"Arts, Faculty of"@en . "Theatre and Film, Department of"@en . "DSpace"@en . "UBCV"@en . "Walsh, Una Therese"@en . "2010-05-31T02:42:29Z"@en . "1984"@en . "Master of Arts - MA"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "The world posited by George F. Walker in his plays is unrelentingly chaotic; it houses both good and evil, both justice and injustice. The equivocal and arbitrary nature of this universe, however, grants priority to no value system. Morality and truth are no longer absolutes in Walker's world; like everything else they are relative and fluid.\r\nWalker's plays, like many twentieth century works consider the implications of living in a godless, silent universe. The incomprehensible and irrational world which envelopes his characters bears much resemblance to the absurd world of Albert Camus' The Myth of Sisyphus. Walker's response to this world, however, is different from that of Camus. Whereas Camus sees liberation in the acceptance of man's absurd condition Walker does not. Liberation, for Walker, rather, lies in the ability to transcend this absurdity through laughter. Walker's characters are for the most part defeated, yet his vision is not totally bleak. As a black humourist Walker is able to evoke both \"the comic and the terrifying.\" Man's isolation and alienation within the larger expanse thus is simultaneously experienced as both horrifying and humourous. Black humour as a term is difficult to define. While many disagree on its nuances, most would agree that it contains within it a juxtaposition of incompatibles. Walker' plays display and exploit a very black humour - though his technique may differ slightly in each. It is the purpose of this study to examine the relationship of these techniques to the mood of black humour and to the larger philosophical vision which it supports.\r\nTo be examined here are the traditions of the Theatre of the Absurd, the Grotesque and Parody. Chapter One will deal with two early plays, Ambush at Tether's End and Bagdad Saloon and their position within the canon of \"absurdist\" plays. Chapter Two will examine Beyond Mozambique as a piece of grotesque literature and Chapter Three will analyze Theatre of the Film Noir as an example of black humour parody These discussions will consider why black humour is essential to the play's structures and to what extent it shapes their vision."@en . "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/25246?expand=metadata"@en . "THE ROLE OF BLACK HUMOUR IN THE PLAYS OF GEORGE F. WALKER by UNA THERESE ^WALSH B.A. U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1 9 8 2 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department o f T h e a t r e ) We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o j b h e / i r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A u g u s t , 1 9 8 4 (5 ) Una T h e r e s e Walsh, 1 9 8 4 I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I a g r e e t h a t t h e L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e a n d s t u d y . I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d b y t h e h e a d o f my d e p a r t m e n t o r b y h i s o r h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . D e p a r t m e n t o f / j The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a 1956 Main M a l l V a n c o u v e r , C a n a d a V6T 1Y3 DE -6 (3/81) ABSTRACT The w o r l d p o s i t e d by George F. Walker i n h i s p l a y s i s u n r e l e n t i n g l y c h a o t i c ; i t houses b o t h good and e v i l , b o t h j u s t i c e and i n j u s t i c e . The e q u i v o c a l and a r b i t r a r y n a t u r e o f t h i s u n i v e r s e , however, g r a n t s p r i o r i t y t o no v a l u e system. M o r a l i t y and t r u t h a r e no l o n g e r a b s o l u t e s i n Walker's w o r l d ; l i k e e v e r y t h i n g e l s e t h e y a r e r e l a t i v e and f l u i d . Walker's p l a y s , l i k e many t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y works con-s i d e r the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f l i v i n g i n a g o d l e s s , s i l e n t u n i -v e r s e . The i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e and i r r a t i o n a l w o r l d which e n v e l o p e s h i s c h a r a c t e r s bears much resemblance t o the abs u r d w o r l d o f A l b e r t Camus' The Myth o f S i s y p h u s . Walker's response t o t h i s w o r l d , however, i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f Camus. Whereas Camus sees l i b e r a t i o n i n the ac c e p t a n c e o f man's absu r d c o n d i t i o n Walker does n o t . L i b e r a t i o n , f o r Walker, r a t h e r , l i e s i n the a b i l i t y t o t r a n s c e n d t h i s ab-s u r d i t y t h r o u g h l a u g h t e r . Walker's c h a r a c t e r s a r e f o r the most p a r t d e f e a t e d , y e t h i s v i s i o n i s n o t t o t a l l y b l e a k . As a b l a c k h u m o u r i s t Walker i s a b l e t o evoke b o t h \"the comic and the t e r r i f y i n g . \" Man's i s o l a t i o n and a l i e n a t i o n w i t h i n the l a r g e r expanse thus i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x p e r i e n c e d as bot h h o r r i f y i n g and humourous. B l a c k humour as a term i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e f i n e . W h i l e many d i s a g r e e on i t s nuances, most would agree t h a t i t c o n t a i n s w i t h i n i t a j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f i n c o m p a t i b l e s . Walker' p l a y s d i s p l a y and e x p l o i t a v e r y b l a c k humour - though h i s t e c h n i q u e may d i f f e r s l i g h t l y i n each. I t i s t h e purpose o f t h i s s tudy t o examine the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s t o the mood of b l a c k humour and t o the l a r g e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l v i s i o n w hich i t s u p p o r t s . To be examined here a r e the t r a d i t i o n s o f the T h e a t r e o f the A b s u r d , t h e Grotesque and Parody. Chapter One w i l l d e a l w i t h two e a r l y p l a y s , Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End and Bagdad Saloon and t h e i r p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e canon o f \" a b s u r d i s t \" p l a y s . Chapter Two w i l l examine Beyond Mozambique as a p i e c e o f g r o t e s q u e l i t e r a t u r e and Chapter Three w i l l a n a l y z e T h e a t r e of the F i l m N o i r as an example of b l a c k humour parody These d i s c u s s i o n s w i l l c o n s i d e r why b l a c k humour i s e s s e n t i a l t o the p l a y ' s s t r u c t u r e s and t o what e x t e n t i t shapes t h e i r v i s i o n . TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT i i INTRODUCTION . 1 Notes 15 CHAPTER I Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End and Bagdad Sa loon 18 Notes 4 6 CHAPTER II Beyond Mozambique 48 Notes 68 CHAPTER III Theat re o f the F i l m N o i r 70 Notes. 88 CONCLUSION 90 BIBLIOGRAPHY 96 i v 1 INTRODUCTION The p l a y s o f George F. Walker, a l t h o u g h v a r i e d i n form and s t y l e , s h a r e the same p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r e m i s e . Each o f h i s p l a y s p o s i t s a w o r l d t h a t i s p r i m a r i l y c h a o t i c and u n i n t e l l i g i b l e . D evoid o f a b s o l u t e s and c e r t a i n t i e s , t h i s u n i v e r s e d e f i e s a l l s t r u c t u r e s which man t r i e s t o impose on i t . The i n d i v i d u a l i n Walker's p l a y s i s i n v a r i a b l y p i t t e d against the overwhelming power o f a c a p r i c i o u s cosmos. \" I am the absence o f God,\" Rocco o f Beyond Mozambique s t a t e s the God which i s l a c k i n g i n Walker's u n i v e r s e i s one o f o r d e r , p r e d i c t a b i l i t y and s a l v a t i o n . S i l e n t and c r u e l b e f o r e a l l c r i e s f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n , t he \" v a s t i r r a t i o n a l \" v/hich s u r r o u n d s Walker's c h a r a c t e r s i s s i m i l a r t o the one evoked by Camus i n The Myth o f S i s y p h u s . Walker's t h e a t r i c a l i z a t i o n o f t h i s Camusian sense o f a b s u r d i t y t a k e s many shapes. L i k e the p l a y w r i g h t s whom M a r t i n E s s l i n c l a s s e d as \" a b s u r d i s t , \" Walker s t r i v e s t o e x p r e s s \"the s e n s e l e s s n e s s o f t h e human c o n d i t i o n and t h e inadequacy o f t h e r a t i o n a l : \" ' ' \" P h i l i p Thomson i n h i s book The Grotesque o b s e r v e s t h a t \"the f o r m a l means o f p r e s e n t i n g i t (the absurd) are many and v a r i e d : \" t h e The a t r e o f the Absurd b e i n g but one mani-2 t e s t a t i o n o f the p e r c e i v e d phenomenon. Thomson f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t \" c o n s i s t e n t p e r c e p t i o n o f the g r o t e s q u e , o r t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f g r o t e s q u e n e s s on a grand s c a l e can l e a d t o the 2 n o t i o n o f u n i v e r s a l a b s u r d i t y ' \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 \" Walker's p l a y Beyond Mozambique i s perhaps t h e b e s t example o f \"grotesqueness on a grand s c a l e \" . E v o k i n g b o t h \"the comic and the t e r r i f y i n g \" i t p r e s e n t s a w o r l d c o m p l e t e l y o u t o f j o i n t . T h i s \" r e j e c t i o n o f r a t i o n a l d e v i c e s \" which t y p i f i e s b o t h the absurd and the g r o t e s q u e most n a t u r a l l y i n c l u d e s a r e v i s i o n o f form. T r a d i t i o n a l forms such as the well-made p l a y , t r a g e d y , comedy and melodrama which a t t e m p t t o o r g a n i z e t h e chaos, a r e r e j e c t e d by p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f the s e s t y l e s . I n t h e i r p l a c e i s found a s t r u c t u r e w h i c h a t t e m p t s i n s t e a d t o m i r r o r and r e f l e c t t h i s chaos. Parody i s o f t e n t h e c o n s t r u c t chosen t o e f f e c t t h i s . By u n d e r m i n i n g the v a l u e system i m p l i c i t i n the a r t form w h i c h he i s i m i t a t i n g the w r i t e r w i l l i n e v i t a b l y d i s c r e d i t the form as w e l l . E x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h genre i s t y p i c a l o f many o f Walker's p l a y s . Walker, h i m s e l f , admits t h i s ; \" I l i k e w r i t i n g i n genre because i t i m p l i e s a d i s c i p l i n e t h a t you e i t h e r have t o break o u t o f o r work w i t h o r use i n some o t h e r way'.\"\".^ Absurd c h a r a c t e r s , g r o t e s q u e happenings and p a r o d i c s t y l e a r e a l l h a l l m a r k s o f Walker's work. Each i s used i n such a way as t o s u p p o r t the o v e r a l l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an i r r a t i o n a l u n i v e r s e w h i c h s t r i p s man o f h i s autonomy. Though Walker's v i s i o n i s b l e a k , h i s t e c h n i q u e i s u n r e m i t t i n g l y comic. T h i s m i x t u r e o f \"the s e r i o u s and t h e comic\" p l a c e s Walker f i r m l y i n the t r a d i t i o n o f b l a c k humour. As a b l a c k h u m o u r i s t , Walker e x p l o i t s the l i t e r a t u r e s o f the a b s u r d , the g r o t e s q u e and parody t o t h e a t r i c a l i z e and e n e r g i z e h i s p a r t i c u l a r 3 p e r c e p t i o n o f the human c o n d i t i o n . D u r i n g the l a t e s i x t i e s and e a r l y s e v e n t i e s many c r i t i c s were a t t e m p t i n g t o d e f i n e and s p e c i f y the b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e l a t e s t o f l i t e r a r y terms: b l a c k humour. I t s l i t e r a r y o r i g i n s , t h e s t y l e o f i t s p r a c t i t i o n e r s , and the p h i l o s o p h i c a l v i s i o n a t i t s c o r e were a v i d l y d e b a t e d . P r e d i c t a b l y , w i t h each new i n t e r p r e t e r the d e m a r c a t i o n s expanded o r c o n t r a c t e d t o s u i t the argument. Some, l i k e Max S c h u l z f e l t t h a t the movement was s o c i o l o g i c a l and c o u l d c o n s e q u e n t l y be r e g a r d e d as a 5 \" p r e d o m i n a n t l y American phenomenon o f t h e s i x t i e s . \" O t h e r s , l i k e R o b e r t S c h o l e s w h i l e a c k n o w l e d g i n g the movement as modern f e l t t h a t i t was n o n e t h e l e s s \"a development i n a c o n t i n u i n g t r a d i t i o n . \" K o j i Numasawa c l a s s e d b l a c k humour as a f u l l - f l e d g e d \" l i t e r a r y genre\" w h i l e Mathew Winston p r e -7 f e r r e d t o d e f i n e i t as m e r e l y \"a t o n e . \" The s o c i o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f b l a c k humour were a l s o d i s p u t e d . B u r t o n Feldman c l a i m e d t h a t \" i t w ishes t o r e f o r m \" and f e l t i t s enemy t o be \"American c u l t u r e i n a l l i t s p e r m i s s i v e r e s t r i c t i o n s and 8 g l o s s y e m p t i n e s s . \" Hamlin H i l l w h i l e a g r e e i n g t h a t the b l a c k h u m o u r i s t wanted t o \" a s s a u l t \" \"shock\" and \" o u t r a g e \" h i s a u d i e n c e m a i n t a i n e d n o n e t h e l e s s t h a t the works m a n i f e s t e d an 9 \"obvious i n d i f f e r e n c e t o r e f o r m . \" Bruce J a n o f f extended t h e c r i t i c i s m o f b l a c k humour \"beyond s o c i a l s a t i r e \" t o i n -c l u d e the chaos o f a \" v a s t , i n d i f f e r e n t u n i v e r s e . T h e most c a n d i d and amusing assessment o f b l a c k humour, however, 4 r e s t s w i t h Bruce Friedman whose a n t h o l o g y , B l a c k Humor.:, h e l p e d t o p o p u l a r i z e t h e term i n A m e r i c a : \" I t i s c a l l e d b l a c k humor and I t h i n k I would have more l u c k d e f i n i n g an elbow o r corned-beef sandwich. 1 1 1 1 B l a c k humour r e s i s t s r i g i d d e f i n i t i o n s and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p a r t l y because o f the d i v e r s i t y amongst the a r t i s t s who a r e p r o c l a i m e d as i t s champions. Stand-up c o m i c s , c a r t o o n i s t s , p l a y w r i g h t s and n o v e l i s t s o f t e n use the t e c h n i q u e s and trademarks o f b l a c k humour. Lenny B r u c e , Howard Shoemaker, Edward A l b e e , and Joseph H e l l e r have a l l been h e r a l d e d as p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f the a r t . A l t h o u g h employing d i f f e r e n t media, th e y s hare a s i m i l a r v i s i o n and s t y l e . Each sees t h e w o r l d and man's p l a c e w i t h i n i t as u n r e l e n t i n g l y h o s t i l e and u n p r e d i c t -a b l e . Man i s p e r c e i v e d as an \" i n s e n s i b l e o b j e c t o f manipu-12 l a t i o n \" who i s f o r e v e r \" r o o t e d i n a r o o t l e s s w o r l d . \" Y e t the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h i s g r i m p r e d i c a m e n t i s always comic; t h e mood thus \"combines h o r r o r and f u n , t h e u n s e t t l i n g and the 13 amusing.\" The uniqueness and e l u s i v e n e s s o f b l a c k humour perhaps l i e s i n t h i s s i m u l t a n e o u s m a n i p u l a t i o n o f d i s p a r a t e and o p p o s i n g moods. As the t h r u s t o f b l a c k humour i s i n -h e r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y , i t i s t h e r e f o r e n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a r i s e a l s o i n i t s d e f i n i t i o n . B l a c k humour as a term was f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d i n 1939 by the-'French s u r r e a l i s t Andre B r e t o n i n h i s A n t h o l o g i e 1 de 14 1'humour n o i r . The works chosen by B r e t o n as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e 5 examples o f \"humour n o i r \" a r e v a r i e d i n form and genre. I n c l u d e d i n the a n t h o l o g y a r e l e t t e r s o f Jacques Vache, poems o f A r t h u r Rimbaud, e x c e r p t s from Lewis C a r r o l l ' s A l i c e i n Wonderland and a passage from Poe's \"The A n g e l o f t h e Oddi\" T r a n s l a t i o n s o f S w i f t , K a f k a , N i e t z s c h e and Synge appear a l o n g s i d e t h e works o f de Sade, J a r r y , A p o l l i n a i r e and P i c a s s o . T h i s s m a l l s a m p l i n g o f the f o r t y - f i v e a u t h o r s r e p r e s e n t e d i n B r e t o n ' s a n t h o l o g y make i t q u i t e c l e a r t h a t \"humour n o i r \" 15 was not i n t e n d e d \" t o d e s i g n a t e a genre.\" J.H. Matthews i n h i s a r t i c l e \" I n t e l l i g e n c e a t t h e S e r v i c e o f S u r r e a l i s m \" e l u c i d a t e s B r e t o n ' s n o t i o n o f \"une i n t e l l i g e n c e * 16 s u p e r i e u r e \" and i t s r e l a t i o n t o \"humour n o i r . \" B r e t o n ' s h i g h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e i s one w h i c h abandons the w o r l d o f r a t i o n a l t h ought and t h e l i m i t s o f r e a s o n i n f a v o u r o f the u n e x p l o r e d p o t e n t i a l i t y o f t h e s u b c o n s c i o u s . T h i s i n t e l l i g e n c e t h e n f u n c t i o n s i n b l a c k humour as a guide \"through two s t a g e s o f e x p e r i e n c e , f i r s t by c a s t i n g doubt upon the i m m u t a b i l i t y o f the r e a l , then by a f f i r m i n g , o r a t l e a s t t e s t i f y i n g t o , the e x i s t e n c e o f something beyond th e c o n t r o l o f c o n t i n g e n t 17 r e a l i t y . \" Winston d e s c r i b e s t h i s use o f i n t e l l i g e n c e as an a t t a c k on \" s e n t i m e n t a l i t y , s o c i a l c o n v e n t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g 18 l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n ) , , and an a p p a r e n t l y a b s u r d u n i v e r s e . \" I t was n o t u n t i l t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s a f t e r B r e t o n ' s c o i n a g e t h a t an American c r i t i c f i r s t used the term t o c l a s s i f y the new breed o f post-war American n o v e l t h a t was emerging: 6 Joseph H e l l e r , T e r r y S o u t h e r n , J.P. Donleavy and Thomas Pynchon b e i n g the b e s t examples. Conrad K n i c k e r b o c k e r w r i t i n g f o r the New York Times Book Review, d e s c r i b e d t h e movement i n t h e f o l l o w i n g terms: B i t t e r , p e r v e r s e and s i c k - as t h e r i g h t e o u s d e f e n d e r s o f a s i c k s o c i e t y a v e r - the new humor i s b l a c k i n i t s p e s s i m i s m , i t s r e f u s a l of compromise and i t s m o r t a l s t i n g . I t s a d h e r e n t s a r e few as y e t but i n -c r e a s i n g . Bored beyond t e a r s by s o l e m n i t y and pap, an i n c r e a s i n g a u d i e n c e f i n d s i n b l a c k humor no t o n i c , b u t the g a l l o f t r u t h . There--.are no more happy e n d i n g s . A c h e e r y wave and a f a s t s h u f f l e no l o n g e r l e a v e them l a u g h i n g . New f o r u s , b l a c k humor has been a p a r t o f t h e response o f w i s e r p e o p l e s i n o t h e r t i m e s . I t s appearance i n American ^\u00C2\u00BB f i c t i o n may s i g n a l the end o f c e r t a i n i n n o c e n c e s . One y e a r l a t e r i n 1965, Friedman's B l a c k Humor.,- appeared. W i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f L o u i s - F e r d i n a n d C e l i n e , a l l the a u t h o r s r e p r e s e n t e d were post-war American n o v e l i s t s o r as i n the case o f Edward A l b e e , d r a m a t i s t s . A l t h o u g h , Friedman r e a d i l y admits t h a t the w r i t e r s chosen p o s s e s s \" c o m p l e t e l y p r i v a t e and unique v i s i o n s , \" he s t i l l f i n d s a r e c u r r e n t theme i n each o f t h e i r works: There i s a f a d i n g l i n e between f a n t a s y and r e a l i t y , a v e r y f a d i n g l i n e , a God-damned a l m o s t i n v i n c i b l e l i n e and you w i l l f i n d t h a t n o t i o n r i d i n g t h r o u g h much o f the work under d i s c u s s i o n . ^ T h i s l o s s o f \" c e r t a i n i n n o c e n c e s \" t y p i f i e d by the. upsurge o f American b l a c k humour has been a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e many f o r c e s w h i c h have c o n t r i b u t e d t o the decay o f the American dream. Post-war America w i t h i t s i n c r e a s i n g c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n and d e c r e a s i n g s p i r i t u a l i t y , i t s m i l i t a r y 7 and p o l i t i c a l f a i l u r e s , i t s u r b a n i z a t i o n and i t s a l i e n a t i n g m e c h a n i z a t i o n c o u l d no l o n g e r house the happy o p t i m i s m o f \"a c h e e r y wave and a f a s t s h u f f l e . \" Alarmed by t h e r a p i d i t y w i t h w h i c h t h e i r s o c i e t y was d i s i n t e g r a t i n g , the American b l a c k humour n o v e l i s t s s e a r c h e d f o r a new form t o m i r r o r t h i s d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . A b l u r r i n g o f t h e b o u n d a r i e s between f a n t a s y and r e a l i t y and the comic and t h e t e r r i f y i n g became, t h u s , the stamp o f t h e i r work. Mathew W i n s t o n , however, argues - and r i g h t l y s o , I b e l i e v e - t h a t \" i t seems u n n e c e s s a r i l y p r o v i n c i a l t o a p p l y 21 t h e c o n c e p t o f b l a c k humor o n l y t o American f i c t i o n . \" R o b e r t S c h o l e s t r a c e s b l a c k humour's l i n e a g e t o \"the i n t e l l e c t u a l comedy o f A r i s t o p h a n e s , t h e f l o u r i s h i n g s a t i r e o f I m p e r i a l Rome, the h u m a n i s t i c a l l e g o r i e s and anatomies o f t h e l a t e r M i d d l e Ages, th e p i c a r e s q u e n a r r a t i v e s o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , the m e t a p h y s i c a l poems and s a t i r e s o f the sev-enteenth\"; c e n t u r y and the g r e a t s a t i r i c f i c t i o n s o f the Age o f 22 Reason.\" More r e c e n t , however, and perhaps more p e r t i n e n t i s the i n f l u e n c e o f t h e T h e a t r e o f the A b s u r d . M a r t i n E s s l i n c i t e s t h e a b s u r d i s t s c h o o l o f drama as \"the l a t e s t - - e x a m p l e \" 2 3 o f the \"humour n o i r \" o f w o r l d l i t e r a t u r e . \" The p h i l o s o p h i c a l premise'.of E s s l i n ' s T h e a t r e o f the Absurd and b l a c k humour as d e s c r i b e d by W i n s t o n , and t o a l e s s e r degree S c h u l z and J a n o f f , i s a s h a r e d one. Both p e r c e i v e the u n i v e r s e as b e i n g random and a r b i t r a r y , t o t a l l y w i t h o u t p l a n o r s i g n i f i -8 cance; i t i s an u n r e l e n t i n g l y e q u i v o c a l cosmos which a l l o w s f o r no a b s o l u t e s and no t r u t h s . The r e s u l t a n t chaos i s the f o r c e w h i c h makes man's s i t u a t i o n so u n p r e d i c t a b l e and so f u t i l e . A l l b e l i e f systems, a l l m o r a l p o s t u r e s and a l l h i e r a r c h a l s t r u c t u r e s - be t h e y s o c i e t a l , p o l i t i c a l o r f a m i l i a l - a r e mer e l y r e f l e c t i o n s o f man's need t o impose o r d e r s ; they f i n d no r e v e r b e r a t i o n s i n t h e l a r g e r cosmos. R e c o g n i z i n g the a r t i f i c i a l i t y o f a l l s t r u c t u r e s , the a b s u r d i s t p l a y w r i g h t and the b l a c k h u m o u r i s t f i n d s h i m s e l f i n t h e p a r o d o x i c a l p o s i t i o n o f h a v i n g t o c r e a t e a form c a p a b l e o f e v o k i n g a f o r m l e s s w o r l d . T h i s dilemma i s f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e i r awareness o f the i r r a t i o n a l i t y w hich i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e human c o n d i t i o n . E s s l i n c l a i m s t h a t t h e t h e a t r e o f S a r t r e and Camus - a l t h o u g h i t p o s i t s a s i m i l a r u n i v e r s e as a b s u r d i s t d r a m a t i s t s such as B e c k e t t and Ionesco -does:.not f i t under the r u b r i c o f T h e a t r e o f the Absurd because i t s t i l l c l i n g s t o the c o n v e n t i o n s o f d i s c u s s i o n drama. T h e a t r e o f the A b s u r d , E s s l i n s u g g e s t s \"has renounced a r g u i n g about t h e a b s u r d i t y o f the human c o n d i t i o n ; i t m e r e l y p r e s e n t s 24 i t i n b e i n g - t h a t i s , i n terms o f s t a g e images.\" Mathew Winston a g r e e s , \" b l a c k humor does n o t t r y t o r a t i o n a l l y e x p l a i n t o us t h a t the w o r l d i s c h a o t i c and unknowable... 25 r a t h e r i t e n a b l e s us t o e x p e r i e n c e something v i c a r i o u s l y . \" W i t h r e g a r d s t o the form o f a b s u r d i s t drama, E s s l i n d e s c r i b e s the momentum o f the p l a y as d e r i v i n g from the g r a d u a l a c c u m u l a t i o n o f the \"complex p a t t e r n s o f t h e p o e t i c image 9 t h a t t h e p l a y e x p r e s s e s . \" The d r a m a t i c s t r u c t u r e o f t h e a b s u r d i s t p l a y s o f t e n e x i s t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f p l o t ; i t f u n c t i o n s as r e f l e c t i o n s o f the l a r g e r amorphous u n i v e r s e and n o t as props f o r c h a r a c t e r development o r r e v e l a t i o n . Because o f t h i s \"many o f the p l a y s o f t h e T h e a t r e o f t h e A b surd have a c i r c u l a r s t r u c t u r e , e n d i n g e x a c t l y as they began; o t h e r s p r o g r e s s merely by a growing i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f the i n i t i a l 27 s i t u a t i o n . \" Winston d e s c r i b e s a s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r i n g i n b l a c k humour; 2 8 \"the work does end, but i t i s u n l i k e l y t o have a c o n c l u s i o n . \" A k i n t o t h e \" p o e t i c image\" o f which E s s l i n s p e a k s , a r e t h e p a t t e r n s and m o t i f s n o t e d by Winston w h i c h p r e v e n t s t h e s e p l o t s from r e t r e a t i n g i n t o t o t a l chaos. The s t r u c t u r a l r e -j e c t i o n i n b l a c k humour o f c l e a r c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s p r e d i c a t e d by the p h i l o s o p h i c a l v i s i o n o f t h e mode: But b l a c k humor c l a i m s t h a t l i v i n g does n o t d i v i d e i n t o n e a t , s e p a r a b l e segments, t h a t the p a t t e r n s one may p e r c e i v e a r e a r b i t r a r y , t h a t our s e l e c t i o n o f what i s i m p o r t a n t and what i s not has no i n h e r e n t v a l i d i t y , t h a t the f o l l o w i n g o f c l u e s and g a t h e r i n g o f e v i d e n c e o f any k i n d i s no more t h a n p l a y i n g a m e a n i n g l e s s game, t h a t the c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n s have no answers, and t h a t mystery i s not a p a r t i c u l a r o b s c u r i t y i n an o t h e r w i s e known and o r d e r e d w o r l d TO b u t i s the v e r y n a t u r e o f e x i s t e n c e . 3 Winston a l s o c i t e s language as a t o o l w h i c h the b l a c k h u m o u r i s t s use f o r r e f l e c t i n g the chaos. I f the w o r l d p o s i t e d i n b l a c k humour i s one o f anarchy and d i s o r d e r , then language can be m a n i p u l a t e d and d i s t o r t e d t o r e f l e c t t h i s . Winston 10 c l a i m s t h a t v e r b a l p l a y \" i s one o f the elements t h a t shows 30 b l a c k humor's a f f i n i t y w i t h comedy.\" But i t i s a l s o y e t a n o t h e r l i n k w i t h the T h e a t r e o f t h e Absurd. Ionesco and P i n t e r a r e examples o f p l a y w r i g h t s who m a n i p u l a t e language t o r e f l e c t t h e i r v e r s i o n o f man's dilemma. The drama o f I o n e s c o , a t i t s most p o t e n t , i s a t h e a t r i c a l l y e l o q u e n t s t a t e m e n t o f man's i s o l a t i o n w i t h i n the v o i d o f h i s e x i s t e n c e , The C h a i r s b e i n g perhaps the most p o i g n a n t r e p r e -s e n t a t i o n o f t h i s . Language i n Ionesco's hands becomes b o t h the symbol and the cause o f man's i n a b i l t y t o communicate. Words become c l i c h e s - empty c o n s t r u c t s , h o p e l e s s l y i n a d e q u a t e i n t h e i r a t t e mpt t o r e n d e r meaning. P i n t e r uses language s i m i l a r l y . E s s l i n l i n k s P i n t e r ' s use o f language w i t h t h e 31 \" d e s i r e f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n . \" Communication i n P i n t e r ' s p l a y s i s c o n s t a n t l y f o i l e d ; v e r i f i c a t i o n i s u l t i m a t e l y d e n i e d . \" M i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s \" , \" m i s h e a r i n g s \" and \" f a l s e a n t i c i p a t i o n s \" a r e a c c o r d i n g t o E s s l i n , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f P i n t e r ' s d i a l o g u e : \" I n s t e a d o f p r o c e e d i n g l o g i c a l l y , P i n t e r ' s d i a l o g u e f o l l o w s a l i n e o f a s s o c i a t i v e t h i n k i n g i n wh i c h sound r e g u l a r l y p r e v a i l s 32 o v e r sense.\" The m o t i v e l e s s c h a r a c t e r s , the i n c o n c l u s i v e p l o t s , and th e i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f language are trademarks o f b o t h absurd drama and b l a c k humour. L i n k i n g the two f u r t h e r i s t h e i r use o f humour. Both forms r e l y on f a r c e and s l a p s t i c k t o c r e a t e and m a i n t a i n the comedy; n o n s e n s i c a l language and f l a t c h a r a c t e r s 11 c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s f a r c i a l mood. Winston, r e c o g n i z i n g the c l o s e l i n k s between absurd drama and much of black humour c l a s s e s as \"absurd black humor\" those forms of b l a c k humour which p l a c e d the \"emphasis on the humor.\" For the modes which s t r e s s e d the blackness he attached the t a g \"grotesque.\" Winston d e s c r i b e s black humour as \"a tone i n drama and f i c t i o n which i s si m u l t a n e o u s l y f r i g h t e n i n g or t h r e a t e n i n g 34 and f a r c i c a l o r amusing.\" P h i l i p Thompson, d e s c r i b i n g b l a c k humour as \"a t r a d i t i o n which continues t o produce some of the best examples o f the grotesquei\". uses the same dichotomous terms to d e f i n e the grotesque: the grotesque i s \" e s s e n t i a l l y a mixture i n some way or other of both the comic and the t e r r i f y i n g (or the d i s g u s t i n g , r e p u l s i v e , e t c . ) i n a 35 p r o b l e m a t i c ( i . e . not r e a d i l y r e s o l v a b l e ) way.\" The \"un-r e s o l v e d nature of the grotesque c o n f l i c t \" i s of paramount importance t o Thompson's d e f i n i t i o n s , f o r i t \"helps t o mark o f f the grotesque from o t h e r mode's or c a t e g o r i e s of l i t e r a r y 3 6 d i s c o u r s e . \" Lee Byron Jennings, quoted by Winston, c i t e s the f u n c t i o n o f t h i s c o n f l i c t as the simultaneous a r o u s a l 37 of \" f e a r and amusements i n the o b s e r v e r . \" Winston p l a c e s grotesque and absurd black humour on a continuum and acknowledges t h a t r i g i d l i n e s of demarcation between the two are i m p o s s i b l e t o graph. Grotesque b l a c k humour, a c c o r d i n g to Winston, maintains the \"same b a s i c treatment of c h a r a c t e r m o t i v a t i o n and p l o t as the absurd, 12 i s s i m i l a r l y c o n c erned w i t h t h e breakdown o f normal communication and p l a y s w i t h i t s own form, and i m p l i c a t e s t h e 38 r e a d e r i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n . \" I t i s a macabre o b s e s s i o n w i t h the body, however, which d i s t i n g u i s h e s g r o t e s q u e b l a c k humour from a b s u r d b l a c k humour. The human body i s e x a g g e r a t e d , deformed and m u t i l a t e d t h r o u g h o u t much o f g r o t e s q u e b l a c k humour. Of t h i s o b s e s s i o n w i t h t h e body, Winston s t a t e s , \"The t h r e a t t o the body i s p a r t o f t h e o m n i p r e s e n t t h r e a t o f d e a t h i n g r o t e s q u e b l a c k humor. Death do m i n a t e s , but 39 i t o c c u r s i n a r i d i c u l o u s manner and i s never d i g n i f i e d . \" I n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n the t e n s i o n between t h e \"comic and t h e t e r r i f y i n g \" so e s s e n t i a l t o b o t h g r o t e s q u e and a b s u r d b l a c k humour the a u t h o r must c o n t i n u a l l y s h i f t t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f the r e a d e r . The s p e c t a t o r must never be a l l o w e d t o empathize t o o s t r o n g l y o r f o r t o o l o n g w i t h any o f t h e c h a r -a c t e r s . One way w h i c h t h e b l a c k h u m o u r i s t a c c o m p l i s h e s t h i s i s t o r e m i n d the v i e w e r o f t h e a r t i f i c e o f the work. T h i s i s done t h r o u g h v e r b a l p l a y , t h r o u g h s t y l i z a t i o n and i n the c a se o f drama t h r o u g h d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o the a u d i e n c e . A n o t h e r t e c h n i q u e f o r t h i s i s t h e use o f parody. A h i g h l y s e l f -c o n s c i o u s form, parody never p e r m i t s the r e a d e r t o s t e p com-p l e t e l y i n t o the work. M a i n t a i n i n g a frame o f r e f e r e n c e t h a t i s e x t r a - t e x t u a l , parody \"makes us i n t o a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s 4 0 n t h e work i n s t e a d o f p a s s i v s p e c t a r s o f i t . \" 13 Parody, l i k e t he t e c h n i q u e s o f the absurd and the g r o t e s q u e , may be used t o s u p p o r t the p h i l o s o p h i c a l p remise o f b l a c k humour. The form p a r o d i e d , and the v i s i o n i n h e r e n t i n t h a t form, become now \"the t a r g e t o f the a u t h o r ' s s a l l i e s o f 41 w i t . \" T h i s t e c h n i q u e i s t h e b l a c k h u m o u r i s t s answer t o B e c k e t t ' s c r y f o r a \"new form . . . o f such a type t h a t i t admits the chaos and does n o t t r y t o say t h a t t h e chaos i s r e a l l y 42 something e l s e . \" By s u p e r i m p o s i n g a form w h i c h presupposes a s e t o f v a l u e s a g a i n s t a t h e m a t i c v i s i o n w h i c h negates t h o s e same v a l u e s , the b l a c k h u m o u r i s t succeeds i n u n d e r m i n i n g the c r e d i b i l i t y o f the form i t s e l f . As Max S c h u l z so r i g h t l y p o i n t s o u t , f o r \"the b l a c k h u m o r i s t even t h i s l i m i t e d a s s e n t t o the t r a d i t i o n a l arrangement o f human e x p e r i e n c e has become 43 i m p o s s i b l e . \" L i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t s now are as l a u g h a b l e and as f u t i l e as any o f man's o t h e r a t t e m p t s a t o r d e r i n g . B l a c k humour t h e n appears t o be as much a v i s i o n as a form, as much a theme as a s t y l e . I t c r e a t e s t h i s d u a l i t y o f \" b l a c k n e s s \" and \"humour\" by c o n t i n u a l l y s h i f t i n g the p e r s p e c t i v e and the d i s t a n c e from w h i c h t h e v i e w e r r e g a r d s the c h a r a c t e r s . I t s h a r e s w i t h the T h e a t r e o f the Absurd a d e s i r e f o r a form w h i c h r e f l e c t s and merges w i t h the chaos i t p r e s e n t s . I t m a n i p u l a t e s p l o t s , c h a r a c t e r s and language i n an e f f o r t t o c r e a t e t h i s form. L i k e t h e w o r l d o f t h e gr o t e s q u e i t p r e s e n t s t h e a t r i c a l and v i s u a l images of the h o r r i f i c ; i t c o n c e r n s i t -s e l f w i t h o ur m u t a b i l i t y and v u l n e r a b i l i t y and a t t e m p t s t o 14 m i n i m i z e death's dominion t h r o u g h r i d i c u l e . I t s m a n i p u l a t i o n o f parody a l l o w s i t t o mimic d r a m a t i c and l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e s , w h i l e a t the same time undermining them by u n d e r c u t t i n g the moral o r d e r i n g w h i c h a l l o w s them v a l i d i t y . W alker, h i m s e l f , i s aware o f the j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f the l u d i c r o u s and the h o r r i f y i n g i n h i s p l a y s : I'm t r y i n g i n a l l my work t o walk t h a t f i n e l i n e between the s e r i o u s and t h e comic. That's when I f e e l t h a t I'm t r y i n g t o do something. When I put the work o u t t h e r e on t h a t e d g e . ^ Walker's p l a y s a r e i n d e e d \"out t h e r e on t h a t edgei'V Murder, m u t i l a t i o n , r ape and i n c e s t f i g u r e f r e q u e n t l y i n h i s works, y e t t h e y a r e p e r p e t u a l l y m i n i m i z e d and m i t i g a t e d t h r o u g h a s t y l e w h i c h p r e v e n t s e m p a t h e t i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The g r i m r e a l i t y b e h i n d t h e s e gruesome a c t s i s o n l y f e l t when the d i s t a n c e between the v i e w e r and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s r e d u c e d . I t i s Walker's a d r o i t m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h a t d i s t a n c e w h i c h a l l o w s him \" t o walk t h a t f i n e l i n e \" and a l l o w s the s p e c t a t o r t o f e e l e i t h e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o r a l t e r n a t e l y the combined h o r r o r and humour o f h i s a b s u r d p r e d i c a m e n t . NOTES INTRODUCTION 1. M a r t i n E s s l i n , The T h e a t r e o f the Absurd ( M i d d l e s e x : Penguin Books, 1961), p. 24. 2. P h i l i p Thomson, The Grotesque (London: Methuen, 1972), p. 32. 3. Thomson, p. 32. 4. C h r i s H a l l g r e n , \"George Walker: the s e r i o u s and the comic,\" Scene Changes, 7, No. 2 (1979), p. 23. 5. Max S c h u l z , B l a c k Humor F i c t i o n i n the S i x t i e s (Ohio: Ohio U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1973), p. 15-6. R o b e r t S c h o l e s , The F a b u l a t o r s (New York: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1967), p. 38. 7. K o j i Numasawa, \" B l a c k Humor: An American A s p e c t , \" S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e , 44, No. 1 (1967), p. 177. Mathew W i n s t o n , \" B l a c k Humor: To Weep w i t h L a u g h t e r \" i n Comedy: New P e r s p e c t i v e s , ed. M a u r i c e Charney (New York: New York L i t e r a r y Forum, 1978), p. 32. 8. B u r t o n Feldman, \"Anatomy o f B l a c k Humor,\" D i s s e n t , 15, (1968), p. 159. 9. Hamlin H i l l , \" B l a c k Humor: i t s cause and c u r e , \" C o l o r a d o Q u a r t e r l y , 17, No. 1 (1968), p. 62. 10. Bruce J a n o f f , \" B l a c k Humor: Beyond S a t i r e , \" Ohio Review, 14, (1972), p. 11. 11. Bruce Friedman, \"Those Clowns o f C o n s c i e n c e , \" Book Week, 18 J u l y , 1965, p. 5. 12. R o b e r t Barshay, \" B l a c k Humor i n the Modern C a r t o o n , i n I t ' s a Funny T h i n g , Humour, ed. Antony J . Chapman and Hugh C. F o o t (Oxford: Pergamon P r e s s , 1977), p. 57. 13. W i n s t o n , p. 33-14. Andre B r e t o n , A n t h o l o g i e de 1'humour n o i r ( P a r i s : Jean-Jacques P a u v e r t , 1966). 15. Mathew W i n s t o n , \"Humour n o i r and B l a c k Humor,\" i n V e i n s o f Humor, ed. Harry L e v i n (Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972), p. 270. 16. J . H . Matthews, \" I n t e l l i g e n c e a t the S e r v i c e o f S u r r e a l i s m , \" Books Abroad, 41, No. 2 (1967), p. 268. 17. Matthews, p. 271. 18. Wins ton, \"Humour N o i r ; \" p. 27 0. 19. Conrad K n i c k e r b o c k e r , \"Humor With a M o r t a l S t i n g , \" New York Times Book Review, 27 S e p t . , 1964, p. 3. 20. F r iedman, p. 5. 21. Wins ton, \"Humour n o i r , \" p. 273. 22. S c h o l e s , p. 38. 23. E s s l i n , p. 404-24. E s s l i n , P. 25-25. Mathew Wins ton, \"The E t h i c s of Contemporary B lack Humor,\" Co lorado Q u a r t e r l y , 24, (1976), p. 285. 26. E s s l i n , p. 406. 27. E s s l i n , pp. 405-406. 28. Winston , \" B l a ck Humor, \" P- 41. 29. Winston , \"The E t h i c s , \" P- 285 . 30. Winston , \" B l ack Humor, \" p. 39 . 31. E s s l i n , p. 274. 32. E s s l i n , p. 274. 33. Winston , \"Humour n o i r , \" p. 277 . 34. Winston , \"Humour n o i r , \" P- 273 . 35. Thomson , p. 16, 21. 36. Thomson , p. 21 . 37. Quoted i n Wins ton, \"Humour n o i r , \" p. 38 . Winston , \"Humour n o i r , \" P- 282 . 17 39. Wins ton, \"Humour n o i r , \" p. 283-40. Winston, \"B l ack Humor,\" p. 42-41. S c h u l z , p. 66-42. Quoted i n Winston, \"B l ack Humor,\" p. 42. 43. S c h u l z , p. 67. 44. H a l l g r e n , p. 24. 18 CHAPTER ONE AMBUSH AT TETHER'S END AND BAGDAD SALOON A l b e r t Camus i n The Myth o f S i s y p h u s d e s c r i b e s the f e e l i n g o f a b s u r d i t y i n t h e f o l l o w i n g way: I s a i d t h a t the w o r l d was a b s u r d , b u t I was t o o h a s t y . T h i s w o r l d i n i t s e l f i s n o t r e a s o n a b l e , t h a t i s a l l t h a t can be s a i d . But what i s a b s u r d i s the c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f t h i s i r r a t i o n a l and the w i l d l o n g i n g f o r c l a r i t y whose c a l l echoes i n the human h e a r t . The a b s u r d depends as much on man as on the w o r l d . 1 The c o l l i s i o n between man's unquenchable need t o u n d e r s t a n d and the u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , i n d e c i p h e r a b l e w o r l d i n which he-f i n d s h i m s e l f c o n s t i t u t e s a b s u r d i t y f o r Camus. The \" v a s t i r r a t i o n a l \" w h i c h e n v e l o p e s man i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y amorphous and f l u i d ; i t c o n t a i n s no cosmic key t o h a p p i n e s s o r know-l e d g e . U n p r e d i c t a b l e and a r b i t r a r y i n d e s i g n i t can o f f e r t o man no p a t t e r n w i t h which t o s t r u c t u r e h i s l i f e . Thought i s n e c e s s a r i l y l i m i t e d i n such a w o r l d , and r e a s o n i s i n e f f e c t i v e when f a c e d w i t h an u n i n t e l l i g i b l e u n i v e r s e . Camus d e s c r i b e s the absurd as \" l u c i d r e a s o n n o t i n g i t s l i m i t s , \" and f u r t h e r d e l i n e a t e s t h e s e l i m i t s as \"those w a t e r -2 l e s s d e s e r t s where thought r e a c h e s i t s c o n f i n e s . \" The a b s u r d mind - l u c i d , aware and c o n s c i o u s - f i n d s i t s m e t a p h o r i c a l home i n a \" d e s e r t where a l l c e r t a i n t i e s have 3 become s t o n e s . \" The image o f the d e s e r t becomes the n i n 19 Camus' hands the s y m b o l i c b a t t l e f i e l d on wh i c h man's \" w i l d l o n g i n g f o r c l a r i t y \" and the \"unreasonable s i l e n c e \" o f h i s m e a n i n g l e s s u n i v e r s e c o n f r o n t each o t h e r . Both p l a y s under d i s c u s s i o n here - Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s 4 End and Bagdad S a l o o n - e x p l o r e l i f e i n t h i s d e s e r t . The p l o t o f Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End, however, i s o f a much s i m p l e r s t r u c t u r e t h a n t h a t o f Bagdad S a l o o n . A two-act p l a y , i t has o n l y f i v e c h a r a c t e r s . S h a r i n g the stage w i t h them i s the c o r p s e o f t h e i r f r i e n d o r son, Max. Max, a p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e c l u s e d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e , has hanged h i m s e l f i n a f i n a l a t t e m p t t o p e r f o r m the \" d e f i n i t i v e act.\"' F r u s t r a t e d by the complacency o f h i s f r i e n d s Bush and G a i t he has p l a n n e d h i s s u i c i d e as an e x p e r c i s e i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l e n l i g h t e n m e n t . A i d e d by Jobeo, a f e l l o w p h i l o s o p h e r , he p l o t t e d the s t r a t e g i e s which would e v e n t u a l l y expose the f a l s i t y and v a c u i t y o f t h e i r o f t h e i r l i f e s t y l e s . L e t t e r s d e c l a r i n g Bush and G a i t as f i n -a n c i a l and s e x u a l f r a u d s have been m a i l e d t o t h e i r f a m i l i e s , f r i e n d s and b u s i n e s s a s s o c i a t e s p r i o r t o Max's s u i c i d e . Max's i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t h e i r l i v e s , however, does n o t s t o p w i t h h i s d e a t h ; h a v i n g s t u f f e d h i s c l o t h e s w i t h n o t e s and diagrams he c o n t i n u e s t o send posthumous messages and t h e r e b y i n f l u e n c e e v e n t s . Bush, G a i t and Jobeo a r e a l s o j o i n e d on s t a g e -a l b e i t b r i e f l y - by Max's p a r e n t s , Mr. and Mrs. Crane. L i k e Jobeo, t h e y e n t e r and e x i t t h r o u g h a m y s t e r i o u s c l o s e t w h i c h appears t o l e a d nowhere. I t i s o n l y Bush and G a i t who remain 20 t rapped w i t h i n the warehouse. No l onger a b l e to r e l y on the f i c t i o n s o f t h e i r former l i v e s they must now c o n f r o n t the r e a l i t y o f t h e i r naked s e l v e s . Much about the p l a y i s r e d o l e n t o f B e c k e t t ' s Wa i t i n g f o r Godot and consequent l y prompted the f o l l o w i n g c r i t i c i s m from Edward M u l l a l y : Rather the q u e s t i o n unanswered i s why Walker has spent h i s t ime on a s c r i p t t h a t Becke t t had a l -ready w r i t t e n w i t h much g r e a t e r d i s c i p l i n e , i n t e l l i g e n c e and s k i l l . 5 As C h r i s Johnson p o i n t s o u t , however, Walker does avo id \" s l a v i s h i m i t a t i o n . \" ^ Godot remains throughout B e c k e t t ' s p l a y a mys tery . Max, however, i n expos ing Bush and G a i t , a l s o exposes h i m s e l f . H i s \" p e t t y r i v a l r y \" w i th Jobeo, h i s scheming revenge a g a i n s t Bush and G a i t and h i s p r e -t e n t i o u s p o s t u r i n g t r i v i a l i z e h i s s t ance . A l though the s t a c c a t o language, the v a u d e v i l l i a n a n t i c s , the hanging m o t i f , and Bush and G a i t ' s s t a tu s as \" l i t t l e men\", l i n k the p l a y w i t h Wa i t ing f o r Godot, another of B e c k e t t ' s p l a y s , Endgame, o f f e r s perhaps more p a r a l l e l s . The vaca ted \ warehouse o f Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End and the i n h o s p i t a b l e wor ld o u t s i d e i t a re s t r o n g l y e v o c a t i v e o f Endgame's d e s o l a t e was te l and . L i k e Hamm and C l o v , Bush and G a i t l i v e i n complementary i n te rdependence . Bush has poor e a r s ; G a i t has poor eye s . Bush ' s prowess and p a s s i o n a re spent on making money; G a i t ' s a re spent on making women. The w o r l d o u t s i d e t h e warehouse i s as h o s t i l e t o Bush and G a i t as i s the l i f e l e s s t e r r a i n o f Endgame t o Hamm and C l o v . Unable t o e x i s t beyond the c o n f i n e s of t h e i r s u f f o c a t i n g rooms they a r e f o r c e d i n t o an i n e s c a p a b l e c o - e x i s t e n c e . Bush and G a i t , l i k e t h e i r B e c k e t t i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s f i n d such a s i t u -a t i o n i n t o l e r a b l e . Having f a i l e d a t a s i m u l t a n e o u s s u i c i d e a t t e m p t , a l l t h a t i s l e f t them i s mutual contempt. The p l a y ' s f i n a l t a b l e a u x - Bush and G a i t i n s e p a r a t e c o r n e r s each w a r n i n g t h e o t h e r t o \"keep away\" - i s an e f f e c t i v e t h e a t r i c a l -i z a t i o n o f t h e i r p r e d i c a m e n t . T h i s i n t o l e r a b l e nexus o f mutual need and l o a t h i n g sug-g e s t s a l s o the S a r t r e a n h e l l o f Huis C l o s . The t h r e e c h a r -a c t e r s i n S a r t r e ' s p l a y - G a r c i n , Inez and E s t e l l e - a r e mere s h a d e s . l i v i n g out e t e r n i t y i n i n s u f f e r a b l e c o - h a b i t a t i o n . Rendered s t a t i c by t h e i r d e a t h s they no l o n g e r c o n t a i n the p o t e n t i a l f o r change. \" I ' v e l e f t my f a t e i n t h e i r h a n d s j \" 7 G a r c i n says o f h i s co-workers on e a r t h . F o r e v e r a coward i n the eyes of t h e l i v i n g he must now t u r n t o the dead f o r e x o n e r a t i o n and r e d e f i n i t i o n . Y e t i t i s u l t i m a t e l y t h e i r gaze w h i c h p r o v e s u n b e a r a b l e t o him: GARCIN: . . . I won't l e t m y s e l f g e t bogged i n your eyes. You're s o f t and s l i m y . Ugh! (bangs on the door a g a i n ) L i k e an o c t o p u s . L i k e a quagmire. (p. 16 0) I n e z , aware o f G a r c i n ' s v u l n e r a b i l i t y , t a u n t s him w i t h her p r e s e n c e : 22 INEZ : ...I'm w a t c h i n g you, everybody's w a t c h i n g , I'm a crowd a l l by m y s e l f . Do you hear the crowd? Do you hear them m u t t e r i n g , G a r c i n ? Mumbling and m u t t e r i n g ; ''Coward! Coward! Coward! Coward! 1 (p. 165) D e s p i t e the h o r r o r o f h i s p r e d i c a m e n t , however, G a r c i n chooses t o remain i n h i s h e l l , f o r w i t h o u t the c r i t i c a l gaze o f the o t h e r s he ce a s e s t o e x i s t . R e c o g n i z i n g t h e dichotomy i n h e r e n t i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p he t e l l s I n e z , \" I f y o u ' l l have f a i t h i n me I'm saved.\" (p. 162) These same m o t i f s a l s o appear i n Walker's p l a y . Bush and G a i t , a l o n e in\".the warehouse w i t h Max's c o r p s e a r e unable t o escape. L i k e G a r c i n who r e f u s e s t o e n t e r the passage and a l l o w s Inez the s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a d e f e a t , Bush and G a i t choose t o remain and a v o i d the c e n s u r e o f t h e i r p e e r s . \"There's no way o u t , \" Cp- 157) G a i t c r i e s t o Bush when he becomes aware o f t h e eyes s t a r i n g i n a t them. F o r Bush and G a i t , t h e s e g a z e s , t o o , prove u n b e a r a b l e . (p. 174) The a c c u s a t i o n s and j i b e s o f Huis C l o s appear a l s o i n 7Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End: GALT: Yeah. I don't l i k e t o be s t a r e d a t e i t h e r . And I hate b e i n g watched up c l o s e . E s p e c i a l l y by p e o p l e who know me. BUSH: You don't g e t a chance t o f i g h t back o r get o u t o f the way. I t ' s l i k e b e i n g a t t a c k e d i n a s m a l l room. GALT: They 'd c a l l us cowards. BUSH: They're c a l l i n g us cowards now. 23 . GALT: But i t ' d go on and on. They'd g e t t o g e t h e r j u s t t o t a l k about us. And I don't l i k e t h e thought o f t h a t v e r y much. Do you? (p. 174) As i n Huis C l o s the i n s u l t s from the o u t s i d e e v e n t u a l l y become absorbed by t h e e n t r a p p e d c h a r a c t e r s . \" I f you weren't such a bloody coward,\" (p. 182) G a i t screams a t Bush. L i k e w i s e , Max's e a r l i e r condemnation o f Bush and G a i t as a \"c o u p l e o f s t a g n a n t ponds\" i s echoed by the two men: GALT: But nobody b e l i e v e s what you say! You s t a g n a n t pond! BUSH: Swamp! GALT: Quagmire! (p. 182) The n o - e x i t w o r l d o f S a r t r e ' s p l a y i s thus r e c r e a t e d here by Walker. The i r r a t i o n a l i t y o f a u n i v e r s e which o f f e r s d e a t h as i t s o n l y c e r t a i n t y i s t h e a t r i c a l i z e d i n Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End by the i n e s c a p a b l e warehouse and the p u t r i f y i n g c o r p s e which i t houses. Bush and G a i t , how-e v e r , a r e as much t r a p p e d by t h e i r own p e t t y f a i l i n g s as t h e y are by the a b s u r d i t y o f t h e i r u n a v o i d a b l e f a t e . L i k e G a r c i n , Inez and E s t e l l e , t h ey w i l l remain f o r e v e r stamped by t h e i r a c t i o n s , f o r e v e r immured i n u n b e a r a b l e s t a t i s . \" K n i v e s , p o i s o n s , ropes - a l l u s e l e s s , \" (p. 166) Inez s t a t e s i n Huis C l o s . The same i n e f f e c t u a l i t y i s p r e s e n t e d i n Ambush 24 a t T e t h e r ' s End. The attem p t e d murder o f Jobeo w i t h a machete, Bush's c o n s t a n t p i l l - p o p p i n g and t h e f i n a l a b o r t i v e a ttempt a t a s i m u l t a n e o u s s t r a n g l i n g a l l prove f u t i l e . T h e i r p r e d i c a m e n t i s i n e s c a p a b l e ; \"There's no way o u t . \" Awareness o f t h e a b s u r d , argues Camus can be sudden and unexpected; \" a t any s t r e e t c o r n e r the f e e l i n g o f a b s u r d i t y g can s t r i k e any man i n t h e f a c e . \" F o r Bush and G a i t t h i s i s c e r t a i n l y t r u e . U s i n g the p a r a b l e o f a t e t h e r e d cow Jobeo d i s c u s s e s Bush and G a i t ' s r e l u c t a n c e f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l ad-v e n t u r e s . JOBEO: ...The human mind i s l i k e a w e l l - f e d cow. A cow w i t h a t e t h e r t i e d ..around i t s neck w h i c h i s a t t a c h e d t o a f e n c e . I f i t s t r a y s from the fence t h e rope becomes t a u t . I f i t g r a z e s near t h e fence i t s t a y s l o o s e and c o m f o r t a b l e . Now when t h e g r a s s near t h e fe n c e be-comes s p a r s e , t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o s t r a y out becomes i r r e s i s t a b l e . But when the noose t i g h t e n s o u t a t the p e r i m e t e r the cow, o r the mind, l o s e s i t s a p p e t i t e and r e t r e a t s t o t h e fe n c e and spends the r e s t o f i t s l i f e e a t i n g d u s t . (p. 134) L i k e t h e cows who remai n c l o s e t o the f e n c e , \" l o o s e and c o m f o r t a b l e \" each has spent h i s t h i n k i n g l i f e \" e a t i n g d u s t \" . Trapped, however, i n the warehouse, a t t h e \" t e t h e r ' s end\" where \"thought r e a c h e s i t s c o n f i n e s , \" r e t r e a t i s no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e . Ambushed and i m p r i s o n e d , t h e f e e l i n g o f a b s u r d i t y i s now i n e s c a p a b l e . Walker r e i n f o r c e s the i n c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y o f the s i t u a -25 t i o n by h a v i n g the c o n f u s e d Bush and G a i t c o n t i n u a l l y moan, \" I ' d l i k e t o t h i n k t h e r e ' s a p o i n t t o a l l t h i s . \" (p. 171) T h i s r e f r a i n echoes Camus' \" w i l d l o n g i n g f o r c l a r i t y \" and s i g n i f i e s Bush and G a i t ' s e n t r y i n t o t h e \" w a t e r l e s s d e s e r t . \" Camus s t a t e s i n The Myth o f S i s y p h u s t h a t b o t h p h y s i c a l s u i c i d e and t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l \" l e a p o f f a i t h \" a r e i n a d e q u a t e r e s p o n s e s t o the a b s u r d . He argues i n s t e a d t h a t \"the r e a l e f f o r t i s t o s t a y t h e r e \" i n the d e s e r t t h a t \"we must n o t 9 l e a v e b e h i n d . \" I n Camusian terms t h e n b o t h Max and Jobeo a r e f a l s e p h i l o s o p h e r s f o r each a d v o c a t e s a r e j e c t i o n o f the d e s e r t . T h e i r m o t i v e s a r e p r e s e n t e d as p e t t y and t r i v i a l and t h e i r p h i l o s o p h i e s a r e subsumed by p r o f e s s i o n a l r i v a l r y . Jobeo, angry a t Max's posthumous s l u r s on h i s i n t e g r i t y , p l o t s h i s revenge by a t t e m p t i n g t o i n c i t e h i s own murder. Through s p e c i o u s argument he t r i e s t o c o n v i n c e t h e w i t l e s s Bush and G a i t t o do the deed: JOBEO: Now i n b i b l i c a l t i m e s , a s t e p beyond the l i m i t i n v o l v e d w i t h d r a w a l i n t o t h e n e a r -e s t d e s e r t . A man l i v e d on h i s j u i c e s w h i l e he d r i e d up under the sun l i k e a f i g . Some w a i t e d f o r r e v e l a t i o n but most j u s t d r i e d up. Anyway, t h e d e s e r t ' s the t h i n g . BUSH: Times have changed. JOBEO: I t ' s good t h a t you've n o t i c e d . GALT: B e s i d e s , t h e r e a r e n ' t any d e s e r t s around h e r e . 2 6 JOBEO: Oh, you're j u s t as sharp as he i s . . . So, as you've a l r e a d y o b s e r v e d - a l b e i t somewhat awkwardly - w i t h d r a w a l i s out o f the q u e s t i o n . There's no p l a c e t o go. (p. 162) \"There's no p l a c e t o go\" f o r Bush and G a i t because t h e y have a l r e a d y t a k e n \"a s t e p beyond the l i m i t . \" The d e s e r t w hich they i n h a b i t i s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f Camusian m e t a p h y s i c s and S a r t r e a n entrapment. Jobeo, however, t h r o u g h l i n g u i s t i c m a n i p u l a t i o n t r i e s t o move Bush and G a i t toward \" r a t i o n a l homocide.\" Death, though, i s i r r e v o c a b l y r e j e c t e d by Bush and G a i t . \"But I don't want t o get used t o the s m e l l , \" Bush says o f t h e decomposing body. (p. 16 9) L i f e i n the d e s e r t i s a s t a t e o f permanent r e v o l t a g a i n s t the f u t i l i t y o f one's p r e d i c a m e n t ; t o embrace d e a t h o r t o a c c l i m a t i z e o n e s e l f t o i t s s t e n c h i s t o l e a v e t h e d e s e r t b e h i n d . Faced w i t h the l i m i t s o f t h e i r r a p i d l y en-c l o s i n g w o r l d , and s t r i p p e d of a l l f a c a d e s which p r e t e n d t h i n g s a r e o t h e r w i s e , Bush and G a i t must now c o n f r o n t t h e a b s u r d i t y o f t h e i r i s o l a t i o n . T h e i r entrapment i n an un-i n t e l l i g i b l e u n i v e r s e v o i d o f j u s t i f i c a t i o n s and pungent w i t h d e a t h has e f f e c t i v e l y robbed them o f a l l e v a s i o n s . U n l i k e the Cranes who choose t o deny d e a t h , Bush and G a i t , s u r rounded by i t s maladorous p r e s e n c e , l i v e i n p e r p e t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f i t s powe r . A s i m i l a r p r e - o c c u p a t i o n w i t h d e a t h and man's r o l e w i t h i n 27 the u n i v e r s e i s found i n Bagdad S a l o o n . Here, however, the d e s e r t i s l i t e r a l as w e l l as m e t a p h y s i c a l . T h i s time Walker has s e t h i s p l a y on t h e s p r a w l i n g t e r r a i n o f t h e A r a b i a n D e s e r t . The image now i s no l o n g e r the e n t r a p p e d w o r l d o f Max's ware-house b u t , r a t h e r , t h e i n t e r m i n a b l e a r i d i t y of t h e d e s e r t waste-l a n d . C o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the s p r a w l i n g v i s u a l image i s the l o o s e meandering s t r u c t u r e o f the p l a y i t s e l f . O r g a n i z e d i n t o seven-t e e n scenes of v a r y i n g l e n g t h s i t s h i f t s i t s f o c u s between f o u r t e e n c h a r a c t e r s . And as w i t h Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End, the impending f a t e o f an i n e v i t a b l e d e a t h i s t h e a t r i c a l i z e d by the on-stage p r e s e n c e o f a c o r p s e . A l l u s i o n s t o the d e s e r t - b o t h e a s t e r n and w e s t e r n - are numerous i n Bagdad S a l o o n . The t i t l e s u g g e s t s , o f c o u r s e , t h e f a b l e d Bagdad o f the l e g e n d a r y A r a b i a n N i g h t s . But P e r s i a i s not t h e o n l y d e s e r t w h i c h b o a s t s a Bagdad. More o b s c u r e , p e r -haps, t h a n i t s A r a b i a n c o u n t e r p a r t , b u t not c o m p l e t e l y w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n c e g i v e n the c o n t e x t o f t h e p l a y i s t h e d e s e r t hamlet of Bagdad, A r i z o n a . The c o n n e c t i o n between the two Bagdads i s perhaps n o t as tenuous as i t might f i r s t appear. The c r e a t i o n o f myths and legends - p a r t i c u l a r l y American myths -i s a major c o n c e r n o f t h e p l a y . A r i z o n a as a f r o n t i e r s t a t e i s t h e p e r f e c t embodiment o f t h e mythos of the w i l d west and the men who tamed i t . Home t o Tombstone, the s i g h t o f the now l e g e n d a r y g u n f i g h t a t the O.K. C o r r a l , i t i s c l o s e l y l i n k e d w i t h one o f Walker's c h a r a c t e r s , Doc. M o d e l l e d a f t e r Doc 28 K o l l i d a y , who a l o n g w i t h Wyatt E a r p , made h i s t o r y a t Tombstone, Walker's Doc i s the a r c h e t y p a l w e s t e r n hero. L i k e w i s e , h i s one-time paramour, D o l l y S t i l l e t o , whose \"home i s i n A r i z o n a \" p e r s o n i f i e s the image o f t h e l u s t y , l o u d s a l o o n g i r l . W alker's m a n i p u l a t i o n o f the d e s e r t c o n n e c t s the p l a y w i t h b o t h American myth and Camusian m e t a p h y s i c s . Y et t h e l i v i n g dead who i n h a b i t h i s d e s e r t - Doc, Kenry ( M i l l e r ) and S t e i n -a l s o l i n k i t t o t h e t h e a t r e o f Eugene Ionesco. I n Notes;and C o u n t e r - N o t e s , Ionesco makes the f o l l o w i n g comment: To e x p l a i n t h e end o f The C h a i r s : '...the w o r l d i s a d e s e r t . P e o p l e d by phantoms w i t h p l a i n t i v e v o i c e s , i t w h i s p e r s l o v e songs o v e r the g a p i n g r u i n s o f my em p t i n e s s ! But g e n t l e g h o s t s , r e t u r n ! ' (Gerard de N e r v a l , Promenades e t s o u v e n i r s . ) I t c o u l d perhaps be t h a t , w i t h o u t t h e g e n t l e n e s s . 1 0 These \" c u l t u r a l t i d b i t s \" e t c h e d i n t o t h e American psyche and engraved w i t h i n t h e i r l e g e n ds a r e i n d e e d the p l a i n t i v e phantoms o f Bagdad S a l o o n . L i k e S a r t r e ' s t r i o i n Hui s C l o s t h e i r p e t r i f i c a t i o n r e duces them t o an incommunicable s t a t i s . Yet i t i s p r e c i s e l y t h e i r m u m m i f i c a t i o n w h i c h a p p e a l s t o Ahrun - t h e mastermind b e h i n d the Bagdad S a l o o n . P a i n f u l l y aware o f t h e i r r a t i o n a l s u r r o u n d i n g him, Ahrun t r i e s t o c i r -cumvent h i s m o r t a l i t y and h i s c o n t i n g e n c y by s e a r c h i n g f o r fame and g l o r y . To t h i s end he has brought Doc, Henry M i l l e r and Ge r t r u d e S t e i n t o h i s s a l o o n f o r o b s e r v a t i o n . A i d e d by h i s 29 servant, his daughter, Sara, and his friend Aladdin, he scrutinizes his guests. Other intruders and v i s i t o r s to t h i s scene include Dolly and her son by Doc, Ivanhoe, Mitch a chameleonic American who wants to restore the \"museum pieces\" to America, and the Masonettes, three mannequin-like show g i r l s who dance and sing to the accompaniment of the piano. It i s Ahrun's \"wild longing for c l a r i t y \" which places him i n the desert and which w i l l not allow him to acquiesce i n the unknowable. Faced with an i n d i f f e r e n t heaven he invents and imposes his own cosmic interpretation of events: AHRUN: P r o f i l e s of ancestors on the moon. Di r e c t l y preceding great achievements. A family omen. SARA: What p r o f i l e ? That's a f u l l moon. AHRUN: You aren't looking cl o s e l y enough. AHRUN: (Notices that she has l e f t . ) Sighs A pathetic f a l l a c y . A conspiracy to make me seem constantly mediocre, (looking up) Just the hint of a p r o f i l e would have been enough. Why i s i t that I cannot be anything more than mundane. (p. 22) Doc and Stein, however, provide an a n t i t h e t i c a l viewpoint of their universe. The whys and wherefores of t h e i r existence provide no interest to them. Dumbfounded, Ahrun protests against such indifference, \"But I have theories... And a few b e l i e f s . \" (p. 55) To t h i s Stein and Doc can only 30 repeat, \"poor old man.\" (p. 55) Theories, b e l i e f s and interpretations must a l l prove i n e f f e c t u a l within the confines of the u n i n t e l l i g i b l e . Ahrun's l a s t refuge against the absurd i s a b e l i e f i n the immortalizing power of fame. \"And i f i t s guided i n the ri g h t d i r e c t i o n , i t can create things. Purpose- Glamour.. Mystique.\" (p. 55) he t e l l s his apathetic captives. Stein, however, exposes the vanity of such a pursuit with her penetrating question, \"What happens then?\" (p. 55) Fame i s not only \" f i c k l e \" but also f u t i l e , and by the play's close even Ahrun acknowledges t h i s . His f i n a l l i n e of the play, \"Chaos\", t e s t i f i e s to his new awareness. No longer hopeful of finding order i n the unorderable Ahrun perceives, with a newly found l u c i d i t y , the ar b i t r a r i n e s s of his world. This obsession with fame, however, i s not r e s t r i c t e d to Ahrun. Mitch, the multi-disguised American i s also seeking his \"big chance for the lime l i g h t . \" His approach, though, d i f f e r s from Ahrun's. Not content with studying the per-s o n a l i t i e s of others he a c t i v e l y adopts th e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Throughout the play he appears i n numerous guises: an emcee; an undertaker; a diplomatic-courier; an Arab; Lawrence of Arabia; and f i n a l l y a caddy. Such character transformations are redolent of many of the role-reversals and al t e r a t i o n s i n the plays of Genet and Ionesco. Martin E s s l i n , using Sartrean philosophy sums up the many metamorphoses of Choubert, 31 a c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r o f I o n e s c o ' s V i c t i m s o f Duty: Man i s n o t h i n g because he has t h e l i b e r t y o f c h o i c e and t h e r e f o r e i s always t h a t w hich he i s i n the p r o c e s s o f c h o o s i n g h i m s e l f t o be, a permanent p o t e n t i a l i t y r a t h e r t h a n a c t u a l b e i n g . ^ The n o t i o n o f man as n o t h i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h r e g a r d s t o M i t c h . When Henry f i r s t asks M i t c h , \"Who a r e you,\" M i t c h a p p r o p r i a t e l y r e p l i e s , \"Nobody.\" (p. 25) And l a t e r a l o n e on s t a g e he c o n f i d e s t o the a u d i e n c e \"I'm a l l grown up and I s t i l l don't know what I want t o be.\" (p. 36) L i v i n g i n the d e s e r t , c r a v i n g the l i m e l i g h t and o b s e s s e d w i t h r o l e - p l a y i n g , M i t c h a l s o c a l l s t o mind (Camus' i n t e r p r e t a t -i o n o f the a c t o r as \"l'homme a b s u r d . \" He a b u n d a n t l y i l l u s t r a t e s e v e r y month o r e v e r y day t h a t so s u g g e s t i v e t r u t h t h a t t h e r e i s no f r o n t i e r between what a man wants t o be and what he i s . Always concerned w i t h b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t i n g he d emonstrates t o what a degree a p p e a r i n g c r e a t e s b e i n g . F o r t h a t i s h i s a r t -t o s i m u l a t e a b s o l u t e l y t o p r o j e c t h i m s e l f as d e e p l y as p o s s i b l e i n t o l i v e s t h a t a r e not h i s own. A t the end o f h i s e f f o r t h i s v o c a t i o n becomes c l e a r : t o a p p l y h i m s e l f w h o l e h e a r t e d l y t o b e i n g n o t h i n g o r t o b e i n g s e v e r a l . ^ 2 Though each o f h i s l i v e s may l a s t b u t a few h o u r s , t h e y a r e no l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n h i s own l a r g e r l i f e w h i c h e n v e l o p e s them. Assuming a f o r e i g n mask the a c t o r \" t r a v e l s the whole c o u r s e o f the dead end p a t h t h a t the man i n t h e 13 a u d i e n c e t a k e s a l i f e t i m e t o c o v e r . \" M i t c h , l i k e Camus' 32 a c t o r , t h e n , e n a c t s t h e absu r d end t o l i f e each time he d i s c a r d s h i s assumed p o s t u r e . I n such a s t a n c e , he i s a man f u l l y l u c i d b e f o r e h i s f a t e , w i t h o u t e v a s i o n o r d e n i a l . Doc, Henry and S t e i n , a l r e a d y dead and w i t h o u t p o t e n t i a l i t y , a r e n o t con c e r n e d w i t h the r e v o l t s o f M i t c h and Ahrun: AHRUN: I haven't heard any o f you ask why you've been brought h e r e . Or what's g o i n g t o be done w i t h you. Or how l o n g you're g o i n g t o s t a y . Why? DOC: None o f your b u s i n e s s . STEIN: That's r i g h t . AHRUN: But don't any o f you f e e l s t r a n g e a t not b e i n g where you s h o u l d be. Or w i t h who you want t o be w i t h . DOC: Where s h o u l d we be? STEIN: Who do we want t o be w i t h ? STEIN: Do you know where we a r e ? DOC: No. STEIN: Do you c a r e ? DOC: No. Do you? STEIN: Not i n t h e l e a s t . (pp. 55-56) The paradox o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n , however, l i e s i n t h e i r l e g e n d a r y m y s t i q u e . As p a r t o f American h i s t o r y - p o l i t i c a l and l i t e r a r y - t h e i r l i v e s a r e c o n t i n u a l l y re-examined and r e - i n t e r p r e t e d . \"You s h o u l d never have c o n s e n t e d t o a l l those b i o g r a p h i e s , \" (p. 49) Henry t e l l s S t e i n . W i t h each 33 new b i o g r a p h y , a new l i f e i s p r e s e n t e d , a new p o t e n t i a l i t y i s e n a c t e d . S t e i n i s c o n t i n u a l l y b e i n g made anew. Her r e b i r t h , however, i s not i n d i c a t i v e o f e x e r c i s e d p e r s o n a l freedom, but r a t h e r o f the power o f o t h e r s t o g i v e d e f i n i t i o n t o the s e l f . L i k e S a r t r e ' s d e f u n c t t r i o , S t e i n e x i s t s o n l y because the o t h e r s choose t o g r a n t h e r form. Henry's r e b i r t h i s a l s o l i t e r a r y . A g u r u - l i k e f i g u r e o f the m i d - t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , h i s o b s e s s i o n w i t h mass r e c o g n i t i o n ( t y p i f i e d by t h e P u l i t z e r P r i c e he i s c h a s i n g ) d r i v e s him t o i n s a n i t y . C l a i m -i n g t o be a \" l i t e r a r y r e i n c a r n a t e \" he e n a c t s the l i v e s o f Herman M e l v i l l e ' a n d John Donne as w e l l as h i s own. M e l v i l l e , t h e A merican l i t e r a r y g i a n t who d i e d i n o b s c u r i t y o n l y t o be r e - d i s c o v e r e d t h i r t y y e a r s l a t e r , i s a n o t h e r example o f r e s u r -r e c t i o n t h r o u g h fame. The most i n t e r e s t i n g i n s t a n c e o f t h i s phenomenon, however, i s the w e s t e r n h e r o , Doc H o l l i d a y . I n h i s c a s e , l e g e n d and myth have t o t a l l y e c l i p s e d the man who spanned them. \"There's a r e a l man b e h i n d t h i s l e g e n d , \" (p. 32) D o l l y reminds her son. The t r a g e d y , though, i s t h a t he i s no l o n g e r d i s c e r n i b l e . \"How i s i t t h a t e v e r y t i m e you open your mouth you s a t i r i z e y o u r s e l f , \" (p. 54) S t e i n a s k s Doc. L i o n i z e d i n numerous f i l m s and books Doc becomes a p a s s i v e r e c i p i e n t o f h i s l i f e r a t h e r than an a c t i v e c r e a t o r . \"What d i d i t say i n the books,\" (p. 62) Doc a s ks Sara when q u e s t i o n e d about h i s a c t i o n s . The \"perman-e n t p o t e n t i a l i t y \" t h a t was once Doc H o l l i d a y now l i e s i n the hands o f f i l m makers and w r i t e r s . W i t h each new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n Doc i s - r e s u r r e c t e d and r e v i v e d ; h i s s t o r y , c o n t i n u a l l y r e w r i t t e n , 34 w i l l not die. Doc, Stein and Henry, however, are f i n a l l y rejected by Ahrun as fals e f i c t i o n s . \"They're concerned only with being legendary,\" (p. 57) the concerns of the desert are not t h e i r s . Communication i s denied them because they can relate only in prescribed formulas. Their l i v e s are only the manipulations of others, who l i k e Ahrun, want to fin d i n t h e i r fame a theorem which w i l l explain the inescapable. Camus describes recognition of the absurd as \"revolt 14 devoid of future.\" The posterity offered by fame and legend i s a fals e promise which only obscures the r e a l i t y of an immutable death. This absence of future and of hope i s further t h e a t r i c a l i z e d i n the play by i t s treatment of children. In the f i n a l scene Henry rejects Dolly's mothering: HENRY: Don't give me that. Your kind of s i l l y maternal i n s t i n c t s are never s a t i s f i e d . You want to expand the family. And I'm not having any part of i t . You hear? (p. 84) Likewise, Ahrun expresses no joy i n his daughter's pregnancy; \"take her to the tent. She's going to give b i r t h to a monster.\" (p. 82) Like the Cranes who denied Max i n Ambush at Tether's End, Ahrun considers his poten t i a l grandchild to be \"embarrassing\". Rejection of children i s a common motif i n many plays which deal with the implications of the human condition - E s t e l l e , i n Huis Clos, for example, i s an infantcide. The small boy 35 s i g h t e d i n Endgame causes o n l y dismay; c h i l d r e n s i g n i f y the p e r p e t u a t i o n o f an i n t o l e r a b l e p r e d i c a m e n t and as such a r e viewed w i t h f e a r . However unwelcome c h i l d r e n may be, though, a b o r t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d even more r e p r e h e n s i b l e . Walker's s t a g e d i r e c t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h i s : \" A b o r t i o n i s a bad word i n t h i s p l a y f o r some r e a s o n . Everyone g r o a n s , m u t t e r s o r s h o u t s t h e i r d i s -a p p r o v a l . \" (p- 77) R e d o l e n t o f B e c k e t t ' s \" b i r t h a s t r i d e a g r a v e \" i n W a i t i n g f o r Godot, a b o r t i o n r e p r e s e n t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r l i f e and t h e i n e s c a p a b l e d e a t h w h i c h w i l l 15 s n u f f t h a t l i f e o u t . The most p e r v e r s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c h i l d h o o d i n t h e p l a y , however, i s found i n t h e p a t h e t i c f i g u r e o f the deformed Ivanhoe. The o f f s p r i n g o f a f r a u d u l e n t l e g e n d he i s m u t i l a t e d , s c a r r e d and u n i n t e l l i g i b l e . L i k e the dismembered i n f a n t o f A l b e e ' s American Dream, Ivanhoe p e r s o n i f i e s the decay o f a f o u n d i n g mythos. \"Dust has s e t t l e d on the American dream,\" (p. 23) M i t c h says a t the p l a y ' s o p e n i n g . Ahrun's v i s i o n , however, i s more g r o t e s q u e and p e s s i m i s t i c : AHRUN: . . . I a s k e d : What r i v e r i s t h i s ? I was t o l d t h a t i t was t h e r i v e r o f t e a r s t h a t men shed i n l a m e n t a t i o n f o r t h e i r dead. I found a l s o t h a t e v e r y t h i n g was p r o p o r t i o n a t e and t h a t those who s t o o d l o n g e r and were more decayed were t h e sons of the more wasted and v i l e who had d i e d . And t h o s e who shed but a few t e a r s and then passed on were the sons o f the dead who were c l o s e r t o goodness or c r e a t i o n . I s a t a w h i l e . Then I n o t i c e d a c l u s t e r o f men i n the background who seemed r o o t e d t o the e a r t h by d u s t and who were by f a r the most h i d e o u s o f a l l ; and whose s k i n s were f u l l o f g a p i n g f i l t h y b l o t c h e s and whose l i m b s were b o n e - t h i n and c r o o k e d . Who a r e the men i n t h a t u n f o r t u n a t e c l u s t e r , I a s k e d . And was t o l d - they a r e the sons o f the west. (p. 21) Ivanhoe i s d e s c r i b e d as \" i m m e d i a t e l y h i d e o u s . A s h o r t s p r a w l i n g man w i t h a deformed f a c e . (A v i c t i m o f f i r e ) A p a r t i a l hunchback w i t h an o v e r s i z e d head.\" (p. 79) F o r D o l l y , though, he i s t h e embodiment o f the American s p i r i t . Having changed h i s name t o J o n e s , Ivanhoe s e t s out t o be t h e a i l - A m e r i c a n h e r o ; swimming Lake E r i e , c l i m b i n g Mount F u j i , i n v a d i n g K o r e a , he p e r p e t u a t e s t h e myth o f America as i n -v i n c i b l e . H i s h e r o i c a c t i o n s , and the myth which i n s p i r e s them, however, a r e u l t i m a t e l y undermined by the d i s f i g u r e d r e a l i t y o f h i s p h y s i c a l b e i n g . Unable t o bear h i s p u r u l e n t p r e s e n c e , the o t h e r s shoot him; y e t each s u p p l i e s a d i f f e r e n t m o tive f o r h i s a c t i o n . Do h i s f a t h e r , j u s t i f i e s h i m s e l f by s a y i n g , \"He l o o k e d l i k e me when I'm o l d , u g l y and v e r y s h o r t . \" (p. 22) D o l l y , \"the mother who wanted a b e a u t i f u l baby\" k i l l s o u t o f d i s g u s t e d d i s a p p o i n t m e n t , (p. 83) S t e i n , obsessed w i t h s t y l e , k i l l s because h i s \"form was n o t c l e a r \" and Henry u n l o v e d and \"exed r i g h t o u t o f e x i s t e n c e \" c l a i m s he would \" k i l l anyone f o r a b s o l u t e l y no r e a s o n a t a l l . \" (pp. 82-83) A c c u r a t e l y d e f i n e 37 by M i t c h as \" c u l t u r a l t i d b i t s \" t h e s e f i g u r e s , whose e x i s t e n c e i s dependent upon the c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the same c u l t u r a l e t h o s w hich Ivanhoe r e p r e s e n t s , must i n e v i t a b l y r e s i s t a l l d e n i g r a -t i o n s o f the l e g e n d . As the son o f a d e c a y i n g west, Ivanhoe r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e a l i t y o f a myth t u r n e d s o u r ; f e s t e r i n g and r a n c i d , he i s , l i k e Max, t h e s m e l l t h a t no-one wants \" t o get used t o . \" Bagdad's d e s e r t i s m u l t i f u n c t i o n a l i n Walker's p l a y ; i t i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y the Camusian d e s e r t o f l u c i d awareness, the l o c a l e o f myth-making e v e n t s and f i n a l l y the s y m b o l i c r e p r e -s e n t a t i o n o f the a r i d i t y o f t h o s e myths. \" I n the d e s e r t no-one can a f f o r d t o be B r i t i s h , \" (p. 69) M i t c h t e l l s A l a d d i n . The same can be s a i d o f A m e r i c a . N a t i o n a l myth-making and p a t r i o t i c f e r v o r p a l e b e f o r e t h e i r r a t i o n a l o f a s i l e n t u n i -v e r s e . S e l f - i m p o s e d d e f i n i t i o n s and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o n l y o b s c u r e t h e p a i n o f one's i n e s c a p a b l e i s o l a t i o n w i t h i n the l a r g e r u n i n t e l l i g i b l e v o i d . R e l i g i o n i s a l s o r e j e c t e d as an answer t o man's p a i n f u l p r e d i c a m e n t . By making the s u n - c r a z e d S t e i n champion of s p i r i t u a l d o c t r i n e , Walker e f f e c t i v e l y d i m i n i s h e s any v a l i d i t y i t may p o s s e s s : STEIN: S i l e n c e . I've j u s t come from the d e s e r t . No, I wasn't w a i t i n g f o r God o r the Son o f God, or the nephew o r the s e -cond c o u s i n o f God. I was w a i t i n g f o r the u n i v e r s e t o s t r a i g h t e n up i t s a c t . I was w a i t i n g f o r t h e i r r a t i o n a l t o be-come r a t i o n a l and the c o n t r a and p r o q u i d , p r o factem of a l l t h a t t o become f i n a l l y and c r y s t a l l y c l e a r . 38 D i d i t ? ( D o l l y goes t o Ivanhoe, s t r a i g h t e n s h i s c l o t h i n g . Smoothes h i s h a i r . ) I was v i s i t e d by a f a m i l y o f gophers. We c o n v e r s e d . They i n v i t e d r e l a t i v e s . ...Much d i a l o g u e and i n t e r a c t i o n between me and t h e gophers. Good news.' The /world i s n o t a r b i t r a r y . E v e r y t h i n g i s m o t i v a t e d . They have a d o c t r i n e . Those gophers a r e Moslems. (p. 85) The f i n a l t a b l e a u o f the p l a y , f u r t h e r c o u n t e r s S t e i n ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t \"the w o r l d i s n o t a r b i t r a r y . \" A hrun, A l a d d i n and t h e i r s e r v a n t a l l s i t \" m o t i o n l e s s \" and \"d u s t y \" t h r o u g h o u t the f i n a l scene w h i l e s t e i n d e c l a r e s t h a t she i s \" g o i n g back i n t o the d e s e r t t o d i e and be r e b o r n . \" (p. 85) The p l a y then r e v e r s e s i t s e l f , t o end w i t h S t e i n r e p e a t i n g , \" I f I r e t u r n y o u ' l l know I've f a i l e d . \" (p. 86) Caught i n a r e v o l v i n g door o f e n t r a n c e s and e x i t s r e - b i r t h becomes i m p o s s i b l e . S t e i n i s now t h o r o u g h l y immured i n her s t a s i s . Walker has s u b t i t l e d h i s p l a y \"A C a r t o o n \" and i t s f a s t pace and l i v e l y a c t i o n s u p p o r t t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . M. Thomas Inge i n h i s a r t i c l e \"The A e s t h e t i c s o f t h e Comic S t r i p \" de-s c r i b e s the c a r t o o n as the f o l l o w i n g : I t i s a n a r r a t i v e o f words and p i c t u r e s b o t h v e r b a l and v i s u a l i n which . . . n e i t h e r words n o r p i c t u r e s a r e q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y a l o n e w i t h o u t the o t h e r . I t i s the i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f word and p i c t u r e t h a t g i v e s t o the comics t h e i r most unique and d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . - ^ HENRY: STEIN: T h i s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between word and image f i n d s a home a l s o i n E s s l i n ' s T h e a t r e o f t h e Absurd where \" c o n c r e t e stage 3 9 images\" t a k e t h e p l a c e o f r a t i o n a l d i s c u r s i v e speech. Language, though a v i t a l p a r t o f the a b s u r d i s t t h e a t r e , never f u n c t i o n s w i t h o u t a c o r r e s p o n d i n g v i s u a l image. The same i s t r u e o f Bagdad S a l o o n . The M a s o n e t t e s , the c o r p s e , the s a l o o n as w e l l as the many costumes and p o s t u r e s o f the c h a r a c t e r s a l l complement i n some f a s h i o n o r o t h e r t h e p l a y ' s d i a l o g u e . R o b e r t Barshay's a r t i c l e \" B l a c k Humour i n the Modern C a r t o o n \" o b s e r v e s t h a t \"Perhaps one common c h a r -a c t e r i s t i c o f b l a c k humour a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l the genres i n whi c h i t i s found i s the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the i n v i s i b l e t o 17 the s t a r k l y v i s i b l e . \" Walker's s t a g e imagery, l i k e t h a t o f the p l a y w r i g h t s whom E s s l i n has c l a s s e d as \" a b s u r d i s t \" i s a p h y s i c a l i z a t i o n o f t h e mood or tone o f the p l a y . The Masonettes a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f man as h e l p l e s s puppet, a b e i n g c o n t i n u a l l y m a n i p u l a t e d and manoeuvred. The c o r p s e , l i k e t h e morbid Max o f Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End, i s an e v e r p r e s e n t r e m i n d e r o f the f a t e w h i c h a w a i t s a l l . The s a l o o n i s r e d o l e n t o f the m y t h i c west. As V i r g i l ' s A e n e i d d i d f o r I m p e r i a l Rome w e s t e r n movies and comic books have p r o -po g a n d i z e d and l e g i t i m i z e d American p r o s p e r i t y and dominance. And f i n a l l y , t h e l a r g e r image o f the e n v e l o p i n g d e s e r t combines a l l t h e s e symbols; the i n d i v i d u a l , f a c e d w i t h b o t h the a r i d i t y o f h i s s o c i e t y and the i r r a t i o n a l i t y o f h i s u n i v e r s e e x i s t s i n i s o l a t i o n . \" I n such a l a r g e d e s e r t a man s h o u l d be a b l e t o d i e a l o n e , \" (p. 6 8 ) A l a d d i n s t a t e s . The i r o n i c t r a g e d y i s , 40 o f c o u r s e , t h a t i n such a d e s e r t one has no c h o i c e but to d i e a l o n e . Imagery, however, i s not the s o l e l i n k between Wa l ke r ' s p l a y and the Thea t re of the Absurd . Mathew Winston d e f i n e s the c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f absurd b l a ck humour as the f o l l o w i n g : Absurd b l a ck humor tends to p r e s e n t c h a r a c t e r s who seem to be long to the wor ld of comedy. They are i g n o b l e wretches w i t h p e t t y prob lems, l i m i t e d r e s p o n s e s , and l i t t l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e p t h . Such c h a r a c t e r s do not deve lop i n the cour se o f a work; they are t h e i r own dilemma and w i l l f o r e v e r be so . In most comedy they would be the excep t i on s to an o therw i se h e a l t h y and f u n c t i o n i n g s o c i e t y , but i n absurd b l ack humor t h e r e i s no o ther k i n d of c h a r a c t e r . Without the c o n t r a s t o f ' n o r m a l ' c h a r a c t e r s , we cannot be c e r t a i n t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l s we see a re a b e r r a t i o n s , and so we do not know what to expect o r how to judge.17 T h i s d e f i n i t i o n a p p l i e s not on l y to Bagdad Saloon but a l s o to Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End. Bush and G a i t w i thout d i f f i c u l t y , c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d as \" i g n o b l e \" \" p e t t y \" and p o s s e s s i n g \" l i t t l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e p t h . \" The same ho lds t r u e f o r Doc, S t e i n and Henry. \"Why are you always a r gu ing about the p e t t i e s t o f t h i n g s ? \" (p. 54) Ahrun asks o f them. The a c c o r d i o n - l i k e end ing of the p l a y , however, u n i t e s a l l the c h a r a c t e r s , not j u s t the t h r e e legends i n a n o - e x i t t u n n e l . L i k e Bush and G a i t , the pa t rons o f the Bagdad Sa loon w i l l be f o r e v e r l o cked i n t h e i r common di lemma. Communication i s a l s o impos s i b l e f o r the c h a r a c t e r s o f absurd b l a c k humour. Winston s t a t e s t h a t \"words become c l i c h e , 41 b a b e l o r a r e f u g e from e x p e r i e n c e . \" S t e i n ' s c o n v e r s a t i o n i s , t h r o u g h o u t the p l a y , u n i n t e l l i g i b l e . Ahrun c o n t i n u a l l y p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t h er e v a s i o n s : \" I don't u n d e r s t a n d ; \" \"No I don't f o l l o w you S t e i n ; \" \"Don't co n f u s e me S t e i n , \" (pp. 70-71) become h i s c o n t i n u a l r e f r a i n . S i m i l a r l y S t e i n accuses Henry o f u s i n g \" k i n d e r g a r t e n r h e t o r i c \" w h i l e Doc s t r u g g l e s w i t h a p r i m a r y r e a d e r . I t i s f i n a l l y , though, the g a r b l e d speech o f t h e deformed Ivanhoe which u n d e r l i n e s the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f communication. Knowing o n l y s i x words - and each o f the s e n o n s e n s i c a l - Ivanhoe can o n l y communicate t h r o u g h an i n t e r -p r e t e r . Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End a l s o exposes the e q u i v o c a l n a t u r e of language. I v a n h o e 1 s g i b b e r i s h i n Bagdad S a l o o n i s a g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f language i n a d e s e r t which houses o n l y the i r r a t i o n a l . Walker's t e c h n i q u e i n Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End, however, v a r i e s from t h i s . Language, h e r e , i s p r e s e n t e d as e q u i v o c a l and p u r p o s e f u l l y ambiguous; i n such a s t a n c e i t m i r r o r s t h e l a r g e r a r b i t r a r y and u n p r e d i c t -a b l e w o r l d . G a i t , a f t e r r e a d i n g Max's note s t a t i n g , \" I t e l e -phoned my dear f r i e n d s Bush and G a i t and th e y b o t h t o l d me t o go hang m y s e l f \" r e p l i e s i n e x a s p e r a t i o n , \" I t was o n l y a f i g u r e o f speech.\" (p. 99) G a i t may have been s p e a k i n g f i g u r a t i v e l y t o Max b u t the b i n a r y n a t u r e o f h i s message a l -lowed i t a second i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . L a t e r when Bush o f f e r s G a i t \"a synonym f o r s t a g n a n t ponds,\" G a i t can o n l y say \"why b o t h e r ? \" (p. 103) Language, l i k e e v e r y t h i n g e l s e i n t h e i r 42 c a p r i c i o u s w o r l d , i s too e l u s i v e t o be d e f i n e d . I n a n o t h e r a r t i c l e Winston d e s c r i b e s \"the d i s p a r i t y 20 between c o n t e n t and form\" as the \" h a l l m a r k o f b l a c k humor.\" He c o n t i n u e s , \"The c o n t e n t s p r o v i d e the b l a c k n e s s and the 21 s t y l e m i t i g a t e s t h a t b l a c k n e s s w i t h humor.\" T h i s i n c o n g r u i t y w hich t y p i f i e s b l a c k humour i s p r e s e n t i n b o t h p l a y s d i s c u s s e d h e r e . The s u i c i d e i n Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End i s t r e a t e d w i t h a nonchalance and i n d i f f e r e n c e . t h a t b e l i e s t h e h o r r o r o f the e v e n t . As Max r o t s and d e c a y s , Bush and G a i t c o n c e r n themselves w i t h p e t t y i n s u l t s and w o r r i e s . F e a r i n g o n l y the exposure w h i c h Max has p r e p a r e d f o r them they remain unconcerned about h i s d e a t h . L i k e w i s e t h e n o t e s which c o n t i n u a l l y drop from Max's c o r p s e m i n i m i z e the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . A b l e t o i n f l u e n c e e v e n t s he remains a p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e i r l i v e s and as such i s t r e a t e d by Bush and G a i t as a t h i r d p a r t y . BUSH: You've g o t t h e same problem I have. GALT: What's t h a t ? BUSH: Don't know whether t o t a l k about him i n the p a s t o r the p r e s e n t t e n s e . GALT: I t ' s a l l t h e s e memos and i n s t r u c t i o n s . BUSH: I say i t ' s v e r y unorthodox b e h a v i o u r f o r a c o r p s e . He'd never have made a go o f i t i n the b u s i n e s s w o r l d . (pp. 125-126) H i g h l y u n o r t h o d o x , a l s o , i s the b e h a v i o u r o f Max's p a r e n t s . A n a l y t i c a l l y and w i t h o u t emotion, they s c r u t i n i z e the d e a t h mask o f t h e i r son: 43 MRS. CRANE: There doesn't seem t o be one. MR. CRANE: That's r i g h t . Not e x a c t l y a s i g n o f s i n c e r i t y , i s i t ? To d i e w i t h o u t a t w i s t o f emotion. MRS. CRANE: Not a l i n e o ut o f p l a c e . MR. CRANE: S l a c k - j a w e d and i n d i f f e r e n t . (p. 148) Though we may l a u g h a t t h e Crane's t r e a t m e n t of t h e i r son's c o r p s e we do so i n f u l l awareness of the r e p r e h e n s i b i l i t y o f t h e i r a c t i o n s . P a r e n t a l i n d i f f e r e n c e t o o f f s p r i n g , c h a r -a c t e r i s t i c o f many a b s u r d i s t p l a y s , i s p r e s e n t e d here as m a t e r i a l f o r s t a g e comedy. As w i t h the a b s u r d i s t p l a y w r i g h t s t h i s comic i n d i f f e r e n c e masks a b l a c k e r t r u t h ; t r a p p e d i n a c h a o t i c and e q u i v o c a l u n i v e r s e t h e l u c i d man r e j e c t s a l l p r o -mises of a f a l s e f u t u r e : c h i l d r e n , as symbols o f r e j u v e n a t i o n and c o n t i n u a n c e , w i l l then a l s o be r e j e c t e d . I n c o n g r u i t y i s a l s o p r e s e n t i n Bagdad S a l o o n . Walker's c a v a l i e r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Doc, S t e i n and Henry r u n s c o n t r a r y t o a u d i e n c e e x p e c t a t i o n . L i k e the famous personnages o f Tom S toppard's T r a v e s t i e s , t h e s e f i g u r e s a r e t r i v i a l i z e d and ex-p l o i t e d f o r a u t h o r i a l p u r p o s e s . P h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e i s a l s o t r e a t e d w i t h apathy and unconcern i n the p l a y ; Henry s l a s h e s h i s w r i s t s ; D o l l y s l i c e s Doc's neck; A l a d d i n runs e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t s t h r o u g h S t e i n . None of t h i s v i o l e n c e , however, has any s e r i o u s consequences and the o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s b a r e l y pass comment upon i t . 44 The most o b v i o u s m i x t u r e o f b l a c k n e s s and humour i s once a g a i n found i n .the d i s f i g u r e d p r e s ence o f Ivanhoe. H i d e o u s , deformed and v e r y , v e r y o l d , the hunchback whom D o l l y r e f e r s t o as \"a s i g h t f o r s o r e eyes\" s t e p s i n t o the l i m e l i g h t t o l i p - s y n c \"The Good Life'.:\" Winston c l a i m s t h a t the s u c c e s s o f b l a c k humour l i e s i n i t s a b i l i t y t o d i s o r i e n t the a u d i e n c e ; the s p e c t a t o r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e and d i s t a n c e from the work must con-s t a n t l y be s h i f t e d : \"Often we a r e made t o l a u g h a t a c h a r -a c t e r then s u d d e n l y t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t we share h i s dilemma and 22 t h e r e f o r e have been l a u g h i n g a t o u r s e l v e s a l l a l o n g . \" T h i s i s s u r e l y the case w i t h Walker's Ivanhoe. Our l a u g h t e r a r i s e s from t h e i n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e responses o f the o t h e r c h a r -a c t e r s t o him. D o l l y ' s terms of endearment, \" s u g a r \" , \"honey\", and \" d a r l i n g \" o n l y h i g h l i g h t the d i s p a r i t y between the h o r r o r o f Ivanhoe's p h y s i c a l i t y and t h e image which such e x p r e s s i o n s n o r m a l l y s u g g e s t . E q u a l l y l u d i c r o u s are the r e a c t i o n s o f S t e i n and Henry. S t e i n screams n o n s e n s i c a l l y , \"Mother! I t ' s my mother\" w h i l e Henry madly shou t s \"Get back. I t ' s t h e demon whale! My lampoon, Mr. S t a r b u c k . \" (p. 79) Our compassion, however, i s evoked when Ahrun e n t e r s and a c c u r a t e l y d e c l a r e s Ivanhoe, \"A poor wretch....A sad s t o r y . \" (p. 81) Ivanhoe's f i n a l g r a s p a t \"The Good L i f e \" b e f o r e c o l l a p s i n g from h i s b u l l e t wound, a l t h o u g h somewhat o v e r s t a t e d as an image, succeeds n o n e t h e l e s s i n r e m i n d i n g us o f the r e a l i t y o f our p r e d i c a m e n t . The m e t a p h o r i c a l d e s e r t p o s i t e d by Walker i n Bagdad S a l o o n i s one w h i c h must i n e v i t a b l y e x c l u d e any p o s s i b i l i t y o f \"the good l i f e . \" L i k e Ivanhoe, however, our l i f e i n t h e d e s e r t i s e q u a l l y f u t i l e ; a g i n g ..every day our b o d i e s r a c e towards decay, y e t d e s p i t e t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f such a f a t e , we con-t i n u e t o t r y t o communicate t o make c o n t a c t , and t o b e l i e v e i n the p o t e n t i a l i t y o f a \"good l i f e . \" I n t h i s r e s p e c t , we i d e n t i f y w i t h Ivanhoe; h i s s t r u g g l e t o a s s i m i l a t e i n a w o r l d w hich c o n t i n u a l l y r e j e c t s him p a r a l l e l s our p e r s i s t a n c e i n s e e k i n g meaning i n a u n i v e r s e w h i c h p o s s e s s e s none. R o b e r t Barshay says o f t h e b l a c k h u m o u r i s t / c a r t o o n i s t : He r e v e a l s t h e p r e c a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n i n which modern man i s r o o t e d i n a r o o t l e s s w o r l d , exposes the un-c o n t r o l l a b l e f o r c e s a g a i n s t which man i s i g n o r a n t l y p i t t e d , m a g n i f i e s t h e impotence of man's w i l l a g a i n s t a r b i t r a r y change and c o n c e r t e d h o s t i l i t y , and hopes to e x o r c i s e h i s a l l t o o f r e q u e n t s h r i n k a g e from a b e i n g with\u00E2\u0080\u009Edignity t o an i n s e n s i b l e o b j e c t of mani-p u l a t i o n . T h i s i s c l e a r l y the p o s i t i o n o f Walker i n Bagdad Saloon and Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End where c h a r a c t e r s a r e seen as pawns i n games th e y don't u n d e r s t a n d ; where m y t h o l o g i c a l and r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f systems a r e exposed as f a u l t y and f u t i l e b e f o r e t h e \" v a s t i r r a t i o n a l \" o f an amorphous cosmos and where man i s s t r i p p e d o f any d i g n i t y o r grandeur t h a t might ennoble h i s p o s i t i o n . 46 NOTES CHAPTER ONE 1. A l b e r t Camus, The Myth o f Sysyphus t r a n s . J u s t i n O ' B r i e n (New York: A l f r e d A. K n o f f , 1969), p. 21-2. Camus, p. 9. 3 . Camus , p. 25 . .-4. A l l r e f e r e n c e s w i l l be to the f o l l o w i n g e d i t i o n s : George F . Walker, Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End i n The F a c t o r y Lab Antho logy ed. Connie B r i s s enden , (Vancouve r : Ta lonbooks , 1974) George F. Walker , Bagdad Sa loon i n Three P l ay s . (Toronto: Coach House P r e s s , 1978). 5. Edward M u l l a l y , \"Wa i t i n g f o r L e f t y , Godot and Canadian T h e a t r e , \" The F i d d l e h e a d , No. 104, (1975), p. 53. 6. C h r i s Johnson, \"George F. Wa lker : B-Movies Beyond the A b s u r d , \" Canadian L i t e r a t u r e , No. 85 (1980), p. 91-7. J e a n - P a u l S a r t r e , In Camera, t r a n s . S t u a r t G i l b e r t (London: Hamish Hami l ton , 1946), p. 157. A l l f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s w i l l be to t h i s e d i t i o n . 8. Camus, p. 11. 9. Camus, p. 27. 10. Eugene Ionesco, Notes and Counter No tes , t r a n s . Donald Watson (New York: Grove P r e s s , 1964), p. 193. 11. M a r t i n E s s l i n , The Theat re o f the Absu rd . (M idd lesex: Penguin Books, 1961), p. 153. 12. Camus, pp. 79-80. 13. Camus, p. 80. 14. Camus, p. 66. 15. Samuel B e c k e t t , Wa i t i n g f o r Godot (New York : Grove P r e s s , 1954), p. 57. 16. M. Thomas Inge, \"The A e s t h e t i c s o f the Comic S t r i p \" J o u r n a l of Popu lar C u l t u r e , 12, No. 4 (1979), p. 641-47 17. Robert Barshay, \"B l ack Humour i n the Modern C a r t o o n \" i n I t ' s a Funny T h i n g , Humour e d . Antony J . Chapman and Hugh C. Foot (Oxford: Pergamon P r e s s , 1977), p. 57. 18. Mathew Winston, \"Humour n o i r and B lack Humor,\" i n Ve in s o f Humor ed Harry L e v i n (Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972), p. 278. 19. Winston, p. 2 79. 20. Mathew Winston, \" B l a c k Humor: To Weep w i t h Laugh ing \" i n Comedy: New P e r s p e c t i v e s e d . Maur ice Charney (New York : New York L i t e r a r y Forum, 1978), p. 33. 21. Winston, \"B l ack Humor\" p. 33. '22. Winston, \"Humour n o i r , \" p. 276-23. Bar shay, p. 57-48 CHAPTER TWO BEYOND MOZAMBIQUE P h i l i p Thomson i n h i s book The Grotesque d e l i n e a t e s the r e l a t i o n o f the g r o t e s q u e t o the ab s u r d ( i . e . the ab s u r d as a t h e m a t i c r a t h e r than t h e a t r i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ) as the f o l l o w i n g : We have seen t h a t t h e g r o t e s q u e can be reduced t o a c e r t a i n f o r m a l p a t t e r n . But t h e r e i s no f o r m a l p a t t e r n , no s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p e c u l i a r t o the a b s u r d : i t can o n l y be p e r c e i v e d as c o n t e n t , as a q u a l i t y , a f e e l i n g o r atmosphere, an a t t i t u d e o r w o r l d - v i e w . The f o r m a l means o f p r e s e n t i n g i t are many and v a r i e d : the ab s u r d can be e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h i r o n y , o r t h r o u g h p h i l o s o p h i c argument, o r th r o u g h the g r o t e s q u e i t s e l f . I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e l a t t e r p o s s i b i l i t y , we s h o u l d note t h a t c o n s i s t e n t p e r c e p t i o n o f the g r o t e s q u e , o r t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f g r o t e s q u e on a grand s c a l e , can l e a d t o the n o t i o n o f u n i v e r s a l a b s u r d i t y . 1 Camus d e s c r i b e s t h i s c o n c e p t o f a b s u r d i t y as estrangement: \" i n a u n i v e r s e s u d d e n l y d i v e s t e d o f i l l u s i o n s and l i g h t s , 2 man f e e l s an a l i e n , a s t r a n g e r . \" The a l i e n a t e d and the e s t r a n g e d a r e p r e c i s e l y the c h a r a c t e r s who comprise Walker's 3 f i f t h p l a y Beyond Mozambique. F u g i t i v e s from an i n e s c a p a b l e p a s t , t h e s e e x i l e s l i v e i s o l a t e d and a f r a i d i n a h o s t i l e j u n g l e . T h i s no-man's-land w h i c h t h e y i n h a b i t w i l l a l l o w n e i t h e r r e t r e a t nor advancement f o r i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e chaos o f the j u n g l e i n e v i t a b l y p r oves as i m p o s s i b l e as does r e - e n t r y i n t o t h e i r abandoned homelands. Of the a l i e n a t e d 49 man Camus s t a t e s , \"His e x i l e i s w i t h o u t remedy s i n c e he i s d e p r i v e d o f t h e memory of a l o s t home o r the hope o f a 4 promised l a n d . \" Such i s t h e p o s i t i o n o f Walker's c h a r -a c t e r s . The \" u n i v e r s a l a b s u r d i t y \" which d e f i n e s t h e i r c o n d i t i o n f i n d s i t s e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e i r combined a l i e n a t i o n and i s o l a -t i o n w i t h i n a c h a o t i c and u n p r e d i c t a b l e w o r l d . The v i s i o n o f Beyond Mozambique i s i n d e e d \" g r o t e s q u e n e s s on a grand s c a l e . \" Thomson s i t u a t e s w i t h i n the g r o t e s q u e the \"co-presence o f t h e l a u g h a b l e and something which i s incom-5 p a t i b l e w i t h the l a u g h a b l e . \" Mathew Winston n o t e s t h a t i t \" i s o b s e s s e d w i t h t h e human body, w i t h the ways i n which i t can be d i s t o r t e d , s e p a r a t e d i n t o i t s component p a r t s , m u t i l a t e d and abused.\"^ Lee Byron J e n n i n g s o b s e r v e s the i n c l u s i o n i n the g r o t e s q u e o f a \" f i g u r e imagined i n terms o f human form but d e v o i d o f r e a l humanity\" and adds t h a t t h i s g r o t e s q u e f i g u r e \"always d i s p l a y s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f fearsome and l u d i -7 c r o u s q u a l i t i e s . \" F o r Thomson the \" u n r e s o l v e d n a t u r e o f the g r o t e s q u e c o n f l i c t \" - i . e . , t h e t e n s i o n i n h e r e n t i n such a c o m b i n a t i o n - i s t h e \" d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e o f the g r o t e s q u e . \" I n Winston's words the r e a d e r must be kept \" u n e a s i l y suspended 9 between the two r e s p o n s e s . \" I t i s t h i s s u s p e n s i o n w h i c h c r e a t e s i n t h e r e a d e r the same c o n f u s i o n - and hence th e same a l i e n a t i o n - w h i c h t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g . The h o r r o r s o f Beyond Mozambique, i t s m u t i l a t i o n s , r a p e s and deaths 50 i n j e c t i n t o t h e p l a y the n e c e s s a r y mood of f e a r and t e r r o r . Y et t h i s t e r r i f y i n g q u a l i t y i s c o n t i n u a l l y u n d e r c u t by t h e c h a r a c t e r s l a c k o f c o n c e r n and the p l a y ' s comic s t y l e . I t i s t h i s comic m i t i g a t i o n o f t h e p l a y ' s h o r r i f i c e v e n t s w h i c h s i t u a t e s Walker i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f b l a c k humour - \"a t r a d i t i o n w hich combines t o produce some o f the b e s t examples o f the ..10 g r o t e s q u e . The o p e n i n g t a b l e a u o f Beyond Mozambique s u g g e s t s immediate-l y the c o - p r e s e n c e o f o p p o s i t e s f o r f l a n k i n g e i t h e r s i d e o f the s t e p s a r e a p i c n i c t a b l e and an o p e r a t i n g t a b l e . More s t r o n g l y f e l t though i s t h e sense o f i s o l a t i o n . The \" o l d p o o r l y main-t a i n e d c o l o n i a l house\" i s c o m p l e t e l y \"surrounded by j u n g l e . \" S c a t t e r e d around i t a r e \" o l d t i r e s ; machine p a r t s , magazines and newspapers.\" Most s i g n i f i c a n t perhaps i s the \" b a t t e r e d t e l e p h o n e p o l e \" w h i c h r e s t s a g a i n s t the house, i t s \" w i r e s hanging t o t h e ground.\" As communication w i t h the w o r l d be-yond the j u n g l e i s i m p o s s i b l e , the i n h a b i t a n t s here must s u r v i v e w i t h i n the c o n f i n e s o f t h e i r own environment; y e t as the s t a g e s u g g e s t s i t i s a w o r l d i n d i s a r r a y and decay. Technology has been d i s m a n t l e d and the c o n q u e r i n g s p i r i t o f i m p e r i a l i s m i s w i t h e r i n g from n e g l e c t . The p l a y i s t i g h t l y c o n s t r u c t e d h a v i n g o n l y s i x c h a r -a c t e r s and s i x scenes and t h r o u g h o u t i t the menance o f the e n v e l o p i n g j u n g l e i s s t r e s s e d ; i n c o h e r e n t mumblings, p i e r c i n g screams and r h y t h m i c drums p u n c t u a t e th e c o n v e r s a t i o n on the 51 p o r c h . L i v i n g i n t h e c o l o n i a l house a r e Dr. E n r i c o Rocco and h i s w i f e 01ga. Rocco i s an I t a l i a n d o c t o r h i d i n g from j u s t i c e - h i s h i s t o r y i n c l u d e s a s t i n t i n the N a z i l a b o r a t o r i e s e x p e r i m e n t i n g on human g u i n e a p i g s . H i s w i f e Olga l i k e w i s e i s h i d i n g ; h er f l i g h t , however, i s from r e a l i t y and she t a k e s r e f u g e i n b e i n g \" c l a s s i c a l l y d e l u d e d . \" B e l i e v i n g h e r s e l f t o be Olga from Chekhov's Three S i s t e r s , she hums P o l o v t s i a n Dances and f a n t a s i z e s a s i s t e r named Masha. Rocco and Olga are a i d e d i n t h e i r c h o r e s by a Greek named Tomas. As Rocco's l a b o r a t o r y a s s i s t a n t he r o b s t h e l o c a l graves f o r c a d a v e r s w i t h which Rocco can e x p e r i m e n t . H i s d u t i e s towards O l g a , however, a r e o f a d o m e s t i c n a t u r e and i n c l u d e b o t h t h e k i t c h e n and t h e bedroom. The l o c a l law o f f i c e r i s an ex-Mountie s e n t by h i s s u p e r i o r s t o p r o v e h i m s e l f . C o r r u p t , d e l i r i o u s w i t h f e v e r and v i o l e n t l y p s y c h o t i c , the C o r p o r a l , however, i s more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f chaos t h a n o f o r d e r . L i d u c , the p a r i s h p r i e s t , l i k e w i s e , has been e x i l e d t o the j u n g l e i n t h e hope t h a t he \" w i l l never be he a r d o f a g a i n ; \" a p e d e r a s t and a j u n k i e he has been r e j e c t e d by h i s c h u r c h as an embarrassment. The f i n a l i n h a b i t a n t , R i t a , i n f l i g h t from a p a s t w h i c h i n c l u d e s p o r n f i l m s and a p h y s i c a l l y a b u s i v e b o y f r i e n d , p asses her time i n c i n e m a t i c r e v e r i e : RITA: Sometimes I j u s t pour m y s e l f a s t i f f g i n and l e a n a g a i n s t t h a t b i g t r e e o u t s i d e my t e n t and j u s t l e t t h a t sun s i n k s l o w l y down i n t o the ground w h i l e I shake the i c e cubes around i n the g l a s s . And when I do t h a t I get so d e e p l y i n t o R i t a Hayworth I c o u l d j u s t about d i e . (p. 107) 52 Obsessed w i t h f i l m i c f a n t a s y , R i t a dreams o f the movie which w i l l l e g i t i m i z e h e r c a r e e r . I n s e l f - m o c k e r y she d e s c r i b e s her f i c t i o n a l r o l e ; \" I p l a y a s t u p i d s l u t who always wanted t o be an a c t r e s s . \" (p. 106) The p l a y ' s l i n k t o Holl y w o o d , however, goes beyond R i t a ' s c i n e m a t i c a l l u s i o n s . The s t e r e o t y p e d c h a r a c t e r s and s e t t i n g o f Beyond Mozambique i m m e d i a t e l y suggest t o an audience r a i s e d on l a t e n i g h t t e l e v i s i o n , t h e b i z a r r e w o r l d o f the f i f t i e s ' B-movie, as C h r i s Johnson p o i n t s o u t . However, \" w h i l e i t s mode i s t h a t o f the B-movie, i t s c o n t e n t i s not.\"^\" 1 The m a n i a c a l schemes o f a p e r v e r s e s c i e n t i s t and h i s d i m - w i t t e d a s s i s t a n t were common f a r e among the f i f t i e s h o r r o r f l i c s , Dr. F r a n k e n s t e i n and h i s c r e a t i o n b e i n g the p r o t o t y p e f o r t h i s g enre., The t h r e a t o f e v i l i n h e r e n t i n thes e c o u p l e s , however, was u s u a l l y viewed as temporary; the f r e n z y which they p e r p e t r a t e d was i n e v i t a b l y conquered. Here i n Beyond Mozambique, however, the chaos w h i c h e n v e l o p e s the c h a r a c t e r s does n o t a l l o w t h i s t h r e a t t o be p e r c e i v e d as f o r e i g n ; e v i l i s p r e s e n t e d r a t h e r as endemic t o the environment. An i n t r i n s i c p a r t o f the u n i v e r s e i t can never be e r a d i c a t e d . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between Rocco and Tomas a l s o v a r i e s from i t s c i n e m a t i c c o u n t e r p a r t s . Tomas, found \" i n t h e d e s e r t s urrounded by a p l a t o o n o f dead s o l d i e r s , \" w i t h \"a b u l l e t i n h i s b r a i n \" i s l i k e so many o f the r e c o n s t r u c t e d l a b o r a t o r y monsters o f the movies, (p. 120) R e s u r r e c t e d by Rocco, he 53 becomes t h e b u t c h e r b e h i n d the d o c t o r ' s e x p e r i m e n t s - o f t e n r e s o r t i n g t o murder i n h i s q u e s t f o r c a d a v e r s . O l g a , l i k e -w i s e , c l a i m s him as her \" l a c k e y . \" C l o t h e d i n an apron when the c r a z e d c o u p l e found him, Tomas becomes Olga's homemaker. Un-l i k e h i s f i l m i c a n c e s t o r s , however, Tomas i s not a n n i h i l a t e d . R a t h e r , h i s f a t e i s t h e e x a c t r e v e r s e f o r n o t o n l y does he s u r v i v e the e n t i r e l e n g t h o f the p l a y , b u t he does so a t the expense o f the o t h e r s . Johnson sees i n t h i s r e v e r s a l , a b a t t l e between the r a c e s and a r e j e c t i o n o f i m p e r i a l i s t i c a r r o g a n c e and Walker h i m s e l f would appear t o endorse t h i s v i e w : Beyond Mozambique e x p r e s s e s what I t h i n k t h o s e j u n g l e movies were r e a l l y a l l about - t h e u g l i n e s s , t h e i m p e r i a l i s t q u a l i t y , the d e s p e r a - ^ t i o n o f the c h a r a c t e r s i n a t h e a t r i c a l s e t t i n g . M e t a p h o r i c a l l y , the p l i g h t o f t h e w e s t e r n c h a r a c t e r s can e a s i l y be i n t e r p r e t e d as a comment on the c o r r u p t i o n of t h e i r c u l t u r e . R e presented i n t h e s e f i v e c h a r a c t e r s a r e the i n s t i t u t i o n s o f m e d i c i n e , l a w, r e l i g i o n , a r t and sex. Each o f t h e s e i n s t i t u -t i o n s , however, proves i m p o t e n t b e f o r e the s u r r o u n d i n g chaos and i s u l t i m a t e l y p r e s e n t e d as p e r v e r s e . Indeed, none o f the s e r o u t e s p r o v e s c a p a b l e o f p r o v i n g the redemption f o r w h i c h the c h a r a c t e r s a r e s e a r c h i n g . Rocco's m e d i c i n e i s s a d i s t i c ; C o r p o r a l Lance's law i s v i o l e n t ; L i d u c ' s r e l i g i o n i s e s c a p i s t ; Olga's a r t i s d e l u s o r y and R i t a ' s sex i s d e g r a d i n g . To v i e w -Tomas as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h i s s o c i e t y , however, 54 i s perhaps s i m p l i s t i c . He, t o o , i s e s t r a n g e d and i s o l a t e d . The n a t i v e s who drum i n the j u n g l e a r e not h i s c o m p a t r i o t s and h i s b r u t a l murders o f t h e i r e l d e r s m a n i f e s t s h i s i n -d i f f e r e n c e t o them. H i s v i o l e n c e and s e x u a l a g g r e s s i o n a r e as u g l y and as d e s p e r a t e as the i m p e r i a l i s m and o p p r e s s i o n p r o f e s s e d by the w h i t e s . H i s ascendancy i s n o t an a c t o f v i n d i c a t i o n b u t r a t h e r one o f i n h e r i t a n c e . Brought t o l i f e by Rocco and Olga (who themselves embody the extreme p o l e s o f w e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n - s a d i s t i c b r u t a l power on the one hand and a l y r i c a l l o v e o f the r e f i n e d and b e a u t i f u l on the o t h e r ) he i s a t home i n the j u n g l e . U n l i k e t h e o t h e r s , Tomas never speaks n o s t a l g i c a l l y o f the p a s t o r h o p e f u l l y o f the f u t u r e . R a i s e d i n c h aos, he a c c e p t s the p r e s e n t as the o n l y r e a l i t y . A c c o r d i n g t o Bruce J a n o f f , b l a c k humour o f t e n p r e s e n t s two c o n f l i c t i n g s o c i e t i e s . He c a u t i o n s though, t h a t \" i n t h e w o r l d o f b l a c k humour t h e r e i s f r e q u e n t l y g r e a t c o n f u s i o n as t o which s o c i e t y i s t h e norm and which i s a b s u r d and what 13 c h a r a c t e r s f i t where.\" T h i s c o n f u s i o n between norms e x i s t s on many l e v e l s i n Beyond Mozambique. The f i r s t o n-stage appearances o f Rocco and h i s w i f e a r e d e c e p t i v e l y d o m e s t i c . Rocco, i n a l a b c o a t and \" c a r r y i n g h i s m e d i c a l bag\" r u s h e s on s t a g e t o answer a w h i s t l e from the j u n g l e . Immediately we imagine the h e r o i c s and d e d i c a t i o n o f a m i s s i o n a r y d o c t o r . A s i m i l a r r e a c t i o n o c c u r s w i t h Olga's e n t r a n c e . \" C a r r y i n g l i n e n and a b a s k e t f u l o f s i l v e r w a r e , p l a t e s , e t c . . . .\" Olga 55 s u g g e s t s t h e devo t e d and d u t i f u l w i f e . These o p i n i o n s , a l -though q u i c k l y d e s t r o y e d a r e n o n e t h e l e s s i n g r e a t c o n t r a s t t o the ones formed by the e n t r a n c e s o f the o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s . L i d u c ' s a r r i v a l , i m m e d i a t e l y s u g g e s t s a man u n c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h h i s environment. \"Covered w i t h mud up t o h i s c h e s t , \" we a r e j t o l d t h a t he i s \"a b i t myopic,\" has been chased by a w i l d p i g and has j u s t \"spent two e n t i r e days c l i n g i n g t o a v i n e . \" (p. 1 0 1 ) H i s a l i e n a t i o n , though c o m i c a l l y p r e s e n t e d , i s m a n i f e s t e d a t once t o the a u d i e n c e . More g h a s t l y , though s t i l l e n a c t e d i n a comic s t y l e , a r e the e n t r a n c e s o f Tomas, R i t a and C o r p o r a l Lance; each e n t e r s c a r r y i n g e i t h e r an e n t i r e c o r p s e o r i t s dismembered p i e c e s . Tomas, back from h i s gruesome c h o r e s , a r r i v e s w i t h a c o r p s e over h i s s h o u l d e r . Rocco i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o g n i z e s i t as O l d Jos e p h , t h e man he t a u g h t t o p l a y dominoes: ROCCO: No. The k n i f e was o n l y f o r c u t t i n g open the c o r p s e ' s s a c k s . To check f o r de-c o m p o s i t i o n . You've murdered O l d Joseph. Look a t him l y i n g t h e r e . I t a u g h t t h a t o l d man how t o p l a y dominoes. Oh God, he's m i s s i n g a f o o t . Where's h i s f o o t ? (Tomas shrugs.) Rocco p o i n t s t o h i s own f o o t . Where's O l d Joseph's f o o t ? (Tomas nods.;, Undoes h i s c o a t . The f o o t i s s t r u n g around h i s neck.) TOMAS: Good l u c k . ROCCO: What's wrong w i t h you? (Yanks i t o f f . ) Have you no r e s p e c t f o r human l i f e ? (Throws the f o o t i n t o the bushes.') I'm v e r y sad, 5 6 M i n u t e s l a t e r , however, t h e f o o t r e t u r n s t o the s t a g e , t h i s time wrapped around the b l a d e o f C o r p o r a l Lance's machete, S h a r i n g the s t a g e now w i t h the C o r p o r a l a r e R i t a , Olga and the se v e r e d head o f F a t h e r R i c c i . R i t a , h a v i n g awoken t o f i n d the head o u t s i d e her t e n t has a r r i v e d a t the Rocco's home w i t h i t i n a shopping bag. B l o o d c o v e r i n g her hands and arms she \" f i n g e r s her h a i r back:\" OLGA: Not so much a c t i v i t y p l e a s e . Y o u ' l l s t i r up t h e mo s q u i t o e s . RITA: Goddamnit. Have you seen t h e C o r p o r a l . I c a n ' t f i n d him anywhere. OLGA: No. What's t h a t you're c o v e r e d w i t h ? RITA: B l o o d . OLTA: From where? RITA: H i s head. OLGA: Whose head? RITA: The p r i e s t . F a t h e r R i c c i . Someone took an axe t o him. I found h i s head o u t s i d e my t e n t . I t ' s i n t h i s bag. And I don't know what I'm supposed t o do \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 w i t h i t . I mean I c a n ' t c a r r y i t around f o r e v e r . I t ' s s t u p i d . OLGA: T h i s j o k e i s i n poor t a s t e , S h i r l e y . RITA: The name's R i t a . Not S h i r l e y . R i t a . And i t ' s no j o k e . Look. (She drops the head from the bag.) OLGA: Yes. That's F a t h e r R i c c i a l l r i g h t . I r e c o g n i z e t h e d i s a p p r o v i n g l o o k . (p. 92) Olga's nonchalance and and complacency b e f o r e t h e s e gruesome e v e n t s b e l i e her f i r s t a l m o s t suburban appearance. U n p e r t u r b e d 57 by the head a t her f e e t she t e l l s R i t a , \"My dreams a r e much worse. Much worse. When I see b l o o d i n one o f my dreams i t s l i k e comic r e l i e f . \" (p. 92) B u r i e d below the s u r f a c e o f t h i s woman's calm i s an i m a g i n a t i o n o f b r u t a l p r o p o r t i o n s . Rocco's f i r s t s t a g e e n t r a n c e i s a l s o a s t u d y i n c o n t r a s t s . C o m p l e t e l y unconcerned w i t h the l i v i n g he c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e dead. H i s q u e s t f o r a c u r e f o r c a n c e r , l i k e w i s e , i s prompted no t by a l t r u i s m b u t r a t h e r by s e l f - s e r v i n g a m b i t i o n . Towards Tomas, he m a n i f e s t s a b r u t a l sadism. \"The s e c r e t i s t o a p p l y p r e s s u r e t o h i s head. A t the p o i n t where the b l o o d s t a i n i s the b r i g h t e s t , \" he a d v i s e s Olga when she c o m p l a i n s t h a t Tomas i s s l e e p i n g , (p. 104) The b i z a r r e w o r l d o f Beyond Mozambique i s one t h a t i s a t odds w i t h i t s e l f . Y et t o t h i s d i s o r d e r e d mess, Walker o f f e r s no a l t e r n a t i v e s . W i n s t o n , t a l k i n g o f b l a c k humour, s t a t e s t h a t \" i t does not assume a s e t o f norms, e i t h e r i m p l i c i t o r e x p l i c i t a g a i n s t which one may c o n t r a s t the a b s u r d o r g r o t e s q u e w o r l d 14 o f the a u t h o r . \" T h i s i s c e r t a i n l y t r u e o f Walker's p l a y . The o n l y w o r l d s which e x i s t s e p a r a t e l y from the i s o l a t e d d w e l l i n g d e p i c t e d i n the p l a y a r e the s u r r o u n d i n g j u n g l e , w h i c h i s i n h a b i t a b l e and h o s t i l e , and the s o c i e t i e s from which t h e c h a r a c t e r s have f l e d . I t soon becomes a p p a r e n t , though, t h a t t h e s e t h r e e w o r l d s a r e i n e x t r i c a b l y l i n k e d . The i n -c r e a s i n g drumming t h r o u g h o u t the p l a y h i g h l i g h t s t h e j u n g l e ' s p r o x i m i t y and s u g g e s t s a t h r e a t o f i n v a s i o n . S i m i l a r l y the 58 demented a c t i o n s o f the c h a r a c t e r s a r e q u i c k l y r e v e a l e d t o be mere c o n t i n u a t i o n s o f p a s t a t r o c i t i e s and h a b i t s . The new l i f e w h i c h the c h a r a c t e r s have e s t a b l i s h e d i n the j u n g l e v a r i e s l i t t l e from t h e i r p r e v i o u s p a t t e r n s . L i d u c i n t h e j u n g l e i s s t i l l d r u g - c r a z e d and l i k e w i s e the C o r p o r a l i s s t i l l \"haunted.\" Having s h o t a f a r m e r ' s cow i n Canada because \"the e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e i r eyes made him f e e l t h ey were i n e t e r n a l m i s e r y , \" Cp. 121) he e n a c t s i n t h e j u n g l e t h e same remedy on d e f e n s e l e s s e l e v e n y e a r o l d n a t i v e g i r l s . R i t a , t o o , c a n n o t escape the p e r s e c u t i o n s o f her p a s t ; beaten by her b o y f r i e n d and e x p l o i t e d by p o r n o g r a p h e r s she l i v e d i n New York a s e r v i l e e x i s t e n c e . I n the j u n g l e , t o o , she i s ex-p l o i t e d ; d o u b l e - c r o s s e d by Tomas and raped by the n a t i v e s f o r whom she smuggled, R i t a i s u n a b l e t o break the p a t t e r n . O l g a i s s i m i l a r l y t r a p p e d . Her p r i s o n , though, i s her mind and the h o r r i f y i n g dreams and d e l u s i o n s which i t p r o d u c e s . A new l o c a l e would change n o t h i n g f o r h e r . Most f r i g h t e n i n g , though, a r e the m a n i a c a l e x p e r i m e n t s o f Rocco. As a d o c t o r t o the N a z i ' s , he a i d e d and performed e x p e r i m e n t s on l i v e humans. T h i s monstrous a c t , r o o t e d i n h i s t o r y and m i r r o r e d i n Rocco's i n s a n e o p e r a t i o n s i n the j u n g l e p r o v i d e s t h e most g r i s l y l i n k between Walker's f i c t i o n a l chaos and r e c e n t w e s t e r n h i s t o r y . Thomson o b s e r v e s t h a t i t i s \" p r e c i s e l y the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t the g r o t e s q u e w o r l d , however s t r a n g e , i s y e t our w o r l d , r e a l and immediate which makes t h e 59 g r o t e s q u e so p o w e r f u l . \" I n t h e a t r i c a l terms the \" r e a l and immediate\" i s evoked t h r o u g h a r e a l i s t i c s e t which a v o i d s s t y l i z a t i o n . Walker, comparing h i s p r o d u c t i o n o f the p l a y t o an e a r l i e r one d i s c u s s e s the t e c h n i q u e . He d i d i t i n b l a c k and w h i t e , f o r example. But i t o c c u r r e d t o me t h a t t h e r e was a n o t h e r way to do i t . I don't know i f i t was b e t t e r o r worse. I t h i n k t h e b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e , b e s i d e s the d e s i g n w hich I d i d i n c o l o u r , was t h a t I had the a c t o r s go f o r a v e r y r e a l i s t i c base. E r i c ' s p r o d u c t i o n was much more s t y l i z e d . What I wanted t o see and v e r i f y was whether t h e s c r i p t would h o l d i f the a c t o r s went f o r a r e a l i s t i c approach. I t h i n k i t d i d . 1 6 As the gr o t e s q u e i s e s s e n t i a l t o Walker's s t y l e a r e a l i s t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n becomes mandatory. Thomson r i g h t l y c l a i m s t h a t i n a f i c t i o n a l w o r l d \" w i t h no p r e t e n s i o n s t o a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h 17 r e a l i t y , t he g r o t e s q u e i s alm o s t o ut of the q u e s t i o n . \" The e v o c a t i o n o f Walker's w o r l d as our w o r l d i s f u r t h e r c r e a t e d by the i n d i v i d u a l a c t i o n s o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s ; however deviant they may be, th e y a r e s t i l l n o t w i t h o u t r e a l - l i f e models. N a z i p s y c h o p a t h s , c h i l d a b u s e r s , and drug a d d i c t s are a l l p a r t o f t h e w o r l d ' s r e c e n t h i s t o r y . The s o c i a l chaos w h i c h haunts t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s i s but a r e f l e c t i o n o f the s o c i e t y w h i c h has shaped them. B l a c k humour, though, i s n o t s a t i r e and Walker's aim i n Beyond Mozambique i s n o t s a t i r i c a l . Winston h i g h l i g h t s t h e d i f f e r e n c e : But they (black h u m o r i s t s ) view s o c i a l and i n d i v i d u a l chaos as a s p e c t s o f u n i v e r s a l chaos and t h e r e f o r e h o l d o u t no hope o f r e f o r m o r c o r r e c t i o n . U n l i k e s a t i r e , b l a c k humor has no i d e a l s . 1 8 6 0 We have a l r e a d y seen t h a t b o t h the c h a r a c t e r s and the s o c i e t i e s p r e s e n t e d i n the p l a y p r o v i d e n e i t h e r an a l t e r n a t i v e t o the chaos nor a p o t e n t i a l f o r r e d e m p t i o n . Redemption i n immediate terms i s d e f i n e d d i f f e r e n t l y by each of the c h a r a c t e r s . F o r Rocco, redemption i s a Nobel P r i z e ; f o r the C o r p o r a l i t i s a p r o m o t i o n ; f o r R i t a i t i s a l e g i t i -mate movie; f o r L i d u c i t i s c o n g r e g a t i o n and f o r Olga i t i s Moscow. L i k e Chekhov's Moscow, however, t h e s e dreams w i l l r emain u n r e a l i z e d and the c h a r a c t e r s w i l l remain t r a p p e d i n a no-man's l a n d ; \"No hope o f r e f o r m \" can be h e l d o u t as t h e f u t u r e o f f e r s no a l t e r n a t i v e t o the p a s t . I n t h e l a r g e r m e t a p h y s i c a l sense, however, hope i s a l s o d e n i e d . V i r t u a l l y a l l o f the c h a r a c t e r s make r e f e r e n c e t o God - a l b e i t some more f r e q u e n t l y t h a n o t h e r s - y e t none has a c l e a r i d e a o f what God r e p r e s e n t s . O l g a , w h i l e a d m i t t i n g t h a t God might be a r e a l i t y c o m p l a i n s t h a t he i s n o n e t h e l e s s \"not a c c e s s i b l e . \" (p. 123) L i d u c , who as a p r i e s t would be e x p e c t e d t o have the c l e a r e s t i d e a o f God i s a c t u a l l y the most c o n f u s e d . LIDUC: ...But the s t r a n g e s t t h i n g . I n the m i d d l e o f a l l t h a t and even now, my o c c a s i o n a l r e l a p s e i n t o t o t a l c a t a t o n i a n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , I s t i l l have a r e l a t i o n -s h i p w i t h God. I l o v e him. And I t r u s t him. And u n t i l I am done away w i t h I w i l l endeavour t o b r i n g him and h i s word t o o t h e r s . (pp. 122-123) L i d u c ' s God might be a r e a l i t y b u t he i s s t i l l l i k e Olga's 61 i n a c c e s s i b l e . Whi le \" i n the p roces s o f shoo t ing up\" he e x p l a i n s t o Rocco, \"Okay. Sure. But f i r s t I have to get c l o s e r to God. I have the f e e l i n g we've been out o f t o u c h . \" (p. 132) God f o r L i d u c i s e v e n t u a l l y reduced to a drug i nduced dream. C o r p o r a l Lance and R i t a t r e a t God more c a v a l i e r l y . Fo r them he i s an exc l amat i on - a s tatement o f d e s p a i r and anger . \"Oh my God, \" (p. 133) the C o r p o r a l screams when he r e a l i z e s he i s wh in i ng . Unable to bear h i s own \" e x t e r n a l m i s e r y \" he begs to be k i l l e d . R i t a ' s opening l i n e s i n c l u d e two o u t -b u r s t s o f \"Goddamnit . \" Damned by God i s an a p p r o p r i a t e sum-mat ion o f her p red i cament . L i v i n g i n chaos she i s den ied the o r d e r i n g and meaning t h a t a God would a l l o w . The most s i g n i f i c a n t s tatements on God come perhaps from Tomas and Rocco. A t the p l a y ' s c l o s e Tomas e n t e r s i n p r i e s t ' s c l o t h e s wear ing the two c r u c i f i x e s o f the murdered p r i e s t s , F a t h e r R i c c i and F a t h e r Ca r son . When q u e s t i o n e d by L i d u c as to where he had o b t a i n e d these a r t i c l e s , Tomas r e p l i e s tw ice \"God . \" G iven t h a t Tomas has become the embodiment of chaos and t h a t chaos i s the r e i g n i n g f o r c e , Tomas' d e s c r i p t i o n o f h i m s e l f as God i s a p p r o p r i a t e . God as a f o r c e , however, i s e q u i v o c a l and i n d e f i n a b l e . D e s c r i b i n g h i s own i n n e r chaos as \" t h e absence o f God , \" (p. 113) Rocco s u p p l i e s another i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f God. For Tomas, God i s the power - whatever i t may be - t h a t r u l e s f o r L i d u c , God 62 i s the drug t h a t numbs. F o r O l g a , God i s s t i l l Moscow - the i n a c c e s s i b l e , t h e u n a t t a i n a b l e . For Rocco, however, God i s pur p o s e , meaning and re d e m p t i o n . \" T h i s i s the t r u t h , \" Rocco s t a t e s \" I t ' s n o t g l o r y I'm a f t e r i t ' s r e d e m p t i o n . \" (p. 126) As !'.the absence o f God\" he does i n d e e d embody the a r b i t -r a r y and g r a t u i t o u s v i o l e n c e o f an i r r a t i o n a l and i n d i f f e r e n t u n i v e r s e . H i s p a s t h i s t o r y and h i s t r e a t m e n t o f Tomas i n d i c a t e h i s d i s r e g a r d f o r human l i f e . Winston s t a t e s t h a t \"the gr o t e s q u e i s apt t o p r e s e n t an i n f l i c t o r o f t o r m e n t s , an 19 a g g r e s s o r i n a w o r l d o f v i c t i m s . \" Rocco's r o l e as d o c t o r / mad s c i e n t i s t g r a n t s him immediate c o n t r o l over t h e l i v e s o f many. In such a s t a n c e he resembles Camus' d r a m a t i c p o r t r a y a l o f t h e c r a z e d Roman Emperor, C a l i g u l a . L i k e C a l i g u l a he p l a c e s h i m s e l f on par w i t h t h e Gods: ROCCO: I have f i n a l l y d e s t r o y e d t h a t f u c k i n g tower and now t h e r e a r e o n l y t h r e e f o r c e s i n t h e w o r l d . God. Ign o r a n c e . And me. (p. 127) Rocco's s e a r c h f o r t h e c u r e f o r c a n c e r - s y m b o l i c o f a d e s i r e t o c h e a t d e a t h - i s r e d o l e n t a l s o o f C a l i g u l a ' s mania: ROCCO: My e x p e r i m e n t s . I'm s e a r c h i n g f o r the c u r e t o c a n c e r . LIDUC ROCCO LIDUC ROCCO Which one? A l l o f them. I t seems l i k e an i m p o s s i b l e g o a l . That's why I chose i t . (p. 112) 63 I n Camus' p l a y C a l i g u l a , C a l i g u l a i s m o t i v a t e d by a s i m i l a r l o n g i n g : SCIPIO: But C a i u s , i t ' s . . . i t ' s i m p o s s i b l e ! CALIGULA: That's the whole p o i n t . SCIPIO: I don't f o l l o w . CALIGULA: I r e p e a t - t h a t i s my p o i n t . I'm e x p l o i t i n g the i m p o s s i b l e . Or, more a c c u r a t e l y , i t ' s a q u e s t i o n o f making the i m p o s s i b l e p o s s i b l e . SCIPIO: But t h a t game may l e a d t o - t o 2 Q a n y t h i n g ! I t ' s a l u n a t i c ' s p a s t i m e . C a l i g u l a d e s c r i b e s h i m s e l f as \" l u c i d \" and d e c l a r e s t h a t \" t h i s 21 w o r l d has no i m p o r t a n c e . \" C o n s c i o u s b e f o r e t h e a b s u r d i t y o f 22 a u n i v e r s e where \"men d i e ; and they a r e n o t happy,\" C a l i g u l a 2 d e c i d e s t o f o r c e h i s s u b j e c t s \" t o l i v e by t h e l i g h t o f t r u t h . \" To t h i s end he a r b i t r a r i l y and randomly condemns men t o d e a t h . Under C a l i g u l a ' s regime t h e Roman s e n a t o r s and p a t r i c i a n s can no l o n g e r a v o i d r e c o g n i t i o n o f the a b s u r d . H i s l i v i n g p r e s e nce has become i t s p h y s i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n . Rocco j u s t i f i e s h i s c r u e l t i e s and t y r a n n i e s w i t h t h e same p h i l o s o p h y . ROCCO: Because t h e r e ' s something about c o m m i t t i n g c r i m e s a g a i n s t humanity t h a t p u t s you i n t o u c h w i t h the purpose o f t h e u n i v e r s e . (p. 126) O f f e r i n g a h a r s h , u n j u s t cosmos as h i s model, Rocco, l i k e C a l i g u l a , t r i e s t o embody i t s c r u e l t y . 64 As w i t h C a l i g u l a , though, Rocco makes a c r u c i a l e r r o r . Camus i n programme n o t e s t o t h e p l a y o b s e r v e s : But i f C a l i g u l a i s r i g h t t o deny the e x i s t e n c e o f the Gods, he i s wrong t o deny the importance o f men. 4 R o c c o 1 s d e n i a l o f h i s f e l l o w men i n c r e a s e s h i s i s o l a t i o n . Impotent w i t h h i s w i f e and u n a b l e t o l o v e \" w i t h such h e l l i n my h e a r t , \" Rocco succeeds i n d e s t r o y i n g h i s own humanity and f u r t h e r i n g h i s a l i e n a t i o n . The sense o f a l i e n a t i o n and disharmony w h i c h permeates the p l a y i s t h e a t r i c a l i z e d t h r o u g h g r o t e s q u e imagery. Mad-ness and m u t i l a t i o n a r e the two m o t i f s w h i c h e x t e r n a l i z e the estrangement o f man from h i s u n i v e r s e and o f man from h i m s e l f . E v e r y c h a r a c t e r can be d e s c r i b e d as \"unhinged:\" C o r p o r a l Lance by h i s f e v e r ; L i d u c by h i s d r u g s , Tomas by h i s o p e r a t i o n s and Rocco, O l g a and R i t a by t h e i r r e v e r i e s . T h i s s e p a r a t i o n o f mind from body, t y p i c a l t o t h e g r o t e s q u e , d r a m a t i z e s the fundamental i s o l a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . D i s j o i n t e d even from h i m s e l f , he can never hope t o make c o n t a c t w i t h a n o t h e r . M u t i l a t i o n i s another approach t o the same c o n c e p t . Winston o b s e r v e s t h a t \"the t h r e a t t o t h e body i s p a r t o f t h e 25 omnipresent t h r e a t o f d e a t h i n g r o t e s q u e b l a c k humor.\" As the \" f i n a l d i v o r c e between body and s p i r i t \" d e a t h i s t h e u l t i -mate symbol o f a l i e n a t i o n . Beyond Mozambique i s a v i r t u a l c a t a l o g u e o f m u t i l a t e d l i m b s and m u s c l e s : Old Joseph's f o o t , F a t h e r R i c c i ' s head and Old P e t e r ' s i n t e s t i n e s a r e thrown 65 and bounced across the set. Throughout the p l a y the human body i s t r e a t e d w i t h i r r e v e r a n c e . Winston l i n k s t h i s treatment w i t h the technique of grotesque black humour: The t h r e a t becomes stronger when a character i s m u t i l a t e d , but a comic element i s added i f the character i s untroubled by h i s mishaps or i f the m u t i l a t i o n i s acted or narrated f a r c i c a l l y \"Change your bandage, Tomas. You're bleeding on the c r o i s -sants,\" (p. 122) Olga calmly t e l l s Tomas. The j u x t a p o s i t i o n of the image of Tomas1 hideous wound beside the r e f i n e d elegance of tea and c r o i s s a n t s increases the sense of i n -c o n g r u i t y . Olga's matter of f a c t order s u p p l i e s the comic tone. S i m i l a r l y , Corporal Lance's f i r s t r e a c t i o n to h i s missing arm i s unexpected: \"Then i t ' s gone. They r e a l l y took i t o f f . F a i l e d again, (looks up) Sorry Sarge.\" (p. 133) The bewil d e r i n g note \" E n t e r t a i n us\" which i s pinned to h i s sleeve s u p p l i e s the f a r c i c a l mood and prevents the spectator from empathizing too s t r o n g l y . The t r i v i a l i z a t i o n of death i n the grotesque provides a dual purpose. Death on stage allows a t h e a t r i c a l i z a t i o n of the t h r e a t which has been present throughout the p l a y . An i r r e v e r e n t approach to t h i s same death serves - however b r i e f l y - to minimize i t s awesome power. In Winston's words, \"death dominates but i t occurs i n a r i d i c u l o u s manner and i s 27 never d i g n i f i e d . \" 66 Olga's d e a t h a t t h e p l a y ' s end i s an example o f such an i n d i g n i t y . A f t e r h a v i n g p a i n t e d w i t h l i p s t i c k \"two t e a r s and a hugh obscene s m i l e \" on t h e dead Olga's f a c e , Rocco then m a n i p u l a t e s h e r v o c a l c o r d s and g i v e s her the p l a y ' s c l o s i n g speech. Walker's t r e a t m e n t of Olga's c o r p s e c o r -responds t o the o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f the body which Winston h a i l s as t y p i c a l o f g r o t e s q u e b l a c k humour: P e o p l e become a n i m a l s o r o b j e c t s , o r share t h e i r t r a i t s o r a r e l i k e n e d t o them. B o d i l y p a r t s a r e e x a g g e r a t e d o r d i s t o r t e d . 2 8 O b j e c t i f i e d t h e human body i s a mere puppet and r e p r e s e n t s a r e d u c t i o n o f man t o a h e l p l e s s pawn and d e n y i n g t o him any a u t h o r i t y i n h i s u n i v e r s e . Olga's f i n a l speech - as m a n i p u l a t e d by Rocco - i s the same c l o s i n g speech o f Chekhov's Olga i n the Three S i s t e r s : OLGA: ...We s h a l l l i v e ! The music i s so gay, so j o y f u l , and i t seems as though a l i t t l e more and we s h a l l know what we a r e l i v i n g f o r , why we a r e s u f f e r i n g ...oh. I f o n l y we c o u l d know. I f o n l y we c o u l d know. (p. 135) T h i s i s a g a i n Camus' d e s e r t o f l u c i d awareness where the c r y f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n w i l l always go unanswered f o r Olga's d e s p e r a t e d e s i r e t o know w i l l remain as e l u s i v e as her be-l o v e d Moscow. F u r t h e r m o r e , the music which c l o s e s t h i s p l a y i s f a r from b e i n g j o y f u l . A t the sound o f e x p l o d i n g drums, 67 t h e r e i s a \"sudden v i o l e n c e and a c t i v i t y from t h e bushes, g e t t i n g c l o s e r and l o u d e r . \" (p. 135) Chaos has now f u l l y u n l e a s h e d i t s e l f . The i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h i s u n i v e r s e f i n d t hemselves a b r u p t l y i n a w o r l d \" d i v e s t e d o f I l l u s i o n s . \" \" I t sounds l i k e a n a r c h y , \" (p. 100) the C o r p o r a l r i g h t l y o b s e r v e s . A n a r c h i c and i r r a t i o n a l , the u n i v e r s e o f Beyond Mozambique i s f o r e v e r i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . The w o r l d p o s i t e d here by Walker i s s t i l l one which a l l o w s no a b s o l u t e s and no t r u t h s o t h e r than d e a t h . E q u i v o c a l and a r b i t r a r y i t p r o v i d e s no s o l a c e f o r the i s o l a t e d i n d i v i -d u a l . The g r o t e s q u e which h a r b o u r s i n i t s s t r u c t u r e a ten s e c o n f l i c t o f i n c o n g r u i t i e s and i n c o m p a t i b l e s v i v i d l y evokes the n a t u r e o f a u n i v e r s e t h a t w i l l g i v e precedence t o no system o f b e l i e f o r s t r u c t u r i n g . Wolfgang Kayser d e s c r i b e s t h e g r o -tesque as a game: The g r o t e s q u e i s a game w i t h the a b s u r d , i n the sense t h a t the g r o t e s q u e a r t i s t p l a y s , h a l f l a u g h i n g l y , h a l f h o r r i f i e d w i t h the deep a b s u r d -i t i e s o f e x i s t e n c e . \" H a l f l a u g h i n g l y and h a l f h o r r i f i e d \" Walker i n Beyond Mozambique w a l k s the \" f i n e l i n e between the s e r i o u s and the comic.\" 68 NOTES CHAPTER TWO 1. P h i l i p Thomson, The Grotesque (London: Methuen, 1972) , pp. 31-32. 2. A l b e r t Camus, The Myth o f S i s yphus , t r a n s . J u s t i n O ' B r i e n (New York : A l b r e d A. Knopf, 1969), p. 6. 3. A l l r e f e r e n c e s w i l l be to the f o l l o w i n g e d i t i o n : George F. Wa lker , Beyond Mozambique i n Three P l ay s (Toronto: Coach House P r e s s , 1978). 4. Camus, p. 6. 5. Thomson, p. 3. 6. Mathew Winson, \"Humour n o i r and B lack Humor,\" i n Ve in s o f Humor, e d . Harry L e v i n (Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972) , p. 282. 7. Lee Byron J e n n i n g s , The L u d i c r o u s Demon: Aspec t s o f The Grotesque i n German Post -Romant ic Prose , (Berke ley : U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1963), pp. 9-10. 8. Thomson, p. 21. 9. Wins ton , p. 284. 10. Thomson, p. 16. 11. C h r i s Johnson, \"George F. Walker : B-Movies Beyond the A b s u r d , \" Canadian L i t e r a t u r e , No. 85, (1980), p. 94. 12. Robert W a l l a c e , \"George Walker : I n te rv iew\" i n The Work, e d . Robert Wa l lace and Cyn th i a Zimmerman (Toronto: Coach House P r e s s , 1982), p. 218. 13. Bruce J a n o f f , \" B l a ck Humor: Beyond S a t i r e , \" Ohio Review, 14, (1972), p. 17. 14. Mathew Winston, \"The E t h i c s o f Contemporary B lack Humor,\" Co lo rado Q u a r t e r l y , 24 (1976), p. 278. 69 15. Thomson, P. 23. 16. Wa l l a ce , p. 215. 17. Thomson, p. 23. 18. Wins ton, \" E t h i c s , \" p. 278. 19. Winston, \"Humour n o i r , \" p. 283. 20. A l b e r t Camus, C a l i g u l a , t r an s S t u a r t G i l b e r t , (New York: A l f r e d A. Knopf, 1958) , p. 13. 21. Camus, C a l i g u l a , p. 14. 22. Camus, C a l i g u l a , p. 8. 23. Camus, C a l i g u l a , p. 9. 24. Quoted i n P h i l i p Thody, A l b e r t Camus, (London: Hamish Hami l ton , 1961), p. 74. 25. Wins ton, \"Humour n o i r / P- 283. 26. Wins ton, \"Humour n o i r / \" P- 283 . 27. Wins ton, \"Humour n o i r P. 283 . 28. Winston, \"Humour n o i r P. 282. 29. Quoted i n Thomson, p. 18 . 70 CHAPTER THREE THEATRE OF THE FILM NOIR D i s c u s s i n g the r e l a t i o n o f form t o c o n t e n t , Mathew Winston o b s e r v e s \"the shape o f any p l o t has an i m p l i c i t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h what i s b e l i e v e d o r hoped t o be t h e shape of t h e w o r l d and the way i t operates.\"\"'\" T h i s i s i m m e d i a t e l y e v i d e n t i n such t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s as t r a g e d y , comedy and melodrama. I n h e r e n t i n t h e s e d r a m a t i c genres i s a p h i l o -s o p h i c a l cosmic o r d e r i n g . The b l a c k h u m o u r i s t , however, b e l i e v i n g \" r e a l i t y t o be f o r m l e s s , \" \"experiments w i t h form 2 and m u t i l a t e s i t . \" V i e w i n g the u n i v e r s e as u n p r e d i c t a b l e and w i t h o u t d e s i g n , b l a c k humour r e j e c t s a l l l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s w h i c h p o s i t - e i t h e r i m p l i c i t l y o r e x p l i c i t l y - an o r d e r e d w o r l d , f o r \" w i t h t h e b l a c k h u m o r i s t even t h i s l i m i t e d a s s e n t t o the t r a d i t i o n a l arrangements o f human e x p e r i e n c e has be-3 come i m p o s s i b l e . \" As Max S c h u l z p o i n t s out b l a c k humour o f t e n uses parody t o c a s t doubt on \"these frames o f r e f e r e n c e - t h e s e c a t e g o r i -4 c a l i m p e r a t i v e s - by means o f which we o r g a n i z e the chaos.\" Parody, as a p l a y f u l approach t o form, a r o u s e s r e a d e r e x p e c t a -t i o n w i t h the i n t e n t i o n o f l a t e r s u b v e r t i n g i t . Through c o u n t e r f e i t i t e s t a b l i s h e s a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the o r i g i n a l -s t y l e , language and s i t u a t i o n b e i n g a s s i d u o u s l y r e c r e a t e d . 71 A sense o f i n c o n g r u i t y , however, a r i s e s when d i s c r e p a n c i e s between e x p e c t a t i o n and outcome a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the p a r o d i c t e x t and i t i s t h i s i n c o n g r u i t y which g i v e s the parody i t s comic e f f e c t . O r i g i n a l l y d e f i n e d as \"the h i g h b u r l e s q u e o f a p a r t i c u l a r work (or a u t h o r ) a c h i e v e d by a p p l y i n g the s t y l e o f t h a t work (or a u t h o r ) t o a l e s s worthy s u b j e c t , \" 5 parody i s now viewed i n a b r o a d e r c o n t e x t . D i s t i n c t i o n s between e l e v a t e d and l o w l y s u b j e c t m a t e r i a l have been a-bandoned and the f o c u s l i e s i n s t e a d on the c o n t r a s t . Parody i s a l i t e r a r y form, w h i c h i s c r e a t e d by i n c o r p o r a t i n g elements o f an a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g form i n a manner c r e a t i n g a c o n s c i o u s c o n t r a s t . These i m i t a t i v e c o n t r a s t s r e s u l t from the j u x t a - _ p o s i t i o n o f two u n l i k e approaches t o the same f o r m . 6 B l a c k humour - i t s e l f a j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f o p p o s i t e s - i s t h u s a n a t u r a l p a r t n e r t o the p a r o d i c and the u n c e r t a i n t i e s and i n c o n g r u i t i e s w h i c h i i t evokes. B e c k e t t ' s c a l l f o r a form which w i l l \"admit the chaos\" f i n d s a p a r t i a l r e s p onse i n t h i s m i x t u r e o f parody and b l a c k humour. By u p s e t t i n g the modes o f thought b e h i n d the i m i t a t e d model, the b l a c k humour p a r o d i s t weakens the s t r u c t u r e o f t h e form as w e l l . I t s own i n t e r n a l o r d e r i n g shaken, t h e work can no l o n g e r p o s i t a l a r g e r cosmic o r d e r i n g . The u n c e r -t a i n t y i n t r o d u c e d by parody i s a f i r s t s t e p towards a d m i t t i n g the chaos. Walker's p l a y T h e a t r e o f the F i l m N o i r uses p r e c i s e l y 7 t h i s t e c h n i q u e . Combining the s t r u c t u r e o f d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n 72 w i t h t h e s t y l i s t i c s o f \" f i l m n o i r \" he c r e a t e s i n t h e a u d i e n c e a sense o f f a m i l i a r i t y . The e x p e c t a t i o n s aroused by t h i s f a m i l i a r i t y , however, a r e soon s u b v e r t e d . Through m a n i p u l a -t i o n o f the c h a r a c t e r t y p e s , p l o t developments, and p h i l o -s o p h i c a l p r e m i s e s which form the h a l l m a r k s o f d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n , Walker manages t o t u r n the form a g a i n s t i t s e l f . George G r e l l a i n h i s essay \"The H a r d - B o i l e d D e t e c t i v e N o v e l \" d e s c r i b e s t h e a c t i o n o f t h e s e n o v e l s as a \" q u e s t , both g a s e a r c h f o r t r u t h and an a t t empt t o e r a d i c a t e e v i l . \" Edward M a r g o l i e s p e r c e i v e s the d e t e c t i v e i n s i m i l a r t e rms: The h a r d - b o i l e d d i c k s , on the o t h e r hand, however c r a s s , c y n i c a l o r i l l i t e r a t e t h ey may sound, f r e q u e n t l y p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s as engaged i n some k i n d o f m o r a l i f n o t m e t a p h y s i c a l q u e s t ...the t e s t o f t h e i r i n t e g r i t y i s t h a t they g e t t o the bottom o f t h i n g s - the t r u t h . The d e t e c t i v e ' s i n t e g r i t y - a l o n g w i t h h i s s o l i t u d e and h i s independence - i s what d i s t i n g u i s h e s him from the o t h e r s who i n h a b i t h i s w o r l d . D r e s s e d t y p i c a l l y i n t r e n c h c o a t and f e d o r a , a c o n s t a n t smoker and a heavy d r i n k e r , t h e h a r d - b o i l e d hero was a man o f the c i t y , u s u a l l y though n o t always engaged i n c r i m i n a l d e t e c t i o n , a cop or a gumshoe. Moving t h r o u g h t h e c r i m i n a l u n d e r w o r l d w i t h a s h i e l d o f i r o n i c and wary detachment, t h i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s he-man f i g u r e used v i o l e n c e t o c o n t a i n v i o l e n c e ; he t w i s t e d or c i r c u m v e n t e d the law i n o r d e r t o u p h o l d the law. H i s m o r a l i t y was f l e x i b l e and u t i l i t a r i a n . Though he might r e s o r t t o d e v i o u s means t o g e t the j o b done, he was n o t f o r s a l e ; he had a fundamental i n t e g r i t y . 1 0 73 Sam Spade o f The M a l t e s e F a l c o n and P h i l i p Marlowe o f t h e Ch a n d l e r m y s t e r i e s t y p i f y the h a r d - b o i l e d d e t e c t i v e . T h e i r language i s t e r s e and c o n c r e t e , d e v o i d o f e i t h e r s e n t i m e n t a l i t y o r s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e . D e s p i t e enormous p e r s o n a l r i s k , t h ey proceed u n a i d e d i n t h e i r quest f o r t r u t h . I n v a r i a b l y t h e d e t e c t i v e i s tempted by t h e a l l u r e s o f a s e d u c t i v e b u t dangerous woman. B r i g i d 0 1Shaughnessy i n The M a l t e s e F a l c o n murders Spade's p a r t n e r and t r i e s t o i m p l i c a t e Spade i n her c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y . Spade's i n t e g r i t y , though, t r i u m p h s o v e r h i s p e r s o n a l d e s i r e s . Q u o t i n g h i s d u t y (\"When a man's p a r t n e r i s k i l l e d he's supposed t o do something about 11 i t \" ) he t u r n s B r i g i d over t o the p o l i c e . When the h a r d - b o i l e d n o v e l s were t r a n s f e r r e d t o the s c r e e n they n a t u r a l l y found e x p r e s s i o n i n the shadowy and c l a u s t r o p h o b i c s t y l i s t i c s o f t h e \" f i l m n o i r . \" The a l i e n a -t i o n o f the d e t e c t i v e and the chaos o f the w o r l d i n which he l i v e d demanded a f i l m i c e q u i v a l e n t . \" F i l m n o i r \" as cinema was more o f a mood tha n a genre; g a n g s t e r f i l m s , h o r r o r movies, and melodramas might a l l q u a l i f y as \" n o i r \" works. The q u i n t e s s e n t i a l f i l m n o i r c o u l d d e r i v e i t s p l o t from a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s . I t s u n i q u e n e s s , however, l a y i n i t s c i n e m a t i c m a n i p u l a t i o n o f theme and c h a r a c t e r . A p a r t from a shared b l a c k n e s s o f mood and c y n i c i s m o f to n e , the most o b v i o u s and predominant f e a t u r e o f t h e s e f i l m s i s t h e i r use o f l i g h t i n g . Tenebrous shadows and m i s t y scenes 74 g i v e the f i l m a vague, i n d i s t i n c t l o o k . L i g h t was used more t o i n t e r s e c t the frame than t o i r r a d i a t e i t . The e f f e c t was o f t e n fragmented and d i s j o i n t e d and was used as a v i s u a l e q u i v a l e n t t o the c h a r a c t e r s ' s t a t e o f mind. A s i m i l a r fragmented atmosphere i s c r e a t e d i n T h e a t r e o f the F i l m N o i r . By d i v i d i n g the a c t i o n i n t o t w e l v e s h o r t scenes and by abandoning the t r a d i t i o n a l c o n t a i n e d s e t s , Walker evokes a d i s j o i n t e d , d i s c o n n e c t e d w o r l d . A l s o l i n k i n g t h e p l a y t o the \" f i l m n o i r \" p o r t r a y a l s o f d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n a r e the n a r r a t i v e form, t h e p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h a c e n t r a l m y s t e r y , t h e s e x u a l i n t r i g u e s and the p r e d a t o r y p o r t r a y a l o f L i l l i a n e . Walker's p l a y , however, d e v i a t e s from t h e \" f i l m n o i r \" p r o t o t y p e i n a s i g n i f i c a n t manner. U n l i k e Spade and Marlowe, I n s p e c t o r C l a i r does n o t \"get t o the bottom o f t h i n g s ; \" the f o r c e b e h i n d t h e mystery i s never r e v e a l e d . The d e s i r e f o r the t r u t h w h i c h so s t r o n g l y m o t i v a t e d the h a r d - b o i l e d de-t e c t i v e s i s a l l but abandoned h e r e . Of t h e t w e l v e scenes w h i c h d i v i d e T h e a t r e o f the F i l m N o i r Scenes One and Twelve f u n c t i o n as a s o r t o f p r o l o g u e and e p i l o g u e . Both scenes s p o t l i g h t the d e t e c t i v e a l o n e under a s t r e e t lamp and b o t h s e r v e as commentaries on the a c t i o n w i t h i n . Of the t e n scenes w h i c h t h e s e two frame, f i v e o c c u r i n a g r a v e y a r d , two i n a b i s t r o and t h r e e i n L i l l i a n e ' s apartment. The main p r o t a g o n i s t s are B e r n a r d , the murdered Jean's homo-75 s e x u a l l o v e r ; L i l l i a n e , Jean's s i s t e r ; E r i c , her N a z i b o y f r i e n d ; Hank, a soon t o be c o u r t - m a r t i a l l e d /American s o l d i e r ; and f i n a l l y I n s p e c t o r C l a i r . The t ime i s P a r i s , 1944, s h o r t l y a f t e r the l i b e r a t i o n . J e a n , a n i n e t e e n y e a r o l d member o f the Communist P a r t y has been murdered and I n s p e c t o r C l a i r has been a s s i g n e d t o the c a s e . A second i n t r i g u e , however, i s i n t r o d u c e d i n Scene Four when B e r n a r d and L i l l i a n e meet i n t h e g r a v e y a r d . B e r n a r d i s drunk and has dug up Jean's body f o r r e a s o n s t h a t a r e never e x p l a i n e d . B e r n a r d , aware t h a t L i l l i a n e has been h a r b o u r i n g a N a z i s o l d i e r i n her apartment, t r i e s t o b l a c k -m a i l her i n t o m a r r y i n g him. A s e l f - d e s c r i b e d \" a g i n g n e u r o t i c , \" he i s too f r i g h t e n e d t o s u r f a c e as a homosexual and wants m a r r i a g e as p r o t e c t i o n . L i l l i a n e r e f u s e s and i n f o r m s E r i c t h a t B e r n a r d knows o f h i s e x i s t e n c e . The i n t r i g u e becomes the n one o f b i z a r r e e v e n t s , m a n i p u l a t i o n and u l t i m a t e l y s u r -v i v a l . B e f o r e t h e p l a y c l o s e s , however, E r i c , Hank and B e r n a r d a l l l i e dead i n the g r a v e y a r d . The s u r v i v o r s a r e L i l l i a n e , who goes on t o be one o f \" t h i s c o u n t r y ' s more s u c c e s s f u l f i l m a c t r e s s e s , \" and I n s p e c t o r C l a i r . The murder o f Jean remains an enigma. I n s p e c t o r C l a i r and L i l l i a n e a r e the most r e c o g n i z a b l y \" n o i r \" c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e p l a y - i . e . , t h e i r f u n c t i o n s a r e t y p i c a l o f the d e t e c t i v e genre. E r i c and Hank, as s o l d i e r s o f t h e Second World War, a l s o f i n d a n t e c e d e n t s i n the post-war 7 6 \" f i l m s n o i r s . \" The r e t u r n i n g v e t e r a n i n f i l m n o i r i s always p o r t r a y e d as an o u t s i d e r . He i s s h e l l - s h o c k e d and v i o l e n t ( W i l l i a m Bendix i n The B l u e D a h l i a , R o b e r t Ryan i n C r o s s f i r e ) , r e - e n t e r i n g a w o r l d whose laws he doesn't under-s t a n d . (Burt L a n c a s t e r i n C r i s s C r o s s , A l a n Ladd i n The Bl u e D a h l i a ) . When he s u r f a c e s i n n o i r , the r e t u r n i n g s o l d i e r has the d i s c o n n e c t e d -ness o f an ex-con.12 E r i c and Hank, however, u n l i k e t h e i r n o i r c o u n t e r p a r t s can never r e t u r n home. E r i c , an AWOL N a z i s o l d i e r i n h i d i n g from the l i b e r a t o r s , would be as much a f u g i t i v e In Germany as he i s i n F r a n c e . Hank, t o o , has been o s t r a c i z e d by h i s compa-t r i o t s ; \"conduct d e t r i m e n t a l \" has earned f o r him an i n e v i t -a b l e c o u r t m a r t i a l . T h e i r a l i e n a t i o n i s f u r t h e r suggested by t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c i s o l a t i o n . \"You speak my language,\" B e r n a r d t e l l s Hank, \"But you have an a c c e n t . \" (p. 13) Moments b e f o r e h i s d e a t h , how-e v e r , even t h i s a c c e n t e d attempt a t communication f a i l s . Reduced t o h y s t e r i a , Hank r e p e a t e d l y screams, \" I don't c a r e . \" BERNARD: ...He has a v e r y l i m i t e d v o c a b u l a r y . These a r e complex i s s u e s we're d e a l i n g w i t h . How i s he g o i n g t o manage w i t h so few words. (p. 44) E r i c ' s l i n g u i s t i c problems a r e o f a d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t y . Be-l i e v i n g h i m s e l f t o be t r a p p e d w i t h i n a c l i c h e he y e l l s , \" J u s t because I am a German doesn't mean I am v i o l e n t , r i g i d 77 and h e a r t l e s s . T h a t ' s a c l i c h e . \" (p. 3 9) And h i s f i n a l l i n e b e f o r e d e a t h i s a b i t t e r \" I h a t e c l i c h e s . \" C l i c h e s l i k e l i m i t e d v o c a b u l a r y , o b s c u r e complex i s s u e s and r e d u c e . c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o t h e b a n a l . B o t h E r i c and Hank a r e e x a g g e r a t i o n s o f t h e i r f i l m i c c o u n t e r p a r t s . The \" A m e r i c a n e s s \" o f Hank - t y p i f i e d by h i s f o l k s y s o n g and f r i e n d l y manner - and t h e t e u t o n i c r i g i d i t y o f E r i c a r e made more e x t r e m e and more r i d i c u l o u s by W a l k e r . T h i s e x a g g e r a t i o n r e d u c e s them t o t y p e s and r e n d e r s them f l a t . U n i - d i m e n s i o n a l and u n d e v e l o p e d , t h e y p r o h i b i t a u d i e n c e em-p a t h y and e n c o u r a g e a c o m i c r e s p o n s e . L i l l i a n e i s a l s o a f l a t c h a r a c t e r , b u t u n l i k e Hank and E r i c , h e r r o l e i s n o t c o m i c . L i k e B r i g i d 0'Shaughnessy o f The M a l t e s e F a l c o n and P h y l l i s D i e t r i c h s o n o f D o u b l e I n d e m n i t y , L i l l i a n e r e p r e s e n t s a t h r e a t t o b o t h male i n t e g r i t y and h a p p i n e s s . A t y p i c a l l y \" n o i r \" h e r o i n e , L i l l i a n e , however, do e s n o t s u f f e r t h e \" n o i r \" f a t e . D e f i n e d by t h e i r s e x u a l i t y , w h i c h i s p r e s e n t e d a s d e s i r a b l e b u t d a n g e r o u s t o men, t h e women f u n c t i o n as t h e o b s t a c l e t o t h e male q u e s t . The h e r o ' s s u c c e s s o r n o t de p e n d s on t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h he c a n e x t r i c a t e h i m s e l f f r o m t h e woman's m a n i p u l a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h t h e man i s sometimes s i m p l y d e s t r o y e d b e c a u s e he c a n n o t r e s i s t t h e women's l u r e s (Double I n d e m n i t y i s t h e b e s t e x a m p l e ) , o f t e n t h e . work o f t h e f i l m i s t h e a t t e m p t e d r e s t o r a t i o n o f o r d e r t h r o u g h t h e e x p o s u r e and t h e n d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s e x u a l , m a n i p u l a t i n g woman. 78 R a t h e r t h a n d e s t r o y i n g the \" s e x u a l , m a n i p u l a t i n g woman,\" Theat r e o f t h e F i l m N o i r chooses i n s t e a d t o g l o r i f y h e r . \" L i l l i a n e w i l l go on t o be one o f t h i s c o u n t r y ' s more s u c c e s s f u l f i l m a c t r e s s e s , \" (p. 50) s t a t e s I n s p e c t o r C l a i r . H a v i n g s u r v i v e d the war and her two l o v e r s L i l l i a n e ' s p o s s i b l e c o m p l i c i t y i n murder goes u n i n v e s t i g a t e d and unpunished. Her sense o f estrangement i s perhaps more i m m e d i a t e l y f e l t than t h a t o f E r i c and Hank. LILLIANE: . . . I t ' s p o l i t i c s . E v e r y t h i n g i s p o l i t i c s . I'm a v i c t i m o f o t h e r p e o p l e ' s b e l i e f s . I'm a s t r a n g e r i n my own c o u n t r y . I don't under-s t a n d t h e s e new i n f l u e n c e s . The r a d i o p l a y s American j a z z . That's p o l i t i c a l . I'm j u s t t r y i n g t o s u r v i v e . (p. 31) J a z z on t h e r a d i o and b l u e s i n the b i s t r o s ; P a r i s i s becoming A m e r i c a n i z e d . A f t e r f o u r y e a r s o f German occupa-t i o n the i n f l u e n c e s have changed. S u r v i v a l now demands chame l e o n i c t a l e n t s . \" I s u r v i v e d w i t h o u t a f f i l i a t i o n s , \" (p. 5) L i l l i a n e b o a s t s t o I n s p e c t o r C l a i r . L i l l i a n e ' s l a c k o f a f f i l i a t i o n s , w h i l e i t p e r m i t s s u r v i v a l , does so a t the expense o f any form o f s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n . L i l l i a n e i s as u n d e f i n a b l e as the c i g a r e t t e s and c h o c o l a t e s w h i c h a r e c o n t i n u a l l y showered upon h e r . The l i s t o f d r a m a t i c personae i d e n t i f i e s h e r s o l e l y as a \"former s h o p - g i r l ; \" her s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n - i f i t .79 e v e r e x i s t e d - l i e s o n l y i n t h e p a s t . L i l l i a n e , h e r s e l f , i s aware o f the u n r e a l q u a l i t y o f her l i f e . L I L LIANE: I'd l i k e t o be i n f i l m s . I r e a l l y would. I saw one l a s t week. American. No. E n g l i s h . . . Anyway, I would have l i k e d t o be i n i t . I s a t t h e r e t h i n k i n g t h a t I would l i k e t o l i v e i n a f i l m . J u s t be a l i v e i n a f i l m and nowhere e l s e . I'd l i k e t h a t . I t h i n k somehow t h a t would be b e t t e r . (p. 49) \"She l i v e s an a b s t r a c t l i f e \" we a r e t o l d t h r o u g h o u t the p l a y and i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t t h i s \" a b s t r a c t l i f e \" s h o u l d f i n d e x p r e s s i o n w i t h i n the c e l l u l o i d frame. L i l l i a n e ' s s u c c e s s f u l e n t r y i n t o f i l m d o m i s a r r a n g e d by I n s p e c t o r C l a i r . C l a i r ' s t r e a t m e n t o f L i l l i a n e , however, i s i n d i c a t i v e o f one o f the ways i n w h i c h h i s c h a r a c t e r d i f f e r s from the h a r d - b o i l e d v a r i e t y . The t y p i c a l h a r d - b o i l e d de-t e c t i v e would have r e j e c t e d L i l l i a n e b o t h f o r her a m o r a l i t y and f o r h e r s e x u a l i t y . The d e t e c t i v e ' s p e r s o n a l code w i l l i n e v i t a b l y make him an o u t s i d e r ; n e i t h e r f r i e n d s nor l o v e r s can p e n e t r a t e h i s r i g i d e x t e r i o r . P h i l i p Marlowe r e j e c t s h i s f r i e n d T e r r y Lennox f o r f a i l u r e t o m a i n t a i n a code. ...You had s t a n d a r d s and you l i v e d up t o them, but they were p e r s o n a l . They had no r e l a t i o n t o any k i n d o f e t h i c s o r s c r u p l e s . You were a n i c e guy because you had a n i c e n a t u r e . But you were j u s t as happy w i t h mugs o r hoodlums as w i t h honest men...You're a m o r a l d e f e a t i s t . L i l l i a n e ' s a m o r a l i t y and d u p l i c i t y p r o v i d e the g r e a t e s t 80 t h r e a t t o the I n s p e c t o r ' s q u e s t f o r t r u t h . Y e t , c o n t r a r y t o \" n o i r \" t r a d i t i o n , C l a i r does n o t t r y t o e l i m i n a t e h e r . H i s a p proach i s the o p p o s i t e ; i n s t e a d he e l i m i n a t e s a l l o b s t a c l e s t o her d e s i r e s and c l o s e s the case when the messy ends o f h e r l i f e a r e sewn up. M o r a l l y ambiguous and p r o f e s s i o n a l l y u n e t h i c a l , I n s p e c t o r C l a i r i s a c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f t y p e . I t i s n o t , however, o n l y h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n w h i c h runs c o n t r a r y t o genre i n the p l a y b u t a l s o h i s s t a t u s w i t h i n the p l a y . In most d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n , the i n v e s t i g a t o r i s the f o c u s o f a l l a c t i o n ; i n d e e d he i s o f t e n the eyes t h r o u g h which the r e a d e r sees the e v e n t s . H i s d u a l s t a t u s as n a r r a t o r and c h a r a c t e r makes him t h e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t f o r t h e work. A l l o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s and a c t i o n s are judged a c c o r d i n g t o h i s s t a n d a r d s . I s o l a t e d w i t h i n t h e p u r i t y o f h i s code and consumed by the need t o d i s c o v e r the t r u t h , t h e h a r d - b o i l e d d e t e c t i v e i s viewed as a l i e n a t e d and o b s e s s i v e . I n s p e c t o r C l a i r , however, whose p e r s o n a l code i s as f l u i d as t h e w o r l d around him and whose p a s s i o n f o r the t r u t h i s sub-merged w i t h i n a l a r g e r d e s i r e t o make t h i n g s complete f i t s n e i t h e r o f t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s . F i l m n o i r p r o t a g o n i s t s i n v a r i a b l y e x p e r i e n c e some form o f estrangement and \" f i l m n o i r \" d e t e c t i v e s t o r i e s w i t h the emphasis on the i n v e s t i g a t o r , h i g h l i g h t e d the l o n e l i n e s s o f the s o l i t a r y q u e s t . A l a i n S i l v e r , i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f \" f i l m n o i r \" o b s e r v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g : 81 I f a u s u a l d e f i n i t i o n o f the n o i r p r o t a g o n i s t i s t o be f o r m u l a t e d i t must encompass two key c h a r a c t e r m o t i f s . 1 5 For S i l v e r t h e s e two m o t i f s a r e a l i e n a t i o n and o b s e s s i o n . A l t h o u g h he f e e l s a l i e n a t i o n t o be \"the more i n t r i n s i c \" t o the form he does g r a n t o b s e s s i o n an imporant r o l e i n the \" n o i r u n i v e r s e . \" I n t r a d i t i o n a l d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n t h e a l i e n a t e d , o b s e s s i v e hero s t a n d s a p a r t from the chaos which i s e n v e l o p i n g a l l the o t h e r s . Though l o n e l y and i s o l a t e d , he r e p r e s e n t s n o n e t h e l e s s the p o s s i b i l i t y o f an a l t e r n a t i v e . The w o r l d o f \" f i l m n o i r \" may be u n r e m i t t i n g l y b l a c k and c l a u s t r o p h o b i c , but i t s o v e r -a l l c o n c l u s i o n s always s u p p o r t s the s t a t u s quo. I d e a l s such as f r i e n d s h i p , l o y a l t y , and honour were u p h e l d i n \" f i l m n o i r . \" W a l t e r N e f f i n Double Indemnity may have committed murder and b e t r a y e d h i s company, but h i s d y i n g c o n f e s s i o n i n h i s f r i e n d ' s arms, s u g g e s t s an a c q u i e s c e n c e i n s o c i a l v a l u e s . L i k e w i s e , Sam Spade, d e s p i t e h i s l o v e f o r B r i g i d 0'Shaughnessy a f f i r m s h i s l o y a l t y t o h i s dead p a r t n e r by b r i n g i n g j u s t i c e t o h i s murderer. T h e a t r e o f the F i l m N o i r rewards none o f t h e s e v i r t u e s . Each c h a r a c t e r , obsessed w i t h s u r v i v a l and \" g e t t i n g by,\" con-t i n u a l l y c h e a t s and b e t r a y s the o t h e r . B e r n a r d , Hank and E r i c d i e ; L i l l i a n e and I n s p e c t o r C l a i r l i v e . Yet n e i t h e r r e t r i b u t i o n nor j u s t i c e appear t o p l a y a r o l e i n t h e i r f a t e s . George G r e l l a o b s e r v e s the f o l l o w i n g o f the h a r d - b o i l e d d e t e c t i v e : 82 Though t h e d e t e c t i v e i s c o m p e l l e d t o work i n t h i s c h a o t i c and s i n f u l s o c i e t y he does no t s hare i t s v a l u e s ; i n s t e a d he i s always i n c o n f l i c t w i t h o r i n f l i g h t from c i v i l i z a -t i o n . He f i n d s no f r u i t f u l human r e l a t i o n s h i p p o s s i b l e . H i s condemnation o r r e j e c t i o n o f o t h e r human b e i n g s u n i t e s him w i t h t h e a l i e n a t -ed and l o s s o f American f i c t i o n . - ' - 6 I n s p e c t o r C l a i r , as the murderer o f B e r n a r d , does ind e e d s h are the v a l u e s o f the murky environment o f T h e a t r e o f the F i l m N o i r . H i s c o m p l i c i t y i n the cover-up o f Jean's murder and h i s i n d i f f e r e n c e towards L i l l i a n e ' s a m o r a l i t y b i n d him w i t h t h e o t h e r depraved c h a r a c t e r s . S i l v e r ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f the \" n o i r \" p r o t a g o n i s t as a l i e n a t e d and o b s e s s i v e seems more a p p r o p r i a t e t o Be r n a r d than t o C l a i r . A p a r t from b e i n g more c e n t r a l t o the p l a y ' s a c t i o n s t h a n i s t h e I n s p e c t o r , B e r n a r d i s a l s o a more e l o q u e n t spokesman f o r the a l i e n a t e d . B e f o r e b e g i n n i n g an a n a l y s i s o f B e r n a r d , however, i t might be u s e f u l t o examine d i c t i o n a r y d e f i n i t i o n s o f the terms \" a l i e n a t i o n \" and 17 \" o b s e s s i o n . \" W i t h i n the p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l m , a l i e n a t i o n i s d e f i n e d as a \" s t a t e o f estrangement between the s e l f and the o b j e c t i v e w o r l d , o r between d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f the p e r s o n a l i t y . \" O b s e s s i o n , however, has b o t h a modern and an a r c h a i c meaning. Contemporary usage i m p l i e s \" c o m p u l s i v e p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h a f i x e d i d e a o r unwanted f e e l i n g o r emotion, o f t e n w i t h symptoms o f a n x i e t y . \" The a r c h a i c c o n n o t a t i o n , however, i n v o l v e s the s u p e r n a t u r a l : \"the s t a t e o f b e i n g b e s e t 83 or actuated by the d e v i l or an e v i l s p i r i t . \" Both these d e f i n i t i o n s appear central to a discussion of Bernard. His a l i e n a t i o n i s acutely experienced through his homosexuality. L i f e under the Communists, F a s c i s t s , or Democrats i s equally frightening for him; i n any m i l i t a r i s t i c , assertive society he w i l l remain an outsider. As for Hank and E r i c , conformity for Bernard also means a l i n g u i s t i c transformation. \"I've been hiding i n basements for years, learning how to speak english so I could i n g r a t i a t e myself with the l i b e r a t i o n army,\" Bernard t e l l s L i l l i a n e . (p. 11) Bernard's paranoia prevents him from functioning \"above ground.\" He quits work because \"There were always people on the street who were h o s t i l e towards me.\" Cp\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 22) The estrange-ment Bernard feels from the world around him, however, i s not as frightening as the one he feels from himself. The fragment-ation of Bernard's thoughts suggests a psychological a l i e n a -t i o n . L i l l i a n e t e l l s E r i c that Bernard was \"talking l i k e his brain was exploding.\" It i s Bernard himself, though, who most c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t e s t h i s segmentation. BERNARD: I did understand him. I d i d . I saw into his brain. I t was broken into l i t t l e pieces. And the pieces were t a l k i n g to each other. Just l i k e mine. Exactly l i k e mine. (He looks at L i l l i a n e . Smiles.) In my darker moments, of course. (p. 45) 84 A l i e n a t e d , underground and w i t h o u t a f f i l i a t i o n , B e r n a r d , t o o , becomes obsessed w i t h s u r v i v a l . The \" f i x e d i d e a \" o f Ber n a r d ' s c o m p u l s i o n i s s u r f a c i n g . T i r e d o f l i v i n g on the f r i n g e he goes t o extreme l e n g t h s t o t r y t o b l a c k m a i l L i l l i a n e i n t o m a r r i a g e . The a n x i e t y which accompanies o b s e s s i o n i s a l s o p r e s e n t i n B e r n a r d . Throughout the p l a y he c o n t i n u a l l y d e s c r i b e s h i m s e l f as s c a r e d and f r i g h t e n e d : BERNARD: That u n i f o r m has made me behave s t r a n g e l y i n p u b l i c . And earned me many a n x i o u s moments. I don't l i k e i t . I don't l i k e u n i f o r m s i n g e n e r a l . They s h o u l d n ' t be a l l o w e d . They always show up un-i n v i t e d and cause a n x i e t y . (p. 2) Yet i n h e r e n t a l s o i n Bernard's o b s e s s i v e b e h a v i o u r i s a s u g g e s t i o n o f the s u p e r n a t u r a l . I n Scene Two, Bernard d e s c r i b e s h i s i n s p i r a t i o n from God: BERNARD: I found t h a t c o i n the day t h e N a z i ' s i n v a d e d . God w h i s p e r e d : s t r a n g e l y i n my e a r . Here's a l i t t l e two-headed c o i n f o r you, B e r n a r d . A l i t t l e t o k e n o f my a f f e c t i o n t o see you t h r o u g h the da r k t i m e s ahead. (p. 2) R a t h e r than c o n n o t i n g the C h r i s t i a n Holy Ghost, however, the s p i r i t which i n v a d e s B e r n a r d s u g g e s t s i n s t e a d the f o l k -l o r i c g h o u l . As e v i l demons o f the n i g h t , Ghouls o c c u p i e d themselves by p l u n d e r i n g graves and f e e d i n g on c o r p s e s . 85 W h i l e B e r n a r d does n o t a c t u a l l y chew on the dead J e a n , he does, however, exhume h i s c o r p s e and k i s s h i s l i p s . The c o f f i n , once u n e a r t h e d , i s t h e n used by B e r n a r d as a f o o d l o c k e r - h o u s i n g b o t h wine and c h o c o l a t e . The c h a r a c t e r o f B e r n a r d , a l t h o u g h t h e m a t i c a l l y c o n -s i s t e n t w i t h the t r a d i t i o n s o f d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n , i s i n i t s e l f n o t t y p i c a l t o the genre. He i s t o o h y s t e r i c a l , t oo e x a g g e r a t e d . H i s f r e n e t i c and e m o t i o n a l language i s i n d i r e c t c o n t r a s t t o the t i g h t , t e r s e and c o n c r e t e language o f t h e h a r d - b o i l e d n o v e l s . H i s estrangement and i s o l a t i o n , however, p l a c e him f i r m l y i n the n o i r u n i v e r s e . \" I am the m o r a l c o n s c i e n c e o f the day,\" Cp\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 15) Bernard t e l l s L i l l i a n e . I n t h e t y p i c a l d e t e c t i v e n o v e l he would have been merely a temporary a b e r r a t i o n and h i s d e a t h would have s i g n a l l e d a r e s t o r a t i o n o f o r d e r . I n Walker's w o r l d , however, chaos r e i g n s . I n a w o r l d where \" M o r a l i t y i s a q u e s t i o n o f c i r c u m -s t a n c e ...and c i r c u m s t a n c e depends on f o r t u n e , \" (pp. 1, 51) t h e o p p o r t u n i s t i c , c o w a r d l y B e r n a r d i s i n d e e d p a r a d i g m a t i c of the p r e v a i l i n g e t h o s . Walker's i n c l u s i o n o f B ernard i n t h e p l a y g i v e s i t a g r o t e s q u e f l a v o u r t h a t i s r a r e l y found i n \" f i l m n o i r . \" As w i t h Walker's o t h e r p l a y s the v u l n e r a b i l i t y and m u t a b i l i t y o f t h e body a r e o v e r t l y t h e a t r i c a l i z e d . Over h a l f the p l a y t a k e s p l a c e i n a g r a v e y a r d and t h r e e on-stage murders o c c u r b e f o r e i t s c l o s e . T y p i c a l o f the g r o t e s q u e , d e a t h i s t r e a t e d 86 i n an u n d i g n i f i e d and i r r e v e r e n t manner; E r i c a c c i d e n t a l l y shoots h i m s e l f i n the m i d d l e o f a s e x u a l encounter w i t h B e r n a r d . S i m i l a r l y , the u n e a r t h e d c o r p s e of Jean i s g r a n t e d no r e s p e c t ; Bernard n o t o n l y k i s s e s t h e c a d a v e r bu t a l s o b a l a n c e s h i s f o o d on i t . The g r o t e s q u e imagery, the i n c o n g r u o u s a c t i o n s and the p a r o d i c c o n t r a s t s s i t u a t e t h e p l a y w i t h i n the t r a d i t i o n o f b l a c k humour. I t i s the p r e s e n c e of t h i s b l a c k humour which p r e v e n t s t h e p l a y from a c q u i e s c i n g i n \" f i l i m n o i r \" v a l u e s . As Winston o b s e r v e s b l a c k humour c l a i m s \" t h a t mystery i s not a p a r t i c u l a r o b s c u r i t y i n an o t h e r w i s e known and o r d e r e d w o r l d 18 b u t i s the v e r y n a t u r e o f e x i s t e n c e . \" M y s t e r y i s endemic t o t h e b l a c k h u m o u r i s t ' s w o r l d . The h a r d - b o i l e d d e t e c t i v e ' s q u e s t f o r t r u t h cannot be accommodated i n a w o r l d where \" p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n s , \" \" p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o u r , \" and \"a c l e a r consensus o f m o r a l i t y and a b e l i e f i n a b s o l u t e g u i l t \" have d i s a p p e a r e d . I n s p e c t o r C l a i r ' s t a s k o f \"making t h i n g s c l e a r \" i s an i m p o s s i b l e g o a l . L i k e t h e \" w i l d l o n g i n g f o r c l a r i t y \" w hich \"echoes i n t h e human h e a r t \" t h i s need t o know w i l l go un-answered. T r u t h i s an a b s o l u t e i n d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n ; i n T h e a t r e o f the F i l m N o i r i t i s a r e l a t i v e v a l u e . J . H i l l i s M i l l e r s t a t e s t h a t \"A g r a v e s t o n e i s the s i g n 19 o f an absence.\" Over h a l f o f T h e a t r e of the F i l m N o i r o c c u r s i n a g r a v e y a r d b e s i d e t h e c o f f i n o f the dead Jean but the sense o f absence c o n t i n u e s t hroughout the e n t i r e p l a y . 87 Absent from the l i v e s o f Wa l ke r ' s c h a r a c t e r s i s , o f c o u r s e , the murdered Jean . Gone a l s o i s a sense o f i d e n t i t y , o f pa t r imony , o f n a t i o n a l i t y and o f b e l o n g i n g . More s i g n i f i c a n t to t h e i r l i v e s , pe rhaps , i s \" t he absence o f God. \" Depr i ved of an o r d e r e d , comprehens ib le u n i v e r s e , the c h a r a c t e r s f i n d themselves w i thout any g u i d i n g a b s o l u t e s . \" I f one c o u l d o n l y say j u s t once: ' t h i s i s c l e a r ' , a l l would be s a v e d , \" Camus 20 ob se rve s . The foggy m i s ty wor ld of Theat re o f the F i l m N o i r a s s e r t s t h a t no th ing can ever be made c l e a r ; the w o r l d ' s m y s t e r i e s a re u l t i m a t e l y i m p e n e t r a b l e . 88 . NOTES CHAPTER THREE 1. Mathew W i n s t o n , \"The E t h i c s o f C o n t e m p o r a r y B l a c k Humor,\" C o l o r a d o Q u a r t e r l y , 24, (1976), p . 284. 2. W i n s t o n , p. 287. 3. Max S c h u l z , B l a c k Humor F i c t i o n i n t h e S i x t i e s ( O h i o : O h i o U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1973) , p. 67. 4. S c h u l z , p. 66. 5. J o h n D. Jump, B u r l e s q u e (London: Methuen, 1972) , p. 2. 6. S a n d e r L. G i l m a n , The P a r o d i c Sermon i n E u r o p e a n P e r s p e c t i v e (Wiesbaden: F r a n z S t e i n e r s V e r l a g GMBH, 1974) , p. 3. 7. A l l r e f e r e n c e s w i l l be t o t h e f o l l o w i n g e d i t i o n : G e o r g e F. W a l k e r , T h e a t r e o f t h e F i l m N o i r ( T o r o n t o : P l a y w r i g h t s Canada, 1981) . 8. George G r e l l a , \"The H a r d - B o i l e d D e t e c t i v e N o v e l \" i n D e t e c t i v e F i c t i o n : A C o l l e c t i o n o f C r i t i c a l E s s a y s , e d . R o b i n W. Winks (New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1980) , p . 104. 9. Edward M a r g o l i e s \"The A m e r i c a n D e t e c t i v e T h r i l l e r and t h e I d e a o f S o c i e t y , \" i n D i m e n s i o n s o f D e t e c t i v e F i c t i o n , e d . L a r r y N. Landrum, P a t Browne and Ray B. Browne, (n.p.: P o p u l a r P r e s s , 1976) , p. 84. 10. F o s t e r H i r s c h , The Dar k S i d e o f th e S c r e e n : F i l m N o i r (San D i e g o : A.S. B a r n e s and Company, I n c . , 1981) , p. 24. 11. D a s h i e l l Hammett, The M a l t e s e F a l c o n , e d . R i c h a r d J . A n o b i l e (London: M a c M i l l a n , 1974) , p. 246. 12. H i r s c h , p. 21. 13. E. Ann K a p l a n , Women i n F i l m N o i r (London: B r i t i s h F i l m I n s t i t u t e , 1978) , pp. 2 -3 . 89 14. Quoted i n G r e l l a , p. 109. 15. Alain S i l v e r and Elizabeth Ward ed. An Encyclopedic Reference to the American Style. Film Noir-(New York: Overlook Press, 1979), p. 4. 16. G r e l l a , pp. 110-111. 17. A l l d e f i n i t i o n s w i l l be taken from the following source: William Morris, ed. The Houghton M i f f l i n Canadian Dictionary of the English Language. (Ontario: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1969) 18. Winston, p. 283. 19. J. H i l l i s M i l l e r . F i c t i o n and Repetition: Seven English Novels- (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), p. 59. 20. Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus trans. Justin O'Brien- (New York: A l f r e d A. Knopf, 1969), p. 27. 90 CONCLUSION Descri b i n g the black humourist as one \"enraged by the a b s u r d i t y of h i s i r r a t i o n a l metaphysical,\" Bruce Janoff concludes: In the b l a c k e s t of black-humor novels a f f i r m a t i o n simply means con t i n u i n g to l i v e r a t h e r than committing s u i c i d e , and optimism i s nothing more than laughing d a r k l y at a t r a g i c a l l y i n s e n s i t i v e en-vironment where u n c e r t a i n t y and anxiety have become a way of l i f e . The laughter evoked i n the plays discussed here i s indeed \"dark.\" The \" i r r a t i o n a l i s t metaphysic\" which envelopes Walker's characters provides n e i t h e r j u s t i c e nor s a l v a t i o n as solace. Fate i s a r b i t r a r y and g r a t u i t o u s ; each i n d i v i -dual's f u t u r e i s f o r e v e r contingent upon the workings of a cosmos th a t i s at best c a p r i c i o u s . Anxious, a l i e n a t e d and i s o l a t e d the characters of Walker's world are i n c o n t i n u a l c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e i r environment. Although Walker p o s i t s a s i m i l a r universe to the one evoked by Camus i n The Myth of Sisyphus he does not o f f e r the same response. For Camus \"happiness and the absurd are 2 two sons of the same ear t h . They are inseparable.\" Once the Gods have been s i l e n c e d man becomes master of h i s world. 91 A l l S i s y p h u s ' s i l e n t j o y i s c o n t a i n e d t h e r e i n . H i s f a t e b e l o n g s t o him. H i s r o c k i s h i s t h i n g . L i k e w i s e , the absurd man, when he c o n t e m p l a t e s h i s t orment, s i l e n c e s a l l t h e i d o l s . I n the u n i v e r s e suddenly r e s t o r e d t o i t s s i l e n c e , the m y r i a d wondering l i t t l e l i t t l e v o i c e s o f the e a r t h r i s e up. U n c o n s c i o u s , s e c r e t c a l l s , i n v i t a t i o n s from a l l the f a c e s , they a r e the n e c e s s a r y r e -v e r s e and p r i c e o f v i c t o r y . There i s no sun w i t h o u t shadow, and i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o know the n i g h t . The a b s u r d man says yes and h i s e f f o r t w i l l h e n c e f o r t h be u n c e a s i n g . I f t h e r e i s a p e r s o n a l f a t e , t h e r e i s no h i g h e r d e s t i n y , o r a t l e a s t t h e r e i s b u t one w h i c h he c o n c l u d e s i s i n e v i t a b l e and d e s p i c a b l e . F o r the r e s t , ^ he knows h i m s e l f t o be the master o f h i s days. W i t h i n the c o n f i n e o f h i s r o c k , S i s y p h u s w i l l c r e a t e h i s i n d i v i d u a l w o r l d and d e s t i n y . I t i s t h i s c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h h i s r o c k w h i c h g i v e s h i s l i f e p u rpose. Walker's c h a r a c t e r s , however, remain d e v o i d o f purpose. T h i s i s n o t t o say t h a t they have abandoned the s e a r c h f o r meaning but r a t h e r t h a t meaning i t s e l f i s e l u s i v e . Ahrun i n Bagdad S a l o o n b e l i e v e s t h a t fame can c r e a t e p urpose. Rocco o f Beyond Mozambique b e l i e v e s t h a t a n o b l e p u r s u i t w i l l negate a l l h a r s h e r r e a l i t i e s . B e r n a r d o f T h e a t r e o f the F i l m N o i r b e l i e v e s t h a t a s s i m i l a t i o n w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y w i l l e r a d i c a t e h i s i s o l a t i o n . Yet none o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s i s r e s c u e d from h i s m a l a i s e o r h i s a n x i e t y : none f i n d s the S i s y p h e a n l i b e r t y w h i c h Camus a d v o c a t e s . K o j i Numasawa sees i n b l a c k humour a d e l i b e r a t e r e n u n c i -a t i o n o f t h i s s t a n c e . 92 I f , i t m ight be s a i d , t h e whole a t t e m p t s o f e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s have c e n t e r e d on c r e a t i n g something p o s i t i v e out o f the o m n i p r e s e n t . N e g a t i v e , on f i n d i n g a way t o l i v e i n t h e m i d s t o f i r r a t i o n a l , i n c o h e r e n t chaos which i s our u n i v e r s e , o r , f a i l i n g i t , on a t l e a s t e s t a b l i s h i n g a semblance o f v a l u e i n the v e r y S i s y p h e a n p r o c e s s , the new b l a c k h u m o r i s t s s e t up shop on mocking the f u t i l i t y o f such p r o c e s s e s i n a I - t o l d - y o u - i t ' s - n o - g o o d s p i r i t . 4 \"The b e s t t h a t the b l a c k h u m o r i s t can hope f o r i s a f o r m u l a 5 f o r p e r s o n a l s u r v i v a l , \" J a n o f f s t a t e s . S u r v i v a l i s a major theme i n Walker's p l a y s . The s t a k e s a r e n o t always the same but the game i s n o n e t h e l e s s \" g e t t i n g by.\" Bush and G a i t want t o s u r v i v e s c a n d a l ; Ahrun wants t o t r a n s c e n d anonymity. The j u n g l e e x i l e s o f Beyond Mozambique want t o s u r v i v e the i n v a d i n g chaos w h i c h drums i n the bushes. The s o c i a l l y vague m i l i e u o f T h e a t r e o f the F i l m N o i r makes s u r v i v a l a p o l i t i c a l c o n c e r n . Y e t on a n o t h e r l e v e l , s u r v i v a l assumes a m e t a p h y s i c a l d i m e n s i o n . S u r v i v a l w i t h i n the l i m i t s o f an e q u i v o c a l and f o r m l e s s u n i v e r s e becomes f o r t h e b l a c k h u m o u r i s t s a major c o n c e r n . Eugene Ionesco advocates humour as a means o f t r a n s c e n d -i n g the t r a g i c . There i s o n l y one t r u e way o f d e m y s t i f y i n g : by means o f humor e s p e c i a l l y i f i t i s ' b l a c k ' ...the comic a l o n e i s a b l e t o g i v e us the ^ s t r e n g t h t o bear the t r a g e d y o f e x i s t e n c e . 93 Walker's m a n i p u l a t i o n o f the comic i n h i s p l a y s i s what saves them from t o t a l n i h i l i s m . Maintenance of the t e n s i o n between the comic and \"the t r a g e d y o f e x i s t e n c e , \" however, i s n e c e s s a r y f o r a s u c c e s s f u l e v o c a t i o n o f t h e two. Walker f r a n k l y d i s c u s s the d i f f i c u l t y o f t h i s : We l i v e i n chaos and i t ' s d i f f i c u l t t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between the two. The s e r i o u s i,z and the comic i s somehow on t h i s spooky, funny l i n e , and i t s hard t o f i n d o u t t h e d i v i s i o n . That's why the w r i t i n g w alks an odd l i n e sometimes and o c c a s i o n a l l y f a l l s o v e r one way o r a n o t h e r . I t s a m a t t e r o f c o n t r o l and d i s c i p l i n e . I d e a l l y , what I want t o be i s r i g h t on t h a t l i n e . The t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h Walker uses t o remain \" r i g h t on t h a t l i n e \" have been d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r . M e r g i n g the t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e T h e a t r e o f t h e Absurd w i t h t h o s e o f the g r o t e s q u e and parody, Walker c r e a t e s an i n c o n g r o u s and u n c e r t a i n w o r l d . A l -though each p l a y i s dominated by o n l y one o f t h e s e s t y l e s , e v i d e n c e o f a l l t h r e e can be found i n each. The deformed Ivanhoe o f Bagdad S a l o o n i s more r e d o l e n t o f t h e b i z a r r e c h a r a c t e r s o f the g r o t e s q u e t h a n o f the a b s u r d . L i k e w i s e , the v i o l e n t w o r l d o f Beyond Mozambique, a l t h o u g h s t e e p e d i n g r o t e s q u e imagery, a l s o c o n t a i n s elements o f parody. The me l o d r a m a t i c w o r l d of the low budget t h r i l l e r w i t h i t s n a i v e d i v i s i o n s i n t o good and e v i l a r e here e x p l o r e d . E v i l i n Beyond Mozambique i s endemic t o the environment; no one c h a r a c t e r i s f r e e o f i t . T h e a t r e o f the F i l m N o i r , c l e a r l y a p a r o d y , a l s o 94 c o n t a i n s elements o f the g r o t e s q u e . The g r a v e y a r d , the unearthed c o r p s e , the u n d i g n i f i e d dea'ths and the g e n e r a l d e l i r i u m a re h a l l m a r k s o f g r o t e s q u e l i t e r a t u r e . The b l a c k n e s s o f Walker's humour i s dependent upon the t e n s i o n i n h e r e n t i n the j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f o p p o s i t e s . The p o l a r i z e d w o r l d which he c r e a t e s can accommodate no a b s o l u t e s , no i d e o l o g i e s , no f o r m u l a s and no s t r u c t u r e s . I t i s i n s t e a d t o t a l l y e q u i v o c a l . W h i l e a c k n o w l e d g i n g the b l e a k n e s s o f the human c o n d i t i o n Walker s t i l l a f f i r m s the uniqueness o f the o i n d i v i d u a l . \"Humor i s l i b e r y , \" Ionesco s t a t e s . Humour such as Walker's w h i c h a l l o w s l a u g h t e r i n the f a c e o f the h o r r i f i c o f f e r s t o i t s r e a d e r s a form o f l i b e r a t i o n . M i t i g a t e d by humour, the \" t r a g e d y o f e x i s t e n c e \" can be t e m p o r a r i l y t r a n s c e n d e d . 95 NOTES CONCLUSION 1. Bruce Janoff, \"Black Humor: Beyond S a t i r e , \" Ohio Review, 14, (1972), p. 19. 2. Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus trans. Justin O'Brien, (New York\"! A l f r e d A. Knopf, 1969), p. 122. 3. Camus, p. 123. 4. Koji Numasawa, \"Black Humor: An American Aspect,\" Studies i n English L i t e r a t u r e , 44, No. 1 (1967), p. 181. 5. Janoff, P. 15. 6. Eugene Ionesco, Notes and Counter Notes. trans. Donald Watson (New York: Grove Press, 1964), p. 14 4... 7. Chris Hallgren, \"George Walker: the serious and the comic,\" Scene Changes, 7, No. 2 (1979), p. 23. 8. Ionesco, p. 142. 96 BIBLIOGRAPHY Works by George F. Walker Ambush a t T e t h e r ' s End. I n The F a c t o r y Lab A n t h o l o g y . ed. Connie B r i s s e n d e n . Vancouver: T a l o n b o o k s , 1974. The A r t o f War. To r o n t o : P l a y w r i g h t s Canada, 198 2. Bagdad S a l o o n . I n Three P l a y s by George F. Walker. T o r o n t o : Coach House, 1978. Beyond Mozambique. I n Three P l a y s . F i l t h y R i c h . T o r o n t o : P l a y w r i g h t s Canada, 1981. G o s s i p \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 T o r o n t o : P l a y w r i g h t s Canada, 1981. P r i n c e o f N a p l e s . T o r o n t o : P l a y w r i g h t s Co-op, 1973. Ramona and t h e White S l a v e s . I n Three P l a y s . Rumours o f Our Death. I n Canadian T h e a t r e Review 25 (Winter 1980), pp. 43-72. Sacktown Rag. T o r o n t o : P l a y w r i g h t s Co-op, 197 2. S c i e n c e and Madness. T o r o n t o : P l a y w r i g h t s Canada, 198 2. Th e a t r e o f the F i l m N o i r . T o r o n t o : P l a y w r i g h t s Canada, 1981. Z a s t r o z z i : The M a s t e r o f D i s c i p l i n e . T o r o n t o : P l a y w r i g h t s Co-op, 1977. WORKS CONSULTED A r t i c l e s : B a rshay, R o b e r t . \" B l a c k Humour i n the Modern C a r t o o n . \" I n I t ' s A Funny T h i n g , Humour. Ed. Antony J . Chapman and Hugh C. F o o t . O x f o r d : Pergamon P r e s s , 1977, 57-59. Feldman, B u r t o n . \"Anatomy o f B l a c k Humor.\" D i s s e n t , 15, (1968), 158-160. 97 F r i e d m a n , B r u c e J a y . \"Those Clowns o f C o n s c i e n c e . \" Book Week, 18 J u l y 1965, 5-7. H a l l g r e n , C h r i s . \"George W a l k e r : t h e s e r i o u s and t h e c o m i c . \" Scene Changes, 7, No. 2 (19 7 9 ) , 23-25. H i l l , H a m l i n . \" B l a c k Humor: i t s c a u s e and c u r e . \" C o l o r a d o Q u a r t e r l y , 17, No. 1 (19 6 8 ) , 57-64. Inge M. Thomas. \"The A e s t h e t i c s o f t h e Comic S t r i p . \" J o u r n a l o f P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , 12, No. 4, (19 7 9 ) , 640-645. J a n o f f , B r u c e . \" B l a c k Humor: Beyond S a t i r e . \" O h i o Review, 14 (1972), 5-20. J o h n s o n , C h r i s . \"George F. W a l k e r : B-movies Beyond t h e A b s u r d . \" C a n a d i a n L i t e r a t u r e , No. 85 (Summer 1 9 8 0 ) , 87-103. 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M a u r i c e C h a r n e y , New Y o r k : New Y o r k L i t e r a r y Forum, 1978, 31-43. W i n s t o n , Mathew. \"The E t h i c s o f C o n t e m p o r a r y B l a c k Humor.\" C o l o r a d o Q u a r t e r l y , 24 ( W i n t e r 1 9 7 6 ) , 275-288. W i n s t o n , Mathew. \"Humour n o i r and B l a c k Humor.\" I n V e i n s o f Humor. E d . H a r r y L e v i n . C a m b r i d g e : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972, 269-284. 98 Books B e c k e t t , Samuel. W a i t i n g f o r Godot. New York: Grove P r e s s , 1 9 5 4 . B r e t o n , Andre. A n t h o l o g i e de 1 'humour n o i r . P a r i s : Jean-Jacques P a u v e r t , 1 9 6 6 . Camus, A l b e r t . C a l i g u l a . Trans. S t u a r t G i l b e r t . New York: A l f r e d A. Knopf, 1 9 5 8 . Camus, A l b e r t . The Myth o f S i s y p h u s . T r a n s . J u s t i n O ' B r i e n . New York: A l f r e d A. Knopf, 1 9 6 9 . E s s l i n , M a r t i n . The T h e a t r e o f the Absurd. 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D e t e c t i v e F i c t i o n : A C o l l e c t i o n o f C r i t i c a l E s s a y s . New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1980. "@en . "Thesis/Dissertation"@en . "10.14288/1.0096369"@en . "eng"@en . "Theatre"@en . "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en . "Graduate"@en . "The role of black humour in the plays of George F. Walker"@en . "Text"@en . "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/25246"@en .