"Science, Faculty of"@en . "Zoology, Department of"@en . "DSpace"@en . "UBCV"@en . "Crichton, Ellika"@en . "2020-06-30T17:59:01Z"@en . "2020"@en . "Master of Science - MSc"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "The Arctic is currently undergoing a period of transformation brought on primarily by climate change. Climate-induced changes in sea ice have led to changes in primary productivity, prey abundance and distribution, and habitat availability. There are concerns that the Arctic could be ice free by 2040, meaning that there is urgency in determining the impacts that climate change will have on the organisms that inhabit the Arctic. Climate change, however, is not the only pressure that marine organisms are facing. Contaminants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and mercury (Hg) have been identified as contaminants of concern to wildlife in the Arctic. Little is known about the interaction between contaminants and climate change, but concerns have arisen that the two stressors may exacerbate each other. The goal of this thesis is to add to our current knowledge of the impacts of contaminants and climate change on the health of western Arctic beluga whales and to explore the potential interaction between the two stressors. I examined the mRNA expression of 12 genes involved in detoxification of xenobiotics, nutritional stress and metabolism as a proxy for beluga whale health. The relationship between mRNA expression and contaminant burdens, stable isotopes and fatty acid signatures, sea ice levels and body condition metrics were examined in liver and blubber samples taken between 2008 to 2017. A principal component analysis on gene expression resulted in factor 1 explaining 78% percent of the variance for blubber and 90% of the variance for liver. Factor 1 was found to be significantly related to \u00E1\u00BA\u009F\u00C2\u00B9\u00C2\u00B3C in blubber. Analysis of fatty acid profiles using PCA revealed inter-annual clustering of the year with the highest sea ice extent as well as the year with the lowest sea ice extent. Analysis of individual genes revealed that sea ice extent, fatty acids, length, \u00E1\u00BA\u009F\u00C2\u00B9\u00C2\u00B3C and Hg may contribute most to the overall variation in gene expression. Results suggest that physiology of Beaufort Sea beluga whales are affected by a combination of climate-induced changes in foraging patterns and environmental contaminants."@en . "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/74808?expand=metadata"@en . "EFFECTS OF CONTAMINANTS AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE HEALTH OF WESTERN ARCTIC BELUGA WHALES (DELPHINAPTERUS LEUCAS) by Ellika Crichton B.Sc., Simon Fraser University, 2014 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Zoology) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) June 2020 \u00C2\u00A9 Ellika Crichton, 2020 ii The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies for acceptance, a thesis entitled: Effects of contaminants and climate change on the health of western Arctic beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) submitted by Ellika Crichton in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology Examining Committee: Dr. Peter Ross, Vice President Research, Ocean Wise Co-Supervisor Dr. Jeffrey Richards, Professor, Zoology, UBC Co-Supervisor Dr. Rick Taylor, Professor, Zoology, UBC Additional Examiner iii Abstract The Arctic is currently undergoing a period of transformation brought on primarily by climate change. Climate-induced changes in sea ice have led to changes in primary productivity, prey abundance and distribution, and habitat availability. There are concerns that the Arctic could be ice free by 2040, meaning that there is urgency in determining the impacts that climate change will have on the organisms that inhabit the Arctic. Climate change, however, is not the only pressure that marine organisms are facing. Contaminants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and mercury (Hg) have been identified as contaminants of concern to wildlife in the Arctic. Little is known about the interaction between contaminants and climate change, but concerns have arisen that the two stressors may exacerbate each other. The goal of this thesis is to add to our current knowledge of the impacts of contaminants and climate change on the health of western Arctic beluga whales and to explore the potential interaction between the two stressors. I examined the mRNA expression of 12 genes involved in detoxification of xenobiotics, nutritional stress and metabolism as a proxy for beluga whale health. The relationship between mRNA expression and contaminant burdens, stable isotopes and fatty acid signatures, sea ice levels and body condition metrics were examined in liver and blubber samples taken between 2008 to 2017. A principal component analysis on gene expression resulted in factor 1 explaining 78% percent of the variance for blubber and 90% of the variance for liver. Factor 1 was found to be significantly related to \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C in blubber. Analysis of fatty acid profiles using PCA revealed inter-annual clustering of the year with the highest sea ice extent as well as the year with the lowest sea ice extent. Analysis of individual genes revealed that sea ice extent, fatty acids, length, \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C and Hg may contribute most to the overall variation in gene expression. Results suggest that physiology of Beaufort Sea beluga whales are affected iv by a combination of climate-induced changes in foraging patterns and environmental contaminants. v Lay Summary The Arctic is currently undergoing a period of rapid transformation brought on by climate change. Large scale changes in sea ice have put stress on animals who rely on the ice for foraging, habitat and reproduction. Animals are also exposed to contaminants, which have been demonstrated to impact the health of many marine organisms, including beluga whales. However, little is known about the potential for these two stressors to interact. In this thesis, I aim to explore the interaction between climate change and contaminants on beluga whale health. I measured the expression of genes that play roles in nutritional health, contaminant detoxification and stress and found that these were related to changes in sea ice, diet and contaminants. My data indicate that there is a relationship between sea ice, contaminant levels and gene expression, suggesting that these factors may be impacting the health of western Arctic beluga whales. vi Preface This project was designed together with Dr. Marie No\u00C3\u00ABl based on her work on beluga whales in the western Arctic. Input on the design was provided by Dr. Peter Ross and Dr. Lisa Loseto. I wrote all sections of this thesis, with input from my supervisors and supervisory committee. I performed collection of qPCR data, with some assistance from Thomas Dong, a laboratory technician. Guidance and technical support in the lab were given by Dr. Marie No\u00C3\u00ABl. I performed all statistical analysis for this thesis. Data, including biopsy samples, contaminants data, body measurements, stable isotopes and fatty acids, were collected by third parties. All third parties are acknowledged throughout the methods section of this thesis. vii Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary ................................................................................................................................ v Preface ........................................................................................................................................... vi Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ vii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. x List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xi List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. xiii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... xv Dedication ................................................................................................................................... xvi Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Beaufort Sea beluga whales ............................................................................................ 4 1.3 Contaminants .................................................................................................................. 6 1.3.1 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) .......................................................................... 7 1.3.2 Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) ............................................................ 10 1.3.3 Mercury ................................................................................................................. 12 1.4 Health ............................................................................................................................ 15 1.4.1 Genes ..................................................................................................................... 15 1.4.1.1 Leptin ................................................................................................................ 15 1.4.1.2 Adiponectin ....................................................................................................... 16 1.4.1.3 Thyroid receptor beta ........................................................................................ 17 viii 1.4.1.4 Deiodinases 1 and 2 .......................................................................................... 18 1.4.1.5 Uncoupling protein 2 ........................................................................................ 19 1.4.1.6 Estrogen receptor alpha ..................................................................................... 20 1.4.1.7 Haptoglobin ....................................................................................................... 20 1.4.1.8 Heat shock protein 70 A1A ............................................................................... 21 1.4.1.9 Tumour necrosis factor alpha ............................................................................ 22 1.4.1.10 Insulin-like growth factor 1 .......................................................................... 22 1.4.1.11 Aryl hydrocarbon receptor ............................................................................ 23 1.4.2 Feeding ecology .................................................................................................... 24 1.4.2.1 Stable isotopes .................................................................................................. 24 1.4.2.2 Fatty acids ......................................................................................................... 25 1.5 Goal of this study .......................................................................................................... 26 Chapter 2: Interacting effects of contaminants and climate change on the health of western Arctic beluga whales ................................................................................................................... 28 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 28 2.2 Methods ......................................................................................................................... 31 2.2.1 Sample collection .................................................................................................. 31 2.2.2 RNA extraction ..................................................................................................... 33 2.2.3 Qualitative real-time polymerase chain reaction .................................................. 35 2.2.4 Treatment of qPCR data ........................................................................................ 37 2.2.5 Quality assurance/quality control of new primers ................................................ 38 2.2.6 PCBs and PBDEs .................................................................................................. 39 2.2.7 Mercury ................................................................................................................. 40 ix 2.2.8 Stable isotopes ...................................................................................................... 40 2.2.9 Fatty acids ............................................................................................................. 41 2.2.10 Age estimates ........................................................................................................ 41 2.2.11 Sea ice ................................................................................................................... 42 2.2.12 Statistical analysis ................................................................................................. 42 2.3 Results ........................................................................................................................... 45 2.3.1 Explanatory variables ............................................................................................ 45 2.3.2 Relationships between total gene expression and explanatory variables .............. 46 2.3.3 Relationships between individual genes and explanatory variables ..................... 47 2.4 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 65 2.4.1 Impacts of climate change on gene expression ..................................................... 65 2.4.2 Impacts of contaminants on gene expression ........................................................ 68 2.4.3 Impacts of contaminants and climate change on gene expression ........................ 69 Chapter 3: General Discussion and Conclusions ..................................................................... 71 3.1 Concluding remarks ...................................................................................................... 71 3.2 Future directions ........................................................................................................... 73 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 76 Appendix A .................................................................................................................................. 91 x List of Tables Table 2.3.1 Results of the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) performed to determine which variables explained most of the variance for each gene. Due to a small sample size, second order AICc was calculated (AICc=AIC + (2K(K+1/n-K-1), where K is the total number of parameters and n is sample size). \u00E2\u0088\u0086AICc is the difference AIC-AICmin. Wi indicates the relative weight of each parameter compared to the rest of the models, calculated as Wi=(exp(-1/2*\u00E2\u0088\u0086AICc)/\u00CE\u00A3(exp(-1/2*\u00E2\u0088\u0086AICc), where the bottom term represents the sum of all model weights. The model chosen is \u00E2\u0080\u0098best\u00E2\u0080\u0099 is represented below. In cases where the model chosen as \u00E2\u0080\u0098best\u00E2\u0080\u0099 was not different than the intercept (represented as N/A under predictors), the second \u00E2\u0080\u0098best\u00E2\u0080\u0099 model is also shown. ...... 58 xi List of Figures Figure 2.3.1 A principal components analysis (PCA) was performed for fatty acids across all years. Fatty acids were represented as percentages. The PCA reveals interannual clustering, with 2009 and 2017 separating from the rest of the data. 2009 has the highest sea ice extent over the study period, where 2017 has the lowest sea ice over the study period. However, other years have similarly high and low sea ice extents and do not show the same distinct clustering, indicating that other factors may influence fatty acids. ................................................................................. 49 Figure 2.3.2 Factor 1 obtained through a principal components analysis for fatty acids across all years versus percent June sea ice extent in the Beaufort Sea reveals a significant relationship (p<0.005, R2=0.29). ...................................................................................................................... 50 Figure 2.3.3 Factor 2 of the principal components analysis performed on fatty acids across all years versus blubber thickness (p<0.005, R2=0.032), length (p<0.005, R2=0.10) and girth (p<0.005, R2=0.22) of beluga whales reveal significant relationships. ........................................ 51 Figure 2.3.4 Results of the principal components analysis (PCA) performed on the gene expression found for all genes, with the exception of AhR due to low amplification, in blubber. Individuals are represented by dots. No distinct clustering patterns emerged. ............................. 52 Figure 2.3.5 Factor 1, determined from a PCA of blubber gene expression profiles, revealed relationships between several of the explanatory variables. After a Bonferroni correction, only \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C (p<0.0045, R2=0.2206) displayed a significant positive correlation with factor 1. All other relationships were non-significant. Percent June sea ice extent (which determines the timing of the commencement of the Beaufort Sea beluga migration; p=0.0162, R2=0.0873), total Hg (ug/g lw; p=0.0459, R2=0.05663), and total PCBs (ng/g lw; p=0.0226, R2=0.1219) displayed non-xii significant negative relationships with factor 1. Length of each beluga (cm; p=0.0185, R2=0.0849) displayed a non-significant positive correlation with factor 1. ................................. 54 Figure 2.3.6 The principal components analysis (PCA) performed on gene expression for all genes with the exception of AhR and Adiponectin which both had low expression, for liver. Dots represent individual beluga whales. No distinct clustering patterns emerged during this analysis. ....................................................................................................................................................... 55 Figure 2.3.7 Factor 1, determined from a PCA of liver gene expression profiles, revealed a non-significant relationship with June sea ice extent in the Beaufort Sea after a Bonferroni correction (p=0.016, R2=0.077). .................................................................................................................... 57 Figure 2.3.8 Expression of each gene in blubber was logged and plotted against \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C. Relationships were evaluated using a linear model. All relationships displayed were determined to be significant: HP (p=0.00102, R2=0.2414), ER\u00CE\u00B1 (p=0.000654, R2=0.2528), DI1 (p=0.00195, R2=0.233), DI2 (p=0.0022, TNF\u00CE\u00B1 (p=0.00309, R2=0.192), UCP2 (p=0.000556, R2=0.2589), HspA1A (p=0.000378, R2=0.3093), and ILGF1 (p=0.0107, R2=0.1446). This indicates a negative relationship between gene expression and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C. ........................................................................... 61 Figure 2.3.9 Expression of each gene in liver was logged and plotted against \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C. Relationships were evaluated using a linear model. All relationships displayed were determined to be significant: HP (p=0.0188, R2=0.2414), ER\u00CE\u00B1 (p=0.0169, R2=0.1157), (p=0.0409, R2=0.08881), TNF\u00CE\u00B1 (p=0.0113, R2=0.1288), and TR\u00CE\u00B2 (p=0.0202, R2=0.1202). This indicates a negative relationship between gene expression and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C. ........................................................................... 64 xiii List of Abbreviations Acat2 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 acetyl coA acetyltransferase 2 Acox1 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 acyl coenzyme A oxidase 1 AhR \u00E2\u0080\u0093 aryl hydrocarbon receptor AIC \u00E2\u0080\u0093 Akaike information criterion ATP \u00E2\u0080\u0093 adenosine triphosphate CRP \u00E2\u0080\u0093 C-reactive protein Ct \u00E2\u0080\u0093 cycle threshold Cyp1A1 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 cytochrome P450 1A1 DDT - dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane DI1 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 deiodinase 1 DI2 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 deiodinase 2 \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C \u00E2\u0080\u0093 carbon isotope 13 \u00E1\u00BA\u009F15N \u00E2\u0080\u0093 nitrogen isotope 15 ER\u00CE\u00B1 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 estrogen receptor alpha ETC \u00E2\u0080\u0093 electron transport chain Hg - mercury HP - haptoglobin Hsp70 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 heat shock protein 70 HspA1A \u00E2\u0080\u0093 heat shock protein 70 A1A ILGF1 - insulin-like growth factor 1 MeHg \u00E2\u0080\u0093 methyl mercury NTC \u00E2\u0080\u0093 no-template control xiv PBDE \u00E2\u0080\u0093 polybrominated diphenyl ether PC \u00E2\u0080\u0093 positive control PCA \u00E2\u0080\u0093 principal components analysis PCB \u00E2\u0080\u0093 polychlorinated biphenyl POP \u00E2\u0080\u0093 persistent organic pollutant PPAR\u00CE\u00B1 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha QA/QC \u00E2\u0080\u0093 quality assurance/quality control ROS \u00E2\u0080\u0093 reactive oxygen species rpL8 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 ribosomal protein L8 SD \u00E2\u0080\u0093 standard deviation SIRT2 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 sirtuin 2 T3 - triiodothyronine T4 - thyroxine TNF\u00CE\u00B1 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 tumour necrosis factor alpha TR\u00CE\u00B2 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 thyroid receptor beta UCP2 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 uncoupling protein 2 \u00CE\u00B2-actin \u00E2\u0080\u0093 beta actin xv Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the help and support of my supervisor, Dr. Jeffrey Richards, whose guidance was invaluable to the completion of this thesis and whose patience with my many questions was very much appreciated. Thank you to Dr. Peter Ross, who provided support and resources for the project. Thank you to my lab manager, Dr. Marie No\u00C3\u00ABl, whose thesis this thesis was based on, and who taught me how to do everything in the lab. Thank you to my committee member, Dr. Trish Schulte, whose expertise and knowledge helped immensely in times of struggle. I would also like to thank those organizations that made this research possible, including Ocean Wise, the Northern Contaminants Program, Fisheries and Oceans Canada (Inuvik and Winnipeg), MITACS, the Fisheries Joint Management Committee, the Hunters and Trappers Committees of Tuktoyaktuk, the Inuvialuit Game Council, the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, the Beaufort Sea Partnership (Integrated Ocean Management) and TN-MPA and Arctic Net. Thank you to my lab mates at OceanWise and friends at UBC, who helped keep my spirits up through this process. Thank you to also to staff at the Pacific Science Enterprise Center, who graciously allowed the use of their PCR machine during troubleshooting. Finally, thank you so much to my wonderful parents and my wonderful partner. Your support, patience and kindness got me to this point. I wouldn\u00E2\u0080\u0099t have gotten here without you. xvi Dedication I dedicate this to my family. Thank you.1 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background The Arctic environment, located 66.5o north of the equator, is experiencing a period of rapid transformation, brought on primarily through climate change. The Arctic is currently warming at a rate of approximately 0.6oC per decade, which is three times faster than the global average rate (Comiso & Hall, 2014). This rate of warming, combined with factors such as increases in storm surges and decreased albedo, has led to unprecedented rates of sea ice change, including reductions in sea ice thickness and annual sea ice extent (Grannas et al., 2013). The loss of sea ice has the potential to impact the entire Arctic ecosystem, and changes in species abundance and distribution have already been observed at all trophic levels (Loseto et al., 2015; Moore & Reeves, 2018; Moore et al., 2012; Tai et al., 2019). Earlier sea ice break ups and overall reductions in annual sea ice cover have led to altered timing of phytoplankton blooms, as well as increases in overall primary production (Alava et al., 2017; Reeves et al., 2013). This has direct implications for foraging and distribution of high trophic-level consumers. Warming waters are also expected to cause changes in species makeup, as southern prey species are expected to migrate northward to cooler waters (Tai et al., 2019). In addition to influencing food web dynamics, changes in sea ice are expected to severely impact animals that rely on sea ice for habitat, including walruses and seals that use sea ice for hauling-out and breeding and polar bears that rely on sea ice for hunting (Moore & Reeves, 2018). While it is clear that these animals may be facing impending consequences from reductions in sea ice, the consequences of reduced sea ice extent are less clear for ice-edge associated animals such as narwhals, bowheads and beluga whales that use sea ice for protection from predators, foraging 2 and navigation (Hauser et al., 2014; Loseto et al., 2015; Moore & Reeves, 2018). There are concerns that the Arctic may experience its first ice-free summer by 2040, and as a result it is critically important to determine the potential risks posed by climate change to marine organisms (Hornby et al., 2016). The implications of climate change on the Arctic environment alone may be cause for concern, but perhaps even more concerning is that this is not the only pressure this ecosystem is facing. The Arctic is often considered a pristine ecosystem, with a relative lack of anthropogenic activities. However, the lack of industrialization and direct pollution into the Arctic environment does not mean that the Arctic is immune to contaminant exposure. Winds and oceanic currents bring contaminants to the Arctic from more polluted areas of the planet, including Europe, North America and Asia (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). Of particular concern are persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as polychlorinated biphenyls and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PDBEs), as well as contaminants such as methyl mercury (MeHg), which have been identified as contaminants of concern in the Arctic (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). Each of these contaminants has been shown to bioaccumulate in marine mammals, potentially posing a risk to their health (Frouin et al., 2012; Grannas et al., 2013; Loseto et al., 2008; No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). Contaminant-related health impacts, including changes in mRNA expression, neurochemical markers, hormone concentrations and immunity, have been noted in many Arctic marine mammals such as ringed seals, grey seals, polar bears, and beluga whales (Braathen et al., 2004; Brown et al., 2014; Haave et al., 2003; Levin et al., 2016; Ostertag et al., 2014; Troisi et al., 2020). 3 As multiple stressors are at play in the Arctic, it is important that we start to look at the combined impact of these stressors on organism health to understand the influence that they may have on marine life. For example, sea ice previously acted as a sink for contaminants in the Arctic, effectively storing contaminants by trapping them in frozen ice. Increases in sea ice melt have led to these stores being released into the Arctic environment (Alava et al., 2017; Grannas et al., 2013). Increases in precipitation are also expected due to climate change, which will increase the intensity of contaminant deposition from the atmosphere (Grannas et al., 2013). Further, prey species are expected to migrate north as the climate warms, and these animals may act as a vector to deliver contaminants from more polluted areas of the globe to the Arctic (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2018; Tai et al., 2019). This phenomenon has already been demonstrated in polar bears, whose change in dietary preference has been associated with increased POP concentrations (McKinney et al., 2013). Recently, a study looking at the impact of contaminants on beluga whale health found that the mRNA transcript abundance of two genes involved in xenobiotic detoxification, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and cytochrome P450 1A1 (Cyp1A1), were, as expected, correlated with concentrations of PCBs (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). No\u00C3\u00ABl et al. (2014) also revealed a surprising finding, whereby genes involved in growth, development and metabolism had increased expression during years with low sea ice extent (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). These observations suggest that both contaminants and climate change may be impacting the health of beluga whales. However, these observations were made over only three years (2008 to 2010), so it is not currently possible to draw firm conclusions about the relationship between contaminants and climate change and their influence on the health of beluga whales. In order to more completely 4 understand this interaction, it is important to extend these observations over a longer time period to adequately assess whether sea ice extent plays a role in gene expression. To this end, this thesis aims to extend the observations that both contaminants and climate change may be impacting the health of beluga whales by studying gene expression in beluga whale tissues from 2008 to 2017 and including additional genes in the analysis that may provide greater insight into the health and nutritional stress of beluga whales in the Arctic. 1.2 Beaufort Sea beluga whales Beluga whales are a circumpolar, primarily Arctic species, many of which reside in Canadian waters (Choy et al., 2017; Ostertag et al., 2018). They are an important part of the Arctic food web, playing the role of a top predator, and are an important food source for many people who rely on the Arctic Ocean for food. The Beaufort Sea beluga stock is one of the world\u00E2\u0080\u0099s largest, with a population of almost 40 000 individuals estimated in 1992 (Allen & Angliss, 2013; Harwood et al., 1996) and although no current population census data are available, the population is considered to be stable (COSEWIC, 2004). This population is migratory and overwinters in the Bering Sea, just outside of the ice-covered Arctic basin (Choy et al., 2017; Hornby et al., 2016; Ostertag et al., 2018). In the spring, the seasonal sea ice starts to melt, allowing a path to open up for the beluga whales to migrate through the Arctic basin to their summer home in the Mackenzie River estuary (Choy et al., 2017; Hornby et al., 2016; Ostertag et al., 2018; Stafford et al., 2018). The sea ice typically reaches its minimum in September and around this time beluga whales start to return towards their wintering grounds before the sea ice starts to build back up in October (Hauser et al., 2016). Climate change may enable the earlier migration of Beaufort Sea beluga whales from their wintering home to their summer home, as 5 the ice break-up of the Arctic basin has shifted to earlier timing, allowing beluga whales to pass through earlier in the year (Hauser et al., 2016; Hornby et al., 2016). Beluga whales typically inhabit open water areas close to the ice edge (Hornby et al., 2016). Areas near the ice edge provide important refuge from aquatic predators for small beluga whales and mothers with calves and have an added benefit of attracting high prey densities (Breton-Honeyman et al., 2016; Hornby et al., 2016). Large male beluga whales may venture further from the ice edge into the open water to search for new feeding grounds; however, they will remain near the ice edge when possible (Hauser et al., 2014; Hornby et al., 2016; Loseto et al., 2015). Changes in sea ice may dramatically alter the current habitat selection for beluga whales. For instance, the safety of the ice edge may be pushed further offshore in some areas, making a safe journey to and from their summering grounds more difficult (Breton-Honeyman et al., 2016; Hornby et al., 2016; Loseto et al., 2015). Prey, which aggregate near the ice edge, may also be pushed further offshore (Hornby et al., 2016; Stafford et al., 2018). To make matters worse, predators and competitors have been sighted more frequently in the eastern Arctic, where Beaufort beluga whales reside in the winter, since the reduction in sea ice cover, as they are no longer inhibited from entering the Arctic by their dorsal fins and the cost of thermoregulation is not as high in warmer waters (Clarke et al., 2013; Ferguson et al., 2012; Reeves et al., 2013). Beluga whales are considered generalist feeders and feed primarily on Arctic cod, as well as Greenland halibut, pacific herring, rainbow smelt, Arctic cisco, saffron cod, salmon, octopus, shrimp and polychaetes (Hornby et al., 2016; Loseto et al., 2009; Loseto et al., 2008). Warming waters are expected to change the abundance of many of these prey species, and changes in sea-6 ice may dramatically alter the prey\u00E2\u0080\u0099s distribution. However, since beluga whales are generalist feeders, there is hope that they can switch to new prey sources. As waters warm, prey species are expected to migrate northward, and southern species, such as capelin, Atlantic cod and Northern prawns are expected to become abundant (Tai et al., 2019). While this could be seen as beneficial, some concerns come with the increase in non-Arctic species. These species are considered commercially valuable, and fishing may increase in the Arctic (Tai et al., 2019). In addition, a reduction in sea ice cover may open up the fishing season so boats can fish year-round. This could impact beluga whales by leading to a decrease in prey availability as well as an increase in the potential for ship strikes and underwater noise (Niemi et al., 2012; Tai et al., 2019). 1.3 Contaminants For marine mammals, contaminants that are of most concern are persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Contaminants can be classified as POPs based on three main criteria. First, to be classified as a POP a contaminant must have a long half-life in the marine environment, meaning that it will persist for a long time and therefore is likely to interact with marine life. Second, POPs must be able to bioaccumulate, which typically is common in lipophilic contaminants that accumulate in fat deposits of marine organisms. This is particularly troublesome for marine mammals who have large blubber reserves and are at the top of the food chain. Lastly, POPs must be toxic to marine life. In the Arctic environment, the most prevalent POPs are PCBs and PBDEs (Allen & Angliss, 2013; Choy et al., 2017; No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). PCBs and PBDEs represent legacy contaminants and 7 are no longer in use industrially, however their presence is ubiquitous in the marine environment. Both compounds are similar in structure, containing two phenol rings, however PCBs contain chlorine where PBDEs contain bromine and an ether group. While their structures are similar, PBDEs are generally considered to be less toxic to organisms than PCBs. Planar compounds are typically the most bioavailable, as they mimic natural hormones (Rahman et al., 2001). While not all PCBs are planar, the small atomic size of chlorine allows even non-planar compounds to twist into planar compounds, allowing them to bind to several hormone receptors. In contrast, the increased atomic size of bromine inhibits the ability of PBDEs to twist from non-planar to planar, effectively reducing their bioavailability in comparison to PCBs (Rahman et al., 2001). A study on bioaccumulation of PCBs and PBDEs in the Arctic food web found that trophic magnification factors of PCBs ranged from 2.9 to 11, indicating that PCBs bioaccumulate, whereas PBDEs had trophic magnification factors ranging from 0.7 to 1.6, indicating negligible bioaccumulation (trophic magnification factors over 1 indicate biomagnification; trophic magnification factors under 1 indicate biominification; Kelly et al., 2008). A third contaminant of concern is mercury, which represents a non-organic contaminant of concern in the Arctic; however, it can still bioaccumulate in the form of methyl mercury (MeHg) and it is toxic at high concentrations (ATSDR, 1999; Frouin et al., 2012; Loseto et al., 2015) (Appendix A, Table A4). 1.3.1 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) PCBs are highly lipophilic contaminants, which accumulate in lipid-rich tissues such as blubber (Erickson & Kaley, 2010). PCBs were first described over a century ago and were used 8 commercially from the 1930s onward (Erickson & Kaley, 2010). PCBs were prized for their fire-resistant properties and for their ability to provide chemical resistance and durability in various products (Erickson & Kaley, 2010; Provost et al., 2007). The primary producer of PCBs was Monsanto in the United States, who marketed PCBs for use in flame retardants, hydraulic fluids, plasticizers, paint additives, adhesives, sealants, neoprene and numerous other products (Erickson & Kaley, 2010). PCBs were first discovered in wildlife in 1968 by Risebrough et al. (1968), which is when the world was awakening to the dangers of human-made contaminants following the release of Rachel Carson\u00E2\u0080\u0099s book, Silent Spring, in 1962, which implicated DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) in the decline of many bird species. Risebrough et al. (1968) noted that DDTs were not the only hydrocarbon of concern and pointed to the evidence that bird eggs with thin shells also had high amounts of PCBs (Risebrough et al., 1968). Even in these early stages of research, Risebrough et al. (1968) raised concern over the potential atmospheric transport of PCBs to less-contaminated areas of the globe, especially through incineration of products containing PCBs. Shortly after Risebrough\u00E2\u0080\u0099s article was published (1968), and with evidence accumulating on the dangers of PCBs to wildlife, Monsanto began to issue warnings to their customers and began to restrict the use of PCBs. In 1970, PCBs were only to be used in closed systems where it was unlikely that they would be released into the environment. In 1977, Monsanto voluntarily ceased production of PCBs and many other companies followed suit (Erickson & Kaley, 2010). By the early 1980s, most companies had stopped manufacturing PCBs. In 2004, a global treaty termed 9 \u00E2\u0080\u0098The Stockholm Convention\u00E2\u0080\u0099, based on a 2001 meeting, was put into force with the goal of protecting human health and the environment through addressing the problem of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including PCBs (UNEP, 2016). Unfortunately, while the production of PCBs may have ceased, PCBs are persistent in the environment. What originally made PCBs so desirable for use in manufactured goods was their resistance to chemical degradation, thermal degradation and biodegradation (Erickson & Kaley, 2010; Provost et al., 2007), but these are precisely the properties that make PCBs so persistent in the environment. Further, PCBs are still leaching into the environment from products that were manufactured before the 1980s. Landfills are considered to be a major source of PCBs, as many products that contained PCBs were simply thrown out and not properly disposed of. Buildings, bridges and ships still contain vintage paints containing PCBs. When these buildings are dismantled or paints are removed, PCBs are released into the environment (Stuart-Smith & Jepson, 2017). Many studies on the concentrations of PCBs in marine mammals over time have indicated that PCB concentrations in marine mammals have stabilized (Borrell et al., 2010; Hoguet et al., 2013; Isobe et al., 2009; Law et al., 2014; Raach et al., 2011), with very few studies indicating a decline in PCBs following elimination from the market (Law et al., 2010; Ross et al., 2013) reflecting the fact that PCBs are highly persistent in the marine environment. PCBs have now been found in virtually all areas of the globe, including the relatively pristine Arctic (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). In fact, the early paper by Risebrough et al. (1968) noted high concentrations of PCBs in Arctic peregrines. PCBs arrive to the Arctic primarily through atmospheric deposition, with some input from oceanic currents and migratory species (Choy et 10 al., 2017). These contaminants have been demonstrated to impact marine mammals, including beluga whales, and have been noted as a key contaminant of concern. Indeed, PCBs have been implicated in the altered mRNA expression of a wide variety of genes involved in processes such as cellular metabolism, growth, metabolism and detoxification in ringed seals, juvenile harbour seals, killer whales, beluga whales and even humans (Brown et al., 2014; Buckman et al., 2011; No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2017; Simond et al., 2019; Zheng et al., 2017). 1.3.2 Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) The commercial use of PBDEs started in the 1970s, when they were marketed as alternative flame retardants to PCBs (UNEP, 2010; Environment Canada 2004; Jinhui et al., 2017; EPA, 2009; Abbasi et al., 2019). PBDEs are very similar in structure to PCBs, however they differ by containing an ether group and by containing bromines instead of chlorines (Rahman et al., 2001). Like PBDEs, their flame-retardant properties made them ideal for use in furniture, textiles, polystyrene, polyurethane foams, wire and cable insulation, and electrical parts (Environment Canada, 2004; EPA, 2009; Jinhui et al., 2017; Rahman et al., 2001; UNEP, 2010). Three main mixtures of PBDE congeners were manufactured and used commercially: penta-brominated diphenyl ethers (pentaBDEs), octa-brominated diphenyl ethers (octaBDEs) and deca-brominated diphenyl ethers (decaBDEs), named to reflect the number of bromine molecules on the majority of the PBDEs in the mixture (Rotander et al., 2012). After several decades of use, PBDEs started to be recognized globally as a threat to wildlife. The European Union (EU) was one of the first to reduce the use of PBDEs. Penta- and octaBDEs were banned in the EU in 2004, and other countries quickly started to follow suit (Rotander et al., 2012). In 2009, penta- 11 and octa-BDEs officially joined PCBs in being added to the Stockholm Convention\u00E2\u0080\u0099s list of substances to reduce and eventually eliminate from the global market (UNEP, 2010; Rotander et al., 2012; Abbasi et al., 2019). DecaBDEs remained on the market for several years, as they were considered to be less persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic (Ross et al., 2009). However, it was soon determined that decaBDEs could be biotransformed into their lesser-brominated penta- and octaBDE counterparts. For example, studies on liver microsomes in polar bears, beluga whales and ringed seals noted that fully brominated decaBDEs were able to degrade into more persistent forms of PBDEs through biotransformation (McKinney et al., 2011). DecaBDEs were banned in Europe in 2008 and were officially added to the Stockholm Convention in 2017 (Abbasi et al., 2019). While PBDE production has ceased, they are still present in many products that were manufactured before PBDEs were removed from the market (Brown et al., 2018). The phase-out of PBDEs from in-use and waste stocks is projected to finish by 2050, which means continued input of PBDEs into the marine environment for decades to come (Abbasi et al., 2019). However, many studies have indicated that PBDE concentrations have declined in biota since the implementation of PBDE bans. Concentrations of PBDEs in seabird eggs in the Canadian Arctic increased from 1975 to 2003, then declined rapidly (Braune et al., 2015). In British Columbia, PBDE concentrations increased in harbour seal pups from 1984 to 2003, but declined afterwards following some restrictions (Ross et al., 2013). PBDEs increased in ringed seals and polar bears in the Arctic from the 1990s to the early 2000s, before beginning to decline in 2005 (Brown et al., 2018), closely mirroring the gradual decline in production of PBDEs throughout the world. 12 While similar in properties to PCBs, their adverse health effects in mammals have not been frequently documented. Hall et al. (2003) were one of the only studies to report adverse health effects, noting altered thyroid hormone levels in grey seals. Frouin et al. (2010) also noted effects of PBDEs on immune cells of harbour seals in vitro, however this has not been demonstrated in wild populations. This is likely due to their lower biomagnification properties and the potential for debromination of congeners in organisms to a less toxic state (Kelly et al., 2008). 1.3.3 Mercury Mercury (Hg) is a ubiquitous contaminant of concern. It is present in the environment in three forms: elemental Hg (unbound, pure Hg), inorganic Hg (Hg bound to non-carbon sources, such as chlorine, sulfur or oxygen) and organic mercury (Hg bound with carbon, e.g. methyl mercury (MeHg)) (ATSDR, 1999). Hg undergoes natural cycling in the environment and is released from rocks and soils through processes such as erosion and volcanic activity. However, anthropogenically-driven Hg cycling has increased the availability of Hg to the environment (ATSDR, 1999; Lu et al., 2001). Anthropogenic Hg is mined as cinnabar ore, which is a form of mercuric sulfide. This ore is refined by heating it to temperatures above 538\u00C2\u00B0C, which vapourizes the Hg, allowing it to be separated and cooled into pure, liquid Hg (ATSDR, 1999). Hg has many commercial uses, including extracting gold from ore, producing chlorine gas, dental fillings, fungicides and electrical switches (Alava et al., 2017; ATSDR, 1999). Before Hg was considered a toxic substance, it was even used for purposes such as laxatives, teething powders and spiritual herbal remedies (ATSDR, 1999). It is estimated that approximately \u00E2\u0085\u0093 to \u00E2\u0085\u0094 of the total mercury released into the environment is through anthropogenic processes (ATSDR, 1999). Most mercury, released by both natural and anthropogenic means, is released as an elemental Hg 13 vapour or as inorganic Hg, which can undergo long-range atmospheric transport to remote areas of the globe, such as the Arctic (ATSDR, 1999; Frouin et al., 2012). Both long range transport and river inputs are suspected to be the largest contributors of mercury to the Arctic (Kirk et al., 2012). After making its way into the environment, elemental Hg is transformed into the biologically available form of Hg, MeHg, by organisms such as bacteria, fungi and phytoplankton (ATSDR, 1999). Inorganic Hg and elemental Hg do not have the same bioaccumulative properties as MeHg (ATSDR, 1999; Frouin et al., 2012; Loseto et al., 2015; Scheuhammer et al., 2015). MeHg can then enter the food chain and bioaccumulate in top level consumers, such as beluga whales (Loseto et al., 2015). Once in an organism, MeHg can either be transported throughout the body, or it can be demethylated in the liver into inorganic Hg (Frouin et al., 2010; Loseto et al., 2015). It is speculated that this inorganic Hg may be able to be detoxified by binding to selenium, however the precise mechanism for this is unclear (Frouin et al., 2012). MeHg has been implicated in a variety of toxicological effects, such as lymphocyte proliferation, metallothionein induction and nephrotoxicity, however its most notable toxicological impact may be as a neurotoxin (Alava et al., 2017; ATSDR, 1999; Frouin et al., 2012; Kirk et al., 2012). Mercury concentrations in the brain were found to be correlated with altered neurochemical biomarkers and mRNA expression of genes involved in neurochemical pathways in beluga whales (Ostertag et al., 2014). Awareness of the negative environmental impacts of mercury spurred many initiatives in Canada, including regulations through the Environmental Protection Agency in 1999, a Risk 14 Management Strategy on Mercury in 2010, and a set of strict regulations titled \u00E2\u0080\u0098Products Containing Mercury\u00E2\u0080\u0099 in 2014 (Government of Canada, 2017; Sullivan et al., 2019). The regulations under Products Containing Mercury prohibited the manufacture and import of many products containing mercury, except for several types of fluorescent lamps (Government of Canada, 2017). Canadian regulations lead to the decrease of Hg emissions by over 90% over the past 40 years (Government of Canada, 2017). In addition to Canada\u00E2\u0080\u0099s own initiatives, a global initiative has sought to reduce mercury emissions. The Minamata Convention on Mercury was held in 2013 by the United Nations to address human and environmental health concerns around anthropogenic mercury emissions and to provide a framework to reduce these emissions globally (United Nations, 2013). Regulations put forth by the Minamata Convention required member countries to provide a national plan for controlling and reducing mercury emissions, placing emission limit values, using best available techniques and environmental practices to control emissions and providing alternative measures to reduce emissions (United Nations, 2013). The Government of Canada produced its national plan in 2017 and intends to address all remaining guidelines set forward by the Minamata Convention (Government of Canada, 2017). Hg levels have been closely monitored in Beaufort Sea beluga whales and have been observed to increase since the 1990s (Choy et al., 2016; Ostertag et al., 2014). From the 1980\u00E2\u0080\u0099s to 2000, total Hg in beluga whales showed a steady increase. However, after 2000, these trends either reversed or stabilized, depending on the size of the animal (Loseto et al., 2015). Large males had an observed decrease in total Hg, whereas other animals remained stable (Loseto et al., 2015). This 15 indicates a potential change in dietary exposure, as environmental Hg levels increased over the same period (Loseto et al., 2015), which could be linked to climate-driven changes in feeding patterns. In addition to changes in dietary exposure to Hg, concerns have been raised that the potential immunosuppressant roles of Hg may pose additional risk for a beluga\u00E2\u0080\u0099s ability to fight infection in the face of climate change (Frouin et al., 2012). 1.4 Health Both contaminants and climate change may have an impact on the health of beluga whales. Impacts on health may be reflected by changes in nutrition, which can be measured using stable isotope analyses, fatty acid analyses and body condition, as well as changes at the molecular level, which can be measured using mRNA expression profiles of key genes involved processes such as nutritional health, detoxification pathways, growth, stress and metabolism. This study will use a combination of mRNA expression profiling, fatty acid analysis, stable isotope analysis and body condition metrics to assess beluga whale health. 1.4.1 Genes 1.4.1.1 Leptin Leptin is a hormone produced primarily by white adipocytes whose main role is to send signals from fat cells to the brain to communicate energy stores (Houseknecht et al., 1998; Oswal & Yeo, 2010). Leptin is produced in response to a variety of transcription factors, such as insulin and cortisol, in response to changes in energy levels (Houseknecht et al., 1998; Oswal & Yeo, 2010; Yu et al., 2011). The amount of leptin released by white adipocytes is correlated to the amount of fat contained in the body: white adipocytes will release high levels of leptin when 16 energy stores are adequate or high, where low levels of leptin will be released to alert the body to low energy stores (Houseknecht et al., 1998; Oswal & Yeo, 2010; Yu et al., 2011). Low levels of leptin result in a reduction of the incorporation of nutrients into fat depots, instead using the nutrients for energy (Yu et al., 2011). This system of regulation leads to a fairly stable adipose mass (Ferrante et al., 2014; Oswal & Yeo, 2010; Yu et al., 2011). For marine mammals, proper functioning of the leptin signaling pathway is of particular importance because these animals depend on their lipid reserves for both thermoregulation in cold waters and as an energy storage system for times of deficit (Castelli et al., 2014; Mashburn & Atkinson, 2008; Yu et al., 2011). Unfortunately, due to their lipophilic nature, lipophilic contaminants such as PCBs tend to accumulate in lipid-rich compartments, such as the adipose-rich blubber layers in marine mammals, which could impact a major source of leptin production (Ferrante et al., 2014; Provost et al., 2007). PCBs and other aromatic compounds have been associated with both increased leptin levels and reduced leptin signaling (Howell & Mangum, 2011; Provost et al., 2007). By looking at the expression of the leptin gene, we may be able to gain insight into both nutritional status and impacts of contaminants in beluga whales. 1.4.1.2 Adiponectin Adiponectin is a hormone secreted by adipose tissue and released into circulation. Its main roles appear to be to control energy homeostasis, sensitize the body to insulin, inhibit inflammatory responses and reduce the formation of atherosclerotic plaques (Ahl et al., 2015; Cui et al., 2011; Howell & Mangum, 2011; Kadowaki et al., 2006; Stefan & Stumvoll, 2002; Taxvig et al., 2012; Yamauchi et al., 2014). Adiponectin levels are inversely related to the mass of adipose tissue in the body, meaning that obese individuals tend to have low levels of adiponectin, where lean 17 individuals have high levels (Ahl et al., 2015; Cui et al., 2011; Howell & Mangum, 2011; Kadowaki et al., 2006; Stefan & Stumvoll, 2002; Taxvig et al., 2012). In humans, higher levels of adiponectin were also found in metabolically healthy individuals compared to unhealthy ones (Ahl et al., 2015). Expression of the adiponectin gene may be reflected by both changes in feeding patterns, such as those we expect to see with changes in sea ice levels, and with exposure to contaminants. Changes in diet have been associated with increases in adiponectin levels in dolphins (Sobolesky et al., 2016). In seals, circulating adiponectin decreased between suckling and weaning in pups (Bennett et al., 2015). In terms of contaminant exposure, adipose is high in lipid content and is therefore an attractive destination and storage facility for lipophilic contaminants; however, this may pose a risk for proper hormone release by adipose tissue (Howell & Mangum, 2011). Indeed, PCBs have been associated with increased adiponectin gene expression and release of adiponectin (Howell & Mangum, 2011; Taxvig et al., 2012). 1.4.1.3 Thyroid receptor beta Thyroid receptor beta (TR\u00CE\u00B2) is involved in the regulation of basal metabolism, growth and development (Maia et al., 2011; Martinez et al., 2013; Tabuchi et al., 2006). It is activated primarily by its two ligands, triiodothyronine (T3) and sometimes thyroxine (T4) (Maia et al., 2011; Tabuchi et al., 2006). These hormones differ only in the amount of iodine they contain in their outer rings (3 or 4, respectively), however T3 is the active form of the hormone (Maia et al., 2011; Tabuchi et al., 2006). Xenobiotics are able to interfere directly with the signalling of the thyroid receptor (Cheek et al., 1999). This is due to the fact that thyroid hormones structurally resemble several contaminants, including PCBs and PBDEs, since they all contain two phenol rings with halogens attached (e.g. chlorine, bromine, iodine) (Cheek et al., 1999). In particular, 18 hydroxylated PCBs show a particular affinity for the thyroid hormone receptors, and strongly compete with thyroid hormones for a chance to bind (Cheek et al., 1999). Therefore, these contaminants can directly interact with both thyroid binding proteins in the blood and with thyroid receptors, causing both up- and down-regulation of downstream products (Cheek et al., 1999). Studies in harbour seal pups noted significantly lower T4 levels in PCB-contaminated pups than in pups from less contaminated sites (Tabuchi et al., 2006). Ringed seals in areas with high concentrations of POPs were found to have higher mRNA expression of TR\u00CE\u00B2 than in areas with low POPs (Routti et al., 2010). TR\u00CE\u00B2 gene expression has also been shown to be both up- and down-regulated in response to mercury exposure in fish (Fu et al., 2017; Li et al., 2014). Further, reduced thyroid hormone metabolism has been noted in food deprivation studies in marine mammals, which indicates that we may see alterations TR\u00CE\u00B2 expression not only due to xenobiotics, but also due to nutritional stress (Martinez et al., 2013). 1.4.1.4 Deiodinases 1 and 2 Deiodinases 1 and 2 (DI1 and DI2) are proteins responsible for removing one iodine from T4, turning it into an active T3 molecule (Bianco & Kim, 2006; Maia et al., 2011; Martinez et al., 2013; Tabuchi et al., 2006). Upregulation or downregulation of DI1 and DI2 receptors can therefore limit the amount of T3 available to TR\u00CE\u00B2, which is essentially a way of limiting or increasing TR\u00CE\u00B2 activities (Bianco & Kim, 2006; Maia et al., 2011; Martinez et al., 2013; Tabuchi et al., 2006). While the thyroid hormone and its receptor help to modulate metabolism, the measurements of these genes may not fully represent the cellular metabolism of the cell (Martinez et al., 2013). Therefore, evaluating the expression of genes involved in the thyroid receptor pathway may give us additional insight into the activity of TR\u00CE\u00B2. Additionally, a 19 disconnect between DI1 and DI2 activity versus TR\u00CE\u00B2 activity may indicate that genes are not being appropriately expressed. There is also some evidence that deiodinases may be able reflect exposure to contaminants, as ringed seals in areas with high concentrations of POPs had higher expression of DI1 than seals in areas with low concentrations of POPs (Routti et al., 2010). 1.4.1.5 Uncoupling protein 2 The uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) plays an important role in reducing the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during the electron transport chain (ETC) in mitochondria, protecting the cell from oxidative stress (Diano & Horvath, 2012; Donadelli et al., 2014). The protonmotive force generated during the electron transport chain is necessary to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP); however, an excessive force can lead to an increase in ROS production, which is damaging to the cell (Brand & Esteves, 2005, Donadelli et al., 2014). UCP2 may be responsible for uncoupling the protonmotive force slightly (Brand & Esteves, 2005; Donadelli et al., 2014). This would allow for ATP to be formed while reducing the potential for ROS production (Brand & Esteves, 2005). However, it has also been established that an increase in fatty acids, for example during fasting or over-eating, will lead to an increase in UCP2 transcription (Brand & Esteves, 2005; Thompson & Kim, 2004; Toda & Diano, 2014). Indeed, fatty acids may be a ligand for the activation of UCP2 (Brand & Esteves, 2005). The precise mechanism for this remains elusive, however this may act as a good indicator of change in nutritional status. Fasting, high-fat diets and suckling of newborn pups all result in an increase in plasma fatty acids, as well as an increase in UCP2 expression in white adipose tissues (Thompson & Kim, 2004). An increase in UCP2 gene expression was observed in fasting 20 elephant seals, which may contribute to regulation of lipid metabolism and oxidative stress (Martinez et al., 2013). 1.4.1.6 Estrogen receptor alpha Estrogen receptors, including estrogen receptor alpha (ER\u00CE\u00B1) play a key role in development, growth and reproductive growth and maintenance (Matthews et al., 2000). Downstream impacts of ER\u00CE\u00B1 include roles in sperm maturation and function, fertility, and in the growth and development of reproductive tissues (Levin 2001, Matthews et al., 2000; Miyagawa, 2014). Unfortunately, ER\u00CE\u00B1\u00E2\u0080\u0099s ligand-binding domain must be slightly larger than necessary in order to accommodate its primary ligand, E2, which allows for a wide variety of compounds to bind, including contaminants (Heldring et al., 2007; Katzenellenbogen & Katzenellenbogen, 2000). PCBs with low levels of chlorination have highly estrogenic properties and have been observed to have both estrogenic and antiestrogenic activities (Ma & Sassoon, 2006; Zhang et al., 2014). There are concerns that these estrogen-mimicking compounds may have serious consequences for the reproductive success of animals such as marine mammals (Heldring et al., 2007; Larkin et al., 2003; Pinto et al., 2007). 1.4.1.7 Haptoglobin Haptoglobin (HP) is a positive acute phase protein that acts as an antioxidant by binding free hemoglobin that is released into circulation in events such as intravascular hemolysis, protecting the body from reactive oxygen species that could be formed from unbound iron (Nielsen & Moestrup, 2009; Sadrzadeh & Bozorgmehr, 2004). HP also effectively protects the kidney from free hemoglobin, which unbound is small enough to pass through the kidney and cause renal 21 damage (Sadrzadeh & Bozorgmehr, 2004; van Vlierberghe et al., 2004). Haptoglobin is typically elevated in the serum during bacterial or viral infections, inflammation, tissue injury and environmental stress, and can therefore act as a useful indicator of health (Eurell et al., 1991; G\u00C3\u00A5nheim et al., 2007; Murray et al., 2014). Indeed, farming industries are using elevated haptoglobin levels in farm animals, including pigs and cows, as early indicators of poor health (Eurell et al., 1991; G\u00C3\u00A5nheim et al., 2007; Murray et al., 2014). 1.4.1.8 Heat shock protein 70 A1A The heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) family of proteins aid in the degradation of unstable and misfolded proteins, prevent the dissolution of vital protein complexes, and fold and refold proteins, among other cellular chores (Daugaard et al., 2007; Najafizadeh et al., 2015; Song et al., 2006; Tsan & Gao, 2009). When an organism encounters a stress, such as high temperatures, environmental pollutants, infection, injury, oxidative stress, ultraviolet, irradiation and parasitism, among others, heat shock protein levels are elevated in response (Bierkens et al., 1998; McCallister et al., 2015; Song et al., 2006). These proteins play a protective role, protecting proteins in the cell from denaturation and facilitating repair and are considered a key component of the cellular stress response (Song et al., 2006). The heat shock protein 70, isoform 1A1 (HspA1A) is a key member of the Hsp70 family. It is primarily produced in response to stressors, including mercury and organochlorines, and is therefore a good indicator of potential exposure to stress (Hegde et al., 2009; McCallister et al., 2015; Najafizadeh et al., 2015; Nargesi et al., 2016). 22 1.4.1.9 Tumour necrosis factor alpha Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF\u00CE\u00B1) is a cytokine produced by the immune system, primarily through activated macrophages, but that also can be produced by lymphoid cells, mast cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and neuronal tissue (Baud & Karin, 2001; Chen & Goeddel, 2002; Wajant et al., 2003). TNF\u00CE\u00B1 is involved in the body\u00E2\u0080\u0099s response to stressors such as inflammation, apoptosis, bacterial and viral invasion, infection, trauma and environmental pressures (Baud & Karin, 2001; Chen & Goeddel, 2002; Leong & Karsan, 2000). TNF\u00CE\u00B1 gets its name from its apparent anti-tumoural activity that was described when TNF\u00CE\u00B1 was first discovered, but this is likely from its induction of apoptosis in tumour target cells (Wajant et al., 2003). Improper production of TNF\u00CE\u00B1 has been implicated in human disease, such as sepsis, diabetes, cancer, osteoporosis and autoimmune diseases (Chen & Goeddel, 2002). In addition, maintenance of TNF\u00CE\u00B1 concentrations in the body is extremely important, as high levels may cause shock and low levels may cause wasting syndrome (Wajant et al., 2003). What is concerning is that a previous study on PCB toxicity in adipocytes found that PCBs perturbed this delicate balance and were associated with an increase in transcription of TNF\u00CE\u00B1 (Ferrante et al., 2014). With this in mind, and recalling its role in the immune response, TNF\u00CE\u00B1 may be an excellent candidate for monitoring health in contaminant-exposed organisms. 1.4.1.10 Insulin-like growth factor 1 Growth factors are important in the regulation of both cell reproduction and cell death (Baserga, 2000; Pollak, 2000). The insulin-like growth factor 1 (ILGF1), specifically, is a largely regulatory molecule and induces mitosis in cells, as well as playing roles in the promotion of cell size, sending anti-apoptotic signals, inducing differentiation in some cells, and playing a role in 23 the transformation of cells (Baserga, 2000; Chitnis et al., 2008; Pollak, 2000). ILGF1s are required for normal growth and development and removal of ILGF1 genes has been shown to result in both infertility and abnormal embryonic growth, including dwarfism and impaired postnatal growth (Adams et al., 2000; Stewart & Rotwein, 1996). One study on the neurotoxicity of PBDEs found that ILGF1 may actually be able to protect cells from oxidative stress and cell apoptosis related to intense PBDE exposure (Bai et al., 2017), so it may play an important role in PBDE-exposed Arctic animals such as beluga whales. 1.4.1.11 Aryl hydrocarbon receptor The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a mediator of the response to xenobiotics, playing a role in the regulation of cytochrome P450 1A1, which is responsible for metabolizing many xenobiotics (Denison & Nagy, 2003; Mulero-Navarro & Fernandez-Salguero, 2016; Nguyen & Bradfield, 2008; Rowlands & Gustafsson, 1997). Upon encountering a xenobiotic, including halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and natural ligands, the AhR will trigger a cascade in order to metabolize the xenobiotic (Denison & Nagy, 2003; Nguyen & Bradfield, 2008). However, in some instances, metabolism of a compound can actually make the compound more toxic, as is the case for chlorinated PAHs, such as PCBs, which are known to exert toxicity through binding to the AhR (Nguyen & Bradfield, 2008). This pathway makes the AhR a key receptor in the study of the impact of contaminants (e.g. No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). 24 1.4.2 Feeding ecology It is difficult to determine diet in free-ranging marine mammals. Many marine mammals are rarely observed feeding, and those studies that are able to obtain observational data on marine mammal feeding are limited. Daylight hours and geographical barriers such as ice sheets may limit the opportunities for observation, and those observations that can be made are limited to prey items captured in the upper surface level of the ocean (Herman et al., 2005). Stomach content analyses have been used to determine prey items but are biased towards prey that do not break down easily in stomach acids (Herman et al., 2005; Loseto et al., 2008). Therefore, techniques such as stable isotope analysis and fatty acid analysis are used in order to get an understanding of an organism\u00E2\u0080\u0099s diet. Both techniques are able to reflect a longer time span, instead of a snapshot in time like stomach content or observational analyses (Dahl et al., 2000). Additionally, these techniques are able to be used to draw comparisons between years, allowing us to determine if diet has changed over time. 1.4.2.1 Stable isotopes Stable isotopes are variations of the same element that have an identical number of protons and electrons, meaning they are capable of making the same chemical bonds; however, they differ in the number of neutrons (Ben-David & Flaherty, 2012; West et al., 2006). Carbon and nitrogen are present in the marine environment in their normal chemical states, 12C and 14N, as well as in their isotopic forms, 13C and 15N, which both contain an extra neutron and are therefore slightly heavier (Ben-David & Flaherty, 2012). These ratios of 12C:13C and 14N:15N are able to tell us information about feeding patterns as stable isotope ratios in consumers reflect those in their prey (Dahl et al., 2003; Herman et al., 2005). 25 The ratio of 12C:13C provides information about the sources of carbon entering the food chain, as many sources have distinct ratios (S\u00C3\u00B8reide et al., 2006). Onshore and nearshore carbon signatures are lower in 13C than offshore signatures, so an increase in 13C would infer that an organism is feeding further from shore than normal (Dahl et al., 2003; Roth et al., 2002). A previous study on beluga whale foraging was able to use carbon isotopes to determine that smaller whales fed closer to shore than larger whales (Loseto et al., 2008). This tool can help us to determine if foraging locations are changing with reductions in sea ice cover. The ratio of 14N:15N tells us different information than carbon isotopes. 15N is retained more easily than 14N up the food chain, and therefore an increase in 15N is reflective of feeding at a higher trophic position (Dahl et al., 2003). A consumer tends to be enriched in 15N by 3-4 \u00E2\u0080\u00B0 relative to its diet (S\u00C3\u00B8reide et al., 2006). We can therefore use this tool to determine whether animals are feeding at different trophic levels, which can infer changes in diet (S\u00C3\u00B8reide et al., 2006; West et al., 2006). 1.4.2.2 Fatty acids There is very little synthesis or modification of fatty acids in the food web. Many fatty acids are synthesized at the bottom of the food chain, for example in phytoplankton, and are transferred up the food chain with very little alteration (Budge et al., 2007; Dahl et al., 2000; Grahl-Nielsen et al., 2003). Each organism within the food web exhibits their own unique fatty acid signature based on their prey, and we can use this knowledge to compare signatures between predators and potential prey items to determine the predator\u00E2\u0080\u0099s diet (Grahl-Nielsen et al., 2003; Thiemann et al., 26 2008). On a broader scale, changes in fatty acid signatures over time can be used to infer changes in foraging patterns (Thiemann et al., 2008). A previous study on beluga whale foraging patterns was able to use fatty acids to determine that length was related to beluga whale fatty acid profiles, reflecting the fact that larger belugas feed in different locations than smaller belugas (Loseto et al., 2008). This invaluable tool can allow us to determine if beluga whales have exhibited changes in prey items over time, which will help us to determine if climate change has impacted foraging patterns. 1.5 Goal of this study The goal of this study is to provide more information about the potential interacting effects of contaminants and climate change on the health of beluga whales. To address this goal, I used body condition, contaminant levels, muscle stable isotope ratios, blubber fatty acid composition and the expression of genes involved in endocrine function, metabolism and contaminant detoxification in blubber and liver and beluga whales over a 9-year period (2008-2017). The specific goals of this study are two-fold: 1) Explore, develop and utilize new tools for evaluating beluga whale health. This was accomplished by exploring the use of novel genes in beluga whales that play roles in the acute stress response, nutritional stress, growth and development. 2) Explore factors, and the relationships between factors, that influence the health of beluga whales in the Beaufort Sea from 2008-2017. This was accomplished by exploring relationships between gene expression, body condition, stable isotopes, fatty acids, sea ice extent and contaminants. 27 My hypothesis was that beluga whale gene expression is influenced by climate change and contaminants. I hypothesized that climate change would influence beluga whale fatty acids and stable isotopes, through changes in prey distribution and type, which in turn might influence the expression of genes involved in nutrition. I also hypothesized that contaminants would be related to gene expression, and that this relationship would be particularly evident for PCBs, which have already been demonstrated to have effects on gene expression in beluga whales (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). My hope is that this thesis will add valuable insight into the potential roles of both climate change and contaminants on beluga whale health. 28 Chapter 2: Interacting effects of contaminants and climate change on the health of western Arctic beluga whales 2.1 Introduction Beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) are a culturally and ecologically valuable Arctic species, many of which reside in Canadian waters (Choy et al., 2017; Ostertag et al., 2018). These animals are situated at the top of the food web and are a valuable resource to the Inuvialuit, who rely on beluga whales as a source of sustenance. The Beaufort Sea population is one of the largest beluga whale populations, with an estimated 40,000 individuals (Allen & Angliss, 2013; COSEWIC, 2004; Harwood et al., 1996). This population migrates from their wintering grounds in the Bering Sea to their summer home in the Mackenzie River Estuary each year, following the retreat of the sea ice (Choy et al., 2017; Hornby et al., 2016; Ostertag et al., 2018; Stafford et al., 2018). Sea ice plays an important role in the life of a beluga whale. Not only does the distribution of sea ice dictate the habitat available to beluga whales, it also acts as habitat for prey and a refuge from predators such as killer whales, whose dorsal fins restrict them from swimming under sea ice (Breton-Honeyman et al., 2016; Hauser et al., 2018; Hornby et al., 2016; Smythe et al., 2018). However, Arctic sea ice is undergoing a period of rapid and unprecedented transformation, brought on primarily by climate change, and the implications for beluga whales remain unclear. It is estimated that the Arctic is warming at a rate of approximately 0.6oC per decade, which is three times faster than the global average rate (Comiso & Hall, 2014). Combined with other factors such as increases in storm surges and decreased albedo, this rate of warming has led to 29 drastic changes in sea ice distribution, which has the potential to impact the entire Arctic ecosystem (Grannas et al., 2013; Loseto et al., 2015; Moore & Reeves, 2018; Reeves et al., 2013). Indeed, changes in distribution and abundance have been noted for species at all trophic levels (Loseto et al., 2015; Moore & Reeves, 2018; Reeves et al., 2013; Tai et al., 2019), highlighting the fact that the Arctic is undergoing a period of transformation. It is likely that beluga whales will be facing altered habitat, increases in competition and predation, and changes in prey distribution, abundance and species (Moore & Reeves, 2018; Ostertag et al., 2018). However, these changes are not the only concern associated with climate change. There is concern that reductions in sea ice cover may lead to an increase in oil and gas exploration in the Arctic, increases in shipping traffic and therefore underwater noise, increases in tourism and increases in fishing pressures (Reeves et al., 2013). In addition to increases in anthropogenic activities in the Arctic, there may also be increased or altered exposure to contaminants associated with climate change. While the Arctic may not seem a likely place for evaluating the impacts of contaminants, its remote location does not make it immune to contaminant exposure. Atmospheric and oceanic currents bring contaminants to the Arctic from more industrialized areas of the globe, including Europe, North America and Asia (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2018). Contaminants that have been highlighted as a concern in the Arctic include polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and methyl mercury (MeHg). All three of these contaminants have negative impacts on mammal physiology, and all are known to bioaccumulate in measurable amounts in Arctic marine mammals (Frouin et al., 2012; Grannas et al., 2013; Loseto et al., 2008; No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). For example, PCB-related changes in the expression profiles of thyroid hormone 30 receptors have been noted in harbour seals. Since thyroid receptors play a key role in the regulation of metabolism, it is vital that proper thyroid hormone regulation and expression is not impacted (Tabuchi et al., 2006). Changes in gene expression due to contaminants have also been observed in killer whales (Orcinus orca), harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), ringed seals (Pusa hispada), sperm whales (Physeter microcephalus) and grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) (Brown et al., 2014; Buckman et al., 2011; Jepson et al., 2005). Recently, a study evaluated the correlations between PCBs and gene expression in Beaufort Sea beluga whales. They found that the mRNA transcript abundance of two genes involved in xenobiotic detoxification, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and cytochrome P450 1A1 (Cyp1A1), were correlated with PCB concentrations (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). Upon evaluating further patterns, the study found that several genes involved in growth, development and metabolism had higher expression in years of low sea ice extent (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). Sea ice has previously acted as a sink for contaminants in the Arctic but increases in sea ice melt have released many of these stores (Alava et al., 2017; Grannas et al., 2013). Increases in precipitation due to climate change are expected to increase the intensity of atmospheric contaminant deposition (Grannas et al., 2013). In addition, prey species are expected to migrate north as the climate warms, and these organisms may act as a vector to deliver contaminants from more industrialized areas of the globe (Alava et al., 2017; No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014; Tai et al., 2019). It is imperative that we begin to understand the potential for climate change and contaminants to interact to impact the health of beluga whales. 31 The goal of this study is to provide more information about the effects of contaminants and climate change on the health of beluga whales. To this end, we will explore, develop and utilize new tools for evaluating beluga whale health, and we will use these tools, along with existing tools, to explore factors, and the relationships between factors, that influence the health of beluga whales in the Beaufort Sea from 2008-2017. To this extent, we evaluated the expression of twelve key genes involved in nutritional health, detoxification pathways and stress. These genes were chosen to represent indicators of beluga whale health under changing Arctic conditions and contaminant exposure. Further metrics, such as body condition, contaminant burdens, stable isotopes, fatty acids and sea ice extent, were included in the analysis to assess potential patterns associated with gene expression. These analyses will give valuable insight into the potential interaction between climate change and contaminants on beluga whale health in a changing Arctic. 2.2 Methods 2.2.1 Sample collection Blubber, liver and muscle samples were obtained from beluga whales that were harvested at Hendrickson Island, in the shallow Mackenzie Delta near the community of Tuktoyaktuk, Northwest Territories, Canada, each summer over the period of 2008-2017. Samples were collected in collaboration with the annual traditional harvest by Inuvialuit hunters. Inuvialuit hunters do not typically target female beluga whales, so only a few females were available for analysis. Since females offload some of their contaminant load to their offspring during gestation and lactation, females and males have very different contaminant loads (Ross et al., 2000). 32 Therefore, we decided to remove females from analysis to allow for stronger comparisons to be drawn between years. Body condition metrics were taken in the field. Length, girth and blubber thickness were recorded for each whale. Blubber thickness was determined on the beluga whales\u00E2\u0080\u0099 ventral side, just posterior to the arm fin, to ensure consistency and accuracy of depth (e.g. No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). Jaws were removed and sent to the Freshwater Institute (Winnipeg, MB, Canada) for age determination using teeth (details on this method are described below). Blubber samples for organic contaminants (PCBs, PBDEs) were cut from each beluga and immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen for transport to the lab where they were stored at -80 \u00D0\u00BEC until analysis. Muscle samples for determination of mercury content were collected from the same beluga whales and immediately stored in a -20\u00D0\u00BEC freezer until analysis. Blubber and liver samples were also collected in the field for mRNA extraction. Samples were cut and were immediately placed into RNALater Stabilization Solution (Invitrogen, Life Technologies Corporation, Carlsbad, CA, USA) within two hours post-mortem to ensure that RNA integrity was maintained (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). Samples were stored on ice during sampling and subsequently stored at -20\u00D0\u00BEC within 24 hours until further analysis. In the lab, blubber for mRNA extraction was sectioned into inner and outer layers. For the purposes of this analysis, only inner blubber layers were used, as inner blubber is more metabolically active than outer blubber layers (Koopman et al., 2002). 33 2.2.2 RNA extraction Approximately 20 mg of blubber or liver tissue for each individual was obtained and blotted on a KimWipe (Kimberly-Clark Professional, Roswell, GA, USA) to remove excess fat and RNALater solution. Samples were immediately placed into a 2 ml tube with 700 \u00CE\u00BCl QIAzol Lysis Reagent (QIAGEN, Austin, TX, USA) and a 3 mm tungsten-carbide bead. The tissue was then homogenized in a Retcsh MM400 mixer mill (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Ottawa, ON, Canada) at 20 Hz for 2 minutes, then placed on ice for 2 minutes. This step was repeated three times. Samples were then placed in a centrifuge at 4\u00D0\u00BEC for 10 minutes at 13,000 rpm. After centrifugation, the aqueous top layer was pipetted off of the QIAzol phenol layer and placed into 140 \u00CE\u00BCl chloroform. Samples were vortexed for 15 seconds, then incubated at room temperature for 2-3 minutes. Samples were then centrifuged at 4\u00D0\u00BEC for 15 minutes at 13,000 rpm. The aqueous top layer was pipetted off and placed into 350 \u00CE\u00BCl isopropanol (Fisher Chemical, Life Technologies Corporation, Carlsbad, CA, USA). For blubber samples, 1 \u00CE\u00BCl of glycogen (20 mg/ml) (Roche Diagnostics, Laval, QC, Canada) was added to facilitate precipitation and increase RNA recovery rates. Samples were mixed thoroughly using a Fisher Vortex Genie (Thermofisher Scientific, Ottawa, ON, Canada) and left for 10 minutes at room temperature before centrifugation at 4\u00D0\u00BEC for 15 minutes at 14,000 rpm. Following centrifugation, the liquid was pipetted out of the tube, leaving only the precipitated pellet behind. The pellet was then resuspended in 700 \u00CE\u00BCl of 70% ethanol (Reagent Alcohol, Fisher Chemical, Life Technologies Corporation, Carlsbad, CA, USA) and mixed using a Fisher Vortex Genie (Thermofisher Scientific, Ottawa, ON). It was then centrifuged for 5 minutes at 7500 rpm at 4\u00D0\u00BEC. The ethanol 34 was removed with a pipette and the pellet was then re-suspended in 23 \u00CE\u00BCl Invitrogen UltraPure DEPC-treated water, and the mixture was mixed using the Vortex Genie (Thermofisher Scientific, Ottawa, ON, Canada). The mixture was briefly centrifuged to ensure that all material was at the bottom of the tube, then the solution was placed into a water bath at 55\u00D0\u00BEC for 10 minutes. The tube was then briefly centrifuged to ensure all condensation was at the bottom of the tube. Total RNA concentration was determined on a 1 \u00CE\u00BCl aliquot via spectrophotometry using BioTek Gen5 software with a Take 3 Micro-Volume Plate attachment (BioTek, Winooski, VT, USA). Remaining RNA samples were stored at -80\u00D0\u00BEC until thawed for cDNA synthesis. Total RNA was converted to cDNA using the Applied Biosystems High-Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription kit, following manufacturer\u00E2\u0080\u0099s instructions (Applied Biosystems, Life Technologies Corporation, Carlsbad, CA, USA). To this end, RNA samples were thawed on ice and subsequently diluted to roughly 100 ng/\u00CE\u00BCl. 10 \u00CE\u00BCl RNA was then added to 10 \u00CE\u00BCl High-Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription solution. Mixtures were then lightly centrifuged to ensure that all liquids were mixed. Samples were then placed into a thermocycler (Realplex4 Eppendorf thermocycler, Eppendorf, Westbury, NY, USA) and were cycled at 25\u00D0\u00BEC for 10 minutes, 37\u00D0\u00BEC for 120 minutes, and 85\u00D0\u00BEC for 5 minutes. Resulting cDNA samples were diluted 20x prior to use and were stored at -20\u00D0\u00BEC. 35 2.2.3 Qualitative real-time polymerase chain reaction Quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays were run on an Applied Biosystems StepOnePlus real time PCR system (Applied Biosystems, Life Technologies Corporation, Carlsbad, CA, USA) for all analysis of gene expression, except for AhR, which was assessed using an Applied Biosystems 7500 real time PCR system (Applied Biosystems, Life Technologies Corporation, Carlsbad, CA, USA). Housekeeping genes rpL8 and \u00CE\u00B2-actin were run in quadruplicate on both machines so that samples could be normalized to genes run on the same machine. Primer sequences and sources are listed in Table A3 (Appendix A). In theory, housekeeping genes are invariant control genes used to normalize samples. In practice, however, common housekeeping genes have shown to be variable among tissues and in different conditions. Therefore, it is suggested to use multiple housekeeping genes in combination by taking the geometric mean. As such, we used both rpL8 and \u00CE\u00B2-actin as housekeeping genes, which have been successfully used as housekeeping genes in marine mammals including beluga whales and harbour seals (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014; Tabuchi et al., 2006). Samples for all primer pairs, with the exception of AhR, were run using Applied Biosystems SYBR Green PowerUp Master Mix on a fast cycle. Samples were prepared according to the manufacturer\u00E2\u0080\u0099s suggestions, with a total of 15 \u00CE\u00BCl per well consisting of 2 \u00CE\u00BCl cDNA, 7.5 \u00CE\u00BCl Master Mix, 0.5 \u00CE\u00BCl primer pairs (0.002 mol/L) and 5 \u00CE\u00BCl Invitrogen UltraPure DEPC-treated water. The thermocycle program for this kit consisted of an initial activation step at 95\u00D0\u00BEC for 20 seconds. This was followed by 40 cycles of denaturation at 95\u00D0\u00BEC for 3 seconds, annealing/elongation at 60\u00D0\u00BEC for 30 seconds. Following amplification, a melt profile was established to ensure that 36 amplified products had the expected thermal melt profiles and to ensure the absence of primer-dimer products. AhR was not successfully amplified using SYBR Green PowerUp Master Mix, so an alternative kit, QuantiTect SYBR Green by Qiagen, was used. Each well consisted of 1 \u00CE\u00BCl sample, 12.5 \u00CE\u00BCl QuantiTect mixture, 0.625 \u00CE\u00BCl primer pairs and 10.875 \u00CE\u00BCl Invitrogen Ultra-Pure DEPC-treated water. We followed the manufacturer\u00E2\u0080\u0099s suggested cycling conditions, which consisted of a 15-minute initial enzyme activation at 95\u00D0\u00BEC, followed by 40 cycles of denaturation for 15s at 94\u00D0\u00BEC, annealing for 30s at 50\u00D0\u00BEC, and extension for 30s at 72\u00D0\u00BEC. A thermal melt profile was created at the end. Regardless of machine or master mix used, all samples were run in quadruplicate using no-template controls (NTC) and positive controls (PC) when possible. NTCs consisted of a no-cDNA sample to assess for any contamination in reagents. In cases where NTCs showed amplification, plates were discarded and re-run. PCs contained a standard mix of cDNA samples and were used for all runs to compare machine efficiency between runs. In cases where PCs showed more than 2-fold difference from the mean of all positive controls, plates were similarly discarded and re-run. A subset of samples was also run for each gene with no-DNA samples to assess the possibility of genomic contamination. The results of this indicate that this was not an issue. 37 2.2.4 Treatment of qPCR data Arithmetic means and standard deviations (SD) were computed for all cycle thresholds for quadruplicate samples of target and housekeeping genes. If quadruplicates showed more than +/- 0.5 SD from the mean, the sample that deviated from the mean most was removed. In cases where removing one to two samples did not reduce the SD to less than +/- 0.5 from the mean, the entire sample group was removed from analysis. In some cases, quadruplicate samples separated into two distinct sets of values. If the standard deviation for these quadruplicates was more than +/- 0.5, the pair with the lowest standard deviation was retained for analysis. Data were normalized to a combination of housekeeping genes, as studies have indicated that no genes are constitutively expressed in all cell types, nor in all conditions (Anderson et al., 2004). As this is a wild population of beluga whales, we cannot assume that all encountered the same conditions and one gene will be suitable for normalization for all samples. To this end, two common housekeeping genes, rpL8 and \u00CE\u00B2-actin, were used in conjunction to normalize samples. First, arithmetic means were found for the quadruplicate cycle thresholds for each housekeeping gene. Next, these values were used to find the geometric mean of the cycle thresholds (Pfaffl et al., 2004), denoted as cycle threshold of the housekeeping genes from this point forward. As an additional internal control measure, and to fulfill the requirements of the 2-\u00CE\u0094\u00CE\u0094Ct method, the cycle threshold of the beluga that had a contaminant load nearest to the average PCB contaminant load of all belugas was found (e.g. No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). The resulting values were used to calculate 2-\u00CE\u0094\u00CE\u0094Ct values for each individual for each target gene, as per the following formula: 38 2-\u00CE\u0094\u00CE\u0094Ct = 2^(\u00E2\u0080\u0093 (CtTG - CtHK) \u00E2\u0080\u0093 (CtHK \u00E2\u0080\u0093 CtMC)), where CtTG is the mean cycle threshold of the target gene, CtHK is the cycle threshold of the housekeeping genes and CtMC is the cycle threshold of the beluga with an average contaminant load. Ct values were used for all subsequent statistical analysis. 2.2.5 Quality assurance/quality control of new primers New primer sequences were sought out in the literature that had been previously used in cetaceans and pinnipeds (Appendix A, Table A3). New primers assessed for this study included deiodinase 1, deiodinase 2, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha, tumour necrosis factor alpha, haptoglobin, sirtuin 2, acyl coenzyme A oxidase 1, uncoupling protein 2, acetyl coA acetyltransferase 2 and C-reactive protein. The compatibility of these primers with beluga whale blubber and liver samples was assessed following a three-tier quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) procedure, as described in Veldhoen et al. (2011). This method has been used previously to determine the suitability of target genes for beluga whale tissues (No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2014). This allowed us to satisfy all requirements of the comparative Ct (2-\u00CE\u0094\u00CE\u0094Ct) method (Bustin et al., 2009; Dorak, 2006). Tier 1 included a gel-electrophoresis run to determine the size of the amplicon. Tier 2 included direct DNA sequencing of the amplicon. Tier 3 comprised of a standard curve analysis, performed for each new gene-specific primer pair against a 2-fold serially diluted cDNA template, in other words, 2- to 256-fold dilution. Tier 3 assesses whether the efficiency of all primers is similar to that of the normalizer gene, rpL8. To this end, \u00CE\u0094Ct values of the target gene to the normalizer gene were plotted against the log of the dilution series. The plots yielded a linear relationship 39 with a slope of <0.1, indicating that efficiency assumptions of the 2-\u00CE\u0094\u00CE\u0094Ct method were met. In addition, partway through analysis, the beluga whale genome was published (Jones et al., 2017), so all primer sequences were confirmed using GenBank and were determined to be correct. 2.2.6 PCBs and PBDEs Blubber samples were assessed for both PCB and PBDE concentrations. Samples collected between 2008-2012 were analyzed at the Freshwater Institute (Winnipeg, MB, Canada). Samples collected after 2012 were analyzed at ALS Environmental (Winnipeg, MB, Canada) and Axys Analytical (Sidney, BC, Canada). Details on extraction procedures can be found elsewhere (Alava et al., 2009; Stern et al., 2005). In brief, samples were homogenized and spiked with a surrogate internal standard containing 10 13C-labelled PCBs and 10 13C-labelled PBDEs (Cambridge Isotope Laboratory, Andover, MA, USA) as per the isotope dilution method. Spiked samples were mixed with 20 g sodium sulphate and were dried for 12-24 hours, then were transferred to an extraction column and were extracted with dichloromethane/hexane (1:1, v/v). The extracts were dried, and the residue was weighed to determine lipid content. The residue was then resuspended in dichloromethane/hexane and cleaned up using silica gel chromatography. PCB and PBDE concentrations were determined on an aliquot of the resulting hexane fraction via high resolution gas chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry. QA/QC measures were taken to ensure accuracy of results. To this end, one sample consisting of a standard reference material (NIST 1945 whale blubber SRM), two procedural blanks containing pure lipid (triolein), and one replicate sample were run with every batch of ten samples. 40 2.2.7 Mercury Mercury content was analyzed for each sample at the Freshwater Institute (Winnipeg, MB, Canada) following previously established methods (Loseto et al., 2015). Muscle samples were used for mercury analysis because 97-100% of total mercury in muscle is composed of MeHg and muscle is more reflective of dietary sources of Hg than other tissues (Loseto et al., 2008). Approximately 0.15 g of beluga muscle sample was analyzed by heating samples to 90\u00D0\u00BEC with a hydrochloric/nitric acid digestion mixture. The resulting mixture was analyzed using cold vapour atomic absorption spectrometry (CVAAS) using a 0.005 \u00CE\u00BCg/g detection limit. Certified Reference Materials (CRM 2976, TORT-2, DOLT-2) were run in duplicate with every run. Loseto et al. (2008) noted that 99% of total Hg present in beluga muscle was MeHg, so I will assume that total Hg results are fairly representative of MeHg for the remainder of this thesis. 2.2.8 Stable isotopes Muscle samples were freeze-dried and homogenized for the determination of carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes. A chloroform/methanol extraction was employed to remove lipids for carbon isotope determination, as lipids are typically depleted in carbon isotope samples relative to proteins, biasing results (Loseto et al., 2015). Analysis of the resulting samples was performed using continuous flow, ion ratio mass spectrometry at the University of Winnipeg Isotope Laboratory (MB, Canada). Both carbon and nitrogen isotope results are presented using the standard delta (\u00CE\u00B4) notation (units of per mil (\u00E2\u0080\u00B0)), which represent deviations from a standard: \u00CE\u00B4sample\u00E2\u0080\u00B0 = [(Rsample\u00E2\u0080\u0093 Rstandard)/Rstandard] x 1000 41 where R represents the 13C/12C or 15N/14N ratio. The carbon standard used was Vienna PeeDee Belemnite (VPDB), and IAEN-N1 (IAEA, Vienna, Austria) was used as a standard for nitrogen. 2.2.9 Fatty acids Fatty acid analyses were performed at the Freshwater Institute (Winnipeg, MB, Canada). Details on extraction procedures are described elsewhere (Loseto et al., 2009). Briefly, lipids were extracted from 0.5 g of the inner blubber layer using a 2:1 chloroform:methanol mixture. In order to minimize oxidation, 0.01% butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) (v/v/w) was added. The lipid phase was collected and subsequently washed and filtered through anhydrous sodium sulphate. The mixture was evaporated under nitrogen to determine total lipid weight. Fatty acid methyl esters were then prepared using the resulting lipids through transesterification with the Hilditch reagent (0.5 N H2SO4 in methanol). The resulting fatty acid methyl ester samples were analyzed using gas chromatography with a mass spectrometer detector. Fatty acid peaks are expressed as a mass percent of the total fatty acids identified for each year. 2.2.10 Age estimates Ages were determined at the Freshwater Institute (Winnipeg, MB, Canada) by slicing thin sections of a tooth and measuring dentine growth groups, or growth lines. Each dentine growth group corresponds to one year of growth, allowing for a reliable age estimate (Stewart et al., 2006). 42 2.2.11 Sea ice Percentage sea ice values were obtained from the Sea Ice Index through the National Snow and Ice Data Center (Fetterer et al., 2017). The percentage sea ice extent in the Beaufort Sea in June was used for all analyses, as the sea ice extent in June limits the start of the Beaufort Sea beluga population\u00E2\u0080\u0099s annual migration. 2.2.12 Statistical analysis All statistical analyses were performed in R (R Core Team, 2013). For all data analysis, blubber and liver samples were considered separately. Ct values for all target genes, determined from the 2-\u00CE\u0094\u00CE\u0094Ct method, were assessed for normality and homogeneity by fitting a linear model to the data for each target and using the plot() function in R to visually assess the data. For all target genes, outliers were identified and data were non-normally distributed. Data for all target genes were therefore log-transformed to fit the assumption of normality and homogeneity of variance. Unfortunately, many target genes had missing data due to low amplification of target genes. In cases where target genes had more than 30% missing data, data were not used in any multivariate analysis. This was the case for adiponectin in liver (54% missing), as well as the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in blubber (54% missing) and in liver (39% missing). In cases where more than 70% of the Ct data was present, the package Amelia II in R (Honaker et al., 2011) was used to fill in missing data. Amelia II is designed to use multiple imputations to input missing data for multivariate methods, including principal components analysis (Honaker et al., 2011). Amelia II 43 uses expectation-maximum with bootstrapping to estimate the missing data points based on maximum-likelihood. Limits to the imputed data were set as 0 and infinity. To determine whether the expression of genes showed any relationships with each other, and to determine what variables influenced total gene expression, I employed a principal component analysis (PCA). Ct values for all target genes were entered into the PCA using the function prcomp() in R. Screeplots and cumulative proportions plots were assessed to determine the relative contributions of each principal component to the data. A varimax rotation was then performed in order to better visualize the data, as recommended by No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., (2014). The first principal component (factor 1) for both blubber and liver was subsequently plotted against all environment, body condition, contaminant and stable isotope variables in order to determine if the principal components could describe any of the variation in the data. A Bonferroni p-value correction was applied to allow for multiple comparisons of factor 1: p=\u00CE\u00B1/n where \u00CE\u00B1 is the original p-value (0.05) and n is the number of comparisons made. Fatty acids were reduced in dimensions by a PCA. To this end, the same functions and assessments were performed on fatty acids data as gene transcript data. Data were log-transformed to prepare for analysis. Resulting principal components, or factors, were explored for their relationships between environment, body condition, contaminant and stable isotope variables. Further, factors 1 and 2 were plotted against gene expression principal components to investigate possible associations. A Bonferroni correction was applied to allow for multiple comparisons of factors 1 and 2. 44 Next, individual genes were assessed for any relationships with environmental data, body condition, contaminants and the principal components obtained from fatty acid data. An incomplete data set precluded the inclusion of stable isotopes in these analyses, so they were considered separately and will be discussed shortly. To this end, I used the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) using the stepAIC function in the MASS package in R (Venables & Ripley, 2002). Parameters included in the analysis were length, total PCBs, total mercury, total PBDEs, sea ice extent and factors 1 and 2 obtained through the principal component analysis of fatty acids. Length was used as a proxy for body condition as length, girth, blubber thickness and age are expected to be highly correlated. In order to assess if there was a relationship between stable isotopes and gene expression across years, a linear model was built using the function lm() in R.45 2.3 Results For the remainder of this thesis, I will use the term \u00E2\u0080\u0098explanatory variables\u00E2\u0080\u0099 to refer collectively to sea ice extent, body condition metrics (girth, length, blubber thickness, age), contaminants (total PCBs, total PBDEs, total Hg), stable isotopes (\u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F15N) and fatty acids. 2.3.1 Explanatory variables Over the period of 2008 to 2017 when beluga whales were sampled, there was significant variation in age, PCBs, \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F15N between years (one-way ANOVA, Appendix A, Table A1; Table A2) but no significant variation between years for blubber thickness, length, girth, total PBDEs, or total Hg. PCBs and PBDEs were highest in 2014, which was a year of high sea ice extent (Appendix A, Table A1; Table A2). Hg was highest in 2013 and 2014, both of which were also periods of high sea ice extent (Appendix A, Table A1; Table A2). However, contaminants were not similarly high in 2009, which was the year with the highest sea ice extent over the study period. In order to reduce fatty acids data for subsequent analysis with gene expression, a PCA was performed. Factor 1 of the principal component analysis performed on the fatty acid profile of individual beluga whales explained 34.0% of the variance, where factor 2 explained 12.6% of the variance. The PCA revealed some interannual clustering between individuals (Figure 2.3.1). 2009 and 2017 showed distinct separation from other years. 2009 had the highest sea ice extent in the Beaufort Sea in June for the study period (95.9%), where 2017 had the lowest sea ice extent over the study period (76.4%). Contributions of each fatty acid to principal components are listed in the Appendix (Table A5). 46 To determine if fatty acid profiles of beluga whales were related to any other explanatory variables, I plotted factors 1 and 2 of the PCA against the explanatory variables. The Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons resulted in a p-value of 0.005. Factor 1 was found to be related to sea ice (p<0.005, R2=0.29; Figure 2.3.2). Factor 2 was related to all three body condition metrics: blubber thickness (p<0.05, R2=0.32; Figure 2.3.3), length (p<0.05, R2=0.10) and girth (p<0.005, R2=0.22). 2.3.2 Relationships between total gene expression and explanatory variables To determine whether there were any relationships between the expression of the genes of interest, a PCA was performed on the expression of all genes for individual whales for blubber and liver separately. The PCA for blubber gene expression did not reveal any distinct clustering patterns (Figure 2.3.4). Factor 1 accounted for 78% of the variance, whereas factor 2 accounted for 11% of the variance. Next, factor 1 from the PCA on blubber gene expression was plotted against explanatory variables to see if these variables could explain any variation in gene expression. The application of a Bonferroni correction led to a p-value of 0.0045 for this analysis. Factor 2 is not discussed here, as factor 1 accounted for such a high percentage of the variance in gene expression. Some interesting patterns emerged between factor 1 and the explanatory variables; however, these patterns were not significant after the Bonferroni correction. Percentage of sea ice extent in June, which is the determining factor in the timing of the Beaufort Sea beluga population\u00E2\u0080\u0099s annual migration towards the Mackenzie River Estuary, total mercury (THg) and 47 total polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) all displayed a non-significant negative relationship with factor 1 (Figure 2.3.5). In contrast, beluga length and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C values displayed positive relationships with Factor 1, however only the relationship with \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C was found to be significant after a Bonferroni correction (p<0.0045). Similar to the PCA performed for blubber transcripts, liver transcripts did not reveal any distinct clustering patterns (Figure 2.3.6). Factor 1 accounted for 90% of the variance and factor 2 accounted for 2.7% of the variance. As in blubber, I only explored relationships between factor 1 loadings and explanatory variables due to the high amount of variance explained by factor 1. Like blubber, June sea ice extent was related to factor 1, but this was not statistically significant after a Bonferroni correction. This indicates that climate, which influences sea ice extent, may play a role in the gene expression of beluga whales. However, no other variables exhibited strong relationships with factor 1 of the liver transcript profiles. Factors 1 and 2 obtained from the PCA performed on fatty acids were plotted against factor 1 obtained from the PCAs performed on both blubber and liver transcripts. No significant relationships emerged. 2.3.3 Relationships between individual genes and explanatory variables AIC was used to determine which variables (percent sea ice extent in June in the Beaufort Sea, factor 1 of the PCA for fatty acids, factor 2 of the PCA for fatty acids, beluga body length, total PCBs, total PBDEs and total Hg) contributed most to explaining the variance in the expression of each gene for both blubber and liver. Results are presented in Table 2.3.1. Factors 1 and 2 of the 48 PCA for fatty acids, sea ice and length seemed to contribute most to the expression of many genes. In order to reduce the number of variables in the analysis and to avoid confounding variables, length was the only body condition metric used, as length is most indicative of beluga whale habitat and foraging patterns (Loseto et al., 2008). As stable isotopes could not be included in the AIC analysis, stable isotopes were plotted against gene expression results for all genes, in both blubber and liver. \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C was found to have significant relationships with HP, ER\u00CE\u00B1, DI1, DI2, TNF\u00CE\u00B1, UCP2, HspA1A and ILGF1 in blubber (Figure 2.3.8), as well as HP, ER\u00CE\u00B1, DI2, TNF\u00CE\u00B1 and TR\u00CE\u00B2 in liver (Figure 2.3.9). All genes were negatively correlated with \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C. Similar patterns were conserved among all genes, where individuals from 2008 and 2010 tended towards the bottom right corner (lowest gene expression and highest \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C values), where individuals from 2013, 2015 and 2017 tended towards the top left corner (highest gene expression and lowest \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C values). Other years were distributed between the two groupings, forming a negative relationship between gene expression and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C. No significant correlations were found when \u00E1\u00BA\u009F15N was plotted against gene expression. 49 Figure 2.3.1 A principal component analysis (PCA) was performed for fatty acids across all years. Fatty acids were represented as percentages. The PCA reveals interannual clustering, with 2009 and 2017 separating from the rest of the data. 2009 has the highest sea ice extent over the study period, where 2017 has the lowest sea ice over the study period. However, other years have similarly high and low sea ice extents and do not show the same distinct clustering, indicating that other factors may influence fatty acids. \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0088\u00924 \u00E2\u0088\u00923 \u00E2\u0088\u00922 \u00E2\u0088\u00921 0 1\u00E2\u0088\u00921012PCA \u00E2\u0088\u0092 Fatty AcidsFactor 1 (34.0%)Factor 2 (12.6%)\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F200820092010201320142015201750 Figure 2.3.2 Factor 1 obtained through a principal component analysis for fatty acids across all years versus percent June sea ice extent in the Beaufort Sea reveals a significant relationship (p<0.005, R2=0.29). \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F80 85 90 95\u00E2\u0088\u00924\u00E2\u0088\u00923\u00E2\u0088\u00922\u00E2\u0088\u0092101June Sea Ice Extent (%)Factor 151 Figure 2.3.3 Factor 2 of the principal component analysis performed on fatty acids across all years versus blubber thickness (p<0.005, R2=0.032), length (p<0.005, R2=0.10) and girth (p<0.005, R2=0.22) of beluga whales reveal significant relationships. \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F4 6 8 10 12\u00E2\u0088\u00921012Blubber Thickness (cm)Factor 2\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F350 400 450 500\u00E2\u0088\u00921012Length (cm)\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F90 100 120 140\u00E2\u0088\u00921012Girth (cm)52 Figure 2.3.4 Results of the principal component analysis (PCA) performed on the gene expression found for all genes, with the exception of AhR due to low amplification, in blubber. Individuals are represented by dots. No distinct clustering patterns emerged. \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0088\u00922 \u00E2\u0088\u00921 0 1 2 3 4\u00E2\u0088\u00921012PCA \u00E2\u0088\u0092 BlubberFactor 1 (78%)Factor 2 (11%)\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F2008200920102012201320142015201753 \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F80 85 90 95\u00E2\u0088\u00922\u00E2\u0088\u0092101234June Sea Ice Extent (%)\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F1000 2000 3000 4000\u00E2\u0088\u00922\u00E2\u0088\u0092101234Total PCBs (ng/g lw)\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F0 1 2 3 4\u00E2\u0088\u00922\u00E2\u0088\u0092101234Total Hg (ug/g lw)\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F350 400 450 500\u00E2\u0088\u00922\u00E2\u0088\u0092101234Length (cm)\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009219.0 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.5\u00E2\u0088\u00922\u00E2\u0088\u0092101234d13C (per mil)Factor 154 Figure 2.3.5 Factor 1, determined from a principal component analysis of blubber gene expression profiles, revealed relationships between several of the explanatory variables. After a Bonferroni correction, only \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C (p<0.0045, R2=0.2206) displayed a significant positive correlation with factor 1. All other relationships were non-significant. Percent June sea ice extent (which determines the timing of the commencement of the Beaufort Sea beluga migration; p=0.0162, R2=0.0873), total Hg (ug/g lw; p=0.0459, R2=0.05663), and total PCBs (ng/g lw; p=0.0226, R2=0.1219) displayed non-significant negative relationships with factor 1. Length of each beluga (cm; p=0.0185, R2=0.0849) displayed a non-significant positive correlation with factor 1. 55 Figure 2.3.6 The principal component analysis (PCA) performed on gene expression for all genes with the exception of AhR and Adiponectin which both had low expression, for liver. Dots represent individual beluga whales. No distinct clustering patterns emerged during this analysis. \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0088\u00923 \u00E2\u0088\u00922 \u00E2\u0088\u00921 0 1\u00E2\u0088\u0092101234PCA \u00E2\u0088\u0092 LiverFactor 1 (90%)Factor 2 (2.7%)\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F2008200920102012201320142015201756 \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F80 85 90 95\u00E2\u0088\u00923\u00E2\u0088\u00922\u00E2\u0088\u0092101June Sea Ice Extent (%)Factor 157 Figure 2.3.7 Factor 1, determined from a PCA of liver gene expression profiles, revealed a non-significant relationship with June sea ice extent in the Beaufort Sea after a Bonferroni correction (p=0.016, R2=0.077). 58 Table 2.3.1 Results of the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) performed to determine which variables explained most of the variance for each gene. Due to a small sample size, second order AICc was calculated (AICc=AIC + (2K(K+1/n-K-1), where K is the total number of parameters and n is sample size. \u00E2\u0088\u0086AICc is the difference AIC-AICmin. Wi indicates the relative weight of each parameter compared to the rest of the models, calculated as Wi=(exp(-1/2*\u00E2\u0088\u0086AICc)/\u00CE\u00A3(exp(-1/2*\u00E2\u0088\u0086AICc), where the bottom term represents the sum of all model weights. The model chosen is \u00E2\u0080\u0098best\u00E2\u0080\u0099 is represented below. In cases where the model chosen as \u00E2\u0080\u0098best\u00E2\u0080\u0099 was not different than the intercept (represented as N/A under predictors), the second \u00E2\u0080\u0098best\u00E2\u0080\u0099 model is also shown. Gene Tissue Predictors p R2 AIC AICc \u00E2\u0088\u0086AICc Wi AhR Blubber Sea ice, PC1 fatty acids, PC2 fatty acids p<0.05 0.77 177.22 214.55 0 0.43 Liver N/A N/A N/A 294.34 302.96 0 0.23 Sea ice p>0.05 0.038 294.45 303.07 0.11 0.22 ER\u00CE\u00B1 Blubber Length, Hg p<0.05 0.25 296.14 301.74 0 0.24 Liver Length, PCBs, Hg p<0.05 0.21 500.59 504.59 0 0.27 TR\u00CE\u00B2 Blubber Sea ice, length, PCBs, PC1 and PC2 fatty acids p>0.05 0.12 335.24 343.86 0 0.24 Liver N/A N/A N/A 590.12 595.21 0 0.25 Length p>0.05 0.016 590.6 595.69 0.48 0.20 DI1 Blubber PC2 fatty acids p>0.05 0.090 386.23 392.82 0 0.22 59 Liver PC2 fatty acids p>0.05 0.077 286.11 202.004 0 0.27 DI2 Blubber N/A N/A N/A 402.23 407.83 0 0.27 Length p>0.05 -0.000028 402.18 408.78 0.95 0.17 Liver Sea ice, length, PC1 fatty acids p<0.05 0.24 443.15 448.75 0 0.35 UCP2 Blubber Hg, PC1 fatty acids p<0.05 0.16 241.65 247.25 0 0.28 Liver Length, PC2 fatty acids p>0.05 0.089 515.03 519.18 0 0.25 HP Blubber Hg p<0.05 0.14 394.36 400.25 0 0.35 Liver PC2 fatty acids p>0.05 0.066 162.18 166.18 0 0.25 HspA1A Blubber Sea ice, length, Hg p<0.05 0.64 348.63 354.85 0 0.35 ILGF1 Blubber N/A N/A N/A 292.98 298.58 0 0.27 Length p>0.05 0.00029 293.91 299.51 0.93 0.17 TNF\u00CE\u00B1 Blubber N/A N/A N/A 434.75 440.35 0 0.26 Length p>0.05 0.0032 435.61 441.21 0.86 0.17 Liver Sea ice, length, Hg p>0.05 0.092 528.31 532.31 0 0.20 60 Adipo Blubber N/A N/A N/A 196.58 201.91 0 0.25 Sea ice p>0.05 0.022 196.87 202.20 0.29 0.22 Liver Length p>0.05 0.19 310.72 329.39 0 0.27 Leptin Blubber PC1 fatty acids p>0.05 0.050 562.68 569.27 0 0.27 61 Figure 2.3.8 Expression of each gene in blubber was logged and plotted against \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C. Relationships were evaluated using a linear model. All relationships displayed were determined to be significant: HP (p=0.00102, R2=0.2414), ER\u00CE\u00B1 (p=0.000654, R2=0.2528), DI1 (p=0.00195, R2=0.233), DI2 (p=0.0022, TNF\u00CE\u00B1 \u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.50510log( 2-DDCt ) HP\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.5\u00E2\u0088\u0092505log( 2-DDCt ) ERa\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.5\u00E2\u0088\u009250510log( 2-DDCt ) DI1\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.5\u00E2\u0088\u0092505log( 2-DDCt ) DI2\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.5\u00E2\u0088\u009250510log( 2-DDCt ) TNFa\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.5\u00E2\u0088\u00926\u00E2\u0088\u00922246log( 2-DDCt ) UCP2\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.5\u00E2\u0088\u009250510log( 2-DDCt ) HspA1A\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0097\u008F\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.5\u00E2\u0088\u009240246log( 2-DDCt ) ILGF1d13C (per mil)\u00E2\u0097\u008F 2008200920102012201320142015201762 (p=0.00309, R2=0.192), UCP2 (p=0.000556, R2=0.2589), HspA1A (p=0.000378, R2=0.3093), and ILGF1 (p=0.0107, R2=0.1446). This indicates a negative relationship between gene expression and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C. 63 \u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009219.0 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.5\u00E2\u0088\u00924\u00E2\u0088\u00922024log( 2-DDCt ) HP\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009219.0 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.5\u00E2\u0088\u009220246810log( 2-DDCt ) ERa\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009219.0 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.5\u00E2\u0088\u009220246810log( 2-DDCt ) DI2\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009219.0 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.50246810log( 2-DDCt ) TNFa\u00E2\u0088\u009219.5 \u00E2\u0088\u009219.0 \u00E2\u0088\u009218.5246810log( 2-DDCt ) TRbd13C (per mil)\u00E2\u0097\u008F 2008200920102012201320142015201764 Figure 2.3.9 Expression of each gene in liver was logged and plotted against \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C. Relationships were evaluated using a linear model. All relationships displayed were determined to be significant: HP (p=0.0188, R2=0.2414), ER\u00CE\u00B1 (p=0.0169, R2=0.1157), (p=0.0409, R2=0.08881), TNF\u00CE\u00B1 (p=0.0113, R2=0.1288), and TR\u00CE\u00B2 (p=0.0202, R2=0.1202). This indicates a negative relationship between gene expression and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C.65 2.4 Discussion 2.4.1 Impacts of climate change on gene expression The results of this study indicate that interannual variation in nutritional status may be responsible for wide-spread changes in gene expression in both blubber and liver. When factor 1 from the PCA performed on gene expression for blubber was plotted against \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C, a significant relationship was detected (p<0.0045; Figure 2.3.5). \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C was the only explanatory variable that displayed a significant relationship with a principle component from either blubber or liver after a Bonferroni correction. Carbon isotope signatures are typically reflective of changes in diet from a more land-based source, which is heavier in 12C, to a more marine-based source, which is heavier in 13C. The use of \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C can therefore be used to assess whether organisms are feeding closer to shore or offshore (Choy et al., 2016; Dahl et al., 2003; S\u00C3\u00B8reide et al., 2006). For beluga whales in the Arctic, this tool can be used to suggest whether beluga whales are foraging further offshore in periods of low sea ice extent. The relationship between factor 1 of total gene expression in blubber and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C indicates that a change in foraging behaviour in beluga whales influenced the total gene expression in blubber. The relationship between \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C and gene expression was also reflected in many individual genes in both blubber and liver. HP, ER\u00C9\u0091, DI1, DI2, TNF\u00C9\u0091, UCP2, HspA1A and ILGF1 all showed significant relationships with \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C in blubber (Figure 2.3.8). In liver, HP, ER\u00C9\u0091, DI2, TNF\u00C9\u0091 and TR\u00CE\u00B2 all showed significant relationships with \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C (Figure 2.3.9). For all genes that displayed a significant relationship, in both blubber and liver, the relationship was negative, indicating that a decrease in gene expression is associated with an increase in \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C. The most likely explanation 66 for an enrichment in \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C values would be a decrease in sea ice, which would compel beluga whales to feed further offshore. Indeed, 2008 and 2010 have reasonably low sea ice extents (81% and 79%, respectively; Appendix A, Table A1) and consistently displayed the lowest gene expression in blubber associated with a 13C-enriched \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C ratio (Figure 2.3.8). Liver gene expression for 2010 was also the lowest and was associated with a 13C-enriched \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C ratio (Figure 2.3.9). Further, blubber gene expression was consistently highest in 2014, associated with 13C-depleted \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C values over the study period and a high sea ice extent (93%; Appendix A, Table A1). These observations are indicative of feeding further offshore, which would be consistent with reduced sea ice extent. However, other years do not follow the same pattern of reduced sea ice extent coupled with enriched \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C. If we explore the results from the AIC and relate them to \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C results, we see that those genes that showed relationships with \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C are not best explained by June sea ice extent in the Beaufort Sea. Only HspA1A in blubber, and DI2 and TNF\u00C9\u0091 in liver, showed relationships with \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C and were best explained by sea ice (Table 2.3.1, Figures 2.3.8 & 2.3.9). Several explanations may exist for the disconnect between the influence of sea ice extent and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C on gene expression. One study noted that \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C ratios were notably different in ice algae versus phytoplankton (S\u00C3\u00B8reide et al., 2006). Ice algae was 2-10 \u00E2\u0080\u00B0 enriched in 13C compared to phytoplankton, which could account for some of the differences seen, as beluga whales tend to feed closest to the ice edge, regardless of sea ice extent (Choy et al., 2016; Loseto et al., 2008; S\u00C3\u00B8reide et al., 2006). Another explanation could be that the incorporation of isotopes into the tissues of consumers takes at minimum several weeks, which could allow for considerable variation depending on time of sampling and exact sea ice conditions (Boecklen et al., 2011). 67 None of the genes considered exhibited a clear relationship with \u00E1\u00BA\u009F15N. Two possible explanations could exist for this. \u00E1\u00BA\u009F15N isotopes are typically an indicator of trophic feeding level, with higher \u00E1\u00BA\u009F15N ratios indicating that the consumer is feeding higher in the trophic level (Boecklen et al., 2011; Dahl et al., 2003). One explanation for the lack of relationships between gene expression and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F15N is that beluga whales may not be feeding at significantly different trophic levels, and therefore we would not see a change in gene expression reflected. A second explanation could be that the expression of the genes considered in this study is not influenced by trophic feeding level. PCA analysis of fatty acids revealed the separation of 2009, which was the year with the highest sea ice during the study period (95%), and 2017, which was the year of the lowest sea ice extent over the study period (76%), into two distinct clusters, separate from the rest of the represented years (Figure 2.3.1). Most fatty acids are obtained through diet, so any changes in fatty acid signatures may be indicative of altered feeding regimes (Choy et al., 2017). This indicates that climate change may be a driver behind fatty acid profiles in beluga whales, as fatty acid signatures are expected to be different in periods of high and low sea ice due to altered prey availability. Evidence for the relationship between fatty acids and climate change is further demonstrated by Figure 2.3.2, which shows a correlation between factor 1 of the fatty acid PCA and sea ice extent. These results suggest that sea ice may be a driver of changes in feeding composition; however, if sea ice were the only factor contributing to changes in fatty acid 68 composition between years, I would expect that other years with similarly high or low sea ice extent would separate out, as well. 2.4.2 Impacts of contaminants on gene expression AIC results for individual genes show some evidence that contaminants may be playing a role in the expression of individual genes (Table 2.3.1). Several genes in blubber, including ER\u00CE\u00B1, UCP2, HP, HspA1A, as well as TNF\u00CE\u00B1 in both blubber and liver, included total Hg in their best-fit models. HP expression in blubber was of particular interest in these results, as it was best explained by Hg alone, where the other genes were explained by a combination of variables. Many of these genes, including HP, HspA1A and TNF\u00CE\u00B1, are involved in the acute phase response. While I was not able to find many associations in the literature between these genes and mercury exposure, Hsp70 transcripts have been reported to increase in response to toxic assaults by mercury in mammals and plants (A\u00C3\u00AFt-A\u00C3\u00AFssa et al., 2000; S\u00C3\u00A1nchez Reus et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2017). In addition, a study on gene responses to methyl mercury in zebrafish showed overall transcriptional changes in genes involved in the acute inflammatory response (Ho et al., 2013). Two genes, TR\u00CE\u00B2 in blubber and ER\u00CE\u00B1 in liver, were explained by a combination of PCBs and other variables. No other genes were explained by PCBs (Table 2.3.1). Both TR\u00CE\u00B2 and ER\u00CE\u00B1 have been studied extensively for their relationships with PCB exposure. For example, PCBs have been associated with a decrease in thyroid receptor activity in harbour seal pups and ringed seals (Routti et al., 2010; Tabuchi et al., 2006). PCBs have been noted to have both estrogenic and anti-estrogenic effects on ER\u00CE\u00B1 (Ma & Sassoon, 2006; Zhang et al., 2017). Indeed, they have been 69 associated with altered ER\u00CE\u00B1 mRNA expression in killer whales, harbour seals and beluga whales (Buckman et al., 2011; No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2017; Simond et al., 2019). 2.4.3 Impacts of contaminants and climate change on gene expression Based on the results from this analysis, some subtle indicators in the analysis point to a potential interaction between climate change and contaminants. For example, PCBs, PBDEs and Hg were all highest in 2014, which was a period of high sea ice extent (Appendix A, Table A1). Hg was also high in 2013, which was another year of high sea ice extent. However, other years of high sea ice extent do not have similarly high contaminant concentrations. Further small indicators of the interaction between contaminants and climate change lie in the AIC results (Table 2.3.1). Several genes, including TR\u00CE\u00B2, UCP2 and HspA1A in blubber, as well as TNF\u00CE\u00B1 in liver, were best explained by a combination of contaminants, body length, sea ice extent and fatty acids. This indicates that both contaminants and climate change may be a driver behind the expression patterns of these genes; however, it is difficult to conclude whether contaminants and climate change are interacting to influence gene expression patterns or acting individually. Neither contaminants nor climate change were able to fully explain all of the variation in gene expression alone, so it is conceivable that the two may interact or exacerbate each other. It is expected that the altered immunity, metabolism and physiology associated with exposure to contaminants may make marine mammals more susceptible to climate change (Alava et al., 2017). Conversely, there is concern that a loss of blubber due to changes in prey availability 70 could release contaminants from lipid layers, causing further harm (de Swart et al., 1996). This study was not able to provide firm evidence that contaminants and climate change are interacting to influence gene expression of beluga whales, however impending changes in the Arctic environment are still cause for concern. It is still largely uncertain as to how prey abundance and distribution will change, whether delivery of contaminants to the Arctic will be altered, and how beluga habitat distribution will be impacted by climate change. It is therefore important that we continue to monitor these species for signs of potential stress due to contaminants and climate change. 71 Chapter 3: General Discussion and Conclusions 3.1 Concluding remarks The aim of this thesis was to explore the effects of contaminants and climate change on the health of western Arctic beluga whales. To achieve this goal, gene expression of various genes involved in xenobiotic detoxification, metabolism, stress response and nutritional health were measured. Gene expression values were compared across years and were related to possible explanatory variables that could give us a better understanding of how genes might be influenced by both climate change and contaminants. Measures of the influence of climate change included sea ice extent, as well as nutritional indicators that are likely to be influenced by sea ice extent: \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C, \u00E1\u00BA\u009F15N, fatty acid data, and body condition metrics. While both \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F15N have been related to contaminants and gene expression in western Arctic beluga whales, the inclusion of fatty acid data was novel. The PCA performed on fatty acids revealed the separation of the year with the highest sea ice extent over the study period and the year with the lowest sea ice extent (Figure 2.3.1), which is reflected in a significant relationship between fatty acids and sea ice extent (Figure 2.3.2). This suggests alterations in feeding patterns related to climate change. Carbon isotopes were found to be related to factor 1 of a PCA on gene expression in blubber. When exploring the relationship between the expression of individual genes and \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C, I found that several genes were correlated with \u00E1\u00BA\u009F13C. These results indicate that changes in feeding patterns, represented by carbon isotopes, may influence the expression of genes. However, AIC results indicated that both contaminants and climate change may best explain the observed changes in gene expression. 72 Measures of the influence of contaminants included analyzing total concentrations of the top three contaminants of concern in the Arctic: PCBs, PBDEs and Hg. These measures were taken over a period of almost a decade, providing a larger time frame than previous work in order to demonstrate long-term trends. PCBs and Hg were both found to be related to the expression of several genes studied in an AIC analysis, indicating that contaminants may be playing a role in the health of beluga whales (Table 2.3.1) In terms of determining the interaction of contaminants and climate change on the health of western Arctic beluga whales, I believe that this is a difficult conclusion to draw based on the available data. This thesis is able to demonstrate that both contaminants and climate change are likely influencing the expression of genes, and literature suggests that exposure to contaminants is likely to be influenced by changes in sea ice distribution. This would likely be due to several different factors. One factor is that prey species distribution is expected to move northward, bringing new species to the Arctic from the south (Ostertag et al., 2018). In the case of migratory prey species, this may bring new sources of contaminants to the Arctic (Ostertag et al., 2018). Another factor is that changes in prey species distribution and abundance may lead to beluga whales feeding at different trophic levels than normal. This would lead to a potential increase or decrease in exposure to toxins (Ostertag et al., 2018), which is reflected in fatty acid data. This study was based on results from a previous study by No\u00C3\u00ABl et al. (2014) who showed that altered gene expression of 11 genes involved in growth, metabolism and development was related to changes in sea ice extent; however, this study was conducted over a period of three years (2008-2010) and therefore it is difficult to draw broad conclusions about the relationship 73 between climate change and gene expression. PCA analysis of gene expression did not show strong associations with sea ice as in No\u00C3\u00ABl et al. (2014), but it did show some associations with 13C stable isotopes, indicating that climate may indeed be a driver behind changes in gene expression. No\u00C3\u00ABl et al. (2014) also noted that two genes involved in detoxification of contaminants, Cyp1A1 and AhR, were related to PCB concentrations in beluga whales. Unfortunately, low concentrations of RNA did not allow for amplification of Cyp1A1. AhR was not amplified in all samples, so its inclusion in the PCA was not possible. Therefore, we cannot determine whether this pattern continued across an extended study period (2008-2017). It is incredibly important that we continue to monitor this population of beluga whales. The monitoring of this population has been possible for 30 years through collaboration with the community of Tuktoyaktuk and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, which presents a key opportunity to include scientists in the evaluation of beluga whale health. Not only are beluga whales a key part of the Arctic ecosystem, playing a role at the top of the food chain, but they are also strong indicators of the health of the Arctic food web. As top predators, they bioaccumulate pollutants that are likely to be represented throughout the Arctic food web. Finally, these creatures are an important subsistence and cultural resource for the Inuvialuit people of the Arctic. The health of the Inuvialuit is directly linked to the health of beluga whales, so monitoring this population is vital (Ostertag et al., 2018). 3.2 Future directions Several paths could be taken to continue exploring the impacts of contaminants and climate change on the health of beluga whales. One such path includes the assembly of the beluga whale 74 transcriptome using RNASeq. The transcriptome of ringed seals was recently assembled, and several novel genes were found to be related to PCB exposure (Brown et al., 2017). This would be an invaluable tool in pinpointing genes that could be serve as biomarkers of health in relation to contaminants and climate change. While selecting genes that have previously been identified as biomarkers is a cost-efficient and useful tool to determine health impacts, RNASeq could provide additional insight. This study also pointed to the limitations in using stable isotopes and fatty acids to infer changes in foraging patterns. While changes in foraging grounds are likely to occur with changes in sea ice, this will not necessarily be identifiable in isotope or fatty acid signatures, as prey may also be changing. It would be useful to incorporate a tagging study or aerial monitoring in order to get a better understanding of beluga whale migration patterns during periods of low and high sea ice. In addition, this would provide more information about population numbers, as the most recent population surveys were performed in 1992 (Allen & Angliss, 2013; COSEWIC, 2004; Harwood et al., 1996). Another path that would be useful to take would be modelling changes in populations of beluga whales in a changing Arctic environment. Models have been built to predict changes in fish composition in various climate change scenarios in the Arctic (Tai et al., 2019). By incorporating this knowledge with habitat and feeding preferences of beluga whales, we may be able to predict the prey species that beluga whales may favour in the future, and potential areas that beluga whales may target as feeding grounds. This may help us in identifying key prey species that should be targeted for monitoring and conservation. It may also help identify areas of high 75 beluga whale abundance in the future, both of which will become increasingly important as the Arctic opens up to increased fishing and vessel traffic. While it is important to monitor beluga whale health and determine potential impacts of climate change and contaminants, it is also important to look forward and predict the way in which beluga whales might respond to stressors so that we can help them before they become in danger. In terms of improving methods from this current study, it may be worth trying to amplify both the target and reference gene in the same well. 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Zheng, J. et al. Disruption of thyroid hormone (TH) levels and TH-regulated gene expression by polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and hydroxylated PCBs in e-waste recycling workers. Environ. Int. 102, 138\u00E2\u0080\u0093144 (2017). 91 Appendix A Table A1 Average of each variable presented with standard deviation for each year. June sea ice extent was measured in the Beaufort Sea. Sample size for each variable (N) is presented in brackets. An ANOVA was run for each variable to determine if there were differences between years, with the exception of sea ice. Year (N) Age Blubber thickness (cm) Length (cm) Girth (cm) PCBs (ng/g lw) PBDEs (ng/g lw) Hg (ug/g) \u00CE\u00B4 13C(\u00E2\u0080\u00B0) \u00CE\u00B415N(\u00E2\u0080\u00B0) June sea ice (%) 2008 (13) 32.3 \u00C2\u00B1 15.0 (11) 8.69 \u00C2\u00B1 2.95 (13) 416.4 \u00C2\u00B1 26.64 (13) 119.3 \u00C2\u00B1 9.46 (13) 1140.2 \u00C2\u00B1 646.01 (13) 13.7 \u00C2\u00B1 5.56 (5) 0.95 \u00C2\u00B1 0.46 (13) -18.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.45 (12) 16.9 \u00C2\u00B1 0.53 (12) 81.1 2009 (10) 29.6 \u00C2\u00B1 9.1 (10) 9.91 \u00C2\u00B1 1.44 (10) 414.0 \u00C2\u00B1 19.52 (10) 124.7 \u00C2\u00B1 7.71 (10) 1498.9 \u00C2\u00B1 638.7 (10) 20.3 \u00C2\u00B1 6.57 (10) 0.87 \u00C2\u00B1 0.39 (10) n/a (0) n/a (0) 95.9 2010 (10) 24.3 \u00C2\u00B1 4.6 (10) 8.38 \u00C2\u00B1 1.33 (10) 408.9 \u00C2\u00B1 41.79 (10) 118.6 \u00C2\u00B1 16.20 (10) 1122.9 \u00C2\u00B1 527.61 (10) 15.1 \u00C2\u00B1 6.72 (10) 1.01 \u00C2\u00B1 0.43 (10) -18.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.34 (10) 17.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.46 (10) 79.1 2012 (4) 23.5 \u00C2\u00B1 5.1 (4) 7.14 \u00C2\u00B1 0.61 (4) 408.3 \u00C2\u00B1 14.57 (4) 119.7 \u00C2\u00B1 7.79 (4) 1676.6 \u00C2\u00B1 250.65 (2) 12.4 \u00C2\u00B1 4.31 (2) 1.23 \u00C2\u00B1 0.24 (5) n/a (0) n/a (0) 76.8 2013 (9) 33.7 \u00C2\u00B1 7.1 (9) 7.33 \u00C2\u00B1 1.11 (9) 421.6 \u00C2\u00B1 10.92 (9) 119.2 \u00C2\u00B1 10.44 (9) 3345.4 \u00C2\u00B1 1593.43 (2) 17.0 \u00C2\u00B1 4.16 (6) 2.18 \u00C2\u00B1 0.43 (9) -19.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.24 (9) 17.7 \u00C2\u00B1 0.29 (9) 95.8 2014 (9) 27.3 \u00C2\u00B1 7.3 (9) 5.51 \u00C2\u00B1 2.37 (8) 400.1 \u00C2\u00B1 33.6 (9) 113.2 \u00C2\u00B1 17.23 (9) 3300.8 \u00C2\u00B1 913.51 25.1 \u00C2\u00B1 5.31 (4) 2.11 \u00C2\u00B1 1.13 (8) -19.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.49 (9) 17.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.46 (9) 93.9 92 (6) 2015 (7) 22.1 \u00C2\u00B1 5.2 (7) 6.91 \u00C2\u00B1 2.21 (7) 386.4 \u00C2\u00B1 30.38 (7) 107.3 \u00C2\u00B1 13.95 (7) 1581.7 \u00C2\u00B1 692.55 (2) n/a (0) 1.40 \u00C2\u00B1 1.21 (7) -19.5 \u00C2\u00B1 0.22 (2) 17.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.43 (2) 82.1 2017 (13) N/A (0) 10.24 \u00C2\u00B1 1.25 (11) 423.6 \u00C2\u00B1 15.39 (13) 121.5 \u00C2\u00B1 14.33 (13) 2423.0 \u00C2\u00B1 1188.57 (8) 17.3 \u00C2\u00B1 7.04 (8) 1.05 \u00C2\u00B1 0.70 (13) -19.2 \u00C2\u00B1 0.22 (13) 17.4 \u00C2\u00B1 0.29 (13) 76.3 All years 28.7 \u00C2\u00B1 8.89 8.3 \u00C2\u00B1 2.32 411.9 \u00C2\u00B1 27.6 118.4 \u00C2\u00B1 13.12 1869.7 \u00C2\u00B1 1034.00 17.51 \u00C2\u00B1 7.11 1.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.75 -19.0 \u00C2\u00B1 0.47 17.3 \u00C2\u00B1 0.47 -- ANOVA p=<0.05, R2=0.2 p>0.05, R2=0.0013 p>0.05, R2=-0.013 p>0.05, R2=-0.0021 p<0.05, R2=0.21 p>0.05, R2=-0.015 p<0.05, R2=0.40 p<0.05, R2=0.28 p<0.05, R2=0.12 -- 93 Table A2 Results from a post-hoc Tukey\u00E2\u0080\u0099s test run on all variables that showed significant differences after an ANOVA (Table A2). If a variable showed a significant difference between two years (p<0.05), it is listed for the corresponding years below. 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 2008 2009 -- 2010 Age -- 2012 -- -- -- 2013 13C, 15N, Hg Hg PCBs, 13C, Hg -- 2014 PCBs, 13C, Hg PCBs, Hg PCBs, 13C, Hg -- -- 2015 Age, 13C -- 13C -- Hg Hg 2017 13C, 15N -- PCBs, 13C -- Hg Hg -- 94 Table A3 Primer sequences used in qPCR experiments, obtained through previous studies on marine mammals (referenced below). Primers originally evaluated by No\u00C3\u00ABl et al. (2014) for beluga whales were not re-evaluated using quality assurance/quality control procedures (QA/QC). All new primers that had not previously been established in beluga whales were assessed following a three-tiered QA/QC procedure (detailed in the methods section). Tier 1 serial dilution slopes are presented (blubber slope & liver slope). Outliers and extreme values were removed in some cases. All new primers were assigned either a \u00E2\u0080\u0098pass\u00E2\u0080\u0099, and were used for further analysis, or a \u00E2\u0080\u0098fail\u00E2\u0080\u0099 and were not included in data collection. The quality assurance/quality control tier at which each gene failed is noted (QA/QC was performed from backwards from Tier 3 to Tier 1). In addition, the beluga whale genome was sequenced partway through analysis, and all primers were confirmed as correct in GenBank ((Martinez et al., 2013)). Primer\t Forward\tsequence\tReverse\tsequence\tAnimal\t Reference\t Amplicon\tlength\tGenBank\tAccession\t#\tBlubber\tslope\tLiver\tslope\tQA/QC\trpL8\t GCGGACGGAGTTGTTCAT\t TTTGTCTCAGGGTTGTGGG\t Beluga\t (No\u00C3\u00ABl\tet\tal.,\t2014)\t 219\t 111165130\t \t \t \t\u00CE\u00B2actin\t CCTGGACTTCGAGCAGGAG\t GCACCGTGTTGGCATAGAG\t Beluga\t (No\u00C3\u00ABl\tet\tal.,\t2014)\t 236\t 111170344\t \t \t \tER\u00CE\u00B1\t CCGAGCCCACTCTTGATT\t CCTCTTTGCCCAGTTGAT\t Beluga\t (No\u00C3\u00ABl\tet\tal.,\t2014)\t 213\t 111183804\t \t \t \tAdiponectin\t ATTCCCATTCGCTTTACC\t AGGAGCACAGAGCCAGAG\t Beluga\t (No\u00C3\u00ABl\tet\tal.,\t2014)\t 227\t 111176597\t \t \t \tLeptin\t AGTCCAGGATGACACCAA\t CCAAACCAGTGACCCTCT\t Beluga\t (No\u00C3\u00ABl\tet\tal.,\t2014)\t 104\t 111182801\t \t \t \tILGF1\t TTTATTTCAAC TACATCTCCAG Beluga\t (No\u00C3\u00ABl\tet\tal.,\t 112\t 111187347\t \t \t \t95 AAGCCCACG\t CCTCCTCA\t 2014)\tHsp70\t ACAGGCAAGGCTAACAAG\t GCATAGGATTCTAAGGCATTTT\t Beluga\t (No\u00C3\u00ABl\tet\tal.,\t2014)\t 155\t 111178087\t \t \t \tAhR\t TCGAATGCACGCTTAGTT\t\tTTGCCTTGGTAGCAGAAT\t\tBeluga\t (No\u00C3\u00ABl\tet\tal.,\t2014)\t 241\t 111178528\t \t \t \tTR\u00CE\u00B2\t AGATCCATCGGTCACAAG\t CCACCTTCTGGGCGTTT\t Beluga\t (No\u00C3\u00ABl\tet\tal.,\t2014)\t 170\t 111164774\t \t \t \tNew\tPrimers\tHP\t CTGGCAGGCTAAGATGGTTT\t GTCAGCAGCCATTGTTCATT\t Harbour\tporpoise\t (Muller\tet\tal.,\t2013)\t \t 75\t AY919335\t 0.09\t -0.05\t Pass\tDI1\t GATGGCTGGGCTTTTAAGAAC\t ACCCTTGTAGAGGATCCTGC\t Elephant\tseal\t (Spitz\tet\tal.,\t2015)\t N/A\t 111175838\t 0.07\t -0.06\t Pass\tDI2\t AGCGTAGACTTGCTGATCAC\t CGAGTGGACTTGGAGCGGCT\t Elephant\tseal\t (Spitz\tet\tal.,\t2015)\t N/A\t 111176195\t 0.06\t -0.009\t Pass\tUCP2\t GGCATTGGGAGCCGCCTCC\t CAGTGCTTTGGTATCTCCGGCC\t Elephant\tseal\t (Muller\tet\tal.,\t2013)\t N/A\t 111184847\t -0.07\t -0.03\t Pass\tTNF\u00CE\u00B1\t GGCTGAACACATATGCCAAC\t TGAAGAGGACCTGGGAGTAGA\t Harbour\tporpoise\t (Muller\tet\tal.,\t2013)\t 111\t AY919337\t -0.02\t -0.06\t Pass\tSIRT2\t CACTACTTCATCCGCCTGCT\t GCGTGTCTATGTTCTGCGTG\t Sea\tlion\t (Spitz\tet\tal.,\t2015)\t 302\t 111180885\t N/A\t N/A\t Failed\tTiers\t1\t96 and\t2\tAcox1\t GTGGCCGACTGTGGTGGACA\t AGTGGCAGTGTGCCTCGCTTG\t Ringed\tseal\t (Castelli\tet\tal.,\t2014)\t N/A\t 111182805\t N/A\t N/A\t Failed\tTier\t3\tAcat2\t TGCTAATCGAGGACTCACACC\t TGGAAGGCTCCACACCTACT\t Sea\tlion\t (Castelli\tet\tal.,\t2014)\t 282\t 111167584\t N/A\t N/A\t Failed\tTier\t3\tPPAR\u00CE\u00B1\t TATCACAGACACGCTCTCACCAGC\t TTCAGCCGGATGGTTCGCCG\t Ringed\tseal\t (Muller\tet\tal.,\t2013)\t N/A\t 111186471\t N/A\t N/A\t Failed\tTier\t3\tCRP\t TTCTCGTATGCCACCAAGAG\t TTCAGACCCACCCACTGTAA\t Harbour\tporpoise\t (Muller\tet\tal.,\t2013)\t 192\t AY919336,\t111167155\t N/A\t N/A\t Failed\tTier\t3\t 97 Table A4 log(KOw) (octanol-water coefficient), half-life in biota, estimated toxicity thresholds and examples of concentrations in free-ranging wildlife for PCBs, PBDEs and MeHg. It is important to note that log(KOW) and half-life is represented for only a subset of PBDEs and PCBs, as calculating these values for every congener is difficult. Contaminant Range of log(KOW) Half-life (biota) Toxicity thresholds Example concentrations PCB 4.63-8.201 7.72-8.822 Up to 1000 days3 1.3 mg/kg lw (harbour seals)6 10 mg/kg lw (bottlenose dophins)7 17 mg/kg lw (harbour seals)8 0.40-6.58 mg/kg lw (harbour seals)11 37.4 mg/kg lw (killer whales)12 0.77-3.98 mg/kg lw (harbour seals)13 0.10 mg/kg lw (sea lions)14 PBDE 5-103 Up to 500 days3 1.5 mg/kg lw (harbour seals)9 0.49-1.05 mg/kg lw (harbour seals)13 0.68-6.24 mg/kg lw (harbour seals)6 Not detectable (sea lions)14 MeHg 1.7-2.54 80 days (humans)5 4 mg/kg lw (beluga whales)10 200 mg/kg lw THg (sperm whale; liver)15 0.84-87.92 mg/kg dw (dolphins; liver)16 0.0053 mg/kg (harbour seals; hair)17 98 1(P. S. Ross et al., 2000); 2(Peter S. Ross et al., 2013); 3(Juan J. Alava et al., 2009); 4(Squadrone et al., 2015); 5(Jo et al., 2015); 6(Mos et al., 2010); 7(Hall et al., 2006); 8(Peter S. Ross et al., 1996); 9(Hall et al., 2003); 10(Krey et al., 2015); 11(Mos et al., 2006); 12(P. S. Ross et al., 2000); 13(Peter S. Ross et al., 2013); 14(Juan J. Alava et al., 2009); 15(Squadrone et al., 2015); 16(Kehrig et al., 2008); 17(No\u00C3\u00ABl et al., 2016) 99 Table A5 Relative contributions of each fatty acid to principle components 1 and 2 of a principle component analysis performed on all fatty acids. Fatty acid Contribution to PC1 Contribution to PC2 12:00 9.44 18.42 13:00 10.09 0.08 14:00 0.01 0.04 14:1n9 0.13 1.62 14:1n7 0.61 0.86 14:1n5 0.30 0.72 15:0 iso 1.06 19.05 15:00 0.16 0.04 15:1n8 14.58 11.87 15:1n6 11.25 3.11 16:0 iso 0.01 1.24 16:00 0.00 0.14 16:1n11 0.03 0.16 16:1n9 0.19 0.56 16:1n7 0.01 0.00 16:1n5 0.09 0.01 16:2n6 0.42 1.07 17:0 iso 0.11 0.09 16:2n4 1.12 1.52 17:00 0.10 0.13 16:3n4 0.66 0.35 100 17:01 1.00 0.75 16:4n3 5.53 1.19 16:4n1 0.44 0.00 18:00 0.02 0.00 18:1n11 0.01 0.05 18:1n9 0.03 0.10 18:1n7 0.01 0.06 18:1n5 0.03 0.02 18:3n6 1.74 8.27 18:3n4 1.41 1.32 18:3n3 0.54 1.04 18:3n1 2.16 1.13 18:4n3 3.16 0.02 18:4n1 3.08 0.34 20:00 0.40 1.02 20:1n11 0.00 0.68 20:1n9 0.02 2.19 20:1n7 0.00 0.65 20:2n9 0.08 1.26 20:2n6 0.01 0.00 20:3n6 0.17 0.02 20:4n6 0.29 0.21 20:3n3 2.48 2.27 20:4n3 0.20 0.00 101 20:5n3 0.10 0.05 22:1n11 0.01 0.81 22:1n9 0.02 0.81 22:1n7 0.04 0.28 22:2n6 12.08 0.55 21:5n3 0.20 3.42 22:4n6 6.59 9.82 22:5n6 1.05 0.01 22:4n3 6.72 0.50 22:5n3 0.01 0.00 22:6n3 0.00 0.04 "@en . "Thesis/Dissertation"@en . "2020-11"@en . "10.14288/1.0392011"@en . "eng"@en . "Zoology"@en . "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International"@* . "http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/"@* . "Graduate"@en . "Effects of contaminants and climate change on the health of western Arctic beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas)"@en . "Text"@en . "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/74808"@en .