"Education, Faculty of"@en . "Curriculum and Pedagogy (EDCP), Department of"@en . "DSpace"@en . "UBCV"@en . "Wilson, Susan Worth"@en . "2010-06-10T02:13:49Z"@en . "1985"@en . "Master of Arts - MA"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "This thesis investigates changes in the underlying pattern of beliefs and actions central to the development of home economics education. Examination of the historical context in which training in domestic matters became of public concern discloses the circumstances which fostered the genesis of domestic science, the forerunner of contemporary home economics in Canada. Subsequently, analysing the curriculum of British Columbia schools using the notion of practice illustrates the ways in which programs changed as home economics became accepted as a school subject.\r\nAt the end of the nineteenth century social reformers perceived the introduction of domestic science as a means of ameliorating many social maladies. Therefore support for training in domestic matters primarily arose from organizations lying outside the school system. Though social and educational reformers viewed the purposes of domestic science differently, together they were successful in promoting domestic science as a responsibility of public schools.\r\nFour interpretations of practice identified as customary, instrumental, interactive and reflective conceptions, help us to understand the documents and reports significant to the growth of home economics in British Columbia. These conceptions are rooted in the writings of critical theorists in education and are used in this study to clarify the ways in which the home economics program changed over a period of seventy-five years.\r\nAs a new subject for British Columbia schools home economics was most closely associated with customary practice, which reinforces the traditional expertise of women. The strong framework of social purpose characteristic of early programs both insulated families from perceived urban-industrial disorder and helped them to adjust to the changes of the era. Analysis of the curriculum since 1926 reveals that home economics has become increasingly associated with an instrumental conception of practice. While the 1979 curriculum begins to acknowledge interactive practice in the family studies area, overall the contemporary course of studies is firmly entrenched in understanding human experience only in instrumental ways.\r\nThe study makes clear that throughout the evolution of home economics the beliefs and actions underlying school programs are characterized by customary and instrumental concerns at the expense of interactive and reflective practice. If educators are to contribute to the mission of the profession, that of strengthening families by helping them to help themselves, then there is need for a broader interpretation of practice in the school curriculum."@en . "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/25538?expand=metadata"@en . "CHANGING CONCEPTIONS OF PRACTICE IN HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION By SUSAN WORTH WILSON B.H.E., The University of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1963 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Centre for the Study of Curriculum and Instruction We. accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA June 1985 * Susan Worth Wilson, 1985 J In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make i t freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of C e n t r e f o r t h e S t u d y o f C u r r i c u l u m and I n s t r u c t i o n The University of British Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 Date J u ] y 1 8> 1 9 8 5 -DE-6 (3/81) i l Abstract This thesis investigates changes in the underlying pattern of beliefs and actions central to the development of home economics education. Examination of the hi s t o r i c a l context in which training in domestic matters became of public concern discloses the circumstances which fostered the genesis of domestic science, the forerunner of contemporary home economics in Canada. Subsequently, analysing the curriculum of B r i t i s h Columbia schools using the notion of practice illustrates the ways in which programs changed as home economics became accepted as a school subject. At the end of the nineteenth century social reformers perceived the introduction of domestic science as a means of ameliorating many social maladies. Therefore support for training in domestic matters primarily arose from organizations lying outside the school system. Though social and educational reformers viewed the purposes of domestic science differently, together they were successful i n promoting domestic science as a responsibility of public schools. Four interpretations of practice identified as customary, instrumental, interactive and reflective conceptions, help us to understand the documents and reports significant to the growth of home economics in i i i B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . T h e s e c o n c e p t i o n s a r e r o o t e d i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s i n e d u c a t i o n a n d a r e u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y t o c l a r i f y t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e home e c o n o m i c s p r o g r a m c h a n g e d o v e r a p e r i o d o f s e v e n t y - f i v e y e a r s . A s a new s u b j e c t f o r B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a s c h o o l s home e c o n o m i c s w a s m o s t c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c u s t o m a r y p r a c t i c e , w h i c h r e i n f o r c e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e x p e r t i s e o f women. T h e s t r o n g f r a m e w o r k o f s o c i a l p u r p o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e a r l y p r o g r a m s b o t h i n s u l a t e d f a m i l i e s f r o m p e r c e i v e d u r b a n - i n d u s t r i a l d i s o r d e r a n d h e l p e d t h e m t o a d j u s t t o t h e c h a n g e s o f t h e e r a . A n a l y s i s o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m s i n c e 1 9 2 6 r e v e a l s t h a t home e c o n o m i c s h a s b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n c e p t i o n o f p r a c t i c e . W h i l e t h e 1 9 7 9 c u r r i c u l u m b e g i n s t o a c k n o w l e d g e i n t e r a c t i v e p r a c t i c e i n t h e f a m i l y s t u d i e s a r e a , o v e r a l l t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c o u r s e o f s t u d i e s i s f i r m l y e n t r e n c h e d i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g rruman e x p e r i e n c e o n l y i n i n s t r u m e n t a l w a y s . T h e s t u d y makes c l e a r t h a t t h r o u g h o u t t h e e v o l u t i o n o f home e c o n o m i c s t h e b e l i e f s a n d a c t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g s c h o o l p r o g r a m s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y c u s t o m a r y a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n c e r n s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f i n t e r a c t i v e a n d r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e . I f e d u c a t o r s a r e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e m i s s i o n o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n , t h a t o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g f a m i l i e s b y h e l p i n g t h e m t o h e l p t h e m s e l v e s , t h e n t h e r e i s n e e d f o r a b r o a d e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p r a c t i c e i n t h e s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m . i v Table of Contents Abstract i i L i s t of Diagrams v Acknowledgements v i 1 THE STUDY EXPLAINED 1 2 TOUCHING THE LIVES OF WOMEN: THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 11 3 'IMPROVING THE PRESENT CONDITION': THE GROWTH OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 38 4 AN INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK FOR THE EXAMINATION OF PRACTICE 53 5 THE CURRICULUM OF HOME ECONOMICS: A DESCRIPTION OF CHANGE 74 6 CHANGING CONCEPTIONS OF PRACTICE IN HOME ECONOMICS 100 7 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS I l l BIBLIOGRAPHY 119 APPENDIX A: QUESTIONS USED FOR THE DESCRIPTIVE EXAMINATION OF THE INITIAL SCHOOL OJRRICULUM 128 V Diagram 1. A Theoretic Framework for the Examination of Practice p. 59 # v i Acknowledgements This thesis would never have been written without the help of a number of people, each important i n d i f f e r e n t ways. Dr. George Tomkins, the l a t e Chairman of my thesis committee, has been a strong influence throughout ray graduate program. An outstanding scholar and a thorough teacher, George generously shared h i s knowledge and time i n spite oE i l l health. I n i t i a l l y , h i s guidance encouraged me to examine the roots of home economics as a f i e l d of study. Dr. N e i l Sutherland continually sharpened my thinking by asking challenging questions throughout the w r i t i n g and f i n a l d e t a i l s of the thesis. I am now keenly aware of how much there i s yet to uncover i n terms of h i s t o r i c a l research related to the development of home economics. Dr. Eleanore Vaines Chamberlain w i l l i n g l y shared her fine resources related to home economics, and has been a great source of encouragement. I am indebted to her for the many hours of stimulating discussion as the thesis developed. F i n a l l y , I doubt my program would have been completed without the understanding and patience of my husband, Don. I am p a r t i c u l a r l y grateEul for his strong support during the l a s t few months of work. -1-Chapter One THE STUDY EXPLAINED. Introduceion Two related concerns provided the stimulus for examining the nature of home economics within the context of schooling. The f i r s t was a personal belief that home economics as taught in today's schools has a potential that is frequently u n f u l f i l l e d . Recent public debate regarding what should be taught in schools has strengthened this conviction. The second concern stems from the lack of research pertaining to the development of the f i e l d of home economics. Although there i s extensive documentation of research related to procedures for practical training i n various specialties within the f i e l d , there i s limited discussion of the reasons underlying the practices advocated by the profession. Home economics education i n Canada emerged in response to the changing circumstances of family l i f e near the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries. Investigation of the relationship between h i s t o r i c a l documents and curricular materials provides insights into beliefs about the role of women in society, the - 2 -a s s u m p t i o n s w h i c h l e d t o new s e r v i c e s f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e l i v e s o f f a m i l i e s , a n d t h e w a y s i n w h i c h c o n c e r n f o r E a m i l i e s b e c a m e a m a t t e r o f p u b l i c i n t e r e s t . I n t h e c a s e o f home e c o n o m i c s , a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s r e v e a l s t h e i n f l u e n c e s b r o u g h t t o b e a r o n s c h o o l s t o a s s u m e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t r a i n i n g y o u n g women i n d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s . Home e c o n o m i c s i s o n e o f a n u m b e r o f f i e l d s o f s t u d y w h i c h h a v e f o c u s s e d o n t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e human c o n d i t i o n . C o l l e c t i v e l y s u c h f i e l d s a s s o c i a l s e r v i c e , p u b l i c h e a l t h a n d e d u c a t i o n h a v e b e c o m e k n o w n a s t h e ' h e l p i n g p r o f e s s i o n s ' . K i e r e n , V a i n e s a n d B a d i r ( 1 9 8 4 ) e x p l a i n t h a t t h e h e l p i n g p r o f e s s i o n s s h a r e t h e i d e a l o f human s e r v i c e , t h o u g h t h e k i n d s o f s e r v i c e s t h e y o f f e r d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y . C o m b s , A v i l a a n d P u r k e y ( 1 9 7 2 ) s u g g e s t t h a t , h i s t o r i c a l l y , t h e s e r v i c e s p r o v i d e d b y t h e s e p r o f e s s i o n s w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s , w h i c h f r e q u e n t l y i n v o l v e d w i d e a n d c o m p l e x a r e a s o f s o c i a l a n d m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e t h e s i s o f t h i s s t u d y i s t h a t t h e p u r p o s e s f o r t e a c h i n g d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c h a n g e d a s home e c o n o m i c s e d u c a t i o n e v o l v e d a s a f o r m o f s c h o o l i n g . R e v i s i o n s i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m r e f l e c t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f b e l i e f s a n d a c t i o n s w h i c h f o r m e d t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f s c h o o l p r o g r a m s . T h e s e c h a n g e s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a l t e r e d t h e n a t u r e o f home e c o n o m i c s e d u c a t i o n a n d t h e p u r p o s e s f o r w h i c h i t was i n t e n d e d . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h e m o s t w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d a v e n u e o f i n f l u e n c e o f home e c o n o m i c s h a s b e e n t h e m e d i u m o f e d u c a t i o n . W h i l e i n i t i a l l y e d u c a t i o n -3-i n domestic a f f a i r s sometimes took place through, the auspices of various service organizations, i t has primarily occurred through the tra i n i n g of young women i n the public schools. An examination of subject content and the methods of teaching used i n classrooms reveals the way knowledge influenced students and illuminates the purposes school programs served. Exploring the early school curriculum therefore t e l l s a great deal about the b e l i e f s which stimulated the introduction of home economics as wel l as the underlying structure of the programs offered i n schools today. Purpose of the Study. A b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l examination at both the national and p r o v i n c i a l levels sets the context from which home economics education evolved. While focussing on B r i t i s h Columbia, the study examines the b e l i e f s and ideas which formed the i n i t i a l conception of practice associated with home economics education. Subsequently, changes i n the o r i g i n a l conception of practice are examined through the growth of home economics education during l a t e r time periods within the province. The study w i l l answer these questions: 1. From what assumptions did the i n i t i a l conception of practice i n home economics education arise? 2. How have the conceptions of practice been portrayed i n the school curriculum? 3. In what ways have the conceptions of practice changed over time as shown i n the school curriculum? A framework i l l u s t r a t i n g four conceptions of practice i s used to convey the ways i n which home economics programs changed over time. The term 'conception of practice' refers to such e x p l i c i t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a school program as subject matter, learning a c t i v i t i e s ,teaching methods and the b e l i e f s which underly a p a r t i c u l a r way of constructing a curriculum. Using conceptions of practice to portray changes i n home economics education i s appropriate for three reasons. F i r s t , home economics provides service to society primarily through using knowledge i n p r a c t i c a l ways. Second, the p r a c t i c a l application of knowledge i s a dominant theme throughout the evolution of home economics as a profession. Therefore, changes i n the way problems are interpreted and resolved can be determined from the examination of relevant materials. -5-F i n a l l y , p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e f i e l d e x p l i c i t l y a c k n o w l e d g e t h e n e e d f o r a g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e b a s i s o n w h i c h t h e p r o f e s s i o n h a s d e v e l o p e d ( Q u i l l i n g , 1 9 7 0 ; B r o w n a n d P a o l u c c i , 1 9 7 9 ; V i n c e n t ! , 1 9 8 1 ) . M e t h o d o f t h e S t u d y . 1 . A H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e p a s t t o e n r i c h t h e p r e s e n t w a s e x p r e s s e d i n 1 9 0 2 b y A l i c e C h o w n , F i e l d S e c r e t a r y o f t h e H o u s e h o l d E c o n o m i c A s s o c i a t i o n i n K i n g s t o n , O n t a r i o . T h e r e i s e b b a n d f l o w o f t h e g r e a t t i d e o f human l i f e , a c t i o n a n d r e a c t i o n t h a t e m p h a s i z e s f i r s t o n e p h a s e a n d a n o t h e r , b u t t h e r e i s u n i t y o f s p i r i t w h i c h b i n d s p a s t , p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e i n t o o n e . E v e r y c r i s i s i n h i s t o r y h a s come f r o m t h e e f f o r t o f a p e o p l e t o embody some h i g h e r c o n c e p t i o n , e v e r y g r e a t movement o f t h o u g h t l i a s h a d f o r i t s i n i t i a t i v e new r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f h u m a n i t y . ( 1 9 0 2 , p . 3 1 ) C h o w n ' s s t a t e m e n t a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f a f i e l d o f s t u d y i n d e t e r m i n i n g i t s f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n s . I t i s o f i n t e r e s t t h a t s u c h comments w e r e made b e f o r e d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e h a d b e e n i n t r o d u c e d t o m o s t C a n a d i a n s c h o o l s . H o w e v e r , C h o w n * s c o n c e r n f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s l i a s b e e n n e g l e c t e d b y s u c c e e d i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s , f o r h i s t o r i c a l w o r k r e l a t e d t o home e c o n o m i c s i n C a n a d a l i a s b e e n c o n f i n e d t o t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l - 6 -e x a m i n a t i o n o f e v e n t s s i g n i f i c a n t t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e f i e l d . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e g r o w t h o f i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n f o r t r a i n i n g i n d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e h a s b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d b y R o w l e s ( 1 9 5 6 , 1 9 6 4 ) . T h e r e i s a l s o r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e a s a s c h o o l s u b j e c t w i t h i n t h e v a r i o u s p r o v i n c e s , s u c h a s a t h e s i s b y C h e s t n u t t ( 1 9 7 5 ) r e l a t e d t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , a n d u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r s b y C a m p b e l l ( 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 7 ) a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f home e c o n o m i c s e d u c a t i o n i n O n t a r i o . W h i l e t h e s e s t u d i e s p r o v i d e a u s e f u l a c c o u n t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n , t h e y p r o v i d e l i t t l e i n s i g h t a s t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g i t s g r o w t h . T h i s s t u d y u s e s h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f home e c o n o m i c s t o p r o v i d e t h e b a c k g r o u n d f o r t h e s u b s e q u e n t e x a m i n a t i o n o f e a r l y s c h o o l c u r r i c u l a . T h u s t h e e x a m i n a t i o n b u i l d s o n p r i o r w o r k t o p r o v i d e a c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h t h e c u r r i c u l u m o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d . 2 . T h e S e l e c t i o n o f C u r r i c u l a r I t o a j m e n t s . C u r r i c u l a r m a t e r i a l s r e l e v a n t t o t h e s t u d y a r e p r i m a r i l y t h o s e f r o m B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . T h e y r e p r e s e n t t h r e e p e r i o d s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e g r o w t h o f home e c o n o m i c s e d u c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e p r o v i n c e . T h e p e r i o d f r o m 1 9 0 0 t o 1 9 2 5 c o v e r s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f home e c o n o m i c s t o c l a s s r o o m s t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o v i n c e , f r o m t h e f i r s t c l a s s e s h e l d i n - 7 -V i c t o r i a u n t i l t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e P u t m a n - W e i r S u r v e y o f t h e S c h o o l S y s t e m i n 1 9 2 5 . Few c u r r i c u l a r d o c u m e n t s s u r v i v e f r o m t h e e a r l i e s t y e a r s , b u t t h o s e t h a t d o s u g g e s t t h e n a t u r e o f e a r l y s c h o o l p r o g r a m s . T h e t e x t , P u b l i c S c h o o l D o m e s t i c S c i e n c e ( 1 8 9 8 ) i s a l s o i n c l u d e d a s a p a r t o f t h e i n i t i a l p h a s e o f c u r r i c u l a r a n a l y s i s . I t s i n c l u s i o n r e c o g n i z e s t h e i m p a c t o f t h e i d e a s o f A d e l a i d e H o o d l e s s i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e i n C a n a d a , a n d h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e t r a i n i n g o f e a r l y t e a c h e r s o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e , some o f whom w e r e e m p l o y e d i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a d u r i n g i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n . T h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f t h e P u t m a n - W e i r S u r v e y c h a n g e d b o t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d d i r e c t i o n o f home e c o n o m i c s . T h u s , t h e c u r r i c u l u m a n d r e l a t e d d o c u m e n t s f o l l o w i n g 1 9 2 5 a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e s e c o n d p e r i o d o f a n a l y s i s . A s l i t t l e c u r r i c u l a r r e v i s i o n o c c u r r e d d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I , 1 9 4 6 i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d p h a s e . T h e f i n a l d o c u m e n t u s e d i n t h e s t u d y i s t h e 1 9 7 9 c u r r i c u l u m . T h i s c o m p r e h e n s i v e c u r r i c u l u m f o r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s o u t l i n e s i n d e t a i l e d f a s h i o n t h e o b j e c t i v e s a n d a c t i v i t i e s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e i m p o r t a n t i n t o d a y ' s home e c o n o m i c s c l a s s r o o m s . T h u s , t h e n a t u r e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y p r a c t i c e f o r m s t h e l a s t p h a s e o f t h e c u r r i c u l a r a n a l y s i s . - 8 -3 . A F r a m e w o r k o f P r a c t i c e f o r C u r r i c u l a r A n a l y s i s . T h e s t u d y e m p l o y s a f r a m e w o r k o f p r a c t i c e i n t e r p r e t e d b y W i l s o n a n d V a i n e s ( 1 9 8 5 ) t o a n a l y s e t h e c u r r i c u l u m o f home e c o n o m i c s . C o m p a r i n g t h e c u r r i c u l u m t o t h e c o n c e p t i o n s o f p r a c t i c e o u t l i n e d i n t h e f r a m e w o r k p o r t r a y s t h e c h a n g e s w h i c h o c c u r r e d a s home e c o n o m i c s g a i n e d a p l a c e i n t h e e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m . A s t h e b e l i e f s w h i c h i n i t i a t e d home e c o n o m i c s e d u c a t i o n a r e o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t , c u r r i c u l a r d o c u m e n t s f r o m t h e i n i t i a l p h a s e a r e e x a m i n e d i n t e r r a s o f q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e d t o t h r e e a s p e c t s o f c l a s s r o o m w o r k : t h e r a t i o n a l e u p o n w h i c h t h e c u r r i c u l u m i s b a s e d ; t h e a s s u m p t i o n s made a b o u t l e a r n i n g a n d a c t i v i t y ; a n d t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e c u r r i c u l u m r e f l e c t s t h e o v e r a l l m i s s i o n o f home e c o n o m i c s . T h e c u r r i c u l u m f r o m e a c h p e r i o d i s s u b s e q u e n t l y a n a l y s e d i n t e r m s o f t h e c o n c e p t i o n s o f p r a c t i c e o u t l i n e d i n t h e f r a m e w o r k . T h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e c u r r i c u l u m a n d t h e f o u r c o n c e p t i o n s o f p r a c t i c e p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c h a n g e s i n t h e n a t u r e o f home e c o n o m i c s e d u c a t i o n o v e r t i m e . C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m i s r e p o r t e d i n t e r m s o f t e n d e n c i e s t o w a r d p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e p t i o n s o f p r a c t i c e r a t h e r t h a n i n t e r m s o f a b s o l u t e s i m i l a r i t i e s . - 9 -4. Limitations of the Study. The following five factors limit this study: i . The materials are examined in terms of three time periods representing significant stages in the growth of B r i t i s h Columbia home economics education. The i n i t i a l stage represents the introduction of domestic science to the school system; the second period reflects home economics education as an integral part of the education system of the province; and the f i n a l stage exemplifies home economics as i t i s currently taught within the public school system. i i . Early curricular documents have not been systematically collected as h i s t o r i c a l records. However, the consistency shown by the documents located for this study suggests that they accurately represent the focus of the time periods being studied. i i i . The study assumes a hi s t o r i c a l perspective i n order to provide a context for understanding the selected curricular documents. Its purpose i s to il l u s t r a t e that differing conceptions of practice have formed a part of home economics education, and that they reflect changing beliefs and assumptions. - 1 0 -iv. School reports and curricular materials rather than classroom observation form the basis of the analysis of practice. It i s assumed that the selected documents accurately portray the beliefs and understandings of those involved in the construction of programs in home economics education. v. Historical examination suggests that the major thrust of education in domestic matters was through manual training programs established in public schools. The investigation of practice is therefore confined to this aspect. It does not consider the generation of technical training or industrial training which were related, but were established for different educational purposes. - 1 1 -Chapter Two TOUCHING THE LIVES OF WOMEN: THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE. This chapter explores the Canadian h i s t o r i c a l context i n which domestic education for women developed. I n i t i a l l y , the chapter emphasizes s o c i e t a l changes during the l a t e nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. P a r t i c u l a r attention i s directed toward the impact of such changes on women and families. The l a t t e r part of the chapter compares two s o c i a l perspectives that promoted the genesis of domestic science. The f i r s t came from women who v i s u a l i z e d the home both as a protective haven to insulate families from unwelcome change, and as a centre of opportunity from which t h e i r influence could spread. The second viewpoint was expressed by advocates of the manual t r a i n i n g movement designed to change the process of schooling. These reformers saw new forms of education as f i t t i n g school children to the new ways of l i f e . Training i n domestic a f f a i r s was i n i t i a l l y c a l l e d 'domestic science' -a l a b e l which stressed the relationship between s c i e n t i f i c understanding and domestic matters. As the f i e l d of study broadened, domestic science became known under a v a r i e t y of t i t l e s such as 'domestic economy' and 'household economy'which re f l e c t e d the concerns of i n d u s t r i a l management. Eventually i t was l a b e l l e d as home economics - 1 2 -t h o u g h , e v e n t o d a y t h e r e i s c o n t r o v e r s y a s t o t h e r e l e v a n c e o f t h i s l a b e l . T h e t e r m ' d o m e s t i c t r a i n i n g ' p r i m a r i l y r e l a t e s t o t h e t r a i n i n g o f h o u s e h o l d h e l p i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f d o m e s t i c c h o r e s . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y , t h e t e r m d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e r e f e r s t o t h o s e p r o g r a m s w h i c h w e r e o r i g i n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d f o r C a n a d i a n women; t h e t e r m home e c o n o m i c s d e s i g n a t e s l a t e r p r o g r a m s o f a n e x p a n d e d n a t u r e . A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s r e f e r e n c e t o some f o r m s o f d o m e s t i c t r a i n i n g i n C a n a d a a s e a r l y a s t h e F r e n c h r e g i m e , t h e s e r e p r e s e n t i s o l a t e d i n s t a n c e s o f p r a c t i c a l e d u c a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e J e s u i t s c h o o l s ( J o u r n a l o f Home E c o n o m i c s , 1 9 1 0 ) . F o r m o s t g i r l s o f m i d - 1 9 t h c e n t u r y f a m i l i e s , t r a i n i n g i n d o m e s t i c m a t t e r s t o o k p l a c e w i t h i n t h e home t h r o u g h a n i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k o f s h a r e d c r a f t s a n d s k i l l s e s s e n t i a l f o r f a m i l y s u r v i v a l a n d c o m f o r t . T h e e s s e n c e o f t h i s p e r i o d i n C a n a d i a n h i s t o r y i s c a p t u r e d b y S t a m p ' s comment t h a t \" . . . h o m e , c h u r c h a n d v i l l a g e w e r e t h e c e n t e r s o f l i f e f o r m o s t p e o p l e . \" ( 1 9 7 0 a . p . 2 9 1 ) . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C a n a d a ' s s y s t e m o f s c h o o l i n g d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d i s a t t r i b u t e d i n l a r g e p a r t t o t h e w o r k o f E g e r t o n R y e r s o n , S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f E d u c a t i o n f o r U p p e r C a n a d a f r o m 1 8 4 6 t o 1 8 7 6 . R y e r s o n ' s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a u n i v e r s a l s y s t e m o f s c h o o l i n g o p e n e d t h e s c h o o l r o o m d o o r n o t o n l y t o f a r m e r ' s s o n s , b u t a l s o t o ' f e m a l e s g e n e r a l l y ' . H i s b e l i e f t h a t t h e i n c l u s i o n o f p r a c t i c a l s u b j e c t s e n h a n c e d m o r a l g r o w t h - 1 3 -a s w e l l a s m e n t a l d i s c i p l i n e , l e d t o t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m f r o m o n e w h i c h t r a d i t i o n a l l y e m p h a s i z e d t h e t h r e e R ' s t o o n e w h i c h i n c l u d e d a g r i c u l t u r e , l i n e a r d r a w i n g a n d m u s i c . T h i s f o r e s h a d o w e d a c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s c h o o l i n g a n d d a i l y l i f e . R y e r s o n a l s o s t r e s s e d a n o n - s e c t a r i a n s y s t e m o f t r u t h a n d m o r a l s i n a n e f f o r t t o b r i d g e t h e s t r o n g d e n o m i n a t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s f o u n d i n many o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s o f U p p e r C a n a d a . A t t h e same t i m e t h e s t r o n g m o r a l f r a m e w o r k t r i e d t o e n s u r e t h a t a l l s c h o o l c h i l d r e n w e r e e x p o s e d t o t h e r i g h t k i n d s o f m o r a l i n f l u e n c e s . T h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e p o l i c i e s l e d t o some c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f a f o r m e r l y d i v e r s e s y s t e m o f s c h o o l s . T h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s a l s o p r o v i d e d a d e f i n i t e s t r u c t u r e f r o m w h i c h t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m c o u l d e x p a n d a n d d e v e l o p ( M c N e i l l , 1 9 7 4 ) . T h e s m a l l c o m p e n d i u m o f i n f o r m a t i o n t i t l e d F i r s t L e s s o n s i n A g r i c u l t u r e o f C a n a d i a n F a r m e r s a n d T h e i r F a m i l i e s , w r i t t e n b y R y e r s o n ( 1 8 7 0 ) i s t h e e a r l i e s t C a n a d i a n r e f e r e n c e t h a t h a s b e e n l o c a t e d f o r t h i s s t u d y . L e s s o n X X X V T I I o n H o u s e h o l d E c o n o m y , w r i t t e n f o r f a r m e r s ' w i v e s a n d d a u g h t e r s , i n d i c a t e s t h a t e d u c a t i o n f o r women w a s i m p o r t a n t f o r i t s e n h a n c e m e n t o f t h e q u a l i t y o f f a m i l y l i f e . B y f a r t h e g r e a t e s t a m o u n t o f h a p p i n e s s i n c i v i l i z e d l i f e i s f o u n d i n d o m e s t i c r e l a t i o n s ; a n d m o s t o f t h i s d e p e n d s u p o n t h e d o m e s t i c c u l t u r e a n d t h e h a b i t s o f t h e w i f e a n d m o t h e r . L e t h e r b e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y e d u c a t e d a s h i g h l y a s p o s s i b l e ; l e t h e r m o r a l a n d s o c i a l n a t u r e r e c e i v e t h e h i g h e s t g r a c e s o f v i g o r a n d r e f i n e m e n t ; b u t a l o n g w i t h t h e s e , l e t t h e d o m e s t i c v i r t u e s f i n d a m p l e p l a c e . ( R y e r s o n , 1 8 7 0 , p . 1 7 3 ) . - 1 4 -T h e r e m a i n d e r o f L e s s o n X X X V T I I s t r e s s e s t h e n e c e s s i t y o f c o r r e c t l y m a n a g i n g a h o m e ; t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n g o o d h e a l t h a n d v i r t u o u s l i v i n g ; a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f d o m e s t i c p i e t y i n u p l i f t i n g t h e s p i r i t o f t h e f a m i l y , n o t o n l y f o r p r e s e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s b u t a l s o t o e n s u r e s a l v a t i o n . P a r v i n ( 1 9 6 5 ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t R y e r s o n ' s b o o k w a s a n a u t h o r i z e d t e x t f o r O n t a r i o f r o m 1 8 7 0 - 1 8 7 7 . I n c l a s s e s w h e r e a f e m a l e t e a c h e r w a s a v a i l a b l e , i t w a s r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t i t b e s u b s t i t u t e d f o r E u c l i d , f o r g i r l s i n t h e f i f t h a n d s i x t h c l a s s e s ( C a m p b e l l , 1 9 7 7 ) . H o w e v e r , n o w h e r e i s t h e s u g g e s t i o n made t h a t t h e p r a c t i c a l e x e r c i s e s s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e c l a s s r o o m . T h o u g h R y e r s o n ' s e d u c a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s may h a v e p r e p a r e d t h e g r o u n d f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e a s a s c h o o l s u b j e c t , i t t o o k t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l a g e t o b r i n g s u c h i d e a s t o f r u i t i o n . A n E r a o f C h a n g e B y t h e 1 8 7 0 ' s p r o f o u n d e c o n o m i c , t e c h n o l o g i c a l a n d d e m o g r a p h i c c h a n g e s w e r e o c c u r r i n g i n C a n a d i a n l i f e . T h e s e t o u c h e d a n d s h a p e d t h e l i v e s o f C a n a d i a n women j u s t a s s u r e l y a s t h e y t r a n s f o r m e d t h e C a n a d i a n l a n d s c a p e . W h i l e t h e e v e n t s a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e e x a m i n e d i n i s o l a t i o n i n t h i s s t u d y , i t s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t i n r e a l i t y t h e r e s u l t i n g p r e s s u r e s w e r e o v e r l a p p i n g - e a c h c o m p o u n d i n g o r c o u n t e r a c t i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e o t h e r . - 1 5 -' H i g h B u i l t F a c t o r i e s a n d T i t a n i c M i l l s ' . T h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y w a s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a p e r i o d o f s t r o n g i n d u s t r i a l g r o w t h a n d e c o n o m i c p r o s p e r i t y . C a n a d a ' s a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e b a s e e x p a n d e d f r o m f u r t r a d i n g a n d t h e g r o w i n g o f g r a i n , t o o n e w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f f r u i t a n d v e g e t a b l e s , r a i s i n g s t o c k a n d f e e d , a n d d a i r y i n g . I n a d d i t i o n , r o i n e r a l a n d f o r e s t r e s o u r c e s b e c a m e r e c o g n i z e d a s i m p o r t a n t a n d a b u n d a n t a s s e t s . S e t t l e m e n t o f t h e W e s t i n c r e a s e d t h e demand f o r g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s , w h i l e t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e r a i l w a y g a v e W e s t e r n s e t t l e r s a c c e s s t o g o o d s m a n u f a c t u r e d i n E a s t e r n m a r k e t s . T h e i n f l u x o f i m m i g r a n t s t h r o u g h o u t C a n a d a f o s t e r e d e c o n o m i c g r o w t h b y s u p p l y i n g c h e a p l a b o u r f o r f a r m s a n d f a c t o r i e s . R e c i p r o c a l l y , a l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e d t h e e c o n o m y t o p r o d u c e m o r e g o o d s , a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g s u r g e d a s a s t r o n g c o m p o n e n t o f C a n a d i a n l i f e . E v e n t h o u g h i n d u s t r i a l g r o w t h m e a n t i n c r e a s e d p r o s p e r i t y f o r many f a m i l i e s i t b r o u g h t a b o u t some c h a n g e s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f a m i l y u n i t w h i c h c a u s e d c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n c e r n among w o m e n . F a m i l i e s o f t h e l a t e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y s a w t h e ' w o r l d o f w o r k ' b e c o m e s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e w o r k w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y u n i t . P a i d w o r k m e a n t t h a t f a m i l i e s b e c a m e c o n s u m e r s r a t h e r t h a n p r o d u c e r s . I t a l s o m e a n t t h a t home r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y a s s u m e d b y women. H o w e v e r , t a s k s r e l a t e d t o t h e f a m i l y d i d n o t h a v e c a s h v a l u e a n d t h e r e f o r e w e r e f r e q u e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e - 1 6 -a l e s s e r f o r m o f l a b o r . V i n c e n t ! ( 1 9 8 3 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n r o l e b o t h i d e a l i z e d a n d d e n i g r a t e d w o m e n ' s w o r k , f o r a t t h e same t i m e t h a t t h e d o m e s t i c i d e a l w a s b e i n g p o r t r a y e d a s a w o r t h y p u r s u i t , w o r k w i t h i n t h e home w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a l e s s e r f o r m o f l a b o r . B u n k l e ( 1 9 7 4 ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t a s t h e home a n d w o r k p l a c e b e c a m e d e f i n e d a s s e p a r a t e e n t i t i e s , t h e p a t t e r n o f p r e p a r a t i o n f o r a d u l t h o o d f o r m e r l y a s s u m e d b y t h e f a m i l y w a s a l t e r e d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e f a m i l y c o u l d n o l o n g e r f u n c t i o n a s t h e s o l e a g e n t o f e d u c a t i o n . M a n y e d u c a t o r s , among t h e m R i c h a r d H a r c o u r t , M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a t i o n f o r t h e P r o v i n c e o f O n t a r i o , e x p r e s s e d d i s m a y a t t h e s e p a r a t i o n b r o u g h t a b o u t b y i n d u s t r i a l i s m . I n many homes t h e f a m i l i a r c h o r e s o f a f o r m e r g e n e r a t i o n a r e n o t t o b e f o u n d . C i t y homes a r e n o l o n g e r a b l e t o f u r n i s h t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r m a n u a l t r a i n i n g , a n d t h e r e f o r e i n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e c o u n t r y b o y h a s a d v a n t a g e s n o t p o s s e s s e d b y t h e c i t y y o u t h . ( H a r c o u r t , 1 9 0 4 , p . x x x ) . T h e s c h o o l w a s c l e a r l y t o a s s u m e some o f a s p e c t s o f s c h o o l i n g w h i c h f o r m e r l y o c c u r r e d i n t h e f a m i l y . T h e l a c k o f o p p o r t u n i t y f o r p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g a t h o m e , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e r i s i n g s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g m e a n t t h a t m o r e f a m i l i e s c o u l d a f f o r d t o -17-m a i n t a i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n s c h o o l s f o r l o n g e r p e r i o d s . E d u c a t o r s w e r e p r e s s u r e d t o p r o v i d e a b r o a d e r c u r r i c u l u m t o s u i t t h e n e e d s o f a g r e a t e r v a r i e t y o f c h i l d r e n . S c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t s s w e l l e d , n o d o u b t p a r t l y i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g s o c i a l i m p o r t a n c e a c c o r d e d e d u c a t i o n b u t a l s o , f o r some f a m i l i e s , s i m p l y b e c a u s e a t t e n d a n c e w a s l e g i s l a t e d . T h e n u m b e r s i n e l e m e n t a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s a c r o s s C a n a d a ' m o r e t h a n d o u b l e d ' f r o m 9 4 2 , 0 0 0 t o 1 , 9 3 9 , 7 0 0 b e t w e e n 1891 a n d 1 9 2 3 . W h i l e t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e n u m b e r o f s c h o o l s t u d e n t s r e f l e c t e d a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e o v e r a l l p o p u l a t i o n , i t a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t l a r g e r n u m b e r s o f s t u d e n t s w e r e s t a y i n g i n s c h o o l f o r l o n g e r p e r i o d s . M o r e o v e r , a s t h o s e w i t h i n t h e s y s t e m w o r k e d t o u p g r a d e t h e s t a n d a r d s o f e d u c a t i o n a n d t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s , t h e p r o c e s s o f s c h o o l i n g i t s e l f b e c a m e m o r e a t t r a c t i v e t o s t u d e n t s . B y t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y f a c t o r i e s a s s u m e d many m a n u f a c t u r i n g f u n c t i o n s p r e v i o u s l y c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e h o m e . Among p o o r e r u r b a n f a m i l i e s , women a n d c h i l d r e n w e r e o f t e n p r e s s e d i n t o t h e p a i d l a b o r f o r c e t o s e c u r e f u n d s t o p u r c h a s e n e e d e d g o o d s . T o b e s u r e , a l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n o f women s t i l l r e m a i n e d a t h o m e . F o r t h e s e w i v e s a n d m o t h e r s t h e s h i f t f r o m t h e f a m i l y a s t h e c e n t r e o f p r o d u c t i o n t o t h e f a m i l y a s t h e c o n s u m e r o f f a c t o r y - m a d e i t e m s u n d e r s c o r e d t h e n e e d f o r a m o r e s t r u c t u r e d a p p r o a c h t o h o u s e h o l d d u t i e s . W h i l e t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n f a m i l y f u n c t i o n r e l i e v e d women o f many h o u s e h o l d c h o r e s , t h e i r m a n a g e r i a l f u n c t i o n b e c a m e o f i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t a n c e a s m a r k e t i n g , - 1 8 -b u d g e t i n g , e f f i c i e n c y a n d f o r t h e more a f f l u e n t , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f h o u s e h o l d h e l p a s s u m e d more o f t h e i r t i m e . T h e p r o c e s s o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n was d e p e n d e n t u p o n w o r k e r s who w e r e \" a s s k i l l e d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c a l l i n g s a s t h o s e w i t h whom t h e y h a v e t o c o m p e t e \" ( R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n o n t h e R e l a t i o n s o f C a p i t a l a n d L a b o r i n C a n a d a , R e p o r t . 1 8 8 9 , 1 , p p . 1 1 9 ) . T r a d e s m e n , a s w e l l a s women i n t h e l a b o r m a r k e t , w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p r a c t i c a l n e e d s o f s o c i e t y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , many a r g u e d f o r s y s t e m o f e d u c a t i o n w h i c h s t r e s s e d b a s i c l i t e r a c y , b u t a l s o o n e w h i c h was r e l e v a n t t o t h e e v e r y d a y w o r l d . T h e c o n c e p t o f a ' p r a c t i c a l l y u s e f u l ' e d u c a t i o n , i n c o n t r a s t t o o n e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d f o s t e r i n g ' m e n t a l d i s c i p l i n e ' b e c a m e a n i s s u e w h i c h w a s h o t l y d e b a t e d a t s e v e r a l l e v e l s . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e w i s d o m o f i n c o r p o r a t i n g ' p r a c t i c a l ' e l e m e n t s c a u s e d m u c h o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m a n u a l t r a i n i n g i n a l l i t s f o r m s , i n t o t h e s y s t e m o f p u b l i c s c h o o l i n g . 'Home L i f e i s t h e H e a r t o f t h e N a t i o n ' I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n h a d a s t r o n g i m p a c t o n C a n a d i a n f a m i l i e s , b u t t h e number o f i m m i g r a n t s a t t r a c t e d t o a new a n d g r o w i n g c o u n t r y w a s a l s o a p o t e n t i n f l u e n c e . S u c c e e d i n g w a v e s o f i m m i g r a n t s a r r i v e d i n s u c h p r o f u s i o n t h a t i n t h e t w e n t y y e a r s p r i o r t o W o r l d W a r I , o v e r o n e m i l l i o n p e o p l e f r o m C o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e c h o s e t o s e t t l e i n C a n a d a . W h i l e t h e b u i l d i n g b l o c k s o f t h e n a t i o n w e r e b e l i e v e d t o b e i t s p e o p l e , - 1 9 -s t r o n g o p i n i o n s w e r e e x p r e s s e d b y t h o s e a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d i n C a n a d a t h a t i t s h o u l d b e t h e r i g h t k i n d o f p e o p l e . S u s p i c i o n a n d f e a r o f ' a l i e n c u l t u r e s ' c o u p l e d w i t h a f a l l i n g b i r t h r a t e among t h o s e o f B r i t i s h d e s c e n t c o n t r i b u t e d t o f e a r s t h a t t h e d o m i n a n c e o f t h e B r i t i s h r a c e m i g h t d i m i n i s h . C o n c e r n f o r c u l t u r a l a n d s o c i a l d e g e n e r a t i o n f u e l l e d e n t h u s i a s m f o r s o c i a l r e f o r m . One s o l u t i o n t o t h e ' i m m i g r a n t p r o b l e m ' w a s p r o v i d e d b y t h e s c h o o l s , f o r t h e C a n a d i a n e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m e s p o u s e d a s i n g l e c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y ( s t r o n g l y f l a v o r e d w i t h B r i t i s h s e n t i m e n t s ) a n d s t a n d a r d s o f m o r a l b e h a v i o r e s t a b l i s h e d b y E g e r t o n R y e r s o n . S u t h e r l a n d ( 1 9 7 6 ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c u l t u r a l m o s a i c w a s n o t a p a r t o f t h e f u t u r e v i s u a l i z e d b y many C a n a d i a n s . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f E n g l i s h C a n a d i a n s s c h o o l w a s d i e i d e a l v e h i c l e t h r o u g h w h i c h d i v e r s i t i e s c o u l d b e e l i m i n a t e d , a s m i n o r i t y g r o u p s w e r e e x p e c t e d t o b e h a v e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n o r m s o f t h e m a j o r i t y ( T o m k i n s , 1 9 7 7 ) . T h u s , w h i l e s c h o o l i n g i n t r o d u c e d i m m i g r a n t c h i l d r e n , a n d i n d i r e c t l y t h e i r f a m i l i e s , i n t o t h e w a y s o f t h e i r new c o m m u n i t i e s , i t was a l s o a means o f r e m a k i n g f o r e i g n e r s t o s u i t a n a c c e p t a b l e C a n a d i a n i m a g e . T h e f a c t t h a t s o m e t i m e s i m m i g r a n t f a m i l i e s w e r e r e l u c t a n t t o a b a n d o n t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l w a y s , c a u s e d c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r t h e s c h o o l ' s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n f o r g i n g a new C a n a d i a n i d e n t i t y . T h e p r e s e n c e o f l a r g e n u m b e r s o f i m m i g r a n t f a m i l i e s a f f e c t e d s o c i e t y i n a n u m b e r o f w a y s . A c c o r d i n g t o L a d y A b e r d e e n , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e - 2 0 -N a t t o n a l C o u n c i l o f Women, women h a d a n i n f l u e n c e i n ' b i n d i n g s t r a n g e r s t o g e t h e r 1 s o a s t o m o l d t h e d e s t i n y o f t h e n a t i o n (NCWC, 1 8 9 4 , p . 1 2 ) . W o m e n ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o n a t i o n b u i l d i n g t h e r e f o r e l a y n o t o n l y w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y c i r c l e b u t a l s o b e y o n d t h e home g a t e . S m a l l e r f a m i l i e s , g r e a t e r f r e e d o m f r o m d o m e s t i c t a s k s a n d i n c r e a s e d a f f l u e n c e c r e a t e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r u p p e r c l a s s women t o c u l t i v a t e i n t e r e s t s o u t s i d e t h e h o m e . F o r t h o s e who w e r e m o t i v a t e d , r e f o r m a r i s i n g f r o m w o r t h y c o n v i c t i o n s was a s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e means o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e . S u c h w o r k e m p h a s i z e d t h e i d e a l o f t h e f a m i l y a s t h e c e n t r e o f s t r e n g t h f o r t h e n a t i o n . M a n y women s u c h a s L i l l i a n M a s s e y , a s t a u n c h a d v o c a t e o f d o m e s t i c r e f o r m , b e l i e v e d t h a t \" w h e n h o m e s w e r e i d e a l , s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c e v i l s w o u l d d i s a p p e a r \" ( c i t e d i n R o b e r t s , 1 9 7 9 , p . 2 2 . ) . T h e i n f l u x o f i m m i g r a n t s a l s o p r o v i d e d a r e a d y s u p p l y o f d o m e s t i c l a b o u r . F o r women o f t h e m i d d l e a n d u p p e r c l a s s , h o u s e h o l d h e l p m e a n t f r e e d o m f r o m d o m e s t i c c h o r e s a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e t i m e t o p u r s u e s o c i a l c a u s e s . Y e t , t h e p r e s e n c e o f d o m e s t i c h e l p h i g h l i g h t e d b o t h t h e m y r i a d o f s o c i a l p r o b l e m s c o n f r o n t i n g i m m i g r a n t s a s w e l l a s t h e d i s p a r i t i e s among C a n a d i a n f a m i l i e s . K e a l e y p o i n t s o u t t h a t \" O n c e t h e a r g u m e n t f o r s o c i a l j u s t i c e r a i s e d , p h i l a n t h r o p i s t s b e c a m e r e f o r m e r s \" ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 2 ) . Among t h e s o l u t i o n s o f f e r e d w e r e h o u s e h o l d t r a i n i n g c l a s s e s , s u p p o r t e d b y o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h a s t h e YWCA a n d t h e W o m e n ' s I n s t i t u t e , c o n d u c t e d f o r t h e a p p a r e n t p u r p o s e o f u p g r a d i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e f o r n e e d y f a m i l i e s . - 2 1 -R o w l e s t e l l s u s t h a t t h e d a u g h t e r s o f i m m i g r a n t f a m i l i e s w e l c o m e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o \" w o r k f o r C a n a d i a n f a m i l i e s i n o r d e r t o l e a r n a b o u t t h e C a n a d i a n w a y o f l i f e \" ( 1 9 5 6 , p . 1 8 8 ) . H e r c o n t e n t i o n t h a t h o m e r a a k i n g c l a s s e s w e r e w e l l - r e c e i v e d h a s some h i s t o r i c a l s u p p o r t . F o r e x a m p l e , i n 1911 a r u r a l O n t a r i o d e m o n s t r a t i o n - l e c t u r e c o u r s e i n H o u s e h o l d S u b j e c t s , f i n a n c e d b y t h e W o m e n ' s I n s t i t u t e , h a d a t o t a l a t t e n d a n c e o f 3 , 1 5 4 women ( R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n o f I n d u s t r i a l T r a i n i n g a n d T e c h n i c a l E d u c a t i o n , 1 9 1 3 , s e s s i o n a l p a p e r 1 9 1 d , p . 3 6 8 ) . T h e a t t e n d a n c e f i g u r e w a s a c h i e v e d i n s p i t e o f b a d r o a d s a n d b a d w e a t h e r d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r m o n t h s . T h e r e i s h o w e v e r , a s e c o n d s i d e t o t h e i s s u e o f h o m e r a a k i n g c l a s s e s . S u p p o r t f o r t h e i d e a o f h o u s e h o l d t r a i n i n g f r o m t h i s v i e w p o i n t s h o w s t h a t some o f i t s a d v o c a t e s w e r e m o t i v a t e d b y s e l f - i n t e r e s t r a t h e r t h a n s o c i a l r e f o r m . C l e a r l y t h e t e a c h i n g o f h o m e m a k i n g s k i l l s w a s a l s o a means o f e n s u r i n g a t r a i n e d b o d y o f d o m e s t i c h e l p f o r e s t a b l i s h e d h o u s e h o l d s . S u c h women w a n t e d a s s i s t a n c e w i t h c l e a n i n g , c o o k i n g , a n d c h i l d c a r e - r e l i a b l e d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s w e r e h a r d t o f i n d . E x p l i c i t t r a i n i n g i n h o u s e h o l d c h o r e s m e a n t t h a t t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n d o m e s t i c w o r k c o u l d c a r r y o u t t h e i r t a s k s p r o p e r l y . A r e v e a l i n g d e b a t e o n \" T h e P r o b l e m o f D o m e s t i c S e r v i c e \" s h o w s t h a t t h e p r o m o t i o n o f d o m e s t i c t r a i n i n g d i d n o t h a v e a l t r u i s t i c m o t i v e s o n t h e p a r t o f some C a n a d i a n r e f o r m e r s (NCWC 1 8 9 4 , p p . 1 5 2 - 1 7 2 ; s e e a l s o , B a r b e r , 1 9 8 0 ) . - 2 2 -T h e I n f l u e n c e o f C r o w d e d C i t i e s . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f l a r g e n u m b e r s o f i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e i n t e r n a l movement o f C a n a d i a n s f r o m r u r a l a r e a s t o u r b a n c e n t e r s c a u s e d a d r a m a t i c i n c r e a s e i n t h e s i z e o f C a n a d i a n c i t i e s . T h u s , C a n a d a ' s u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n r o s e f r o m 1 . 1 m i l l i o n t o 4 . 3 m i l l i o n b e t w e e n 1 8 8 0 a n d 1 9 2 0 . T h o u g h i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e c o u n t r y ' s e c o n o m i c g r o w t h , c r o w d e d c i t i e s c o m p o u n d e d s o c i a l p r o b l e m s a n d i n a d e q u a t e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e o f t h e u r b a n p o o r . G i v e n a n e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s a n i t a t i o n w a s u n r e c o g n i z e d , w h e r e t h e s p r e a d o f d i s e a s e w a s i n a d e q u a t e l y c o n t r o l l e d , a n d o n e i n w h i c h f a c i l i t i e s s u c h a s i n d o o r p l u m b i n g , i c e - b o x e s a n d c o v e r e d w e l l s w e r e g e n e r a l l y l a c k i n g , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n s w e r e f o r m e d t o m e e t t h e c h a l l e n g e s w h i c h t h r e a t e n e d s o c i a l o r d e r . I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e v a r i o u s w o m e n ' s r e f o r m g r o u p s w h i c h d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g t h e l a t e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y , M o r r i s o n ( 1 9 7 6 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s among s u c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s l a y p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n t h e k i n d s o f c a u s e s t h e y e m p h a s i z e d . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e W o m e n ' s C h r i s t i a n T e m p e r a n c e U n i o n v i e w e d t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f a l c o h o l a s t h e m o s t d i s t r e s s f u l o f s o c i a l m a l a d i e s ; c i t y h e a l t h w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p o o r h e a l t h o f c h i l d r e n , a n d s o c i a l w o r k e r s f o c u s s e d u p o n f a m i l y / i n s t a b i l i t y . 3 T h e s o l u t i o n s a d v o c a t e d f o r t h e v a r i o u s p e r c e p t i o n s o f s o c i a l d i s o r d e r w e r e a s v a r i e d a s t h e c a u s e s . Some r e m e d i e s i n v o l v e d d i r e c t -23-i n t e r v e n t i o n , s u c h a s t h e c a m p a i g n for P r o h i b i t i o n z e a l o u s l y p u r s u e d b y t h e t e m p e r a n c e w o r k e r s ( S h e e h a n , 1 9 8 0 ) . S o l u t i o n s r e l a t e d t o c h i l d r e n ' s h e a l t h r a n g e d f r o m d i r e c t a s s i s t a n c e f o r ' r e a l l y n e e d y ' f a m i l i e s b y R e l i e f A g e n c i e s , t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e S i c k C h i l d r e n ' s H o s p i t a l i n T o r o n t o w h e r e c h i l d r e n c o u l d b e t r e a t e d a w a y f r o m t h e f a m i l y e n v i r o n m e n t ( M o r r i s o n , 1 9 7 6 ) . Some r e f o r m e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e i g n o r a n c e o f s o c i e t y c o u l d b e o v e r c o m e b y e d u c a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , l e s s o n s i n s a n i t a r y h y g i e n e , s c i e n t i f i c t e m p e r a n c e a n d h o u s e h o l d c o o k e r y w e r e v i s u a l i z e d a s a n o t h e r means o f a l l e v i a t i n g p r e s s i n g , s o c i a l p r o b l e m s . F r o m t h i s v i e w p o i n t , s c h o o l i n g w a s p e r c e i v e d a s y e t a n o t h e r a g e n t o f r e m e d i e s a n d r e f o r m s . T h e t e a c h i n g o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e i n p u b l i c s c h o o l s w a s s t r o n g l y d e f e n d e d b y i t s a d v o c a t e s o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t i t n o t o n l y i m p r o v e d t h e l i v e s o f c h i l d r e n , b u t t h r o u g h t h e m , u p g r a d e d t h e s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g f o r t h e i r f a m i l i e s . C r u s a d e r s s u c h a s A d e l a i d e H o o d l e s s , p r o m o t e d t h e i d e a t h a t d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e u n i t e d t h e c o n c e r n s o f many r e f o r m g r o u p s . S h e b e l i e v e d t h a t e x p l i c i t t r a i n i n g i n f a m i l y m a t t e r s w a s t h e a n s w e r t o t h e p r o b l e m s o f u r b a n s o c i e t y ( S t a m p , 1 9 7 7 ; 1 9 7 4 : H o w e s , 1 9 6 7 ) . T h u s , t h e t e a c h i n g o f d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s f o r g e d i m p o r t a n t l i n k s b e t w e e n t h e r e f o r m e r s , t h e home a n d t h e s c h o o l a s i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n a d d r e s s e d t h e p e r c e i v e d n e e d t o a s s i s t f a m i l i e s . H o w e v e r , i n s p i t e o f t h e s t r o n g c o n v i c t i o n s o f i t s p r o m o t e r s , i t i s n o t a t a l l c e r t a i n t h a t t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r o b l e m s c o u l d b e s o l v e d b y t h e p r o g r a m s b e i n g a d v o c a t e d . - 2 4 -One o \u00C2\u00A3 t h e r e p e r c u s s i o n s o f t h e p e r c e i v e d s o c i a l d i s o r d e r a t t r i b u t e d t o u r b a n i z a t i o n , w a s a movement t o r e g e n e r a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f r u r a l l i v i n g . T h i s w a s m o t i v a t e d i n p a r t b y p o l i t i c a l c o n c e r n r e l a t e d t o t h e n u m b e r o f f a m i l i e s d e s e r t i n g C a n a d a ' s a g r i c u l t u r a l b a s e . I t a l s o a r o s e i n r e a c t i o n t o t h e \" . . . c r o w d e d , n a r r o w u n w h o l e s o m e q u a r t e r s i n c i t i e s . . . b r e a t h i n g t h e s t i f l e d a i r o f c l o s e r o o m s a n d f a c t o r i e s \" ( H a r c o u r t , 1 9 0 3 , x x x v ) . R u r a l l i v i n g w a s b e l i e v e d t o b e t h e t r u e r e p o s i t o r y o f t h e b e s t m o r a l v a l u e s . T o p r o v i d e i n c e n t i v e s f o r f a m i l i e s t o r e t u r n t o t h e h e a l t h y , i n d e p e n d e n t l i f e o f t h e c o u n t r y , t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l I n s t r u c t i o n A c t was l e g i s l a t e d i n 1 9 1 3 . J o n e s ( 1 9 7 8 ) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e p r e m i s e u n d e r l y i n g t h e p a s s a g e o f t h i s A c t w a s t h a t t r a i n i n g i n a g r i c u l t u r e w o u l d h e l p t h e f a r m e r make a m o r e p r o d u c t i v e l i v i n g , a n d w o u l d d i m i n i s h t h e e x o d u s o f f a m i l i e s f r o m t h e l a n d . T r a i n i n g i n a g r i c u l t u r e was s u b s e q u e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d t o b o l s t e r t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e r u r a l a r e a s . O t h e r f o r m s o f p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g w e r e a l s o deemed t o i n c l u c a t e t h e r i g h t k i n d s o f k n o w l e d g e i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f r u r a l r e g e n e r a t i o n . J a m e s R o b e r t s o n , a p p o i n t e d C o m m i s s i o n e r o f D a i r y i n g f o r t h e D o m i n i o n o f C a n a d a i n 1 8 9 0 , w a s a s t r o n g s u p p o r t e r o f a l l f o r m s o f m a n u a l t r a i n i n g . I n a n a d d r e s s g i v e n M a r c h 4 , 1 9 0 3 R o b e r t s o n d e c l a r e d : N a t u r e S t u d y s h o u l d b e c e n t r a l , w i t h M a n u a l T r a i n i n g a n d D o m e s t i c E c o n o m y o n e i t h e r s i d e o f i t . . . . T h e s e a r e n o t f a d s i n a n y s e n s e . T h e y a r e f u n d m e n t a l t o t h e m a i n t a i n e n c e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d t h e u p w a r d p r o g r e s s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e r a c e . ( J . W . R o b e r t s o n , 1 9 0 3 ) - 2 5 -A s R o b e r t s o n b e l i e v e d t h a t s u c c e s s f u l p r a c t i c a l w o r k i n c i t y s c h o o l s w o u l d c r e a t e a demand f o r s i m i l a r c l a s s e s i n r u r a l a r e a s , t h e r e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n i n m a n u a l t r a i n i n g s u b j e c t s o f t e n s t a r t e d i n u r b a n c e n t e r s ( S t a m p , 1 9 8 2 ) . R o b e r t s o n ' s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h S i r W i l l i a m M a c d o n a l d r e s u l t e d i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e M a c d o n a l d M o v e m e n t f o r t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f a g r i c u l t u r e a n d e d u c a t i o n ( R o b e r t s o n , 1 9 0 7 ) . T h i s p o w e r f u l a l l i a n c e u l t i m a t e l y a f f e c t e d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m a n u a l t r a i n i n g i n e v e r y C a n a d i a n p r o v i n c e ( W h i t e , 1 9 5 1 ) . W h i l e , t h e M a c d o n a l d movement f u n d e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f m a n u a l t r a i n i n g c e n t e r s f o r b o y s a t t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l l e v e l , i t d i d n o t c o n t r i b u t e a n y d i r e c t money f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c e n t e r s i n a n y p u b l i c s c h o o l s ( S t a m p , 1 9 8 2 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e r e w a s c o n s i d e r a b l e s u p p o r t f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e i n o t h e r m e a n i n g f u l w a y s . F o u r o b j e c t - l e s s o n c o n s o l i d a t e d s c h o o l s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d b y M a c d o n a l d i n N o v a S c o t i a , New B r u n s w i c k , O n t a r i o a n d P r i n c e E d w a r d I s l a n d . T h e i r p u r p o s e w a s t o p o r t r a y t h e b e n e f i t s o f p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g f o r s t u d e n t s . E a c h i n c l u d e d c l a s s e s i n c o o k i n g a n d s e w i n g . T h e s e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t r u r a l c h i l d r e n c o u l d a l s o b e i n c l u d e d i n a s p e c t s o f t h e new e d u c a t i o n ( S u t h e r l a n d , 1 9 7 6 ) . M o d e l s c h o o l s e n c o u r a g e d t e a c h e r s t o e s t a b l i s h f o r m s o f m a n u a l t r a i n i n g i n t h e i r own s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s . -26-M a c d o n a l d a l s o f i n a n c e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o E t w o i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r t h e t r a i n i n g o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e t e a c h e r s : T h e M a c d o n a l d I n s t i t u t e , O n t a r i o i n 1 9 0 4 ; a n d M a c d o n a l d C o l l e g e , Q u e b e c i n 1 9 0 6 . P u b l i c s c h o o l s w a n t i n g t o o f f e r t h i s f o r m o f e d u c a t i o n n o l o n g e r h a d t o d e p e n d o n t e a c h e r s f r o m E n g l a n d o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . A p p r o p r i a t e t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s h e l p e d j u s t i f y t o t h e p u b l i c t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a new s u b j e c t a r e a s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r g i r l s . T h e p r e s e n c e o f s p e c i a l i s t t e a c h e r s i n s c h o o l c l a s s r o o m s a l s o i n c r e a s e d t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e i n t h e m i n d s o f some p a r e n t s . W i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s , d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e w a s i n a p o s i t i o n t o i n f l u e n c e t h e e d u c a t i o n o f y o u n g women i n t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s t h r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n . ' E d g i n g B e y o n d D o m e s t i c i t y ' I n d i s p u t a b l y , t h e i n d u s t r i a l e r a c r e a t e d a d i v e r s i t y o f s o c i a l p r o b l e m s i n w h i c h women a n d c h i l d r e n w e r e f r e q u e n t l y t h e v i c t i m s . A s a means o f s o c i a l r e f o r m , u p g r a d i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f n e e d y f a m i l i e s t h r o u g h e x p l i c i t t r a i n i n g o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n s c h o o l s w a s o n e a l t e r n a t i v e u n d e r t a k e n . Y e t , t h e i d e a o f r e f o r m a l s o b r o u g h t w i t h i t many o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r women. F i e l d s s u c h a s n u r s i n g , s o c i a l w o r k a n d d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e p r o v i d e d t h e means b y w h i c h women c o u l d e x t e n d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f s o c i e t y . T h e r e f o r m movement w a s t h e r e f o r e a r e s p o n s e t o b o t h t h e s o c i a l d i s t r e s s a n d t o new f o r m s o f womanhood b r o u g h t a b o u t b y s o c i a l c h a n g e . I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n h e l d a p l a c e f o r w o m e n , a l b e i t r e s t r i c t e d , i n t h e b u r g e o n i n g w o r l d o f w o r k . A t t h e u p p e r e n d o f e m p l o y m e n t s p e c t r u m w a s t h e c r e a t i o n o f p r o f e s s i o n a l f e m a l e m a j o r i t y f i e l d s w h i c h s t r u g g l e d a g a i n s t t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f a c c e p t a b l e w o m a n h o o d , e v e n t h o u g h t h e s e o c c u p a t i o n s d e a l t w i t h s o c i a l p r o b l e m s o f p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n t o women. T h e a r g u m e n t s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l women i n f i e l d s s u c h a s n u r s i n g , p u b l i c h e a l t h a n d l a w h e l p e d p r o m o t e t h e n e e d f o r r e f o r m i n a r e a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e n e e d s o f women a n d c h i l d r e n b o t h a t home a n d a t w o r k . H o w e v e r , a t t h e l o w e r e n d o f t h e e m p l o y m e n t s p e c t r u m g i r l s w e r e e m p l o y e d i n many j o b s i n w h i c h t h e f e m a l e v i r t u e s o f p a t i e n c e , o b e d i e n c e a n d p h y s i c a l g r a c e w e r e c o n s i d e r e d b e n e f i c i a l , s u c h a s c l e r k s , o f f i c e w o r k e r s a n d e m p l o y e e s i n s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s ( L i g h t a n d P a r r , 1 9 8 3 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , many women f o u n d j o b s a s p o o r l y p a i d l a b o r e r s i n t h e ' n e e d l e t r a d e s ' o r i n d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e . K e a l e y ( 1 9 7 9 ) r e p o r t s t h a t b y t h e l a t e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y women a n d c h i l d r e n c o m p r i s e d o n e - t h i r d o f t h e l a b o r f o r c e i n u r b a n c e n t e r s s u c h a s T o r o n t o . P a r t i c i p a t i o n o f women i n t h e w o r k i n g w o r l d f o s t e r e d c o n c e r n f o r t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d a t t h e same t i m e f u e l l e d f e a r s r e g a r d i n g t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e i r n e g l e c t o f f a m i l y d u t i e s . T h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n ' d u t y ' a n d ' r i g h t s ' f o r m s a s t r o n g u n d e r c u r r e n t o f t e n s i o n c o n t i n u a l l y e v i d e n t a s women e d g e d b e y o n d t h e f a m i l y c i r c l e . M o r r i s o n t h e o r i z e s t h a t when women l e f t t h e home t o b e c o m e i n v o l v e d i n s o c i a l r e f o r m \" t h e y d i d s o w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f m a k i n g i t a b e t t e r a n d - 2 8 -more s e c u r e p l a c e t o r e t u r n t o . \" ( 1 9 7 6 , p . 4 7 ) G r o w t h o f t h e ' W o m a n ' s M o v e m e n t ' s y m b o l i z e d a d u a l f o c u s . O n t h e o n e h a n d , i t s p u r p o s e was t o a c c o r d women a n d c h i l d r e n w i t h a v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l r i g h t s , w h i l e o n t h e o t h e r , i t f o c u s s e d o n t h e s p e c i a l t a l e n t s o f women t o r e f o r m s o c i e t y i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e m o r a l v a l u e s e s s e n t i a l t o f a m i l y l i f e . Some women c a l l e d f o r \" T h e r i g h t o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g m o r e a b o u t o u r d u t y a n d how we b e s t may d o i t \" - a s t a t e m e n t w h i c h s u c c i n c t l y e x p r e s s e s t h e d u a l i t y o f w o m e n ' s s i t u a t i o n ( N . C . W . C . , 1 8 9 4 , p . 1 7 7 ) . C o n t r o l o f t h e home was b o t h a ' b l e s s i n g ' a n d a ' t r a p ' . T h u s , w h i l e c h a n g e s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l e r a e n c o u r a g e d some women o f t h e u p p e r a n d m i d d l e c l a s s e s t o move b e y o n d t h e d e p e n d e n t e x i s t e n c e o f t h e V i c t o r i a n s t e r e o t y p e , t h e q u e s t i o n \"How c a n a woman t e a c h w h a t s h e d o e s n o t k n o w h e r s e l f ? \" w a s a r e m i n d e r t h a t many women w e r e i l l - p r e p a r e d t o d e a l w i t h t h e new w a y s o f l i f e , e v e n t h e a s p e c t s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e h o m e . ( H o o d l e s s , 1 8 9 4 , p . 1 1 6 ) . F o r a f f l u e n t w o m e n , c h a n g i n g t i m e s p r o v i d e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o e x t e n d t h e i r ' m o t h e r i n g r o l e ' b e y o n d t h e f a m i l y s p h e r e . T h i s f o r m o f p u b l i c c o n c e r n b e c a m e k n o w n a s s o c i a l o r m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m . I t c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e ' W o m a n ' s R i g h t s M o v e m e n t 1 a s m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t s p l a c e d s o c i a l r e f o r m a h e a d o f t h e a c h i e v m e n t o f e q u a l r i g h t s f o r women. R o b e r t s c a s t s t h e i r a c t i o n s a s a \" m u t e d w a y o f e n h a n c i n g t h e a u t o n o m y o f women\" ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 8 ) . T h r o u g h t h e w o r t h i n e s s o f t h e i r b e n e v o l e n t w o r k m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t s h o p e d t h e y w o u l d b e a c c o r d e d t h e p r i v i l e g e o f - 2 9 -v o t i n g . M o r e o v e r , t h e i s s u e o f w o m e n ' s r i g h t s w a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y d i s c u s s e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e f a m i l y f r o m t h e m a t e r n a l p e r s p e c t i v e . G i v e n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n w h i c h t h e n e e d f o r t r a i n i n g i n d o m e s t i c m a t t e r s d e v e l o p e d , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h i s s t r a n d o f t h e W o m a n ' s M o v e m e n t s u p p o r t e d t h e g r o w t h o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e . T r a i n i n g i n d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e w a s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t p h i l o s o p h y f o r i t h e l d t h e p r o m i s e o f new t o o l s w h i c h some women b e l i e v e d c o u l d t r a n s f o r m t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f s o c i e t y . I n t r o d u c i n g h y g i e n e , c o o k e r y , a n d c o n t r o l o f d i s e a s e a s h o u s e h o l d t o p i c s c o n c e r n e d w i t h s c i e n c e , i m b u e d t h e r e l a t e d t a s k s w i t h a d d e d c r e d i b i l i t y . L e a r n i n g t h a t t h e c r i t e r i a o f e f f i c i e n c y a n d e c o n o m y a l s o h a d h o u s e h o l d a p p l i c a t i o n s u g g e s t e d homes a n d b u s i n e s s e s c o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t o n a s i m i l a r b a s i s . A g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d o m e s t i c d u t i e s u p g r a d e d t h e s t a n d a r d s o f c h i l d c a r e a n d f a m i l y a f f a i r s . I t m e a n t t h a t women c o u l d b e ' b e t t e r ' m o t h e r s a n d w i v e s . G a i n i n g c o n t r o l o f f a m i l y c o n d i t i o n s a l s o f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d o n e s p h e r e o f s o c i e t y a s r i g h t f u l l y b e l o n g i n g t o w o m e n . A d e l a i d e H o o d l e s s , f r o m O n t a r i o , t h e a c k n o w l e d g e d i n i t i a t o r o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e i n C a n a d i a n p u b l i c s c h o o l s , c h a l l e n g e d women t o p e r f e c t t h e i r own s p h e r e o f r e s p o n s b i l i t y b e f o r e s p r e a d i n g t h e i r w i n g s t o e n c o m p a s s t h e l a r g e r r e a l m o f s o c i e t y ( N . C . W . C . 1 8 9 8 ) . T o t h i s e n d s h e w o r k e d d i l i g e n t l y t o e s t a b l i s h t h e W o m e n ' s I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e w i v e s o f f a r m e r s , a n d s h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e f o u n d i n g o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f Women -30-of Canada, an umbrella organization designed to be the national voice for a number o\u00C2\u00A3 affiliated women's groups. The campaign to institute the teaching of domestic matters in the public schools frequently occurred because of pressure applied by women's organizations. The importance of domestic science for Hoodless, rested on two assumptions. First, that the traditional instincts and haphazard knowledge, formerly the basis of running the home, were no longer sufficient in the complexities of the industrial age (Dominion Educational Association, 1908). Second, that training in domestic affairs was a means of maintaining the ethical and moral standards necessary for family stability (Stamp, 1977). In advancing these premises as the platform of domestic training there was no suggestion that transforming women's conditions in the home was essentially a means of 'adapting' to the new ways of l i f e . The distinction between adapting to new conditions, and changing the conditions themselves does not seem to have concerned Hoodless or many of her followers. While Hoodless was a compelling crusader for the preservation of the domestic ideal, there were also others in Canada who should be acknowledged for their thoughtful and reflective advocacy of domestic science. Among these were Alice Chown, field secretary for the Canadian Household Economics Association of Kingston, Ontario; Mary Urie Watson, principal of the Home Economics Department at Macdonald Institute; and Annie Laird, principal of the Faculty of Household -31-Science at the University of Toronto. Chown i n p a r t i c u l a r , v i s u a l i z e d a broad and comprehensive perspective of home economics that incorporated the ideals of an education for ' l i f e ' rather than a program directed only toward homeraaking (Vaines, 1984). Watson contributed considerable leadership i n the establishment of home economics programs for teacher education, while Laird's influence set the d i r e c t i o n of Canadian educational p o l i c y i n home economcs at the l e v e l of higher education. Each of the foregoing women was a participant at the Lake P l a c i d Conferences held from 1899-1908 i n New York State. These meetings coordinated the diverse e f f o r t s of many home economics advocates across North America i n the establishment of home economics as a f i e l d of study. The Proceedings indicate that the majority of delegates were a f f i l i a t e d with education i n some way, and therefore believed that schooling was a means of implementing home economics ideals (Vaines, 1981, 1984). The perspectives of Canadian participants provided a thought provoking basis for many of the discussions. Ultimately, the sharing of diverse ideas led to the creation of the American Home Economics Association, a venture larger i n concept than tliat envisioned by any single view. However, Budewig (1957) suggests the educational dimension was considered so important that the conceptual ideas of the f i e l d were ignored i n order to mold domestic science to f i t the framework of manual t r a i n i n g . -32-'Bodies Being Exercised; Minds at: Work; and Souls Satisfied' While women defended the development of domestic science in terms of women's duties to both their families and society, other aspects of this new branch of instruction were stressed by those concerned with i t s worth as a form of education. As the inadequacies of the conventional education system were highlighted by the changing times, new forms of schooling, more humane and more relevant, were called for. The introduction of domestic science from this perspective, rested on it s merits as a form of practical training, and therefore a part of the manual training movement. The rationale advanced i n support of the manual training movement had to be both powerful and convincing for some members of the public, and many educators were sceptical of the proclaimed benefits. Manual training was defended primarily i n moral terms, which j u s t i f i e d i t s practical nature as a means of building character. Phrased simply, this argument rested on the maxim that \"Habits of right working lead to habits of right thinking\" (Harcourt, 1903, p. l v i i ) . Manual training initiated students into some of the basic processes involved i n the origination, maintainence and advancement of mankind. I t , therefore, cultivated the quality of 'true human sympathy1 which was considered to be the ethical foundation of l i f e . - 3 3 -A c c o r d L n g t o t h e r e p o r t o f t h e R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n o n I n d u s t r i a l T r a i n i n g a n d T e c h n i c a l E d u c a t i o n t h e c h i e f a i m o \u00C2\u00A3 m a n u a l t r a i n i n g w a s \" t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p o w e r s o f t h e p u p i l f o r c u l t u r a l p u r p o s e s \" ( S e s s i o n a l P a p e r 1 9 1 d , 1 9 1 3 , p . 1 3 9 ) . H o o d l e s s a l s o d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e e t h i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e f a r o u t w e i g h e d i t s p r a c t i c a l c o m p o n e n t . C h a r a c t e r i s f o r m e d i n t h e h o m e , a n d l a r g e l y u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e m o t h e r , a n d u n l e s s women a r e e d u c a t e d s o a s t o r e a l i z e a n d f a i t h f u l l y p e r f o r m t h e d u t i e s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f h o m e r a a k e r s , we c a n n o t e x p e c t a h i g h t y p e o f c i t i z e n . . . . T h e r e i s no b r a n c h o f e d u c a t i o n s o c o n d u s i v e t o e t h i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n a s t h a t o f D o m e s t i c S c i e n c e , d e a l i n g a s i t d o e s d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e home a n d t h e o p e r a t i o n s c a r r i e d o n t h e r e . ( H o o d l e s s , 1 9 0 5 , p . 3 8 . ) A c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h e b u i l d i n g o f c h a r a c t e r w a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e ' w i l l 1 o r t h e r e f i n e m e n t o f t h o u g h t s w h i c h c o n t r o l l e d c o n s c i o u s m o v e m e n t . T h e r o o t s o f t h i s a r g u m e n t r e s t i n t h e f a c u l t y p s y c h o l o g y m o v e m e n t . D e v e l o p m e n t o f c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s w a s t h o u g h t t o r e s u l t f r o m t h e p r o p e r e x e r c i s i n g o f t h e ' m u s c l e s o f t h e m i n d 1 . M a n u a l t r a i n i n g o f f e r e d a means o f n e e d e d e x e r c i s e b e c a u s e i t i n c o r p o r a t e d b o t h k n o w l e d g e a n d a c t i v i t y . A c c o r d i n g l y , i t w o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r . C o n v e r s e l y , ' f l a b b y m u s c l e s ' a n d a ' w e a k w i l l 1 w e r e t h o u g h t t o b e s i g n s o f i n s u f f i c i e n t m o t o r a c t i v i t y o f t h e b r a i n . T h e h a b i t s o f i n d u s t r y a n d e f f i c i e n c y d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h m a n u a l w o r k p r o v i d e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o d e v e l o p a h i g h t y p e o f c h a r a c t e r T h e s e j u s t i f i c a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t a n i n t e r e s t i n g c o n t r a s t t o t h e e a r l i e r c l a i m s t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c h a r a c t e r i n c h i l d r e n w a s a c c o m p l i s h e d - 3 4 -through submission to the demands of the Church and the family. The new philosophy suggests that the child's participation in the learning process through hard work and painstaking accomplishment, developed the characteristics deemed necessary for adulthood. It also reflects the movement of society from one which stressed religious obedience to one which reflected a gospel of social reform. The worthwhile relationship between 'knowing' and 'doing' was also advanced in defence of manual training. Accurate handwork was believed to lead to accurate mental images. Intelligence developed through the sequential interaction of knowledge and its application. These arguments emphasized the intellectual component of practical work. The value of the practical lay in its contribution to the intellectual and ethical growth of the child, rather than in the enjoyment of accomplishing the work itself. Manual training was also promoted as a means of stimulating both student interest and progress. Its advocates maintained that the new and meaningful methods would attract students to the school. As minds were stimulated and perceptive faculties awakened through manual training, students would be able to perform at higher levels in the traditional subjects. From this point of view the benefits of practical training were thought to permeate a l l aspects of the school system. - 3 5 -R o b e r t s o a , a s C o m m i s s i o n e r o f A g r i c u l t u r e , e m p h a s i z e d t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n m a n u a l t r a i n i n g a n d t e c h n i c a l e d u c a t i o n i n a s p e e c h t o t h e D o m i n i o n E d u c a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n . M a n u a l T r a i n i n g i s t h a t p a r t o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n w h i c h s e e k s i t s r e s u l t i n t h e b o y h i m s e l f o r t h e g i r l h e r s e l f , . . . w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r o c c u p a t i o n t o b e f o l l o w e d a f t e r w a r d s . T h e t h i n g s made b y t h e c h i l d i n M a n u a l T r a i n i n g may a s w e l l g o i n t o t h e s t o v e o r i n t o t h e w a s t e - p a p e r b a s k e t ; b u t t h e t h i n g s made b y a b o y i n a n i n d u s t r i a l s c h o o l , u n d e r a s y s t e m o f I n d u s t r i a l E d u c a t i o n , a r e made f o r t h e s a k e o f t h i n g s , a n d made f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e a b i l i t y t o make t h e same o f s i m i l a r t h i n g s t h a t w i l l s e l l . I d o n o t s a y t h a t i s a p o o r p a r t o r a n u n n e c e s s a r y p a r t o f e d u c a t i o n , b u t i t i s n o t M a n u a l T r a i n i n g . . . . T e c h n i c a l E d u c a t i o n h a s some m a n u a l t r a i n i n g i n i t , b u t t h e m a n u a l t r a i n i n g i n t e c h n i c a l e d u c a t i o n h a s a p r i c e i n i t a n d o n i t f o r t h e w o r t h o f i t s p r o d u c t s . I t i s l o o k i n g t o t h e e f f e c t o f t h e t r a i n i n g o n t h e c r a f t a n d o n t h e p r o d u c t , a n d n o t o n l y p e r s o n . ( R o b e r t s o n , 1 9 0 1 , . p p . 8 5 - 8 6 ) . M a n u a l t r a i n i n g i n s c h o o l a n d t r a d e s t r a i n i n g c l e a r l y h a d d i f f e r e n t g o a l s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , v o c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s a c c r u i n g f r o m m a n u a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s i n p u b l i c s c h o o l s w e r e d o w n p l a y e d . S u c h a p e r s p e c t i v e d e f l e c t e d o p p o s i t i o n r a i s e d b y t h e T r a d e s U n i o n s i n T o r o n t o r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g a t p u b l i c e x p e n s e a n d t h e i r c o n c e r n t h a t s t u d e n t s t r a i n e d i n t r a d e s a t s c h o o l w o u l d u n d e r c u t t h e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p s y s t e m s o f t h e u n i o n s . M o r e o v e r , e v e n t h e c r i t i c s h a d t o a g r e e t h a t t h e f o s t e r i n g o f t r a i t s s u c h a s ' d o i n g t h i n g s w i t h o u t w a s t e , ' r e f i n i n g g o o d j u d g e m e n t ' a n d d e v e l o p i n g t h e ' p o w e r s o f c l o s e -36-observacion 1 provided a strong foundation for l a t e r technical in s t r u c t i o n . Therefore, manual t r a i n i n g i n schools was of benefit to a l l students pursuing a variety of occupations l a t e r i n l i f e . F i n a l l y , manual t r a i n i n g allowed children to grasp an idea or image through a c t i v i t y and experience rather than v i c a r i o u s l y through book learning. The incorporation of 'handwork' with 'brainwork' appealed to the needs and interests of the c h i l d . I t added zest to the process of schooling. In p r a c t i c a l terms, i t also helped to hold youngsters i n school, isolated from the unhealthy and immoral influences i n the factories and on the streets. Manual t r a i n i n g i n a l l i t s forms, t r i e d to s h i f t the focus of the classroom from that of the subject to that of the c h i l d . I t s benefits enriched the mind, the body and the s p i r i t . The appropriateness of manual t r a i n i n g to the amelioration of a d i v e r s i t y of concerns slowly generated a broad and supportive audience. I t s focus was compatible with the interests of those concerned with the needs of the c h i l d ; i t garnered support from those who sought a meaningful relationship between classroom experience and d a i l y l i f e ; i t appeared to provide solutions to some of the problems a r i s i n g from the tedious process of conventional schooling; and i t s content was of interest to the greater range of students enrolled i n schools. Thus, from the perspective of those seeking educational reform manual t r a i n i n g was a worthy endeavour for a l l children. -37-O v e r a l l , t h e c h a n g e s w h i c h o c c u r r e d i n C a n a d i a n l i f e d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y f o s t e r e d t h e g r o w t h o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e . F o r d a u g h t e r s , w i v e s a n d m o t h e r s a c r o s s C a n a d a i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o p u b l i c s c h o o l s s e r v e d a v a r i e t y o f p u r p o s e s . F i r s t , i t r e p r e s e n t e d t h e d o m e s t i c i d e a l a s a n e m i n e n t l y s u i t a b l e v o c a t i o n f o r women a n d o n e w o r t h y o f v i g o u r o u s p u r s u i t . S e c o n d , e x p o s u r e t o new k n o w l e d g e a n d s k i l l s w a s l i n k e d t o i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e f o r many f a m i l i e s . T h i r d , i t e m b o d i e d a l l t h e v i r t u e s b e l i e v e d t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m a n u a l t r a i n i n g i n t e r r a s o f p r a c t i c a l l e a r n i n g a s w e l l a s c h a r a c t e r b u i l d i n g . F i n a l l y , t r a i n i n g i n d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s w a s a s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e means o f e x t e n d i n g w o m e n ' s i n f l u e n c e . A s L a d y A b e r d e e n , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f Women, e x p l a i n e d d u r i n g a v i s i t t o M o n t r e a l , w o m e n ' s w o r k \" . . . b e s t b e g i n s a t h o m e , b u t n e e d n o t e n d t h e r e . I t i s l i k e a s t o n e c a s t i n t o a p o n d w h o s e r i p p l e s g o i n e v e r w i d e n i n g c i r c l e s t h a t n e v e r e n d . \" ( 1 8 9 3 ) . I n e s s e n c e t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e , h e l p e d a v a r i e t y o f w o m e n , i n c l u d i n g t h e r e f o r m e r s t h e m s e l v e s , a c c e p t t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f a new a g e . -38-ChapCer Three 'IMPROVING THE PRESENT CONDITION1 -THE GROWTH OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA. The i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of educational innovations i s an evolutionary process that frequently arises from the e f f o r t s of individuals and organizations both inside and outside the education system. In the case of domestic science i n B r i t i s h Columbia the introduction of school programs primarily resulted from pressures exerted outside the education system as various community organizations cajoled, provoked and persuaded i n f l u e n t i a l school o f f i c i a l s to i n s t i t u t e the desired programs. While community input stimulated the introduction of the subject, i t also influenced the way domestic science was taught i n schools. Chapter three sets the stage for the examination of the curriculum by b r i e f l y o u t l i n i n g i n f l u e n t i a l events and individuals which shaped domestic science i n s t r u c t i o n within the province. B r i t i s h Columbians took a long time to e s t a b l i s h domestic science as as int e g r a l part of t h e i r school system. A mix of r e l i g i o u s and other forms of fee-paying schools provided a wide range of educational opportunities i n both the colony of Vancouver Island and that of -3.9-B r i t i s h C o l i j m b i a . I t w a s n o t , h o w e v e r , u n t i l t h e t w o u n i t e d a n d j o i n e d t h e new C o n f e d e r a t i o n o f C a n a d a t h a t t h e p r o v i n c e e s t a b l i s h e d a s y s t e m o f e d u c a t i o n . A f t e r j o i n i n g C o n f e d e r a t i o n i n 1 8 7 1 , o n e o f t h e f i r s t t r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a P r o v i n c i a l L e g i s l a t u r e w a s t h e p a s s i n g o f t h e P u b l i c S c h o o l s A c t ( 1 8 7 2 ) w h i c h e s t a b l i s h e d t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e o f p r o v i n c i a l e d u c a t i o n . T h e s y s t e m t h a t e v o l v e d f r o m t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n - s u p p o s e d l y f r e e a n d n o n - s e c t a r i a n - w a s m o d e l l e d o n t h e n o n - s e p a r a t e p a r t o f t h e O n t a r i o s y s t e m ( J o h n s o n , 1 9 7 1 ) . A n I d e a T a k e s H o l d N e e d l e w o r k was a p p a r e n t l y t h e f i r s t f o r m o f home e c o n o m i c s t a u g h t i n t h e p r o v i n c e ( C h e s t n u t t , 1 9 7 5 ) . I n C r a i g f l o w e r S c h o o l o n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , g i r l s w e r e t a u g h t s e w i n g b y t h e w i f e o f t h e s c h o o l m a s t e r , a n d a t Y a l e a s e w i n g c l a s s w a s h e l d f o r g i r l s d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r m o n t h s o f 1 8 7 0 . D . W i l s o n , t h e f i r s t I n s p e c t o r o f S c h o o l s a p p o i n t e d i n i n t h e p r o v i n c e i n 1 8 8 7 , s u p p o r t e d t h e t e a c h i n g o f n e e d l e w o r k a s v a l u a b l e t r a i n i n g f o r t h e ' m i n d ' a n d t h e ' f i n g e r s ' , t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f t a s t e a n d j u d g m e n t a n d t h e i n c u l c a t i o n o f g o o d h a b i t s . H o w e v e r , i n h i s y e a r l y r e p o r t s W i l s o n made r e p e a t e d p l e a s f o r n e e d f o r i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f a l l p r a c t i c a l s u b j e c t s ( s e e P u b l i c S c h o o l A n n u a l R e p o r t s , 1 8 8 9 - 1 8 9 6 ) . B y 1891 n e e d l e w o r k was o n e o f t h e r e g u l a r o p t i o n s i n t h e c o u r s e o f s t u d y , b u t i t s i n c l u s i o n d o e s n o t i m p l y t h a t i t w a s t a u g h t g e n e r a l l y ( D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n , 1 9 1 4 ) . W h i t e ( 1 9 5 1 ) e x p l a i n s t h a t -40-often p r a c t i c a l subjects were not wel l received due to the lack of suitable teachers rather than i n s u f f i c i e n t interest on the part of the students. In an i n i t i a l e f f o r t to improve the teaching of handwork, the V i c t o r i a school board appointed a Miss Bourman, (also spelled Boorman) i n 1896 to provide a 'sound and thorough' t r a i n i n g to elementary g i r l s , as well as interested teachers. The f i r s t center for the teaching of cooking was opened i n 1903 i n V i c t o r i a . I t was organized by the Local Council of Women, and financed by the Local Council as w e l l as the Women's Chr i s t i a n Temperance Union and small personal donations. Plans f o r a center, designed to accommodate twenty students, were obtained from the East. Miss Winifred McKeand, an experienced domestic science teacher from Nova Scotia, was appointed instructor. Ten classes, each with twenty g i r l s , were chosen from the senior elementary grades and from the high school. Once a week each class received a lesson i n cookery. The report of F.H. Eaton, Superintendent of C i t y Schools for V i c t o r i a , shows that within a one-year period four domestic science centers were opened on Vancouver Island. Eaton suggests that the subject was popular with both the parents and the pupils (1904). In 1905, the Local Council of Women i n Vancouver was i n f l u e n t i a l i n establishing a domestic science center at Central School i n Vancouver. Their e f f o r t s were supported by Mr. W.P. Argue, Superintendent of -41-V a n c o u v e r S c h o o l s ( P u b l i c S c h o o l A n n u a l R e p o r t , 1 9 0 5 , p . A 5 7 ) . E l i z a b e t h B e r r y , a g r a d u a t e o f t h e f i r s t t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g c l a s s i n d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e a t T h e M a c d o n a l d I n s t i t u t e , w a s h i r e d a s t e a c h e r . S e w i n g , a t f i r s t b y h a n d , w a s t a u g h t b y r e g u l a r c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f B e r r y . T w o - h o u r f o o d s c l a s s e s w e r e a l s o h e l d f o r g r a d e e i g h t g i r l s , t h o u g h l i m i t e d f a c i l i t i e s r e s t r i c t e d e n r o l l m e n t . S t u d e n t s , d r a w n f r o m t e n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s , t r a v e l l e d t o t h e c e n t e r b y s t r e e t c a r . B y 1 9 0 9 , f o u r d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c e n t e r s h a d b e e n o p e n e d b e c a u s e o f c o m p l a i n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e d i s t a n c e some g i r l s h a d t o t r a v e l . T h u s , f r o m t h e s m a l l n u c l e u s o f n e e d l e w o r k c l a s s e s i n t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a b r o a d e r t r a i n i n g i n m a t t e r s r e l a t e d t o t h e home g a i n e d a f o o t h o l d i n b o t h V a n c o u v e r a n d V i c t o r i a s c h o o l s . T h e A d v o c a c y a n d G r o w t h o f D o m e s t i c S c i e n c e M u c h o f t h e g r o w t h o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e e f f o r t s o f l o c a l w o m e n ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e y p r o v i d e d b o t h t h e p o l i t i c a l m a c h i n e r y t o c o n v i n c e t h e p u b l i c o f t h e v a l u e o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e , a n d s e c u r e d t h e n e c e s s a r y f u n d s t o e n s u r e i t s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n i n s e l e c t e d s c h o o l s . I n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , t h e L o c a l C o u n c i l s o f Women, a n d t h e W o m e n ' s I n s t i t u t e w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e i n p r o m o t i n g t h i s new f o r m o f s c h o o l i n g . - 4 2 -A s d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r t w o , t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l of: Women o f C a n a d a f o r m e d i n 1 8 9 3 , p u r s u e d b o t h n a t i o n a l i s t a n d f e m i n i s t g o a l s . B y 1 9 0 0 t h e NCWC r e p r e s e n t e d s e v e n n a t i o n a l l y o r g a n i z e d s o c i e t i e s a n d t w e n t y - o n e l o c a l c o u n c i l s ( S t r o n g - B o a g , 1 9 7 5 ) . E n t h u s i a s t i c n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t was g i v e n t o t h e e f f o r t s o f p r o v i n c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e a d d r e s s o f M r s . A r c h i b a l d o f H a l i f a x , t o t h e T h i r d A n n u a l N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f W o m e n ' s M e e t i n g i l l u s t r a t e s t h e c o o p e r a t i v e a c t i o n u n d e r t a k e n a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l o n b e h a l f o f a f f i l i a t e d g r o u p s r e g a r d i n g d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e : We d o n o t w a n t t o b e p r o v i n c i a l i n t h i s N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f o u r s , a n d w h e n we f i n d a w a n t i n O n t a r i o w h i c h w i l l a p p l y t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a w i t h e q u a l f o r c e , o r t o New B r u n s w i c k , we w i l l c a r r y i t home a n d d i n i t i n t o t h e e a r s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n i s t s u n t i l t h e y w i l l b e g l a d t o g r a n t o u r r e q u e s t s . ( 1 8 9 6 , p . 3 9 1 ) . T h e W o m e n ' s I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a l s o e n d o r s e d t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e L o c a l C o u n c i l s o f Women t o e s t a b l i s h d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e . T h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n was f o u n d e d b y H o o d l e s s , i n O n t a r i o i n 1 8 9 7 . W o m e n ' s I n s t i t u t e s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a e x p a n d e d q u i c k l y u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e o f L a u r a R o s e o r i g i n a l l y f r o m O n t a r i o , s o t h a t b y 1 9 0 9 f i f t e e n p r o v i n c i a l c h a p t e r s w e r e o r g a n i z e d . T h e m o t t o \" F o r Home a n d C o u n t r y \" s y m b o l i z e d t h e r u r a l f o c u s i n h e r e n t i n t h e W o m e n ' s I n s t i t u t e . I t s members w e r e h o m e m a k e r s who b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e home a n d f a m i l y d e s e r v e d t h e same k i n d o f s t u d y , c a r e a n d s e r v i c e - 4 3 -a s t h e F a r m e r ' s I n s t i t u t e d i r e c t e d t o t h e s t o c k a n d c r o p s o f t h e i r f a r m s ( S c o t t , 1 9 2 5 ) . D o m e s t i c s c i e n c e was s e e n a s a way o f s o l v i n g h o u s e h o l d p r o b l e m s , a n d r a i s i n g t h e s t a n d a r d s o f h o u s e h o l d c a r e a n d m o t h e r i n g . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s o f o n e member t h e i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d moved f r o m t o p i c s s u c h a s ' m a k i n g b e t t e r b u t t e r ' a n d ' n e w c a r p e t s w e e p e r s ' t o t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t \" i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e i r h o m e s \" women m u s t e x t e n d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e b e y o n d t h e f a m i l y c i r c l e ( B . C . W o m e n ' s I n s t i t u t e s , 1 9 6 0 , p . 1 5 ) . S u c h comment s u g g e s t s t h a t w o m e n ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n s a l s o s e r v e d a s c o n s c i o u s n e s s - r a i s i n g e n d e a v o u r s f o r some m e m b e r s . A l i c e R a v e n h i l l , who a r r i v e d i n C a n a d a f r o m E n g l a n d i n 1 9 1 0 , w a s a n i n f l u e n t i a l member o f b o t h t h e W o m e n ' s I n s t i t u t e a n d T h e C o u n c i l o f Women. H e r b a c k g r o u n d a s a l e c t u r e r o n h y g i e n e , p u b l i c h e a l t h a n d h o u s e h o l d s c i e n c e a t K i n g ' s C o l l e g e f o r Women, U n i v e r s i t y o f L o n d o n , a n d h e r e x p e r i e n c e i n t e a c h i n g h e a l t h i n t h e r u r a l homes o f E n g l a n d made h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t t o C a n a d i a n women l i v i n g i n o u t l y i n g c o m m u n i t i e s ( R a v e n h i l l , 1 9 5 1 ) . M a n y o f h e r i d e a s o n t o p i c s r e l a t e d t o t h e h y g i e n e o f t h e f a m i l y w e r e c o n v e y e d t h r o u g h t h e W o m e n ' s I n s t i t u t e Q u a r t e r l y . R a v e n h i l l b e l i e v e d s t r o n g l y i n t h e p o w e r o f t h e h o m e . H e r s c i e n t i f i c p e r s p e c t i v e e m p h a s i z e d c o n t r o l l i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e home s o t h a t t h e y w o u l d b e c o m e s u b s e r v i e n t t o human n e e d s . T h u s , h o u s e h o l d t a s k s - 4 4 -s u c h a s c o o k i n g , c l e a n i n g , s e w i n g a n d w a s h i n g w e r e b u t a l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e d u t i e s o f women i n u p h o l d i n g t h e \" r i g h t c o n d u c t o E human l i f e i n t h e h o m e \" ( c i t e d i n R o w l e s , 1 9 5 6 , p . 6 8 ) . T h o u g h R a v e n h i l l d i d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e d i r e c t l y i n p u b l i c s c h o o l d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e p r o g r a m s , h e r p r e s e n c e i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a n d h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n i n c r e a s e d t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e p r o g r a m s b e i n g p r o m o t e d b y w o m e n ' s g r o u p s . D u r i n g t h e 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 0 1 s c h o o l y e a r , g e n e r o u s s u p p o r t f r o m t h e M a c d o n a l d M o v e m e n t e s t a b l i s h e d f o u r m a n u a l t r a i n i n g c e n t e r s f o r b o y s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a - t w o p r o g r a m s i n V a n c o u v e r , a n d t w o i n V i c t o r i a . T h e s e c e n t e r s c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o t h e l a c k o f s i m i l a r f a c i l i t i e s f o r g i r l s , a n d n o d o u b t f u e l l e d t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e w o m e n ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n s o n b e h a l f o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e . I n many c a s e s t h e o p e n i n g o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c e n t e r s f o l l o w e d s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f m a n u a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s f o r b o y s . H o w e v e r , L i g h t f o o t a n d M a y n a r d ( 1 9 4 1 ) i n d i c a t e t h a t i n some s m a l l t o w n s a m a n u a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m w a s i n p l a c e f o r u p t o t w e n t y y e a r s b e f o r e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e . T h e d i s c r e p a n c y i n p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s a v a i l a b l e t o b o y s a n d g i r l s s u g g e s t s t h a t i n r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s t h e s k i l l s o f h o m e m a k i n g w e r e s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e d u t y o f t h e m o t h e r . M o r e o v e r , t h e l a c k o f a n o r g a n i z e r o r i n s p e c t o r s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e i m p l i e s t h a t i t w a s a l w a y s p u b l i c i z e d u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f m a n u a l t r a i n i n g , a n d d i d n o t r e c e i v e r e c o g n i t i o n o n i t s own m e r i t s . - 4 5 -W h i l e o u t s i d e i n d i v i d u a l s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s e x e r t e d s t r o n g p r e s s u r e o n t h e p r o v i n c i a l a u t h o r i t i e s t o i n s t i t u t e p r o g r a m s i n d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e , t h o s e i n s i d e t h e e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m a l s o w o r k e d t o p u b l i c i z e t h e new s u b j e c t a r e a i n v a r i o u s w a y s . B e r r y i s s u e d a n o p e n i n v i t a t i o n t o t h e p u b l i c t o v i s i t t h e c l a s s e s a t a n y t i m e . S h e c o m m e n t e d t h a t among t h e v i s i t o r s d u r i n g i t s f i r s t y e a r o f o p e r a t i o n w e r e D r . A l e x a n d e r R o b i n s o n , S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f E d u c a t i o n f o r t h e p r o v i n c e , members o f t h e S c h o o l B o a r d , I n s p e c t o r s o f S c h o o l s , members o f t h e C o u n c i l o f Women, a s w e l l a s many o t h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n e d u c a t i o n . B e r r y e s t i m a t e d t h a t 4 0 0 o u t s i d e v i s i t o r s came d u r i n g 1 9 0 5 - 6 , t h e f i r s t y e a r o f o p e r a t i o n . ( L i g h t f o o t a n d M a y n a r d , 1 9 4 1 , p . 5 . ) T h e a i m o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e , B e r r y c l a i m e d , w a s \" a r o u s i n g a n i n t e r e s t i n t h e a r t o f t r u e h o m e m a k i n g . . . \" ( 1 9 0 6 , p . 2 2 ) . Thomas ( 1 9 8 4 ) e x p l a i n s t h a t B e r r y ' s p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s u b j e c t a n d h e r c o r a n i t m e n t load c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e o n i t s e x p a n s i o n w i t h i n t h e e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m , f o r s h e l a t e r b e c a m e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f D o m e s t i c S c i e n c e i n V a n c o u v e r a n d r e m a i n e d i n t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m f o r t w e n t y y e a r s . D o m e s t i c s c i e n c e was a l s o p u b l i c i z e d b y h o l d i n g ' c l a s s t e a s ' f o r m o t h e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , b y 1 9 1 0 d i s p l a y s o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e p r o j e c t s w e r e a p a r t o f a n n u a l l o c a l e x h i b i t i o n s h e l d i n V a n c o u v e r , a n d l a t e r i n s u r r o u n d i n g c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e s e a c t i v i t i e s p r o v i d e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r v i s i t o r s t o v i e w p r a c t i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n p r o g r e s s a n d t o e x a m i n e t h e - 4 6 -w o r k o f t h e s t u d e n t s . T h e l a t e r i n i t i a t i o n o f 'home p r o j e c t s ' f o r s t u d e n t s e m p h a s i z e d a n i n c r e a s e d home a n d s c h o o l r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n m e n t o f f e r e d f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f m a n u a l t r a i n i n g c e n t e r s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 1 0 - 1 9 1 1 s c h o o l y e a r . T h e g o v e r n m e n t a g r e e d t o p a y n o t l e s s t h a n t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f t h e b a s i c e q u i p m e n t c o s t , a n d c o v e r t h e s a l a r y a n d t r a v e l l i n g e x p e n s e s o f t r a i n e d t e a c h e r s f o r a p e r i o d o f o n e y e a r . I f S c h o o l B o a r d s d e c i d e d t o c o n t i n u e t h e w o r k , t h e y w e r e a s k e d t o r e p a y h a l f t h e c o s t o f t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d f u r n i s h t h e f u l l s a l a r y o f t h e t e a c h e r i n s u b s e q u e n t y e a r s ( W h i t e , 1 9 5 1 ) . U n d e r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f G e o r g e D e a n , A s s i s t a n t S u p e r i n t e n d e n t a n d D i r e c t o r o f I n d u s t r i a l a n d T e c h n i c a l E d u c a t i o n , b o t h m a n u a l t r a i n i n g f o r b o y s a n d d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e f o r g i r l s e x p a n d e d r a p i d l y . I n t h e c a s e o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e , t h e n u m b e r o f c e n t e r s g r e w f r o m s i x t o t h i r t e e n b e t w e e n 1911 a n d 1 9 1 2 . Some o f t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e may a l s o b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e e l e c t i o n o f M r s . P e t e r M c N a u g h t o n t o t h e V a n c o u v e r S c h o o l B o a r d i n 1 9 1 2 . S p o n s o r e d b y t h e L o c a l C o u n c i l o f Women, M c N a u g h t o n r e c e i v e d t h e h i g h e s t v o t e e v e r c a s t f o r a c a n d i d a t e i n a p r e v i o u s e l e c t i o n (NCWC R e p o r t , 1 9 1 2 , p . x v i i i ) . M r s . M c N a u g h t o n v i s i t e d v a r i o u s d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c e n t e r s t h r o u g h o u t b o t h t h e U n i t e d i S t a t e s a n d C a n a d a , a n d t h r o u g h o u t h e r t e r m o f o f f i c e w o r k e d d i l i g e n t l y t o f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t i n t h e s u b j e c t . - 4 7 -A r e s o l u t i o n made b y d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e t e a c h e r s t h r o u g h t h e T e a c h e r s ' I n s t i t u t e i n 1 9 1 1 , c h a n g e d t h e name o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e t o 'Home E c o n o m i c s ' a s i t was f e l t t o more a d e q u a t e l y c o v e r t h e v a r i o u s p h a s e s o f t h e s u b j e c t . F r o m t h i s d a t e d i s c u s s i o n a p p e a r s u n d e r b o t h l a b e l s . E v e n i n 1 9 2 0 J o h n K y l e , t h e n O r g a n i z e r o f T e c h n i c a l E d u c a t i o n f o r t h e P r o v i n c e r e f e r s t o d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e \" . . . o r a s m o s t o f t h e i n s t r u c t o r s p r e f e r t o t e r m i t , home e c o n o m i c s \" ( A n n u a l R e p o r t , p . C 8 3 ) . T h u s , u s e o f t h e t e r m home e c o n o m i c s g r e w s l o w l y among t h o s e i n t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m . On V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , A n n i e J u n i p e r , whom R o w l e s 1 d e s c r i b e s a s a \" c a p a b l e E n g l i s h w o m a n \" , a g r a d u a t e o f t h e N o r f o l k a n d N o r w i c h S c h o o l o f H o u s e h o l d S c i e n c e , was a p p o i n t e d s u p e r v i s o r o f d o m e s t i c t r a i n i n g i n V i c t o r i a i n 1 9 1 1 . P r i o r t o h e r a p p o i n t m e n t , J u n i p e r w a s D e a n o f t h e S c h o o l o f H o u s e h o l d S c i e n c e , M a c d o n a l d C o l l e g e , a n d t h e n D e a n o f t h e H o u s e h o l d S c i e n c e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e M a n i t o b a A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e ( J . F . S n e l l , 1 9 6 3 ) . S h e a l s o h a d t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n E n g l a n d , W a l e s a n d C a n a d a . J u n i p e r w r o t e t h e f i r s t c u r r i c u l u m f o r g i r l s i n V i c t o r i a , D o m e s t i c S c i e n c e , C o u r s e 1 ( 1 9 1 1 ) a n d a l s o t h e f i r s t t e x t b o o k G i r l s ' Home M a n u a l ( 1 9 1 3 ) . T h e m a n u a l w a s d e d i c a t e d t o M r s . M a r g a r e t J e n k i n s , a member o f t h e L o c a l C o u n c i l o f Women, a n d a S c h o o l B o a r d o f f i c i a l , f o r h e r e f f o r t s i n f u r t h e r i n g t h e home e c o n o m i c s movement w i t h i n t h e p r o v i n c e . I t w a s p r e p a r e d i n \" t h e h o p e t h a t g i r l s , n o t o n l y a t s c h o o l , b u t i n a f t e r l i f e a l s o , may f i n d i t h e l p f u l i n m a k i n g t h e m m o r e e f f i c i e n t i n t h e n o b l e a r t o f h o m e r a a k i n g \" ( J u n i p e r , 1 9 1 3 , p r e f a c e ) . - 4 8 -D u x i n g W o r l d War I t h e n u m b e r o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c e n t e r s i n c r e a s e d o n l y s l i g h t l y , b u t i t s i m a g e w a s e n h a n c e d t h r o u g h a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e w a r t i m e e f f o r t . G i r l s i n d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c l a s s e s made c l o t h e s , p r e p a r e d b a n d a g e s , g a v e d i n n e r s a n d i n i t i a t e d f u n d - r a i s i n g p r o j e c t s t o s u p p o r t t h e w o r k o f t h e R e d C r o s s ( V a n c o u v e r S c h o o l B o a r d R e p o r t , 1 9 1 5 , p . 7 3 . ) T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n d a i l y l i f e a n d p r a c t i c a l l e a r n i n g i n s c h o o l s b e c a m e m o r e s h a r p l y f o c u s s e d d u r i n g t h e w a r t i m e p e r i o d w i t h a n e m p h a s i s o n c o n s e r v a t i o n , e c o n o m y a n d t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f f o o d . \" N o t a t F i r s t A l l P l a i n S a i l i n g \" B e r r y ( L i g h t f o o t a n d M a y n a r d , 1 9 4 1 ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t some p a r e n t s s t r o n g l y o b j e c t e d t o h a v i n g t h e i r d a u g h t e r s \" w a s t e t i m e \" i n s c h o o l o v e r s o m e t h i n g t h e y w e r e s u p p o s e d t o b e l e a r n i n g f r o m t h e i r m o t h e r s . A l s o , some r a t e - p a y e r s , a n x i o u s t o k e e p down l o c a l t a x e s w e r e o p p o s e d t o t h e t e a c h i n g o f \" f r i l l \" s u b j e c t s w h i c h r a i s e d t h e c o s t s o f e d u c a t i o n . I n t h e m i n d s o f s u c h o b j e c t o r s t h e b e s t e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m , w a s s i m p l y t h e c h e a p e s t o n e . Some c r i t i c s w e r e s i m p l y a g a i n s t t r y i n g a n y t h i n g n e w . O t h e r s w e r e a n x i o u s t o s e e t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m p r e s e r v e i t s a c a d e m i c f o c u s . T y p i c a l o f t h e s e o b j e c t o r s w a s A g n e s D e a n s C a m e r o n , p r i n c i p a l o f S o u t h P a r k S c h o o l i n V i c t o r i a - a n e d u c a t o r who r e s i s t e d t h e c h a n g e s b e i n g s o u g h t . - 4 9 -L a s t y e a r t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a C o u n c i l o f Women w a s a l l a g o g f o r d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e . When I , o p e n i n g my e a s t e r n w i n d o w s w h i c h l o o k t o w a r d t h e s u n , s a w t h e p r o c e s s i o n o f c o o k i n g s t o v e s a n d s t e w p a n s , c a r p e n t e r s ' b e n c h e s a n d j a c k p l a n e s h e a d i n g f o r t h e s c h o o l r o o m d o o r , I l i f t e d u p a f e e b l e w a i l f o r m e r c y . I n t h i s w h o l e C o u n c i l o f Women I f o u n d n o f r i e n d . I w a s a n a t h e m a a n d u l t r a - c o n s e r v a t i v e . I was u n p r o g r e s s i v e a n d l a z y . D i d I n o t k n o w t h a t c o o k i n g was a g o o d t h i n g , a m o s t n e c e s s a r y t h i n g ? A n d s h o u l d n ' t t h e s c h o o l c o u r s e b e e n r i c h e d ? ( A g n e s D e a n s C a m e r o n , 1 9 0 4 , p . 2 4 1 ) O b j e c t i o n s t o w a r d m a n u a l t r a i n i n g w e r e n o t c o n f i n e d s o l e l y t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , h o w e v e r . S t a m p ( 1 9 8 2 ) d i s c u s s e s t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f O n t a r i o t r a d e u n i o n s o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t m a n u a l t r a i n i n g i n s c h o o l s w o u l d i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e i r a p p r e n t i c e s h i p s y s t e m , t a k e w o r k a w a y f r o m c o m p e t a n t t r a d e s m e n , a n d p r o d u c e i n a d e q u a t e l y q u a l i f i e d w o r k e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , i t w a s f e l t b y l a b o r s p o k e s m e n t h a t m a n u a l t r a i n i n g w o u l d t r a p w o r k i n g - c l a s s c h i l d r e n i n t o s t r i c t l y p h y s i c a l o c c u p a t i o n s , a n d t h e r e f o r e w o u l d d e n y t h e m t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f u p w a r d s o c i a l m o b i l i t y . Y e t , a p p a r e n t l y some members o f t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L a b o u r U n i o n s a p p a r e n t l y l o o k e d f a v o r a b l y a t d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e a s s u c h t r a i n i n g r a i s e d t h e p u b l i c p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s t a t u s o f m a n u a l s k i l l s ( L i g h t f o o t a n d M a y n a r d , 1 9 4 1 ) . O t h e r o p p o n e n t s f e l t t l i a t t h a t m a n u a l s u b j e c t s a s t a u g h t a t s c h o o l h a d n o p r a c t i c a l v a l u e ( P u t m a n , W e i r , 1 9 2 5 , p . 9 6 ) . T h u s , t h e c o n t r o v e r s y w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m a n u a l p r o g r a m s c o v e r e d a w i d e a r e a o f c r i t i c i s m s . -50-However, Kyle suggested that the 'interferences' experienced by manual traini n g during i t formative years may have i n d i r e c t l y promoted i t s cause. In his 1920 report to the Department of Education he found i t \" g r a t i f y i n g to know that the r e s u l t of having the limel i g h t thus thrown d i r e c t l y on the subjects has been to e s t a b l i s h them more securely than ever i n the school system.\" (1920, p. A83) 'A Ri g h t f u l Place i n a National and International Scheme of Education' The findings of the the 1924 Survey of the School System, conducted by Dr. J.H. Putman, Senior Inspector of Schools, Ottawa and Dr. G.M. Weir, Professor of Education at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, secured a sound footing for the continued presence of t r a i n i n g i n home economics i n the province. B r i e f s on behalf of domestic science were presented by the Parent-Teacher Association, the B r i t i s h Columbia Teachers' Federation, and the Council of Women. Putman and Weir suggested that \"Much c r i t i c i s m has come from those who got none of th i s i n s t r u c t i o n and very l i t t l e from those who received it.\"(1925, p. 96). However, they were c r i t i c a l of those advocates, who considered proving the worth of these subject areas t h e i r \"special mission\" for i n spite of t h e i r good intentions they had \"made some sad blunders\" which had triggered much of the c r i t i c i s m from which these subjects had suffered. Consequently, several s p e c i f i c recommendations - 5 1 -w e r e made r e g a r d i n g n o t o n l y c l a s s r o o m o r g a n i z a t i o n b u t a l s o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g , t h e n e e d t o w e l d c l a s s e s i n m a n u a l s u b j e c t s w i t h t h e s c h o o l a s a w h o l e ; a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f h a v i n g s t u d e n t p r o j e c t s ' r e a l t h i n g s ' r a t h e r t h a n m o d e l s . T h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t home e c o n o m i c s b e a c o m p u l s o r y s u b j e c t t h r o u g h o u t m i d d l e s c h o o l a n d a n o p t i o n a l c o u r s e t h r o u g h t h e t h r e e y e a r s o f h i g h s c h o o l . I t w a s a l s o t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a s e c o n d s c i e n c e f o r m a t r i c u l a t i o n c r e d i t . F i n a l l y , P u t m a n a n d W e i r s u g g e s t e d t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f a d i r e c t o r \"who w i l l i n s i s t o n a w i s e e x p e n d i t u r e o f m o n e y , a l l o w n o w a s t e o f e i t h e r p u p i l s ' t i m e o r m a t e r i a l , a n d c o - o r d i n a t e l e s s o n s i n home e c o n o m i c s w i t h o t h e r s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d w i t h t h e home l i f e o f t h e p u p i l s o n t h e o t h e r \" ( 1 9 2 5 , p . 3 3 9 ) . J u s t a s t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s o f t h e R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n o n I n d u s t r i a l T r a i n i n g a n d T e c h n i c a l E d u c a t i o n p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 1 9 , h a d h e l p e d t o j u s t i f y t h e p r e s e n c e o f new f o r m s o f e d u c a t i o n a t a n a t i o n a l l e v e l , t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f t h e P u t m a n a n d W e i r s u r v e y l e g i t i m i z e d a t a t h e p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l t h e i d e a s b e i n g p r o m o t e d b y s u b j e c t s s u c h a s d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e . B y 1927 f i f t y - s e v e n c e n t e r s t l i r o u g h o u t t h e p r o v i n c e i n t o w n s s u c h a s A r m s t r o n g , C h i l l i w a c k , C o u r t e n a y , C u m b e r l a n d , K e l o w n a , N a n a i m o , New W e s t m i n s t e r , P o r t M o o d y a n d V e r n o n o f f e r e d p r o g r a m s i n home e c o n o m i c s . T h e r e w e r e 9 , 2 9 8 p u b l i c s c h o o l p u p i l s t a k i n g c o u r s e s , a n d f i f t y - n i n e -52-t e a c h e r s e m p l o y e d ( M c L e n a g h a n , 1 9 2 7 , p . M . 6 3 ) . O v e r a l l , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e w i t h i n t h e p r o v i n c e w a s p e r c e i v e d b y i t s a d v o c a t e s a s u p g r a d i n g t h e m o r a l f a b r i c a n d p h y s i c a l s t a n d a r d s o f t h e h o m e , a p p l y i n g i n d u s t r i a l a d v a n c e s t o d o m e s t i c w o r k , d e s t r o y i n g m y t h s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e ' d e g r a d i n g l a b o r 1 o f t h e h o u s e h o l d , a n d s e e m i n g l y p r o m o t i n g b o t h t h e d e p e n d e n c e a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e o f women. W h a t e v e r m o t i v e s p u r r e d i n d i v i d u a l s u p p o r t e r s w a s s u b s u m e d b y t h e u n i t e d b e l i e f t h a t e x p l i c i t t r a i n i n g i n d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s w a s o f b e n e f i t t o w o m e n . H o w e v e r , t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e k i n d s o f p u r p o s e s v i s u a l i z e d b y r e f o r m e r s w e r e t h o s e a c t u a l l y s e r v e d b y s c h o o l p r o g r a m s , t h e p r a c t i c e o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e m u s t b e e x a m i n e d t h r o u g h t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f c u r r i c u l a r m a t e r i a l s a n d d o c u m e n t s . -53-Chapter Four AN IJNTERPRETIVT\u00C2\u00A3 FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSING PRACTICE The school curriculum is a fruitful medium for tracing the process of change because exposure to planned learning experiences acquaints young people with new knowledge and changing beliefs. Each curriculum revision within a subject area therefore reflects not only changes in knowledge within a field of study but also, changes in the ordering of ideals about 'what should be taught'and the ways in which i t should be learned by pupils. The idea of teaching about the family in a school context was new, and so was the idea of offering practical experience. Thus, beliefs about the home and family, and how these were transformed into skills and techniques appropriate for a new sort of society reveals much about domestic science education as a form of educational change. In the case of home economics old ideas balanced new needs, the vested interests of various organizations demanded recognition, and \"... of course, you always have the conservative pedantry of the schoolmaster opposed to the raw haste of the social reformer.\" (Lang, 1905, p.50) -54-An Explanation of Practice. The framework used to examine the development of domestic science at the public school level, employs the concept of 'practice' as a means of revealing changes in the curriculum of home economics. The concept of practice reflects both the belief structure and the practical nature of home economics as a subject of study. An understanding of the term 'practice' comes from the work of Diorio (1982) who explains that although the term is used frequently at an informal level, insufficient thought is given to its relationship to both knowledge and activity when practice is discussed within professional fields. Diorio defines practice used by professions as being \"the more or less continuous involvement in certain publicly identifiable ranges of activities\" (1982, p.258). For example, one can practice medicine, plumbing, or Judaism, not in the sense of learning how to do anything or of improving one's performance, but rather of being habitually engaged in doing those things and/or expressing those outlooks readily associated with medicine, plumbing or the Jewish faith. When a person has been labelled as a practitioner in this second sense of one of these things, he normally is said to \"be\" a doctor, plumber, or Jew, indicating the his engagement in the particular form of practice is regular enough to constitute part of his everyday identity as a person. (Diorio, 1982, p.258.) Thus, Diorio's explanation provides insights into the way particular kinds of activities are used by society to distinguish one professional - 5 5 -f i e l d f r o m a n o t h e r . T o b e c o n s i d e r e d a ' t e a c h e r ' o n e m u s t e n g a g e r e g u l a r l y i n a c o r e o f a c t i v i t i e s a n d k n o w l e d g e r e g a r d i n g s u b j e c t c o n t e n t , a n d p e d a g o g y r e l a t e d t o b e i n g a n e d u c a t o r . T h e s e c a n b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s a n d i d e a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n u r s i n g . D i o r i o ' s d e f i n i t i o n a l s o i m p l i e s t h a t o v e r t i m e p e r s i s t i n g a c t i v i t i e s r e f l e c t t h e c e n t r a l c o n c e r n s o f e a c h p r o f e s s i o n . T h u s , h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f p r a c t i c e a p p l i e s t o M o r r i s o n ' s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t r e f o r m o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y c h o s e t o f o c u s u p o n d i f f e r i n g c a u s e s o f s o c i a l d i s o r d e r a s \" . . . s a n i t a r i a n s s t r e s s e d i n s a n i t a r y l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s ; s o c i a l w o r k e r s p o i n t e d t o f a m i l y i n s t a b i l i t y ; . . . e d u c a t o r s e m p h a s i z e d t h e d i v o r c e o f t h e s c h o o l f r o m s o c i e t y \" ( 1 9 7 6 , p . 5 5 ) . T h o u g h t h e k i n d s o f p r a c t i c e w h i c h e a c h h a s e v o l v e d i s u n i q u e , t h e y s h a r e s i m i l a r h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s . W h i l e D i o r i o ' s n o t i o n s r e l a t e d t o t h e p e r s i s t e n t p a t t e r n s o f a c t i o n a r e o f a s s i s t a n c e i n s e p a r a t i n g p r o f e s s i o n s , h i s d e f i n i t i o n d o e s n o t c l a r i f y t h e w a y i n w h i c h k n o w l e d g e t r a d i t i o n a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a c h p r o f e s s i o n b e c o m e s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n s o f a c t i o n . F o r h i s t o r i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n s h o w s t h a t p e r s i s t e n t p a t t e r n s o f a c t i o n m u s t a l s o s p e a k f o r t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n s o f e a c h p r o f e s s i o n . T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d b y M o r r i s o n ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f f i e l d s o f s t u d y s u c h a s d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e , p u b l i c h e a l t h a n d s o c i a l w o r k . - 5 6 -P r a c t i c e , t h e r e f o r e , r e f l e c t s t h e a c c u m u l a t e d p h i l o s o p h y o f a f i e l d , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e , i t r e p r e s e n t s t h e common c o r e o f a c t i v i t y a n d i d e a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r p r o f e s s i o n s . T h e t e r m p r a c t i c e a l s o i m p l i e s i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n p o s s e s s i n g k n o w l e d g e a n d u s i n g i t . T o c l a r i f y w h a t t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w a y s i n w h i c h k n o w l e d g e i s p u r v e y e d t o o t h e r s , t h e w a y s i n w h i c h i t i s u s e d b y t h o s e w i t h i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a n d t h e k i n d s o f k n o w l e d g e made a v a i l a b l e t o o t h e r s . F o r i n s t a n c e i n home e c o n o m i c s e d u c a t i o n t h i s means s e e k i n g t o l e a r n how t e a c h e r s t r a n s f o r m e d t h e k n o w l e d g e o f h o m e m a k i n g a n d f a m i l i e s i n t o a p p r o p r i a t e l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s f o r s t u d e n t s . W h i l e D i o r i o a r g u e s t h a t \" a l l p r a c t i c a l f i e l d s c a n n o t b e s p o k e n o f i n i d e n t i c a l t e r m s ' ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 5 7 ) i t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t p r a c t i c e w i t h i n a n y g i v e n f i e l d may a l s o v a r y s u b s t a n t i a l l y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t o s e e k t o u n d e r s t a n d m o r e a b o u t home e c o n o m i c s e d u c a t i o n r e q u i r e s some k n o w l e d g e o f t h e f o r m s o f p r a c t i c e i t e m b o d i e s . H o l z n e r a n d M a r x a l s o a d d i n s i g h t i n t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p r a c t i c e i n t h e i r c o n t e n t i o n t h a t a l l f o r m s o f p r a c t i c e s t e m f r o m \" . . . common s e n s e a s a c u l t u r a l s y s t e m t h a t i s t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r a l l s p e c i a l i z e d modes o f k n o w i n g . T h e s e s p e c i a l i z e d modes o f k n o w i n g m a y , h o w e v e r , d e p a r t g r e a t l y f r o m i t . Y e t , t h e c u l t u r a l s y s t e m o f common s e n s e r e m a i n s a n e m b e d d i n g c o n t e x t t h a t p a t t e r n s s p e c i a l i z e d k n o w l e d g e u s e . \" ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 2 5 9 ) - 5 7 -W h i l e p r a c t i c e may b e a n a l y z e d a s s e p a r a t e c o n c e p t s , t h r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e m a i n i n h e r e n t features o \u00C2\u00A3 a l l f o r m s o f p r a c t i c e . F i r s t , a l l c o n c e p t s o f p r a c t i c e a r i s e f r o m t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e y a r e d e r i v e d . T h u s , a l l f o r m s o \u00C2\u00A3 p r a c t i c e a r e g r o u n d e d i n t h e d a i l y r e a l i t y o f o n e ' s c u l t u r e . M e a n i n g f u l i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n p e o p l e c a n n o t t a k e p l a c e w i t h o u t t h e c u l t u r a l s y m b o l s s u c h a s l a n g u a g e s t r u c t u r e , c o d e s o f b e h a v i o u r , a n d s o c i a l v a l u e s a n d n o r m s f o r t h e s e a r e t h e c u l t u r a l r e c i p e s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e t h e r e a l i t y o f d a i l y l i f e f o r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l . S e c o n d , common s e n s e s t r u c t u r e s f o r m a p a r t o f e v e n s p e c i a l i z e d k n o w l e d g e , s o t h a t a l l s c h o l a r l y c o m m u n i t i e s a r e g r o u n d e d i n c u l t u r a l r e a l i t i e s t h a t l i e b e n e a t h e v e n h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d m e t h o d o l o g y , a n d s p e c i a l i s t t e r m i n o l o g y . T h u s , common s e n s e s t r u c t u r e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t a s a f o u n d a t i o n f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f p r a c t i c e . T h i r d , common s e n s e s t r u c t u r e s a r e s o m e t i m e s s o e m b e d d e d t h a t t h e y a r e t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d b y p r a c t i t i o n e r s w i t h i n a f i e l d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , some a s p e c t s o f p r a c t i c e may n o t b e r e c o g n i z e d b y t h o s e i n v o l v e d , a c i r c u m s t a n c e w h i c h h a s l e d t o c o n c e r n r e g a r d i n g t h e i m p a c t o f t h e ' h i d d e n ' d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e a c t i o n s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s . T h i s h a s b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o s c h o o l i n g a n d t h e ' h i d d e n c u r r i c u l u m ' t o w h i c h s t u d e n t s a r e u n w i t t i n g l y e x p o s e d , ( s e e , f o r i n s t a n c e , W i l s o n , 1 9 8 0 : V a l l a n c e , 1 9 7 3 / 7 4 ) -58-The interpretive framework, page 59, by Wilson and Vaines (1985) portrays four different dimensions of practice. These are identified as customary, instrumental, interactive, and reflective conceptions of practice. A brief explanation of each of the conceptions of practice w i l l c l a r i f y their inherent differences. While on one hand, their portrayal as separate entities tends to obscure the complexity of practice, on the other i t does distinguish between the kinds of knowledge bases which underlie particular patterns of action, and the way these are used in the conduct of l i f e . Each conception of practice relates to the formulated questions which guide the examination of practice inherent in selected curricula. Customary Practice The conception of practice termed 'Customary\" highlights the patterns of acti v i t i e s which directly relate to the conduct of the everyday world. The work of the anthropologist Bourdieu (1977) supports the contentions of customary practice through suggesting that the precepts of culture allow social groups to generate a multitude of practices which can be endlessly adapted to different situations, yet those involved do not have explicit knowledge of the principles underlying their actions. Customary practice therefore, encompasses much of the 'cultural baggage' that each individual carries throughout l i f e . Its patterns of action are embodied in the cultural routines, and common sense DIAGRAM l i A THEORETIC PRAHEVORX TOR THE EXAMINATION OF PRACTICE Consideration* of P r a c t i c e Supporting Hoda of Purposa of Patterns of Inducement R e l a t i o n s h i p between Str u c t u r e s of Inquiry P r a c t i c e a c t i o n t o a c t i o n Knowledge \u00C2\u00A3 A c t i o n Knowledge Customary P r a c t i c e B a s i c a l l y A t h e o r e t i c a l H i s t o r i c a l precedent) Personal experience) conventional wisdom To solve p a r t i c u l a r and immediate problems. To become aware of p r o f e s s i o n a l s o c i a l t r a d i t i o n s Commonplace s o l u t i o n s t o p r a c t i c a l prob-lems) p r o f e s s i o n a l r o u t i n e s and s o c i a l conduct P r e s e r v i n g t r a d -i t i o n s . P r o f e s s i o n a l f o l k l o r e , and c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e A c t i o n i s guided by p e r s o n a l e x p e r t i s e based on h i s t o r i c a l c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n Instrumental P r a c t i c e E a p i r i c a l t h e o r i e s of c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n E m p i r i c a l examination o f predefined problems To c o n t r o l the s o c i a l and n a t u r a l environment i n predefined ways. To produce t e c h n i -c a l l y u s e f u l knowledge Predetermined systems of ac t i o n ) Techniques d i r e c t -ed toward i n t e r -v e n t i o n / p r e v e n t i o n Applying the laws and methods of s c i e n c e . P r e d i c t i o n and c o n t r o l of r e s u l t s A c t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d by e m p i r i c a l / a n a l y -t i c a l data. Know-ledge and a c t i o n are viewed s e p a r a t e l y I n t e r a c t i v e P r a c t i c e I n t e r p r e t i v e theory H i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s A n a l y s i s of experience; p r a c t i c a l d e l i b e r -a t i o n ) Discourse and d i a l e c t i c To b u i l d a consen-sus of understand-i n g d i r e c t e d toward the enhancement of human l i f e N e g o t i a t i o n w i t h ' o t h e r s o f acceptable s o l u t i o n s t o given problems) o r i e n t i n g a c t i o n i n d e s i r e d d i r e c t i o n Understanding 'what l a ' ) Acknowledging other p e r s p e c t i v e s , sharing networks of meaning Knowledge i s t i e d to a c t i o n through i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n R e f l e c t i v e P r a c t i c e C r i t i c a l and normative theory D i a l e c t i c ) C r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n ) R e f l e x i v e examination i To change the i n d i v i d u a l o r s o c i a l order. To b u i l d a j u s t s o c i e t y f o r a l l S o c i a l a c t i o n d i r e c t e d toward long term change D i s c l o s i n g c o n s t r a i n t s which i n h i b i t change) P e r c e i v i n g what 'ought to be'. Constant i n t e r p l a y between p r o f e s s i o n a l knowledge and the way i t i s t r a n s l a t e d t o a c t i o n From: Sue W i l s o n and E l e a n o r e V a i n e s . (1965) A t h e o r e t i c a l framework f o r t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f p r a c t i c e in home e c o n o m i c s . Home E c o n o m i c s R e s e a r c h J o u r n a l . 13 ( 4 ) (in p r o c e s s ) . -60-behaviours that make up the s o c i a l t r a d i t i o n s and habits which form a part of both the informal and formal conduct of d a i l y l i v i n g . Customary practice adds richness, depth and s t a b i l i t y to professional as w e l l as everyday concerns. For instance, customary practice may incorporate ceremonies, and symbolic routines which imbue group members with status or accord recognized both within the group i t s e l f , as w e l l as by outsiders. Members may be loathe to discard such t r a d i t i o n s even though they might be outmoded i n contemporary society, for these embody the heritage and meaning inherent i n the group ideal s . At the same time, customary practice represents routines that are a part of the structure of the profession i t s e l f . Action associated with practise of a customary form i s most frequently an immediate response to a s p e c i f i c circumstance. Stress i s placed upon the conventional wisdom and personal expertise that has become established as being c u l t u r a l l y acceptable, and that may have been learned from p r i o r generations. For example, habit and custom have established many f o l k medicines to be successful remedies for some diseases and other forms of physcial d i s t r e s s , though a s c i e n t i f i c basis for age-old wisdom may not have j u s t i f i e d t h e i r use u n t i l many years l a t e r . In customary practice i t i s what 'works' that counts, as determined by the accumulated wisdom of those more experienced. -61-In terras of d a i l y l i f e , actions of a customary form are readily associated with routines and ideas regarding the conduct of the home. Thus, the b e l i e f s of grandmothers, mothers, and other meaningful persons often play a large part i n household practice related to child- r e a r i n g , parenting, and family coinmunication. Sometimes s c i e n t i f i c evidence supports customary practice, such as the studies which suggest that breast-feeding provides benefits to the new-born that cannot be replicated by bottle-feeding. In t h i s instance, a young mother can f e e l increasingly comfortable knowing her decision to breast-feed her baby has s c i e n t i f i c v a l i d i t y . Yet, sometimes customary p r a c t i c e . i s at odds with the practices advocated by science. For example, e f f i c i e n c y studies may suggest that having a household garden i s not generally an economical way to obtain f r u i t and vegetables. Shopping at a supermarket may save both money and energy but ignores the pleasures of gardening which are not accountable i n s c i e n t i f i c terms. In the case of the gardener t h i s i s a simple problem involving determining which aspect of obtaining f r u i t and vegetables i s most important. In the case of the young mother, a decision to bottle-feed, as advocated by many mothers i n the previous generation, may r e s u l t i n a more complicated s i t u a t i o n i n which the customary b e l i e f s of her p a r t i c u l a r family are at odds with the practices suggested by science. Thus, the delineation of customary practice from other conceptions of practice, provides a means of understanding the c o n f l i c t which sometimes occurs when practices of one -62-forra become juxtaposed on another. When used i n examining domestic science i t provides insight into the development and overlap of patterns of action associated with the home. In the professional sphere, the customary dimension supplies 'blueprints' for appropriate action i n p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s . I m p l i c i t forms of customary practice determine professional conduct, such as the language used by professionals i n communicating with c l i e n t s , wearing accepted symbols of status, e.g. c l i n i c a l uniforms versus street clothes, or using professional t i t l e s . These can influence the nature of practice, whether or not they are a r t i c u l a t e d . I t i s only recently that the effect of these p a r t i c u l a r symbols and routines has been called into question, i . e . some customary practises have become the subject of e x p l i c i t scrutiny. Thus, some professionals are now questioning aspects of the services they perform. Given names are now more frequently used; uniforms have become less common; and professional jargon which confuses c l i e n t s i s the subject of discussion. These changes i l l u s t r a t e that customary practice need not be s t a t i c , once the dimension i s recognized by those involved. Wilson's (1981) discussion of the professional t r a i n i n g of teachers indicates that the 'apprenticeship method' may be one of the means by which customary practice i s taught. Under the guidance of q u a l i f i e d experts, prospective teachers undergo a lengthy apprenticeship i n t h e i r -63-student-teaching piractica. Medical students, d i e t i t i a n s , and nurses a l l have periods of rigorous p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g as a part of t h e i r professional development- In a s i m i l a r way, students i n public schools are 'apprentices' as they become acquainted with concepts of acceptable 'practice' associated with schooling. Knowledge i n these instances i s not negotiated, but i s i m p l i c i t l y accepted by the u n i n i t i a t e d , and i t s mastery frequently rewarded by instructors. Customary practice can therefore, exert i t s influence not only on the patterns of action of each i n d i v i d u a l , but also consciously or not, on the process of formal t r a i n i n g to which members are exposed. Instrumental Practice A second dimension of practice portrayed i n the int e r p r e t i v e framework i s instrumental practice, rooted i n both the natural and s o c i a l sciences. The s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s provide knowledge that enables people to control t h e i r surroundings. Research t r a d i t i o n s are grounded i n the empirical mode of inquiry, and the p r i n c i p l e s and laws established by the s c i e n t i f i c framework of thinking. Consequently, the methods of investigation employed i n instrumental practice and the knowledge i t produces are considerably d i f f e r e n t from those of customary practice. Because the instrumental conception of practice i s based on the s c i e n t i f i c rationale which claims to be value free, i t can only legitimately concern i t s e l f with those aspects of knowledge which - 6 4 -c a n b e e m p i r i c a l l y m e a s u r e d a n d s u b j e c t e d t o s c i e n t i f i c a n a l y s i s . S c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t p r o b l e m s m u s t b e p r e d e f i n e d , i n p r e c i s e a n d m e a s u r e a b l e t e r m s s u i t a b l e t o e m p i r i c a l a n a l y s i s . T h e r e f o r e , p r o c e d u r e s m u s t b e c o n d u c t e d w i t h o u t t h e d i s t o r t i o n o f d i m e n s i o n s w h i c h c a n n o t b e c o n t r o l l e d a n d t h e r e s u l t s m u s t b e v i a b l e i n s c i e n t i f i c t e r m s . V a n M a n e n ( 1 9 7 7 ) e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e c r i t e r i a o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d e f f i c i e n c y u s e d i n e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o l o r s b o t h t h e means b y w h i c h t h e a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e , a n d t h e e n d s t o w h i c h i t i s d i r e c t e d . W i t h i n c o n t e m p o r a r y home e c o n o m i c s , i n s t r u m e n t a l p r a c t i c e i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e management o f a p p l i e d t e c h n i q u e s i n e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n , s y s t e m s a n a l y s i s a n d b e h a v i o u r m o d i f i c a t i o n , a s w e l l a s t h e t e c h n o l o g y r e l a t e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n o f c o n s u m e r g o o d s . A p p l e ( 1 9 7 5 ) d e c l a r e s t h a t t h e s c i e n t i f i c r a t i o n a l e h a s b e c o m e s o a c c e p t e d t h a t i t i s t h e p r e d o m i n a t e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y . W i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y s u c c e s s i s d e t e r m i n e d o n l y i n d i m e n s i o n s w h i c h a r e m e a s u r e a b l e , s o t h a t r e s u l t s w h i c h c a n b e p r o v e n i n s c i e n t i f i c t e r m s a r e m o r e a c c o u n t a b l e a n d t h e r e f o r e , m o r e w o r t h w h i l e . A p p l e ( 1 9 7 5 ) c a l l s t h i s a f o r m o f s c i e n t i s m , o r t h e w o r s h i p o f t e c h n i c a l a c t i o n . Y e t , t h e v a l u e o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c f r a m e w o r k m u s t n o t b e u n d e r e s t i m a t e d , f o r t h r o u g h t h e d i m e n s i o n o f i n s t r u m e n t a l p r a c t i c e t h e h o r i z o n s o f k n o w l e d g e h a v e b e e n e x p a n d e d t o a l e v e l n o t e v e n i m a g i n e d b y p r i o r -65-generations. While the s c i e n t i f i c rationale i s a powerful phenomenon i n the control and production of technical knowledge, some aspects of l i f e are not encompassed by i t s parameters. Many of the things which make, us 'human' cannot be neatly packaged and measured. Thus, f i e l d s of study dealing with the needs and values of people must be aware of the boundaries imposed by the s c i e n t i f i c rationale. For instance, Reid (1979) suggests that frequently i n professions concerned with people, p r a c t i c a l problems become reduced to procedural ones i n order to f i t the imagery of engineering and design fostered by science. The t r a n s l a t i o n of s o c i a l issues into technical forms leads to the manipulation of situations which may d i s t o r t both the root of the problem, and eff e c t the dismissal of alt e r n a t i v e solutions because they cannot be quantified. Thus, instrumental practice, powerful though i t may be, i s not a suitable means for solving a l l problems, and despite i t s dominance, cannot accommodate many of the dimensions of human behaviour important i n d a i l y l i f e . H i s t o r i c a l l y , the in c l u s i o n of the name 'science' into the o r i g i n a l t i t l e of the program i n domestic t r a i n i n g i n public schools, underscores the b e l i e f that knowledge offered by the s c i e n t i f i c rationale was necessary for the improvement of family conditions at the turn of the century. S c i e n t i f i c discoveries indeed benefitted the physical condition of families i n terms of health practices, cleanliness, and d i e t . Moreover, i n i t s struggle for acceptance i n the -66-e d u c a t i o n a l s e t t i n g , p l a c i n g t h e n e e d s o f t h e home a n d f a m i l y o n a s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s p o r t r a y e d d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e a s a f i e l d o f s e r i o u s s t u d y a n d t h e r e b y h e l p e d l e g i t i m i z e i t s i n c l u s i o n i n s c h o o l s . N o t o n l y d i d s c i e n c e p r o v i d e new t o o l s f o r s o l v i n g p r o b l e m s , b u t i t h e l d t h e p r o m i s e o f m a k i n g t h e home b o t h m o r e e f f e c t i v e a n d e f f i c i e n t . I n t e r a c t i v e P r a c t i c e I n t e r a c t i v e p r a c t i c e c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m b o t h c u s t o m a r y a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l f o r m s b y i t s c o n c e r n f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e . I n t h i s d i m e n s i o n t h e o b s e r v e r s e e k s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m e a n i n g s u n d e r l y i n g p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s o f a c t i o n s . K n o w l e d g e a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e i n t e r a c t i v e d o m a i n i n c o r p o r a t e s a s p e c t s o f v a l u e a n d q u a l i t y a n d i n v o l v e s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p r i o r s i t u a t i o n s o f a s i m i l a r n a t u r e , i . e . i t i n c l u d e s a h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . P r a c t i c e o f t h i s f o r m r e q u i r e s t h e e x p l i c i t e f f o r t o f t h e o b s e r v e r t o r e c o g n i z e p a r t i c u l a r m e a n i n g s i n h e r e n t i n p a t t e r n s o f a c t i o n , f o r e v e n t h o u g h t h e a c t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n t w o s i t u a t i o n s may a p p e a r s i m i l a r , t h e m e a n i n g s a n d i n t e n t i o n s l y i n g b e h i n d t h e m may r e s u l t i n v e r y d i f f e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n s . T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , s a y i n g ' I d o ' i n f r o n t o f a p r i e s t a n d o n e s f i a n c e ' , may b e a n a c t o f m a r r i a g e a n d i t may n o t , d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , f o r t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s may b e p r e t e n d i n g o r a c t i n g i n a m o v i e o r r e h e a r s i n g t h e c e r e m o n y , a n d s o o n . What s p e c i f i c a c t i o n i s b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n d e p e n d s u p o n t h e m e a n i n g s t h a t t h e b o d i l y movement b e i n g p e r f o r m e d h a v e . ( F a y , 1 9 7 5 , p . 7 3 ) - 6 7 -D e s c r i p C i o n s a n d r e d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y t n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s e n s e o f p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n s o f a c t i o n s f o r s u c h r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s s e e k common n e t w o r k s o f m e a n i n g r a t h e r t h a n m e a s u r e d o b s e r v a t i o n s o f p a t t e r n s o f a c t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o e x p l a n a t i o n s o f f e r e d b y i n t e r p r e t i v e s o c i a l s c i e n c e , b y i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h o t h e r p e r s o n s i n v o l v e d i n a s i t u a t i o n , o r b y r e l i v i n g a n e v e n t , t h e a c t i o n s o b s e r v e d c a n b e m o r e a u t h e n t i c a l l y u n d e r s t o o d , a n d t h e ' s e n s e ' o f p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s b r o u g h t t o l i g h t . F a y ( 1 9 7 5 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t a t t e m p t i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d o r e x p l a i n p a r t i c u l a r a c t i o n s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y s e t t i n g t h e a c t w i t h i n a l a r g e r c o n t e x t t h a n t h a t s i m p l y o b s e r v e d . T h e m e a n i n g g i v e n t o a c t i o n s t h e r e f o r e , i n c l u d e s t h e a i m s a n d c o g n i t i o n s o f t h e p e r s o n i n v o l v e d i n t h e s i t u a t i o n , a n d t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e a c t i o n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e p u b l i c e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t p a r t i c u l a r e x p l a n a t i o n s i s g a t h e r e d f r o m m o r e t h a n t h e o b s e r v e d a c t i o n s o f t h e e v e n t i t s e l f . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e d e b a t e s r e l a t e d t o t h e ' d o m e s t i c p r o b l e m ' d o c u m e n t e d b y t h e p r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f Women o f C a n a d a ( r e f e r r e d t o i n c h a p t e r t w o ) c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d a t a s u r f a c e l e v e l a s t h e d e s i r e t o h e l p i m m i g r a n t women i n p e r f o r m i n g h o u s e h o l d c h o r e s . Y e t , a m o r e c a r e f u l r e a d i n g - a r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e e v i d e n c e - s h o w s t h a t c o n c e r n f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e s k i l l s o f i m m i g r a n t women a l s o a r o s e b e c a u s e t h e y p r o v i d e d a r e s e r v o i r o f h o u s e h o l d h e l p f o r C a n a d i a n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , c l a s s e s i n d o m e s t i c t r a i n i n g c o u l d i m p a r t -68-the 'Canadian way' to women of foreign backgrounds. Thus, evidence and reason suggest that there was more to the domestic problem than was f i r s t apparent, and that the search for a deeper explanation of the actions involved reveal a much more complex situation. In interactive practice active participation characterizes the trailsfer of knowledge from the one who holds the knowledge to the 'seekers' of the knowledge. Two relationships become evident, each unique from the other dimensions of practice - the f i r s t between the professional and the knowledge inherent in his f i e l d of study; the second between the professional and those with whom the knowledge is shared. I f these relationships are construed in terras of education, i t i s evident that each teacher must interpret the knowledge of their subject fields not only in terras of prescribed courses of study, but also i n terms of their own experiences as a person, and the p r i o r i t i e s each places on the presentation of certain kinds of knowledge for particular classrooms. For example we are told repeatedly how the death of Adelaide Hoodless's son by drinking contaminated milk, stimulated her crusade for intelligent training for women in household matters. While this is a dramatic example of the biography of the 'holder of knowledge' affecting i t s selection and interpretation, similar situations occur constantly in the way knowledge is transformed to to suit particular audiences. The following explanation of a mathematics lesson in a 1907 classroom clearly shows how knowledge was selected and -69-o r i e n t e d for p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e s , i n t h i s c a s e , s o a s t o ' m a k e t h e s c h o o l a n d l i f e r e a l t o t h e c h i l d ' . M i s s Snow g a v e a m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n o f how m a t h e m a t i c s may b e t a u g h t i n a c o o k i n g c l a s s . I n a c l a s s w i t h s i x y e a r o l d c h i l d r e n , we b e g a n w i t h f r a c t i o n s , u s i n g t h e m e a s u r i n g c u p . We w e r e m a k i n g s o m e t h i n g t h a t r e q u i r e d t h e m t o k n o w how many h a l v e s t h e r e a r e i n a w h o l e , how many f o u r t h s i n a w h o l e , h o w many f o u r t h s i n a h a l f . T h e y l e a r n e d q u i c k l y . I n m a k i n g f i g s a n d w i c h e s t h e r e c i p e c a l l e d for o n e - h a l f a s much s u g a r a s f i g s a n d t w i c e a s much w a t e r . E a c h c h i l d m e a s u r e d t h e f i g s a f t e r c u t t i n g t h e m i n s m a l l p i e c e s , t h e n h a d t o f i n d o u t how m u c h s u g a r a n d w a t e r t o u s e . T h e a m o u n t o f f i g s v a r i e d s o t h a t some o f t h e p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d w e r e o n e - h a l f o f o n e - q u a r t e r , o n e - h a l f o f t w o , o n e - h a l f o f o n e - h a l f , o n e - h a l f o f o n e - t h i r d , o n e - t h i r d o f t w o . T h e y s o l v e d t h e m q u i c k l y . Why? B e c a u s e e a c h o n e w a n t e d t o make h i s s a n d w i c h . ( H o o d l e s s , 1 9 0 8 , p . 1 9 4 ) . I n t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e t h e c o n t o u r i n g o f k n o w l e d g e b y t h e t e a c h e r t o f i t a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p o f s t u d e n t s , i s a n e x a m p l e o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p o s s e s s i o n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e . T h e s e c o n d r e l a t i o n s h i p u n i q u e t o i n t e r a c t i v e p r a c t i c e i s b e t w e e n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l ( i n t h i s c a s e , t h e t e a c h e r ) a n d t h o s e t o whom t h e k n o w l e d g e i s b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d ( t h e s t u d e n t s ) . I n i n t e r a c t i v e p r a c t i c e p a r t i c i p a n t s w o r k t o g e t h e r t o f o r g e a common n e t w o r k o f m e a n i n g . W o r k i n g t o g e t h e r r e s t s o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t , i f t h e s i t u a t i o n i s v i e w e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e p e r s o n s i n v o l v e d , e n r i c h e d f o r m s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g e m e r g e . I n i n t e r a c t i v e p r a c t i c e t h e r o l e o f t h e ' e x p e r t ' - 7 0 -or 'holder of knowledge' i s not f i x e d , because of p a r t i c i p a t i o n with others i n reaching a consensus of understanding. Thus, defense lawyers present the p o s i t i o n of the accused, or counsellors seek to understand the actions of c l i e n t s i n d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n s . In each case, the c l i e n t , student, or involved 'other' becomes an active member of the team where descriptions, meanings and understandings related to a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n are determined. Once a sa t i s f a c t o r y interpretation i s reached, alte r n a t i v e solutions can be presented, and t h e i r merits discussed. Schwab refers to t h i s form of decision making as choosing \"not the ri g h t a l t e r n a t i v e , for there i s no such thing, but the best one\". (1969, p.36). This does not preclude that the most appropriate solution may indeed l i e i n the dimension of instrumental practice. However, i n contrast to instrumentalism, i n t e r a c t i v e practice views the methods of science as one of the a l t e r n a t i v e s , rather than the only way of reaching a solution. Interactive practice i n education i s associated with knowledge that i s not imposed, but rather that which i s arbitrated. I t provides the opportunity to see through the surface of everyday l i f e , and reveals the commonality of meaning i n experience rather than the q u a n i t i f i a b l e relationships. A curriculum which includes knowledge which can be negotiated stimulates discussion, d e l i b e r a t i o n and the consideration of alternative viewpoints. Interactive practice therefore encourages students to become engaged with the knowledge i t s e l f and to interact with others who hold an a l t e r n a t i v e viewpoint. - 7 1 -R e f l e c t l v e P r a c t i c e R e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e a d d r e s s e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l , m o r a l , s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e s i n c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t y . I t i s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r o c e s s o f c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n , b a s e d o n a n i n t e r e s t i n e m a n c i p a t i o n d e v e l o p e d b y H a b e r m a s , ( 1 9 7 4 ) . P r a c t i c e o f t h i s f o r m i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s b y p r o c e s s o f c r i t i q u e w h i c h r e v e a l s t h e c o n s t r a i n i n g f o r c e s , v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s a n d f a l s e s o c i a l b e l i e f s o f s i t u a t i o n s t h a t may n o t b e a p p a r e n t t o t h o s e c l o s e l y i n v o l v e d . B y c r e a t i n g a n a w a r e n e s s o f t h e f a c t o r s t h a t s h a p e t h e f r a m e w o r k s o f k n o w l e d g e , a n d human p e r s p e c t i v e s - a n d t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e s e m i g h t b e t r a n s f o r m e d , r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e a i m s t o b r i n g a b o u t l o n g - t e r m c h a n g e , n o t o n l y i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l , b u t a l s o i n t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . A s p e o p l e b e c o m e a w a r e o f t h e m e c h a n i s m s t h a t c o n t r o l human l i v e s , a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s u c h d o m i n a t i o n , t h e y b e g i n t o s e e t h e m s e l v e s d i f f e r e n t l y . H u l t g r e n s p e a k s o f t h i s a s \" b r i n g i n g o u t t h e i n n e r w o r l d t h a t s t a n d s b e h i n d t h e o u t e r w o r l d \" ( 1 9 8 3 , p . 2 1 ) . O n c e s u c h i n f l u e n c e s a r e e x p o s e d , a v e n u e s o f a c t i o n t h a t w i l l b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e b e c o m e a p p a r e n t . T h r o u g h , q u e s t i o n i n g , d e b a t i n g , a n d r e f l e c t i n g u p o n j u x t a p o s e d o r c o n t r a d i c t o r y p e r s p e c t i v e s o f k n o w l e d g e , p o t e n t i a l p a t t e r n s o f a c t i o n c a n b e w e i g h e d a n d r e c o n c i l e d f o r t h e g o o d -72-o f a l l . A c t i o n , i n r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e i m p l i e s a w i l l i n g n e s s t o b e a r t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f c h a n g i n g t h a t w h i c h i s r e p r e s s i v e . T h e p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e i t s e l f t h e r e f o r e b e c o m e s i n h e r e n t l y m e a n i n g f u l , f o r a c t i o n -c o n c e i v e d a s p a r t o f a w i d e r c o n t e x t - i s n o t a n e n d u n t o i t s e l f , b u t r a t h e r a t u r n i n g p o i n t w h i c h f o s t e r s c o n t i n u e d r e f l e c t i o n a n d g r o w t h . C o n c e r n f o r t h e r e f l e c t i v e d i m e n s i o n o f p r a c t i c e w a s v i s u a l i z e d b y a f e w o f t h e i n i t i a l a d v o c a t e s o f d o m e s t i c t r a i i n g . F o r i n s t a n c e , C a r o l i n e H u n t v o i c e d h e r i d e a s r e g a r d i n g t h e n o t i o n o f ' f r e e d o m ' i n h e r c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e s c o p e o f home e c o n o m i c s . T h e f i n a l t e s t o f t e a c h i n g home e c o n o m i c s i s f r e e d o m . I f we h a v e u n n e c e s s a r i l y c o m p l i c a t e d a s i n g l e l i f e b y p e r p e t u a t i n g u s e l e s s c o n v e n t i o n s o r b y c a r r y i n g t h e v a l u e s o f o n e a g e o v e r i n t o t h e n e x t , j u s t s o f a r h a v e we f a i l e d . I f we h a v e s i m p l i f i e d o n e l i f e a n d r e l e a s e d i n i t e n e r g y f o r i t s own e x p r e s s i o n , j u s t s o f a r h a v e we s u c c e e d e d , ( c i t e d i n F r a n c i n e H u l t g r e n , 1 9 8 3 , p . 2 2 ) T h u s , H u n t c r i t i c i z e s s o c i e t a l n o r m s t l i a t a r e p e r p e t u a t e d w i t h o u t e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r w o r t h . S h e i m p l i e s t h a t t h e l a c k o f e x a m i n a t i o n i n h i b i t s t h e f r e e d o m d e s i r e d b y women b e c a u s e s o c i e t a l e x p e c t a t i o n s h a v e b e e n r e p r e s s i v e . H u n t ' s comments s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l o f i n d i v i d u a l s c a n o n l y b e f u l f i l l e d w h e n t h e y u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e y ' h a v e b e e n ' w h a t t h e y ' a r e n o w ' a n d w h a t t h e y h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l ' t o b e c o m e ' . T h e p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d i s t h a t o f r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e . T h e f a c t t h a t H u n t ' s e a r l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a l s f o r m e d a p a r t o f t h e L a k e P l a c i d C o n f e r e n c e s , b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o w h e t h e r s u c h i d e a l s w e r e e x p r e s s e d -73-i n the curriculum off domestic science, and whether they form a part of the contemporary program. The dimension of r e f l e c t i v e practice holds expanded horizons of meaning and new directions for actions which promote s o c i a l change rather than s o c i a l adaptation. As the idea l of service directed toward the strengthening of the home and family i s the proclaimed goal of home economics, and as education has h i s t o r i c a l l y been a major means of promoting i t s i d e a l s , the inclus i o n of r e f l e c t i v e practice i n the interpretive framework i s a means of determining whether students are being provided with the necessary tools to bring about the changes condusive to the improvement of human welfare. In short, do home economics programs promote frameworks of thinking congruent with the ideals they uphold ? - 7 4 -C h a p t e r F i v e THE CURRICULUM OF DOMESTIC S C I E N C E : A D E S C R I P T I O N OF CHANGE. T h e c u r r i c u l u m i s e x a m i n e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h r e e t i m e p e r i o d s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o s t a g e s i n t h e g r o w t h o f t h e d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e a s a s c h o o l s u b j e c t . T h e y e a r s 1 9 0 5 t o 1 9 2 5 c o v e r t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y p h a s e o f p r o g r a m s t o s c h o o l s t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o v i n c e . D u r i n g i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n , d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e p r o m o t e d t h e v i r t u e s o f d o m e s t i c i t y a s a means o f a s s i s t i n g f a m i l i e s . T h e e a r l y c u r r i c u l u m i s d e s c r i b e d i n t e r m s o f q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o t h e k i n d s o f k n o w l e d g e c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t , t h e w a y k n o w l e d g e i s a p p l i e d i n t e r m s o f s t u d e n t a c t i v i t i e s , a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s u b j e c t m a t t e r a n d l e a r n i n g . T h e i n i t i a l p r o g r a m i s e x a m i n e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l a s i t h a s p r o v i d e d t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r s u b s e q u e n t c u r r i c u l a r r e v i s i o n s . F r o m 1 9 2 6 u n t i l 1 9 4 6 t h e c u r r i c u l u m c h a n g e s i n b o t h i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d i t s b e l i e f s t r u c t u r e . T e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g move a w a y f r o m l e s s o n s b a s e d o n t h e e x p e r t i s e o f t e a c h e r s a n d i n s t e a d r e f l e c t e d a s t r o n g e r c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n s o f s c i e n c e . T h e l a s t p h a s e o f e x a m i n a t i o n , t h e 1 9 7 9 c u r r i c u l u m , o u t l i n e s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s c h o o l p r o g r a m . -75-T h e F i r s t P h a s e - I n u i t I v e I d e a s , S t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e W o r l d o f S c i e n c e . Few r e c o r d s s u r v i v e f r o m t h e e a r l i e s t e r a o f home e c o n o m i c s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . H o w e v e r , t h o s e t h a t d o s u g g e s t t h e r e n e v e r w a s a n ' o r i g i n a l a a r r i c u l u m ' . I n m o s t c a s e s t h e c u r r i c u l u m o f e a r l y d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e p r o g r a m s a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e t r a i n i n g , i n t e r e s t s a n d r e s o u r c e s o f t h e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r . Y e t , e x a m i n a t i o n r e v e a l s a c o n s i d e r a b l e u n i f o r m i t y i n t h e k i n d s o f t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g w h i c h t o o k p l a c e i n e a r l y d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c l a s s r o o m s . T h u s , c u r r i c u l a r m a t e r i a l r e l a t e d t o s c h o o l p r o g r a m s s u c h a s P u b l i c S c h o o l D o m e s t i c S c i e n c e ( 1 8 9 8 ) , D o m e s t i c S c i e n c e C o u r s e I ( 1 9 1 1 ) , t h e G i r l s ' Home M a n u a l ( 1 9 1 3 ) , a n d t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n , C o u r s e s o f S t u d y ( 1 9 2 3 ) a l l o u t l i n e s i m i l a r k i n d s o f l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s . A n e a r l y a t t e m p t i n c r e a t i n g c u r r i c u l a r u n i f o r m i t y i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f f o o d p r e p a r a t i o n a n d h o u s e k e e p i n g m a n u a l s f o r d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e p r o g r a m s o n V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d ( J u n i p e r , 1 9 1 1 ) . B y 1 9 2 3 t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n i s s u e d a r e g u l a t i o n r e q u i r i n g u r b a n t e a c h e r s t o o f f e r o n l y o n e c o u r s e o f w o r k i n a n y o n e c i t y . H o w e v e r , t h e r e w a s n o o f f i c i a l e f f o r t t o c o o r d i n a t e p r o g r a m s i n d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e w i t h i n t h e p r o v i n c e u n t i l t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f M c L e n a g h a n i n 1 9 2 6 . -76-Act Lvities: 1. What kinds of acti v i t i e s are emphasized in the curriculum? The a c t i v i t i e s of early programs i n domestic training focus on the duties of women in caring for the family and the household. Activities are distinguished by two major characteristics. F i r s t , they emphasize the home as a production center. Therefore, lessons consist of step-by-step procedures for making things, ranging from food products, to laundry starch, to laying a f i r e . Secondly, the a c t i v i t i e s emphasize the refinement of s k i l l s and techniques through practice, and by modelling the actions of the teacher. The importance of doing domestic duties well i s evident i n both the number of acti v i t i e s which are specified, and the detail with which they are outlined. For example, i n the Home Management section of Domestic Science, Course I comprehensive and separate instructions are given for the cleaning of the following items: the kitchen sink, the sink trap, the kitchen range, mopping, dusting and sweeping (using a dustcap and gloves) window cleaning, painted and varnished wood, si l v e r , knives, steel forks, pastry boards, white wooden utensils, kitchen t i n and enamel ware, brushes, furniture, and copper and brass. - 7 7 -2 . How d o c l a s s members p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s u g g e s t e d a c t i v i t i e s ? P a r t i c i p a t i o n i s a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e p r o g r a m . H o w e v e r , w h i l e t h e p r a c t i c a l c o m p o n e n t o f s c h o o l i n g w a s i t s e l f a n i n n o v a t i o n , t h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e w a y i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t e d was r i g i d l y c o n t r o l l e d . T h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n e a r l y d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c l a s s r o o m i n V a n c o u v e r s h o w s t h e e x a c t i n g d e t a i l b y w h i c h a c t i v i t i e s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t , a n d t h e e m p h a s i s p l a c e d o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t e c h n i q u e a n d c o r r e c t h a b i t s . A t h o r o u g h l y c o m p e t e n t s u p e r v i s o r i s i n c h a r g e o f t h e c o o k i n g k i t c h e n s a n d w h i l e s h e i n s t r u c t s h e r g i r l s i n t h e r u d i m e n t s o f b r e a d m a k i n g , t h e p r o p e r m e t h o d s o f c o o k i n g m e a t s a n d v e g e t a b l e s , a n d t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f d a i n t y a n d a p p e t i z i n g s i d e d i s h e s , b e s i d e s g i v i n g t h e m a n i d e a o f t h e f o o d v a l u e s o f d i f f e r e n t a r t i c l e s o f d i e t a n d t h e u n d e r l y i n g r e a s o n s f o r c o m b i n i n g d i f f e r e n t i n g r e d i e n t s t o p r o d u c e a w e l l - b a l a n c e d b i l l o f f a r e , s h e a l s o g i v e s t h e m a t h o r o u g h t r a i n i n g i n s y s t e m a t i c m e t h o d s , t h e w o r k o f h e r c l a s s e s b e i n g p e r f o r m e d w i t h a l m o s t m i l i t a r y p r o m p t n e s s a n d p r e c i s i o n , e a c h d i s h i n e a c h g i r l ' s c u p b o a r d b e i n g i n i t s e x a c t p l a c e , a n d e v e n t h e k n i v e s , f o r k s a n d s p o o n s b e i n g r a n g e d l i k e a r o w o f l i t t l e s o l d i e r s . T h e r e s u l t s a c h i e v e d b y t h e s e l i t t l e h o u s e k e e p e r s a r e e x c e l l e n t . ( R o s s , c i t e d i n S a n d i s o n , 1 9 7 1 , p . 1 9 ) . T h e r e g i m e n t a t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s s u g g e s t s a n i n t e r e s t i n g g a p b e t w e e n t h e p r o g r e s s i v e i d e a l s w h i c h p r o m o t e d t h e c a u s e o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e , a n d t h e k i n d s o f l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h w e r e i m p l e m e n t e d w i t h i n t h e c l a s s r o o m . C l e a r l y s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e t e a c h e r , n o t b y t h e n e e d s o r w i s h e s o f t h e s t u d e n t s . M o r e o v e r , l i t t l e -78-latitude was allowed for initiative on the part of students in carrying out domestic duties. 3 . Do classroom activities highlight a particular focus upon the family? Classroom programs are addressed to girls with respect to their future roles as wives and mothers. School programs from this era suggest that producing goods and the proper performance of household chores were the avenues through which women's influence could be felt. 'Upgrading' the home is interpreted as improving the physical qualities of family l i f e , such as keeping the house cleaner, preparing meals, and sewing clothes. Interestingly, the 'family' is seldom mentioned in the early curriculum. However, sections on invalid cooking and children's diets imply that these were duties to be carried out by women when required. As no reference is made to family relationships or family activities, the home seems to have been conceived as a place for the performance of tasks. Much of the concern for improving family l i f e relates to the promotion of sanitary habits. Hoodless' comments illustrate the way in which this was enforced during classroom activities. Personal cleanliness must be insisted upon. Special attention should be given to the hands and nails. The hair should be carefully pinned back or - 7 9 -c o n f i n e d Ln some w a y , a n d c o v e r e d b y a c a p . A l a r g e c l e a n a p r o n a n d h o l d e r s h o u l d b e w o r n w h i l e a t w o r k . N e v e r a l l o w t h e p u p i l s t o u s e a h a n d k e r c h i e f o r t h e i r a p r o n s i n p l a c e o f a h o l d e r . ( H o o d l e s s , 1 8 9 8 , p . i x . ) H o w e v e r , d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e w a s n o t a l o n e i n i t s c o n c e r n f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g g o o d h e a l t h h a b i t s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y a v a r i e t y o f h e a l t h w o r k e r s a n d w o m e n ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n s p u b l i c i z e d t h e n e e d f o r p r e v e n t a t i v e h e a l t h c a r e w i t h i n t h e p r o v i n c e ( S u t h e r l a n d , 1 9 8 0 ) . W h i l e home v i s i t s , p u b l i c m e e t i n g s , a n d e d u c a t i o n a l b u l l e t i n s w e r e u s e d t o p e r s u a d e m o t h e r s t o a d o p t new h e a l t h i d e a s , w i t h i n t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m , m e d i c a l a n d d e n t a l e x a m i n a t i o n s w e r e i n s t i t u t e d f o r c h i l d r e n . T h e P u b l i c S c h o o l R e p o r t o f 1911 f r o m V a n c o u v e r s c h o o l s s h o w s t h a t t h e c o n c e r n f o r t h e h e a l t h o f c h i l d r e n was j u s t i f i e d . 1 , 0 5 3 c a s e s o f p e d i c u l o s i s ( v e r m i n ) 6 , 0 5 7 c a s e s o f b a d t e e t h 56 c a s e s o f r i n g w o r m 4 3 c a s e s o f ' i t c h ' 138 c h i l d r e n c l a s s e d a s s i m p l y ' u n c l e a n ' I n a d d i t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m m u n i c a b l e d i s e a s e s w e r e f o u n d : d i p t h e r i a , m e a s l e s , w h o o p i n g c o u g h , c h i c k e n p o x , s c a r l e t f e v e r , s o r e t h r o a t , e n l a r g e d t o n s i l s a n d a d e n o i d s . ( P u b l i c S c h o o l A n n u a l R e p o r t , 1 9 1 1 . p . A 5 0 ) T h a t t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h movement h a d a n i n f l u e n c e o n t h e d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c u r r i c u l u m i s s u g g e s t e d b y t h e home e c o n o m i c s r e p o r t f r o m t h e same y e a r w h i c h m e n t i o n s e v e n i n s e w i n g , t h e n e e d t o i n s t r u c t c h i l d r e n i n ' h y g e n i c c l o t h i n g ' . ( P u b l i c S c h o o l R e p o r t , 1 9 1 1 , p . A 4 7 - A 5 1 . ) 4 . What r a t i o n a l e i s a d v a n c e d t o j u s t i f y c l a s s r o o m a c t i v i t i e s ? Underlying the emphasis on household duties was a b e l i e f that the -80-properly cared for home was a manifestation of virtuous living and spiritual well-being. For example, Hoodless declares chat the purpose of domestic training is to \"direct the intellectual faculties toward the idealization of the home\" (1903, p.162.). The preface of her textbook, states its aim as being \"...to assist the pupil in acquiring a knowledge of the fundamental principles of correct living\" (Hoodless, 1898, p.v.). The social purpose of classroom activities is echoed by Berry, who refers to training and instruction in the 'art of true homemaking' as the function of domestic science (1906, pp.22-23). Even as late as 1921 Berry speaks of the \"...the aim of home economics is not simply to teach sewing and cooking alone but to teach 'right living'\" (1921, p. 72). Ravenhill too, in an address given to the Vancouver Council of Women refers to the importance of teaching 'moral hygiene' as well as 'physical hygiene' (1911). The relationship between the proper performance of duties under sanitary conditions and the importance of right living arises from the belief that a healthy environment, in which responsibilities were carried out well, was condusive to both spiritual and intellectual growth. As the moral dimension of the home was fundamental to the philosophy of the domestic science pioneers, many of the exacting details regarding domestic duties can be interpreted within this framework of social purpose. - 8 1 -B . K n o w l e d g e . 1 . W h a t k i n d s o f k n o w l e d g e a r e p e r c e i v e d a s h a v i n g t h e m o s t w o r t h ? T h e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e , a n d t h e g r o u n d s u p o n w h i c h i t w a s j u s t i f i e d , s t r e s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f u s e f u l k n o w l e d g e . T h e c o n c e p t o f u s e f u l n e s s i s c o n c e i v e d i n t h e a a r r i c u l u m a s t h e a b i l i t y t o r u n a home w e l l - t o c a r r y o u t i t s p r a c t i c a l c h o r e s , t o c a r e f o r f a m i l y m e m b e r s , a n d t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s c i e n c e i n u p g r a d i n g t h e s t a n d a r d s o f s a n i t a t i o n a n d h y g i e n e i n t h e h o m e . M e n t a l d i s c i p l i n e , a f o r m e r k e y s t o n e i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m , i s n o t o f e x p l i c i t c o n c e r n . I n f a c t , e v e n i n t h e a d v o c a c y o f s c i e n c e , H o o d l e s s c a u t i o n s e d u c a t o r s t h a t \" T o e n t e r m o r e f u l l y i n t o t h e c h e m i s t r y o f f o o d , b a c t e r i o l o g y e t c . , w o u l d t e n d t o c a u s e c o n f u s i o n i n t h e m i n d o f t h e a v e r a g e s c h o o l g i r l , a n d p o s s i b l y c r e a t e a d i s t a s t e f o r k n o w l e d g e c o n t a i n i n g s o m u c h a b s t r a c t m a t t e r \" ( 1 8 9 8 , p . v i ) . 2 . W h a t a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e a n d l e a r n i n g a r e a d v a n c e d ? H o o d l e s s ( 1 8 9 8 , p . x ) s t a t e s t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n i n d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e c o u l d b e u s e d t o c o - o r d i n a t e o t h e r s c h o o l s t u d i e s s u c h a s h i s t o r y , g e o g r a p h y , a r i t h m e t i c , p h y s i o l o g y a n d t e m p e r a n c e . A s d o m e s t i c s c i e n c e w a s a means o f r e l a t i n g e d u c a t i o n t o e v e r y d a y l i f e , H o o d l e s s e n v i s i o n e d a -82-relationship between histo r y and geography and the study of diet and customs, and the teaching of arithmetic through arranging weights and measures, and the purchase of food. Exercising the mind with useful l