 June 1980. 343 Deputy F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , d e c l a r e d t h a t \" t h e U.N.P. Government's commitment t o p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e and i t s s u c c e s s so f a r had drawn 7 ? us c l o s e r t o s y s t e m s p r e v a i l i n g i n ASEAN c o u n t r i e s \" . S r i L a n k a ' s f o r m a l a p p l i c a t i o n t o j o i n ASEAN i n May 1981 was, however, n o t s u c c e s s f u l . G e o g r a p h i c a l f a c t o r s , ASEAN's r e l u c t a n c e t o g e t i n v o l v e d i n S o u t h A s i a n p o l i t i c s , and SLFP o p p o s i t i o n c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e r e j e c t i o n o f S r i L a n k a ' s a p p l i c a t i o n . The VOA agreement, w h i c h g r a n t e d a s i t e o f 180 a c r e s i n t h e P u t t a l a m a r e a f o r t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a VOA t r a n s m i t e r o f 600 k i l o w a t t s , and t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e t e n d e r s u b m i t t e d by U.S. C o a s t a l C o r p o r a t i o n t o l e a s e 99 o i l t a n k s abandoned by t h e B r i t i s h i n T r i n c o m a l e e , a r o u s e d i n t e r n a l d e b a t e and r e g i o n a l c o n c e r n s . I n d i a a l s o f i l e d a t e n d e r f o r t h e l e a s e o f t h e o i l t a n k s and she was n a t u r a l l y c o n c e r n e d o v e r t h e s t a t e o f t h e T r i n c o m a l e e b a s e and, e s p e c i a l l y , t h e VOA t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n . I n d i a was c l o s e l y w a t c h i n g i t s i m p a c t on h e r m i l i t a r y c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s y s t e m . I n p a r t i c u l a r , a t t h e t i m e I n d i a was l o o k i n g ahead t o m o d e r n i z e h e r m i l i t a r y commu-n i c a t i o n s s y s t e m beyond t h e AREN (Army R a d i o E n g i n e e r i n g Network) and ADGES ( A i r D e f e n c e Ground E n v i r o n m e n t Systems) p l a n s . I n d i a was p l a n n i n g t o have w i r e l e s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r e q u e n c y i n o r d e r t o g i v e g r e a t e r s e c u r i t y t o c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n k s w i t h a v i e w t o a c h i e v i n g s t r a t e g i c n a v a l m o b i l i t y . I n d e e d , N a r a s i m h a Rao, t h e M i n i s t e r o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s o f I n d i a , e x p r e s s e d I n d i a ' s c o n c e r n o v e r t h e s e i s s u e s and L a l i t h A t h u l a t h m u d a l i , a s e n i o r C a b i n e t Member o f t h e J a y e w a r d e n a government, t o l d t h e p r e s s t h a t he was a b l e t o a l l a y I n d i a n a p p r e h e n s i o n s . H o w e v e r , N a r a s i m h a Rao 7 9 C i t e d i n K o d i k a r a , F o r e i g n P o l i c y i n S r i Lanak, p. 190. 344 r e m a r k e d t h a t \" I n d i a hopes t h a t t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s g i v e n by S r i t h e L a n k a G u a r d i a n , a l e a d i n g news m a g a z i n e i n S r i L a n k a , commented: I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t S r i L a n k a w i l l n o t g r a n t anybody a b a s e i n T r i n c o . I t i s a l s o c l e a r t h a t we w i l l n o t j o i n any p a c t . But t h e r e i s a l a r g e g r e y a r e a b e t w e e n f o r m a l m e m b e r s h i p o f some o r g a n i z a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y c h a r a c t e r and g e n u i n e n o n - a l i g n m e n t . 7 4 I t seems t h a t t h e J a y a w a r d e n a g o v e r n m e n t was s l o w i n l e a r n i n g t h e g e o - s t r a t e g i c f u n d a m e n t a l s o f S r i L a n k a ' s l o c a t i o n c l o s e t o I n d i a . B e c a u s e o f t h i s f a i l u r e , i f n o t mismanagement, I n d i a came t o loom l a r g e i n S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y d e c i s i o n -m a k i n g . I n d i a ' s p r o t e s t e v e n t u a l l y made S r i L a n k a c a n c e l t h e l e a s e o f t h e T r i n c o m a l e e o i l t a n k s t o t h e U.S. company. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e J a y a w a r d e n a r e g i m e S r i L a n k a ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h I n d i a were v e r y c o r d i a l . The J a n a t a Government o f I n d i a welcomed J a y a w a r d e n a ' s e l e c t i o n v i c t o r y . As K o d i k a r a , t h e a u t h o r i t y on I n d o - S r i L a n k a n r e l a t i o n s , o b s e r v e s \"awareness o f t h e common e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e U.N.P. and J a n a t a P a r t i e s i n h a v i n g f o r g e d s p e c t a c u l a r e l e c t o r a l v i c t o r i e s p r o v i d e d a new b o n d between t h e governments o f M o r a r j i D e s a i and J.R. J a y e w a r d e n a \" . ^ Ja y e w e r d e n a ' s f i r s t s t a t e v i s i t was t o I n d i a , i n October-November 1978, and M o r a r j i D e s a i v i s i t e d S r i L a n k a i n 1979. These p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s between t h e r u l e r s o f t h e two c o u n t r i e s c o o l e d a f t e r M r s . G a n d h i r e t u r n e d t o power i n 1980. The main f a c t o r t h a t L a n k a w i l l n o t be u s e d f o r ' o t h e r p u r p o s e s 73 I n t h i s c o n t e x t , 73 L a n k a G u a r d i a n , 4:5, 15 December, 1981, p. 3. 74 I b i d . 75 K o d i k a r a , F o r e i g n P o l i c y o f S r i L a n k a , p. 47. 345 d e t e r m i n e d t h e t e x t u r e o f I n d o - S r i L a n k a r e l a t i o n s a f t e r 1980 was t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e e t h n i c c r i s i s i n S r i L a n k a . A f t e r 1980 t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m and t h e p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e T a m i l p e o p l e d e t e r i o r a t e d t o t h e p o i n t where open w a r f a r e f l a r e d up between government f o r c e s and t h e T a m i l g u e r i l l a g r o u p s who demanded a s e p a r a t e T a m i l S t a t e - E a l a m . The demand f o r T a m i l E a l a m f i r s t began as an i n t e r n a l d i s p u t e i n S r i L a n k a . B ecause o f i t s m u l t i p l e l i n k a g e s , i t soon grew beyond t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f S r i L a n k a and became an i s s u e o f s u b - c o n t i n e n -t a l p o l i t i c s . When t h e S r i L ankan government d e s p e r a t e l y l o o k e d f o r a l l i e s who c o u l d be a c o u n t e r w e i g h t t o I n d i a , f r o m whom s e p a r a t i s t g u e r i l l a s o b t a i n e d m a t e r i a l and p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t , and p l a c e d heavy r e l i a n c e on m i l i t a r y a i d , t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l arms t r a d e and f o r e i g n e x p e r t i s e , t h e S r i L a n k a c r i s i s became i n t e r n a -t i o n a l i z e d and g o t l i n k e d w i t h I n d i a n Ocean s t r a t e g i c i s s u e s . The i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e a r m e d c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e government f o r c e s and t h e T a m i l g u e r r i l l a g r o u p s i n t h e n o r t h and e a s t o f t h e i s l a n d b r o u g h t t o t h e f o r e f r o n t t h e m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e S r i L ankan e t h n i c c r i s i s . A f t e r A u g u s t 1983, I n d o - S r i L a n k a r e l a t i o n s e n t e r e d i n t o a new s t a g e . On t h e p a r t o f S r i L a n k a , t h e m a j o r a c c u s a t i o n was I n d i a ' s b l i n d eye t o t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f g u e r r i l l a t r a i n i n g camps i n T a m i l Nadu, and t h e i r u s e as s u r r o g a t e s t o d e s t a b i l i z e S r i L a n k a . I n d i a ' s d e c l a r e d c a u s u s b e l l i was t h e exodus o f S r i Lan k a n T a m i l s as r e f u g e e s t o I n d i a b e c a u s e o f a t r o c i t i e s c o m m i t t e d by S r i L a n k a ' s armed f o r c e s . I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e S r i Lankan p r o b l e m has some b e a r i n g on T a m i l Nadu p o l i t i c s , b u t de f a c t o d e t e r m i n a n t s o f I n d i a n c o n c e r n s a r e s t r a t e g i c and s e c u r i t y f a c t o r s . I n v i e w o f 346 J a y e w a r d e n a ' s p r o - w e s t e r n t i l t , w h e t h e r S r i Lanka w o u l d become a s o u t h e r n l i n k o f an a n t i - I n d i a n a l l i a n c e i s a c o n c e r n o f I n d i a n s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g . I n d i a f e a r e d t h a t S r i L a n k a w o u l d u s e T r i n c o m a l e e as a b a i t t o b r i n g e x t r a - r e g i o n a l m i l i t a r y s t r i n g s d e t r i m e n t a l t o I n d i a n s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s w h i l e s e e k i n g m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e t o c a r r y o u t t h e a n t i - g u e r i l l a w a r f a r e i n t h e n o r t h and t h e e a s t . W i t h t h e g r a v e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e e t h n i c c r i s i s a f t e r 1982 , S r i L a n k a n d e f e n c e t h i n k i n g became p r e o c c u p i e d o v e r w h e l m i n g l y w i t h t h e i s s u e o f how t o g r a p p l e w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e e t h n i c c r i s i s , b a s i c a l l y w i t h i n t h e S o u t h A s i a n c o n t e x t . The main c o n c e r n was how t o t a c k l e t h e I n d i a n f a c t o r . A l l o t h e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y c o n c e r n s became s e c o n d a r y t o t h i s p r i m e c o n c e r n . What i s s t r i k i n g i n S r i Lankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y a f t e r 1982 i s i t s l a c k o f o r i e n t a t i o n a n d p e r s p e c t i v e . A c c o r d i n g l y , w i t h o u t a p r o p e r a n a l y s i s o f o b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s , S r i L a n k a m e r e l y r e a c t s t o e v e n t s and p r o b l e m s as t h e y emerge. B e c a u s e o f t h i s c h a r a c t e r o f S r i Lankan b e h a v i o u r , h e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y has begun t o t a k e a z i g - z a g f o r m . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s a p p e a r s t o be d i s o r g a n i z e d and i n d i s a r r a y . S t a t e m e n t s r e l a t i n g t o S r i Lankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y a r e i s s u e d by a number o f l e a d i n g p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t : t h e P r e s i d e n t , t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r , a n d t h e M i n i s t e r s o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y , and even o f M a h a w e l i D e v elopment. I n d e e d , t h e y c o n t r a d i c t e a c h o t h e r v e r y o f t e n . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s n o t c l e a r f r o m where t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s o r i g i n a t e . T h i s means t h a t t h e r e i s no p r o p e r e v a l u a t i o n o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y p o s i t i o n s b e f o r e t a k i n g d e c i s i o n s . 347 As f a r as s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i s c o n c e r n e d , i t i s v e r y c l e a r t h a t S r i L a n k a i s s o f t - p e d a l l i n g a r t i c u l a t e d o p p o s i t i o n t a k e n e a r l i e r . The u n d e c l a r e d p e r c e p t i o n seems t o be t h a t t h e U.S. n a v a l b u i l d - u p i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean s h o u l d n o t be o p p o s e d b e c a u s e i t c o u l d be u s e d a s a c o u n t e r - p o i s e t o t h e g r o w i n g I n d i a n b l u e w a t e r n a v a l c a p a b i l i t y . A f t e r 1983, w h i l e t h e S r i L ankan government g o t more and more b o g g e d down i n t h e q u a g m i r e o f t h e e t h n i c c r i s i s a n d d e s p e r a t e l y s o u g h t e x t e r n a l a s s i s t a n c e t o h a n d l e t h e e t h n i c p r o b l e m , I n d i a i n c r e a s i n g l y e n t e r e d i n t o t h e S r i L a n k a ' s d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g o r b i t w i t h d e c i s i v e f o r c e . F u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e e t h n i c c r i s i s , c o u p l e d w i t h a p p a r e n t f a i l u r e o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t s t r a t e g y , s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e h a n d s o f I n d i a i n i t s d e a l i n g s w i t h S r i L a n k a . I n t h e a n t i - g u e r r i l l a m i l i t a r y o f f e n s i v e , t h e S r i L ankan government b r o u g h t n o t o r i o u s c o u n t e r -i n s u r g e n c y a g e n c i e s s u c h as M o s a r d and Keeny Meeny t o t h e i s l a n d as m i l i t a r y a d v i s o r s . H o w e v e r , I n d i a ' s b a c k i n g o f t h e T a m i l g u e r r i l l a g r o u p s c u r t a i l e d , t o a l a r g e r e x t e n t , S r i L a n k a ' s c a p a c i t y o f m i l i t a r y m a n o e u v r a b i l i t y . I n r e a l i t y , however, I n d i a d i d n o t have r e a l l o v e f o r t h e T a m i l g r o u p s . She was j u s t p l a y i n g a game o f r e a l - p o l i t i k and u s i n g them as s u r r o g a t e s f o r I n d i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y g o a l s . I n d i a was m a r k i n g t i m e u n t i l t h e b o t h p a r t i e s were weary so t h a t she c o u l d come f o r w a r d t o p l a y t h e r o l e o f c o n f l i c t manager o f t h e r e g i o n and g e t b o t h p a r t i e s u n d e r h e r thumb. The l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t s i n I n d o - S r i L a n k a r e l a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e I n d o - S r i L a n k a Peace A c c o r d o f J u l y 1987, can be u n d e r s t o o d a g a i n s t t h i s p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c b a c k g r o u n d . I n 348 v i e w o f t h e a p p a r e n t m i l i t a r y s u c c e s s o f t h e V a d a m a r a c h c h i o f f e n -s i v e ( O p e r a t i o n L i b e r a t i o n ) I n d i a t i g h t e n e d i t s d i p l o m a t i c and m i l i t a r y p r e s s u r e . T h i s c u l m i n a t e d i n t h e v i o l a t i o n o f S r i L a n k a ' s a i r s p a c e by f i v e I n d i a n A i r f o r c e AN-32 t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t e s c o r t e d by f o u r M i r a g e 2000 f i g h t e r p l a n e s on 4 June 1987. I n t h e meantime, t h e J a n a t h a V i m u k t h i Peramuna, s o u t h e r n p r o t e s t movement o f S i n h a l e s e r u r a l y o u t h s , c a r r i e d o u t a s e r i e s o f a t t a c k s a g a i n s t government s t r o n g h o l d s i n c l u d i n g t h e K a t u n a y a k e a i r f o r c e b a s e and t h e R a t m a l a n a D e f e n c e Academy on 7 J u n e . I t was i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t t h e I n d o - S r i L a n k a Peace A c c o r d was s i g n e d on 29 J u l y 1987. The A n n e x u r e t o t h e A c c o r d c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h a t I n d i a has been m o t i v a t e d by s t r a t e g i c f a c t o r s . I n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e A n n e x u r e t o t h e Peace A c c o r d b r o u g h t S r i L anka w i t h i n t h e I n d i a n s e c u r i t y o r b i t , i t s i m p a c t on s u p e r p o w e r r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m s o f S r i L a n k a i s an a r e a w h i c h needs f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . 349 C h a p t e r V I I I CONCLUSION T h i s s u r v e y o f t h e g r o w t h o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i t was e s s e n t i a l l y c hanges i n power c o n f i g u r a t i o n s i n w o r l d p o l i t i c s t h a t b r o u g h t about changes i n t h e p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c map o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e p e r i o d 1947-1982. These changes have been e x p l a i n e d as o c c u r r i n g a t f o u r l e v e l s - g l o b a l , I n d i a n Ocean, s u b - r e g i o n a l sub s y s t e m s , and n a t i o n a l . As a c u m u l a t i v e outcome o f t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s , t h e I n d i a n Ocean f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e d t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g o c e a n i c r e g i m e b a s e d on B r i t i s h n a v a l hegemony. F o l l o w i n g t h i s , t h e s u p e r p o w e r s g r a d u a l l y e n t e r e d t h e I n d i a n Ocean. T h e i r r i v a l r y grew a l o n g w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m u l t i -p o l a r i t y i n w o r l d p o l i t i c s . B e c a u s e o f t h i s m u l t i - p o l a r i t y , n e i t h e r s u p e r p o w e r was c a p a b l e o f i m p o s i n g a r e g i m e f o u n d e d on t h e hegemony o f one o f them. The s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y became a main e l e m e n t i n I n d i a n Ocean p o l i t i c s o n l y a f t e r 1968 b u t i t was an outcome o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t s s i n c e W o r l d War I I . The changes t h a t t o o k p l a c e i n t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f power i n w o r l d p o l i t i c s a f t e r W o r l d War I I d i d n o t have an i m m e d i a t e i m p a c t on t h e I n d i a n Ocean b e c a u s e B r i t i s h n a v a l s u p e r i o r i t y t h e r e was n o t a t once c h a l l e n g e d . The S o v i e t U n i o n was n o t t e c h n i c a l l y i n a p o s i t i o n t o c h a l l e n g e B r i t i s h n a v a l power a f t e r 350 t h e war and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p u r s u e d a p o l i c y o f a c t i n g u n d e r t h e B r i t i s h u m b r e l l a . The n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n , w h i c h s t i l l m a i n t a i n e d c l o s e p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , and m i l i t a r y l i n k s w i t h t h e i r f o r m e r c o l o n i a l m a s t e r s , were p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f B r i t i s h n a v a l s u p r e m a c y as a h i s t o r i c a l f a c t . D e s p i t e t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f h e r p o s i t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean f o l l o w i n g t h e War, B r i t a i n ' s r o l e underwent a q u a l i t a t i v e change a f t e r 1947. However, B r i t a i n d i d n o t a d d r e s s t h e b a s i c q u e s t i o n o f how t o a d j u s t t h e d e f e n c e s y s t e m d e s i g n e d i n t h e c o l o n i a l e r a t o s u i t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e p o s t - c o l o n i a l o r d e r . B r i t i s h d e f e n c e p l a n n e r s r e t a i n e d t h e i r i m p e r i a l frame o f mind and were p r e o c c u p i e d more w i t h d a y - t o - day p r a c t i c a l c o n c e r n s t h a n w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r a l p r o b l e m s o f I n d i a n Ocean d e f e n c e . A f t e r 1947, w i t h t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f E a s t - W e s t r e l a t i o n s , g l o b a l war themes d o m i n a t e d B r i t i s h s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g . E v e r y move i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was v i e w e d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e g l o b a l c h e s s b o a r d o f p o l i t i c s . T h e r e f o r e , B r i t a i n m a i n t a i n e d t h e p r e v i o u s d e f e n c e s y s t e m w i t h o n l y t h e l i m i t e d a d j u s t m e n t s made t e c h n i c a l l y n e c e s s a r y by t h e po s t - W a r d e v e l o p m e n t s . The d i s c u s s i o n s on B r i t i s h d e f e n c e p o l i c y i n c h a p t e r I I and t h e p r o c e s s o f s u p e r p o w e r e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n c h a p t e r s I I I and I V l e a d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t 1956 marked a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n I n d i a n Ocean p o l i t i c s . The Suez c r i s i s h i g h l i g h t e d B r i t a i n ' s i n a b i l i t y t o m a i n t a i n a p r o l o n g e d p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean as t h e ' g u a r d i a n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean'. F o l l o w i n g t h i s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s g r a d u a l l y s t a r t e d t o p r o j e c t i t s n a v a l power d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean. A f t e r 1956, t h e S o v i e t 351 U n i o n a l s o changed i t s p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n and came t o compete w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r power and i n f l u e n c e t h e r e . The p o s t - S u e z changes i n U.S. p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean became c l e a r i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s t h r o u g h two d e v e l o p m e n t s : f i r s t l y , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a n S t r a t e g i c I s l a n d B a s e s c o n c e p t , and s e c o n d l y , t h e d e p l o y m e n t by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f i t s n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean as was s y m b o l i z e d by t h e e n t r y o f t h e a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r Bonhomme R i c h a r d i n 1960. I n t h e e x a m i -n a t i o n o f t h e f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e change o f U.S. p o l i c y , a p a r t f r o m t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d s t r a t e g i c l e s s o n s o f t h e Suez c r i s i s , t h e i m p a c t o f new d e v e l o p m e n t s i n weapons t e c h n o l o g y must a l s o be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . I n t h i s r e s p e c t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e S u b m a r i n e L a u n c h e d B a l l i s t i c M i s s i l e S y s t e m ( S L B M ) was i m p o r t a n t . As a r e s u l t , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f S t r a t e g i c A i r Command (SAC) b a s e s was c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d and oceans i n g e n e r a l e n t e r e d i n t o s t r a t e g i c c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h new s i g n i f i c a n c e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e g r a d u a l s h i f t o f U.S. i n t e r e s t s , f r o m t h e m i l i t a r y p o i n t o f v i e w , f r o m t h e A s i a n m a i n l a n d t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean p r o p e r o c c u r r e d i n t h e 1960s. The change o f S o v i e t p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f t e r 1956 must be u n d e r s t o o d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , and m i l i t a r y - s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t s o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e c o l d war, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n as a su p e r p o w e r engaged i n t h e power game t o enhance h e r i n f l u e n c e by mak i n g r e g i o n a l f r i e n d s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n . The S o v i e t s f o u n d t h a t t h e n o n - a l i g n m e n t o f t h e n e w l y - i n d e p e n d e n t 352 s t a t e s c o u l d be u t i l i s e d a g a i n s t t h e West. E c o n o m i c a l l y , t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s p r o v i d e d v a l u a b l e t r a d i n g p a r t n e r s and a l s o t h e means o f b r e a k i n g o u t o f t h e economic c o r d o n t h a t t h e West was t r y i n g t o impose on h e r . S t r a t e g i c a l l y , t h e S o v i e t need t o b r e a k t h e c o n t a i n m e n t r i n g on h e r s o u t h e r n f l a n k p u s h e d t h e USSR t o w a r d s t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n . As a r e s u l t , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n abandoned t h e d o g m a t i c two camp t h e o r y and p r e s e n t e d new t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n s s u c h as t h e p e a c e camp, n a t i o n a l d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e , and n o n - c a p i t a l i s t p a t h o f d e v e l o p m e n t c o n c e p t s t o r a t i o n a l i z e S o v i e t a c t i o n s i n t h e e x i s t i n g s t a t e s y s t e m i n t h e t h i r d w o r l d . The n a v a l s t r a t e g i c d i m e n s i o n o f t h e S o v i e t n a v a l e n t r y s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e e v o l u t i o n o f S o v i e t t h r e a t p e r c e p t i o n s . I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s f o l l o w i n g W o r l d War I I , t h e p o s s i b l e t h r e a t f r o m t h e West was b e l i e v e d t o be i n t h e f o r m o f an a m p h i b i o u s i n v a s i o n o f t h e S o v i e t h e a r t l a n d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e main t a s k o f t h e p r o p o s e d s u b m a r i n e f l e e t o f S t a l i n ' s n a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n programme, begun i n 1948, was t h e m o u n t i n g o f an a n t i - c a r r i e r s c r e e n t o c o u n t e r t h e U.S. s t r i k e f o r c e . However, i n v i e w o f d e v e l o p m e n t s i n A m e r i c a n n a v a l - m i l i t a r y t e c h n o l o g y , namely, t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s u r f a c e - t o - a i r g u i d e d m i s s i l e s and s u r f a c e - t o - s u r f a c e c r u i s e m i s s i l e s , t h e t h r e a t f r o m t h e West was now s e e n by t h e S o v i e t s as a s u r p r i s e n u c l e a r a t t a c k by c a r r i e r - b o r n e bombers. The S o v i e t n a v a l r e v i e w o f 1954 t o o k t h e s e f a c t o r s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n and p l a n n e d t o s u b s t i t u t e t h e mass n a v a l f l e e t w i t h l o n g - r a n g e m i s s i l e s c a r r i e d by s u r f a c e s h i p s i n o r d e r t o c o u n t e r enemy c a r r i e r s w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f s h o r e - b a s e d a i r c o v e r a g e . But f u r t h e r a d v a n c e s i n t h e r a n g e o f c a r r i e r - b o r n e 353 a i r c r a f t a t t h e end o f t h e 1950s f r u s t r a t e d t h e p l a n o f c o u n t e -r i n g U.S. c a r r i e r s w i t h s h o r e - b a s e d a i r c o v e r a g e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e S o v i e t Navy d e c i d e d t o c o u n t on n u c l e a r s u b m a r i n e s t o meet t h e U.S. t h r e a t . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f SLBM s y s t e m s by t h e U.S. Navy p o s e d a new t h r e a t . The I n d i a n Ocean came d i r e c t l y i n t o n a v a l s t r a t e g i c c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e P o l a r i s A-3 v e r s i o n o f t h e SLBMs. Whether t h e U.S. a c t u a l l y d e p l o y e d t h e P o l a r i s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean was n o t t h e q u e s t i o n ; t h e S o v i e t U n i o n had s u f f i -c i e n t r e a s o n s t o be c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e y m i g h t be so d e p l o y e d . The h i s t o r i c a l s u r v e y o f t h e S o v i e t n a v a l e n t r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n c h a p t e r I V l e a d s t o c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t i n 1968 c a n n o t be e x p l a i n e d , as warm w a t e r t h e o r e t i c i a n s h a v e a t t e m p t e d , s i m p l y a s an o u t g r o w t h o f a s u p p o s e d h i s t o r i c a l R u s s i a n u r g e t o o b t a i n a warm w a t e r o u t l e t on t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t o f e a r l i e r R u s s i a n moves was c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e one i n 1968 and no p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n be e s t a b l i s h e d . E a r l y S o v i e t d e s i g n s v i s - a - v i s t h e I n d i a n Ocean soon a f t e r t h e r e v o l u t i o n and t h e R i b b e n t r o p -M o l o t o v t a l k s o f 1940 s h o u l d be v i e w e d i n t h e i r p r o p e r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s , w i t h due c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n f a c e d a t t h e t i m e . The e v o l u t i o n o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l p o l i c i e s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t e a c h s u p e r p o w e r t o o k i t s p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e o t h e r b u t c o n c u r r e n t l y u n d e r i t s own p e c u l i a r p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , and s t r a t e g i c c o m p u l s i o n s . These i n i t i a t i v e s were by no 354 means sudden moves p r e c i p i t a t e d by t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e o t h e r s i d e . The s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y as i t e v o l v e d h a d t h r e e m a i n i n t e r r e l a t e d e l e m e n t s , v i z , c o m p e t i t i v e n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t s , w eapons d e a l s , a n d j o c k e y i n g f o r b a s e s a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f l o g i s t i c s u p p o r t f a c i l i t i e s f r o m t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s . E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s ' n a v a l r i v a l r y i n i t s b r o a d e r s e n s e , t a k i n g a l l t h e e l e m e n t s and l i n k a g e s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e i r n a v a l r i v a l r y was n o t i m p o s e d on t h e r e g i o n by t h e s u p e r p o w e r s u n i l a t e r a l l y . A r e m a r k a b l e community o f i n t e r e s t s between t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s o f t h e l i t t o r a l c o u n t r i e s and t h o s e o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i s d i s c e r n i b l e . Arms d e a l s and m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e s w i t h t h e s u p e r p o w e r s s e r v e d t h e p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , and s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t s o f t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s . The r u l i n g e l i t e s o f most c o u n t r i e s i n t h e regi'on d e r i v e much o f t h e i r s t r e n g t h f r o m a l l i a n c e s w i t h t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . B e i n g u n d e m o c r a t i c and r e p r e s s i v e , most r e g i m e s l a c k l e g i t i m a c y , so t h a t t h e y c o n s t a n t l y f a c e v i o l e n t r e s i s t a n c e f r o m t h e i r own p o p u l a t i o n s . B e c a u s e o f t h e i n h e r e n t weakness o f t h e s e r e g i m e s , t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s a r e e a g e r t o p l a y t h e r o l e o f p r o x y f o r t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . The f a c t t h a t t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s t h e m s e l v e s o r t h e i r c l o s e r e l a t i v e s b e n e f i t e n o r m o u s l y by a c t i n g as l o c a l a g e n t s o f t h e arms d e a l s s h o u l d be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n e x p l a i n i n g why t h e y a r e so e a g e r t o e n t e r i n t o arms c o n t r a c t s . P o l i t i c a l c o r r u p t i o n and arms c o n t r a c t s a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d . The a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f t h e k i c k - b a c k s and c o m m i s s i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them a r e so g r e a t t h a t once t h e c i r c l e i s e n t e r e d , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o g e t o u t o f i t . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e l i n k a g e o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y w i t h t h e r e g i o n a l s e c u r i t y d y n a m i c s , t h i s s t u d y t r a c e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s u p e r p o w e r r i v a l r y and t h e c o n f l i c t p a t t e r n s a t t h e s u b - s y s t e m i c and n a t i o n a l l e v e l s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s u p e r p o w e r c o m p e t i t i o n , t h r e e l e v e l s o f c o n f l i c t have been i d e n t i f i e d w h i c h have o r g a n i c l i n k a g e s t o t h e s u p e r p o w e r r i v a l r y . F i r s t l y , e a c h s u b - s y s t e m i s marked w i t h r e g i o n a l c o n f l i c t among t h e medium power s . The r i v a l r i e s o f I n d i a and P a k i s t a n i n S o u t h A s i a , I r a n and I r a q i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , o r E t h i o p i a and S o m a l i a i n t h e Horn o f A f r i c a , a r e e x a m p l e s . The c a s u s b e l l i o f t h e s e c o n f l i c t s a r e d e e p - r o o t e d and h i s t o r i c a l l y - c o n d i t i o n e d p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , e t h n i c , and s t r a t e g i c r i v a l r i e s . W h i l e s u p e r p o w e r s m a n i p u l a t e t h e s e c o n f l i c t s f o r t h e i r own a d v a n t a g e , t h e medium powers t r y t o b r i n g s u p e r p o w e r l i n k s t o r e g i o n a l t h e a t r e s t o enhance t h e i r own p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c s t a t u r e . A c c o r d i n g l y , a m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e o f one r e g i o n a l p o w e r w i t h one s u p e r p o w e r p r e c i p i t a t e s t h e r i v a l r e g i o n a l power t o e n t e r i n t o t h e o r b i t o f t h e o t h e r s u p e r p o w e r . A t t h e s e c o n d l e v e l , many s u b - s y s t e m s a r e marked by c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e s m a l l s t a t e s a n d a medium p o w e r (s) . The p o w e r r e l a t i o n s among t h e s e s t a t e s a r e g o v e r n e d b y f e e l i n g s o f s u s p i c i o n a n d f e a r . F u r t h e r , t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e s e s t a t e s i d e a l l y m a n i f e s t s t h e two c l o s e l y l i n k e d e l e m e n t s o f c o n f l i c t and c o o p e r a t i o n . I n t e r d e p e n d e n c e and m u t u a l i t y o f i n t e r e s t on t h e one hand, i n t e n s e c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t s on t h e o t h e r , c o m p l i c a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e s e s t a t e s . The communal d i v i s i o n s t h a t c u t 356 a c r o s s s t a t e b o u n d a r i e s p r o v i d e l e v e r a g e t o n e i g h b o u r s t o meddle i n t h e a f f a i r s o f o t h e r s by u s i n g t h e e x t r a - t e r r i t o r i a l l o y a l t i e s o f e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s . P r o b l e m s i n I n d o - L a n k a n r e l a t i o n s p r o v i d e a g o o d e x a m p l e i n t h i s r e g a r d . P e r c e i v i n g t h e i r d e f e n c e a n d s e c u r i t y c o n c e r n s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s u b - s y s t e m i c g e o -p o l i t i c s , s m a l l s t a t e s seek e x t r a - r e g i o n a l p r o t e c t i o n i n o r d e r t o ch e c k t h e a d v a n c e s o f t h e dominant medium power. P a n - A s i a n i s m on t h e p a r t o f t h e medium powers does n o t c o n v i n c e t h e s m a l l powers t h a t t h e i r s e c u r i t y i s a s s u r e d u n d e r t h e shade o f medium power s . T h e r e f o r e , s m a l l s t a t e s t e n d t o e n d o r s e t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l p r e s e n c e , h o p i n g t h a t i t w i l l p r o v i d e b a l a n c e . The t h i r d p a t t e r n o f c o n f l i c t i s a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l b e tween v a r i o u s d i s s i d e n t g r o u p s , b a s e d on c l a s s , r e g i o n , o r e t h n i c i t y , and t h e s t a t e . B e c a u s e o f t h e l i n k a g e s o f i s s u e s and t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s and m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e s e d i s s i d e n t g r o u p s by n e i g h b o u r s , c o n f l i c t s a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l c a n t r a n s f o r m i n t o i s s u e s w i t h s u b r e g i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . S r i L a n k a ' s e t h n i c c o n f l i c t and t h e war between t h e T a m i l g u e r r i l l a g r o u p s and t h e s t a t e i s a c a s e i n p o i n t . The I n d o - S r i L a n k a Peace A c c o r d o f J u l y 1987 w h i c h marked a n o t h e r s t a g e i n t h e a s s e r t i o n o f I n d i a n p r e p o n d e r a n c e r e v e a l e d how an i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t c a n d e v e l o p i n t o a s u b r e g i o n a l i s s u e . F u r t h e r , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e A n n e x u r e t o t h e Pe a c e A c c o r d b r i n g s S r i L a n k a w i t h i n t h e p u r v i e w o f t h e I n d i a n s e c u r i t y u m b r e l l a has an i m p a c t on s u p e r p o w e r r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Superpower n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean commences i n 1968 and e v o l v e s i n t h r e e p h a s e s : f r o m 1968 t o t h e 1973 o i l c r i s i s ; f r o m t h e o i l c r i s i s t o 1978; and a f t e r 1978. I n t h e 357 p e r i o d f r o m 1968 t o 1 9 7 3 , s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y was r e s t r a i n e d . B u t t h i s p e r i o d a l s o marked t h e i n c r e a s i n g e n t r y o f t h e two s u p e r p o w e r s i n t o t h e r e g i o n . On t h e p a r t o f t h e A m e r i c a n s , t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n o f t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n 1969 h e r a l d e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a new e r a i n U.S. f o r e i g n p o l i c y . The N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o o k s t e p s t o r e a p p r a i s e U.S. f o r e i g n p o l i c y a c c o r d i n g t o i t s a n a l y s i s o f t h e changes t h a t h a d t a k e n p l a c e i n t h e power c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e p o s t - w a r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s t e m . N i x o n b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e b i - p o l a r a l i g n m e n t s t h a t e p i t o m i s e d power r e l a t i o n s i n t h e p o s t - w a r e r a had been r e p l a c e d by a more complex m u l t i - p o l a r w o r l d . N i x o n c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s , and t h e c h a n g i n g mood o f A m e r i c a n p u b l i c o p i n i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e U.S. r o l e i n w o r l d l e a d e r s h i p , n e c e s s i t a t e d a f r e s h a p p r o a c h t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . I m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e V i e t n a m war a l s o p r o m p t e d N i x o n t o r e a p p r a i s e A m e r i c a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y . I t was as p a r t o f t h i s g e n e r a l r e a p p r a i s a l o f A m e r i c a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n t h a t t h e U.S. a t t e m p t e d t o d e f i n e and e v a l u a t e h e r i n t e r e s t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean u n d e r t h e N i x o n d o c t r i n e . I n p r a c t i c e , what t h e N i x o n d o c t r i n e a d v o c a t e d was a ' b l u e w a t e r s t r a t e g y ' . W h i l e t h e N i x o n d o c t r i n e p r o p o s e d r e d u c t i o n o f l a n d - b a s e d s e c u r i t y commitments, i t a d v o c a t e d g r e a t e r r e l i a n c e on t h e navy and n a v a l s t r a t e g i c m o b i l i t y . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e D i e g o G a r c i a b a s e p r o j e c t a c q u i r e d i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t a n c e . As i t d e v e l o p e d a f t e r 1968, S o v i e t s t r a t e g y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean c o m p r i s e d t h r e e e l e m e n t s . F i r s t , t h e f o r w a r d d e p l o y m e n t o f n a v a l f o r c e s begun i n 1968 became a r e g u l a r p r a c t i c e w i t h an i d e n t i f i a b l e p a t t e r n . Second, t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a t t e m p t e d t o p l a y 358 a l e a d i n g r o l e i n t h e p o l i t i c s o f d i p l o m a c y by p r e s e n t i n g a c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m f o r A s i a . T h i r d , she e n t e r e d i n t o b i l a t e r a l d e f e n c e agreements w i t h a number o f s t a t e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean - I n d i a , I r a q , S o m a l i a . The U.S. Navy o f t e n e x a g g e r a t e d S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t , u s i n g t h e c r i t e r i o n o f s h i p d a y s t o compare t h e n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t o f b o t h p o w e r s . T h i s s t u d y f i n d s t h a t s i m p l e c r i t e r i a s u c h as s h i p d a y s and p o r t - c a l l s a r e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y and do n o t p o r t r a y t h e r e a l p i c t u r e o f t h e S o v i e t n a v a l p r e s e n c e . I n o r d e r t o g e t a r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o b r e a k down p o r t - c a l l s u n d e r t h e t y p e s o f s h i p s and t h e p o r t s v i s i t e d . I n s u c h a c o m p a r i s o n , t h e s t u d y does n o t c o r r o b o r a t e t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e s h e e r g r o w t h o f S o v i e t n a v a l d e p l o y m e n t had o u t r u n U.S. n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The s e c o n d phase o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y began a f t e r t h e Yom K i p p u r war and t h e s u b s e q u e n t o i l embargo i n 1973. The U.S. r e s p o n s e s t o t h e o i l c r i s i s marked a d i s t i n c t d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e e a r l i e r r e s t r a i n e d p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. S i m i l a r l y , S o v i e t n a v a l a c t i v i t i e s a f t e r 1968 p r o v i d e d t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r a more a s s e r t i v e r o l e a f t e r 1974. I n t h e p e r i o d between 1973 and 1979 b o t h s u p e r p o w e r s s t a b i l i z e d t h e i r n a v a l p o s i t i o n s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t h e r e b y c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e n a v a l r i v a l r y . The c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e o i l c r i s i s t r a n s f o r m e d t h e e a r l i e r m i n i m a l i s t U.S. v i e w o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. A m e r i c a n s t r a t e g i s t s now v i e w e d t h e I n d i a n Ocean as an a r e a w i t h p o t e n t i a l t o i n f l u e n -ce a m a j o r s h i f t i n t h e g l o b a l b a l a n c e o f power. The i m m e d i a t e r e s p o n s e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was t h e d i s p a t c h o f a c a r r i e r t a s k f o r c e t o t h e A r a b i a n Sea i n November 1973. The e v e n t r e v e a l s , 359 however, t h a t t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f U.S. n a v a l power f a i l e d t o a l t e r t h e c o u r s e o f a c t i o n o f t h e A r a b c o u n t r i e s . The U n i t e d S t a t e s c l a i m e d t h a t i t s m i l i t a r y power p l a y e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e o f s u p p o r t i n g d i p l o m a t i c i n i t i a t i v e s . B u t i n r e a l i t y A m e r i c a ' s p o s i t i o n and i n f l u e n c e a f t e r t h e O c t o b e r War i n t h e r e g i o n c o u l d n o t be e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e d i r e c t t h r e a t t o use c o e r c i v e power. I t was e c o n o m i c c o o p e r a t i o n and arms s a l e s t h a t b r o u g h t t h e P e r s i a n G u l f s t a t e s b a c k u n d e r U.S. hegemony. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e e n h a n c e d S o v i e t n a v a l p r e s e n c e d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s once a g a i n b r o u g h t home t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h a t t h e days o f w e s t e r n n a v a l monopoly i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean were o v e r . By t h e mid-1970s, t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e a l l e g e d S o v i e t r a t i o n a l e f o r s e n d i n g i t s f o r c e s i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n 1968, namely, c o u n t e r i n g t h e P o l a r i s t h r e a t , d i m i n i s h e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . The c o n t i n u o u s a d v a n c e s i n m i s s i l e t e c h n o l o g y , e s p e c i a l l y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f P o s e i d o n a n d t h e p rogramming o f T r i d e n t I and I I , r e d u c e d t h e e x c l u s i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean f r o m w h i c h t h e c e n t r a l S o v i e t U n i o n c o u l d be t a r g e t t e d . Now i t was p o s s i b l e t o keep enemy t a r g e t s u n d e r t h r e a t e v en w i t h o u t l e a v i n g t e r r i t o r i a l w a t e r s . As o r i g i n a l c o m p u l s i o n s r e c e d e d t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d , t h e new r o l e o f t h e S o v i e t navy as an i n s t r u m e n t o f e x t e n d i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l , d i p l o m a t i c , and s t r a t e g i c g o a l s o f S o v i e t f o r e i g n p o l i c y , w a r r a n t e d by h e r l a t e l y - r e c o g -n i z e d s t a t u s o f p a r i t y w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , came t o t h e f o r e f r o n t . I n sum, t h e r e a r e f o u r b r o a d a s p e c t s o f S o v i e t p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1973-79. F i r s t , t h e r o u t i n e n a v a l 360 d e p l o y m e n t c o n t i n u e d w i t h o u t much change. Compared t o t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d , h o w e v e r , t h e t e c h n i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f t h e n a v a l v e s s e l s and t h e armament on b o a r d were e n h a n c e d r e m a r k a b l y . The s e c o n d a s p e c t was t h e S o v i e t a t t e m p t t o o b t a i n b a s e f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l . As t h e need f o r more s e c u r e b a s e f a c i l i t i e s was a c u t e l y f e l t , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n r e n e w e d i t s d i p l o m a t i c e f f o r t s t o o b t a i n t h e m. T h i r d , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n c r e a s e d h e r arms d e a l s w i t h t h e I n d i a n O c e a n l i t t o r a l . A c c o r d i n g l y , a f t e r t h e m i d - 1 9 7 0 s t h e S o v i e t U n i o n became i n c r e a s i n g l y i n v o l v e d i n l o c a l c o n f l i c t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e Horn and S o u t h e r n A f r i c a , and u s e d h e r n a v a l power t o s u p p o r t h e r d i p l o m a t i c moves. L o o k i n g f r o m t h e v a n t a g e p o i n t o f 197 8 b o t h s u p e r p o w e r s had r e a s o n s t o be c o n t e n t w i t h t h e i r p o s i t i o n s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. F o r t h e A m e r i c a n s , t h e o i l c r i s i s d i d n o t c a u s e a f u n d a m e n t a l change i n t h e p o l i c y framework l a i d down i n t h e N i x o n d o c t r i n e . D e v e l o p m e n t s i n U.S. p o l i c y a f t e r 1973 were accommodated i n t o t h e scheme. As f o r t h e S o v i e t s , t h e c o n t i n u o u s g r o w t h o f S o v i e t n a v a l s t r e n g t h i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean meant t h a t t h e y c o u l d d e a l w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h a t r e g i o n more o r l e s s on an e q u a l f o o t i n g . B o t h s u p e r p o w e r s k e p t d e p l o y i n g n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean on a r e g u l a r b a s i s . As f a r as b a s e s and o t h e r f o r m s o f l o g i s t i c f a c i l i t i e s a r e c o n c e r n e d , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n d e v e l o p e d b a s e f a c i l i t i e s a t B e r b e r a i n S o m a l i a , and a t Aden and Umm Q a s r t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t . B o t h powers s u c c e s s f u l l y engaged i n t h e p e t r o -d o l l a r / a r m s s a l e s c i r c l e w h i c h a c q u i r e d momentum a f t e r t h e o i l p r i c e h i k e . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e i r i n t e r e s t s c o n v e r g e d i n p r e s e r v i n g t h e s t a t u s quo i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. 361 Thus, by t h e end o f 1977, b o t h s u p e r p o w e r s wanted t o s t a b i -l i z e t h e i r p o s i t i o n s and a v o i d e s c a l a t i o n o f t h e i r r i v a l r y . T h i s was shown i n t h e N a v a l Arms L i m i t a t i o n T a l k s (NALT) t h e main t h r u s t o f w h i c h was t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f s u p e r p o w e r p o s i t i o n s and n o t t h e d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The S o v i e t U n i o n was p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t D i e g o G a r c i a as an A m e r i c a n b a s e b e c a u s e B e r b e r a gave h e r a c o u n t e r w e i g h t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e NALT c o u l d n o t be r e g a r d e d as an a t t e m p t t o d e m i l i t a r i z e t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n t h e p e r i o d between t h e s u s p e n s i o n o f NALT i n F e b r u a r y 1978 and t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e C a r t e r D o c t r i n e i n J a n u a r y 1980, t h e p o l i t i c a l - s t r a t e g i c s i t u a t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean changed d r a s t i c a l l y . The e x p l o s i o n o f t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n i n J a n u a r y a n d t h e S o v i e t i n t e r v e n t i o n i n A f g h a n i s t a n i n D e c e m b e r 1979 p r o v i d e d c a t a l y s t s f o r a c h a n g e i n t h e p o l i t i c a l - s t r a t e g i c s i t u a t i o n . The p o l i t i c a l and m i l i t a r y r e s p o n s e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s u s h e r e d i n a new wave o f m i l i t a r i z a -t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e common p e r c e p t i o n , t h i s a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e new m i l i t a n c y i n U.S. p o l i c y , m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e R a p i d D e p l o y -ment J o i n t Task F o r c e (RDJTF) , was n o t a r e a c t i o n t o t h e S o v i e t i n t e r v e n t i o n i n A f g h a n i s t a n , b e c a u s e s t e p s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n were t a k e n p r i o r t o t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n was c r u c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l , p o l i t i c a l , and s t r a t e g i c b l o w s o f t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n were more s e v e r e t h a n t h o s e o f any o t h e r s i n g l e e v e n t . The I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n b r o u g h t home t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e 362 f u t i l i t y o f d e p e n d i n g on s u r r o g a t e s t o l o o k a f t e r V i t a l ' U.S. i n t e r e s t s once a g a i n more f o r c e f u l l y . . The S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n has been i n t e r p r e t e d as a t u r n i n g - p o i n t i n S o v i e t p o l i c y i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d . The f a c t o r s t h a t l e d t o t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n r e v e a l t h a t i t c a n n o t be c o n s i d e r e d as a f i r s t s t e p i n a l o n g - t e r m g r a n d S o v i e t d e s i g n o f m i l i t a r y o f f e n s i v e v i s - a - v i s t h e I n d i a n Ocean w o r l d . However, t h e i m p a c t o f t h e A f g h a n o c c u p a t i o n on t h e I n d i a n Ocean s t r a t e g i c map was s u b s t a n t i a l . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e d i p l o m a t i c c o s t t o t h e S o v i e t s was more s u b s t a n t i a l t h a n t h e r e l a t i v e s t r a t e g i c g a i n o f s t a t i o n i n g S o v i e t l a n d f o r c e s a t arm's l e n g t h t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean i t s e l f . The C a r t e r d o c t r i n e was n o t a h u r r i e d r e s p o n s e t o t h e S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n . I n d e e d , i t was a d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e d p o l i c y l i n e o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s p r i n c i p a l a d v i s o r s , B r z e z i n s k i , Brown, and Komer who l a i d down t h i s c o u r s e o f a c t i o n two y e a r s p r i o r t o i t s e n u n c i a t i o n . Though t h e RDJTF came i n t o e x i s t e n c e a f t e r t h e C a r t e r d o c t r i n e , i t s o r i g i n c a n be s e e n i n t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l ' s p o l i c y memorandum o f F e b r u a r y 1979. The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e RDJTF has had a d i r e c t i m p a c t on t h e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n p r o c e s s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean b e c a u s e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s u s e d arms s a l e s and m i l i t a r y a i d t o prompt t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s t o e n t e r i n t o t h e o r b i t o f t h e RDJTF. The S o v i e t U n i o n a l s o i n c r e a s e d i t s power q u a n t i t a t i v e l y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e s e new d e v e l o p m e n t s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t e v e r y t i m e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n c r e a s e d i t s n a v a l p r e s e n c e t h e S o v i e t U n i o n d i d t h e same t o c o u n t e r b a l a n c e U.S. f o r c e s . T h i s was c l e a r l y v i s i b l e d u r i n g t h e I r a n i a n c r i s i s . 363 This a n a l y s i s of the growth of superpower naval r i v a l r y helps to i d e n t i f y c e r t a i n features of the competition. The evolu-t i o n of superpower naval r i v a l r y can be understood p r i m a r i l y i n r e l a t i o n to r e g i o n a l challenges. The two phases of e s c a l a t i o n of t h i s r i v a l r y correspond to r e g i o n a l developments rather than to the a c t i v i t i e s of the o t h e r superpower. For example, the superpower responses to the o i l c r i s i s i n 1978 and the Iranian r e v o l u t i o n and o t h e r s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l upheavals i n 1979 e s c a l a t e d t h e i r r i v a l r y i n the region much more than mutual fears and s u s p i c i o n between them. This takes us to the other poin;t, that superpower a c t i v i t i e s i n the Indian Ocean cut across two axes - East-West and North-South. There i s a remarkable s i m i l a r i t y of i n t e r e s t s and actions of the superpowers. Both are m o t i v a t e d by s i m i l a r p o l i t i c a l , economic, and s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t s . These i n t e r e s t s can be iden-t i f i e d at four l e v e l s . F i r s t , at the g l o b a l l e v e l , the s t r a t e g i c requirements of the c e n t r a l m i l i t a r y balance are more important. In t h i s respect the Indian Ocean i s an i n t e g r a l part of t h e i r g l o b a l s t r a t e g i c planning. This explains why each superpower views every move of the other i n the context of g l o b a l s t r a t e g i c balance. At the second l e v e l , i . e . , the Indian Ocean sub-s y s t e m i c l e v e l , p o l i t i c a l , economic, and s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t s motivate superpower behaviour and strategy. P o l i t i c a l l y , each superpower wants to enhance i t s i n f l u e n c e because they advocate opposing p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g i e s . In t h i s respect they play a zero-sum-game. In contrast, economically there i s a c l e a r l y v i s i b l e congruence between superpower i n t e r e s t s . Economic i n t e r e s t s are 364 i n v o l v e d w i t h t r a d e and b o t h d e s i r e t o keep v i t a l s e a l a n e s open, e m p h a s i z i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p r e s e r v i n g f r e e d o m o f t h e s e a . A t t h e t h i r d o r s u b - r e g i o n a l l e v e l , b o t h p o w e r s h a v e s p e c i f i c p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s - s u p p o r t i n g r e g i o n a l a l l i e s . T h e s e s u b s y s t e m i c s u b - r e g i o n a l l e v e l l i n k a g e s e n h a n c e t h e g l o b a l s t r a t e g i c p o s t u r e s o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . A t t h e f o u r t h l e v e l , s u p e r p o w e r i n t e r e s t s a r e i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e u p h o l d i n g o f s u r r o g a t e r u l i n g e l i t e s and p r o t e c t i n g them f r o m i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l t h r e a t s . T h e r e were t h r e e a t t e m p t s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d i n t h e d i r e c -t i o n o f t h e f o r m a t i o n o f an i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e g i m e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e p r e s e n t i n g A m e r i c a n , S o v i e t , and I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l p o s i t i o n s . The A m e r i c a n a t t e m p t was p r e s e n t e d i n t h e N i x o n d o c t r i n e i n 1969. The e s s e n c e o f t h e N i x o n - K i s s i n g e r scheme was t h e a t t e m p t t o m a i n t a i n a \" r e g i o n a l m u l t i - b a l a n c e o f power\", i . e . , t h e b a l a n c e o f A m e r i c a n , S o v i e t , C h i n e s e , and r e g i o n a l medium power i n f l u e n c e a t r e g i o n a l s u b - s y s t e m i c l e v e l s . As l o n g as t h e new scheme was b a s e d on a \" d i s t r i b u t i v e b a l a n c e o f power\" o f t h e m a j o r power c e n t e r s , N i x o n t h o u g h t a l l w o u l d work t o g e t h e r t o p r e s e r v e i t b e c a u s e a l l w o u l d r e c o g n i z e t h e i r s t a k e i n i t s p r e s e r v a t i o n . The p u r p o s e was t o a v o i d c o n f l i c t s between t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n a r e a s o f l e s s e r i m p o r t a n c e . The e n t i r e scheme was b a s e d on t h r e e a s s u m p t i o n s . F i r s t , t h e I n d i a n Ocean was n o t c r i t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t as f a r as s u p e r p o w e r i n t e r e s t s and t h e c e n t r a l s t r a t e g i c b a l a n c e were c o n c e r n e d . Second, t h e r e was no i r r e c o n c i l a b l e c o n f l i c t between S o v i e t and A m e r i c a n i n t e r e s t s i n t h e r e g i o n . T h i r d , t h e m i d d l e powers i n t h e r e g i o n a l s u b - s y s t e m s a n d o t h e r e x t r a - r e g i o n a l p o w e r s w o u l d .come f o r w a r d t o b e a r 365 d e f e n c e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n . I n t h e g e n e r a l c o n t e x t o f d e t e n t e , t h e N i x o n - K i s s i n g e r scheme was a b l e t o p r e s e r v e b a l a n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, as t h e s u p e r p o w e r s p e r c e i v e d i t , f o r n e a r l y a d e c a d e . The c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e N i x o n - K i s s i n g e r scheme was t h e NALT, w h i c h t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c a r r i e d o u t w i t h t h e S o v i e t s . T h e r e were many s h o r t c o m i n g s i n t h e N i x o n - K i s s i n g e r scheme. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e , f i r s t , t h a t i t d i d n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m s o f t h e s m a l l s t a t e s a t t h e s u b - s y s t e m i c l e v e l s . The medium p o w e r s o f t h e r e g i o n a l s u b - s y s t e m s w e r e a s s i g n e d t h e r o l e o f r e g i o n a l c r i s i s m a n a g e r s . I t was, i n e s s e n c e , t h e s u p e r - i m p o s i t i o n o f t h e b a l a n c e o f power c o n c e p t on s u b - s y s t e m i c l e v e l s w i t h o u t due c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e r e g i o n a l s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m s . The a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e s u p e r p o w e r s were p r e p a r e d t o show r e s t r a i n t was s h a t t e r e d a t t h e end o f 1977 w i t h t h e S o v i e t and Cuban m i l i t a r y i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e Horn and i n S o u t h e r n A f r i c a . The I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n marked t h e end o f t h e two p i l l a r p o l i c y -t h e s t r a t e g y o f s e c u r i t y a l l i a n c e s w i t h m i d d l e p o w e r s . The S o v i e t i n v a s i o n o f A f g h a n i s t a n and t h e new m i l i t a r i s t i c a c c e n t i n U.S. p o l i c y were t h e f i n a l b l o w s t o t h e N i x o n - K i s s i n g e r scheme i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The S o v i e t a l t e r n a t i v e was m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e p r o p o s a l f o r a c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m f o r A s i a . When i t was f i r s t p r e s e n t e d i n 1969 t h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p d i d n o t p r o v i d e any d e t a i l s about t h e shape, s c o p e , and s u b s t a n c e o f t h e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m . L a t e r , i n 1972, B r e z h n e v e n u n c i a t e d a s e t o f p r i n c i p l e s as g u i d e l i n e s f o r 366 t h e p r o p o s e d , s e c u r i t y s y s t e m . T h e r e was a c l o s e s i m i l a r i t y between t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s and t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f P a n c h a s i l a e n d o r -s e d by t h e Bandung C o n f e r e n c e as f a r b a c k as 1954. The r e a s o n s f o r t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e S o v i e t a t t e m p t were c l e a r . A l l t h e m a j o r e l e m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean p o l i t i c a l a r e n a f a i l e d t o e n d o r s e i t . The West v i e w e d i t as a t r a n s p a r e n t a t t e m p t t o p l a y on t h e n a t i o n a l i s t s e n t i m e n t o f t h e r e g i o n a l s t a t e s . C h i n a i n t e r p r e t e d i t as an a t t e m p t t o e n c i r c l e h e r w i t h a S o v i e t v e r s i o n o f c o n t a i n m e n t and l a u n c h e d a v i r u l e n t a t t a c k on i t . The l i t t o r a l s t a t e s d i d n o t want t o e n t e r i n t o s u c h a p l a n b e c a u s e i t d i d n o t a d d r e s s i t s e l f t o t h e r o o t s o f t h e s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m s o f t h e r e g i o n . I n v i e w o f t h e d i v i s i o n s and c o n f l i c t s a t r e g i o n a l and s u b - r e g i o n a l l e v e l s , o b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s were n o t c o n g e n i a l f o r s u c h a c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y s y s t e m i n a p a n - A s i a n f o r m . The t h i r d and most i m p o r t a n t a t t e m p t was t h e one t a k e n by t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s t a t e s , and e s p e c i a l l y S r i L a n k a - t h e I n d i a n O c e a n P e a c e Zone p r o p o s a l ( I O P Z ) . E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e IOPZ r e v e a l s t h a t i t underwent a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s p o l i t i c a l framework. The main t h r u s t o f t h e o r i g i n a l p r o p o s a l , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t , was d i r e c t e d t o e l i m i n a t e any m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f g r e a t power n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g r e a t power r i v a l r y . A f t e r 1975, t h e emergence o f n u c l e a r powers f r o m t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l s r a d i c a l l y c hanged t h e s t r a t e g i c l a n d s c a p e . As a r e s u l t , a number o f i s s u e s r e l a t e d t o r e g i o n a l disarmament came t o t h e f o r e f r o n t a n d o v e r w h e l m e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f IOPZ. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e o r i g i n a l n o n - a l i g n e d framework o f t h e IOPZ changed t o t h a t o f d i s a r m a m e n t , w i d e n i n g i t s p e r i m e t e r s e x t e n s i v e l y . I n a c c o r d a n c e 367 w i t h t h i s change t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f IOPZ become i n e v i t a b l y l i n k e d t o g l o b a l and r e g i o n a l d i s a r m a m e n t . The p r o b l e m s and d i f f i c u l t i e s c o n f r o n t e d by t h e IOPZ i n i t s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w e r e t h r e e - f o l d . The f i r s t w e r e t h e p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n t h e l a c k o f c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . A t f i r s t , n e i t h e r o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s a c c e d e d t o t h e IOPZ p r o p o s a l on t h e p r e t e x t t h a t i t w o u l d c o n t r a d i c t t h e f r e e d o m o f p a s s a g e , even t h o u g h t h e s p o n s o r s o f t h e p r o p o s a l r e p e a t e d l y a s s u r e d t h e r i g h t o f ' i n n o c e n t p a s s a g e ' . S e c o n d l y , t h e i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e IOPZ p r o p o s a l c a n n o t be s o l e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e n o n - c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s . The l a c k o f c o n c e p t u a l c l a r i t y o f the. p e a c e zone p r o p o s a l was a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e . Superpower n a v a l r i v a l r y was n o t t h e o n l y s o u r c e o f t e n s i o n and c o n f l i c t i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. B e s i d e s , i t i s d i f f i -c u l t t o d e - l i n k s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y f r o m o t h e r forms o f r e g i o n a l c o n f l i c t . Thus , i n o r d e r t o be v i a b l e i t was i m p e r a t i v e f o r t h e IOPZ p r o p o s a l t o t a c k l e l o c a l s o u r c e s o f c o n f l i c t . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e t h r e e l e v e l s o f c o n f l i c t m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r and t h e i r l i n k a g e s t o t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y s h o u l d be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b etween s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y , r e g i o n a l c o n f l i c t s , and i n s e c u r i t y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a r e r e c i p r o c a l . The IOPZ p r o p o s a l d i d n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y c a p t u r e t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m s . T h i s t a k e s us t o t h e t h i r d p o i n t , namely, d i v i s i o n s w i t h i n t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s t h e m s e l v e s o v e r t h e m a j o r i s s u e s i n t h e IOPZ. These d i f f e r e n c e s s u r f a c e d a t two l e v e l s . F i r s t , a t t h e p o l i t i c a l l e v e l , p r o - W e s t e r n , p r o - S o v i e t , and u n c o m m i t t e d g r o u p i n g s t o o k d i f f e r e n t p o l i c y s t a n d s on i s s u e s s u c h as t h e Camp D a v i d Peace 368 A c c o r d , t h e A f g h a n i s t a n i s s u e , V i e t n a m ' s m i l i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n o f K a m p u c h e a , e t c . A t t h e s e c o n d l e v e l t h e r e w e r e c l a s h e s o f i n t e r e s t on many i s s u e s among medium a n d s m a l l s t a t e s i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r . T h e s e c l a s h e s o f i n t e r e s t can p r o p e r l y be u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e r e g i o n a l s u b - s y s t e m i c f ramework. The s u r v e y o f t h e i n t r i c a t e web o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s among t h e s t a t e s i n t h e same s u b - s y s t e m i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p e r s i s t e n t p h enomenon o f c o n f l i c t a n d c o - o p e r a t i o n i n t h e s t r u g g l e f o r m a x i m i z a t i o n o f power. These s t a t e s a r e c o m p e l l e d t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h e a c h o t h e r b e c a u s e o f l i n k a g e s o f a f f a i r s and m u t u a l i t y o f i n t e r e s t s a n d o f t h e a b i l i t y o f one s t a t e t o i n t e r v e n e i n a n o t h e r ' s p o l i t i c a l and economic i s s u e s . F l u c t u a t i o n s i n I n d o - S r i L a n k a n r e l a t i o n s p r o v i d e a g o o d e x a m p l e o f t h i s t y p e o f b e h a v i o u r . As f a r as t h e IOPZ p r o p o s a l i s c o n c e r n e d , a c l a s h o f i n t e r e s t s between medium and s m a l l s t a t e s c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h r e e m ain i s s u e s v i z . , d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e IOPZ c o n c e p t ; t h e n a t u r e o f r e c i p r o c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e r e g i o n a l s t a t e s were t o f u l f i l i n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f IOPZ; and i t s g e o g r a p h i c a l s c o p e . S r i L a n k a , as a s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d s m a l l i s l a n d i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, had been w e l l aware o f t h e i m p a c t o f power p o l i t i c s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean f r o m t h e t i m e o f i n d e p e n d e n c e . The e v o l u t i o n o f S r i L ankan r e s p o n s e s t o t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean can be e x p l a i n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o s e v e r a l f a c t o r s : S r i L a n k a ' s d e f e n c e and s e c u r i t y p e r c e p t i o n s c o n c e i v e d i n h e r geo-p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t , d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e p o l i t i c a l and s t r a t e g i c l a n d s c a p e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean, changes o f t h e power b a l a n c e i n t h e S o u t h A s i a n s u b - s y s t e m , and S r i L a n k a ' s i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l 369 and e c o nomic p r o c e s s e s . The c o r n e r s t o n e o f S r i L ankan d e f e n c e p o l i c y v i s - a - v i s t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e f i r s t e i g h t y e a r s a f t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e was c l o s e s e c u r i t y c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e U n i t e d Kingdom. The m a j o r f a c t o r t h a t c o n d i t i o n e d d e f e n c e and s e c u r i t y p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n a l P a r t y (UNP) was t h e f e a r t h a t I n d i a w o u l d d o m i n a t e S o u t h A s i a a f t e r t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f t h e B r i t i s h R a j f r o m t h e r e g i o n . B u t , as l o n g as t h e I n d i a n Ocean was d o m i n a t e d by t h e R o y a l Navy, t h e UNP had n o t h i n g t o w o r r y a b o u t . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d e f e n c e a n d s e c u r i t y p e r c e p t i o n s , t h e g e n e r a l p o l i t i c a l o u t l o o k o f t h e UNP r e g i m e , t h e i r e c o n omic s t r a t e g y , and t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e b u r e a u c r a c y o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s who were e a g e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e c o l o n i a l t r a d i t i o n , e x p l a i n t h e p r o - B r i t i s h t i l t o f UNP f o r e i g n p o l i c y i n t h e p e r i o d 1948-1956. As an u n a v o i d a b l e outcome o f t h e d e f e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, S r i L a n k a was l i n k e d i n d i r e c t l y w i t h w e s t e r n C o l d War s t r a t e g y . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d S r i L a n k a p r o v i d e d l o g i s t i c s u p p o r t f a c i l i t i e s t o some m i l i t a r y moves a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e w e s t e r n C o l d War s t r a t e g y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , S r i L a n k a r e f u s e d t o e n t e r i n t o a l l i a n c e s i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 s d e s p i t e i t s c l o s e i n t i m a c y w i t h t h e West b e c a u s e o f i n t e r n a l o p p o s i t i o n and t h e i n f l u e n c e o f I n d i a . The MEP e l e c t i o n v i c t o r y i n 1956 marked t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a new p h a s e i n S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . T h i s s t u d y i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e s t r i k i n g c h a n g e s t h a t t o o k p l a c e i n f o r e i g n p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n c o u l d be seen a f t e r 1956. F i r s t , t h e r e was a changed 370 a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s I n d i a . The new r e g i m e d i d n o t s u b s c r i b e t o i t s p r e d e c e s s o r ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h r e a t f r o m I n d i a . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s t r a t e g y o f t h e MEP r e g i m e was t o m a i n t a i n c l o s e and a m i c a b l e r e l a t i o n s w i t h I n d i a and t o s t r e n g t h e n S r i Lankan s e c u r i t y by g o i n g a l o n g w i t h I n d i a . S e c o n d l y , t h e new r e g i m e r e - s t r u c t u r e d S r i L a n k a ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e U n i t e d Kingdom and t e r m i n a t e d t h e b a s e f a c i l i t e s t h a t t h e B r i t i s h e n j o y e d a t K a t u n a y a k e a i r b a s e and T r i n c o m a l e e n a v a l b a s e . T h i r d l y , t h e MEP r e g i m e edged away f r o m t h e a n t i - S o v i e t p o l i c y o f t h e p r e v i o u s g o v e r n m e n t a n d c u l t i v a t e d c o r d i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e Communist c o u n t r i e s . These d e v e l o p m e n t s i n S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y c o i n c i d e d w i t h some c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n a t l a r g e . F i r s t , c h a n g e s i n S r i L a n k a - B r i t a i n d e f e n c e r e l a t i o n s w e r e contemporaneous w i t h p o s t - S u e z a d j u s t m e n t s o f B r i t i s h d e f e n c e p o l i c y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Second, t h e change i n S r i L a n k a ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e S o v i e t U n i o n c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h t h e changes i n p o s t - S t a l i n S o v i e t f o r e i g n p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e T h i r d W o r l d . I t was w i t h t h e changes i n t r o d u c e d by t h e MEP r e g i m e i n S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y t h a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f S r i L a n k a ' s n o n - a l i g n m e n t c o u l d be s e e n . Though t h e MEP r e g i m e o f 1956 was s e n s i t i v e t o d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n , t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l e n t r y became an i s s u e o n l y a f t e r 1 9 6 0 . T h e r e f o r e , M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e was t h e p e r s o n who had t o g r a p p l e w i t h t h o s e p r o b l e m s . The p o l i c y o f n o n - a l i g n m e n t r e q u i r e d more e l a b o r a t i o n d u r i n g h e r p e r i o d b e c a u s e o f new d e v e l o p m e n t s . On t h e one hand t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f U.S. n a v a l power d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean added a new d i m e n s i o n t o t h e n a v a l s t r a t e g i c map o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean. On t h e o t h e r t h e non-371 a l i g n e d movement g a i n e d more s t r e n g t h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y and c o n c e -p t u a l l y and r e c o g n i t i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . S r i L a n k a u n d e r Mrs. B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s l e a d e r s h i p p l a y e d an a c t i v e r o l e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s i n p r e s e n t i n g t h e r e s p o n s e s t o t h e I n d i a n O c e a n n a v a l b u i l d - u p i n more c o h e r e n t f o r m . Two c o n s p i c u o u s f e a t u r e s o f h e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n s h o u l d be n o t e d . F i r s t , S r i L a n k a i n c r e a s i n g l y i d e n t i f i e d h e r s e l f w i t h t h e T h i r d W o r l d and i t s p o l i t i c a l movement - n o n - a l i g n m e n t . Second, S r i L a n k a began t o t a k e n o t e o f h e r s e c u r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s a t two l e v e l s - a t t h e S o u t h A s i a n s u b - s y s t e m i c l e v e l as w e l l as t h e b r o a d e r I n d i a n Ocean l e v e l . A t t h e s u b - r e g i o n a l l e v e l , t h e m a i n f e a t u r e s o f M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s p o l i c y were t o m a i n t a i n v e r y c l o s e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a w h i l e h a v i n g g o o d r e l a t i o n s w i t h S r i L a n k a ' s g i a n t n e i g h b o u r - I n d i a . She v e r y s h r e w d l y p l a y e d t h i s b a l a n c i n g game and e m p h a s i z e d t h e C h i n a l i n k as a c o u n t e r v a i l i n g d e v i c e t o I n d i a i n t h e S o u t h A s i a n c o n t e x t . A t t h e I n d i a n Ocean l e v e l she j o i n e d hands w i t h t h e n o n - a l i g n e d movement, i n c l u d i n g I n d i a , t o oppose e x t r a - r e g i o n a l m i l i t a r y b u i l d - u p i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. A f t e r r e t u r n i n g t o p o w e r o n c e a g a i n i n 1 9 7 0 , M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t e d t h e b a s i c e l e m e n t s o f h e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e I n d i a n Ocean w h i c h she had l a i d down i n a r a t h e r r u d i m e n t a r y f o r m i n 1960-64. A f t e r 1970, S r i L a n k a t o o k t h e l e a d i n o r g a n i z i n g and p r e s e n t i n g l i t t o r a l c o n c e r n s and r e s p o n s e s t o s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Her f o r w a r d r o l e i n I n d i a n Ocean d i p l o m a c y s h o u l d be v i e w e d a g a i n s t two d e v e l o p m e n t s . F i r s t , t h e n a v a l a c t i v i t i e s o f 372 t h e s u p e r p o w e r s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n c r e a s e d a t a r a p i d p ace a f t e r 1968. Second, t h e S o u t h A s i a n b a l a n c e o f power changed d r a s t i c a l l y as a r e s u l t o f t h e I n d o - P a k i s t a n War o f 1971. These two d e v e l o p m e n t s b r o u g h t home t o S r i L a n k a t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p u r s u i n g a w e l l - d e f i n e d and c o h e r e n t p o l i c y t o w a r d s I n d i a n Ocean p o l i t i c s . S r i L a n k a ' s r e s p o n s e t o s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f t e r 1970 m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f i n t h e S r i L a n k a n v e r s i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean Peace Zone p r o p o s a l . The o r i g i n a l S r i L a n k a n p r o p o s a l p r e s e n t e d t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n 1971 was a c o m p r e h e n s i v e one a p p l i c a b l e t o b o t h r e g i o n a l and o u t s i d e p o w e r s . However, b e c a u s e o f p r e s s u r e f r o m some medium powers o f t h e r e g i o n , i t had t o be m o d i f i e d t o i n c l u d e o n l y a c t i v i t i e s o f g r e a t powers c o n c e i v e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f n a v a l r i v a l r y . S r i L a n k a a g r e e d t o t h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n as a t r a n s i t i o n a l f i r s t s t a g e . On t h e w h o l e , S r i Lankan p o l i c y v i s - a - v i s s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y was i n t e n d e d t o d e a l w i t h t w o b a s i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . F i r s t , as a s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d c o u n t r y whose h i s t o r y i s r e p l e t e w i t h i n s t a n c e s o f f a l l i n g p r e y t o g r e a t power r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Oce'an, S r i L a n k a c o n s i d e r e d t h e e s c a l a t i o n o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y a m a t t e r o f c o n c e r n . Second, S r i L a n k a was a l s o v e r y c o n c e r n e d a b o u t how t o d e a l w i t h I n d i a w h i c h was i n c r e a s i n g l y b e c o m i n g a b l u e w a t e r n a v a l power i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. S r i L a n k a n p o l i c y t o w a r d s s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean e v o l v e d as she r e s p o n d e d t o t h e m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i c d e v e l o p m e n t s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t S r i L a n k a has been w e l l a w a r e o f t h e f a c t t h a t h e r a b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e t h e s u p e r p o w e r s and t h e m a j o r l i t t o r a l s by h e r u n i l a t e r a l a c t i o n i s s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d due t o h e r meager power c a p a b i t i t y . That i s why s h e r e l i e d on m e c h a n i s m s o f e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n t o p r e s e n t t h e s m a l l s t a t e p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e s u p e r -power n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. A t t h e end o f M r s . B a n d a r a n a i k e ' s r e g i m e two s u b t l e d e v e l o p -ments t o o k p l a c e i n S r i Lankan f o r e i g n p o l i c y . F i r s t , t h e more c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e West began t o m e l l o w a f t e r 1975. Second, t h e s e c u r i t y c o n c e r n s c o n c e i v e d i n t h e S o u t h A s i a n s u b -s y s t e m began t o e x e r t t h e i r i n f l u e n c e more h e a v i l y i n d e a l i n g s on I n d i a n Ocean i s s u e s . These changes i n S r i Lankan p o l i c y c a n be e x p l a i n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o two d e v e l o p m e n t s - d o m e s t i c a l l y i n r e l a -t i o n t o t h e changes i n p o l i t i c a l b a l a n c e and i n economic s t r a t e g y o f t h e U n i t e d F r o n t government; and r e g i o n a l l y i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e emergence o f n u c l e a r power i n S o u t h A s i a a f t e r t h e e x p l o s i o n o f t h e n u c l e a r d e v i c e by I n d i a i n 1974. However, a c l e a r l y v i s i b l e change i n S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y o u t l o o k o c c u r r e d o n l y a f t e r t h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d e l e c t o r a l v i c t o r y o f t h e UNP l e d by J.R. J a y a w a r d e n a i n 1977. I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e new p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n o f S r i L a n k a t o w a r d s s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean a f t e r 1977 i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o v i e w i t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e changes i n i t i a t e d by t h e UNP r e g i m e i n t h e d o m e s t i c p o l i t i c a l and economic s p h e r e and a l s o o f t h e c h a n g e d r e g i o n a l a n d s u b - r e g i o n a l p o l i t i c a l a n d s t r a t e g i c m i l i e u . I n t h e open economic p a c k a g e i n t r o d u c e d by t h e J a y e w a r d e n a r e g i m e , f o r e i g n a i d and l o a n s became a c r u c i a l e l e -ment. F i r s t , t h e government r e l i e d h e a v i l y on f o r e i g n a i d t o meet t h e c o u n t r y ' s b a l a n c e o f payments p r o b l e m g e n e r a t e d by t h e i m p o r t 374 l i b e r a l i z a t i o n p o l i c y , and s e c o n d , t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e g o v e r -nment's d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s depended upon t h e i n f l o w o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i n t h e f o r m o f l o a n s and g r a n t s . Thus, o b t a i n i n g f o r e i g n c a p i t a l became a m a j o r f o r e i g n p o l i c y g o a l and i t r e c e i v e d h i g h p r i o r i t y a t t h e e x p e nse o f more p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s w h i c h were o f a n t i - W e s t e r n c o m p l e x i o n . A t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l , t h r e e e l e m e n t s i n t h e changed p o l i t i -c a l p a t t e r n s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean t h e a t r e s h o u l d be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e changes i n S r i L a n k a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y a f t e r 1977. F i r s t , t h e UNP assumed o f f i c e t o w a r d s t h e end o f t h e d e t e n t e e r a o f s u p e r p o w e r r e l a t i o n s . I t was t h e UNP r e g i m e t h a t w i t n e s s e d t h e new wave o f s u p e r p o w e r r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Second , t h e i n i t i a l v i g o u r and e n t h u s i a s m o f t h e n o n - a l i g n e d movement movement s t a r t e d t o w i t h e r a f t e r 1977. D i v i s i o n s d e v e -l o p e d w i t h i n t h e movement on a number o f key i s s u e s o f t h e day. T h i r d , a t t h e S o u t h A s i a n s u b - s y s t e m l e v e l , t h e m a j o r f a c t o r t h a t d e t e r m i n e d t h e S r i L ankan r e s p o n s e was t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f S r i L a n k a ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h h e r b i g n e i g h b o u r - I n d i a . S r i L a n k a c o n t i n u e d t o s u p p o r t t h e IOPZ p r o p o s a l , a t l e a s t i n p r i n c i p l e , even a f t e r 1977 b u t h e r e a r l i e r e n t h u s i a s m d e c l i n e d s h a r p l y . The p e r c e p t i o n was t h a t IOPZ was t h e i d e a l s o l u t i o n b u t n o t p r a c t i c a b l e . T h e r e f o r e , i t w o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e t o have a ' b a l a n c e d p r e s e n c e ' i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. Thus, t h e g overnment's e m p h a s i s was m a i n l y on d i sarmament and t h e . I n d i a n Ocean q u e s t i o n was v i e w e d as a p a r t o f i t . W i t h t h e p a s s a g e o f t i m e , t h e p r o - A m e r i c a n l e a n i n g o f t h e UNP government became c l e a r e r t h o u g h i t o f f i c i a l l y c l a i m e d t o f o l l o w a n o n - a l i g n e d f o r e i g n p o l i c y . A f t e r 1981 t h e d e b a t e o v e r 375 t h e d i r e c t i o n o f UNP f o r e i g n p o l i c y c e n t e r e d on f o u r i s s u e s : t h e o f f e r o f R & R f a c i l i t i e s t o t h e U.S. Navy a t T r i n c o m a l e e , t h e g r a n t o f t h e o i l f a r m c o n t r a c t t o a U.S. f i r m , S r i L a n k a ' s a t t e m p t t o j o i n t h e ASEAN, and t h e V o i c e o f A m e r i c a agreement. The G o v e r -nment's s t a n d on t h e s e i s s u e s gave I n d i a t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t S r i L a n k a was g r a d u a l l y m o ving away f r o m n o n - a l i g n m e n t t o w a r d s m i l i -t a r y a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e West. T h i s change o f S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n c a u s e d c o n c e r n i n I n d i a . The h a n d l i n g o f s e n s i t i v e i s s u e s s u c h as t h e o i l f a r m p r o j e c t i n T r i n c o m a l e e and t h e agreement w i t h VOA, showed t h a t t h e J a y e w a r d e n a government f a i l e d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e g e o - p o l i t i c a l f u n d a m e n t a l s o f S r i L a n k a ' s l o c a t i o n . B e c a u s e o f t h i s f a i l u r e , i f n o t mismanagement, I n d i a was g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u -n i t y t o meddle i n S r i L a n k a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g . The c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e s s was t h e I n d o - S r i L a n k a Peace A c c o r d o f J u l y 1987. To sum up, S r i L ankan r e s p o n s e s t o t h e s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y can o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e geo- p o l i t i c a l f ramework o f i t s s t r a t e g i c t h i n k i n g , and i t s i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l and e c o n omic p r o c e s s e s . The g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n o f S r i L a nka s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d a t two l e v e l s - t h e I n d i a n Ocean and S o u t h A s i a n s u b - s y s t e m i c l e v e l s . A t t h e b r o a d e r I n d i a n Ocean l e v e l , t h e m a j o r f a c t o r i s S r i L a n k a ' s s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean and a t t h e s u b - s y s t e m i c l e v e l , i t i s o n l y a s m a l l i s l a n d s i t u a t e d i n t h e s h a d e . o f a medium power. S r i L a n k a ' s p r o b l e m o f s e c u r i t y as a s m a l l n a t i o n i l l u s -t r a t e s many f a c e t s o f t h e c h r o n i c i n s e c u r i t y o f t h e n e w l y - i n d e -p e n d e n t s m a l l s t a t e s i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s today.- T h e i r s e a r c h f o r s e c u r i t y v i t a l l y i n f l u e n c e s b o t h i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s as w e l l as e x t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s , as S r i L a n k a ' s r e c e n t e x p e r i e n c e s c l e a r l y r e v e a l . On t h e o t h e r hand, i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s a l s o i n f l u e n c e s e c u r i t y v i s - a - v i s e x t e r n a l t h r e a t s and t h r e a t p e r c e p t i o n s . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , S r i L a n k a ' s s e c u r i t y dilemma and i t s n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n s i l l u s t r a t e t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e p r o b l e m f a c e d by most s m a l l s t a t e s . Today, S r i L a n k a has r e a c h e d a c r o s s r o a d s i n i t s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . The d e f e n c e and s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m s she c o n f r o n t s a r e c omplex and s e r i o u s . The r e p e r c u s s i o n s o f t a k i n g wrong s t e p s a t t h i s c r i t i c a l j u n c t u r e w i l l be f a r - r e a c h i n g . T h e r e i s a d a n g e r o f o v e r - e m p h a s i s i n g S o u t h A s i a n c o n c e r n s a t t h e e x p e n se o f t h e i s s u e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e b r o a d e r I n d i a n Ocean s t r a t e g i c d e v e l o p -ments. Superpower n a v a l r i v a l r y g i v e s new v i g o u r t o t h e arms r a c e a t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l and a t t h e same t i m e i n f l u e n c e s t h e d e f e n c e p r i o r i t i e s o f t h e r e g i o n a l s t a t e s a n d c o m p e l s t h e m t o a c t a c c o r d i n g t o an agenda s e t by t h e s e p o w e r s . As a r e s u l t , t h e r e a l p r o b l e m s and i s s u e s o f t h e r e g i o n a l s t a t e s a r e p u s h e d t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d and t h o s e o f m a r g i n a l i m p o r t a n c e imposed f r o m o u t s i d e a c q u i r e h i g h p r o m i n e n c e . T h i s i n v a r i a b l y h i n d e r s t h e p r o c e s s e s o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e r e g i o n i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e i r own r e q u i r e m e n t s and p r i o r i t i e s . W h i l e t h e s u p e r p o w e r s use t h e r u l i n g e l i t e s o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s as t h e i r s u r r o g a t e s , t h e s e e l i t e s use t h e i r s u p e r p o w e r l i n k a g e s t o f r e e z e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e i r own s o c i e t i e s . The s u p e r p o w e r s t h e m s e l v e s t e n d t o v i e w e v e r y i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t and t e n d e n c y i n t h e r e g i o n a l s t a t e s p r i m a r i l y i n t h e 377 c o n t e x t o f t h e i r s t r a t e g i c r e q u i r e m e n t s . The i n v a r i a b l e outcome i s a c h a i n r e a c t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n m i l i t a r y p a c t s , p u p p e t g o v e r n m e n t s , p o l i t i c a l s u p p r e s s i o n , e c o nomic dependence and. p r o x y war, w h i c h f o r m t h e main e l e m e n t s i n t h e t e x t u r e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean r e g i o n . E x a m i n a t i o n o f l i n k a g e s between s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y and t h e t h r e e l e v e l s o f c o n f l i c t p a t t e r n s l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i t i s i n a c c u r a t e , however, t o a t t r i b u t e e v e r y p r o b l e m o f p e a c e and s e c u r i t y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean s i n g u l a r l y t o s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y . I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t a b s e n c e o f s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y g u a r a n t e e t h e p e a c e and s e c u r i t y o f t h e r e g i o n . I n o r d e r t o c a p t u r e t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e dilemma o f i n s e c u r i t y , as p o i n t e d out i n c h a p t e r V I , i t i s i m p e r a t i v e t o t a k e n a t i o n a l and r e g i o n a l r o o t s i n t o a c c o u n t . T h e r e f o r e , any v i a b l e scheme o f p e a c e and s e c u r i t y f o r t h e r e g i o n must d e a l w i t h t h e l o c a l and r e g i o n a l r o o t s o f t h e p r o b l e m . Such a scheme s h o u l d i n c l u d e i n i t i a t i v e s a t two l e v e l s . F i r s t , a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l , t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l o r d e r s t o w a r d s e s t a b l i s h i n g more v i a b l e d e m o c r a c i e s i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o e n s u r e i n t e r n a l s t a b i l i t y . S e c o n d , i t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p m e c h a n i s m s f o r c o n f i d e n c e b u i l d i n g a n d c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n a t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l . The r e g i o n a l l e v e l o r g a n i z a t i o n s s h o u l d n o t be u s e d by t h e medium p o w e r s a s i n s t r u m e n t s t o e x e r t t h e i r dominance o v e r t h e i r s m a l l n e i g h b o u r s . I n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e f u t u r e s t r a t e g i c s c e n a r i o s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean, i t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e n a v a l f a c t o r i n s u p e r p o w e r s t r a t e g y has d e c l i n e d c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e m i d -1980s. F i r s t , t h e r o l e o f t h e n a v a l f a c t o r i n t h e I n d i a n 378 Ocean i n r e l a t i o n t h e c e n t r a l s t r a t e g i c b a l a n c e b e t ween t h e s u p e r p o w e r s d e c l i n e d due t o t h e r a p i d a d v a n c e s i n m i s s i l e d e l i v e r y s y s t e m s and renewed i m p o r t a n c e o f a i r power. Second, a t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l , c o e r c i v e n a v a l power as s u c h i s f o u n d t o be i n e f f e c t i v e i n b r i n g i n g a b o u t d e s i r e d o utcomes. The e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e r e g i o n i n t h e 1970s and 1980s has t a u g h t t h e s u p e r p o w e r s t h a t o t h e r p o l i c y i n s t r u m e n t s a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l s u c h as e c o n o m i c and m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e a r e more e f f e c t i v e . Thus, a t t h e p r e s e n t j u n c t u r e t h e s u p e r p o w e r s a r e n o t k e e n t o e s c a l a t e t h e i r r i v a l r y b u t r a t h e r t h e y a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n m a i n t a i n i n g a s t a b l e n a v a l power r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t a l s o c o n f o r m s t o t h e c u r r e n t t r e n d i n A m e r i c a n - S o v i e t r e l a t i o n s . T h i s does n o t mean, however, t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n s w i l l d i s m a n t l e t h e CENTCOM and D i e g o G a r c i a b a s e o r t h a t t h e S o v i e t s w i l l s t o p d e p l o y i n g n a v a l f o r c e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . The new e l e m e n t i n t h e e m e r g i n g power p a t t e r n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s t h e i n c r e a s i n g b l u e w a t e r n a v a l c a p a b i l i t y o f I n d i a . The t h r e e r e c e n t a c q u i s i t i o n s , namely TU 142M a n t i - s u b m a r i n e and n a v a l r e c o n n a i s s a n c e t u r b o - p r o p l o n g - r a n g e a i r c r a f t , a n u c l e a r s u b m a r i n e w h i c h was r e n t e d f r o m t h e S o v i e t U n i o n b u t renamed t h e C h a k r a , a n d a n o t h e r a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r , h i g h l i g h t e d I n d i a ' s c a p a b i l i t y f o r an e f f e c t i v e n a v a l p u n c h and d e e p e r r e a c h . T h i s has l e d t o t h e emergence o f a t h r e e - t i e r power p a t t e r n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. The s u p e r p o w e r s a r e now a c t i n g on t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e I n d i a n n a v a l power w i l l be a ' s t a b i l i s i n g ' f a c t o r , and a r e p r e p a r e d t o accomodate i t . I t s t i l l r e m a i n s t o be s e e n w h e t h e r t h i s t h r e e - t i e r power p a t t e r n w i l l i n f a c t b r i n g p e a c e 379 and s e c u r i t y to the Indian Ocean i n general, and to South A s i a i n p a r t i c u l a r . W i l l India use t h i s newly acquired naval power merely to extend i t s dominance i n the region or merely to play the r o l e of a genuine c o n f l i c t manager? In t h i s context i t should be pointed out that the outcome of India's current m i l i t a r y a c t i o n i n S r i Lanka w i l l have s i g n i f i c a n t r e p e r c u s s i o n s on I n d i a ' s future r o l e i n the region. Future S r i Lankan strategy towards the Indian Ocean, and her s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s , i n general has to take t h i s emerging t h r e e -t i e r power p a t t e r n i n t o account. With the extension of India's d e f e n c e parameters and c a p a b i l i t i e s S r i Lanka became s t r a t e g i c a l l y more c r u c i a l to India as a s t a g i n g post on her widely open southern f l a n k . Recent experiences have c l e a r l y shown that S r i Lanka cannot challenge India on her own and that no one w i l l come forward to defend S r i Lanka against India. In these circumstances S r i Lanka's goal should be to widen her area of manoeuvrability w i t h i n the parameters de f i n e d by these s t r a t e g i c developments. India should not have been given the opportunity to i n t e r f e r e i n S r i Lanka's f o r e i g n p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s t h r o u g h a p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t to India's s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s . This does not mean that India has a l e g i t i m a t e r i g h t to i n t e r f e r e i n S r i Lanka's i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s and undermine her sovereignty; but we have to a c c e p t the s t a r k r e a l i t y t h a t i t i s the game of r e a l p o l i t i k t h a t governs the behavior of s t a t e s towards each other. Therefore, the v i a b l e s t r a t e g y to obtain a wider area of manoeuvrability i n f o r e i g n p o l i c y and a l s o to p r o t e c t S r i Lanka's sovereignty and independence i s the f i r m establishment of S r i Lanka's non-aligned status which would guarantee India that S r i 380 L a n k a w i l l n o t become a s o u t h e r n l i n k o f an a n t i - I n d i a n m i l i t a r y scheme. The f u t u r e o f t h e s t r a t e g i c s i t u a t i o n i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i n t h e 1990s, t h e r e f o r e , a p p e a r s t o be ambiguous. On t h e one hand, t h e i n t e n s i t y and t h e p a c e o f d i r e c t s u p e r p o w e r n a v a l r i v a l r y i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s l i k e l y d e c r e a s e . On t h e o t h e r hand, p r o b l e m s o f r e g i o n a l c o n f l i c t s w o u l d seem l i k e l y t o i n c r e a s e , t h u s , t h r e a t e n i n g t h e f u t u r e s t a b i l i t y , p e a c e and s e c u r i t y o f t h e r e g i o n . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , t h e p r o s p e c t f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean P e a c e Zone P r o p o s a l as was d i s c u s s e d d u r i n g t h e 1970s seems t o be more r e m o t e . What i s now r e q u i r e d i s a new f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h i s f a r - r e a c h i n g a n d i m a g i n a t i v e scheme w h i c h w i l l t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t b o t h t h e d y n a m i c s and c h a n g i n g n a t u r e o f t h e power r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s u p e r p o w e r s as w e l l o f t h e s t a t e s a r o u n d t h e I n d i a n Ocean l i t t o r a l , and hence be c a p a b l e o f m o d i f y i n g , o r a t l e a s t s e e k i n g t o m o d i f y , t h e u n c o n t r o l l e d s t r a t e g i c d e s i g n s and a m b i t i o n s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e p o w e r s . The f u t u r e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean i s l i k e l y t o be e ven more a f f e c t e d b y p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c t e n s i o n s o f t h e l i t t o r a l s t a t e s f r o m Mozambique t o S i n g a p o r e . The n e c e s s i t y o f a c h i e v i n g some f o r m o f p r e v e n t i v e d i p l o m a t i c a r r a n g e m e n t r e m a i n s a f o r e m o s t p r i o r i t y . 381 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. U.K. Documents 1.1 S t a t e m e n t s on D e f e n c e P o l i c y and D e f e n c e E s t i m a t e s 1.2 A d m i r a l t y Documents 1.3 Committee R e p o r t s and M i n u t e s o f E v i d e n c e (House o f Commons) 1.4 R e l a t i o n s w i t h O t h e r Governments 1.5 Documents o f Commonwealth C o n f e r e n c e s 1.6 P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s 2. U.S. Documents 2.1 C o n g r e s s (House) Documents 2.2 C o n g r e s s (Senate) Documents 2.3 P r e s i d e n t i a l Documents 2.4 I n t e r v i e w s and P o l i c y S t a t e m e n t s 3. S o v i e t Documents 3.1 CPSU Documents 3.2 I n t e r v i e w s and P r e s s S t a t e m e n t s 4. U.N. Documents 4.1 U.N. Ad Hoc Committee on t h e I n d i a n Ocean R e p o r t s 4.2 U.N. G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y O f f i c i a l R e c o r d s 4.3 G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y D e c l a r a t i o n s 4.4 U.N. S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l O f f i c i a l R e c o r d s 5. NAM Documents 6. S r i Lankan Documents 6.1 H a n s a r d s 6.2 O t h e r Documents 7. I n d i a n Documents 7.1 Lok Sabha D e b a t e s 7.2 Lok Sabha S e c r e t a t i a t Documents 8. S e c o n d a r y works 8.1 Books 8.2 A r t i c l e s 9. Newspapers 1.1 S t a t e m e n t s on D e f e n c e P o l i c y and D e f e n c e E s t i m a t e s G r e a t B r i t a i n . M i n i s t r y o f D e f e n c e . S t a t e m e n t s on D e f e n c e , 1947-1968. Command P a p e r s as f o l l o w s : S t a t e m e n t r e l a t i n g t o D e f e n c e . Cmd 7042 ( 1 9 4 7 ) ; S t a t e m e n t r e l a t i n g t o D e f e n c e 1948, Cmd 7327 ( 1 9 4 8 ) ; S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 194 9; S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 1950, Cmd 7 8 95; S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 1952, Cmd 8475; S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 1953, Cmd 8768; S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 1954, Cmd 9075; S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 1955, Cmd 9391; S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 1956, Cmd 9691; D e f e n c e : O u t l i n e o f F u t u r e P o l i c y , Cmnd 124 ( 1 9 5 7 ) ; R e p o r t on D e f e n c e : 382 B r i t a i n ' s C o n t r i b u t i o n t o Peace and S e c u r i t y , Cmnd 363 (1958) , P r o g r e s s o f t h e F i v e - Y e a r D e f e n c e P l a n , Cmnd 662 (1959) . R e p o r t on D e f e n c e 1 9 6 0 , Cmnd 1 9 6 5 ; R e p o r t on D e f e n c e 1961, Cmnd 1288; S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 1962: t h e Next F i v e Y e a r s , Cmnd 1639; S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 1963, Cmnd 1936; S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e 1964, Cmnd 2270; S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e E s t i m a t e s 1966, P a r t I : The D e f e n c e Review, Cmnd 2 9 0 1 ; P a r t 2: D e f e n c e E s t i m a t e s 1966-67 , Cmnd 2 9 02: S t a t m e n t on D e f e n c e E s t i m a t e s 1 9 6 7 , Cmnd 33 03; S u p p l e m e n t a r y S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e p o l i c y 1967. Cmnd 3357; S t a t e m e n t on D e f e n c e E s t i m a t e s , Cmnd 3540 ( 1 9 6 8 ) . 1.2 A d m i r a l t y Documents G r e a t B r i t a i n . M i n i s t r y o f D e f e n c e . A d m i r a l t y . S t a t e m e n t s o f t h e F i r s t L o r d o f t h e A d m i r a l t y E x p l a n a t o r y o f t h e Na v y E s t i m a t e s 1947-1962 Command P a p e r s as f o l l o w s : Cmd 7337 ( 1 9 4 8 ) ; Cmd 7632 ( 1 9 4 9 ) ; Cmd 7897 ( 1 9 5 0 ) ; Cmd 8160 (1 9 5 1 ) ; Cmd 8476 ( 1 9 5 2 ) ; Cmd 8767 ( 1 9 5 3 ) ; Cmd 9079 ( 1 9 5 4 ) ; Cmd 9396 (1 9 5 5 ) ; Cmd 9797 ( 1 9 5 6 ) ; Cmnd 151 ( 1 9 5 7 ) ; Cmnd 371 ( 1 9 5 8 ) ; Cmnd 674 ( 1 9 5 9 ) ; Cmnd 949 ( 1 9 6 0 ) ; Cmnd 1282 ( 1 9 6 1 ) ; Cmnd 1629 (1962) . 1.3 Committee R e p o r t s and M i n u t e s o f E v i d e n c e . G r e a t B r i t a i n . H o u s e o f Commons. F o r e i g n A f f a i r s C o m m i t t e e . Consequence o f S o v i e t E x p a n s i o n f o r B r i t i s h F o r e i g n P o l i c y . M i n u t e s o f E v i d e n c e . Feb. 20, 27, March 5, 19, 26, A p r i l 2,16,23, May 14, 1980. A f g h a n i s t a n : t h e S o v i e t I n v a s i o n and i t s Consequences f o r B r i t i s h P o l i c y , R e p o r t s - : 1979-1980. . E x p e n d i t u r e C o m m i t t e e . D e f e n c e and E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s \"Sub-Committee. M a i n B a t t l e Tank and H e l i c o p t e r - B o r n e A n t i - t a n k G u i d e d Weapons, M i n u t e s o f E v i d e n c e , Dec. 11, 1973. (H.C. 745) D e f e n c e P o l i c y a f t e r t h e Review. M i n u t e s o f E v i d e n c e , May 13, 1975. Manpower R e d u c t i o n s , M i n u t e s o f E v i d e n c e , June 10, 1975. D e f e n c e P o l i c y a f t e r t h e Review, M i n u t e s 15, 1975. o f E v i d e n c e , Nov. 11, Dec. 383 . D e f e n c e P o l i c y Recommendations, M i n u t e s o f E v i d e n c e , Feb. 17, 1976. 1.4 R e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r Governments. G r e a t B r i t a i n . F o r e i g n O f f i c e . T r e a t y S e r i e s No. 63, 1957. S o u t h E a s t A s i a ( C o l l e c t i v e ) D e f e n c e T r e a t y . ( W i t h P r o t o c o l and P a c i f i c C h a r a c t e r ) . Cmnd 265, 1957. . F o r e i g n and Commonwealth O f f i c e . M a l a y s i a , T r e a t y S e r i e s No. 28 ( 1 9 6 8 ) . Exchange o f l e t t e r s between t h e U.K. and M a l a y a s i a t o p r o v i d e p e r s o n n e l t o a s s i s t i n t h e s t a f f i n g a d m i n s t r a t i o n and t r a i n i n g o f t h e armed f o r c e s o f M a l a y s i a . Dec. 5, 1967. Cmnd 3576. . M a u r i t i u s , T r e a t y S e r i e s No. 65 (1976) . Exchange o f n o t e s between t h e U.K. and M a u r i t i u s t e r m i n a t i n g t h e agreement on m u t u a l d e f e n c e and a s s i s t a n c e . on March 12, 1968. Cmnd 6550. . The M a l d i v e s I s l a n d s , T r e a t y S e r i e s No. 19 ( 1 9 7 7 ) . Exchange o f n o t e s t e r m i n a t i n g t h e agreement s i g n e d on 26 J u l y 1969 between t h e U.K. and t h e M a l d i v e s I s l a n d s . O c t . 6-7, 1976. Cmnd 6728. . The U.S.A., T r e a t y S e r i e s No. 19 ( 1 9 7 6 ) . Exchange o f n o t e s between t h e U n i t e d Kingdom and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a c o n c e r n i n g a. U.S. N a v y s u p p o r t f a c i l i t y on D i e g o G a r c i a , B r i t i s h I n d i a n Ocean T e r r i t o r y . Feb. 25, 1976. Cmnd 6413. . The U.S.A., T r e a t y S e r i e s No. 88 ( 1 9 7 6 ) . Exchange o f n o t e s between t h e U n i t e d Kingdom and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a amending t h e agreement o f Dec. 30, 1966 c o n c e r n i n g t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y f o r d e f e n c e p u r p o s e o f t h e B r i t i s h I n d i a n Ocean t e r r i t o r y . June 22, 1976. Cmnd 6610. 1.5 Documents o f Commonwealth C o n f e r e n c e s . G r e a t B r i t a i n . F o r e i g n and Commonwealth O f f i c e . R e p o r t o f t h e Second Commonwealth C o n f e r e n c e , 1968. Cmnd 3852. . Commonwealth P r i m e M i n i s t e r s ' M e e t i n g : London: J a n . 1_ t o 15., 1969 F i n a l Communique. Cmnd 3919. . Commonwealth Heads o f Government M e e t i n g : L u s a k a , Aug. 1 t o 1_, 1979. Communique. Cmnd 7713. R e p o r t o f P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e T w e n t i e t h Commonwealth P a r l i a m e n t a r y C o n f e r e n c e ( h e l d i n C o l o m b o , S e p . 1 9 7 4 ) . L o n d o n : Com. P a r l i a m e n t a r y A s s o c i a t i o n , n.d. 384 2.1 U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n g r e s s (House) Documents U.S. C o n g r e s s . House. Committee on A p p r o p r i a t i o n s . Department o f D e f e n s e A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r 1975, P t . 1. 9 3 r d Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1974. . Second S u p p l e - m e n t a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n B i l l - 1 9 7 4 . 9 3 r d Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1 9 7 4 . . M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A p p r o p r i a t i o n B i l l , 1976. R e p o r t 94-530 t o accompany H.R. 1 0 0 2 9 . 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1975. . M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r 1981. 9 6 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1980. . S u p p l e m e n t a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n B i l l 1980. 9 6 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1980. . M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r 1 9 8 3 - R e a d i n e s s Command and R a p i d Deployment F o r c e . 9 7 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1 9 8 2 . . C o n t r a c t i n g f o r P l a n n i n g , D e s i g n a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n . 9 7 t h C o n g . , 2 n d s e s s . , 1982. . M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r 1984. 9 8 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1983. . M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r 1 9 8 5 - P e r s i a n G u l f and P a c i - f i c C o n s t r u c t i o n Programmes. 9 8 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1984. U.S. C o n g r e s s . House. Committee on Armed S e r v i c e s . F u l l Committee C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f H.R.12565. 9 3 r d Cong., .2nd s e s s . , 1 9 7 4 . . M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A u t h o r i z a t i o n , FY 1976. 9 3 r d Cong.,2nd s e s s . , 1974. , . C o n s t r u c t i o n a t D i e g o G a r c i a . Message f r o m t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . P u r s u a n t t o Rec. 163(a) (1) o f P u b l i c Law 93-522. 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1975. . R e p o r t o f t h e S p e c i a l S u b c o m m i t t e e t o I n s p e c t F a c i l i t i e s a t B e r b e r a , S o m a l i a . 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1 9 7 5 . 385 \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 To A u t h o r i z e C e r t a i n C o n s t r u c t i o n a t M i l i t a r y I n s t a l l a t i o n s . ( 4 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1976. . I n d i a n Ocean F o r c e s L i m i t a t i o n s a n d C o n v e n t i o n a l Arms T r a n s f e r L i m i t a t i o n s 9 6 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1979. . I n d i a n Ocean Arms L i m i t a t i o n s a n d M u l t i l a t e r a l C o o p e r a t i o n on R e s t r a i n i n g C o n v e n t i o n a l Arms T r a n s f e r s . 9 6 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1979 . H e a r i n g on HR 64 93 FY 1980 S u p p l e m e n t a r y B u d g e t Amendment f o r M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n Progrqammes. 9 6 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1980 . _. H e a r i n g on M i l i t a r y P o s t u r e . 9 6 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1890. H e a r i n g s on HR 1816 (HR 2972) t o A u t h o r i z e C e r t a i n C o n s t r u c t i o n a t M i l i t a r y I n s t a l l a t i o n s f o r FY 1984 and o t h e r P u r p o s e s . 9 8 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1983. U.S. C o n g r e s s . House, Committee on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s . U n i t e d S t a t e s F o r e i g n P o l i c y f o r t h e 1970s. H e a r i n g on a Message f r o m t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U.S.A New S t r a t e g y f o r P e a c e . 9 1 s t Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1970 Subcommittee on N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y P o l i c y a n d S c i e n t i f i c D e v e l o p m e n t s . I n d i a n Ocean: P o l i t i c a l and S t r a t e g i c F u t u r e . 92nd Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1972. _. Message f r o m t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s T r a n s m i t t i n g h i s T h i r d A n n u a l R e p o r t on t h e S t a t e o f U n i t e d S t a t e s ' F o r e i g n Polcy'. 92nd Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1972. . A n n u a l R e p o r t on F o r e i g n P o l i c y Message f r o m t h e P r e s i d e n t . 9 3 r d Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1973. U.S. F o r e i g n P o l i c y f o r t h e 1970s. An A n a l y s i s o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s 1973 F o r e i g n P o l i c y R e p o r t and C o n g r e s s i o n a l A c t i o n . 9 3 r d Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1973. . Subcommittee on N e a r E a s t and S o u t h A s i a . U.S. I n t e r e s t s i n and P o l i c i e s t o w a r d s S o u t h A s i a . 9 3 r d Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1973. . Subcommittee on 386 A s i a n and P a c i f i c A f f a i r s . O i l and A s i a n R i v a l s j_ S i n o - S o v i e t C o n f l i c t ; J a p a n and o i l c r i s i s . 9 3 r d Cong., 1 s t and 2nd s e s s . , 1973, 1974. . Subcommittee on F o r e i g n Economic P o l i c y . F o r e i g n P o l i c y I m p l i c a t i o n s o f E n e r g y C r i s i s . 9 3 r d Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1973. . Subcommittee on N e a r E a s t and S o u t h A s i a . Means o f M e a s u r i n g N a v a l Power w i t h S p e c i a l R e f e r e n c e t o U.S. and S o v i e t A c t i v i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. 9 3 r d Cong.,2nd s e s s . , 1974. . Subcommittee on t h e N e a r E a s t and S o u t h A s i a . P r o p o s e d E x p a n s i o n o f U.S. M i l i t a r y F a c i l i t i e s i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. 9 3 r d Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1974. . Subcommittee on t h e Near E a s t and S o u t h A s i a . The Impact o f t h e O c t o b e r M i d d l e E a s t War. 9 3 r d Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1974. . New P e r s p e c t i v e s on t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . 9 3 r d Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1974. . The M i d d l e E a s t 1974 j_ New Hopes, New C h a l l e n g e s . 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1975 . Subcommittee on A s i a n and P a c i f i c A f f a i r s . Our Commitments i n A s i a . 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1975. . Subcommittee on t h e Near E a s t and S o u t h A s i a . P e r s i a n G u l f 1974 j_ Money, P o l i t i c s , Arms and Power., 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1975. . Subcommittee on t h e N e a r E a s t and S o u t h A s i a and on I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i -z a t i o n and Movement. U.S. F o r e i g n P o l i c y and t h e E x p o r t o f N u c l e a r T e c h n o l o g y t o t h e M i d d l e E a s t . 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1975. . Subcommittee on A s i a n and P a c i f i c A f f a i r s . S e c u r i t y and S t a b i l i t y i n A s i a j_ 1979 - R e p o r t S u b m i t t e d bv a S p e c i a l S t u d y M i s s i o n t o A s i a . 9 6 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1979. . C o n g r e s s and F o r e i g n P o l i c y -1979. 9 6 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1980. . M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r 1981. 9 6 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 387 1980 . . Subcommittee on E u r o p e a n d t h e M i d d l e E a s t . U.S. I n t e r e s t s i n a n d P o l i c i e s Towards t h e P e r s i a n G u l f 9 6 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1980 . . Subcommittee on I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y and S c i e n t i f i c A f f a i r s . C h a n g i n g P e r s p e c t i v e s on U.S. Arms T r a n s f e r P o l i c y . 9 7 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1981. . S o v i e t P o l i c y and U.S. Response i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d . 9 7 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1981. . U.S. S e c u r i t y I n t e r e s t s i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . R e p o r t s o f a S t a f f S t u d y M i s s i o n t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , M i d d l e E a s t a n d H o r n o f A f r i c a . 9 7 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1981. . Subcommittee on A s i a n and P a c i f i c A f f a i r s and on Human R i g h t s and I n t e r -n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n . R e c o n c i l i n g Human R i g h t s and U.S. S e c u r i t y I n t e r e s t s i n A s i a . 9 8 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1983. . Subcommittee on Eur o p e and t h e M i d d l e E a s t . U.S. P o l i c y Towards t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . 9 8 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1983. . Subcommittee on A s i a n and P a c i f i c A f f a i r s . F o r e i g n A s s i s t a n c e L e g i s l a t i o n f o r FY 1984-85. 9 8 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1984. . Subcommittee on E u r o p e a n d t h e M i d d l e E a s t a n d on A s i a n a n d P a c i f i c A f f a i r s . The S o v i e t R o l e i n A s i a . 9 8 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1984 . U.S. C o n g r e s s . H o u s e . C o m m i t t e e on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . S ubcommittee on I n v e s t i g a t i o n s . CRS. O i l F i e l d s as M i l i t a r y O b j e c t i v e s j _ A F e a s i b i l i t y S t u d y . 94 Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1975. C o n g r e s s and F o r e i g n P o l i c y z, 1975. 9 4 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1976. Subcommittee on I n v e s t i g a t i o n s . D i e g o G a r c i a , 1975 j . t h e Debate Over t h e Base and t h e I s l a n d ' s Former I n h a b i t a n t s . 9 4 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1976. S p e c i a l S u b c o m m i t t e e on I n v e s t i g a t i o n s . P e r s i a n G u l f j _ 388 C o n t i n u i n g Debate on Arms S a l e s . 9 4 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1976. P o l i c y R e s e a r c h a n d o f P o w e r i n As i a -9 4 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , S u b c o m m i t t e e on F u t u r e F o r e i g n P o l i c y R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t . U.S. S o v i e t U n i o n C h i n a : The G r e a t P o w e r T r i a n g l e . P a r t i &. I I _ . 9 4 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1976. C o n g r e s s and F o r e i g n P o l i c y 1976. 9 5 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1977. S o v i e t U n i o n and t h e T h i r d W o r l d j . A W a t e r s h e d i n G r e a t Power R i v a l r y . R e p o r t by t h e S e n i o r S p e c i a l i s t D i v i s i o n CRS. 9 5 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1977. S u b c o m m i t t e e on I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l i t i c a l a n d M i l i t a r y A f f a i r s . U.S. - USSR R e s o l u t i o n s and S t r a t e g i c B a l a n c e , 9 5 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1977. C o n g r e s s and F o r e i g n P o l i c y 1977. 9 5 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1978 . S u b c o m m i t t e e on E u r o p e a n d t h e M i d d l e E a s t . R e v i e w o f D e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t . 9 5 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1978 . Subcommittee on A s i a n and P a c i f i c A f f a i r s . U.S. I n d i a and S o u t h A s i a : I n t e r e s t s , T r e n d s , I s s u e s f o r C o n g r e s s i o n a l C o n c e r n . 9 5 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1978. Subcommittee on E u r o p e and t h e M i d d l e E a s t . U.S. - S o v i e t R e l a t i o n s 1978. 9 6 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1979. S h o u l d t h e U.S. s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e i t s m i l i t a r y commitments? 9 6 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1980. 2.2 C o n g r e s s (Senate) Documents U.S.' C o n g r e s s . S e n a t e . Committee on A p p r o p r i a t i o n s . Second S u p p l e m e n t a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r FY 1974. 9 3 r d Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1974 . S u b c o m m i t t e e on F u t u r e F o r e i g n D e v e l o p m e n t . S h i f t i n g B a l a n c e I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r F u t u r e U.S. P o l i c y , 1976. 389 . Department o f D e f e n s e A p p r o p r i a t i o n s , P t . 3 . Dept. o f Navy.. 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1 9 7 5 . . M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A p p r o p r i a t i o n s FY 1976. 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1975. . V i s i t t o t h e D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c o f S o m a l i a . 1975. 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , . Department o f D e f e n s e A p p r o p r i a t i o n s FY 1977. 1976. P t . l . 9 4 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . . Department o f D e f e n s e A p p r o p r i a t i o n s FY 1981. 9 7 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1981 . Department o f D e f e n s e A p p r o p r i a t i o n - D e p t . o f 2nd s e s s . , 1982. Navy, 1982. 9 7 t h Cong., U.S. C o n g r e s s . S e n a t e . Committee on Armed S e r v i c e s . M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A u t h o r i z a t i o n FY 1975. 9 3 r d Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1974 . . D i s a p p r o v i n g C o n s t r u c t i o n P r o j e c t s on t h e I s l a n d o f D i e g o G a r c i a . 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1975. D i s a p p r o v e C o n s t r u c t i o n P r o j e c t s on t h e I s l a n d o f D i e g o G a r c i a . 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1975. . S e l e c t e d M a t e r i a l s on D i e g o G a r c i a . 9 4 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1975. . S o v i e t M i l i t a r y C a p a b i l i t y on B e r b e r a , S o m a l i a . 9 4 t h C o n g . , 1 s t s e s s . , 1975. . FY 1977 A u t h o r i z a r i o n f o r M i l i t a r y P r o c u r e m e n t , R e s e a r c h and Deve- lopment , and A c t i v e D u ty ( P a r t - 7 Manpower). 9 4 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . , 1976. . Department o f D e f e n s e A u t h o r i z a t i o n f o r FY 1980 . 9 6 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . 1979. . M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n A u t h o r i z a t i o n FY 1981. 9 6 t h Cong., 2nd s e s s . 1980. 390 U.S. C o n g r e s s . S e n a t e . Committee on F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s . B r i e f i n g on M a j o r F o r i g n P o l i c y Q u e s t i o n s . 9 3 r d Cong., 1 s t s e s s . 1975. . B r i e f i n g on D i e g o G a r c i a and P a t r o l F r i g a t e . 9 3 r d Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1975. . M u l t i -N a t i o n a l C o r p . and U.S. F o r e i g n P o l i c y . 9 5 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1977. . E t h i o p i a and Horn o f A f r i c a . 9 5 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1977. . U.S.- S o v i e t S t r a t e g i c O p t i o n s . 9 5 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1977. . U.S. F o r e i g n P o l i c y O b j e c t i v e s and O v e r s e a s M i l i t a r y i s t a l l a - t i o n s . 9 6 t h Cong., 1 s t s e s s . , 1979. 2.3 P r e s i d e n t i a l Documents. U.S. P r e s . U.S. f o r e i g n p o l i c y f o r t h e 1970s: a new s t r a t e g y f o r p e a c e ; a r e p o r t t o t h e C o n g r e s s by R i c h a r d N i x o n . Feb. 18, 1970. 2L. P r e s i d e n t i a l Docs. 6: 195-239. . The p r e s i d e n t ' s news c o n f e r e n c e o f M a r c h 4, 1 9 7 1 : p r e s i d e n t ' s m e e t i n g w i t h r e p o r t e r s t o answer q u e s t i o n s on f o r e i g n p o l i c y . JL. C o m p i l a t i o n P r e s i d e n t i a l Docs. 7:424-9, March 8, '71. . U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r e i g n p o l i c y f o r t h e 1970s: b u i l d i n g f o r p e a c e ; t h e p r e s i d e n t ' s r e p o r t t o t h e C o n g r e s s , Feb. 25, , 1971. \u00C2\u00A3L_ C o m p i l a t i o n P r e s i d e n t i a l Docs. 7: 305-77, March 1, 1971. . U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r e i g n p o l i c y : t h e p r e s i d e n t ' s a d d r e s s d e l i v e r e d b e f o r e a j o i n t s e s s i o n o f t h e C o n g r e s s . A p r i l 10, 1975, VL. C o m p i l a t i o n P r e s i d e n t i a l Docs. 11: 359-70, A p r i l 14, '75. 3.1 CPSU Documents. B r e z h n e v , L . I . Speech a t t h e P l e n a r y S e s s i o n o f t h e CPSU C e n t r a l Committee on O c t o b e r 25, 1976, ( f o c u s e s on an assesment o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ' s 1 0 t h f i v e - y e a r p l a n f o r f o r e i g n p o l i c y a i m s ) , C u r r e n t D i g . S o v i e t P r e s s , 28: 2-12, November 24, 1976. 391 C.P.S.U. F o r e i g n P o l i c y Programme and. P r e s e n t - D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s (Moscow), A p r i l 1973, 3-29. R e s o l u t i o n on i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s : on t h e CPSU C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e ' s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y i n i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e d e c i s i o n s o f t h e 2 4 t h P a r t y C o n g r e s s , a d o p t e d A p r i l 27, 1973. C u r r e n t D i g . S o v i e t P r e s s 25: 3, may 23, 1973. S e s s i o n o f t h e U.S.S.R. Supreme S o v i e t : on t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n a n d t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ( a d d r e s s ) , A.A. Gromyko. C u r r e n t D i g . S o v i e t P r e s s 20: 11-16, J u l y 31, 1968. S e s s i o n o f t h e U.S.S.R. Supreme S o v i e t : q u e s t i o n s o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n and t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n : r e p o r t by Deputy A.A. Gromyko, C u r r e n t D i g . S o v i e t P r e s s 21: 4-11, A u g u s t 6, 1969. ( t r a n s l a t e d and c o n d e n s e d f r o m P r a v d a and I z v e s t i a , J u l y 11, 1969. 3.2 P r e s s C o n f e r e n c e s and Communiques. B r e z h n e v i s i n t e r v i e w e d by Le Monde, C u r r e n t D i g . S o v i e t P r e s s 29: 17-18, J u l y 13, 1977. ( t r a n s l a t e d and c o n d e n s e d f r o m P r a v d a , June 16, 1 9 7 7 ) . Gromyko's p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e i n P a r i s ( A p r i l 25, 1980: on t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n and S o v i e t f o r e i g n p o l i c y ) C u r r e n t D i g . S o v i e t P r e s s 32: 1-4, May 28, 1980. ( t r a n s l a t e d and c o n d e n s e d f r o m P r a v d a , A p r i l 26, and I z v e s t i a , A p r i l 27, 80. J o i n t Communique on t h e s t a y (December 7-18, 1971) i n t h e U.S.S.R. o f A b d u l Raham A l I r y a n i , C h a i r m a n o f t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l C o u n c i l o f t h e Yemen A r a b R e p u b l i c . C u r r e n t D i g . S o v i e t P r e s s 23: 12, J a n u a r y 18, 1972. K h r u s h c h o v , N.S. S p e e c h e s and I n t e r v i e w s on W o r l d P r o b l e m s (1956-1964). Moscow: F o r e i g n Language P u b l i s h i n g House, 1956-1964. S o v i e t Government's S t a t e m e n t : on May 4, 1970, a P r e s s C o n f e r e n c e f o r S o v i e t a n d f o r e i g n c o r r e s p o n d e n t s was h e l d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e armed i n v a s i o n o f Cambodia by U.S. t r o o p s ; P r e m i e r A l e x e i K o s y g i n r e a d o u t a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e S o v i e t G o vt. New Times (Moscow), May 9, 1970, 20-1. S o v i e t - S o m a l i Communique. C u r r e n t D i g . S o v i e t P r e s s 26: 13-14, Aug u s t 7, 1974. 4.1. U.N. Ad Hoc Committee on t h e I n d i a n Ocean - R e p o r t s 392 U.N. Ad Hoc Committee on t h e I n d i a n Ocean. R e p o r t s o f t h e Ad Hoc Committee - A/AC.159/SR 1 t o A/AC.159/SR 252 (4 Feb. 1972 t o 30 Dec. 1985) 4.2 U.N. G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y O f f i c i a l R e c o r d s U.N. G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y . O f f i c i a l R e c o r d s . 2 6 t h s e s s . , 1971 - A/PV 1934-1962, 1963-1996, 1997-2031; 2 7 t h s e s s . , 1972 - A/PV 2032-2058, 2059-2093, 2094-2116; 2 8 t h s e s s . , 1973 - A/PV 2117-2186, 2187-2232; 2 9 t h s e s s . , 1974 - A/PV 2233-2265, 2266-2350; 3 0 t h s e s s . , 1975 - A/PV 2351-2382, 2383-2441; 3 1 s t s e s s . , 1976 - A/31/PV 1-32, 33-107; 32nd s e s s . , 1977 -A/32/PV 1-33, 34-111; 3 3 r d s e s s . , 1978 - A/33/PV 1-76, 77-108; 3 4 t h s e s s . , 1 9 7 9 - A/34/PV 1-32, 33-120; 3 5 t h s e s s . , 1980 - A/35/PV 1-79, 80-144; 3 6 t h s e s s , 1981 - A/36/PV 1-33, 34-111; 3 7 t h s e s s . , 1982 - A/37/PV 1-34, 35-77; 3 8 t h s e s s . , A/38/PV 133, 34-77. 4.3 U.N. G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y . D e c l a r a t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean as a Zone o f P e a c e . Res.2832 ( x x v i ) ; Res.2992 ( x x v i i ) ; Res.3259 ( x x i x ) ; Res.3468 ( x x x ) ; 4.4 U.N. S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l O f f i c i a l R e c o r d s U.N. S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l . O f f i c i a l R e c o r d s . 4 t h s e s s . , 1948, 351 M e e t i n g 5. Documents o f t h e N o n - A l i g n e d Movement. B a n d a r a n a i k e C e n t r e f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s . N o n - A l i g n e d C o n f e r e n c e s : B a s i c D o c u m e n t s 1 9 6 1 - 1 9 7 5 . C o l o m b o : B a n d a r a n a i k e C e n t r e f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s , 1976. Colombo Summit. Documents and S e l e c t e d Speeches o f t h e F i f t h C o n f e r e n c e o f Heads o f S t a t e o r Governments o f N o n - A l i g n e d C o u n t r i e s . ( C o l o m b o , S r i L a n k a . 16-19 A u g u s t 1 9 7 6 ) , P e o p l e ' s P u b l i s h i n g House: New D e l h i , 1976. Documents o f t h e G a t h e r i n g s o f N o n - A l i g n e d C o u n t r i e s 1961-1978. J u g o s l o v e n s k a S t v a r n o s t - M e d j u n a r o d n a P o l i t i k a , B e l g r a d e , 1978 . M i n i s t r y o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , George Town, Guyana. M a i n documents r e l a t i n g t o C o n f e r e n c e s o f N o n - A l i g n e d C o u n t r i e s f r o m B e l g r a d e 1961 t o George Town. A u g u s t , 1972. 6.1 S r i L a n k a n H a n s a r d s . C e y l o n . House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s . V o l . 1 t o 96. (1947-1972) . . S e n a t e . P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s . V o l . 1 t o 31. (1947-1971). 393 S r i L a n k a . House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . J a t i k a R a i y a Sabha V i v a d a (Debates o f N a t i o n a l S t a t e C o u n c i l ) . V o l 1 t o 23. (1972-1978) . . J a t i k a R a i y a Sabha V i v a d a (Debates o f N a t i o n a l S t a t e C o u n c i l ) . V o l . 1 t o 45. (1978-1987) . 6.2 O t h e r O f f i c i a l Documents and P o l i c y S t a t e m e n t s B a n d a r a n a i k e , S.W.R.D. 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Colombo: Dept. o f I n f o r m a t i o n , 1979. 7.1 Lok Sabha D e b a t e s I n d i a . Lok Sabha. Lok Sabha D e b a t e s . 4 t h s e r i e s v o l . 4 5 - 4 7 , 9 Nov. -18 Dec.1970; 5 t h s e r i e s v o l . 1 - 6 5 , 19 M a r c h 1971 - 5 Nov. 1976; 6 t h s e r i e s v o l . 1 - 2 8 , 25 March 1977 - 13 J u l y 1979; 7 t h s e r i e s v o l . 1 - 3 3 , 22 J a n u a r y 1980 - 5 Nov. 1982. (Debates on De f e n c e and F o r e i g n A f f a i r s A p p r o p r i a t i o n s o n l y ) 7.2 Lok Sabha S e c r e t a r i a t Documents and o t h e r S t a t e m e n t s I n d i a . Lok Sabha S e c r e t a r i a t . F o r e i g n P o l i c y o f I n d i a : T e x t o f Documents. 1947-64. New D e l h i : Lok Sabha S e c r e t a r i a t , 1966. . I n d i a n Ocean as a Zone o f P e a c e . New D e l h i : Lok Sabha S e c r e t a r i a t , 1967. I n d i a . M i n i s t r y o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s . 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W r i g g i n s , Howard. \" H e a d i n g O f f a New Arms Race: L e t ' s T r y t o N e u t r a l i s e t h e I n d i a n Ocean,\" War/Peace R e p o r t , (September 1 9 7 1 ) , pp. 7-11 Z a r t m a n , W i l l i a m . \" A f r i c a as a S u b o r d i n a t e S t a t e S y s t e m i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , \" I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n , 21 (Summer 1 9 8 7 ) , pp. 545-64. 9.1 S r i La n k a n Newspapers. C e y l o n D a i l y News C e y l o n O b s e r v e r D a i l y M i r r o r F o r w a r d L a n k a G u a r d i a n Sun Times o f C e y l o n A t h t h a Dawasa D i n a m i n a L a n k a d e e p a S i l u m i n a 9.2 O t h e r Newspapers and News M a g a z i n e s . C h r i s t i a n S c i e n c e M o n i t o r C u r r e n t D i g e s t o f S o v i e t P r e s s Department o f S t a t e B u l l e t i n F a r E a s t e r n E c o nomic R e v i e w F o r a L a s t i n g P e a c e , f o r a P e o p l e ' s Democracy H i n d u I n d i a Today G u a r d i a n News and V i e w s f r o m t h e S o v i e t U n i o n New Y o r k Times Times o f I n d i a U.S. News and W o r l d R e p o r t W a l l S t r e e t J o u r n a l W a s h i n g t o n P o s t 9.3 Alma n a c s and Y e a r B o o k s . S t r a t e g i c B a l a n c e \" J a n e ' s F i g h t i n g S h i p s S t o c k h o l m I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e a c e R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e Y e a r Books U.N. Y e a r Books 406 "@en . "Thesis/Dissertation"@en . "10.14288/1.0098060"@en . "eng"@en . "History"@en . "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en . "Graduate"@en . "The growth of superpower naval rivalry in the Indian Ocean and Sri Lankan response"@en . "Text"@en . "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/28843"@en .