"Arts, Faculty of"@en . "English, Department of"@en . "DSpace"@en . "UBCV"@en . "Kean, Wayne"@en . "2010-02-19T05:16:02Z"@en . "1977"@en . "Master of Arts - MA"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "The thesis of this paper is that Huck, in \"Adventures of Huckleberry Finn\", is not the romantic outcast that he was in \"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer\", and that both he and Jim would rather belong to shore society than flee from it. Thus, the disappointment that readers feel in the Phelps' farm ending stems from their own sentimental responses to Huck and Jim, rather than from any flaw in the structure of the novel itself. A close look at Jim and his relationships with other negroes and with Huck shows him to be \"monstrous proud,\" insincere and duplicitous. He lies to Huck, for example, about Pap Finn's death\u00E2\u0080\u0094to protect himself more than Huck. He seldom knows what to do next to attain his freedom; he spends most of the river journey either bound, hand and foot or painted a dull blue, looking like a \"sick Arab.\" When Huck joins Tom Sawyer's gang, he is symbolically coming to terms with society. He agrees to be respectable and is allowed to enjoy the fellowship of the gangs. He makes a similar transaction at the widow's and at the Grangerford's, where he wears good clothes and uses good manners and in return enjoys the comforts of having a home. One of the most crucial decisions he makes is to betray the two outcasts, the king and the duke, (whom he admires and calls \"our gang\"), and save the innocent Wilks girls. Partly because he is so attracted by society, Huck is reluctant to help Jim attain freedom. The first part of the river journey is just an adventure for Huck, as is made clear by his behaviour on the \"Walter Scott\". His decisions at Cairo and at the end of the river journey to help Jim are prompted primarily by selfish motives. Freeing Jim will cure his loneliness and assuage his guilt. Besides, sending that letter to Miss Watson would reveal that Huck was still alive\u00E2\u0080\u0094and he would wind up in pap's clutches again. At the Phelps' farm, Huck makes his final crucial decision: he decides to abandon Jim and Tom on the raft and stay home, so as not to grieve Aunt Sally any more. In the end he discovers that both Jim and Tom have been lying to him, and it is them he wishes to be free of, not Aunt Sally. We must beware being taken in by his last protest against civilization. Although there are parts of the river journey that are indeed \"lovely,\" and that represent freedom for most readers, a realistic view of the whole novel indicates that it is a story of return to society rather than escape from it."@en . "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/20504?expand=metadata"@en . "HUCK AND JIM: ROMANTIC FOOLS by WAYNE KEAN B.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1967 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF ' THE REQUIEEMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department of E n g l i s h We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA August, 1977 Cc) Wayne Kean, 1977 MASTER OF ARTS i n In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Co lumb ia , I a g ree that the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s tudy . I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by the Head o f my Department or by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . It i s u n d e r s t o o d that c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i thout my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department o f The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Co lumbia 2075 W e s b r o o k P l a c e V a n c o u v e r , C a n a d a V6T 1WS D a t e CL ,t4ll ABSTRACT The thesis of t h i s paper i s that Huck, i n Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, i s not the romantic outcast that he was in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, and that both he and Jim would rather belong to shore society than fle e from i t . Thus, the disappointment that readers f e e l i n the Phelps 1 farm ending stems from t h e i r own sentimental responses to Huck and Jim, rather than from any flaw i n the structure of the novel i t s e l f . A close look at Jim and his relationships with other negroes and with Huck shows him to be \"monstrous proud,\" insincere and duplicitous. He l i e s to Huck, for example, about Pap Finn's d e a t h \u00E2\u0080\u0094 t o protect himself more than Huck. He seldom knows what to do next to at t a i n his freedom; he spends most of the r i v e r journey either bound, hand and foot or painted a d u l l blue, looking l i k e a \"sick Arab.\" When Huck joins Tom Sawyer's gang, he i s symbolic i c a l l y coming to terms with society. He agrees to be res-pectable and i s allowed to enjoy the fellowship of the gangs. He makes a sim i l a r transaction at the widow's and at the Grangerford's, where he wears good clothes and uses good manners and i n return enjoys the comforts of having a home. One of the most c r u c i a l decisions he makes i s to betray the two outcasts, the king and the duke,(whom he admires and c a l l s \"our gang\"), and save the innocent Wilks g i r l s . Partly because he i s so attracted by society, Huck i s reluctant to help Jim at t a i n freedom. The f i r s t part of the r i v e r journey i s just an adventure f o r Huck, as i s made clear by his behaviour on the Walter Scott. His decisions at Cairo and at the end of the r i v e r journey to help Jim are prompted primarily by s e l f i s h motives. Freeing Jim w i l l cure his loneliness and assuage his g u i l t . Besides, sending that l e t t e r to Miss Watson would reveal that Huck was s t i l l a l i v e \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n d he would wind up i n pap's clutches again. At the Phelps' farm, Huck makes his f i n a l c r u c i a l decision: he decides .to abandon Jim and Tom on the r a f t and stay home, so as not to grieve AuntoSally any more. In the end he discovers that both Jim and Tom have been l y i n g to him, and i t i s them he wishes to be free of, not Aunt Sa l l y . We must beware being taken i n by his l a s t pretes.tn against c i v i l i z a t i o n . Although there are parts of the r i v e r journey that are indeed \"lovely,\" and that represent freedom for most readers, a r e a l i s t i c view of the whole novel indicates that i t i s a story of return to society rather than escape from i t . - i v -T A B L E OF CONTENTS P a g e I . I N T R O D U C T I O N 1 A. S e n t i m e n t a l r e s p o n s e s t o A d v e n t u r e s o f H u c k l e b e r r y F i n n 2 B. M a r k T w a i n a n d t h e r i v e r - s h o r e d i c h o t o m y 8 I I . THE F O O L I S H N E S S OF N I G G E R J I M . . 1 3 I I I . HUCK'S I N V O L V E M E N T WITH S O C I E T Y . . 2 3 I V . HUCK'S I N V O L V E M E N T WITH J I M . . . . 44 V. THE GOINGS-ON AT THE P H E L P S F A R M . 54 V I . C O N C L U S I O N 6 3 F o o t n o t e s 65 S e l e c t e d L i s t o f R e f e r e n c e s . . . 69 HUCK AND JIM: ROMANTIC FOOLS I. INTRODUCTION For most re a d e r s , c r i t i c s or not, Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n i s the heartwarming s t o r y o f a boy and a runaway s l a v e who f l o a t down the M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r on a r a f t , seeking freedom from the v i c e s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e the shore. The boy, Huck F i n n , i s a b a r e f o o t e d , sharp-eyed, good-hearted outlaw, who grows i n s t a t u r e as he re c o g n i z e s the d i g n i t y and humanity of h i s noble f r i e n d , Jim. The major c o n f l i c t or t e n s i o n i n the book i s between freedom, symbolized by Huck and Jim on the raft,, and .slavery;,, r e p r e s e n t e d by the i g -norant, s e n t i m e n t a l , f e a r f u l and c r u e l \"sapheads\" (to use Huck 1s word) who l i v e i n the towns along the shore. Leo Marx, f o r example, w r i t e s , \"The t r u l y profound meanings of the novel are generated by the impingement of the a c t u a l world of s l a v e r y , feuds, l y n c h i n g , murder, and a sp u r i o u s C h r i s t i a n m o r a l i t y upon the i d e a l of the r a f t i \" \" * \" Henry Nash Smith suggests t h a t \"hap-p i n e s s , peace, freedom are to be found, i f a t a l l , o n l y on the 2 R i v e r , on the r a f t . \" And, of course, as Huck puts i t , \"other p l a c e s do seem so cramped up and smothery, but a r a f t don't. 3 You f e e l mighty f r e e and easy and comfortable on a r a f t . \" In g e n e r a l , the book i s remembered as an e x p r e s s i o n o f r e v o l t a g a i n s t s o c i e t y . However, Twain's s a t i r e i s aimed not only a t s o c i e t y , but a l s o a t i n d i v i d u a l attempts to escape from s o c i e t y , -1-2 s p e c i f i c a l l y , a t Huck and Jim. Huck and Jim are as f o o l i s h as the people who l i v e along the shore. They are a l t e r n a t e l y v a i n , s e n t i m e n t a l , cowardly, and c r u e l . In s h o r t , they are human: much more human than most readers l i k e to admit. In t h i s paper I would l i k e to f i r s t o u t l i n e the s e n t i m e n t a l r e -sponses to Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n , examine Twain's a t t i t u d e towards r i v e r and shore, and then take a c l o s e look at Huck and Jim and t h e i r share of s o c i e t y ' s v i c e s . I hope to show t h a t Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n proves t h a t w h i l e l a s t i n g peace and s e c u r i t y are not easy to f i n d on the shore, they are i m p o s s i b l e to f i n d on the r i v e r ; t h a t man, i n h i s attempts to f i n d happiness o u t s i d e s o c i e t y , must e v e n t u a l l y , l i k e Ishmael, \"lower, or a t l e a s t s h i f t , h i s c o n c e i t of a t -4 t a i n a b l e f e l i c i t y 5 \" F i n a l l y , I hope to show t h a t the end-i n g of the book i s not the f a i l u r e t h a t c r i t i c s l i k e Leo Marx t h i n k i t i s . A. Sentimental responses to Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n The s e n t i m e n t a l response to Huckleberry F i n n u s u a l l y i n c l u d e s the f o l l o w i n g i d e a s . F i r s t , he i s p r i m i t i v e : he loves bare f e e t , o l d c l o t h e s , hogsheads and t a b l e s c r a p s . Second, he i s a r e a l i s t : he t e s t s Miss Watson's n o t i o n s about prayer and Tom Sawyer's n o t i o n s about magic lamps. T h i r d , he i s humane: he responds from the h e a r t to Jim's predicament, and gains an impressive v i c t o r y over the v o i c e of s o c i e t y t h a t t e l l s him to t u r n Jim i n . He i s remembered p r e t t y much as he i s d e s c r i b e d i n The Adventures of Tom Sawyer: 3 S h o r t l y Tom came upon the j u v e n i l e p a r i a h of the v i l l a g e , Huckleberry F i n n , son of the town drunkard. Huckleberry was c o r d i a l l y hated and dreaded by a l l the mothers o f the town, because he was i d l e , and l a w l e s s , and v u l g a r , and b a d \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n d because a l l t h e i r c h i l d r e n admired him so, and d e l i g h t e d i n h i s f o r -bidden s o c i e t y and wished they dared to be l i k e him. Tom was l i k e the r e s t of the r e s p e c t a b l e boys, i n t h a t he envied Huckleberry h i s gaudy o u t c a s t c o n d i -t i o n . . . Huckleberry came and went at h i s own f r e e w i l l . He s l e p t on door-steps i n f i n e weather, and i n empty hogsheads i n wet; he d i d not have to go to s c h o o l or to church, or c a l l any b eing master, o r obey any-body^, he c o u l d go f i s h i n g or swimming when and where he chose, and stay as long as i t s u i t e d him; nobody forbade him to f i g h t ; he c o u l d s i t up as l a t e as he p l e a s e d ; he was always the f i r s t boy t h a t went bare-f o o t i n the s p r i n g and the l a s t to resume l e a t h e r i n the f a l l ; he never had to wash, nor put on c l e a n c l o t h e s ; he c o u l d swear w o n d e r f u l l y . In a word, e v e r y t h i n g t h a t goes to make l i f e p r e c i o u s , t h a t boy had. So thought every harassed, hampered, r e s p e c t a b l e boy i n S t . P e t e r s b u r g . Tom h a i l e d the romantic o u t c a s t . ^ A l b e r t Bigelow Paine was moved to say of Adventures of Huckle-b e r r y Finn, \"One may p e t t i l y p i c k a flaw here and there 'in the t a l e ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n i f so minded, but the moral c h a r a c t e r of Huck h i m s e l f i s not open to c r i t i c i s m . \" ^ Van Wyck Brooks saw Huck as a g e n e r a l l y outrageous l i t t l e r e b e l : Huck's i l l i t e r a c y , Huck's d i s r e p u t a b l e n e s s and g e n e r a l outrageousness are so many s h i e l d s behind which Mark Twain can l e t a l l the c a t s out of the bag with impunity . . . Mark Twain h i m s e l f was f r e e a t l a s t l \u00E2\u0080\u0094 T h a t r a f t and r i v e r to him were something more than mere m a t e r i a l f a c t s . His whole unconscious l i f e , the pent-up r i v e r of h i s own s o u l , had b u r s t i t s bonds and rushed f o r t h , a joyous t o r r e n t ! Do we need any o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n of the abandon, the beauty, the e t e r n a l freshness of Huckleberry Finn? Perhaps we can say t h a t a l i f e t i m e of moral s l a v e r y and r e p r e s s i o n was not too much to pay f o r i t . . . .we have to thank i t , a f t e r a l l , f o r the v e n g e f u l s o l a c e we f i n d i n the promiscuous and g e n e r a l r e v o l t of Huckleberry Finn.''7 This q u i t e p a s s i o n a t e response to Huck F i n n i n s p i r e d an e q u a l l y p a s s i o n a t e response from Bernard DeVoto: 4 Yet the f a b r i c on which a l l t h i s r i c h n e s s i s embroi-dered i s the journey of Huck and Jim down the M i s s i s - ' ,..'sippi on the June r i s e . There, f i n a l l y , the book's glamour r e s i d e s . To d i s c u s s t h a t glamour would be f u t i l e . In a sense, Huck speaks to the n a t i o n a l shrewdness, f a c i n g adequately what he meets, succeeding by/ means of n a t i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e whose r o o t s are o u r s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n d ours o n l y . In a sense, he e x i s t s f o r a d e l i g h t or wonder i n s e p a r -able from the American r a c e . T h i s passage down the f l o o d e d r i v e r , through pageantry and s p e c t a c l e , amidst an i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y of l i f e , something of s u r p r i s e or g r a t i f i c a t i o n s u r e l y to be met with each new i n c i d e n t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 i t i s the h e r i t a g e of a n a t i o n not u n j u s t l y symbolized by the r i v e r ' s flow.8 The debate between Brooks and DeVoto i m p r i n t e d f i r m l y i n the minds of c r i t i c s f o r decades to f o l l o w two very important i d e a s : t h a t Huck F i n n i s engaged i n \"promiscuous and g e n e r a l r e v o l t , \" and t h a t to c r i t i c i z e him i s to c r i t i c i z e the American race. Edgar Branch hypothesises two a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r Huck: \" s e l f - c e n t e r e d , c o n v e n t i o n a l m o r a l i t y and humanitarian i d e a l -ism . . . Thus the theme becomes the c o n f l i c t between the d r i v e f o r i n d i v i d u a l freedom and the r e s t r a i n t s imposed by convention and f o r c e ; o r , w i t h i n Huck's consciousness, the c o n f l i c t between h i s i n t u i t i v e m o r a l i t y and h i s c o n v e n t i o n a l conscience. . . . The r i c h , f u l l - b o d i e d content, e s p e c i a l l y the r i v e r t r i p i n i t s b r i l l i a n t p a r t i c u l a r i t y , p r o v i d e s the i n d i s p e n s a b l e c o n d i t i o n s f o r Huck's moral s t r u g g l e and v i c -t o r y : the triumph of f r e e human development over i n f l e x i b l e r e s t r i c t i o n s i n the n a t u r a l , s u p e r n a t u r a l , and s o c i a l worlds.\" Perhaps no two c r i t i c s have p r a i s e d Huck F i n n and h i s s t o r y as have L i o n e l T r i l l i n g and T. S. E l i o t . T r i l l i n g l a b e l l e d the book \"one of the world's g r e a t books and one of 5 the c e n t r a l documents of American c u l t u r e \" and i t s c h i e f c h a r a c t e r s , Huck and Jim, \"a f a m i l y , a p r i m i t i v e community\u00E2\u0080\u0094 and i t i s a community of s a i n t s . . . because they do not have an ounce of p r i d e between them.\"\"^ T. S. E l i o t suggests t h a t Huck Fin n ' s e x i s t e n c e \"questions the values of America as much as the valu e s o f Europe; he i s as much an a f f r o n t to the 'pioneer s p i r i t ' as he i s to the 'business e n t e r p r i s e 1 ; he i s i n a s t a t e o f nature as detached as the s t a t e of the saint.\"\"'\"\"'\" Leo Marx responded v o c i f e r o u s l y to T r i l l i n g and E l i o t , c l a i m i n g t h a t the book had s e r i o u s f l a w s , y e t he too saw Huck i n a romantic l i g h t : \"From the e l e c t r i f y i n g moment when Huck comes back to Jackson's I s l a n d and rouses Jim wi t h the news t h a t a search p a r t y i s on the way, we are meant t o b e l i e v e 12 t h a t Huck i s e n l i s t e d i n the cause of freedom.\" Henry Nash Smith sees Huck and h i s moral s t r u g g l e i n simple terms: Huck's conscience i s simply the a t t i t u d e s he has taken over from h i s environment. What i s s t i l l sound i n him i s an impulse from the deepest l e v e l of h i s p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t s t r u g g l e s a g a i n s t the o v e r l a y of pre -j u d i c e and f a l s e v a l u a t i o n imposed on a l l members of the s o c i e t y i n the name of r e l i g i o n , m o r a l i t y , law, and refinement . . . The c o n f l i c t i n which Huck i s i n v o l v e d i s not t h a t of a lower a g a i n s t an upper c l a s s or of an a l i e n a t e d f r i n g e of o u t c a s t s a g a i n s t a c u l t i v a t e d e l i t e . . . but of f i d e l i t y to the uncoerced s e l f versus the b l u r r i n g of a t t i t u d e s caused by s o c i a l conformity.13 W i l l i a m Van O'Connor, l i k e Leo Marx, s e t s out to show T r i l l i n g and E l i o t t h a t there were g l a r i n g flaws i n the n o v e l , but he s t i l l adheres to the g e n e r a l i z e d and glowing view of Huck. 6 Huckleberry F i n n i s i n v o l v e d w i t h the mystique o f America. The c h i e f symbols are The Boy and The R i v e r . Huck i s the break not merely with Europe but w i t h c i v i l i z a t i o n , the westward push. S e l f s u f f i c i e n t and y e t dependable, he i s the proper k i n d of i n d i v i d u a l i s t . He i s a l s o youth, a rugged P e t e r Pan who l i v e s e t e r n a l l y . Huck belongs a l s o with Cooper's L e a t h e r s t o c k i n g and Faulkner's Ike Mc C a s l i n , symbolic f i g u r e s who r e j e c t the e v i l s of c i v i l i z a t i o n . (A weakness i n a l l of them i s t h a t they do not acknowledge the v i r t u e s of c i v i l i -z a t i o n or t r y to l i v e , as one must, i n s i d e i t . ) I r o n i c a l l y , . . 0'Connor concludes that..\"Huck is., f i n a l l y , a sen t i m e n t a l f i g u r e , not i n h i m s e l f o f course, s i n c e he i s a boy, but i n the minds of those who unduly admire h i s de-pa r t u r e f o r the t e r r i t o r y . \" G i l b e r t Rubenstein contends \" t h a t Huckleberry F i n n should be approached simply, d i r e c t l y , r e a l i s t i c a l l y \u00E2\u0080\u0094 p r e -c i s e l y as Mark Twain wrote i t . \" He d e s c r i b e s Huck as \"no d r i f t e r but a plucky, l o v a b l e boy who, a f t e r p a i n f u l s e l f -examination, achieves an i r o n d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o h e l p h i s f r i e n d Jim reach f r e e t e r r i t o r y . \" He goes on to say t h a t any o r d i n a r y reader, \"not given t o s u p e r s u b t l e s p e c u l a t i o n s and d i s t o r t i o n s , but possessed o n l y o f common sense and a r e s p o n s i v e h e a r t , \" c o u l d not f a i l to understand and a p p r e c i a t e what Huckleberry F i n n i s a l l about: t h a t human love between human beings every-where triumphs over human c r u e l t y , and t h a t \"human beings are s u p e r i o r t o one another o n l y i n the goodness of t h e i r h e a r t s 15 and i n t h e i r love f o r other people.\" Even Twain h i m s e l f s a i d some p r e t t y s i l l y t h i n g s about. Huck i f my r e a d i n g of the novel i s v a l i d . In h i s autobiography> he s a i d : 7 In Huckleberry F i n n I have drawn Tom Blankenship e x a c t l y as he was. He was i g n o r a n t , unwashed, i n s u f -f i c i e n t l y f e d ; but he had as good a h e a r t as ever any ; boy had. His l i b e r t i e s were t o t a l l y u n r e s t r i c t e d . He was the only r e a l l y independent p e r s o n \u00E2\u0080\u0094 b o y or man--irir-the community, and by consequence he was t r a n q u i l l y and c o n t i n u o u s l y happy, and was envied by a l l of the r e s t of us. We l i k e d him; we enjoyed h i s s o c i e t y . And as h i s s o c i e t y was f o r b i d d e n us by our p a r e n t s , the p r o h i b i t i o n t r e b l e d and quadrupled i t s v a l u e , and t h e r e f o r e we sought and got more of h i s s o c i e t y than of any o t h e r boy's.16 Now, o f course, Twain d i d not draw Tom Blankenship e x a c t l y as he was. But when Twain wrote t h i s i n d i r e c t des-c r i p t i o n of Huck, he was o n l y f o u r years away from h i s death. We can f o r g i v e an o l d man f o r r e m i n i s c i n g about a time t h a t could o n l y e x i s t i n h i s i m a g i n a t i o n , a time when a boy enjoyed \" t o t a l l y u n r e s t r i c t e d \" l i b e r t y and was \" t r a n q u i l l y and c o n t i n -uously happy.\" But we cannot be so generous wi t h c r i t i c s who i n s i s t on s e e i n g Huck o n l y i n glowing terms. Granted, Huck i s l o v a b l e , and we admire him. L i k e the boys i n St. P e t e r s b u r g , we a l l admire Huck 1s \"gaudy o u t c a s t c o n d i t i o n , \" h i s apparent freedom to do and say what he p l e a s e s . We admire.his dogged r e a l i s m , h i s a b i l i t y to see through Tom Sawyer's \"A-rabs\" and e l e p h a n t s . We admire h i s response to Jim; by the end of the r i v e r journey, Huck genuinely loves Jim. But a c l o s e look at Huck F i n n r e v e a l s t h a t he i s more a t t r a c t e d by s o c i e t y than r e p e l l e d by i t , t h a t h i s r e a l i s m i s o n l y p a r t i a l , and t h a t h i s involvement i n Jim's attempts to keep out of bondage i s f o r the most p a r t , h e s i t a n t and r a t i o n a l i z e d by thought processes t h a t are s e n t i m e n t a l and v a i n . To ignore the f u l l range of Huck's humanity i s to ignore Mark Twain's c r e a t i v e power--and 8 to miss the p o i n t of Huck's s t o r y . B. Mark Twain and the r i v e r - s h o r e dichotomy Of course, a g r e a t p a r t of the s e n t i m e n t a l response to H uckleberry F i n n can be t i e d t o the reverence f o r the popular n o t i o n t h a t Mark Twain was a romantic o u t c a s t too. I would l i k e to examine b r i e f l y how c r i t i c s l i k e Van Wyck Brooks were l e d to b e l i e v e from b i o g r a p h i c a l evidence t h a t Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n was Twain's p e r s o n a l e x p r e s s i o n of r e v o l t a g a i n s t American s o c i e t y . Then I would l i k e to show t h a t a more r e a l i s t i c look a t Twain's l i f e and work r e v e a l s t h a t he was not a romantic o u t c a s t , any more than Huckleberry F i n n was. Twain's e a r l y l i f e seemed to p l a c e him a p a r t from s o c i e t y . A r i v e r b o a t p i l o t was, a c c o r d i n g to Twain, \"the only u n f e t t e r e d and e n t i r e l y independent human being t h a t l i v e d i n 17 the e a r t h . \" His l a t e r employment as r e p o r t e r , l e c t u r e r and w r i t e r made him more o f t e n an observer than a p a r t i c i p a n t i n mankind's i n t e r a c t i o n s . His separateness seemed to become even more obvious when he was, l i k e Huck F i n n , t h r u s t suddenly i n t o wealth and h i g h s o c i e t y . Huck found s i x thousand d o l l a r s and went t o l i v e w i t h the Widow Douglas. Mark Twain p u b l i s h e d Innocents Abroad and became engaged to O l i v i a Langdon. F i v e years l a t e r , he was l i v i n g i n the handsomest mansion i n Hart-f o r d , C o n n e c t i c u t . The s o c i a l c i r c l e i n H a r t f o r d looked askance a t the \" w i l d humorist from the P a c i f i c Slope.\" Mrs. A l d r i c h d e s c r i b e d 9 him as \"too w e l l acquainted with a l l the c o a r s e r types of 18 human nature . . . a man u n t r a i n e d and u n p o l i s h e d . \" Twain h i m s e l f admitted he had been \"a mighty rough]?. rcoarse? ,unr-19 promising s u b j e c t when L i v y took charge.\" J e r v i s Langdon once forbade Twain to c o u r t L i v y a t a l l . F u r t h e r , l i v i n g i n H a r t f o r d p r o v i d e d many d i s t r a c t i o n s t h a t Twain o f t e n wished to escape. When he had f i r s t become engaged i n 1869, he had looked forward to a home t h a t would p r o v i d e \"peace and q u i e t - -r e s t , and s e c l u s i o n - -from the rush and r o a r and d i s c o r d of the 20 world.\" However, I x f e a t H a r t f o r d i n c l u d e d o v e r - n i g h t guests, salesmen, c e l e b r i t y hunters, and i n t e r v i e w e r s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n end-l e s s l i n e of people demanding to see Mark Twain. Enormous p i l e s of l e t t e r s asked f o r autographs, l i t e r a r y advice and money. There was the Monday Evening Club, the F r i d a y n i g h t b i l l i a r d games, and the Saturday Night Club. There were c i v i c o b l i g a t i o n s and heavy business o b l i g a t i o n s as w e l l . A l l of t h i s f r u s t r a t e d Twain's d e s i r e to work and made him want to get away. Huck F i n n had s a i d a t the end of Tom Sawyer, \"being r i c h a i n ' t what i t ' s cracked up to be. I t ' s j u s t worry and worry, and sweat and sweat, and a-wishing you was dead a l l the time. . . . I wouldn't ever got i n t o t h i s t r o u b l e i f i t hadn't 21 'a' been f o r t h a t money.\" In 1876, the year Tom Sawyer was p u b l i s h e d , Twain wrote to Mrs. F a i r b a n k s , c o n g r a t u l a t i n g her b r i e f l y t h a t her son Charles was happy and then s a i d , L e t him go i t now when he's young! Never mind about t h a t g r i s l y f u t u r e season when he s h a l l have made a d a z z l i n g success and s h a l l s i t with f o l d e d hands i n w e l l -earned ease and look around upon h i s corpses and mine, 10 and contemplate h i s daughters and mine i n the same house, and h i s sons and mine gone to\u00E2\u0080\u00A2the d e v i l . 2 2 That same summer Twain escaped to Quarry Farm and began work on Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n . Quarry Farm a f f o r d e d marvellous r e l i e f from the har-rassments of H a r t f o r d . Twain was able to work un d i s t u r b e d f o r as long as e i g h t or nine hours a day; and as Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n took form, Twain began t o i d e r i t i f y - i w i t h the escapism of the book's c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r . The c i v i l i z i n g f o r c e s t h a t t o r t u r e Huck i n the i n i t i a l chapters, of the book p a r a l l e l some of Twain's experiences a t H a r t f o r d . Huck's l a y i n g o f f , smoking and f i s h i n g i n the woods, h i s Edenic experiences on Jackson's I s l a n d , and h i s days and n i g h t s on the r a f t , s l i d i n g along so q u i e t l y ,and l o v e l y , p a r a l l e l Twain's escape to the peace and q u i e t of Quarry Farm. Seven more years would go by before Twain would f i n i s h h i s n ovel and those seven years would be marked by many attempts to get away from the c o n t i n u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g s o c i a l and f i n a n c i a l burdens t h a t weighed so h e a v i l y on him. In a d d i t i o n to f u r t h e r t r i p s to Quarry Farm, Twain went to Bermuda wi t h Joe T w i c h e l l i n 1 8 7 7 , to Europe w i t h h i s f a m i l y from A p r i l 187 8 to September 1 8 7 9 , and down the M i s s i s s i p p i i n 1 8 8 2 . Thus, Van Wyck Brooks concluded t h a t Twain was s t i f l e d by h i s involvement with s o c i e t y , and t h a t \"through the c h a r a c t e r of Huck, t h a t d i s r e p u t a b l e , i l -23 l i t e r a t e l i t t l e boy . . . he was l i c e n s e d to l e t h i m s e l f go.\" However, we must remember t h a t the g r e a t e r p a r t of Twain longed to be accepted by s o c i e t y . H i s c o u r t i n g of O l i v i a Langdon and h i s l o c a t i n g i n Nook Farm were p a r t l y i n -s p i r e d by h i s s t r o n g d e s i r e to belong to r e s p e c t a b l e s o c i e t y . The mansion i t s e l f was intended t o be a token not o n l y o f opulence but a l s o of good t a s t e \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n d i t was admired as i t s 24 owners hoped i t would be. In f a c t , Twain had begun h i s r e f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e he met L i v y . Walter B l a i r suggests t h a t Twain's self-improvement was a c c e l e r a t e d when he met Mrs. Abel W. Fairbanks on the Holy Land c r u i s e : \"In a p e r i o d when (as i n some other periods) 'good women' enjoyed reforming misguided 25 young men, she immediately s p o t t e d Clemens and,pounced.\" And Twain, u n l i k e Huck i n the hands of the widow, l o v e d every minute of i t . Mrs. F a i r b a n k s ' i n f l u e n c e was p e r v a s i v e and long l a s t i n g and r e s u l t e d i n s u b s t a n t i a l refinement o f Twain's w r i t i n g and h i s manners. L i v y , too, encouraged refinement i n Twain, but she was never the r a g i n g .tyrant r o a r i n g her husband i n t o s e r v i l e obedience t h a t e a r l i e r b i o g r a p h i e s of t h i s century would have her. N e i t h e r L i v y ' s g e n t l e domestic l o b b y i n g nor Howells' e d i t i n g were ever p r e s s u r e s t h a t Twain wished to.escape. F i g u r a t i v e l y speaking, Twain had l e f t the r i v e r and decided to l i v e i n the towns along the shore years before he began work on Adventures of Huckdeberry F i n n . In \"Old Times on the M i s s i s s i p p i , \" i n which he had proclaimed the freedom of the r-iverboat p i l o t , he had a l s o made c l e a r how much the p i l o t depended on s o c i e t y f o r the a d u l a t i o n t h a t made h i s l i f e s o s p e c i a l . He had a l s o made c l e a r h i s t e r r i b l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s : m a i n t a i n i n g a knowledge 12 o f a t r e a c h e r o u s r i v e r t h a t was a l w a y s c h a n g i n g . _ I n t r u t h , t h e p a s s e n g e r who c o u l d n o t r e a d t h i s book [ t h e r i v e ^ saw n o t h i n g b u t a l l manner o f p r e t t y p i c t u r e s i n i t , p a i n t e d by t h e sun and s h a d e d by t h e c l o u d s , whereas t o t h e t r a i n e d eye t h e s e were n o t p i c t u r e s a t a l l , b u t t h e g r i m m e s t and most d e a d - e a r n e s t r - 6 f r e a d i n g m a t t e r . Now when I m a s t e r e d t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h i s w a t e r , and I had come t o know e v e r y t r i f l i n g f e a t u r e t h a t b o r d e r e d t h e g r e a t r i v e r as f a m i l i a r l y as I knew t h e l e t t e r s o f t h e a l p h a b e t , I had made a v a l u a b l e a c q u i s i t i o n . B u t I had l o s t s o m e t h i n g , t o o . I had l o s t s o m e t h i n g w h i c h c o u l d n e v e r be r e s t o r e d t o me w h i l e I l i v e d . A l l t h e g r a c e , t h e b e a u t y , t h e p o e t r y , had gone o u t o f t h e m a j e s t i c r i v e r ! 2 D F o r T w a i n , t h e romance and b e a u t y had gone f r o m t h e r i v e r l o n g ago. I n 1862, he had w r i t t e n h i s s i s t e r f r o m C a l i f o r n i a , \" I n e v e r once t h o u g h t o f r e t u r n i n g home t o go on t h e r i v e r a g a i n , and I n e v e r e x p e c t t o do any more p i l o t i n g a t any ,,27 p r i c e . I f we l o o k b r i e f l y a t b ooks Twain w r o t e b e f o r e and a f t e r A d v e n t u r e s o f H u c k l e b e r r y F i n n , we f i n d f u r t h e r p l a i n e v i -dence t h a t T w a i n ' s s t a n c e t o w a r d s h o r e s o c i e t y , was n o t p r i -m a r i l y r e b e l l i o u s o r c y n i c a l . I n b o t h The I n n o c e n t s A b r o a d and A C o n n e c t i c u t Yankee i n K i n g A r t h u r ' s C o u r t , T w a i n c e l e b r a t e s t h e v i r t u e s o f an A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y t h a t p r o v i d e s , more so t h a n any o t h e r c i v i l i z a t i o n on e a r t h , an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r human c o m f o r t and f u l f i l l m e n t . The I n n o c e n t s A b r o a d i s t h e c h r o n i c l e o f an e s c a p e f r o m A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y , an e x c u r -s i o n a c r o s s t h e o c e a n t o \"many a s t r a n g e c l i m e and i n many a 2 8 l a n d renowned i n h i s t o r y . \" However, t h e l a n d s o f renown p a l e by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h A m e r i c a , and Twain i s more moved by t h e p o v e r t y and w r e t c h e d n e s s o f t h e p e o p l e t h a n by t h e works 13 of a r t and b u i l d i n g s t h a t he sees. In Chapter XXVI he expresses what a Roman might say of America: \"I saw common men and common women who c o u l d read; I even saw s m a l l c h i l d r e n of common country people r e a d i n g from books . . . I saw r e a l g l a s s windows i n the houses of even the commonest people. . . . There are hundreds and thousands of s c h o o l s , and anybody may go and l e a r n to be wise, l i k e a p r i e s t . In t h a t s i n -g u l a r country, i f a r i c h man d i e s a s i n n e r , he i s damned; he cannot buy s a l v a t i o n with money f o r masses. There i s r e a l l y not much use i n being r i c h , t h e r e . . . . I saw common men. there--men who were n e i t h e r p r i e s t s nor princes--who y e t a b s o l u t e l y owned the l a n d they t i l l e d . I t was not rented from the church, nor from the nobles . ... . a t t h i s very day, i n t h a t c u r i o u s country, a Jew i s allowed to vote, h o l d o f f i c e , yea, get up on a rostrum i n the p u b l i c s t r e e t and express h i s o p i n i o n of the government i f the government don't s u i t him! Ah, i t i s wonderful. The common people there know a g r e a t d e a l ; they even have the e f f r o n t e r y to complain i f they are not p r o p e r l y governed, and to take h o l d and h e l p conduct the government them-s e l v e s . . . 1 , 2 9 A C o n n e c t i c u t Yankee i n King A r t h u r ' s Court might w e l l be named a hymn p r a i s i n g n i n e t e e n t h century America. Hank Morgan b r i n g s American know-how to medieval England and improves the human c o n d i t i o n a hundredfold. Thus, when we t u r n to Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n , we should not be s u r p r i s e d t o d i s c o v e r t h a t Twain n e i t h e r g l o r i f i e s i n d i v i -d u a l attempts to escape from s o c i e t y nor condemns American s o c i e t y i t s e l f . I I . THE FOOLISHNESS OF NIGGER JIM In t a k i n g a r e a l i s t i c approach to Huck and Jim and t h e i r journey down the r i v e r , I would l i k e to d e a l with Jim f i r s t , s i n c e i t i s h i s presence i n the novel t h a t c r e a t e s much of the c e n t r a l c o n f l i c t . Jim i s b e s t remembered f o r h i s 14 rebuke of Huck, a f t e r they had been separated i n the f o g . When Jim r e a l i z e s t h a t Huck has been f o o l i n g him, he says t h a t o n l y \" t r a s h \" would do what Huck had d o n e \u00E2\u0080\u0094 l i e t o him. 30 T h i s scene has i n s p i r e d many s e n t i m e n t a l responses t o Jim. But some people i n Huck 1s world l i v e c o n s i s t e n t l y from the h e a r t . These persons are g u i l e l e s s , t r u s t i n g , spontaneous i n t h e i r a f f e c t i o n s . They r e s p e c t human l i f e . Although they are l i k e l y t o be v i c t i m s of organized ignorance or f r a u d , they are not r e v e n g e f u l or s e l f -s eeking. Jim, of course, i s foremost i n s e l f l e s s n e s s and magnanimity. Because he i s in c a p a b l e of d e c e i t , h i s innocence, whether comic or p a t h e t i c , i s haloed w i t h grandeur. His search f o r freedom i s c a r r i e d f o r t h i n h u m i l i t y and s a n c t i f i e d by elemental j u s t i c e . 3 1 Dixon Wecter s t a t e s t h a t Jim's \"unshakable l o y a l t y , generous h e a r t , and unconscious d i g n i t y \u00E2\u0080\u0094 e v e n when Huck makes game of h i s c r e d u l i t y \u00E2\u0080\u0094 r a i s e him to the rank of Mark Twain's 32 n o b l e s t c r e a t i o n . \" Kenneth Lynn went so f a r as to c l a i m t h a t Jim was a \"mythical f i g u r e . . . a f i g u r e out of a dream, p a s s i o n a t e , l o y a l , immensely d i g n i f i e d \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a Black C h r i s t , i n 33 sum;, but with a very human sense of humour.\" W e l l , Jim i s not without v i r t u e , but to e l e v a t e him to C h r i s t h o o d or to c l a i m t h a t he i s s e l f l e s s or i n c a p a b l e of d e c e i t i s to ignore most of the th i n g s he says or does. I do not deny t h a t Jim commands r e s p e c t i n the fog scene, but I w i l l argue t h a t t h a t scene i s the onl y scene i n the book i n which Jim enjoys such freedom of e x p r e s s i o n and partakes i n t h a t freedom wi t h such d i g n i t y . That Jim i s a genuine saphead with a l l the flaws of the s h o r e - d w e l l i n g s o c i e t y i s made c l e a r much e a r l i e r i n the book. In the second chapter, when Tom and Huck are sneaking out one n i g h t , 15 Jim hears them and i n v e s t i g a t e s , but e v e n t u a l l y f a l l s a s l e e p . While he i s s l e e p i n g , Tom leaves a f i v e - c e n t p i e c e on the k i t -chen t a b l e i n payment f o r three candles t h a t he has taken, and then s t e a l s Jim's hat and hangs i t i n a t r e e . L a t e r , what Jim makes of the n i c k e l and the hat e s t a b l i s h e s Jim as one of the n o b l e s t windbags Twain ever c r e a t e d . Jim decides t h a t witches had r i d d e n him a l l over the s t a t e ; then he e n l a r g e s upon h i s s t o r y u n t i l they had r i d d e n him a l l over the world, \"and t i r e d him most to death, and h i s back was a l l over saddle b o i l s \" (p. 10) '. Jim was monstrous proud about i t , and he got so he wouldn't h a r d l y n o t i c e the other n i g g e r s . Niggers would come mi l e s to hear Jim t e l l about i t , and he was more looked up to than any nigger i n t h a t country . . . Jim always kept t h a t f i v e - c e n t e r p i e c e around h i s neck with a s t r i n g and s a i d i t was a charm the d e v i l g i v e to him with h i s own hands and t o l d him he c o u l d cure anybody with i t and f e t c h witches whenever he wanted to , j u s t by s a y i n g something to i t ; but he never t o l d what i t was he s a i d to i t . . . . Jim was most r u i n e d , f o r a s e r v a n t , because he got so stuck up on account of having seen the d e v i l and been rode by witches, (p.10-11) -We can admire Jim's i m a g i n a t i o n \u00E2\u0080\u0094 b u t we should be c a r e f u l about what we expect from someone with such a g i f t f o r r o m a n t i c i z i n g t r i v i a l e x p e r i e n c e s . A l s o , we should not be l e d to b e l i e v e , as L i o n e l T r i l l i n g was, t h a t Huck and Jim 34 \"do not have an ounce of p r i d e between them.\" The next time we see Jim we see how much g u i l e i s i n the man. Huck comes to Jim to ask advice about h i s f a t h e r . Jim p u l l s out h i s h a i r b a l l , . which he claims has a s p i r i t i n i t t h a t \"knowed e v e r y t h i n g , \" and drops i t on the f l o o r t hree times. Then he claims t h a t sometimes the h a i r b a l l won't t a l k without money. Huck. g i v e s Jim a c o u n t e r f e i t q u a r t e r ; Jim then comments t h a t he would \" s p l i t open a raw I r i s h potato . and s t i c k the q u a r t e r i n between and keep i t there a l l n i g h t , and next morning . . . anybody i n town would take i t i n a minute\" (p.19). F i n a l l y , with the a i d of the h a i r -b a l l , Jim t e l l s Huck h i s f o r t u n e , and, to put i t s u c c i n c t l y , Huck gets h i s money's worth. The f a c t t h a t Jim passes c o u n t e r f e i t money and t e l l s bogus f o r t u n e s does not e s t a b l i s h him as a heinous c r i m i n a l , but i t does shed l i g h t on h i s c a p a c i t y f o r honesty. These e a r l y chapters show Jim to be a romantic f o o l and a con a r t i s t . When he decides to run away, we see t h a t he i s a l s o s t u p i d , and a poor candidate f o r freedom. His i n i t i a l dash f o r freedom i s p r e c i p i t o u s and t o t a l l y unplanned. One n i g h t , when he overhears Miss Watson t e l l her s i s t e r t h a t she wants to s e l l Jim because she can't r e s i s t the e i g h t hun-dred d o l l a r s she c o u l d get f o r him, Jim gets scared and runs away. He admits to Huck l a t e r t h a t the widow was t r y i n g to dissuade Miss Watson (and without doubt, the widow would have convinced her s i s t e r not to s e l l J im), but Jim \"never waited to hear de r e s \" (p.39). Jim gets as f a r as the cooper's shop and h i d e s , then spends the n i g h t and the next day there w a i t -i n g f o r a good chance to escape unseen. T h i s g i v e s him time to t h i n k ; he decides a t l a s t to c a t c h a r a f t and r i d e i t down r i v e r about t w e n t y - f i v e m i l e s and then take to the woods on the I l l i n o i s s i d e . However, the men on the r a f t he catches 17 move around too much and, f e a r i n g capture, Jim gets o f f a t Jackson's I s l a n d . Jackson's I s l a n d i s as f a r as he can go. Suddenly h i s predicament i s c l e a r . He doesn't want to be s o l d down r i v e r , but t r y i n g to f i n d h i s way to the f r e e s t a t e s i s too r i s k y , so he stays on Jackson's I s l a n d , not knowing what to do. Perhaps he would have s t a r v e d to death t h e r e , i f Huck hadn't come alo n g . I f Jim d i d have any notion s o f ever going f a r t h e r than Jackson's I s l a n d , they evaporate when Huck a r r i v e s . They go e x p l o r i n g and d i s c o v e r a l a r g e cavern. Jim immediately suggests they make a permanent home t h e r e . Jim was f o r p u t t i n g our t r a p s i n t h e r e , r i g h t away, but I s a i d we d i d n ' t want t o be c l i m b i n g up and down there a l l the time. Jim s a i d i f we had the canoe h i d i n a good p l a c e , and had a l l the t r a p s i n the cavern, we c o u l d rush t h e r e i f anybody was to come to the i s l a n d , and they would never f i n d us without dogs. (p. 4 3) .-Jim was q u i t e s a t i s f i e d to remain on Jackson's I s l a n d . S u r e l y i t i s c l e a r t h a t Jim i s not f i e r c e l y d e d i c a t e d to seeking permanent freedom. To the lengthen i n g l i s t of Jimi's human f o i b l e s I would l i k e to add d u p l i c i t y and i n s i n c e r i t y . I r e f e r s p e c i f i c a l l y t o the l i e he t e l l s Huck about the i d e n t i t y o f the man i n the f l o a t i n g house and to the f l a t t e r y he uses on Huck to manipulate him. When Jim f i n d s Pap F i n n dead i n the f l o a t i n g house, he q u i c k l y throws some o l d rags over him and warns Huck not to look a t h i s f a c e . We assume immediately t h a t Jim i s p r o t e c t i n g Huck from something h o r r i b l e ; the dead man not only looks g h a s t l y , but a l s o i s Huck's f a t h e r . We l e a r n 18 l a t e r , however, t h a t J i m i s r e a l l y p r o t e c t i n g h i m s e l f . Back a t t h e c a v e , when Huck wants t o t a l k a b o u t t h e d e a d man, J i m r e f u s e s t o , c l a i m i n g t h a t t a l k i n g a b o u t him w o u l d b r i n g b a d l u c k \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n d o f c o u r s e i t w o u l d , f o r J i m . J i m knows t h a t pap i s Huck's r e a s o n f o r r u n n i n g away; Huck \" t o l d h i m t h e w h o l e t h i n g \" (p. 38) a b o u t what went on i n p ap's c a b i n . He a l s o must r e a l i z e t h a t i f Huck knew t h a t pap was dead, he w o u l d go b a c k t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g , r a t h e r t h a n s t a y on J a c k s o n ' s I s l a n d w i t h J i m . J i m k e e p s pap's d e a t h a s e c r e t u n t i l i t i s s a f e t o r e v e a l i t - - w h e n he h i m s e l f i s f r e e , and i t i s no l o n g e r \"bad l u c k \" t o t a l k a b o u t t h e d e a d man. J i m ' s d e c e i t t a k e s a n o t h e r f o r m ; when he i s u n s u r e o f Huck's l o y a l t y , he f l a t t e r s him. B e f o r e J i m e x t r a c t s a p r o -m i s e f r o m Huck n o t t o t e l l on him, he t e l l s h i m t h a t e v e n Tom Sawyer c o u l d n o t have p l a n n e d h i s own murder as w e l l as Huck d i d . B u t a f t e r he h a s Huck's. p r o m i s e n o t t o t e l l , a l l f l a t t e r y s t o p s u n t i l t h e y a r e down by C a i r o . J i m g e t s v e r y e x c i t e d a b o u t b e i n g so c l o s e t o f r e e d o m , and Huck b e g i n s t o f e e l \"mean and m i s e r a b l e \" a b o u t h i s i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e runaway n e g r o . Huck d e c i d e s t o t e l l on J i m , and when t h e y f i n a l l y s p o t a l i g h t , Huck s u g g e s t s he go and see i f i t i s C a i r o ; he i n t e n d s t o t a k e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o t e l l . S u d d e n l y J i m s t a r t s t o b e h a v e l i k e a s e r v a n t . He l a y s h i s c o a t on t h e b o t t o m o f t h e canoe f o r Huck t o s i t on and as Huck s h o v e s o f f , he s a y s / P o o t y s o o n I ' l l be a s h o u t ' n f o r j o y , en I ' l l s a y , i t ' s a l l on a c c o u n t s 'o' Huck; I ' s a f r e e man, en I c o u l d n ' t ever been f r e e e f i t hadn 1 been f o r Huck; Huck done i t . Jim won't ever f o r g i t you, Huck; you's de bes' f r e n ' Jim's ever had; en you's de only f r e n ' o l e Jim's got now. (p.74) . To t h i s p o i n t , Jim has probably j u s t been f e e l i n g g r a t e f u l to Huck f o r h e l p i n g him get t h i s f a r , although he may have sensed from Huck's f i d g e t i n g up and down the r a f t t h a t Huck has m i s g i v i n g s about what he i s doing. But when Jim says Huck i s the o n l y f r i e n d Jim has now, Huck suddenly stops p a d d l i n g hard (Huck had been \" a l l i n a sweat\" to t e l l on Jim) and goes along s l o w l y , not knowing what to do. Jim watches him paddle along slowly i n u n c e r t a i n t y and then y e l l s , \"Dah you goes, de o l e t r u e Huck; de on'y white genlman dat ever kep 1 h i s promise to o l e Jim\" (p. 74). Jim senses t h a t some-t h i n g must be wrong and decides he'd b e t t e r remind. Huck of h i s promise not to t e l l on him, and throws i n the h i g h l y i n -a p p r o p r i a t e t i t l e , \"white genlman\" as w e l l . Again, I would l i k e to say t h a t I am not t r y i n g to prove t h a t Jim i s a d e s p i c a b l e c r e a t u r e ; he i s n ' t . I'm o n l y t r y i n g to show t h a t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p with Huck i s n ' t always an honest one. Jim had s a i d e a r l i e r t h a t i f they missed C a i r o he'd \"be i n s l a v e country again and jfhavej no more show f o r f r e e -dom\" (p. 72). When Jim r e a l i z e s t h a t they have indeed passed by Cairo., and when t h e i r canoe disappears as w e l l , he seems to g i v e up on ever g e t t i n g t o the f r e e s t a t e s . Although Jim and Huck t a l k about buying a canoe to go back i n , they never do. And, when three days a f t e r t h e i r escape from the Granger-ford-Shepherdson feud, they f i n d a canoe, Jim doesn't suggest 20 they head back up r i v e r . Huck paddles up a creek to p i c k b e r r i e s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n d b r i n g s the k i n g and the duke aboard. C r i t i c s have noted t h a t Twain i n t r o d u c e s the k i n g and the duke so t h a t he can continue the r i v e r journey and expose the f o l l y o f the townspeople who l i v e along the shore. But the k i n g and the duke help to expose the f o l l y of Huck and Jim, too. I have mentioned b e f o r e t h a t Jim had achieved a c e r t a i n d i g n i t y when he rebuked Huck f o r p l a y i n g w i t h h i s f e e l i n g s . But when the k i n g and the duke come aboard we see how s p e c i a l those circumstances were t h a t allowed Jim such freedom w i t h Huck, and how l i m i t e d i s h i s d i g n i t y . Jim, l i k e Huck, r e c o g n i z e s the k i n g and the duke f o r what they are. Very soon a f t e r they come aboard, Jim i s a s k i n g the k i n g to t a l k French, to see i f he r e a l l y can (p. 109). Jim knows they are j u s t \" r e g ' l a r r a p s c a l l i o n s , \" and-he t e l l s Huck so (p. 12 3). Yet Jim gets down on one knee to them, serves them, l e t s them s l e e p i n h i s bed, and c a l l s them \"your Grace,\" and \"your Majesty.\" A f t e r o n l y two days w i t h the k i n g and the duke, Jim f i n d s h i m s e l f bound hand and f o o t w i t h ropes, \" l y i n g t i e d a,couple o f years everyday, and tr e m b l i n g a l l over every time there was a sound\" (p. 126). Jim e v e n t u a l l y does p r o t e s t m i l d l y ; he expresses the hope t h a t the duke and the k i n g and Huck wouldn't be gone a l l day s i n c e i t was \"mighty heavy and tiresome\" (p. 12 5) to spend a whole day i n the wigwam t i e d up. The duke soon d e v i s e s a s o l u t i o n t h a t g i v e s Jim g r e a t e r f r e e -dom; but i t i s a s o l u t i o n t h a t i s p a i d f o r i n human d i g n i t y . 21 He dressed Jim up i n King Lear's o u t f i t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 i t was a long c u r t a i n - c a l i c o gown, and a white h o r s e - h a i r wig and whiskers; and then he took h i s t h e a t r e p a i n t and p a i n t e d Jim's face and hands and ears and neck a l l over a dead d u l l s o l i d b l u e , l i k e a man t h a t ' s been drownded nine days. Blamed i f he warn't the h o r r i b l e s . t l o o k i n g outrage I ever see. Then the duke took and wrote out a s i g n on a s h i n g l e s o \u00E2\u0080\u0094 S i c k Arab but harmless when not out of h i s head. . . . Jim was s a t i s f i e d . . . . Why, he d i d n ' t only look l i k e he was dead, he looked c o n s i d e r a b l e more than that, (p. 125-126). Jim spends the remainder of the r i v e r journey l o o k i n g l i k e a s i c k Arab; y e t c r i t i c s are d i s a p p o i n t e d when he g i v e s i n to Tom's games a t the Phelps' farm. Chadwick Hansen, f o r example, claims t h a t a t the Phelps' farm, \"Jim i s not the c h a r a c t e r Twain had so c a r e f u l l y developed, moving him from the lowest of r o l e s to the h i g h e s t . T h i s Jim has l o s t a l l d i g n i t y and become a sub-human c r e a t u r e who f e e l s no p a i n and bleeds f r e s h i n k . T h i s Jim i s a f l a t , cheap type, and t h i s Jim i s a measure of the f a i l u r e of the ending of Huckleberry 35 F i n n . \" I suggest, however, t h a t we should not be the l e a s t s u r p r i s e d when Jim decides to do e v e r y t h i n g e x a c t l y as \"Mars Tom\" says. Jim allows t h a t Tom and Huck are \"white f o l k s and knowed b e t t e r than him\" (p. 19 3). We have known a l l along t h a t Jim b e l i e v e s i n the s u p e r i o r i t y of whites; we need only remember when Huck asked him what he would do i f someone s a i d \" P o l l y - v o o - f r a n z y \" to him. Jim had r e p l i e d , \"I'd take en bust him over de head. Dat i s i f he warn't white. I wouldn't 'low no nigger to c a l l me dat\" (p. 66). In the company of whites, even i f those whites are only \"Mars Tom\" or the k i n g 3 6 and the duke, Jim i s a s l a v e . 22 C r i t i c s have i s o l a t e d one scene l a t e i n the book as being a f i n a l demonstration of Jim's goodness. The n i g h t t h a t Jim escapes from the Phelps', he g i v e s up h i s chance f o r freedom by h e l p i n g the doctor t r e a t Tom's wounded l e g . Henry Nash Smith comments, \"Jim a t t a i n s an impressive d i g n i t y when he r e f u s e s to escape a t the c o s t of d e s e r t i n g 37 the wounded Tom.\" Thomas Ar t h u r G.ul.lason r a t e s Jim's 3 8 d e c i s i o n t o stay behind as overwhelming n o b i l i t y . But what, we need to ask, i s Jim s a c r i f i c i n g ? He has a l r e a d y shown t h a t he can't make h i s own way to freedom, and now he i s e l e v e n hundred m i l e s south of S t . P e t e r s b u r g . Ever s i n c e the n i g h t he a r r i v e d on Jackson's I s l a n d , he hasn't known what to do next. Now, a t the Phelps' farm, he e x p l a i n s h i s d e c i s i o n to stay with Tom as being the k i n d of d e c i s i o n t h a t Tom would make. : But what runaway negro with an ounce of d e t e r m i n a t i o n to be f r e e would g i v e up h i s chance f o r f r e e -dom to h e l p nurse a boy l i k e Tom Sawyer, e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r a l l Tom Sawyer has put Jim through? What runaway negro would have allowed h i m s e l f to get so f a r south and wind up on a r a f t w i t h Tom Sawyer i n the f i r s t p l a ce? Jim's d e c i s i o n to s t i c k by Tom because i t i s the honorable t h i n g to do, what Tom h i m s e l f would do, i s the f i n a l measure of the f o o l i s h n e s s o f Nigger Jim. Jim i s no hero, he i s not s e r i o u s l y devoted to a quest f o r freedom, and he i s not p a r t i c u l a r l y v i r t u o u s . He i s given to f a l s e p r i d e , d u p l i c i t y , cowardice and s i l l y s e n t i m e n t a l i t y . 23 I I I . HUCK'S INVOLVEMENT WITH SOCIETY Most c r i t i c s admit t h a t Huck i s i n v o l v e d with s o c i e t y , i n the sense t h a t he i s concerned about the w e l f a r e of o t h e r s . L i o n e l T r i l l i n g , f o r example, p o i n t s out t h a t \"Huck's i n t e n s e and even complex moral q u a l i t y may p o s s i b l y not appear on a f i r s t r e a d i n g , f o r one may be caught and convinced by h i s own estimate of h i m s e l f , by h i s brags about h i s l a z y hedonism, h i s avowed p r e f e r e n c e f o r being alone, h i s d i s l i k e o f c i v i l -i z a t i o n . The f a c t i s , of course, t h a t he i s i n v o l v e d i n c i v i l i z a t i o n up to h i s e a r s . . . . R e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s the very essence of h i s c h a r a c t e r . . . he i s always ' i n a sweat 1 over 39 the predicament of someone e l s e . \" I would l i k e to take what T r i l l i n g has to say about Huck's m o r a l i t y a step f u r t h e r and suggest t h a t both h i s avowed d i s l i k e of c i v i l i z a t i o n and h i s obvious concern f o r humanity s p r i n g from the same source: a deep sense of h i s own unworthiness. I t i s too easy to f o r -get t h a t Huck has been c a s t out of s o c i e t y : the c h i l d r e n o f St. P e tersburg have been f o r b i d d e n by t h e i r mothers to even speak to Huck. He has no bed to s l e e p i n , l i k e o ther c h i l d -ren, and he has to beg or s t e a l food and c l o t h i n g . Although h i s o u t c a s t c o n d i t i o n may appear to be \"gaudy,\" i n r e a l i t y , Huck's l i f e has been mean and d e p r i v e d . He cannot r e c a l l ever having heard the word, \"welcome.\" The words t h a t Huck uses most o f t e n to d e s c r i b e h i m s e l f are, \"low down\" \"mean\" and \"ornery.\" U n t i l he f i n d s the s i x thousand d o l l a r s and i s adopted by the Widow Douglas, Huck i s l i k e F r a n k e n s t e i n ' s m o n s t e r , l i v i n g o u t s i d e o f s o c i e t y , s t a y i n g o u t o f s i g h t , d o i n g good deeds whenever he c a n , and as I hope t o show, w i s h i n g d e s p e r a t e l y t o b e l o n g t o t h e s o c i e t y t h a t r e j e c t s him. When t h e widow a d o p t s him, Huck's f i r s t r e s p o n s e i s p a i n f u l e m b a r r a s s m e n t : \"The widow . . . h e a p e d so many c o m p l i m e n t s and so much g r a t i t u d e upon Huck, t h a t he a l m o s t f o r g o t t h e n e a r l y i n t o l e r a b l e d i s c o m f o r t o f h i s new c l o t h e s i n t h e e n t i r e l y i n t o l e r a b l e d i s c o m f o r t o f b e i n g s e t up as a 40 t a r g e t f o r e v e r y b o d y ' s g a z e and e v e r y b o d y ' s l a u d a t i o n s . \" B e f o r e l o n g , Huck i s \" c o u r t e d , a d m i r e d , s t a r e d a t , \" and h i s 41 s a y i n g s a r e \" t r e a s u r e d and r e p e a t e d . \" T h e r e i s l i t t l e Huck ca n do a b o u t h i s new s t a t u s ; a f t e r t h r e e weeks o f c l e a n l i v i n g , he r u n s away, b u t t h i s one r e b e l l i o n l a s t s o n l y t h r e e d a y s . A l l Tom has t o do i s p o i n t o u t t o Huck, \"we c a n ' t l e t y o u i n t o 42 t h e Gang i f y o u a i n ' t r e s p e c t a b l e , y o u know.\" Huck swears t o go b a c k and s t i c k t o t h e widow u n t i l he r o t s , and t h e s t a g e i s s e t f o r A d v e n t u r e s o f H u c k l e b e r r y F i n n . The p a t t e r n of A d v e n t u r e s o f H u c k l e b e r r y F i n n i s a n n o u nced on t h e f i r s t p a ge: The Widow D o u g l a s , she t o o k me f o r h e r s o n , and a l l o w e d she w o u l d c i v i l i z e me; b u t i t was r o u g h l i v i n g i n t h e house a l l t h e t i m e , c o n s i d e r i n g how d i s m a l r e g -u l a r and d e c e n t t h e widow was i n a l l h e r ways; and so when I c o u l d n ' t s t a n d i t no l o n g e r , I l i t o u t . I g o t i n t o my o l d r a g s , and my s u g a r - h o g s h e a d a g a i n , and was f r e e and s a t i s f i e d . B u t Tom Sawyer, he h u n t e d me up and s a i d he was g o i n g t o s t a r t a band o f r o b b e r s , and I m i g h t j o i n i f I w o u l d go b a c k t o t h e widow and be r e s -p e c t a b l e . So I went b a c k . ( p . 7, i t a l i c s m i n e ) . A d v e n t u r e s o f H u c k l e b e r r y F i n n i s n o t a b o u t e s c a p e , i t i s about escape and r e t u r n . From beginning to end, Huck moves f u r t h e r i n t o s o c i e t y , not out of i t , and by the end of 4 3 the s t o r y Huck i s a c i v i l i z e d , well-mannered young man. At f i r s t , Huck t o l e r a t e s r e s p e c t a b i l i t y i n order to belong to Tom's gang. Huck i s desperate to j o i n t h i s m i n i -s o c i e t y and i s ready to c r y when Ben Rogers q u e s t i o n s Huck's l e g i t i m a c y as a member, on the b a s i s t h a t he has no.family to k i l l i f he t e l l s the gang's s e c r e t s . Huck, of course, o f f e r s them Miss Watson to k i l l , and he i s accepted by the gang. Even a t t h i s comic l e v e l , the theme of the s t o r y i s c l e a r : to enjoy the f e l l o w s h i p o f s o c i e t y , one must be r e s -p e c t a b l e . Tom Sawyer's gang breaks up a f t e r a month, but Huck F i n n never goes back t o h i s hogsheads ag a i n . Huck has begun to a p p r e c i a t e something e l s e that'_makes r e s p e c t a b i l i t y worth s u f f e r i n g : the widow's kindness t o him. The widow makes Miss Watson \"ease up.\" She doesn't s c o l d him when he r e t u r n s a l l grease and c l a y from h i s n i g h t s out with Tom Sawyer, but j u s t looks \"so s o r r y \" t h a t Huck t h i n k s he w i l l behave f o r awhile i f he can. Huck admits \"a poor chap would stand con-s i d e r a b l e show wi t h the widow's providence\" (p.15). The widow p r a i s e s Huck and says t h a t she i s not ashamed of him. When he turns over the s a l t c e l l a r , Miss Watson s c o l d s , but the widow puts i n a good word f o r Huck. A f t e r three or four months pass by, Huck admits t h a t although he l i k e d the o l d ways b e s t , he was g e t t i n g to l i k e the new ones, too, \"a l i t t l e b i t . \" 26 L i v i n g i n a h o u s e , and s l e e p i n g i n a b e d , p u l l e d on me p r e t t y t i g h t , m o s t l y , b u t b e f o r e t h e c o l d w e a t h e r I u s e d t o s l i d e o u t and s l e e p i n t h e woods, som e t i m e s , so t h a t was a r e s t t o me (p. 18, i t a l i c s m i n e ) . Though c r i t i c s w o u l d have i t o t h e r w i s e , Huck e v e n seems t o be e n j o y i n g s c h o o l . Huck u n d e r s t a t e s t h e c a s e : \"I g o t so I c o u l d s t a n d i t . \" I n f a c t , h i s a t t e n d a n c e has b e e n e x c e l l e n t , and he has a l r e a d y l e a r n e d t o s p e l l , and r e a d , and w r i t e , \" j u s t a l i t t l e . \" The e f f e c t t h a t t h e widow has h a d on Huck becomes o b v i o u s when Pap F i n n r e t u r n s . Huck must f e e l v e r y s a f e u n d e r t h e widow's r o o f , b e c a u s e as h i s f a t h e r mumbles and g r o w l s a r o u n d i n Huck's bedroom, k n o c k i n g books a b o u t and t e a r i n g up p i c t u r e s , Huck i s u n u s u a l l y i m p e r t i n e n t : B y\"andjby he s a y s : \" S t a r c h y c l o t h e s - - v e r y . You t h i n k y o u ' r e a good d e a l o f a b i g bug d o n ' t y o u ? \" \"Maybe I am, maybe I a i n ' t , \" I s a y s . \"Don't y o u g i v e me none o' y o u r l i p , \" s a y s he. \"You've p u t on c o n s i d e r a b l e many f r i l l s s i n c e I b e e n away. I ' l l t a k e y o u down a peg b e f o r e I g e t done w i t h y o u . Y o u ' r e e d u c a t e d , t o o , t h e y s a y ; c a n r e a d a n d w r i t e . You t h i n k y o u ' r e b e t t e r ' n y o u r f a t h e r , now, d o n ' t y o u , b e c a u s e he c a n ' t ? I ' l l t a k e i t o u t o f y o u . Who t o l d y o u y o u m i g h t meddle w i t h s u c h h i f a l u t i n 1 f o o l i s h n e s s , h e y ? \u00E2\u0080\u0094 w h o t o l d y o u y o u c o u l d ? \" \"The widow. She t o l d me.\" \"The widow, h e y ? \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n d who t o l d t h e widow she c o u l d p u t i n h e r s h o v e l a b o u t a t h i n g t h a t a i n ' t none o f h e r b u s i n e s s ? \" \"Nobody n e v e r t o l d h e r .-\".(p. 20-21) Ev e n t h o u g h a new j u d g e d e n i e s t h e widow's p e t i t i o n f o r g u a r d i a n s h i p o f Huck, Huck s t a y s on a t t h e widow's, and c o n t i n -ues t o go t o s c h o o l , \" t o s p i t e pap.\" I n f a c t , Huck s t a y s on f o r s e v e n o r e i g h t months, f r o m summer u n t i l \"one day i n t h e 27 s p r i n g \" when pap k i d n a p s him. I n a l l t h a t t i m e t h e o a t h t h a t he made on t h e l a s t page o f The A d v e n t u r e s o f Tom Sawyer, \" I ' l l s t i c k t o t h e w i d d e r t i l l I r o t , \" r e m a i n s u n b r o k e n . T r u e , once Huck has b e e n away i n t h e woods w i t h pap f o r two months, he c l a i m s he d o e s n ' t u n d e r s t a n d how h e ' d g o t t e n t o l i k e i t so w e l l a t t h e widow's (p. 2 4 ) . He a l s o c l a i m s t o be s h a k e n up c o n s i d e r a b l y when pap t e l l s h i m t h a t th e widow w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y w i n i n h e r e f f o r t s t o become h i s g u a r d i a n . Huck s t a t e s p l a i n l y , \" I ^ d i d n ' t want t o go b a c k t o t h e widow's any more and be so cramped up and c i v i l i a e i d , =ias t h e y c a l l e d i t \" (p. 2 5 ) . F i n a l l y , when he makes h i s p l a n s t o r u n away, he s a y s he wants t o \" g e t so f a r away t h a t t h e o l d man n o r t h e widow\" c o u l d f i n d him. (Twain i n t e r p r e t e d t h e s t o r y s i m i l a r l y : he s a i d Huck. was r u n n i n g f r o m \" h i s p e r s e -44 c u t i n g f a t h e r , and f r o m a p e r s e c u t i n g good widow.\" However, Tw a i n was p r o b a b l y c o n f u s i n g t h e widow w i t h M i s s Watson; he went on t o s a y , \"and w i t h him a s l a v e o f t h e widow's has a l s o e s c a p e d . \" ) However, we know t h a t Huck ha d d e c i d e d l o n g ago t o s t a y a t t h e widow's. I s u g g e s t t h a t when he s a y s he d o e s n ' t want t o go b a c k t o t h e widow's \"no more,\" he means t h a t he had w anted t o go b a c k a t f i r s t , b u t d o e s n ' t any more. The r e a s o n why he d o e s n ' t want t o go b a c k \"no more\" i s c l e a r : The widow she f o u n d o u t where I was b y - a n d - b y , and she s e n t a man o v e r t o t r y and g e t h o l d o f me, b u t pap d r o v e him o f f w i t h t h e gun, and i t w a r n ' t l o n g a f t e r t h a t t i l l I was u s e d t o b e i n g where I w a s . ( p . 24) I s u g g e s t t h a t Huck was h o p i n g t h a t somehow t h e widow 28 would rescue him, and t h a t when pap f o i l s her e f f o r t s , he simply r e s i g n s h i m s e l f , s t d i c t h a t he i s , to being the son of the town drunk, the \" j u v e n i l e p a r i a h \" once more. There j u s t i s n ' t any p o i n t i n t r y i n g to(See h i m s e l f as the son of the most h i g h l y r e s p e c t e d lady i n the v i l l a g e as long as pap i s s t i l l a l i v e . His p r o t e s t s about h i s treatment a t the widow's are j u s t sour grapes. Whether he can admit i t a t t h i s p o i n t or not, the widow has had a deep and l a s t i n g e f f e c t on Huck. He.: mentions the widow time and again as the novel p r o g r e s s e s . The f i r s t day t h a t he i s on Jackson's I s l a n d , he catches a l o a f of \"baker's bread\u00E2\u0080\u0094what ..the,, q u a l i t y eat--none of your low-down corn-pone\"(p. 34) . He s i t s munching on t h i s bread f o r awhile and then i t occurs to him t h a t the widow had probably prayed t h a t t h a t bread would f i n d him, and i t had. T h i s proves to him t h a t prayer does work, a t l e a s t , \"there's something i n i t when a body l i k e the widow or the parson prays\" (p. 34). L a t e r , when Huck and Jim are s u r v i v i n g by l i f t i n g chickens t h a t weren't \" r o o s t i n g comfortable,\" and \"borrowing\" watermelons and pumpkins, Huck remembers t h a t \"pap always s a i d i t warn't no harm to borrow t h i n g s , i f you was meaning to pay them back, sometime; but the widow s a i d i t warn't anything but a s o f t name f o r s t e a l i n g \" (p. 55 ) . He i s concerned enough about what the widow had s a i d to decide to c u r t a i l , h i s t h i e v i n g , even i f i t i s only crabapples and persimmons t h a t he decides to leave alone. He a l s o claims t h a t h i s concern f o r the robbers on the wrecked steamboat i s 29 motivated p a r t l y by what the widow would t h i n k of him: But take i t a l l around, I was f e e l i n g r u t h e r comfort-able on accounts of t a k i n g a l l t h i s t r o u b l e f o r t h a t gang, f o r not many would a done i t . I wished the widow knowed about i t . I judged she would be proud of me f o r h e l p i n g these r a p s c a l l i o n s , because r a p s c a l l i o n s and dead beats i s the k i n d the widow and the good people takes the most i n t e r e s t i n . .(p. 63) -In h i s debates with Jim he quotes the widow as an a u t h o r i t y who should be r e s p e c t e d : \"he jj3olomon3 was the w i s e s t man, anyway; because the widow she t o l d me so, her own s e l f \" (p.65). When Huck meets the Grangerfords he i s impressed by the C o l o n e l because he was \" w e l l born.\" Again, he quotes the widow as an a u t h o r i t y on these t h i n g s : He was w e l l born, as the s a y i n g i s , and t h a t ' s worth as much i n a man as i t i s i n a horse, so the Widow Douglas s a i d , and nobody ever denied t h a t she was the f i r s t a r i s -t o c r a c y i n our town; and pap he always s a i d i t , too, though he warn't no more q u a l i t y than a mudcat, h i m s e l f , (p. 86) A l l these r e c o l l e c t i o n s of the widow g i v e us a c l e a r p i c t u r e of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between her and Huck and the k i n d of c i v i l i z i n g e f f e c t she has had on him. He has come to h a l f -b e l i e v e i n the e f f i c a c y of p r a y e r . He has become concerned about h i s s t e a l i n g . He has t r i e d to do what the widow s a i d he must do: to \"help other people, and do e v e r y t h i n g I c o u l d f o r o ther people, and look out f o r them a l l the time\" (p. 14). The widow has made the B i b l e s t o r i e s come to l i f e f o r Huck. At f i r s t , Huck had been unable to understand why anyone would be concerned about dead people l i k e Moses. But l a t e r , h i s argue-ment with Jim about Solomon i n d i c a t e s t h a t he has developed a genuine and deep i n t e r e s t i n the B i b l e and the meaning of i t s 3 0 s t o r i e s . F i n a l l y , Huck has become more c l a s s c o n s c i o u s . His comments about the widow and the \" q u a l i t y \" i n d i c a t e t h a t he has come to a s s o c i a t e some good t h i n g s with the a r i s t o c r a c y . He has a l s o become more p a i n f u l l y aware of h i s own s t a t u s s i n c e pap s t o l e him away from the widow. As Huck gets f a r t h e r and f a r t h e r away from S t . Petersburg, more and more he laments the wickedness which was i n h i s \" l i n e , \" which he was \"brung up t o \" by a man who had no more q u a l i t y than a mudcat'. Huck 1s a p p r e c i a t i o n of c i v i l i z e d l i f e becomes even more c l e a r when he i s adopted by the Grangerfords. The Grangerfords-are g e n e r a l l y regarded as examples of the worst k i n d of s e n t i -m e n t a l i t y , the k i n d t h a t r o m a n t i c i z e s death and values honour above human l i f e . But to Huck, they are a dream come t r u e . Ever s i n c e he l e f t S t . Petersburg, Huck has been i n v e n t i n g f a m i l i e s f o r h i m s e l f . He t e l l s J u d i t h L o f t u s t h a t he i s Sarah W i l l i a m s , a g i r l on her way to get help from her uncle f o r her s i c k mother (p. 48). He t e l l s the c a p t a i n of the f e r r y boat t h a t h i s f a m i l y i n c l u d e s \"pap, and mam, and s i s \" (p. 61). He t e l l s the s l a v e hunters t h a t \"pap and mam and Mary Ann\" are on the r a f t . At the Grangerford's, he has time to e m b e l l i s h the s t o r y a l i t t l e and e x p l a i n s t h a t he i s George Jackson from the bottom of Arkansas, whose s i s t e r Mary Ann eloped, whose b r o t h e r ' B i l l went to hunt f o r her and was never heard of again and whose f a t h e r and b r o t h e r s Tom and Mort a l l d i e d . A l l these t r a g i c s t o r i e s t h a t Huck f a b r i c a t e s i l l u s t r a t e h i s acute sense of being an orphan and help us understand h i s l o v e f o r the Grangerfords. 31 When he f i r s t e n t e r s t h e d o o r a t t h e G r a n g e r f o r d 1 s , Huck i s q u i t e s u r e t h a t t h e y mean t o s h o o t him. Huck i s u s e d t o b e i n g t r e a t e d b a d l y , and has e x p e c t e d h o s t i l i t y a t e v e r y t u r n s i n c e he l e f t J a c k s o n ' s I s l a n d . Huck i s s u r p r i s e d when he i s t r e a t e d so k i n d l y by t h e G r a n g e r f o r d s . The C o l o n e l t e l l s h i m t o make h i m s e l f a t home. S e r v a n t s b u s y t h e m s e l v e s t o g e t him s o m e t h i n g t o e a t , Buck g i v e s him f r e s h d r y c l o t h e s , t h e w h o l e f a m i l y s i t s up t o h e a r h i s s t o r y , and he i s i m m e d i a t e l y a d o p t e d . Huck's a c c o u n t o f what he s e e s and does a t t h e G r a n g e r -f o r d ' s r e v e a l s a marked change i n h i s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s f o o d , c l o t h i n g , and c l a s s . I t a l s o r e v e a l s how l i m i t e d i s h i s r e a l ^ i s m , h i s a b i l i t y t o r e c o g n i z e and d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e f a k e and t h e g e n u i n e . F i r s t l e t us remember t h a t Huck has d e c l a r e d e a r l y i n t h e book a d i s d a i n f o r b e i n g \"cramped up and c i v i l i z e d . \" He has a l s o e x p r e s s e d i m p a t i e n c e w i t h t h e f o r m a l i t i e s o f c i v i l -i z e d d i n i n g : The widow r u n g a b e l l f o r s u p p e r , and y o u had t o come t o t i m e . When y o u g o t t o t h e t a b l e y o u c o u l d n ' t go r i g h t t o e a t i n g , b u t y o u had t o w a i t f o r t h e widow t o t u c k down h e r h e a d and grumble a l i t t l e o v e r t h e v i c t u a l s , t h o u g h t h e r e w a r n ' t r e a l l y a n y t h i n g t h e m a t t e r w i t h them. T h a t i s , n o t h i n g o n l y e v e r y t h i n g was c o o k e d by i t s e l f . I n a b a r r e l o f odds and ends i t i s d i f f e r e n t , t h i n g s g e t m i x e d up, and t h e j u i c e k i n d o f swaps a r o u n d , and t h e t h i n g s go b e t t e r . ( p . 7 ) . When Huck a r r i v e s a t t h e G r a n g e r f o r d 1 s , t h e f i r s t t h i n g t h a t Buck announces i s t h a t h i s m other makes him \"comb up, Sundays, and a l l t h a t k i n d o f f o o l i s h n e s s '-':' (p;. ~ 81 J-'. b u t Huck n e v e r once c o n s i d e r s r e f u s i n g t o wear t h e t i g h t c l o t h e s he i s g i v e n , o r r u n n i n g away t o t h e n e a r e s t h o g s h e a d . I n f a c t , 32 when Huck does go to church with the Grangerfords, i t i s the preaching he complains about, not the \"combing up.\" L a t e r , when he i s back on the r a f t with Jim, Huck comments, \"we was always naked, day and n i g h t , whenever the mosquitoes would l e t u s \u00E2\u0080\u0094 t h e new c l o t h e s Buck's f o l k s made f o r me was too good to be comfortable, and b e s i d e s I d i d n ' t go much on c l o t h e s , no how\"(p. 97, i t a l i c s mine). His p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t c l o t h i n g have toned down c o n s i d e r a b l y , and he i s c o n f e s s i n g here t h a t he does wear h i s good c l o t h e s , i f o n l y because they are more comfortable than being b i t t e n a l l over by mosquitoes. Huck*s t a s t e i n food and t a b l e manners has changed con-s i d e r a b l y , too. He p r a i s e s the good cooking and speaks w i t h p r i d e of the dinner r i t u a l s a t the Grangerford's: And warn't the cooking good, and j u s t bushels of i t too! (p. 86) -When him and the o l d lady come down i n the morning, a l l the f a m i l y got up out of t h e i r c h a i r s and g i v e them good-day, and d i d n ' t s e t down again t i l l they had s e t down. Then Tom and Bob went to the s i d e b o a r d where the decanters was, and mixed a g l a s s of b i t t e r s and handed i t to him, and he h e l d i t i n h i s hand and waited t i l l Tom's and Bob's was mixed, and then they bowed and s a i d \"Our duty to you, s i r , and madam;\" and they bowed the l e a s t b i t i n the world and s a i d thank you, and so they drank, a l l t h r e e , and Bob and Tom poured a s p o o n f u l of water on the sugar and the mite of whiskey or apple brandy i n the bottom of t h e i r tumblers, and g i v e i t to me and Buck, and we drank to the o l d people too. (p. 87) . Huck i s a l s o deeply impressed by the \" q u a l i t y \" of t h i s f a m i l y . Of course, a t one l e v e l , e v e r y t h i n g Huck says about the a r i s t o c r a t i c Grangerfords i s meant by Twain to be h a r d - h i t t i n g s a t i r e . But from Huck's p o i n t of view, the Grangerford f a m i l y i s the b e s t t h i n g he has ever seen. He d e s c r i b e s the C o l o n e l i n minute d e t a i l : he i s a \"gentleman\" who i s \" w e l l born,\" he wears a c l e a n s h i r t \"every day of h i s l i f e , \" and a f u l l s u i t \"made out o f l i n e n so white i t h u r t your eyes t o look a t i t , \" and \"everybody was always good mannered where he was\" (pp. 86-87). Most important f o r Huck, the Colonel' 1 was as k i n d as he c o u l d b e \u00E2\u0080\u0094 y o u c o u l d f e e l t h a t , you know, and so you had c o n f i d e n c e \" (p. 86, i t a l i c s mine). For a l l t h e i r f a u l t s , the Grangerfords are genuinely k i n d , and they seem to have no u l t e r i o r motives f o r t a k i n g Huck i n (when the feud breaks out, no one wakes Huck to ask him to h e l p ) . A l l the kindnesses the Grangerfords show him i n -s p i r e Huck, and he i s able to admit t h a t he has confidence i n h i m s e l f and h i s a b i l i t y to f i t i n a t the Grangerfords. T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a dramatic change f o r the boy who has so o f t e n seen h i m s e l f as low-down, mean, and ornery. Huck d e s c r i b e s the r e s t of the f a m i l y and t h e i r house and r e l a t i v e s i n glowing terms. Rachel Grangerford i s \"the sweetest o l d gray-headed lady\" (p. 80), Bob and Tom are \" t a l l , b e a u t i f u l men with very broad shoulders and brown f a c e s , and long b l a c k h a i r and b l a c k eyes\" (p. 87). Miss C h a r l o t t e was \" t a l l and proud and grand, but as good as she c o u l d be . . . b e a u t i f u l \" (p. 87), and Miss Sophia i s b e a u t i f u l , too, o n l y \"gentle and sweet, l i k e a dove\" (p. 87). Huck notes t h a t the house has a r e a l brass door knob, no beds i n the p a r l o u r , a c l e a n b r i c k f i r e p l a c e w i t h brass dog-irons, and an impressive c o l l e c t i o n o f c r o c k e r y , books and p i c t u r e s . Huck d e s c r i b e s the f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s of the f a m i l y who stay f o r f i v e or s i x days a t a time and have \"such j u n k e t i n g s round about and on t h e r i v e r , a n d d a n c e s a n d p i c n i c s i n t h e woods, d a y - t i m e s , and b a l l s a t t h e h o u s e , n i g h t s , \" a s a \"handsome l o t o f q u a l i t y \" (p. 87). Huck i s e v e n i m p r e s s e d by t h e m o r b i d . E m m e l i n e . A g a i n , a l t h o u g h we l a u g h a t H u c k 1 s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f E m m e l i n e ' s p a i n t -i n g s a n d p o e t r y , Huck h i m s e l f i s d e a d l y s e r i o u s . He i s t a k e n w i t h h e r i n an a m b i g u o u s way; t h o u g h h e r p i c t u r e s g i v e h i m t h e \" f a n t o d s \" s o m e t i m e s when he i s d e p r e s s e d , he i s s t r a n g e l y f a s c i n a t e d b y h e r . When h e r p i c t u r e s \" a g g r a v a t e \" h i m , he g o e s up t o h e r room and r e a d s i n h e r s c r a p b o o k i n a n a t t e m p t t o l i k e h e r . He s a y s \" I l i k e d a l l t h a t f a m i l y , d e a d o n e s and a l l , a n d w a r n ' t g o i n g t o l e t a n y t h i n g come b e t w e e n u s . \" Huck f e e l s t h a t he i s s u p p o s e d t o r e v e r e E m m e l i n e , and w o r k s h a r d t o d e v e l o p a f e e l i n g o f r e v e r e n c e t o w a r d s h e r . He e v e n t r i e s t o t a k e E m m e l i n e ' s p l a c e : \" i t d i d n ' t seem r i g h t t h a t t h e r e w a r n ' t nobody t o make some \u00C2\u00A3poetryJ a b o u t h e r , now she was gone; s o I t r i e d t o s w e a t o u t a v e r s e o r two m y s e l f , b u t I c o u l d n ' t seem t o make i t g o , somehow\" (p. 85). Huck i s d r a w n t o E m m e l i n e p e r h a p s b e c a u s e h e r o b s e s -s i o n w i t h d e a t h s t r i k e s a c h o r d somewhere i n h i m , b u t w h a t i s more i m p o r t a n t h e r e i s H u c k 1 s c o m p l e t e f a i l u r e t o t r u s t h i s own j u d g e m e n t . The s h a r p - e y e d r e a l i s m t h a t he h a s b e e n a d m i r e d f o r , d e s e r t s h i m c o m p l e t e l y . A t t h e G r a n g e r f o r d ' s , Huck i s d e t e r m i n e d t o f i t i n and d o e s . H i s s o j o u r n w i t h them d e m o n s t r a t e s how w i l l i n g Huck i s t o a d o p t t h e m anners a n d c u s t o m s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e s m a l l s a c r i f i c e o f w e a r i n g t i g h t c l o t h e s a n d o b s e r v i n g 35 s o c i a l r i t u a l s gains him e n t r y i n t o an a r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l y l i k e the Grangerfords, where he even has h i s own s e r v a n t . His v i s i t there a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s how e a s i l y Huck i s taken i n by the r i c h appearance of s o c i e t y , and how q u i c k l y he can c a s t o f f the \"sour grapes\" p e r s p e c t i v e of the homeless o u t c a s t . Huck's stay with the Grangerfords ends i n h o r r i f y i n g v i o l e n c e . Huck sees t h i n g s t h a t he can't even t a l k . a b o u t , t h a t make him s i c k , t h a t he has nightmares about. Huck's chance to belong to the f a m i l y of h i s dreams i s gone f o r e v e r . T y p i c a l l y , Huck r e v e r t s to the k i n d of r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n t h a t had helped him when he had been s t o l e n away from the widow. As soon as he and Jim are out i n the middle of the M i s s i s s i p p i and he judges he i s \" f r e e and s a f e once more,\" he comments, We s a i d there warn't no home l i k e a r a f t , a f t e r a l l . Other p l a c e s do seem so cramped up and smothery, but a r a f t don't. You f e e l mighty f r e e and easy and comfortable on a r a f t . ( p . 9 5 ) , T h i s comment by Huck i s regarded by many as the epitome of the c o n t r a s t of r i v e r and shore. Yet, Huck's comparison of the r a f t with \"other p l a c e s \" i s a gross o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . The r a f t i s a dangerous home, too: a steamboat almost k i l l e d them before Huck a r r i v e d a t the Grangerford's. F u r t h e r , the \"other p l a c e s \" have t h e i r redeeming q u a l i t i e s . The Granger-f o r d s were k i n d and good-humoured, and a t l e a s t one member of each of the warring f a c t i o n s managed to transcend the b i t t e r -ness between the two f a m i l i e s and f a l l i n l o v e . We are not meant to b e l i e v e t h a t Huck p r e f e r s l i v i n g w i t h Jim on a r a f t to l i v i n g with the Grangerfords. 36 Three days a f t e r t h e i r escape from the feud, Huck b r i n g s the bogus k i n g and duke aboard. I have mentioned before t h a t the two frauds serve i n the novel p a r t l y to expose the f o l l y of Huck and Jim. Huck 1s r e l a t i o n s h i p with them f u r t h e r exposes Huck's weakness f o r \" s t y l e . \" Even though Huck claims to see through them, he i s s t i l l q u i t e taken i n by the k i n g and the duke. He i s unable to r e c o g n i z e , f o r example, t h a t t h e i r a c t i n g i s a complete f r a u d : The way they l a i d on,and- pranced around the r a f t was grand to see . . . (p. 109) j u s t knocked the spots out of any a c t i n g ever I see before . . . (p. 110) he (]the king]]' c o u l d do i t [Hamlet's soliloquy\"] f i r s t r a t e . . . i t was p e r f e c t l y l o v e l y the way he would r i p and t e a r , (p. H I ) There i s no h i n t of d i s g u s t i n Huck's d e s c r i p t i o n of the king's a n t i c s a t the P o k e v i l l e camp-meeting, and he d e s c r i b e s the duke as \" p r e t t y smart\" f o r h i s day's work a t the p r i n t i n g shop. A f t e r the Nonesuch performance, Huck says, Them r a p s c a l l i o n s took i n f o u r hundred and s i x t y -f i v e d o l l a r s i n t h a t three n i g h t s . I never see money hauled i n by the wagon-load l i k e t h a t , b e f o r e . ( p . 122) c I t i s p l a i n Huck admires the duke and the k i n g for their a b i l i t y to rake i n the money. F u r t h e r , he has a l o t o f fun with them. He gets t o have a r i d e on a steamboat, he gets t o atten d a c i r c u s , and, i n g e n e r a l , has a p r e t t y e x c i t i n g time i n the v i l l a g e s along the shore. In a way, he adopts them. When they are w e l l enough rehearsed to put on t h e i r \"Shakes-perean R e v i v a l , \" Huck says, \" a l l o f us but Jim took the canoe and went down there to see i f there was any chance i n th a t p l a c e f o r our show\" (p. I l l , i t a l i c s mine). When the 37 Royal Nonesuch i s going on, Huck says, \"we s o l d t h i s crowd the same way\" (p. 12 2, i t a l i c s mine). L a t e r , Huck r e f e r s to the k i n g and duke as \"our t r i b e \" once (p. 142), and as \"our gang\" three times (pp. 145 and 155). A c t u a l l y , being with the k i n g and the duke i s l i k e being a member of Tom Sawyer's gang again, o n l y now the gang i s s u c c e s s f u l . P a r a l l e l s between Tom and the two frauds abound. V i r g i n i a Wexman c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e s s i m i l a r i t i e s between Tom's scheme and the scheme of the duke and k i n g i n v o l v i n g the Wilks g i r l s : In both the Wilks and the Phelps sequences we see two imposters attempting to put an e l a b o r a t e d e c e p t i o n over on warm-hearted, t r u s t i n g f a m i l i e s . L a t e r , both s e t s of dissemblers are s e t upon by l o c a l townsfolk. Even more s t r i k i n g l y , Tom h i m s e l f r e c a l l s our image of the \" a r i s t o c r a t i c \" duke and k i n g through h i s i n -s i s t e n c e t h a t Jim be rescued i n the manner of the n o b i l i t y he has read about i n books. 4 4 The p a r a l l e l s between Tom and the two f r a u d s , however, are much more s p e c i f i c than t h i s . Tom, l i k e the duke and the k i n g , i s engaged i n a double pretense of being someone e l s e . Tom is\u00E2\u0080\u009Epretending to be S i d .Sawyer-pretending t o c. be a stranger., from H i c k s v i l l e , \" Ohio. ,-.\u00E2\u0080\u009E The two f r a u d s , l i k e -wise, are p r e t e n d i n g to be a k i n g and a duke p r e t e n d i n g to be a parson and h i s b r o t h e r . When Tom d i s c o v e r s Jim's where-abouts \" d e t e c t i v e - f a s h i o n , \" Huck i s amazed a t Tom's i n t e l -l i g e n c e : \"What a head f o r j u s t a boy to have. I f I had Tom Sawyer's head, I wouldn't trade i t o f f to be a duke\" (p. 181). Huck was s i m i l a r l y impressed w i t h the duke's i n t e l l i g e n c e when he thought up a way of keeping Jim f r e e : \"he was v;-38 uncommon b r i g h t , the duke was\" (p. 125). In f a c t , Tom's words, \"now you work your mind and study out a p l a n to s t e a l Jim, and I w i l l study out one, too\" (p. 181), echo the duke's^ \"leave me alone to c i p h e r out a way . . . I ' l l t h i n k the t h i n g o v e r \u00E2\u0080\u0094 I ' l l i n v e n t a p l a n t h a t ' l l f i x i t \" (p. 102). Tom's plans to f r e e Jim change; the duke's plans a l s o change. The duke's f i r s t p l a n to keep Jim t i e d up a l l day, i s as p h y s i c a l l y d i s c o m f o r t i n g f o r Jim as Tom's p l a n s , which i n -clude s l e e p i n g w i t h a gr i n d - s t o n e and a s s o r t e d animals. F u r t h e r , the duke d i s g u i s e s Jim i n one of h i s [the du k e 1 s j own costumes, the \"King Lear o u t f i t . \" Tom a l s o d i s g u i s e s Jim i n h i s [Tom's^J costume, a dress he has s t o l e n from Aunt S a l l y . Tom's o v e r r i d i n g concern f o r a u t h e n t i c i t y i n h i s e l a b o r a t e scheme--\"It don't make no d i f f e r e n c e how f o o l i s h i t i s , i t ' s the r i g h t way\u00E2\u0080\u0094and i t ' s the r e g u l a r way\" (p. 190)\u00E2\u0080\u0094 r e m i n d s us of the duke's s i m i l a r concern f o r authen-t i c i t y : \"Handcuffs and chains would look s t i l l b e t t e r on Jim, but i t wouldn't go w e l l w i t h the s t o r y of us b e i n g so poor. Too much l i k e j e w e l r y . Ropes are the c o r r e c t t h i n g \u00E2\u0080\u0094 w e must preserve the u n i t i e s , as we say on the boards\" (p. 108). Tom's d i s d a i n f o r the Phelpses--\"They're so c o n f i d i n g and mullet-headed they don't take n o t i c e of nothing a t a l l \" (p. 207), echoes the duke's d i s d a i n f o r townsfolk t h a t he g u l l s : \"Greenhorns, f l a t h e a d s ! I_ knew the f i r s t house would keep mum and l e t the r e s t of the town get roped i n \" (p. 122). Tom's memory of coats of arms i s as confused as the duke's memory of Shakespeare. The \"mournful\" i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a t Tom 39 composes f o r Jim: 1. Here a c a p t i v e h e a r t busted. 2. Here a poor p r i s o n e r , forsook by the world and f r i e n d s , f r e t t e d out h i s s o r r o w f u l l i f e . 3 . Here a l o n e l y h e a r t broke, and a worn s p i r i t went to i t s r e s t , a f t e r t h i r t y - s e v e n years o f s o l i t a r y c a p t i v i t y . 4. Here, homeless and f r i e n d l e s s , a f t e r t h i r t y - s e v e n years of b i t t e r c a p t i v i t y , p e r i s h e d a noble s t r a n g e r , n a t u r a l son of Louis XIV.(p. 201) , reminds us of the duke: . . . here am I, f o r l o r n , t o r n from my high e s t a t e , hunted of men, d e s p i s e d by the c o l d world, ragged, worn, heart-broken, and degraded to the companionship of f e l o n s on a r a f t ! (p. 100) and the k i n g : . -. . . t r o u b l e has brung these gray h a i r s and t h i s premature b a l d i t u d e . Yes, gentlemen, you see bef o r e you, i n blu e jeans and misery, the wanderin 1, e x i l e d , trampled-on and s u f f e r i n 1 r i g h t f u l King o f France. (p. 101) And, of course, Tom's v o i c e trembles as he reads these \"mourn-f u l \" i n s c r i p t i o n s and he almost breaks down, not u n l i k e the two f r a u d s , who are not u n f a m i l i a r with \" t e a r s and f l a p d o o d l e . \" F i n a l l y , Tom's posing as a \" c u t t h r o a t \" who has got r e l i g i o n and wants to warn the Phelpses, not wishing any reward but to know he has done the r i g h t t h i n g , reminds us of the k i n g , posing as a p i r a t e who gets r e l i g i o n and wants to save a l l the p i r a t e s i n the Indian Ocean and gi v e a l l the c r e d i t to the dear people i n P o k e v i l l e . The s i g n i f i c a n c e of a l l these p a r a l l e l s between Tom and the two frauds i s to be found i n Huck's responses to them. When Tom i n d u l g e s i n s e l f r o m a n t i c i z i n g , Huck sees through i t and ques t i o n s i t . When Tom i s busy being an a c t o r , 40 Huck t i r e s of i t , and complains of i t . Huck, f o r example, s t r o n g l y r e s i s t s a l l the pretense necessary, a c c o r d i n g t o Tom, to d e l i v e r the \"nonnamous l e t t e r s . \" But when the k i n g and the duke are a c t i n g , Huck f e e l s l i t t l e e l s e b e s i d e s a d m i r a t i o n . Only when the k i n g and the duke masquerade as the long l o s t b r o t h e r s of Peter Wilks does Huck begin to o b j e c t to t h e i r behaviour. And even then, Huck i s s t i l l f u l l of compliments f o r the a c t i n g a b i l i t y of the k i n g and the duke. When the r e a l b r o t h e r s show up, Huck comments, . . . nary a p a l e d i d they t u r n . The duke he never l e t on he s u s p i c i o n e d what was up . . . and as f o r the k i n g , he j u s t gazed and gazed down s o r r o w f u l on them newcomers l i k e i t g i v e him the stomach-ache i n h i s very h e a r t t o t h i n k there c o u l d be such frauds and r a s c a l s i n the world. Oh, he done i t a d m i r a b l e . . . . . . see, s t r a i g h t o f f , he pronounced l i k e an Englishman, not the kin g ' s way, though the king's was p r e t t y good, f o r an i m i t a t i o n , (p. 154) , Another r e a l i t y e n t i r e l y cuts through Huck's percep-t i o n o f the k i n g and the duke and h i s own s i t u a t i o n when Huck h i m s e l f i s put on the witness stand. Huck c o r r o b o r a t e s the kin g ' s s t o r y t h a t the servants have made o f f wit h the g o l d . The doctor asks Huck i f he i s E n g l i s h too. Huck answers yes, and the doctor and \"some o t h e r s \" laugh a t him (p. 156). L a t e r , when Huck t e l l s about S h e f f i e l d and the E n g l i s h Wilkses, the doct o r b u r s t s out laug h i n g and L e v i B e l l says, \"Set down, my boy, I wouldn't s t r a i n myself, i f I was you. I reckon you a i n ' t used t o l y i n g , i t don't seem to come handy; what you want i s p r a c t i c e . You do i t p r e t t y awkward\" (p. 156). Huck i s i n s u l t e d . He says, \"I d i d n ' t care nothing f o r the compliment, but I was g l a d to be l e t off anyway\" '(p. 156)\".. 4 1 T h i s scene reminds us of the scene i n which Huck t a l k s w i t h Joanna, the h a r e - l i p . Huck i s t r y i n g to convince Joanna t h a t he i s a genuine \" v a l l e y \" (not a common servant) from S h e f f i e l d (not London) where Uncle Harvey shares the p u l p i t w ith s i x t e e n other preachers. Joanna e a s i l y catches Huck i n one l i e a f t e r another u n t i l he i s f i n a l l y rescued by Mary Jane. In these scenes, Twain i s u s i n g Huck as a f o i l f o r people who dwell on the shore who are not o n l y v i r t u o u s , but q u i c k e r to p e r c e i v e a fake or a l i e than Huck i s . The k i n g and the duke serve another purpose, too. T h e i r q u i t e d i s g u s t i n g d e c e p t i o n of the Wilks g i r l s f i n a l l y i n s p i r e s Huck to betray them and t e l l the t r u t h to Mary Jane.' Up to t h i s p o i n t , Huck 1s sympathy has been p r e t t y much wit h o u t c a s t s l i k e h i m s e l f . Jim, of course, won h i s sympathy, as d i d the robbers on the Walter S c o t t . His encounter w i t h the robbers on the Walter S c o t t prompts Huck to observe, \"There a i n ' t no t e l l i n g but I might come to be a.murderer myself, y e t \" (p. 60). While we may f i n d t h a t hard to b e l i e v e , i t i s t r u e t h a t Huck sees h i m s e l f most of the time as a c r i m i n a l . He s u r v i v e s by l y i n g and s t e a l i n g , and he c o u l d grow up to be j u s t l i k e the duke. In f a c t , most of h i s a d m i r a t i o n f o r the duke and the k i n g i s i n s p i r e d by t h e i r t a l e n t for d e c e p t i o n . Thus, i t i s q u i t e a turnaround f o r Huck, who has s t e a d f a s t l y allowed the duke and the k i n g to have t h e i r own way, to decide to b e t r a y t h e i r i d e n t i t y to Mary Jane. I suggest t h a t t h i s d e c i s i o n r e p r e s e n t s a major step towards more c i v i l i z e d behaviour, and i t opens Huck's eyes to y e t another 42 good t h i n g a b o u t t h e s h o r e s o c i e t y : r o m a n t i c l o v e . I t i s c l e a r t h a t Huck i s i n f a t u a t e d w i t h Mary J a n e , and i n a way, she becomes t h e Be c k y T h a t c h e r o f H u c k 1 s book. Of c o u r s e Mary J a n e i s k i n d and h o s p i t a b l e t o Huck, and we know Huck r e s p o n d s q u i c k l y t o k i n d n e s s . B u t Huck seems r e a d y t o l o v e Mary J a n e W i l k s f r o m t h e moment he h e a r s h e r name. B e f o r e he meets h e r , he knows t h r e e t h i n g s a b o u t h e r : she has been r e c e n t l y o r p h a n e d , she i s n i n e t e e n and she has r e d h a i r . When he f i r s t s e e s h e r , he p i c k s h e r o u t o f t h e crowd and s a y s , \"Mary J a n e was r e d - h e a d e d , b u t t h a t d o n ' t make no d i f f e r e n c e , she was most a w f u l b e a u t i f u l , and h e r f a c e and h e r e y e s was a l l l i t . up l i k e g l o r y \" (p. 1 3 0 ) . E v e r y o n e a r o u n d h e r i s a \" s a p h e a d \" t o be t a k e n i n by t h e duke and t h e k i n g , b u t e v e n when Mary J a n e i s h a n d i n g o v e r t h e b a g o f g o l d t o them, she i s \"handsome\" i n H u c k 1 s e y e s ' ' (p. 1 3 5 ) . When Huck c a n n o t b e a r t o see Mary J a n e s o r r o w i n g o v e r t h e s a l e o f t h e n e g r o e s , he b l u r t s o u t t h a t t h e mother and two sons w i l l be r e u n i t e d a g a i n . The e x p e r i e n c e i s a n o v e l one f o r Huck and he t a k e s a m i n u t e t o \" s t u d y i t o u t : \" . . . I s a y s t o m y s e l f , I r e c k o n a body t h a t ups and t e l l s t h e t r u t h when he i s i n a t i g h t p l a c e , i s t a k i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e many r i s k s , t h o u g h I a i n ' t h a d no e x p e r -i e n c e , and c a n ' t s a y f o r c e r t a i n ; b u t i t l o o k s so t o me, anyway; and y e t h e r e ' s a c a s e where I'm b l e s t i f i t d o n ' t l o o k t o me l i k e t h e t r u t h i s b e t t e r , and a c t u a l l y s a f e r , t h a n a l i e . I must l a y i t by i n my mind, and t h i n k i t o v e r some t i m e o r o t h e r , i t ' s so k i n d o f s t r a n g e and u n r e g u l a r . I n e v e r see n o t h i n g l i k e i t . W e l l , I s a y s t o m y s e l f a t l a s t , I'm a g o i n g t o ch a n c e i t ; I'11 up and t e l l t h e t r u t h t h i s t i m e , t h o u g h i t does seem most l i k e s e t t i n g down on a k a g o f powder and t o u c h i n g i t o f f j u s t t o see where y o u ' l l go to., (p. 147). 43 And what happens to Huck when he s i t s on h i s \"kag of powder\" and touches i t o f f ? Huck w i l l never f o r g e t the scene t h a t f o l l o w s . He and Mary Jane agree to a p l a n t h a t w i l l get the two frauds j a i l e d and get Huck and Jim f r e e . (Neither Mary Jane nor the reader ever get to know the whole plan.) T h e i r p a r t i n g moves both of them to t e a r s and Huck concludes: . She had..the:'-grit to. pray, f o r Judas . . . there: .: weren't no backdown to her:,. . . She had more sand i n her than any g i r l I ever see . . . . And when i t comes to beauty--and goodness t o o \u00E2\u0080\u0094 s h e l a y s over them a l l . . . . I h a i n ' t ever seen her s i n c e , but I reckon I've thought of her a many and a many a m i l l i o n times, and of her s a y i n g she would pray f o r me., (p.. 151) \" -T e l l i n g the t r u t h i s n ' t so bad a f t e r a l l . L a t e r , as Huck f l e e s the graveyard and races p a s t the Wilks house, he says, V. . . when I begun to get towards our ( i t a l i c s mine) house I aimed my eye and s e t i t . No l i g h t t h e r e; the house a l l d a r k \u00E2\u0080\u0094 w h i c h made me f e e l s o r r y and d i s a p p o i n t e d , I d i d n ' t know why. But a t l a s t , j u s t as I was s a i l i n g by, f l a s h comes the l i g h t i n Mary Jane's window! and my h e a r t s w e l l e d up sudden, l i k e to bust; and the same second the house and a l l was behind me i n the dark, and wasn't ever going to be b e f o r e me no more i n t h i s world. She was the b e s t g i r l I ever see, and had the most sand, (p. 160), One might p o i n t out t h a t Huck's response to Mary Jane i s y e t another example of h i s i n a b i l i t y t o be the sharp-eyed r e a l i s t . In t r u t h , h i s attachment to her i s q u i t e s e n t i m e n t a l , and a more p e r c e p t i v e Huck might have been l e s s b l i n d e d by Mary Jane:1.s good.'looks. A more p e r c e p t i v e Huck might have a p p r e c i a t e d the v i r t u e s of someone l i k e Joanna, f o r example. However, what I t h i n k i s more important here i s the s h i f t t h a t occurs i n Huck's sympathy as a r e s u l t of h i s attachment to Mary Jane. He has betrayed two outlaws t h a t he a d m i r e s and has r i s k e d h i s own neck t o s a v e t h r e e i n n o c e n t members o f s o c i e t y . T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a c o m p l e t e r e v e r s a l f o r t h e boy who b a c k i n S t . P e t e r s b u r g had b e l o n g e d t o a gang o f o u t l a w s and had r a i d e d i n n o c e n t women and c h i l d r e n . A f t e r t h e W i l k s e p i s o d e , Huck i s much c l o s e r t o b e c o m i n g a c i v i l i z e d y oung man. IV. HUCK'S INVOLVEMENT WITH J I M B e f o r e I d i s c u s s t h e \" e n d i n g \" o f t h e n o v e l , I w o u l d l i k e t o examine more c l o s e l y Huck's r e s p o n s e t o J i m . More t h a n a n y t h i n g e l s e , i t i s Huck's i n v o l v e m e n t i n J i m ' s \" q u e s t 45 f o r f r e e d o m \" t h a t he xs most l o v e d and a d m i r e d f o r . Most c r i t i c s seem t o t h i n k t h a t Huck, m o t i v a t e d by h i s l o v e f o r J i m , i s an e n t h u s i a s t i c p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e \" q u e s t . \" I have a l r e a d y t r i e d t o show how h a l f - h e a r t e d J i m ' s e f f o r t s t o g e t f r e e a r e ; I w o u l d l i k e t o now d e m o n s t r a t e how r e l u c t a n t Huck i s t o h e l p J i m . , F i r s t , Huck becomes i n v o l v e d w i t h J i m w i t h o u t r e a l l y k n o wing what he i s g e t t i n g i n t o . When he a s k s J i m what he i s d o i n g on J a c k s o n ' s I s l a n d , J i m g e t s Huck t o swear n o t t o t e l l h i s s e c r e t b e f o r e Huck knows what t h a t s e c r e t i s . \". . . y o u w o u l d n ' t t e l l on me i f I 'uz t o t e l l y o u , w o u l d y o u , Huck?\" \"Blamed i f I w o u l d , J i m . \" \" W e l l , I b ' l i e v e y o u , Huck. I - I r u n o f f . \" \" J i m ! \" \"But m i nd, y o u s a i d y o u w o u l d n ' t t e l l \u00E2\u0080\u0094 y o u know y o u s a i d y o u w o u l d n ' t t e l l , Huck.\" \" W e l l , I d i d . I s a i d I w o u l d n ' t , and I ' l l s t i c k t o i t . H o n e s t i n j u n I w i l l . P e o p l e w o u l d c a l l me a low down A b o l i t i o n i s t and d e s p i s e me f o r k e e p i n g mum\u00E2\u0080\u0094but 45 t h a t d o n ' t make no d i f f e r e n c e . I a i n ' t a g o i n g t o t e l l , and I a i n ' t a g o i n g back t h e r e anyways... (pp. 3 8 - 3 9 ) . I t h i n k i t i s c l e a r t h a t Huck i s s h o c k e d by J i m ' s announcement t h a t he has r u n away. Huck i m m e d i a t e l y t h i n k s o u t l o u d what p e o p l e a r e g o i n g t o t h i n k o f him, b u t t h e n i t o c c u r s t o him t h a t e v e r y b o d y t h i n k s he's dead, and no one w i l l e v e r know what he has sworn t o do, anyway. The t i m e Huck and J i m s p e n d on J a c k s o n ' s I s l a n d t o -g e t h e r may seem E d e n i c a t f i r s t g l a n c e , as t h e y p a d d l e a r o u n d i n t h e c o o l and shady deep woods, p e t t i n g r a b b i t s . B u t Huck g e t s b o r e d v e r y q u i c k l y . Even p l a y i n g t r i c k s on J i m and n e a r l y g e t t i n g h i m k i l l e d d o e s n ' t p r o v i d e enough e x c i t e m e n t , and b e f o r e l o n g , Huck wants t o go b a c k t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g : N e x t m o r n i n g I s a i d i t was g e t t i n g s l o w and d u l l , and I w a n t e d t o g e t a s t i r r i n g up, someway. I s a i d I r e c k o n e d I w o u l d s l i p o v e r t h e r i v e r and f i n d o u t what was g o i n g on. (p. 47) 5 Huck wants t o f i n d o u t what p e o p l e t h i n k o f h i s h a v i n g been m u r d e r e d . T h i s becomes c l e a r i n h i s i n t e r v i e w w i t h J u d i t h L o f t u s . Huck b e g i n s t o t h i n k he has made a m i s t a k e coming t o h e r f o r news u n t i l she b e g i n s t o t a l k a b o u t \"pap and t h e murder\" (p. 4 8 ) . The f i r s t q u e s t i o n Huck a s k s h e r i s , \"Who done i t ? We've h e a r d c o n s i d e r a b l e a b o u t t h e s e g o i n g s on, down i n H o o k e r v i l l e , b u t we d o n ' t know who 'twas t h a t k i l l e d Huck F i n n \" (p. 4 8 ) . Of c o u r s e , Huck has b e e n t h r o u g h t h i s k i n d o f t h i n g b e f o r e . When he and Tom Sawyer and J o e H a r p e r h a d r u n away i n The A d v e n t u r e s o f Tom Sawyer, t h e y a l l r e t u r n e d t o a t t e n d t h e i r own f u n e r a l s t o see what k i n d o f r e a c t i o n t h e town has h a d t o t h e i r d e a t h s . 46 B u t t h i s t i m e h i s c o n c e r n i s more s p e c i f i c ; he wants t o know who i s s u p p o s e d t o have k i l l e d him. He i s n o t s u r p r i s e d when he d i s c o v e r s Pap F i n n i s s u s p e c t e d , and he becomes v e r y un-e a s y when he f i n d s o u t t h a t J i m i s a l s o s u s p e c t e d and t h a t Mr. L o f t u s and a n o t h e r man a r e on t h e i r way t o J a c k s o n ' s I s l a n d t o l o o k f o r him. W i t h t h i s k n o w l e d g e , he r u s h e s b a c k t o t h e i s l a n d , l _ t e l l s J i m t o hump h i m s e l f b e c a u s e someone i s a f t e r them. The two o f them t a k e t o t h e r a f t , and t h e r i v e r j o u r n e y has begun. T h i s i s t h e moment t h a t Leo Marx, f o r example, t h i n k s i s so s p e c i a l : \" T h e r e a i n ' t a m i n u t e t o l o s e . T h e y ' r e a f t e r u s ! \" What p a r t i c u l a r l y c o u n t s h e r e i s t h e u s . No one i s a f t e r Huck; no one b u t J i m knows he i s a l i v e . I n t h a t s m a l l word Clemens c o m p r e s s e s t h e e x h i l a r a t i n g power o f Huck's i n s t i n c t i v e h u m a n i t y . H i s u n p r e m e d i t a t e d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h J i m ' s f l i g h t f r o m s l a v e r y i s an u n f o r g e t t a b l e moment i n A m e r i c a n e x p e r i e n c e , and i t may be s a i d a t once t h a t any c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e j o u r n e y w h i c h d e t r a c t s f r o m t h e u r g e n c y and d i g n i t y w i t h w h i c h :.v. i t b e g i n s w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y be u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . 4 6 Marx i s , however, o v e r l y e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e r i v e r j o u r n e y . I t i s u r g e n t , b u t i t i s n o t d i g n i f i e d , n o r i s i t an e n c o m p a s s i n g o f t h e \" e x h i l a r a t i n g power o f Huck's i n -s t i n c t i v e h u m a n i t y . \" I n f a c t , Huck d e s c r i b e s what he i s d o i n g as \"low-down,\" and l a t e r he w i l l s a y , \"I h a d as good as h e l p e d J i m t o r u n away\" (p. 73, i t a l i c s m i n e ) . G r a n t e d , Huck p r o -b a b l y d o e s n ' t want t o see J i m c a p t u r e d and s o l d down t h e r i v e r . B u t he d o e s n ' t have much c h o i c e anyway. I n Huck's mind, t h e r e i s someone a f t e r him: pap. I f Huck wants t o k e ep h i s e x i s -t e n c e a s e c r e t , he has t o r u n w i t h J i m . He c a n n o t d e s e r t J i m b e c a u s e i f J i m i s f o u n d , he w i l l t e l l e v e r y o n e t h a t Huck i s a l i v e ( i f he i s u n a b l e t o c o n v i n c e h i s c a p t o r s t h a t Huck i s a l i v e , he w i l l be hung f o r Huck's m u r d e r ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , i f Huck has t o be on t h e r u n , he m i g h t as w e l l h a v e J i m ' s company. Huck h a s n ' t y e t r e c o g n i z e d t h a t J i m has f e e l i n g s l i k e white, f o l k s , b u t he has r e c o g n i z e d t h a t J i m i s handy t o have a r o u n d : J i m knows \" s i g n s \" and k e e p s Huck i n o u t o f t h e r a i n . F i n a l l y , Huck has g i v e n h i s word t o J i m . He h a s n ' t sworn t o h e l p h i m g e t f r e e , b u t he has sworn n o t t o L t e l l \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n d t h a t o a t h has c r e a t e d a bond o f h o n o u r t h a t Huck r e s p e c t s . We h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n how i m p o r t a n t o a t h s a r e t o Huck. He i s i n o r d i n a t e l y i m p r e s s e d by t h e o a t h t h a t b i n d s Tom Sawyer's gang, f o r example, e v e n t h o u g h l i t t l e Tommy B a r n e s t h r e a t e n s t o b r e a k i t by t h e end o f t h e e v e n i n g . F o r Huck, o a t h s a r e a bond o f f r i e n d s h i p . F o r Huck, who i s so w e l l a c q u a i n t e d w i t h l o n e l i n e s s , a n y t h i n g t h a t b i n d s him and o t h e r members o f a g r o u p t o be l o y a l t o e a c h o t h e r i s p r e c i o u s . I t i s b e c a u s e Huck f e e l s so s t r o n g l y a b o u t \" k e e p i n g y o u r word\" t h a t J i m i s a b l e t o m a n i p u l a t e h i s f e e l i n g s so s u c c e s s f u l l y down by C a i r o . T h a t Huck i s n o t s e r i o u s a b o u t J i m ' s q u e s t f o r f r e e -dom becomes p l a i n when t h e y d r i f t down o n t o t h e W a l t e r S c o t t . Huck's d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o b o a r d t h e wreck i n d i c a t e s t h a t now t h a t he i s f r e e o f t h e d a n g e r o f b e i n g r e c a p t u r e d by Pap F i n n , t h e r i v e r j o u r n e y i s j u s t a b o y ' s l a r k . S i d n e y K r a u s e comments t h a t Huck a t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e s t o r y i s s t i l l , l i k e Tom Sawyer, e a g e r t o t u r n r e a l i t y i n t o \" a d v e n t u r e s . \" He p o i n t s o u t t h a t 48 \"Huck's s t o r y i s one of a dev e l o p i n g s e n s i t i v i t y to human v a l u e s . The Walter S c o t t episode g i v e s us an i d e a of the 47 moral d i s t a n c e he had to t r a v e l i n t h a t development.\" F i r s t , i n s p i t e o f Jim's warning to \" l e t blame' w e l l a l o ne,\" Huck i s determined to board the wreck and \" s l i n k around\" (p. 56), simply because he \" f e l t j u s t the way any other boy would a f e l t \" (p. 56, i t a l i c s mine) and because Tom Sawyer wouldn't go by t h a t wreck \" f o r p i e \" (p. 5 7). Next, when Huck d i s c o v e r s men on the wreck he again , with no thought f o r Jim's s a f e t y , does what he t h i n k s Tom Sawyer would do: he i n v e s t i -gates, endangering both h i s own l i f e and Jim's. He and Jim are almost trapped on the boat, but manage to escape i n the robbers' s k i f f . Next, he begins to worry about the three robbers trapped on the steamboat, and decides to go ashore a t the f i r s t l i g h t and \" f i x up some k i n d of a yarn, and get somebody to go f o r t h a t gang and get them out of t h e i r scrape, so they can be hung when t h e i r time comes\" (p. 60). Then, without t h i n k i n g what the three robbers might do to the innocent f e r r y boatman, Huck t r i c k s him i n t o going out to the wreck to t r y and save them. F o r t u n a t e l y f o r the f e r r y boatman, the wreck breaks loose b e f o r e he can get to i t and the three men.are drowned. Huck i s q u i t e nonchalant about haying j u s t caused the deaths of the three men. He comments, \"I f e l t a l i t t l e b i t heavy-hearted about the gang, but not much, f o r I reckoned i f they c o u l d stand i t , I c o u l d \" (p. 63). C l e a r l y , Huck i s not con-cerned about Jim's \"quest,\" l e t alone h i s s a f e t y , and h i s behaviour i n t h i s scene suggests t h a t , m o r a l l y , Huck has not 49 l e f t Tom Sawyer's gang y e t . He i s p l a y i n g Tom Sawyer games not only w i t h h i s own l i f e , but with other peoples' l i v e s as w e l l . Huck f i n a l l y does begin to take Jim's quest s e r i o u s l y down by C a i r o . As they get c l o s e r t o C a i r o , Jim gets more and more e x c i t e d about being c l o s e r to freedom and suddenly Huck r e a l i z e s what he i s doing. I begun to get i t through my head t h a t he was most f r e e \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n d who was to blame f o r i t ? Why, me. I c o u l d n ' t get t h a t out of my conscience, no how nor no way. I t got to t r o u b l i n g me so I c o u l d n ' t r e s t ; I c o u l d n ' t stay s t i l l i n one p l a c e . I t hadn't ever come home to me b e f o r e , what t h i s t h i n g was t h a t I was doing. But now i t d i d ; and i t s t a i d with me, and scorched me more and more. (p. 7.3) . When Jim says he may even get an a b o l i t i o n i s t t o s t e a l h i s w i f e and c h i l d r e n out of s l a v e r y , Huck says, \" I t most f r o z e me to hear such t a l k \" (p. 7 3 ) . T h i s i s the boy who had s a i d , back a t Jackson's I s l a n d , \"People would c a l l me a low-down A b o l i t i o n i s t and d e s p i s e me f o r keeping mum\u00E2\u0080\u0094 but t h a t don't make no d i f f e r e n c e \" (p. 3 9 ) . Huck's r a t h e r sudden r e l u c t a n c e to h e l p Jim here i n d i c a t e s a number of t h i n g s about the r i v e r journey so f a r . I suggest t h a t Huck has been d r i f t i n g along with Jim, r e -l i e v e d to be out of pap's c l u t c h e s , and e n j o y i n g what i s to him an adventure. He has accepted keeping company with a runaway s l a v e , but u n t i l he approaches C a i r o , he hasn't had to d e a l with the f a c t t h a t he i s an accomplice i n h e l p i n g a s l a v e to get f r e e . F u r t h e r , there i s something t e r r i b l y f i n a l about l e a v i n g the M i s s o u r i R i v e r and going up the Ohio. Huck does not want to t o t a l l y d e s t r o y any chance t h a t he may 50 have of ever r e t u r n i n g to S t . Petersburg, and going up the Ohio would accomplish j u s t t h a t . T h i s i s why, when he de-c i d e s to t e l l on Jim, he says, \" i t a i n ' t too l a t e , y e t \" (p. 7 4 ) . As Kenneth Lynn p o i n t s out, \"once Huck committed the ' s i n ' of h e l p i n g Jim to freedom he would p l a c e h i m s e l f f o r e v e r beyond the p a l e of heavenly S t . Petersburg; he would be c a r r y i n g h i s i r r e s o l u t e r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t the Happy V a l l e y to the p o i n t of no r e t u r n ; he would be e l e c t i n g to become an o u t c a s t and a renegade. Huck paddles o f f , \" a l l i n a sweat to t e l l , \" when Jim reminds him of \" h i s promise to o l e Jim,\" and c a l l s him a \"white genlman.\" T h i s f i n a l appeal to Huck's i n t e g r i t y makes i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r Huck to t e l l on Jim: i t i s Jim he has given h i s word t o , i t i s Jim he must face, and i t i s Jim he decides to p r o t e c t . Huck's s o l u t i o n to h i s ddlemma a t C a i r o e s t a b l i s h e s the r e a l meaning of the r i v e r journey. The r i v e r journey i s not a \"quest f o r freedom;\" i t i s a temporary es-cape from s l a v e r y . Huck i s w i l l i n g to l i e to keep Jim out of the hands of s l a v e hunters, but he i s not w i l l i n g to go up the Ohio with him. Huck's r e l u c t a n c e to help Jim get f r e e shows through c l e a r l y r i g h t up to the end of the r i v e r journey. At the end of h i s stay a t the Grangerford's, Huck's se r v a n t takes him to see Jim. Huck i s q u i t e upset when he sees Jim a g a i n . E v e r y t h i n g had turned out so w e l l f o r him a t the Grangerford's, and suddenly he i s again faced with the o l d problem of what to do about Jim. When he asks him why he d i d n ' t get Jack to f e t c h him sooner, Huck means \"Why d i d n ' t you get i n touch with me be f o r e I was adopted here? I t ' s too l a t e \u00E2\u0080\u0094 y o u can't expect me t o help you now.\" Huck i s n ' t very e n t h u s i a s t i c when he says, \"You mean to say our o l d r a f t warn 11 smashed a l l to f l i n d e r s ? \" (p. 92). T h e i r c o n v e r s a t i o n ends wi t h Huck's admission of h i s awareness of what a nasty business he i s i n v o l v e d i n . He agrees t h a t Jack was p r e t t y smart: \"He a i n ' t ever t o l d me you was here; t o l d me to come, and he'd show me a l o t of water-moccasins. I f anything happens, he a i n ' t mixed up i n i t . He can.say he never seen'us together, and i t ' l l be the t r u t h \" (p. 92). A f t e r they leave the Grangerford's, Huck e f f e c t i v e l y squashes any chance Jim has of ever going up the Ohio when he b r i n g s the k i n g and the duke aboard the canoe t h a t was supposed to take Jim to freedom. A f t e r Huck and Jim had r e a l i z e d t h a t they had missed C a i r o , they had planned to go back up r i v e r i n t h e i r canoe. However, while they were s l e e p i n g d u r i n g the 49 day, t h e i r canoe had mysterxously disappeared. They had continued f l o a t i n g down the r i v e r , supposedly l o o k i n g f o r a chance to buy another canoe. When Providence f i n a l l y d i d pro v i d e a canoe, however, n e i t h e r Huck nor Jim even t a l k e d about going back up r i v e r . Huck took the canoe and went b e r r y - p i c k i n g , as I have mentioned. We can only wonder what Huck i s t h i n k i n g o f when he l e t s the k i n g and-the duke come i n t o the canoe. His f i r s t impulse i s to f l e e , but he i s a f r a i d t h a t the two men are too c l o s e and w i l l c atch him. F u r t h e r , they beg him to save t h e i r l i v e s , and Huck sympathizes with these two men who are f u g i t i v e s l i k e h i m s e l f . Even so, he convinces them to \"crowd through the brush and get up the c r i c k a l i t t l e ways\" (p. 98), supposedly to throw the dogs o f f the s c e n t . As the k i n g and duke move o f f through the brush, away from Huck, Huck has a chance to escape, but he chooses not t o . Can he be wondering what w i l l happen to Jim's chances f o r f i n d i n g freedom i f he b r i n g s the two f u g i t i v e s on board? Whether he r e a l i z e s i t a t the time or not, when he decides to l e t the k i n g and duke i n the canoe, the f l i g h t from s l a v e r y , such as i t has been, i s ended. For most o f the remainder of the r i v e r journey, Huck i s content to go along with the two f r a u d s , having adventures on the shore, and l e a v i n g Jim alone on the r a f t , e i t h e r t i e d up a l l day or dressed l i k e a s i c k Arab, moaning about how h e ' l l never see h i s w i f e and f a m i l y again. Granted, when Huck f i n a l l y does t r y to get away from the duke and the k i n g , he plans h i s escape with Jim's pro-t e c t i o n i n mind. He e x p l a i n s to Mary Jane, \" i f you was to blow on them t h i s town would get me out of t h e i r claws, and I'd be a l l r i g h t , but t h e r e ' d be another person t h a t you don't know about who'd be i n b i g t r o u b l e . W e l l , we got to save him, h a i n ' t we? Of course\" (p. 148). Yet, Huck has been i g n o r i n g Jim f o r so long, t h a t he f o r g e t s completely Jim's b i z a r r e d i s g u i s e . When he j o i n s Jim on the r a f t and Jim comes toward him with arms open wide, Huck i s so s c a r e d he f a l l s overboard: 53 . . . when I glimpsed him i n the l i g h t n i n g , my h e a r t shot up i n my mouth, and I went overboard backwards; f o r I f o r g o t he was o l d King Lear and a drowned A-rab a l l i n one, and i t most scared the l i v e r s and l i g h t s out of me..(p. 161). T h i s time, Huck can't t e l l a fake Arab when he sees one. The r i v e r journey f i n a l l y comes to an end when the k i n g s e l l s Jim to S i l a s Phelps f o r f o r t y d o l l a r s . Much has been s a i d about Huck's s t r u g g l e with h i s conscience and h i s f i n a l d e c i s i o n to t e a r up h i s l e t t e r to Miss Watson r e v e a l i n g Jim's whereabouts and \"go to h e l l . \" A l l readers agree t h a t t h i s d e c i s i o n i s a r e a l v i c t o r y over the p r e v a i l i n g m o r a l i t y . But i n f a c t , i t i s not a v i c t o r y a t a l l . Huck s t i l l does not condemn or even q u e s t i o n the p r e v a i l i n g m o r a l i t y ; he s t i l l b e l i e v e s t h a t there i s nothing wrong with s l a v e r y . His d e c i s i o n to t e a r up the f a t e f u l l e t t e r i s prompted by p u r e l y s e l f i s h motives. We should n o t i c e f i r s t t h a t more than h a l f . o f the passage l e a d i n g to h i s d e c i s i o n i s r e a l l y a f u l l and f i n a l e x p r e s s i o n of h i s r e l u c t a n c e to help Jim. He f e e l s deeply ashamed of having a s s o c i a t e d with Jim: And then t h i n k of me! I t would get a l l around, t h a t Huck F i n n helped a n i g g e r to get h i s freedom; and i f I was to ever see anybody from t h a t town agai n , I'd be ready to get down and l i c k h i s boots f o r shame. That's j u s t the way: a person does a low-down t h i n g , and then he don't want to take no consequences of i t . (p. 166) ; He i s genuinely f e a r f u l of the \"consequences\" of h e l p i n g Jim; he says, \"'people t h a t a c t s as I'd been a c t i n g about t h a t n i g g e r goes to e v e r l a s t i n g f i r e . ' I t made me s h i v e r \" (p. 167). I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t when he does w r i t e 54 the l e t t e r , he makes no mention of h i s c o m p l i c i t y i n Jim's f l i g h t down r i v e r : Miss Watson your runaway ni g g e r Jim i s down here two m i l e below P i k e s v i l l e and Mr. Phelps has got him and he w i l l g i v e him up f o r the reward i f you send. HUCK FINN (p. 167) What then, motivates Huck to t e a r up t h i s l e t t e r t h a t has made him f e e l so \"washed c l e a n of s i n ? \" Huck r a t i o n a l i z e s i t t h i s way: f i r s t , he can't remember anything to \"harden\" h i m s e l f a g a i n s t Jim. In glowing terms, he remembers only the \" t a l k i n g , and s i n g i n g , and l a u g h i n g , \" and \"how good he always was\" (p. 167). Second, he remembers sav i n g Jim from the s l a v e hunters a t C a i r o , and how Jim had been so g r a t e f u l , and had s a i d Huck was \"the b e s t f r i e n d o l d Jim ever had i n the world, and the o n l y one he's got now\" (p. 167). O s t e n s i b l y , Huck t e a r s up the l e t t e r because Jim i s a good man and Huck had g i v e n h i s word not to t e l l on Jim. At t h i s l e v e l , the d e c i s i o n i s based on sentiment and codes of honour. But there are, of course, much s t r o n g e r motives prompting Huck t h a t he does not put i n t o words. When he d i s c o v e r s t h a t Jim i s gone, Huck f e e l s deep f e a r and l o n e l i -ness . Jim was gone! I s e t up a s h o u t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n d then a n o t h e r \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n then another one; and run t h i s way and t h a t i n the woods whooping and s c r e e c h i n g ; but i t warn't no u s e - - o l d Jim was gone. Then I s e t down and c r i e d ; I c o u l d n ' t h e l p i t . ( p . 165), Nowhere e l s e i n the book does Huck so completely l o s e h i s composure. Second, he f e e l s g u i l t y about Jim's r e c a p t u r e . 55 A f t e r a l l , i t was Huck who brought the k i n g and duke aboard, and he i s s h a t t e r e d by what they have done to Jim: A f t e r a l l t h i s long journey, and a f t e r a l l we'd done f o r them sc o u n d r e l s , here was i t a l l come to nothing, e v e r y t h i n g a l l busted up and r u i n e d , because they c o u l d have the h e a r t to serve Jim such a t r i c k as t h a t , and make him a s l a v e again a l l h i s l i f e , and amongst s t r a n g e r s , too, f o r f o r t y d i r t y d o l l a r s , (p. 166). Thus, working to f r e e Jim w i l l cure h i s l o n e l i n e s s and assuage h i s g u i l t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 e m o t i o n s t h a t he f e e l s more s t r o n g l y than the shame connected with h e l p i n g to f r e e a s l a v e . F i n a l l y , Huck cannot send the l e t t e r t o Miss Watson because doing so would r e v e a l t h a t he was s t i l l a l i v e . (Huck does not y e t know what a \"nonnamous l e t t e r \" i s . ) W r i t i n g the l e t t e r would a l e r t pap of Huck's whereabouts and Huck would soon be back i n pap's c a b i n a g a i n . A f t e r a l l , Huck ran away o r i g i n a l l y to escape what he f e a r s more than anything e l s e -pap's b r u t a l i t y . Thus, Huck's d e c i s i o n to s t e a l Jim i s not r e a l l y h e r o i c a t a l l . He has no i n t e n t i o n of going back up r i v e r to the f r e e s t a t e s to seek permanent freedom. As he e x p l a i n s to Tom l a t e r , he p l a n s to \"shove o f f down the r i v e r on the r a f t , w i t h Jim, h i d i n g daytimes and running n i g h t s , the way \u00C2\u00A3hej and Jim used to do b e f o r e \" (p. 181). V. THE GOINGS-ON AT THE PHELPS FARM C r i t i c s have been extremely d i s a p p o i n t e d with the ending of Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n . Leo Marx expressed the c r i t i c a l o b j e c t i o n s to the ending most f o r c i b l y : I b e l i e v e t h a t the ending of Huckleberry F i n n makes 56 so many readers uneasy because they r i g h t l y sense t h a t i t j e o p a r d i z e s the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the e n t i r e n o v e l . . . . The most s e r i o u s motive i n the n o v e l , Jim's y e a r n i n g f o r freedom, i s made the o b j e c t of nonsense. . . . Huck knows how he f e e l s about Jim, but he a l s o knows what he i s expected to do about Jim. This d i v -i s i o n w i t h i n h i s mind corresponds to the d i v i s i o n o f the novel's moral t e r r a i n i n t o the areas r e p r e s e n t e d by the r a f t on the one hand and s o c i e t y on the o t h e r . His v i c t o r y over h i s \" y a l l e r dog\" conscience t h e r e f o r e assumes h e r i o c s i z e : i t i s a v i c t o r y over the p r e v a i l i n g m o r a l i t y . But the l a s t f i f t h of the novel has the e f f e c t of d i m i n i s h i n g the importance and uniqueness of Huck's v i c t o r y . 5 ' Marx wrote h i s o b j e c t i o n s to the ending of Huck F i n n i n 1953. Many attempts to j u s t i f y the ending have been made s i n c e , but n e a r l y twenty years l a t e r , c r i t i c s l i k e Maxwell Geismar were s t i l l convinced t h a t the r e a l ending of the n o v e l comes when Huck decides to \"go to h e l l \" and s t e a l Jim out o f s l a v e r y . \" ^ As I have t r i e d t o show, however, c r i t i c s who are d i s s a t i s f i e d with the ending of Adventures of Huckle-b e r r y F i n n have j u s t taken the r i v e r journey too s e r i o u s l y , and f a i l e d t o see the e s s e n t i a l f o o l i s h n e s s of Huck and Jim. Once we admit t h a t there i s a Tom Sawyer i n both Huck and Jim, we can see the ending i n a d i f f e r e n t l i g h t . At the Phelps' farm, a l l romantic n o t i o n s about e s c a p i n g from the shore s o c i e t y are d i s p e l l e d . Huck r e c e i v e s h i s f i r s t shock when Tom Sawyer agrees to h e lp him s t e a l Jim. Huck shows up a t the Phelps' farm f i l l e d w ith a l e f t - h a n d e d k i n d of s e l f - r i g h t e o u s n e s s : he i s determined to s t e a l Jim out of s l a v e r y and \"anything worse\" t h a t he can t h i n k up. He has convinced h i m s e l f t h a t he i s wicked, and i s g l o r y i n g i n i t : \"as l ong as I was i n , and i n 57/ f o r good, I might as w e l l go the whole hog\" (p. 168). When he t e l l s Tom t h a t he plans t o s t e a l Jim, he dramatizes h i m s e l f : I know what y o u ' l l say. Y o u ' l l say i t ' s d i r t y , low-down b u s i n e s s ; but what i f i t is?--I'm low-down; and I'm agoing to s t e a l him, and I want you to keep mum and not l e t on. (p. 176), When Tom agrees to h e l p Huck, Huck i s a s t o n i s h e d : W e l l , I l e t go a l l h o l t s then, l i k e I was shot. I t was the most a s t o n i s h i n g speech I ever h e a r d \u00E2\u0080\u0094 a n d I'm bound to say Tom Sawyer f e l l , c o n s i d e r a b l e , i n my e s t i -mation. Only I c o u l d n ' t believe.'-it. Tom Sawyer a n i g g e r s t e a l e r . ( p . 176), Late i n the evening on the same day, Huck s t i l l can't b e l i e v e i t . Tom re a s s u r e s him and Huck i s f i n a l l y convinced, but he i s s t i l l stunned by the r e v e l a t i o n : W e l l , one t h i n g was dead sure; and t h a t was, t h a t Tom Sawyer was i n e a r n e s t and was a c t u a l l y going t o h e l p s t e a l t h a t nigger out of s l a v e r y . That was the t h i n g t h a t was too many f o r me. Here was a boy t h a t was r e s p e c t a b l e , and w e l l brung up; and had a c h a r a c t e r to l o s e ; and f o l k s a t home t h a t had c h a r a c t e r s ; and he was b r i g h t and not leather-headed; and knowing and not i g n o r a n t ; and not mean, but k i n d ; and y e t here he was, without any more p r i d e , or r i g h t n e s s , or f e e l i n g , than to stoop to t h i s b u s i n e s s , and make h i m s e l f a shame, and h i s f a m i l y a shame, be f o r e everybody. I c o u l d n ' t understand i t , no way a t a l l . I t was outrageous.(p. 182), We should not underestimate the tremendous impact Tom's d e c i s i o n has on Huck. I t has taken a summer-long elev e n hundred m i l e journey f o r Huck to e v e n t u a l l y make up h i s mind what to do about Jim. Much of the d i f f i c u l t y i n making the d e c i s i o n to s t e a l Jim stemmed from Huck's knowledge of what Tom Sawyer would have done: we know how o f t e n Huck asks him-s e l f what Tom Sawyer would do i n one s i t u a t i o n or another. Yet, here at l a s t i s Tom Sawyer, the epitome of r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , 58 r e a c h i n g the same d e c i s i o n i n f i f t e e n seconds! The s e r i o u s -ness of Huck's moral s t r u g g l e i s badly undercut, and from t h i s p o i n t on, Huck i s very confused about what i s happening around him. Huck's c o n f u s i o n grows when he n o t i c e s how Jim i s behaving. Huck has developed a c e r t a i n r e s p e c t f o r Jim; a f t e r a l l , Jim had p o i n t e d out to Huck long ago t h a t people who p l a y t r i c k s on t h e i r f r i e n d s are j u s t t r a s h . Thus, when Tom begins to f a b r i c a t e n o n s e n s i c a l t h i n g s to do i n order to add g l o r y and honour to Jim's escape, Huck begins to p r o t e s t . \"Good l a n d ! \" I says; \"why, there a i n ' t no n e c e s s i t y f o r i t . . . Why, Tom Sawyer, how you t a l k . (p. 187)^ J o u r n a l your granny--Jim can't write, (p. 188) .:. Confound i t , i t ' s f o o l i s h , Tom. (p. 189) , I don't give a dead r a t what the a u t h o r i t i e s t h i n k s about i t . . . -. (,p. 192) Huck's p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t sawed-off l e g s , rope l a d d e r s , j o u r n a l s , and case-knives reaches a climax the f i r s t n i g h t the three of them are together i n the c a b i n . Tom e x p l a i n s to Jim a l l the s i l l y t h i n g s he plans to do, i n c l u d i n g smuggling t h i n g s i n t o the c a b i n by Uncle S i l a s and Aunt S a l l y . Huck says, \"Don't do not h i n g of the k i n d ; i t ' s one of the most j a c k a s s ideas I ever s t r u c k \" (p. 193). But Jim i g n o r e s Huck's pro-t e s t s on h i s b e h a l f : Jim he c o u l d n ' t see no sense i n the most of i t , but he allowed we was white f o l k s and knowed b e t t e r than him; so he was s a t i s f i e d , and s a i d he would do i t a l l j u s t as Tom s a i d . ( p . 193) The negro t h a t Huck had humbled h i m s e l f to and sworn to go to h e l l f o r has l o s t h i s d i g n i t y and i s w i l l i n g to be the b u t t of a l l manner of pranks. Although Huck does not say t h a t he i s s u r p r i s e d or d i s a p p o i n t e d i n Jim's behaviour, a f t e r t h i s s e r v i l e d i s p l a y by Jim, he begins to j o i n i n the fun. The next morning, w h i l e Huck d i s t r a c t s Nat, Tom shoves a p i e c e of c a n d l e s t i c k i n t o the middle o f a corn-pone i n Jim's pan. Huck says, \"we went along with Nat to see how i t would work, and i t j u s t worked noble; when Jim b i t i n t o i t i t most mashed a l l h i s t e e t h out; and there warn't ever anything c o u l d a worked b e t t e r . Tom s a i d so h i m s e l f \" (p. 194). Although Huck doesn't r e a l l y understand what i s going on, he i s probably r e l i e v e d .to have Tom be i n charge o f s t e a l i n g Jim out of s l a v e r y . He r e p e a t e d l y a s s e r t s t h a t t h i n g s are a l l r i g h t , because Tom s a i d so. And although he grows t i r e d o f Tom's det e r m i n a t i o n to do e v e r y t h i n g a c c o r d i n g to some a u t h o r i t y t h a t Huck hasn't heard about, Huck s t i l l goes along with e v e r y t h i n g and even seems to enjoy h i m s e l f . The day of the \"grand bulge,\" Huck seems q u i t e p l e a s e d w i t h the way t h i n g s are working out: We was f e e l i n g p r e t t y good, a f t e r b r e a k f a s t , and took my canoe and went over the r i v e r a f i s h i n g , w i t h a lunch, and had a good time, and had a look a t the r a f t and found her a l l r i g h t , and got home l a t e to supper, and found them i n such a sweat and worry they d i d n ' t know which end they was s t a n d i n g on, and made us go r i g h t o f f to bed the minute we was done supper . . . and as soon as we was h a l f u p s t a i r s and her back was turned, we s l i d f o r the c e l l a r cupboard and loaded up a good lunch.(p. 20 9) . The way Huck i s t a l k i n g here, he may as w e l l be on a p i c n i c . But suddenly;/ r e a l i t y crashes through; i n the p a r l o u r are f i f t e e n farmers, and every one of them has a gun. The events t h a t f o l l o w are h o r r i f y i n g f o r Huck. When Huck sees the farmers, he i s \"most powerful s i c k ; \" he r e a l i z e s t h a t \"60 they have \"overdone :.this t h i n g , \" and gotten i n t o a \"thundering hornet's nest\" (p. 210). When Aunt S a l l y q u e s t i o n s him he says, \"here was aunty pegging away a t the q u e s t i o n s , and me a shaking a l l over and ready to si n k down i n my t r a c k s I was t h a t s c a r e d \" (p. 211). When he does r e j o i n Tom and Jim i n the c a b i n , the scene i s ni g h t m a r i s h , l i k e something from one of pap's d e l i r i u m tremens: But then we heard the tramp of men, coming to the door, and heard them begin to fumble with the padlock; and heard a man say, . . . \"Here, I ' l l l o c k some of you i n t o the c a b i n and you l a y f o r 'em i n the dark and k i l l 'em when they come . . . \" So i n they come, but co u l d n ' t see us i n the dark, and most t r o d on us w h i l s t we was h u s t l i n g to get under the bed. But we got under a l l r i g h t , and out through the h o l e , s w i f t and s o f t . . . Now we was i n the l e a n - t o , and heard trampings c l o s e by o u t s i d e . So we c r e p t to the door, . . . but co u l d n ' t make out noth^: i n g , i t was so dark . . . and the steps a s c r a p i n g around, out t h e r e , a l l the time; and a t l a s t he nudged us, and we s l i d out, and stooped down, not b r e a t h i n g , and not making the l e a s t n o i s e , and s l i p p e d s t e a l t h y towards the fence . . . Tom's b r i t c h e s catched f a s t . . . and made a noise . . . somebody s i n g s out . . . we d i d n ' t answer; we j u s t u n f u r l e d out h e e l s and shoved. Then there was a rush, and a bang, bang, bang! and the b u l l e t s f a i r l y whizzed around us! (pp. 211-213) The next day, while Tom l i e s on the r a f t out of h i s head wi t h f e v e r , Huck has to s i t around and l i s t e n t o Aunt S a l l y and her neighbours d i s c u s s the events df the n i g h t b e f o r e . He hears y e t another o p i n i o n o f Jim, and i n d i r e c t l y , of h i m s e l f and Tom. S i s t e r H o tchkiss t h i n k s t h a t Jim must have been c r a z y : \"he's c r a z y , s ' l ; e v e r y t h i n g shows i t , s ' l . Look at t h a t - a i r g r i n d s t o n e , s ' l ; want to t e l l me't any c r e t u r 'ts i n h i s r i g h t mind's agoin' to s c r a b b l e a l l them c r a z y t h i n g s onto a g r i n d s t o n e , s ' l . . . n a t c h e r l son o'Louis somebody, 'n' s i c h e v e r l a s t ' n rubbage. He's plumb crazy . . ... (p. 215) Huck i s a l s o made aware of another r e a l i t y , the mental anguish t h a t Aunt S a l l y has been going through. Huck seems to have been e n j o y i n g her d i s t r e s s to t h i s p o i n t , but now he r e a l i z e s t h a t Aunt S a l l y was as w o r r i e d f o r her \"two poor boys\" as much as f o r h e r s e l f . She says: \" F r a i d to l i v e 1\u00E2\u0080\u0094why I was t h a t s c a r e d I dasn't h a r d l y go to bed, or get up, or l a y down, or s e t down, S i s t e r Ridgeway. Why, they'd s t e a l the very\u00E2\u0080\u0094why, goodness sakes, you can guess what k i n d of a f l u s t e r I was i n by the time midnight come, l a s t n i g h t . I hope to g r a c i o u s i f I warn't a f r a i d they'd s t e a l some 'o' the f a m i l y ! (p. 217) Aunt S a l l y tucks him i n t o bed and mothers him \"so good I he f e l t mean . . . and c o u l d n ' t look her i n the f a c e \" (p. 218). She s e t down on the bed and t a l k e d with.me a long time, and s a i d what a s p l e n d i d boy S i d was, and d i d n ' t seem to want to ever stop t a l k i n g about him; and kept ask i n g me every now and then, i f I reckoned he c o u l d a got l o s t , or h u r t , or maybe drownded, and might be l a y i n g a t t h i s minute, somewheres, s u f f e r i n g or dead, and she not by him to help him, and so the t e a r s would d r i p down, s i l e n t , and I would t e l l her t h a t S i d was a l l r i g h t . . . and when she was going away, she looked down i n my eyes, so steady and g e n t l e , and says: \"The door a i n ' t going to be l o c k e d , Tom; and t h e r e ' s the window and the rod; but y o u ' l l be good, won't you? And you won't go? For my sake? (p. 218) Once again, Huck must decide between two t h i n g s . He makes h i s mind up very q u i c k l y : Laws knows I wanted to go, bad enough, to see about Tom, and was a l l i n t e n d i n g to go; but a f t e r tha:t, I wouldn't a went, not f o r kingdoms.(p. 218) sorrow of Aunt S a l l y prove to be too much f o r Huck. He has F i n a l l y , t h a t n i g h t , Huck abandons Jim's cause. The h o r r i f y i n g events of the n i g h t b e f o r e and the d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t r y i n g to s t e a l a negro can get you k i l l e d , and he has a l s o r e a l i z e d how much p a i n Aunt S a l l y i s i n . When he sees her s i t t i n g up a l l n i g h t w i t h her \"eyes towards the road and the t e a r s i n them,\" he concludes, \"I wished I c o u l d do something f o r her, but I c o u l d n ' t o n l y to swear t h a t I wouldn't do nothing to g r i e v e her any more\" (p. 218). E r i c Solomon comments t h a t Uncle S i l a s and Aunt S a l l y become the f a m i l y Huck has been l o o k i n g f o r through the n o v e l . We know t h a t the Phelps' farm i s p a t t e r n e d a f t e r the farm of John . . 52 Quarles, which Twain c a l l e d \"a heavenly p l a c e f o r a boy.\" What more i n e v i t a b l e climax f o r a novel o f search f o r f a m i l y than t h i s r e c r e a t i o n of the p l a c e Twain r e c a l l e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n with the l y r i c joy of h i s g l o r i o u s c h i l d h o o d summers? To be sure, Huck spends one-fourth of M s adventure a t Phelps Farm. Rather than an a r t i s t i c flaw, the farm i s the proper o b j e c -t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e f o r the happy f a m i l y of Huck's dreams.5 3 One l a s t word needs to be s a i d about the way Huck ends h i s s t o r y : I reckon I got to l i g h t out f o r the T e r r i t o r y ahead of the r e s t , because Aunt S a l l y she's going to adopt me and c i v i l i z e me and I can't stand i t . I been there before, (p. 226) We must r e s i s t here being taken i n by Huck's l a s t brag. R e a l l y , i t i s Tom and Jim t h a t he i s d i s a p p o i n t e d i n . He has j u s t d i s c o v e r e d t h a t h i s two b e s t f r i e n d s have been l y i n g to him and p l a y i n g him f o r a f o o l a l l along. Tom has kept Jim's 54 freedom a s e c r e t , and Jim has kept pap's death a s e c r e t . We know, too, t h a t i f Huck l i g h t s out f o r the T e r r i t o r y , i t would \" g r i e v e \" Aunt S a l l y , and Huck has a l r e a d y sworn not t o g r i e v e her any more. Besides, Huck a l r e a d y is_ c i v i l i z e d , so he should 63 have an easy time of i t , now. And s i n c e there i s n ' t a Pap F i n n around anymore to snatch him away, I t h i n k Huck w i l l d e cide to sta y , i f only f o r Aunt S a l l y ' s good cooking. A f t e r a l l , Huck began h i s s t o r y w i t h the warning, \"I never seen anybody but l i e d , one time or another.\" VI. CONCLUSION In my attempt to view Huck and Jim r e a l i s t i c a l l y , I have v i r t u a l l y i g n o r e d the very s h o r t but very s p e c i a l time t h a t Huck and Jim spend alone together on the r a f t . The p a r t s of the r i v e r journey t h a t i n c l u d e Jim's rebuke of Huck and the two or three days and n i g h t s t h a t \"swum by\" a f t e r the Granger-ford-Shepherdson feud are indeed, \" l o v e l y . \" Jim and Huck do g a i n t h e i r freedom, however b r i e f l y ; f o r a s h o r t time, they say and do what they want. T h e i r experiences on the r a f t \u00E2\u0080\u0094 s l i p p i n g away from v i o l e n c e and sham., i n t o darkness, s i l e n c e and communion\u00E2\u0080\u0094represent an i d e a l t h a t I am sure a l l North Americans who read the book wish to a t t a i n . However, Mark Twain does not allow Huck and J i m \u00E2\u0080\u0094 o r the r e a d e r \u00E2\u0080\u0094 t o stay on the r a f t , and h e r e i n l i e s the d i s ? appointment t h a t readers f e e l when Tom Sawyer makes h i s appearance a t the Phelps' farm. (They should begin to f e e l i t when the k i n g and the duke come aboard.) Indeed, i t i s the beauty of the r a f t passages t h a t makes t h i s d i s a p p o i n t -ment so wrenching. However, as I have suggested, Mark Twain was w r i t i n g a book not about escape from s o c i e t y , but about r e t u r n to 64 s o c i e t y . Huck's experiences are c i v i l i z i n g ones; a t the end of t h i s s t o r y he i s no longer the \"romantic o u t c a s t \" t h a t he was i n The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. And i f we do see Huck's d e c i s i o n to go to h e l l f o r Jim as h e r o i c or h i g h l y moral, we must confess too t h a t t h i s i d e a l s t a t e o f m o r a l i t y i s impo s s i b l e to m a i n t a i n . As Mi c h a e l J . Hoffman p o i n t s out, Huck's f a l l i n g o f f from t h i s step o f almost t r a n s -cendent goodness i s not Twain's f a i l u r e o f v i s i o n , but h i s f u r t h e r f e e l i n g t h a t the f o r c e s of s o c i e t y are stro n g e r than the i n d i v i d u a l ' s w i l l or a b i l i t y to maintain a constant naked c o n f r o n t a t i o n with the world. . . . i t i s important t h a t Twain both begins the novel w i t h i n s o c i e t y and ends by r e t u r n i n g to i t . The middle s e c t i o n i s the most a t t r a c t i v e because, at l e a s t i n p a r t , i t i s the most s e d u c t i v e . In i t , Twain can p o i n t out a l l the i l l s of s o c i e t y i n a s e r i e s of episodes and can show how a t t r a c t i v e l i f e i s when l i v e d o u t s i d e i t . And y e t , he knows t h a t escape i s only temporary, t h a t sooner or 'l a t e r one must r e t u r n and make h i s peace with the e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r . 5 5 65 FOOTNOTES \"'\"Leo Marx, \"Mr. E l i o t , Mr. T r i l l i n g , and Huckle-Berry F i n n , \" American S c h o l a r , XXII (Autumn, 1953), p. 431. 2 Henry Nash Smith, \"Mark Twain's Images of H a n n i b a l : From S t . Petersburg to E s e l d o r f , \" Texas S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h , XXXVII (1958), p. 15. 3 Samuel Clemens, Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1961), p. 95. A l l subsequent page r e f e r e n c e s t o Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n w i l l be t o t h i s e d i t i o n and w i l l be i n c l u d e d i n my t e x t . 4 Herman M e l v i l l e , Moby Dick ( I n d i a n a p o l i s : The Bobbs-M e r r i l l Company, 1964), p. 533. 5 Samuel Clemens, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1906), pp. 70-71 ( i t a l i c s mine). A l b e r t Bigelow Paine, Mark Twain, A Biography (New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1912), V o l . I I , p. 798. 7 Van Wyck Brooks, The Ordeal of Mark Twain (New York: E. P. Dutton and Co. Inc., 1920), pp. 195-196. g Bernard De Voto, Mark Twain's America (Boston: L i t t l e , Brown and Co., 1932), p. 320. 9 Edgar Branch, L i t e r a r y A p p r e n t i c e s h i p of Mark Twain (Urbana: U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s P r e s s , 1950), pp. 200, 205-206. 1 0 L i o n e l T r i l l i n g , \" I n t r o d u c t i o n , \" The Adventures of Huckleberry' F i n n - (New York: H o l t ,__Rinehart and WinstonyxA S 1948)-.,, pp. v i , i x , x i . \u00C2\u00ABT--?? 1 1 T . S. E l i o t , \" I n t r o d u c t i o n , \" The Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n (London: The C r e s s e t Press, 19 50), p. xv. 12 Marx, p. 425,, 13 Henry Nash Smith, Mark Twain: The Development of a W r i t e r (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1962), pp. 122-123., 66 14 W i l l i a m Van O'Connor, \"Why Huckleberry F i n n i s Not the Great American Novel,\" C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XVII (October 1955), p. 8. 15 G i l b e r t Rubenstein, \"The Moral S t r u c t u r e of Huckle- b e r r y F i n n , \" C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XVIII (Nov. 1956), pp. 72, 74, 76. l ft Samuel Clemens, Mark Twain's Autobiography (New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1924), V o l . I I , p. 174. 17 Samuel Clemens, L i f e on the M i s s i s s i p p i (New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1906), p. 119. 1 8 Q u o t e d i n Walter B l a i r , Mark Twain and HUCK FINN (Berkeley and Los Angeles: U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1962), p. 25. 1 9 Quoted i n B l a i r , p. 24. 20 Quoted i n B l a i r , p. 83. 21 Clemens, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, p. 324. 2 2 . Quoted i n B l a i r , p. 89. 2 3 B r o o k s , p. 194. ^ B l a i r , p. 29. 2 5 B l a i r , pp. 29-30. 2 6 Clemens, L i f e on the M i s s i s s i p p i , p. 83. 2 7 Quoted i n B l a i r , p. 38. 2 8 Samuel Clemens, The Innocents Abroad (New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1906), V o l . I, p. 45. 29 Clemens, The Innocents Abroad, V o l . I, pp. 340, 341. 343. 67 30 C r i t i c s have been p a r t l y m i s l e d too, by Twain's d e s c r i p t i o n of Jim. In h i s autobiography he claimed t h a t \"Uncle Dan'l\" was a model f o r Jim and d e s c r i b e d \"Uncle Dan'l\" as \"a f a i t h f u l and a f f e c t i o n a t e good f r i e n d , a l l y , and a d v i s e r . . . whose head was the b e s t one i n the negro q u a r t e r , whose sympathies were wide and warm, and whose h e a r t was honest and simple and knew no g u i l e . \" \u00E2\u0080\u0094 f r o m Mark Twain's Autobiography, VoJ. I, p. 100. 31 Branch, p. 20 5. 32 Dixon Wecter, Sam Clemens of Hannibal (Boston: Houghton, M i f f l i n , 1952), p. 106. 33 Kenneth Lynn, Mark Twain and Southwestern Humour (Boston: L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1959), p. 242. 34 T r i l l i n g , p. x i . 35 Chadwick. Hansen, \"The Character of Jim and the Ending o f , H u c k l e b e r r y F i n n , \" Massachusetts Review, V (Aut., \u00C2\u00B1y63), pp] 59-60. 3 6 A c t u a l l y Jim r e s i s t s Tom somewhat. He t e l l s him t h a t i f he b r i n g s a r a t t l e s n a k e i n t o the c a b i n f o r him to tame, h e ' l l leave f o r sure (p. 203). A l s o , he \"found so much f a u l t . . . w i t h the work and bother\" of being a p r i s o n e r , t h a t Tom \"most l o s t a l l p a t i e n c e w i t h him,\" 37 Smith, Mark Twain: The Development of a W r i t e r , p. 123. 3 8 Thomas Ar t h u r G u l l a s o n , \"The ' F a t a l ' Ending of Huckleberry F i n n , \" American L i t e r a t u r e , XXIX (March, 1957), p. 91. 39 T r i l l i n g , p. i x . 40 Clemens, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, p. 318. I b e l i e v e I am j u s t i f i e d i n q u o t i n g h e a v i l y from Tom Sawyer. Huck begins h i s own s t o r y with the statement, \"You don't know about me, without you have read a book by the name of \"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer\" (p. 7). 41 Clemens, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, p. 320. 68 42 Clemens, The-Adventures of Tom Sawyer, p. 325. 43 There are two groups of c h a r a c t e r s i n the s t o r y , those who l i v e w i t h i n s o c i e t y , and those who l i v e w i thout. In a s t o r y t h a t i s supposedly an e x p r e s s i o n of g e n e r a l r e v o l t a g a i n s t s o c i e t y , we might expect a more k i n d l y t r e a t -ment of those i n the second group. But the r e v e r s e i s t r u e . A l l the o u t c a s t s and outlaws meet v i o l e n t ends: Pap F i n n and Boggs are shot t o death; the t h i e v e s on the Walter S c o t t drown; and the k i n g and the duke are t a r r e d and f e a t h e r e d and r i d d e n out of town on a r a i l . < 44 Clemens, L i f e on the M i s s i s s i p p i , p. 31. 45 These are Leo Marx's words. 46 Leo Marx, p. 42 6. 4 7 Sydney J . Krause, \"Twain and S c o t t : Experience v e r -sus Adventures,\" Modern P h i l o l o g y , LXII (February 1965), p. 236 4 8 Kenneth Lynn, p. 218. 49 One wonders i f Huck was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the d i s -appearance of the canoe. I t c o u l d o n l y have disappeared because someone hadn't p r o p e r l y secured i t to the r a f t . 5 0 L e o Marx, pp. 425, 428, and 436. 51 . . Maxwell Geismar, Mark Twain: An American Prophet (Boston: Houghton M i f f l e n Co., 1970), p. 102. 52 Clemens, Autobiography, V o l . 1 , p. 96. 5 3 E r i c Solomon, \"Huckleberry F i n n Once More,\" C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XXII (December, 1960), p. 176. 54 Tom and Jim make q u i t e a p a i r . Tom runs around showing o f f h i s b u l l e t which he c a r r i e s around h i s neck on a watch-guard. Jim, o f course, c a r r i e s the f i v e - c e n t p i e c e around h i s neck which the \" d e v i l \" h i m s e l f gave to him. 55 M i c h a e l J . Hoffman, \"Huck's I r o n i c C i r c l e , \" Georgia Review,XXIII ( F a l l , 1969), pp. 316, 321. 69 SELECTED LIST OF REFERENCES Adams, Ri c h a r d P. \"The Uni t y and Coherence of Huckleberry F i n n . \" T-ulane S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h , VI (1956), pp. 87-103. Baldanza, Frank. \"The S t r u c t u r e of Huckleberry F i n n . \" \"American L i t e r a t u r e , XXVII (November 19 55), pp. 347-355. Bellamy, Gladys Carmen. Mark Twain as a L i t e r a r y A r t i s t . Norman: U n i v e r s i t y of Oklahoma Press, 1950. Belson, J o e l Jay. \"The Nature and Consequences of the L o n e l i n e s s of Huckleberry F i n n , \" Arkansas Q u a r t e r l y , XXVI (Autumn, 1970), pp. 243-8. Benardete, Jane J . \"Huckleberry F i n n and The Nature of F i c t i o n . \" Massachusetts Review, IX (Spring, 1968), pp. 209-226. B l a i r , Walter. Mark Twain and HUCK FINN. Berkeley and Los Angeles: U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1960. B l a i r , Walter. \"When Was Huckleberry F i n n W r i t t e n ? \" American L i t e r a t u r e , XXX (March. 1958) , pp. 1-25\". B l a i r , Walter, \"Why Huck and Jim Went Downstream.\" C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XVIII (November, 1956), pp. 106-107. Branch, Edgar M. The L i t e r a r y A p p r e n t i c e s h i p of Mark Twain, With S e l e c t i o n s from h i s A p p r e n t i c e W r i t i n g . Urbana: U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s P r e s s , 1950. Brooks, Van Wyck. The Ordeal of Mark Twain. New York: E. P. Dutton, 192 0. Clemens, Samuel. Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n . New York: W. W. Norton, 1962. Clemens, Samuel. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1906. Clemens, Samuel. A Tramp Abroad. New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 190 6. Clemens, Samuel. \"A True S t o r y , \" i n Sketches New and Old. New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1906. Clemens, Samuel. A C o n n e c t i c u t Yankee i n King Arthur's:-Court. New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1906. 70 Clemens, Samuel. The Innocents Abroad. 2 v o l s . New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1906. Clemens, Samuel. L i f e on the M i s s i s s i p p i . New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1906. Clemens, Samuel. Mark Twain's Autobiography. 2 v o l s . New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1924. Clemens, Samuel. Mark Twain's Hannibal, Huck and Tom, ed. Walter B l a i r . Berkeley and Los Angeles: U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1969. Clemens, Samuel. The P r i n c e and the Pauper. New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1906. Clemens, Samuel. Tom Sawyer Abroad, Tom Sawyer, D e t e c t i v e . New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1906. DeVoto, Bernard. Mark Twain's America. Boston: L i t t l e , Brown, 19 32. Doyno, V i c t o r A. \"Over Twain's shoulder: The Composition and S t r u c t u r e of Huckleberry F i n n . \" Modern F i c t i o n S t u d i e s , XIV (Spring, 1960), pp. 3-9~ E l i o t , Thomas Stea r n s . \" I n t r o d u c t i o n . \" The Adventures of Huckleberry F i n n . London: The C r e s s e t P r e s s , 19 50. F i e d l e r , L e s l i e . \"Faust i n the Eden of Childhood,\" i n Love and Death i n the American Novel. New York: C r i t e r i o n Books, 1960, pp. 553-74. Geismar, Maxwell. Mark Twain: An American Prophet. Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1970. G u l l a s o n , Thomas A r t h u r . \"The ' F a t a l ' Ending of Huckleberry F i n n . \" American L i t e r a t u r e , XXIX (March, 1957), pp. 86-91. Hansen, Chadwick. \"The Character o f Jim and The Ending of Huckleberry F i n n . \" Massachusetts Review, V (Autumn, 1963), pp. 45-66. Hoffman, Michael J . \"Huck's I r o n i c C i r c l e . \" Georgia Review, XXIII ( F a l l , 1969), pp. 307-322. Kaplan, J u s t i n . Mr. Clemens and Mark Twain. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966. 71 Krause, Sydney J . \"Twain and S c o t t : Experience versus Adventures.\" Modern P h i l o l o g y , LXII (February, 1965), pp. 227-236. Lynn, Kenneth S. Mark Twain and Southwestern Humour. Boston: L i t t l e , Brown, 1960. Marx, Leo. \"Mr.. E l i o t , Mr. T r i l l i n g and Huckleberry F i n n . \" The American S c h o l a r , XXII (Autumn, 1953) , pp. 423-440. O'Connor, W i l l i a m Van. \"Why Huckleberry F i n n Is Not The Great American Novel.\" C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XVII (October, .1955) , pp. 6-10. O r n s t e i n , Robert. \"The Ending of Huckleberry F i n n . \" Modern Language Notes, LXXIV (1959), pp. 698-702. Paine, A l b e r t Bigelow. Mark Twain, A Biography: The P e r s o n a l and L i t e r a r y L i f e of Samuel Langhorne Clemens. New York: Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1912. Power, W i l l i a m . \"Huck Fi n n ' s F a t h e r . \" U n i v e r s i t y of Kansas -C i t y Review, XXVIII (Winter, 1961), pp. 83-94. Robinson, E. A r t h u r . \"The Two 'Voices' i n Huckleberry F i n n . \" Modern Language Notes, LXXV (1960), pp. 204-8. Rubenstein, G i l b e r t M. \"The Moral S t r u c t u r e of Huckleberry F i n n . \" C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XVIII (November 1956), pp. 72-76. Schmitz, N e i l . \"The Paradox of L i b e r a t i o n i n Huckleberry F i n n . \" Texas Stud i e s i n L i t e r a t u r e and Language, XIII T S p r i n g , 1971), pp. 125-136 Schmitz, N e i l . \"Twain, Huckleberry F i n n , and The Reconstruc-t i o n . \" American S t u d i e s , XII (Spring, 1971), pp. 59-67. Smith, Henry Nash. \"Mark Twain's Images of Hannibal: From St. P e t e r s b u r g to E s e l d o r f . \" Texas S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h , XXXVII (1958), pp. 3-23. Smith, Henry Nash. Mark Twain: The Development of a W r i t e r . Cambridge, Mass: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1962. Solomon, E r i c . \"Huckleberry F i n n Once More.\" C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XXII (December, 1960), pp. 172-78. Stallman, R. W. \"Huck F i n n Again.\" C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , XVIII (May, 1957), pp. 425-6. 72 Tatham, Campbell. \"Dismal and Lonesome: A New Look at Huckleberry Finn.\" Modern F i c t i o n Studies, XIV (Spring, 1968), pp. 4 7-55. T r i l l i n g , L ionel. \"Introduction.\" The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 194 8. Wecter, Dixon. Sam Clemens of Hannibal. Boston: Houghton, M i f f l i n , 1952. Wexman, V i r g i n i a . \"The Role of Structure i n Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn.\" American L i t e r a r y Realism, VI (Winter, 1973), pp. 1-11. Young, P h i l i p . \"Huckleberry Finn: The L i t t l e Lower Layer.\" Three bags f u l l ; essays i n American f i c t i o n . New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1972, pp. 136-153. "@en . "Thesis/Dissertation"@en . "10.14288/1.0094062"@en . "eng"@en . "English"@en . "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use."@en . "Graduate"@en . "Huck and Jim : romantic fools"@en . "Text"@en . "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/20504"@en .