"Arts, Faculty of"@en . "Philosophy, Department of"@en . "DSpace"@en . "UBCV"@en . "Osterhout, Minnie Mildred"@en . "2009-07-03T17:02:13Z"@en . "1924"@en . "Master of Arts - MA"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "[Abstract not available]"@en . "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/10046?expand=metadata"@en . "10853184 bytes"@en . "application/pdf"@en . "HABIT AS A FACTOR OF CONDUCT CONTROL Minnie Mildred Osterhout. HABIT AS A FACTOR OF CONDUCT CONTROL Minnie Mildred Osterhout. A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of MASTER OF AETS in the Department of Philosophy. The University of British Goluinbia April 1924. TABLE OF COIITEKTS Chapter I. Conduct as an expression of Human Kature. T-mo factors controlling Conduct - heredity experience\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 The former analyzed. The pov-er of habit in modifying and developing instinct and reflex. Chapter II. The nature of habit. its connection with the inherited nature. Divergence of thought as to which predominates The Physical basis. Chapter III.Some aspects of habit formation. Impulses leading to such formation, liaips governing the formation of habits. Plateaus. Characteristics of formed habits. Time of setting up. Chapter IV. Classification of habits - moral, immoral. Possibility of modification. Importance of correct formation. Chapter V. Value of Habit formation. Advantages to be gained. Conservative view. Progress depenue.it on habit. Significance of habit formation. 0 OEAPTER I. Conduct as an Expression of Human Nature^ Conduct has ever \"been the reaction or adjustment of man to his environment. Granted a similarity of external conditions the variations in the responses of different indi-viduals to the same stimuli indicate the differences in their inner natures. If v.e could comprehend man's inner nature completely we could explain his responses. But it is impossi-ble with our present psychological knowledge to directly know the inner nature of other individuals than the self. 'Ve may however by an analysis of man's outward reactions gain in-directly some insikht into the factor v;hiGh controls their expression. This method is the only one that leads us to an understanding of' the factors involved in conduct control. Considering man as a unit of society the same rale applies. For as conduct is the chief factor leading to an understanding of the individual so it must form the basis of all study of man in relation to his fellov,- man. History and Eeonohics are wholly studies of such relationships as por-trayed in conduct. Any m:.ral progress that has been made is indicated in conduct. If one generation does not show any variation from the preceding one little advance can be \u00C2\u00AB2-asoertained. But as we note how one generation or one indi-vidaal rises above the restrictions that the past has imposed v^e observe progress or possibility of progress. Psychologi-cally these variations as v.ell as the usual reactions can be explained for all actions conform to the laws of cause and effect. As we analyze the effects in the form of man's ad-justments to the usual and unusual situations of life with which he is confronted we are generally able to expose the cause. Human conduct then, is our only critereon by v.'hich to interpret human nature whether individually or socially. It is the purpose of this study to enquire into the factors con-trolling conduct to see in how far they may be modified and to analyze the chief factor which controls it's expression,, Kodern psychologists agree that there are two main factors controlling mtn's nature. As expressed by Bagley \"Through the nervous system operate the forces that control oondact, and while it is impossible in the present state of our knowledge accurately to describe the mechaniEUi of control, two large factors th\u00C2\u00A3.t are of especial signifioance to our present problem may be readily distintuished. \" These he points out are (1) Heredity (2) Experience. Conduct explained from the point of view of in-heritance is relatively fixed, comprisinr actions wliich are* reflex and those which are instinctive. Keflex actions are involuntary motor responses to stimuli having a sense origin. They have the three aspects of all mental processes the ^ 1. (Educational Values p.S) _ -\u00C2\u00BB__ e o j . i j i t i v e , t h e a f f e c t i v e , and t h e c o n u t i v e . Txie n e a r ; - ! p a t h -v...yg i e a i i n t ' t o c e r t a i n r e s p o n s t s a r e i u h e r i t e d , t oiu^ i luf-t \u00E2\u0080\u00A2.vLOliy f o r m e d b a t more o f t e n ex^.e r i c ;.ce i s n e c e s s t r y t o f . i l y e s t a b l i s h t h e s e c o - o r d i n a t i o n s . Thus b o c i i l y movementE c ^zYi &e t h e g rasp infc - m o v e m e n t e of t h e h a n d , i iLprove v i t h e x p e r i f u . - e . AB e x p e r i e n c e may d e v e l o p r e f l e x e s so i t may m o d i i y them f o r e x a r a p l e \"hen some f o r e i r n m a t t e r e n t e r s t l ie eye t h e l i d s i n -Y o i u n t a r i l y c l o s e b a t i f ont^'s e y e s a r e b e i n r t r e a t e d r e g u l a r -i i v a f t e r a t i m e t h e y become a c c u B t o m e d t o c e r t a i n s t i m a l i and t h f r e f l e x m&y be i n h i b i t e d . The o t h e r i n h e r i t e d f a c t o r -vhich a i d s i n o o n t r o i i i a f . c o n d u c t I s i n s t i n c t . i n s t i n c t i v e a c t i o n s c o n f o r m t o t h e f x u e r a r e f l e x t y p e so c l o s e l y t h a t somt^ p s y c h o i o i s t s f a i l t o r e c o e -n i s e any d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m . .Ve may h o w e v e r n o t e a feu-d i s t i n g u i s h i n ^ f e a t a r e e . A r e f l e x i s p r i m a r i l y p h y s i o l o t i c a l and may be u n d e r s t o o d f rom t h e m e o h a n i o i l a c t i v i t y of t h e n e r v j a s s t r u c t u r e , v . h i l e t h e i n s t i n c t c a n be r e f e r r e d t o i t s p a r p o s e a l o n e , a l t h o u g h j n e &ay n o t be c o u e c i o ^ s of t i . i e r a r p o s e a t t h e t i m e of a c t i o n . Thus t h t r e a c t i o n i f one s t e p s on a t a c k may be e x p l c - i n e d i n p u r e l y phy s i o l c ; i c c-1 t e r x s . bu t t n e s e a r e n o t i . e f f i c i e n t t o a o o o a n t f o r s u c h r e a c t i o n s as t i . . s e w h i c h t a k e p l a c e when one s e e s a movtineKt i n t h e e r a s s s a n i e s t i a sn&i i e . * O o n s c i o a ^ a e s E p l t y s a a o r e i m p o r t a n t p - r t in i .^-s t i n c t t h a n i n r e f l e i . Kany r e f i t x 2iO\-: :-' - t E t . . ^ f j . i ; - ; - ' q a i t e a n c o n s o i o a s i y a s f o r i n s t a n c e t a t a d ^ a:, t i f :; t . : t n e p a p i i of ne -4-the eye. In the instinct usually all is conscioas except the reason for the act. The adolescent youth fives expression to an instinct, in displaying his strength or bravery before rnembers of the opposite ses. without realizing v:hy he does so. An instinct is generally considered to be more complex than a reflex. V.'arren says,\" Instincts are complic-ations of behavior T.hich involve a series of reflex activities The simple act of swallo-wing is a reflex but there are a namber of such actions involved in the instinct v-hich leads to eating. Another distinction lies in the fact that instincts are usually accompanied by a degree of emotion which is for the most part absent in the reflex.\" Having established these distinctions it is still difficult to obtain a scientific 'definition of an instinctive action. KcDougall defines instinct as \" an inherited or innate psycho-physical disposition which determines its possessor to perceive and. to pay attention to objects of a certain class, to experience an emotional excitement of a particular quality upon perceiving such an object and to act in regard to it in a particalat manner or at least to exper-ience an impulse to such action.\" He farther holds that instincts cannot be eradicated from the mental oonstitation and that the intelligence does not supplant and so lead to their atrophy but rather controls and modifies their operation. l.{ Human Psychology p.102) i;.(Social Psychology, p.29) 2. -5~ I think IvIcDougall over - emphas i zes the emotional element for some instincts are performed v.'ithoat the accompaniment of consciousness at all and others have no definite emotion attached to them. V,'e can hardly say that an infant is cons-cious of its first instinctive' movements or that these are accompanied by any emotion. He also overestimates the sta-bility of instincts for ivhile some have become so deeply in-grained in the race that they cannot be entirely eliminated, Others can be completely uprooted as we shall see later. In defining insti.ict Russell says^it is a vital movement performed by an animal the first time that it finds itself in a novel situation'.' Kussell's view restricts the ordinary meaning of instinct for.such an instinct as the nest building of birds manifests itself more than once. '.-76 may also note that a vital movement performed in a novel situa-tion may be the result of emotional impulses, of reason, or of previously learned response in some similar or parallel sit-uations . This view that an instinct only expresses itself once leads to the conclusion that this expression opens the. pathway to which there v;as an inherited predisposition. The instinct forms the incentive but habit establishes the re-action often modifying its expression through repeated res-ponses. This is possible because instincts are general rather than particular 7,'hen first expressed and have to be guided (The Analysis of Mind,p.50) -6-into certain channels. Thus although a child has an instinc-tive desire for nourishment at its birth, habit formulates a desire for food at certain regular intervals and this desire is jast as insistent whether the child has become accastomed to satisfying it two, three of four times a day. Similarily the instinct of fear, if one gives ex-pression to it associates it with certain objects etc., may beoome a habit of lifetime endurance and of great intensity expressing itself in a certain definite way when certain stimuli appear. Thorndike says, \u00C2\u00ABThe instinctive tendencies beoome habits as soon as experience alters them. They are mod-ified into habits v.'hen any act physical or mental, which in a given situation produces satisfaction, becomes associated with that situation so that when the situation recurs the aot is more likely to recur also\". On the other hand habit may establish a mode of reaction which tends to v^eaken the expression of the original instinct. Thus an individaal vho has an instinct of repulsion to^vards a certain object may habituate himself to seeing and even handling that object v^ith only a slight feeling of his previous disgust. V.'e may agree v;ith De^ vey that \"in reality instincts are most easily modified and subject to education.\" Contrary to MoDougall I think habit may in some, oases displace the instinct altogether. As Bain holds some habits oppose instincts and we see this to be trae in such l.(El. of Psychology, p.16) 2.. (Human Nc. ture and Conduct, p. 107) g.(The E.T.otions and The \"ill, p. 446-447) 1. 2. 3. -7-instances as he quotes in v^ hich habits of obedience are set up in opposition to self r;ill and the instinctive tendency zo foil ow out one's prevailing temper.\" In suoh cases it may take a long period of habit foriaation to completely overcome the instinct. In other types of instinct \u00E2\u0080\u00A2rahich are r.-eaz^ er a mach shorter term --ill serve. Some appear only for a sLort tiaie and then if not satisfied die out. Thus the instinct to play appearing at a certain period in the life of a child and find-ing no outlet for expression dies out in a relatively short time. Habits of Tork, 1 istlessness, eta completely over-po-!7er the instinct. Accordingly vie see that although instinct is given such a prominent place as a oonduo t-oontrol in reality it's power is limited. Instinct alone -pould not eqj.ip an individ-ual to cope with the intiroaoies of modern civilization. The majority of instincts only become of -orth to as as they are guided into certain channels. Eusseli says \"The higher s^-e rise in the evolutionary scale, broadly speakin;,, the greater be-\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 omes the po'??er of learning and the fe.ver are the occasions when pure instinct is exhibited unmodified in adult life.\" Habit then as the guide and modifier of some instincts and reflexes, as the destroyer of others,and as the me^ns of establishing nev>7 modes of behavior is the factor which exer-cises the greatest poorer as a conduct-control. The following chapters are given over to analyzing this statement and en-deavoring to prove its validity. 1. (The Analysis of LIiiid,p\u00C2\u00A3S) ^ ^ ^ -8-CHAPTEE II. The lature of Habit Having discussed innate characteristics, we come no\7 to consider that part of a man's character which is not his at birth and which he attains only through experience. Uood-\u00E2\u0080\u00A2worth says, \"Extensive as is the n&tive eo^uipment of man i^ 'ith its manifold sensations and emotions, movements and interests it is very small compared with the learned eqaipment.\" This latter consists of habits which v^'e m\u00C2\u00A3y define as, tendencies to respond to stimuli in a certain manner, which have been created by experience and 'vhich have their stability in the physical organism. \" Boyce says \"Each of the numerous habits of the brain means then, tendencies to the excitement of loc-alized tracts and paths under given physical conditions. James says, \" A simple hshit is nothing but a reflex dischar-e and a complex one discharges due to syetems of reflex paths so organized as to v;ake each other up successively.\" Bagley stys Habit is an acoaired mode of response, the separate iUijred-ients of which have at one tin.e or another been coordinated-or associated throut;h conscious control but in which the con-nections are in the completed hahit quite mechanical.\" We 1. (Dynamic Psycholoi^y p.60) 2. (Outlines of Psy. p.67) 3. (Educational Values p. 23) Tl ( Educational vaUes, -p,'^^] -9-could quote innumerable definitions but for the present \VP shall use these as the basis for our eno^uiry into the nature of habit. Our first difficulty arises in trying to determine how far the acquired part of man's nature is dependent upon his inherited characteristics. Some psychologists,including Watson, believe that all life processes are practically depen-dent on the inherited factors. He says \"It is probable further more that at the birth of the animal or soon afterwards all possible nervous connections are already established and that all later development, all adjustments of the animal to chanses in its environment by habit formation involve only changes in resistance througii various inherited areas.\" Consequently the possible habits vjhich an organism may acquire are limited by its nervous structures. All that is new in habit is the organization. Theodore Dreiser in an article in Current Opinion expresses his view that individual characterE are born, A Kapoleon. Goethe, Shakespeare, Lincoln etc. are not made but have certain innate characteristics without which no training or development could maHe them what they are. They must have these VP-- special characteristics or very individual impulses . 1 to begin with. \"If nature wishes one to rise above the con-\u00C2\u00BB ditions wherewith he finds himself surrounded at birth she usually provides him with the equipment for so do in during gestation or before.\" i. (Psycholo-y from the standpoint of a * Behaviorist, S. (M\u00C2\u00BBy 1ft^ 7 Pt 544-5) 1 .150 -10-Acquired knowledge and intellect he admits play a very important part tut it is not these alone that place a man so high above his fellov/s, there must also be that vital energy to apply them or the hypnotic power of attracting attention to them ~ in other words personality. Life developi and trains especial inherent capacities but the instinct and the ability to foreknow, do, appreciate, understand these things are not taught in schools. Schools labor with them to improve, polish, give them a special turn or bent^little more or less* On the other hand we have a great school of psy-chologists who believe life is v^ hat we make it. Among earlier writers Locke was the first to speak of personality as some-thing which is made from moment to moment by a cause which can be assigned. Helvetius and others made the idea of the com-plete malleability of human nature, which is wholly empty and passive, tne basis for asserting the omnipotence of education to shape human society and the ground of proclaiming the infinite perfectibility of mankind. In more recent times so great a man as the Duke ^f Wellington is reported as exclaim-in \"Habit is a second naturel Habit is ten times nature!\" In refering to habit we mast keep in mind the fact that its domain covers the whole field of human reaction. It aontrois not only the physical bat the mental and emotional spheres as well. It is through habit that the influence of intelligence has most control over the lives of the majority of civilized mpn, Pillshury says. \"If you eliminate from the various -11-intellectual activities all that belongs to habit most of the higher mental operations become impossible , and if v.'e include association among habits we may say \?ith complete assuranoe thai no intellectual activity of any kind goes on except on the basis of habit. Hadfield in his treatise on Psychology and Morals says, \"Environment is most important in forming character es-pecially the environment of early childhood. A single exper-ience may cause a chan^ -e in our outlook on life but more effective are the large number of trifling events which becom-ing habits establish these impressions and they become a fixed part of personality.\" How it is impossible to draw a line of strict demarkation between these viev/s and to vindicate either comp-letely. 7;e must admit that heredity and environment each have a part to play ir conduct control . we are hov;ever justified in making some criticism of the more extreme vie^s and we hope by farther enquiry to determine which factor is the more pov;er-ful. Dreiser in emphasizing the innate faculties does not recognize how useless they would be unless developed into and supported by habits. A man endovjed with the brightest of intellects is helpless unless he develops it and unless he forms habits of temperance, perseverance, keeness of observat-ion etc. to supplement it. If it is true that no man can b^ a genius unless endo-\u00C2\u00ABed by nature it is also true that he cnn-not be so without developing his innate poiA'ers i\u00C2\u00BBy means of 1, (Essentials of Psy. p.61) 2. (Psycholog-y & Morals p.17) - 1 2 -\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 a b i t s . T r a i n i n g does liore t h a n p o l i s h , i t d e v e l o p s fro^i ve ry i n f i n i t e s i m a l o e g i n n i n g s s t r o n g h\u00C2\u00A3l ; i ' reac r i on C63cn:e aighty pOT-ers in the inii v i iuai ' s life. r.a\"bit has been called the architect that ouilis the ee>ie ruaii^enta] po-jrers of the chill into the stronj lev^lcped po-er ox the fall t-ro7\"n man. All educationalists -.vork on this basis. Lits^xe value is no:- given to a system of education --hich does not provide for extensive habit formation in the ::O'J.JI^. Eoiissean's theory that the only habit Torth developing is the habit of forming no habits at adl Justly receives little s jns iderat ion. An indiviaaal rho had foriLed no habits at ail would be quite incapable of ::.eeting the contingencies of private or public life. In order to disc-iss \"Watson's statement ^e cust enquire into the physical basis of habit. But first -.te may note thit he does not underestimate the i^ixorta^ce of h-bit as a factor in developing thi inherited tendencies, but he holds oniy certain iir.es of develo?;:.e nt are possible and siEilariiy only certain habit fcr^atior-s are possible cecause of the inherited connections in the nerve arcs. He -ouii lead us to believe tni-t life is ^ holly ieterniiiied ti-rou^h these inherited connec t i o o,s . Physioio;-: ic:-il7, habit der-znic on an organic connection of the n-ir\-;\u00C2\u00A3 c . ^ ,c rned. H o m e quotes jra.-oer as saying that habit formation is uerendent uvon the fact tnat i, (psycholo =_ ical Prinoiples of iliacation I m i4;-wh ic h- main-t a4ra.\u00C2\u00AB--t4iat \"repetition causes a change in the tissue and this tissue is a new habit of cohesion\". From this point of view repetition must mean the formation of openings for a number of paths along the one arc. The general but not the par-ticular direction of discharge is laid out. On the other hand we may affirm that modes of 2. 1. (Human Hature and Conduct p.45) 2. (peters. Human Conduct p.26) -29-response are often just as definite as the sensitiveness to certain stimuli. 'Tie might mention the oft quoted story of the old veteran v:ho dropped his lunch on hearing the familiar call to attention. V7e also note that skills are the performing of definite responses to certain stimuli, but this definiteness has only come graduall\" as the useless movements have been eliminated in the learning process. The possibility of habit formation is not con-fined to &ny special time in the life of the individual except in so far as the habits to be acquired are based on instincts which are transient and so must be established when opportunity offers. It is however generally conceded that habits are most easily and successfully established in youth. It is then that the brain is plastic and more susceptible to stimuli. Habits established at this time become firmly ingrained in the developing brain. This is ^hy passages learned in youth are better remembered than those learned in later years. The child's plasticity is an advantage from the point of viev, of final attainment and a disadvantage from the point of view of rapid progress. Habits v.-hich have been learned previously are in a large measure the means of rapid learning of a ne.' form of activ4 ity. The adult in so far has an advantage over the child in that he has mor^ habits of control which he e n apply to the ne. Situation. But although adults can attain more rapid ^ T 1 improvement, they cannot attain such a high rank because the older habits are not exactly like the ones which have to be flfc formed in the ner: task and therefore they interfere with the formation of the ner.-er habits. Consequently because the habits acquired in youth become so firmly established and because they interfere to a certain extent in the forming of new habits it is of great importance that these early habits should be those which v;ill b\u00C2\u00A9 of greatest value to the individual. Of course all habits can not be established at this time because of the immaturity of the child. James says, \"If the period between tv.enty and thirty is the critical one in the formation of intellectual and profeBSional hatits, the period below ti^ euty is more important still for the fi:iing of personal habits properly so called such as vocalization and pronunciation, gesture. motion, and address. Hardly ever is a language learned after f.venty spoken v.ithout a foreign accent. Hardly ever can a youth transferred to the society of his betters unlearn the nasality and other vices of speech bred in him by the asso-ciation of his -rowing years.\" The great opportunity of the educationalist lies in the fact that the school age and nerve plasticity are practically identical. During this period ^e form not only habits of thought and action but habits of \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 attitude to life and to life's problems. What an individual regards as right or v.-rong. what he v.ill cherish or champion l.{Text Book of Psychology, p.144) -31-iu industry, government, and art depends in large measure on his early education and training and on the opinions and beliefs of other people rith whom he repeatedly comes in contact. The child is so susceptible that impressions made at home and at school soon become permanently fixed in him. In this sense truly,\"the child is father of the man.\" Peters says, \"Outside of their ov.n basiness the ideas gained by men before they are twenty-five are prao-ticaily the only ideas they shall have all their lives. The mental grooves and channels are set, the power of assimi-Istion gone.\" Desires that have been set up tend to go on in the same direction. To quote the old adage^as the t'.vig is bent the tree is inclined\". This explains the difficulty of turning baclc, of ohani,ln\u00C2\u00A3 habits of action and thought. A man who has established the money makini:, habit goes on speculating and attempting to get more long after he has acquired an abundance. A man who has been brought up to dig ditches finds it difficult to rise above his position. In this connection James says, \"Habit alone prevents the hardest and most repulsive v;alks of life from being deserted by those brought up to tread therein. It keeps the fisher-man and the deck-hand at sea through the winter; it holds the miner in his darkness, and nails the countryman to his* log-cabin and his lonely farm through all the months of sno^; it protects us from invasion by the natives of the 1, (Human Conduct p.266) 2. (Psychology Vol. 1. p. 121) -32-desert and the frozen tone. It aooms as all to fight out the battle of life upon the lines of our nurture or our etrly choice and to make the best of a pursuit that disagrees because there ia no other for .-.hich vre are fitted, and it is too late to begin again.\" V.'e see then the in:port&.nce of a good start, of setting up in youth those habits which v.ill be assets in late^ years v.hen it v.ill be too late to attain them. Home says, \"By the age of thirty iiiO; t of us are the servants of our past selves,\" for Just as the lapse of days hardens putty and concrete, so the lapse of years gradually reduces the plasticity of the nervous system until finally the .vhole is practically set like some plastic cast of a man.\" It is the duty therefore of every parent and every teacher to see to it that while the nerve cells are plaetic the child ac-quires a rreat fund of those habits which v.ill prove necess-ary and useful, throughout life. This is necessary in each succeeding '..eneration because the l&v of the non-transmission of acquired characters excludes the possibility of children receivin\u00C2\u00A3' any direct benefit from the habits of their parents. 1. (Principles of iiduoation, p.2y8) -33-CHAPTBE 17 A Classification of Habits To attempt a classification of habits cult matter for habits are so wide in their app to include every phase of life and conduct. It ally impossible , to make any grouping that will \u00E2\u0080\u00A2whole field, re might make a classification fr al viewpoint as habits of manner and habits of from the mental viewpoint as habits of volition of thought. Or we might consider habits as to is a diffi-lication as is practic-cover the om the physic-skill, and and habits their scope whether particular or general, or as to their economic value whether productive or consumptive. Again we mi habits into two groups organized from the ethic view as moral or immoral, good or bad. So one groupings is all inclusive. -e shall ho-ever c last and as far as possible classify habits as moral, for not only is this the most common gro fe-ht divide al point of of these 1 hoose the moral or im-uping but it is the one which has the most practical interest. Oar first problem is to discover -what habit bad or :-ood and so deter^iine a basi.-. Tor ification. Gordy says, \"Bad habits are those \u00E2\u0080\u00A2: favorable to gro-^th,\" and this is true whether I.(New Psychology, p.185) make s a , th3 3lass-'hich are un-Y.'e mean -34-physical.mental,0r spiritual growth. Ve T.'ould class Y^alking incorrectly, overeating, observing carelessly, judging on insufficient data etc., in this group. habits are those serviceable to one's that of his fellows\". This hedonistic as the highest by modern ethical philo Edman says, \"Good own happiness and to viev; is nor recognized sophers. To make it more acceptable we might modify the statement some?.'hat and consider it from a perfection viewpoint as, good habits are those serviceable in the production of ion in the individual and in society. are those v.hich are disserviceable and good. But hov; are v.-e to judge betv/een are serviceable ,and those which are no objectively our critereon of judgment immediate overt effects and in its ult upon physique and character. the highest perfect-Conversely bad habits non productive of those habits vjhich t? Subjectively and lies in a habit\u00E2\u0080\u00A2s imate consequences The great class of habits which are usually referred to 7,'hen -.ve speak of immoral h appetites such as smolciBg, drinking, t immediate overt effects of such are re their cons umj)t ion of time and energy. abits are the acquired aking drugs etc. The adily discernible in They are also accom-panied by a demoralizing effect and tend to v;eaken both mind and body. From a social point o f view too, such habits are a menace for their expression may cause great 1.(Human Traits and their Social Significance,p.i 6) T^fTf -35-distress ana discomfort to many besides the individual v,\"ho expresses them. Another group of habits which -.ve class as immoral includes all those -.vhose immediate effects are destructive socially. These are such habits as stealing, gambling and gossiping -which besides beinr detrimental to the individual's character, should be -.-iped out because of their overt effects on society. Legislation deals with such habits but only in a way as to prevent their public expression rather than to uproot them. We also class as immoral all those unnecessary habits r;hich to a large extent have their orieiin in the nervous constitution of the individual. Such habits as biting the lips, 'tapping the foot ,or fingering one's watch chain not only are useless but they consume valuable time and ener/-y. They wear out the nervous system and are annoy-ing to others. One of the drawbacks of modern civilization lies in this fruitless waste of energy. '\"e rush from one thing to another and even in our leisure moments \u00E2\u0080\u0094 if v;e have any \u00E2\u0080\u0094 few have learned the habit of relaxation. This continual tax upon our nervous system is bound to have a destructive effect individually and nationally. Regarding ,_, the unhappy effect of many acquired personal h;.:bits ve need only remind ourselves of how mtny public addresses are spoiled for us by the speaker's irritating mannerisms. And how \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 -S6-often we are compelled to admit that certain worthy people get on our nerves because of their unpleasant habitudes. Even more undesirable are immoral mental habits such as mental laziness, fickleness, indecision etc. For in the long run habits of thought are more influential than habits of action for they outlive the latter in many cases. This has been demonstrated various times when legislation has endeavored to bring about changes in a people by chang-ing outward conditions. More than once have attempts to clean up slum districts failed because outer conditions only,-were altered. Raising wages will not better the conditions of poor unless their standard of living is rais^also. As Dewey says, \"This is why glowing predictions of the immediate coming of a social millenium terminate so uniformly in dis-appointment. Habits of thought outlive modifications in habits of overt action.\" A new generation must come v.hose habits of mind -have been formed under the new conditions or whose mincig are at least plastic enough to receive them. It is encouraging to note that there is nothing in the nature of the law of habit to make the formation of bad habits necessary. The law of habit tends to make UB what-ever we want to be enough to express our desires in action. ^ If then we take care to cultivate habits of honesty, thrift and attention we will become as it were immane to dishonesty thriftlessness and inattention. A temperate man finds it 1.) 2 ) Human Eature & Conduct, p. 108. -37-practioally impossible to be intemperate. The habits of right living take just as strong a hold on us as those which are injurious, and the former when firmly established make the acquisition of the latter practically impossible. The habit of decision forestalls the habit of indecision. How important then that -we should establish these habits not only for their own sake but also as a protection against the opposing destructive habits. The futility of such propositions as sowing wild oats to get them out of the system becomes apparent. Physiologically we know it to be true that what a man so\vs that and that only shall he also reap. If bad habits have been formed however^ we may yet be able to eradicate them. The laws of habit breaking are essentially the same as those of habit forming. Had-field would hold that all that is necessary is the exposing of the repressed morbid complex underlying the habit but we must disagree. This is not sufficient to break even such a simple habit as that of a child sucking his thumb. Bather we must look to James' rules as the surest aid in habit breaking. ^e mmst launch ourselves with a strong initiative marshalling all our forces against the undesirable habit ^ and never allo-^ 'ing it to express itself. In time we will probably be able to overcome it, especially if we put some-thing else in its place. Some contend that the only way to -38-overcome a bad habit is to replace it vith another. And certainly v;e find this to be the most success ful method. The possibility of modifying formed habits mast necessarily have a physiologically explanation. Sea-shore says, \"liodif icati on is possible because neural paths are not formed by the actual growing- together of successive neurones in the chain, the neurones lie in bunches like live \u00E2\u0080\u00A2wires, most delicately insulated in such a way that a new path may be forced through at any synapse and old paths may be blocked by interference or disuse**. If the habit is firmly intrenched the process may be long and difficult but gradually we shall find that, \"the old order changeth giving place to new\". Much time and energy will however be conserved if v,'e guard against the formation of unprofitable habits for it is evident that it is much easier to avoid say the first dose of some narcotic than to break the habit of taking it once it has been established. Just as importfant as avoiding the formation of immoral habits is the necessity of guarding against the incorrect formation of good habits. Bennett says, \"The waste caused through forming imperfect habits is like building an elaborate machine to make one article. If adjusted to tarn out a bad product it will be absolutely Bare never to turn out a good one. You cannot improve its production by speeding it up nor by working it longer hours. 1,(Introduction to Psychology p.222) 2.fPs \u00E2\u0080\u00A2choloev and Self Development,p.48) j^i''->^'' - i '. Yet ssanjf & c b i l l i s s eek ln r to i.aprovt iiis j}^.-nm^'atiilp s ijjjp.ly by v r i t i ng - more or h i r a b i l i t y to Btady eimply t;; 51 adoring \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 more .\" As t r a l y as p r a c t i s e tuuket p e r f e c t If the p r a e t i e e Iv p e r f e c t , p r a a t i s e la&kes Imjierfeat i f the prt iCtiso is of th&t s o r t . A t t e n t i v e and c o r r e c t i v e e f f o r t tov.sr\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 p o s s i b l e in soae oases but i t i s in o t h e r s . .'\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 aay for \u00E2\u0080\u00A2Xftwpla dovelop emotional h a b i t s too f a r . If \u00C2\u00AB\u00C2\u00AB a l l o v oer\u00C2\u00AB ta l f t enot lona to sur$e through us each r e p e t i t i o n e s t a b l i s h e s tli\u00C2\u00AB\u00C2\u00AB nore f i rmly u n t i l i t i s imposs ib le to oon t ro l thea* S i a i l a r l l y the h a b i t of optlKism i f developed to the e x t e n t \u00C2\u00ABh\u00C2\u00ABr\u00C2\u00AB ono oan see no e v i l , i s d e t r l i a e n t a l . A s t rong w i l l , u s ing the term in the n a r r o . e r sense as applying to a c t s Thich ceanot he i n a t t e a t i v e l y pe r -forwed, is a g rea t a id in the prevf^ntion and care of iamcsral b\u00C2\u00AB>blts. I t ac t c as the d r i v i n g power th&t coEpeis ta a c t i o n . I n t e A t Biay l ag and p l e a s u r e say wane bat Tfill poTcr proves the u n f a i l i n g i n c e n t i v e . \u00E2\u0080\u00A2'\u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00C2\u00AB deoidfc for example to c e i . b i i t b a h a b i t of exero i s . ln r regal&riy but. r r i thcut rill po-^er to force us t o ao t ioh f & i i a r e r i l l \" a i m a c t inevStcbiy r e t u i t un-l e s s the o x t r i n s i o i a p u l t e s are stront^ eco^ ih to Qveraome t . e i t t h i b i t o r y i a p a l s e s . Our duty t h e r e f o r e i s to s a r s b a i l the powers of the v:ill to the sappor t of th*- vorihy acti ;>n. In \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 peaking of i ? l l l *\u00C2\u00AB \u00C2\u00AB\u00C2\u00BB\u00C2\u00BB? have gi^eii the popular iffipr\u00C2\u00AB\u00C2\u00BB\u00C2\u00ABi^o t h a t I t i t a s e p a r a t e f a c u l t y . Such i c f e r e a c e is d i f f i s a l t &t -40-to avoid but modern psycholo^ists agree that the will properly speaking is simply a convenient appellation for the whole range of mental life as vie7.-ed from the standooint of control. Angell says, \"The vrhole mind active this is the will.\" A v-ell developed -.vill consists in the ability voluntarily to direct oiie's attention effectively and for unlimited periods in definite directions. All thoughtful activity facilitates the development of a strong v/ill. Eeas-on has & very important part to play bat it is only one f&ctor and may not htve the determinins influence for vol-untary action involves all mental activity. As James says, \"Voluntary action is at all times a resultant of the com-poinding of oar impulses and inhibitions. The choice made will be determined by the education, ideals, and habits instilled in the individual in the past and v.ill be in accordance with previous action. A weak v.illfdpe rson deviates from the path, laid out for him by his ideals, to gratify present s at i r, f ac t ion. A strong v.illed person keeps his ideal ever before him and fixes his attention on the matter in hand as a step to'.vard the attainment of that ideal. An individual v,ho simply follo.vs the stronger impulse acts without volition at all. A strong v.ill then, aids in the formation of habits which v.hen established will function \u00C2\u00BB without its intervention. Habits disburden the v.-ill and thus give to it the chance to adapt itself to higher parposei;. 1.(Psychology p.4S5) 2.(Talks to Teachers p.176) -41-7/ill is itself lar^-ely a matter of habit. For even if a child is born v.ith the possibilities of developing strong will pov.'er and his parents encourage him rather in indulging his every desire and never encourage the habit of resistance in him the time Vv'ill come '.vhen resistcxace will be impossible. Children may however be guided to form habits of decision, firmness, etc. which \u00E2\u0080\u00A2will all aid in the form-ation of a strong volitional power. Maher says \"Each solicitation conquered, each impulse to immediate gratification resisted by building up habits of self control goes to form a strong -^ ill and the stronger a- man's will gro-.vs the greater the facility with which he can repress transitory impulses and the more firmly can he adhere to a course once selected in spite of obstacles This is only the law of habit which provides for the regist-ration of every action and in such a way as to make similar action easier in the future. It is useless to say, \"I will not this time but I know I could if 1 really exerted my will. Such a response becomes ingrained as a habit and will power is weakened. But if we create the habit of the domin^Ece of the will it becomes capable of de tenniji ing the issue of every conflict so certainly and easily that conflicts can\" hardly arise. McDougall says. \"The motive to do the right becomes a fixed and consolidated habit.\" 1. (Social Psyoholo;y p.262) -4 2-And so v:e see habi t ' re aching out over the vhole field of conciuct. The type of actions v.e generally choose iB fixed by habit, and ,^-111 power v.-hich puts our choice int|) action is generated in the power house of habit. Our future is therefore determined by the habits not only of action but also of volition which v;e are creating in the present. 7;e become enslaved to our past, but unconscious-ly for our slavery only consists in doing exactly -.vhat s seems good or what v,e desire most to do. This is in essenc^ the theory of determinism but it is a determi-nism that is directed. It's proper direction depends on the habits of reason and reflection we hcve developed and -ivhich act as guide posts to the will. \"'\"e have here the ancient's ideal of a free man as one in -;hom reflection and reason are established as habits, and v.ho therefore is set free from the promptings of appetite and sense. We cannot overestimate the .vorth of tood h.. bits. It has been said that perhaps the most valuable habit to form is the habit of forming good habits. Gare as to what habits we allor our nerve cells to act^re is of vast importance. The habit of reflection should be our ^aide ^ and it should be follor.ed by habits of decision and \u00E2\u0080\u00A2olitioji To establish physical habits, action m:.st follov.^for-\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ho by talcing thought alone can add one cubit to his stature?\" A man mast really be rhat he purposes to be'. T;e may con--43-cludewith Tfarren, \"Habits are useful and indispens ible in so far as they fit us for coping with the conditions of life and in that they form the basis of more compled acquisitions They are detrimental and undesirable when they become so firmly fixed as to prevent us adapting our behaviour to new conditions. -44-CHAPTEE V. Some Values of Habit Formation We shall now attempt some valuation of habit formation, considering the advantages and the disadvantages to be derived; and establishing its importance as a conduct-control* 7'e have noted that the essential characteristics of well formed habits are, diffusion of attention, reduction of consciousness, and greater ease and efficiency of reaction. Such characteristics pertain both to good and bad habits and are of such importance in the case of the former that althoug^ mention has been made of them before we shall elaborate on them here. Our mental energies would be soon outworn if \se had to give our undivided attention to each act we perform. But fortunately this is not necessary. In learning to play the piano for instance, at first attention has to be given to each separate impulse, each icey, rest, accent etc. Later it can be withdrawn from the details and given to larger relationships. Then after considerable practise the system of pathways becomes so interconnected and perfected that as the eye runs over the piece, the incoming stimuli of themselve^ pass directly to the appropriate responses. Attention may -45-therefore be T.-ithdravrn and turned to other matters \"'ithout interrupting the process. One is conscious of v;hat is going on but more as an onlooicer than as a director. Hot only is it possible for a habit to function without attention but consciousness itself may be reduced or even eliminated in som*^ cases. Often \u00E2\u0084\u00A2e find that vre have done certain things without having been conscious of our actions. The routine habits of daily life and all chain movements such as walicing are carried on p\u00C2\u00A3-rtly or 7.'holly in this automatic vray. Some claim that it is only as they sink into the subconscious that habits really become effec-tive and we see this to be true in vrhat Bagley calls idea-motor habits. He says, \"If one is to speak or write effec-tively the form must be largely outside the focus of consc-iousness\". The little conventionalities of etiquet'^e \u00E2\u0080\u0094 those habitual adjustments that make the person of good breeding must be so fixed by aonstant and in the beginning conscious repetition that they will go off v;ithout mental effort that they will become second nature.\" The lower centres thus take over the control of a great number of such movements and letve the higher cortical centres free for mental activity and for attaining and perfecting ne\r react, ions. It has been noticed that .^vhen a process becomes so thoroughly automised in this way, bringing the adjustments 1. (The Educative process, p.119) -46-baclc into consciousness may interfere with its efficiency? Thus speaking or v^alking become almost impossible if v.'e attend to the individual actions involved. The subconscious centres v;ov;l \u00E2\u0080\u00A2 ;\ut be able to. \u00E2\u0080\u00A2not carry on this work if efficiency di. .^ |. .^urease v/ith the on-coming of habit for some movements when first performed are so difficult that they can only be accomplished with the maximum of attention. But after a certain amount of repetition even these begin to take shape and are performed with greater ease and efficiency. V/hen firmly established they, go off with the ease and alacrity of reflexes. Vague purposeless movements give place to definite movements performed for definite purposes, sensations become more explicit, perceptions become clearer, memory becomes more accurate and reasoninE becomes more correct and lo-ical. Accordingly an inestimable amount of time and energy is saved as illustrated in the time v.'orn example of the cat . secured in the latched box. By comparing its first attempts to get out with its learned response, -ve obtain some idea of the advantage gained. It v.-ould be impossible for us to make much advance if such progress did not take place for all our po^ .ers and time v.ould be taken up in performing these trivial movements .^hich are at least just as succesS-fully carried on unconsciously. As efficiency increases and the mind is left free -47-to attack other problems the field is opened for further bavit formation. The nature of the nev; habits ?,'ill depend to some extent on that of the old, for habits attract the formation of similar habits. Peters says, \"Ones whole oharac-stands watch and demands the credentials of his separate habits as they present themselves and admits to favor only those in harmony v.'ith that system until his life has come to be built up around that ideal which he has chosen for himsel\u00C2\u00A9 We are enabled to build on what v;e have. Just as a constructc mast lay his foundation before he can erect .his building so must lay our foundation habits before we can erect an ad-equate structure of habitual reactions. So h&bits of thought and decision must precede habits of judgment. The broader the foundation we lay the greater possibility -ve have of acq.uir-ing more habits.' \"To him that hath shall be given\" we'find psychologically true. A child v.^ ith a good collection of useful habits has the equipment for further development. \",7e find accordingly that in time the brain attains a certain \"set\" which causes the individual to respond to ne^:v influence* in an habitually predetermined manner.. '.Ve can predict Tvith no small certainty the response that one '^hom we know,well will make to certain stimuli. If the set is broad in its application determining a person to act refleS^ tively, to welcome new achievemnets to show sympathy to others etc it will prove of great value as a progressive factor. 1^^ (Human Oonduct p.265) -48-3ut if the set formed is conservative tending to narrov; the individual's interest and sympathy to a limited sphere it will prove a drawback from the point of view of progress. Many holding strictly to the conservative point of view fail to recognize the distinction in the kind of habits to be attained and designate them all as restrictive. Sully says, \"Habit is the element of persistence, of custom, the Qonservatioe tendency, and that since growth implies flexib-ility, modiflability, susceptibility to new impression, habit is in a manner opposed to growth.\" This is the popular view of habit. Mankind is pictured as being driven along in fixed paths which have become worn into such deep ruts that deviation from them is practically impossible. Not only physically but also mentally are we bound by these restrictions. Dewey says, \u00E2\u0080\u00A2\u00E2\u0080\u00A2Habits restrict the reach and fix the boundaries of thought. They are the blinders that confine the eyes of the mind to the road ahead.\" If we do not eonstantly struggle to keep ourselves fresh and open minded -e all fall before we know it into certain fixed and one sided ways of looking at life's problems. Peters says, \"Eabit will crystallize our mental conduct in some definite shape so that we can apperceive in-only one dominrTit. way\". There must be an everlasting struggle in every mind between the tendency to keep unchanged and the tendency to renovate its ideas. Most of us grow more and more 1.(Psychology, Vol. ii. p. ^i) 2.(Human Hature and Conduct, p. 172) 3. (Human Eat-ire and Conduct, p. 25 ) -49-enslaved to the stock conceptioris v;ith v.hich we hcve once be-00326 familiar and less and less capable of assimilating im--pression in any but the old r.ays. A great many individuals have rater tirht compartments filled v.ith old reaction eysteras which resist the storm and stress of adult life. The mind thus may take a conservative set which if not interfered rith tends to dominate all thought and action. Early religious and social training especially is modified v-'ith difficulty or not at all. '.Vays of belief, of ei^peotat ion, of judgment and attitude, emotional dispositions of like and dislike are not easily modified after they have once taken shape. And this is all due to the p07,'er of habit. Judd cites an inst-ance Of a man who had voted for one party all his life. On one occasion a i;riend of his in the opposing party was nom-inated for some petty local 'office. The old hardshell v.^ orked faithfally for his friend until election day and then the habit of a lifetime pro-^ ed too much for him and he v;ent to the polls and voted against his friend. Under such conditions purposive action is im-possible. But v.'e have seen that there are certain habits which- ^ ve may form v/hioh tend to keep us out ot these ruts such as habits of reflection, of open- miindidness and all those v^e classified as good habits. Sully says, \"Although' deliberation is a slo'.ving and complication of action a sustitution of a reflective for an impalsive and quasi-mech-1. (Genetic Psychology for Teachers, p.66) 2. {The Human Mind, Vol. II p. 260) -50-anical process, it comes under the modifj-ing influenoe of practise or habit.\". counterpoise to the habitual actions ten Such habits Trill form an important hardening and f oss il i zat ion v.-hich certain d to bring about in the nervous system. In reflective thought we subject our accustomed ways to de-liberate analysis ho have become, and del of the more desirabl come to be regarded v.ever immediately persuasive these may iberately insitute mew habits in the light e consequences they will bring. Habits not as final or as good in themselves but as means of accomplishing good. And habits of thought can only accomplish good restriction. Gordy know and feels that error they cannot be minds to all further if they are unhampered and free from says, \"An open-minded reasoner is one who when men have done their utmost to avoid so sure they are right as to shut their consideration.\" The -formation of such an attitude into a habit 'rould free us from slavery to stock conception and from inevitable terminus drifting into \"\u00E2\u0080\u00A2hat some consider the to -.vhioh life sv.'eeps us on \u00E2\u0080\u0094 old fogyisqi. some indeed do fall heir to such a fate and so illustrate the ine:.orable force of habit. Those v;ho escape l%;ever are not less they have created ai such a nature as to ation. Habits of c we have mentioned 1\u00C2\u00AB just as gripping in !\u00E2\u0080\u00A2 (New controlled by habit, but the habits which Id which govern their reactions, are of encourage progress rather than fociliz-\u00C2\u00BB ' lear thinking, keen judgment and such as 3ad us to investigate new paths and become their way as those habits which tend to Psychology, p. 185) -51-conf ine us to a much narro-ver field. These in fact are the only agencies by -vvhich progress can be effected, \"'hat Scientist employed in research could make any contribution to the v.orld if his life v.'ere not based on habits of industry, accuracy, observation etc. Un-directed thought is useless and without poi/;er to accomplish anything. There mast be a certain discrimination. Yery few can be really successful in more than one field and so blinders are necessary to confine the thought and attention to that field, and to shut out those things that might interfere, mthout this regulation we have an unbalanced state of mind tending to confusion. Dewey says, \"Outside the scope of habit, thoueht works gropingly fumbling in confused uncertainty.\" It lacks means of execution and tends to become theoretical and often impossible' of application and so is of little value. adequately Physically development takes place most^through well regulated habits of diet, exercise, and rest. Unless we habitually folio.; out these regulations gro-.th will be hindere; or checked. Ethically our progress consists in the acquisition of moral habits and the worth of such training may also be measured in the disciplinary exercise of the will. Gontroll-iag a bad temper, exercising self denial, order, effort etc accustom a youth to act according to a fixed rule or plan instead of vacillating and changing with the impulse of the . n^oment. \"'e cannot have such habits too deeply ingrained for 1. (Human Haiuye and Conduct, p. 172) - 5 E -upon them deoeods the h a p p i n e s s and '.vorth of t he i n d i v i d u a l and EC of t he s t a t e . 'warray s a y s , \" In f a c t a l l hope of i n t e l l e c t u a l and moral improve me nt r e s t s or4 the power of r e f o r m i n g h a b i t s . \" 1 Maher c o n c l u d e s , \"The t o t a l c o l l e c t i o n of man ' s aoo^aired moral h t - b i t s g r a f t e d i n t o h i s n a t u r a l temperament make up h i s c h a r a c t e r . I t i s a c o m b i n a t i o n of n a t u r e , h i s i n h e r i t e d c h a r c c t e r , and n u r t u r e , h i s e x p e r i e n c e s . \" But by f a r t h e g r e a t e r power i n c o n t r o l l i n g c o n d a c t i s to be found in t he h a b i t s of r e a c t i o n t h a t he has s e t u p . ..e have s e e n i n f a c t t h a t t h e s e embrace the i n h e r i t e d f a c t o r s mod i fy ing some of t h e r e f l e x e s and i n s t i n c t i v e t e n d e : i c i e s i n t o h a b i t s and c r u E h i n c out o t h e r s . I n n a t e pov.er no i r .a t ter how s t r o n g i s h e l p l e s s u n l e s s d i r e c t e d by h a b i t . On t h e o t h e r band weakness laay be c o n v e r t e d i n t o f t r e n t t h by the f o r m a t i o n of the r i r h t k ind of ^ a b i t s . G . . r l y l e s a y s , \"Trie weakest l i v i n g c r e a t u r e by c o n c e n t r u t i n e h i s powers On a zia^ie o b j e c t can a c c o m p l i s h s o m e t h i n e whereas the s t r o n g e s t by d i a p e r s i n e h i s over many may f a i l to a c c o m p l i s h a n y t h i n r . The d rop by c o n t i n u a l l y f a l l i n g b o r e s i t s p a s s a g e Ibroufch the h a r d e s t roc-K.\" Ben j .min Kidd s a y s , \"The o u t l o o k of a n , p e o p l e may be changed i n one, gene r a t ion by working , , i t h the y o u n g . \" We may conc lude t h e n t h a t t h e r e i s no f a c t o r Ox t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p h y s i c a l o r men ta l make up but which comes unde r t h e law of h a b i t . Our v e r y i m p a l s c s . e m o t i o n s , d e s i r e s . 1 . {Handbook of P s y a h o l o g y . p . H ) 2 . [ P s y c h o l Jgy , p . 3 9 1 ) 3 . \ The S c i e n c e of Power) -53-tLou^hts, and even our vill pover are subject to the saise dominating principle. Ivo response but has some part in deter-ining our future, no smallest stroke of virtue or vice but maices its lasting impression on our nervous system and so helps to deterraiue the heaven or hell T e :r.a>e icr ourslves in this 7:orld. Once nore r:e refer to James rho says, \"All our life so far as it has definite form is but a mass of habits practical, emotional and intellectual \u00E2\u0080\u0094 systematic-ally organized for our rreal or tsoe and hearing us irrestible toward our destiny T.hatever the latter may be.\" 1. (Tal&s to Teachers, p.65i -54-,Bibliography Angell, J. B \u00C2\u00AB,Psychology. Henry Holt and Company, Kew York, 1906 Bagley, \":'. C , The EducatiT\u00C2\u00AB. Process. The Macmillan Co., Sew York, 1922. Bain, Alexander, The Emotions and the \"ill. Longmans, Green, and Co., London, 1875. 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