Arts, Faculty of
Art History, Visual Art and Theory, Department of
DSpace
UBCV
Agodon, Delaney Kai Russell
Master of Arts - MA
University of British Columbia
Francois Boucherâs legacy has been heavily defined by his pastoral works and relationship with Madame de Pompadour. Boucherâs oeuvre was not a stranger to mythology paintings, but one figure appeared to be a favorite. Between the years of 1744 and 1769 Boucher created four variations of the myth of Callisto and Jupiter. These paintings focused on a perceived sapphic relationship between Callisto and Diana, but carry much heavier themes when related back to their Ovidian origin. The idea that these paintings were light-hearted erotica has been perpetuated due to a continuous disconnect between the object and the social history. Instead what can be drawn is a parallel between the visualization of mythological women in connection with politics on sexual assault and violence. Boucherâs use of Ovidâs mythology is inherently tied with the bodily anxieties written within his Metamorphoses. This project focuses on drawing out the relevance of Callistoâs image in normalizing sexual violence in congruence with the Enlightenmentâs logic on womanhood. This paper examines the writings of Rousseauâs natural woman, as well as Diderotâs moral art criticism and puts it in comparison with how Boucher depicts Ovidâs women. The evolution of Callistoâs character, between her origins in Ovid and her visual representations by Boucher, depict a recognizable change in dynamics. In comparing both painting and literature the concept of the idealized woman is formed, and in turn as is a paradox.
Man, God, or Bear: The Domestication of the Nymph as Visualized by François Boucher in Dialogue with French Enlightenment Views on Sexual Violence by Delaney Kai Russell Agodon B.A., Willamette University, 2022 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Art History & Theory) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) December 2024 © Delaney Kai Russell Agodon, 2024 ii The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies for acceptance, a thesis entitled: Man, God, or Bear: The Domestication of the Nymph as Visualized by François Boucher in Dialogue with French Enlightenment Views on Sexual Violence submitted by Delaney Kai Russell Agodon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Art History & Theory Examining Committee: Dr. Nicole Georgopulos, Assistant Professor, Art History, Visual Art & Theory, UBC Supervisor Dr. Joseph Monteyne, Professor, Art History, Visual Art & Theory, UBC Supervisory Committee Member iii Abstract Francois Boucherâs legacy has been heavily defined by his pastoral works and relationship with Madame de Pompadour. Boucherâs oeuvre was not a stranger to mythology paintings, but one figure appeared to be a favorite. Between the years of 1744 and 1769 Boucher created four variations of the myth of Callisto and Jupiter. These paintings focused on a perceived sapphic relationship between Callisto and Diana, but carry much heavier themes when related back to their Ovidian origin. The idea that these paintings were light-hearted erotica has been perpetuated due to a continuous disconnect between the object and the social history. Instead what can be drawn is a parallel between the visualization of mythological women in connection with politics on sexual assault and violence. Boucherâs use of Ovidâs mythology is inherently tied with the bodily anxieties written within his Metamorphoses. This project focuses on drawing out the relevance of Callistoâs image in normalizing sexual violence in congruence with the Enlightenmentâs logic on womanhood. This paper examines the writings of Rousseauâs natural woman, as well as Diderotâs moral art criticism and puts it in comparison with how Boucher depicts Ovidâs women. The evolution of Callistoâs character, between her origins in Ovid and her visual representations by Boucher, depict a recognizable change in dynamics. In comparing both painting and literature the concept of the idealized woman is formed, and in turn as is a paradox. iv Lay Summary My central thesis examines Francois Boucherâs paintings of Callisto and her narrative evolution from a victim to a feminine ideal. The aim is to ultimately reconnect Callistoâs imagery with the social commentary surrounding the place of women and the logic surrounding sexual assault. This is achieved through putting Boucher in dialogue with his critics, namely Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Denis Diderot, and recognizing his art as a product of the Enlightenment. Callisto provides the viewer with a consistent subject across 25 years which literally illustrates how victimhood is painted. v Preface This thesis is original, unpublished, and independent work of the author, Delaney Kai Russell Agodon. vi Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary ............................................................................................................................... iv Preface .............................................................................................................................................v Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. vii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... viii Dedication .......................................................................................................................................x Introduction ....................................................................................................................................1 Callisto as a Muse...........................................................................................................................5 Francois Boucher: Audience And Critics ..................................................................................14 The Problem with Wild Women .................................................................................................34 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................43 Figures ...........................................................................................................................................44 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................51 vii List of Figures Figure 1. Francois Boucher, Jupiter and Callisto, 1744, Oil on Canvas, Pushkin Museum, Moscow, Russia. â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦.â¦â¦â¦â¦.â¦... 44 Figure 2. Francois Boucher, Jupiter in the Guise of Diana and the Nymph Callisto, 1759, Oil on Canvas, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, United States. â¦â¦â¦.â¦â¦â¦..â¦.â¦â¦..45 Figure 3. Francois Boucher, Jupiter, in the Guise of Diana, and Callisto, 1763, Oil on Canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, United Statesâ¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦...â¦â¦â¦â¦46 Figure 4. Francois Boucher, Jupiter and Callisto, 1769, Oil on Canvas, Wallace Collection, London, United Kingdom. â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦...â¦..â¦â¦. 47 Figure 5. Attributed to Francois Boucher, Leda and the Swan, circa 1740, Oil on Canvas, Private Collection. â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦..â¦...â¦â¦48 Figure 6. Francois Boucher, Pan and Syrinx, 1759, Oil on Canvas, The National Gallery, London, United Kingdom. â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦.â¦...â¦...â¦â¦ 49 Figure 7. Francois Boucher, Pan and Syrinx, 1760-1765, Oil on Canvas, Museo Nacional Del Prado, Madrid, Spain. â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦â¦.â¦...â¦..â¦ 50 viii Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the support of my wonderful advisor Dr. Nikki Georgopulos. The guidance, wisdom, and kindness she brought into every meeting pushed me out of every doubt, fear, and anxiety faced during this project. This was a learning experience for us both and I am endlessly grateful for her patience. I came to Nikki with what can only be described as a red string conspiracy board, which she helped untangle into the vision I had hoped to achieve. There are not enough ways to say thank you for the time and effort given, and there are not enough words to express how much you have helped me grow during this time. Thank you, Nikki, for believing in me when I could not believe in myself. I would also like to acknowledge and thank my second reader Dr. Joseph Monteyne. I originally found this project in one of his seminars and his initial comments brought me this inspiration to develop it in full. That seminar sparked the fire for this paper, and without it I would have never imagined choosing this subject. Thank you for changing my perspective and opening up my options. Finally thank you to Bryn Dharmaratne and Dr. Tâai Smith for your advising and guidance throughout my time at UBC. Your time and dedication to this department does not go unnoticed. I would also like to acknowledge my undergraduate advisors, Dr. Abigail Susik and Dr. Ricardo de Mambro Santos. My time at UBC was only possible due to your belief in my research and my passion. Thank you for nurturing my early love for art history at Willamette, and thank you for your continued support post-graduation. Most importantly, thank you to my parents for supporting me throughout my academic journey. Thank you for giving me the strength, space and time to pursue this degree. In a year ix filled with loss, and Iâm forever grateful to have you as my support net. Thank you for everything. Finally, thank you to all the small seemingly meaningless interactions throughout the year. To the jiffy lube in Silverdale, Washington for taking $25 off my bill after a rejection. To the Everett Silvertips for letting me use their conference room to write before games. To everyone who told me âYouâll get through this,â you might not know it, but you did make a difference. And to those who find themselves in Leda, Daphne, Callisto and Syrinx: Your stories are not defined by those who have harmed you. You will always have a voice even when they try to take it away. Your narrative will always be yours. x For E. M. may your bravery be met with the justice and change you deserve. Introduction What is the purpose of mythology, and how does the artist adopt it into their style? In its initial format mythology as written by Ovid utilizes physical transformation to literally represent consequences of one's actions. Oftentimes these transformations come about in response to some sort of disobedience regarding a social expectation. Visually themes such as ideal form and family structure became quite common in the late eighteenth century in styles such as Neoclassicism. The mid-eighteenth century also provided a plethora of mythological iconography which was ultimately displayed in a different light. The Rococo was a style favored in aristocratic salons; it was highly decorative, feminine, and displayed a wondrous perception of the natural world. The style is considered to be highly decadent utilizing pastels and vibrant colors. Favorite recurring subjects of Rococo artists were shepherds and shepherdess, boudoir scenes, and scenes of Greco-Roman mythology. The inclusion of mythology could appear as out of place due to certain stories carrying unsavory details which disrupted the idealized worlds put forth by the artists of the Salon. While Enlightenment figures such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) adopted myth into their theories. Rococo artists were accused by Enlightenment critics, such as Denis Diderot (1713-1784), of appropriating mythology into their work and they were painting a subject outside of their skill level.1 The discourse centered on a mismatched style and subject, essentially deeming mythology to be of a higher class than the Rococo pastoral.2 One artist whose oeuvre is littered with mythological figures was François Boucher (1703-1770). Boucher was one of the most prominent Salon painters, in part due to his 1 Melissa Lee Hyde and François Boucher, Making up the Rococo : François Boucher and His Critics (Los Angeles, CA: Getty Research Institute, 2006), 204. 2 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 204. 2 relationship with King Louis XVâs mistress, Madame de Pompadour. Outside of the adoring audience of the Salon, Boucher faced heavy criticism from those not as enchanted by the Rococo, most notably Diderot. Diderot believed Boucher was contributing to a moral decay via the decadence in his paintings, arguing that Boucherâs paintings lacked real content.3 Boucherâs oeuvre is expansive and covers a plethora of varying myths and styles, but one that is noteworthy is his consistent revisitation of the nymph Callisto. Boucherâs apparent revival of her imagery in the eighteenth century created a new iconography within his paintings . Boucherâs interpretation of the Callisto mythology spans from 1744-1769, granting a 25-year window of stylistic changes and development across one subject. In total, Boucher made six Callisto paintings, making her his most visited subject after Venus.4 For the purpose of this paper, I will be pulling from the four paintings in which detailed provenance records are available, as to better gather who they were intended for: Jupiter and Callisto (1744, Pushkin Museum, Moscow), Jupiter and Callisto (1759, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City), Jupiter, in the Guise of Diana, and Callisto (1763, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), and Jupiter and Callisto (1769, Wallace Collection, London) (figures 1-4).5 What stands out of this series comes from Boucherâs specific choices for staging this myth, as prior depictions of Callisto focus more heavily on her exile and transformation, while Boucher chose to depict the scene prior to her rape. Boucherâs choice to repeatedly paint Callistoâs myth seemingly with the focus of her inevitable rape creates a complex dialogue on the perception of sexual violence in the Eighteenth century. Callistoâs 3 René Démoris, "Boucher, Diderot, Rousseau," in Rethinking Boucher, by Melissa Lee Hyde and Mark Ledbury (Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006), 203. 4 Richard Rand, "François Boucher, Jupiter in the Guise of Diana, and the Nymph Callisto, 1759," catalogue entry in French Paintings, 1600â1945: The Collections of the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, 2024, 5, https://doi.org/10.37764/78973.5.306.5407. 5 Due to the repetitive nature of their names, when referring to these paintings we shall mainly focus on the date 3 function within Boucherâs time remains similar to when she was conceived, as a warning to women about their roles in society. In this thesis I aim to draw parallels with Boucherâs paintings of Callisto to connect her image with a larger social commentary on the perception of womanhood in the mid-eighteenth century. Callisto is a multifaceted asset to this exploration as she feeds into a fantasy for both men and women. Boucherâs choice to repeatedly paint Callisto highlights this fascination with the contradiction of these wild women, namely nymphs, which appear across Rococo painting. Boucherâs paintings visually support an Enlightenment idea of domesticating and taming women. Boucherâs model of Callisto as well as other nymphs like Syrinx lend themselves to a philosophy on the place of women and the consequences of not adhering to certain expectations. The archetype of the nymph ultimately fulfills a fantasy of the ideal natural woman and the looming threat of violence attached with it. The idea that the Rococo does not feed into the narrative violence against women due to its âfluffyâ aesthetic, functions as an erasure of victimhood. Boucherâs use of Callistoâs imagery within his paintings functions as a visual metaphor signalling a complex relationship of the politics of womanhood and sexual violence within the mid-eighteenth century. His fascination with Callisto is notable due to the lack of her image in prior paintings via the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which seemingly allowed for Boucherâs invention of his own iconography, and a reintroduction of Callistoâs character to the cultural conscience. Though this does lead to the question, âwhy Callisto?â especially when other nymphs and characters have more extensive visual traditions and histories. Callistoâs image in Boucher and Ovid seem wildly different, but both still achieve a multi-faceted result which allows for the viewer and reader to apply the mythology to their own cultural contexts. The 4 fantasies which Boucher panders to via these paintings reveal larger beliefs and theories surrounding the politics of rape, and Callisto provides an ideal example. These precedents were set by Enlightenment thinkers, such as Rousseau, which hinged on a theory which seemingly supported a âdomesticationâ of women. 5 Callisto as a Muse Callistoâs appearance in Ovidâs Metamorphoses reworked her initial Greek origin story into a more relevant myth for Ovidâs Roman context under Augustan rule in 8 AD.6 Ovidâs focus on transformation was meant to be introspective for the reader as they confronted the instability experienced under Augustus.7 This specifically centered on themes of loss of autonomy and the effects of trauma on the body manifested into literal changes in identity. Ovidâs writings maintain cultural relevance and are not exclusive to their origin. Narratives surrounding rape are ever evolving with the incorporation of more nuanced translation; Callistoâs myth has been examined through a number of contemporary lenses which allow for consistent interpretation and reinterpretation. Callisto as a character is built upon in each rendition of retelling and depiction; even within other time periods, mythology continues to be used to exemplify values. Her role within the mythology acted both as a warning to women of straying from societal protection, and as a representation of the lasting effects of trauma. Her punishment leads to her being literally dehumanized while retaining her human mind, no longer able to communicate with her community. Ovidâs writings came at a fraught time under Augustus and his mythology worked in congruence to better explore oneâs status within the empire.8 Callistoâs myth is narratively similar with other figures such as Actaeon, Syrinx, and Daphne, all of whom experience some form of physical transformation which represents a larger loss of personhood and autonomy. Ovidâs myths aimed to unsettle the reader and make them aware of the vulnerabilities of their body.9 6 Charles Segal, "Ovid's 'Metamorphoses': Greek Myth in Augustan Rome," Studies in Philology 68, no. 4 (1971): 376, JSTOR. 7 Charles Segal, "Ovid's Metamorphic Bodies: Art, Gender, and Violence in the 'Metamorphoses,'" Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics 5, no. 3 (1998): 32, JSTOR. 8 Segal, "Ovid's Metamorphic," 32. 9 Segal, "Ovid's Metamorphic," 10. 6 To recount the premise of the myth, the god Jupiter disguises himself as the goddess Diana to seduce one of the goddessâs favorite nymphs, Callisto. Callisto grows suspicious of the scene as Diana kisses her. When she recognizes that it is not Diana, but instead Jupiter, she attempts to fight him off but is unsuccessful, the scene ends with Jupiter raping and impregnating Callisto. âThe virgin did whatever a virgin could, with all her might against his force she strove. But how could mortal maids contend with Jove?â10 This translation came from a copy of Ovidâs Metamorphoses published in 1813. The language used to describe this assault emphasizes how Callisto fights as hard as possible but she cannot escape. Callistoâs Greek myth was much shorter, some having Diana change Callisto into a bear while others cite Juno.11 The most major change added by Ovid was the addition of Callistoâs punishment by Juno after she is cast into the stars, the addition added to the characterization of Juno and her narrative function.12 Ovidâs rendition of Callisto dwells on the repercussions of sexual violence and the ways it dehumanizes the victim, in Callistoâs case, literally. Months pass, the other nymphs find out Callisto is pregnant and she is cast out of their group. Juno, as punishment then turns Callisto into a bear where she maintains her human mind, but is trapped within the body of a beast. Callisto due to her mind does not belong to any part of the world, not wild enough to actually be a bear, but too monstrous to rejoin society. The myth ends with Callisto and her son being cast into the stars by Jupiter after her son attempted to kill the beast, unaware that it is his mother.13 Enraged that Callisto has been immortalized in the stars, Juno discusses with a sea god that Callisto will never 10 Ovid, Ovid's Metamorphoses in Latin and English, translated by the most eminent hands. With historical explications of the fables, written in French by the Abbot Banier, ... translated into English. Adorned with sculptures by B. Picart, and other able masters., trans. Abbot Banier and Bernard Picart (Printed for the Wetsteins and Smith, 1732), 54. 11Shawn O'Bryhim, "Ovid's Version of Callisto's Punishment," Hermes 118, no. 1 (1990): 72, JSTOR. 12 O'Bryhim, "Ovid's Version," 79. 13 Ovid, Ovid's Metamorphoses, 54. 7 be allowed to dip below the horizon to bathe in the waters, so she will never be able to be cleansed of the violence taken against her. Callisto appears repeatedly in Boucherâs works, both in drawing and painting, though she is not the only mythological figure seen throughout Boucherâs oeuvre. In looking at this subject, there are other nymphs that fit a similar role to Callisto, which Boucher seems to ignore. Though in visual tradition Callisto is grouped more closely to the male figure of Actaeon, her character trope is more akin to those of Daphne and Syrinx, two other nymphs. She is also quite similar to Europa and Leda in the connection to Jupiter. The narrative categories which Callisto fits in provide other options which could have been covered by Boucher, instead he returns to Callisto. That is not saying he did not paint other myths, as he did create works of Syrinx and Venus around the same time as the Callisto paintings. Though an early exploration of similar themes can be seen with Boucherâs paintings of Leda. Ledaâs differences from Callisto as written by Ovid are notable and they are not exact comparisons, but Boucher utilizes them in similar ways. Leda within Boucherâs work draws parallels to Callisto in their not explicitly male partners. With the exception of Venus, these female figures are all apart of rape mythology. Boucherâs paintings of Leda, Syrinx, and Callisto create an iconography specific to the depictions of rape. Callisto was not a common figure in earlier paintings, therefore there are less guidelines and established tradition in the depictions of her myth other than the iconography of Jupiter. Boucher was able to engage his own creativity and was not required to pull from models or previous paintings, instead getting to invent his own mythology.14 Callisto did not come with the baggage of well known mythology, instead Boucher was able to use her to reflect varying ideas 14 Christopher Bedford, "High fidelity? Deception and seduction, word and image in Boucher's Jupiter in the Guise of Diana Seducing Callisto," Word & Image 27 (2011): 49, doi:10.1080/02666286.2010.486231. 8 and fantasies to appeal to his patrons.15 Boucher was highly skilled at painting what his clients want to see and worlds that can involve their imaginations, walking a line between the taboo and the norm through his highly educated choice of iconography. Boucherâs Callisto paintings explore his depth as an artist as he traverses the fantasy of female sexual liberation while still tying it back to patriarchal power systems. Boucher is not creating feminist masterpieces, but he understood how to pander to his female patrons and viewers, his Callisto paintings best exemplify what he is best at, deceit. Boucher weaves a modern mythology through the use of Ovidian characters and myths which play to his audiences fantasies. The nymph as an archetype is evocative of images of young, beautiful, naked women, which often overshadows the severity of their myths. Nymphs walk a strange line in mythology as even though they appear human, they fall outside of civil order as they are a part of the landscape. Nymphs end up in a gray space when regarding the repercussions for crimes committed against them. Within their original Greek context nymphs have a complex relationship with gender, they are described by contemporary classicists as, âThe nymph is a highly ambiguous figure. Though sexually desirable, she is usually free of the familial restrictions applied to by mortal women and can rarely be fully domesticated.â16 The term domestication is highly important to this discussion as it pertains to politics of womanhood in the eighteenth century. Nymphs in their narratives are usually punished for their inability to adhere to societal expectations.17 In Callistoâs case she is transformed into a beast who no longer fits into her community or the natural world. Defining the nymph as a narrative trope better identifies what their purpose is in mythology, and how their 15 Bedford, "High fidelity?," 57. 16 Jennifer Larson, Greek Nymphs : Myth, Cult, Lore (New York: Oxford University Press, 2023), 4. 17 Curran, "Rape and Rape," 218. 9 arcs function. Nymphs are an eternal victim who are only recognized and defined by their victimhood, Daphne, Callisto and Syrinx are all known for their sacrifices brought forth by the hands of their attackers. Boucherâs use of Callisto will always connect back to her origins in Ovid and the establishment of her tragedy. The baggage of nymphs is not foregone throughout time especially with their source text in circulation.18 In many cases nymphs are blamed for their rapes/attemped rapes due to their rejection of their attacker. As many of these nymphs came from less popular myths their reintroduction into the eighteenth century was through these images; ultimately painting nymphs as highly sexualized figures, not as victims. There is not a clear cut answer to the reception of Ovid in the eighteenth century, though multiple versions were being circulated at the time. Ovidâs modern audience started to expand within the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with new interest from socialites within the Salon.19 This removed Ovid from more intellectual spaces and allowed for new applications of this mythology within modern society.20 The text became more accessible, potentially granting a wider understanding of more niche mythological figures, as well as Ovidâs concept of body politics. Mythology paintings for artists provided a venue for more imaginative works which did not have to pull from nature. Instead artists were able to work with figures, such as Venus; this subject allowed for experimentation of nude figure paintings.21 This is apparent in Boucherâs works depicting Callisto, the 1744 version is visually more akin to pastoral paintings as opposed to traditional mythology paintings. These types of paintings were of course not exclusive to the 18 Bedford, "High fidelity?," 54. 19 Helena Taylor and Fiona Cox, Ovid in French : Reception by Women from the Renaissance to the Present (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2023), 67. 20 Jo Hedley and François Boucher, François Boucher : Seductive Visions (London: Wallace Collection, 2004), 95. 21 Pierre Rosenberg, "In Defense of Mythological Painting," in The Loves of the Gods : Mythological Painting from Watteau to David, by Colin B. Bailey and Carrie A. Hamilton (New York, Fort Worth: Rizzoli ; Kimbell Art Museum, 1992), 18. 10 eighteenth century, but the body and the nude appeared as the main source of interest for artists like Boucher. Ovidâs appearance in these social spaces led to a shift in how mythology was consumed by the public, and what content was expected in a visual adaptation. The relationship one has with the body becomes a recurring theme, as well as the objectification of figures like Callisto with Boucherâs paintings. The adoption of Ovid into the eighteenth century and the focus on the body, the nude, and sensuality created the impression that other darker factors of the mythology were foregone.22 This was apparent in discussion of Boucherâs work via his critics, namely Diderot.23 It is also seen in contemporary conversations which concern whether or not Boucher trivializes sexual assault.24 Instead it should be reframed as a romanticization of sexual violence and dominance, as it repackaged the content for this time. Rape is the main part of Callistoâs story, and in Boucherâs ways of incorporating these fantasies are evocative of larger issues on the perception of rape in the eighteenth century. Boucher does not depict the direct act of violence, but the iconography implying her assault is present throughout all paintings in this series, therefore the larger narrative remains accessible to the viewer, all of which is tied to an overarching theme of dominance and violence. The use of Callistoâs image is tied to her inevitable tragedy, and with Ovid in the cultural consciousness it is difficult to argue that these factors would be ignored, especially as Boucher engages with these larger subjects. Callistoâs purpose within her mythology is a warning to women and an exploration on the effects of trauma tied to sexual assault - though ultimately handling the results in a victim blaming manner. Callisto post assault is met with repercussions based on societal 22 Bedford, "High fidelity?," 58. 23 Bedford, "High fidelity?," 57. 24 Bedford, "High fidelity?," 52. 11 customs regarding the sanctity of marriage and protections granted within traditional gender roles. Returning to Callistoâs source text one apparent figure is Juno as she enacts Callistoâs punishment. Narratively Junoâs punishments against nymphs can be equated to a punishment for going against societal conventions. Juno in mythology is read as a jealous wife, but the larger reason for this characterization is based in the fierce belief in the sanctity of marriage.25 Women (Callisto, Leda, Europa, etc.) who are victims under Jupiter are seen as the perpetrators as they have violated Jupiter and Junoâs union.26 There is no punishment sought onto the actual rapist, instead it is doled out onto the victim, Junoâs role as the prosecutor comes from the idea that she is protecting the very structure of society, she is enacting the rules of the patriarchy.27 Women who fall outside of the expectations of society, e.g refuse to marry or exist outside of a union, threaten the fabric of society as they function as temptresses. Though there are no allusions to Juno in Boucherâs paintings, her character is relevant within this conversation as she is representative of societal roles and expectations.28 Within the larger context of the eighteenth century, Junoâs archetype is evocative of Enlightenment sentiments regarding womanhood. Depictions of Callisto prior to the eighteenth century focused primarily on her expulsion from Dianaâs group. The relevance of her mythology is an opposing perspective to the myth of Actaeon regarding the importance of womenâs virtues.29 Actaeon is punished after stumbling upon Diana and her nymphs bathing, then ripped apart by his own hunting dogs.30 Callisto is 25 . Leo C. Curran, "Rape and Rape Victims in the 'Metamorphoses,'" Arethusa 11, no. 1 (1978): 225, Periodicals Archive Online (1307027983). 26 Curran, "Rape and Rape," 226. 27 Curran, "Rape and Rape," 225. 28 Curran, "Rape and Rape," 225. 29 Paula James, "Crises of Identity In Ovidâs Metamorphoses," Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, no. 33 (1986): 22, JSTOR. 30 John Heath, "Diana's Understanding of Ovid's 'Metamorphoses,'" The Classical Journal 86, no. 3 (1991): 239, JSTOR. 12 raped and punished for violating the sanctity of Juno and Jupiterâs marriage, as well as losing her virtue.31 This is why Ovid specifically called on Juno when describing Callistoâs rape, âSure Juno must have pardoned, had she viewed.â32 Within this translation from 1732, there is a rare acknowledgement that Callisto is the victim and that if Juno had seen what really happened to Callisto she would have made an exception. Ovid calls upon Juno and how if she would have seen how hard Callisto fought, maybe she would have given more mercy. The purpose in this argument of invoking Juno in this instance is to draw a parallel between the morals regarded in both Ovid and later in Rousseau. Callistoâs myth, though not cited by eighteenth century authors, pertains to themes seen discussed surrounding rape, femininity and womanhood. In relation to the statements made about Juno, she functions as the role of society in tandem with Diana. Dianaâs group physically expels Callisto and Juno literally manifests the dehumanization. Another aspect can be attributed to the detail that these figures are turned on by their companions, Callisto by the nymphs, Actaeon by his hunting dogs. Callistoâs narrative being related more to Actaeon is a necessary distinction, as it focuses on a certain genre of myth; there is a common fascination with societal expulsion within this timeframe. Both follow a similar narrative and therefore possess similar iconographies.33 Callistoâs punishment appears more extensive as Actaeon is killed and not forced to survive as a deer. When looking at these punishments in a gendered perspective there is a statement of how Callistoâs trauma persists throughout the rest of her existence that she can never be rid of even after death. While Actaeon faces a swift and immediate punishment which kills him instantly.34 Actaeon is also not punished via Juno, therefore is not punished via society, while Callisto is. 31 Curran, "Rape and Rape," 226. 32 Ovid, Ovid's Metamorphoses, 54. 33 James, "Crises of Identity," 23. 34 James, "Crises of Identity," 22. 13 Callistoâs archetype is multifaceted and the connections with similar figures fleshes out why her myth is so distinct. Despite having many similarities to Actaeon, Syrinx, Leda and Daphne her consequences are much more elaborate. The objectification of nymphs is usually represented via their transformation into foliage, while Callisto is dehumanized. This differentiation separates her mythology from other nymphs, and the detailing of her punishment separates her from her male counterpart. 14 Francois Boucher: Audience and Critics Boucher was considered a womanâs painter, due to the decorated and fluffy nature of his paintings. Denis Diderot often critiqued the lack of male presence in his works.35 In the context of the Salon his paintings were categorized as part of the downfall of the arts associated with the eighteenth century, as his paintings were considered to be in bad taste according to his critics, seeing as they failed to adhere to prior visual traditions.36 Mythology painting began to take a different form within the eighteenth century which pulled the subject away from being perceived as historical to being more akin to the pastoral. Boucher had a keen understanding of his audience and the interactions oneâs gaze has with his paintings. The integration of the viewer into the landscape became an essential for Boucher, this allowed for a wider appeal to the audience as it granted more flexibility in interpretation. By making the paintings appear more pastoral there is a shift in genre which in part removed it from an academic sphere, due to the pastoral being equated with leisure and the aristocracy. Callisto within Boucherâs work has been criticized by both those of his time and contemporaries of dumbing down mythology while using these figures in a doll-like manner which fails to connect them with their source text.37 Though at a glance this seems to be the case, the belief that the pastoral cannot convey nuance or the complexities of mythology is not an accurate assessment of the spheres it was part of. The perception of the Rococo is that it is a highly feminine style which centered around the body and the pastoral, which was not reflective of the standard body in nature. Instead, these paintings capitalized on a fantastical ideal which was ingrained in a well-established subject matter.38 Christopher Bedfordâs essay âHigh fidelity? Deception and seduction, word and image 35 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 45. 36 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 57. 37 Bedford, "High fidelity?," 61. 38 Bedford, "High fidelity?," 57. 15 in Boucher's Jupiter in the Guise of Diana Seducing Callisto,â establishes a thorough analysis of how Boucher functioned within this era. Bedford specifically looks at arguments made by Melissa Hyde regarding the possible feminist readings of these Callisto paintings.39 The multifaceted interpretations of Boucherâs paintings in contemporary spheres show that there are layers to how this painting was meant to be perceived. Boucherâs paintings play to the viewer, similar to how Ovidâs mythology is open to interpretations addressing modern issues. Bedford specifically goes forward to state that Boucherâs paintings use mythology in a deceitful manner, as it justifies paintings which covered more taboo subjects.40 Bedford pegs Boucher as an artist who is best at deceiving his audience as he creates works with mass appeal that play to both the female and male gaze, while also effectively playing both sides of the Salon and the Academy.41 Womenâs place in the arts was becoming more recognized, and the appeal to their aesthetics unseated long held standards of artistic patronage.42 What becomes apparent is there is an alleged correct type of woman who is allowed to assist in the creation of culture within Rousseauâs writings on womanhood. Women who appreciated the art of Boucher were not one of them, due to the fact they were perceived to be uneducated by their encouragement of this type of pastoral.43 With that said, the state of womanhood in the eyes of the Enlightenment believed womenâs influence was supposed to be in symbolic and imaginary spheres.44 Though it seems that there is a proposal in how women add to culture, it is ultimately not within the arts.45 The active contradiction within how women were engaging with culture. This is consistent with 39 Bedford, "High fidelity?," 58. 40 Bedford, "High fidelity?," 57. 41Bedford, "High fidelity?," 57. 42 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 45. 43 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 46. 44 Sylvana Tomaselli, "The Enlightenment Debate on Women," History Workshop, no. 20 (1985): 106, JSTOR. 45 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 46. 16 the theories on femininity within the Enlightenment, in which the ânatural womanâ was unachievable. Women who were concerned with consumption of these objects were corrupted by society, and this was best exemplified by their materiality.46 Callisto within the contradictory standards fulfills a fantasy of this theorized woman. Her connection with nature and naivety of material culture is reminiscent of this idea of this absolute ideal.47 The Rococo as displayed in the French Salon appealed to what Rousseau and Diderot viewed as a downfall of French culture.48 As Enlightenment writings began to turn towards the concepts of the natural order, one of the largest critiques presented is how men and women had strayed too far from their ânatural states.â The perception of the arts as a reflection of society implied that women were beginning to step out of the natural order, and the appeal to their tastes was resulting in âbad art.â49 Due to the emphasis on the female form Boucherâs mythological paintings were not treated in the same vein as other mythological paintings. Instead, being written off as indulgent and indecent, despite handling what was considered to be higher subject matter.50 Tethering these paintings to a greater tradition aligns Boucher with more formal conversations surrounding how his art is symptomatic of a much larger cultural issue. In Rousseauâs Emile, he discusses how women should be concerned with ornament, not men.51 He states, â[G]irls prefer what appeals to the sight and serves for ornament mirrors, trinkets, rags, 46 Tomaselli, "The Enlightenment," 81. 47 Tomaselli, "The Enlightenment," 106. 48 René Démoris, "Boucher, Diderot, Rousseau," in Rethinking Boucher, by Melissa Lee Hyde and Mark Ledbury (Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006), 202. 49 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 57. 50 Jean Cailleux, "François Boucher - the King's First Painter," The Burlington Magazine 106, no. 734 (1964): 3, JSTOR. 51 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Rousseau's EÌmile, Or, Treatise on Education, trans. William Harold Payne (New York: D. Appleton, 1902), 265. 17 and especially dolls.â52 The Rococo is often distinguished via its use of ornament and pastels, though many of Boucherâs patrons were male, his paintings do play with this type of gendering. With that said, Boucherâs use of elaborate iconography signals that there are deeper implications of his subjects. There is an evolution of the iconography of these myths which center on rape hinging on deceit. These paintings build on both visual traditions and Boucherâs artistic prowess to create works which are unassuming to those not in tune with his works.53 It is not devoid of these larger topics and ideas which are proposed by the Enlightenment, as Boucher consciously includes icons which connect this series to a less superficial narrative. Callisto is highly infrequent within Renaissance and Baroque art; there is not an abundance of paintings, though this myth was covered by Titian in 1556-1559 (Diana and Callisto, National Gallery London) it still lacks recognizable models. Despite the absence of Callisto, her popularity in the eighteenth century increased when she was adopted into Boucherâs oeuvre. The reason for referencing Callistoâs narrative comrades and connections is to better comprehend the specificity of Boucherâs rendition of her. These decisions do not adhere to prior imagery and similar figures makes this collection and series stand out from other nymph paintings. Boucher instead focused on the creation of his own imagery and aesthetics. Boucherâs Callisto paintings, which will be featured later, all possess repeating images elected by the artist without the use of reference to older paintings. Boucher first started his collection of Callisto paintings in 1744, the last one being made a year prior to his death in 1770. The focal point for Boucherâs audience with these paintings is the fact that they appear to depict a sapphic relationship as he chooses to paint Jupiter still in the 52 Rousseau, Rousseau's EÌmile, 265. 53 Bedford, "High fidelity?," 63. 18 guise of Diana as he seduces Callisto.54 Recurring motifs across this series include: Jupiter as Dianaâs chest is typically hidden by either facing away from the viewer or via fabric, he is also often depicted as larger than Callisto or as looming over her.55 This iconography is repeated across all of Boucherâs Callisto paintings. There are often arrows held by the putti which are meant to signify penetration and Jupiterâs rape of the nymph. Finally, there is always an eagle that can be spotted which is in reference to one of Jupiterâs icons. Callisto is typically more exposed, bearing her breasts or being fully nude, while Jupiter is adorned in excessive fabrics and furs, consistently more covered than the nymph. All of these aspects create the effect of inferring Jupiterâs dominance over Callisto and her vulnerability. Boucherâs repertoire of iconography was built via his education and propensity for collecting.56 The choices made in Boucherâs 1744 and 1759 renditions of his Callisto paintings pull references from Jean-Baptiste Oudry, specifically including images of dead game that were similar to paintings made by Oudry, namely his painting Hare and Partridge (1739).57 This grounded Boucherâs works in other visual traditions, In his earlier works this aided in a better establishment of his practice and relationship to clients who could identify Oudry.58 The inclusion of these references acted as a reassurance to art critics and collectors, such as Diderot, that Boucher was educated on the choices he was making and the market he was working in. As discussed within the book Francois Boucher and the Art of Collecting in Eighteenth-Century France by Jessica Priebe, Priebe identifies Boucherâs reference stating, Frequent attendees of the Salon would have been aware of Oudryâs experimental canvas and through the livret Boucherâs ownership of it. By adopting Oudryâs game motif, Boucher 54 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 205. 55 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 207. 56 Jessica Priebe, François Boucher and the Art of Collecting in Eighteenth-century France (Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2022), 91. 57 Priebe, François Boucher, 92. 58 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 206. 19 argues for the development of contemporary French academic painting, but in a way that also acknowledges his tastes as a collector of modern art.59 Priebe speculates that after the 1759 painting of Callisto, Oudry was no longer relevant amongst society members, leading Boucher to seek out other artists to draw from. Boucherâs choices for the Callisto series hinged on his audience and placing his works among established artists. Though these paintings focused on the body, they were still ingrained within visual traditions. Boucherâs relationship with his clientele depended on defining himself as a creator of luxury paintings.60 This was achieved with his own collection and how he weaved himself into the fabric of established artists by drawing from their iconography. Boucherâs paintings visually imply a rebrand of the mythology painting of the past, instead attempting to adhere to a social environment which centered around the image. This treatment of mythology, which appeared to remove it from its historical attachments, would come to bother those like Johann Joachim Winckelmann and Diderot, who believed this appropriated the subject.61 Jupiter and Callisto (1744) (Figure 1.) is quite tame and appears as though Boucher became more acquainted with the audience he was painting for. The provenance of this painting is not clear, therefore there is room for speculation on what context this painting was made for. Though it marks the beginning of Boucherâs series and sets a baseline of recurring iconography. It also follows the trends of Boucherâs early work which pulls in references from Oudry.62 The general tone of this painting is subdued and not overtly sexual, both Callisto and Jupiter are mostly covered save for one of Callistoâs breasts implying that she is a woman, while Jupiterâs chest is fully covered. Though there are arrows they are all within their quiverâs no arrow is 59 Priebe, François Boucher, 95. 60 Priebe, François Boucher, 38. 61 Nicholas Newman, "In the Name of Rococo," RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics, no. 40 (2001): 139, JSTOR. 62 Priebe, François Boucher, 94. 20 pointing directly at Callisto. Finally, the eagle which is representative of Jupiter is very well hidden, placed deep within the bushes of the paintings and very well camouflaged. The sexual nature of this can be overlooked due to the fact they are both seemingly women, the lack of overt male presence allows for an insertion of the male gaze into the scene, playing towards the viewer's imagination. Of the four paintings for the purpose of this project, this is the most reserved. Boucher also forgoes heavy rouging on the bodies of Callisto and Jupiter, and leaves Jupiterâs skin paler than in other renditions. This painting is now owned by the Pushkin Museum of Fine art; it was initially purchased in 1773 by M. De Vigny, after Boucherâs death.63 This painting was made for an audience which could identify the dialogue with Jean-Baptiste Oudryâs paintings which Boucher actively collected.64 Boucher continues to include Oudryâs motifs of game throughout these paintings, the incorporation of specific iconography established a visual language for this audience, giving them more reason to closely examine his paintings.65 Ultimately in comparison to the other Callisto paintings, this one is much more demure, as it does not hint at Callistoâs pregnancy, and conceals the rape narrative heavily. It is as though Boucher is testing the waters to see what boundaries he can push within this series. Diderot first wrote about Boucher in 1758, as Winckelmannâs theory on the imitation of art and antiquity began to take hold in 1755 with the publishing of Reflections on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture. Diderotâs critiques of Boucher drew upon Winckelmannâs theories of antiquity, as Boucherâs paintings were pastoralized and that claimed that Boucher painted outside of his skill level by painting mythological scenes.66 Diderotâs 63 Alexandre Ananoff, Daniel Wildenstein, and François Boucher, François Boucher (Lausanne: La BibliotheÌque des arts, 1976), 382. 64 Priebe, François Boucher, 95. 65 Priebe, François Boucher, 95. 66 Démoris, "Boucher, Diderot," 204. 21 critiques of Boucher target the sensuality of his female nudes, as they prayed on the viewers âvices.â67 Diderot stated, âIt seems to me I have seen enough tits and buttocks; these seductive objects interfere with the soulâs emotions by throwing the senses into confusion.â68 The discomfort stems from the idea that Boucherâs figures defy the natural order via the perceived notion that these women have sexual agency.69 The debaucherous nature of these paintings which did not hinge on prior iconography led to heavy critiques from Diderot, as it also failed to meet certain expectations for mythology paintings, pastoral and history paintings. Diderot took issue with the highly feminine works being displayed, often remarking on their frivolity and their failure to be of substance.70 Diderotâs main interaction with Boucherâs Callisto paintings came about when he witnessed the 1763 rendition two years after it was created during the Salon of 1765.71 The pornographic nature of Boucherâs work was upsetting to Diderot especially regarding the expression of female sexuality.72 To provide another example of Boucherâs controversial subjects, and a counter to Callisto. Boucher also covered the myth of Leda and the Swan. Paintings of Leda often invoked a critical upset over the depiction of women with non-male partners, with the argument that these paintings encouraged womenâs sexual liberation and harmed the natural order.73 The rendition of Leda and the Swan (Figure 5.) attributed to Boucher despite being based in mythology and using 67 Démoris, "Boucher, Diderot," 202. 68 Denis Diderot, Pensées détachées sur la peinture, in idem, Héros et martyrs, ed. Else Marie Bukdahl et. al (Paris: Hermann 1995), 392, quoted in René Démoris, "Boucher, Diderot, Rousseau," in Rethinking Boucher, by Melissa Lee Hyde and Mark Ledbury (Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006), 203. 69 Erica Rand, "Depoliticizing Women: Female Agency, the French Revolution, and the Art of Boucher and David," in Reclaiming Female Agency : Feminist Art History after Postmodernism, by Norma Broude and Mary D. Garrard (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 145. 70 Erica Rand, "Diderot and Girl-Group Erotics," Eighteenth-Century Studies 25, no. 4 (1992): 497, https://doi.org/10.2307/2739309. 71 Bedford, "High fidelity?," 55. 72 Rand, "Diderot and Girl-Group," 496. 73Jennifer Milam, "Rococo Representations of Interspecies Sensuality and the Pursuit of 'Volupté,'" The Art Bulletin 97, no. 2 (2015): 202, JSTOR. 22 iconography which inferred that this was of Ovid, still came off as unsavory as it substituted animal for man.74 Through myth Leda is not treated similarly to Callisto, but artistically both face similar criticism over the lack of overt male figures. Leda is an early source of criticism prior to the Callisto paintings. Leda and Callistoâs there are more differences than similarities regarding these two narratives but ultimately both faced similar controversies in the eighteenth century which focuses on Boucherâs lack of male figures. Aside from Boucherâs paintings of Syrinx which feature the male body of Pan, Leda shares similar iconography to Callisto regarding sexual violence; centering on Boucherâs choice of painting the scenes directly before they are raped. The inclusion of Leda within this conversation provides another example to how Boucher depicts rape. Leda grants further analysis of reading rape within the eighteenth century, and other visual representations. It also carves out visual differences in the representations of rape. Jupiter, in the Guise of Diana, and Callisto (figure 3.), the 1763 rendition, adopts an entire new collection of iconographies. This painting is less focused on the body of Callisto and lends itself to being a more traditional mythology painting. The palette is much darker with less rouging on the bodies of both Callisto and Jupiter in comparison to the pastel palette of the 1744 painting. The use of the intense reds which Diderot critiqued heavily are essentially absent.75 Though that did not excuse the other issues Diderot perceived. Callisto is dressed in white, a potential reference to her being a virgin, she is also more covered then in prior versions, her breasts are visible but it is due to the fact that Jupiter is pulling down her dress. There is a sense of urgency within this painting as we are seeing Jupiterâs advances. Instead of Callisto lounging and relaxing in Jupiterâs lap we are presented with Jupiter initiating the more sensual contact. 74 Milam, "Rococo Representations," 200. 75 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 70. 23 The eagle symbolizing Jupiter is no longer hidden, giving more overt iconography to the mythology and the scene. Jupiter as Diana takes a different form as well, the darker skin tone as established in prior paintings is apparent, Boucher has included more muscle to his arms and shoulders to appear physically larger than Callisto, implying his true identity.76 Even though Jupiter is below Callisto in this model, he will still be able to overpower her. This is the closest to overt violence seen within this series, as it shows Jupiterâs active advances onto Callisto, though in true Boucher fashion, it leaves the rest for the imagination. Shifting our focus onto the landscape, it is not pastoralized, it is also not very clear as it is in the other paintings, the trees and clouds imply this is happening outside but there are minimal florals or bright blue/greens and pinks often associated with Rococo landscapes. Boucher omits the dead game and the references to Oudry, potentially due to the fact that this painting adheres to more traditional mythological painting traits. This is not saying this painting is Neoclassical or follows French Academic paintings, it instead continues to play with the boundaries of genre and prior examples. This painting calls upon previous visual tradition, yet continues to pander towards the audienceâs fantasies, as it lacks a direct male presence, and still successfully appeals towards the male gaze through the objectification of Callisto. Though this painting shares iconography with Boucherâs other works, it branches away from Boucherâs previous renditions. The round paintings of Callisto are quite similar to Boucherâs paintings of Syrinx (Fig. 6-7.), adopting a similar composition of figures. Ultimately, they carry a different tone. They are all darker in color palette, and the depiction of Pan is much more grotesque than the depictions of Jupiter. Even though Boucher uses similar models across both series, Syrinxâs paintings do not follow the same model as Callisto, in which there is visible fear and danger. The male presence 76 Katharine Baetjer, French Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art from the Early Eighteenth Century through the Revolution (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2019), 160. 24 of Pan does not lend itself to the fantasy of the imagination, as it is much more pervasive. Boucher takes liberties with Syrinx by replacing the usual male river god with another feminine body, similar to Callisto with Diana.77 Though both of these figures fall under the immediate threat of violence with Pan. There is a greater sense of urgency within these three figures which is not apparent in Callistoâs paintings. Between Leda, Callisto and Syrinx within Boucherâs paintings we can see three different forms of attackers - the animal, the woman, and the wildman. Boucherâs variants of paintings surrounding rape were met with varying criticisms, few of which concerned sexual violence. Instead, the issue became how women were being depicted in sexual scenarios with non-male figures. Callistoâs scenario was the most appealing to the male gaze as it presented a scenario as it did not threaten masculinity.78 Boucher has two Leda and the swan paintings which capitalize on a fascination with human/animal sensuality and the use of animal imagery to conceal sexual content.79 The Leda painting titled Leda and the Swan, from 1740 attributed to Boucher, is more explicit as it does not disguise the sexual nature of the myth. This painting has a convoluted history which leads to less clear-cut answers on the purpose and perception of this painting. For the purpose of the comparison with Callisto it does provide an example of Boucherâs capabilities, especially within his early style. This painting also shows Boucherâs fascination with the body and his exploration of mythological subject matter in a more traditional manner.80 This painting of Leda abides by prior set visual traditions from the Renaissance, though more sensual, this was a common myth to be depicted prior to the Eighteenth century. 77 "Pan and Syrinx," National Gallery London, https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/francois-boucher-pan-and-syrinx. 78 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 217. 79 Milam, "Rococo Representations," 194. 80 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 216. 25 Leda provides a visual foil to Callisto; the paintings explicitly depict Ledaâs rape with a non-human partner. The issues amongst critics and Enlightenment thinkers with Ledaâs paintings surround an anxiety on the replacement of men as a result of sexual liberation.81 There was a continual belief in which erotic paintings were deemed dangerous for women and that seeing these paintings would induce a trance-like state.82 Paintings of Leda are believed to align closer with the ideas of female liberation in the substituted male partner. Diderot specifically harps on the issues with lap dogs and the erasure of men from art.83 Callisto with Jupiter under these standards were perceived as less of a threat and more of a novelty with its depictions of sapphic relationships, this painting also appeals more heavily to the male gaze than Leda. Since the viewer assumes Jupiter is Diana (as does Callisto) there is an invitation to the male gaze to penetrate the scene. As Melissa Hyde states, âBoucherâs penchant for painting such âbeautiesâ has usually been interpreted (for good or for ill) as co-opting of female homoeroticism (or pseudo-homoeroticism) to satisfy heterosexual male fantasies.â84 This is not the case with Leda, and the animal as male substitute is seen as more alienating. In congruence with this discussion, though Leda and Callisto have similarities they also do not fulfill the same purpose; Leda does not face a punishment like Callisto, potentially due to the fact that Leda is not a nymph. Leda is able to maintain her status and appears to be granted some form of protection via having a husband. Callistoâs status as a nymph removes her from this; she does not have any sort of protections, existing as a âfreeâ woman, she is punished by society due to the fact that she is unwed.85 Since Ledaâs painting was created prior to any 81 Milam, "Rococo Representations," 193. 82 Christian Michel, "'Nature' and 'MÅurs': Thoughts on the Reception of Genre Painting in France," Studies in the History of Art 72 (2007): 279, JSTOR. 83 Milam, "Rococo Representations," 199. 84 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 205. 85 Curran, "Rape and Rape," 225. 26 depiction of Callisto it sets a precedent for how Boucher paints these figures and what his fixations are. Both Leda and Callisto show a general fascination with the female body and sexuality. Though ultimately his favoring of Callisto centers the novelty of girl-on-girl sexuality. Ledaâs woman and animal is more on trend with other Rococo artists, but Boucher establishes his niche within Callistoâs iconography due to the fact it has a broader appeal as seen by his male and female patrons.86 Diderotâs criticisms of Boucher came from a generalized statement which surrounded immoral paintings which failed to serve Enlightenment aesthetics. From Diderotâs compiled writings on the Salon, what can be gleaned is a general displeasure in what was being displayed and created. Within Rousseau and Diderotâs writings a general issue both seem to invest in is the effeminate nature of art and culture. When it comes to Boucher stylistic choices Diderot did not believe these paintings were genuine, âWhat hypocrisy is in morals. Boucher is the greatest hypocrite that I know; there is not one of his figures to which one could not say: you want to be genuine, but you are not.â87 The issues posed by Diderot is how Boucher manipulates the subject matter; from his perspective, mythology paintings had a moral purpose which Boucher did not obey. When it comes to Callisto the supposed lesson regarding the taming of the wild women is lost in Diderotâs writing as it is dismissed as a piece of eroticism.88 Though Boucherâs sign posting through his iconography addresses that this is a painting about rape. Boucherâs bodies were deemed as controversial by his critics who believed that he was mixing styles and iconographies, therefore not treating mythological subjects with the grandeur 86 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 204. 87 Denis Diderot, Oeuvres completes, ed. Assezat-Tourneux (Paris, Gamier, 1875-1877, 20 vols.) Vol. I, p. 122f, Quoted in David Funt, "Diderot and the Esthetics of the Enlightenment," Diderot Studies 11 (1968): 152, JSTOR. 88 Rand, "Diderot and Girl-Group," 505. 27 they were deserving of.89 Diderot believed Boucherâs bodies were distracting, the sensuality of his women lessened the value of the mythology. Nude mythology paintings were not a new creation, which begs to ask why this version of the body is considered to be so controversial. Within Ovid the body becomes a source of anxiety, especially in Callistoâs mythology. Though Diderot did not believe there was an immediate threat, he did not believe they were moral models.90 Diderot held a concern in which young girls will fall prey to this imagery, from Erica Randâs essay âDiderot and Girl Group Erotics,â she states, âDiderot echoes here a common eighteenth-century fear that contact with sexually explicit material will lead adolescent girls, already given to daydreaming, from visual contact to sexual fantasy, and on to masturbation and nymphomaniaâ¦â91 The inference being that images, like Callistoâs, which did not involve a male presence could be misread by naive young girls. Callistoâs paintings hold a sense of novelty to them as a result of the appearing sapphic. As a result, Boucher paints Callisto as a figure of desire, appealing to the male gaze. The lack of overt male bodies allows for the viewer to insert themselves into the painting, as though they are being invited in.92 Erica Randâs contribution to Reclaiming Female Agency discusses the relationships Boucher's patrons would have with the subject at hand. Rand also centers on the idea of women weaponizing their sexuality, and how the reclamation of female agency was intimidating to men in power.93 Within print culture many were exploring Le Monde Renversé 89 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 204. 90 Rand, "Diderot and Girl-Group," 509. 91 Rand, "Diderot and Girl-Group," 509. 92 Rand, "Depoliticizing Women," 146. 93 Rand, "Depoliticizing Women," 143. 28 which describes a âtopsy-turvyâ society which involved women taking menâs roles outside of the home, while men are tasked with domestic labor.94 The idea of female agency and autonomy primarily challenges Rousseauâs state of nature. Rousseauâs writings on women handle the idea that women fall lower in the natural order. The purpose of women within this theory handles how they serve their male counterparts and not adopt male traits.95 and Diderot seemed to conclude that Boucher was not playing by the rules of society within his paintings.96 Rand instead argues that Boucher in his own way appeals to the patriarchal and domineering standards, he is ultimately a master of understanding his audience. This discussion also dovetails with the ideals of femininity and how women exist at the hands of society. This becomes clear in the many âmythsâ of femininity produced throughout the Enlightenment and the depictions of womanhood in art. The idea of womanhood is apparent within Boucherâs paintings as in some ways Boucher paints female fantasies which relate to sexual liberation. This is achieved by the heavy emphasis on the body as well as the lack of inherent male figures. Beginning with Leda in 1740 and then continuing into Callistoâs paintings. Leda was a much more scandalous figure as Boucher utilized more direct imagery. Ledaâs audience is also less clear as it appeals to female audiences with the exclusion of male bodies, but was commissioned by a man.97 In recognizing the female subject within these paintings the idea of agency is often overstated. In regards to female agency within painting, âIt is noteworthy how often male authors in the eighteenth century used a female 94 Mary L. Bellhouse, "Visual Myths of Female Identity in Eighteenth-Century France," International Political Science Review / Revue Internationale De Science Politique 12, no. 2 (1991): 120, JSTOR. 95 Rousseau, Rousseau's EÌmile, 268. 96 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 216. 97 Milam, "Rococo Representations," 202. 29 voice to ventriloquize certain kinds of experience.â98 The idea of female empowerment and sexual liberation essentially becomes a facade under the greater cultural sentiments surrounding the role of women. Boucherâs relationship due to being viewed as a woman's painter within the Salon and his critics' writings implied that his paintings were lesser due to their feminine traits.99 The idea being that these paintings were of less substance due to the fact they centered around the female body, appealed to female audiences, and lacked male figures. All of which hones into a broader cultural narrative of widespread accepted misogyny, and a statement on the place of womanhood. Of course, mid-eighteenth-century France was by no means excelling in womenâs rights, but the fact that Boucherâs paintings were so heavily criticized due to their feminine nature are symptomatic of a larger issue. In the framework of the Enlightenment, the patriarchal values of society take a stronghold in the purpose of these images. Callistoâs myth as written by Ovid is a tragedy, within the original context the mythology deals with an immense fear surrounding the loss of personhood at the hands of an assailant.100 Boucherâs choice to depict Callistoâs seduction does not diminish the inherent violence of her story, as it lends itself to recognizing the male gaze and fantasies of dominance. Callistoâs imagery as chosen by Boucher possesses more sinister intentions. As Bedford discusses in his essay, Boucher is a deceitful artist who plays to both sides, and the paintings of Callisto continue to adhere to multiple agendas. Within the perspective of Boucherâs role as an artist, Callistoâs importance stems from why he utilizes and chooses this myth, and the scene he chooses allows him to explore contradicting narratives. 98 Susan L. Siegfried, "Femininity and the Hybridity of Genre Painting," Studies in the History of Art 72 (2007): 24, JSTOR. 99Bedford, "High fidelity?," 52. 100 Segal, "Ovid's Metamorphic," 17. 30 Boucher both appeals to the idea of sexual liberation by not including inherent male figures, while also not stepping out of line with the reminders of Jupiterâs identity. This is also achieved via the grounding of the mythology to its source text. The third painting to examine is Jupiter and Callisto (1759) (Figure 2.). There is a major stylistic jump from the prior painting. Callisto is now fully exposed in the lap of Jupiter, her body is framed by Jupiterâs fabrics and furs, while Jupiterâs chest remains covered. The putti are now aiming arrows at Callisto which reference penetration and the visual euphemism of âplanting an arrow,â in her.101 Jupiterâs eagle remains very concealed in the upper quadrant of the tree behind the putti, it is very well camouflaged and matches the foliage. Boucher utilized some iconography here from illustrated versions of Ovid where there is a large curtain of fabric which implies the concealing of the act. Boucher also includes a dead partridge continuing his referencing of Oudry, tying this painting to more formal spheres. This is also an instance where Jupiterâs skin tone is darkened, contrasting the very pale body of Callisto. This painting takes a major leap from the 1744 rendition as it heavily implies a sexual scenario, instead of the coy nature of the first painting, it is much more direct. This painting does the most in the objectification of Callistoâs body. The way she is displayed to the viewer in Jupiterâs lap amongst the fabrics makes her an offering to the viewer, where she can be preyed upon via the male gaze. Jupiter looks onto Callisto the same way as the viewer, there is a predatory nature to this image and how Callisto, the huntress, becomes the prey to Jupiter. The reception of Ovid in the eighteenth century is quintessential to the relationship the audience has with Boucher. Boucherâs visualizations of the Ovid allowed for a larger audience to engage with the ideas portrayed. Nymph narratives provided a playground for Boucher which 101 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 207. 31 grounded his own works into an established narrative. Boucher modernizes Callistoâs mythology within his paintings by utilizing Rococo aesthetics in the small details which lay out narratives for the reader. Boucherâs inclusion of dead game, Jupiterâs eagle, and use of putti are reminiscent of other artists such as Jean-Honoré Fragonard.102 There is a consistent communication between the art and the viewer, in a way that is reminiscent of Ovid's interaction with the reader. Both authors create a world which positions the viewer, though with varying effects. Boucher creates a fantasy for the audience to engage with, while Ovid makes the reader uncomfortable with the understanding of their body. Across both Ovid and Boucher there is a heavy focus on the body and how one interacts with Callistoâs body in art and literature. Charles Segalâs essay âOvid's Metamorphic Bodies: Art, Gender, and Violence in the "Metamorphoses"â specifically deals with how these myths were perceived and how in this context these myths were supposed to be unsettling, playing on oneâs fear of losing their agency and autonomy.103 Ovidâs writings came out of a very specific regime which threatened individual safety and security creating a heightened sense of awareness of one's body.104 The purpose of transformation in Ovidâs mythology is often a literal representation of trauma, in Callistoâs instance she is figuratively dehumanized by her community and then physically dehumanized as she is transformed into a bear. Within the original text Ovid mentions the loss of her voice and her inability to communicate, as well as how she retains her human mind whilst being trapped in the body of a bear. Ovid paints the body as something quite fragile, that can be harmed and changed without consent. Within Ovidâs Augustan context Segal writes, Indirectly, animal metamorphosis may also reflect broader cultural anxieties, though still specifically Roman anxieties, for example, the horror of a free person's reduction to slave status, 102 Priebe, François Boucher, 12. 103 Segal, "Ovid's Metamorphic," 32. 104 Segal, "Ovid's Metamorphic," 16. 32 in which he or she is only a body, and a body subject to physical punishment or sexual exploitation by the master.105 The recurring anxieties mostly surround the subjects of objectification and dehumanization. From Segalâs analysis Ovidâs writing is purposefully unsettling as it makes the reader aware of their vulnerability via his vivid imagery.106 The body within all time periods is a source of anxiety, it is not just exclusive to Ovid, the sense of anxiety can also be felt within Enlightenment writing as well via the call for order. What can be gleaned from these subjects is a split in the perception of women in art and real women. The issue was the natural balance in total, which provoked a need for total domination, justified via certain Enlightenment logic of the natural woman. This way of thinking combined with Ovidâs writing highlights the baggage Callistoâs character carries in relation with the body and autonomy. The perception of real women and women depicted in art was in active contrast. The idea which these narratives would exist or that this liberation was possible becomes more of a fantasy as opposed to a real narrative. To quote the essay Femininity and the Hybridity of Genre Painting by Susan Siegfried, â[Womenâs] novel iconography returns us to an interplay between looking at art and looking at women: there is an ambiguity in the representation of the central female figure as both the object and the subject of viewing, as she is shown to be by turns vain, beloved, and shunned.â107 To tie this back to Callisto, Boucher works to make her an object of desire; there is a distinction between narrative and form. Callistoâs model through this lens aids in her connection to the state of womanhood under the Enlightenment. Relating Segalâs writings back to Boucher, the use of Callistoâs image appears symptomatic of larger sentiments regarding sexuality. As discussed, prior, Callisto's mythology 105 Segal, "Ovid's Metamorphic," 36. 106 Segal, "Ovid's Metamorphic," 33. 107 Siegfried, "Femininity and the Hybridity," 30. 33 as shown by Boucher appealed to both male and female audiences. Callisto is ultimately treated as an object under the male gaze with how she is positioned either under Jupiter or painted as less clothed. The emphasis on Callistoâs body in a time when the body was being hotly contested by Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau who politicized womenâs existence. Callistoâs resurgence within this specific period act as a visualization of the mindset surrounding womanhood and sexual violence. Through Boucherâs intentional iconography which hints at Callistoâs fate, it is apparent that he is not ignorant of how the myth proceeds. 34 The Problem with Wild Women: Callisto in Conversation with Rousseau and Diderot Callistoâs consistent appearances within Boucherâs work lends itself to the question of how the visualization of rape myths is significant to the politics of sexual violence. Callistoâs specific mythology hinges on the concept of domestication in a way that her counterparts do not. Boucher was not a stranger to painting myths which depicted sexual violence, but as discussed prior Callisto utilizes a more deceptive iconography. The less explicit nature of her assault does not detract from a larger cultural talking point, as discussed via Christopher Bedford it visualizes a fantasy surrounding rape disguised as seduction.108 Boucherâs paintings provide a visual metaphor regarding the attitudes towards sexual violence which appealed to his audience. Boucherâs Callisto paintings are in turn symptomatic of these beliefs. Ovidâs version of Callistoâs mythology handles anxieties surrounding the body and lasting effects of trauma; it also acts as a warning to women on the risks of their independence. Callistoâs mythology is relevant to the Enlightenment's gender politics posed by Rousseau as she is a model example of a consequence for women and a desire for men. Rousseauâs ideology plays into a specific worldview which targeted Boucherâs high-class audience. His criticism of society hinged on its decadence and the way he felt society was becoming unnatural. When it came to patronage, Boucherâs notable female audience was not respected in the eyes of Rousseau and Diderotâs theories.109 Women seemingly infected the arts with their frivolity and decadence, which betrayed the purpose of the arts and turned it into something much more debaucherous.110 Boucherâs relationship with his female audience, especially Madame de Pompadour, seemingly implied that his painting was a part of this 108 Bedford, "High fidelity?," 48. 109 Tomaselli, "The Enlightenment," 113. 110Démoris, "Boucher, Diderot," 216. 35 hedonist culture. As mentioned prior, womenâs influence belonged in the imaginary realms of culture, not in its formal creation.111 This is also not meant to imply Boucher was creating what modern theory could deem as feminist paintings which highlighted female independence, as Boucher was still mainly attracting a male clientele.112 Boucherâs appeal to the male demographic was his incorporation of the male gaze, and the sensuality of the feminine bodies. All of which becomes more prevalent in the creation of his Callisto paintings, whose imagery is reflective of the proposed rape fantasy. Within the French Enlightenment authors such as Rousseau began to publish treatises focused on the natural order, which included the ideals of gender. Rousseau published two essays which deal with womanhood, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality in 1755 and Emile, or Treatise on Education in 1762. Within Rousseauâs writings he proposed the idea of the ânatural manâ and the ânatural woman,â these created guidelines which explored how men and women should behave and their determined places within society. Rousseau agreed with patriarchal values, deeming women to be dependent on men, caring for the children and the home, claiming that women were meant for domestic labor.113 In congruence with this Rousseau deems monogamy and traditional family structures to be absolutely natural and necessary.114 Throughout Emile, Rousseau discusses manâs ownership over women, that women must serve men as they are naturally dependent.115 The aspects of this treatise are greatly dehumanizing, as it outlines that womenâs worth comes solely from their relationships to their male counterparts. 111 Tomaselli, "The Enlightenment," 106. 112 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 52. 113 Susan Moller Okin, "Rousseau's Natural Woman," The Journal of Politics 41, no. 2 (1979): 399, https://doi.org/10.2307/2129771. 114 Okin, "Rousseau's Natural," 399. 115 Rousseau, Rousseau's EÌmile, 693. 36 Women within Rousseau lack autonomy, being told that their values will only be recognized within familial structures. What Rousseau presents within both Emile and Discourse on Inequality is his concept of the ideal woman; within Emile, Rousseau creates the counterpart of âSophie.â116 This idealization of womanhood is of course unachievable, but she creates a sort of aspiration for how women need to behave within societal constraints. From Emile, Rousseau covers ideas on womenâs education and discusses the natural differences between sexes, expressing that womenâs worth is within the home. In trying to usurp our advantages they do not abandon their own ; but from this it comes to pass that, not being able to manage both properly on account of their incompatibility, they fall short of their own possibilities without attaining to ours, and thus lose the half of their value. Believe me, judicious mother, do not make of your daughter a good man, as though to give the lie to Nature, but make of her a good woman, and you may be sure that she will be worth more for herself and for us.117 In this Rousseau targets the place of women and challenges mothers to not raise their children outside of a natural order. Young girls will never be able to usurp their male partners, therefore should be taught from an early age to serve men and not disrupt nature. Relating back to power dynamics this can be seen as an echo of Ovidâs writings, as Callisto exists outside of this natural order by being independent and taking a more masculine role in nature by being a huntress. She is then put back into her place as she is raped by Jupiter, while Ovid states that no matter how hard she fights she is totally helpless to his power. Nymphs in narrative pose a counterpoint to Sophie and womanhood in nature. Nymphs though they are independent, are often defined by the trauma inflicted onto them by men. Though they are entities of two different periods, they function similarly in being given recognition via the men they are involved with. Both Sophie 116 Okin, "Rousseau's Natural," 402. 117 Rousseau, Rousseau's EÌmile, 262. 37 and Callisto are examples to audiences of womanhoodâs function within society, acting as an ideal and as a warning. The recurring theme within these essays is domination, that is justified by natural law. The general consensus within the aristocracy followed the patriarchal standard, arranged marriages, women expected to bear children, abiding by their husbandsâ rules.118 Womanhood throughout France was dependent on environmental and class differences, it is impossible to have a single model of the ideal woman. Specifically looking at the 25-year period of Boucherâs Callistoâs from 1744-1769, there were changing expectations in womanhood and culture. Rousseauâs woman was targeted at those engaging in these discourses, though he discusses these high ideals of rural communities, ultimately that was not the audience being written for. The role of the woman in the ever-changing society must follow her natural state which is subservient to her husband, the implications of this result in the recontextualizing the nature of sexual violence.119 Rousseau observes that society is straying from nature, mainly regarding the perceived loss of the rural lifestyle, therefore there is a radiating anxiety for the potential breakdown of these norms and expectations.120 Thus the whole education of women ought to be relative to men. To please them, to be useful to them, to make themselves loved and honored by them, to educate them when young, to care for them when grown, to counsel them, to console them, and to make life agreeable and sweet to them - these are the duties of women at all times, and what should be taught them from their infancy.121 Taking in this quote Rousseau establishes that women are to serve men in every facet. Rousseau establishes that to maintain the natural order, domination and oppression is a necessity. 118 Marcie Ray, "Savage Love: The Indifferent Woman, Violent Seduction and 18th-century French Cantatas," Early Music 44, no. 4 (2016): 586, accessed December 13, 2024, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44645607. 119 Marlene LeGates, "The Cult of Womanhood in Eighteenth-Century Thought," Eighteenth-Century Studies 10, no. 1 (1976): 23, https://doi.org/10.2307/2737815. 120 Okin, "Rousseau's Natural," 400. 121 Rousseau, Rousseau's EÌmile, 263. 38 A comparison within the objectification of women and the disobeyment of their natural place comes from the essay Rape and Rape Victims in the "Metamorphoses" by Leo Curran. Who when speaking about Daphne and her desire to remain a virgin not bound to a male suitor, states, âDaphne is the kind of woman about whom a certain sort of man says, âAll she needs to straighten out is one good rape.ââ122 The ideological tie between both Ovidâs victims and the Enlightenmentâs purpose of women hinges on how to domesticate these wild women through established dominance and threats of violence. A leading theme within Enlightenment ideology is a domestication of women, and the need for control. Rousseau suggests that the existence of modern society hinges on the domestic placement of women.123 In line with Diderotâs critiques of Boucher immoral paintings, and the abhorrent sexuality within the arts, Rousseau believed lines were being blurred between gender roles, which was causing societal failings.124 Boucher played both sides of his audience, though Diderot seemed to believe these paintings were too catered to female audiences, and planting the ideas of sexual liberation, Callistoâs myth in origin applies to the idea of domestication. The concept of the wild woman and the nymph are antithetical to these concepts, nymphs within their context are supposed to be untameable, refusing to adhere to societal expectations until their autonomy is forcibly taken from them.125 In relation to Ovidâs text, rape is used as a way of stripping a woman of her identity and sense of self.126 The effects of this cement an ideology of 122 Curran, "Rape and Rape," 226-27. 123 Nicole Fermon, "Domesticating Women, Civilizing Men: Rousseau's Political Program," The Sociological Quarterly 35, no. 3 (1994): 436, JSTOR. 124 Fermon, "Domesticating Women," 434. 125 Curran, "Rape and Rape," 223. 126 Curran, "Rape and Rape," 223. 39 male dominance and destruction of womanhood, as it objectifies and dehumanizes the victim, in Ovidâs writing this effect is literal as they lose their human forms.127 Callisto and the nymph archetype within this cultural context exist as the perfect victim. They are model examples of the consequences women can face if they fall outside of societal expectations. To bring back the character of Juno, she is a personification of the societal repercussions, Callistoâs punishment is based in interfering with the sanctity of marriage and also stems from the fact that she is unwed and independent. Boucherâs choice to consistently revisit Callisto within his art is symptomatic of these larger politics surrounding female sexuality and sexual violence. The idea that women cannot be sexually independent is apparent with the assumption that a scene which lacks overt male bodies is an invitation. The objectification of Callisto is most apparent in Boucherâs 1759 rendition which lays her out for the viewer, despite being in the lap of a supposed partner. The way which Boucher puts Jupiter in the shadows serves two purposes, as it is representative of his deceitful identity, while also putting him out of focus towards the viewer. Callisto is the main figure for the viewer to focus on, she is an object of desire as established in prior discussion the representations of women. These cultural sentiments brought forth by Rousseau bleed through in Boucherâs paintings of Callisto. Despite Rococo artists being removed from the dialogues of Enlightenment conversations, Boucher is still painting myths which center around rape and originate from similar ideas about the rights of women. Rape politics as brought forth by Rousseau and ideas of sexuality discussed by Diderot are not lost on Boucherâs paintings, and in these instances, he visualises recurring themes. The nymph being a wild woman whose punishment for defying societal expectations is to lose her autonomy and agency forever. Callisto is not just punished by 127 Curran, "Rape and Rape," 225. 40 man, but by societal conventions. Since Callisto will not be domesticated, she is then forced to be wild, her transformation into the bear being a literal manifestation of this factor. Within Boucherâs paintings Callisto is reduced to her relationship with her rapist. In ties with the greater politics of the time - womenâs defining traits are their relationships to the men around them. Callistoâs relevance in these instances breathe new interpretations on her representation in her mythology, as well as questions Boucherâs artistic intentions. As stated, prior Boucherâs paintings appealed to multiple audiences, the iconography achieves this goal as they explore both the conventions of the Rococo and mythology paintings. Boucherâs paintings of Callisto bring her myth into the greater conversation of how women view themselves in art, instead of focusing on the apex of her myth, the expulsion, he instead recenters her story on her rape. Ovidâs characters are not stagnant to their origin but expand within their renditions. While Diderot believed Boucher was cheapening these images.128 Boucher modernized the myth to appeal to his audience, while also maintaining Callistoâs main themes of dominance and deceit. Ultimately her myth functions in a highly nuanced way within this century due to the surrounding politics. In which Callistoâs reintroduction to the eighteenth century feeding into these politics of rape, while also adding to the ideas of womanhood to her intended audience. There is a fluidity of her character established by Ovid which maintains itself across generations. The nymph seems to act as a narrative foil to Rousseauâs Sophie. The paintings of these wild women who must be put into place via a relationship to a man. As Sophie is inherently tied to Emile, Callistoâs narrative is forever tied to Jupiter. While Sophie adheres to the state of nature proposed by Rousseau, Callisto does not and is subsequently punished for it. Both women 128 Hyde and Boucher, Making up the Rococo, 58. 41 form an ideal and a warning for the real women they are perceived by. While also providing ideas for men of how to treat women. 42 Conclusion Francois Boucherâs paintings of rape victims is often undermined due to the belief set by Diderot that these paintings were nothing more than fluff and smut. Though with closer evaluation of the Callisto paintings there is a dialogue surrounding the politics of victimhood as brought forth by Rousseauâs ideology of domestication and domination over women. Boucherâs paintings do not define womanhood within this time period but instead recognizes a mindset which puts an emphasis on sexual violence. The result is a series of paintings which play into a rape fantasy that is not often acknowledged. Boucherâs paintings highlight these larger ideas around the perceptions of victimhood and violence all of which coincides with the changing understanding of womanhood in the mid to late Eighteenth century. The Rococo's reputation of catering to specific aesthetics which forego any historical importance has removed these paintings from a larger dialogue on their cultural significance. In tracing back, the origin of the nymph and how they function within Ovid the reasoning for their inclusion across Boucherâs oeuvre becomes more nuanced. This is also due to the inclusion of other rape victims across his works seen with both Callisto, Syrinx and Leda. These paintings though directly depicting rape or attempted rape, have been softened under pastoral precedents despite their inherent violence. Boucherâs paintings are a product of his audience which viewed these subjects in a way which undermined the severity of trauma caused by sexual violence. This is best exemplified by Callistoâs victimhood which is overlooked due to the perceived sapphic nature. Callisto as painted by Boucher depict victimhood in a way which caters to the male gaze based in the objectification of the female body. Callisto and other nymphs of this archetype are literally dehumanized by Ovid and while in their context there is a better sense of their tragedies, 43 they are not met with that same sympathy through art. Boucher uses Callisto in a way which feeds a larger conversation on how women appear in art and the impression these paintings have on the viewer. Boucherâs version of Callisto reframes her imagery to focus on her rape introducing her myth into the mid eighteenth century as an object of desire and eroticism over a tragedy. Though some argue that this is due to Boucherâs appropriation of Ovid, instead it seems to align with a greater issue on the dehumanization and domination of women. Boucherâs iconographic deception To conclude, womanhood under the French Enlightenment and the ideals set forth under their theories created a paradoxical standard. This standard can be best seen in the fictional women of the time, specifically in the narrative foils of Sophie and Callisto who across art and literature illustrate the place of women. The impossibilities of womanhood and the ties to male counterparts paint a deeply complicated relationship with the state of victimhood. Callisto becomes an object to the male gaze at the hands of Boucher, who acknowledges her rape but paints it as a fantasy. Boucherâs influence goes beyond the style of the Rococo, instead it lends itself to a conversation on the interactions between womanhood and culture. What we are left with is multiple paintings which center themselves around rape and domination, while being looked over due to their feminine aesthetics. The removal of these paintings from these conversations needs to be reevaluated to better picture how the eighteenth century understood rape and trauma. Callistoâs myth continues to create conversations of the concept of rape even when repackaged into a fantasy. From her elaboration in Ovid to her visualization in Boucher, her narrative serves to further conversations on victimhood and ideology surrounding rape. 44 Figures Figure 1. Francois Boucher, Jupiter and Callisto, 1744, Oil on Canvas, Pushkin Museum, Moscow, Russia, 45 Figure 2. Francois Boucher, Jupiter in the Guise of Diana and the Nymph Callisto, 1759, Oil on Canvas, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, United States. 46 Figure 3. Francois Boucher, Jupiter, in the Guise of Diana, and Callisto, 1763, Oil on Canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, United States. 47 Figure 4. Francois Boucher, Jupiter and Callisto, 1769, Oil on Canvas, Wallace Collection, London, United Kingdom. 48 Figure 5. Attributed to Francois Boucher, Leda and the Swan, circa 1740, Oil on Canvas, Private Collection. 49 Figure 6. Francois Boucher, Pan and Syrinx, 1759, Oil on Canvas, The National Gallery, London, United Kingdom. 50 Figure 7. Francois Boucher, Pan and Syrinx, 1760-1765, Oil on Canvas, Museo Nacional Del Prado, Madrid, Spain. 51 Bibliography Ananoff, Alexandre, Daniel Wildenstein, and François Boucher. François Boucher. Lausanne: La BibliotheÌque des arts, 1976. Anderson, William S. "Aspects of Love in Ovid's 'Metamorphoses.'" The Classical Journal 90, no. 3 (1995): 265-69. JSTOR. Ankersmit, F. R. "Rococo as the Dissipation of Boredom." In Compelling Visuality : the Work of Art in and out of History, by Claire J. Farago and Robert Zwijnenberg, 132-55. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003. Baetjer, Katharine. French Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art from the Early Eighteenth Century through the Revolution. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2019. 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Thesis/Dissertation
eng
Art History & Theory
Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
Graduate
Georgopulos, Nicole
Man, god, or bear : the domestication of the nymph as visualized by François Boucher in dialogue with French enlightenment views on sexual violence
Text