"Arts, Faculty of"@en . "Art History, Visual Art and Theory, Department of"@en . "DSpace"@en . "UBCV"@en . "Ikeda, Asato"@en . "2012-06-11T19:32:00Z"@en . "2012"@en . "Doctor of Philosophy - PhD"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "This dissertation investigates how fascist ideology\u00E2\u0080\u0094the modern political ideology that promotes spiritual collectivism\u00E2\u0080\u0094was translated into the Japanese context and was mediated through the visual culture. My study ultimately locates wartime Japan in the global politics and culture of the 1930s and the 1940s.\nThe dissertation scrutinizes the development of both Japanese-style paintings (Nihon-ga) and Western-style paintings (y\u00C5\u008Dga) in the wartime period, exploring how they manifest fascist imaginations of social space, historical time, and the human body. It considers the Japanese paintings in relation to ideas that have been identified as fascist. I examine works by such artists as Saeki Shunk\u00C5\u008D, Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D, and Fujita Tsuguharu, focusing on issues of social regimentation, new classicism, eugenics, and the mechanized human body.\nMy study is not only an important contribution to scholarship on the art produced during the war\u00E2\u0080\u0094the period that was long considered \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe dark valley\u00E2\u0080\u009D\u00E2\u0080\u0094but is also the first comprehensive study to investigate the question of Japanese fascism in the discipline of art history. Using cultural translation as a model of analysis and developing a nuanced vocabulary to describe wartime Japan within the framework of fascism, I challenge the notion that fascism was a phenomenon that existed only in Europe."@en . "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/42471?expand=metadata"@en . "\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 ENVISIONING FASCIST SPACE, TIME, AND BODY: JAPANESE PAINTING DURING THE FIFTEEN-YEAR WAR (1931-1945) by Asato Ikeda B.A., The University of Victoria, 2006 M.A., Carleton University, 2008 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in The Faculty of Graduate Studies (Art History, Visual Art and Theory) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) June, 2012 \u00C2\u00A9 Asato Ikeda, 2012 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 ii Abstract This dissertation investigates how fascist ideology\u00E2\u0080\u0094the modern political ideology that promotes spiritual collectivism\u00E2\u0080\u0094was translated into the Japanese context and was mediated through the visual culture. My study ultimately locates wartime Japan in the global politics and culture of the 1930s and the 1940s. The dissertation scrutinizes the development of both Japanese-style paintings (Nihon-ga) and Western-style paintings (y\u00C5\u008Dga) in the wartime period, exploring how they manifest fascist imaginations of social space, historical time, and the human body. It considers the Japanese paintings in relation to ideas that have been identified as fascist. I examine works by such artists as Saeki Shunk\u00C5\u008D, Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D, and Fujita Tsuguharu, focusing on issues of social regimentation, new classicism, eugenics, and the mechanized human body. My study is not only an important contribution to scholarship on the art produced during the war\u00E2\u0080\u0094the period that was long considered \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe dark valley\u00E2\u0080\u009D\u00E2\u0080\u0094but is also the first comprehensive study to investigate the question of Japanese fascism in the discipline of art history. Using cultural translation as a model of analysis and developing a nuanced vocabulary to describe wartime Japan within the framework of fascism, I challenge the notion that fascism was a phenomenon that existed only in Europe. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 iii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iii List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... xii\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Historical Background ............................................................................................ 3\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Literature Review/ Methodology .......................................................................... 17\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Fascism ................................................................................................................. 25\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................. 49\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 CHAPTER ONE The Fascist Social Space of \"Proper Place\" and Japanese-style Machine-ist Paintings 1935-1940 ..................................................................................... 52\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 52\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 The Genealogy of Machine Aesthetics in Modern Japan ..................................... 61\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 The Fascist Society: Gleischschaltung, Gerarchia, and Proper Place .................. 70\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Shifting Politics of Modernist Art in Wartime Japan ........................................... 80\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 The Japanese Machine-ist Paintings Revisited ..................................................... 87\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 96\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 CHAPTER TWO Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den's Bijin-ga, New Classicism, and Fascist Time ............ 99\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 99\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den ..................................................................................................... 101\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Sh\u00C5\u008Den and Edo .................................................................................................... 107\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 The New Classicism ........................................................................................... 115\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 iv New Classicism, Fascist Kitsch, and Death ........................................................ 133\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Lady Kusunoki .................................................................................................... 138\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 The Role of Female Artist in Fascism ................................................................ 142\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 145\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 CHAPTER THREE War Campaign Record Paintings ................................................... 147\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 147\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Historical Background ........................................................................................ 148\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 War Campaign Record Painting and Nazi Germany .......................................... 155\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 War Campaign Record Painting and Photography ............................................. 160\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Representations of Human Bodies in War Campaign Record Paintings ............ 164\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Disembodiment of Individuals and Embodiment of Kokutai ............................. 169\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 180\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 CHAPTER FOUR Representing the Fascist Body I: Scientific Racism and the Japanese Concept of Minzoku ........................................................................................................ 182\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 182\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 German Science and Eugenics in Japan .............................................................. 185\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Wartime Japanese Eugenics ................................................................................ 189\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Eugenic Photography .......................................................................................... 194\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 The Japanese Concept of Minzoku ...................................................................... 200\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 War Campaign Record Painting and Minzoku .................................................... 204\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 211\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 CHAPTER FIVE Representing the Fascist Body II: Human Weapons and Japanese Traditional Aesthetics ..................................................................................................... 214\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 214\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Kamikaze Special Attack Forces ........................................................................ 216\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 The Mechanized Human Body ........................................................................... 220\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Eagles, Cherry Blossoms, the Sun, and Mt. Fuji ................................................ 231\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Shinto, Buddhism, and Bushido: Reactionary Modernism ................................. 243\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 v Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 250\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 251\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 261\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figures............................................................................................................................. 292\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 vi List of Figures Figure 1-1. Saeki Shunk\u00C5\u008D, Tearoom, 1936 ..................................................................... 292\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-2. Kobori Tomoto, Abolition of the Han System, 1871 .................................... 292\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-3. Tsuchida Bakusen, Maiko in Landscape, 1924 ............................................ 293\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-4. Yamakawa Sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D, Three Sisters, 1936 ........................................................ 293\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-5. Shibata Suiha, Biwa Concert, 1930s ............................................................ 294\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-6. \u00C5\u008Cta Ch\u00C5\u008Du, Women Observing the Stars, 1936 .............................................. 294\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-7. Kobayashi Kokei, Bath, 1921 ...................................................................... 295\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-8. Chair, from Machine Art Exhibition, 1934. ................................................. 295\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-9. Telescope, from Machine Art Exhibition, 1934 ........................................... 296\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-10. Laboratory Microscope, from Machine Art exhibition, 1934 .................... 296\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-11. Boiling Flasks, from Machine Art Exhibition, 1934. ................................. 297\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-12. Koga Harue, Sea, 1929 ............................................................................... 297\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-13. A diagram showing the structure of the Military Police ............................ 298\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-14. National Daily Product Exhibition, 1941 .................................................. 298\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-15. Asahi Graph, March 1936 ......................................................................... 299\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 1-16. Katsura Riky\u00C5\u00AB, built in the 17th century ..................................................... 299\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-1. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, A Long Autumn Night, 1907 ............................................... 300\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-2. Nishikawa Sukenobu, ................................................................................... 300\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 vii One Hundred Women Classified According to Their Rank, 1723 ................................. 300\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-3. Suzuki Harunobu, Three Evenings: Reading on an Autumn Evening, ca. 1768 ......................................................................................................................................... 301\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-4 Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Sudden Blast, 1939 .............................................................. 301\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-5. Teisai Hokuba (1771-1844), Shunp\u00C5\u00AB Bijin-zu .............................................. 302\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-6. Suzuki Harunobu (1725?-1770), Wind ........................................................ 302\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-7. Tsuchida Bakusen, Fisherwomen, 1913 ....................................................... 303\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-8. Paul Gauguin, Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? 1897-1898 .......................................................................................................... 303\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-9. Kitagawa Utamaro, Fisherwomen, 1790-1800 ........................................... 304\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-10. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Flower Basket, 1915 ......................................................... 304\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-11. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Flames, 1918 .................................................................... 305\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-12. Kaburaki Kiyotaka, Saikaku\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Five Women, Oman, 1911 ......................... 305\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-13. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Oman in the Costume of the Youth, 1915 ......................... 306\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-14. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Maiden, 1942 .................................................................... 306\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-15. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Late Autumn, 1943 ........................................................... 307\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-16. Kobayashi Kokei, Acalanatha, 1940 ......................................................... 307\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-17. Kobayashi Kokei, Hair Combing, 1931 ..................................................... 308\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-18. Kobayashi Kokei, Cave in Kanzaki, 1907 ................................................. 308\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-19. Yanagi Ry\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s analysis of Seurat\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting, 1941 ..................................... 309\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 viii Figure 2-20. Yanagi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s analysis of Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting, 1944 .............................................. 309\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-21. Yanagi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s analysis of Yasuda\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting, 1944 ........................................... 310\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-22. Yanagi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s analysis of Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting, 1944 ............................................. 310\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-23. It\u00C5\u008D Shinsui\u00E2\u0080\u0099s The Image of Contemporary Women as reproduced in Yanagi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s article, 1944 ..................................................................................................................... 311\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-24. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Lady Kusunoki, 1944 ........................................................ 311\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 2-25. The Recipients of the Order of Culture, 1948 ............................................ 312\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 3-1. Pablo Picasso, Three Women at the Spring, 1921 ........................................ 312\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 3-2. Asahi shinbun, October 30, 1937 ................................................................. 313\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 3-3. Asahi shinbun, February 20, 1942 ................................................................ 313\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 3-4. Eug\u00C3\u00A8ne Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People, 1830 ................................. 314\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 3-5. \u00E2\u0080\u009CJap Suicides on Attu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Life, April 3, 1944 .................................................. 314\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 3-6. \u00E2\u0080\u009CJap Suicides on Attu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Life, April 3, 1944 .................................................. 315\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 4-1. \u00E2\u0080\u009CNational Railroad Exercise,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Asahi shinbun, February 10, 1943 ............... 315\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 4-2. Illustration explaining \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapan Exercise\u00E2\u0080\u009D ...................................................... 316\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 4-3. Asahi shinbun, June 26, 1943 ....................................................................... 316\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 4-4. Male and female winners of \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Healthiest Child in Japan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D .................... 317\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Asahi shinbun, July 5, 1934 ............................................................................................ 317\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 4-5. Asahi shinbun, July 5, 1934 ......................................................................... 317\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 ix Figure 4-6. \u00E2\u0080\u009CNordic Types\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Hans G\u00C3\u00BCnther\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Racial Science of the German People, 1930................................................................................................................................. 318\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-1. Asahi shinbun, September 20, 1944 ............................................................. 318\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-2. Asahi shinbun, June 26, 1944 ....................................................................... 319\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-3. Shashin sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D, July 29, 1942 ....................................................................... 319\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-4. Shashin sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D, October 4, 1944 ................................................................... 320\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-5. Gakusei no kagaku, April 1944 .................................................................... 320\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-6. Gakusei no kagaku, April 1944 .................................................................... 321\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-7. Umezawa Kazuyo, Kamikaze pilots with branches of cherry blossoms ..... 321\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-8. Chiran High School female students waving cherry blossom branches. April 1945................................................................................................................................. 322\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-9. Ikegami Sh\u00C5\u00ABho, The Image of Angry Rough Eagle, ..................................... 322\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 from Asahi shinbun January 7, 1942 ............................................................................... 322\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-10. Sake cup from the war years ...................................................................... 323\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-11. Ikegami Sh\u00C5\u00ABho, The Image of Mountain Cherry Blossoms, 1943 ............. 323\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-12. Yokoyama Taikan, Japan, Where the Sun Rises, 1940 .............................. 324\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-13. Yokoyama Taikan, Painting of Fuji reproduced as poster ......................... 324\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 xii Acknowledgements Though my dissertation is about arguably the most dramatic years of the twentieth century in Japanese history, this section is the most emotional part for me to write. To begin with, this study is deeply indebted to my supervisors, John O\u00E2\u0080\u0099Brian and Joshua S. Mostow. My gratitude to John for his support and guidance throughout my PhD program is beyond my ability to put into words. Without his generous offer to supervise my work, I would not have been able to study in the Department of Art History, Visual Art and Theory at UBC. Joshua brought the topic of Japanese fascism to my attention, and more than any art historian he has taught me the importance and joy of visual analysis, which, I must admit, I have to continue working on in the future. His profound knowledge of both premodern and modern Japanese visual arts and literature and extensive scholarly network in North America, Europe, and Japan were invaluable to me. I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to Katherine Hacker and Sharalyn Orbaugh. Katherine has given me valuable feedback and new perspectives on my work as a member of my examining committee, supervisor of my minor comprehensive exam, and the instructor of one of the graduate courses I enrolled in. Sharalyn was willing to let me audit her courses, and her graduate seminar on modern Japanese science fiction has proven enormously helpful for the last chapter of this dissertation. She shared with me her precious wartime materials, and her expertise and critical insights were indispensable for my work. Though she was not directly involved in my project, I owe much to Bronwen Wilson. Her thoughtfulness and help as a graduate advisor at the beginning of my first year at UBC made it possible that for me to work both with the Art History \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 xiii department and the Asian Studies department. My research received generous financial support from the Department of Art History, Visual Art and Theory, the Faculty of Graduate Studies, the Center for Japan Research at UBC, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council in the form of a Doctoral Fellowship from the Canadian government. My PhD dissertation closely built on my MA thesis, which I completed at Carleton University under the supervision of Ming Tiampo and Reesa Greenberg. I am very grateful to Ming for her continuing mentorship and friendship. She is truly my role model. Comments and suggestions I received on my MA thesis from Laura Brandon and Mitsuyo Wada Marciano were helpful even for my PhD dissertation. In retrospect, my interest in the critical inquiry into wartime Japan and its art was formed during my studies at Temple University Japan. I would not have chosen this line of inquiry without taking Jeffrey Kingston\u00E2\u0080\u0099s class on Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s war responsibility, Leonard Horton\u00E2\u0080\u0099s class on art (music) and politics, and Mehta Geeta\u00E2\u0080\u0099s class on critical art history. Additionally, my undergraduate studies under Kathlyn Liscomb at the University of Victoria laid out a ground for my later scholarship and her encouragement for my pursuit in graduate school was essential. Because of the theoretical aspect and disputable nature of the topic, this dissertation was the most difficult study I have ever undertaken. It was because of encouragement from senior scholars like Laura Hein, Helen Hardacre, Christine Yano, Kendall Brown, Bert Winther-Tamaki, and Aya Louisa McDonald that, despite a great deal of criticism I received, I did not give up on this project. Their words were reassuring to remember when I questioned the value of this project. During my research, I have benefited from \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 xiv kind help and suggestions from John Carpenter, Reiko Tomii, John Szostak, Kawata Akihisa, Tamaki Maeda, Maki Kaneko, Iwakiri Yuriko, Matsumoto Naoko, Ogura Jitsuko, Scott Johnson, and William Wood. Also, comments I received at the Japan Studies Association Canada PhD dissertation-writing workshop in 2010 were tremendously helpful. Although my plan for a year-long research trip in Japan did not materialize because of the unfortunate situation following the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, I am thankful to Tan\u00E2\u0080\u0099o Yasunori at Waseda University for kindly accommodating me in one of his seminars. Compiling the anthology Art and War: Japan and its Empire, 1931-1960 (Leiden: Brill, forthcoming in 2012) with Ming Tiampo and Aya Louisa McDonald was another project that progressed simultaneously with this dissertation. I learned very much from the essays written by the other contributors including Mikiko Hirayama, Mayu Tsuruya, Michael Lucken, Hirase Reita, Gennifer Weisenfeld, Kure Motoyuki, Aida-Yuen Wong, Kim Hyeshin, and Julia Adeney Thomas. I thank them for their scholarship as well as their willingness to collaborate with me. Darcy Gauthier, Ben Whaley, and Francesca Simkin have worked as my language and copy editors, but N. J. Hall looked through the entire dissertation. I truly thank Nick for picking up my most basic grammar mistakes and doing it in a very timely manner. Literally, nobody but he had to read this dissertation word by word more times with care and attention to the language. I would also like to thank my colleagues for support, encouragement, and friendship: Dafna Zur, Kari Shepherdson-Scott, Kanna Hayashi, Robban Toleno, Nathen Clerici, Rie Shirakawa, Simon Nantais, Kazuko Kameda-Madar, Gergana Ivanova, Bianca Briciu, and Matsuba Ryoko. I also truly appreciate that Tony and May Tiampo helped my family in so many ways and made our life in Vancouver a \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 xv great experience. This may be unusual, but I must thank Semperviva Yoga Studio, where I sometimes spent more than three days a week. Without practicing yoga with them, I would not have survived the dissertation-writing, both physically and mentally. Finally, I would like to thank my family. My grandparents often shared with me their war memories. My parents and sisters gave me emotional support and occasionally helped me with my research by obtaining relevant books and bringing them to Vancouver. I thank my husband for his love and patience. He has followed me from Victoria through Ottawa to Vancouver, passionately and almost blindly believing in my strength and ability. I thank my parents-in-law for allowing him to do so. In addition to the dissertation and the anthology, there was in fact a third project: baby-bearing. My daughter Aili has made pregnancy and motherhood an unexpectedly pleasurable and rewarding experience. It is both daunting and joyous to state that there will be no \u00E2\u0080\u009Cend\u00E2\u0080\u009D to this project. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 1 INTRODUCTION Introduction In 1940, the year in which Germany, Italy, and Japan signed the Axis Pact, art critic Maruo Sh\u00C5\u008Dsabur\u00C5\u008D declared that the alliance among the three nations should be not only political and economic but also cultural.1 Indeed, there was a great deal of artistic exchange among them. In 1930, an exhibition of contemporary Japanese-style paintings was organized in Rome, which was already in Mussolini\u00E2\u0080\u0099s control. Artist Yokoyama Taikan travelled there for the occasion, stating that exhibiting Japanese art in Rome was more meaningful than it would be in London or Paris.2 When the Hitler Youth went to Japan in 1938, Taikan gave them a lecture about the spirituality inherent in Japanese art.3 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Notes Unless otherwise noted, translations are all mine. Except for those whose names are known outside Japan, all Japanese names are written according to Japanese convention, with surname first. While Western-style painters are always referred to by their last names, in regard to Japanese-style painters, some are referred to by their studio names. I follow the convention of how a particular artist was referred to by art critics and the public. In this dissertation, I am only reproducing works whose copyright have legally expired. 1 Maruo Sh\u00C5\u008Dsabur\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBijutsu ai no nichi doku k\u00C5\u008Dry\u00C5\u00AB\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Japan-German Relationship through Art], T\u00C5\u008Dei, October 1940. 2 \u00E2\u0080\u009CShuppatsu ni saishite\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Upon Departure], Asahi shinbun, January 23, 1930. 3 \u00E2\u0080\u009CBijutsu no gosan\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Lunch over Art], Asahi shinbun, September 28, 1938. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 2 At the same time, contemporary art from Germany and Italy was introduced to Japan. In 1937, art critic Uemura Takachiyo translated Eug\u00C3\u00A8ne Wernert\u00E2\u0080\u0099s book about Nazi art, which Uemura considered useful for Japan,4 and the magazine Bijutsu published photographic reproductions of sculptures and paintings from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in 1944. These exchanges are emblematic of the global flow of political and artistic ideas during the 1930s and 1940s. In this dissertation, I argue that Japan, Germany, and Italy shared the same political ideology, that is, fascism, and that art played an important role in disseminating this ideology. This dissertation examines Japanese art during the Fifteen-Year War (1931-1945) and investigates the question of Japanese fascism. The Fifteen-Year War refers to the Japanese context of the Second World War, which began with the country\u00E2\u0080\u0099s advancement into Manchuria in 1931; its undeclared war with China in 1937; the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941; and finally ended with its unconditional surrender in 1945.5 My study \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 4 Uemura Takachiyo, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNachisu geijutsu seisaku no zeny\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Nazi Art in its Entirety], Atorie, October 1937. The translated French book here is L\u00E2\u0080\u0099Art dans le III Reich: Une tentative d\u00E2\u0080\u0099esth\u00C3\u00A9tique dirig\u00C3\u00A9e (Paris: Paul Harmann, 1936). 5 I chose to use the framework of the \u00E2\u0080\u009CFifteen-Year War\u00E2\u0080\u009D because, unlike other names for the conflict\u00E2\u0080\u0094the Asia-Pacific War (Ajia-taiheiy\u00C5\u008D sens\u00C5\u008D, 1937-1945), the Great East Asian War (Dait\u00C5\u008Da sens\u00C5\u008D, 1941-1945), the Pacific War (Taiheiy\u00C5\u008D sens\u00C5\u008D), or the Second World War (dai niji sekai taisen, 1939-1945)\u00E2\u0080\u0094it acknowledges the importance of Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s territorial expansion into Manchuria in 1931 and the intricate connection between colonialism (beginning in 1931) and the war (beginning in 1937). The Manchurian Incident importantly marked the Imperial Army\u00E2\u0080\u0099s control over the government and the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 3 scrutinizes both Japanese-style ink paintings (Nihon-ga) and Western-style oil paintings (y\u00C5\u008Dga) created by such artists as Saeki Shunk\u00C5\u008D, Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D, and Fujita Tsuguharu, and contextualizes these works with reference to wartime social and aesthetic discourses. The dissertation will for the first time employ the concept of Japanese fascism as a heuristic tool to understand Japanese war art by looking at how fascism was mediated through the visual field of war art. What is fascism? How was it mediated through Japanese wartime culture, paintings in particular? How were the visual manifestations of fascism potentially different in Japan, and why? This dissertation is an attempt to answer these questions. More specifically, my study presents analyses of works of art in relation to the concepts of social regimentation, new classicism, eugenics, and the mechanized human body. Using cultural translation as the project\u00E2\u0080\u0099s theoretical underpinning, I develop a nuanced vocabulary to describe wartime Japan and its visual culture within the framework of fascism and locate Japan in the global politics and culture of the 1930s and 1940s, thereby challenging the notion that fascism is a phenomenon exclusive to Europe. Historical Background On September 18, 1931, a section of railroad was blown up near Mukden in southern Manchuria. This event, now known as the Manchurian Incident, was staged by the Kwantung Army (Japanese Imperial Army in Manchuria), which blamed the Chinese for the action and retaliated by launching a military attack on the Chinese army and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 beginning of Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s aggressive foreign policies toward Asia, as well as state mobilization of material and human resources for the war. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 4 establishing Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s puppet government in Manchuria the following year. The Imperial Army\u00E2\u0080\u0099s advance had not been ordered by the civilian government in Tokyo, and the incident therefore symbolized the military\u00E2\u0080\u0099s control over Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s foreign policy, which would last for the next fifteen years.6 As historian Mary Hanneman writes, the incident marked \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe beginning of Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s drive for hegemony in Asia that directly led to the explosion of the . . . \u00E2\u0080\u0098Fifteen Year War.\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00E2\u0080\u009D7 Criticized by the United States, Britain, and France, among others, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933, isolating itself from the international community. Despite the fact that it was undertaken without official approval from the government, the military\u00E2\u0080\u0099s action in Manchuria was hailed by the Japanese public. The period that preceded the incident was characterized by economic devastation resulting from the Great Depression and ideological conflict between the Left and the Right. Many ultranationalist organizations were established during this period, including Sakurakai, Gen\u00E2\u0080\u0099y\u00C5\u008Dsha, and Kokury\u00C5\u00ABkai, led by ultranationalists like Kita Ikki and \u00C5\u008Ckawa Shumei, who called for a \u00E2\u0080\u009CSh\u00C5\u008Dwa Restoration\u00E2\u0080\u009D to restore the emperor as the ultimate political authority. The military officials and ultranationalist group members, who often came from economically devastated rural areas and who believed that expansion into Asia would help Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s domestic economy, had been utterly frustrated by the civilian government. Already in 1930, a year before the Manchurian Incident, Prime Minister \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 6 The Imperial Army in the Meiji Constitution was only accountable to the emperor, not to the Diet or the cabinet. Mary L. Hanneman, Japan Faces the World: 1925-1952, (Harlow: Pearson Education, 2001), 40. 7 Hanneman, Japan Faces the World, 41. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 5 Hamaguchi, who had signed a treaty at the London Conference that would prevent Japan from acquiring naval power equal to that of the United States and England, had been shot by a young member of one of the ultranationalist organizations, Aikokusha. Similarly, on May 15, 1932, Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was murdered by a group of young ultranationalists. The assassination was praised by War Minister Araki Sadao as benefitting Imperial Japan.8 Also on February 26, 1936, 1400 troops from three army regiments staged an attempted coup d\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00C3\u00A9tat, surrounding the Diet building, declaring the Sh\u00C5\u008Dwa Restoration, and killing three government officials. Although the attempt failed and those who participated were swiftly executed, the incident underscored the impotence of the civilian government. Between 1932 and 1936, membership in ultranationalist groups doubled from 300,000 to 600,000.9 After the Manchurian Incident, Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s domestic life became militarized and this process prepared Japan for the subsequent \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctotal war\u00E2\u0080\u009D with China and the Allies. As historian Louise Young explains, Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s colonialism in Manchuria was distinct from that in Taiwan and Korea, because of the degree to which it influenced the lives of the Japanese themselves. As she writes, Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s empire was \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmade on the home front\u00E2\u0080\u009D: Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s colonialism in Manchuria \u00E2\u0080\u009Centailed the mass and multidimensional mobilization of domestic society: cultural, military, political, and economic\u00E2\u0080\u00A6The process of empire building in Manchuria touched the lives of most Japanese in the 1930s in one way or \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 8 Hanneman, Japan Faces the World, 48. 9 Hanneman, Japan Faces the World, 44. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 6 another.\u00E2\u0080\u009D10 Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s advancement into Manchuria attracted \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmass audiences\u00E2\u0080\u009D that included all citizens, not just the elites, including workers, women, and youth.11 Indispensable to this national scale of mobilization were modernization (popularization of modern mass media, such as radio, magazines, and newspapers) and the development of civil organizations that took place in the preceding period. In the National Defense Campaign (kokub\u00C5\u008D) launched in the early 1930s, the army reached out to disseminate its militarist ideology using local communities, youth groups, and women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s and religious organizations, most of them founded in the 1920s. Festivals, spectacles, and exhibitions regarding national defense were organized by local elites such as government officials, newspaper executives, and educational and religious leaders at temples, shrines, and schools.12 Some artists were already glorifying Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s militarist activity. Nihon Bijutsu-in (Japan Art Institute), a non-governmental Japanese-style painting organization, dedicated the proceeds from sales of their paintings to the army as early as 1932.13 In 1934, the Cabinet Information Bureau, in collaboration with the modernist photographer group Nippon K\u00C5\u008Db\u00C5\u008D, founded a propaganda photographic magazine called NIPPON, which was \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 10 Louise Young, Japan's Total Empire: Manchuria and the Culture of Wartime Imperialism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 13. 11 Young, Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Total Empire, 117. 12 Young, Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Total Empire, 138. 13 Hariu Ichir\u00C5\u008D et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu 1937-1945/ Art in Wartime Japan 1937-1945 (Tokyo: Kokusho kank\u00C5\u008Dkai, 2007), 285. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 7 targeted at Western audiences.14 In the same year, Japanese-style painter Yokoyama Taikan offered one of his paintings to the puppet emperor of Manchuria, Puyi.15 In 1935, the Ministry of Education initiated reform of state sponsored-exhibitions (teiten), aiming to bring young artists in numerous private organizations under state control.16 Decisive change to the lives of Japanese people came in 1937, when Japan advanced further into northern China, engaging with the Chinese forces at the Marco Polo Bridge just outside Beijing. Chiang Kai-shek, the nationalist leader who initially collaborated with Japan to fight the Chinese communist forces, decided to work with the communists and refused to acknowledge Manchuria as Japanese. Prime Minister Prince Konoe Fumimaro decided that Japan would fight China, and at the same time justified the decision by developing, in his 1938 \u00E2\u0080\u009CNew Order in East Asia,\u00E2\u0080\u009D the rhetoric that Japan would liberate Asia from Western colonialism. Konoe presented the grand vision of a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere in which China, Manchukuo (Manchuria), Taiwan, Southeast Asia, and the South Pacific would live under Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s leadership with a self-sufficient economic structure free from Western exploitation. In reality, of course, as Mary Hanneman aptly points out, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapan simply sought to establish its own hegemony over Asia,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and many Asians suffered from Japanese atrocities such as the Nanjing \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 14 Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 285. 15 Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 285. 16 Maki Kaneko, \u00E2\u0080\u009CArt in the Service of the State: Artistic Production in Japan during the Asia-Pacific War,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Ph.D. diss. (University of East Anglia, 2006), 75. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 8 Massacre in 1937, systematized sex slavery, biological experimentation, and forced labor.17 The friction between Japan and Western democratic nations worsened, and the United States placed an embargo on the sale of war materials to Japan in 1938. Meanwhile, Germany invaded Poland, and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy in 1940, updating the Anti-Comintern Pact that Japan had signed with Nazi Germany in 1936. In 1940, Prime Minister Konoe declared the creation of the \u00E2\u0080\u009CNew Order,\u00E2\u0080\u009D re-organizing economic, political, and cultural structures under the state, and founding the Imperial Rule Assistance Association (IRAA), a single unified political entity which officially ended party politics. In 1941, the United States placed a total embargo on exports to Japan. With 80% of its oil supplies coming from the U.S., Japan sought reconciliation; as the American government demanded Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s withdrawal from Manchuria, however, negotiations fell apart. Unable to make a decision on whether or not to go to war with the United States, Prime Minister Konoe resigned and was replaced by Army General T\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u008D Hideki. T\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u008D immediately took the path to the war, and on December 8, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, declaring war also against the British and Dutch forces that occupied Guam, Wake Island, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Singapore, Burma, Fiji, Samoa, Indonesia, and New Caledonia, among others. What Japan needed from the Southeast Asian countries was oil, which they could no longer buy from the United States. Beginning with the Battle of Midway in June 1942, Japan lost in a series of actions in Guadalcanal, Attu, Saipan, and Iwo Jima, to name a few. In these battles, despite the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 17 Hanneman, Japan Faces the World, 57. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 9 certainty of defeat, the Japanese military chose the path of collective suicide attacks (gyokusai), hoping to inflict any damage it could on the enemy, however slight. Both wounded soldiers and civilians (in Saipan) were asked to kill themselves to avoid the humiliation of capture. The last, desperate hope in the final months of the war were the kamikaze suicide bombers (to which I return in Chapter Five), who deliberately crashed their planes into enemy ships.18 In March 1945, the American landing in Okinawa, which resulted in approximately 100,000 civilian deaths, and the air raids on Tokyo in the same month, which also caused more than 100,000 deaths, dealt a fatal blow to Japan.19 Until the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, however, surrender or defeat were not an option. Wartime Minister Shigemitsu Mamoru recalled in 1958: It was a \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctotal war\u00E2\u0080\u009D: kill or be killed. The Army was resolved to fight to the very end. If anyone spoke of making peace before that, he was ruthlessly punished. The War Minister rigidly enforced the autocratic powers of the Army and used the gendarmerie as state police. To them a peace advocate was a pacifist and anyone who mentioned defeat was a rebel and such people were to be suppressed.20 Several days after the atomic bombings, Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration and unconditional surrender. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 18 The Kamikaze Special Attack Forces program was launched in October 1944. 19 Hanneman, Japan Faces the World, 79. 20 Quoted in Hanneman, Japan Faces the World, 77. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 10 The Fifteen-Year War was indeed a \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctotal war,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in which the state mobilized both human and material resources.21 Unlike previous wars (the First Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars), civilians as well as soldiers were asked to work and fight for the nation. The government launched the National Spiritual Mobilization Movement (Kokumin Seishin S\u00C5\u008Dd\u00C5\u008Din Und\u00C5\u008D) in 1937, in which nationalist organizations rallied the nation, propagating war with (very creative) catchphrases such as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cextravagance is the enemy\u00E2\u0080\u009D (zeitaku wa teki da) and \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccovet nothing until we win\u00E2\u0080\u009D (hoshigarimasen katsu made wa), and prohibiting such things as permed hair, dance halls, Hollywood movies, and Western loan words. The government\u00E2\u0080\u0099s investment in the war was also buttressed by the National Mobilization Law in 1938, which justified state control of industries and civil organizations. The state ultimately nationalized the local communities and independent organizations that they used during the National Defense Campaign, destroying civil society. As historian Andrew Gordon writes, citizens were \u00E2\u0080\u009Clinked to the state and the emperor through a vast and expanding network of functional organs imposed upon them by the state: youth groups, women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s groups, village and neighborhood associations, and Sanp\u00C5\u008D workplace associations, and agricultural and industrial producers\u00E2\u0080\u0099 unions.\u00E2\u0080\u009D22 Most important was the state\u00E2\u0080\u0099s creation and control of \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 21 Yamanouchi Yasushi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTotal-War and System Integration: A Methodological Introduction,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Total War and \u00E2\u0080\u009CModernization,\u00E2\u0080\u009D ed. Yasushi Yamanouchi, J. Victor Koschmann, and Ryuichi Narita (Ithaca; New York: Cornell University, 1998), 3-4. 22 Andrew Gordon, Labor and Imperial Democracy in Prewar Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 330. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 11 the tonarigumi (neighborhood associations), each of which consisted of several households and functioned as a local surveillance system. Citizens were mobilized ideologically as well as physically. The war was conceived as a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthought war\u00E2\u0080\u009D (shis\u00C5\u008D sen), and the state imposed control over both mass media and education. After 1937, all information about the national economy and foreign policies was considered a state secret, and it went through a screening process before publication.23 Journalists also regarded their job as leading public opinion to Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s victory in the war. H\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u008D Seiichi wrote in the Nichi Nichi newspaper in December 1942: \u00E2\u0080\u009CIn time of war journalists are the front-line fighters in the ideological war, and newspapers are the ideological bullets.\u00E2\u0080\u009D24 Newspapers typically manipulated the number of causalities in the war.25 At the same time, the militarist government took control over education, renaming elementary school kokumin gakk\u00C5\u008D (citizens\u00E2\u0080\u0099 school) in 1941. The Essence of the National Polity (Kokutai no hongi), which reiterates the concept of the national polity (kokutai), the belief that Japanese citizens maintain an organic connection to the sun goddess Amaterasu, was issued by the Ministry of Education in 1937 and taught to every school child.26 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 23 Ben-Ami Shillony, Politics and Culture in Wartime Japan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 93. 24 Quoted in Shillony, Politics and Culture, 98. 25 Ienaga Sabur\u00C5\u008D, The Pacific War, 1931-1945 (New York: Pantheon, 1978), 99. 26 Alan Tansman, The Aesthetics of Japanese Fascism (University of California Press, 2009), 150-151; Ienaga, The Pacific War, 107. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 12 Intellectuals and writers also collaborated with the state for the war effort. The Literary Patriotic Association (Nihon Bungaku H\u00C5\u008Dkokukai), for example, was established in 1942, and 3100 novelists, playwrights, critics, and poets joined.27 In the same year, members of the Kyoto School of philosophy, the Literary Society, and the Japan Romantic group (R\u00C5\u008Dman-ha) held a symposium on \u00E2\u0080\u009Covercoming the modern\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kindai no ch\u00C5\u008Dkoku), at which they discussed the meaning of the war with the United States and claimed that Japan must eliminate Americanism and restore \u00E2\u0080\u009Cauthentic\u00E2\u0080\u009D Japanese culture.28 Meanwhile, the state intensified surveillance, especially on Marxists, and the Peace Preservation Law allowed the kempeitai, the military police, to use physical force to suppress those who opposed the war.29 On the other hand, after they were imprisoned, many Marxists recanted their beliefs (called \u00E2\u0080\u009Cconversion\u00E2\u0080\u009D or tenk\u00C5\u008D) and supported the wartime state: it is difficult to determine how many were \u00E2\u0080\u009Cforced\u00E2\u0080\u009D to convert and how many were wearing \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca convenient disguise (gis\u00C5\u008D tenk\u00C5\u008D),\u00E2\u0080\u009D but only a small number of Marxists refused to recant.30 Japanese historian Ienaga Sabur\u00C5\u008D argues that some Marxists indeed strongly supported the state, and contends that both Marxist and non-Marxist intellectuals were responsible for the war.31 Notably, there was no organized anti-war movement, and nobody fled Japan to avoid involvement in the war effort.32 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 27 Shillony, Politics and Culture, 116. 28 Harry Harootunian, \u00E2\u0080\u009COvercoming Modernity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Overcome by Modernity: History, Culture, and Community in Interwar Japan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001). 29 The Peace Preservation Law was in effect from 1925. Ienaga, The Pacific War, 113. 30 Shillony, Politics and Culture, 120. 31 Ienaga, The Pacific War, 121-122. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 13 With the beginning of the war with China in 1937, more and more artists worked with and for the state under the slogan of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cserving the nation by art\u00E2\u0080\u009D (saikan h\u00C5\u008Dkoku).33 In 1937, the Japan Art Institute (Nihon Bijutsu-in) donated seven thousand yen to the army, and both Japanese-style and Western-style painters organized \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdedication exhibitions\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kenn\u00C5\u008D-ga ten) at the department stores Matsuzakaya and Matsuya, and the proceeds from the sales of their paintings were donated to the army. From 1938 on, artists (many Western-style and a few Japanese-style) were sent to the front to produce War Campaign Record Paintings (Sens\u00C5\u008D Sakusen Kirokuga). Within a year, ten artists including Nakamura Ken\u00E2\u0080\u0099ichi were sent to Shanghai, two artists (Kawabata Ry\u00C5\u00ABshi and Tsuruya Gor\u00C5\u008D) to North China, and several, including Fujita Tsuguharu, followed the Navy.34 Numerous art exhibitions\u00E2\u0080\u0094called \u00E2\u0080\u009CWar Art Exhibition\u00E2\u0080\u009D (Sens\u00C5\u008D Bijutsu-ten), \u00E2\u0080\u009CHoly War Art Exhibition\u00E2\u0080\u009D (Seisen Bijutsu-ten), and \u00E2\u0080\u009CArmy Art Exhibition\u00E2\u0080\u009D (Rikugun J\u00C5\u00ABgun Gaka-ten), to name a few\u00E2\u0080\u0094were held at department stores and art museums and funded by the army and by newspaper companies. These were continued throughout the war: the last Army Art Exhibition (Rikugun Bijutsu-ten) was held in April 1945, four months before Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s defeat.35 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 32 Shillony, Politics and Culture, 126. 33 In addition, numerous artists and art students were sent to the battlefield as soldiers. For artists who died on the battlefield, see Kuboshima Sei\u00E2\u0080\u0099ichir\u00C5\u008D, Mugonkan n\u00C5\u008Dto [The Silence Museum Notebook] (Tokyo: Sh\u00C5\u00ABei sha, 2005). 34 Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 283. 35 Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 273. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 14 Matsumoto Shunsuke, who wrote \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Living Artist\u00E2\u0080\u009D (Ikiteiru gaka) in 1941, was one of the very few artists who publicly protested against the militarist views of art.36 Referring to the symposium where militarist officials declared that artists should contribute to the war by producing propaganda paintings, Matsumoto wrote, \u00E2\u0080\u009CI regret to say in the symposium entitled \u00E2\u0080\u0098National Defense State and the Fine Arts\u00E2\u0080\u0099 I found no value. It is wise to keep silent, but I do not believe keeping silent today is necessarily the correct thing to do.\u00E2\u0080\u009D37 Although independent art groups continued to exist during the war (for example, the surrealist groups Bijutsu Bunka Ky\u00C5\u008Dkai and Shinjin Gakai were founded in 1939 and 1943 respectively), the state imposed a high degree of control over their activities by consolidating art magazines, whose number was reduced to eight in 1941 and to only two in 1944.38 The Patriotic Association of Japanese-style Painters (Nihon Gaka H\u00C5\u008Dkokukai) and Patriotic Association of Japanese Artists (Nihon Bijutsu H\u00C5\u008Dkokukai) were formed in 1941 and 1943, bringing almost all active artists under national control. It was generally difficult to obtain art supplies, especially after the American embargo, and naturally official war artists were given privileged access to them.39 Authorities and police labeled surrealist works \u00E2\u0080\u009Cunhealthy\u00E2\u0080\u009D and linked them to \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 36 Mark H. Sandler, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Living Artist: Matsumoto Shunsuke\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Reply to the State,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Art Journal 55.3 (Autumn, 1996): 74-82. 37 Quoted in Sandler, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Living Artist,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 78. 38 Seisaku [Production] and Bijutsu [Art] were the last two magazines. More research is necessary, but I do not think that these two \u00E2\u0080\u009Cprivate\u00E2\u0080\u009D organizations Bijutsu bunka ky\u00C5\u008Dkai and Shinjin gakai were necessarily against the state ideology. 39 Kaneko, \u00E2\u0080\u009CArt in the Service of the State,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 135-137. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 15 \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdangerous\u00E2\u0080\u009D thoughts of communism. In 1941 they arrested the leaders of the Japanese surrealist movement, Fukuzawa and Takiguchi Sh\u00C5\u00ABz\u00C5\u008D.40 According to art historian Kawata Akihisa, over three hundred Western-style painters participated in official war art production and painted War Campaign Record Paintings.41 It is important to note that the prominent war painters\u00E2\u0080\u0094Fujita Tsuguharu, Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D, Mukai Junkichi, Inokuma Gen\u00E2\u0080\u0099ichir\u00C5\u008D, and Ihara Usabur\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0094were leading prewar modernists who studied in Paris. In 1944, military official Akiyama Kunio spelled out the meaning of War Campaign Record Paintings as works that \u00E2\u0080\u009Chave the significant historical purpose of recording and preserving the army\u00E2\u0080\u0099s war campaign forever.\u00E2\u0080\u009D42 Another official, Yamanouchi Ichir\u00C5\u008D, advocated the realist style of European \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 40 John Clark, \u00E2\u0080\u009CArtistic Subjectivity in the Taisho and Early Sh\u00C5\u008Dwa Avant-Garde,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Japanese Art After 1945: Scream Against the Sky, ed. Alexandra Munroe (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1994), 48. 41 Kawata Akihisa, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D-ga towa nanika\u00E2\u0080\u009D [What Is Sens\u00C5\u008D-ga?], Geijutsu Shinch\u00C5\u008D, August 1995. For more on Japanese official war art, see Geijutsu Shinch\u00C5\u008D, August 1995; Kawata Akihisa and Tan\u00E2\u0080\u0099o Yasunori, Im\u00C4\u0093ji no nakano sens\u00C5\u008D: nisshin, nichiro sens\u00C5\u008D kara r\u00C4\u0093sen made [War in Images: From the Sino-Japanese War to the Cold War] (Tokyo: Iwanami, 1996); Hariu Ichir\u00C5\u008D et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu 1937-1945. 42 Akiyama Kunio, \u00E2\u0080\u009CHonnendo kirokuga ni tsuite\u00E2\u0080\u009D [On This Year\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Record Paintings], Bijutsu, May 1944, 2. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 16 neo-classicism of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, especially works by Jacques- Louis David, as proper models.43 It was generally agreed that Japanese-style paintings were not suitable for realism and depicting the war.44 Japanese-style painters nevertheless found ways to support the the state: Kawabata Ry\u00C5\u00ABshi and Ikegami Sh\u00C5\u00ABho went to the front, Hashimoto Kansetsu and Kohayagawa Sh\u00C5\u00ABsei painted battles and soldiers, and the army commissioned Yasuda Yukihiko to paint a portrait of Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku, who died in the Battle of Midway.45 Yokoyama Taikan never went to the front, but his wartime activity illuminates how one could support the state without going to battle: among his numerous military-related wartime activities, he made an offering of one of his paintings to Hitler and, as we saw, delivered a lecture to a Hitler Youth group that visited Japan in 1938.46 He also donated a painting to Etajima Naval Academy in Hiroshima in 1942 and became president of the Patriotic Association of Japanese Artists (Nihon Bijutsu H\u00C5\u008Dkokukai) in 1943.47 The paintings of Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Kobayashi Kokei, and Maeda Seison were \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 43 Yamanouchi Ichir\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSakusen kirokuga no ari kata\u00E2\u0080\u009D [How War Paintings Should Be], Bijutsu, May 1944, 2-5. 44 \u00E2\u0080\u009CDait\u00C5\u008Da to bijutsu\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Great East Asia and Art], Kikan bijutsu, May 1942. Reproduced in Nihon bijutsuin hyakunenshi [One Hundred Year History of Nihon Bijutsu-in], vol 7 (Tokyo: Nihon bijutsuin, 1998), 846-849. 45 Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 278-283. 46 Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 283. 47 Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 276-277. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 17 praised by art critic Okazaki Yoshie as \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctruly Japanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D art that stood in opposition to the art of the enemy.48 Literature Review/ Methodology Since the war, the art of the late 1930s and early 1940s has been excluded from Japanese art survey books and considered taboo. There are several reasons for this. First, war art has been largely neglected in the history of art in general. For example, Janson\u00E2\u0080\u0099s History of Art: the Western Tradition, one of the most popular introductory art history survey textbooks in North America, covers twentieth century art in three chapters\u00E2\u0080\u0094 \u00E2\u0080\u009CToward Abstraction: The Modernist Revolution, 1904-1914,\u00E2\u0080\u009D \u00E2\u0080\u009CArt between the Wars,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009CPostwar to Postmodern, 1945-1980\u00E2\u0080\u009D\u00E2\u0080\u0094with remarkable gaps between 1914 and 1919, and again between the early 1930s and 1945.49 Even though various countries (Britain, Australia, Canada, and the United States, among others) produced official war art, it tends to be stored in military institutions, and has thus evaded art historical evaluation.50 Second, access to some of the Japanese art produced during the Fifteen- Year War has been physically limited. The Japanese state and war artists purposely destroyed many documents and paintings before the landing of the Occupation forces, and the United States confiscated the most important collection of propaganda war \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 48 Okazaki Yoshie, \u00E2\u0080\u009CGendai Nihonga to kokumin sei\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Contemporary Japanese-style Painting and its National Characteristics], Kokuga, May 1942, 5. 49 H.W. Janson, Janson\u00E2\u0080\u0099s History of Art: The Western Tradition, 7th ed (New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2007). 50 Laura Brandon, Art & War (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 18 paintings in the 1950s, which they returned to the National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo only in 1970 and on \u00E2\u0080\u009Cindefinite loan.\u00E2\u0080\u009D 51 Third, especially in the Euro-American context, where an Orientalist view of Japanese art still prevails, Japanese art has been discussed separately from politics. As I explain in Chapter One, paintings of modern girls (moga) were rendered signs of the exotic in exhibitions such as Taish\u00C5\u008D Chic (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2006) and Sh\u00C5\u008Dwa Sophistication (Honolulu Academy of Art, 2008) even though most of the paintings they displayed were from the mid and late 1930s. Overtly militaristic Japanese propaganda paintings have never been displayed in the United States or in Europe. Last and most important, the Fifteen-Year War has been a particularly sensitive topic both within and outside Japan. In Japan, views on the war are contested. Members of the Left seek to interrogate the country\u00E2\u0080\u0099s past violence toward Asia. Members of the Right, who tend to dominate the government, reiterate the positive effects of colonialism (such as modernization), deny that Asian people suffered under Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s control, and justify the war on the grounds that it was inevitable in the face of Western colonialism and that its purpose was to free Asians from Western exploitation. The issue is most prominent and contested in the field of education. Historian Ienaga Sabur\u00C5\u008D (1913-2002) is well known for fighting censorship by the Ministry of Education that seeks to eliminate \u00E2\u0080\u009Cinconvenient\u00E2\u0080\u009D facts from school history textbooks, such as mass rapes and murders, systematized sex slavery, biological experimentation on Chinese civilians and POWs, and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 51 Asato Ikeda, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Haunting War Art: Contested War Memories and Art Museums,\u00E2\u0080\u009D disClosure 18 (April 2009): 5-32. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 19 forced labor.52 The Japanese government has issued official apologies for some of these, but they are constantly undermined by national leaders\u00E2\u0080\u0099 frequent ill-conceived comments that make it difficult to believe in the sincerity of the apologies. Prime Minister Abe Shinz\u00C5\u008D, for example, stated in 2007 that there had been no Nanjing Massacre and that Asian women enslaved by the state were prostitutes, even though an apology had already been made to \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccomfort women\u00E2\u0080\u009D (ianfu), not \u00E2\u0080\u009Cprostitutes,\u00E2\u0080\u009D by the Hashimoto government in 1995.53 The conservative government\u00E2\u0080\u0099s views naturally anger formerly colonized nations, especially Korea and China, and Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s diplomatic relations with those nations are still affected by a war that ended over sixty years ago. This friction between Japan and its neighbors is partly a result of the way the American Occupation government handled the reconstruction of Japanese politics in the immediate postwar years. The Occupation government did not hold the emperor accountable in the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal even though the \u00E2\u0080\u009Choly war\u00E2\u0080\u009D was fought in his name, and they restored former militarists to the government in order to fortify Japan against the Cold War communist threat. What emerged within this context was what \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 52 Jeff Kingston, \u00E2\u0080\u009CHistorian Battles to Redeem the Past,\u00E2\u0080\u009D The Japan Times, April 7 2001 (accessed November 9, 2010). 53 Hiroko Tabuchi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSoldier Confirms Wartime Sex Slavery,\u00E2\u0080\u009D The Japan Times, March, 2007 < http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070304a1.html>; Reiji Yoshida, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSex Slave History Erased From Texts; \u00E2\u0080\u009993 Apology Next?\u00E2\u0080\u009D The Japan Times, March 11, 2007 < http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070311f1.html> (Accessed November 9, 2010). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 20 historian Igarashi Yoshikuni calls the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfoundational narrative\u00E2\u0080\u009D that the United States restored Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s peace with the atomic bombs and that the emperor symbolizes that peace.54 This narrative obscured both the ethical question of America\u00E2\u0080\u0099s use of nuclear weapons and Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s responsibility for suffering in Asia by (re)presenting Japan as victim rather than perpetrator.55 The art of the Fifteen-Year War is located within this highly polarized political discussion about Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s role in the war, but there are issues particular to war art. For one thing, we cannot ignore the ethical issue of those artists who collaborated with the militarists. As early as 1945 there began a public discussion about artists\u00E2\u0080\u0099 culpability, which dissolved into ugly disputes over who did or did not paint propaganda and who had or had not been a willing collaborator. Although none of them was actually tried by the Allies, some leading war artists were blacklisted and expelled from art communities as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cwar criminals.\u00E2\u0080\u009D This war responsibility (sens\u00C5\u008D sekinin) discussion virtually ended when the most famous war painter, Fujita Tsuguharu, left Japan permanently in 1949. Since then, no war artists have spoken of their ethical and political responsibility, yet examination of wartime art cannot be separated from the question of artists\u00E2\u0080\u0099 complicity with the state.56 Furthermore, the war responsibility of Japanese-style painters, who were \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 54 Igarashi Yoshikuni, Bodies of Memory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 19-28. 55 Lisa Yoneyama, Hiroshima Traces: Time, Space, and the Dialectics of Memory (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). 56 Most of them did not speak about their wartime works. On the other hand, Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D praised his own works as counterparts to European war art when they were found \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 21 active during the war but produced seemingly non-militaristic paintings, has never been interrogated. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den and Yasuda Yukihiko, who frequently exhibited their works in state-sanctioned exhibitions, for example, received the Order of Culture (bunka kunsh\u00C5\u008D) from the emperor in 1947. Visual representations of militarism (the war in particular) have the potential to evoke powerful emotional reactions. The \u00E2\u0080\u009CVisualizing Cultures\u00E2\u0080\u009D website project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, launched in 2006 by one of the most established historians of Japan, John Dower, is important in this regard. The website, which features images of the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) that depict Japanese executions of Chinese, came under harsh attack from the Chinese community within and outside the university. The emails and phone calls to the scholars involved in the project were so threatening that the institution reported them to the police.57 The purpose of the website project, along with Dower\u00E2\u0080\u0099s texts, which are critical of Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s conduct, was to analyze the power of propaganda, but opponents argued that Dower was insensitive to the suffering of the Chinese people. The \u00E2\u0080\u009CVisualizing Cultures\u00E2\u0080\u009D controversy is an extreme example, and it is reasonable to wonder why one hundred year-old prints triggered such controversy when \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 in the United States in the late 1960s. Ogawara Sh\u00C5\u00AB was virtually the only artist who spoke critically of his past. Asato Ikeda, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTwentieth Century Japanese Art and the Wartime State: Reassessing the Art of Ogawara Sh\u00C5\u00AB and Fujita Tsuguharu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D The Asia- Pacific Journal, 43-2-10. October 25, 2010. 57 Peter C. Perdue, \u00E2\u0080\u009CReflections on the \u00E2\u0080\u0098Visualizing Cultures\u00E2\u0080\u0099 Incident,\u00E2\u0080\u009D MIT Faculty Newsletter, Vol. XVIII No.5 May/ June 2006 (accessed November 9, 2010). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 22 images of violence seem to be everywhere in modern culture\u00E2\u0080\u0094on TV, in movies and magazines, and on the Internet\u00E2\u0080\u0094but it must be remembered that the power of visual propaganda and the potential for the abuse of images is precisely why Nazi art, for example, was not released to the public for decades after the war. The MIT incident suggests that the art of the Fifteen Year War, much more recent than the Sino-Japanese War, could be an even more sensitive issue and could stir heated, emotional reactions. Since the death of Emperor Hirohito in 1989, scholars have begun investigating Japanese war art in a more critical light. In Japan, art historians Kawata Akihisa and Tan\u00E2\u0080\u0099o Yasunori co-authored the book War in Images: From the Sino-Japanese to the Cold War (1996), which pioneered the field by examining woodblock prints, Japanese- style paintings, and Western-style oil paintings.58 The book covered the Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War, and the Fifteen-Year War, and demonstrated how works on both military themes (battles, swords, war machinery) and non-military themes mirrored Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s militarist ideology. The 2006 retrospective of Fujita Tsuguharu, the leading war painter who was once ostracized by the Japanese public, was organized by the National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo, and renewed scholarly interest in war art.59 The book Art in Wartime Japan 1937-1945 (2007) brought together major scholars in the field, such as Kawata Akihisa, \u00C5\u008Ctani Sh\u00C5\u008Dgo, Haru Ichir\u00C5\u008D, and Sawaragi Noi, and reproduced a few hundred paintings produced during the war, including some that had \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 58 Kawata and Tan\u00E2\u0080\u0099o, Im\u00C4\u0093ji no nakano sens\u00C5\u008D. 59 Asato Ikeda, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFujita Tsuguharu Retrospective 2006: Resurrection of a Former Official War Painter,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Review of Japanese Culture and Society 21 (December 2009): 97-115. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 23 been lost and those once confiscated by the United States.60 American art historian Bert Winther-Tamaki published a ground-breaking article in 1997, \u00E2\u0080\u009CEmbodiment/ Disembodiment: Japanese Paintings during the Fifteen Year War,\u00E2\u0080\u009D which analyzed wartime works by artists including Matsumoto Shunsuke, Yokoyama Taikan, and Fujita Tsuguharu in relation to the issue of embodiment and disembodiment.61 The Ph.D. dissertations of Mayu Tsuruya (2005) and Maki Kaneko (2006), completed in the United States and England, respectively, followed Winther-Tamaki and showed how war art was entrenched in the development of a Japanese modern art that was intricately related to Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s nation building. In so doing, both Tsuruya and Kaneko refuted the previous assumption that war art was a product of historical aberration.62 Art and War in Japan and Its Empire: 1931-1960, which I am currently co-editing with Ming Tiampo and Aya Louisa McDonald, will be the first English anthology on Japanese war art and will bring together scholars from Asia, North America, and Europe\u00E2\u0080\u0094Bert Winther-Tamaki, Mayu Tsuruya, Maki Kaneko, Kawata Akihisa, Laura Hein, Julia Thomas, and Michael Lucken \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 60 Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu 1937-1945. 61\t\r \u00C2\u00A0Bert Winther-Tamaki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CEmbodiment/Disembodiment: Japanese Painting during the Fifteen-Year War,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Monumenta Nipponica 52. 2 (Summer, 1997): 145-80. 62 Mayu Tsuruya, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D Sakusen Kirokuga [War Campaign Documentary Art Painting]: Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s National Imagery of the \u00E2\u0080\u0098Holy War\u00E2\u0080\u0099 1937-1945,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Ph.D. diss., (University of Pittsburgh, 2005); Maki Kaneko, \u00E2\u0080\u009CArt in the Service of the State: Artistic Production in Japan during the Asia-Pacific War,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Ph.D. diss. (University of East Anglia, 2006). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 24 among others.63 In addition to paintings, Julia Adeney Thomas, Kaneko Ry\u00C5\u00ABichi, and Inoue Y\u00C5\u00ABko have published research on wartime photography, and Kim Brandt and Yuko Kikuchi have thoroughly documented the wartime activities of the Japanese Arts and Crafts Movement (mingei).64 Hirase Reita has examined wartime sculpture, while Inoue Sh\u00C5\u008Dkichi, Jonathan M. Reynolds, and Jacqueline Eve Kestenbaum have probed into Japanese wartime architecture.65 Also important to the study of Japanese war art is the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 63 Asato Ikeda, Ming Tiampo, and Aya Louisa McDonald, eds., Art and War in Japan and its Empire: 1931-1960 (Leiden: Brill, forthcoming). 64 Julia Adeney Thomas, \u00E2\u0080\u009CPhotography, National Identity, and the \u00E2\u0080\u0098Cataract of Times\u00E2\u0080\u0099: Wartime Images and the Case of Japan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D The American Historical Review 103.5 (December, 1998): 1475-1501; Kaneko Ry\u00C5\u00ABichi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CRealism and Propaganda: The Photographer\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Eye Trained on Society,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in The History of Japanese Photography, ed. Anne Wilkes Tucker (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2003); Inoue Y\u00C5\u00ABko, Senji gurafu zasshi no sendensen [Strategies of Wartime Graphic Magazines](Tokyo: Seit\u00C5\u008Dsha, 2009); Kim Brandt, Kingdom of Beauty: Mingei and the Politics of Folk Art in Imperial Japan (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007); Yuko Kikuchi, Japanese Modernization and Mingei Theory: Cultural Nationalism and Oriental Orientalism (London: Routledge, 2004). 65 Hirase Reita, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu korekushon: sokoni atte wa naranai mono [War and Art Collection: Things That Ought Not Be There], in K\u00C5\u008Dza Nihon bijutsu shi: bijutsu o sasaeru mono [Studies in the History of Japanese Art 6: What Makes Art Possible], ed. Kinoshita Naoyuki (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 2005); Inoue Sh\u00C5\u008Dkichi, \u00C4\u0080to, kicchu, japanesuku [Art, Kitsch, Japanesque] (Tokyo: Asahi shuppansha, 1995); Jonathan \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 25 art of colonialism, as Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s war was a \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccolonial war.\u00E2\u0080\u009D The research findings and analysis by Kim Hyeshin, Kari Shepardson-Scott, and Aida Yuen-Wong about colonial Korea, Manchuria, Taiwan and Mainland China illuminate Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s artistic activities beyond its own borders.66 Fascism What distinguishes my study from previous scholarship is that, following numerous scholars who have investigated the issue in the disciplines of history, political science and literature, I explore the concept of Japanese fascism in the field of art history.67 While \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 M. Reynolds, Maekawa Kunio and the Emergence of Japanese Modernist Architecture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Jacqueline Eve Kestenbaum, \u00E2\u0080\u009CModernism and Tradition in Japanese Architectural Ideology, 1931-1955,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Ph.D. diss. (New York: Columbia University, 1996). 66 Kim Hye-sin, Kankoku kindai bijutsu kenky\u00C5\u00AB: shokuminchiki ch\u00C5\u008Dsenbijutsutenrankai ni miru ibunkashihai to bunka hy\u00C5\u008Dsh\u00C5\u008D [Studies of Korean Modern Art: Cultural Control and Cultural Representation in Colonial \u00E2\u0080\u009CKorean Art Exhibitions\u00E2\u0080\u009D] (Tokyo: Br\u00C3\u00BCcke, 2005); Kari Shepherdson-Scott, \u00E2\u0080\u009CUtopia/ Dystopia: Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Image of the Manchurian Ideal,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Ph.D. diss. (Durham: Duke University, forthcoming); Aida Yuen Wong, Parting the Mists: Discovering Japan and the Rise of National-style Painting (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2006). 67 Historian Kim Brandt has investigated fascism in her study on mingei. Aida Yuen- Wong\u00E2\u0080\u0099s recent scholarship touches on fascist aesthetics and paintings by Taiwanese artists who studied in Japan. Brandt, Kingdom of Beauty; Aida Yuen Wong, \u00E2\u0080\u009CArt of Non- \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 26 acknowledging the long history and contested nature of the concept, I specifically draw on the definition of fascism that appeared in the 1990s and uses the framework of cultural translation in discussing its Japanese manifestation. I must begin by noting that there are scholars who argue against utilizing fascism as a methodological framework. What exactly fascism is remains a disputed question, and disagreement on the meaning of the term leads historian S.J. Woolf to assert, \u00E2\u0080\u009CPerhaps the word fascism should be banned, at least temporarily, from our political vocabulary.\u00E2\u0080\u009D68 Gilbert Allardyce argues that the concept of fascism is inadequate for comparative studies and that historians are using the term without agreeing on what it means. Asserting that \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe word fascismo has no meaning beyond Italy,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Allardyce argues that even the cases of Italy and Germany are different and cannot be reduced to one single political model, contending that fascism is neither a generic concept nor ideology.69 On the other hand there are scholars, like Stanley Payne, author of the influential book Fascism: Definition and Comparison (1980), who argue that Germany and Spain were fascist, but that fascism cannot exist outside Europe. Payne writes that fascism is \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca historical phenomenon primarily limited to Europe during the era of the two world wars\u00E2\u0080\u009D and that \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Resistance: Elitism, Fascist Aesthetics, and the Taiwanese Painter Lin Chih-chu, 1930s- 1940s,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Art and War in Japan and its Empire. 68 Gilbert Allardyce, \u00E2\u0080\u009CWhat Fascism is Not: Thoughts on the Deflation of a Concept,\u00E2\u0080\u009D The American Historical Review 84.2 (April 1979): 367. 69 Allardyce, \u00E2\u0080\u009CWhat Fascism is Not,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 370. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 27 \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe full characteristics of European fascism could not be reproduced on a significant scale outside Europe.\u00E2\u0080\u009D70 Not surprisingly, there are those who follow Allardyce and Payne in arguing against using the concept in the Japanese context. George Macklin Wilson in his article published in 1968 dismisses the idea of Japanese fascism. In his discussion of the work of Maruyama Masao and his idea of Emperor-System Fascism, Wilson points out that one can easily drop the term \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfascism\u00E2\u0080\u009D at any point, as there is no specificity attached to it.71 He suggests that instead of comparing Japan to Western nations, we should compare it to non-Western ones.72 Furthermore, he questions the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpsychological attitude\u00E2\u0080\u009D that motivated leftist Japanese scholars to investigate the concept of fascism, that is, their political motive for criticizing and fighting against the former militarists.73 Finally, he suggests that historians should use the alternative model of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmovement-regime\u00E2\u0080\u009D or \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe revolutionary mass-movement regime under single-party auspices\u00E2\u0080\u009D to analyze the case of Japan.74 Wilson\u00E2\u0080\u0099s points are echoed in an article by Peter Duus and Daniel Okamoto published in 1979. They maintain that if it is difficult to find core characteristics within European fascism, it is virtually impossible to apply the concept to Japan, and that it is \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 70 Quoted in Roger Eatwell, \u00E2\u0080\u009CUniversal Fascism?\u00E2\u0080\u009D 15. Originally in Stanley Payne, Fascism: Definition and Comparison (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980). 71 George Wilson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA New Look,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 406. 72 George Wilson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA New Look,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 409. 73 George Wilson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA New Look,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 407. 74 George Wilson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA New Look,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 409. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 28 therefore meaningless to speak of Japanese fascism. They write, \u00E2\u0080\u009Csometimes incidental differences add up to an essential difference.\u00E2\u0080\u009D75 Although they admit that similar political characteristics can be found in Germany and Japan, they do not call Japan fascist because there is no moment analogous to the rise of Nazi power, and what we see in Japan is actually the further consolidation of Meiji nationalism rather than revolution from below. We need to develop a new model, they argue, and they suggest \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccorporatism.\u00E2\u0080\u009D76 Finally, like Wilson, they question the political motive behind Japanese fascism studies: \u00E2\u0080\u009Cone of the underlying reasons for the postwar flurry of Japanese studies on fascism\u00E2\u0080\u0094the psychological need to identify who or what was responsible for the tragedy of the Second World War\u00E2\u0080\u0094may have passed. So, too, may the scholarly rationale for directing so much attention to this subject.\u00E2\u0080\u009D77 As Gavan McCormack aptly summarizes the historiography of Japanese fascism, other scholars argue against Japanese fascism based on \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe absence of a charismatic leader, or a mass fascist-style party, or a sharply delineated point of transition, or of repression on the scale of Nazi Germany (death camps), or the presence of apparently \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 75 Peter Duus and Daniel Okamoto, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascism and the History of Prewar Japan: The Failure of a Concept,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Journal of Asian Studies 39. 1 (November, 1979): 66. See also Duus\u00E2\u0080\u0099s review of the 2009 anthology The Culture of Japanese Fascism in The Journal of Asian Studies 69.2 (May 2010): 612-615. 76 Duus and Okamoto, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascism and the History of Prewar Japan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 72. 77 Duus and Okamoto, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascism and the History of Prewar Japan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 76. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 29 unbroken continuity between the institutions and elites of Meiji and 1930s Japan.\u00E2\u0080\u009D78 Ben- Ami Shillony, who also argues against the concept of Japanese fascism, shows in his Politics and Culture in Wartime Japan (1981) how wartime imperial institutions and the bureaucracy functioned just as before the war and the militarist Prime Minister T\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u008D Hideki never had total control over the cabinet, concluding that Japan was neither totalitarian nor fascist.79 The confusion over the definition of fascism whether in the European or the Japanese context, can be explained by several points. First of all, unlike socialism (which had Karl Marx\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Communist Manifesto) or capitalism (which had Adam Smith\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Wealth of Nations), there is no foundational text that theorizes the movement. Therefore, fascism has been largely examined by non-fascists. Second, scholarship on fascism both during and after the Second World War has tended to be politically motivated. Marxists produced a great deal of work on fascism, but they understand it only in terms of its economy and define it as a monopoly on capital by the bourgeoisie. In the Cold War, American historians and political scientists developed the idea of \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctotalitarianism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and they barely distinguished fascism from socialism.80 It was not until the end of the Cold War that a more \u00E2\u0080\u009Cneutral\u00E2\u0080\u009D analysis of fascism emerged and scholars such as Roger Griffin and Roger Eatwell sought to develop its definition, acknowledging the politicized \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 78 Gavan McCormack, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNineteen Thirties Japan: Fascism?\u00E2\u0080\u009D Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 14. 2 (April-June 1982): 29. 79 Shillony, Politics and Culture in Wartime Japan. See also Andrew Gordon\u00E2\u0080\u0099s book review of Shillony in The Journal of Asian Studies 42. 3 (May 1983): 676-678. 80 McCormack, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNineteen Thirties Japan: Fascism?\u00E2\u0080\u009D 23. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 30 scholarship on fascism in the immediate postwar period. Thirdly, because of their xenophobia, only the Italian Fascists referred to themselves as such. Gilbert Allardyce is correct in pointing out that those who named themselves \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfascist\u00E2\u0080\u009D outside Italy came to \u00E2\u0080\u009Crecognize the curse of its association with things foreign.\u00E2\u0080\u009D81 In regard to Japanese fascism, it is necessary to add a few remarks about the postwar politics of Japanese wartime history/historiography. As Joseph P. Sottile and Gavan McCormack argue, American scholarship that views wartime Japan as non-fascist was heavily embedded within the postwar alliance between the two nations and the creation of Igarashi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfoundational narrative\u00E2\u0080\u009D in the context of the Cold War. McCormack explains the process of wartime Japan being designated as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmilitarist\u00E2\u0080\u009D after the war: Reintegration of Japan into the Western camp under a conservative, bureaucratic, and business leadership demanded an explanation of the war that was largely exculpatory of mainstream Japanese conservatism. Totalitarianism, with its identification of fascist and communist systems, was inappropriate because it would be threatening to those elements of the Japanese elite who had been prominent in the 1930s; fascist theory itself, unless modified by being recast in the totalitarianism mold, had too strong associations deriving from its Marxist connotation of capitalist dictatorship. The solution was found in the development of a theory of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmilitarism\u00E2\u0080\u009D\u00E2\u0080\u00A6Militarism, a category little referred to in analysis of \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 81 Allardyce, \u00E2\u0080\u009CWhat Fascism is Not,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 370. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 31 European movements of the 1930s, became the orthodoxy among Western scholars writing on Japan.82 Sottile argues along the same lines, noting that especially when the emperor was alive it was preferable for American historians to promote a positive view of Japan, disassociating it from the ugly term \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfascism.\u00E2\u0080\u009D83 Cold War politics account for the gap between scholarship on wartime Japan by Japanese and American scholars. Despite the complex and contested historiography of study on fascism, I opt to employ the concept as it is important to situate Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s case within the global context of the 1930s. My study uses the definition of fascism advanced after the Cold War in the 1990s by a new generation of historians such as Roger Griffin, Roger Eatwell, and Zeev Sternhell.84 Arguing against Payne and Allardyce, Griffin, Eatwell, and Sternhell assert that we must take fascism seriously. They contend that we must consider it a political ideology and a generic concept, emphasizing the importance of discussing fascism as a \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 82 McCormack, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNineteen Thirties Japan: Fascism?\u00E2\u0080\u009D 28. 83 Joseph P. Sottile, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Fascist Era: Imperial Japan and the Axis Alliance in Historical Perspective,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Japan in the Fascist Era, ed. Reynolds, E. Bruce (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 11-13. 84 Roger Griffin, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIntroduction,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Fascism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Roger Eatwell, \u00E2\u0080\u009CUniversal Fascism? Approaches and Definitions,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Fascism outside Europe: The European Impulse against Domestic Conditions in the Diffusion of Global Fascism, ed. Stein Ugelvik Larsen (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001); Zeev Sternhell, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascist Ideology,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Fascism: A Reader\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Guide: Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography, ed. Walter Laqueur (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 32 global phenomenon. Eatwell and Sternhell point out that fascism is a generic concept like socialism, democracy, capitalism, and modernism, and that every country\u00E2\u0080\u0099s manifestation of those ideologies is different. 85 What comes out of their scholarship is the idea that we should not be fixated on the political and economic structures of fascism, such as economic monopoly and single party dominance. Among these historians, I suggest that Roger Eatwell provides the most comprehensive, reasonable definition of fascism. According to Eatwell, fascism has four basic characteristics.86 First, it is a nationalistic ideology. Second, it is a form of collectivism, which advocates the benefit of a community and a group over that of individuals. It \u00E2\u0080\u009Cportrays man as a victim of alienation,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and seeks to create a society where individuals are bound with each other, such as that of the premodern period.87 Third, it is a form of radicalism: rather than maintining the status-quo, it attempts to establish a new political culture, \u00E2\u0080\u009Covercoming\u00E2\u0080\u009D existing problems and \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctranscending\u00E2\u0080\u009D into a new phase of history. Despite its yearning for the premodern, in other words, fascism does not advocate going back to the past society where no technology exists. As Eatwell states, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfascism is an alternative form of modernity.\u00E2\u0080\u009D88 Fourth, it is the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthird way\u00E2\u0080\u009D between socialism and capitalism: alhough it has collectivism in common with socialism, fascism is hostile to the materialistic aspects, internationalist tendency, and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfalse\u00E2\u0080\u009D view of equality of the socialist ideology. Fascism regards that true equality is to be found in a \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 85 Eatwell, \u00E2\u0080\u009CUniversal Fascism?\u00E2\u0080\u009D 19-20; Sternhell, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascist Ideology,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 316-317. 86 Eatwell, \u00E2\u0080\u009CUniversal Fascism?\u00E2\u0080\u009D 33. \t\r \u00C2\u00A087\t\r \u00C2\u00A0Eatwell, \u00E2\u0080\u009CUniversal Fascism?\u00E2\u0080\u009D 33. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 88 Eatwell, \u00E2\u0080\u009CUniversal Fascism?\u00E2\u0080\u009D 34. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 33 hierarchial society. At the same time, it opposes the liberalist and individualist aspects of capitalist society. Overall, Eatwell argues, syncretism between right- and left-wing thoughts characterize fascism, and fascism often resorts to extreme violence and aggression to achieve its political goals. As Louis Althusser\u00E2\u0080\u0099s model of Ideological State Appratuses shows, state ideologies are propagated and disseminated through cultural institutions.89 Recent scholarship on the cultural dimensions of fascism has enriched our understanding. Susan Sontag\u00E2\u0080\u0099s famous 1974 essay \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascinating Fascism\u00E2\u0080\u009D convincingly, if also controversially, demonstrates how fascist ideals could be mediated through particular aesthetics, which she called \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfascist aesthetics.\u00E2\u0080\u009D90 As Alice Yaeger Kaplan, who examines French fascist culture in her 1986 book, argues, it is important to understand the ideology of fascism, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cas a reproduction of desires and discourses, that is, in terms of the persuasive language used by fascism.\u00E2\u0080\u009D91 Simonetta Flansca-Zamponi reiterates Kaplan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s point in her 1998 analysis of Italian fascism\u00E2\u0080\u0099s use of symbols, images, rituals, and speeches, asserting that power produces representation but representations also produce power.92 In other words, these scholars see fascism not merely as a particular form of government and economy \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 89 Louis Althusser, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIdeology and Ideological State Appratuses,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1997), 127-186. 90 Susan Sontag, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascinating Fascism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Under the Sign of Saturn, 2nd ed. (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2002). 91 Kaplan, Reproduction of Banality, 20. 92 Simonetta Falansca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 2-3. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 34 but as a form of culture. What they find is that Eatwell\u00E2\u0080\u0099s syncretism is also evident in fascist culture. Sontag illuminates the contradictory aspect of the fascist ideal: [Fascist aesthetics] endorse two seemingly opposite states, egomania and servitude. The relations of domination and enslavement take the form of a characteristic pageantry: the massing of groups of people; the turning of people into things; the multiplication or replication of things; and the grouping of people; things around an all-powerful hypnotic leader-figure or force. The fascist dramaturgy centers on the orgiastic transaction between mighty forces and their puppets, uniformly garbed and shown in ever swelling numbers. Its choreography alternates between ceaseless motion and a congealed, static, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cvirile\u00E2\u0080\u009D posing. Fascist art glorifies surrender, it exalts mindlessness, it glamorizes death.93 Likewise, describing fascism as a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpolarity machine,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Kaplan contends that it includes both \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmother-bound\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfather-bound\u00E2\u0080\u009D aspects, the mother-bound aspect being \u00E2\u0080\u009Coceanic feeling\u00E2\u0080\u009D (the \u00E2\u0080\u009Climitless, unbounded sensation that characterizes the religious experience\u00E2\u0080\u009D) and the father-bound aspect being the images of black shirts, swastikas, and political sadism.94 Klaus Theweleit, Hal Foster, and Elena Gomel employ psychoanalysis in their examinations of the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpolarity machine\u00E2\u0080\u009D in cultural representations of the human body.95 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 93 Sontag, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascinating Fascism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 91. 94 Kaplan, Reproduction of Banality, 12-13. 95 Klaus Theweleit, Male Fantasies (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1987); \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 35 Following Theweleit, Foster agues that the proto-fascist body is created from outside, through the academy, military drills, and battles, and against dissolution, fragmentation, and disintegration. It is characterized as a steely, hard, \u00E2\u0080\u009Carmored\u00E2\u0080\u009D body that is to defend against the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfeminine\u00E2\u0080\u009D: Jews, women, communists, and homosexuals.96 The proto-fascist, furthermore, considers machines as a part of the body, and sees technology as an extension of human power.97 Although the importance of machines is emphasized in socialism, Jeffrey Schnapp argues that fascist and socialist relationships with machines are different because fascists identify themselves as machines, which he calls \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmetallization.\u00E2\u0080\u009D98 At the same time, Foster identifies the rather contradictory demand of the fascist subject who seeks to be free of armor, masochistically wanting to merge with the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfeminine\u00E2\u0080\u009D other.99 The most important finding of studies of fascist culture is that fascism is not incompatible with artistic modernism. This finding challenges the previously held equation of modernism and liberalism and the assumption that fascist art was uncivilized and barbaric and came into existence out of a vacuum. Despite the infamous expulsion of \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Elena Gomel, \u00E2\u0080\u009CHard and Wet: Luce Irigaray and the Fascist Body,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Textual Practice 12.2 (1998): 199-223; Hal Foster, \u00E2\u0080\u009CArmor Fou,\u00E2\u0080\u009D October 56 (Spring 1991): 64-97. 96 Foster, \u00E2\u0080\u009CArmor Fou,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 84-85. 97 Susan Buck-Morss, \u00E2\u0080\u009CAesthetics and Anaesthetics: Walter Benjamin\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Artwork Essay Reconsidered,\u00E2\u0080\u009D October 62 (Autumn, 1992): 33. 98 Jeffrey Schnapp, \u00E2\u0080\u009C18 BL: Fascist Mass Spectacle,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Representations 43 (Summer 1993): 113. 99 Foster, \u00E2\u0080\u009CArmor Fou,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 85. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 36 \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdegenerate\u00E2\u0080\u009D art, then, modernist art played an important role in the Third Reich. The study of fascist art thus amounts to a critical reassessment of modernism and its relationship to politics. As Mark Antliff writes, Scholars now recognize the role of both fascism and modernist aesthetics in the emergence of anti-Enlightenment movements opposed to the democratic tradition that was the heritage of Enlightenment thought\u00E2\u0080\u00A6[C]oncepts associated with modernist aesthetics\u00E2\u0080\u0094including regeneration, spiritualism, pre-modernism, and avant-gardism\u00E2\u0080\u0094were integrated into the anti-Enlightenment pantheon of fascist values, with the result that many artists found ground with these new movements.100 Acknowledging the modernist aspect of fascism, Andrew Hewitt, Jeffrey Herf, and Elizabeth Cowling call fascist art Fascist Modernism, Reactionary Modernism, and Avant-Garde Classicism, respectively.101 Numerous scholars\u00E2\u0080\u0094including Mark Antliff, Jeffery Schnapp, Emily Braun, Diane Y. Ghirardo, Ian Boyd Whyte, Terri J. Gordon, Winfried Nerdinger, and John Heskett\u00E2\u0080\u0094have shown how modernist aesthetics in the field of architecture, design, painting, dance, and theater continued to exist under fascist rule in \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 100 Mark Antliff, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascism, Modernism, and Modernity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Art Bulletin 84.1 (March 2002): 148-149. 101 Elizabeth Cowling, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIntroduction,\u00E2\u0080\u009D On Classic Ground: Picasso, L\u00C3\u00A9ger, de Chirico and the New Classicism 1910-1930, ed. Elizabeth Cowling and Jennifer Mundy (London: Tate Gallery, 1990); Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary Modernism; Andrew Hewitt, Fascist Modernism: Aesthetics, Politics, and the Avant-Garde (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 37 Germany and Italy.102 In particular, a great deal of scholarship shows that Bauhaus and Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s rationalist design and architecture played an important role in fascist politics.103 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 102 Mark Antliff, Avant-Garde Fascism: The Mobilization of Myth, Art, and Culture in France, 1909-1939 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007); Jeffery Schnapp, \u00E2\u0080\u009CEpic Demonstrations: Fascist Modernity and the 1932 Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Fascism, Aesthetics, and Culture, ed. Richard J. Golsan (Hanover; London: University Press of New England, 1992); Emily Braun, Mario Sironi and Italian Modernism: Art and Politics under Fascism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Diane Y. Ghirardo, \u00E2\u0080\u009CItalian Architects and Fascist Politics: An Evaluation of the Rationalist Role in Regime Building,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 39.2 (May 1980): 109-127; Terri J. Gordon, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascism and the Female Form: Performance Art in the Third Reich,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Sexuality and German Fascism, ed. Dagmar Herzog (New York: Berghahn Books, 2005); Ian Boyd Whyte, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNational Socialism and Modernism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Art and Power: Europe under the Dictators, 1930-45 (London: Hayward Gallery, 1995); Winfried Nerdinger, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA Hierarchy of Styles: National Socialist Architecture Between Neoclassicism and Regionalism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Art and Power; John Heskett, \u00E2\u0080\u009CModernism and Archaism in Design in the Third Reich,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in The Nazification of Art, ed. Brandon Taylor and Wilfried van der Will (Winchester: The Winchester Press, 1990) 103 Antliff, \u00E2\u0080\u009CLa Cit\u00C3\u00A9 Fran\u00C3\u00A7aise: Georges Valois, Le Corbusier, and Fascist Theories of Urbanism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Avant-Garde Fascism; Theodore Dalrymple, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Architect as Totalitarian: Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Baleful Influence,\u00E2\u0080\u009D City Journal 19. 4 (Autumn 2009): 244- 246; Mary McLeod, \u00E2\u0080\u009C\u00E2\u0080\u0098Architecture or Revolution\u00E2\u0080\u0099: Taylorism, Technocracy and Social \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 38 This raises a question about artistic style (form) and ideology: how precisely to understand the relationship between modernism and fascism.104 Were there inherently \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfascistic\u00E2\u0080\u009D elements in Bauhaus and Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work that made it particularly appealing to fascists? Or do Bauhaus-style designs produced in the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich display stylistic differences, if only slightly, perhaps reflecting different underlying ideologies? Relevant to these questions is the claim that fascist art shares characteristics with socialist and capitalist art. Specifically, Lutz Koepnick, Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi, and Karen Pinkus point out the use of commercial advertisements and graphic design in fascist art, and that fascist art appealed to viewers\u00E2\u0080\u0099 pleasure and desire.105 Koepnick, for example, argues that the politics of fascism should be understood as \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca form of commodity aesthetics\u00E2\u0080\u009D and explains that the brand-name \u00E2\u0080\u009CHitler\u00E2\u0080\u009D became a fetish, appealing to diverse desires and fantasies.106 Jeffrey Schnapp \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Change,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Art Journal 43. 2 (1987): 132-47; Winfried Nerdinger, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBauhaus Architecture in the Third Reich,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Bauhaus Culture: From Weimar to The Cold War, ed. Kathleen James-Chakraborty (Minneapolis; London: University of Minnesota Press, 2006). 104 This question is best articulated in Susan A. Manning, \u00E2\u0080\u009CModern Dance in the Third Reich: Six Positions and a Coda,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Choreographing History, ed. Susan Leigh Foster (Bloomington; Indianapolis: Indian University Press, 1995). 105 Lutz Koepnick, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascist Aesthetics Revisited,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Modernism Modernity 6.1 (January 1999): 51-73; Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Karen Pinkus, Bodily Regimes (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995). 106 Koepnick, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascist Aesthetics Revisited,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 55-6. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 39 and Susan Buck-Morss have likewise pointed out similarities between socialist and fascist art, both of which are totalitarian styles that emphasize the collective and are obsessed with machines.107 My approach to this problem is to understand fascist art as the fascists\u00E2\u0080\u0099 appropriation of modern art. In other words, even if we see the same style of architecture and design in the Soviet Union, the United States, Germany and Italy, we need to look at the surrounding environment to assess its meaning.108 Here, I follow the approaches of Terri Gordon and Winfried Nerdinger. Gordon studies the capitalist commercial theater that initially developed in the Weimar period and continued to exist in the Third Reich. She distinguishes the revue from the Weimar and that from the Third Reich and writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009CWhat is particular to the Nazi period is its explicit nationalization and instrumentalization of the genre. The visual display of the female form in ornamental patterns in the Weimar period was imbued with political content in the Nazi era.\u00E2\u0080\u009D109 Similarly, confronting the vexed problem that neo-classicist architecture existed both in the United States and Germany in the 1930s, Nerdinger writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe distinction between neoclassicism in Germany and elsewhere must be drawn\u00E2\u0080\u00A6No one can analyze the Nazi system by looking at architectural forms alone\u00E2\u0080\u00A6ultimately, the decisive factors are function, content, and social relevance.\u00E2\u0080\u009D110 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 107 Schnapp, \u00E2\u0080\u009C18 BL: Fascist Mass Spectacle\u00E2\u0080\u009D; Buck-Morss, \u00E2\u0080\u009CAesthetics and Anaesthetics.\u00E2\u0080\u009D 108 Nerdinger, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA Hierarchy of Styles,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 323. 109 Terri J. Gordon, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascism and the Female Form,\u00E2\u0080\u009D183. 110 Nerdinger, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA Hierarchy of Styles,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 323-324. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 40 My approach is also indebted to that taken by Serge Guilbaut, who demonstrates how international modernism was arrested by the state agenda in the United States in the early 1940s.111 Guilbaut\u00E2\u0080\u0099s study shows how the United States \u00E2\u0080\u009Cstole\u00E2\u0080\u009D modernism in its fight against fascism and communism in the Second World War and the Cold War. In America, modernism became \u00E2\u0080\u009CAmerican\u00E2\u0080\u009D art that was believed to embody the state ideology of freedom, individualism, democracy, and capitalism.112 Thus my study is based on the view that the ideological manifestations of modern art vary from one country to another. We might see an element of capitalism and socialism in fascist culture, but it is important to recognize that such an element was ultimately appropriated by the ideology of fascism and deployed as a vehicle to convey fascist messages. Michel Foucault\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdiscursive formation\u00E2\u0080\u009D and Terry Eagleton\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \u00E2\u0080\u009Cideology of the aesthetic\u00E2\u0080\u009D also inform my scholarship.113 In other words, I will examine artworks not individually but in relation to networks and systems that consist of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe interplay of the rules that make possible the appearance of objects during a given period of time.\u00E2\u0080\u009D114 Finally, my study stems from the understanding that the realm of the aesthetic is not immune to the political or the social. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 111 Serge Guilbaut, How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art: Abstract Expressionism, Freedom, and the Cold War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). 112 Here, ironically, American art critics and artists incorrectly assumed that fascist art was \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnon-modern\u00E2\u0080\u009D art. 113 Terry Eagleton, The Ideology of the Aesthetic (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); Michel Foucault, Archaeology of Knowledge (1969; repr., London: Routledge, 2002). 114 Foucault, Archaeology of Knowledge, 36. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 41 As for Japanese fascism, I argue that the studies by Griffin, Eatwell, and Sternhell, which see fascism as an ideology, are sufficient to refute the claims of Wilson, Duus, Okamoto, and Shillony. If we follow Eatwell\u00E2\u0080\u0099s definition of fascism, wartime Japan was clearly a fascist state. The wartime Japanese state touted nationalism, collectivism, and recreation of a premodern Japanese community without entirely abandoning modern science and technology, and publically denounced socialism and capitalism. It is important to note that none of their \u00E2\u0080\u009Calternative\u00E2\u0080\u009D models (movement-regime and corporatism) have gained significant currency. In particular, Wilson\u00E2\u0080\u0099s suggestion that Japan should be compared to China and Korea rather than Italy and Germany both fails to recognize the fact that Japan was a fully modernized nation that became the only non- Western colonial power. Moreover, regarding Duus and Okamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s statement that \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe psychological need to identify who or what was responsible for the tragedy of the Second World War may have passed,\u00E2\u0080\u009D I agree with historian Hilary Conroy, who wrote, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdiscussion of any ideology, system, or \u00E2\u0080\u0098ism\u00E2\u0080\u0099 is not a dead issue until the toll of dead, wounded, and brutalized it produced has been considered in more than a theoretical way.\u00E2\u0080\u009D115 On the other hand, I must concur with Wilson that the word fascism, especially in Japanese scholarship, has been used in a way that it is far too loose. Throughout this dissertation, therefore, I strive to be attentive to the specific characteristics of fascism. Admittedly, there is a theoretical difficulty when it comes to understanding where fascism came from in the case of Japanese fascism. One could argue that some elements of fascism already lay in Japanese culture. The violent aspect and hierarchical social \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 115 Hilary Conroy, \u00E2\u0080\u009CConcerning Japanese Fascism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Journal of Asian Studies 40.2 (February 1981): 328. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 42 structure of fascism, for example, seem not too different from the principle of bushido (the way of warrior), which emphasized the importance of death, or Japanese traditional feudalism, which was strictly hierarchical. In fact, some scholars have suggested that fascism was heavily inspired by \u00E2\u0080\u009COriental\u00E2\u0080\u009D culture, and if this is the case, the affinity between fascism and Japanese traditional political and cultural values might have made it easier for Japan to understand fascism despite its supposedly European origins. Examining the influence of non-Western forms of thought and government on fascism, Roger Eatwell cites Enrico Corradini, a key figure in Italian radical nationalism who was inspired by Japanese religious worship of the emperor.116 Hugh B. Urban has written about Julius Evola, an Italian fascist who not only had a major impact on the formation of the SS but was also interested in esotericism in India.117 Likewise, Russell Berman examines works by Emil Nolde, a member of the Nazi party and a German expressionist painter whose work was ironically dismissed by the Nazis as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdegenerate.\u00E2\u0080\u009D118 Berman contends that Nolde finds anti-Enlightenment rhetoric such as the virtue of myth, virility, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 116Eatwell, \u00E2\u0080\u009CUniversal Fascism? Approaches and Definitions,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Fascism outside Europe: The European Impulse against Domestic Conditions in the Diffusion of Global Fascism, 26. 117 Hugh B. Urban, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Yoga of Power: Sex Magic, Tantra, and Fascism in Twentieth Century Europe,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Magia Sexualis: Sex, Magic, and Liberation in Modern Western Esotericism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006). 118 Russell A. Berman, \u00E2\u0080\u009CGerman Primitivism/ Primitive Germany: The Case of Emil Nolde,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Fascism, Aesthetics, and Culture, ed. Richard J. Golsan (Hanover; London: University Press of New England, 1992). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 43 and community, in cultures outside Europe, and concludes that Nolde ultimately found a similar rhetoric to his modernist primitivism in the principle of fascism.119 Moreover, it is often said that in \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe late developing nations\u00E2\u0080\u009D (Italy, Germany, and Japan), industrial elites were not replaced by urban industrialists and that the contradiction between feudalism and industrialization necessarily led them to fascism.120 This theory indeed seems to support the claim that fascism was somehow intrinsic to Japan.121 At the same time, we may consider that fascism was introduced from Europe, and thus regard fascism as external to Japan. During the war, as I discussed at the beginning of this Introduction, through the Tripartite Pact, Japan had a considerable amount of political as well as cultural exchanges and dialogues with Germany and Italy. As I demonstrate in this dissertation, the art of machine-ism and new classicism and important ideas about eugenics and racial hygiene were indeed imported from Europe. To a significant degree, then, importation of fascist practices and discourse played a role in Japanese fascism, and so the concept of \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccultural translation\u00E2\u0080\u009D is pertinent to the study of Japanese fascism. This model of analysis allows us to move away from previous studies of Japanese fascism that tend to be Eurocentric. In other words, instead of comparing Japan with Germany and Italy and pointing out the \u00E2\u0080\u009Clack\u00E2\u0080\u009D of some characteristics of \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 119 Berman, \u00E2\u0080\u009CGerman Primitivism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 63. 120 Quoted in Gavan McCormack, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNineteen Thirties Japan: Fascism?\u00E2\u0080\u009D Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 14. 2 (April-June 1982): 24. Originally in Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon, 1967), 442. 121 This part is highly indebted to my dialogue with Sharalyn Orbaugh. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 44 fascism in Japan, I look at how fascism was \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctranslated\u00E2\u0080\u009D into the Japanese context. Recent post-colonial and transnational studies successfully challenge the teleological concept of history, especially prominent in \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmodernization theory,\u00E2\u0080\u009D which assumes that there are certain steps that must be taken for a country to be fully modernized. They instead illuminate how different countries make contact through trade, travel, imperialism, and war, and how these interconnections influence culture.122 The symbols and meanings of one culture are modified, appropriated, selected, or discarded when translated into another. I argue that when fascism was \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctranslated\u00E2\u0080\u009D to Japan it became both Japanese and fascist, making Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s fascism ambivalent. What defines the relationship between Japan and other fascist nations is thus the quality of \u00E2\u0080\u009Calmost but not quite the same.\u00E2\u0080\u009D123 It is liminality and partiality, not totality, that characterize Japanese fascism. Despite the cases of Wilson, Duus, Okamoto, and Shillony, numerous scholars\u00E2\u0080\u0094 both Japanese and non-Japanese\u00E2\u0080\u0094have written on fascist aspects of wartime Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 122 Nikos Papastergiadis, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Limits of Cultural Translation,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Over Here: International Perspectives on Art and Culture, ed. Gerardo Mosquera and Jean Fisher (Mass., Cambridge: the MIT Press, 2004), 330; Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000); Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge), 1992. 123 Bhabha talks about colonialism and the power relationship between the colonizer and the colonized, which is very different from my project. Yet, his idea of how one culture becomes translated in another is relevant. Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London and New York: Routledge, 2004), 110. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 45 politics and culture. As early as the 1930s, intellectuals such as Hasegawa Nyozekan, Imanaka Tsugimaro, Gushima Kanezabur\u00C5\u008D, Sassa Hir\u00C5\u008D, and Tosaka Jun wrote on and criticized fascist aspects of Japanese politics, though some of their work was censored.124 Two Soviet Japanologists, O. Tanin and E. Yahan wrote Militarism and Fascism in Japan in 1934.125 Some of these were Marxist scholars and exclusively concerned with the economic structure of wartime Japan, but others examined fascism in a broader sense, attentive to the way in which Japanese fascism drew on existing indigenous social structures and cultural traditions, such as the emperor system and the concept of the family state. In 1947, political scientist Maruyama Masao delivered a speech on Japanese fascism, calling it \u00E2\u0080\u009CEmperor-System Fascism\u00E2\u0080\u009D (tenn\u00C5\u008Dsei fashizumu), \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 124 Hasegawa Nyozekan, Nihon fashizumu hihan [The Critique of Japanese Fascism] (Tokyo: \u00C5\u008Chata shoten, 1932); Imanaka Tsugimaro and Gushima Kanezabur\u00C5\u008D, Fashizumu ron [The Theory of Fascism] (Tokyo: Mikasa shob\u00C5\u008D, 1935); Gushima Kanezabur\u00C5\u008D, Fashizumu [Fascism] (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1968); Sassa Hir\u00C5\u008D, Nihon fasshizumu no hatten katei [The Process of Development of Japanese Fascism] (Tokyo: Asano Shoten, 1932); Tosaka Jun, Nippon ideolog\u00C4\u00AB ron [The Theory of Japanese Ideology] (Tokyo: Hakuy\u00C5\u008Dsha, 1935). Although Hasegawa Nyozekan criticized Japanese fascism, he later converted and became active as a state cultural authority during the war. It is his later wartime activity that I examine in the body of the dissertation, especially in Chapter One. 125 O. Tanin and T. Yohan, Militarism and Fascism in Japan (New York: International Publishers, 1934). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 46 illuminating Japan-specific elements such as the zaibatsu (industrial and financial business conglomerates) and the feudal system. 126 Maruyama stated: Japanese fascism . . . shared the ideology of its Italian and German counterparts in such matters as the rejection of the worldview of individualistic liberalism, opposition to parliamentary politics which is the political expression of liberalism, insistence on foreign expansion, a tendency to glorify military build-up and war, a strong emphasis on racial myths and the national essence, a rejection of class warfare based on totalitarianism, and the struggle against Marxism.127 In 1987 Yoshimi Yoshiaki influentially developed the idea of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cgrassroots fascism\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kusano ne no fashizumu), a state fascism that was enthusiastically embraced by politically frustrated, financially suffocated Japanese citizens, especially those in rural areas.128 In so doing, Yoshimi points out the distinct characteristics of Japanese fascism as \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccool fascism\u00E2\u0080\u009D\u00E2\u0080\u0094that Japanese fascism was not a result of revolution from below, but \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 126 George Macklin Wilson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA New Look at the Problem of \u00E2\u0080\u0098Japanese Fascism,\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00E2\u0080\u009D Comparative Studies in Society and History 10. 4 (Jul, 1968): 402-3. 127 Maruyama Masao, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Ideology and Dynamics of Japanese Fascism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Thought and Behaviour in Modern Japanese Politics, ed. Ivan Morris (London; Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 35. The essay was first delivered as a lecture at Tokyo University in 1947. 128 Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Kusano ne no fashizumu: Nihon minsh\u00C5\u00AB no sens\u00C5\u008D taiken [Grassroots Fascism: War Experiences of the Japanese Masses] (Tokyo: Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 1987). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 47 rather of implementation from above. In fact, a great number of Japanese scholars have written on the topic, and this trend of scholarship continues to this day.129 Only Maruyama Masao\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work has been translated into English, in 1969, but since then there has been sophisticated scholarship on the subject in English that probes into Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s connections with other fascist nations and fascist aspects of wartime Japanese politics and culture. For example, Miles Fletcher\u00E2\u0080\u0099s 1982 book examines the Sh\u00C5\u008Dwa Research Association, which was the brain trust of the Prime Minister Konoe Fumimaro\u00E2\u0080\u0099s 1940 \u00E2\u0080\u009CNew Order.\u00E2\u0080\u009D130 Fletcher compellingly demonstrates how intellectuals in the Association maintained ties with Italy and Germany (Miki Kiyoshi studied with Heidegger, for example), and specifically drew on the models of the two countries for policy-making. Calling post-1935 Japan the period of \u00E2\u0080\u009CImperial Fascism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D historian Andrew Gordon also shows how civil, private organizations established in the period of \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 129 For recent Japanese fascism studies by Japanese scholars, see Abe Hirozumi, Nihon fashizumu ron [The Theory of Fascism] (Tokyo: Kage shob\u00C5\u008D, 1996); Akazawa Shir\u00C5\u008D and Kitagawa Kenz\u00C5\u008D, eds, Bunka to fashizumu: senjiki Nihon ni okeru bunka no k\u00C5\u008Db\u00C5\u008D [Culture and Fascism: The Light of Culture under Wartime Japan] (Tokyo: Nihon keizai hy\u00C5\u008Dron sha, 1993); Fujino Yutaka, Ky\u00C5\u008Dsei sareta kenk\u00C5\u008D: Nihon fashizumuka no seimei to shintai [Forced Health: Life and Body under Japanese Fascism] (Tokyo: Yoshikawa Hirofumi kan, 2000). 130 William Miles Fletcher, The Search for a New Order: Intellectuals and Fascism in Prewar Japan (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 48 Imperial Democracy were gradually swallowed up into state organization through the Election Purification Movement of 1935 and the National Mobilization Law of 1938.131 In her book Authenticating Culture in Imperial Japan (1996), Leslie Pincus traces Japanese philosopher Kuki Sh\u00C5\u00ABz\u00C5\u008D, who studied phenomenology and hermeneutics under Martin Heidegger in Germany, and investigates the production of Japanese aesthetics in relation to the concepts of the organic community of Volksgemeinschaft and the privileging of the collective \u00E2\u0080\u009CBeing.\u00E2\u0080\u009D132 Also arguing that 1930s Japan was fascist, historian Harry Harootunian\u00E2\u0080\u0099s 2001 book on Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s experience of modernity is global in its scope, and sees fascism as a modern nation\u00E2\u0080\u0099s particular response to modernity. He writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascism in Japan, and elsewhere, appeared under the guise of what might be called gemeinschaft capitalism and the claims of a social order free from the uncertainties and indeterminacies of an alienated civil society, where an eternalized and unchanging cultural or communal order was put into the service of the capitalist mode of production to establish a \u00E2\u0080\u0098capitalism without capitalism.\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00E2\u0080\u009D133 The desire for \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccapitalism without capitalism\u00E2\u0080\u009D was most well articulated in the 1942 symposium \u00E2\u0080\u009Covercoming the modern,\u00E2\u0080\u009D a subject Harootunian examines at length in his book. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 131 Andrew Gordon, Labor and Imperial Democracy in Prewar Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 320. 132 Leslie Pincus, Authenticating Culture in Imperial Japan: Kuki Sh\u00C5\u00ABz\u00C5\u008D and the Rise of National Aesthetics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996). 133 Harry Harootunian, \u00E2\u0080\u009COvercoming Modernity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Overcome by Modernity: History, Culture, and Community in Interwar Japan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), xxx. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 49 More recently, historian Kim Brandt, in her 2007 book on the Japanese Arts and Crafts Movement (mingei), examines how the wartime plan for a factory dormitory sponsored by the wartime state was predicated on the vision of creating a classless, rationalist fascist utopia that prepares for total war.134 The most important recent developments, however, are Japanese literature specialist Alan Tansman\u00E2\u0080\u0099s monograph on fascism and wartime literature The Aesthetics of Japanese Fascism (2009), and the anthology The Culture of Japanese Fascism that Tansman edited. The anthology includes essays by major scholars such as Kevin Doak, Kim Brandt, Harry Harootunian, and Marilyn Ivy that specifically explore the cultural production of fascism. Examining a wide variety of media (film, architecture, design, literature, museum exhibition), the contributors build upon recent scholarship on fascism and fascist culture by Roger Griffin, Mark Antliff, Alice Kaplan, Jeffrey Schnapp and others. Importantly, however, the anthology does not include an essay on paintings. Chapter Summary This dissertation assumes that wartime Japan was a fascist state, if not entirely, and considers what visual form the fascist ideology took in Japan. Exploring representations of space, time, and the human body in Japanese wartime paintings, this study will look at four different characteristics that have been identified as fascist by other scholars\u00E2\u0080\u0094the social regimentation, new classicism, the racialized body, and the mechanized body. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 134 See especially Chapter Five of Brandt, Kingdom of Beauty. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 50 Chapter One looks at a corpus of Japanese-style paintings produced between 1935 and 1940 called machine-ist paintings (kikaishugi/ mekanizumu), such as Saeki Shunk\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Tearoom (1936), that depict modern girls (moga). Attending to the socio-political context of their production, I suggest that the visual field of the paintings could be understood as metonymic of regimented, over-homogenized fascist social space in which individuals are subsumed by the state and are surveilled, mobilized, and disciplined for war. In so doing, I demonstrate how a strain of international modernism\u00E2\u0080\u0094machine aesthetics and rationalism\u00E2\u0080\u0094was co-opted by the state. Chapter Two continues the discussion on Japanese-style paintings and studies bijin- ga (pictures of beautiful people) executed by female Japanese-style painter Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den (1875-1949), such as Wind (1939) and Lady Kusunoki (1944). Illuminating stylistic transformations in her art that took place in the late 1930s, I situate her works within the discourse of a new classicism (shin kotenshugi), which combines the elements of both modernism and classicism. I demonstrate how her wartime art resonates with the early 1940s discourse of \u00E2\u0080\u009Covercoming the modern\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kindai no ch\u00C5\u008Dkoku) and how it articulates the fascist conceptualization of time, which envisions the future as a recreation of past. This chapter also compares Sh\u00C5\u008Den with the German filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl and interrogates the role of female artists in a fascist state. Chapter Three provides an overview of War Campaign Record Paintings (Sens\u00C5\u008D Sakusen Kirokuga), Western-style propaganda paintings commissioned by the state. It examines salient aspects of war art and surveys works by leading wartime painters such as Koiso Ry\u00C5\u008Dhei, Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D, Ihara Usabur\u00C5\u008D, and Fujita Tsuguharu. I explore the relationship between the War Campaign Record Paintings and photography and Germany \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 51 and also examines the prominent disembodiment of the human body that appeared in Japanese war art, more specifically, in Fujita Tsuguharu\u00E2\u0080\u0099s paintings. Chapter Four analyzes representations of the material body in War Campaign Record Paintings, including Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Meeting of Generals Yamashita and Percival (1942) and Fujita Tsuguharu\u00E2\u0080\u0099s The Divine Soldier Is Here To Rescue (1944), in relation to the fascist discourses of eugenics and scientific racism. Although scientific racism was introduced from Nazi Germany, I suggest that the paintings do not represent the concept of race (jinshu), which was understood to be about the scientific/biological measurement of external characteristics of the human body; rather, they represent a related, slightly modified concept of ethnicity (minzoku): human taxonomy based on \u00E2\u0080\u009Csubjective,\u00E2\u0080\u009D internal characteristics. That Japan modified the concept of race and its visual manifestation, I argue, reflects the fact that Japan was a non-white country fighting a colonial war. Chapter Five continues to investigate representations of the material body in War Campaign Record Paintings. This chapter, however, considers the fascist concept of the mechanized human body and looks at the representation of the Kamikaze Special Attack Forces, a group of male soldiers who \u00E2\u0080\u009Cbody-rammed\u00E2\u0080\u009D into enemy targets. As in Chapter Four, I show how fascism manifested itself differently in Japan: the pilots\u00E2\u0080\u0099 conception of their bodies as weapons resonates with Klaus Theweleit\u00E2\u0080\u0099s claim that a fascist subject identifies his body as armor, but the visual representations of the dying attackers most often drew on \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctraditional\u00E2\u0080\u009D Japanese aesthetics, such as the symbolism of fallen cherry blossoms. Finally, in the Conclusion I summarize my findings and consider the postwar transformations of the fascist discourses. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 52 CHAPTER ONE The Fascist Social Space of \u00E2\u0080\u009CProper Place\u00E2\u0080\u009D and Japanese-style Machine-ist Paintings 1935-1940 Introduction Tearoom
, painted by Saeki Shunk\u00C5\u008D in 1936, is a painting of two caf\u00C3\u00A9 waitresses with bobbed hair. The modern girls (moga) wear identical Western-style uniforms, their jackets and skirts in dark yet primary colors of red, blue, and yellow. They face the viewer, standing side by side in front of a bar counter and holding a stainless steel tray. Next to them are a white concrete pedestal and an aluminum shelf that neatly holds variously shaped green cacti in separate vessels. The floor\u00E2\u0080\u0099s diamond motif, the angular edges of the plants, and the round surfaces of the waitresses\u00E2\u0080\u0099 faces and skirts add geometric harmony to the picture and signal the artist\u00E2\u0080\u0099s interest in modernist abstraction. Sh\u00C5\u008Dwa Sophistication: Japan in the 1930s, the exhibition held by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston in 2008, displayed this painting and interpreted it as Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s celebration of modernity. According to the museum website, paintings such as Saeki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s expressed a worldview held by large numbers of Japanese during the 1930s. They saw themselves as sophisticated citizens of the world: their country created a national park system to rival that of the United States, their country sent successful teams to both the winter and summer Olympics (and, in fact, was awarded the right to host the 1940s games by the International \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 53 Committee), and they celebrated Christmas exactly as all Western countries did (although in Japan it did not have any religious significance).135 Modernity here was positively understood as \u00E2\u0080\u009Csophistication\u00E2\u0080\u009D and implicitly contrasted to the following period that is known as the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdark valley.\u00E2\u0080\u009D Not everybody reads Japanese-style paintings of modern girls produced in the late 1930s positively, however. In his exhibition review, Greg Cook critically pointed out that the museum did not explain the relationship between the paintings displayed and the socio-political context of the developing war and atrocities, including the Nanjing Massacre of 1937.136 Sebastian Smee, who also reviewed the exhibition, suggests that the girls in Saeki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting appear \u00E2\u0080\u009Cgeneric\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cunapproachable\u00E2\u0080\u009D and look like \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpalace guards\u00E2\u0080\u009D: placed against a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cgrid\u00E2\u0080\u009D-like background, the girls seem to be \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpassive women who dreamily, even languidly, accepted their place.\u00E2\u0080\u009D137 Indeed, in Tearoom, the subjects\u00E2\u0080\u0099 faces appear hollow and grim as they look emotionlessly into the distance, and as a result, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 135 The museum did not produce a catalogue for this exhibition, but information relating to it can be found on the museum\u00E2\u0080\u0099s website. The website does not name the show\u00E2\u0080\u0099s curator. (accessed on 30 May 2010). 136 Greg Cook, \u00E2\u0080\u009CEast meets West,\u00E2\u0080\u009D The Boston Phoenix, 24 March 2009. (accessed on 30 May 2010). 137 Sebastian Smee, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA Changing Japan: Transporting Show Captures Era\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Shift,\u00E2\u0080\u009D The Boston Globe, 9 August 2009. (accessed on 25 May 2010) \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 54 the painting evokes a sense of coldness, solemnity, and chilling calmness. Smee furthermore writes that the painting expresses \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe flavor of Japanese modernism that had changed\u00E2\u0080\u009D and that it evokes \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca new kind of conformity, one that uncannily anticipated the peculiar mixture of Westernization and corporate conformity in postwar Japan.\u00E2\u0080\u009D138 Regarding 1930s Japanese-style paintings of modern girls more broadly, art historian Shiokawa Ky\u00C5\u008Dko has stated that she sees \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe eeriness of fascism\u00E2\u0080\u009D behind them.139 Another art historian, Sat\u00C5\u008D Miki, similarly writes that the paintings, whether directly or indirectly, represent the social conditions and unstable situation of the 1930s, the advent of the Fifteen Year War.140 In other words, unlike the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, these reviewers and art historians see a quality of conformity, collectivism, and state control\u00E2\u0080\u0094rather than liberalism, individualism, and democracy\u00E2\u0080\u0094in paintings such as Saeki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Tearoom. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 138 Smee, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA Changing Japan.\u00E2\u0080\u009D 139 Originally in Shiokawa Ky\u00C5\u008Dko, \u00E2\u0080\u009CF\u00C5\u00ABzokuga: minsh\u00C5\u00ABshi no sh\u00C5\u008Dnin\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Genre Works: Witnesses of History of the Masses], in Kindai Nihonga ni okeru f\u00C5\u00ABzokuga [Genre Works in Modern Japanese-style Paintings](Kyoto: Kyoto City Museum, 1984), 7. Quoted in Sat\u00C5\u008D Miki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNihongaka tachi no shisen: 1930 nendai no Nihonga ni tsuite\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Gaze of Japanese Artists: About Japanese-style Paintings of the 1930s], in 1930 nendai ten [The Exhibition of 1930s Art] (Tsu: Mie Prefectural Art Museum, 1999). Reproduced online (accessed 30 May 2010). 140 Sat\u00C5\u008D Miki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNihongaka tachi no shisen: 1930 nendai no Nihonga ni tsuite.\u00E2\u0080\u009D \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 55 In this chapter, I examine a corpus of Japanese-style paintings produced between 1935 and 1940 that depict modern urban women, attending to the way in which they reflect the socio-political context of their production. I will argue that the visual field of these paintings can be understood as metonymic of a regimented, over-homogenized fascist social space wherein individuals are subsumed under the state, being surveilled, mobilized, and disciplined for war. In so doing, this chapter shows how international modernist aesthetics (such as machine aesthetics and rationalism), which was informed by modernity (the development of technology and science), was co-opted by the state. First, I trace the history of Japanese-style paintings and explain how the paintings produced between 1935 and 1940\u00E2\u0080\u0094which share aesthetics with several closely- connected modernist art forms such as Art Deco, Bauhaus, Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s architecture, machine art, and New Objectivity\u00E2\u0080\u0094are different from the Japanese-style paintings of the previous period. Illustrating how Bauhaus and Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works survived under fascism and were appropriated by the state in Germany and Italy to design the social space of Gleichschaltung (German: \u00E2\u0080\u009Cforcible coordination\u00E2\u0080\u009D) and gerarchia (Italian: \u00E2\u0080\u009Chierarchy\u00E2\u0080\u009D), I argue that this appropriation of international modernism took place in Japan too. Considered from this perspective, the group of paintings examined in this chapter, I suggest, can be read in terms of regimentation, state surveillance, and mechanization/dehumanization of the human subject. Lastly, I explain how, in Japan, the rationalized fascist social space was theorized and understood as embodying \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D values and aesthetics. I conclude this chapter by drawing out how my study challenges the previously held assumptions about modern girls in particular and modernity and modern art in general. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 56 Japanese-Style Machinist Paintings 1935-1940 Japanese-style painting (Nihon-ga) is a genre established by nationalist art critic Okakura Tenshin and Harvard graduate Ernest Fenollosa in the late nineteenth century. They attempted to create \u00E2\u0080\u009Cauthentic\u00E2\u0080\u009D Japanese national art by (paradoxically) merging Western ideas\u00E2\u0080\u0094that fine arts should exclude calligraphic elements and be created for the public\u00E2\u0080\u0094and Japanese artistic traditions. Consequently encompassing a wide range of Japanese pre-modern artistic traditions such as the Kan\u00C5\u008D, Tosa, Rinpa, and Shij\u00C5\u008D schools, to name but a few, Japanese-style paintings were defined in opposition to Western-style paintings (y\u00C5\u008Dga).141 Kobori Tomoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Abolition of the Han System (1871)
, to which I will return, is a naturalistically rendered history painting and an example of the early Japanese-style paintings. With the introduction of impressionism from Europe, Japanese-style painters began deploying art as a means of individualized expression.142 The New Literati Painting Movement (shin nanga) of the late 1910s, for example, explored spontaneous \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 141 Victoria Weston, Japanese Painting and National Identity: Okakura Tenshin and His Circle (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2004); Ellen Conant, Nihonga: Transcending the Past: Japanese-Style Painting, 1868-1968 (St. Louis, MO: St. Louis Art Museum, 1995). 142 Aida-Yuen Wong, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA New Life for Literati Painting in the Early Twentieth Century: Eastern Art and Modernity, a Transcultural Narrative?\u00E2\u0080\u009D Artibus Asiae 60 (2000): 297- 326; Paul Berry and Morioka Michiyo, Literati Modern: Bunjinga from Late Edo to Twentieth-Century Japan (Honolulu: Honolulu Academy of Arts, 2008). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 57 brushstrokes as expressions of artists\u00E2\u0080\u0099 individual subjectivity, drawing on the Chinese literati tradition. In 1911, the magazine Shirakaba introduced post-impressionist works by C\u00C3\u00A9zanne, van Gogh, Gauguin, and Matisse, and by Japanese-style artists such as Kokei, Maeda Seison, and Takeuchi Seih\u00C5\u008D, who had travelled to Europe in the 1920s.143 Tsuchida Bakusen also studied in Europe and was heavily influenced by Paul Gauguin. Bakusen experimented with formal abstraction and dramatic colors while turning to the decorative qualities and smooth paints of Japanese traditional art, such as yamato-e, Rinpa, and ukiyo-e.144 Unlike Kobori\u00E2\u0080\u0099s 1871 work, Bakusen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Maiko in Landscape
features thick paint. While it might not be about contemporary life, Bakusen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work also lacks the element of historicity found in Kobori\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting. With its saturated colors, deformation of the figure, spatial disjuncture, though it belongs to the traditional genre of bijin-ga (paintings of beautiful people), Bakusen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work marks a new phase of Japanese-style paintings that were informed by post-impressionist modern European art. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 143 Shajitsu no keifu IV: \u00E2\u0080\u009Ckaiga\u00E2\u0080\u009D no jukusei\u00E2\u0080\u00941930 nendai no Nihonga to y\u00C5\u008Dga [The Genealogy of Realism: Maturation of \u00E2\u0080\u009CPainting\u00E2\u0080\u009D\u00E2\u0080\u0094Japanese-Style Paintings and Western- Style Paintings] (Tokyo: The Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo, 1994). 144 Doris Croissant, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIcons of Femininity: Japanese National Painting and the Paradox of Modernity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Gender and Power in The Japanese Visual Field, ed. Joshua S. Mostow, Norman Bryson, and Maribeth Graybill (Honolulu: University of Hawai\u00E2\u0080\u0098i Press, 2003). For more on Bakusen, see John Szostak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Kokuga S\u00C5\u008Dsaku Ky\u00C5\u008Dkai and Kyoto Nihonga Reform in the Meiji, Taish\u00C5\u008D and Early Sh\u00C5\u008Dwa Years (1900-1928), Ph.D. diss. (Seattle: University of Washington, 2005). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 58 A slightly different artistic trend started to develop around 1935, in which painters portrayed modern girls with modern industrial products. Sasaki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Tearoom, which depicts industrial materials including aluminum and steel, belongs to this genre, and for that reason is distinct from Bakusen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Maiko in Landscape, which focuses on the natural landscape. Yamakawa Sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Three Sisters (1936)
shares certain characteristics with Tearoom. It is a portrait of three daughters of right-wing politician Kuhara Fusanosuke (1869\u00E2\u0080\u00931965), and it brings the modern motif of a white sedan into the pictorial space of the Japanese-style painting.145 Similarly, Biwa Concert
by Shibata Suiha (b. 1908), a painting of a woman with permed hair playing a biwa lute (a Japanese variation of the Chinese pipa), includes a microphone that looks like a modern-day camera in the right foreground of the painting.146 \u00C5\u008Cta Ch\u00C5\u008Du\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Women Observing the Stars (1936)
depicts a woman in a kimono sitting on a modern Western chair looking through a telescope, while Bathing Women I (1938) by Ogura Yuki depicts two naked women in a modern bath. This artistic trend was not limited to Japan: Korean artist Lee Yoo-tae\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Research, produced slightly later in 1944, also juxtaposes woman and modernity, showing a female scientist in a laboratory. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 145 Kendall H. Brown, Sharon Minichiello, and the Honolulu Academy of Arts, Taish\u00C5\u008D Chic: Japanese Modernity, Nostalgia, and Deco (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2005), 46. 146 Brown, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFlowers of Taisho: Images of Women in Japanese Society and Art: 1915- 1935,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Taisho Chic, 82. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 59 Notably, all of these paintings are remarkably large.147 This artistic trend continued until 1940, when traditional and historical subjects came to dominate the field of Japanese- style paintings. No label was attached to this artistic trend in Japanese-style paintings, either by the artists themselves or by critics. This is perhaps because the trend only continued for a few years and tended to be pursued by younger artists who had not yet established their names. Moga and machines might have entered the Japanese-style paintings earlier, but I argue that the quality of regimentation that I discussed above can be seen primarily in the paintings produced around and after 1935. As the Miyako shinbun in 1936 referred to a Japanese-style painting that shows subways as machine-ist (mekanizumu or kikaishugi), for convenience, throughout this chapter I will call the above-mentioned paintings Japanese-style machine-ist paintings.148 One of the characteristics of the Japanese-style machine-ist paintings is regimented spatial coordination. Kobori\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Abolition of the Han System, mentioned above, creates an illusion of three-dimensional space, placing figures against an architectural background. The artist draws on the pictorial conventions of European academicism and the principle of scientific perspective. As a result, the painting is naturalistic in its execution. Bakusen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Maiko in Landscape, created fifty years later, defies the spatial orientation of \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 147 Tearoom (264 x 197 cm), Three Sisters (177 x 333 cm), Biwa Concert (172 x 188 cm), Woman (150 x 200 cm), Women Observing the Stars (273 x 206 cm), Bathing Women I (209 x 174 cm). and Research (210x 151 cm). 148 \u00E2\u0080\u009CNihon-ga nimo mekanizumu\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Machine Aesthetics in Japanese-style Painting Too], Miyako shinbun, September 10, 1936. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 60 Kobori\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting. Just as Gauguin rebelled against academicism, Bakusen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work challenges perspectivism, creating a flat, two-dimensional space.149 In the painting, the shape of the coast snakes freely and the tree-covered island in the background seems to hover behind the girl\u00E2\u0080\u0099s head. Both the coast and the island refuse to recede in space. Machine-ist paintings of the 1930s operate in the two-dimensional space of Bakusen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting; unlike in Bakusen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting, however, the spatial formation of the machine-ist paintings is much more regimented, rationalized, and mechanically coordinated. While Bakusen uses organic, soft, round forms to stylize the shapes of the human figure and the natural environment, Yamakawa, for example, compares the contour lines of the three figures with the streamlined body of the car in his Three Sisters. In Shibata\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Biwa Concert too, the mechanical, plastic look of the microphone is echoed by the rather stiff outline that defines the biwa player\u00E2\u0080\u0099s body. What emphasizes the firmness of the lines is a simplified composition that makes use of a large flat blank space and focuses on the horizontal and vertical qualities of the canvas. In Three Sisters, spatial depth is only indicated by the grayish shadow under the car, and the background is as monotonous as the white of the car\u00E2\u0080\u0099s surface. Likewise, in Biwa Concert, the empty space does not provide a clue as to where the female player is located.150 The vertical form of the microphone is replicated in the upright posture of the woman. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 149 It is important to note that Bakusen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s project of Kokuga Seisaku Ky\u00C5\u008Dkai was to create \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnational art.\u00E2\u0080\u009D In that sense, it remains to be established whether he ever tried to challenge the establishment in the political sense like Gauguin. 150 Kikuya Yoshio makes a similar point about the empty background in Japanese-style paintings produced around the 1930s. Kikuya Yoshio, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSh\u00C5\u008Dwa zenki ni okeru inten to \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 61 Comparing Kokei\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Bath (1921)
and Ogura Yuki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Bathing Women I (1938) makes the quality of regimentation in 1930s paintings even clearer.151 The two paintings are strikingly similar: both depict two naked women soaking in emerald green water. While Kokei\u00E2\u0080\u0099s bathroom has a wooden floor and tiles, however, Ogura\u00E2\u0080\u0099s is made of white industrial tile. The sense of warmth that the wooden architecture creates in Kokei\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting is absent in Ogura\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work, which focuses on the cool, sleek surface of the tile. And while Kokei creates a soft focus on the naked women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s bodies, Ogura clearly delineates the contour of the female bodies with firm black lines. Showing the white tiles at the bottom of the bathtub through the transparent water, Ogura places both women in a grid created by the rectangular tiles. The Genealogy of Machine Aesthetics in Modern Japan The Japanese-style machine-ist paintings employ the visual language of international modernism that embraced the development of science and technology, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 sono hasei dantai to no kankei\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The relationship between Inten and Other Art Groups in the Early Showa Period], in Nihon bijutsuin hyakunenshi (Tokyo: Nihon bijutsuin, 1998), 342\u00E2\u0080\u009343. 151 Ogura was the second female artist to receive the Order of Culture, the first being Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den. Ogura is the most famous of the artists I examine in this chapter. Although Sasaki, Yamakawa, Shibata, Nakamura, and \u00C5\u008Cta studied with relatively well known artists (It\u00C5\u008D Shinsui, It\u00C5\u008D Sh\u00C5\u008Dha, Kaburagi Kiyokata, Nishiyama Suish\u00C5\u008D and Maeda Seison, respectively), I could not locate writings or comments by them on the specific works analyzed here. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 62 which emerged in the first few decades of the twentieth century. This school of international modernism, distinct from other forms of modernism such as primitivism and fauvism, celebrated ideas and aesthetics associated with modernization, such as rationality, efficiency, objectivity, mass production, and standardization. Although machine aesthetics did not appear in the Japanese-style paintings until around 1935, they existed in other artistic media. Several different yet closely connected art forms and movements in Euro-America\u00E2\u0080\u0094Art Deco, machine art, Bauhaus\u00E2\u0080\u0099 design and photography, Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s rationalist architecture, and New Objectivity\u00E2\u0080\u0094were introduced to Japan during the 1920s, the time of Taish\u00C5\u008D democracy, and the Japanese-style machine-ist paintings show their influence. One of the art forms that seem to have inspired the Japanese-style machine-ist paintings is Art Deco. Charlotte Benton and Tim Benton identify Art Deco as a cosmopolitan style of art developed between 1910 and 1939 which is closely connected to capitalist consumerism, and which embraces the two dimensional, simplified shapes of electronics and machines such as streamline and zigzag.152 Taisho Chic: Japanese Modernity, Nostalgia and Deco, the exhibition organized by the Honolulu Academy of Art in 2002, included Yamakawa Sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Three Sisters and Shibata Suiha\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Biwa Concert. As the exhibition title suggests, the museum highlighted the connection between the paintings and the Art Deco movement. The museum displayed the paintings alongside Art Deco style decorative arts, including an aluminum condiment tray set \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 152 Charlotte Benton and Tim Benton, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Style and the Age,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Art Deco 1910-1939 (Boston: Bulfinch Press, 2003). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 63 which, according to the exhibition catalogue, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cwas considered the ultimate in art deco design\u00E2\u0080\u009D at the time.153 Another art form that is important to understand the Japanese-style machine-ist paintings is machine art, the landmark exhibition which took place in the Museum of Modern Art, New York in 1934. Some of the industrial products depicted in the Japanese-style machine-ist paintings were displayed in this exhibition in which daily products ranging from forks and spoons to clocks and electric toasters became examples of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cart.\u00E2\u0080\u009D The way in which these products were displayed in the exhibition and photographed for the catalogue, creating a kind of sacred aura around the objects, evoked capitalist advertising culture and commodity fetishism. Curator Philip Johnson articulated the allure of machine art, which was not so different from the aesthetics of Art Deco: the beauty of machine art is in part the abstract beauty of \u00E2\u0080\u0098straight lines and circles\u00E2\u0080\u0099 made into actual tangible \u00E2\u0080\u0098surfaces and solids\u00E2\u0080\u0099 by means of tools\u00E2\u0080\u00A6machines are, visually speaking, a practical application of geometry\u00E2\u0080\u00A6A knowledge of function may be of considerable importance in the visual enjoyment of machine art\u00E2\u0080\u00A6using or understanding the use of, the calipers, the retort, or the rotary floor polisher is likely to increase their aesthetic value\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 in addition to perfection of shape and rhythm, beauty of \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 153 Taisho Chic, 120. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 64 surface is an important aesthetic quality of machine art at its best\u00E2\u0080\u00A6the machine implies precision, simplicity, smoothness, reproducibility.154 Johnson thus claimed the beauty of industrial materials and economical design. The chair and telescope depicted in \u00C5\u008Cta\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Women Observing the Stars and the laboratory microscope and boiling flasks in Lee Yoo-tae\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Research are almost identical to those displayed in the Machine Art exhibition
. The beauty of machines had already been discussed in the preceding period by artists and art critics,155 especially Nakahara Minoru (1893-1990), Murayama Tomoyoshi (1901-1977), Koga Harue (1895-1933), and Itagaki Takao (1894-1966). Their discussions about machine-ism quite likely paved the way for the Japanese-style machine-ist paintings. According to art historian Omuka Toshiharu, machine-ism (mekanizumu/ kikaishugi) was first pursued around 1924 by a group of artists associated with Nakahara Minoru, who studied art in France and was active in the circle of Japanese avant-garde groups such as Action (Akushon).156 Nakahara defined machine-ism not only as paintings that depict machines but also as works whose composition and structure \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 154 Philip Johnson, forward to Machine Art (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1934): n.p. 155 For more on machine-ism before the war, see Chinghsin Wu, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTranscending the Boundaries of the \u00E2\u0080\u0098Isms\u00E2\u0080\u0099: Pursuing Modernity Through the Machine in 1920s and 1930s Japanese Avant-Garde Art, in Rethinking Japanese Modernism, ed. Roy Starrs (Leiden: Brill Academic Publisher, 2011). 156 Omuka Toshiharu, Nihon no avangyarudo geijutsu: Mavo to sono jidai [Japanese Avant-garde Art: Mavo and Its Period] (Tokyo: Seidosha, 2001), 287-288. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 65 were mechanistic.157 When machine-ism was introduced to Japan, as Omuka points out, it was associated with art that was anarchistic, anti-conformist art with elements of Dadaism.158 Murayama Tomoyoshi, the leader of the avant-garde group Mavo, enthusiastically promoted the idea of machine-ism. Murayama, who studied in Berlin for a year from 1922 to 1923, learned machine aesthetics through Italian Futurism and Russian Constructivism.159 Murayama, who became increasingly interested in Marxism and joined the Japan Communist Party in 1930, wrote an essay titled \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Machine Aesthetics in Recent Art\u00E2\u0080\u009D and advocated machine art in the context of proletarian revolution.160 Surveying how machine aesthetics had emerged in various art forms from surrealism to cubism and acknowledging how machines could be a tool for the bourgeoisie to exploit workers, Maruyama contends that machines could be a symbol for the strength of workers and that proletarian artists\u00E2\u0080\u0099 mission is to find the beauty of machines particular to workers and elevate it to the realm of art.161 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 157 Omuka, Nihon no avangyarudo geijutsu, 290. 158 Omuka, Nihon no avangyarudo geijutsu, 292. 159 Omuka, Nihon no avangyarudo geijutsu, 293-295 160 Maruyama Tomoyoshi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSaikin no geijutsu ni okeru kikaibi\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Machine Aesthetics in Recent Art], Atorie, May 1929. 161 Murayama, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSaikin no geijutsu ni okeru kikaibi,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 22. Another avant-garde artist Kamabara Tai also considers the role of machine in proletarian society. Kambara Tai, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKikai wa naniga yue ni warera puroretari\u00C4\u0081to ni tottenomi \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 66 Western-style painter Koga Harue was also fascinated by machines.162 He is recognized as the most representative artist of Japanese surrealism (ch\u00C5\u008Dgenjitsushugi), which appeared in Japanese visual arts for the first time at the Nikakai exhibition in 1929. Although he considered himself a surrealist, his understanding of surrealism was different from that advocated by Andr\u00C3\u00A9 Breton (1896-1966), which was about the expression of inner subjectivity and the unconscious through the exploration of dream and the rejection of reason. Koga, for example, stated that \u00E2\u0080\u009Cart of imagination and dream is not surrealist [ch\u00C5\u008Dgenjitsu]\u00E2\u0080\u00A6Surrealism is about conscious constructivism [ishikiteki k\u00C5\u008Dsei] that yearns for purity. Therefore, surrealism is intellectualism.\u00E2\u0080\u009D163 His most famous surrealist work, Sea
, executed in oil on canvas in 1929, depicts a woman in swimwear with motifs that stand for the modern: factory, submarine, balloon, and lighthouse. As \u00C5\u008Ctani Sh\u00C5\u008Dgo points out, Koga\u00E2\u0080\u0099s montage-like\u00E2\u0080\u0094rather than collage-like\u00E2\u0080\u0094arrangement and his attention to forms of industrial objects allude to preoccupation with the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 utsukushiika?\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Why Does Machine Art Beautiful Only to Proletariat Art?], Shi/ Genjitsu 3, 1930. 162 For scholarship on Koga Harue in English, see Chinghsin Wu, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapan Encounters the Avant-Garde: The Art and Thought of Koga Harue, 1895-1933,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Ph.D. diss. (Los Angels: University of California, Los Angels, 2010). 163 Originally in Atorie, January 1930. Quoted in Nagato Saki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFuy\u00C5\u00ABsuru im\u00C4\u0093ji: Koga Harue [The Images that Float],\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Koga Harue: A Retrospective (Tokyo: Tokyo Shimbun, 2010), 173. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 67 rationalism of machine-ism more than to surrealism.164 Koga\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Sea, which places a woman and modern industrial objects in the same visual field, indeed looks similar to Japanese-style machine-ist paintings. Art critic Itagaki Takao also promoted machine aesthetics, and his theory became prevalent, particularly in the field of photography. Itagaki published an influential book titled The Interrelation Between Machine and Art (Kikai to geijutsu to no k\u00C5\u008Dry\u00C5\u00AB) in 1929, and in 1932 Horino Masao, who was a member of the New Photography Research Society (Shink\u00C5\u008D shashin kenky\u00C5\u00ABkai), published a collection of his photographs called Camera: Eye x Steel: Composition (Kamera, Me x tetsu. K\u00C5\u008Dsei), drawing on Itagaki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s theory.165 Challenging the pictorialist convention of photography that prevailed between the 1900s and the 1920s in Japan, Itagaki and Horino explored a new, objective way of seeing reality and advocated an art of mechanical civilization.166 As art historian Takeba Joe claims, Itagaki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s theory of machine-ism originated in his interest in the New Objectivity (Neue Sachlichkeit) movement in Germany. New Objectivity was a term coined by German museum director Gustav Hartlaub in 1923. It referred to a corpus of \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 164 \u00C5\u008Ctani Sh\u00C5\u008Dgo, \u00E2\u0080\u009CCh\u00C5\u008Dgenjitsushugi to kikaishugi no hazamade\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Between Surrealism and Machine-ism], Geis\u00C5\u008D (1994): 101-129. More on the connection between Koga and machine-ism, see Nagata Ken\u00E2\u0080\u0099ichi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKoga Harue \u00E2\u0080\u0098Umi\u00E2\u0080\u0099 (1929) to tokeru sakana\u00E2\u0080\u009D[Koga Harue\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Sea (1929) and Dissolving Fish], Bigaku (Fall, 2006): 29-42. 165 Takeba Joe, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Age of Modernism: From Visualization to Socialization,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in The History of Japanese Photography,\u00E2\u0080\u009D ed. Anne Wilkes Tucker (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2003), 146. 166 Takeba, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Age of Modernism: From Visualization to Socialization,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 144. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 68 post-expressionist paintings produced after the Great War that take urban contemporary life as their subject matter and represent such qualities as scientific objectivity, stillness, and sobriety, and was a part of the \u00E2\u0080\u009Creturn to order\u00E2\u0080\u009D movement in the post-war Europe that rejected extreme forms of avant-garde experimentation.167 New Objectivity and Japanese-style machine-ist paintings seem to share some qualities in common: a sense of coldness, matter-of-factness, stillness, isolation, and mathematical precision in urban city life. There are two canonical international art movements that influenced all of the above-mentioned Japanese artists and art critics who pursued machine-ism: Bauhaus and Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s rationalism. Bauhaus, founded by architect Walter Gropius in 1919 in Germany, attempted to integrate art into everyday life and create a total work of art by infusing fine arts, decorative arts, and architecture. Though the direction of the school changed over the years, Bauhaus in the 1920s embraced industrial technology and was considered to be associated with socialist reforms.168 Japanese artists, such as photographer Natori Y\u00C5\u008Dnosuke, who studied in Berlin in 1928, were already familiar with \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 167 Irene Guenther, \u00E2\u0080\u009CMagic Realism, New Objectivity, and the Arts during the Weimar Republic,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Magical Realism: Theory, History, Community, ed. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris (Durham; London: Duke University Press, 1995); Kenneth E Silver, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA More Durable Self,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Chaos & Classicism: Art in France, Italy, and Germany, 1918-1936 (New York: Guggenheim Museum, 2010). 168 Kathleen James-Chakraborty, tntroduction to Bauhaus Culture: From Weimar to The Cold War, ed. Kathleen James-Chakraborty (Minneapolis; London: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), xii. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 69 Bauhaus works, including photographs by Hungarian Bauhaus artist L\u00C3\u00A1szl\u00C3\u00B3 Moholy- Nagy. Moholy-Nagy\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Soviet-constructivist-inspired photographs became much better known in Japan when the German International Travel Photography Exhibition, which was based on the Film und Foto exhibition in Stuttgart in 1929 and displayed 1180 photographs, was held in the Tokyo Asahi Newspaper Company building in April 1931.169 Japanese architects such as Mizutani Takehiko, Yamawaki Iwao, and Yamaguchi Bunz\u00C5\u008D attended the Bauhaus school in the late 1920s, and they studied Bauhaus\u00E2\u0080\u0099 modern, functional, unornamented, standardized buildings. In 1932, Kawakida Renshichir\u00C5\u008D founded The Institute of Architecture and Applied Arts (Shin kenchiku k\u00C5\u008Dgei gakuin), which was modeled on the Bauhaus school. The interior of the house built in 1935 by Tsuchiura Kameki (1897-1996), who taught at the Institute, bears a striking resemblance to the bathroom painted by Ogura Yuki in her Bathing Women I three years later. Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s rationalist architecture, which shared aesthetics with Bauhaus in many ways, was also introduced to Japan. Le Corbusier (1887-1965), a Swiss-born French architect, advocated deploying mass production and standardization of housing in an effort to reconstruct urban cities in France after the destruction of the Great War (1914-1919). Famously proclaiming that \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca house is a machine for living in,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Le Corbusier actively incorporated into his working principle American, capitalist models of Scientific Management such as Fordism and Taylorism, which turned to industrial efficiency and mass production and aimed at greater productivity through the use of \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 169 Takeba, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Age of Modernism: From Visualization to Socialization,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 146; T\u00C5\u008Dky\u00C5\u008D- berurin/ Tokyo-Berlin (Tokyo: Mori Art Museum, 2006), 189. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 70 assembly lines and standardization.170 With Scientific Management, Le Corbusier thought housing could be mass-produced and thus would be available to all, which would contribute to social renewal and avoid socialist revolution.171 Japanese architect Maekawa Kunio (1905-1986) lived in France between 1928 and 1930 and apprenticed with Le Corbusier. There, Maekawa studied and worked on Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s public projects, residential designs, and low-cost housing.172 Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s design and writings were translated and introduced to Japan around 1929, and were zealously discussed and emulated by Japanese architects and critics.173 The Fascist Society: Gleischschaltung, Gerarchia, and Proper Place Although Japanese-style machine-ist paintings produced in the mid- and late- 1930s drew on machine aesthetics developed in the previous period, they were situated in a markedly different context. The modernist style of art is often associated with liberal political ideologies such as individualism and democracy, but modernism did not disappear in the 1930s in Germany, Italy, and Japan, the countries that established fascist societies. Rather than equating an artistic style with a political ideology, it is important to examine how modernism negotiated its politics as its social context changed. In what \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 170 Mary McLeod, \u00E2\u0080\u009C\u00E2\u0080\u0098Architecture or Revolution\u00E2\u0080\u0099: Taylorism, Technocracy and Social Change,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Art Journal 43. 2 (1987): 135. 171 Mary McLeod, \u00E2\u0080\u009C\u00E2\u0080\u0098Architecture or Revolution,\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00E2\u0080\u009D 136. 172 Reynolds, Maekawa Kunio and the Emergence of Japanese Modernist Architecture, 59-61. 173 Reynolds, Maekawa Kunio, 69. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 71 follows, I will first discuss Bauhaus and Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works, which continued to exist in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, respectively. Drawing on historians such as Yamanouchi Yasushi, I will argue that wartime Japan was also fascist in its social structure. I will ultimately demonstrate how the state mobilized modernism for its political ends in Japan and suggest that the Japanese-style machine-ist paintings should be read in this light. Despite the infamous \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdegenerate art exhibition\u00E2\u0080\u009D of 1933 held by the Nazis, which supposedly put an end to German modern art, and the closing of the Bauhaus school in the same year, recent scholarship documents the production of Bauhaus-style art and the activities of Bauhaus members under the Third Reich. The German craft movement was closely related to Nazi economic policies in which Germany tried to be self-sufficient, and Bauhaus craft design played a major role in this discourse.174 Likewise, many Bauhaus architects\u00E2\u0080\u0094Gustav Hassenpflug, Konrad P\u00C3\u00BCschel, Werner Hebebrand, Walter Kratz, Rudolf Wolters, to name a few\u00E2\u0080\u0094received commissions and positions from Nazi Germany and designed private industrial facilities and military buildings.175 As Winfried Nerdinger indicates, Bauhaus\u00E2\u0080\u0099 aesthetic principle and the Nazi ideology were not incompatible: \u00E2\u0080\u009CConnecting technology with industrial production, speed, and progress on armaments promoted the use of technical materials such as glass, steel, and concrete, as well as the architectural representation of technical values such as rationalization and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 174 John Heskett, \u00E2\u0080\u009CModernism and Archaism in Design in the Third Reich.\u00E2\u0080\u009D 175 Nerdinger, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBauhaus Architecture in the Third Reich,\u00E2\u0080\u009D140; 148. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 72 functionality, even encouraging a Nazi-specific concept of the \u00E2\u0080\u0098beauty of technology.\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00E2\u0080\u009D176 Thus, Bauhaus played a role in Nazi society, which is characterized by Gleichschaltung. Gleichschaltung, meaning \u00E2\u0080\u009Cforcible coordination,\u00E2\u0080\u009D \u00E2\u0080\u009Csynchronization,\u00E2\u0080\u009D or \u00E2\u0080\u009Cenforced homogeneity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D refers to the mechanical means by which the Nazi party dismantled all autonomous institutions, forced citizens to join party organizations, tried to eliminate disparities between classes and regions, coordinated legal systems and bureaucracy, and rooted out resistance.177 Under Gleichschaltung, all people were forced to act in official organizations that were like small cells that constituted the state: the society was organized in a grid. 178 This compartmentalization of citizens allowed the government additional influence and control. The social space of Gleichschaltung thus would have been evened out, geometrically organized, and homogenized. As Bauhaus experienced a smooth transformation from the Weimar Republic to the Third Reich, Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works did not have much problem shifting from the post-\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 176 Nerdinger, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBauhaus Architecture,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 147. 177 Yamanouchi Yasushi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTotal-War and System Integration: A Methodological Introduction,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Total War and \u00E2\u0080\u009CModernization,\u00E2\u0080\u009D ed. Yasushi Yamanouchi, J. Victor Koschmann, and Ryuichi Narita (Ithaca; New York: Cornell University, 1998), 3; Amemiya Sh\u00C5\u008Dichi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSelf-Renovation of Existing Social Forces and Gleichschaltung: The Total-War System and the Middle Classes,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Total War and \u00E2\u0080\u009CModernization,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 237; Ralf Dahrendorf, Society and Democracy in Germany (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1969), 381-396. 178 This bears a striking resemblance to the tonarigumi in wartime Japan, which I discuss below. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 73 Great War France to Fascist Italy. In Fascist Italy rationalist architects, who turned to Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s art and writings, envisioned a society that was built upon the principle of gerarchia (hierarchy), which was not very different from the Nazi society of Gleichschaltung. As Diane Yvonne Ghirardo explains: The concept of gerarchia informed a society in which function and authority strictly regulated each person\u00E2\u0080\u0099s place; presumably those with the appropriate capacities occupied each niche. The upper echelons defined the responsibilities of the lower strata, and all, of course, were ultimately defined by the Duce\u00E2\u0080\u00A6Giovanni Gentile, one of the leading theorists of Fascism, argued that individualism was incompatible with the idea of the nation. The individual must submit to the authority of the state, and in this way realize himself more fully than would have been possibly in the traditional liberal-democratic state.179 Ghirardo suggests not only that the idea of hierarchical social order imposed from above was inherent in Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s writing, but also that his architectural design alludes to it. The fascist ideal of self-effacement under the state corresponded with the lack of individuality and the collective anonymity that Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s design embodied.180 Japan in the 1930s, when the Japanese-style machine-ist paintings were produced, was comparable to Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in terms of how their societies and citizens were controlled by the state and mobilized for war. Although intense \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 179 Ghirardo, \u00E2\u0080\u009CItalian Architects and Fascist Politics: An Evaluation of the Rationalist Role in Regime Building\u00E2\u0080\u009D: 121. 180 Ghirardo, \u00E2\u0080\u009CItalian Architects,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 122-123. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 74 mobilization of Japanese citizens\u00E2\u0080\u0099 lives for war did not begin until 1937, when Japan started an undeclared war with China, the Manchurian Incident of 1931 marked the rise of militarism and the beginning of the Fifteen-Year War, changing Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s political discourse considerably. As Louise Young\u00E2\u0080\u0099s study investigating the political, economic and cultural interconnectedness between Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s colonies and home front tellingly demonstrates, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe process of empire building in Manchuria touched the lives of most Japanese in the 1930s in one way or another.\u00E2\u0080\u009D181 After the Manchurian Incident, Japanese domestic society gradually established a social system that prepared its citizens for total war. With the Manchurian Incident, the civilian leadership in Tokyo lost control over the military, which became increasingly strong over the years and won support from a public that had wanted its government to take more decisive measures to solve economic and social problems triggered by the Great Depression. In 1933, following the backlash against its advancement into Manchuria, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations, isolating itself from the international community. As historian Andrew Gordon indicates, the relationship between the state and citizens substantially changed even before 1937.182 Referring to the Election Purification Movement in 1935, in which the government attempted to control the function of mass politics, Gordon writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe state would place itself in the role of political mobilizer, not mediator, of diverse groups in society; it would not undertake to \u00E2\u0080\u0098represent\u00E2\u0080\u0099 the imperial and popular wills, as the parties sought, but to \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 181 Young, Japan's Total Empire: Manchuria and the Culture of Wartime Imperialism, 13. 182 Gordon, Labor and Imperial Democracy in Prewar Japan, 320. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 75 mobilize and to direct the will of the people in service to an emperor whose will the state defined.\u00E2\u0080\u009D183 After the Manchurian Incident, the government called for the \u00E2\u0080\u009Csoldierization of citizens\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kokumin no guntai ka) and expected people at home (j\u00C5\u00ABgo, the home front) to devote themselves to the war as much as the solders on the battlefields (zensen, the front line).184 Citizens\u00E2\u0080\u0099 private lives were increasingly brought under the state\u00E2\u0080\u0099s expansive, pyramid-like network of surveillance. Most important was the creation of tonarigumi (Neighborhood Associations), in which local community members acted as a group, dealing with everyday matters together and being responsible for each other. Eight duties were outlined by Tokyo authorities as the tasks of the tonarigumi in 1940: \u00E2\u0080\u009C[liaising] with the community councils, acting as a neighborhood social group, air and fire defense, counterespionage, crime prevention, encouraging savings deposits, reforming daily living, and distributing commodities.\u00E2\u0080\u009D185 Tonarigumi, consisting of several households (eleven, on average), did regular activities such as organizing lectures by state officials, sending comfort kits to soldiers, and raising funds during state campaigns (most famously the kokub\u00C5\u008D National Self-Defense Campaign).186 As many as 1,323,473 neighborhood \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 183 Gordon, Labor and Imperial Democracy in Prewar Japan, 320. 184 Fujiwara Akira, Mansh\u00C5\u00AB jihen to kokumin d\u00C5\u008Din [The Manchurian Incident and the Mobilization of Citizens] (Tokyo: \u00C5\u008Ctsuki shoten, 1983), 584-5 185 Thomas Havens, Valley of Darkness: The Japanese People and World War Two (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1978), 77. 186 Havens, Valley of Darkness, 36-43. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 76 associations were created by July 1942.187 In October 1942, tonarigumi also became responsible for distributing food and clothing rations.188 In historian Thomas Haven\u00E2\u0080\u0099s words, each tonarigumi was an \u00E2\u0080\u009Corganizational cell for sustaining the war.\u00E2\u0080\u009D189 Patrolling for suspicious and immoral behavior within local communities, tonarigumi members often reported directly to the Military Police (Kempeitai) and Special Higher Police (Tokubetsu K\u00C5\u008Dt\u00C5\u008D Keisatsu) who monitored the private lives of citizens for potential espionage activities or political crimes.190 They especially targeted socialists, communists, pacifists, foreign workers and anybody who opposed the emperor system. Between 1933 and 1936, the Military Police and Special Higher Police arrested approximately sixty thousand people for \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdangerous thoughts.\u00E2\u0080\u009D191 The Military Police and Special Higher Police reported to the Army and Navy, respectively, who were ultimately under the command of the emperor
. In this system, as Gordon writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009CHowever passively, the people were linked to the state and the emperor through a vast and expanding network of functional organs imposed upon them by the state\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 All the independent organizations of workers, tenant farmers, businessmen, and politicians, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 187 Havens, Valley of Darkness, 77. 188 Havens, Valley of Darkness, 80. 189 Havens, Valley of Darkness, 73. 190 Edogawa Ranpo\u00E2\u0080\u0099s war propaganda story Idainaru Yume [The Great Dream] (1943) alludes to the psychological tension resulting from surveillance by and the invisible gaze of the kempeitai and potential spies. Raymond Lamont-Brown, Kempeitai: Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Dreaded Military Police (Stroud, England: Sutton, 1998), 15 191 Lamont-Brown, Kempeitai, 16. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 77 so painstakingly and haltingly created over the previous thirty years, were dissolved and destroyed.\u00E2\u0080\u009D192 Historian Kim Brandt\u00E2\u0080\u0099s study provides the most extreme example of how women were to be scrutinized in the society of wartime surveillance. The officially sanctioned mingei (Japanese Arts and Crafts) group produced a plan for a girls\u00E2\u0080\u0099 dormitory for a spinning factory in 1941, though it was never realized. By building a dormitory for the factory girls, most of whom would have come from rural areas of Japan, the plan was to increase their labor productivity.193 To keep them both industrious and under total control, the factory was envisioned as a site of no privacy. One of the planners said, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cas soon as they return home and open the door, they [will be] monitored in the way they open and close the door, in the way they take their coats off, in how they make their greeting, how they put down their parcels, how they sit, how they stand up, and in such ways an entire training in daily lifestyle occurs.\u00E2\u0080\u009D194 They even planned how the girls would spend their leisure time. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 192 Gordon, Labor and Imperial Democracy, 330. 193 Brandt, \u00E2\u0080\u009CMingei and the Wartime State, 1937-1945.\u00E2\u0080\u009D Also see Nagata Ken\u00E2\u0080\u0099ichi, \u00E2\u0080\u009C\u00E2\u0080\u0098Binokuni\u00E2\u0080\u0099 NIPPON to sono jitsugen no yume\u00E2\u0080\u009D [\u00E2\u0080\u0098The Nation of Beauty\u00E2\u0080\u0099 NIPPON and The Dream of Its Realization], in Kindai Nihon dezain shi [History of Japanese Modern Design], ed. Nagata Ken\u00E2\u0080\u0099ichi (Tokyo: Bijutsu shuppan, 2006). 194 Originally in Shikiba Ry\u00C5\u00ABzabur\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJoshu r\u00C5\u008Dmusha no seikatsu y\u00C5\u008Dshiki no mondai\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Issue of The Form of Daily Life for Female Workers], Gekkan mingei 3 (March 1941), 9. Quoted in Brandt, Kingdom of Beauty, 163. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 78 This fascist society was a quintessentially modern space, as it turned heavily to industrial power. To realize the total war regime, the government sought to increase national industrial production, to which rationalization was central: in the Industrial Rationalization Movement (Sangy\u00C5\u008D G\u00C5\u008Drika Und\u00C5\u008D), the state employed Scientific Management based on Taylorism and Fordism, which aimed to maximize the ratio of output to input through the use of assembly lines and product standardization.195 In the early 1930s, the state gradually consolidated large private corporations in order to control industrial production, consumption, and distribution.196 Also, even though the wartime government acknowledged the importance of the agricultural sector, in the process of increasingly turning to heavy, chemical, and military industry, they built more and more factories in rural areas, considerably changing social relations. Japanese historians Narita Ry\u00C5\u00ABichi, Amemiya Sh\u00C5\u008Dichi, and Yamanouchi Yasushi claim that wartime Japan and Germany share the characteristic of Gleichschaltung, a Nazi term for the process by which that regime established totalitarian control.197 Yamanouchi Yasushi writes, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 195 William Tsutsui, Manufacturing Ideology: Scientific Management in Twentieth- Century Japan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998). 196 Amemiya, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSelf-Renovation of Existing Social Forces and Gleichschaltung,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Total War and \u00E2\u0080\u009CModernization,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 224-225. 197 In Japanese, Gleichschaltung is written as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cguraihisharutounku\u00E2\u0080\u009D and translated as ky\u00C5\u008Dseiteki kakuitsuka, or forced/compulsory standardization. Yamanouchi Yasushi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTotal-War and System Integration: A Methodological Introduction,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Total War and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 79 [In Japan] it was expected that through \u00E2\u0080\u009Cenforced homogeneity\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Gleichschaltung] all members of society would share the burden of the social functions required to prosecute the war. The total-war system would eradicate the impetus toward social exclusion (born of the modern status order) and social conflict, rationalizing the entire society toward the single end of conducting war in the most efficient, functional manner.198 Wartime Japanese society, which Yamanouchi describes as a society of Gleichschaltung, however, was understood to embody particularly \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D values. As historian John Dower observes, what characterized the wartime Japanese view of an ideal society is the concept of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cproper place,\u00E2\u0080\u009D the idea that individuals should respect their position in the collective.199 The notion of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cproper place\u00E2\u0080\u009D draws on the Confucian idea of the family, and it justified the hierarchical, patriarchal social system. The ideal is clearly outlined in Cardinal Principles of the National Entity of Japan (Kokutai no hongi), issued by the government in 1937. Declaring that \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe spirit of harmony\u00E2\u0080\u009D is a unique characteristic of Japan, Cardinal Principles of the National Entity of Japan reads, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \u00E2\u0080\u009CModernization, 3; Amemiya Sh\u00C5\u008Dichi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSelf-Renovation of Existing Social Forces and Gleichschaltung,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Total War and \u00E2\u0080\u009CModernization,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 237. 198 Yamanouchi Yasushi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTotal-War and System Integration: A Methodological Introduction,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 3-4. 199 John Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 264. \u00E2\u0080\u009CProper place\u00E2\u0080\u009D does not have an equivalent in Japanese. The concept is epitomized by the phrase \u00E2\u0080\u009Cbun o mamoru,\u00E2\u0080\u009D which is repeatedly used in Cardinal Principles of the National Entity of Japan. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 80 Harmony as of our nation is not a mechanical concert of independent individuals of the same level that has its starting point in [cold] knowledge, but a great harmony that holds itself together by having the parts within the whole through actions that fit the parts.200 In each community there are those who take the upper places while there are those who work below them. Through each one fulfilling his portion is the harmony of a community obtained. To fulfill one\u00E2\u0080\u0099s part means to do one\u00E2\u0080\u0099s appointed task with the utmost faithfulness each in his own sphere\u00E2\u0080\u00A6This applies both to the community and to the State. In order to bring national harmony to fruition, there is no way but for every person in the nation to do his allotted duty and to exalt it.201 Even if the hierarchical, regimented society was understood to be \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapanese,\u00E2\u0080\u009D it is clear that the wartime view of a society in which individuals occupy their \u00E2\u0080\u009Cproper place\u00E2\u0080\u009D resonates with its German and Italian counterparts, Gleichschaltung and gerarchia. Shifting Politics of Modernist Art in Wartime Japan As in Germany and Italy, in Japan, too, modern art managed to exist in a social context different from that with which it was initially associated. Referring to architecture by Le Corbusier, artist Hasegawa Sabur\u00C5\u008D stated in 1941: \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 200 Kokutai no hongi/ Cardinal Principles of the National Entity of Japan, trans. John Owen Gauntlett (1937; repr.,Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1949), 93. 201 Kokutai no hongi, 98. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 81 Although modernist architecture has come to have a too-close relationship with machines, we should fairly evaluate it in that it manifests functionalism, machine- like precision, the beauty of rhythmic forms that are mathematically calculated and that have defined purposes and dynamic control.\u00E2\u0080\u009D202 He suggested that standardization is essential for total state control during war. Japanese scholar Kashiwagi Hiroshi provides a useful study which looks at how the political orientation of rationalist modern design changed over time.203 In the context of Taish\u00C5\u008D democracy in 1910s and 1920s Japan, the Lifestyle Reform Movement (Seikatsu Kaizen Und\u00C5\u008D) took place with slogans like kaizen, kairy\u00C5\u008D, kaiz\u00C5\u008D (all of which means \u00E2\u0080\u009Cimprovement\u00E2\u0080\u009D), in which Bauhaus- and Le Corbusier-inspired modernist interior designers such as Kogure Jyoichi (1881-1944) played a leading role, and rationalization of lifestyle was promoted. \u00E2\u0080\u009CRationalization\u00E2\u0080\u009D was equivalent to \u00E2\u0080\u009CWesternization,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 202 Hasegawa Nyozekan, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNihon jin no sumai to sumikata\u00E2\u0080\u009D [House and Lifestyle of Japanese], Atorie, July 1941, 19 203 See, for example Kashiwagi Hiroshi, Geijutsu no fukusei gijutsu jidai: nichij\u00C5\u008D no dezain [The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Everyday Life Design] (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1996); Fasshon no nijusseiki: toshi, sh\u00C5\u008Dhi, sei [The Fashion of the Twentieth Century: City, Consumption, and Sexuality] (Tokyo: NHK Books, 1998); Modan dezain hihan [The Critique of Modern Design] (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2002); Nichiy\u00C5\u008Dhin no bunka shi [The Cultural History of Daily Products] (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1999); \u00C5\u00AAtopia no yume: nijusseiki no miraiz\u00C5\u008D [The Dream of Utopia: Future Images of the Twentieth Century] (Tokyo: Miraisha, 1993); Kagu no modan dezain [The Modern Design of Furniture] (Tokyo: Tank\u00C5\u008Dsha, 2002). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 82 lifestyle reform meant, for example, using chairs instead of sitting on the floor, or wearing Western clothes instead of kimono, which restrict movement and therefore efficiency. Kogure designed and actively promoted standardized (kikaku-ka, kakuitsu-ka, hy\u00C5\u008Djun-ka) furniture, such as chairs, tables, and shelves, into the Japanese lifestyle. The Lifestyle Reform Movement was embedded in the larger 1920s discourse of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cculture life\u00E2\u0080\u009D (bunka seikatsu), and, in reality, only upper middle-class people in urban centers could afford such a lifestyle. In the 1940 New Order campaign, the government sought to lay the foundation for a new national culture, or \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdaily life culture\u00E2\u0080\u009D (seikatsu bunka), which was defined in opposition to the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cculture life\u00E2\u0080\u009D of the 1920s and in which every citizen (including women, children and rural populations) could participate.204 The Ministry of Commerce and Industry organized the National Daily Products Exhibition in 1941 and advocated as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnational daily products\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kokumin seikatsu y\u00C5\u008Dhin)
rationalist design and standardized items including lunch boxes, drawers, and plates made of affordable materials, bamboo and wood, for example, hailing them as producing maximum function with minimum resources.205 Along with the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnational uniform\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kokumin fuku) and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnational food\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kokumin shoku), the aim of the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnational daily products\u00E2\u0080\u009D was to standardize, control, and mobilize citizens\u00E2\u0080\u0099 everyday lives.206 Thus, as Kim Brandt argues, modern rationalist design in the 1940s participated in \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe project of lifestyle \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 204 Brandt, Kingdom of Beauty, 148 205 Brandt, Kingdom of Beauty, 146-155. 206 \u00E2\u0080\u009CKokumin seikatsu y\u00C5\u008Dhin tenrankai kaisai no shushi ni suite\u00E2\u0080\u009D [About the Purpose of National Daily Life Products Exhibition], K\u00C5\u008Dgei ny\u00C5\u00ABsu, May 1941, 6-7. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 83 reform for a nation at war.\u00E2\u0080\u009D207 Accordingly, Kogure\u00E2\u0080\u0099s project, which was oriented toward the improvement and rationalization of lifestyle in the private arena of family housing in earlier decades, came to be concerned more with the benefit of rationalized lifestyle in terms of the industrial production of the nation as a \u00E2\u0080\u009CSelf-Defense State\u00E2\u0080\u009D (Kokub\u00C5\u008D Kokka).208 The use of the modernist art forms during the war was not limited to interior design. Asahi shinbun\u00E2\u0080\u0099s propaganda photographic magazine Asahi Graph Oversea Edition, produced for foreign audiences, shows clearly modernist aesthetics. For example, the March 1936 issue
features a photograph of women in white kapp\u00C5\u008Dgi uniforms working in a factory producing light bulbs for export.209 In the picture, a circular shape created by the lighted bulbs in the foreground is repeated in the middle and in the background, creating a beautiful geometric harmony. The roundness of their shoulders, as well as the goggles and white uniforms the women wear, echo the circles and the shapes of the bulbs themselves. In short, the photograph embodies the machine aesthetics discussed above. As it was published in a propaganda magazine, however, the photograph also contains a palpable political message. As Inoue Y\u00C5\u00ABko suggests, it functioned to exhibit Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s growing industrial power after its conquest of Manchuria and attempted to persuade Western nations of the benefit of Japanese imperialism in terms of expanding economic markets; it also reflected Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s effort and need, especially after its withdrawal from the League of Nations in 1933, to find a new, modern \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 207 Brandt, Kingdom of Beauty, 154. 208 Kashiwagi, Geijutsu no fukusei gijutsu jidai: nichij\u00C5\u008D no dezain, 41. 209 Inoue Y\u00C5\u00ABko, Senji gurafu zasshi no sendensen, 91. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 84 national identity, one which would represent Japan to the West as a powerful, fully industrialized nation rather than as a pre-industrial nation of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cgeisha, Fujiyama, Utamaro\u00E2\u0080\u009D that would only respond to the Western Orientalist image of exotic Japan.210 Japanese artists and art critics, however, had to confront the uncomfortable fact that modernist aesthetics, which embraced rationalization, standardization, and machine aesthetics, initially came from the West and that what they were touting was essentially the Westernization of Japanese lifestyle and art. In the roundtable discussion on the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnational daily products\u00E2\u0080\u009D in the 1941 issue of Kogei ny\u00C5\u00ABsu, Hasegawa Nyozekan (1875- 1969) stated, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe experts have tended to focus on the form, but our spirit [kokoro] does not fit with it. It is too international\u00E2\u0080\u009D (my emphasis).211 The key figure who solved this problem was none other than Bruno Taut, a Bauhaus member who fled to Japan in 1933, escaping the cultural repression of the Nazis.212 In his 1939 book The Rediscovery of Japanese Beauty, he wrote about how he found the Bauhaus aesthetic principle in Japanese pre-modern architecture, Ise Shrine and Katsura Riky\u00C5\u00AB in particular
. Dismissing the aesthetics of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cwabi sabi,\u00E2\u0080\u009D part of the vocabulary in the discourse of Western Orientalism toward Japan, as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnot rational,\u00E2\u0080\u009D he argued that \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe Japanese spirit\u00E2\u0080\u009D \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 210 Inoue Y\u00C5\u00ABko, Senji gurafu zasshi no sendensen, 78; Gennifer Weisenfeld, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTouring \u00E2\u0080\u0098Japan-As-Museum\u00E2\u0080\u0099: NIPPON and Other Japanese Imperialist Travelogues, positions 8.3 (Winter 2000), 769. 211 Quoted in Kashiwagi, Geijutsu no fukusei gijutsu jidai: nichij\u00C5\u008D no dezain, 71. 212 Between 1940 and 1942, Le Corbusier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s student Charlotte Perriand was also in Japan, working for the Ministry of Trade and Industry. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 85 [nihonteki seishin] is not incompatible with such concepts as rationality, simplicity, and functionality.213 Hasegawa Nyozekan, once a leftist who even published a book criticizing \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapanese fascism\u00E2\u0080\u009D (as he called it) but who converted (tenk\u00C5\u008D) and became a prominent wartime cultural theorist, is an important figure in considering the wartime discourse of modernist aesthetics on three accounts.214 First, like Taut, Nyozekan discussed how Japanese culture, Japanese housing in particular, is rational (g\u00C5\u008Driteki). Admiring the straight lines and rectangular tatami flooring of Japanese houses, he claimed that the regulated, geometric form represented the orderliness of a uniquely Japanese \u00E2\u0080\u009Cspirit\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kokoro).215 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 213 Bruno Taut, Nihonbi no saihakken [The Rediscovery of Japanese Beauty], trans. Shinoda Hideo (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1939), 14-15. 214 Inoue Y\u00C5\u00ABko, Senji gurafu zasshi no sendensen, 98. For more on Nyozekan, see Andrew E. Barshay, \u00E2\u0080\u009CHasegawa Nyozekan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in State and Intellectual in Imperial Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988). 215 Hasegawa Nyozekan, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNihon jin no sumai to sumikata\u00E2\u0080\u009D [House and Lifestyle of Japanese], Atorie, July 1941, 9. Taut\u00E2\u0080\u0099s theory had substantial influence on the discourse of Japanese architecture. While Maekawa Kunio\u00E2\u0080\u0099s rationalist architecture was deemed \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctoo Corbusian,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Tange Kenz\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s architecture that combined Corbusian principles (absence of ornamentation, emphasis on simplicity, attention to form and function) and Japanese traditional architecture (Ise Shrine) was highly regarded in the early 1940s. Kestenbaum, \u00E2\u0080\u009CModernism and Tradition in Japanese Architectural Ideology, 1931-1955,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 234. For more on wartime architecture, see Reynolds, Maekawa Kunio; Inoue Sh\u00C5\u008Dkichi, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 86 Second, Nyozekan linked rationalist aesthetics to Japanese society at large. Nyozekan writes that although all Japanese have the same \u00E2\u0080\u009Cspirit,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Japanese society was historically hierarchical, following the Confucian shi, n\u00C5\u008D, k\u00C5\u008D, sh\u00C5\u008D (samurai-farmer- artisan-merchant) class division.216 This social structure, he argued, is reflected in the clearly divided spaces of Japanese houses, which determine individuals\u00E2\u0080\u0099 places in certain categories/classifications (hanch\u00C5\u00AB) within the household. Nyozekan thus theorized the physical space of the Japanese house as a metonym for Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s national space, and his understanding of Japanese society echoed the ideal of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cproper place\u00E2\u0080\u009D articulated in Cardinal Principles of the National Entity of Japan. Third, Nyozekan further developed the modernist aesthetic by arguing that human life should recreate its orderly form. He repeatedly claimed that \u00E2\u0080\u009Cart\u00E2\u0080\u009D is not an expression of beautiful emotions, but is rather a recreation of life (seikatsu no saigen). In his rather complicated theory, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cart\u00E2\u0080\u009D had two stages: \u00E2\u0080\u009Cto intuitively find [chokkan suru] a form [kata] that gives moral and aesthetic order to everyday life,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and then \u00E2\u0080\u009Cto recreate that form in everyday life in return.\u00E2\u0080\u009D217 What Nyozekan called \u00E2\u0080\u009Cform\u00E2\u0080\u009D is, according to \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \u00C4\u0080to, kicchu, japanesuku; Miyauchi K\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFashizumu to k\u00C5\u00ABkan: kenchiku no 1930 nendai.\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Fascism and Space: The Architecture of the 1930s], in Enkon no \u00C5\u00ABtopia Miyauchi K\u00C5\u008D no iru basho [Haunting Utopia: The Place of Miyauchi K\u00C5\u008D], ed. Enkon no \u00C5\u00ABtopia kank\u00C5\u008D iinkai (Tokyo: Renga shob\u00C5\u008D, 2000). 216 Hasegawa, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNihon jin no sumai to sumikata,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 9. 217 Inoue Y\u00C5\u00ABko, Senji gurafu zasshi no sendensen, 98. Nyozekan himself claims that the English translation of \u00E2\u0080\u009Ckata\u00E2\u0080\u009D is \u00E2\u0080\u009Cform.\u00E2\u0080\u009D Hasegawa Nyozekan, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNihon geijutsu no sh\u00C5\u008Dch\u00C5\u008D- sei\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Symbolisms of Japanese Art], Nihon eiga, January 1941. Reproduced in \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 87 him, something that is regulated (chitsujyo-ka) and not entirely natural; the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cform,\u00E2\u0080\u009D furthermore, controls and represses human emotions and instinct (honn\u00C5\u008D).218 Even if Nyozekan justified the rational \u00E2\u0080\u009Cform\u00E2\u0080\u009D as \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapanese,\u00E2\u0080\u009D it is important to remember that this aesthetics was essentially informed by modernist machine aesthetics. Claiming that the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cform\u00E2\u0080\u009D should be recreated in everyday life, Nyozekan virtually demanded the discipline and mechanical coordination of human life and projected the machine aesthetics of functionality and productivity onto human individuals. Thus, Nyozekan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s theory \u00E2\u0080\u009Cturned people into things,\u00E2\u0080\u009D something Susan Sontag defines as a characteristic of fascist aesthetics.219 The Japanese Machine-ist Paintings Revisited Understanding the role of modernist aesthetics during the war allows us to see the Japanese-style machine-ist paintings in a different light. The paintings produced after 1935 importantly reflect the social changes of the period that affected artistic production. In 1935, Minister of Education Matsuda Genji undertook a reform in order to revitalize the state-sponsored Exhibition of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts (teiten). Matsuda aimed to increase the quality of works by bringing in artists from private organizations, but paradoxically he also sought to reflect his conservative artistic taste in the exhibition. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Hasegawa Nyozekan, Hasegawa Nyozekan zensh\u00C5\u00AB VII (Tokyo Iwanami shoten, 1989), 142. 218 Itagaki Tetsuo, Hasegawa Nyozekan no shis\u00C5\u008D [Ideas by Hasegawa Nyozekan] (Tokyo: Yoshikawa Hirofumi kan, 2000), 94 219 Sontag, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascinating Fascism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 91. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 88 As a result, the exhibition committee rejected many Japanese-style paintings of moga that they considered displayed signs of cultural decadence, only accepting those that were \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnot gaudy\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kebakebashikunai), subdued, and discreet.220 The movement toward eradicating cultural decadence from the art world reflected the gloomy social reality of the time. Matsuda\u00E2\u0080\u0099s sentiment was shared by art critics such as Nakata Katsunosuke, who warned against excessive signs of liberalism and hedonism that \u00E2\u0080\u009CWesternized\u00E2\u0080\u009D Japanese-style paintings represented.221 As early as 1933, Nakata expressed deep disappointment at paintings of moga seeking pleasure, having fun, and relaxing.222 He argued that artists should be more socially aware in a \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctime of emergency\u00E2\u0080\u009D (hij\u00C5\u008Dji), the phrase that was used to express the sense of national crisis after the Manchurian Incident.223 As art historian Tanaka Hisao suggests, the 1935 Matsuda reform was the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 220 Kaneko, \u00E2\u0080\u009CArt in the Service of the State,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 102. Nakata Katsunosuke, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTeiten no Nihonga\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Japanese-style Paintings of the Exhibition of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts], Asahi shinbun, February 29, 1936. Here, interestingly, Nakata analogizes this situation to the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cbeni girai\u00E2\u0080\u009D (dislike of red) of ukiyo-e prints that appeared when the Edo government prohibited luxurious lifestyles. 221 Nakata, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTeiten no Nihonga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Asahi shinbun, October 17, 1933. 222 Nakata, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTeiten no Nihonga.\u00E2\u0080\u009D 223 The term \u00E2\u0080\u009Chij\u00C5\u008Dji\u00E2\u0080\u009D was popularized around 1933 and referred to the political circumstances following the Manchuria Incident. Some state authorites, most prominently Araki Sadao, saw the situation as an opportunity to renew the nation and begin aggressive foreign policies. Sandra Wilson, The Manchurian Crisis and Japanese Society, 1931\u00E2\u0080\u00931933 (New York: Routledge, 2002), 64\u00E2\u0080\u009366. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 89 turning point for state consolidation of art communities that prepared for the system of official war art production of later years.224 Furthermore, just like the Asahi Graph photograph, Japanese-style machine-ist paintings can be understood as representing a new Japanese national identity that hinged upon modernity. Art critic Nakata Katsunosuke referred to the Japanese-style paintings submitted to the Exhibition of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts as examples of the \u00E2\u0080\u009CWesternization of Japanese-style painting.\u00E2\u0080\u009D225 This \u00E2\u0080\u009CWesternization\u00E2\u0080\u009D occurred concurrently with the \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapanization of Western-style paintings,\u00E2\u0080\u009D the motivation for which was articulated by Kojima Zenzabur\u00C5\u008D in 1935. Kojima exhibited clear nationalistic sentiments: he called for \u00E2\u0080\u009Cneo-Japanism\u00E2\u0080\u009D (shin Nihonshugi), writing, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIf the Japanese \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 224 Originally in Tanaka Hisao, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNihon bijutsu to \u00E2\u0080\u0098teiten s\u00C5\u008Dd\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Japanese Art and the Teiten Incident], in Nihon bijutsu-in hyakunenshi dai 6 kan [The Hundred Year History of Nihon Bijutsu-in Vol. 6] (Tokyo: Nihon bijutsu-in, 1997), 365. Quoted in Kaneko, \u00E2\u0080\u009CArt in the Service of the State,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 75. Kaneko points out that the reform was not completely the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cimposition\u00E2\u0080\u009D of government control over art; the artists asked for state protection. Kaneko, 136. Artists\u00E2\u0080\u0099 supportive comments about government intervention can be found in \u00E2\u0080\u009CBijutsukai ni kokkateki shid\u00C5\u008Dkikan wa hitsuy\u00C5\u008D ka?\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Is National Institution Necessary for Art Society?], Atorie, March 1936. For criticisms of the reform, see Shitamise Sei\u00E2\u0080\u0099ichi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CShin teiten no Nihonga hy\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Review of the New Imperial Exhibition], Atorie, April 1936; Sakai Saisui, \u00E2\u0080\u009CShin teiten kan\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Review of the New Imperial Exhibition], Bi no kuni, April 1936. 225 Nakata \u00E2\u0080\u009CTeiten no Nihonga\u00E2\u0080\u009D; \u00E2\u0080\u009CNihonga ni okeru y\u00C5\u008Df\u00C5\u00AB keik\u00C5\u008D no mondai\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Issue of Westernization in Japanese-style Painting], Atorie, May 1935; \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 90 have an extraordinary beauty in their racial blood, tradition, and country, in order to express that beautiful climate and character, a special technique has to be employed\u00E2\u0080\u00A6Our mission is to blend Western materialism and Oriental spirit to create a new world, in which mind and matter are united.\u00E2\u0080\u009D226 His claim resonated with the larger discourse of creating a new national identity of Japan as a strong country capable of producing industrial materials, which appeared in the mid-1930s. Although Japanese- style painters did not express similar thoughts in writing, as Kojima\u00E2\u0080\u0099s piece shows, painters were aware of and often complied with the on-going political discourse. I should now like to return to one of the characteristics of the Japanese-style machine-ist paintings: regimented, rationalized spatial representation. As Henri Lefebvre theorizes, artistic representation of space is always relevant to the social production of space.227 David Harvey and Michel Foucault offer two models of society that are associated with the rational ordering of space.228 Harvey discusses perspectivism, the scientific perspective developed by Renaissance Humanist artists, which uses a \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 226 Alicia Volk, In Pursuit of Universalism: Yorozu Tetsugoro and Japanese Modern Art (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 214. 227 Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991 [1974]). 228 Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (1970; repr., London; New York: Routledge, 2002). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 91 systematic sense of space that is anchored by geometry.229 This rational, mathematical ordering of space was not only important in visual arts; it was fundamental for the later secular individualism of the Enlightenment project, in which both material objects and human subjects were classified based on the principles of science, the rhetoric of progress, and a linear concept of history. The rational concept of space in the Enlightenment project, as Harvey points out, was expected to have positive social consequences, such as the establishment of individual liberties and human welfare.230 Yet, as he also points out, it could easily be employed by a centralized state power.231 Michel Foucault, who calls the modern rational society of perspectivism a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdisciplinary society,\u00E2\u0080\u009D explores the potentially negative consequences in relation to surveillance. He explains how the coldly geometrical grid of perspectivism could contribute to the \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctyranny\u00E2\u0080\u009D of the gaze and create unequal relationships between state and citizens in terms of knowledge and power.232 Rational spatial ordering, in other words, can control and discipline individuals, rather than liberate them. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 229 David Harvey, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Experience of Space and Time,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in The Condition of Post- Modernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989). 230 Harvey, The Condition of Post-Modernity, 258. 231 Harvey, The Condition of Post-Modernity, 247. 232 Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, 2nd ed., trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), 209. Foucault focuses on early 20th-century Europe. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 92 The regimented visual space of Japanese-style machine-ist paintings, I argue, is associated with the totalitarian social space discussed by Foucault rather than the one entrenched within the Humanist and Enlightenment tradition: the paintings can be read in terms of the monitoring gaze and systematic control. In particular, the paintings by \u00C5\u008Cta Ch\u00C5\u008Du and Shibata show the complex play of scopic and technological domination placed upon the women. In \u00C5\u008Cta\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Women Observing the Stars
, a woman in a kimono looks through a telescope, the invention of which, according to Martin Jay, contributed to the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cprivileging of the visual\u00E2\u0080\u009D in modern society.233 The woman, although actively looking through the modern optical technology, is nevertheless undermined by the soft black shadows in the upper left and bottom right of the painting which create the uncomfortable feeling that, just as the woman is looking through a telescope, we, the viewers, are also looking at her through a telescope without her knowledge, having ultimate visual control over her. Although it is not specifically scopic, the rather disturbing relationship between women and modern technology is also apparent in Shibata\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Biwa Concert
. In this painting, the microphone\u00E2\u0080\u0094the technology that records the music the woman is making\u00E2\u0080\u0094is located in the foreground, closer to the viewers, as if we have technological power over her.234 Even when modern optical equipment such as the telescope is not depicted within the picture plane, the fact that the women in the paintings express neither movement nor \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 233 Martin Jay, \u00E2\u0080\u009CScopic Regimes of Modernity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Vision and Visuality, ed. Hal Foster (Seattle: Bay Press, 1988), 4. 234 In the Foucauldian system, such terms as \u00E2\u0080\u009Crecord\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Carchive\u00E2\u0080\u009D signify one\u00E2\u0080\u0099s knowledge and thus power over the other. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 93 emotion gives us a sense that they have internalized the invisible monitoring gaze. The women in Saeki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Tearoom
are a good example. The gazes of the caf\u00C3\u00A9 girls and the viewer never meet, and the girls, standing frontally to the viewers, display a strange quality of docility and vulnerability on the one hand, and discipline and confrontationality on the other. This recalls Foucault\u00E2\u0080\u0099s point: in the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdisciplinary society,\u00E2\u0080\u009D the system of unequal relationships of seeing between state and citizens (the Panopticon) turned society into a self-regulating mass, and \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca faceless gaze transformed the whole social body into a field of perception.\u00E2\u0080\u009D235 If we consider the social surveillance system of the time, Saeki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting points to the Orwellian nightmare in which the totalitarian state uses modern technology to monitor individuals\u00E2\u0080\u0099 private lives for the purposes of thought control and enforcing conformity (Gleichschaltung). Furthermore, as Hasegawa Nyozekan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s art theory had it, the overall orderliness of the pictorial space is recreated in the human subjects. The women depicted in these paintings appear deprived of agency, individuality, and human spirit, making them appear like automata.236 The question remains as to why in the paintings it is women who are juxtaposed with machines. One possible explanation is that, historically, Japanese-style paintings had almost exclusively depicted women. Most often understood as Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s tradition and associated with nationalism, Japanese-style paintings were defined in opposition to oil paintings and the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmasculine\u00E2\u0080\u009D West. More importantly, however, I would argue that Japanese-style machine-ist paintings functioned to aestheticize the harmony between \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 235 Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 214. 236 Bruce Grenville, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Uncanny: Experiments in Cyborg Culture,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in The Uncanny: Experiments in Cyborg Culture (Vancouver: Vancouver Art Gallery, 2001). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 94 human and machine, and that as traditional objects of beauty women were more suitable for this purpose than men. This is not to say that the connection between machines and men was absent from wartime cultural discourse, however: men\u00E2\u0080\u0099s bodies are often compared to industrial weapons (such as airplanes and tanks), a subject to which I return in Chapter Five. My study of Japanese-style machine-ist paintings problematizes the conventionally accepted definition of modern girls. According to Miriam Silverberg, moga emerged in the context of Taish\u00C5\u008D democracy and the mass culture of the 1920s. They were defined by their appearance: they wore Western clothes and had bobbed, permed hair. They were also financially independent, since they worked.237 Modern girls were thus understood to stand in opposition to the patriarchal state ideology of the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cgood wife, wise mother\u00E2\u0080\u009D (ry\u00C5\u008Dsai kenbo) and were considered \u00E2\u0080\u009Csocially militant.\u00E2\u0080\u009D 238 This equation of appearance with political identity and the assumption that moga were incompatible with collectivism, militarism, and patriarchy, however, seems simplistic; these women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s social standing vis- \u00C3\u00A0-vis the state changed considerably during the war. In short, the \u00E2\u0080\u009Csocially militant\u00E2\u0080\u009D moga could turn militarist. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 237 Miriam Silverberg, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Caf\u00C3\u00A9 Waitress Serving Modern Japan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan, ed. Stephen Vlastos (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998). 238 Miriam Silverberg, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Modern Girl as Militant,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Recreating Japanese Women, 1600\u00E2\u0080\u00931945, ed. Gail Lee Gernstain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Brown, Taish\u00C5\u008D Chic, 19. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 95 Historical evidence suggests that moga were, in fact, able to live up to the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cgood wife, wise mother\u00E2\u0080\u009D paradigm within the state structure: they executed patriotic duties and participated in the national agenda. Many working women and caf\u00C3\u00A9 girls, considered paradigmatic of moga in the 1920s, became members of the National Defense Women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Association (Kokub\u00C5\u008D Fujinkai), the officially sanctioned organization established for women in 1932.239 Participation was imposed to some degree, but there is evidence that many women actively participated in the state agenda without being coerced; newspaper reports in the early 1930s were full of stories about caf\u00C3\u00A9 waitresses donating money to the army. Historian Louise Young writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cworking women were among the most active participants\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 Imon [consolation] campaigns at textile factories and among department store shop girls raised extremely large sums, putting working women at the top of the lists of contributors.\u00E2\u0080\u009D240 These women might have worn modern Western dress, but clearly they were no longer a \u00E2\u0080\u009Csocial threat.\u00E2\u0080\u009D In addition, there were women who wore Western outfits and who also embraced the state ideology by opposing love marriages and women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s suffrage. Kendall Brown calls these women, who were \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmodern in appearance and traditional in . . . values,\u00E2\u0080\u009D a \u00E2\u0080\u009Chybrid,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and suggests that, as the modern girl embraced the state ideology, the state increasingly accepted the \u00E2\u0080\u009Chybrid\u00E2\u0080\u009D moga.241 The most compelling example of the union \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 239 Young, Japan's Total Empire, 130; 173. For more on the Association, see Sheldon Garon, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIntegrating Women into Public Life: Women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Groups and the State,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Molding Japanese Minds (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998). 240 Young, Japan's Total Empire, 173. 241 Brown, Taish\u00C5\u008D Chic, 21. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 96 between the state and moga has been uncovered by Jennifer Robertson, who studies national beauty contests in the 1930s in relation to the contemporary scientific discourse of eugenics and racial hygiene.242 Robertson argues that the process by which the state recognized the importance of fit female Japanese bodies in creating eugenically superior Japanese citizens converged with the nationalistic enterprise of finding Miss Nippon\u00E2\u0080\u0094 healthy, athletic modern women who were taller and heavier than the average. Conclusion In this chapter, I have examined a group of what I called Japanese-style machine-ist paintings produced between 1935 and 1940. Locating the origin of machine-ist aesthetics mainly in the development of modernist art in Japan during the 1920s, I attended to the wartime socio-political context in which Japanese fascist society\u00E2\u0080\u0094where all individuals fell into their \u00E2\u0080\u009Cproper place\u00E2\u0080\u009D under the state and the emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0094was established. Accordingly, I suggested that the paintings could be read as mirroring the regimentation, surveillance, and dehumanization of the time, rather than as embodying the liberal principles of individualism and democracy. On a broader level, this chapter interrogates the relationship between modernity and fascism. As Yamanouchi Yasushi writes, World War II has been understood as \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca confrontation between an irrational, absolutist form of fascist system (including Germany, Italy and Japan) and a rational, democratic New Deal-type of system (including the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 242 Jennifer Robertson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s First Cyborg? Miss Nippon, Eugenics and Wartime Technologies of Beauty, Body and Blood,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Body & Society 7.1 (2001): 1-34. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 97 United States, England and France).\u00E2\u0080\u009D243 The former is understood to be anti-modern, while the latter is modern. However, as recent studies have demonstrated, this binary that pits modernity against totalitarian (fascist) regimes is no longer sustainable. As Zygmunt Bauman argues, the Holocaust was not an act of pre-modern barbarism; the genocide could never have been perpetrated without what modernity had brought about, such as rationality, division of labor, and taxonomy.244 Historian Roger Griffin explains that fascism did not oppose modernity in its entirety but rejected only selected aspects such as cultural pluralism, individualism, and liberalism. Griffin draws an important conclusion: \u00E2\u0080\u009CTo grasp this fact destroys any comforting equation between modernity and humanism, modernity and civilization, modernity and progress, modernity and the good.\u00E2\u0080\u009D245 In fact, the ambivalent nature and potential danger of modernity were alluded to by Charlie Chaplin in his film Modern Times produced in 1936, just when Japanese-style machine- ist paintings were being produced in Japan. In the film, Chaplin comically but compellingly shows the dehumanizing effect of modern society by playing a factory worker who is forced to adjust himself to the assembly line he works on. Trying to match the movement and speed of the machine, the worker himself becomes an automaton, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 243 Yamanouchi Yasushi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTotal-War and System Integration: A Methodological Introduction,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 1. 244 Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000). 245 Roger Griffin, \u00E2\u0080\u009CModernity Under the New Order: The Fascist Project for Managing the Future,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in A Fascist Century: Essays by Roger Griffin, ed. Matthew Feldman (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 43. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 98 acting like a machine. Machines can be useful, but they can also control human subjects. Modernity can go wrong, and fascism is one example. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 99 CHAPTER TWO Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Bijin-ga, New Classicism, and Fascist Time Introduction By 1940, hostility toward the Allied nations, especially the United States, had grown considerably in Japan, eventually leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. While Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s national identity of the mid-1930s entailed its capability to be \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmodern,\u00E2\u0080\u009D by the 1940s materialism was replaced by spiritualism, historicism, and essentialism. When the Pacific War began and resources became scarce, the government implemented national campaigns that emphasized saving and frugality over industrial production, under slogans such as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cextravagance is the enemy\u00E2\u0080\u009D (zeitaku wa teki da) and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cwaste not, want not, until we win\u00E2\u0080\u009D (hoshigarimasen katsu made wa). Permanent waves were banned in 1939 as wasteful of electricity, the National Clothes Law, which stipulated citizens wear the unfashionable \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnational uniform,\u00E2\u0080\u009D was legislated in 1940, dance halls were closed in the same year, and English expressions were purged from the official vocabulary in 1942.246 Japanese-style machine-ist paintings, which I examined in Chapter One, ceased to exist before the end of the war, as such explicit signs of the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmodern\u00E2\u0080\u009D came to be understood as \u00E2\u0080\u009CWestern\u00E2\u0080\u009D and therefore inappropriate. What emerged after machine-ism was Japanese \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnew classicism\u00E2\u0080\u009D (shin kotenshugi), which still uses the modernist style but depicts historical subjects. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 246 Thomas Havens, Valley of Darkness, 18; 51; Shillony, Politics and Culture in Wartime Japan, 148. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 100 Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den (1875-1949) is one of the painters whose works exemplified this new trend. One of the most important painters of bijin-ga (paintings of beautiful people)247 as well as one of the few successful female artists in modern Japan, her works are most often discussed in the contexts of modern bijin-ga history and art by Japanese women. Despite the abundant scholarship on Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s art and personal life, no art historian has undertaken critical readings of her wartime works. This chapter therefore attempts to historicize Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s wartime works while continuing the discussion on wartime Japanese-style paintings. I will argue that her art, which is modeled on Edo- period art, can be considered in relation to the fascist conceptualization of time, which envisions the future as a recreation of the past and which was epitomized by the \u00E2\u0080\u009Covercoming the modern\u00E2\u0080\u009D discussion of the early 1940s. I begin by addressing the problems with the existing scholarship on Sh\u00C5\u008Den. Carefully attending to the stylistic transformation of the artist\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works over time, I then demonstrate how her wartime works, such as Sudden Blast (1939)
, exemplify the new classicism, the artistic trend that was introduced to Japan from Europe in the 1920s and became the official style of propaganda art during the war. Finally, I investigate the psychological workings of this new classicism, introducing the concept of fascist kitsch and discussing Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s 1944 work, Lady Kusunoki
. I conclude the chapter by reflecting on the role of women and female artists in fascism. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 247 Beautiful men were often depicted in bijin-ga in the Edo period. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 101 Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den was born Uemura Tsune in Kyoto, which had long served as the imperial capital.248 When the city of Edo flourished under the Tokugawa Shogunate between 1603 and 1868, Kyoto advanced a style of art quite distinct from that in Edo.249 The artist was raised by her mother Nakako, who had lost her husband when Sh\u00C5\u008Den was young. Sh\u00C5\u008Den studied with three teachers who were associated with the Maruyama-Shij\u00C5\u008D style, the local Kyoto style of realism developed in the Edo period. At the age of twelve, she entered the Kyoto Prefectural School of Painting, and there she studied under Suzuki Sh\u00C5\u008Dnen (1849-1918), with whom she later had a son whom she raised as a single mother. After working with Suzuki Sh\u00C5\u008Dnen, Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den became a student of K\u00C5\u008Dno Bairei (1844-1895) in order to study figurative works; on Bairei\u00E2\u0080\u0099s death, his student Takeuchi Seih\u00C5\u008D (1864-1942) took over the position at Bairei\u00E2\u0080\u0099s private school. Seih\u00C5\u008D was the best- known of Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s three teachers, and he was instrumental in introducing new, modernist artistic trends to the Kyoto circle of Japanese-style painters following his travels and studies in Europe in 1900. Sh\u00C5\u008Den became successful early in her career, both domestically and internationally. In 1890, when she was fifteen, her Beauties of Four Seasons received the first prize at the third annual Domestic Industrial Exposition (Naikoku Kangy\u00C5\u008D Hakurankai); a different version was purchased by Prince Arthur of England. Sh\u00C5\u008Den continuously received prizes \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 248 Sh\u00C5\u008Den is her studio name. I refer to her as Sh\u00C5\u008Den throughout the dissertation. 249 Paul Berry and Michiyo Morioka, introduction to Modern Masters of Kyoto: The Transformation of Japanese Painting Traditions, Nihonga from the Griffith and Patricia Way Collection (Seattle: Seattle Art Museum, 1999), 21 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 102 at exhibitions such as the Japan Art Association Exhibition (Nihon Bijutsu Ky\u00C5\u008Dkai Ten), Domestic Industrial Expositions, and the Exhibition of New and Old Art (Shinko Bijutsuhin Ten). Her works were exhibited at the Chicago and St. Louis World\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Fairs in 1893 and 1904. In the 1910s and 1920s, Sh\u00C5\u008Den executed a number of paintings whose themes were taken from noh plays and music, but submitted few paintings to public exhibitions.250 In the late 1930s and early 1940s, her public visibility increased markedly, and her works were highly acclaimed by the public and by art critics not just in Kyoto but throughout Japan. Dance Performed in a Noh Play (1936), perhaps her best- known work, was purchased by the Ministry of Education. Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s success during this period led her to become the first female recipient of the most prestigious national award, the Order of Culture (Bunka Kunsh\u00C5\u008D), which she received from Emperor Hirohito in 1948, three years after the end of the war. Accounts of Sh\u00C5\u008Den most often hinge upon her life as a female artist. Arguably the most popular representation of Sh\u00C5\u008Den is the fictionalized biography Jo no mai written by Miyao Tomiko in 1983.251 The novel won the Yoshikawa Eiji Award, and the film adaptation also won an award at the Asia-Pacific Film Festival in 1984. Jo no mai focuses on Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s relationship with her teacher Sh\u00C5\u008Dnen and the birth of her son, Sh\u00C5\u008Dk\u00C5\u008D, satisfying the curiosity of the general public. More specifically, the film poses the question of how Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s relationship with her teacher affected her work, that is, whether \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 250 Michiyo Morioka, \u00E2\u0080\u009CChanging Images of Women: Taisho Period Paintings by Uemura Shoen (1875-1949), Ito Shoha (1877-1968), and Kajiwara Hisako (1896-1988),\u00E2\u0080\u009D Ph.D. diss. (Seattle: University of Washington, 1990), 180. 251 Miyao Tomiko, Jo no mai (Tokyo: Chu\u00C5\u008D K\u00C5\u008Dron sha, 1983). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 103 it enabled her to establish her career or, conversely, ruined it. Although Jo no mai exposes the patriarchal nature of the Japanese art community, it represents Sh\u00C5\u008Den as an innocent girl who was unable to resist the sexual advances of her teacher. This portrayal of Sh\u00C5\u008Den in Jo no mai clearly does not do justice to her art, but this reading exemplifies previous art historical interpretations of Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works. In other words, the model for analysis of her works has remained largely biographical. This approach is also further entrenched by postwar feminist art history. Wakakuwa Midori (1935-2007), one of the most important feminist art historians in Japan, has written about Sh\u00C5\u008Den. Closely following the first wave of feminist art history and Linda Nochlin\u00E2\u0080\u0099s seminal 1971 essay \u00E2\u0080\u009CWhy Have There Been No Great Women Artists?\u00E2\u0080\u009D she locates commonalities among such women. For Wakakuwa, who argues that successful female artists are those who have \u00E2\u0080\u009Cescaped from the strong paternalism of Japanese society,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Sh\u00C5\u008Den, who was herself raised by a single mother and who raised her own child as a single mother, was a perfect model for her claim.252 To use her words, Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s family \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdid not have a patriarch\u00E2\u0080\u009D and she was \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe \u00E2\u0080\u0098man\u00E2\u0080\u0099 in the family.\u00E2\u0080\u009D253 Wakakuwa considers the relationship between Sh\u00C5\u008Den and Sh\u00C5\u008Dnen as embodying the unequal power relationship between the genders. She writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSh\u00C5\u008Den and her teacher \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 252 Wakakuwa Midori, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThree Women Artists of the Meiji Period (1868-1912): Reconsidering Their Significance from a Feminist Perspective,\u00E2\u0080\u009D trans. Naoko Aoki, in Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future, ed. Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (New York: The Feminist Press, 1994), 62. 253 Wakakuwa, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThree Women Artists,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 70. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 104 may have loved each other, but their relationship was basically one in which the man dominates the woman. To contemporary eyes it may seem a form of sexual harassment\u00E2\u0080\u00A6Without a father or a suitable guardian to support her financially, a woman artist had to accept a teacher or an art dealer as her patron.\u00E2\u0080\u009D254 Using the gender-power dichotomy as her underlying framework, Wakakuwa praises Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work as a female artist\u00E2\u0080\u0099s attempt to de-sexualize the artistic gaze on women, who are always the object of sexual interest when painted by men.255 Overall, Wakakuwa\u00E2\u0080\u0099s scholarship gives the impression that Sh\u00C5\u008Den herself was a feminist artist. Wakakuwa\u00E2\u0080\u0099s interpretations of the artist\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works thus naturally remain celebratory. She refers to Late Autumn, a painting of women in modest kimono repairing a sh\u00C5\u008Dji (paper screen) executed in 1941, as the first painting about \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe reality of working women,\u00E2\u0080\u009D calling it as \u00E2\u0080\u009Csignificant as the works of Millet, who painted working women instead of bourgeois women.\u00E2\u0080\u009D256 Wakakuwa is not the only female art historian who favorably interprets Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s wartime works. Shiokawa Ky\u00C5\u008Dko goes so far as to describe the same work as \u00E2\u0080\u009Canti-war\u00E2\u0080\u009D (hansen-teki) art. Shiokawa writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cwhat the artist presents in the painting is praise of everyday life. To cherish everyday life is to cherish life\u00E2\u0080\u00A6the women in Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s paintings loathe war and look for a bright future. It was exactly the opposite of what militarists wanted.\u00E2\u0080\u009D257 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 254 Wakakuwa, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThree Women Artists,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 70. 255 Wakakuwa, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThree Women Artists,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 71. 256 Wakakuwa, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThree Women Artists,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 71. 257 Shiokawa Ky\u00C5\u008Dko, \u00E2\u0080\u009CUemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den no sh\u00C5\u008Dgai to geijutsu\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Life and Works of Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den], in Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den (Tokyo: Gakken, 1993), 103. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 105 Art historian Michiyo Morioka challenges the uncritical scholarship on Sh\u00C5\u008Den by feminist art historians in her Ph.D. dissertation \u00E2\u0080\u009CChanging Images of Women: Taish\u00C5\u008D Period Paintings by Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den (1875-1949), It\u00C5\u008D Sh\u00C5\u008Dha (1877-1968), and Kajiwara Hisako (1896-1988).\u00E2\u0080\u009D By analyzing statements made by the artist, she reveals that Sh\u00C5\u008Den was in fact quite conservative. Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s image of ideal women is resonant with the Confucian text Onna daigaku, which places women in the domestic sphere as subordinate to their \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmaster\u00E2\u0080\u009D (husband). Morioka states, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThoroughly traditional-minded, Sh\u00C5\u008Den embraced the Onna daigaku without ever recognizing its oppressive and discriminatory definition of women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s role.\u00E2\u0080\u009D258 Thus, contrary to the claims by the feminist art historians, Sh\u00C5\u008Den was not a feminist who fought for women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s rights and freedom from the patriarchy. Furthermore, her art was often highly nationalistic. In 1904, at the height of nationalism during the Russo-Japanese War, she painted a portrait of the courtesan Kiy\u00C5\u00AB, who killed herself rather than accepting American and British clients. Sh\u00C5\u008Den in her publication celebrated this female suicide and insisted that all Japanese women should emulate the spirit of Kiy\u00C5\u00AB.259 While Morioka\u00E2\u0080\u0099s scholarship maintains a tone critical of Sh\u00C5\u008Den, curiously, she does not investigate the artist\u00E2\u0080\u0099s wartime works even though she writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe last two decades of Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s life\u00E2\u0080\u0094the 1930s and 1940s\u00E2\u0080\u0094witnessed the maturity of her art.\u00E2\u0080\u009D260 She concludes her study with the statement, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s art, her belief in beauty, truth, and goodness remains unchanged throughout her career.\u00E2\u0080\u009D261 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 258 Morioka, \u00E2\u0080\u009CChanging Images of Women,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 152. 259 Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, \u00E2\u0080\u009CY\u00C5\u00ABjo Kiy\u00C5\u00AB\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Courtesan Kiy\u00C5\u00AB](n.p.), Seibish\u00C5\u008D, 53. 260 Morioka, \u00E2\u0080\u009CChanging Images of Women,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 77. 261 Morioka, \u00E2\u0080\u009CChanging Images of Women,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 218. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 106 I argue, in contrast, that one cannot ignore how active Sh\u00C5\u008Den was during the war. She painted at a furious pace. Between 1935 and 1945, she completed at least ninety-five paintings. In 1941, she became a member of the Japan Art Academy (Teikoku Bijutsu- in), Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s most prestigious art institution, run by the Ministry of Education. To celebrate this achievement, the art magazines Bi no kuni and Kokuga published lengthy special issues on the artist in 1941 and 1942, respectively.262 She was also actively involved in state-sanctioned events, submitting at least four paintings to donation exhibitions (kenn\u00C5\u008D ten) such as the Army Donation Exhibition (Rikugun Kenn\u00C5\u008Dga Ten) in 1941 and the Japanese Artist Patriotic Society Donation Exhibition for Battle Planes (Nihon Gaka H\u00C5\u008Dkokukai Guny\u00C5\u008Dki Kenn\u00C5\u008Dga Ten) in 1942, the proceeds of which were given to the state. In 1941, at the age of sixty-six, she made her first trip abroad, to China (Shanghai and Hangzhou). She was invited by China\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Central Railroad (Kach\u00C5\u00AB Tetsud\u00C5\u008D) to present a gift to Wang Jingwei, the leader of Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s puppet government in Nanjing, which was praised as exemplifying her passionate patriotism.263 In 1944, she donated a work to the Kyoto Reizan Gokoku Shrine, which is dedicated to warriors who sacrificed their lives for the country. She also painted a portrait of Kusunoki Masashige\u00E2\u0080\u0099s wife, which she described as an act of saikan h\u00C5\u008Dkoku (serving the nation by art).264 However, it \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 262 Kokuga, April 1942; Bi no kuni. July 1942. 263 Yoshifuku Teiz\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJikyoku to Sh\u00C5\u008Den no geijutsu\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The War and Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Art], Kokuga, April 1942, 17. 264 Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Seibish\u00C5\u008D sh\u00C5\u00ABi (Tokyo: K\u00C5\u008Ddansha, 1976), 135. The publication does not indicate when this particular entry was written, but it seems to have been around 1940. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 107 was not only through her involvement in public events but also through her art, as I will show below, that Sh\u00C5\u008Den participated in the ideological discourse of the war. Sh\u00C5\u008Den and Edo Sh\u00C5\u008Den studied Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s classical art throughout her career, and many of her works were inspired by bijin-ga, a genre whose origins in Japan can be traced back as far as the Nara period (710-784) but was primarily popularized in ukiyo-e (\u00E2\u0080\u009Cpictures of floating world\u00E2\u0080\u009D) in the Edo period.265 A Long Autumn Night
, which the artist executed in 1907, is a good example. Sh\u00C5\u008Den painted two kimono-clad women spending a quiet night together, sitting directly on the floor. One is checking the candle in a lantern while the other is reading a book. The soft, dim light that illuminates them in the shadowy scene creates a warm feeling, and the tone of the painting\u00E2\u0080\u0094grayish and earth- toned\u00E2\u0080\u0094maintains a restrained tastefulness. Art historian Kat\u00C5\u008D Ruiko compares A Long Autumn Night to Nishikawa Sukenobu\u00E2\u0080\u0099s One Hundred Women Classified According to Their Rank
,266 and it also looks similar to the prints of Suzuki Harunobu
, who often produced indoor scenes of women reading. Their facial characteristics are somewhat different, but the women in Sh\u00C5\u008Den and Harunobu\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works are nevertheless remarkably similar: both have one elbow on the floor, where the book is, with the opposite hand turning a page. Their gold hair accessories and the way in which the edges and sleeves of their kimono are arranged in the foreground also make the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 265 Kat\u00C5\u008D Ruiko, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBijin-ga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Nihonga: Transcending the Past: Japanese-Style Painting, 1868-1968, ed. Ellen Conant (St. Louis, MO: St. Louis Art Museum, 1995), 108-109. 266 It should be noted that Sukenobu was a Kyoto artist. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 108 pictures look alike. Sudden Blast
, produced more than thirty years later in 1939, is another example of Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works that seem inspired by ukiyo-e. As Kat\u00C5\u008D suggests, the artist likely drew on Edo art such as Teisai Hokuba\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Shunp\u00C5\u00AB bijin-zu
, which depicts a woman holding her kimono together as it erotically exposes her bare feet. Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting also recalls Harunobu\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Wind
, which shows a kimono-clad woman leaning forward, her left hand on her head, trying to protect her hair from the breeze. Sh\u00C5\u008Den was not the only painter who referred to the Edo art tradition. There was a surge of interest in Edo art among the Kyoto circle of Japanese-style painters in the 1910s and 1920s. When Ernest Fenollosa and Okakura Tenshin established Japanese-style painting as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnational art\u00E2\u0080\u009D back in the 1870s, they did not highly regard the commercial, reproducible ukiyo-e prints that represented Edo period art. When European modernist artists came to be acknowledged in Japan, however, a number of artists, the second generation of Japanese-style painters, began explicitly alluding to ukiyo-e. They did so, importantly, in the context of artistic modernism, which rebelled against the established, academic style of Japanese-style paintings established by Fenollosa and Okakura and pursued individualized, creative, original artistic expressions. There was certainly a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cparadox,\u00E2\u0080\u009D as art historian Doris Croissant calls it, in that Japanese \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmodernist\u00E2\u0080\u009D artists who supposedly sought to break away from the past were turning to their national tradition. As Croissant explains, however, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe impact of Japanese art on postimpressionist painters such as C\u00C3\u00A9zanne, van Gogh, and Gauguin provided \u00E2\u0080\u0098Japanese\u00E2\u0080\u0099 painting with a model of aesthetic self-identification that encouraged \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 109 the return to early modern ukiyo-e aesthetics and subject matter\u00E2\u0080\u009D (emphasis added).267 A good example of this is Fisherwomen (1913)
by Tsuchida Bakusen (1887- 1936), who studied with Sh\u00C5\u008Den under Takeuchi Seih\u00C5\u008D and was the leader of the Association for the Creation of Japanese Painting (Kokuga S\u00C5\u008Dsaku Ky\u00C5\u008Dkai), a group that was established to practice alternative art to that of government-sponsored Bunten (the exhibition of Ministry of Education).268 The painting is clearly inspired by Gauguin\u00E2\u0080\u0099s primitivist painting Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? (1897-1898)
,269 but at the same time, as Croissant argues, Bakusen demonstrates his careful study of the same subject matter by ukiyo-e artist Kitagawa Utamaro
.270 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 267 Doris Croissant, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIcons of Femininity: Japanese national Painting and the Paradox of Modernity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Gender and Power in The Japanese Visual Field, ed. Joshua S. Mostow, Norman Bryson, and Maribeth Graybill (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2003), 119-120. 268 Szostak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Kokuga S\u00C5\u008Dsaku Ky\u00C5\u008Dkai and Kyoto Nihonga Reform in the Meiji, Taish\u00C5\u008D and Early Sh\u00C5\u008Dwa Years (1900-1928),\u00E2\u0080\u009D 1. 269\t\r \u00C2\u00A0Croissant, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIcons of Femininity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 124-127; 129. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 270 Croissant argues that although he provided an alternative to government approved Bunten paintings, Bakusen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works were \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctinted with patriotic flavor\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca claim for the ethnic purity of national painting,\u00E2\u0080\u009D underscoring the artist\u00E2\u0080\u0099s political conservatism. The question of Bakusen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s standing vis-\u00C3\u00A0-vis nationalism is beyond the scope of the present study, however. Croissant, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIcons of Femininity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 124-127; 129. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 110 Some Japanese-style painters in Kyoto mocked idealized representations of beautiful women in Edo art by reworking the bijin-ga tradition, which art historian John Szostak calls the discourse of \u00E2\u0080\u009Canti-bijin\u00E2\u0080\u009D (anti-beauty). These artists painted women who did not conventionally fall into the category of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cbeautiful women,\u00E2\u0080\u009D such as lower- class, ugly, and mad women, shocking viewers. Szostak writes that, through the use of anti-bijin images, progressive Nihonga painters alluded to Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s traditional past while simultaneously rejecting artistic conservatism of their collegues. 271 Szostak\u00E2\u0080\u0099s examination includes a study of works by Kajiwara Hisako, who, like Sh\u00C5\u008Den, was a female Japanese-style painter in Kyoto. Her Sisters (ca. 1915) depicts siblings, a woman and an adolescent girl, both of them mentally disabled. With their deformed faces and shabby clothes, the sisters in Kajiwara\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting stand in stark contrast to the idealized, culturally sophisticated, doll-like women in fashionable kimono portrayed in Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works. Indeed, unlike Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Kajiwara was never concerned with female beauty. She stated, \u00E2\u0080\u009CI had no intention of painting a pretty woman in the traditional style, which was precisely what I wanted to break away from.\u00E2\u0080\u009D272 Often dealing with the issue of hardship \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 271 John Szostak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFair Is Foul, and Foul Is Fair\u00E2\u0080\u0099: Kyoto Nihonga Anti-Bijin Portraiture and The Psychology of the Grotesque,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Rethinking Japanese Modernism, ed. Roy Starrs (Leiden: Global Oriental, 2012), 364. Sincere thanks to John Szostak who shared with me his unpublished manuscript. 272 Originally in Kajiwara Hisako, \u00E2\u0080\u009COmoide no arubamu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Bijutsu, 1974. Quoted in Szostak, \u00E2\u0080\u009C\u00E2\u0080\u0098Fair Is Foul, and Foul Is Fair,\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00E2\u0080\u009D 375. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 111 experienced by women, her works are considered part of the Humanist School (Jinseiha).273 The most extreme examples of anti-bijin are perhaps the works by Kainosh\u00C5\u008D Tadaoto, who submitted to the exhibition organized by Bakusen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Association for the Creation of Japanese Painting as a guest. His Nude, painted around 1921, depicts a woman whose body does not fit the frame of the canvas. The glittering surface of her skin adds realism to the sensuality of her plump, fleshy body. His Woman with Balloon, a painting of a semi-nude woman, created in 1926, was repudiated even by Tsuchida Bakusen as a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfilthy picture\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kitanai e), and was removed from the Association for the Creation of Japanese Painting exhibition in that year. Kainosh\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s paintings were often considered to manifest Satanism (akuma shugi), aestheticism (yuibi shugi), and decadence (taihai shugi), which could also be found in some contemporary literary works, especially Tanizaki Jun\u00E2\u0080\u0099ichir\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s novels.274 Sh\u00C5\u008Den was not unaware of modernist trends. She seems to have explored a new artistic dimension by dealing with the subject of mad love and trying to express the emotional depth of women. Flower Basket (1915)
and Flames (1918) \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 273 Szostak, \u00E2\u0080\u009C\u00E2\u0080\u0098 Fair Is Foul, and Foul Is Fair\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00E2\u0080\u009D 372 274 Kainosh\u00C5\u008D Tadaoto to Taish\u00C5\u008D ki no gaka tachi [Kainosh\u00C5\u008D Tadaoto and Other Artists of the Taish\u00C5\u008D Period] (Chiba: Chiba City Museum, 1999), 11. Doris Croissant, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFrom Madonna to Femme Fatale: Gender Play in Japanese National Painting,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Performing \u00E2\u0080\u009CNation\u00E2\u0080\u009D: Gender Politics in Literature, Theater, and the Visual Arts of China and Japan, 1880-1940, ed. Doris Croissant, Catherine Vance Yeh, and Joshua S. Mostow (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2008), 304-305. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 112
are two good examples. In Flower Basket, like Kajiwara, Sh\u00C5\u008Den deals with the mentally ill whom she studied at a mental hospital in Kyoto. She portrays Lady Teruhi no Mae from Zeami\u00E2\u0080\u0099s noh play Hanagatami (Flower Basket), who falls in love with the sixth-century Emperor Keitai. The heroine, who has gone mad after parting with the emperor, performs the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdance of insanity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D holding in her right hand a basket given to her by him.275 Flames, produced in 1918, is also inspired by a noh play, Lady Aoi (Aoi no ue). In the painting, Rokuj\u00C5\u008D, the lover of the hero Hikaru Genji in The Tale of Genji, twists her body to the right and bites her own hair, expressing jealousy over Lady Aoi, who is the principle wife of Genji. Despite these attempts, however, Sh\u00C5\u008Den did not receive as much attention as the progressive Kyoto painters such as Bakusen and Kainosh\u00C5\u008D, and her works were in fact harshly criticized as lacking innovation and originality.276 Even Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s teacher Takeuchi Seih\u00C5\u008D commented, She continues to study and work with a steady pace of her own. She pursues her path untiringly and does not change her characteristic style. As a result she creates neither an exceptional masterpiece nor a sloppy, poor-quality work\u00E2\u0080\u00A6As usual, this painting [Willow and Cherry (1909)] displays meticulous and sensitive attention to every square inch of its \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 275 Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den (Tokyo: National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo, 2010), 30. 276 Morioka, \u00E2\u0080\u009CChanging Images of Women, \u00E2\u0080\u009D161- 170. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 113 surface but it lacks an innovative element or notable progress (emphasis mine).277 In the 1910s and 1920s, as she admitted herself, Sh\u00C5\u008Den experienced a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cslump\u00E2\u0080\u009D and worked almost exclusively on private commissions, rarely submitting her works to public exhibitions. Unlike the \u00E2\u0080\u009Canti-bijin\u00E2\u0080\u009D painters, Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s reference to the Edo artistic heritage was her attempt to revive, not challenge, the tradition, and her art was more truthful to the original. In this sense, her works were closer to those of Kaburaki Kiyotaka (1878-1972), whose lineage can be traced back to prominent ukiyo-e artist Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839- 1892), and to It\u00C5\u008D Shinsui (1898-1972), a painter who was also involved in New Print Movement (Shin Hanga Und\u00C5\u008D) that attempted to recuperate the Edo print-making practice.278 Taking inspiration from the Edo period and Edo art, Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Shinsui, and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 277 Takeuchi Seih\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTenrankai shokan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Kyoto bijutsu 16 (1909), 16. Quoted and translated in Morioka, \u00E2\u0080\u009CChanging Images of Women,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 165. 278 For more on the comparison of the three artists, see Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Kiyokata, Shinsui san kyosh\u00C5\u008D ten [Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Kiyokata, Shinsui Three Masters of Beauty] (Aichi: Meito Art Museum, 2005); Bi no daiky\u00C5\u008Den: Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Kaburaki Kiyokata, It\u00C5\u008D Shinsui [The Competition of Beauty: Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Kaburaki Kiyokata, and It\u00C5\u008D Shinsui] (Aichi: Meito Art Museum, 2008); Bijunga no keifu ten: Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Kaburaki Kiyokata, It\u00C5\u008D Shinsui [The Genealogy of Bijin-ga: Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Kaburaki Kiyokata, It\u00C5\u008D Shinsui] (Kagoshima: Kagoshima City Museum, 1999); Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Kiyokata, Shinsui o ch\u00C5\u00ABshin ni: Meito bijutsukan meihin ten [Focusing on Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Kyokata, Shinsui: Meito Art Museum Masterpieces] (Tokyo: Asahi Newspaper Company, 1999). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 114 Kiyokata produced works that are often striking in their similarity. For example, both Sh\u00C5\u008Den and Kiyokata produced paintings with the motif of Oman, a woman who pretends to be a wakashu (an adolescent boy in a male-male relationship) in Ihara Saikaku\u00E2\u0080\u0099s novel Five Women Who Loved Love (K\u00C5\u008Dshoku Gonin Onna).279 Kiyokata\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Saikaku\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Five Women, Oman (1911)
and Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Oman (1915)
, both depict her falling down on her way to the house of Gengobei, her lover, and not only have the same composition but look almost identical.280 Likewise, Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Meiden (1942)
and Shinsui\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Needle Sewing (1945) are similar in subject matter, style, and composition. Depicting a woman in a kimono engaging in needlework, both draw on the ukiyo-e genre of \u00C5\u008Dkubi-e (big head picture) that show the subject in close-up. By reviving ukiyo-e, Sh\u00C5\u008Den joined the discourse of cultural nostalgia in which \u00E2\u0080\u009CEdo\u00E2\u0080\u009D\u00E2\u0080\u0094both its time and place\u00E2\u0080\u0094became a signifier for \u00E2\u0080\u009Cgood old Japan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D which was thought to have been lost in the process of modernization. As historian Carol Gluck observes, the tradition and culture of Edo has been constantly invented from the Meiji period to this day.281 When the Meiji government, established in 1868, promoted the rapid, radical modernization of the country under the slogan of Civilization and Enlightenment (Bunmei Kaika), Edo was seen as representing the pre-modern, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 279 The novel has been translated into English: Ihara Saikaku, Five Women Who Loved Love, translated by William Theodore De Bary (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1959). 280 I could not find an image of Oman produced during the Edo period. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 281Carol Gluck, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Invention of Edo,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan, ed. Stephen Valstos (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 115 uncivilized, evil custom of old Japan, from which they desperately wanted to be disassociated. Gluck explains, however, that some people began to understand Edo positively from around the 1890s. She writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009CEdo-as-tradition offered a cultural space, timeless and unchanging, where the spirit abraded by the masses, machines, and modish modernism could \u00E2\u0080\u0098return\u00E2\u0080\u0099 to be refreshed and re-Japanized.\u00E2\u0080\u009D282 Interwar intellectuals including folklore scholar Yanagita Kunio, historian Tsuda S\u00C5\u008Dkichi, and novelist Nagai Kaf\u00C5\u00AB, who were fascinated by Edo, were among those who were dismayed by the degree to which Japan was modernized (i.e. Westernized). Nagai decried, \u00E2\u0080\u009CLet me list a few of the things I dislike about the Ginza: the enormous cupid dolls, the dolls of the Tengad\u00C5\u008D, and the girls of the Lion Caf\u00C3\u00A9.\u00E2\u0080\u009D283 His critique of the modern girls was shared by Sh\u00C5\u008Den, who publically denounced Westernized Japanese women with plucked eyebrows and permed hair.284 The New Classicism Like Kiyokata and Shinsui, Sh\u00C5\u008Den contributed to the revival of Edo, but Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work went through a notable stylistic transformation, which we do not necessarily see in the works by Kiyokata and Shinsui. Toward the end of her career, Sh\u00C5\u008Den became increasingly interested in modernist visual language. As Michiyo Morioka writes, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 282 Gluck, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Invention of Edo,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 271. 283 Quoted in Gluck, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Invention of Edo,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 271. 284 Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTeiten no bijin-ga\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Bijin-ga at Teiten] (1929), Seibish\u00C5\u008D sono go (Tokyo: Ky\u00C5\u00ABry\u00C5\u00ABd\u00C5\u008D, 1985), 33-34; Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, \u00E2\u0080\u009CMayu no ki\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Eyebrows]; \u00E2\u0080\u009CMage\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Hair] (n.d.), Seibish\u00C5\u008D, 36; 42. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 116 \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpursuing her traditional ideal, she achieved a surprisingly modern visual statement during the last decade of her life. In such highly acclaimed works as Late Autumn
, Sh\u00C5\u008Den demonstrates her sensitivity to formal design\u00E2\u0080\u009D (emphasis mine).285 Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s modernist turn can be seen in the comparison between A Long Autumn Night
and Sudden Blast
, the two works mentioned above. The sense of spatial depth created by chiaroscuro is absent from the latter. The kimono of the two women in A Long Autumn Night are meticulously detailed and delicately textured, but those of the women in Sudden Blast are plain and bold. More obvious differences can be seen in the use of color. Sh\u00C5\u008Den mostly uses brownish, subdued colors in A Long Autumn Wind, while she applies a thick paint of vivid, strong red and blue in Sudden Blast. The artist\u00E2\u0080\u0099s use of modernist style is most evident in her Late Autumn (1943)
. In the painting, a woman in a modest kimono engages in domestic housework. She repairs a sh\u00C5\u008Dji screen, filling its holes with paper shaped like snow flakes. She kneels, facing the sh\u00C5\u008Dji, her face turned toward the viewer as she looks at the paste and scissors on the floor beside her. The woman is captured from behind, which naturally flattens her body, making her gesture somewhat awkward, stiff, and motionless. Compared to A Long Autumn Night
, Late Autumn uses fewer and brighter colors: the color of the kimono that marks the woman\u00E2\u0080\u0099s body is monotonous, matte pastel blue, which emphasizes its graphic impact and the abstract shape of the garment. The vertical and horizontal lines of the sh\u00C5\u008Dji further emphasize the two-dimensionality. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 285 Conant, Nihonga: Transcending the Past, 328. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 117 Sh\u00C5\u008Den in fact stated in 1932, \u00E2\u0080\u009CI have a desire to paint contemporary life when I am ready\u00E2\u0080\u00A6but what would it be like if I were to paint it?...I do not think I would treat the modern as modern as it is. I would pull the modern into the ambience of the classics (kotentekina k\u00C5\u00ABki).\u00E2\u0080\u009D286 Although Late Autumn displays signs of the historical (the woman\u00E2\u0080\u0099s hair is in the sakk\u00C5\u008D style popular in the late Edo and early Meiji period), stylistically speaking, it is not so different from Saeki Shunk\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Tearoom (1936)
discussed in Chapter One. Both painters apply thick layers of saturated colors, emphasize the graphic pattern of the women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s garments, and minimize the spatial depth. The characteristics of Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s wartime art, I suggest, make her an artist of the new classicism (shin kotenshugi), the style with which other Japanese-style painters such as Kobayashi Kokei and Yasuda Yukihiko were associated in the 1930s and 1940s.287 Art historian Kikuya Yoshio observes that works by the new classicists displayed four \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 286 Uemura, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKiri no Kanata\u00E2\u0080\u009D (1932), Seibish\u00C5\u008D sonogo. 287 Whether or not there was shin kotenshugi in Japan has been a contested issue. Hamanaka Shinji and Kusanagi Natsuko referred to neo-classicist paintings by Jacques- Louis David in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century as the model of shin kotenshugi and argued against calling ca.1930s Japanese classicism shin kotenshugi. However, as \u00C5\u008Ckuma Toshiyuki observes, artists around the 1930s emulated works of what is now called \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnew classicism\u00E2\u0080\u009D of the 1920s, not neo-classicism of the earlier period. The confusion, in part, is a result of translation of the words into Japanese. For more on this issue, see Nihon ni shinkotenshugi kaiga wa atta ka? [Was There Neo- Classical Painting in Japan?] (Tokyo: Yamatane Museum, 1999). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 118 characteristics.288 First, they boldly created blank space, making their compositions extremely orderly and organized. Second, they used firm outlines to indicate the contours of objects, rather than chiaroscuro or color gradation, which makes the paintings look flat. Third, the artists\u00E2\u0080\u0099 palettes were intense and bright. Finally, they dealt with historical themes. Art historian \u00C5\u008Ckuma Toshiyuki suggests that Japanese new classicism was an incarnation of its European counterpart, which developed after the chaos of the Great War. It was introduced to Japan in the late 1920s by artists such as Ihara Usabur\u00C5\u008D, who wrote ardently about Picasso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s new classicist works. At the end of the nineteenth century, modernist artists such as Paul C\u00C3\u00A9zanne and Georges Seurat already sought to recreate some form of structure and rule after Impressionists rejected the academic style. The tendency to restore order by returning to old masters, tradition, and classicism was further elaborated by avant-gardists of the 1920s. They had previously challenged artistic conventions by borrowing themes and styles from \u00E2\u0080\u009COriental\u00E2\u0080\u009D cultures; abstracting and stylizing objects; narrowing pictorial space; using non-naturalistic colors; and applying thick paint with visible, rough brushstrokes.289 After the traumatic experience of the first modern war, however, artists including Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Andr\u00C3\u00A9 Derain, and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 288 Kikuya Yoshio, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKansei no me kara risei no zun\u00C5\u008D e\u00E2\u0080\u009D [From the Visual Sense to Conceptual Intellect], Nihon bijutsu zensh\u00C5\u00AB 23 (Tokyo: K\u00C5\u008Ddansha, 1993), 176. 289\u00C5\u008Ckuma Toshiyuki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CRiarizumu no shos\u00C5\u008D: 1920-30 nendai no tenkai\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Various Aspects of Realism: Its Development in the 1920s and 1930s], Nihon no rearizumu 1920-50s [Realism in Japan 1920-50s] (Sapporo: The Hokkaido Museum of Modern Art, 2007). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 119 George de Chirico began advocating a return to order, learning from antiquities and once again seeking realism in figurative representation.290 This early twentieth century new classicism was importantly distinct from classicisms of previous periods. First, as \u00C5\u008Ckuma points out, new classicist works inevitably look deformed, as the artists were former modernists. For this reason, art historian Elizabeth Cowling calls new classicism \u00E2\u0080\u009Cavant-garde classicism.\u00E2\u0080\u009D291 Second, although many of the new classicists were interested in the Greco-Roman antiquity, they were not interested in a single style of art: some of them emulated, for instance, works by Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) or Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472-1553).292 Finally, new classicism was much more nationalistic in its character, which made it easy for fascist states to employ it as official art. New classicist works\u00E2\u0080\u0094paintings by Mario Sironi and George de Chirico, sculptures by Arno Breker, and architecture by Albert Speer\u00E2\u0080\u0094manifested the official vision of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, that their future would rebuild the grand culture of the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 290 Elizabeth Cowling, Introduction to On Classic Ground: Picasso, L\u00C3\u00A9ger, de Chirico and the New Classicism 1910-1930, ed. Elizabeth Cowling and Jennifer Mundy. (London: Tate Gallery, 1990), 11; Chaos & Classicism: Art in France, Italy, and Germany, 1918-1936 (New York: Guggenheim Museum, 2010). 291 \u00C5\u008Ckuma Toshiyuki, \u00E2\u0080\u009COmo ni Nihon no kindai y\u00C5\u008Dga o ch\u00C5\u00ABshin to shinagara\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Focusing on Modern Western-style Painting], in Nihon ni shinkotenshugi kaiga wa attaka?, 42. Elizabeth Cowling, introduction to On Classic Ground. 292 \u00C5\u008Ckuma, \u00E2\u0080\u009COmo ni Nihon no kindai y\u00C5\u008Dga o ch\u00C5\u00ABshin to shinagara,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 44. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 120 Greco-Roman civilization.293 Leni Riefenstahl's film Olympia, which recorded the 1936 Berlin Olympics that took place under the rule of Hitler, was perhaps one of the most sophisticated artworks produced under the Third Reich, and had a great impact on how films were to be made in subsequent periods. Using the quintessentially modern artistic medium, Riefenstahl conveys the classical ideal of perfect form and proportion in the documentary: it begins with shots of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia and the Acropolis in Athens, and then Greco-Roman sculptures of male athletes gradually transform into real human figures.294 The film, which articulates the perfection of the human form, however, also reflected the Nazi racial ideology of Aryan superiority and anti-Semitism. In Japan too, new classicism became official culture during the war. Kobayashi Kokei\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Acalanatha
, which was executed in 1940 and which represents the religious history of the nation, exemplifies the wartime new classicism. It was displayed in the 1940 Japan World Exhibition, which commemorated the 2600th year of the Imperial Era. The art exhibition was a part of the national wide celebration that organized various cultural events, including sports festivals and the compiling of an imperial history, sponsored by both national and local governments as well as mass \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 293 Braun, Mario Sironi and Italian Modernism: Art and Politics under Fascism; Peter Adam, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSculpture,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Art of the Third Reich (New York: Abrams, 1992); Nerdinger, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA Hierarchy of Styles: National Socialist Architecture Between Neoclassicism and Regionalism.\u00E2\u0080\u009D 294 Chaos & Classicism, 48. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 121 media and department stores.295 Although the artist himself did not clarify the relationship between the war and the Buddhist deity, the painting of Acalanatha, known as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe immobile one,\u00E2\u0080\u009D was received by some as expressing Japanese public\u00E2\u0080\u0099s decisiveness toward the 1937 China Incident.296 In the painting, the artist depicts the Buddhist deity sitting on a rock like pedestal, his left leg on his right knee, a sword in his right hand and a lariat in his left. Acalanatha is a highly schematic painting: the ribs of the deity consist of only a few lines, his eyes are white circles with a black dot, and his teeth are flat white squares. The artist demarcates the contour of the figure with solid red lines accentuated with the bright vermilion of the cloth that covers the deity\u00E2\u0080\u0099s legs. With his highly stylized body, the painting does not convey the volume of his flesh. Overall, despite the flames and black shadows behind him, Acalanatha does not look powerful. Acalanatha builds upon a modernist technique, which the artist learned during his year-long trip to Europe in 1921, and which we can see in his work Hair Combing produced in 1931. Hair Combing
, a three-quarter portrait of two women, is characterized by highly simplified composition, bold graphic design, and little tonal variation. The elongated eyes of the women, which emphasize the roundness of the eyeballs, and the ritualistic pose of the woman crossing her arms, might point to the artists\u00E2\u0080\u0099 fascination with Egyptian art, which he saw on his trip, but the stylistic features of the painting unmistakably come from European post-impressionism.297 Due to its \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 295 Ken Ruoff, Imperial Japan at Its Zenith: The Wartime Celebration of the Empire\u00E2\u0080\u0099s 2006th Anniversary (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), 6. 296 Hariu Ichir\u00C5\u008D et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 112. 297 Kobayashi Kokei (Tokyo: The National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo, 2005), 177. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 122 modernist style, Acalanatha could not look more different from Cave in Kanzaki
, the painting with a historical theme that Kokei created in 1907. As with Acalanatha, the painting refers to Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s religious history by depicting a Shinto myth documented in The Izumo F\u00C5\u00ABdoki written in the eighth century. In the painting, the Shinto deity baby Sada is proving himself to be the son of a god by finding and shooting a golden arrow. In contrast to Acalanatha, however, Cave in Kanzaki is painted in a naturalistic manner: Kokei creates spatial distance between the foreground, where the Sada deity\u00E2\u0080\u0099s mother Kisagaihime sits, and the background, where the baby Sada stands, by the use of atmospheric perspective. The baby Sada emits light, indicating his sacredness, and the shading of the rock effectively conveys the soft contrast of light and dark. Unlike the women in Hair Combing, the contour lines of Kisagaihime are thin, soft, and natural. Yasuda Yukihiko is another Japanese-style painter whose wartime works embody the new classicist style. Without question, he was one of the Japanese-style painters whose statements were imbued with nationalism and who was actively involved in producing art when the war was fought. As a professor at the Tokyo School of Fine Arts in 1944, Yasuda encouraged the study of Japanese classical art as a way to \u00E2\u0080\u009Cunderstand the tradition of the imperial nation (k\u00C5\u008Dkoku) that will live eternally.\u00E2\u0080\u009D298 His Camp at Kisegawa consists of two folding screens, each comprising six panels. Yasuda produced the left panel to display at the 1940 Japan World Exhibition, and completed the right one a year later. The work represents the loyalty of warrior Minamoto no Yoshitsune (1159-\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 298 Yasuda Yukihiko, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKihonteki na gijutsu ky\u00C5\u008Diku\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Basic Technical Education], Bijutsu, August 1944, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 123 1189), who came to Kisegawa to support his brother Yoritomo (147-1199) in the Genpei War of the twelfth century. The left panel depicts Yoshitsune kneeling, armed with a bow and arrows and a sword. In the right panel, his older brother Yoritomo sits on a tatami mat with his armor behind him, looking toward Yoshitsune. Produced during the war, the painting clearly points to the spirit of military solidarity. The art critic who most rigorously theorized new classicism in Japan during the war was Yanagi Ry\u00C5\u008D (1903-1978). Yanagi discussed the importance of learning from the classics (koten) in a series of articles in 1941.299 They clearly demonstrate how wartime interest in the classics in Japan was mediated through modernism. While he presents analyses of works by European masters including Ingres, interestingly, Yanagi found the ultimate model of classicism in modern art, specifically, paintings by Georges Seurat (1859-1891). Yanagi shows how Seurat\u00E2\u0080\u0099s compositions follow scientific rules and a rational order grounded on geometry, such as symmetry and the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cgolden ratio.\u00E2\u0080\u009D Although rationality is now understood as a byproduct of modernization, he argues, it indeed existed before the modern era: classical works including ancient Greek sculpture, the Christian Cross, Byzantine and Romanesque churches are mathematically grounded and geometrically harmonious.300 Yanagi provides a diagram
in which he \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 299 Art historian Kuraya Mika provides an excellent study on how Yanagi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s theory influenced the production of war art. Kuraya Mika, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSenjika no y\u00C5\u008Droppa bijutsu kenky\u00C5\u00AB,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu 1937-1945/ Art in Wartime Japan 1937-1945, ed. Hariu Ichir\u00C5\u008D et al. (Tokyo: kokusho kank\u00C5\u008Dkai, 2007) 300 Yanagi Ry\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CS\u00C5\u00ABra\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Seurat], Shin bijutsu. September 1941, 36; \u00E2\u0080\u009CShudaiga to k\u00C5\u008Dzu no mondai\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Subject Painting and the Issue of Composition]. Bijutsu. December 1944, 9. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 124 divides The Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1884-1886) by drawing eight diagonal lines, six vertical lines, and two horizontal lines, and analyzes how the composition and color scheme of the painting comprises rectangles and squares. On this basis, Yanagi contends that Seurat\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works are close to those of Paul C\u00C3\u00A9zanne (1839- 1908), who saw the world in abstract forms and reduced nature to spheres, cones, and cylinders. In so doing, he carefully distinguishes the art of Seurat and C\u00C3\u00A9zanne from Impressionism\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \u00E2\u0080\u009Cvulgarism\u00E2\u0080\u009D (hizoku shugi) and Gauguin\u00E2\u0080\u0099s primitivism.301 In Yanagi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s theory, importantly, the flat, two-dimensional, static, and essentially modernist quality of Seurat\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting is understood to reinforce the orderliness of the picture and contribute to the classicizing aspect of his art.302 Indeed, some Japanese artists and art critics acknowledged the modernist aspects of new classicism as early as 1929. Art critic Maeda Kanji wrote that contemporary artists sought to recreate classical works only with rigid mathematical theories, such as found in Cubism, and without the spirit of humanism.303 In his publication of 1943, Moriguchi Tari describes Picasso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s new classicist works as \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca realism that went through avant-gardism (shink\u00C5\u008Dga f\u00C5\u00AB).\u00E2\u0080\u009D304 Yanagi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s art theory also shows how new classicism became the preferred artistic style for propaganda art in Japan. In his 1941 article titled \u00E2\u0080\u009CSubject Painting and the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 301 Yanagi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CS\u00C5\u00ABra,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 41; Yanagi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CShudaiga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 9. 302 Yanagi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CS\u00C5\u00ABra,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 27. 303 Maeda Kanji, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKoten ha to shin koten-ha to wa nani ka\u00E2\u0080\u009D [What Classicism and New Classicism Are], Bijutsu shinron, January 1929, 23. 304Moriguchi Tari, Bijutsu goj\u00C5\u00ABnen shi [The Fifty Year History of Japanese Art History] (Tokyo: Masu shob\u00C5\u008D, 1943), 524-526. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 125 Issue of Composition,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Yanagi essentially promotes Seurat\u00E2\u0080\u0099s art as the ideal style for war propaganda paintings. He declares that the most important aspect of propaganda art (mokuteki geijutsu) is careful planning (k\u00C5\u008Ds\u00C5\u008D), which is naturally about composition.305 Even though well-structured composition is indispensable to war paintings, he comments, artists who have exhibited at Holy War Art Exhibitions, Navy Art Exhibitions, and Air Force Art Exhibitions are not conscious enough of this.306 Yanagi explains that Japanese Western-style painters lack a basic understanding of, and consciousness about, composition, because they are primarily trained in Impressionism. He finally suggests, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthere is a need to reflect on the classics.\u00E2\u0080\u009D307 Yanagi refers to both Yasuda and Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s paintings as examples of ideal propaganda art. He also discusses Western-style oil paintings such as Fujita Tsuguharu\u00E2\u0080\u0099s The Battle on the Bank of the Haluha, Nomonhan (1941)
, an official war painting, but comes to the conclusion that Japanese-style painting is more suitable for the propaganda art of his vision. He explains that there are two categories of paintings: one that is two-dimensional, rational, classical, and static, and the other that is realistic and dynamic. He contends that the former is suitable for war propaganda and that Japanese- style painting, rather than Western-style oil painting, is prone to produce the desired visual effects.308 It is Yasuda\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Camp at Kisegawa and Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Twilight (1941) that \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 305 Yanagi Ry\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CShudaiga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 8. 306 Yanagi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CShudaiga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 8. 307 Yanagi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CShudaiga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 9. 308 Yanagi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CShudaiga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 10. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 126 particularly satisfy Yanagi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s expectations for propaganda art.309 Yanagi again provides diagrams
, illustrating how the compositions of the two works maintain stable, balanced, and perfectly proportioned structures: Yasuda\u00E2\u0080\u0099s composition follows the ratio of one to nine while Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s is based on the square root of five.310 In regard to Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work, the art critic stated, \u00E2\u0080\u009CI have not seen works like Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s in which the various elements of painting work so well. This is a kind of painting that both has good subject matter and good composition.\u00E2\u0080\u009D311 Interestingly, the work that Yanagi chose to demonstrate the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cbad example\u00E2\u0080\u009D of Japanese-style painting was The Image of Contemporary Women (1941)
by It\u00C5\u008D Shinsui. Yanagi describes Shinsui\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting that depicts five kimono-clad women strolling together as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnot having classical elements at all\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmerely a snap shot of women.\u00E2\u0080\u009D312 Informed by European new classicism, works by Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Yasuda and Kokei at the same time seem to express particularly \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D qualities as they were understood during the 1930s and 1940s. Here, it is useful to introduce the concept of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmonumental style\u00E2\u0080\u009D articulated by Darrell William Davis, who has studied wartime kokusaku (national policy) films. While acknowledging that Japanese filmmakers produced \u00E2\u0080\u009Cordinary\u00E2\u0080\u009D propaganda, Davis suggests that there was another kind of film that was subtler and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 309 Yanagi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CShudaiga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 10. 310 Yanagi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CShudaiga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 10. 311 Yanagi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CShudaiga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 15. 312 Yanagi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CShudaiga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 15. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 127 represented a \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D aura by drawing on the nation\u00E2\u0080\u0099s traditional aesthetics.313 He explains that the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmonumental style,\u00E2\u0080\u009D which he asserts is a form of Japanese fundamentalism, is characterized by aesthetics that were understood as embodying \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapaneseness,\u00E2\u0080\u009D such as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe primacy of perception over narrative,\u00E2\u0080\u009D \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpoverty of drama,\u00E2\u0080\u009D \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca sacred, deliberative aura,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca sense of restraint and decorum.\u00E2\u0080\u009D314 Paintings such as Sudden Blast, Acalanatha, and Camp at Kisegawa, all of which look motionless and discreet, likely contributed to the discursive practice of producing art of \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapaneseness.\u00E2\u0080\u009D In fact, Okazaki Yoshie, a prominent art critic, theorized that the new classicist style was a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cuniquely Japanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D style. In his essay \u00E2\u0080\u009CContemporary Japanese-Style Painting and its National Characteristics\u00E2\u0080\u009D (published in 1942), Okazaki refers to paintings by Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Kokei, and Yasuda as \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctextbook examples\u00E2\u0080\u009D of ideal Japanese-style paintings. He proclaims that \u00E2\u0080\u009Cuniquely Japanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D art has strong lines (sen) and flatness (heimen sei).315 If one understands new classicism as a kind of modernism, it is not surprising that Okazaki found formal affinities between new classicism and Japanese traditional arts, because European modernist works stylistically drew so much on \u00E2\u0080\u009COriental\u00E2\u0080\u009D art including Japanese art. Okazaki was not alone in relating new classicism to Japanese traditional art. Yanagi Ry\u00C5\u008D also stated that the classicizing elements of Seurat\u00E2\u0080\u0099s art were compatible \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 313 Darrell William Davis, Picturing Japaneseness: Monumental Style, National Identity, Japanese Film (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 2. 314 Davis, Picturing Japaneseness, 136; 176-177. 315 Okazaki Yoshie, \u00E2\u0080\u009CGendai Nihonga to kokumin sei\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Contemporary Japanese-style Painting and its National Characteristics], Kokuga, May 1942, 5. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 128 to the aesthetic of Japanese noh masks.316 Moriguchi Tari wrote that one finds the orderliness and quietness of new classicism in Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s tea ceremony.317 What is interesting is how Okazaki developed his own theory to claim the superiority of Japan vis-\u00C3\u00A0-vis the West and the rest of Asia by espousing the new classicist style. He states that line is not so much about defining an object\u00E2\u0080\u0099s contour as it is about expressing the backbone of the will, calling the style of drawing solid, decisive, strong lines as \u00E2\u0080\u009Ckopp\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u009D (\u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe bone method\u00E2\u0080\u009D).318 Echoing Okakura Tenshin\u00E2\u0080\u0099s understanding of Buddhism, Okazaki claims that Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s cultural origin lay in India, came through China, but flourished only in Japan.319 The \u00E2\u0080\u009Cbone method,\u00E2\u0080\u009D he notes, is weak in India, and although it exists in China, their lines are too rigid and the quality is declining.320 It is in Japan that this method was maintained and developed, and the relative flexibility of Japanese lines gave birth to the uniquely Japanese aesthetics of \u00E2\u0080\u009Caware,\u00E2\u0080\u009D \u00E2\u0080\u009Cy\u00C5\u00ABgen\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Ciki.\u00E2\u0080\u009D321 The flatness of space that results from the line deprives the paintings of shadow, but the absence of shadow indicates, Okazaki argues, that they depict scenes not under bright daylight but in darkness, at dawn or sunset, when the light is softer.322 Like Tanizaki Jun\u00E2\u0080\u0099ichir\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s In Praise of Shadows, Okazaki places Japan in \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 316Yanagi Ry\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CS\u00C5\u00ABra,\u00E2\u0080\u009D27. 317 Moriguchi, Bijutsu goj\u00C5\u00ABnen shi, 514. 318 Okazaki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CGendai Nihonga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 2. 319 Okakura Tenshin, The Ideal of the East (1903; repr., London: Murray, 1920). 320 Okazaki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CGendai Nihonga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 3. 321 Okazaki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CGendai Nihonga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 4. 322 Okazaki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CGendai Nihonga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 4. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 129 darkness and the West in brightness. In so doing, Okazaki located Japanese art at the pinnacle of Asian civilization and also pointed to its essential difference from Western art. Toward the end of the article, Okazaki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s rhetoric becomes remarkably militaristic. Likening the difference between Japanese and Western artistic systems to fighting strategies, Okazaki writes that the Japanese painting is not a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cstandard tactic of attack\u00E2\u0080\u009D (seik\u00C5\u008D h\u00C5\u008D), but rather a \u00E2\u0080\u009Csurprise attack\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kish\u00C5\u00AB sakusen). He states, If the paintings of trees and birds have the power of the bone method, they will lead to the surprise attack\u00E2\u0080\u0099s victory. Western paintings that apply paint all over canvas will lose their power in front of the Japanese art\u00E2\u0080\u00A6I feel supernatural power in the bone method.323 Writing in 1942, it is clear that Okazaki was referring to Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s attack on Pearl Harbor the year before. The discursive retreat to Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s past in the form of classicism resonated with the larger political discourse, which was encapsulated by the symposium on \u00E2\u0080\u009Covercoming the modern\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kindai no ch\u00C5\u008Dkoku) that took place in 1942 at the beginning of the Pacific War.324 The participants were leading intellectuals and writers\u00E2\u0080\u0094members of the Kyoto School of Philosophy, the Literary Society, and the Japan Romantic Group, and in the symposium, they discussed \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe meaning of Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s war in light of its modernizing \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 323 Okazaki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CGendai Nihonga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 4. 324 Harootunian, Overcome by Modernity: History, Culture, and Community in Interwar Japan, 78. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 130 experience.\u00E2\u0080\u009D325 They argued that Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s modernization since the Meiji period brought about \u00E2\u0080\u009CAmericanism\u00E2\u0080\u009D: individualism, liberalism, and materialism. Furthermore, modern technology created new communication media, which consequently produced an endless series of partial representations.326 Specialization of knowledge, rationalization, and division of labor gave birth to a new way of knowing, feeling, and living. Modernization, they contended, destroyed Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s spiritual connection with the gods, and the sense of mystery, wonder, and aura in everyday life; it destroyed the immediacy of experience and a sense of totality. The symposium came to the conclusion that Japan must restore its spiritual, pre-modern life by \u00E2\u0080\u009Covercoming\u00E2\u0080\u009D the modern.327 In this context, the war was seen as an opportunity to \u00E2\u0080\u009Crid [Japan] of the \u00E2\u0080\u0098sickness\u00E2\u0080\u0099 of Westernization\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Creinstitute...\u00E2\u0080\u0098authentic\u00E2\u0080\u0099 Japanese culture.\u00E2\u0080\u009D328 The cultural theory developed by Kuki Sh\u00C5\u00ABz\u00C5\u008D, philosopher at the University of Kyoto, illuminates how the cultural imagination of Edo could share the 1940s government\u00E2\u0080\u0099s vision to establish the Japanese community anew. In 1930, Kuki published The Structure of Iki in the journal Shis\u00C5\u008D. The philosopher examined the word iki (\u00E2\u0080\u009Cbordello chic\u00E2\u0080\u009D), which developed around the unlicensed prostitution district of Fukagawa in Edo in the early nineteenth century. Arguing that iki refers to the specific culture of Japan, he claimed that the word could not be translated into any other language and asserted that the aesthetic of iki was an expression of Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s collective \u00E2\u0080\u009CBeing\u00E2\u0080\u009D or \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 325 Harootunian, Overcome by Modernity, 35. 326 Harootunian, Overcome by Modernity, 65. 327 Harootunian, Overcome by Modernity, 38. 328 Harootunian, Overcome by Modernity, 35. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 131 ethnicity (minzoku).329 Kuki wrote, \u00E2\u0080\u009Ciki can be safely considered to be a distinct self- expression of an oriental culture or, no, more precisely, a specific mode of Being of the Yamato people.\u00E2\u0080\u009D330 Kuki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s philosophy was strongly influenced by the concept of \u00E2\u0080\u009CBeing\u00E2\u0080\u009D articulated in Being and Time (1929) by Martin Heidegger, with whom he had direct contact during his stay in Europe in the 1920s. The issues of Heidegger\u00E2\u0080\u0099s ideological contribution to Nazism and his participation in the Nazi party are beyond the scope of this investigation, but his nationalistic philosophy was taken much further by ardent Japanese followers of his works, including Nishida Kitar\u00C5\u008D, Watsuji Tetsur\u00C5\u008D, and Kuki, who used the concept of \u00E2\u0080\u009CBeing\u00E2\u0080\u009D to define national communities differentiated by collective identity and to justify war seen as geopolitical conflicts between them. 331 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 329Joshua S. Mostow, \u00E2\u0080\u009CUtagawa Shunga, Kuki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \u00E2\u0080\u0098Chic,\u00E2\u0080\u0099 and the Construction of a National Erotics in Japan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Performing \u00E2\u0080\u009CNation,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 383-4; Leslie Pincus, Authenticating Culture in Imperial Japan: Kuki Sh\u00C5\u00ABz\u00C5\u008D and the Rise of National Aesthetics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 247. 330 Kuki Sh\u00C5\u00ABz\u00C5\u008D, The Structure of Iki (1931), translated and reproduced in Nara Hiroshi, The Structure of Detachment: The Aesthetic View of Kuki Sh\u00C5\u00ABz\u00C5\u008D with a Translation of Iki no k\u00C5\u008Dz\u00C5\u008D (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2004), 15;17. 331 Pincus, Authenticating Culture, 172. For more on Heidegger and Nazism, see David Harvey, The Condition of Post-Modernity; Lacoue-Labarthe, Philippe. Heidegger, Art and Politics: The Fiction of the Political, Trans. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990). For the relationship between Heidegger and Japanese philosophers, see Graham Mayeda, Time, Space and Ethics in the Philosophy of Watsuji Tetsur\u00C5\u008D, Kuki Sh\u00C5\u00ABz\u00C5\u008D, and Martin \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 132 Even though The Structure of Iki was published in 1930, the liminal period that was yet to see the full rise of militarism, historian Leslie Pincus highlights the continuum between Kuki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work and the wartime ideology of later years.332 She writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKuki turned to an indigenous tradition in order to reclaim cultural authenticity from the clutches of Enlightenment history. On this common ground, Kuki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s project contributed to a larger enterprise aimed at replacing the rootlessness of modern urban-industrial society with an organic community grounded in national soil.\u00E2\u0080\u009D333 As historian Harry Harootunian suggests, the \u00E2\u0080\u009Covercoming the modern\u00E2\u0080\u009D symposium marked wartime Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfascist turn.\u00E2\u0080\u009D334 It represents the fascist conceptualization of time, which envisions its future by trying to recuperate its past. According to historian Roger Griffin, fascism shows \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe vision of the (perceived) crisis of the nation as betokening the birth-pangs of a new order. It crystallizes in the image of the national community, once purged and rejuvenated, rising phoenix-like from the ashes of a morally bankrupt state and the decadent culture associated with it.\u00E2\u0080\u009D335 Likewise, art historian Mark Antliff states, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfascists selectively plundered their historical past for moments \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Heidegger (New York; London: Routledge, 2006); Graham Parkes, Ed. Heidegger and Asian Thought (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987). 332 Pincus, Authenticating Culture, 228-229. 333 Pincus, Authenticating Culture, 88. 334 Najita Tetsuo and H.D. Harootunian, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapanese Revolt against the West: Political and Cultural Criticism in the Twentieth Century,\u00E2\u0080\u009D The Cambridge History of Japan, ed. Peter Duus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). 741. 335 Roger Griffin, ed. Fascism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 3. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 133 reflective of the values they wished to inculcate for their radical transformation of national consciousness and public institution.\u00E2\u0080\u009D336 As Kobayashi Kokei, Yasuda Yukihiko, and Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works demonstrate, new classicism, which originally came from Europe during the 1920s, was thus appropriated by the state and became the official art that advocated modern Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctranscendence\u00E2\u0080\u009D into a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpre-modern\u00E2\u0080\u009D future. New Classicism, Fascist Kitsch, and Death As discussed above, new classicism was different from the classicisms of previous periods: it was imbued with modernist stylistic features. Also, as art historian Elizabeth Cowling suggests, even though previous classicisms assumed that the \u00E2\u0080\u009CGolden Age\u00E2\u0080\u009D existed in the past and were suspicious of innovation, new classicism paradoxically maintained that the \u00E2\u0080\u009CGolden Age\u00E2\u0080\u009D would be realized in the future.337 Examining de Chirico\u00E2\u0080\u0099s new classicist phase, another art historian, Emily Braun, points to the bizarre union of modernism and classicism found in new classicism. She writes, elements of antiquity and modern industry meet in an illogical world without spatial or temporal coherence\u00E2\u0080\u00A6the breaks in continuity and a sense of suspended time reveal the irremediable gap between the present and the past\u00E2\u0080\u00A6After de Chirico, the use of classical vocabulary could never be quite the same, for he emptied the \u00E2\u0080\u009Csign\u00E2\u0080\u009D of its ideological significance\u00E2\u0080\u00A6Even his images of gladiators, nudes and horses on the beach of the following decade, painted at the height of Fascism, parody traditional values\u00E2\u0080\u00A6; their \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 336 Antliff, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascism, Modernism, and Modernity\u00E2\u0080\u009D: 150. 337 Cowling, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIntroduction,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 19. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 134 flaccid forms and garish colours resolutely refuse to bear the weight of any invested meaning.338 New classicism, in other words, was not \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctrue\u00E2\u0080\u009D classicism but a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfake.\u00E2\u0080\u009D On this basis, Braun calls new classicism kitsch.339 Kitsch is a form of art that is often simply defined as exemplifying \u00E2\u0080\u009Cbad taste.\u00E2\u0080\u009D Yet, it is not a subjective aesthetic judgment: at least in art historical discourses, it has its own criteria and originated in a specific historical context. Such is the case of the discussion of kitsch by Clement Greenberg in his 1939 \u00E2\u0080\u009CAvant-Garde and Kitsch.\u00E2\u0080\u009D In this seminal essay, bemoaning the gradual disappearance of avant-garde art that can be shared only by a minority of intellectuals and cultured bourgeois, Greenberg claims that kitsch is the opposite of avant-garde art. He describes kitsch as \u00E2\u0080\u009Crear-garde,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and states that it can be understood by the uneducated, low class masses. Kitsch, according to him, is \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpopular, commercial art and literature with their Chromeotypes, magazine covers, illustrations, ads, slick and pulp fiction, comics, Tin Pan Alley music, tap dancing, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 338 Braun, \u00E2\u0080\u009CPolitical Rhetoric and Poetic Irony,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 347. Braun writes another essay on de Chirico and kitsch: Emily Braun, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKitsch and the Avant-Garde: The Case of de Chirico,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Rethinking Art Between the Wars: New Perspective in Art History, ed. Hans Dem Christensen, \u00C3\u0098ystein Hjort, Niels Marup Jensen (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2001). 339 Emily Braun, \u00E2\u0080\u009CPolitical Rhetoric and Poetic Irony: The Uses of Classicism in the Art of Fascist Italy,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in On Classic Ground, 347. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 135 Hollywood movies, etc., etc.\u00E2\u0080\u009D340 Kitsch emerged as a result of the industrial revolution, and can be mechanically reproduced by formula. Moreover, because kitsch imitates authentic art, it elicits a strong affect of beauty and harmony and provides an ecstatic and illusionary vision of the world, which is exactly why the masses embrace it.341 In short, kitsch is tasteless yet moving. But, as only a simulacrum of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cgenuine culture,\u00E2\u0080\u009D the affect it evokes, Greenberg asserts, is always a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfaked sensation.\u00E2\u0080\u009D342 Greenberg mentions that kitsch can be found in the art of totalitarian states, but it is Milan Kundera and Saul Friedl\u00C3\u00A4nder who elucidate the function of kitsch in the politics of totalitarianism, fascism in particular. In his The Unbearable Lightness of Being (1984), novelist Milan Kundera has examined how kitsch can lend itself to political \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 340 Clement Greenberg, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Avant-Garde and Kitsch,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Art in Theory 1900-2000: An Anthology of Changing Ideas, ed. Charles Harrison and Paul Wood. 2nd ed. (London: Blackwell Publishing, 2000), 543. 341 Eva Le Grand, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKitsch and Death for Eternity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Kundera, or the Memory of Desire, trans. Lin Burman (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1999). For more on kitsch, see Milan Kundera, The Unbearable Lightness of Being, trans. Michael Henry Heim (London: Faber and Faber, 1995); Lisa Saltzman, \u00E2\u0080\u009C\u00E2\u0080\u0098Avant-Garde and Kitsch\u00E2\u0080\u0099 Revisited: On the Ethics of Representation,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Mirroring Evil: Nazi Imagery/ Recent Art, ed. Norman L. Kleebatt. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, and The Jewish Museum, New York, 2002); Hermann Broch, \u00E2\u0080\u009CEvil in the Value-System of Art,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Geist and Zeitgeist: The Spirit in an Unspiritual Age (New York: Counterpoint, 2002). 342 Greenberg, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Avant-Garde and Kitsch,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 543. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 136 manipulation. Scholar Eva Le Grand succinctly summarizes Kundera\u00E2\u0080\u0099s ideas. Kitsch can: misrepresent what is real as an idyllic and ecstatic vision of the world to which we sacrifice without scruple all ethical and critical awareness\u00E2\u0080\u00A6Kitsch likes to feed off abstract ideals and feelings and sets them up as absolute values. Within such logic, it can only show illness, desire, the body or death under a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmask of beauty\u00E2\u0080\u009D\u00E2\u0080\u00A6It is through such esthetic and emotional idealization of what is real, especially when it prettifies deaths, war, massacres, denunciations, executions or imprisonments, that kitsch becomes totalitarian.343 The beautiful, ecstatic worldview which kitsch provides hinders the viewer from confronting the reality of filth, impurity, and death, and distinguishing the imaginary from the real, which consequently legitimizes and promotes violence, war, and atrocities.344 In his book Reflections of Nazism: An Essay on Kitsch and Death, Friedl\u00C3\u00A4nder goes further and examines how exactly the aesthetic of kitsch can promote death. First of all, he explains that anything\u00E2\u0080\u0094even death, which is furthest from beauty\u00E2\u0080\u0094can be kitsch. Kitschy death is an idealized, beautified death, or a fake death. Here is the example Friedl\u00C3\u00A4nder uses to illustrate kitschy death: \u00E2\u0080\u009C[a hero] collapses, his eyes already dulled, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 343 Le Grand, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKitsch and Death for Eternity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 10; 21-22. Quoted in Sharalyn Orbaugh, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKiller Kitsch: Kamishibai in the Fifteen Year War, 1931-1945\u00E2\u0080\u009D (Paper Presented at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, October 28, 2009). 344 Le Grand, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKitsch and Death for Eternity.\u00E2\u0080\u009D \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 137 one hand at the wound where blood spills, but the other still gripping the broken flagstaff; any child in a school yard who mimics the death of a cowboy or Indian, cop or thief, Mafioso or incorruptible gives a kitsch performance of death.\u00E2\u0080\u009D345 The kitschy death, however, is dangerous because it does not convey the real value of death, thus displacing and neutralizing the feeling of terror and solitude. In other words, it allows people to feel easier about dying. Death becomes kitsch, Friedl\u00C3\u00A4nder explains, when it is surrounded by kitsch. The most crucial point of his discussion, which does not appear in Kundera\u00E2\u0080\u0099s theory, is the argument that what made death kitsch in Nazi Germany was new classicism, which sought to recreate, in vain, the culture of the past. Friedl\u00C3\u00A4nder writes, The kitsch here [in Nazi Germany] is a return to a debased romantic inspiration, to an aesthetic stripped of the force and novelty it had 150 years ago at the dawn of modernity. And it is in this pre- and antimodern ambience that the opposing themes of harmonious kitsch and death flower and spread. A major theme thrown up by the multiple reflections of this juxtaposition is that of the hero. The hero being, to be sure, he who will die.\u00E2\u0080\u009D346 In Nazi Germany what rendered death kitsch were the beautiful young heroes dying for the cause of the nation who were repeatedly represented in new classicist art. Thus, new classicism was the crucial element in the fascist-specific formula of kitsch and death, and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 345 Saul Friedl\u00C3\u00A4nder, Reflections of Nazism: An Essay on Kitsch and Death (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993), 26. 346 Friedl\u00C3\u00A4nder, Reflections of Nazism, 30. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 138 it is in this context that I would finally like to discuss Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Lady Kusunoki, a portrait of the wife of imperial loyalist Kusunoki Masashige.347 Lady Kusunoki Sh\u00C5\u008Den completed Lady Kusunoki
in 1944, a year before the end of the war. It was commissioned by Minatogawa Shrine in Kobe, which is dedicated to the spirit of Kusunoki Masashige (1294-1336), a military commander of the medieval period.348 Yokoyama Taikan, who was the most prominent advocate of the war in the art world and a Japanese-style painter, also produced a portrait of Masashige, which was supposed to be paired with Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Lady Kusunoki. The story of the Kusunoki is documented in Taiheiki, one of the most important Japanese war tales. Written sometime in the fourteenth century, it covers events from the ascension of Emperor Godaigo in 1318, the Kemmu restoration in 1333, the subsequent split of the imperial court into the southern court of Yoshino and northern court backed by the Ashikaga, and conflicts within the Ashikaga bakufu.349 Kusunoki Masashige is a hero of imperial loyalism who served Emperor Godaigo and died fighting Ashikaga Takauji in the Battle of Minatogawa \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 347 For a few of the scholars who have written on wartime Japanese culture and kitsch, see, Inoue Sh\u00C5\u008Dkichi, \u00C4\u0080to, kicchu, japanesuku; Sharalyn Orbaugh, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKiller Kitsch\u00E2\u0080\u009D; Tansman, The Aesthetics of Japanese Fascism. 348 Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Seibish\u00C5\u008D sh\u00C5\u00ABi (Tokyo: K\u00C5\u008Ddansha, 1976), 135. The writing has no date, but was most likely written around 1940. 349 Paul Varley, Warriors of Japan: As Portrayed in the War Tales (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994), 168 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 139 in 1336. Paul H. Varley asserts that the Taiheiki is an embodiment of failed loyalist heroes and self-sacrifice, claiming that \u00E2\u0080\u009Cimperial loyalism does not emerge as a central belief governing warrior behavior in the war tales until Taiheiki.\u00E2\u0080\u009D350 At the Battle of Minatogawa, anticipating being outnumbered by Takauji\u00E2\u0080\u0099s forces, Masashige decides that that this will be his \u00E2\u0080\u009Clast battle.\u00E2\u0080\u009D351 A group of warriors, including Masashige and his brother Masasue, then withdraw to a peasant\u00E2\u0080\u0099s house and commit suicide, refusing to be killed by the enemy. Masashige and Masasue\u00E2\u0080\u0099s laudable mentality of fighting for the country was popularized as shichish\u00C5\u008Dh\u00C5\u008Dkoku, or a dedication to serving the nation so strong that one would do so no matter how many times one was reincarnated.352 Lady Kusunoki loses her husband in this battle, but her son Masatsura promises to serve the emperor after his father\u00E2\u0080\u0099s death. The Kusunoki were popularized in the Meiji period against the historical backdrop of the restoration of the emperor and modern nation- and Empire-building. Peter Wetzler writes, Kusunoki ideology was pushed to extremes between 1886 and August 1945\u00E2\u0080\u00A6it had a prominent position in the school textbooks that were standardized and distributed by the central government beginning in 1903\u00E2\u0080\u00A6the few places [in Taiheiki] where Kusunoki is mentioned were cited \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 350 Varley, Warriors of Japan, 179-80. 351 Varley, Warriors of Japan, 197. 352 \u00C5\u008Ctani Sh\u00C5\u008Dgo, \u00E2\u0080\u009CRekishi-ga\u00E2\u0080\u009D[History Painting], in Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 108. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 140 with ever increasing frequency and in a variety of ways in official schoolbooks after 1903.353 The Kusunokis were the most represented historical figures during the Fifteen-Year War, and their story became instrumental in communicating the virtue of dying for the emperor. The Kusunoki story resonated with the state ideology of the 1930s and 1940s. First, it embodied the principle of kokutai\u00E2\u0080\u0094which is articulated in The Essence of the National Polity (Kokutai no hongi) issued by the Ministry of Education in 1937\u00E2\u0080\u0094that Japanese subjects have an organic connection to the emperor and therefore are obliged to die for him. Second, Masashige and Masasue\u00E2\u0080\u0099s decision to take their own lives before being captured by the enemy exemplified the method of fighting that was advocated toward the end of the Fifteen-Year War. In such battles as those at Attu Island, Saipan, and Okinawa, where the defeat of Japanese forces was both inevitable and imminent, citizens were instructed by the state officials to kill themselves and remain loyal to the emperor until the very end. T\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u008D Hideki, who became Japan's Prime Minister in 1941 and whose father was a Kusunoki scholar, publically spoke about the Kusunoki ideal. He stated, I believe that Prince Kusunoki is the most superlative person in the world. Napoleon and others cannot be compared with him\u00E2\u0080\u00A6With conviction he gathered loyal troops from all over the land for this battle to the death, and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 353 Peter Wetzler, Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998), 71. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 141 they fought hard. I believe that Kusunoki fought as a statesman for a great principle.354 Likewise, Watanabe Ikujir\u00C5\u008D (1867-1960), a specialist of Japanese history, published an article on Kusunoki in the Yomiuri shinbun in April 1944, a year before the war ended.355 Watanabe notes how Kusunoki embodies imperial loyalism and claims that he stands at the top of Japanese ethnicity (minzoku). He declares that the spirit of Kusunoki only exists among the Japanese populace, and that with that spirit the Japanese could defeat the United States and Britain. The concluding paragraph reads, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIf we truly maintain the Kusunoki spirit of imperial loyalism, dying and living for the sake of the nation, there is nothing we are afraid of. Our imperial nation is eternal. Our victory is certain.\u00E2\u0080\u009D Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Lady Kusunoki, which was painted in 1944 when suicide as a war stratagem was at its peak, is clearly complicit with the wartime state authorites in propagating the virtue of suicide. In addition to the virtue of fighting for the emperor, Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s depiction of Kusunoki\u00E2\u0080\u0099s wife represents the ideal image of women as both marrying men who are loyal to their superiors, and also raise loyal sons. How Lady Kusunoki is represented in the painting is important. The seated woman gazes slightly to her left, her hands crossed in her lap. She looks serene, humble, but confident. Her hair is thick and black. Brown, almost the only color used besides black and white, is used extensively for her jacket and exaggerates the abstract contour of her body. The folds of the jacket are broad and bold, which reduces the figure in volume. In general, simplification, abstraction, and two-dimensionality characterize the picture. As \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 354 Peter Wetzler, Hirohito and War, 72. 355 Watanabe Ikujir\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CK\u00C5\u008Dkoku goji no daiseishin,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Yomiuri shinbun, April 16, 1944. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 142 with Late Autumn
, Lady Kusunoki, executed in modernist style and portraying a historical figure, is a new classical painting which imitates authentic classicism. Coupled with the theme of death in the form of the wife of a military general who signifies self-sacrifice, this particular painting not only seems to invite ecstatic feelings of beauty and harmony, but also misrepresents and idealizes death under a mask of beauty. In other words, it functions as kitsch. Although the painting can be easily categorized as an example of bijin-ga, the historical context of its production, its theme, and its mode of representation reveal how the work was to act as propaganda art, even if not as directly as the officially commissioned battle paintings produced by Western-style painters around the same time. The Role of Female Artist in Fascism The high visibility that Sh\u00C5\u008Den maintained during the war calls into question the role of female artists under a fascist state. Referring to the 1970s rehabilitation of the film maker Leni Riefenstahl, who produced \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmasterpieces\u00E2\u0080\u009D under the Nazis, cultural critic Susan Sontag has written, \u00E2\u0080\u009CPart of the impetus behind Riefenstahl\u00E2\u0080\u0099s recent promotion to the status of a cultural monument surely owes to the fact that she is a woman.\u00E2\u0080\u009D356 As the case of Riefenstahl proves, however, the mere fact that an artist is female does not necessarily mean that she works for the cause of feminism, which is to say, toward the liberation of women from patriarchal control. Female artists can serve a fascist state, one which maintains a patriarchal view on the role of women in society, and I argue that through her public activities and art Sh\u00C5\u008Den did precisely that. Indeed, Sh\u00C5\u008Den was by no \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 356 Sontag, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFascinating Fascism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 84. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 143 means the only woman artist who made significant contribution to the Japanese state during the war.357 Nakada Kikuyo and Kataoka Tamako painted soldiers, and Hasegawa Haruko formed what was called the Japan Woman Artists\u00E2\u0080\u0099 Patriotic Association (Jory\u00C5\u00AB Bijutsuka H\u00C5\u008Dk\u00C5\u008Dtai), a female version of the Japan Patriotic Art Association (Nihon Bijutsu H\u00C5\u008Dkoku kai), which consisted of forty female artists. They collectively painted Women of Imperial Japan at Work During the Greater East Asian War: Autumn and Winter (1944), a painting of women engaging in various types of labor, including house work, farming, nursing, military training, working at factories, cooking, and doing the laundry.358 The painting was displayed at the Army Art Exhibition in 1944 and is now housed at the Museum at Yasukuni Shrine.359 Recent feminist scholarship for example, by Kan\u00C5\u008D Mikiyo and Okano Yukie, has reconsidered and self-critically assessed the role of Japanese women in the war, focusing on their role as a victimizers rather than victims.360 They have found that women, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 357 Kokatsu Reiko, Hashiru onnatachi: Josei gaka no senzen, sengo 1930-1950/ Japanese Women Artists before and after World War II, 1930s-1950s (Utsunomiya: Tochigi Prefectural Museum, 2001). 358 Kokatsu Reiko, Hashiru onnatachi, 6-7. 359 Sh\u00C5\u008Dwa no bijutsu [Art of the Showa Period] (Niigata, Japan: Niigata Prefectural Museum of Modern Art, 2005), 80. 360 Kan\u00C5\u008D Mikiyo, Onnatachi no j\u00C5\u00ABgo [Women on the Home Front] (Tokyo: Inpakuto shuppankai, 1995); Okano Yukie, et al. Onnatachi no sens\u00C5\u008D sekinin [War Responsibility of Women] (Tokyo: Tokyod\u00C5\u008D shuppan, 2004). For similar feminist scholarship about \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 144 especially prewar feminist activists including Ichikawa Fusae and Hiratsuka Raich\u00C5\u008D, among others, endorsed the war and militarism. Their studies have illuminated the fact that, contrary to the conventional understanding, women were active in both the private and public spheres: they participated in state campaigns targeted at domestic homes, such as the frugality and hygiene campaigns; and they belonged to state organizations, such as the National Defense Women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Association (Kokub\u00C5\u008D Fujinkai) and the Great Japan Women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Association (Dai Nihon Fujinkai), which had regular public meetings.361 Hasegawa Shigure, a feminist and a founder of the magazine Women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Art (Nyonin Geijutsu), for example, claimed that the home front (j\u00C5\u00ABgo) was the place where women could unite and show their utmost usefulness and energy.362 The wartime authorities advocated the essentialist concept of gender roles and valued women only if they were housewives and mothers. This meant, however, that as long as women remained housewives and mothers, their contributions were acknowledged by the state. The prewar feminists and wartime state authorities thus shared their goals and eventually developed a symbiotic relationship: the government gave women an unprecedented degree of social responsibility; in turn, women were publicly recognized for their \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Nazi Germany, see Claudia Koonz, Mothers in the Fatherland: Women, the Family, and Nazi Politics (New York: St. Martin\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Griffin, 1987). 361 Kan\u00C5\u008D Mikiyo, Onnatachi no j\u00C5\u00ABgo [Women on the Home Front] (Tokyo: Inpakuto shuppankai, 1995); Okano Yukie et al., Onnatachi no sens\u00C5\u008D sekinin [War Responsibility of Women] (Tokyo: Tokyod\u00C5\u008D shuppan, 2004). 362 Ogata Akiko, \u00E2\u0080\u009C\u00E2\u0080\u0098Kagayaku\u00E2\u0080\u0099 no j\u00C5\u00ABgo und\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Homefront Movement of Magazine \u00E2\u0080\u009CKagayaku\u00E2\u0080\u009D], in Onnatachi no sens\u00C5\u008D sekinin, ed. Okano Yukie, 190. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 145 achievements for the first time in their history. Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s case must be considered in the context of this paradigm in which women acquired relatively higher social mobility and achieved success by paradoxically reinforcing the idea of the patriarchy. Conclusion In this chapter, I have focused on a single artist, Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, and on fascist temporality. Pointing out the problems of previous scholarship on the artist, I have tried to investigate Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works in conjunction with the artistic movement of new classicism. As I have shown, new classicism, which combined elements of modernism and classicism and which initially came from Europe, became the dominant style of propaganda art during the war. Just as the aesthetic of rationalism was understood in relation to Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s traditional art, as I discussed in Chapter One, Japanese art critics legitimized the use of European-inspired new classicism by theorizing it as manifesting \u00E2\u0080\u009Cunique Japaneseness.\u00E2\u0080\u009D My analysis also illuminates how Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Lady Kusunoki, a new classicist painting that treats the subject of self-sacrifice, would have elicited affective responses from the viewers, masking the violence of death under the aesthetic of kitsch. One may reasonably wonder how machine-ism, which I discussed in Chapter One, could be compatible with new classicism. The stylistic features of machine-ism and new classicism, I suggest, were in fact similar as they both used the visual language of modernism. Furthermore, the shift from machine-ism to new classicism pointed to the development of fascist art and reflected the transformation of Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s national identity, which increasingly emphasized spirituality over materialism toward the end of the war. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 146 Sh\u00C5\u008Den received the Order of Culture in 1948. A photograph
that was taken in front of the Imperial Palace on the occasion makes it clear why she received the prize. Next to Sh\u00C5\u008Den, who is wearing a kimono and sitting on a chair, is Yasuda Yukihiko, who painted Camp at Kisegawa. Behind her stands Hasegawa Nyozekan, whose numerous publications about Japanese culture during the war I cited in Chapter One. Even though she is often celebrated as the first female winner of the Order, I contend that Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s achievement did not contribute to the feminist cause. Her success can be ascribed to the fact that she espoused, rather than questioned, the structure of the patriarchy. Considering the line-up of winners of that year, she was clearly awarded the prize because of her contribution to the wartime state. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 147 CHAPTER THREE War Campaign Record Paintings Introduction A group of 153 war paintings stored at the National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo, constitutes one of the most controversial collections of Japanese art. Many paintings in the collection are War Campaign Record Paintings (Sens\u00C5\u008D Sakusen Kiroku-ga), propaganda works executed in oil on canvas that were officially commissioned by the state during the Fifteen-Year War. The collection, which is deemed to encapsulate the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cevil\u00E2\u0080\u009D state ideology of wartime Japan, has never been exhibited in its entirety, either to the public or to scholars.363 While Chapters One and Two focused on Japanese-style paintings, this chapter examines Western-style paintings, and I limit my study to the War Campaign Record Paintings because, although Western-style paintings other than this genre of painting admittedly existed during the war, 364 the Campaign Record Paintings dominated the medium and supposedly conveyed the state ideology most directly. Before I discuss the works in light of the concept of fascism, I will present an overview of the paintings, examining salient aspects of the war art and surveying works by leading war painters such as Koiso Ry\u00C5\u008Dhei (1903-1988), Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D (1905-1974), Ihara \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 363 For more discussion on the collection, see Asato Ikeda, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Haunting War Art: Contested War Memories and Art Museums,\u00E2\u0080\u009D disClosure 18 (2009): 5-32. 364 For example, there were painters who were not commissioned but produced paintings of soldiers, depicted women working at munitions factories, and portrayed women they saw in places under Japanese occupation. These paintings were displayed at exhibitions that were under intense state surveillance. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 148 Usabur\u00C5\u008D (1894-1976), and Fujita Tsuguharu (1886-1968). I will first discuss the historical context in which the War Campaign Record Paintings were produced, scrutinizing how artists and the state began their collaboration. I will then discuss the propaganda paintings\u00E2\u0080\u0099 relationship with contemporary German art and photography, which sets the stage for Chapters Four and Five, in which I discuss the discrepancies between them. The last part of this chapter will look at representations of the human body, and in particular, I will attend to the disembodiment of individual soldiers\u00E2\u0080\u0099 bodies in the creation of the collective body of kokutai. Historical Background The War Campaign Record Paintings were officially commissioned by the state, including the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, the Army Information Bureau, and the Education Ministry. Of course, Japan was not the only country that had an official war art program: the United States, Britain, Germany, Canada, and Australia, to name only a few, also produced official war art.365 Neither were the War Campaign Record Paintings the first war art produced in the history of Japanese art. M\u00C5\u008Dko Sh\u00C5\u00ABrai Ekotoba or Illustrated Account of Mongol Invasion, produced in the thirteenth century and currently stored at the Museum of Imperial Collections, is perhaps the most famous war art of pre- modern Japan.366 During the Meiji period, woodblock printmakers produced numerous works that depict the battles of the Sino-Japanese (1894-1895) and Russo-Japanese \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 365 Laura Brandon, Art & War (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006). 366 Tanaka Hisao, Nihon no sens\u00C5\u008D-ga: sono keifu to tokushitsu [Sens\u00C5\u008D-ga: Genealogy and Characteristics] (Tokyo: Perikan Publisher, 1985), 21. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 149 (1904-1905) Wars. These presented dramatized images of the battles and reported the progress of the war to the public. For Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s first modern wars, painters\u00E2\u0080\u0094such as Asai Ch\u00C5\u00AB, Koyama Sh\u00C5\u008Dtar\u00C5\u008D, Kuroda Seiki, and Yamamoto H\u00C5\u008Dsun\u00E2\u0080\u0094also travelled to battlefields and produced paintings, though none of them painted actual battles; nor were they hired by the government.367 The War Campaign Record Paintings are remarkably different from the previous Japanese war art in that painters were mobilized by the state on a large scale and exhibitions of war paintings became national events, an example of what Louis Althusser called \u00E2\u0080\u009CIdeological State Apparatuses,\u00E2\u0080\u009D where the state disseminates, propagates, and naturalizes its official ideology.368 Interestingly, it was the artists themselves who initiated collaboration with the state.369 The period preceding the war was characterized by the booming of mass media and commercial entertainment, including magazines and cinema, which took art audiences away from museums. In this context, to revive the world of fine arts, artists volunteered to produce war paintings.370 Although he was \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 367 Yamanashi Toshio, Egakareta rekishi: Nihon kindai to \u00E2\u0080\u009Crekishiga\u00E2\u0080\u009D no jij\u00C5\u008D [Painted History: Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Modernity and The Magnetic Field of \u00E2\u0080\u009CHistory Paintings\u00E2\u0080\u009D] (Tokyo: Br\u00C3\u00BCcke, 2005), 260. 368 Louis Althusser, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIdeology and Ideological State Appratuses (Notes Towards and Investigation),\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (London: New Left Books, 1971), 127-186. 369 Kawata Akihisa, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D bijutsu to sono jidai: 1931-1977\u00E2\u0080\u009D[War Art and Its Era: 1931- 1977], in Gaka tachi no \u00E2\u0080\u009Csens\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Painters\u00E2\u0080\u0099 \u00E2\u0080\u009CWar\u00E2\u0080\u009D](Tokyo: Shinch\u00C5\u008Dsha, 2010), 93. 370 Kawata, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D bijutsu to sono jidai: 1931-1977,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 93. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 150 turned down, Western-style painter Tsuruta Gor\u00C5\u008D requested the state to take him to the front when the China-Japan War began in 1937. Mukai Junkichi covered his own travel expenses when he followed the army. It was only in the face of such enthusiasm on the part of artists such as Tsuruta and Mukai that the state started considering officially employing visual artists.371 The production of war art officially began in 1938 after the breakout of the China- Japan War. The so-called China Incident took place in 1937, when Chinese troops fired at Japanese forces conducting maneuvers at the Marco Polo Bridge outside Beijing.372 The political and military tension between China and Japan had been evident since Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s expansion into Manchuria, a territory Japan saw as strategically important in order to defend itself against the Soviet Union. Chinese Nationalists, led by Chiang Kai- shek, and the Chinese Communist Party, the two forces fighting within China, had by 1937 agreed to eliminate the Japanese forces from China first, and thus all-out war between China and Japan began. By December of the same year, Japanese troops advanced into Shanghai launching a military campaign in Nanjing. The Japanese public responded to the war with China with great enthusiasm. Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s decision to embark on this war was to prove fatal: it did not end until 1945. In 1937 alone ten artists, including Nakamura Ken\u00E2\u0080\u0099ichi and Koiso Ry\u00C5\u008Dhei, were dispatched to Shanghai in May, Kawabata Ry\u00C5\u00ABshi and Tsuruta Gor\u00C5\u008D went to Northern China with the army in the same month, and other artists including Fujishima Takeji and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 371 Kawata, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D bijutsu to sono jidai,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 93. 372 Hanneman, Japan Faces the World, 52-55. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 151 Fujita Tsuguharu followed the Navy in September.373 Already by April 1939, as the Asahi shinbun reported, approximately two hundred artists had left for the battlefront in the spirit of \u00E2\u0080\u009CServing the Nation by Art\u00E2\u0080\u009D (saikan h\u00C5\u008Dkoku). By the end of the war, as many as three hundred artists had served the state.374 A newspaper article published in the late 1930s gives the impression that artists were excited about their assignments: there is no sense that the state was \u00E2\u0080\u009Cforcing\u00E2\u0080\u009D them to work.375 In 1942, Western-style painter Ihara Usabur\u00C5\u008D claimed that the state should make use of artists\u00E2\u0080\u0099 talents and skills to inspire the common people for the war and to establish the grand culture of the future.376 He suggested that artists could do more than just producing war paintings, pointing out that they could also produce propaganda posters and booklets and advertise national bonds.377 Fujita Tsuguharu, one of the most famous war painters, wrote in 1944: \u00E2\u0080\u009CWe have a mission to produce war paintings and pass the record of the war to the next generation. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 373 Sh\u00C5\u008Dwa no bijutsu, 188-189. 374 Kawata Akihisa, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D-ga towa nanika,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 78-80. 375 \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D-ga umareyo to \u00E2\u0080\u0098Rikugun bijutsu ky\u00C5\u008Dkai\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Army Art Association Established to Create War Paintings], Asahi shinbun, April 16, 1939. Reprinted in Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 258. 376 Ihara Usabur\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDait\u00C5\u008Da sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsuka\u00E2\u0080\u009D[The Great East Asian War and Artists], Shin bijutsu, February 1942, 6. 377 Ihara, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDait\u00C5\u008Da sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsuka,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 6. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 152 We must make our utmost effort to serve the country by uplifting the spirit of citizens to fight for this great war!\u00E2\u0080\u009D378 The state authorities\u00E2\u0080\u0099 attitude towards artists became coercive in the roundtable titled \u00E2\u0080\u009CNational Defense State and the Fine Arts\u00E2\u0080\u009D published in Mizue in 1941. The participants included three officials from the Army Information Bureau (Akiyama Kunio, Suzuki Kuraz\u00C5\u008D, and Kuroda Senkichir\u00C5\u008D), art critic Araki Sueo, and magazine editor Kamig\u00C5\u008Dri Suguru. They discussed how until that time artists had worked for their patrons within the system of capitalist commercialism.379 After the Meiji period, they concurred, Japanese art had become a colony of French art, producing works with \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctriangles and circles\u00E2\u0080\u009D that even the mentally ill could draw.380 They declared that Japanese artists should instead be conscious of their own ethnicity (minzoku) while maintaining the universality of their artistic appeal and value. Noting that creating a painting during a time of war is a luxury, Akiyama Kunio demanded that artists consider what they could do first as Japanese and then as artists.381 Suzuki Kuraz\u00C5\u008D threatened artists more explicitly, saying that the state would not provide art supplies to those who did not comply, and that artists who did not wish to listen to the state should leave the country.382 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 378 Fujita Tsuguharu, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D-ga seisaku no y\u00C5\u008Dk\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Platform of the Production of the War Campaign Record Paintings], Bijutsu, May 1944, 22. 379 \u00E2\u0080\u009CKokub\u00C5\u008D kokka to bijutsu: shoka wa nani o subekika\u00E2\u0080\u009D [National Defense State and the Fine Arts: What Should Artists Do Now?], Mizue, January 1941, 130. 380 \u00E2\u0080\u009CKokub\u00C5\u008D kokka to bijutsu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 130; 132 381 \u00E2\u0080\u009CKokub\u00C5\u008D kokka to bijutsu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 130; 133. 382 \u00E2\u0080\u009CKokub\u00C5\u008D kokka to bijutsu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 129. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 153 Artistic protests against the state were rare, and those who refused to cooperate with the state were either imprisoned or sent to the battlefield. Matsumoto Shunsuke, who wrote \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Living Artist\u00E2\u0080\u009D in 1941, was one of the very few artists who criticized the authorities\u00E2\u0080\u0099 views of art.383 Referring to the above-mentioned symposium, Matsumoto wrote, \u00E2\u0080\u009CI regret to say in the symposium entitled \u00E2\u0080\u0098National Defense State and the Fine Arts\u00E2\u0080\u0099 I found no value. It is wise to keep silent, but I do not believe keeping silent today is necessarily the correct thing to do.\u00E2\u0080\u009D384 He shrewdly criticized the statements by the government officials, pointing out the logical incoherencies of their argument. For example, Matsumoto suggested that totalitarianism was, as much as liberalism, informed by the West.385 He also countered the authorities\u00E2\u0080\u0099 view of paintings with \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccircles and triangles\u00E2\u0080\u009D as a product of the mentally ill, comparing the abstract quality of art found in the Japanese tradition, such as the famed rock garden at Ry\u00C5\u008Dan-ji, Kyoto.386 On the other hand, it must be noted that Matsumoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s rhetoric sometimes uncannily resembles that of the authorities. He states that the ethnicity (minzoku) that would create the new world order is the one that truly mixes East and West; he validates his fellow artists\u00E2\u0080\u0099 emulation of European art as an effort to \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctranscend\u00E2\u0080\u009D the West.387 In fact, as recent research reveals, Matsumoto produced a painting of soldiers and several \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 383 Sandler, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Living Artist: Matsumoto Shunsuke\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Reply to the State,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 74-82. 384 Matsumoto Shunsuke, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIkite iru gaka\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Living Artist], Mizue, April 1941, 477. This translation is by Mark Sandler. Sandler, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Living Artist,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 77. 385 Matsumoto, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIkite iru gaka,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 477. 386 Matsumoto, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIkite iru gaka,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 480. 387 Matsumoto, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIkite iru gaka,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 478. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 154 propaganda posters. For this reason, Japanese art historian Kozawa Setsuko argues against treating him as a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cheroic\u00E2\u0080\u009D artist who fought against the state.388 Similar caution is necessary in the case of Fukuzawa Ichir\u00C5\u008D. Although Fukuzawa, one of the leaders of Japanese surrealism, was arrested in 1941, he painted a War Campaign Record Painting, whether \u00E2\u0080\u009Cforced\u00E2\u0080\u009D or not.389 The state exerted control over the art world by forming state-sanctioned art groups. Numerous official organizations were established: the Great Japan Army Artist Association (Dai Nippon Rikugun Jy\u00C5\u00ABgun Gaka Ky\u00C5\u008Dkai) was formed in 1938; the Army Art Association (Rikugun Bijutsu Ky\u00C5\u008Dkai) in 1939; the Great Japan Navy Art Association (Dai Nippon Kaiy\u00C5\u008D Bijutsu Ky\u00C5\u008Dkai) in 1941; and the Japan Art Patriotic Association (Nihon Bijutsu H\u00C5\u008Dkokukai) in 1943. Corporations and mass media supported and advertised the official art program and exhibitions. The Asahi shinbun in particular played a major role in financially sponsoring war art exhibitions such as the Great East Asia War Art Exhibition (Dait\u00C5\u008Da Sens\u00C5\u008D Bijutsu Tenrankai) and the Holy War Art Exhibition (Seisen Bijutsu Tenrankai). Asahi was also heavily involved in organizing such events as the Army Art Exhibition (Rikugun Bijutsu-ten), Great Japan Navy Art Exhibition (Dainihon Kaiy\u00C5\u008D Bijutsuten), and Great Japan Air Force Art Exhibition \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 388 Kozawa Setsuko, Avan garudo no sens\u00C5\u008D taiken [Wartime Experiences of Avant-Garde Artists] (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 2004), 154; 156. 389 Clark, \u00E2\u0080\u009CArtistic Subjectivity in the Taisho and Early Showa Avant-Garde,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 48; Fukuzawa\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting Special Unit Ship Leaves the Base (1945) is now stored in the war art collection at the National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 155 (Dainihon K\u00C5\u008Dk\u00C5\u00AB Bijutsu-ten).390 These were often held at large department stores, such as Mitsukoshi, Matsuzakaya, and Isetan. As a result of corporate investment, 3,854,000 people visited the First Great East Asia War Art Exhibition of 1942, which celebrated Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s attack on Pearl Harbor.391 War art exhibitions turned out to be a big success. War Campaign Record Painting and Nazi Germany New classicism, which I explored in the context of Japanese-style painting in Chapter Two, was also prevalent in the field of Western-style painting.392 Although new classicism was initially introduced by artists who studied in France during the Great War, the artists increasingly modeled their paintings on the new classicism of German, and to a lesser extent, Italian art. Numerous Japanese oil painters travelled to Paris in the 1920s. Ihara Usabur\u00C5\u008D, who studied in Paris between 1925 and 1929, was instrumental in introducing Picasso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s works to Japan, including works from his so-called \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnew-classicist\u00E2\u0080\u009D phase of the 1920s.393 In Group in A Room (1928-9), Ihara painted three women, two with exposed breasts. The woman on the left has her legs crossed, extending her right arm forward palm up and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 390 Kawata, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D bijutsu to sono jidai,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 96. 391 Tsuruya, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D Sakusen Kirokuga [War Campaign Documentary Art Painting],\u00E2\u0080\u009D 5. 392 I understand new classicism as a global trend of \u00E2\u0080\u009Creturn to order\u00E2\u0080\u009D in the post-Great War period. 393 Egawa Yoshihide, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIhara Usabur\u00C5\u008D o megutte: seitousa to ishitsu sa to\u00E2\u0080\u009D[In regard to Ihara Usabur\u00C5\u008D: Orthodoxy and Unorthodoxy], in Ihara Usabur\u00C5\u008D: seitan hyakunen o kinen shite [Ihara Usabur\u00C5\u008D: A Hundred Anniversary] (Tokyo: Meguro Museum, 1994). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 156 placing her left hand on her head as if in contemplation. The woman on the right has her legs covered with classical drapery and shares a sofa with the woman on the left, holding a book with both hands. The other woman, dressed in blue, stands between the two, placing a hand on each woman. The work shows classicizing elements. The poses of the women are carefully modeled, the artist uses triangular composition to stabilize the picture, and the shading creates depth in visual space and renders the round, curvy, relatively large bodies of the women naturalistically. Ihara\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting can be compared to Picasso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Three Women at the Spring
, created several years earlier in 1921. Unlike his famous Les Demoiselles d\u00E2\u0080\u0099Avignon (1907), which represents fragmented female bodies, Three Women at the Spring embodies the idea of \u00E2\u0080\u009Creturn to order\u00E2\u0080\u009D in the post-Great War period of Europe and depicts three women in classical dress. Like Ihara\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Group in A Room, Three Women at the Spring consists of three large-bodied women. The women in both paintings have brown hair and big, round eyes, wear simple, ancient-looking dress, and show their breasts. The pose of the woman in the middle in Picasso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting looks almost identical to that of the women on the left in Ihara\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work. Picasso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s new classicist works introduced by Ihara prompted discursive interest in realism, classicism, and academicism among Japanese artists and art critics. The discussion of realism, classicism, and academicism, which questioned the modernist abstraction and formal experimentation, appeared in the late 1920s. Art magazine Bijutsu shinron published special issues on this topic twice, in 1929 and 1933.394 Authors who contributed to these issues used the words realism (shajitsu shugi), classicism \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 394 Bijutsu shinron, January 1929 and January 1933. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 157 (kotenshugi/ kurashikku), and academicism (akademikku), and interestingly, leading artist and art critic Fujishima Takeji admitted that he did not know the precise distinction among them.395 Yet, pointing out that Kuroda Seiki (the first generation teacher of oil painting at the Tokyo School of Fine Arts) was strongly influenced by French impressionism, Fujishima proposed that Japanese artists have proper training in realism and learn the basic foundations of oil painting.396 The three terms (realism, classicism, and academicism) were thus used almost interchangeably, and throughout the special issues the authors referred to such artists as Courbet, Ingres, Raphael, Michelangelo, Rembrandt, G\u00C3\u00A9ricault, and Delacroix. Unlike Japanese-style new classicists such as Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Kobayashi Kokei, and Yasuda Yukihiko, who looked at Japanese historical art and subjects (such as Acalanatha, Minamoto no Yoritomo, and beautiful women in Edo), Western-style new classicists thus sought to emulate European art of the past. Furthermore, the critics and artists were not referring to a body of works from a certain historical period; rather, they were referring to the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmasters\u00E2\u0080\u009D of European art. New classicism was central to the production of the War Campaign Record Paintings. The government authorites, who as we have seen disliked abstract paintings consisting of \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccircles and triangles,\u00E2\u0080\u009D embraced the realist, representational expressions of the new classicist style. As I discussed in Chapter Two, art critics such as Yanagi Ry\u00C5\u008D advocated the new classicist style as the ideal style for propaganda paintings. At the same time, as the war progressed there was a growing sense that contemporary French art \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 395 Fujishima Takeji, \u00E2\u0080\u009CRearizumu wo futatabi kent\u00C5\u008D suru\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Reconsidering Realism], Bijutsu shinron, January 1933, 4. 396 Fujishima, \u00E2\u0080\u009CRearizumu o futatabi kent\u00C5\u008D suru,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 2. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 158 would no longer serve as a model for Japan. This sentiment was epitomized by the roundtable titled \u00E2\u0080\u009CWhere Will French Art Go?\u00E2\u0080\u009D which took place in August 1940, two months after the fall of France to Nazi Germany.397 Now that Germany controlled France, participants including Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D argued, Japanese artists must reassess the influence of French art on their works. Since successful artists such as Picasso and Chagall were not French, they concurred, modern French art was a product of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cforeigners.\u00E2\u0080\u009D Ultimately, the participants agreed that Japanese art should be modeled on the examples of Italy and Germany, which drew on premodern European masters and produced \u00E2\u0080\u009Cart of [their] ethnicity (minzoku).\u00E2\u0080\u009D398 In fact, already in 1937 art critic Uemura Takachiyo had translated E. Wernert\u00E2\u0080\u0099s book about Nazi art.399 Art magazine Bijutsu published photographs of contemporary German and Italian sculptures and paintings in August 1944. Ihara Usabur\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s new classicism, which started with his pursuit of Picasso, developed in this context into a different kind of new classicism: new classicism in support of the wartime state. In 1944, a year before the war ended, Ihara painted Hong Kong Surrender: The Meeting of Governor Yong and General Sakai. The subject of the painting is the meeting between Yong and Sakai after Britain\u00E2\u0080\u0099s surrender to Japan in Hong Kong in December, 1941. Ihara did not actually witness the event, but he travelled to the site two years later in 1943 and made sketches of Yong and the room where the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 397 \u00E2\u0080\u009CFuransu bijutsu wa dokoe iku\u00E2\u0080\u009D[Where Will French Art Go?], Mizue, August 1940. 398 \u00E2\u0080\u009CFuransu bijutsu wa dokoe iku,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 220-221. 399 Uemura Takachiyo, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNachisu geijutsu seisaku no zeny\u00C5\u008D.\u00E2\u0080\u009D \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 159 meeting took place.400 The painting portrays fourteen Japanese officials, most of them sitting in a circle on the left side of the painting. The official with glasses on the left, the only person who rather inconspicuously looks straight at the viewer, is General Sakai, who led the meeting. They surround Governor Yong and another British officer standing with a white flag toward the right. The Japanese interrogates Yong with a penetrating stare; Yong looks frightened and has his hand over the face in distress. The room is plain and dark, and lit candles placed in front of the Japanese officers cast grim shadows of the figures on the wall, which communicates the intense, austere atmosphere of the meeting. Ihara\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting looks similar to the Nazi painting In The Beginning Was the Word by Hermann Otto Hoyer in 1937. Although there is no evidence that Ihara knew this particular painting it is not impossible given that many Nazi works were reproduced in Japanese art magazines. Hoyer\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting depicts a congregation around a wooden table. Hitler stands on the right of the painting on a stool, surrounded by an audience of men and women young and old, who fill the room and earnestly listen to him. Hitler speaks with exaggerated gesture, placing his right arm forward and bent, and left hand on his waist. Behind him is a man standing straight, beside the flag of National Socialism. The compositions of The Meeting of Governor Yong and General Sakai can be compared to that of The Beginning Was the Word. Both portray gatherings of people and place the person of attention on the right. Behind both Governor Yong and Hitler are standing men, next to whom stand flags. In Ihara\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting, however, Hitler is replaced by a defeated British official, and the Nazi flag by a white flag of surrender. It is possible to read Ihara\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting as a parody or critique of the Nazi painting, but it is more \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 400 Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 225. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 160 plausible to consider that Ihara modeled his painting on Hoyer\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work, a view bolstered by the fact that his wartime comments were supportive of contemporary German art.401 Interestingly Ihara, previously an ardent follower of Picasso, recognized the affinity between Picasso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s new classicism and German Nazi art. Rather than understanding Nazi art as an appropriation of new classicism, Ihara saw Nazism in Picasso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s art. In 1942, he stated that Picasso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s art was very much \u00E2\u0080\u009CGermanic\u00E2\u0080\u009D (doitsu teki) and wondered why Picasso was anti-Franco and turned his back on the Axis Nations.402 War Campaign Record Painting and Photography One important aspect of the War Campaign Record Paintings is their close interaction with photography. Although war painters travelled to the front, they did not have firsthand experience of battles and therefore they turned to photographs of iconic scenes and victorious events. Japanese Marching Through Niangziguan by Koiso Ry\u00C5\u008Dhei (1903-1988) in 1941 is a good example that speaks to this interaction. Koiso studied with Fujishima Takeji at the Tokyo School of Art, where his drawing skills were highly praised and he graduated at the top of his class. After spending two years in Paris, he went back to Japan in 1930 and travelled to the battlefield three times (twice to China, in 1938 and 1940, and once to Java, in 1942).403 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 401 Ihara, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDait\u00C5\u008Da sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu ka,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 7. 402 Ihara, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDait\u00C5\u008Da sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu ka,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 4. 403 Koiso Ry\u00C5\u008Dhei kaikoten [Koiso Ry\u00C5\u008Dhei Retrospective] (Tokyo: Yomiuri Shinbunsha, 2002-3), 160-163. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 161 Japanese Marching Through Niangziguan portrays the battle at Niangziguan in 1937, when the Japanese and the Chinese fought in the course of Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s invasion of Shanxi province. The battle was difficult for the Japanese because of the mountainous terrain. The painting documents the activity of Japanese soldiers and makes the unfamiliar, foreign landscape available to Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s domestic audiences. The painting is one of the representative works of wartime propaganda, which won the Imperial Art Award (Teikoku Bijutsuin Sh\u00C5\u008D), a prize given to only two paintings (the other was Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s The Meeting of General Yamashita and General Percival).404 According to the exhibition catalogue produced by the Army Art Association in 1942, the painting represents a heroic action wherein the soldiers led by a General Kobayashi are driving the enemy out of the area after the battle.405 The artist focuses on two soldiers who stand near the center in the foreground. In front of the two soldiers, horses and other soldiers walk toward the brick architecture and deserted mountains in the background. The flank of the horse next to the soldiers is as large as the entire body of the soldiers. The khaki color of the military uniform resonates with the brownish tones of the mountain and the horse, which correspond with the monotone blue of the sky. Art critic Araki Sueo applauded Koiso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s accurate depiction of the soldiers and the horse, while the artist\u00E2\u0080\u0099s former teacher Fujishima Takeji praised the work\u00E2\u0080\u0099s function as a \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 404 Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 204. 405 Originally in Seisen bijutsu [Holy War Art](Tokyo: Rikugun bijutsu kyokai, 1942). Quoted in Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 204. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 162 \u00E2\u0080\u009Crecord-painting\u00E2\u0080\u009D and Koiso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s detailed depiction and careful study of modern weapons.406 Despite the positive reviews it received during the war, the painting does not seem successful in conveying a sense of heroism. Without textual description, it is hard to see what the two soldiers in the work are doing. Are they about to join the forces to move to the direction of the mountain? Or are they watching their comrades passing by? Are those on the left side of the painting Chinese soldiers who were being \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdriven out\u00E2\u0080\u009D by the Japanese? The two Japanese soldiers focused on by the artist look as though they are dawdling rather than proudly \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmarching.\u00E2\u0080\u009D In fact, there were some critics who did not evaluate this painting highly. Ogawa Takei, for example, criticized Marching Through Niangziguan as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmediocre.\u00E2\u0080\u009D He claimed that Koiso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting was not a war propaganda painting, but simply a \u00E2\u0080\u009Clandscape where soldiers are.\u00E2\u0080\u009D407 As the battle took place in 1937, before Koiso actually travelled to the front, the artist likely produced the work by looking at photographs such as the one published in the Asahi shinbun in October 1937
, which shows lines of Japanese soldiers marching through the vast mountain landscape.408 The photograph shows the backs of a \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 406 Araki Sueo, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFujita, Koiso no rikisaku\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Masterpieces by Fujita and Koiso], Asahi shinbun, July 5, 1941; Fujishima Takeji, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKoisokun to sens\u00C5\u008D-ga\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Koiso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s War Art], Asahi shinbun, April 14, 1942. 407 Ogawa Takei, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTenrankai geppy\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Monthly Exhibition Review], Mizue, August 1941, 243. 408 \u00E2\u0080\u009CJy\u00C5\u008Dshikan daishingeki\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Great Advancement in Niangziguan], Asahi shinbun, October 30, 1937. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 163 great number of soldiers who climb up and down the mountain. Capturing the walking soldiers in distance in the background, which is contrasted to those in the foreground, the photograph speaks to the size, organization, and magnificence of the Japanese forces and records the historic moment of victory. Although Koiso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting makes this scene available in color and makes the event a personal, more intimate story by painting particular soldiers closely, the photograph seems to be more successful in producing a sense of heroism. Marching through Niangziguan is not the only painting modeled on photographs. Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s The Meeting of General Yamashita and General Percival (1942) drew on a photograph that appeared in a February 20, 1942 Asahi shinbun article titled \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Victory of the Century\u00E2\u0080\u009D
. Miyamoto travelled to Singapore to make sketches of the generals and the place of the meeting between General Yamashita and Percival. However, he arrived a few months after the actual event, and thus the composition of his painting was taken from the photograph.409 In the work, the Japanese officials, including General Yamashita, sit facing the viewer. Across the table facing the Japanese are three British officials. In contrast to Koiso\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting, Miyamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting looks more dramatic than the original photograph. While in the photograph, the room is crowded and the negotiation in progress seems rather casual, the painting adds austerity and solemnity to the scene by making the meeting room look more spacious and the participants\u00E2\u0080\u0099 faces more serious. The poses of the attendants are much better crafted and more deliberate in the painting. General Yamamoto, in a defining, aggressive pose with his arms crossed over his chest and resting on his sword, gazes straight at General \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 409 Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 211. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 164 Percival, one of the three British officials sitting in the middle. To render Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s victory more palpable, Miyamoto added a British flag and a white flag, a sign of surrender, neither of which appear in the photograph. Koiso and Miyamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s paintings illuminate how much War Campaign Record Paintings depended on photographs. Representations of Human Bodies in War Campaign Record Paintings Although some Japanese-style artists such as D\u00C5\u008Dmoto Insh\u00C5\u008D painted soldiers and battles, Western-style paintings were deemed more suitable for propaganda paintings. This is because the non-naturalistic tendency of Japanese-style paintings lends itself to imaginary, idealistic, nostalgic images of nature, mind, and the past, while Western-style painters depicted contemporary subject matter. More importantly, oil paintings are capable of articulating human bodies much more realistically than Japanese-style painting. Such techniques as shading and foreshortening, which are historically associated with oil paintings, can better express the volume of human flesh. When oil painting was introduced and studied in Japan, the medium\u00E2\u0080\u0099s attention to the representation of the human body was ardently pursued. Discussing Japanese training in oil painting, Norman Bryson writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDetailed anatomical knowledge of the human form was essential to Western painting\u00E2\u0080\u0094even when the figures to be depicted were clothed.\u00E2\u0080\u009D410 It is this attention to the body in Western-style paintings that makes them conducive to inquiry regarding how culture and politics are inscribed on the material body in War Campaign Record Paintings. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 410 Norman Bryson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CWesternizing Bodies: Women, Art, and Power in Meiji Y\u00C5\u008Dga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Gender and Power in The Japanese Visual Field, ed. Joshua Mostow et al., 101. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 165 The bodies that war artists painted prior to the war were most often those of naked women. Many leading war artists\u00E2\u0080\u0094Koiso Ry\u00C5\u008Dhei, Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D, Ihara Usabur\u00C5\u008D, and Fujita Tsuguharu, to name a few\u00E2\u0080\u0094previously studied in France, and their pre-war works display the influence of post-impressionist European modernism. As the war started, however, their subject shifted from naked female bodies to uniformed male bodies. Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D is a good example of this transformation. Born in Ishikawa Prefecture in 1905, he went to Tokyo in 1922 and studied at the private Kawabata Art School where he learned painting skills from Fujishima Takeji.411 Miyamoto associated himself with The Second Section Society (Nikakai), which was the private exhibition alternative to the official government salon and which closely followed contemporary developments in French modern art.412 In Blue Carpet, executed in 1935, Miyamoto painted a fully naked reclining woman who gazes at the viewer. The woman\u00E2\u0080\u0099s knees are bent to her left, while her torso and face are slightly twisted to the right. Her right arm is at her side and her left hand behind her head. The background being the patterns of the carpet on which she reclines, the pictorial space of the painting is narrow. The woman looks as though her neck and arm are twisted unnaturally, and she is located in an ambivalent, incoherent space. The broad \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 411 Hirota Ikuma, \u00E2\u0080\u009CMiyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D no geijyutsu\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Art of Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D], in Botsugo sanjy\u00C5\u00ABgonen Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D ten [Marking the 35th Anniversary of Death: Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D Exhibition] (Kobe: Koiso Ry\u00C5\u008Dhei Memorial Museum, 2009), 7. 412 Alicia Volk, \u00E2\u0080\u009CA Unified Rhythm: Past and Present in Japanese Modern Art,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Japan & Paris: Impressionism, Postimpressionsim, and the Modern Era, ed. Christine Guth et al. (Honolulu: Honolulu Academy of Arts, 2004), 49. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 166 application of paint, rough brushstrokes, the clear outlining of the figure, and the abstracted, primitive qualities of the woman\u00E2\u0080\u0099s face and body reveal the influence of canonical post-impressionist artists such as C\u00C3\u00A9zanne, Gauguin, and Matisse. The woman\u00E2\u0080\u0099s body rests on a carpet decorated with floral motifs and painted in deep navy blue and white, and her head is on a cushion of vivid primary colors of red, green and yellow. The graphic decoration that surrounds the woman makes her an exotic object for visual pleasure. Even in such a stylized form, however, the woman\u00E2\u0080\u0099s body still looks more realistic than the female bodies in Japanese-style paintings, such as Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Sudden Blast
. While Shoen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s woman looks porcelain-like, her flat skin simply demarcated by thick black outlines, the woman in Blue Carpet is fleshy, with volume and fat to her body. Their relative realism made Western-style paintings more suitable for depicting human bodies, soldiers\u00E2\u0080\u0099 bodies in particular. In Attack on Nanyuan, Beijing (1941), one of the War Campaign Record Paintings, Miyamoto painted a group of male bodies. In this painting displayed in the Second Holy War Art Exhibition in 1941, the artist depicted the battle between Japan and China at Nanyuan in Beijing, July 1937. It shows eight Japanese soldiers who are fighting Chinese forces that are invisible but must exist beyond the picture frame to the right. Except for one soldier in the center, the men are on their hands and knees on the ground holding grenades and guns. One of them on the left side of the work is injured, and another one nearby is helping him. The standing soldier is trying to move toward the Chinese, raising his right hand with a bayonet attached to it. White, swirling smoke in the background is meant to dramatize the attack. Unlike Blue \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 167 Carpet, the visual space has depth with a distinguishable foreground, middle ground, and background, and the artist\u00E2\u0080\u0099s rendering of the objects is detailed and realistic. According to the exhibition catalogue, in the battle the Chinese forces shot two Japanese soldiers who tried to move forward, and the painting depicts the moment at which one soldier screamed out, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDo not leave our leaders in the lurch!\u00E2\u0080\u009D encouraging the others to fight.413 The painting is thus a celebration of the courage of the Japanese soldiers. The similarity between Miyamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Attack on Nanyuan, Beijing and Delacroix\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Liberty Leading the People (1830)
is quite obvious. In Delacroix\u00E2\u0080\u0099s allegorical painting, a goddess-like figure with a soft, fertile, curvy body and exposed breasts, which represents an ideal femininity, is treated as a symbol of civil liberty. With a French flag and a bayonet in her hand, she leads the people behind her and the historic revolution. Miyamoto travelled to France in 1938, seeing and copying many paintings of European masters at the Mus\u00C3\u00A9e du Louvre.414 Like Delacroix, Miyamoto uses a triangular composition, placing the focus on the leading/ standing figure in the center and making the scene dynamic. The French flag in Delacroix\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work, however, is replaced in Miyamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s by a Japanese flag, and the semi-nude female figure by a Japanese male soldier. While the Western-style paintings were thought to suit representations of the physical reality of the war, the War Campaign Record Paintings do not idealize the bodies of Japanese soldiers. The body of the woman with the flag in Delacroix\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 413 Originally in Seisen bijutsu [Holy War Art](Tokyo: Rikugun bijutsu ky\u00C5\u008Dkai, 1942). Quoted in Hariu et al., Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu, 205. 414 Hirota, \u00E2\u0080\u009CMiyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D no geijyutsu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 10. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 168 is fertile, curvy, and soft, and thus represents ideal female body, but the protagonist soldier in Miyamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting has short arms and legs and looks like an adolescent boy. Speaking of Miyamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s other painting, The Meeting of General Yamashita and General Percival, which I discussed above, Bert Winther-Tamaki makes a similar point. He states, \u00E2\u0080\u009CMiyamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \u00E2\u0080\u0098Yamashita\u00E2\u0080\u0099 is certainly a powerful figure, but the artist was not attempting to monumentalize this individual so much as depict the historical event for which he was known.\u00E2\u0080\u009D415 In other words, the War Campaign Record Paintings displayed a certain paradox. On the one hand, the medium of oil painting was considered appropriate for battle paintings because it could better represent human bodies. On the other hand, when Japanese soldiers\u00E2\u0080\u0099 bodies appear in Western-style paintings, the physicality of their bodies seems to be strangely undercut; the Japanese soldiers do not look particularly strong, masculine, or virile. As Winther-Tamaki compellingly argued in his 1997 groundbreaking essay \u00E2\u0080\u009CEmbodiment/Disembodiment: Japanese Painting during the Fifteen-Year War,\u00E2\u0080\u009D it is disembodiment\u00E2\u0080\u0094not embodiment\u00E2\u0080\u0094of the human body that characterizes the War Campaign Record Paintings. Unlike Greco-Roman Classical art, in which perfectly proportioned, muscular, idealized body played a central role, the Japanese propaganda \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 415 Winther-Tamaki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CEmbodiment/Disembodiment,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 166. My discussion of the body in general is indebted to seminal theoretical works by such scholars as Michel Foucault and Judith Butler. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, 2nd ed. trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1977); Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (London: Routledge, 1990). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 169 paintings pivot on the disembodiment of individual bodies.416 In so doing, the paintings not only distinguished Japanese bodies from those of Westerners, but also gave form to the idea of the kokutai, of Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s collective, national body. The extraordinary disembodiment of individual Japanese that emerged in wartime Japanese painting can be seen most clearly in paintings executed by Fujita Tsuguharu in the last phase of the war. Disembodiment of Individuals and Embodiment of Kokutai On December 8, 1941 (Japan time), the Imperial Japanese Navy staged a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, killing more than two thousand Americans and sinking many battleships including the USS Arizona. The decision to attack the United States was based on four justifications: by helping Chiang Kai-shek\u00E2\u0080\u0099s regime in China, the United States was disturbing Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s effort to establish \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpeace\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Asia; the United States had placed a total embargo on Japan; the U.S. Navy seemed to be preparing for military advancement on Japan; and finally, diplomatic negotiations had fallen apart.417 Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s naval \u00E2\u0080\u009Cvictory\u00E2\u0080\u009D at Pearl Harbor and the war with the United States marked a historic moment. The Asahi shinbun stated that one million Japanese citizens had lived for this day: the citizens should devote all their materials, power, and energy to fight the United States to create a harmonious Asian community, and this effort was to be solely for the emperor.418 Japan simultaneously declared war against the other Allied Nations, Britain \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 416 Ian Jenkins et al., The Greek Body (Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2010), 9. 417 David C. Earhart, Certain Victory (New York: M.E. Sharpe Inc, 2009), 220. 418 \u00E2\u0080\u009CImakoso ookimi no mitate\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Now is the Time to Protect the Emperor], Asahi shinbun, December 9, 1941. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 170 and Holland, and the subsequent few weeks were filled with news about Japan taking over the Allies\u00E2\u0080\u0099 colonial territories in Asia: in Hong Kong, Singapore, Guam, and Manila, to name a few, Western powers surrendered to Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Imperial Army. Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s advancement, however, was to be short lived. Within six months of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan began suffering critical damage inflicted by the enemy. The Battle of Midway in June 1942 was crucial, and determined the course of the rest of the war: with aircraft carriers and airplanes destroyed, the Japanese Navy lost half of its power in this battle.419 Under state censorship, however, the battle was interpreted positively as a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cglorious victory\u00E2\u0080\u009D (dai senka), and America\u00E2\u0080\u0099s claim that it did not suffer much from the battle was dismissed as false rumors and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cself-consolatory\u00E2\u0080\u009D (jii-teki).420 The battle in the Solomon Islands that took place two months later in August 1942 and lasted until February 1943 became the first Allies\u00E2\u0080\u0099 victory against Japan. It was one of the fiercest and most prolonged battles, in which the Japanese forces fought in dense jungles and suffered from starvation. The Battle of Attu, fought in May 1943 on Attu Island near Alaska, was especially important in that it changed the way Japan would fight for the rest of the war. In this battle, in which the U.S. Army tried to retake an area occupied by Japan since October 1942, the Japanese forces eventually ran out of food and weapons. Colonel Yamazaki Yasuyo, following \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe path of the Japanese warrior,\u00E2\u0080\u009D then decided to take death over life. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 419 Earhart, Certain Victory, 246. 420 \u00E2\u0080\u009CTaiheiy\u00C5\u008D o \u00C5\u008Du daiseika\u00E2\u0080\u009D[The Victory That Prevails in the Pacific], Asahi shinbun, June 11, 1942; \u00E2\u0080\u009CBei, jishin naki tsuyogari\u00E2\u0080\u009D[America\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Bluff without Confidence], Asahi shinbun, June 17, 1942. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 171 On the night of May 29, after performing a banzai salute to the emperor, the last forces waged an attack on the Americans, taking them by surprise. The remaining forces of injured soldiers who were unable to fight were asked to commit suicide, avoiding humiliating capture by the enemy. The conduct of the soldiers in the Attu battle\u00E2\u0080\u0094that they were determined to sacrifice themselves and that they did not ask for help from outside the island\u00E2\u0080\u0094was hailed by the mass media as heroic and righteous, and Yamazaki, who led the battle, was treated as a national hero. The Japanese newspapers reported that two thousand Japanese and fifteen hundred American soldiers died in the battle.421 For the first time, in reporting this battle, the Japanese mass media used the word gyokusai, which literally means \u00E2\u0080\u009Csmashed jewel\u00E2\u0080\u009D and refers to glorious self-destruction. The word gyokusai, according to Haruko Taya Cook, originates in a sixth-century Chinese story about \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe morally superior man who would rather destroy his most precious possession than compromise his principles,\u00E2\u0080\u009D but in the context of wartime Japan, it came to represent determined soldiers dying beautifully like shattered jewels.422 Significantly, the battle changed the goal of the Japanese from \u00E2\u0080\u009Ckilling the enemy and returning alive\u00E2\u0080\u009D to \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthrowing one\u00E2\u0080\u0099s body onto the enemy whether or not it kills the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 421 \u00E2\u0080\u009CAttsu t\u00C5\u008D ni k\u00C5\u008Dgun no shinzui o hakki\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Japanese Imperial Army Displays Its Spirit in Attu], Asahi shinbun, May 31, 1943; Attsu t\u00C5\u008D teki senshisha sengohyaku amari to happy\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Enemy Announces Its Casualties at Attu Were Five Thousand], Asahi shinbun, June 6, 1943. 422 Haruko Taya Cook, \u00E2\u0080\u009CWomen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Deaths as Weapons of War in Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \u00E2\u0080\u0098Final Battle,\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00E2\u0080\u009D Gendering Modern Japanese History, ed. Barbara Molony and Kathleen Uno (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Asia Center, 2005), 343. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 172 enemy.\u00E2\u0080\u009D David Earhart explains that the benefit of gyokusai was supported by mathematical calculation: the rationale for these banzai attacks was found partly in the high casualty rates inflicted upon a much larger enemy force at Attu\u00E2\u0080\u00A6If Japanese suicide attacks always resulted in seventy enemy causalities per one hundred Japanese dead, then Japan would win the war through sheer numbers, provided that Japan drew upon a broader base of recruits than did the United States. This morbid algebra influenced strategy in the two final, desperate years of the war. The High Command believed that with over five million troops in the field, if every Japanese soldier killed or wounded one of the enemy before himself being killed, a mounting death toll would dim the American people\u00E2\u0080\u0099s enthusiasm for the war and that they would force their government to negotiate a settlement of the war favorable to Japan.423 In addition, the wounded who killed themselves rather than being captured by the enemy were considered loyal to the Japanese. Many artists painted the Attu battle, but Fujita Tsuguharu\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Honorable Death on Attu Island (1943), displayed at the Art Exhibition for the Complete National Effort for the Decisive Battle (Kokumin S\u00C5\u008Dryoku Kessen Bijutsuten) in 1943, is arguably the most famous depiction. Fujita (1886-1968) is perhaps the most prolific and well-known war artist. Having graduated from the Tokyo School of Fine Arts, he studied in Paris, where he made friends with internationally acclaimed avant-garde artists including Pablo \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 423 Earhart, Certain Victory, 393. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 173 Picasso, Amadeo Modigliani, and Henri Matisse and became the most famous Japanese artist in the city. After a few moves between France and Japan, he settled in Tokyo in 1940, actively participating in official war art production. He completed at least fifteen war paintings, including such works as The Fall of Singapore (1942) and The Divine Soldier Is Here To Rescue (1944). In Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Honorable Death on Attu Island, Japanese soldiers advance from the left, screaming and bayoneting American soldiers. Dark, earth-colored helmets, bayonets, and military uniforms emerge out of the mound in the foreground and form a solid, abstract pattern that echoes the high, rough, wave-like pattern of the mountain landscape, creating a dynamic composition. In the mound we also find the bodies and faces of already dead soldiers. Even if they are dead, they are imbued with energy, still participating in the battle. The man in the near center of the background, who raises his arm forward and looks directly at the viewers, screaming, is Colonel Yamazaki, who commanded the Japanese force. The two soldiers on either side of Yamazaki are stabbing the body of the enemy with their swords. Individual bodies are meshed together and difficult to distinguish from one another, which effectively conveys the collectiveness of this suicide attack. As Kawata Akihisa argues, the faces of enemies rarely appeared on canvas before the beginning of the Pacific War. This reflected the fact that the purpose of the China- Japan War was never clear, which made it difficult for the artists and the public to despise the enemy or legitimize the Japanese soldiers\u00E2\u0080\u0099 sacrifice.424 The Pacific War, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 424 Kawata, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D bijutsu to sono jidai,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 156; \u00E2\u0080\u009C\u00E2\u0080\u0099Sakusenkirokuga\u00E2\u0080\u0099 sh\u00C5\u008Dshi\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The History of War Campaign Record Paintings], Sens\u00C5\u008D to bijutsu,156. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 174 however, in which Japan represented itself as the \u00E2\u0080\u009Csavior of Asia,\u00E2\u0080\u009D allowed artists to paint the faces of the enemy and encounters between Japanese and enemy forces. Therefore, we do not see the Chinese soldiers in the above-mentioned Japanese March through Niangzi-guan by Koiso and Attack on Nanyuan, Beijing by Miyamoto. At the same time, although Ihara\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Hong Kong Surrender: The Meeting of Governor Yong and General Sakai and Miyamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s The Meeting of General Yamashita and General Percival show the enemy forces, the encounters between the Japanese and the Allied soldiers in those two paintings are not as violent as that in Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Attu painting. Some art historians have questioned the propagandistic nature of Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Attu painting because of its excessive violence, but it is important to remember that wartime officials actively promoted depicting Japanese people\u00E2\u0080\u0099s suffering toward the end of the war.425 State official Inoue Shir\u00C5\u008D, for example, contends in art magazine Bijutsu in 1944 that beauty does not only exist in beautiful environments; it can exist in ugliness, poverty, tempestuousness, and chaos.426 In the same magazine a month later, Yamanouchi Ichir\u00C5\u008D states that it is absolutely necessary to portray tragic scenes as long as doing so will instill \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 425 For more on this painting and different interpretations around it, see Winther-Tamaki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CEmbodiment/Disembodiment\u00E2\u0080\u009D; Aya Louisa McDonald, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFoujita Tsuguharu: A Painter of the Holy War Revisited,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Art and War in Japan and its Empire, ed. Asato Ikeda, Ming Tiampo, and Aya Louisa McDonald (Brill, forthcoming). 426 Inoue Shir\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CK\u00C5\u008Dkoku bijutsu kakuritsu no michi\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Path to Establish Imperial Art], Bijutsu, March-April, 1944, 5 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 175 enmity against the Americans in the viewers.427 The mass media was full of reports about the cruel nature of the Americans, which both legitimized Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s violence against them and called for revenge. A 1943 article in magazine Shashin Sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D edited by the Cabinet Information Bureau (Naikaku j\u00C5\u008Dh\u00C5\u008Dbu, which later became Army Information Bureau or Rikugun j\u00C5\u008Dh\u00C5\u008Dkyoku) reads, The incomprehensibly cruel disservice done to our compatriots residing in America, the atrocity of brutally strafing to death innocent schoolchildren at the time of the [Doolittle] air raid, using tanks to crush to death the wounded heroes of our army on Guadalcanal\u00E2\u0080\u0094there are more incidents illustrating the demon-bastard nature of the enemy than we can count, absolutely more than can ever be forgiven.428 Listing examples of cruelty perpetrated by the Americans in a similar manner, the magazine Asahi gurafu concluded, \u00E2\u0080\u009CShoot! The demon-bastard America!!\u00E2\u0080\u009D429 In other words, the fierce fighting and death depicted in Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Attu painting would have functioned to stir the viewers and was not intended to have a demoralizing effect. Furthermore, when exhibited, this painting was not only received positively by the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 427 Yamanouchi Ichir\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSakusen kirokuga no arikata\u00E2\u0080\u009D [How War Campaign Record Paintings Ought to Be], Bijutsu, May 1944, 5. 428 Shashin sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D, May 19, 1943, 17. Translated and quoted in Earhart, Certain Victory, 364. 429 Asahi gurafu, March 1, 1944, 3. Translated and quoted in Earhart, Certain Victory, 365. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 176 public, but also literally became a religious icon: a donation box was placed in front of the painting, and visitors knelt before it to pray for the war dead.430 The disembodiment of individuals soldiers in this painting furthermore amounts to the construction of the kokutai, the collective Japanese national body bound by the imperial family. Significantly, the word \u00E2\u0080\u009Ckokutai\u00E2\u0080\u009D consists of two Chinese characters that mean \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnation\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cbody.\u00E2\u0080\u009D Kokutai was understood to be a sacred entity unified by the imperial household, and it was for the defense of this kokutai that, the state explained, the war against the West was fought. The most important text that articulates the concept of kokutai is Cardinal Principles of the National Entity of Japan, published and disseminated in 1937. 431 It announces the unbroken link between the emperor and the legendary founder of Japan, the sun goddess Amaterasu \u00C5\u008Cmikami, and the organic connection between emperor and subject. The book begins as follows: \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 430 This is Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s postwar comment made in correspondence with Natsubori. Natsubori Masahiro, Fujita Tsuguharu geijutsu shiron [Fujita Tsuguharu Art Theory] (Tokyo: Miyoshi Art Publisher, 2004), 322-323. 431 During the 1920s, the emperor was understood to be an \u00E2\u0080\u009Corgan\u00E2\u0080\u009D of the state, an idea the law professor Mitobe Tatsukichi at Tokyo Imperial University espoused (tenn\u00C5\u008D kikansetsu); however, this theory was increasingly challenged by right-wing politicians in the 1930s. Cardinal Principles of the National Entity of Japan was an attempt on the part of the right-wing to announce that the emperor was a \u00E2\u0080\u009Csovereignty,\u00E2\u0080\u009D not an \u00E2\u0080\u009Corgan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D of the state. Mitobe was forced to resign his position at the university, and his books were banned. 91-92. Walter Skya, Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Holy War: The Ideology of Radical Shinto Ultranationalism (Duke University Press, 2009), 91-92. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 177 The unbroken line of Emperors, receiving the Oracle of the Founder of the Nation, reign eternally over the Japanese Empire. This is our eternal and immutable national entity. Thus, founded on this great principle, all the people, united as one great family nation in heart and obeying the Imperial Will, enhance indeed the beautiful virtues of loyalty and filial piety. This is the glory of our national entity. This national entity is the eternal and unchanging basis of our nation and shines resplendent throughout our history. Moreover, its solidarity is proportionate to the growth of the nation and is, together with heaven and earth, without end. We must, to begin with, know with what active brilliance this fountainhead shines within the reality of the founding of our nation.432 In this ideological discourse of kokutai, the imagined collective entity of sacred Japan became the absolute principle, and the kokutai ideal virtually rendered the material body of individuals invisible and irrelevant. While Fujita uses dynamic, energetic expressions to create the kokutai, a photograph published in American news magazine Life on April 3, 1944 reports the horrific reality of the event by capturing dying Japanese soldiers
. The soldiers in the photograph are essentially piles of corpses and simply appear as inert matter. Another photograph published in the issue
depicts the grotesque bodies of dead Japanese soldiers, their limbs blown off, faces unrecognizable, and internal organs exposed. These photographs appearing in US magazines elucidate the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 432 Kokutai no hongi/ Cardinal Principles of the National Entity of Japan, trans. John Owen Gauntlett (1937; repr.,Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1949), 59. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 178 degree to which disembodiment is idealized in Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work. In other words, Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting maintains an intricate balance of defying the Western Classical discourse of idealized, perfectly proportioned male bodies and eulogizing death without representing the dead body as terribly abject. To American eyes, the suicides were wasteful and meaningless. With reproductions of gruesome pictures of dead Japanese soldiers, Life magazine reported, On the morning of May 29, 1943 the Japanese on Attu charged out of the hills in their last attack\u00E2\u0080\u00A6.But after the first fury of the attack passed, a strange thing happened. Instead of fighting until they were killed in action or until their ammunition was gone, the Japanese began an orgy of self- destruction. Most of them held grenades to their chests, stomachs or heads and blasted themselves to death. When the thudding of Japanese grenades faded, more than 1,000 bodies lay in the two mile stretch between Massacre Bay and Chicago Harbor, of which probably half were suicides.433 The article ended with a quote by Life correspondent Robert Sherrod, who stated, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Jap is not an easy soldier to conquer, but he does crack on the anvil of his own desperation. And as we learn more about the dark crevices of his thinking processes, we will find better means of fighting him.\u00E2\u0080\u009D434 Gyokusai was practiced not only by soldiers, but also by civilians in the battle of Saipan between June and July of 1944. In this, yet another desperate battle, Japanese soldiers decided to kill themselves as had their compatriots in the Attu battle. In Saipan, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 433 \u00E2\u0080\u009CJap Suicides on Attu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Life, April 3, 1944, 36-7. 434 \u00E2\u0080\u009CJap Suicides on Attu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Life, 37. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 179 however, along with the soldiers, Japanese citizens who had immigrated to Saipan decades before also committed suicide, blowing themselves up with hand grenades. Ten thousand civilians, men, women and children, fully one third of the island\u00E2\u0080\u0099s population, died in this battle.435 The Japanese mass media reported that all the Japanese soldiers died, and they glorified the settlers who chose the same path despite the fact that they no longer lived in mainland Japan.436 The battle had a significant impact on the role of women in the war. As Haruko Taya Cook observes, the mass media sensationalized the civilian women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s suicides, and while women had been previously conceived as nurturers and caretakers, after this battle ideal femininity came to be associated with death: laudable women were willing to die for the nation.437 The women\u00E2\u0080\u0099s deaths, Cook suggests, functioned to further encourage Japanese men to sacrifice themselves for the nation. The wartime media\u00E2\u0080\u0099s claim that all the Japanese soldiers died in this battle and that the civilians willingly destroyed themselves, however, was not entirely true, which came into light only after the war ended. A significant number of soldiers and civilians indeed chose life over death, and instead surrendered to the Americans, and those civilians who blasted themselves were forced to do so by the Japanese army.438 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 435 Earhart, Certain Victory, 399. 436 Asahi shinbun published a number of stories and articles about the battle in July 1944. 437 Haruko Taya Cook, \u00E2\u0080\u009CWomen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Deaths as Weapons of War.\u00E2\u0080\u009D 438 Haruko Taya Cook, \u00E2\u0080\u009CWomen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Death as Weapons of War,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 331; Earhart, Certain Victory, 398. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 180 Fujita painted this significant battle, too. Titled Compatriots on Saipan Island Remain Faithful to the End, his painting was displayed at the War Campaign Record Painting Exhibition (Sens\u00C5\u008D Kirokugaten) in April 1945, only four months before the end of the war. Unlike in Honorable Death on Attu Island, women and children are now present at the battlefront. A man in the right foreground is placing a gun into his mouth, and women in the right background are throwing themselves off what was later called \u00E2\u0080\u009CBanzai Cliff.\u00E2\u0080\u009D Though disembodiment is the subject of painting, these self-slaughtering Japanese do not look as abject as those in Attu in the photographs of the American Life magazine. Instead of a fierce, violent fight between the Japanese and American forces, in this painting Fujita focuses on the pathos seen in the aftermath of the battle and virtue in the act of accepting one\u00E2\u0080\u0099s destiny. The artist highlights the dignity of the women and children who gather in the center of the painting and who remain calm even in the face of their imminent deaths. Rather than accepting humiliating capture, they would choose to take their own lives: on the cliff in the far distance a Japanese flag waves proudly. Here again, Fujita materializes the kokutai, the collection of Japanese citizens who are determined to act as human shields for the sacred country of Japan and its ruler, the emperor. Conclusion In this chapter, I provided an overview of the production of War Campaign Record Paintings. As I have examined above, war artists, although most of them trained in France, turned their attention to contemporary art in Germany. They also relied to a significant degree on photographs in their production of the paintings. Furthermore, I \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 181 suggested that, despite the supposed realism of the human body in Western-style paintings, the Japanese propaganda paintings do not attend to the construction of the physical body of individual human beings. In the next two chapters I will investigate fascist discourses around the body, examining the practices of racial hygiene and eugenics and the idea of the human body as a mechanical weapon in both Japan and Germany. I ultimately conclude, however, that we do not see in the War Campaign Record Paintings the fascist bodily practices that existed in wartime Japan. The relationship between paintings and photographs becomes important particularly in Chapter Four, in which I address the tension between the two media. The creation of the collective body of the kokutai, which we saw in Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s paintings, becomes a more prominent issue in Chapter Five, where I show that the medium of Japanese-style painting, capable of symbolic representation, was more suitable to communicate the metaphysical aspect of the kokutai. I argue that the disjuncture between German Nazi art and Japanese war art is where Japan could maintain its own national identity. In other words, instead of articulating individual bodies as in Western art, Japanese war art propagated the primacy of spirit, which the Japanese insisted that Westerners did not have, and drew on traditional aesthetics, in order to make their art their own. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 182 CHAPTER FOUR Representing the Fascist Body I: Scientific Racism and the Japanese Concept of Minzoku Introduction In 1940, the Japanese government passed the National Eugenics Law (Kokumin Y\u00C5\u00ABsei H\u00C5\u008D). The law allowed doctors to sterilize the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cinferior\u00E2\u0080\u009D in order to improve the genetic composition of the Japanese populace. While eliminating the undesirable from the population, the government simultaneously sought to strengthen the physical ability of its citizens, and passed in the same year the National Physical Strength Law (Kokumin Tairyoku H\u00C5\u008D), which stipulated that young men should be tested on their physical ability. These government policies and measures were highly informed by the medical and scientific practices in Nazi Germany: the National Eugenics Law was in fact modeled on the infamous 1933 Nazi Sterilization Law. The wartime state-sanctioned control over the corporeal body of the citizens in Japan, historian Fujino Yutaka argues, is fascist. He states, Fascism carried out extreme population policies in order to mobilize the populace as \u00E2\u0080\u009Chuman resources.\u00E2\u0080\u009D The citizens were required to possess a healthy, strong physique and mentality, and those who could not be \u00E2\u0080\u009Cimproved,\u00E2\u0080\u009D such as the sick and the disabled, were expelled from society. I understand this as the special feature that Germany, Italy, and Japan had in common.439 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 439 Fujino Yutaka, Ky\u00C5\u008Dsei sareta kenk\u00C5\u008D: nihon fashizumuka no seimei to shintai, 4-5. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 183 Reflecting fascist practice around citizens\u00E2\u0080\u0099 bodies, photographs published in the Asahi shinbun invite what Jennifer Robertson calls the \u00E2\u0080\u009Ceugenic gaze.\u00E2\u0080\u009D440 The newspaper, advocating the idea underlined by the National Physical Strength Law, regularly reproduced photographs of semi-naked men and women performing exercises (tais\u00C5\u008D). A photograph published on February 10, 1943
, which depicts men exercising in a school yard is one example. Unable to show the entire crowd, the picture conveys the sense that the number of participants is enormous. Organized in rows, the young men pose in a side bend, displaying their strong, healthy bodies. Although it is true that some of the men look meager and thin, their poses nonetheless emphasize their physical ability. Power, virility, and energy fill the photograph. The sense of discipline, conformity, and regimentation that I discussed in Chapter One is also evident in this image. The accompanying text explains that this particular style of exercise was introduced to renowned schools such as Tokyo Imperial University and Chiba Imperial University, and claims that it contributed to increasing the lung capacity of the students.441 In terms of its focus on the external appearance of the body, the Asahi shinbun photograph is perhaps comparable to Gerhard Keil\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Gymnasts (1939) and Albert Janesch\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Water Sports (c.1936), two paintings created in Nazi Germany. In addition to alluding to the physical beauty embodied in Greco-Roman sculptures, these paintings, which depict superman- \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 440 Jennifer Robertson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBlood Talks: Eugenic Modernity and the Creation of New Japanese,\u00E2\u0080\u009D History and Anthropology 13.3 (2002): 197. 441 \u00E2\u0080\u009CShimo o kudaite kokutetsu tais\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u009D[National Railroad Exercise, Breaking Frost], Asahi shinbun, February 10, 1943. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 184 like, gigantic, extremely muscular blond, blue-eyed men, propagate the ideas of Nazi eugenics and the ideal of Aryan racial purity.442 Perhaps surprisingly, it is difficult to find a similarly strong body in the War Campaign Record Paintings. Unlike photographs and graphic illustrations in eugenic discourses, the war paintings pay scant attention to the physical characteristics of material bodies. This lack of attention to the strong, healthy, disciplined body is evident in Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Attack on Nanyuan, Beijing, which I discussed in the previous chapter: the protagonist, the standing soldier in the center who raises his bayonet high in the air, looks rather small compared to the women in Liberty Leading the People
, on which Miyamoto modeled his painting. The military uniforms that cover the entire bodies of the soldiers obscure the muscular body structures that might be beneath. As the action of the soldier in the center is frozen in time, the painting does not convey the same kind of dynamism and movement that is the focus of the Asahi shinbun photograph. This does not mean, however, that Japanese painters were incapable of painting individuals with large body frames. The body of a fisherman in Wada Sanz\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s South Wind, executed in 1907, is as muscular as the bodies of Aryan athletes in the two Nazi paintings. In the center of the painting, a fisherman stands stripped to the waist in contrapposto on the wooden deck at a port, in a pose like a Classical sculpture. The individual muscles on his arms, abdomen, and calves are carefully drawn, which constructs an idealized, eight-head tall, European classical male body. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 442 The 1930s: The Making of \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe New Man\u00E2\u0080\u009D (Ottawa: The National Gallery of Canada, 2008), 50-51; J.A. Mangan, Shaping the Superman: Fascist Body as Political Icon Aryan Fascism. London: Frank Cass, 1999. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 185 This chapter examines the rupture between the bodily discourse of racial hygiene and eugenics that permeated Japanese wartime society on the one hand, and the lack of visual representation of this discourse in War Campaign Record Painting on the other. I argue that the fact that we do not see physically strong, \u00E2\u0080\u009Csuperman\u00E2\u0080\u009D bodies in the propaganda paintings does not mean that Japanese wartime ideology was not influenced by the scientific racism developed in Germany, or that Japanese propaganda paintings were not fascist. On the contrary, as I will show, wartime Japanese policy-makers were highly aware of the Nazi ideas of eugenics and racial hygiene. Yet, the Eurocentric notion of eugenics and scientific racism, which placed Caucasians at the top of its hierarchy, ultimately did not work in Japan. Thus, rather than claiming the absence of fascist bodily practice, I will illuminate how the idea of racism was adopted in Japan, where the scientific notion of \u00E2\u0080\u009Crace\u00E2\u0080\u009D (jinshu) was modified into a relatively more flexible, \u00E2\u0080\u009Csubjective\u00E2\u0080\u009D idea of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cethnicity\u00E2\u0080\u009D (minzoku). Through the concept of minzoku, the Japanese could claim superiority in terms of the spirit rather than the physical body, which consequently enabled them to justify their territorial expansion as \u00E2\u0080\u009Csaving\u00E2\u0080\u009D other Asians from Western colonialism. It is within the framework of minzoku, modified scientific racism, that we must understand war propaganda paintings. German Science and Eugenics in Japan Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s wartime regime carefully studied and integrated the German model of science: eugenics. The term was first used in 1883 by Sir Francis Galton, a British scholar and a half-cousin of Charles Darwin. Galton himself defined eugenics as \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 186 the science of improving [the inherited] stock [of a population], not only by judicious matings, but by any means which takes cognizance of all influences that tend in however remote degree to give the more suitable races or strains of blood a better chance of prevailing speedily over the less suitable than they otherwise would have had.443 Eugenics sought to improve the human species by controlling reproduction and eliminating the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdefective.\u00E2\u0080\u009D This was modeled on the breeding of livestock, as well as on the taxonomy of human beings and the medical knowledge that advanced in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including Gregor Mendel\u00E2\u0080\u0099s discovery of heriditary diseases in 1910.444 Eugenics not only aimed to eradicate the physically and mentally ill, but also to eliminate \u00E2\u0080\u009Csocial evils\u00E2\u0080\u009D such as alcoholism, homosexuality, and criminality. Based on the principle of \u00E2\u0080\u009Csurvival of the fittest,\u00E2\u0080\u009D eugenicists most often associated the fitness of citizens with the well-being of a nation. Eugenics was an international movement, supported not only in Germany, but also in many countries such as the United States, England, and France. In Germany eugenics took a deadly turn and produced the most extreme results.445 Although eugenic ideas about the mentally and physically ill existed before the rise of the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 443 Anne Maxwell, Picture Imperfect: Photography and Eugenics 1870-1940 (Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 2007), 2. 444 Nicholas Mirzoeff, Bodyscape: Art, Modernity, and the Ideal Figure (London; New York: Routledge, 2004), 146. 445 See the excellent online exhibition, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDeadly Medicine: Creating the Master Race\u00E2\u0080\u009D by United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 187 Nazi party in 1933, the Nazi party took them further. Under the 1933 Sterilization Law the regime sterilized 400,000 individuals who were mentally ill, physically deformed, or suffering from hereditary conditions such as Huntington\u00E2\u0080\u0099s disease and epilepsy.446 In the Nazis\u00E2\u0080\u0099 Euthanasia Program, which lasted from 1939 to at least 1941, over 70,000 individuals with the same conditions were systematically murdered.447 Nazi racial policies, which sought to create a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cracially superior\u00E2\u0080\u009D Germany, ultimately came to consider the existence of Jewish population as a medical problem that needed to be solved.448 French aristocrat Arthur de Gobineau (1816-1882) invented the term \u00E2\u0080\u009CAryans\u00E2\u0080\u009D in the 1850s to refer to \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe allegedly superior strain of people who thousands of years before had emerged from the continent of Africa and settled in those northern parts of Europe that comprised modern-day Scandinavia, Britain, and northern Germany, gradually developing lighter hair and skin in the process.\u00E2\u0080\u009D449 Nazi leaders and high-ranking officials demanded that the Aryan population in Germany be increased to improve the racial standard of the country.450 The infamous anti-Semitic Nuremberg Laws of 1935, defined a \u00E2\u0080\u009CJew\u00E2\u0080\u009D as a person having at least one Jewish grandparent; \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 (accessed February 27, 2011). 446 Maxwell, Picture imperfect, 148. 447 Robert Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 191. 448 Maxwell, Picture Imperfect, 148. 449 Maxwell, Picture Imperfect, 148. 450 Maxwell, Picture Imperfect, 148. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 188 prohibited marriage and sexual intercourse between \u00E2\u0080\u009CJews\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnon-Jews\u00E2\u0080\u009D; and deprived Jews of German citizenship. The Nazis had initially planned simply to deport Jewish people, but ultimately resorted to murdering them\u00E2\u0080\u0094six million European Jews\u00E2\u0080\u0094 at concentration camps such as Auschwitz. Eugenics had a great influence in Japan, and in fact, most of the scholars and doctors who introduced the idea to Japan studied in Germany. Fujikawa Y\u00C5\u00AB, who studied there during the 1880s, published the journal Jinsei (Human Life) as early as 1905, in which he translated many articles about eugenics into Japanese.451 In the 1920s, eugenics was popularized and disseminated to the general public by such figures as Ikeda Shigenori, who published the magazines Y\u00C5\u00ABsei Und\u00C5\u008D (Eugenics Movement) and Y\u00C5\u00ABseigaku (Eugenics).452 Around that time, many exhibitions titled \u00E2\u0080\u009Ceugenics exhibition\u00E2\u0080\u009D (eisei tenrankai) and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cethnicity hygiene exhibition\u00E2\u0080\u009D (minzoku eisei tenrankai) were organized. These explained diseases\u00E2\u0080\u0094especially sexually transmitted infections, tuberculosis, and mental illness\u00E2\u0080\u0094using Mendel\u00E2\u0080\u0099s principle. They encouraged marriage between healthy couples and recommended investigating the medical history of prospective spouses.453 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 451 Robertson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s First Cyborg?\u00E2\u0080\u009D 7. 452 Fujino, Nihon fashizumu to y\u00C5\u00ABsei shis\u00C5\u008D, 80. 453 Tanaka Satoshi, Eisei tenrankai no yokub\u00C5\u008D [The Desire of Eugenics Exhibitions] (Tokyo: Seit\u00C5\u008Dsha, 1994). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 189 Wartime Japanese Eugenics These eugenics movements were quickly appropriated by the wartime state. Ultimately, in 1940, the wartime government passed the National Eugenics Law (Kokumin Y\u00C5\u00ABsei H\u00C5\u008D). The law was modeled on the 1933 Nazi Sterilization Law. Nagai Hisomu\u00E2\u0080\u0094who studied in Germany from 1903 and 1906 and was influenced by eugenicist and Nazi party member Alfred Ploetz\u00E2\u0080\u0094had advocated such a law since 1934.454 The National Eugenics Law stipulated \u00E2\u0080\u009Csterilization of so-called abnormal persons, namely, the mentally infirm, physically handicapped and sexually alternative,\u00E2\u0080\u009D even though the question of whether or not those \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdiseases\u00E2\u0080\u009D were hereditary was still in dispute.455 On the occasion of the passing of the law, the Minister of Health further proposed that in the future the state should have total control over marriage, issuing certificates only to those who were healthy.456 Unlike in Germany, however, eugenics in Japan was largely oriented toward what is considered positive eugenics.457 While negative eugenics is concerned with the segregation and sterilization of undesirable people, positive eugenics focuses on improving health through selective marriage, exercise, and hygiene. Thus, as Fujino Yutaka points out, under the Japanese National Eugenics Law only hundreds of people were sterilized (454, to be exact), rather than hundreds of thousands, and in that sense, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 454 Fujino, Nihon fashizumu to y\u00C5\u00ABsei shis\u00C5\u008D, 281; Tessa Morris-Suzuki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDebating Racial Science in Wartime Japan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Osiris 13 (1998): 362. 455 Robertson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CMiss Nippon, \u00E2\u0080\u009D 24; Fujino Yutaka, Chapter 6. 456 Fujino, Nihon fashizumu to y\u00C5\u00ABsei shis\u00C5\u008D, 336-338. 457 Robertson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s First Cyborg?\u00E2\u0080\u009D 10. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 190 the consequences of the law cannot be compared to the situation in Nazi Germany.458 Jennifer Robertson likewise reminds us that unlike the Holocaust in Germany, eugenics in Japan did not directly lead to the systematic slaughter of those deemed \u00E2\u0080\u009Cunfit.\u00E2\u0080\u009D459 More pervasive than the National Eugenics Law was the National Physical Strength Law (Kokumin Tairyoku H\u00C5\u008D), which was also promulgated in 1940 and which obliged young men to undergo state-controlled annual physical exams.460 Those who were diagnosed with diseases were sent to appropriate medical institutions and those who were determined to be \u00E2\u0080\u009Cweak\u00E2\u0080\u009D were considered \u00E2\u0080\u009Cuseless\u00E2\u0080\u009D and sent to health training centers (kenmin sh\u00C5\u00ABrenjo).461 Michel Foucault has explained how modern nation states in \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 458 Fujino, Nihon fashizumu to y\u00C5\u00ABsei shis\u00C5\u008D, 39; 369. 459 Robertson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s First Cyborg?\u00E2\u0080\u009D 22. 460 Fujino, Nihon fashizumu to y\u00C5\u00ABsei shis\u00C5\u008D, 319; Sakaue Yasuhiro and Takaoka Hiroshi, Maboroshi no T\u00C5\u008Dky\u00C5\u008D orinpikku to sono jidai: senjiki no sup\u00C5\u008Dtsu, toshi, shintai [The Dreamed Tokyo Olympics and Its Era: Sports, City, and Body during the War] (Tokyo: Seit\u00C5\u008Dsha, 2009), 181. Two million males (between seventeen and nineteen years of age) and almost four million males (between fifteen and nineteen) were examined in 1940 and 1941, respectively. Takai Masashi and Koga Atsushi, Kenk\u00C5\u008D y\u00C5\u00ABry\u00C5\u008Dji to sono jidai: kenk\u00C5\u008D to iu media ibento [Healthy Kids and Its Era: Health and Media Event] (Tokyo: Seit\u00C5\u008Dsha, 2008), 26. 461 Takai and Koga, Kenk\u00C5\u008D y\u00C5\u00ABry\u00C5\u008Dji to sono jidai, 26; Fujino Yutaka, Nihon fashizumu to y\u00C5\u00ABsei shis\u00C5\u008D, 170; 265. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 191 general have maintained power by controlling the physical bodies of citizens.462 During the war, the state control of Japanese citizens through exercise had a specific goal: to create bodies that were strong and healthy enough to fight at the battlefront and sustain the labor power at home.463 Physical exercise was a part of the state program called K\u00C5\u008Dsei Und\u00C5\u008D, which was central to Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s vision of a totalitarian state inspired by those of Italy and Germany. K\u00C5\u008Dsei Und\u00C5\u008D, which can be translated as \u00E2\u0080\u009CNational Welfare Movement,\u00E2\u0080\u009D is a Japanese translation of KdF (Kraft durch Freude, or Strength through Joy), the Nazi program that dealt with the nation\u00E2\u0080\u0099s public health.464 KdF was in turn modeled on the Italian Fascist program of Dopolavoro (After Work), which organized leisure activities for citizens including music concerts, libraries, and travel. In his 1942 book The National Welfare Movement, Hoshina Atsushi explains that K\u00C5\u008Dsei Und\u00C5\u008D was initiated in 1938. He defines the program as a movement that aimed to maintain the overall wellness of citizens by encouraging efficient time management, physical exercise, spiritual refinement, and appropriate leisure that was ethical, economical, and hygienic.465 Hoshina provides detailed descriptions of KdF and Dopolavoro, and states that what allowed Germany and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 462 Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, 2nd ed. trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1977); The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception (New York: Vintage Books, 1994). 463 Sakaue and Takaoka, Maboroshi no T\u00C5\u008Dky\u00C5\u008D orinpikku to sono jidai, 181. 464 Hoshina Atsushi, Kokumin k\u00C5\u008Dsei und\u00C5\u008D [The National Welfare Movement] (Tokyo: Kurita shoten, 1942). 465 Hoshina, Kokumin k\u00C5\u008Dsei undo, 4. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 192 Italy to implement such wonderful programs was totalitarianism, state-controlled economies, and the hierarchal structure of their political parties.466 He simultaneously criticized the United States, the country of liberalism and democracy, for not having a systematized program to maintain public health.467 To improve the physical health of Japanese citizens, a large number of sports events were organized both nationally and locally by state-sanctioned organizations such as the Japan Sports Association (Zen Nippon Tais\u00C5\u008D Renmei), established in 1930.468 These events, called tais\u00C5\u008D taikai (exercise conventions) or tais\u00C5\u008D sai (exercise festivals), were supported and sponsored by the Ministry of Education, local governments and schools, and mass media.469 School children, teachers, and factory workers participated in the events, and in 1934 alone, over three million people in 7520 different organizations in thirty-five prefectures were involved.470 It was advocated that exercise (tais\u00C5\u008D) was best done by millions of people rather than by individuals, and numerous styles of exercise were created\u00E2\u0080\u0094kokumin tais\u00C5\u008D (national exercise), kenkoku tais\u00C5\u008D, (nation foundation exercise) k\u00C5\u008Dkoku shinmin tais\u00C5\u008D (imperial citizen exercise), kokutetsu und\u00C5\u008D (national railroad exercise), sum\u00C5\u008D tais\u00C5\u008D (sumo exercise), and Kumamoto ken tais\u00C5\u008D (Kumamoto prefecture exercise), to name a few.471 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 466 Hoshina, Kokumin k\u00C5\u008Dsei und\u00C5\u008D, 19. 467 Hoshina, Kokumin k\u00C5\u008Dsei und\u00C5\u008D, 9. 468 Sakaue and Takaoka, Maboroshi no T\u00C5\u008Dky\u00C5\u008D orinpikku to sono jidai, 409. 469 Sakaue and Takaoka, Maboroshi no T\u00C5\u008Dky\u00C5\u008D orinpikku to sono jidai, 409. 470 Sakaue and Takaoka, Maboroshi no T\u00C5\u008Dky\u00C5\u008D orinpikku to sono jidai, 409. 471 Sakaue and Takaoka, Maboroshi no T\u00C5\u008Dky\u00C5\u008D orinpikku to sono jidai, 414-429. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 193 These different styles of exercise were often disseminated by drawings in pamphlets, and exercise events were constantly reported by news media. A pamphlet published in Ibaragi Prefecture
, for example, features a drawing of a man wearing shorts demonstrating different poses including side-bending, stretching, and squatting . It seems that each pose was to be performed with corresponding verses that describe the pose, such as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpaddling\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cclimbing.\u00E2\u0080\u009D It is important to note that, according to Tanaka Satoshi, nudity was encouraged during the war as an embrace of nature. A photograph published in Asahi shinbun on June 26, 1943
, shows young school girls demonstrating exercises in the schoolyard. The children are all in the same pose, their arms raised up in a V-shape. Like the photograph of the semi-naked exercising men which I described at the beginning of this chapter, the girls in the Asahi shinbun photograph are half-naked: they appear to be wearing black shorts or skirts, but are exposed from the waist up. The benefit of being naked was introduced from Weimar Germany, and there was even a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnaked exercise\u00E2\u0080\u009D (hadaka tais\u00C5\u008D).472 Wartime Japanese policies concerning exercise and sports also had an influence in Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s colonies. Imperial citizen exercise, for example, was performed in wartime Korea.473 Furthermore, in 1940, the year the Olympics were scheduled to be held in Tokyo (the games were ultimately cancelled), the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Sports Festival (Dait\u00C5\u008Da Ky\u00C5\u008Dgi Taikai) was held, with athletes from China, Mongolia, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 472 Tanaka, Eisei tenrankai no yokub\u00C5\u008D, 182-190. 473 Sakaue and Takaoka, Maboroshi no T\u00C5\u008Dky\u00C5\u008D orinpikku to sono jidai, 422. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 194 Manchuria, the Philippines, Korea, Taiwan and others, to celebrate the 2600th anniversary of the Imperial reign.474 Eugenic Photography The mass media fully participated in this wartime discourse of eugenics. One of the most important annual events was the competition for \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe healthiest child in Japan\u00E2\u0080\u009D organized by the Asahi shinbun. The competition and the Healthy Children Award (Kenk\u00C5\u008D Y\u00C5\u00ABry\u00C5\u008Dji Hy\u00C5\u008Dsh\u00C5\u008D) were started in 1930; in 1934, nineteen thousand children participated.475 The applicants submitted to the selection committee a \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccard\u00E2\u0080\u009D (k\u00C4\u0081do) recording their physical information (weight, height, medical background, time for a fifty-meter run, etc.).476 Importantly, they were required to attach photos taken in the \u00E2\u0080\u009Clightest possible clothes.\u00E2\u0080\u009D477 Their cards were first considered on the local level, and then on the national level.478 Photographs were essential in disseminating what a perfectly healthy person looked like: from the newspaper reports, it seems that the winners were chosen on the basis of \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 474 Sakaue and Takaoka, Maboroshi no T\u00C5\u008Dky\u00C5\u008D orinpikku to sono jidai, 162-170. 475 \u00E2\u0080\u009CKagayaku Nippon Kenk\u00C5\u008Dji\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Shining Healthy Kids of Japan], Asahi shinbun, July 5, 1934. 476 \u00E2\u0080\u009CKagayaku Nippon Kenkoji.\u00E2\u0080\u009D 477 \u00E2\u0080\u009CZenkoku kara sagasu Nihon ichi no kenk\u00C5\u008Dji\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Healthiest Kid in Japan], Asahi shinbun, Feb 11, 1930 478 \u00E2\u0080\u009CKagayaku Nippon kenk\u00C5\u008Dji.\u00E2\u0080\u009D \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 195 the textual and photographic documents alone.479 After the competition, the newspaper released the physical information as well as the pictures of the winner and of several runners up.480 The Asahi shinbun of July 5, 1934 published a full body shot of that year\u00E2\u0080\u0099s winner, Hasegawa Keiz\u00C5\u008D, in white shorts. The competition was not only for male youth: the newspaper also announced the thirteen-year-old female winner Nakamura Kie with a full body, semi-naked picture
. The newspaper photographs show the two young students standing against a gridded background. They stand still, with straight backs and neutral, but serious expressions. Their hands are placed precisely at their sides, their legs close together, and their feet at forty-five degrees. The newspaper also reproduced portrait photographs of the runners-up
. Although only their faces appear, as in the pictures of the winners, the backgrounds of these photographs also consist of grids. The Asahi shinbun pictures of healthy children use this gridded background for measurement, elevating the photographs to the status of neutral scientific records. The black background with a two-inch square grid marked off with white string is known as a Lamprey grid, and was invented by J.H. Lamprey, secretary of the London Ethnographical Society, and was used to measure the physical features of human bodies at a glance in the context of anthropometry and colonial anthropology.481 These \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 479 Asahi shinbun in July 5, 1934 published a photo of national committees, looking at the applicants\u00E2\u0080\u0099 cards and their photos. 480 \u00E2\u0080\u009CKagayaku nippon kenk\u00C5\u008Dji.\u00E2\u0080\u009D 481 Anne Maxwell, Colonial Photography and Exhibitions: Representations of the \u00E2\u0080\u0098Native\u00E2\u0080\u0099 and the Making of European Identities (London: Leicester University Press, 2000), 41; \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 196 photographs were thus entrenched in the nineteenth-century discourse in which photography was \u00E2\u0080\u009Copen to a whole range of scientific and technical applications and supplied a ready instrumentation to a number of reformed or emerging medical, legal and municipal apparatuses in which photographs functioned as a means of record and a source of evidence.\u00E2\u0080\u009D482 Contributing to the means of surveillance and control, according to John Tagg, photography in the latter half of the nineteenth century was complicit in spreading the network of state power.483 Unlike the nineteenth-century medical and anthropological photographs of the insane, the criminal, and the colonized, which recorded the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cinferior\u00E2\u0080\u009D other, however, the photographs in Asahi shinbun documented the healthy, ideal, perfect body of the \u00E2\u0080\u009Csuperior\u00E2\u0080\u009D self. Wartime Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s human typology based on visual documentation clearly resonates with the use of photography in Nazi Germany. Japanese and German eugenicists shared the notion that the ideal physical body could be recorded visually and that in addition photographs could be used in a screening process to distinguish the ideal body from other, less desirable forms. In Germany, prominent Nazi racial theorist Hans G\u00C3\u00BCnther made photographs one of the bases on which applicants to the SS were screened
(acc essed Dec 10, 2011). 482 John Tagg, Burdon of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 60. 483 Tagg, Burdon of Representation, 74. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 197 6>.484 Like the Japanese newspaper photographs of the runners-up in the \u00E2\u0080\u009Chealthiest child\u00E2\u0080\u009D competition, photographs reproduced in G\u00C3\u00BCnther\u00E2\u0080\u0099s book titled Racial Science of the German People published in 1930 are frontal and three-quarter portraits of Aryan men and women. Although portraiture in Western practice has historically been associated with individualism, these pictures are not meant to convey the personality of the sitter: their physical features\u00E2\u0080\u0094the shapes of their eyes and noses, the color of their hair\u00E2\u0080\u0094are the main focus of the photographs, and the subjects are treated not as individuals but merely as scientific specimens. Despite the pervasiveness of such beliefs, wartime medical and scientific discourses did not influence the representations of bodies in the field of propaganda paintings, however: strong, healthy, naked bodies do not appear in the paintings; on the contrary, the soldiers in the paintings are almost always dressed in their Japanese military uniforms. Although, as I explained in Chapter Three, propaganda paintings and photography maintained a strong connection, there was therefore nevertheless a tension between the two media. Even though painters turned to photographs in their art creation, the role of paintings was clearly distinguished from that of photographs. In Bijutsu 1944, General Akiyama Kunio provided the definition of War Campaign Record Paintings: War Campaign Record Paintings are paintings that have the significant historical purpose of recording and preserving the state\u00E2\u0080\u0099s war campaign forever. They are the paintings that would celebrate the Imperial army\u00E2\u0080\u0099s spirit to defend the nation, defeat the enemy, and fight for victory. They are \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 484 Maxwell, Picture Imperfect, 150. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 198 paintings that would preserve when, how, and why we fight for our posterity a hundred, thousand years later.485 Unlike photographs, art critic Egawa Kazuhiko argued, war paintings could be preserved for a long time.486 Furthermore, it was thought that paintings could express things that photographs could not. Army official Yamanouchi Ichir\u00C5\u008D stated, \u00E2\u0080\u009CPhotographic technologies have rapidly advanced by now. Some people argue that photographs do a better job of recording events. Yet, photographs are impotent at evoking emotions and embodying ideologies.\u00E2\u0080\u009D487 Paintings were much more highly regarded and considered a privileged site wherein lofty ideals were visually articulated, whereas photography tended to be associated with medical science and journalism because of its supposed ability to capture the Truth.488 Furthermore, although both media had been introduced from the West, oil paintings (or \u00E2\u0080\u009CWestern-style paintings\u00E2\u0080\u009D) had a much stronger association with the West than photography. In other words, representing perfectly proportioned, anatomically studied \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 485 Akiyama Kunio, \u00E2\u0080\u009CHonnendo kirokuga ni tsuite\u00E2\u0080\u009D [About This Year\u00E2\u0080\u0099s War Campaign Record Painting], Bijutsu, May 1944, 2. 486 \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D-ga to geijutsu sei\u00E2\u0080\u009D [War Painting and Its Artistic Value], Bijutsu, September 1944, 11. 487 Yamanouchi Ichir\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSakusen kirokuga no arikata\u00E2\u0080\u009D [How War Campaign Record Paintings Ought to Be], Bijutsu, May 1944, 3. 488 This is not to say that artistic aspects of photography were not explored during this period. Many European-trained photographers sought artistic expressions in photography in the prewar period. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 199 bodies in oil, as in European classical works, carried the risk of making Japanese bodies look \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctoo Western.\u00E2\u0080\u009D For example, the muscular fisherman in Wada Sanz\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s South Wind, which I discussed above, immediately calls to mind Michelangelo\u00E2\u0080\u0099s David. Thus, during the war, when the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cuniqueness of the Japanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D was constantly emphasized, there was a need to distinguish the Japanese body from the Western one, particularly in the medium of oil paintings. Art historians Tsuruya Mayu and Bert Winther-Tamaki have commented on the lack of rigor and virility in Japanese war paintings. Tsuruya argues that the paintings allude to Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s traditional cultural values of inconspicuousness, unobtrusiveness, and self-effacement.489 Similarly, Winther-Tamaki points to Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s religious tradition to account for the characteristics of the paintings. He writes that the religious system \u00E2\u0080\u009Creserved greater honor for mortal sacrifice than physical accomplishment, an ideology not conductive to the strong physical embodiment of heroes in portraiture.\u00E2\u0080\u009D490 I agree with both Tsuruya and Winther-Tamaki that the paintings\u00E2\u0080\u0099 conscious diversion from the importance of body was manifestation of an alternative worldview that gave the Japanese a distinct national identity, but I want to investigate the concept of minzoku to elucidate this alternative world view. In particular I suggest that eugenics, which after all stemmed from Western scientific racism, did not perfectly suit Japan, a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnon-white\u00E2\u0080\u009D country. In order to claim superiority over the West, Japan instead advanced a Japan-centric worldview of ethnicity (minzoku) by modifying the concept of race (jinshu). I argue that paintings, considered \u00E2\u0080\u009Chigher\u00E2\u0080\u009D in the hierarchy of art, needed to \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 489 Tsuruya, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D Sakusen Kirokuga,\u00E2\u0080\u009D157. 490 Winther-Tamaki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CEmbodiment/Disembodiment,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 166. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 200 materialize this ideology, which privileged the internal rather than external characteristics of the Japanese. The Japanese Concept of Minzoku Kevin Doak has suggested that although it is often considered that Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s war was a \u00E2\u0080\u009Crace war,\u00E2\u0080\u009D understanding Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s ideology only in terms of race is insufficient. Doak calls for attention to the related framework of minzoku (ethnicity). Stating that \u00E2\u0080\u009Crace coexisted with ethnicity in Japanese imperialist ideology, but race and ethnicity were used to signify distinct levels of identity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Doak argues that it is minzoku, rather than race, that formed the wartime identity of the Japanese.491 Historian John Dower has made a similar point. He writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009Creferences to \u00E2\u0080\u0098white people\u00E2\u0080\u0099 did not dominate the rhetoric of wartime Japan, and color did not play the same role in Japanese perceptions of the conflict in Asia that it did in the West. The grand white-yellow-black schema which so dominated Western racist thinking simply did not work very well as a means by which to mobilize the Japanese and Asian sense of solidarity.\u00E2\u0080\u009D492 Although scholars now most often translate the term minzoku as race\u00E2\u0080\u0094for example, Yamato minzoku as Yamato race and minzoku eisei as racial hygiene\u00E2\u0080\u0094the word jinshu (race) was seldom used during the war. When the Social Darwinist thinking of racial science was introduced to Japan in the 1870s, the Japanese embraced with great excitement the new classification system of the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 491 Kevin Doak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBuilding National Identity through Ethnicity: Ethnology in Wartime Japan and After,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Journal of Japanese Studies 27.1 (Winter, 2001): 4. 492 Dower, War without Mercy, 208. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 201 human species and the principle of selective breeding.493 In the process of the Meiji government\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Westernization of Japan, many Japanese scholars and government authorities accepted the idea that they were physically \u00E2\u0080\u009Cinferior.\u00E2\u0080\u009D They therefore wanted to strengthen the nation by improving their genes, considering this process one of the necessary steps to modernize the country.494 Some radical scholars even advocated the crossbreeding of Japanese with \u00E2\u0080\u009Csuperior\u00E2\u0080\u009D Caucasian women, though this idea was largely opposed.495 This Western racial science, which categorized Japanese among the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cinferior\u00E2\u0080\u009D yellow race, however, was clearly both disadvantageous and inconvenient for the Japanese, and was especially problematic for Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s quest to be treated on equal terms by the West and to make differentiations among the yellow race.496 In this context, according to Doak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDuring the 1920s and 1930s, ethnicity (minzoku) was explicitly offered as a replacement for what was widely perceived as the failure of the nineteenth- century biological concept of race.\u00E2\u0080\u009D497 Doak continues, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthis new approach [minzoku] \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 493 Morris-Suzuki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDebating Racial Science,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 357-8. 494 Sabine Fr\u00C3\u00BChst\u00C3\u00BCck, Colonizing Sex: Sexology and Social Control in Modern Japan (University of California Press, 2003), 334. 495 Robertson, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s First Cyborg?\u00E2\u0080\u009D 4; Morris-Suzuki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDebating Racial Science,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 338. 496 Yuki Terazawa, \u00E2\u0080\u009CRacializing Bodies Through Science in Meiji Japan: The Rise of Race-Based Research in Gynecology,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Building A Modern Japan: Science, Technology, and Medicine in the Meiji Era and Beyond, Ed. Morris Low (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 87. 497 Doak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBuilding National Identity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 4. According to Doak, the word minzoku was used only after the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 202 challenged the legitimacy of purely biological or other natural scientific understanding of \u00E2\u0080\u0098race\u00E2\u0080\u0099 as a legitimate, sufficient explanation for social identity.\u00E2\u0080\u009D498 Distinguished from \u00E2\u0080\u009Crace,\u00E2\u0080\u009D which was understood as dealing with purely scientific, biological physical attributes, minzoku referred to \u00E2\u0080\u009Csubjective\u00E2\u0080\u009D characteristics, such as social consciousness and cultural identity.499 The concept of minzoku was closely associated with a form of cultural anthropology called minzokugaku (ethnology) developed by Japanese scholars in the 1920s, which studied the languages, customs, and religions of Japanese and non-Japanese (such as the Ainu, Taiwanese, and Koreans) in Japan and its colonies.500 The discourse of minzoku was also inspired by the German concept of Volk, which was introduced to Japan by scholars like Oka Masao who studied Nazi-influenced German ethnology in Vienna.501 In the 1940s Oka became a key figure \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 498 Doak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBuilding National Identity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 9. 499 Doak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBuilding National Identity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D14. This distinction was made by wartime scholars themselves. Dower, War without Mercy, 267. 500 Doak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBuilding National Identity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 9. 501 Doak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBuilding National Identity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D19. According to Christopher M. Hutton, members of a German Volk were understood to be \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmembers of a historically united organic collective, a descent group with its own territory, language, culture and world- view.\u00E2\u0080\u009D The concept of Volk was essential to academic disciplines like history, linguistics, and folklore. Meanwhile, the idea of Rasse (race) stemmed from modern scientific understanding of the natural world and was more concerned with external bodily appearance. Christopher M. Hutton, in Race and the Third Reich: Linguistics, Racial \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 203 in the government-funded Ethnic Research Institute and called for \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe development of a particularly Japanese ethnology\u00E2\u0080\u009D (my emphasis).502 While wartime Japan was heavily informed by Nazi eugenic discourse, as I demonstrated above, scholars such as sociologist Shimei Masamichi and economic historian Kada Tetsuji (one of the prolific contributors on the issue of race during the war) specifically rejected the aspect of white supremacy in Nazi racial theorizing and Social Darwinism in their 1940 publications.503 The paradigm of minzoku enabled Japan to claim superiority vis-\u00C3\u00A0-vis the West. By shifting attention from external to internal qualities, Japanese propaganda reiterated that Japanese were superior to Westerners not in terms of their physique, but in terms of their spirit: the Japanese are the most excellent people in the world because they are moralistic and possess the supreme virtues of filial piety and loyalty.504 Although the British and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Anthropology and Genetics in the Dialectic of Volk (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005), 18- 19; 21-22. 502 Doak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBuilding National Identity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 23. Oka Masato, the key figure in ethnology, for example studied in Vienna from 1929 and 1935 under Nazi influence. See Doak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBuilding National Identity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 19. 503 Morris-Suzuki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDebating Racial Science,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 367-368. 504 Dower, War Without Mercy, 205;211. It is important to note this spiritual superiority over physically strong Caucasians had been expressed already in the Meiji period and Taish\u00C5\u008D period. Okakura Tenshin\u00E2\u0080\u0099s definition of Asia as spiritual entity also entails similar rhetoric. See Unoura Hiroshi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSamurai Darwinism: Hiroyuki Kat\u00C5\u008D and the Reception of Darwin\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Theory in Modern Japan from the 1880s and the 1900s,\u00E2\u0080\u009D History and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 204 Americans might be physically more powerful and technologically more advanced, the Japanese have what they do not: Yamato-damashii (the spirit of Yamato): courage, strength, and the capacity of devotion to the emperor.505 Pitted against the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmorally superior\u00E2\u0080\u009D Japanese were the Americans and British, who were considered not to have human qualities and who were referred to as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdevils\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kichiku).506 The alleged cruelty, bestiality, and greediness of the British and Americans were emphasized and ascribed to the countries\u00E2\u0080\u0099 individualism, liberalism, and capitalism.507 Also, Anglo-Saxon leaders such as Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt were often portrayed as cowardly, sickly, or sly in public discourse.508 War Campaign Record Painting and Minzoku Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Meeting of Generals Yamashita and Percival (1942), which I discussed in the previous chapter as an example of a painting that idealizes a photograph taken of the event, can be understood as contrasting the Japanese officer\u00E2\u0080\u0099s moral superiority against the Westerners. The painting, which won the Imperial Art Award, is \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Anthropology 11.2 (1999): 235-255; Okakura Tenshin, The Ideal of the East (London: Murray, 1920 [1903]) 505 \u00E2\u0080\u009CYamato-damashii,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Japan Encyclopedia, ed. Louis Fr\u00C3\u00A9d\u00C3\u00A9ric, (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2005), 1046. 506 Dower, War Without Mercy, 248. 507 Dower, War Without Mercy, 243; 248. 508 See, for example, portrayals of Roosevelt and Churchill in Edogawa Rampo\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Idainaru Yume published in the magazine Hinode in 1943. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 205 about Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s victory over colonial Britain in Malay and Singapore in the Battle of Malaya, which started in December 1941 and ended with Britain\u00E2\u0080\u0099s unconditional surrender in February 1942. It depicts the meeting between the generals that took place in a Ford factory in Singapore. The four officials sitting closest to the viewer are British, and the second from the left, his face in profile, is General Percival. Eleven Japanese officials sit across the table; the one with his left arm on a sword is General Yamashita. The juxtaposition of the gallant Yamashita and the indecisive Percival was exemplified in an exchange between the two that was repeatedly reported in the mass media.509 Yamashita: \u00E2\u0080\u009CAre you willing to surrender? Yes or no?\u00E2\u0080\u009D Percival: \u00E2\u0080\u009CWould you give me until tomorrow morning?\u00E2\u0080\u009D Yamashita: \u00E2\u0080\u009CTomorrow? Absolutely not. Otherwise, Japanese troops will carry out a night attack. Do you understand?\u00E2\u0080\u009D Percival: \u00E2\u0080\u009CCould you wait till eleven thirty tonight?\u00E2\u0080\u009D Yamashita: \u00E2\u0080\u009CEleven thirty? We might well engage in an attack before that time\u00E2\u0080\u009D Percival: (no answer) Yamashita: \u00E2\u0080\u009CDo you accept the proposition? Let me ask you. Will you accept unconditional surrender, yes or no?\u00E2\u0080\u009D Percival: \u00E2\u0080\u009CYes.\u00E2\u0080\u009D510 That juxtaposition is also articulated visually. The Japanese officials might not be giant \u00E2\u0080\u009Csupermen,\u00E2\u0080\u009D but their spiritual refinement is expressed through their determination, calmness, and solemnity. While Yamashita sits upright and gazes directly at Percival, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 509 Asahi shinbun, Feb 17, 1942. 510 Originally in Asahi shinbun, February 15, 1942. Quoted in Tsuruya, 171. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 206 Percival in a crumpled uniform, stooping over and talking to the person next to him, appears cowardly, as though he cannot make a decision by himself. The expression of dread and anxiety perceived in his face is similar to that of Governor Yong in Ihara Usabur\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting discussed in Chapter Three. Yanagi Ry\u00C5\u008D praises the composition of this painting, that \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe roles of two generals naturally surface.\u00E2\u0080\u009D511 Examining nationalism in post-colonial regions, India in particular, historian Partha Chatterjee has argued that non-Western nations imagined their political communities differently from Western nations.512 Struggling against Western colonialism, the non- Western nations divided the world into two spheres, \u00E2\u0080\u009Couter\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cinner\u00E2\u0080\u009D: the \u00E2\u0080\u009Couter\u00E2\u0080\u009D sphere stands for the Western, the public, the modern, and the material, while the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cinner\u00E2\u0080\u009D sphere signifies the traditional, the private, and the spiritual. Chatterjee claims that it was the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cinner\u00E2\u0080\u009D sphere upon which the formation of non-Western (more specifically anti- colonial) nationalism centered, where states could claim their autonomy, authenticity, and sovereignty.513 Although the situations of wartime Japan and India under British colonialism are clearly different, Chatterjee\u00E2\u0080\u0099s argument that it is in the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cinner\u00E2\u0080\u009D realm (which could not be measured or evaluated in Western systems) that non-Westerners could claim their autonomy is relevant here. Unlike Chatterjee\u00E2\u0080\u0099s focus, it was the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 511 Yanagi Ry\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSens\u00C5\u008D bijutsu no romansei to shashin sei\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Romanticism and Realism in War Art], Bijutsu, February 1943, 8. 512 Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 10. 513 Chatterjee, The Nation and its Fragments, 121. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 207 imagined political community of the Empire, not the nation, that wartime Japan sought to establish, as I discuss below. The idea of minzoku was not only useful for Japan to undermine Western scientific racism; it was also useful to justify Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s colonialism in Asia and the establishment of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere (Dait\u00C5\u008Da Ky\u00C5\u008Deiken), a system in which Asia would live under Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s control free from Western exploitation. Recent postcolonial studies, by Homi Bhabha in particular, have made significant contributions to the understanding of colonialism, problematizing the way in which colonial cultures had been overdetermined as the West\u00E2\u0080\u0099s monotonous, total domination of the non-West. Drawing on Lacanian psychoanalytic theories, Bhabha has demonstrated how relationships between colonizer and colonized, which develop through identifications, were in fact much more ambivalent and complex.514 As is the case with colonialism everywhere, Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s colonialism was haunted by vacillation between desire and fear as well as the rhetorical contradictions of assimilation and discrimination. This colonial ambivalence was, Tessa Morris-Suzuki suggests, even stronger in Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s case. She writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapan colonized the regions with which it had the deepest and most ancient cultural ties. Japanese colonization, therefore, evoked no allusion to \u00E2\u0080\u0098empires on which the sun never set\u00E2\u0080\u0099 but instead provoked an almost obsessive \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 514 Homi Bhabha, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Other Question: Stereotype, Discrimination and the Discourse of Colonialism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D The Location of Culture (London and New York: Routledge, 2004). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 208 concern with similarity and difference.\u00E2\u0080\u009D515 The malleable and flexible concept of minzoku seems to have provided a solution to the contradictory rhetoric of Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s colonialism.516 On the one hand, the rhetoric of minzoku\u00E2\u0080\u0094\u00E2\u0080\u009CAsian ethnicity\u00E2\u0080\u009D (dait\u00C5\u008Da minzoku, k\u00C5\u008Da minzoku, ajiaminzoku)\u00E2\u0080\u0094was deployed to refer to the union among Asians. By using this broader category of ethnicity, it could be claimed that Asians had the same cultural, religious, and linguistic roots. Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s cultural ties to China and Korea were emphasized, and the Prosperity Sphere was envisioned as an organic entity.517 On the other hand, Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Empire was envisioned as a multi-ethnic one, shared by different ethnicities including Japanese, Korean, and Chinese (Yamato minzoku, Ch\u00C5\u008Dsen minzoku, and Ch\u00C5\u00ABka minzoku).518 In this way, the Japanese legitimized their territorial expansion on the grounds of cultural ties while simultaneously distinguishing themselves from other Asian people. Furthermore, the Japanese did not simply distinguish themselves as different from but equal to other Asians; instead they positioned themselves as \u00E2\u0080\u009Csuperior\u00E2\u0080\u009D to them. Koyama Eiz\u00C5\u008D, a prominent wartime anthropologist, theorized how the Japanese assimilated other people over long periods of time and became, paradoxically, pure and \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 515 Tessa Morris-Suzuki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBecoming Japanese: Imperial Expansion and Identity Crises in the Early Twentieth Century,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Competing Modernities: Issues in Culture and Democracy 1900-1930 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998), 162. 516 Doak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBuilding National Identity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 5. 517 Doak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBuilding National Identity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 16-17. 518 Doak, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBuilding National Identity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 5. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 209 homogeneous.519 Sociologist Shimei Masamichi, who was active during the war, also claimed that the Japanese were superior because of their advanced cultural development, and for that reason, he claimed, Japan was in a position to lead Asia.520 Neither was the notion of Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s superiority among Asians new to this period. Okakura Tenshin, who instigated the Pan-Asianist movement in the 1900s against the backdrop of Western colonization of India and China, was already pointing to the special position Japan was thought to occupy in Asia as early as 1903. Okakura wrote, India, crippled in her power to give, shrank back upon herself, and China, self- absorbed in recovery from the shock of Mongol tyranny, lost her intellectual hospitality\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 The unique blessing of unbroken sovereignty, the proud self-reliance of an unconquered race, and the insular isolation which protected ancestral ideas and instincts at the cost of expansion, made Japan the real repository of the trust of Asiatic thought and culture\u00E2\u0080\u00A6It is in Japan alone that the historic wealth of Asiatic culture can be consecutively studied through its treasured specimens (my emphasis).521 Thus, the Prosperity Sphere was envisioned as a necessarily hierarchical community. \u00E2\u0080\u009CAn Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus,\u00E2\u0080\u009D a government document written in 1942, reveals Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s attitude toward ethnic (in)equality: \u00E2\u0080\u009Cto view \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 519 Morris-Suzuki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDebating Racial Science, \u00E2\u0080\u009D364. 520 Morris-Suzuki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDebating Racial Science,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 368. 521 Okakura, The Ideal of the East, 2;6. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 210 those who are in essence unequal as if they were equal is in itself inequitable. To treat those who are unequal unequally is to realize equality.\u00E2\u0080\u009D522 As John Dower argues, the concept of minzoku was understood in terms of the Confucian concept of the patriarchal family (ie). In this concept, each individual within the family is assumed to have a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cproper place,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and no family member can oppose the authority of the husband/father.523 Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s relationship with other Asians was thus conceptualized as familial: Japan as the parent, and non-Japanese Asians as brothers or children. Specifically, as Dower reveals, people in China, Manchukuo, Korea, and Formosa were regarded as \u00E2\u0080\u009Celder brothers\u00E2\u0080\u009D whereas people in Southeast Asia were seen as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cyounger brothers.\u00E2\u0080\u009D524 By utilizing the concept of family in the context of colonialism, Japan could claim the \u00E2\u0080\u009Corganic\u00E2\u0080\u009D quality of the imperial community while assuring its hierarchical structure and the privilege of the Japanese. Like Miyamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Meeting of Generals Yamashita and Percival, Fujita Tsuguharu\u00E2\u0080\u0099s The Divine Soldier Is Here To Rescue, completed a year before the end of the war, highlights the moral virtue of the Japanese. In The Divine Soldier Is Here To Rescue, Fujita painted a Japanese soldier entering the luxurious house of a Westerner, where a female Indonesian civilian is held captive. The house is lavishly decorated with Western paintings and Western-style furniture (chair, table, lamp, candles), and a dark-skinned woman, wearing a white dress and a turban, is tied up near the center of the painting. Yanagi Ry\u00C5\u008D praised this work as a poignant critique of Western egoism and extravagant \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 522 Dower, War Without Mercy, 264. 523 Dower, War Without Mercy, 279. 524 Dower, War Without Mercy, 283-284. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 211 lifestyle and suggested that Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work reached the next stage of war art.525 The Japanese soldier in the painting does not look extraordinary. Placed in the large doorway that is built to fit the size of a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cwhite imperialist\u00E2\u0080\u009D, he appears short and small. Yet, by illuminating him with a shaft of light the artist underscores the moral virtue of the Japanese \u00E2\u0080\u009Crescuing\u00E2\u0080\u009D helpless Asians tormented by selfish, imperialist Westerners. Here, the Japanese soldier and the Indonesian woman are both contrasted against the materialist culture of the West. At the same time, the Japanese is clearly distinguished from the Indonesian, as the woman has remarkably dark skin and an excessively curvy, sexualized body.526 While creating a \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D system of human categorization based on ethnicity, however, this painting with the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cblack\u00E2\u0080\u009D Indonesian makes it clear that when the Japanese viewed \u00E2\u0080\u009Cinferior,\u00E2\u0080\u009D non-Japanese Asian people, they participated in the color coding and racial representations promoted in the West. Conclusion This chapter examined Japanese official war paintings, considering the complex ways in which Japan translated ideas from Germany. Nazi science informed wartime Japanese policies regarding health and photographic practices, but as I have shown, Japanese artists did not produce paintings that represented ideal bodies defined by eugenics. This was because, I argued, photography and paintings had different \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 525 Yanagi Ry\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009C\u00C5\u008Cinaru yashin o mote\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Be Ambitious!]\u00E2\u0080\u009D Bijutsu, May 1944, 14. 526 Although, as Dower suggested, people in Southeast Asia were considered Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \u00E2\u0080\u009Cyounger brothers,\u00E2\u0080\u009D paintings about Southeast Asian men are rare; artists most often depicted children and women. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 212 discourses and some ideas about scientific racism ultimately did not/could not apply to Japan. Instead, the Japanese War Campaign Record Paintings embodied the idea of minzoku, a modified form of scientific racism, which enabled the Japanese to maintain a worldview in which they could claim superiority and their place at the top of the human hierarchy. Articulating the superior spirit of the Japanese on canvas in oil paintings was inevitably an impossible project. How could one express the superiority of the Japanese in an artistic medium that was so imbued with and embedded within the tradition of the West, the enemy? Japanese soldiers, who were supposedly internally virtuous, simply look small, mediocre even, compared to the heroes depicted in European paintings. This is perhaps why War Campaign Record Paintings were never without criticism. In 1941, assessing Miyamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Attack on Nanyuan, Beijing, art critic Ogawa Takei pointed out that the painting exposed Miyamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s interest in classicism too much and the painting overall looked \u00E2\u0080\u009Cunnatural.\u00E2\u0080\u009D527 In regard to Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s The Divine Soldier Is Here To Rescue, art critic Imaizumi Atsuo reasonably argued that the Indonesian woman received more attention than the Japanese soldier and implied that the presence of the soldier was too understated.528 Meanwhile, although it emphasized their internal rather than external qualities, the Japanese discourse of ethnicity was after all not so different from Western racism. Minzoku was about stereotyping the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cother\u00E2\u0080\u009D and legitimizing cultural and political \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 527 Ogawa Takei, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTenrankai geppy\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Monthly Exhibition Review], Mizue, August 1941. 528 \u00E2\u0080\u009CRikugun sakusen kirokuga y\u00C5\u00ABsh\u00C5\u00ABhy\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Review of Excellent War Campaign Record Paintings], Bijutsu, May 1944, 24. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 213 hierarchy. It is on this ground that John Dower argues that although Japanese wartime colonialism significantly differs from Western models, the country\u00E2\u0080\u0099s wartime supremacism is analogous to Western models of racism.529 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 529 Dower, War Without Mercy, 265. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 214 CHAPTER FIVE Representing the Fascist Body II: Human Weapons and Japanese Traditional Aesthetics Introduction In October 1944, after series of suicidal battles in Attu, Iwo Jima, and Saipan, the Japanese state employed a new and extraordinary tactic. It formed the so-called Kamikaze Special Attack Forces, suicide forces that deliberately crashed their planes into the enemy.530 Departing with only enough fuel for a one-way journey, Kamikaze pilots flew their planes into enemy targets at high speed, theoretically increasing the odds of inflicting damage but requiring the certain death of the pilots. The Kamikaze operation was unprecedented and unique in that it necessitated the pilot to physically unite with the airplane, a machine. This bodily practice exemplified what Klaus Theweleit has claimed is fascism, that is, the male subject\u00E2\u0080\u0099s identification of his body as a weapon. There are at least two War Campaign Record Painting that treat the subject of the Kamikaze Special Attack Forces. Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Banda Unit Fighting Fiercely Off the Philippines, displayed at the Army Art Exhibition (Rikugun Bijutsuten) in 1945, is a dynamic painting that shows Japanese airplanes \u00E2\u0080\u009Cbody-ramming\u00E2\u0080\u009D (taiatari) an enemy ship in the sea of Leyte. The enemy vessel painted near the center of the work is being attacked by the Japanese forces and is aflame. Black and white smoke billowing from the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 530 While the term Kamikaze usually refers to suicide attacks by airplane, it is less well known that the Japanese also planned or implemented suicide attacks using submarines and other water craft, divers, and human bullets and torpedoes. I discuss some of these below. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 215 vessel attests to the damage it has sustained. The vapor trails of the airplanes that swirl in the grey, cloudy sky and the undulating seawater in the foreground communicate the speed and fierceness of the attack. The imagery is so vivid that it is easy to imagine the loud sounds of crashing and explosions. Though not about the Kamikaze, another painting about a body-ramming suicide attack is Nakamura Ken\u00E2\u0080\u0099ichi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Sergeant Nobe\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Suicide Attack on Two B-29s Over Kitaky\u00C5\u00ABsh\u00C5\u00AB (1945), which was also displayed at the Army Art Exhibition. Nakamura captures Sergeant Nobe crashing his plane into an enemy plane in Kitaky\u00C5\u00ABsh\u00C5\u00AB, Japan. The painting was evidently modeled on a rare photograph
that seized the moment of the airplane crash and which was published in Asahi shinbun in September, 1944. The painting\u00E2\u0080\u0099s focus is on the airplane that is being smashed to pieces and producing a cloud of smoke. Unlike Miyamoto, Nakamura depicts a daytime operation and uses bright colors. The background sky is painted in bright pastel colors of blue mixed with dotted white, yellow, and pink with short, visible, unquestionably impressionist brushstrokes. While Miyamoto\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting conveys the destructive power and vigor of the Japanese forces, Nakamura\u00E2\u0080\u0099s work seems to explore the potential of visual pleasure to be found in the violent collision of two machines. Although the two paintings portray Kamikaze operations, they do not seem to represent the union between human body and machine, that particularly fascist practice. In fact, War Campaign Record Paintings are characterized by the absence of such visual representation. Just as the lack of racialized fascist bodies in the War Campaign Record Paintings does not evidence the absence of fascism, however, I argue that the lack of the visual representation of the mechanized human body does not indicate that fascist bodily \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 216 discourse did not exist in Japan. Rather, I contend that the bodies of the Kamikaze pilots took on a different visual form, one that is symbolic and traditional. Furthermore, this mode of representation was highly entrenched in the larger politicized cultural discourse wherein the individual bodies of the Japanese populace were abstracted and considered to constitute the metaphysical, collective \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnational\u00E2\u0080\u009D body of kokutai. This chapter examines Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s fascist practices around the bodies of Kamikaze pilots and the way they were (not) represented in the wartime paintings. First, I will discuss the development of the Special Forces. I will then demonstrate how the cultural practices around the suicide forces resonate with Klaus Theweleit\u00E2\u0080\u0099s analysis of the fascist body. Acknowledging that the mechanized human body was not visualized in War Campaign Record Paintings, I will investigate its alternative form of representation in Japanese-style paintings, analyzing works by Ikegami Sh\u00C5\u00ABho (1874-1944) and Yokoyama Taikan (1868-1958). In so doing, this chapter, like Chapter Three, considers how fascism was modified as it was manifested and translated in Japan. Kamikaze Special Attack Forces After the fall of Saipan, and realizing that its previous tactics had become ineffective, the Japanese state introduced an unprecedented strategy in the Battle of Leyte Gulf in the sea of the Philippines. The Battle of Leyte Gulf, the largest naval battle in World War II, was fought between Japan and the combined forces of the United States and Australia and began in October 1944. It was in this battle that Japan for the first time employed Kamikaze Special Attack Forces (Kamikaze Tokubetsu K\u00C5\u008Dgekitai, or tokk\u00C5\u008Dtai), which were conceived by \u00C5\u008Cnishi Takijir\u00C5\u008D (1891-1945) and consisted of pilots who set off \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 217 to crash their airplanes into enemy airplanes and vessels. As the suicide operation did not require much technical skill, the Kamikaze attackers were mostly young university students. The Kamikaze strategy seemed the next logical step after the collective suicide attacks in battles including those in Attu and Saipan. The Kamikaze Forces, however, made suicide fighting much more organized and systematic.531 Special Attack Forces had existed before this time: the first were the midget submarine squadrons that attacked the American battleships at Pearl Harbor. Yet, the Kamikaze Forces differed from these in one significant way: while the midget submarine attacks did not necessitate the death of the operator, the Kamikaze attacks did. The Kamikaze attack was explicitly a suicide mission, summed up in the phrase \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccertain-death, certain-kill body-ramming\u00E2\u0080\u009D (hisshi hicch\u00C5\u00AB no taiatari).532 In this way, in theory, the Kamikaze pilot could have a higher certainty of killing the enemy. The fundamental concept of using the human body as a weapon originated in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. It was Sakurai Tadayoshi (1879-1965), a military general and writer who fought in the war, who came up with the expression \u00E2\u0080\u009Chuman bullets\u00E2\u0080\u009D (nikudan), which is the title of his 1907 book. The book, which is based on the author\u00E2\u0080\u0099s experience in the war, contains highly graphic descriptions of battles, evoking the new, totally destructive nature of modern war. In the Russo-Japanese War, the \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 531 Morris, The Nobility of Failure, 283. 532 Earhart, Certain Victory, 414; 430. \u00E2\u0080\u009CHisshi hicch\u00C5\u00AB no taiatari\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Certain-Death, Certain-Kill Body Ramming], Asahi shinbun, October 29, 1944. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 218 Japanese army formed kesshitai (certain-death bands) consisting of \u00E2\u0080\u009Chuman bullets\u00E2\u0080\u009D who would charge towards the Russians, knowing they would be killed.533 Sakurai writes, Somehow, we must damage the enemy\u00E2\u0080\u0099s machine-guns, otherwise all our efforts would end only in adding to our already long list of dead and wounded. This we well understood, but if we could not utilize our firearms, our only and last resource was to shoot off human beings, to attack with the bullets of human flesh. With such unique weapons, human bullets, the consolidated essence of Yamato spirit\u00E2\u0080\u0094how could we fail to rout the enemy! (emphasis mine).534 Using the human body as weapon, in other words, was not a new idea when the Kamikaze Forces were conceived. The word Kamikaze literally means \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdivine wind,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and derives from the typhoons that are believed to have twice thwarted sea-based invasion attempts by the Mongols in the thirteenth century. It was hoped that the Kamikaze Special Attack Forces would change the tide of the war. When the forces were launched, the mass media celebrated the Kamikaze pilots as the ultimate manifestation of the Yamato spirit.535 The Asahi \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 533 Sakurai\u00E2\u0080\u0099s book was translated into many languages, including German, and Kaiser Wilhelm II evidently assigned the book to his soldiers. It would be interesting to see if Sakurai\u00E2\u0080\u0099s book had any impact on German soldiers\u00E2\u0080\u0099 perception of their body as \u00E2\u0080\u009Ciron\u00E2\u0080\u009D as discussed by Theweleit. 534 Sakurai Tadayoshi, Human Bullets (Niku-dan): A Soldier\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Story of Port Arthur, trans. Masujir\u00C5\u008D Honda and Alice M. Bacon, 2nd ed (Tokyo: Teibi Publishing, 1907), 133. 535 It is important to note that the Kamikaze pilots included a number of Koreans. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 219 shinbun of October 29, 1944, which reported the first attack by the Kamikaze Forces, hailed the operations for their effectiveness. During the battle in Leyte, 355 Allied ships were damaged, fifty-seven of which were sunk.536 At the same time, Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s losses were also considerable: three thousand airplanes and four thousand pilots and crew members were lost.537 The Kamikaze Special Attack Forces spurred the introduction of other \u00E2\u0080\u009Chuman weapons\u00E2\u0080\u009D (ningen heiki). Navy officer \u00C5\u008Cta Sh\u00C5\u008Dichi (1912-1994) developed the idea of the manned missiles called \u00C5\u008Cka (cherry blossom) in 1944, which were first put into use in March 1945. The \u00C5\u008Cka was carried to the site of the attack, and hurled into an enemy ship after being discharged by the mother plane. It looked like a missile, except that it had a cockpit and wings. It was not, however, as effective as Kamikaze planes: in Ivan Morris\u00E2\u0080\u0099s words, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnot a single \u00C5\u008Cka craft had even approached its target, let alone caused any damage.\u00E2\u0080\u009D538 Because of its absurdity and wastefulness, Americans called it baka (meaning idiot in Japanese). Human torpedoes, called Kaiten (often translated as \u00E2\u0080\u009Creturn to the sky\u00E2\u0080\u009D or \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe turn toward heaven\u00E2\u0080\u009D), were a similar manned weapon invented by Captain Kuroki Hiroshi (1921-1944): they were carried by submarines and then launched into enemy vessels.539 Unlike the \u00C5\u008Cka, however, the human pilot of the Kaiten was located inside the torpedo and thus invisible from the outside. Over a thousand Japanese \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 536 Earhart, Certain Victory, 432. 537 Earhart, Certain Victory, 432. 538 Morris, The Nobility of Failure, 280. 539 Albert Axell and Hideaki Kase, \u00E2\u0080\u009CExotic Weapons,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Kamikaze: Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Suicide Gods (London: Pearson Education, 2002). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 220 men were trained to maneuver Kaiten, and approximately 150 of them died in missions.540 Shiny\u00C5\u008D (ocean shaker) was yet another human weapon. It was a body- ramming boat, having a function similar to the Kamikaze planes. Unlike Kamikaze planes, however, the tip of the Shiny\u00C5\u008D contained 250 kilograms of explosives. Over a thousand soldiers died manning these suicide boats.541 The Mechanized Human Body The concept of the human body as an industrial machine permeated wartime cultural production and anticipated the invention of the Kamikaze Forces. Likening the male body to industrial products (steel, iron) was ubiquitous. For example, the June 26, 1944 edition of the same newspaper published a photograph of a group of young men at a swimming pool
. The image of a row of adolescent males, almost fully naked, lying face-down in the foreground immediately seizes the eye. The image focuses on their sun-tanned backs and legs, which are glittering, reflecting the sunlight. The article refers to them as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cblack steel bodies\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kurogane no nikutai), making a connection between their smooth skin and the glow of metal. 542 In the July 29, 1942 edition of the magazine Shashin sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D, a man wearing a fundoshi or traditional loincloth, stands straight on a mound, with his feet shoulder-length apart
. He shows his back to the viewer and opens his chest by pulling his bent arms back. The image \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 540 Tokk\u00C5\u008D saigo no sh\u00C5\u008Dgen seisaku iinkai, ed. Tokk\u00C5\u008D saigo no sh\u00C5\u008Dgen [The Special Attack: The Last Testimony] (Tokyo: Asupekuto, 2006), 45; Morris, The Nobility of Failure, 300. 541 Tokk\u00C5\u008D saigo no sh\u00C5\u008Dgen, 81; Morris, The Nobility of Failure, 300. 542 \u00E2\u0080\u009CUmi e\u00E2\u0080\u009D[To the Sea], Asahi shinbun, June 26, 1944. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 221 highlights the healthy, sturdy, muscular structure of his body, which the text placed to his left explicitly links to war weaponry. It reads: \u00E2\u0080\u009CAbove all else, the body is a resource. With a chest like a tank, legs that can avoid a landmine, and a spirit like a steel-cased bullet, let us, from this time forward, on a wide, vast stage, forge ahead.\u00E2\u0080\u009D543 There are also visual images that allude to the mechanized human body. The cover of the photographic magazine Shashin sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D of October 4, 1944
compares human body with machine in a visual form. In the photograph, an adolescent boy stands in the hatch of a tank, looking straight ahead to the viewer\u00E2\u0080\u0099s right. Since only his shoulders and head are exposed, the body of the tank becomes an extension of the body of the boy. The low angle shot underscores the magnificence of the unity between the human body and the weapon. This mechanized body is clearly marked as \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D by the presence of Mt. Fuji on the low horizon in the background. The text at the lower right of the cover reinforces the steeliness of the body and its power. It reads, \u00E2\u0080\u009CWings that soar to heaven. Iron bulls [tetsugy\u00C5\u00AB] that kick up a hot wind. Compare our deeds to Fuji\u00E2\u0080\u0099s lofty peak, and we grin. We rise to the national crisis. Army junior soldiers. Off we go. We boys, too.\u00E2\u0080\u009D544 Wartime science magazines often introduced ideas of mechanical suits for future battles, which would require a close connection between the organic body and the mechanical. The November 1941 edition of Kikaika (Mechanization), national defense science magazine for young students, has an article on how future science could allow \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 543 Shashin sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D, July 29, 1942. Translated and quoted in Earhart, Certain Victory, 251. 544 Shashin sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D, October 4, 1944. Translated and quoted in Earhart, Certain Victory, 210. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 222 Japanese pilots to fly in the stratosphere, which would give them considerable advantages in attacking the enemies.545 The April 1944 edition of Gakusei no kagaku, a science magazine for young students, has an article on the same topic. It explains that in the stratosphere the pilot would need to secure oxygen as well as maintain his own body temperature.546 While Kikaika only published an illustration, Gakusei no kagaku features a photograph that depicts a man wearing a protective one-piece suit, goggles, helmet and gloves
. The mechanical suit covers the entire body of the pilot, supplies him with oxygen through a mask and tube, and warms his body by electricity. It is made of \u00E2\u0080\u009Celectric shirt\u00E2\u0080\u009D (denki shatsu) and further rainforced by a thick, waterproofed twill textile. Interestingly, the Gakusei no kagaku article suggests that Germans have already been experimenting with this suit and speculates that they might have already succeeded in flying into the stratosphere. The same edition of Gakusei no kagaku has an article on an idea for a future diving suit. It states that Japan needs a new, more advanced diving suit so that a diver could stay underwater for a long period of time primarily to construct and fix battleships.547 As of the pilot who seeks to fly at a high altitude, the question for the diver is how to receive \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 545 \u00E2\u0080\u009CSh\u00C5\u008Drai no k\u00C5\u00ABch\u00C5\u00ABsen to seis\u00C5\u008Dken hik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Future Air Battle and Flying in the Stratosphere], Kikaika, November 1941, 14-15. 546 \u00E2\u0080\u009CK\u00C5\u00ABch\u00C5\u00ABsen wa k\u00C5\u008Dk\u00C5\u00AB e nobiru: seis\u00C5\u008Dken hik\u00C5\u008D ni ch\u00C5\u008Dsensuru kagaku\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Air Battle Will Expand Higher: Science That Will Make Flying in the Stratosphere Possible], Gakusei no kagaku, April 1944, 24- 28. 547 \u00E2\u0080\u009CShinkai no suiatsu ni taishite kant\u00C5\u008Dsuru shinkai no seinshi\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Warrior of the Deep Sea Who Bravely Battles with Water Pressure], Gakusei no kagaku, April 1944, 32-35. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 223 sufficient oxygen and how to work efficiently under high water pressure. An illustration published in the article
shows well-equipped \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdiving armor\u00E2\u0080\u009D (sensui kabuto) made of heavy, impenetrable bronze, which has an oxygen tube, electric light, and a telephone device to communicate with an operator on the ground. A pair of nippers made of metal is connected to each of the diver\u00E2\u0080\u0099s hands inside the suit. The shoes are also made of metal, the article explains, and weigh as much as eighteen pounds, and in addition, two forty-pound weights will be attached to the diver for him to balance in the sea. The article reproduces two photographs of Italian divers, though it is unclear what their purposes are here. As with the pilot\u00E2\u0080\u0099s mechanical suit, this diving suit, if successfully put into use, was supposed to buttress, reinforce, and extend human power and contribute to victory in war. Literary expressions and visual images that associated the male body with iron, steel, and the mechanical prepared the way for the Kamikaze forces, who perceived their bodies as industrial weapons. A photograph of the first Kamikaze attacker, Saki Yukio, was published in Shashin sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D on November 15, 1944, with the following caption: \u00E2\u0080\u009CWe are not members of a bomber squadron. We ourselves are bombs. Got it? Then follow me!\u00E2\u0080\u009D548 Sakurai Tadayoshi, whom I discussed above, was still alive during the Fifteen- Year War and introduced a comment made by one of the Kamikaze attackers in May 1945: \u00E2\u0080\u009CWe are human bullets (nikudan), as we share our bodies with the airplanes. The airplanes truly understand our feelings. They are not mere machines. They will answer \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 548 Shasin sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D, November 15, 1944. Translated and quoted in Earhart, Certain Victory, 431. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 224 if we talk to them.\u00E2\u0080\u009D549 Sakurai\u00E2\u0080\u0099s commentary follows: \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe airplanes are not cold- surfaced machines any longer. We pat their bodies and propellers, as if we tell them \u00E2\u0080\u0098you did well today.\u00E2\u0080\u0099 We give them a loving look. Kid Airplane (hik\u00C5\u008Dki kun) then looks back to us as if saying, \u00E2\u0080\u0098the battle has barely begun!\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00E2\u0080\u009D550 Thus the soldiers identified themselves with their weapons, and the weapons were often personified. Klaus Theweleit\u00E2\u0080\u0099s controversial yet influential work Male Fantasies is instructive here to understand the Kamikaze attackers\u00E2\u0080\u0099 perception of their bodies. In this monumental two-volume book written in German in 1977 and translated into English in 1987, Theweleit analyzes memoirs and novels written by the German Freikorps immediately after the Great War, developing his own highly complex psychoanalytic theory to understand fascism. His study shows how fascist writers gendered communists and Jews as female and associated them with floods, dirt, and bloody masses that needed to be annihilated. Theweleit argues that fascism cannot be explained by the Freudian psychoanalytic theory of the Oedipus complex. Turning instead to psychoanalytic theorists including Michael Balint, Melanie Klein, and Margaret Mahler, Theweleit contends that what characterizes the fascist subject is a disturbed pre-Oedipal process, or the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cseparation-individuation\u00E2\u0080\u009D in which the child recognizes his mother as an object distinct from himself.551 When the child is not separated from the mother in a proper way, a bodily boundary needs to be created in order for an ego to form: the fascist\u00E2\u0080\u0099s \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 549 Sakurai Tadayoshi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNikudan\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Human Bullets], Asahi shinbun, May 8, 1945. 550 Sakurai, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNikudan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Asahi shinbun, May 8, 1945. 551 Klaus Theweleit, Male Fantasies, Vol. 1 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1987), 207. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 225 bodily boundary is consequently formed from outside, and this subject grows a strong, steely, and controlling body armor.552 At the same time, because of the disturbed process of separation, the subject negatively perceives its interior as something feminine that should be controlled by its exterior armor. Thus, whereas the male subject wants to have sex with his mother in the Oedipal fantasy, the fascist subject wants to kill her: the fascist associates the feminine only with negativity. For Theweleit, both the disturbance in the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cseparation-individuation\u00E2\u0080\u009D and the inadequate formation of the ego were grounded in history: the militarist discipline of the Wilhelm Era (1888-1918). Theweleit writes, toward the end of the nineteenth century, \u00E2\u0080\u009Clack of affection during infancy\u00E2\u0080\u009D became the norm, and the child\u00E2\u0080\u0099s body was molded from the outside by military drills and torture at school.553 In times of peace, the bodily armor functions to control its \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfeminine\u00E2\u0080\u009D interior; during war, the armor is targeted toward the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfeminine\u00E2\u0080\u009D other: Jews and communists. Annihilating the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfeminine\u00E2\u0080\u009D other would allow for the discharge of the fascist subject\u00E2\u0080\u0099s internal pressure, and thus, for fascists, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cwar is the condition of its being.\u00E2\u0080\u009D554 Theweleit\u00E2\u0080\u0099s study is not unproblematic. Using psychoanalysis to reduce human experience to a single theory is questionable. Furthermore, his theory of fascism focuses on the interwar period and does not provide insight on how it is applicable to the time after Hitler came into power. Despite those problems, Theweleit should be credited for identifying an important characteristic of fascism, that is, that a fascist subject perceives \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 552 Theweleit, Male Fantasies, Vol. 2, 164. 553 Theweleit, Male Fantasies, Vol. 1, 421; Vol. 2, 164. 554 Theweleit, Male Fantasies, Vol. 2, 155. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 226 his own body as having a strong, steel armor.555 In fact, psychoanalysis and modern warfare maintain a close historical connection, and it is important to remember that it was in response to the psychological devastation of shell shock during the Great War that Freud advanced the theory of death drive. Furthermore, Theweleit\u00E2\u0080\u0099s discussion of the psychological as well as physical \u00E2\u0080\u009Chardening\u00E2\u0080\u009D of a subject can be supported by recent theories of trauma, which posit that a traumatised subject often grows a sense of hyper- strength and exercises violence and aggression toward others, being unable to work through traumatic memories in an appropriate way.556 Here, the origin of the collective trauma can be located in the Great War, and in the context of Japan, the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese War, the first modern wars Japan experienced. Scholars such as Hal Foster and Elena Gomel have found the main concept of Theweleit\u00E2\u0080\u0099s theory useful, and Jeffrey Schnapp, who has examined Italian Fascist theater, came to a similar conclusion about fascism.557 Schnapp argues that although both \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 555 For the cyborg culture in prewar and wartime Germany, see Matthew Biro, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe New Man as Cyborg: Figures of Technology in Weimar Visual Culture,\u00E2\u0080\u009D New German Critique 62 (Spring-Summer, 1994): 71-110; Andreas Huyssen, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFortifying the Heart: Totally Ernest J\u00C3\u00BCnger\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Armored Texts,\u00E2\u0080\u009D New German Critique 59 (Spring-Summer, 1993): 3-23. 556 Kirby Farrell, Post-Traumatic Culture: Injury and Interpretation in the Nineties, (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 6. 557 Hal Foster, \u00E2\u0080\u009CArmor Fou\u00E2\u0080\u009D; Gomel, \u00E2\u0080\u009CHard and Wet: Luce Irigaray and the Fascist Body\u00E2\u0080\u009D; Schnapp, \u00E2\u0080\u009C18BL: Fascist Mass Spectacle.\u00E2\u0080\u009D For Italian futurism and fascist \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmetallization,\u00E2\u0080\u009D see Christine Poggi, Inventing Futurism: The Art and Politics of \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 227 socialist and fascist ideals involve machines, socialists use machines while fascists become or identify with them. Studying a play called 18 BL, which features a tank as a protagonist, Schnapp writes, Like their human counterparts, machines are treated as irreducible entities in 18BL. They are mechanical \u00E2\u0080\u009Cindividuals\u00E2\u0080\u009D who can be organized into larger collective groupings or totalities (or placed in the service of a totality as prosthetic devices), but who cannot be broken down into a series of interchangeable functions or parts. This principle of irreducibility permits fascist machinery to take on human attributes such as age, gender, will-power, and courage. It also ensures that any mingling of man and machine will assume the form of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cidentification\u00E2\u0080\u009D and not the exchange of parts or function.558 Hubert Lanzinger\u00E2\u0080\u0099s The Standard Bearer (ca. 1935), which was produced under Nazi Germany and exhibited in the Great German Art Exhibition, Munich in 1938, perhaps most convincingly points to Theweleit\u00E2\u0080\u0099s observation. The painting shows Hitler in profile, wearing metallic silver armor, holding a swastika flag in his right hand. The statements made by the Kamikaze attacker Seki Yukio and the other Kamikaze pilot whom Sakurai quoted\u00E2\u0080\u0094that they themselves were bombs, that they shared feeling with machines, and that machines could talk to them\u00E2\u0080\u0094resonate well with \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Artificial Optimism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), especially the fifth chapter \u00E2\u0080\u009CDreams of Metallized Flesh: Futurism and the Masculine Body.\u00E2\u0080\u009D 558 Schnapp, \u00E2\u0080\u009C18 BL,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 115. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 228 Theweleit\u00E2\u0080\u0099s theory of fascists who consider their bodies as armor and Schnapp\u00E2\u0080\u0099s observation that the fascist identifies with machines. The concept of unity between human and machine existed before the war, but there was always a sense of anxiety expressed against it. Japanese interest in machines began in the Meiji period when the government started modernizing/Westernizing the country, and it often appeared in science fiction.559 As I discussed in Chapter One, Japanese artists and intellectuals in the 1920s advocated the beauty and benefit of machines most prominently in the context of proletariat art. While actual incorporation of artificial parts into the human body to create a cyborg was not realized until after the Second World War (thus cyborgs before this period could only be imaginary), the idea began to appear in public discourses around the 1920s all over the world.560 In 1926, the year in which the robotic incarnation of female character Maria in the German film Metropolis fascinated the international audiences (technically speaking, she is a robot whose body and intelligence is fully artificial, not a cyborg), Japanese science fiction writer Kosakai Fuboku (1890-1929) wrote a story titled Artificial Heart (Jink\u00C5\u008D shinz\u00C5\u008D),561 which is about \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 559 Sharalyn Orbaugh, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Genealogy of the Cyborg in Japanese Popular Culture,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in World Weavers: Globalization, Science Fiction, and the Cybernetic Revolution, ed. Wong Kin Yuen, Gary Westfahl, and Amy Kit-sze Chan (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2005), 58. 560 Bruce Grenville, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Uncanny: Experiments in Cyborg Culture,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in The Uncanny: Experiments in Cyborg Culture (Vancouver: Vancouver Art Gallery, 2001), 24-5. The term \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccyborg\u00E2\u0080\u009D was coined only in 1960. 561 The story was published in the magazine Taish\u00C5\u00AB bungei. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 229 a scientist who develops an artificial heart and uses it on his wife. In the same year, a diving suit made of metal and operated by electricity\u00E2\u0080\u0094just like the one in the Gakusei no kagaku magazine described earlier\u00E2\u0080\u0094was featured as a new scientific invention in the Japanese magazine targeted at young girls called Sh\u00C5\u008Djo kurabu.562 As Maria in Metropolis embodies ambivalence between dystopian and optimistic views toward technology, 563 Kosakai\u00E2\u0080\u0099s story ends with a realization that even if the artificial heart can make humans immortal, it is death that makes life precious and valuable: the artificial heart he created did not have human emotions and feelings. Likewise, the article in the magazine Sh\u00C5\u008Djo kurabu describes the diving suit as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cghost- like\u00E2\u0080\u009D (obake mitai) and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cbizzare\u00E2\u0080\u009D (hen), seeing it as an object of curiosity, rather than taking it seriously. We can find the same feeling of anxiety expressed toward the mechanized human body as late as 1935 in Yumeno Ky\u00C5\u00ABsaku\u00E2\u0080\u0099s story Dogura magura, which analogizes the blurred boundary between machine and human to a Japanese body being invaded by \u00E2\u0080\u009Cforeign\u00E2\u0080\u009D elements, namely Chinese and \u00E2\u0080\u009CWestern.\u00E2\u0080\u009D564 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 562 Kosakai\u00E2\u0080\u0099s story was published in Taish\u00C5\u00AB mingei in January, 1926. The article about the diving suit can be found in Sh\u00C5\u008Djo kurabu, May 1926, 141. 563 Biro, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe New Man as Cyborg: Figures of Technology in Weimar Visual Culture\u00E2\u0080\u009D: 83. 564 Miri Nakamura, \u00E2\u0080\u009CHorror and Machines in Prewar Japan: The Mechanical Uncanny in Yumeno Ky\u00C5\u00ABsaku\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Dogura magura,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Robot Ghosts and Wired Dreams: Japanese Science Fiction from Origins to Anime, ed. Christopher Bolton, Istvan Csicsery-Ronay Jr. and Takayuki Tatsumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007). \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 230 American psychologist Bruno Bettelheim\u00E2\u0080\u0099s 1959 statement most succinctly articulates the reason for the mixed feelings about cyborgs: \u00E2\u0080\u009CA human body that functions as if it were a machine and a machine that duplicates human functions are equally fascinating and frightening. Perhaps they are so uncanny because they remind us that the human body can operate without a human spirit, that a body can exist without a soul.\u00E2\u0080\u009D565 During the war, however, this anxiety seems to have disappeared, and the mechanized human body was touted as beneficial for national defense as it would significantly enhance human (military) power. Investigating a new human type that appears in right-wing German writer Ernst J\u00C3\u00BCnger\u00E2\u0080\u0099s novels such as The Storm of Steel (1920) and The Worker (1932), Matthew Biro states that J\u00C3\u00BCnger\u00E2\u0080\u0099s fascist cyborg is \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccharacterized by a certain hard-edged uniformity and replaceable nature, which made it easy for the cyborg to repress its individual functions and become part of a larger, hierarchically-organized whole.\u00E2\u0080\u009D566 As with J\u00C3\u00BCnger\u00E2\u0080\u0099s cyborg, even if they were (and are still) celebrated as imbued with Japanese and samurai \u00E2\u0080\u009Cspirit,\u00E2\u0080\u009D the Kamikaze pilots were replaceable weapons, objects that could be (ab)used, not human subjects that thought critically for themselves, and they remind us of Bettelheim\u00E2\u0080\u0099s words about the soulless body. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 565 Bruno Bettelheim, \u00E2\u0080\u009CJoy; A Mechanical Boy,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Scientific American (March 1959), 117. Quoted in Grenville, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Uncanny,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 28. 566\t\r \u00C2\u00A0Matthew Biro, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe New Man as Cyborg: Figures of Technology in Weimar Visual Culture,\u00E2\u0080\u009D New German Critique 62 (Spring-Summer, 1994): 100. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 231 Eagles, Cherry Blossoms, the Sun, and Mt. Fuji We do not see the bodily unification between human and machine described by Theweleit and practiced in the Kamikaze operation in War Campaign Record Paintings. As we have seen, the paintings by Miyamoto and Nakamura, which depict the clash of airplanes in the distance, pay little attention to the construction of the human body which is unique to fascism. Instead, I suggest, the bodies of Kamikaze attackers were represented symbolically, and Japanese-style paintings, more than Western-style oil paintings, played an important role in this regard. Historical photographs that record the Kamikaze pilots and the departure of their planes illuminate the role of symbols in the Kamikaze discourse. The pilot Umezawa Kazuyo had a portrait taken
to commemorate his departure before his noble action. It shows the upper half of his body and conveys the pride and dignity of a young pilot who is determined to sacrifice his own life for the nation. In the photograph, Umezawa wears cherry blossoms pinned to his jacket which bears Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s national flag\u00E2\u0080\u0094the image of the rising sun. Another photograph taken at the base
shows a crowd of schoolgirls who came to send off the Kamikaze attackers. In their hands are branches of cherry blossoms. The image of the sun appears again in this photograph, painted on the body of the airplane. These two images reveal the use of symbolism in the Kamikaze discourse. Eagles, cherry blossoms, the sun, and Mt. Fuji, in particular, I argue, were crucial in Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s wartime practice of symbolic representation. One of the symbols most connected with the Kamikaze pilot was the eagle. Asahi shinbun of October 29, 1944, reported the result of the first Kamikaze operation, that by Seki Yukio. The headline reads, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Loyalty of the God Eagle [miwashi], Shining for \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 232 Eternity.\u00E2\u0080\u009D567 Seki was referred to not only as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cwar god\u00E2\u0080\u009D (gunshin) but also as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cgod eagle,\u00E2\u0080\u009D which likened the airplane and its pilot to the bird of prey. Another expression that was used often was literally \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfierce eagle\u00E2\u0080\u009D (arawashi), which became a euphemism for \u00E2\u0080\u009Cace pilot.\u00E2\u0080\u009D Another article in the same newspaper three days later reads, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKamikaze Special Attack Forces, Rough Eagle Fierce Attack: Destroy Half of The Enemy Vessel.\u00E2\u0080\u009D568 Since the Kamikaze pilots were often young, they were also regularly described as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cyoung eagles\u00E2\u0080\u009D (wakawashi). The December 2, 1933 edition of the Asahi shinbun reads, \u00E2\u0080\u009CYoung Eagle Applies for the Kamikaze Forces.\u00E2\u0080\u009D569 These expressions began to appear around 1937, and Kat\u00C5\u008D Tateo (1903-1942), a Japanese ace pilot who achieved some eighteen aerial victories and was finally killed in 1942, was most famously described as the \u00E2\u0080\u009Cgod eagle\u00E2\u0080\u009D before the formation of the Kamikaze Forces. Kat\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s legend even became the subject of a 1944 propaganda movie called Colonel Kato Tateo Flying Squadron, which was the top grossing film in that year. In addition, a military song was written about Kat\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s success. The lyrics of The Kato Flying Squadron clearly compare the pilots to eagles: With the loud sound of the engines The Hayabusa go to the end of the clouds \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 567 \u00E2\u0080\u009CMiwashi no ch\u00C5\u00ABretsu mansei ni santari\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Loyalty of the God Eagle, Shining for Eternity], Asahi shinbun, October 29, 1944. 568 \u00E2\u0080\u009CKesshi: Reite wan k\u00C5\u008Dgeki ni mukau arawashi\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Decisive Battle: Fierce Eagle Heading to the Leyte Gulf], Asahi shinbun, November 1, 1944. 569 \u00E2\u0080\u009CWakawashi wa tokk\u00C5\u008Dtai shigan\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Young Eagle Applies for the Special Forces], Asahi shinbun, December 23, 1944. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 233 The Rising Sun shining on our wings and the Red Eagles [an ace pilot] drawn on our chests are the symbols of our fighters Coldness, winds and intense heats are nothing for us We can bear with trials and tribulations Expert aircraftmen maintain the airplanes, and they pray that their airplanes can do well with parental feelings for their lovely airplanes With experiencing many air combats in the roaring sounds of the bullets With the faith in our ultimate victory and the cooperative spirit to die together if we die We sincerely grab our sticks After years of fighting, we received seven testimonials but there were tears in the shadows of our feats Ah, samurais were gone, with the spirit to die with a smile We are proud of our tough eagles [ace pilots] to the world Their wings go through thousands of miles with observing shining traditions We will create the new Great Asia We are the fighter wings of the Imperial Army Another military song, The Song of the Fierce Eagle (1940) also likens the Japanese fighting airplane to an eagle, comparing that of the enemies to a dragonfly: Can you see the silvery wings? Look at the brave warriors \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 234 The airplanes that Japanese men produced with great spirit We will protect the sky Bring it on, red dragonfly Go! Go! Fierce eagle [ace pilot]! Look at this power that is perfect for the name fierce eagle [ace pilot] Fog and storms are nothing to us Carrying heavy weapons, we can easily fly to Nanjing Go! Go! Fierce eagle [ace pilot]! Crossing over the sea of shining waves My heart is not clouded Think of the justice of Japan Fierce eagle [ace pilot] fly again tonight We ask for your best Go! Go! Fierce eagle [ace pilot] ! The pilot of this plane with the picture of the sun on it must be one with the Japanese spirit We have destroyed all of the enemy planes But if there are more, bring them on The propeller is working, I can\u00E2\u0080\u0099t wait to fight Go! Go! Fierce eagle [ace pilot]! \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 235 As the newspaper articles and the popular military songs reveal, the analogy between the airplanes and eagles was ubiquitous. The analogy did not remain solely textual, however. Ikegami Sh\u00C5\u00ABho, a Japanese- style painter who produced a series of twelve works to dedicate to various shrines, painted an eagle in the work titled The Image of an Angry Fierce Eagle in 1942.570 Ikegami painted the series to commemorate the first anniversary of the Pacific War and pray for \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe annihilation of England and the United States.\u00E2\u0080\u009D571 Dedicated to religious sites, the works are also assumed to soothe the souls of the war dead. Although the location of the original work is now unknown, a report on the solo exhibition of the artist in the Asahi shinbun in February 1943 shows a photograph of a painting that seems to be The Image of an Angry Fierce Eagle
.572 Seeing the details in the newspaper photograph is difficult, but the painting, which is framed and hung vertically, appears to portray a large eagle, occupying half of the visual field, spreading its wings wide and flying over what look like mountains. Proceeds from sales at the exhibition were, the article reports, donated to the military for the purpose of national defense. In addition to eagles, another symbol that appeared almost ubiquitously in Kamikaze discourse was the cherry blossom. The Kamikaze pilots were regularly \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 570 \u00E2\u0080\u009CShingan ni irodoru eibei gekimetsu\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Painting and Praying for the Annihilation of the United States and Britain], Asahi shinbun, January 7, 1942. 571 \u00E2\u0080\u009CShingan ni irodoru eibei gekimetsu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Asahi shinbun, January 7, 1942. 572 \u00E2\u0080\u009CShinkon kometa saikan\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Serving the Nation with Art and True Heart], Asahi shinbun, February 1, 1943. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 236 described as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cyoung cherry blossoms\u00E2\u0080\u009D (waka-zakura) in newspaper reports. Because of the flower\u00E2\u0080\u0099s short life, the cherry blossom is linked both to the ephemeral nature of life and to immortality. By extension, the flowers were associated with the deaths, not the lives, of the soldiers, and dead soldiers were analogized to fallen cherry petals, their deaths described as sange (\u00E2\u0080\u009Cscattered like flowers\u00E2\u0080\u009D), which originally referred to the Buddhist practice of offering flowers in praise of Buddha.573 Thus, it is not surprising that the Kamikaze pilots, who were sure to die, were represented by cherry blossoms. The Kamikaze discourse in particular was firmly embedded within theories developed by Motoori Norinaga (1730-1801), a nativist scholar of the Edo period who is credited for exploring the supposedly \u00E2\u0080\u009Cuniquely Japanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D sensitivity in literature, trying to distinguish it from that of China and claiming Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s cultural superiority.574 Norinaga is known particularly for relating the Japanese cultural identity to cherry blossoms. The names of the four squadrons in the first Kamikaze operation\u00E2\u0080\u0094Shikishima squadron, Yamato squadron, Asahi squadron, and Yamazakura squadron\u00E2\u0080\u0094derived from Motoori\u00E2\u0080\u0099s famous poem The Spirit of Japan (yamato-gokoro). The poem reads: \u00E2\u0080\u009CIf we are to ask about the spirit of the Japanese, it is mountain cherry blossoms that bloom fragrantly in the morning sun\u00E2\u0080\u009D (shikishima no yamatogokoro o hito towaba asahi ni niofu yamazakurabana).575 A sake cup
called heitai sakazuki, that has \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 573 Ohnuki-Tierney, Kamikaze, Cherry Blossoms, and Nationalisms, 111-112. 574 Peter Nosco, Remembering Paradise: Nativism and Nostalgia in Eighteenth-Century Japan (Boston: Harvard University Asia Center, 1990), 9; 13. 575 Translated and quoted in Ohnuki-Tierney, Kamikaze, Cherry Blossoms, and Nationalisms, 106. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 237 Motoori\u00E2\u0080\u0099s poem inscribed on it along with an image of a cherry blossom, was produced as a memorial gift, which was most likely carried by a soldier or distributed to his family, relatives, or friends on the occasion of a celebratory event.576 The death symbolism of cherry blossoms did not suddenly emerge when the Kamikaze Forces were formed: the connection between the cherry blossoms and soldiers was established much earlier. Yasukuni Shrine, which was created to house the spirits of the war dead in 1879 and which is known even now for its large number of cherry trees, developed the association of the military spirit and the flower.577 In 1941, Yamada Yoshio (1873-1958), a linguist, discussed in his article titled \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe Japanese spirit and Motoori Norinaga\u00E2\u0080\u009D the beauty of cherry blossoms, which he argues transcends any philosophy and can only be intuitively felt by heart.578 As with the case of the eagle, the cultural significance of the cherry blossom can be gleaned from examining popular military songs. \u00E2\u0080\u009CCherry Blossoms in the Same Class\u00E2\u0080\u009D (D\u00C5\u008Dkino sakura), written by Saij\u00C5\u008D Yaso in 1938, epitomizes the link between cherry blossoms, soldiers, and death: You and I are two cherry blossoms. We bloom in the ground of the same army school. Since we are flowers, we are doomed to fall. Let us fall magnificently for the country. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 576 I express my gratitude to Joshua Mostow and Sharalyn Orbaugh for showing this precious sake cup to me. This particular sake cup is for the infantry. 577 Ohnuki-Tierney, Kamikaze, Cherry Blossoms, and Nationalisms, 108. 578 Yamada Yoshio, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNihon seishin to Motoori Norinaga\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Japanese Spirit and Motoori Norinaga], Asahi shinbun, January 7, 1941. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 238 You and I are two cherry blossoms. We bloom on the branch of the same army school. Though not brothers, we became good friends and cannot forget each other. You and I are two cherry blossoms. We bloom on the ground of the same flying squadron. We look at the sunset in the southern sky, from which the first plane hasn\u00E2\u0080\u0099t come back. You and I are two cherry blossoms. We bloom on the ground of the same flying squadron. Why did you die without waiting for the day we promised to meet? You and I are two cherry blossoms. Even if we fall separately, the capital of flowers is Yasukuni Shrine. We will meet each other in the treetops in spring.579 The song was widely known by citizens throughout the war, but it was especially popular among the Kamikaze pilots, who would sing this song before their departure. Ikegami Sh\u00C5\u00ABho, who produced the painting of an eagle, completed in 1943 a work titled The Image of Mountain Cherry Blossoms
. This painting, now stored at the Museum of Modern Art in Shiga Prefecture, portrays two trunks of blooming mountain cherry, the kind that was believed to be native to Japan.580 The clusters of blossoms painted in pinkish white dominate the lower two-thirds of the painting. Ink wash \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 579 Translated and quoted in Ohnuki-Tierney, Kamikaze, Cherry Blossoms, and Nationalisms, 140. 580 Sh\u00C5\u008Dwa no bijutsu [Art of the Showa Period] (Niigata, Japan: Niigata Prefectural Museum of Modern Art, 2005), 90. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 239 technique is used to darken the area around the roots of the trees to indicate shadow. With no contextual information, the blossoms, the sole subject of the painting, are represented as an abstract idea that stands for beauty. Although the painting could be seen simply as a bird-and-flower painting, a traditional genre of painting that originated in China, Ikegami\u00E2\u0080\u0099s The Image of Mountain Cherry Blossoms is in fact a highly political work that promoted the war by eulogizing dying soldiers as beautiful flowers: next to his signature in the right bottom corner of the painting the artist wrote \u00E2\u0080\u009CPray for victory\u00E2\u0080\u009D (sensh\u00C5\u008D kigan). The rendering of the physical body of individual Kamikaze pilots into symbols of eagles and cherry blossoms was in fact entrenched in the broader cultural discourse, which I discussed in Chapter Three and which sought to erase the material bodies of the Japanese and replace them with the metaphysical, collective body of the kokutai.581 As the Kamikaze pilots became eagles and cherry blossoms, the Japanese populace as kokutai was represented with traditional, natural symbols, the sun and Mt. Fuji in particular. The association of Japan and the sun originates in legend and ancient history. Prince Sh\u00C5\u008Dtoku (574-622) called Japan \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe place where the sun rises,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in contrast to China, where \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe sun sets.\u00E2\u0080\u009D582 The sun is also highly important in Shinto mythology, as recorded in the eighth-century Record of Ancient Matters (Kojiki) and The Chronicle of Japan (Nihon shoki), which document stories of the origin of Japan and which claim that \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 581 My discussion of disembodiment of the human body is highly indebted to Winther- Tamaki, \u00E2\u0080\u009CEmbodiment/Disembodiment\u00E2\u0080\u009D: 145-80. 582 Kevin Doak, A History of Nationalism in Modern Japan: Placing the People (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 37. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 240 the imperial family are direct descendants of the sun goddess Amaterasu, daughter of Izanagi and Izanami, the creator-god and -goddess who brought Japan into existence. In modern Japan, the image of the red sun on a pure white background became the national flag. The importance of this symbolism was reiterated during the war, and Japanese citizens were expected to be deeply moved by the awe of the image of the rising sun.583 Another symbol for the kokutai that persisted during the war was that of Mt. Fuji. Akiyama Kenz\u00C5\u008D (1903-1978), a scholar of Japanese history, stated in 1940 that the heart (kokoro) that revered the sun was the heart that grew out of the kokutai. It was the same heart, he wrote, that worshiped Mt. Fuji and made Japanese soldiers bravely plunge into the enemy.584 He claimed that even though ukiyo-e artist Katsushika Hokusai famously produced the image of Mt. Fuji, his Fuji existed only as a form, and that Hokusai, who had lived in the Edo period, did not understand the concept of kokutai. Akiyama declared that Mt. Fuji should be worshipped as the absolute deity and its loftiness should be felt by the heart. His ideal of Mt. Fuji is to be found in the paintings of Yokoyama Taikan, the Japanese-style painter who obsessively produced paintings of the mountain during the war. Yokoyama Taikan was one of the most ardent war advocates. He regularly donated the proceeds from sales of his paintings to the state, enough to name several fighter planes \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpatriotic Taikan planes\u00E2\u0080\u009D (aikoku Taikan g\u00C5\u008D) in his honor.585 He \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 583 \u00E2\u0080\u009CNihon no kokki\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The National Flag of Japan], Asahi shinbun, October 9, 1938. 584 Akiyama Kenz\u00C5\u008D, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFujio aogu kokoro\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Heart that Worships Mt. Fuji], Asahi shinbun, October 30, 1940. 585 \u00E2\u0080\u009CTaikan dono ni h\u00C5\u008Dkoku\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Report to Taikan], Asahi shinbun, April 13, 1941. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 241 maintained particularly strong ties with Nazi Germany, giving a lecture to a Hitler Youth group that visited Japan in 1938, and offering a painting of Mt. Fuji as a gift to Hitler to celebrate the eleventh Nazi Nuremberg Congress in 1939.586 He produced hundreds of paintings of Mt. Fuji. For the exhibition that commemorated the 2600th anniversary of the imperial reign, for example, Taikan painted Japan, Where The Sun Rises
, which depicts Fuji looming large on the left and the corresponding red sun on the right. The misty clouds that cover the foot of the mountain convey a heavenly quality and express the supernatural, mystical energy and power of Fuji. Taikan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Fuji painting was reproduced as a poster and distributed with newspapers
, which made the general public familiar with his work.587 Although he also painted Mt. Fuji after the war, it is important to note the political implication of the titles of his wartime Fuji paintings.588 He gave his Fuji paintings names such as \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Sacred Nation, Japan\u00E2\u0080\u009D (shinkoku Nippon), comparing the mystical appearance of the mountain and the holy nature of the nation that maintains its kokutai. The newspaper article titled \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Spirit of Fuji,\u00E2\u0080\u009D which Taikan wrote in 1942, elucidates his intention to connect Mt. Fuji, the imperial system, and the war.589 The \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 586 \u00E2\u0080\u009CBijutsu no gogo\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Art in the Afternoon], Asahi shinbun, September 28, 1938; \u00E2\u0080\u009CBijutsu no iki o omiyage\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Fashionable Art as a Gift], Asahi shinbun, July 27, 1939. 587 Yomiuri shinbun distributed a poster of Taikan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Fuji to commemorate the sixtieth anniversary of their company in April 1933.\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 588 I would like to thank Reiko Tomii for her insight. 589 Yokoyama Taikan, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFuji no Tamashii\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The Spirit of Mt. Fuji], Yomiuri shinbun, February 15, 1942. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 242 article starts with the poem from The Song of the Correct Spirit (Seiki no uta) written by Fujita T\u00C5\u008Dko (1806-1855), a scholar who advocated the overthrow of the Edo shogunate in order to restore the emperor as the political ruler. The poem reads: The sublime \u00E2\u0080\u009Cspirit\u00E2\u0080\u009D of the universe Gathers pure over this Land of the Gods Rising high, it forms the Peak of Fuji, Towering aloft, it kisses the skies to a thousand autumns Pouring itself forth out of rivers, it flows as waters of the great deep; And boundless it courses around our Land It blossoms forth as countless clusters of cherry flowers, And naught there is compares to their clustered beauty and scent590 The same poem, importantly, was cited in Cardinal Principle of the National Entity of Japan, the text that presents the core ideas of kokutai. Yokoyama further writes that he seeks to paint Fuji with the \u00E2\u0080\u009Csublime spirit\u00E2\u0080\u009D as portrayed in Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s poem but that he has not been able to produce one. The \u00E2\u0080\u009Csublime spirit,\u00E2\u0080\u009D he asserts, is the spirit that led Japan to the victory at Pearl Harbor and the recent fall of Singapore. At the end of the article, illuminating the wartime titles of his Fuji paintings, he states, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThere are no two suns; there are no two Fujis in this sacred country. The sun that reveres the emperor ever radiates, as Fuji stands taller and taller.\u00E2\u0080\u009D Yokoyama Taikan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s paintings of Mt. Fuji are analogous to Fujita Tsuguharu\u00E2\u0080\u0099s gyokusai paintings. Both artists abstracted Japanese \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 590 The translation of the poem is taken from Kokutai no hongi/ Cardinal Principles of the National Entity of Japan, 130. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 243 individuals and visualized the collective body of kokutai. To this end, Fujita used material bodies, while Taikan employed visual symbols. Shinto, Buddhism, and Bushido: Reactionary Modernism Analogous to the way representations of the mechanized human body of the Kamikaze attackers borrow from traditional symbols, the Kamikaze operation, which capitalized on the highly developed technology of modern weaponry, was understood in terms of traditional Japanese virtues. Shinto, Buddhism, and bushid\u00C5\u008D in particular, I argue, played an important role. The suicidal attacks of the Kamikaze operation were important from the perspective of the Shinto ritual of misogi (purification by water). Misogi was associated with the significance of the war as a cleansing of impurities (Western individualism, liberalism, and democracy), and this purification process was ultimately associated with death.591 Historian John Dower writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009Conce war and dying well became established as honorable practices, death assumed connotations of purity and transcendence, and the ablution that purified could be the bath of blood itself.\u00E2\u0080\u009D592 As much as Shinto, some understood the Kamikaze operation as related to the religious teachings of Buddhism. The most radical conceptual manipulation of Buddhism can be found in the words of S\u00C5\u008Dt\u00C5\u008D Zen priest Matsunaga Reih\u00C5\u008D (1902-1981), who wrote specifically about the Special Attack Forces in the Buddhist newspaper Ch\u00C5\u00ABgai Nipp\u00C5\u008D in 1945: \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe source of the spirit of the Kamikaze Special Attack Forces lies in the denial of the individual self and the rebirth of the soul, which takes upon itself the burden of history. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 591 Dower, War without Mercy, 212-231. 592 Dower, War without Mercy, 231. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 244 From ancient times Zen has described this conversion of mind as the achievement of complete enlightenment.\u00E2\u0080\u009D593 The Kamikaze pilots were often referred to as samurai warriors. Bushido, often translated as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe way of warrior/samurai,\u00E2\u0080\u009D thus played a major role. Bushido, as Nitobe Inaz\u00C5\u008D (1962-1933) defined it in his book published in 1900, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cis the code of moral principles which the knights were required or instructed to observe\u00E2\u0080\u00A6it is a code unuttered and unwritten, possessing all the more the powerful sanction of veritable deed, and of a law written on the fleshly tablets of the heart.\u00E2\u0080\u009D594 Nitobe\u00E2\u0080\u0099s book, first published in English, introduced bushido to Euro-American audiences as a form of Japanese chivalry and consequently popularized the concept in Meiji Japan as well.595 Nitobe emphasizes how \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 593 Ch\u00C5\u00ABgai Nipp\u00C5\u008D in 1945. Quoted in Brian Daizen Victoria, Zen at War (New York: Weatherhill, 1997), 139. Also, see Robert Sharf, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Zen of Japanese Nationalism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Curators of the Buddha: The Study of Buddhism under Colonialism, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). 594 Nitobe Inazo, Bushido: The Soul of Japan (Tokyo: The Student Company, 1905) 4. 595 Thus bushid\u00C5\u008D is essentially an \u00E2\u0080\u009Cinvented tradition\u00E2\u0080\u009D of modern Japan. Stephen Vlastos, \u00E2\u0080\u009CTradition: Past/Present Culture and Modern Japanese History,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan. For critical work on how the concept of bushido was developed in the context of Meiji nationalism and was employed in the Fifteen-Year War, see Oleg Benesch, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBushido: The Creation of a Martial Ethic in Late Meiji Japan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Ph.D. diss. (Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 2011); Cameron G., III. Hurst, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDeath, Honor, and Loyalty: The Bushid\u00C5\u008D Ideal,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Philosophy East and West 40.4 (October 1990): 511-527. For more on the invented tradition of female self-sacrifice, see \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 245 polite, dutiful, honest, and self-disciplined samurai were and claims that bushido represents the spirit of Japan, or Yamato-damashii. Arguably the single most influential text in the bushido discourse, which Nitobe might have consulted, is Hagakure (\u00E2\u0080\u009Chidden by the leaves\u00E2\u0080\u009D). Hagakure is a collection of episodes and moral lessons told by Yamamoto Tsunetomo (1659-1719) and compiled by his students in 1716. A pocket version of the book was produced and given to soldiers in the 1940s.596 Hagakure clearly notes the centrality of death to the spirit of Japanese warriors, but in much more forcible language than Nitobe\u00E2\u0080\u0099s. It reads: The Way of the Samurai is found in death. When it comes to either/or, there is only the quick choice of death. It is not particularly difficult. Be determined and advance. To say that dying without reaching one\u00E2\u0080\u0099s aim is to die a dog\u00E2\u0080\u0099s death is the frivolous \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Joshua S. Mostow, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIron Butterfly: Cio-Cio-San and Japanese Imperialism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in A Vision of the Orient: Texts, Intertexts, and Contexts of Madame Butterfly, ed. Jonathan Wisenthal, Sherrill Grace, Melinda Boyd, Brian McIlroy, and Vera Micznik (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006); Theodore F. Cook Jr. explains how the modern Meiji army was different from the medieval warriors. Theodore F. Cook Jr., \u00E2\u0080\u009CMaking \u00E2\u0080\u0098Soldiers\u00E2\u0080\u0099: The Imperial Army and the Japanese Man in Meiji Society and State,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Gendering Modern Japanese History, ed. Barbara Molony and Kathleen Uno (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2005). 596 Benesch, \u00E2\u0080\u009CBushido: The Creation of a Martial Ethic in Late Meiji Japan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 297. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 246 way of sophisticates. When pressed with the choice of life or death, it is not necessary to gain one\u00E2\u0080\u0099s aim.597 These bushido principles can be found in The Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors (Gunjin chokuyu, 1882) and The Instructions for the Battlefield (Senjinkun, 1941), both of which were thoroughly read by soldiers and stated, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cduty is heavier than a mountain; death is lighter than a feather.\u00E2\u0080\u009D598 Despite the rhetoric of traditional ethics and aesthetics, the Kamikaze Special Attack Forces were made possible by the highly advanced technology of the time. The Kamikaze operation\u00E2\u0080\u0099s use of high technology indeed distinguishes itself from the \u00E2\u0080\u009Chuman bullets\u00E2\u0080\u009D of the Russo-Japanese War. In that war, even though the human body was treated as a bullet, the expression remained largely metaphorical: some of the soldiers hurled themselves at the Russians as \u00E2\u0080\u009Chuman bullets\u00E2\u0080\u009D without even carrying guns.599 In order for a human body to be united with a weapon in a more literal sense, as it was with the Kamikaze, \u00C5\u008Cka, Kaiten, and Shiny\u00C5\u008D, a certain degree of technological development was necessary, and Japan\u00E2\u0080\u0099s technology had not yet reached that level in 1904 -1905. In 1945, Sakurai, the author of Human Bullets, wrote that the soldiers in the Russo-Japanese War could not have done better with the technology they had at that time; now that Japan had airplanes, tanks, and artillery as good as those of the Allies, \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 597 Yamamoto Tsunetomo, Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai. Trans. William Scott Wilson (New York: Avon Books, 1981 [1716]), 17. 598 Christopher Ives, Imperial-Way Zen: Ichikawa Hakugen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Critique and Lingering Questions for Buddhist Ethics (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2009), 48. 599 Sakurai, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNikudan\u00E2\u0080\u009D [Human Bullets], Asahi shinbun, May 9, 1945. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 247 however, suicide attacks would cause greater damage.600 Simply put, considering the level of technology, the fascist practice of body-as-weapon could not have obtained at the turn of the century. The technological development that was crucial to the birth of the Kamikaze Forces was the so-called second industrial revolution that Japan experienced during and after the Great War (1914 -1919). The second industrial revolution took place in Western Europe between the 1880s and 1920s, and it was characterized by \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnew metallurgical and chemical technologies, the widespread diffusion of electrical power, the introduction of the automobile and the aeroplane, and the elaboration of the techniques of mass production.\u00E2\u0080\u009D601 The second industrial revolution significantly changed the way wars could be fought; an entirely new level of destruction became possible, as was demonstrated in the Great War. The introduction of tanks, airplanes, torpedoes, submarines and poison gases changed the scale and speed of destruction and damage that war could bring about.602 In the Great War, technological superiority more than military tactics became the determining factor in winning: as Morris-Suzuki succinctly puts it, \u00E2\u0080\u009Csurvival in the total wars of the twentieth century would require the capacity to produce\u00E2\u0080\u0094at high speed and in vast quantities\u00E2\u0080\u0094a wide range of complex machines of destruction.\u00E2\u0080\u009D603 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 600 Sakurai, \u00E2\u0080\u009CNikudan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Asahi shinbun, May 9, 1945. 601 Morris-Suzuki, The Technological Transformation of Japan, 106-107. 602 Walter E. Gruden, Secret Weapons and World War II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science (Lawrence, University Press of Kansas, 2005), 2; Morris-Suzuki, The Technological Transformation of Japan, 124. 603 Morris-Suzuki, The Technological Transformation of Japan, 124. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 248 The Kamikaze Special Attack Forces deployed the even higher technology that was advanced during the Second World War. They flew the Mitsubishi Zero, a fighter aircraft invented in 1939 at the request of the Imperial Navy. The Zero could fly at more than 500 kilometers per hour at four thousand meters and was the world\u00E2\u0080\u0099s fastest plane when it first appeared.604 It used an existing model of engine but with a significantly reduced body weight. It was through the invention of such an airplane that suicide attacks were, as David Earhart writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009Caccomplished at a much higher and more destructive speed as man and machine were fused in a sublime, near-sacred union.\u00E2\u0080\u009D605 Jeff Herf\u00E2\u0080\u0099s concept of \u00E2\u0080\u009Creactionary modernism\u00E2\u0080\u009D is useful to understand the use of both tradition and high technology in the Kamikaze discourse. He has observed that a similar paradox existed in the German Nazi culture: supposedly conservative, backward- looking Nazis paradoxically embraced technologies such as fast cars, Autobahns, airplanes, and radio, and Nazi intellectuals who rejected the Enlightenment and reason celebrated modern technology. In order to understand this paradox, Herf develops the concept of \u00E2\u0080\u009Creactionary modernism,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and explains how the Nazis incorporated a certain aspect of the modern\u00E2\u0080\u0094technology, not materialism\u00E2\u0080\u0094into their romantic nationalism. According to Herf, Nazi culture manifested reconciliation between the irrationalist ideas of German nationalism and the rationality that was the underlying principle of modernity.606 The Nazis claimed that Germany \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccould be both technologically advanced \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 604 Morris-Suzuki, The Technological Transformation of Japan, 153. 605 Earhart, Certain Victory, 431 606 Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary Modernism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 1. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 249 and true to its soul.\u00E2\u0080\u009D607 Joseph Goebbels\u00E2\u0080\u0099 concept of \u00E2\u0080\u009Csteely romanticism\u00E2\u0080\u009D (stahlernde Romantik) epitomizes the Nazi attitude toward technocratic spiritualism, and his rather long statement of 1939 is worth quoting in full: We live in an era of technology. The racing tempo of our century affects all areas of our life. There is scarcely an endeavor that can escape its powerful influence. Therefore, the danger unquestionably arises that modern technology will make men soulless. National Socialism never rejected or struggled against technology. Rather, one of its main tasks was to consciously affirm it, to fill it inwardly with soul, to discipline it and to place it in the service of our people and their cultural level. National Socialist public statements used to refer to the steely romanticism of our century. Today this phrase has attained its full meaning. We live in an age that is both romantic and steel-like, that has not lost its depth of feeling. On the contrary, it has discovered a new romanticism in the results of modern inventions and technology\u00E2\u0080\u00A6National Socialism understood how to take the soulless framework of technology and fill it with the rhythm and hot impulses of our time.608 Technology and romantic spiritualism also coexisted in wartime Japan. The creation of the Kamikaze Special Attack Force, which employed the highest level of Japanese \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 607 Herf, Reactionary Modernism, 3. 608 Joseph Gobbels, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDeutsche Technik,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Speech at the opening of the Berlin Auto Show, Feb 17, 1939. Quoted in Herf, Reactionary Modernism, 196. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 250 technology at the time, was accompanied by mythicizing language. Despite the degree of technology deployed for the war, the Kamikaze were understood in terms of Japanese indigenous religion and tradition: Shinto, Buddhism, and bushido. Conclusion This chapter has examined the fascist bodily discourse, specifically, the relationship between technology and the body that is unique to fascism. Although, as I have demonstrated, the formation of the Kamikaze Special Attack Forces was based on a practice that regarded the human body as weapon/machine and wartime newspapers and magazines linked human bodies with steely machines, the War Campaign Record Paintings, which supposedly represented the ideal human body, paid scant attention to this formation. When represented visually, the bodies of Kamikaze pilots became an image of nature. Just as the War Campaign Record Paintings attended to the inner characteristics of Japanese ethnicity or minzoku (as discussed in Chapter Three), Japanese-style paintings, which portrayed soldiers only metaphorically, focused on their spirit, not their material bodies. These paintings, which employed the symbols of eagles, cherry blossoms, the sun, and Mt. Fuji, certainly downplayed the highly advanced technological aspect of the Kamikaze operation. Yet, they perhaps made the Kamikaze Special Attack Forces more appealing to the public, as they draw on already established Japanese indigenous artistic and cultural lexicons. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 251 CONCLUSION This dissertation is the first systematic attempt to investigate the issue of fascism in the field of Japanese art. Examining prominent paintings produced during the Fifteen- Year War, I have shown how Japanese art envisioned space, time, and bodies in relation to the specific fascist discourses of social regimentation, new classicism, eugenics, and the mechanized human. As a whole, I have demonstrated how fascism was manifested in Japan, if differently from the way it developed in Italy and Germany. Chapter One looked at Japanese-style machine-ist paintings produced between 1935 and 1940 and explained how the visual representation of space in those paintings echoes the regimented fascist social space of the last half of the 1930s. Chapter Two focused on the fascist vision of the future, which can be seen in Japanese new classicist works such as those by Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den. Chapters Four and Five considered the way in which War Campaign Record Paintings either represented modified fascist ideas or did not reflect the fascist bodily practices prevalent in Japan. Chapter Four investigated the issue of eugenics, while Chapter Five looked at the corporeal formation of the fascist subject. Although, as I explained in the Introduction, the applicability of fascism to wartime Japan has been debated by Japanese and non-Japanese scholars alike, I have shown in this dissertation that the presence of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe modern\u00E2\u0080\u009D justified on the grounds of \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctradition\u00E2\u0080\u009D exemplified in the state ideology of wartime Japan is best understood in the framework of fascism. As I have demonstrated, through its contact with Europe from the Meiji period, Japan closely followed the development of international modern art and modern scientific and technological advancements. However, the sign of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe modern\u00E2\u0080\u009D \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 252 was disguised in the rhetoric of tradition, spirituality, and pre-modern collectivism during the war: the rationalist regimented space was understood as reflecting the simplicity and functionality of Japanese traditional architecture and the Confucianist idea of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cproper place\u00E2\u0080\u009D; works informed by European new classicists were praised as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpurely Japanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D for their two-dimensionality; a human taxonomy based on scientific racism was modified into a system in which moral virtue and the internal superiority of the Japanese could be assessed and positioned as superior; and the mechanized human bodies of the Kamikaze were represented by traditional, natural symbols of eagles and cherry blossoms. Furthermore, the framework of fascism highlights the flow of ideas and materials between Italy, Germany, and Japan and close ties maintained among the three nations in the late 1930s and early 1940s. My study has a significant implication for the concept of modernism, which was one of the two \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmeta-themes\u00E2\u0080\u009D of this dissertation and which surfaced in Chapters One and Two. Modernism is conventionally understood as a cultural movement that emerged as a result of the historical process of modernization, which challenges convention, and seeks to break away from tradition and the past, often questioning the power of existing political and cultural authorities. By demonstrating how machine-ist and new classicist works, which initially developed in the context of international modernism and political liberalism, ultimately came to be employed by the state in fascist nations, I called into question the previous, positive view of modernism, and showed that modernism could and did exist under political systems of totalitarianism, such as fascism. Machine-ism might have developed out of the optimism that machines would liberate and improve human lives, but it could also mirror a social condition in which human individuals are \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 253 controlled by a state that employs machines. New classicism, which is essentially modernist in its style, advocated the ideal of the nation\u00E2\u0080\u0099s cultural tradition, defying the modernist principle of breaking away from the past. In other words, modernism could transform its most basic politics. The other \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmeta-theme\u00E2\u0080\u009D of this dissertation was cultural translation. Rather than easily dismissing or claiming the presence of fascism, I attended to the process by which fascist ideas and art forms were imported to, modified in, or discarded by Japan. By so doing, I reached a conclusion that I had not expected, that is, that Japanese-style paintings adopted fascism much more readily than Western-style paintings, or the infamous War Campaign Record Paintings. Two reasons account for this. First, the medium of Japanese-style paintings was considered \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctraditional,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and this quality of cultural authenticity was more accommodating to the xenophobic aspect of fascist ideology, which was important especially in the discourse of the new classicism that called for a return to the (nation\u00E2\u0080\u0099s own) cultural past. Second, the two-dimensional, non-naturalistic tendency of Japanese-style painting lends itself more readily to fascist art, which is, stylistically speaking, modernist art. As European modernist art was inspired by \u00E2\u0080\u009COriental\u00E2\u0080\u009D art in the non-West, it is unsurprising that Japanese-style painters could create works that were stylistically much more comparable to European fascist art. In terms of subject matter, however, Japanese and German/Italian new classicist works could not look more different: artists from each country found inspiration in their own cultural traditions, whether the beautiful women of Edo or Greco-Roman classical statues. Meanwhile, Western-style painters in Japan struggled to create art that would be \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 254 authentic to their cultural tradition and history, because of the medium\u00E2\u0080\u0099s association with the West, that is, the enemy. In addition, the reason why War Campaign Record Paintings circumvented fascism is because, although fascism places so much emphasis on the articulation of the human body, Japanese propaganda painters refused to depict individuals\u00E2\u0080\u0099 bodies as exemplified in German and Italian\u00E2\u0080\u0094or more generally \u00E2\u0080\u009CWestern\u00E2\u0080\u009D\u00E2\u0080\u0094paintings. As I showed in Chapters Four and Five, fascist corporeal practices did exist in Japan: the state implemented eugenics policies inspired by those of the Nazis, and Japanese Kamikaze pilots identified their bodies as war machinery. However, the material body in the war paintings became a site of contestation and ambivalence. Japanese artists implicitly subverted the primacy of the human body in the \u00E2\u0080\u009CWestern\u00E2\u0080\u009D art epitomized by Greco- Roman Classical sculptures. Fujita Tsuguharu, for example, painted disembodied Japanese soldiers in order to convey the idea of the collective Japanese body. Other war painters, including Miyamoto Sabur\u00C5\u008D, diverted attention away from the physicality of the body to highlight the inner moral virtue of the Japanese. Kamikaze attackers\u00E2\u0080\u0099 identification of their bodies as metallic, industrial material was never visualized in the paintings, and the pilots were most often represented by/as eagles or falling cherry blossoms. The human body was an extremely important medium for the political subjugation of fascism, but at the same time it was also a thing and an idea on which the Japanese wanted to inscribe their cultural difference from the West. The fascist practices I have scrutinized in this dissertation did not suddenly disappear when the war ended in August 1945. Amemiya Sh\u00C5\u008Dichi claims that 1960s Japan, a time of rapid, dramatic economic growth, is another example of \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 255 Gleichschaltung\u00E2\u0080\u0094the over-hegemonized, regimented society of pyramid like-structure and conformist values.609 Sarar\u00C4\u00AB-man (salaryman) culture, in which Japanese businessmen (known as \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccorporate warriors\u00E2\u0080\u009D) worked unceasingly and unquestioningly under the leadership of corporate authority, sacrificing their private lives and families, exemplifies a postwar variation of social regimentation. Japanese novelist and ultranationalist Mishima Yukio\u00E2\u0080\u0099s dream to restore the power of the emperor and return to \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe real Japan\u00E2\u0080\u009D in the 1960s resonates with the 1942 \u00E2\u0080\u009Covercoming the modern\u00E2\u0080\u009D discussion.610 The Healthy Children Award (Kenk\u00C5\u008D Y\u00C5\u00ABry\u00C5\u008Dji Hy\u00C5\u008Dsh\u00C5\u008D), which the Asahi shinbun began in 1930 in the context of wartime eugenics, lasted until 1996.611 The term minzoku has never been interrogated and it is still treated as a valid concept, most notably in the discourse of the so-called \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctheory of the Japanese\u00E2\u0080\u009D (Nihonjinron), which seeks to account for the supposed \u00E2\u0080\u009Cuniqueness\u00E2\u0080\u009D of the Japanese people. In her essay tracing the genealogy of the cyborg in Japanese culture, Sharalyn Orbaugh writes, \u00E2\u0080\u009CFlying mecha- suits are clearly an evolved form of the prewar submarines and \u00E2\u0080\u0098flying battleships\u00E2\u0080\u0099 that could extend human powers beyond the limits of the body, as well as providing an \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 609 Amemiya, \u00E2\u0080\u009CSelf-Renovation of Existing Social Forces and Gleichschaltung: The Total-War System and the Middle Classes,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Total War and \u00E2\u0080\u009CModernization,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 232. 610 For more on Mishima Yukio and fascism, see Roy Starrs, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Road to Violent Action: Mishima Yukio,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science, Vol..5 ed. Roger Griffin (London: Routledge, 2004). 611 Takai and Koga, Kenk\u00C5\u008D y\u00C5\u00ABry\u00C5\u008Dji to sono jidai: kenk\u00C5\u008D to iu media ibento, 59. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 256 armored shell to protect its fragility.\u00E2\u0080\u009D612 Although Orbaugh does not discuss the wartime culture of the cyborg, the Kamikaze attackers\u00E2\u0080\u0099 perception of their bodies as being armored by industrial material must have made some contribution to the remarkable ubiquity of the cyborg in Japanese postwar and contemporary popular culture, especially in manga and anime. Thus, the social and political influence that wartime Japan had and still has on postwar and contemporary Japan is immense. It must be noted, however, that those remnants of fascist ideologies and culture exist under a political system that is very different from that of the war years. The Occupation of Japan, under Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers General Douglas MacArthur, began in 1945 and lasted until 1952 and implemented sweeping political and social reforms. The emperor, formerly the absolute political authority and a sacred god, was made into a \u00E2\u0080\u009Csymbol,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and hundreds of Japanese war criminals were tried at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (or the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal) and executed. Although the goal of the Occupation was considerably undermined by the so- called \u00E2\u0080\u009Creverse course,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in which the reconstruction of the country was arrested by Cold War politics, Japan ultimately joined the forces of democratic liberalism, discarding its previously held anti-individualism, anti-capitalism, and anti-materialism. Furthermore, fascist ideas may still exist today, but they are not shared and embraced by the public and the state alike as they were during the war. Susan Buck-Morss writes as follows about twentieth century capitalism and socialism: \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 612 Sharalyn Orbaugh, \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Genealogy of the Cyborg in Japanese Popular Culture,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in World Weavers: Globalization, Science Fiction, and the Cybernetic Revolution (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2005), 60. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 257 The construction of mass utopia was the dream of the twentieth century. It was the driving ideological force of industrial modernization in both its capitalist and socialist forms. The dream was itself an immense material power that transformed the natural world, investing industrially produced objects and built environments with collective, political desire. Whereas the night dreams of individuals express desires thwarted by the social order and pushed backward into regressive childhood forms, this collective dream dared to imagine a social world in alliance with personal happiness, and promised to adults that its realization would be in harmony with the overcoming of scarcity for all.613 The collective dream of capitalism and socialism might not have disappeared until the end of the Cold War in the 1980s, but that of fascism was shuttered by 1945, at least in Italy, Germany, and Japan. When Mishima Yukio marched into the Ichigaya headquarters of the Japan Self-Defense Forces on November 25, 1970 to restore the emperor to power by urging the soldiers at the headquarters to join him in a coup d\u00E2\u0080\u0099\u00C3\u00A9tat they merely scorned him. The anachronism of his gesture could not have been more evident, and his fascist dream remained a personal one, its appeal to the Japanese public lost. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 613 Susan Buck-Morss, Dreamworld and Catastrophe: The Passing of Mass Utopia in East and West (Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2002), ix. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 261 Bibliography Abe, Hirozumi. 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Yoshifuku, Teiz\u00C5\u008D. \u00E2\u0080\u009CJikyoku to Sh\u00C5\u008Den no geijutsu\u00E2\u0080\u009D [The War and Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Art]. Kokuga. April 1942. Yoshimi, Yoshiaki. Kusano ne no fashizumu: Nihon minsh\u00C5\u00AB no sens\u00C5\u008D taiken [Grassroots Fascism: War Experiences of the Japanese Masses]. Tokyo: Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 1987. Yoshinaka, Mitsuyo. Modan raifu to Nihonga [Modern Life and Japanese-style Painting]. Kurashi no j\u00C5\u008Dkei [The Landscape of the Life]. Himeji: Himeji City Museum 1993. Young, Louise. Japan's Total Empire: Manchuria and the Culture of Wartime Imperialism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 292 Figures Figure 1-1. Saeki Shunk\u00C5\u008D (1909-1942), Tearoom, 1936 Figure 1-2. Kobori Tomoto (1986-1931), Abolition of the Han System, 1871 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 293 Figure 1-3. Tsuchida Bakusen (1887-1936), Maiko in Landscape, 1924 Figure 1-4. Yamakawa Sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D (1898-1944), Three Sisters, 1936 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 294 Figure 1-5. Shibata Suiha (?-?), Biwa Concert, 1930s Figure 1-6. \u00C5\u008Cta Ch\u00C5\u008Du (1896-1958), Women Observing the Stars, 1936 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 295 Figure 1-7. Kobayashi Kokei (1883-1957), Bath, 1921 Figure 1-8. Chair, from Machine Art Exhibition, 1934. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 296 Figure 1-9. Telescope, from Machine Art Exhibition, 1934 Figure 1-10. Laboratory Microscope, from Machine Art exhibition, 1934 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 297 Figure 1-11. Boiling Flasks, from Machine Art Exhibition, 1934. Figure 1-12. Koga Harue (1895-1933), Sea, 1929 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 298 Figure 1-13. A diagram showing the structure of the Military Police Figure 1-14. National Daily Product Exhibition, 1941 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 299 Figure 1-15. Asahi Graph, March 1936 Figure 1-16. Katsura Riky\u00C5\u00AB, built in the 17th century \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 300 Figure2-1. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den (1875-1949), A Long Autumn Night, 1907 Figure 2-2. Nishikawa Sukenobu, One Hundred Women Classified According to Their Rank, 1723 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 301 Figure 2-3. Suzuki Harunobu, Three Evenings: Reading on an Autumn Evening, ca. 1768 ] Figure 2-4 Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Sudden Blast, 1939 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 302 Figure 2-5. Teisai Hokuba (1771-1844), Shunp\u00C5\u00AB Bijin-zu Figure 2-6. Suzuki Harunobu (1725?-1770), Wind \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 303 Figure 2-7. Tsuchida Bakusen, Fisherwomen, 1913 Figure 2-8. Paul Gauguin (1848-1903), Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? 1897-1898 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 304 Figure 2-9. Kitagawa Utamaro, Fisherwomen, 1790-1800 Figure 2-10. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Flower Basket, 1915 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 305 Figure 2-11. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Flames, 1918 Figure 2-12. Kaburaki Kiyotaka, Saikaku\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Five Women, Oman, 1911 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 306 Figure 2-13. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Oman in the Costume of the Youth, 1915 Figure 2-14. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Maiden, 1942 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 307 Figure 2-15. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Late Autumn, 1943 Figure 2-16. Kobayashi Kokei (1883-1957), Acalanatha, 1940 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 308 Figure 2-17. Kobayashi Kokei, Hair Combing, 1931 Figure 2-18. Kobayashi Kokei, Cave in Kanzaki, 1907 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 309 Figure 2-19. Yanagi Ry\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0099s analysis of Seurat\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting, 1941 Figure 2-20. Yanagi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s analysis of Fujita\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting, 1944 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 310 Figure 2-21. Yanagi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s analysis of Yasuda\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting, 1944 Figure 2-22. Yanagi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s analysis of Sh\u00C5\u008Den\u00E2\u0080\u0099s painting, 1944 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 311 Figure 2-23. It\u00C5\u008D Shinsui\u00E2\u0080\u0099s The Image of Contemporary Women as reproduced in Yanagi\u00E2\u0080\u0099s article, 1944 Figure 2-24. Uemura Sh\u00C5\u008Den, Lady Kusunoki, 1944 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 312 Figure 2-25. The Recipients of the Order of Culture, 1948 Figure 3-1. Pablo Picasso, Three Women at the Spring, 1921 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 313 Figure 3-2. Asahi shinbun, October 30, 1937 Figure 3-3. Asahi shinbun, February 20, 1942 \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E8\u0094\u00B5\u00E2\u0085\u00A1\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B8\u00E3\u0083\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u00A2\u00E3\u0083\u00AB(C) The Asahi Shimbun Company. All rights reserved. \u00E2\u0098\u0085\u00EF\u00BC\u0088\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E7\u00B1\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B3\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00BD\u00EF\u00BC\u00B0\u00EF\u00BC\u009A\u00EF\u00BC\u0091\u00EF\u00BC\u0089University of Kansas(\u00E3\u0082\u00AB\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u00892011/02/05 10:41 \u00E2\u0098\u0085\u00EF\u00BC\u0088\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E7\u00B1\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B3\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00BD\u00EF\u00BC\u00B0\u00EF\u00BC\u009A\u00EF\u00BC\u0091\u00EF\u00BC\u0089University of Kansas(\u00E3\u0082\u00AB\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u0089 2011/02/05 10:41 \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E8\u0094\u00B5\u00E2\u0085\u00A1\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B8\u00E3\u0083\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u00A2\u00E3\u0083\u00AB(C) Kikuzo II Visual(C) The Asahi Shimbun Company. All rights reserved. \u00E6\u009C\u00AC\u00E3\u0082\u00B5\u00E3\u0083\u00BC\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u008F\u008E\u00E9\u008C\u00B2\u00E5\u0086\u0085\u00E5\u00AE\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E8\u0091\u0097\u00E4\u00BD\u009C\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BB\u0096\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u0088\u0087\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u009C\u009D\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E6\u0096\u00B0\u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E7\u00A4\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u0090\u0084\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00B8\u00B0\u00E5\u00B1\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u0084\u00A1\u00E6\u0096\u00AD\u00E8\u00BB\u00A2\u00E8\u00BC\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E4\u00BE\u00B5\u00E5\u00AE\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E7\u0094\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E6\u0096\u00AD\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082 No reproduction or republication without written permission. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 314 Figure 3-4. Eug\u00C3\u00A8ne Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People, 1830 Figure 3-5. \u00E2\u0080\u009CJap Suicides on Attu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Life, April 3, 1944 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 315 Figure 3-6. \u00E2\u0080\u009CJap Suicides on Attu,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Life, April 3, 1944 Figure 4-1. \u00E2\u0080\u009CNational Railroad Exercise,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Asahi shinbun, February 10, 1943 \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E8\u0094\u00B5\u00E2\u0085\u00A1\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B8\u00E3\u0083\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u00A2\u00E3\u0083\u00AB(C) The Asahi Shimbun Company. All rights reserved. \u00E2\u0098\u0085\u00EF\u00BC\u0088\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E7\u00B1\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B3\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00BD\u00EF\u00BC\u00B0\u00EF\u00BC\u009A\u00EF\u00BC\u0091\u00EF\u00BC\u0089University of Kansas(\u00E3\u0082\u00AB\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u00892011/03/01 04:27 \u00E2\u0098\u0085\u00EF\u00BC\u0088\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E7\u00B1\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B3\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00BD\u00EF\u00BC\u00B0\u00EF\u00BC\u009A\u00EF\u00BC\u0091\u00EF\u00BC\u0089University of Kansas(\u00E3\u0082\u00AB\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u0089 2011/03/01 04:27 \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E8\u0094\u00B5\u00E2\u0085\u00A1\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B8\u00E3\u0083\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u00A2\u00E3\u0083\u00AB(C) Kikuzo II Visual(C) The Asahi Shimbun Company. All rights reserved. \u00E6\u009C\u00AC\u00E3\u0082\u00B5\u00E3\u0083\u00BC\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u008F\u008E\u00E9\u008C\u00B2\u00E5\u0086\u0085\u00E5\u00AE\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E8\u0091\u0097\u00E4\u00BD\u009C\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BB\u0096\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u0088\u0087\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u009C\u009D\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E6\u0096\u00B0\u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E7\u00A4\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u0090\u0084\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00B8\u00B0\u00E5\u00B1\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u0084\u00A1\u00E6\u0096\u00AD\u00E8\u00BB\u00A2\u00E8\u00BC\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E4\u00BE\u00B5\u00E5\u00AE\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E7\u0094\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E6\u0096\u00AD\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082 No reproduction or republication without written permission. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 316 Figure 4-2. Illustration explaining \u00E2\u0080\u009CJapan Exercise\u00E2\u0080\u009D Figure 4-3. Asahi shinbun, June 26, 1943 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 317 Figure 4-4. Male and female winners of \u00E2\u0080\u009CThe Healthiest Child in Japan,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Asahi shinbun, July 5, 1934 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 4-5. Asahi shinbun, July 5, 1934 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E8\u0094\u00B5\u00E2\u0085\u00A1\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B8\u00E3\u0083\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u00A2\u00E3\u0083\u00AB(C) The Asahi Shimbun Company. All rights reserved. \u00E2\u0098\u0085\u00EF\u00BC\u0088\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E7\u00B1\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B3\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00BD\u00EF\u00BC\u00B0\u00EF\u00BC\u009A\u00EF\u00BC\u0091\u00EF\u00BC\u0089University of Kansas(\u00E3\u0082\u00AB\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u00892011/02/28 14:02 \u00E2\u0098\u0085\u00EF\u00BC\u0088\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E7\u00B1\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B3\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00BD\u00EF\u00BC\u00B0\u00EF\u00BC\u009A\u00EF\u00BC\u0091\u00EF\u00BC\u0089University of Kansas(\u00E3\u0082\u00AB\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u0089 2011/02/28 14:02 \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E8\u0094\u00B5\u00E2\u0085\u00A1\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B8\u00E3\u0083\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u00A2\u00E3\u0083\u00AB(C) Kikuzo II Visual(C) The Asahi Shimbun Company. All rights reserved. \u00E6\u009C\u00AC\u00E3\u0082\u00B5\u00E3\u0083\u00BC\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u008F\u008E\u00E9\u008C\u00B2\u00E5\u0086\u0085\u00E5\u00AE\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E8\u0091\u0097\u00E4\u00BD\u009C\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BB\u0096\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u0088\u0087\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u009C\u009D\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E6\u0096\u00B0\u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E7\u00A4\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u0090\u0084\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00B8\u00B0\u00E5\u00B1\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u0084\u00A1\u00E6\u0096\u00AD\u00E8\u00BB\u00A2\u00E8\u00BC\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E4\u00BE\u00B5\u00E5\u00AE\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E7\u0094\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E6\u0096\u00AD\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082 No reproduction or republication without written permission. \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E8\u0094\u00B5\u00E2\u0085\u00A1\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B8\u00E3\u0083\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u00A2\u00E3\u0083\u00AB(C) The Asahi Shimbun Company. All rights res rved. \u00E2\u0098\u0085\u00EF\u00BC\u0088\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E7\u00B1\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B3\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00BD\u00EF\u00BC\u00B0\u00EF\u00BC\u009A\u00EF\u00BC\u0091\u00EF\u00BC\u0089University of Kansa (\u00E3\u0082\u00AB\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u00892011/02/ 8 14:00 \u00E2\u0098\u0085\u00EF\u00BC\u0088\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E7\u00B1\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B3\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00BD\u00EF\u00BC\u00B0\u00EF\u00BC\u009A\u00EF\u00BC\u0091\u00EF\u00BC\u0089University of Kansas(\u00E3\u0082\u00AB\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u0089 2011/02/28 14:00 \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E8\u0094\u00B5\u00E2\u0085\u00A1\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B8\u00E3\u0083\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u00A2\u00E3\u0083\u00AB(C) Kikuzo II Visual(C) The Asahi Shimbun Company. All rights reserved. \u00E6\u009C\u00AC\u00E3\u0082\u00B5\u00E3\u0083\u00BC\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u008F\u008E\u00E9\u008C\u00B2\u00E5\u0086\u0085\u00E5\u00AE\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E8\u0091\u0097\u00E4\u00BD\u009C\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BB\u0096\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u0088\u0087\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u009C\u009D\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E6\u0096\u00B0\u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E7\u00A4\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u0090\u0084\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00B8\u00B0\u00E5\u00B1\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u0084\u00A1\u00E6\u0096\u00AD\u00E8\u00BB\u00A2\u00E8\u00BC\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E4\u00BE\u00B5\u00E5\u00AE\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E7\u0094\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E6\u0096\u00AD\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082 No reproduction or republication without written permission. \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E8\u0094\u00B5\u00E2\u0085\u00A1\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B8\u00E3\u0083\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u00A2\u00E3\u0083\u00AB(C) The Asahi Shimbun Company. All rights reserved. \u00E2\u0098\u0085\u00EF\u00BC\u0088\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E7\u00B1\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B3\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00BD\u00EF\u00BC\u00B0\u00EF\u00BC\u009A\u00EF\u00BC\u0091\u00EF\u00BC\u0089University of Kansas(\u00E3\u0082\u00AB\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u00892011/02/28 14:00 \u00E2\u0098\u0085\u00EF\u00BC\u0088\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E7\u00B1\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B3\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00BD\u00EF\u00BC\u00B0\u00EF\u00BC\u009A\u00EF\u00BC\u0091\u00EF\u00BC\u0089University of Kansas(\u00E3\u0082\u00AB\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u0089 2011/02/28 14:00 \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E8\u0094\u00B5\u00E2\u0085\u00A1\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B8\u00E3\u0083\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u00A2\u00E3\u0083\u00AB(C) Kikuzo II Visual(C) The Asahi Shimbun Company. All rights reserved. \u00E6\u009C\u00AC\u00E3\u0082\u00B5\u00E3\u0083\u00BC\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u008F\u008E\u00E9\u008C\u00B2\u00E5\u0086\u0085\u00E5\u00AE\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E8\u0091\u0097\u00E4\u00BD\u009C\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BB\u0096\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u0088\u0087\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u009C\u009D\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E6\u0096\u00B0\u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E7\u00A4\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u0090\u0084\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00B8\u00B0\u00E5\u00B1\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u0084\u00A1\u00E6\u0096\u00AD\u00E8\u00BB\u00A2\u00E8\u00BC\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E4\u00BE\u00B5\u00E5\u00AE\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E7\u0094\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E6\u0096\u00AD\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082 No reproduction or republication without written permission. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 318 Figure 4-6. \u00E2\u0080\u009CNordic Types\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Hans G\u00C3\u00BCnther\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Racial Science of the German People, 1930 Figure 5-1. Asahi shinbun, September 20, 1944 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 319 Figure 5-2. Asahi shinbun, June 26, 1944 Figure 5-3. Shashin sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D, July 29, 1942 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 320 Figure 5-4. Shashin sh\u00C5\u00ABh\u00C5\u008D, October 4, 1944 Figure 5-5. Gakusei no kagaku, April 1944 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 321 Figure 5-6. Gakusei no kagaku, April 1944 Figure 5-7. Umezawa Kazuyo, Kamikaze pilots with branches of cherry blossoms \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 322 Figure 5-8. Chiran High School female students waving cherry blossom branches. April 1945 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0\t\r \u00C2\u00A0 Figure 5-9. Ikegami Sh\u00C5\u00ABho, The Image of Angry Rough Eagle, from Asahi shinbun January 7, 1942 \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E8\u0094\u00B5\u00E2\u0085\u00A1\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B8\u00E3\u0083\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u00A2\u00E3\u0083\u00AB(C) The Asahi Shimbun Company. All rights reserved. \u00E2\u0098\u0085\u00EF\u00BC\u0088\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E7\u00B1\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B3\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00BD\u00EF\u00BC\u00B0\u00EF\u00BC\u009A\u00EF\u00BC\u0091\u00EF\u00BC\u0089University of Kansas(\u00E3\u0082\u00AB\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u00892011/11/14 10:17 \u00E2\u0098\u0085\u00EF\u00BC\u0088\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E7\u00B1\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B3\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00BD\u00EF\u00BC\u00B0\u00EF\u00BC\u009A\u00EF\u00BC\u0091\u00EF\u00BC\u0089University of Kansas(\u00E3\u0082\u00AB\u00E3\u0083\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u0089 2011/11/14 10:17 \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E8\u0094\u00B5\u00E2\u0085\u00A1\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B8\u00E3\u0083\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u00A2\u00E3\u0083\u00AB(C) Kikuzo II Visual(C) The Asahi Shimbun Company. All rights reserved. \u00E6\u009C\u00AC\u00E3\u0082\u00B5\u00E3\u0083\u00BC\u00E3\u0083\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u008F\u008E\u00E9\u008C\u00B2\u00E5\u0086\u0085\u00E5\u00AE\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E8\u0091\u0097\u00E4\u00BD\u009C\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BB\u0096\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u0088\u0087\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u009C\u009D\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E6\u0096\u00B0\u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E7\u00A4\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u0090\u0084\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00B8\u00B0\u00E5\u00B1\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u0084\u00A1\u00E6\u0096\u00AD\u00E8\u00BB\u00A2\u00E8\u00BC\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E6\u00A8\u00A9\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E4\u00BE\u00B5\u00E5\u00AE\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E5\u0088\u00A9\u00E7\u0094\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E6\u0096\u00AD\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082 No reproduction or republication without written permission. \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 323 Figure 5-10. Sake cup from the war years Figure 5-11. Ikegami Sh\u00C5\u00ABho (1874-1944), The Image of Mountain Cherry Blossoms, 1943 \t\r \u00C2\u00A0 324 Figure 5-12. Yokoyama Taikan (1868-1958), Japan, Where the Sun Rises, 1940 Figure 5-13. Yokoyama Taikan, Painting of Fuji reproduced as poster "@en . "Thesis/Dissertation"@en . "2012-11"@en . "10.14288/1.0072822"@en . "eng"@en . "Art History"@en . "Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International"@en . "http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/"@en . "Graduate"@en . "Envisioning fascist space, time, and body : Japanese-painting during the Fifteen-Year War (1931-1945)"@en . "Text"@en . "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/42471"@en .