"Arts, Faculty of"@en . "Asian Studies, Department of"@en . "DSpace"@en . "UBCV"@en . "Lushchenko, Alexey"@en . "2010-08-23T17:55:03Z"@en . "2010"@en . "Master of Arts - MA"@en . "University of British Columbia"@en . "This thesis examines language aspects of interaction in dialogue passages of Heike monogatari (The Tale of the Heike, 1371) focusing on the role of language forms in characterization. The main goal of the present study is to assess the role of language variation and analyze how it participates in construction of asymmetries in social status and power between characters. Selected dialogue data is divided into two groups according to the participants and the dominant context: political interaction at court and interaction involving religious matters. Analysis of language forms in each dialogue draws on research by Japanese scholars and covers a wide range of linguistic phenomena such as sound changes, lexical choices, and markers of politeness. Linguistic findings are intended to supplement recent studies of the literary, socio-political, and religious contexts for early medieval narratives. By selecting a specific language style for each interacting character, the author(s) constructed particular images that have shaped audience\u00E2\u0080\u0099s perceptions of the characters. This study brings attention to language variation and clarifies how the socio-political status of characters, their interpersonal relations, and attitudes toward each other are encoded in the language of Heike monogatari dialogues. As such, this study is perhaps the first attempt in English to adopt a sociolinguistic approach to a Japanese pre-modern text, focusing on language properties and shifts in style in Heike monogatari."@en . "https://circle.library.ubc.ca/rest/handle/2429/27643?expand=metadata"@en . " INTERACTION BETWEEN CHARACTERS IN HEIKE MONOGATARI DIALOGUES: LANGUAGE FORMS AND FUNCTIONS by ALEXEY LUSHCHENKO B.A., The University of British Columbia, 2008 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Asian Studies) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) August 2010 \u00C2\u00A9 Alexey Lushchenko, 2010 ii Abstract This thesis examines language aspects of interaction in dialogue passages of Heike monogatari (The Tale of the Heike, 1371) focusing on the role of language forms in characterization. The main goal of the present study is to assess the role of language variation and analyze how it participates in construction of asymmetries in social status and power between characters. Selected dialogue data is divided into two groups according to the participants and the dominant context: political interaction at court and interaction involving religious matters. Analysis of language forms in each dialogue draws on research by Japanese scholars and covers a wide range of linguistic phenomena such as sound changes, lexical choices, and markers of politeness. Linguistic findings are intended to supplement recent studies of the literary, socio-political, and religious contexts for early medieval narratives. By selecting a specific language style for each interacting character, the author(s) constructed particular images that have shaped audience\u00E2\u0080\u0099s perceptions of the characters. This study brings attention to language variation and clarifies how the socio-political status of characters, their interpersonal relations, and attitudes toward each other are encoded in the language of Heike monogatari dialogues. As such, this study is perhaps the first attempt in English to adopt a sociolinguistic approach to a Japanese pre-modern text, focusing on language properties and shifts in style in Heike monogatari. iii Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. iv Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................... v Introduction................................................................................................................................... 1 About Heike monogatari .................................................................................................. 2 Data and Heike language .................................................................................................. 4 Recent studies of Heike monogatari ................................................................................ 6 Recent studies of medieval literary dialogue ................................................................... 7 Goal and research question ............................................................................................. 11 Key themes ..................................................................................................................... 13 Methodological approach ............................................................................................... 16 Orality and writing in premodern literary works ........................................................... 17 Linguistic setting ............................................................................................................ 20 Theoretical background .................................................................................................. 23 Chapter One: Court and Politics ................................................................................................ 27 Gi\u00C5\u008D .................................................................................................................................. 29 Political interaction ........................................................................................................ 44 Conspiracy .......................................................................................................... 45 Betrayal .............................................................................................................. 50 Arrest and interrogation ..................................................................................... 55 Senju-no-mae ..................................................................................................... 65 Admonition ........................................................................................................ 71 Imperial speech .............................................................................................................. 76 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 81 Chapter Two: Religion ............................................................................................................... 87 Retired Emperor as medium ........................................................................................... 90 Shunkan .......................................................................................................................... 91 Mongaku ........................................................................................................................ 97 Mongaku at court ............................................................................................. 104 Mongaku and Yoritomo .................................................................................... 110 Meetings of warrior-monks .......................................................................................... 115 H\u00C5\u008Dnen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s sermon ............................................................................................................ 120 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 124 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 130 Works Cited ............................................................................................................................. 136 iv List of Tables Table 1 Basic diagram: the link between texts and construction of perceptions ........................ 2 Table 2 Language forms only found in dialogues .................................................................... 20 Table 3 Onbin distribution between male and female speakers ............................................... 30 Table 4 Address forms in the Kakuichi Heike .......................................................................... 33 Table 5 Distribution of conjunction aida in dialogue passages ................................................ 52 Table 6 Discursive interactive settings - Capital / Politics ..................................................... 83 Table 7 Approximate classification of priests by language style ........................................... 125 Table 8 Discursive interactive settings - Religion ................................................................ 128 v Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisors Christina Laffin and Stefania Burk for taking time to read through earlier drafts of the manuscript and for making many detailed comments and helpful suggestions. I greatly appreciate their criticisms, guidance, and advice. My research was generously supported by the Joseph-Armand Bombardier Canada Graduate Scholarship (Award No. 766-2009-0832) provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. 1 Introduction The Tale of the Heike (Kakuichi variant of Heike monogatari, 1371) is a set of narratives about one of the turning points in Japanese history, the Genpei war (1180-1185), and the events leading up to the conflict. Its panoramic portrayal of the events taking place at the court, in Buddhist monasteries, and on the battlefields introduced a multitude of diverse characters who later reappeared continually in a vast number of literary works inspired by Heike monogatari. The text itself, created for oral performances, in addition to its literary richness and dramatic content, is also known for \u00E2\u0080\u009Cits linguistic and tonal complexity.\u00E2\u0080\u009D1 In this study, I examine a selection of dialogue passages from a linguistic perspective focusing on the variation in language forms found in the represented speech of characters. Analysis covers a wide range of linguistic phenomena from sound changes to lexical choices and polite expressions. The usage of specific forms is interpreted with extensive references to research in stylistics done by Japanese scholars of the text. One of the aims of the study is to assess the role of language variation in the formation of the audience\u00E2\u0080\u0099s image of interaction between characters. I certainly acknowledge the dominance of content (what happens in the narrative) over form (how it is expressed) in constructions of characters\u00E2\u0080\u0099 images, however, in this study I focus on the variation in language between characters in different settings and I attempt to show that language properties complementing the content play a significant role in enhancing the portrayal of characters and encoding negotiation of relationships between characters. The diversity in interaction in terms of language choices is significant as one of the elements shaping the audiences\u00E2\u0080\u0099 collective imagined view of the past. 1 Helen Craig McCullough, trans., The Tale of the Heike (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988), 464. 2 Table 1 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 Basic diagram: the link between texts and construction of perceptions Fictional literary dialogue Speaker 1 Speaker 2 Content Text Language forms Performance Audience reception characters (Speaker 1 and 2) Image of: attitudes hierarchy identity \u00E2\u0097\u008B1 Language forms are an inherent component of a text that parallels its content. \u00E2\u0097\u008B2 During a performance, audience attends to content (what is said) and form (how it is said). \u00E2\u0097\u008B3 Based on the content and form, audience\u00E2\u0080\u0099s perceptions of the speakers are constructed. Current research on language properties of pre-modern Japanese literary texts, including Heike monogatari, lags far behind the socio-historical and literary analyses of the same texts. This study aims to bring attention to issues of language and style that have been researched by Japanese scholars, but remain largely unexplored in Western studies of Heike monogatari. 2 This thesis also attempts to show that the discussion of language aspects of the narratives can potentially supplement literary and historical interpretations. About Heike monogatari The Tale of the Heike (Heike monogatari) is a large-scale set of narratives in the genre of gunki monogatari (war tales) focusing on the events of the Genpei war (1180-1185), one of the major turning points in premodern Japanese history. 2 For example, questions of language forms and style are rarely discussed in detail in the following recent studies of Heike monogatari: Paul H. Varley, Warriors of Japan as Portrayed in the War Tales (Honolulu: University of Hawai\u00CA\u00BBi Press, 1994); Elizabeth Oyler, Swords, Oaths, and Prophetic Visions: Authorizing Warrior Rule in Medieval Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawai\u00CA\u00BBi Press, 2006); David T. Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, Hidden Histories: Narrative, Ritual, and Royal Authority from the Chronicles of Japan to The Tale of the Heike (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2007). 3 More than a hundred variants of Heike monogatari differ in length, style and content. They are usually subdivided into two textual lineages: 1) \u00E2\u0080\u009Cread variants\u00E2\u0080\u009D (yomihonkei) intended for reading are associated with official historical texts influenced by Classical Chinese and 2) \u00E2\u0080\u009Crecited lineage\u00E2\u0080\u009D (kataribonkei), specifically modified for public oral recitations, known for lower use of Chinese elements and a much greater inclusion of fictional episodes. 3 Although this binary division is useful for general classification, it can be seen as somewhat reductive in simplifying the fluid blurred boundaries between the variants. The recited variants were part of a performance tradition, that is, the narratives were performed under a musical accompaniment of a biwa lute by blind wandering monks (biwa h\u00C5\u008Dshi). Performances took place in public spaces, such as markets, but also in temples and residences of courtiers and warriors. Being performed for centuries before diverse audiences from commoners to the highest ranks of court and warrior nobility, the narratives helped shape a corpus of stories and characters familiar to people of different backgrounds thereby contributing to the formation of a shared cultural framework. 4 Neither the author(s) nor the textual evolution of the texts can be established with precision. The production and compilation of the variant examined in the present study, Kakuichibon Heike monogatari (1371), was a long process spanning more than a century from the early thirteenth to the late fourteenth century. In 1371, one of the masters of the heikyoku (recitation of Heike narratives) guild, biwa h\u00C5\u008Dshi Kakuichi (d. 1371), dictated the variant that came to be the standard for later generations of his followers, blind performers of the Ichikata- ry\u00C5\u00AB school. The text consists of twelve maki (scrolls or chapters) followed by the additional 3 For a more detailed discussion of variants see Oyler, Swords, Oaths, and Prophetic Visions, 9-14. 4 Barbara Ruch, \u00E2\u0080\u009CMedieval Jongleurs and the Making of a National Literature,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Japan in the Muromachi Age, ed. John W. Hall and Takeshi Toyoda, 291-3 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977). 4 \u00E2\u0080\u009CInitiates\u00E2\u0080\u0099 book,\u00E2\u0080\u009D each containing a varying number of sections centred on a specific episode. Its style, in general, is described by the term wakan konk\u00C5\u008Dbun (mixed Japanese-Chinese style) referring to the combination of classical Japanese syntax and vocabulary with a number of Sino-Japanese loanwords and syntactical structures. It is acknowledged that dialogue passages contain a wide variety of colloquial expressions. The content of the tale combines historical narration of events related to the Genpei war with Buddhist and military setsuwa (oral-derived narratives) anecdotes resulting in a detailed and complex description of the wide range of characters interacting in a wide geographical space. As a whole, the tale relates the rise and fall of the Taira (or Heike) military clan with the first half centred on the figure of Taira no Kiyomori (1118-1181), the head of the Taira clan, and his political struggles with courtier and imperial opposition in the capital. The second half is devoted to the large-scale war between the military clans of the Taira and the Minamoto (or Genji) in which the former suffer a series of defeats and are exterminated. Data and Heike language The central text for the current study, Heike monogatari (Kakuichi variant, Takano-bon copy 5 ), is a representative text for Kamakura (1185-1333) period Japanese, and its linguistic features are usually considered as typical for the language in the post-Genpei period marked by the increased influence of warrior clans and peripheral non-elite groups in political and cultural affairs. It is precisely such processes of power redistribution that need to be accommodated and legitimized. Both new voices (of warriors and non-elite monks, for example) and old ones (those of nobility) are prominently represented in the Heike narrative. Narratives, considering 5 Ichiko Teiji, ed., Heike monogatari, Shinpen Nihon koten bungaku zensh\u00C5\u00AB, vols. 45-46. (Sh\u00C5\u008Dgakukan, 1994). In the following footnotes abbreviated as SNKBZ. 5 their role in influencing collective imagination, become a new domain of contest over authority and legitimacy. As suggested by Prasenjit Duara, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cnarratives [...] are necessarily selective processes which repress various historical and contemporary materials as they seek to define a community.\u00E2\u0080\u009D6 The narrative of Heike monogatari is a selection that can be said to promote various kinds of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cperipheral\u00E2\u0080\u009D speech to the status of a new norm that defines the post-Genpei society. As for the language of the text, it has been often noted that the language use and style of Heike monogatari is highly diverse. It is not surprising to find a great degree of variation given the panoramic detailed narrative of events with a wide spectrum of participants and a vast geography. Heike monogatari is known for its complexity and rich vocabulary, including many Sino-Japanese (kango) terms. 7 Most variants of Heike are believed to contain considerable linguistic data of interest to researchers of Kamakura spoken language, namely onomatopoeia, dialecticisms and zokugo \u00E4\u00BF\u0097\u00E8\u00AA\u009E (vernacular, colloquialisms), especially in dialogue parts. 8 It can be concluded that linguistic data of Heike monogatari is not uniform and there is a significant correlation between linguistic forms chosen by author(s) to represent speech of characters and the social setting in which it is uttered. 6 Prasenjit Duara, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDe-constructing the Chinese Nation,\u00E2\u0080\u009D The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, vol. 30 (1993): 20. 7 See Lone Takeuchi, The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo (London: Longman, 1999), 19. 8 Yaeko Sato Habein, The History of the Japanese Written Language (University of Tokyo Press, 1984), 52. 6 Recent studies of Heike monogatari Several concepts influence the approaches and methodology adopted in recent studies of premodern Japanese narratives. The trend is to revise canonical interpretations and to bring attention to underrepresented voices and counternarratives. The clear-cut separation between categories such as literature and history or Buddhism and Shinto is seen as removed from actual cultural practices of the medieval Japan. The focus is on representations, rather than facts. The narratives are seen as constructing the imagined past. These concepts influence the approach of two recent studies of Heike monogatari, one by David Bialock 9 and another by Elizabeth Oyler. 10 The first study situates Heike monogatari inside the Sino-Japanese tradition that continuously influenced narratives from the Nara period (710-792) on, whereas the second study traces how diverse Heike narratives were being reinterpreted from Kamakura to Edo (1603-1867) period. David Bialock\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Eccentric Spaces, Hidden Histories analyzes textual traditions and ritual practices from the Nara (710-792) to Kamakura (1185-1333) period in their relation to questions of space and power. Key themes that permeate Bialock\u00E2\u0080\u0099s discussion are the interplay between official and unofficial historical narratives, unorthodox forms of oral speech, perceptions of defiled and sacred space, and tensions between center and periphery. In the discussion of Heike monogatari Bialock emphasizes the role of elements stemming from the Sino-Japanese tradition in representations of royal authority and spatial opposition between center and periphery. He presents Heike narratives as complex combinations of official Chinese-style historiography with unofficial marginalized forms of discourse. According to Bialock, the tension between official centralized history and peripheral potentially subversive 9 Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, Hidden Histories. 10 Oyler, Swords, Oaths, and Prophetic Visions. 7 narratives results in the incursion of marginal into the center with concomitant disruption of hierarchies and combination of unorthodox oral discourse with official style. My research draws on Bialock\u00E2\u0080\u0099s discussion of nomadic speech, center-periphery relationship, ritual and power. My analysis of interaction between Heike characters examines language aspects of the phenomena discussed by Bialock. Elizabeth Oyler\u00E2\u0080\u0099s Swords, Oaths, and Prophetic Visions discusses narratives about the Genpei war as a set of tales repeated and reworked from late Kamakura to Edo (1603-1867) period shaping, as a result, an idealized image of the past for audiences and readers. Special attention is devoted to issues of violence and factional struggles that accompanied the rise of the Minamoto and their later representations promoting the Minamoto power as a model of unity, rule of law, and military rule sanctioned by divine powers. Analyzing multiple variants of several episodes involving key Minamoto figures, Oyler traces how interpretation of the events shifted and what elements or motifs were added, emphasized or downplayed in different narratives. The study focuses on the role of prophetic dreams, written petitions and oaths in the constructions of political and divine legitimacy, affirmation of Minamoto clan unity and the portrayal of warrior government originating in a just system of law. My research examines the role of language choice in shaping characters\u00E2\u0080\u0099 images and I specifically draw on Oyler\u00E2\u0080\u0099s discussion of Yoritomo as a judge in my analysis of Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0099s speech. Recent studies of medieval literary dialogue \u00E2\u0080\u0093 International overview Before taking up the discussion of dialogue in pre-modern Japanese literary works it is worthwhile to consider how similar materials have been approached and what kinds of questions have been raised in recent years. The following overview is by no means exhaustive 8 and is intended only as a brief summary of recent trends. In English, a number of scholars have argued for the validity of an approach integrating literary criticism with linguistic and socio-historical tools to study texts, including pre-modern ones, as data for investigating issues of communication and social relations. This approach was not widely accepted several decades ago and scholars had to defend claims of utility of linguistic theory in domains of literature 11 or the view that sociolinguistic methods can be successfully applied to pre-modern texts. 12 More recently, similar views have contributed to the formation of influential trends in language studies such as Discourse Analysis 13 or Historical Pragmatics that investigate many facets of interaction and its relation to social identity, culture, status and power in modern as well as pre-modern texts. Historical literary dialogue, as an approximation of interaction, is one of the key kinds of data analyzed in these approaches and it has been the primary object of several recent studies. 14 In German scholarship, the study of stylistic differences in direct speech passages found in medieval epics has been conducted for a century. However, research done in the last several decades has led scholars to the awareness of the gap separating linguistics and literature and to the need to bridge this methodological gap. Research in the area of fictional literary dialogue is only in the beginning stages, particularly when it comes to medieval literary works. Recently several conferences were held as a way to promote application of linguistic 11 Roger Pearce, Literary Texts: The Application of Linguistic Theory to Literary Discourse (Birmingham: Birmingham University, 1977). 12 Suzanne Romaine, Socio-historical Linguistics: Its Status and Methodology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). 13 Barbara Johnstone, Discourse Analysis (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2008). 14 Andreas H. Jucker, Gerd Fritz, and Franz Lebsanft, eds., Historical Dialogue Analysis. Pragmatics & Beyond New Series. Vol. 66 (Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1999). Gabriella Mazzon, Interactive Dialogue Sequences in Middle English Drama. Pragmatics & Beyond New Series. Vol. 185 (Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2009). 9 methods to medieval literary texts. 15 The theme was the analysis of dialogue forms and functions in medieval epics as well as the attempt to probe possibilities and problems opened up by historical linguistic analysis of text passages. Among the issues raised by German scholars are: descriptive analysis of dialogue structure, status and gender-specific differences in speech (construction of identity in courtly literature, unconventional language use in a court setting), German adaptations of Latin and French works (comparative study of direct speech), relationship between oral and written, traces of natural speech in epics (interjections and ellipsis, for example), comparison of direct speech use by different authors, possible influences from classical poetic and rhetoric theory on medieval epics, and performance of medieval texts. In summary, German scholars consider medieval literary dialogue to be a relatively new area of study that is still in need of new methods of analysis grounded in linguistics and literary studies. French scholars have also paid considerable attention to questions of orality, performance and text in the last several decades. Works of the influential literary critic Paul Zumthor in the 1970s and 80s, for example, brought attention to the oral performance aspects of medieval poetry and epic literature. 16 A more recent study approaches medieval prose from a comparative angle tracing the use of direct speech in French vernacular as a development of narrative technique resulting in a clearer structure suitable for aural reception. 17 Growing complexity of dialogue in courtly texts of the twelfth to thirteenth centuries is discussed from 15 In 2005 and 2007 at the University of Bremen. See Nine Miedema and Franz Hundsnurscher, eds., Formen und Funktionen von Redeszenen in der mittelhochdeutschen Grossepik (Forms and functions of speech scenes in Middle High German epic) (T\u00C3\u00BCbingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 2007). 16 Paul Zumthor, Introduction \u00C3\u00A0 la po\u00C3\u00A9sie orale (Paris: \u00C3\u0089ditions du Seuil, 1983). 17 Frank Brandsma, \u00E2\u0080\u009CLa v\u00C3\u00A9rit\u00C3\u00A9 vivifi\u00C3\u00A9e? Le discours direct aux d\u00C3\u00A9buts de la prose fran\u00C3\u00A7aise,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Faits de langues 19 (2002). 10 pragmatic and narratological points of view in a recent monograph by Denoyelle-Boutle. 18 Based on the data from a vast array of texts in prose and verse, the monograph contains analysis of context (situation, participants, themes), dialogue structure (realism, tempo, politeness, structural patterns) and functions (dramatic, analytic, characterization, emotive, ideological). Alongside such large-scale studies done from a more literary perspective, there are cases of detailed research on the linguistic features of orality present in medieval texts. For example, language scholar Oppermann closely examines the functions and context of use of one adverb and an infinitive construction in texts of different genres in order to reach conclusions about the degree of orality of texts in a corpus. 19 Despite considerable research efforts in this direction, scholars consistently emphasize the fact that the topic of orality markers in medieval texts rests largely unexplored. It is expected that more scholarly works will appear in the future. In Japanese studies, a recent scholarly approach is to consider questions of style and communication in addition to traditional discussion of linguistic forms in Japanese pre-modern texts. This tendency can be understood as a step toward increased interaction between disciplines of linguistics and literary studies. However, there is still a shortage of interdisciplinary studies that would specifically research medieval dialogue data as a distinct category. For the Heian period (794-1185), for example, Yamaguchi Nakami has examined language use in monogatari, diary and setsuwa genres focusing on issues of characterization and interaction with extensive discussion of dialogue. 20 Kobayashi Yoshinori, one of the 18 Anne Rochebouet, \u00E2\u0080\u009CCorinne Denoyelle-Boutle, pr\u00C3\u00A9sentation de sa th\u00C3\u00A8se: Le dialogue dans les textes courtois du XIIe et du XIIIe si\u00C3\u00A8cles, analyse pragmatique et narratologique,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Reverdie: atelier de langue m\u00C3\u00A9di\u00C3\u00A9val (2008). 19 Evelyne Oppermann, \u00E2\u0080\u009CL\u00E2\u0080\u0099infinitif injonctif en fran\u00C3\u00A7ais m\u00C3\u00A9di\u00C3\u00A9val: de la repr\u00C3\u00A9sentation d\u00E2\u0080\u0099un ordre oral \u00C3\u00A0 l\u00E2\u0080\u0099instruction \u00C3\u00A9crite,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Faits de langues 7, no. 13 (1999). 20 Yamaguchi Nakami, Heianch\u00C5\u008D no kotoba to buntai (Kazama Shob\u00C5\u008D, 1998). 11 linguists researching Japanese language in the Kamakura period (1185-1333), has researched specific forms and constructions in dialogue passages of the Engy\u00C5\u008Dbon Heike monogatari.21 Research by other scholars has focused on onbin forms distribution in Heike monogatari dialogue. 22 Book-length linguistic studies of Heike stylistics have been published with separate sections discussing dialogue data. 23 Ogawa Eiichi devotes a section of his predominantly linguistic discussion of Engy\u00C5\u008Dbon Heike monogatari to specifically address large-scale issues of communication in pre-modern Japan. 24 Evidently, researchers in different parts of the world working with different textual traditions acknowledge the importance of studying medieval literary dialogue for a better understanding of communication practices and language use in pre-modern settings as well as for analyzing techniques of characterization used in literary texts. Goal and research question The translator of Heike monogatari into English, Helen McCullough, praised the author\u00E2\u0080\u0099s command of language, his concern \u00E2\u0080\u009Cfor the nuances of diction, his masterly exploitation of the full range of the Japanese language and his careful matching of style to 21 Kobayashi Yoshinori, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKamakura jidai no k\u00C5\u008Dt\u00C5\u008Dgo no kenky\u00C5\u00ABshiry\u00C5\u008D ni tsuite,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Kamakura jidaigo kenky\u00C5\u00AB 11, (1988). Kobayashi Yoshinori, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKamakura jidaigo kenky\u00C5\u00AB no h\u00C5\u008Dh\u00C5\u008D,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Kamakura jidaigo kenky\u00C5\u00AB 15, (1992). 22 Okumura Kazuko, \u00E2\u0080\u009CHeike monogatari no taig\u00C5\u00AB hy\u00C5\u008Dgen to jinbutsuz\u00C5\u008D,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Kashiigata 34, (1988). Okumura Kazuko, \u00E2\u0080\u009CHeike monogatari ni okeru ba gy\u00C5\u008D ma gy\u00C5\u008D yodand\u00C5\u008Dshi no onbin ni tsuite,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Joshi dai bungaku Kokubun hen \u00C5\u008Csaka joshi daigaku kiy\u00C5\u008D 56, (2005). Okumura Kazuko, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKakuichibon Heike monogatari ni okeru d\u00C5\u008Dshi no onbin \u00E2\u0080\u0093 kaiwabun to ji no bun,\u00E2\u0080\u009D Gengo bunkagaku kenky\u00C5\u00AB Nihongo Nihon bungaku hen, (2006). 23 Nishida Naotoshi, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki kenky\u00C5\u00AB (Meiji Shoin, 1978). Nishida Naotoshi, Heike monogatari no kokugogakuteki kenky\u00C5\u00AB (Osaka: Izumi Shoin, 1990). Ogawa Eiichi, Enky\u00C5\u008Dbon Heike monogatari no nihongoshiteki kenky\u00C5\u00AB (Bensei Shuppan, 2008). 24 Ogawa, Enky\u00C5\u008Dbon Heike, 459-485. 12 content.\u00E2\u0080\u009D25 The text is linguistically and tonally complex, and importantly for the present study, it incorporates \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmany conventional oral storyteller\u00E2\u0080\u0099s phrases and make[s] free use of colloquialisms, especially for dialogue, and of onomatopoeia\u00E2\u0080\u009D in its military setsuwa, at least.26 This study is partly intended to be a limited illustration of the above description of language use in Heike monogatari; often similar statements pass without explicit examples, and even a perfect translation is unable to convey the original fully due to specific linguistic and stylistic means used in the Japanese text. The main goal of the present study is to assess the role of language and its use in the Heike narrative in relation to questions of power, politics and identity. 27 By examining literary texts and social relations represented in them from a language-based perspective, I discuss the language means used to highlight the shifts between settings and speakers. It is evident that the language of characters shifts from one setting to another, but so far there has not been a detailed study in the research of Heike monogatari in English devoted to the shifts in language forms and their functions in the narrative. In what way does language change when a particular speaker occupies a different social position or shifts his or her attitude? Through analysis of variation in dialogue of literary characters I investigate the degree of correlation between the socio-political status of participating characters, the context of the dialogue, and linguistic forms chosen. Likewise, I discuss techniques of characterization in the text intended for oral performance. In doing so, I raise a fundamental question of language choice for a performed 25 McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 464. 26 Ibid., 464. 27 In this study the term \u00E2\u0080\u009Cidentity\u00E2\u0080\u009D refers to the set of properties such as social status, gender, age and occupation inherent to a given character. Under the influence of the so-called social constructionist views, I consider a character\u00E2\u0080\u0099s identity as being constructed (by author(s) for audiences) in the course of interaction in (fictional) conversations. See Denton N. Mendoza, \u00E2\u0080\u009CLanguage and identity,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in The Handbook of Language Variation and Change, eds. Jack Chambers et al., 475-499 (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2002). 13 text as it plays a role in the formation of audience\u00E2\u0080\u0099s perceptions of the characters and their shifting relationships. Key themes In a recent monograph on the language of Heike monogatari 28 Ogawa Eiichi states that existing research on the history of the Japanese language has been overly preoccupied with detailed questions while leaving comprehensive large-scale issues largely unexplored. There is a lack of research that would link historical linguistics with studies of communication and social history, for example. Currently there is a shortage of scholars who even attempt to raise \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmacro-questions\u00E2\u0080\u009D of pre-modern communication instead of limiting themselves to \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmicro- questions\u00E2\u0080\u009D of changes in language structure. In this study I pose questions about social status and linguistic communication as represented in the dialogue passages of Heike monogatari and I rely both on linguistic/stylistic findings and on literary analysis that focuses on narrative structure, discourse functions and techniques of characterization. Through this approach I argue that there is a need to minimize the gap between research done in literary studies and linguistics. A more active use of findings in these areas can open a more comprehensive perspective on the textual data and its social functions. Secondly, I argue for a greater role of Japanese text in studies related to Japanese literature. In scholarship done in English, it is common to neglect Japanese text even in scholarly works dealing with literature and to substitute it with translations. The only exception is poetry which traditionally appears in r\u00C5\u008Dmaji transliteration, partly because the sound 28 Ogawa, Enky\u00C5\u008Dbon Heike, 484. 14 qualities of a poem are considered significant. In the case of non-poetic texts, English translation overshadows the Japanese text and gives priority to the meaning of the narrative at the expense of its language properties. In other words, translation emphasizes the question of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cwhat happens?\u00E2\u0080\u009D and silences the question of \u00E2\u0080\u009Chow is it phrased?\u00E2\u0080\u009D Considering that Heike monogatari contains valuable linguistic information, I base my analysis on numerous examples in Japanese. Next, this study examines details of language use in the texts of the Kamakura period. In scholarship on Heike monogatari one often finds statements about its language being stylistically close to the spoken language of the Kamakura period with a much wider use of colloquialisms and dialecticisms in the speech of characters than can be found in Heian court literature. 29 However, apart from several examples it is rare to find concrete evidence of linguistic and stylistic variation and its discourse functions in specific contexts. Several Japanese linguists 30 have carried out detailed studies, but they are largely ignored by Western scholars of literature due to the lack of interdisciplinary communication mentioned above. That is why I attempt a discussion of literary discourse relying considerably on the linguistic findings of Japanese scholars of Heike monogatari. One of the goals of discourse analysis is to find a relationship between choices made in writing or speech and the contextual factors that constrain these choices. This relationship is never one-dimensional due to a multitude of factors influencing human interaction. It is this relationship that makes it possible to analyze various functions of discourse 31 pertaining to 29 Habein, The History of the Japanese Written Language, 52. Among the examples provided are sound changes (onbin), onomatopoeia, sentence-final emphatic particles koso and zo, and honorific verb s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D. 30 See works by Kobayashi, Nishida, Okumura and Yamaguchi listed in the bibliography. 31 Here and later the term \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdiscourse\u00E2\u0080\u009D is often used in a post-structuralist sense following Foucault who defined discourses as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpractices that systematically form the objects of which 15 social status, identity and power. The complex relation between vernacularization, group identity and political power is the dominant theme in South Asian research done by Sheldon Pollock 32 , and it is of considerable interest to approach East Asian texts, such as Heike monogatari, from a similar angle. There is some overlap in terms of research questions with disciplines such as sociolinguistics that study language use and its social role, but current sociolinguistic studies focus mainly on data elicited from living informants, although sociolinguists studying language change and variation consider written documents to be a valid source of data. 33 I consider sociolinguistic approach possible even for written texts from the pre-modern period as they are also a representation (if not a \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctranscript\u00E2\u0080\u009D) of language conventions, especially in dialogue. The study of language variation can thus shed light on pre- modern social structures, culture and communication. The themes mentioned above underlie the methodological approach undertaken in this study. Considering the large amount of data contained in Heike monogatari and the lack of similar studies of premodern Japanese texts in English, the present short work can only be partial and experimental. I hope that it will bring more attention to language variation in pre- modern Japanese literary texts. they speak\u00E2\u0080\u009D (The Archaeology of Knowledge, 49). At times there is an overlap with using the term as \u00E2\u0080\u009Clanguage used in a particular social setting,\u00E2\u0080\u009D (The Routledge Companion to Sociolinguistics, 212) such as \u00E2\u0080\u009Creligious discourse.\u00E2\u0080\u009D 32 Sheldon I. Pollock, The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006). 33 Romaine, Socio-historical Linguistics, 1982. 16 Methodological approach The methodology for this study has been adopted to suit both the research goals and the data available for analysis. It consists of several steps: 1) data choice and classification; 2) qualitative analysis; 3) significance of variation in language use for discourse-power relations. As a common practice in discourse analysis, data samples tend to be limited in size for a more detailed understanding of specific dialogues. Therefore, instead of vast generalizations I focus on details of form and function in sets of selected passages. The main criterion for choosing particular sections is the prominence of verbal interaction among characters. The passages are classified into two groups according to the participants and the dominant context: court and politics, and religious matters. Each group of texts thus makes up a sample of conversations from a specific discourse sphere. Upon close reading of selected passages a number of elements are identified as candidates potentially carrying a function of marking extralinguistic information, such as status of participants. Among these elements special attention is paid to distribution of onbin and keigo, interjections and onomatopoeia, personal pronouns and choice of lexical items. Ellipsis and word order, as well expressions of rudeness-politeness, power-powerlessness, such as interrogation, threat and demand are also considered. Much of this analysis is qualitative and descriptive, although many of the elements listed above deserve attention not only because of their inherent functions in discourse, but also because linguistic research has identified them as markers dependent on social factors. I consider that grounding my analysis in the results of quantitative linguistic research done previously is essential to the claims I make and to the goal of using linguistic and literary approaches in a complementary way. The last component consists of two points: 1) the role of discourse elements in shaping and highlighting socio-political aspects of character interaction in a given scene and 2) 17 identification of \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctext-external\u00E2\u0080\u009D socio-political implications. The first point focuses on the meaning of conversational choices and sequences for characterization of the participants in the setting constructed by author(s). Here I discuss questions of a character\u00E2\u0080\u0099s personality, role in action and the issue of manipulating audience reception of the character. The second point examines the larger questions of communication in pre-modern society, specifically the didactic role of showing a model of discourse in various settings and the political role of establishing/reaffirming hierarchies of values and power in communicative practice of different social layers and discourse spheres. By discussing didactic roles or functions of communication, I consider the impact of particular conventions and uses of fictional discourse on real-world communication in different settings, the way fictional conventions reinforce and perpetuate speech norms and expectations. Orality and writing in premodern literary works For analysis of \u00E2\u0080\u009Corality\u00E2\u0080\u009D markers in pre-modern texts scholars turn to literary dialogue passages as the closest possible approximation to speech conventions, grammar and style. \u00E2\u0080\u009COrality\u00E2\u0080\u009D in medieval texts is a complex issue that has generated intense discussions. Undoubtedly, there is a legitimate concern and a somewhat uneasy feeling of doubt towards any attempt to find \u00E2\u0080\u009Cspeech\u00E2\u0080\u009D in texts written centuries ago. Firstly, medieval vernaculars of Europe or Japan are dead languages with no living speakers, and secondly, all the works in these languages exist only in writing and most often in the form of literary writing that is inherently artificial, consciously structured by authors, and very different from spontaneous speech found in conversations. 34 It follows that one cannot claim that a given medieval text is a 34 Oppermann, \u00E2\u0080\u009CL\u00E2\u0080\u0099infinitif injonctif en fran\u00C3\u00A7ais m\u00C3\u00A9di\u00C3\u00A9val,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 209. 18 reliable transcription of some utterance. Of course, the above considerations impose a number of constraints on the approach to texts and their analysis. Typical conversation analysis and socio-linguistic studies deal with data collected from speakers of identifiable background. Interviews and conversations are recorded for later analysis. Dealing with a text is a very different matter, especially if its authorship and circumstances of composition are unknown, as is often the case with medieval texts. Not any given text is suitable for investigating questions of orality. The crucial criteria are the intended use of text, the process of its composition and the degree of the author\u00E2\u0080\u0099s accuracy in representing speech forms in writing. Some texts are specifically intended to be read, others are used as scripts for performance. Some texts are composed during performance, others are written to be recited orally later. Presence or absence of highlighted stylistic, dialectal and status variation also depends on the author\u00E2\u0080\u0099s intent, the genre of the work, the contents of the text or scene and the possibility to record linguistic oral features in writing. These and other considerations have been at the center of methodological and theoretical debates about \u00E2\u0080\u009Coral literature,\u00E2\u0080\u009D its definition and ways to study it. Despite the problematic status of oral literature, it is the best approximation of speech for time periods for which spoken records are simply not available and it has been studied by historical linguists and sociolinguists for purposes ranging from evolution of vernacular languages to correlation of socio-historical class stratifications with linguistic variation. 35 It is clear that medieval texts are not direct records of speech events and they do not give us direct access to oral practice, since literary dialogue belongs to the category of invented texts, that is, \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca hypothetical imagined speech intended to be characteristic of its fictitious speakers.\u00E2\u0080\u009D36 However, it is possible to consider the following direct speech from Heike 35 Chambers, The Handbook of Language Variation, 70. 36 Ibid., 73. 19 monogatari, for example, as a representation of oral/spoken language. Example:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00B8 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u00AF\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u008D [Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0099s order to warriors who brought Saik\u00C5\u008D] \u00E2\u0080\u009CThis is what\u00E2\u0080\u0099s become of the fellow who aspired to bring me to ruin. Pull him over here.\u00E2\u0080\u009D37 The utterance represents words attributed to the speaker Kiyomori who addresses warriors in specific circumstances. Lacking speakers who actually spoke or heard this kind of language, we cannot know how close this representation is to actual oral speech, whether it is too exaggerated, stereotyped or too literary for everyday speech. Nevertheless, assuming that the author(s) wrote for an audience aware of contemporary style differences and speech conventions, we can consider this representation to be sufficiently realistic and characteristic of the way people of similar rank might have talked with each other or were expected to talk in this way. Importantly, the chosen representation of speech projects a specific image of interaction in a given setting and thus shapes audience\u00E2\u0080\u0099s perceptions of characters and communication norms. Texts themselves often contain clues that point to a conscious selection of linguistic means by an author trying to emphasize differences between oral dialogue and non-dialogue text. This is the case when certain words and grammatical forms appear consistently in direct speech and are never (or rarely) observed in other sentences. This view is supported by results of linguistic analysis of specific \u00E2\u0080\u009Coral\u00E2\u0080\u009D forms used in Heian-Kamakura literary texts. Kobayashi Yoshinori, a scholar of Kamakura language and kanbun, has analyzed linguistic forms exclusively used in dialogue (Table 2). The row of 0s shows that these forms are never found in non-dialogue sections of Engy\u00C5\u008Dbon Heike monogatari (early 14 th century). 37 McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 65. 20 Table 2 Language forms only found in dialogues 38 \u00E3\u0083\u00A0 \u00E3\u0082\u00BA \u00E3\u0083\u0090 \u00E3\u0082\u00B7 \u00E3\u0083\u008A (in terj.) \u00E3\u0082\u00BD (n eg .) \u00E3\u0082\u00BF \u00E3\u0082\u00B7 \u00E3\u0082\u00BF \u00E3\u0082\u00A6 \u00E3\u0083\u008A \u00E3\u0083\u00A0 \u00E3\u0082\u00B8 \u00E3\u0083\u0089 \u00E3\u0082\u00B3 \u00E3\u0082\u00B3 \u00E3\u0082\u00B5 \u00E3\u0083\u00B3 \u00E3\u0083\u008A \u00E3\u0083\u00AC \u00E3\u0082\u00B3 \u00E3\u0082\u00B5 \u00E3\u0083\u00B3 \u00E3\u0083\u00A1 \u00E3\u0083\u00AC \u00E3\u0082\u00B5 \u00E3\u0083\u00AB \u00E3\u0083\u008B \u00E3\u0083\u0086 \u00E3\u0083\u00A2 \u00E3\u0083\u008A \u00E3\u0083\u008B \u00E3\u0082\u00B7 \u00E3\u0083\u008B \u00E4\u00BC\u009A \u00E8\u00A9\u00B1 \u00E6\u0096\u0087 374 10 25 1 37 6 9 1 1 26 11 4 \u00E5\u009C\u00B0 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E6\u0096\u0087 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 This evidence convincingly shows that Heian and Kamakura authors were aware of a different kind of language to be employed in dialogue. These independent findings are also in favour of the approach taken in this study that attempts to explore dialogue data as a category of text with its own distinctive properties. Linguistic setting Literary works of various genres and historical documents are the primary sources of information for scholars of language history. Despite the abundance of these materials, the corpus of linguistic data is not made up from language samples representing all possible patterns of variation that existed in reality. The information in the corpus is constrained by the availability of data (it is impossible to assess how much was lost, destroyed or not yet published for ready analysis), the language, style, contemporary literary conventions and, importantly, by the authors\u00E2\u0080\u0099 personal choices (conscious or not) of what to put down in writing. Therefore, the commonly used distinctions between Japanese written language (kakikotoba) 38 Kobayashi, \u00E2\u0080\u009CKamakura jidai no k\u00C5\u008Dt\u00C5\u008Dgo,\u00E2\u0080\u009D 49. 21 and spoken language (hanashikotoba) as well as divisions by periods (Kamakura or Muromachi language) are approximate at best. Instead of divisions by period, it is more precise to talk about a \u00E2\u0080\u009Cliterary language\u00E2\u0080\u009D chosen for a specific group of texts and some approximations to language use it tries to represent. This leads to a new set of problems related to time and language change over time. The basic issue is that for a Japanese text one cannot be absolutely confident about the time of its creation solely on account of certain linguistic features observed in it. Since bungo in its classical form is considered the dominant written literary language from Heian to early modern times, its use for a text does not indicate the tenth century or seventeenth century as the time of its composition, but rather a choice by its author who thought it to be suitable for the audience, subject matter and so on (degree of admixture of non-classical forms was likely determined in a similar way). Thus, to talk about language change from the Heian to Kamakura period makes more sense as a difference in literate groups\u00E2\u0080\u0099 judgements of what is acceptable or desirable in writing, what style, grammar and vocabulary to employ for a given text. Availability of this choice necessitates the study of literary texts from a sociolinguistic perspective that can eventually provide answers about the discursive factors and socio-political goals that constrained the authors in their choices of language. Now I will briefly outline some of the current dominant views on the state of language in the Kamakura period. Chinese language was used for written documents related to political affairs, legal codes and historical treatises, the notable exceptions being the use of \u00E2\u0080\u009Cmixed Japanese-Chinese style\u00E2\u0080\u009D wakan konk\u00C5\u008Dbun39 in historico-political works such as Jien\u00E2\u0080\u0099s (1155- 39 Writing style that combines Sino-Japanese loanwords (kango) for most lexemes with kana for grammatical elements. 22 1225) Gukansh\u00C5\u008D (1219)40 or Chikafusa\u00E2\u0080\u0099s (1293-1353) Jinn\u00C5\u008D sh\u00C5\u008Dt\u00C5\u008Dki41 (A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns, 1343), both works not written, however, with the authorization of the rulers. 42 Wakan konk\u00C5\u008Dbun was a dominant style from around 1100 and was typically used for writing works of all Buddhist genres, such as sermons, setsuwa anecdotes, sutra translations and Buddhist-derived genres such as gunki monogatari, including Heike monogatari. 43 At the same time, the written language of prestige and the dominant spoken vernacular were both associated with the capital of Heian-ky\u00C5\u008D (present Kyoto) and they functioned as a linguistic standard understood by most people in the provinces while coexisting with local dialects. 44 From around 1200 to 1600 the capital standard has incorporated some dialectal features. 45 The capital standard language was slowly challenged by other dialects during the Kamakura period and it was primarily Buddhist monks who advocated the use of dialects in preaching. In the eastern provinces the emergence of dialectal features in written form gradually increased from the thirteenth to the fourteenth century in the sh\u00C5\u008Dmono (vernacular commentary on Chinese Zen texts) written by Zen sect monks actively supported by Kamakura military rulers. 46 Interestingly, they were probably inspired by the earlier continental practice (from around the eighth century) of using Chinese written vernaculars for the same purpose. 40 Delmar M. Brown and Ichir\u00C5\u008D Ishida, The Future and the Past: A Translation and Study of the Gukansh\u00C5\u008D, an Interpretive History of Japan Written in 1219 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1979). 41 Paul H. Varley, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinn\u00C5\u008D Sh\u00C5\u008Dt\u00C5\u008Dki of Kitabatake Chikafusa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980). 42 Lone Takeuchi, The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo (London: Longman, 1999), 21. 43 Ibid., 21. 44 Takeuchi, The Structure and History, 23. 45 Ibid., 215. 46 Ibid., 23. 23 Theoretical background In this section I will discuss several interrelated issues: 1) the acknowledgement of internal cultural dynamics and internal models in the relationship between text and power; 2) the meaning of language use in the process of vernacularization. The relationship between text and power is expressed in the narratives dealing with probably the greatest rupture in the pre-modern period in Japan: the Genpei War (1180-1185). Re-imagining of the past through repeatedly reworked historic narratives, far from being a process limited to modern culture, was a part of the Kamakura cultural life. Given the multitude of forces involved in the Genpei conflict spanning large geographical areas, it is not surprising to find an array of narrative techniques employed to justify actions, demonize or glorify characters, and explain the political origins of contemporary powerholders. Such ideological use of narratives takes place in a setting defined by internal models of power, language and belief that are impossible to reconstruct fully, and the only solution in finding a reasonable approximation is to examine closely the narratives/texts themselves, their circulation and audiences. Accordingly, theories relevant for the politics of language practice and the role of vernacularization in establishing social order need to be tested on the empirical language data. In this thesis, supporting evidence from the text of Kakuichi Heike monogatari (1371) will illustrate the link between social and linguistic/stylistic variation, a neglected component of the discursive models created in premodern Japan. Thus, an active engagement with internal Japanese discourse can be achieved, I believe, through a closer study of textual features and of the context of production and circulation of texts. The process of constructing a discourse, an intellectual tradition perpetuated through texts that operates to impose a domination, is a helpful abstraction in this case. The discourse produced over time by essentially an intertextual network of texts, consists of a durable set of 24 terms, images, metaphors that become accepted as truth (perceived to be even more real, in a sense, than the object they describe). This approach (influenced in part by ideas of Foucault and dependent upon structuralists), although rooted in Western philosophical tradition, can be potentially applied to a wide range of contexts that deal with texts, discourses and power relations without ignoring the local internal dynamics and specifics. For example, LaFleur\u00E2\u0080\u0099s The Karma of Words analyzes the relationship between Buddhism and the literary arts in medieval Japan by ambitiously reconstructing \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe basic intellectual and religious shape of that epoch\u00E2\u0080\u009D47 and describing medieval Japan in terms of an episteme with \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe intellectual problems, the most authoritative texts and resources, and the central symbols being all Buddhist,\u00E2\u0080\u009D holding \u00E2\u0080\u009Cintellectual hegemony.\u00E2\u0080\u009D48 LaFleur\u00E2\u0080\u0099s theoretical approach sees texts as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cembedded in the social history of a given era\u00E2\u0080\u009D49 and focuses consistently on the contents of the texts. In the article \u00E2\u0080\u009CDeep Orientalism?\u00E2\u0080\u009D Sheldon Pollock50 argues for extending the problematics of power and domination to indigenous discourses of power, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe various systematized and totalized constructions of inequality in traditional India.\u00E2\u0080\u009D51 As an instance of precolonial domination in India, Pollock surveys the eleventh- to twelfth-century texts on social order produced in the courts of ruling elites of the period and discusses the use of Vedic knowledge, the monopolization of Sanskrit and the restriction of access to Sanskrit \u00E2\u0080\u009Cliteracy\u00E2\u0080\u009D 47 William R. LaFleur, The Karma of Words: Buddhism and the Literary Arts in Medieval Japan (University of California Press, 1983), 9. 48 LaFleur, The Karma of Words, 9. 49 Ibid., x. 50 In this case Pollock views Orientalism as \u00E2\u0080\u009Ca species of a larger discourse of power that divides the world into \u00E2\u0080\u009Cbetters and lessers\u00E2\u0080\u009D and thus facilitates the domination \u00E2\u0080\u00A6 of any group.\u00E2\u0080\u009D Sheldon I. Pollock, \u00E2\u0080\u009CDeep Orientalism? Notes on Sanskrit and Power beyond the Raj,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament, ed. Carol Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer, 77 (Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 1993). 51 Ibid. 25 to sustain the dichotomization of the social order (arya/non-arya binary) and to rationalize the need for power asymmetry. In this study, I am interested in the ways power distribution and character interaction are encoded in the language of dialogue passages in Heike monogatari. By analyzing interaction represented in dialogues, I hope to move a step closer toward understanding the internal model of \u00E2\u0080\u009Clanguage/text - power/social identity\u00E2\u0080\u009D that is supported by examinable textual content. Consider the following insightful statement by Sheldon Pollock: Choosing a language for literary and political text production implies affiliating with an existing sociotextual community or summoning such a community into being. For it is in part from the acts of reading, hearing, performing, reproducing, and circulating literary and political texts that social groups come to produce themselves and understand themselves as groups\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 The vernacularization of literature and political discourse is a social act, and one that typically bears major geocultural and political entailments. 52 It is difficult to find a more concise and exact description of the significance of Heike narratives and their language use for producing a shared image of communities with similar ideals, views of the past and a style of speech noticeably contrasting with ways of representing speech in other narratives of a far lesser circulation, such as Heian court narratives. Active circulation of Genpei narratives propagated the new language style with a greater focus on formerly \u00E2\u0080\u009Cperipheral\u00E2\u0080\u009D interaction (seen, for example, in the scenes with low-ranking warriors and monks as the main characters). Audiences hearing Heike performed would recognize the style of expressions as appropriate approximations of speech of various social groups. The kinds of language/style must draw on common perceptions of interaction and, at the same time, they play powerful roles in creation of a shared view of the past and of a shared sense of identity. 52 Pollock, The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, 27-8. 26 The very action of recording, performing and listening to the language forms (including non-courtly, provincial ones most likely to be associated with warriors) creates a discourse that is no longer limited to the capital court society, but spans a wider range of areas and people. The author(s)\u00E2\u0080\u0099 choice to include peripheral discursive patterns in the text of Heike is a socio- political act establishing a shared perception of power, identity and community. As noted by Pollock, \u00E2\u0080\u009CIt is no easy thing to theorize pre-modernity without deploying the theoretical instruments forged by modernity, since they are the only ones we have.\u00E2\u0080\u009D At the same time, he suggests that \u00E2\u0080\u009Ctheory is there to be tested\u00E2\u0080\u009D by the examination of empirical materials. 53 The discussion above tries to bring attention to several issues of socio-political use of pre-modern texts/language in addition to promoting a balanced synthesis of modern theory and internal dynamics of language and power. It is important to acknowledge the role of pre- modern texts in legitimizing complex political formations and sustaining views of social change. I also argue for a need to include language factors (beyond the level of narrative) in the discussion of power discourse. Posing the question of why a specific language, register or style was chosen to create literary/political texts is of considerable importance in the investigation of complex relationships between pre-modern texts and contexts of culture and power. 53 Pollock, The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, 33. 27 Chapter 1 - Court and Politics The Heike monogatari, despite being a gunki monogatari (\u00E2\u0080\u0095war tale\u00E2\u0080\u0096), is not focused only on military affairs, but covers a wide range of communicative settings aiming to show how society is impermanent and how any position or activity is temporary and dependent on the universal workings of fate. 54 One of the settings featured prominently is the court and the political meetings in the capital. For the purposes of this study it is appropriate to view the court not as a stable entity, but as an image constructed by the narrative. Thus, the Heike monogatari narrative projects a specific set of events as having taken place in the capital during the Genpei war. The presentation of these events taking place in the capital influenced the audiences\u00E2\u0080\u0098 views of the capital and politics. In this chapter, I focus on the representation of the speech of various characters interacting in the court and in various political settings in the capital. Many of the sources hinting at the obscure process of production of the Heike text mention names of people connected to influential figures at court. Thus, the Heike representation of communication at court can be considered close to a \u00E2\u0080\u0095witness account,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 no matter how idealized or edited it may be. Probably the best known account regarding possible authorship is found in Tsurezuregusa (Essays in Idleness, ca. 1330) (dan 226) in which the authorship is attributed to Nakayama Yukinaga (ca. 1165-?), a courtier-official with a \u00E2\u0080\u0095reputation for learning\u00E2\u0080\u0096 who, as a Buddhist priest, worked under Jien (1155-1225), the abbot of Enryakuji temple and the author of the historical treatise Gukansh\u00C5\u008D (1219). Apparently he had close ties with the Kuj\u00C5\u008D branch of the Fujiwara and served Kuj\u00C5\u008D Kanezane (1149-1207), 54 As pointed out by Varley, in the Heike, the dominant theme is \u00E2\u0080\u0095the conviction that everything is ultimately governed by an unfathomable, relentless fate.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Paul H. Varley, Warriors of Japan as Portrayed in the War Tales (Honolulu: University of Hawai\u00CA\u00BBi Press, 1994), 87. 28 the imperial regent and author of the diary Gyokuy\u00C5\u008D (Jeweled Leaf, 1164-1200), one of the possible sources for the Heike. 55 Kuj\u00C5\u008D Kanezane was one of the key political figures during the last decade of the twelfth century. In 1185, he was at the head of the council of nobles partial to Kamakura, the gis\u00C5\u008D kugy\u00C5\u008D \u00E8\u00AD\u00B0\u00E5\u00A5\u008F\u00E5\u0085\u00AC\u00E5\u008D\u00BF, and functioned as a key mediator of court-bakufu politics. 56 He was also involved in appointing Yoritomo to the official position of seii-tai- sh\u00C5\u008Dgun \u00E5\u00BE\u0081\u00E5\u00A4\u00B7\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00B0\u0086\u00E8\u00BB\u008D (Barbarian-Subduing General) in 1192.57 Moreover, he was at the center of an influential circle of people actively involved in cultural affairs: his brother Jien wrote history, and H\u00C5\u008Dnen (1133-1212), the founder of the Pure Land Buddhist sect in Japan, was his religious teacher. 58 Heike monogatari, in its content and themes, shares traits with Gyokuy\u00C5\u008D, Gukansh\u00C5\u008D and H\u00C5\u008Dnen\u00E2\u0080\u0098s teachings. As for the audience, Kakuichi Heike is considered more capital-centred than other variants in its political attitudes and geography of the described events. 59 Nishida mentions a focus on court events, avoidance of violent descriptions, and a generally dignified, courtly literary style as its qualities. 60 As for the language, variation observed in speech of various groups of characters did not exceed the level of comprehension of the people in the capital, that is, the speech of Azuma warriors is not represented in actual Azuma dialect, but only as a provincial-sounding (inakarashisa) speech that did not impede comprehension for the capital audience. 61 The \u00E2\u0080\u0095courtly\u00E2\u0080\u0096 view of events in the Heike follows from the link of its authors and editors to capital officials and institutions, as mentioned above. Let us now turn our attention to some of the specific examples of character interaction 55 Varley, Warriors of Japan, 83-4. 56 Gomi Fumihiko, Ky\u00C5\u008D, Kamakura no \u00C5\u008Dken (Yoshikawa K\u00C5\u008Dbunkan, 2003), 34. The council was imposed on Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa (1127-1192, r. 1155-1158) by Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147-1199, r. 1192-1199). 57 Varley, Warriors of Japan, 46. 58 See Gomi, Ky\u00C5\u008D, Kamakura, 58 for a list of people in this network and texts they wrote. 59 Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, Hidden Histories, 2. 60 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 34. 61 Ibid., 38. 29 in the capital which show how language use supplements the content of characters\u00E2\u0080\u0098 utterances and highlights differences in power. Gi\u00C5\u008D The rather long setsuwa-like story of the shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi dancer Gi\u00C5\u008D, not found in all copies of Kakuichi Heike, illustrates Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s arrogant behaviour resulting from his unrestrained political control. It is only a minor, non-violent incident in a series of Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s acts and orders that are shown as breaking court etiquette and norms of conduct expected from a person in power. As stated in the beginning of the \u00E2\u0080\u0095Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0096 episode, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Kiyomori indulged in one freakish caprice after another.\u00E2\u0080\u009662 Oyler also mentions that the episode describing Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s \u00E2\u0080\u0095heartless treatment of Gi\u00C5\u008D is but one of the most salient examples of his unfitness to rule.\u00E2\u0080\u009663 Another prominent theme in this episode is the portrayal of Buddhist practice as a way of escaping involvement in transient matters of the capital. My discussion is intended as a linguistic addition to literary analyses of content. How does the narrative represent Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s interaction with dancers? How do differences in language contribute to the image of Gi\u00C5\u008D and Kiyomori? 64 Consider first the frequent use of onbin \u00E9\u009F\u00B3\u00E4\u00BE\u00BF in this episode. Onbin, or historical sound change, has been one of the key areas studied by Japanese language scholars. As a result, 62 McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 30. 63 Elizabeth Oyler, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Gi\u00C5\u008D: Women and Performance in the \u00E2\u0080\u0097Heike monogatari,\u00E2\u0080\u0098\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 64, no. 2 (December 2004): 343. 64 The difference in speech styles is often expected and self-evident (especially if the audience already knows a lot about the characters). At the same time, textual data does not allow us to state that all the characters in power speak with people of lower status in the same way. I analyze by what language means the difference is encoded in the dialogue and how language forms participate in constructing the image of relationships between characters. 30 several studies have been produced based on quantitative analysis of the distribution of onbin forms in specific texts. Table 3 Onbin distribution between male and female speakers \u00E9\u009D\u009E\u00E9\u009F\u00B3\u00E4\u00BE\u00BF \u00E9\u009F\u00B3\u00E4\u00BE\u00BF \u00E5\u0090\u0088\u00E8\u00A8\u0088 \u00E7\u0094\u00B7 180 (26%) 509 (74%) 689 \u00E5\u00A5\u00B3 53 (71%) 22 (29%) 75 As seen in Table 3 there is a vast percentage difference in verbal onbin use by male (74%) and female (29%) characters of Kakuichi Heike. 65 Moreover, when onbin forms are classified by characters, a clear correlation between its use and the low social status of women is observed. 66 These results will be important for passages discussed later. Here, I would like to focus on Okumura\u00E2\u0080\u0098s statement that the \u00E2\u0080\u0095Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0096 section has an exceptionally high use of onbin in women\u00E2\u0080\u0098s dialogue, which can be attributed to the social status of shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi dancers.67 Let us first examine the use of onbin and the very plain style in the short statements of shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi dancers who gossip about Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s fortune of being favoured by Kiyomori: Ex. 1 \u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E5\u0085\u00B1\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u00A5\u0087\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u0089\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00B9\u00B8\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E5\u00A5\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E8\u00AA\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E6\u0098\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E7\u00A5\u0087\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E6\u0096\u0087\u00E5\u00AD\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u0090\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E6\u0088\u0091\u00E7\u00AD\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E8\u00A6\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0080\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AD\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E5\u0090\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E6\u0096\u0087\u00E5\u00AD\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u00B9\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E5\u0089\u008D\u00E4\u00B8\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u0094\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u008168 The envious ones said, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Lucky Gi\u00C5\u008D! What entertainer wouldn\u00E2\u0080\u0098t want to be exactly like her? It must be because she has used \u00E2\u0080\u0097Gi\u00E2\u0080\u0098 in her name; I\u00E2\u0080\u0098ll do that too.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] \u00E2\u0080\u0095What difference could a name or part of a name make?\u00E2\u0080\u0096 they [the many spiteful ones] sniffed. \u00E2\u0080\u0095Good fortune is something a person is born with from a previous existence.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 30) 65 Okumura, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Kakuichibon Heike,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 2. Overall statistics based on Kakuichi Heike (Ry\u00C5\u00ABkokudaigakubon \u00E9\u00BE\u008D\u00E8\u00B0\u00B7\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00AD\u00A6\u00E6\u009C\u00AC) excluding \u00E2\u0080\u0095Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and several other sections. 66 Ibid., 6. Some high status characters also use onbin and some characters use both onbin and non-onbin forms. This deviation in some of these cases is explained by the widespread use of onbin forms of specific words such as yoru \u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008B > yotte \u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 (that is, nobody uses the full form yorite \u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00A6). 67 Ibid., 10. 68 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 35. 31 The shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi dancers refer to Gi\u00C5\u008D adding the honorific suffix gozen \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u0089\u008D since she is a favourite of high-ranking Kiyomori. Exclamation is expressed by the construction ana\u00E2\u0080\u00A6ya \u00E3\u0081\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E2\u0080\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0084, by iza \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0096 or even by nandeu \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0086, mostly used by men. The dancers\u00E2\u0080\u0098 speech among themselves lacks keigo forms and presence of onbin in tsuite \u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u0088< tsukite \u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00EF\u00BC\u0089 and annare \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C (< arunare \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C) is noticeable. Onbin, as a variable whose use is not random, often signals an informal or low-level discourse. Certainly, not every single onbin form is such a marker since many had apparently become fixed and commonly used by speakers of all stations, nevertheless onbin can be seen as marking speech level. Also, the use of the Buddhist term zenze \u00E5\u0089\u008D\u00E4\u00B8\u0096 (previous existence) hints at the close or even expected contact between dancers and Buddhism. 69 It may also function as a foreshadowing of the subsequent transformation of the dancers into hermit nuns as well as a contrast with the superstitious significance ascribed to Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s name.70 This sample of shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi speech is found at the very beginning of the episode and shows the presence of unofficial marginalized speech in the capital. Before the protagonists, Gi\u00C5\u008D and Hotoke, are introduced, the audience can hear the speech of their colleagues. \u00E2\u0080\u0095In conventional interpretations of the well-ordered realm, [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] the fluidity implicit in the identity of shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi represent[s] a potential danger. Shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi occupy a special social stratum that can easily bleed into others and disrupt order. Uneasiness about this sort of disruption provides 69 Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s imay\u00C5\u008D song (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 269) is full of Buddhist content. Moreover, later in the episode Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mother, Toji, persuasively preaches with Buddhist arguments and at the end shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi suddenly, without special training, know how to speak as nuns as is evident from the high rate of kango Buddhist terminology in their speech. 70 There is some symbolism in names: gi \u00E7\u00A5\u0087 in Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s name, associated with Shinto-related terms, contrasts with Hotoke\u00E2\u0080\u0098s name hotoke \u00E4\u00BB\u008F (\u00E2\u0080\u0095Buddha\u00E2\u0080\u0096). 32 the impetus for the \u00E2\u0080\u0095Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0096 episode.\u00E2\u0080\u009671 Their speech, full of contractions and rough exclamations (such as nandeu \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0086), reinforces the non-elite image. Let us now turn to several qualities marking Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech addressed to Gi\u00C5\u008D and Hotoke. Rudeness in a character\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech is often linked with negative qualities of personality. This common (if not universal) effect can usually be achieved by direct insults, 72 examples of which will be provided in later sections, or through indirect ways of showing disrespect. What kinds of expressions are chosen to emphasize Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s quick temper as opposed to polite entreaties of the shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi? Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s \u00E2\u0080\u0095voice,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 that of a patron of a group of dancers,73 represents the oppressiveness of the rigidly hierarchical world of the Heike. 74 It is constructed from three kinds of utterances: 1) reaction to obedience, delight; 2) reaction to disobedience, discomfort; 3) misjudgement of feelings, no concern for etiquette, demands and threats. After Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s request to meet Hotoke, Kiyomori says: Ex. 2 \u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u00A6\u008B\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0080\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 \u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E6\u00A7\u0098\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E6\u00AD\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E6\u00A7\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E4\u00B8\u008A\u00E6\u0089\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00AE\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u0088\u009E\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E7\u0095\u00AA\u00E8\u00A6\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E9\u00BC\u0093\u00E6\u0089\u0093\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0080\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A675 Kiyomori: Well, my dear, since you make a point of it, I\u00E2\u0080\u0098ll see her before she goes. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] Give me an imay\u00C5\u008D. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] You sing imay\u00C5\u008D nicely, my dear; I suspect you are a good dancer, too. I\u00E2\u0080\u0098ll watch you perform a number. Call the drummer. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 31) In this episode Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s polite speech (in tone only, without polite forms to inferiors) is limited to cases when he is disposed to follow Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s suggestion to meet Hotoke or when he is pleased with the entertainment. Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s response to Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s explanation of dancer customs 71 Oyler, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Gi\u00C5\u008D: Women and Performance,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 361. 72 See J. M. Driel, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Styles of Conversations in Medieval Literature: The Case of Flemish Romances,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Neophilologus 94 (2010): 116, 118 for discussion of rude speech in medieval Flemish literary dialogues, for example. 73 Oyler, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Gi\u00C5\u008D: Women and Performance,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 345. 74 Ibid., 342. 75 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 37. 33 and feelings shows that he is inclined at times to satisfy her requests which seem too long to him (amari ni ifu \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B5). He talks to her in an endearing tone evident in ide ide \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A7 \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A7 as an exclamation of reluctant agreement together with the pronoun wagoze \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C, a second-person pronoun showing affectionate attitude to women. According to the table of address forms in the Kakuichi Heike 76 (Table 4), Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s use of wagoze \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C plus ifu \u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u00B5 (no keigo) in response to Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s use of highest honorifics, falls into category 3 \u00E2\u0080\u0095addressing people of lower status.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s use of language shows his understanding of mutual positions, with him as the hegemonic master and the shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi as low status female dancers. Table 4 Address forms in the Kakuichi Heike 1 2-1 2-2 2-3 3 4 \u00E5\u0090\u009B \u00E5\u0090\u009B\u00E9\u0081\u0094 \u00E6\u00AE\u00BF \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E6\u0096\u00B9 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E6\u0088\u00BF \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00BE\u00BA \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF \u00E8\u00B2\u00B4\u00E4\u00B8\u008B \u00E8\u00B2\u00B4\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E6\u0088\u00BF \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00BE\u00BA \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF \u00E6\u00AE\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0093 \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C \u00E5\u0090\u009B \u00E6\u00B1\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009C \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00BE\u00BA \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF \u00E6\u00AE\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0093 \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A1 \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A1 \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E5\u0090\u009B \u00E6\u00B1\u009D \u00E6\u00B1\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0082\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E7\u0094\u00B7 \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E5\u0083\u00A7 \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082 The same pronoun appears in Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s praise of Hotoke\u00E2\u0080\u0098s song a while later. As wagoze \u00E3\u0082\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C is not used by men elsewhere in Heike,77 its double use by Kiyomori to two different 76 Cited in Nishida, Heike monogatari no kokugogakuteki, 64. 77 Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mother uses it to address Gi\u00C5\u008D and Gi\u00C5\u008D in turn calls Hotoke wagoze. 34 women is likely a highly marked term of address that signals a quick shift in Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s affections. 78 Turning now to the arrogant side of Kiyomori, who positions himself as the master of the itinerant dancers, we see that his impatient reaction to unexpected discomforting events or signs of disobedience from lower status people is immediate and verbally expressed. For example, when Hotoke arrives uninvited, Kiyomori forcefully expresses his understanding of the relationship between itinerant female performers and him as a powerholder. 79 Ex. 3 \u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u00B7\u00A6\u00E5\u008F\u00B3 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E6\u008E\u00A8\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E4\u00B8\u008A\u00E7\u00A5\u0087\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E6\u0089\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u00A5\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E4\u00BB\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E7\u00BD\u00B7\u00E5\u0087\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u008D80 Kiyomori: What is this? Entertainers like her are not supposed to present themselves without being summoned. What makes her think she can simply show up like this? Besides, god or Buddha, she has no business coming to a place where Gi\u00C5\u008D is staying. Throw her out at once. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 31) The dissonance between the actions of female performers and Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s expectations is evident in the forms that vividly express the master\u00E2\u0080\u0098s criticism of the dependent dancers.81 Kiyomori exclaims with nandeu \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0086, followed by a rhetorical question of indignation ya aru \u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B, a pun82 on Hotoke\u00E2\u0080\u0098s name (\u00E2\u0080\u0095Buddha\u00E2\u0080\u0096), a strong prohibition majiki \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u008D with an emphatic particle zo \u00E3\u0081\u009E. His order to get out quickly contains a humble verb makaru \u00E7\u00BD\u00B7\u00E3\u0082\u008B that emphasizes the mutual status difference. Another example is Kiyomori turning down Hotoke\u00E2\u0080\u0098s request to leave: Ex. 4 \u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u0084\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00BD\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E7\u00A5\u0087\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u0084\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E7\u00A5\u0087 \u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E5\u0087\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0080\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A883 78 As mentioned by Oyler, \u00E2\u0080\u0095The fundamental problem with the world [ruled by Kiyomori] is [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] the capriciousness of [the] ruler, whose passions flit from one object to another without any thought of consequence or responsibility.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Oyler, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Gi\u00C5\u008D: Women and Performance,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 362. 79 Ibid., 350. 80 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 36. 81 Oyler, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Gi\u00C5\u008D: Women and Performance,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 349-350. 82 Puns or humiliating treatment of names regularly appear in the text (Heiji (clan) as heiji (wine bottle) in Chapter 1.12, naming a horse with owner\u00E2\u0080\u0098s name Nakatsuna in Chapter 4.6, Nekoma Lord as neko \u00E2\u0080\u0095cat\u00E2\u0080\u0096 in Chapter 8.6). 83 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 38. 35 Kiyomori: That is out of the question. Are you hanging back because of Gi\u00C5\u008D? If so, I\u00E2\u0080\u0098ll dismiss her. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 32) Hotoke\u00E2\u0080\u0098s second attempt to persuade Kiyomori to let her go is cut short by his brusque decision: Ex. 5 \u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E5\u0084\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u00A5\u0087\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E7\u00BD\u00B7\u00E5\u0087\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 Kiyomori: What! What! That\u00E2\u0080\u0098s out of the question. Tell Gi\u00C5\u008D to leave the house at once. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 33) Here we see again the exclamation nandeu \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0086 and the repeated use of sono gi arumaji \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u0084\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098 (That\u00E2\u0080\u0098s out of the question). The order from Ex.3 is repeated here, toutou makari ideyo \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E7\u00BD\u00B7\u00E5\u0087\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0082\u0088 (leave the house at once), this time intended for Gi\u00C5\u008D. Having decided to keep Hotoke, Kiyomori counters arguments of propriety and embarrassment by directly stating his will. Interestingly, Kiyomori repeats the same refusal to Hotoke later forbidding her to greet Gi\u00C5\u008D (\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u0084\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009884). These elements unambiguously mark Kiyomori as the decision-maker who limits and controls the actions of the dancers. He does not persuade, but orders unilaterally. Repetition of the same order to different dancers only highlights his capricious inconsistency. In several cases, Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s words are not rude or harsh, but they are certainly inappropriate for the occasion and either make him appear unconcerned about Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s feelings or, even worse, make her suffer humiliation on purpose. For example, after sending Gi\u00C5\u008D away, Kiyomori sends a message, casual in tone and audacious in content: Ex. 6\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E5\u00BE\u008C\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00BB\u008F\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u0089\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E4\u00BD\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E8\u00A6\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E6\u00A7\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0092 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E6\u00AD\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u0088\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E8\u0088\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BB\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0090\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A885 Kiyomori: How have you been since we parted? Hotoke seems bored nowadays; come and amuse her with some imay\u00C5\u008D and dances. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 33) 84 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 43. 85 Ibid., 40. 36 The greeting ika ni, sono nochi nanigoto ka aru \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E5\u00BE\u008C\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B obviously expresses no regret about the rude dismissal a year before. Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s choice of imperative form (nagusameyo \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0090\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0088), humble verb (maitte \u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00A6), and the use of nando \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A9 to list shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi arts convey a disrespectful attitude toward Gi\u00C5\u008D, not to mention that now she is forced to entertain her rival Hotoke described as tsurezurege ni miyuru \u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E8\u00A6\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0086 \u00E3\u0082\u008B (looking bored).86 Having received no response, Kiyomori resorts to a threat: Ex. 7 \u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E7\u00A5\u0087\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E8\u00BF\u0094\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E6\u00B5\u0084\u00E6\u00B5\u00B7\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00AD\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 Kiyomori: Why don\u00E2\u0080\u0098t you answer? Do you refuse to come? Say so, if you do. There are steps I can take. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 33) Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s message is introduced by the question nado\u00E2\u0080\u00A6zo \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00A9...\u00E3\u0081\u009E, rough-sounding question majii ka \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B (onbin form of majiki ka), order m\u00C5\u008Dse \u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u009B and a plain statement of threat at the end. His words are far from courteous: he uses humble verbs for Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s actions to emphasize her inferiority. Considering the vast difference in power, Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s verbal threat is clearly meant to be an act of tyranny and abuse of power. All the other characters in this episode persuade others to act a certain way, whereas only Kiyomori gives direct orders and achieves obedience by way of threats. By coercing Gi\u00C5\u008D to perform, Kiyomori demonstrates that \u00E2\u0080\u0095he is an unworthy audience,\u00E2\u0080\u009687 another instance of hegemonic control of itinerant performers. Language forms in Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech make up a part of his image of a leader who demands obedience. Next, the language of shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi and their manner of request needs to be discussed in contrast to Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech. The narrative itself is structured in such a way as to let the 86 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 43-44. Same greeting and demand are repeated when Gi\u00C5\u008D actually comes to perform later. 87 Oyler, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Gi\u00C5\u008D: Women and Performance,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 357. 37 audience observe the behaviour and speech of shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi characters in three different settings: with Kiyomori, with their mother at home, and together as nuns. In the mansion of Kiyomori, Gi\u00C5\u008D speaks up in defence of Hotoke who is told to leave. Ex. 8\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u008E\u00A8\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00B8\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E4\u00B8\u008A\u00E5\u00B9\u00B4\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6 \u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0080\u0085\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E4\u00BB\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B8\u008D\u00E4\u00BE\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E7\u00AB\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00B8\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E8\u0088\u009E\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00A6\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00AD\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 \u00E5\u00AF\u00BE\u00E9\u009D\u00A2\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E6\u0083\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E5\u0094\u00AF\u00E7\u0090\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u00AF\u00BE\u00E9\u009D\u00A2\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A888 Gi\u00C5\u008D: It is quite the usual thing for an entertainer to present herself without an invitation. Then, too, they say Hotoke is still very young. It would be cruel to send her home with that harsh dismissal, now that she has ventured to come here. As a dancer myself, I cannot help feeling involved: I would be uncomfortable and sad, too. You would be doing her a great kindness by at least receiving her before sending her away, even if you don\u00E2\u0080\u0098t watch her dance or listen to her sing. Won\u00E2\u0080\u0098t you please be a little lenient and call her back to be received? (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 31) Gi\u00C5\u008D, out of solidarity with Hotoke, defends her uninvited appearance in Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mansion as a common practice of the dancers, thereby contradicting Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s initial decision to send Hotoke away. Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s bold speech, given the vast difference in status, shows that she has influence over some of Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s decisions, at least in the matters of shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi practice. Of course, this power is concealed under the most elaborate honorific forms. Among less conspicuous features, one can find the use of -ramu \u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0080 and -nzure \u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008C forms that function to soften the request as well as many u-onbin (ku > u) forms wosanau \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0086, sugenau \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0086 and hazukashiu \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0086. The structural elements of the request are by no means simple. Arguments are linked by conjunctions ga \u00E3\u0081\u008C and wo \u00E3\u0082\u0092, reasons and condition are signalled by conditional \u00E2\u0080\u0093ba \u00E3\u0081\u00B0 and concessive construction tatohi\u00E2\u0080\u00A6tomo \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E2\u0080\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082 (even if\u00E2\u0080\u00A6), all contributing to a successful, albeit wordy, persuasive request. The 88 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 36. 38 great status gap separating Gi\u00C5\u008D from Kiyomori is acknowledged in the highly polite level of her speech. The noticeable abundance of the polite auxiliary verb saburafu \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5, a form used by women, unambiguously marks the speaker\u00E2\u0080\u0098s gender. Her use of the highest honorific verbs for his actions (ohoserarete \u00E4\u00BB\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6, goranji \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00A6\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0098, kikoshimesazu \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u009A) with honorific go \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1+Noun forms clearly marks the asymmetry in social positions of the interlocutors; that is, Gi\u00C5\u008D draws on a conventionalized set of choices for a low status person addressing a top-ranked official. In this case, the identity of a dancer is constructed not only by the outline of professional practices, but also by means of using a set of specific forms in one\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech. Participating in an established register is closely linked to the creation of a norm or a natural convention that is expected in similar situations. Thus, from the audience\u00E2\u0080\u0098s perspective, \u00E2\u0080\u0095hearing\u00E2\u0080\u0096 a shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi in a performance or text who does not talk like Gi\u00C5\u008D would likely be perceived as a deviation. Ex. 9 \u00E4\u00BB\u008F\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u0089\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u008E\u00A8\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0087\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u0095 \u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u00A5\u0087\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u0089\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E7\u008A\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u00A5\u0087\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u0089\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E5\u00BF\u0083\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E6\u009A\u0087\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0087\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0080\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A889 Hotoke: What is this? I came here on my own and was thrown out, but then I was recalled through Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s intercession. If I were to be kept here, it would embarrass me to know what Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s thoughts would be. Please let me go home right away. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 32) After Kiyomori has decided to keep Hotoke, he does not let her change his mind. Similar to Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech, Hotoke\u00E2\u0080\u0098s unsuccessful request is marked by heavy use of saburafu \u00E3\u0081\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 with high honorifics to Kiyomori (mesi \u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0097, owashimase \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009B) and moderate ones to Gi\u00C5\u008D (omohi tamawan \u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093). Particularly representative of Hotoke\u00E2\u0080\u0098s \u00E2\u0080\u0095voice\u00E2\u0080\u0096 is the use of the first-person pronoun warawa \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF, which is far from neutral, as it is explicitly 89 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 38. 39 associated with modesty if not self-abasement. The use of this pronoun as well as the phrase haya haya itoma wo taude \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E6\u009A\u0087\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A7 (please let me go right away) may be considered appropriate for characterisation of Hotoke as a young low status dancer. The pronoun warawa \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF is not found in Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech since she is older than Hotoke. Haya haya \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0084 conveys a sense of hurry and desperation better than the neutral hayaku \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u008F, and tamahite \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 > tabite \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 > taude \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A7 is a rarely used contracted onbin form, likely a sign of Hotoke\u00E2\u0080\u0098s emotion and a marker of her low status. Both of her noticeably long requests to leave are rejected by Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s brief statements as he reasserts his power to make decisions. Both speeches by Gi\u00C5\u008D and Hotoke in these two examples (Ex.8 and 9) are significant as attempts to resist Kiyomori from an inferior position. Gi\u00C5\u008D can firmly state her position, whereas the younger Hotoke, unaccustomed to interaction with powerful leaders, shows her agitation and weakness. The problem is that Kiyomori is not the right audience for their eloquence and politeness. Once he has a goal, he does not tolerate any opposition and ignores arguments of propriety. How do shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi speak at home? The shift in setting to a private space is paralleled by shift in choices of language forms. The most evident change can be observed in a greater flexibility in the use of politeness markers such as saburafu \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5, indicating in this case a non-official home setting as well as a greater focus on parent-daughter relations instead of a shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi identity. Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mother, Toji, persuades Gi\u00C5\u008D to visit Kiyomori: Ex. 10 Toji:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E7\u00A5\u0087\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u0089\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00BF\u0094\u00E4\u00BA\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00BA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0098 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00B7\u00A6\u00E6\u00A7\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B \u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u008D Gi\u00C5\u008D: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u00BB\u0088\u00E8\u0080\u008C \u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 \u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0095\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BD\u0095 40 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00BF\u0094\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u00BA\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B3 \u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BA\u008C\u00E5\u00BA\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B3 \u00E9\u009D\u00A2 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u008D90 Toji: Come, now, Gi\u00C5\u008D, give him some kind of answer. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] That would be better than having him scold you like this. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 33) Gi\u00C5\u008D : I would say, \u00E2\u0080\u0097I\u00E2\u0080\u0098ll come at once,\u00E2\u0080\u0098 if I thought I might go, but I don\u00E2\u0080\u0098t intend to go, so I don\u00E2\u0080\u0098t know how to answer. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] I can\u00E2\u0080\u0098t face him again after he has treated me with such contempt. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 34) Toji, a figure of power in the family, puts pressure on Gi\u00C5\u008D to convince her to perform for Kiyomori. She relies on persuasion and avoids direct orders. As a rule, parents, including Toji in this example, do not use s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style when speaking to their children. Her insistence is softened by exclamation ika ni \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB, adverb tomokaumo \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0082 (onbin form of tomokakumo \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0082, somehow), and the conversational inversion of clauses resulting in yori wa \u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF at the end of her utterance. These forms certainly differ from those in Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s orders. Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s reply contains a curious irregularity. Children usually address their parents using polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style, but Gi\u00C5\u008D omits them in her reply.91 Apart from using humble verbs to emphasize the status gap between her and Kiyomori, Gi\u00C5\u008D speaks in a plain non-polite style (oboezu \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u009A, arazu \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A) to her mother, Toji. The switch into plain forms signals that she temporarily does not recognize Toji\u00E2\u0080\u0098s status and dares to decide on her own. In this case, language forms underline Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s distraught condition as she tries to remain secluded at home ignoring both Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s calls and Toji\u00E2\u0080\u0098s advice. Later, Toji\u00E2\u0080\u0098s admonition succeeds in making Gi\u00C5\u008D turn to regular polite usage of saburafu \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 in her reply. Ex. 11 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BA\u0094\u00E9\u0080\u0086\u00E7\u00BD\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E8\u0087\u00AA\u00E5\u00AE\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00BE \u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A692 90 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 41. 91 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 226. 92 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 45. 41 Gi\u00C5\u008D: You are right. I would undoubtedly be committing one of the Five Deadly Sins if we all killed ourselves. I will abandon the idea of suicide. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 35) It is definitely possible to consider this shift as a marker of a change in Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s attitude towards her mother from a more defiant firm refusal (irregular lack of saburafu \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 earlier) to being persuaded not to commit suicide (using saburafu \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5).93 Interestingly, this restoration of parent-daughter relations is brought about by Toji\u00E2\u0080\u0098s Buddhist sermons (see Ex. 12) and coincides with Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s decision to become a nun. The following speech is an example of mother\u00E2\u0080\u0098s way to equate advice with preaching that highlights a close link between dancers and Buddhist knowledge. Even before they take the tonsure, the dancers recite verses filled with Buddhist content during performances and they are also exposed to sermons at home. Ex. 12 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u00A4\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E4\u00B8\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E4\u00BD\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E7\u00A8\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BB\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E8\u0083\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009E \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u0094\u00B7\u00E5\u00A5\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u00B8\u0081 \u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E5\u00AE\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E4\u00B8\u0096 \u00E3\u0081\u009B \u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u008D\u0083\u00E5\u00B9\u00B4\u00E4\u00B8\u0087\u00E5\u00B9\u00B4\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u008E\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AA \u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00B8\u00AD\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u0099\u00BD\u00E5\u009C\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00AD\u0098\u00E7\u0094\u009F \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B8 \u00E6\u009E\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00AD\u00A4\u00E4\u00B8\u0089 \u00E5\u00B9\u00B4\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E6\u0083\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AD\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0091\u00BD \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u0094\u00AF\u00E9\u0083\u00BD\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00A4\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E5\u0087\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E5\u0094\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E9\u0083\u00BD\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BD\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E6\u009E\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E4\u00BB\u008A \u00E7\u0094\u009F \u00E5\u00BE\u008C \u00E7\u0094\u009F \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00AD\u009D\u00E9\u00A4\u008A \u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u008D94 Toji: Anyone who lives in this country had better not disobey Kiyomori. The bonds linking a man and a woman are fashioned before this life begins. Sometimes a couple part early after having sworn to stay together forever; sometimes a relationship that had seemed temporary lasts a lifetime. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] That you enjoyed Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s favor for three years was an unusual show of affection on his part. Of course he is not going to kill you if you refuse to answer his summons; he will simply expel you from the capital. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] Won\u00E2\u0080\u0098t you please let me finish out my life in the capital? I will think of it as a filial act in this world and the next. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 34) Gi\u00C5\u008D is, in fact, manipulated in different ways both by Kiyomori and by Toji. Her mother persuades by drawing on religious Buddhist kango vocabulary (enshukuse \u00E7\u00B8\u0081\u00E5\u00AE\u00BF\u00E4\u00B8\u0096 \u00E2\u0080\u0095bonds,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 93 This possibility is mentioned in Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 248. 94 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 41-2. 42 nagarahe \u00E5\u00AD\u0098\u00E7\u0094\u009F \u00E2\u0080\u0095lifetime,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 konj\u00C5\u008Dgosh\u00C5\u008D no ky\u00C5\u008Dy\u00C5\u008D \u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E7\u0094\u009F\u00E5\u00BE\u008C\u00E7\u0094\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00AD\u009D\u00E9\u00A4\u008A \u00E2\u0080\u0095filial act in this world and the next\u00E2\u0080\u0096), skilfully balancing logical argumentation (domo\u00E2\u0080\u00A6ari \u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A and conditional - ba \u00E3\u0081\u00B0) with emotional persuasion (emphatic particles zotoyo \u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0088, zokashi \u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097 and affectionate address pronoun wagoze \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C). In the final scene, the two long speeches of Gi\u00C5\u008D and Hotoke as nuns are filled with Buddhist discourse, of course. Both of them make use of honorific forms towards each other as a sign of mutual respect and reconciliation. The use of saburafu \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5, however, resurfaces here again only in Hotoke\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech and only when she recalls the events at Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mansion. This way former service to Kiyomori is contrasted with current independence away from the capital. Ex. 13 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E2\u0080\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u008E\u00A8\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0087\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u00A5\u0087\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u0089\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u0094\u00B3 \u00E7\u008A\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E8\u00BF\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E6\u00A7\u0098\u00E6\u00AD\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E5\u00B8\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u009A\u0087\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E7\u0094\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E7\u0089\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E6\u00A1\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00A8\u0091 \u00E5\u00A9\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00A0\u0084\u00E8\u008A\u00B1\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u00A4\u00A2\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00A4\u00A2\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00A5\u00BD\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E6\u00A0\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E6\u00A7\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0097\u00A5 \u00E6\u00AF\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u00A7\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 95 Hotoke: I went to Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mansion on my own initiative and was turned away, but then I was called back, thanks entirely to Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s intervention. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] When you were summoned to sing the imay\u00C5\u008D, [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] I kept asking for my freedom, but Kiyomori would not grant it. When we stop to consider, flowering fortunes in this world are a dream within a dream; happiness and prosperity mean nothing. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] Now that I have come to you in this altered guise, please forgive my past offenses\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 36) In the first instance of direct communication between the two dancers without Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s interference, Hotoke asks Gi\u00C5\u008D for forgiveness in respectful terms. When talking of Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s actions she uses honorific auxiliary verb tamafu \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5. By retaining honorific forms for Kiyomori and marking his actions as those of a superior (onmochiimashimasazu \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E7\u0094\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097 \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009A \u00E2\u0080\u0095would not grant it\u00E2\u0080\u0096), she indirectly explains her stay in Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mansion as unavoidable due to the large difference in power. As soon as she starts her sermon beginning 95 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 47-8. 43 with tsukuzuku \u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u008F, forms of polite auxiliary verb saburafu \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 disappear and only honorific forms like tamahe \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8 are employed for Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s actions and humble forms such as mairitareba \u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0 for her own actions. Memories of past service shift into present reconciliation. Ex. 14 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E8\u00AA\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0098\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00A4\u00A2\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E7\u009F\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E5\u00BF\u0083\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E5\u0096\u0084\u00E7\u009F\u00A5\u00E8\u00AD\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A696 Gi\u00C5\u008D: I never dreamed that you felt that way. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] I look on you as a great teacher. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 37) Gi\u00C5\u008D, in turn, uses tamafu \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 for Hotoke\u00E2\u0080\u0098s actions and also the address pronoun wagoze \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094 \u00E3\u0081\u009C. Her final speech is mostly in Plain style (ari \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A, nari \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A, -keri \u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008A etc.) and the Buddhist words daid\u00C5\u008Dshin \u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E5\u00BF\u0083 (a person of great resolve to seek Buddhist path) and zenchishiki \u00E5\u0096\u0084\u00E7\u009F\u00A5\u00E8\u00AD\u0098 (great teacher) show Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s admiration of Hotoke\u00E2\u0080\u0098s decision to become a nun. Both Gi\u00C5\u008D and Hotoke construct their identities as nuns through mutually polite confessions and lengthy Buddhist reflections on impermanence of fortune. As pointed out by Oyler, \u00E2\u0080\u0095each enables the other to embrace fully their shared Buddha-nature and pursue their goal of rebirth in harmony and peace.\u00E2\u0080\u009697 In a sense, they remodel their shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi solidarity into solidarity of hermits and their service to Kiyomori into devotion to Amida Buddha who is to be trusted. Their attitude to Amida Buddha is expressed by the humble auxiliary verb tatematsuru \u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B. Ex. 15 \u00E5\u00BC\u00A5\u00E9\u0099\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u009C\u00AC\u00E9\u00A1\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u00BC\u00B7\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E4\u00BF\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u009A\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E5\u0090\u008D\u00E5\u008F\u00B7\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u008298 Toji, Gi\u00C5\u008D and sister (as hermits in the hut in the Saga mountains): [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] we must rely firmly on the Original Vow of Amida [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] we must maintain a constant stream of invocations.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 36) 96 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 49. 97 Oyler, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Gi\u00C5\u008D: Women and Performance,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 359. 98 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 46. 44 We have examined some of the ways language choices constitute an integral element in the representation of Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s arrogance, the shift between Gi\u00C5\u008D speaking to Kiyomori and to her mother at home, and the shift of both shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi in performing roles of dancers and nuns. The focus on language forms does not aim to challenge interpretations of the \u00E2\u0080\u0095Gi\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0096 episode, but rather to suggest which forms used in dialogues vividly indicate difference in power and sudden shifts in attitude. For audiences listening to Heike performances, variation in the speech of characters did not go unnoticed and, thus, played a role in forming the image of Gi\u00C5\u008D, Kiyomori, and Hotoke. Since identities are constructed in the process of \u00E2\u0080\u0095doing\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and not simply \u00E2\u0080\u0095being,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 the way characters speak lets audiences form a clear image of their identities and mutual relationships. The interaction between the dancers and Kiyomori, as depicted in the episode, raises the problem of communication between different status groups. Since Kiyomori does not enter into a dialogue with dancers preferring a unilateral issuing of orders, he eventually loses both dancers and his status of a \u00E2\u0080\u0095shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi patron.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Later on, similar attitude toward courtiers and others who somehow depend from him (including Retired Emperor) leads him to lose their support. Although this narrative fulfills a prominent role in characterizing Kiyomori as a ruler, it does not reveal a political conflict, which will be the subject of the next section. Political interaction Power struggle between factions at court, secret plots to overthrow the Heike, and the violent consequences of betrayal are the themes dominating the narrative of Chapters 1-3 of Heike monogatari. Among many possible views of court life, this narrative foregrounds the image of court as an arena of political conflict with many risks of failure for the participants. The set of narratives dealing with these matters is approached here as a political world\u00E2\u0080\u0098s 45 representation that shapes audience views of power relationships in the capital. We should keep in mind that this is not an esoteric narrative for inhabitants of the capital only, but a widely circulating text that allowed people to experience capital life from a distance through the medium of biwa h\u00C5\u008Dshi performances. As described by Bialock, wandering biwa reciters of the medieval Heike gained custody of historical narrative. Referring to the early eleventh century, Bialock writes, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Once the written production of court scholars, history has now become the utterance of wandering reciters at the margins of power.\u00E2\u0080\u009699 It does not matter that much that the message is a mixture of facts, rumours, and exaggerated accounts. What matters is the influence this depiction of capital politics exerted on the audience\u00E2\u0080\u0098s collective image of the capital. In addition to noting how language properties of these narratives vary according to setting, I will also discuss in greater detail those communicative aspects that are prominent in character interaction. In this section, I examine dialogue speech from the following chain of settings spanning Chapters 1 to 3: 1) Conspiracy; 2) Betrayal; 3) Interrogation; 4) Admonition/persuasion. Conspiracy Secret meetings held at Bishop Shunkan\u00E2\u0080\u0098s villa at Shishi-ga-tani in the capital gather many influential people who oppose growing Heike power, including the principal conspirator Major Counselor Fujiwara no Narichika, his supporter Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa, and several prominent religious and military figures. Noteworthy is the choice of the particular banquet scene as the only representative example of dynamic interaction at these meetings. 99 Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 156-7. 46 The presence of Retired Emperor at the secret meeting is significant by itself as well as his reaction to Narichika\u00E2\u0080\u0098s witty manipulation. The communication in the conspiracy setting is characterized in part by secrecy/caution, solidarity, and ludic behaviour. All of these elements are present in the following conversation: Ex. 16 1) J\u00C5\u008Dken: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E6\u0089\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u0094\u00AF\u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E5\u00A4\u00A9\u00E4\u00B8\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u008F\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u008D 2) Ret. Emperor: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u008D 3) Narichika:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u00B9\u00B3\u00E6\u00B0\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0080\u008D 4) Ret. Emperor (smile): \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E7\u008C\u00BF\u00E6\u00A5\u00BD \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E4\u00BB\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u008D 5) Yasuyori: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00B9\u00B3\u00E6\u00B0\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E9\u0086\u0089 \u00E3\u0082\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u008D 6) Shunkan: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E4\u00BB\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u008D 7) Saik\u00C5\u008D: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E9\u00A0\u00B8 \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00B3 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0080\u008D 8) J\u00C5\u008Dken (silent)100 1) J\u00C5\u008Dken: This is dreadful! Many people are listening. The secret will leak out in no time; there will be a crisis. 2) Ret. Emperor: What does that mean? 3) Narichika: The downfall of the heiji. 4) Ret. Emperor (smile): Everybody come forward and do a sarugaku turn. 5) Yasuyori: Ah! There are too many heiji. They have made me tipsy. 6) Shunkan: What shall we do with them? 7) Saik\u00C5\u008D: The best thing is to take their heads. 8) J\u00C5\u008Dken (silent) (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 47) J\u00C5\u008Dken\u00E2\u0080\u0098s101 reaction upon learning the true purpose of the meeting is far-sighted, considering the consequences, and highly cautious, as is emphasized by the exclamation ana asamashi \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097 (this is dreadful!). His agitated exclamation and advice of precaution is expressed politely (s\u00C5\u008Drahinu \u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AC) with the use of the humble verb uketamawaru \u00E6\u0089\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u008B (to hear), as a reminder that the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s words are heard by many of those present. 100 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 71-2. 101 He is a son of Fujiwara no Michinori, also known as Shinzei (1106-1160). He is a very high-ranked priest consistently presented as wise and courtly. 47 J\u00C5\u008Dken\u00E2\u0080\u0098s utterance is significant in two respects. Firstly, it warns the Retired Emperor of the risk involved in showing support of Narichika\u00E2\u0080\u0098s plot in front of many untrustworthy people. Secondly, and more importantly, it provokes vigorous action of Narichika, who hurries to dispel fears and doubts by \u00E2\u0080\u0095repairing\u00E2\u0080\u0096 the conspiracy through language manipulation. Before going further, I would like to mention several points about the Retired Emperor that help explain the position he takes in this scene. As indicated above, Kuj\u00C5\u008D Kanezane\u00E2\u0080\u0098s diary Gyokuy\u00C5\u008D and Jien\u00E2\u0080\u0098s Gukansh\u00C5\u008D are some of the likely sources for Heike monogatari and the image of Go-Shirakawa presented in these works is of interest here. Gukansh\u00C5\u008D states that Go- Shirakawa was always interested in dance, including sarugaku 102 dance. In addition, being fond of imay\u00C5\u008D103 songs, he personally compiled an imay\u00C5\u008D anthology Ry\u00C5\u008Djin hish\u00C5\u008D \u00E6\u00A2\u0081\u00E5\u00A1\u00B5\u00E7\u00A7\u0098\u00E6\u008A\u0084 (Secret selection of dust on the beams, ca. 1170). In Gyokuy\u00C5\u008D we find a curious criticism of Retired Emperor by Fujiwara Shinzei (1106-1160): \u00E8\u00AC\u0080\u00E5\u008F\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u0087\u00A3\u00E5\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u009C\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u0088\u0087\u00E8\u00A6\u009A\u00E6\u0082\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u00BF\u0083\u00E7\u0084\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E6\u0082\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E9\u009B\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u008C\u00B6\u00E4\u00BB\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00A3 \u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E8\u00A6\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00A6\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E6\u0084\u009A\u00E6\u0098\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u008F\u00A4\u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E6\u009C\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E8\u00A6\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u009C\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082104 The scene of conspiracy mostly observed from the point of view of J\u00C5\u008Dken, a son of Shinzei, corroborates this view by providing an example of Go-Shirakawa\u00E2\u0080\u0098s full trust in his subjects combined with carefree participation in a conspiracy despite J\u00C5\u008Dken\u00E2\u0080\u0098s warnings. During the banquet, Narichika, interested in gaining direct imperial support, involves the Retired Emperor into the conspiracy by overturning a bottle before him. When the intrigued (and distracted) Go-Shirakawa asks about it, Narichika employs an ingenious 102 Literally \u00E2\u0080\u0095monkey music,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 a form of popular dance involving comic mime, juggling, and acrobatics. 103 Literally \u00E2\u0080\u0095present style,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 a vocal genre popular in the late Heian period. 104 Kokusho kank\u00C5\u008Dkai, ed. Gyokuy\u00C5\u008D (1964; reprint, Tokyo Kappan, 1907). \u00E2\u0080\u0095When rebellious subjects are by his side, he is completely unaware of that. Even when somebody lets him know about it, he still does not notice it. Such folly has never been seen nor heard of in the past or present.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (Translation mine.) Despite having such interests and qualities that seem to be far from ideal for a ruler, Go-Shirakawa managed to repeatedly assume control of top-level politics during a period of 35 years. Cited from Gomi, Ky\u00C5\u008D, Kamakura, 37. 48 wordplay punning on the homophony between Heiji (Heike clan) and heiji (a flask) that he overthrew (tafure \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0082\u008C) in a joking way (tahare \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008C) as a service to the Retired Emperor (polite auxiliary s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 can simultaneously mean \u00E2\u0080\u0095to serve\u00E2\u0080\u0096 as an independent verb). The effect is immediate\u00E2\u0080\u0094Retired Emperor notices with a smile a theme for a comic dance (sarugaku). Noteworthy is the address form monodomo \u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082, mostly said to inferiors, and the use of humble verbs mairu \u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B and tsukamatsuru \u00E4\u00BB\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008B for actions done by lower status people for the speaker. 105 Yasuyori, Shunkan and Saik\u00C5\u008D elaborate the pun further as they perform a dance. Yasuyori shows respect to his audience (by using the polite auxiliary s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099), Shunkan is unsure (-muzuru ~\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008B contracted from -mutosuru ~ \u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B) how to overthrow the highly-placed Heike (acknowledging by the use of a humble verb tsukamatsuru \u00E4\u00BB\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008B that the revolt is an action done for the Retired Emperor), whereas Saik\u00C5\u008D employs no honorific or polite markers equating the Heike with \u00E2\u0080\u0095bottles.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 The structure of their utterances is effective for persuasion of fellow conspirators: statement of problem \u00EF\u0083\u00A0 question \u00EF\u0083\u00A0 answer. The narrator\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mention of J\u00C5\u008Dken\u00E2\u0080\u0098s silence at the end reminds Heike audiences of his earlier failed attempt to caution the Retired Emperor. The whole scene can be interpreted as a cunning move by Narichika to manipulate Go- Shirakawa, using his weakness for popular dance and song together with his na\u00C3\u00AFvet\u00C3\u00A9 in political matters that does not let him foresee the consequences of this \u00E2\u0080\u0095innocent\u00E2\u0080\u0096 entertainment. On the other hand, it may be a shrewd political move on Go-Shirakawa\u00E2\u0080\u0098s part to mobilize forces at court with grievances against the Heike in order to check Heike\u00E2\u0080\u0098s growing power.106 After all, dance as a joint activity, together with humorous witty utterances, is a powerful tool for 105 Actually, it is a kind of honorific attitude to oneself expressed in the speech of imperial members and other superiors. More on this controversial phenomenon later in this chapter. 106 Interestingly, this episode fits well into Bialock\u00E2\u0080\u0098s discussion of ritual properties of \u00E2\u0080\u0095ludic play\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and \u00E2\u0080\u0095violence inherent in royal power.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 See Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 173. 49 creating a sense of solidarity among participants. Needless to say, a shared feeling of defiance is generated by bold utterances of the rebellious intentions hidden only behind the obvious pun. This episode brings together ludic play at the riotous banquet, language manipulation and violent political plans. The very possibility of having a sarugaku dance in the capital in the presence of the Retired Emperor is a striking idea that likely forced a re-evaluation of the image of the capital: peripheral language and dance practices could be performed in the heart of the capital with imperial sanction. As pointed out by Bialock, [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] one of the defining characteristics of late Heian royal authority was the increasingly close association between retired sovereigns and a variety of marginal entertainers, including sarugaku performers. Linked to the unruly demonic powers, one of the hallmarks of parodic sarugaku was the boisterous laughter (oko no warai) that came at the climax of the performance, signalling a ritual inversion of hierarchy and a revivifying of sacred authority. 107 A curious parallel can be drawn between the Shishi-ga-tani meeting and the later Muromachi period group meetings that joined entertainment with formation of leagues for a common cause. \u00E2\u0080\u0095At these meetings people ate and drank together, held discussions, developed strong communal bonds, and strengthened their ties of solidarity. Such bonds created a climate favourable to revolts [...]\u00E2\u0080\u0096108 There can be only two ways to account for such parallelism, either Muromachi period practice was layered upon the past Genpei narratives (quite probable given the year (1371) the Kakuichi Heike monogatari was written down) or the Muromachi meetings were not a novelty, but a continuation of earlier practice. What is quite certain is that the Shishi-ga-tani performance must have been a familiar and common activity for biwa h\u00C5\u008Dshi audiences who may have linked it to contemporary meetings of their own. In sum, within the Heike, the planning of a violent overthrow of the Taira by people close to the Retired Emperor 107 Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 172. 108 Pierre Souyri, The World Turned Upside Down: Medieval Japanese Society (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), 171. 50 takes place in the marginal space on the outskirts of the capital and consists of a ludic behaviour featuring a ritual inversion of Taira power. Verbal manipulation and wordplay blur the distinction between formal political communication and ritualized decadence. Betrayal The next event following the plot is the betrayal, which consists of a significant dialogue between Yukitsuna, one of those present at the Shishi-ga-tani banquet, and Kiyomori provoking a chain of actions against the plotters. Immediately noticeable is the density of dialogue in this episode with several cases of consecutive utterances uninterrupted by narratorial comment. The speakers are clear since there are only two characters, and the utterances thus help create an atmosphere of closeness or secrecy. Ex. 17 1) Yukitsuna: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E4\u00BC\u009D \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u008D 2) Kiyomori (comes out): \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u00A4\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0080\u008D 3) Yukitsuna: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u0098\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E7\u009B\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E9\u0096\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00A4\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u008E\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E6\u00AD\u00A4\u00E7\u00A8\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u00A9 \u00E9\u0099\u00A2 \u00E3\u0082\u0090\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E4\u00B8\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u00A2\u00E3\u0082\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0085\u00B5\u00E5\u0085\u00B7 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0090 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u00BB\u008D \u00E5\u0085\u00B5 \u00E3\u0081\u0090\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u008D 4) Kiyomori: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00B1\u00B1\u00E6\u0094\u00BB\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0080\u008D 5) Yukitsuna (approaches and lowers his voice): \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u0085\u00B6 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u0084\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u008E \u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u0090\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u00AE\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E4\u00B8\u008A \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00B8 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E6\u0089\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u008D 6) Kiyomori: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E6\u00B3\u0095\u00E7\u009A\u0087\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u008D 7) Yukitsuna: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u00AD\u0090\u00E7\u00B4\u00B0 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E6\u0088\u0090 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A \u00E8\u00A6\u00AA \u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u008B \u00E5\u008D\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u00BB\u008D\u00E5\u0085\u00B5\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u0099\u00A2\u00E5\u00AE\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D \u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u008D...\u00E3\u0080\u008C \u00E6\u009A\u0087 \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00BE \u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u008D109 1) Yukitsuna: It is not a matter I can entrust to an intermediary. 2) Kiyomori: It is very late. What business brings you here? 109 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 107-8. 51 3) Yukitsuna: I have come in the dark because many inquisitive eyes watch in the daytime. Have you heard why the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s associates are assembling arms and mustering warriors nowadays? 4) Kiyomori: They say His Majesty intends to attack Mount Hiei. 5) Yukitsuna: That is not the reason. I have heard that the Taira clan is the real target. 6) Kiyomori: Does the Retired Emperor know about it? 7) Yukitsuna: Of course. Narichika tells his recruits he is acting on the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s orders. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] (Then he excused himself and withdrew.) (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 63) Structurally, the dialogue consists of several transitions, a change in distance between Yukitsuna and Kiyomori as the interaction continues and a gradual action-reaction approach chosen by Yukitsuna as he exploits the knowledge gap to convey secret information in a persuasive manner. In this short interaction we see a shift in loyalty when Yukitsuna betrays the Shishi-ga-tani conspiracy, including the Retired Emperor, in order to secure the future trust of Kiyomori. We also observe an interesting interplay between power conferred institutionally (that is, in terms of status and rank Kiyomori is much higher than Yukitsuna) and power negotiated situationally expressed in possession of the secret (Kiyomori knows less than Yukitsuna). Yukitsuna arrives at Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mansion unexpectedly late at night as a stranger. Initially having to communicate with Kiyomori through a messenger, he prompts Kiyomori to meet him privately by hinting at the secrecy of his message (Ex.17-1). Kiyomori is perplexed by the reason for a late visit (Ex.17-2). His question is stated plainly with no honorific markers and somewhat impatiently (ikani, nanigoto zo ya \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0082\u0084), acknowledging Yukitsuna\u00E2\u0080\u0098s lower status as a courtier. Yukitsuna stresses the importance of his secret (Ex.17- 3) and gains initiative by questioning Kiyomori. As expected, Yukitsuna employs polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style showing respect to Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s high position and humbles himself (maitte \u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6). Here I would like to point to the use of aida \u00E9\u0096\u0093 in his answer. This conjunction expressing 52 reason or cause is not neutral in its sociolinguistic aspect, but significantly skewed in its distribution towards interaction between men (mostly warriors). 110 Consider the following table showing distribution of conjunction aida \u00E9\u0096\u0093 in dialogue passages of Kakuichi Heike monogatari: Table 5 Distribution of conjunction aida in dialogue passages 111 Speaker (M) Listener (M) Speaker (M) Listener (F) Speaker (F) Listener (M) Thoughts (M) Thoughts (F) Other 27 5 0 1 0 2 Moreover, out of 27 man-to-man cases, 13 are warrior-to-warrior dialogues. The function of aida \u00E9\u0096\u0093 to contribute to construction of a political dialogue between men should not be underestimated. It is often true that one does not need elaborate and explicit markers placed densely in an utterance to convey the setting or relation between characters. A single appropriately used marker, even if it does not attract much attention, may be an effective detail enhancing the overall scene (in the sense of matching linguistic form with content and context to create a unified whole that is presented as a \u00E2\u0080\u0095norm\u00E2\u0080\u0096). Of course, it is futile to judge how a given marker was received by fourteenth-century audiences and what associations it evoked then, but even an approximate indication of uneven distribution of a form (such as aida \u00E9\u0096\u0093) is of value to formulation of interpretations of the passage in which the form is found. The question of Yukitsuna (Ex.17-3), a pre-planned rhetorical strategy, is one of the key points in this dialogue (nantoka kikoshimesare s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u0080\u0099). Questions play a large role in configuration of situationally negotiated power. In other words, posing a question is a powerful claim to imposing control on the direction in which the conversation will develop and it is usually done by a person of higher institutional status who asks inferiors. In this case, however, we see a mismatch between institutional power and situationally 110 As noted in Nishida, Heike monogatari no kokugogakuteki, 340-354. 111 Ibid., 345. 53 negotiated one, since Yukitsuna, despite being inferior in status, dares to question Kiyomori and take control of the conversation. The highly polite form kikoshimesare s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C \u00E5\u0080\u0099 serves as a \u00E2\u0080\u0095repair\u00E2\u0080\u0096 technique, a way to mask the bold manipulation behind a formal acknowledgement of Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s high rank. The casual response of Kiyomori (Ex.17-4) allows Yukitsuna to reveal his key information mixing truth (existence of anti-Heike conspiracy) with lies (current military preparation is not aimed at Heike power). At this point, Yukitsuna\u00E2\u0080\u0098s utterance (Ex.17-5) contradicts Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s opinion and reveals straightforwardly the conspiracy\u00E2\u0080\u0098s aim being the Heike clan. There are many honorific prefixes go/on \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 for the Heike in Yukitsuna\u00E2\u0080\u0098s betrayal statement and also the humble verb uketamawaru \u00E6\u0089\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u008B (to hear) for his own actions. I would like to draw a parallel between Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s (Ex.17-4) to koso kike \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u0091 and Yukitsuna\u00E2\u0080\u0098s response (Ex.17-5) to koso uketamawari s\u00C5\u008Drahe \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E6\u0089\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8. Both claim to have heard the information without specifying exact sources. This emphasis on \u00E2\u0080\u0095hearing\u00E2\u0080\u0096 brings attention to the fact that in the capital, even information of highest political significance is essentially orally transmitted like a rumour. Such circumstances explain the readiness with which Kiyomori listens and reacts to the news of conspiracy. If we consider the emphasis on heard information, then we can say that this passage participates in a larger discourse on rumour at court and provides evidence for a view of a leader collecting hearsay to form an opinion or decision. As pointed out by Bialock, in Confucian orthodox historiography, \u00E2\u0080\u0095attending to rumour,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 or the \u00E2\u0080\u0095voice of the people,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 was viewed as indispensable to the conduct of virtuous government. 112 As for biwa h\u00C5\u008Dshi performances, mention of hearsay as a legitimate source of evidence for Kiyomori indirectly asserts the credibility of Heike 112 Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 286. 54 monogatari, to a large extent a collection of hearsay itself, as an equally reliable account of court politics. In a sense, the audience found itself in a position quite similar to Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s, having to reach conclusions based on hearsay evidence provided by biwa h\u00C5\u008Dshi. Itinerant performers, \u00E2\u0080\u0095as frequenters of the markets and waysides where rumour proliferated,\u00E2\u0080\u0096113 may have thus shaped a popular attitude to Heike monogatari accounts as one of the types of historical evidence. 114 Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s reaction immediately follows (Ex.17-6). Not having any conflicts with the Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa in the past, he is surprised and worried by possible opposition from the Retired Emperor whose superior status he acknowledges by one of the highest honorific forms shiroshimesaretaru ka \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B. Yukitsuna replies with a rhetorical question (Ex.17-7). Again, formally polite and deferential to Kiyomori, he still succeeds in maintaining control of the conversation by answering confidently as if he were an advisor to Kiyomori, this attitude being expressed in the rhetorical question with an idiomatic expression shisai ni ya oyobi s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u00AD\u0090\u00E7\u00B4\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E5\u0080\u0099 (of course, clear without going into details). He emphasizes the link between Narichika and the Retired Emperor with a repetitive mesare s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u00A6koso mesare s\u00C5\u008Drahe \u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u0080\u0099...\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8. Courtly politics is shown to be structured in such a way that a relatively inferior courtier present during the conspiracy at Shishi-ga-tani succeeds in escalating latent tensions between powerful political figures into an open conflict. Coming as a stranger, Yukitsuna succeeds in getting Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s attention and trust. His cautious and forceful presentation of secret information convinces Kiyomori of its accuracy and triggers a series of actions aimed against the plotters and the Retired Emperor. 113 Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 286. 114 Even late in the Edo period, the Heike monogatari was classified as \u00E2\u0080\u0095miscellaneous history\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (zatsushirui). See Oyler, Swords, Oaths, and Prophetic Visions, 163, note 30. It might be added that regarding hearsay as hearsay (rather than fact) is quite an objective view of historical accounts. 55 Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s method of verifying the truth of Yukitsuna\u00E2\u0080\u0098s words is interesting from the perspective of communication. He sends a messenger to a courtier at the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mansion with a notice on the conspiracy and his intention to suppress it. Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s plan is to test Go-Shirakawa\u00E2\u0080\u0098s position in the matter and check his reaction. The courtier informs the Retired Emperor who understands in panic that the conspiracy has been betrayed. Unable to reply with anything except saru nitemo, ko wa nanigoto zo\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0080\u008D,115 Go-Shirakawa only confirms Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s suspicions. This brief episode reveals a multi-layered system of communication at the court with key politicians interacting through messengers. The importance attached to the manner of communication among political figures deserves attention. Despite the indirectness inherent in such a system, the role of verbal behaviour in establishing political configurations was (or was shown to be) significant. In this example, Kiyomori readily decides that Go-Shirakawa\u00E2\u0080\u0098s hesitation and inability to give a convincing answer necessarily support Yukitsuna\u00E2\u0080\u0098s allegations about his anti-Heike political stance. Arrest and interrogation Let us consider the scene of Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s arrest and interrogation in Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mansion. In the discussion above, I discussed Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s unrestrained behaviour during the sarugaku dance at the Shishi-ga-tani when he openly threatened to behead the Heike like \u00E2\u0080\u0095bottles.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 In this episode, I will examine how language forms chosen by the same Saik\u00C5\u008D enhance the content of his message to Kiyomori and how they reinforce a very audacious attitude taken in courtly conflict settings. This scene opens and develops consistently along two interdependent themes that likely characterize Genpei-era court politics: 1) conflict over position relative to the Retired Emperor 115 \u00E2\u0080\u0095What is all this?\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 64). 56 as the \u00E2\u0080\u0095axis\u00E2\u0080\u0096 of legitimacy and 2) harsh speech accompanying violence. The Retired Emperor is not a direct participant at this point, and yet his support of the anti-Heike revolt constrains Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s claims to legitimacy and indirectly structures the interaction. Warriors serving Kiyomori encounter Saik\u00C5\u008D in the street heading to the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s H\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u00ABji palace: Ex. 18\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E8\u00A5\u00BF\u00E5\u0085\u00AB\u00E6\u009D\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u008D116 Warriors: You are summoned to Nishihachij\u00C5\u008D. Come along now. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 64) Warriors try to lure Saik\u00C5\u008D to Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s headquarters at Nishihachij\u00C5\u008D, simultaneously establishing a status gap between Kiyomori and Saik\u00C5\u008D (honorific verb mesu \u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0099 \u00E2\u0080\u0095to summon\u00E2\u0080\u0096 referring to their superior Kiyomori). As agents of the Heike they permit themselves to express demands in a direct and rather forceful way (emphatic zo \u00E3\u0081\u009E and kitto \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A8), as if they were relating Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s order (imperative form maire \u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008C is definitely an order to an inferior). Saik\u00C5\u008D feigns to have misunderstood the immediacy of the order and attempts to appeal to the authority of the Retired Emperor. Notice the use of the verb sousu \u00E5\u00A5\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0099 \u00E2\u0080\u0095to report (to the Emperor)\u00E2\u0080\u0096: Ex. 19 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u00A5\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00B3\u0095\u00E4\u00BD\u008F\u00E5\u00AF\u00BA\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0080\u008D117 Saik\u00C5\u008D: I am on my way to the H\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u00ABji Mansion with an urgent report for the Retired Emperor. I will go to Nishihachij\u00C5\u008D as soon as I am free. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 64) Instead of letting him go on his important mission, the warriors ordered to arrest the conspirators only hasten to prevent his further contact with the Retired Emperor and his possible escape to relative safety: Ex. 20\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E5\u00A5\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082 116 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 112. 117 Ibid. 57 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u008D118 Warriors: What do you think you\u00E2\u0080\u0098re going to report, you odious monk? Forget it! (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 64) Heike warriors suddenly lose their temper and disclose their anger by way of direct rudeness, that is, they treat him as a conspirator to be arrested right away. In such circumstances, Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s close position to the Retired Emperor is irrelevant as evidenced by the disrespectful forms of the warrior speech, primarily the adjective nikkui \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0084 (emphatic onbin change from nikuki \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u008D \u00E2\u0080\u0095hateful\u00E2\u0080\u0096) followed by the contraction bekannaru \u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B (from bekuarunaru \u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B) and the prohibition na\u00E2\u0080\u00A6so \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E2\u0080\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u009D. Compared to the \u00E2\u0080\u0095capital\u00E2\u0080\u0096 speech of Saik\u00C5\u008D, the multiple occurrence of contracted forms in the warrior speech clearly stands out as \u00E2\u0080\u0095peripheral\u00E2\u0080\u0096 or unrefined. Bialock, discussing the warrior\u00E2\u0080\u0098s status in the medieval imaginary, mentions aristocratic perceptions of the warrior as the \u00E2\u0080\u0095barbarian within.\u00E2\u0080\u0096119 I would add that representations of warrior speech in Heike monogatari often mark it as different from the elite speech of the capital and thus reinforce the image of warriors\u00E2\u0080\u0098 otherness. Brought before Kiyomori, Saik\u00C5\u008D is subjected to humiliating accusations: Ex. 21\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u00AF\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u008D 120 Kiyomori: This is what\u00E2\u0080\u0098s become of the fellow who aspired to bring me to ruin. Pull him over here. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 65) Kiyomori speaks in front of his warriors, and his speech, not much different from theirs, is characterized by contractions (katabukeudosuru \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B < katabukentosuru \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009F \u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B) and contemptuous address forms (yatsu \u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4 and shiyatsu \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4). Typical for Kiyomori is the frequent use of imperatives (hikiyoseyo \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u00AF\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0088) that highlights his 118 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 112. 119 Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 190-5. 120 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 112. 58 position of power, a position of judge in this case. Shiyatsu \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4 as a rarely used rude address form deserves a more detailed discussion here. By no means is the use of rude forms (such as shiyatsu \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4) an innovation first seen in the Heike monogatari. Earlier Heian works, such as Genji monogatari (The Tale of Genji, 1008), also provide examples of marked non-neutral words used in the speech of characters who are thus singled out as rustic and vulgar. Rude words occurred rarely in court speech and in Genji monogatari, for example, none are used in poems and in the narrative. Rude speech is limited to specific characters such as Taifu no Gen, a rich landowner in provincial Hizen. Taifu no Gen utters the only example of derogatory address seen in the entire Genji monogatari in the form of the pronoun suyatsubara \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u0089 (they), a variant of rude forms such as soyatsu \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4, kuyatsu \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4, kayatsu \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4. Such language use would be considered inappropriate at court and it thus emphasizes Taifu no Gen\u00E2\u0080\u0098s rough character and deviation from court conventions\u00E2\u0080\u0094a clear example of speech being a marker of a character\u00E2\u0080\u0098s identity.121 One technique to highlight the refined qualities of a courtier, however, is to mix words that are usually found in waka poems, so-called kago \u00E6\u00AD\u008C\u00E8\u00AA\u009E (poetic words), into the speech of that particular character. For example, Kaoru can be said to have a preference for poetic words in his speech, such as when he comments\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E4\u00B8\u00AD\u00E7\u00A9\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0080\u008D.122 The phrase nakazora nari \u00E4\u00B8\u00AD\u00E7\u00A9\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A (\u00E2\u0080\u0095unsettled, restless; in mid-air\u00E2\u0080\u0096) is found in waka poems of Kokinsh\u00C5\u00AB (poem #481) and Ise monogatari (section 21), that is, its conventional usage is strongly associated with poetry and Kaoru\u00E2\u0080\u0098s choice to use it in a 121 Yamaguchi Nakami, Heianch\u00C5\u008D no kotoba to buntai (Kazama Shob\u00C5\u008D, 1998), 138-140. 122 Cited from Yamaguchi, Heianch\u00C5\u008D no kotoba, 131. \u00E2\u0080\u0095He has left me looking like a bumbling fool!\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Murasaki Shikibu, The Tale of Genji, trans. Royall Tyler (New York: Penguin Books, 2001), 886. 59 conversation reveals his refined character. Similarly, Prince Genji often draws on poetic vocabulary in his speech as in the following example when he talks to Tamakazura: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E7\u00AB\u00B9\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E8\u00A6\u008B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u008D123 Here, nayotake \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E7\u00AB\u00B9 (\u00E2\u0080\u0095pliant bamboo\u00E2\u0080\u0096) alludes to poems in Kokinsh\u00C5\u00AB (#993) and Many\u00C5\u008Dsh\u00C5\u00AB (Book 2, 217). In the scene of Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s interrogation, Kiyomori uses a rude word that would characterize him as a provincial warrior in the eyes of courtiers. The use of the \u00E2\u0080\u0095vulgar word\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (zokugo \u00E4\u00BF\u0097\u00E8\u00AA\u009E) shiyatsu \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4124 positions Kiyomori closer to provincial warriors than to courtly officials, a move that is on one hand justified by the emergency of the setting, but at the same time serves as a reminder of Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s inherent quality of a \u00E2\u0080\u0095provincial\u00E2\u0080\u0096 ignorant of courtly norms. The Heike author(s)\u00E2\u0080\u0098 choice of language reinforces Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s undeservedly high position and his definite break from traditional courtly speech norms. In the following accusation speech, Kiyomori pursues two aims, 1) to position Saik\u00C5\u008D in a low status category separate from the Retired Emperor in order to remove legitimacy granted to Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s plans by the Retired Emperor and 2) to establish his own authority as a judge. Ex. 22 Kiyomori:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u009C\u00AC \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00B8\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u0092 \u00E8\u0087\u0088 \u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0090\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B2 \u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u00AE\u0098\u00E8\u0081\u00B7\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u0088\u00B6\u00E5\u00AD\u0090\u00E5\u0085\u00B1\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E9\u0081\u008E\u00E5\u0088\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E8\u00A6\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E5\u00A4\u00A9\u00E5\u008F\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BA\u00A7\u00E4\u00B8\u00BB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00B5\u0081\u00E7\u00BD\u00AA \u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00A4\u00A9\u00E4\u00B8\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u0087\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A0 \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E5\u0089\u00B0 \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E6\u00AD\u00A4\u00E4\u00B8\u0080 \u00E9\u0096\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u00AC\u0080\u00E5\u008F\u008D \u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0080\u008D125 Kiyomori: Although this wretch and his sons sprang from the dregs of society, the Retired Emperor took them into his service and gave them offices to which they had no right. Not content with aping their betters, they proceeded to create a national crisis by contriving the exile of the innocent Tendai Abbot. And now, to cap it all, this creature turns out to have joined a conspiracy against our house. Confess everything! (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 65) 123 Cited from Yamaguchi, Heianch\u00C5\u008D no kotoba, 131. \u00E2\u0080\u0095Just reflect on the pliant bamboo.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Murasaki Shikibu, The Tale of Genji, trans. Royall Tyler, 492. 124 Nishida, Heike monogatari no kokugogakuteki, 110. 125 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 112-3. 60 Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s choice of address and honorific forms (ascribed to him by Heike author(s), of course) is in itself a claim to setting up hierarchies of power. Thus, a sharp contrast between the Retired Emperor and Saik\u00C5\u008D is paralleled by forms of address like kimi\u00E2\u0080\u00A6meshitsukawase tamahite \u00E5\u0090\u009B...\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 and onorera\u00E2\u0080\u00A6gerafu no hate \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089...\u00E4\u00B8\u008B\u00E8\u0087\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00A6. The highest honorific pronoun kimi \u00E5\u0090\u009B and the triple honorific construction meshitsukafu \u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0097 \u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 with honorific causative se \u00E3\u0081\u009B and honorific auxiliary verb tamafu \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 are juxtaposed with the lowest pronoun of abuse onorera \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089 and a rude reference to low status gerafu no hate \u00E4\u00B8\u008B\u00E8\u0087\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00A6. Kiyomori brings attention to the extreme unworthiness of Saik\u00C5\u008D and his undeservedly high position of service to the Retired Emperor as he expresses disapproval of the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s decision to grant Saik\u00C5\u008D important positions at court. Criticism of the Retired Emperor takes the form of nasarumajiki \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u008D and nashitabi \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B3, honorific expressions (nasaru and tabu) of a lower degree 126 and majiki \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u008D, marking strong inappropriateness. At this point, Kiyomori still acknowledges the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s top status, but also claims himself to be in a position sufficiently high to point out mistakes in decisions and appointments made by the Retired Emperor. Next, Kiyomori assumes the role of a judge, listing Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s crimes with formal legal vocabulary (kabun \u00E9\u0081\u008E\u00E5\u0088\u0086, ruzai \u00E6\u00B5\u0081\u00E7\u00BD\u00AA, tenka no daiji \u00E5\u00A4\u00A9\u00E4\u00B8\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E4\u00BA\u008B, muhon \u00E8\u00AC\u0080\u00E5\u008F\u008D). His use of the onbin contraction idaite \u00E5\u0087\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6(< idashite \u00E5\u0087\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6)127 and of the emphatic past -tengeru ~\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u008B, one of the characteristic forms used in Kamakura-period texts and not found in courtly Heian literary texts, creates a dissonance with 126 Nishida, Heike monogatari no kokugogakuteki, 331. 127 The use of onbin in a verb like idasu \u00E5\u0087\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u0099 is a relatively rare phenomenon that occurs only in male speech. Probably an insignificant detail, it may have been found appropriate for Kiyomori in the context of interrogation. See Okumura, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Kakuichibon Heike monogatari,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 4. 61 formal capital speech. Ordering with a humble verb m\u00C5\u008Dse \u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u009B is another detail lowering Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s status. Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s reply contains highly significant choices of language forms no less astonishing and audacious than its content (the two are discussed as inseparable entities complementing each other). Ex. 23 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E9\u0081\u008E\u00E5\u0088\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E5\u00AE\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00BB\u0096\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u0089\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E7\u009F\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u00A5\u00BF\u00E5\u0085\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u008C \u00E8\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E5\u00AE\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E9\u0099\u00A2\u00E4\u00B8\u00AD\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E8\u00BA\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u009F\u00B7\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u0088\u00A5\u00E5\u00BD\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0088\u0090\u00E8\u00A6\u00AA\u00E5\u008D\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E9\u0099\u00A2\u00E5\u00AE\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E6\u00A7\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u008D128 Saik\u00C5\u008D: What nonsense! It is you who forget your position when you talk like that. Others may not object, but I refuse to let you use such language to me. I don\u00E2\u0080\u0098t claim that I, as a member of the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s staff, refused to participate in the recruitment activities that Narichika said His Majesty had ordered. I did participate. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 66) What makes Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s reply sound bold? Here we have to understand what is missing in his speech. The general norm for interaction between people of different social status is for a lower one to show politeness to the interlocutor by using s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style. To understand how pervasively strong this convention was, one has only to recognize that even in the case of addressing one\u00E2\u0080\u0098s enemies and in the speech of a prisoner, a lower status speaker still chooses the s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style, a marker of respectful politeness.129 The only s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 in Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech is samos\u00C5\u008Dzu \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009A, where s\u00C5\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086 < s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 is the contracted colloquial zokugo form common in the speech of warriors, including Kiyomori. However, in this case it is part of a fixed idiomatic expression meaning \u00E2\u0080\u0095on the contrary.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Overall, Saik\u00C5\u008D is determined to break the norm and avoids the polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style. This is a clear indication of Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s insubordination and treatment of Kiyomori as a person of lower or equal status. Even though 128 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 113. 129 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 243. 62 Saik\u00C5\u008D employs honorific verbs such as notamafu \u00E5\u00AE\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00B5, tamafu \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5, and owasu \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0099, they are not part of the set of highest honorific verbs and are used regularly in the speech of equals or even to somewhat inferior interlocutors. This is exactly the message Saik\u00C5\u008D sends to Kiyomori and the attending warriors, namely that he, as a member of the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s group, does not consider Kiyomori to be his superior. Daring to speak as an equal, he ignores the large difference in rank and power, seriously challenging Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s claims to authority both as a Chancellor and a judge. Additionally (Ex.24), Saik\u00C5\u008D selects the second-person pronoun gohen \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00BE\u00BA to refer to Kiyomori, which only reinforces the stance he takes, since this pronoun is spoken to equals and those slightly inferior in status. 130 In this dialogue, Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s onorera \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089 and Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s gohen \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00BE\u00BA carry enough information about the attitudes taken by each speaker and they, in a sense, structure the verbal representation of the power conflict. This episode contains one of the more transparent examples of language variation. In addition to providing valuable data for linguistic analysis of politeness expressions in premodern Japanese, the speech of Saik\u00C5\u008D is one of the clearest expressions of courtiers\u00E2\u0080\u0098 great irritation and resentment towards the Taira rise to power. The highly irregular absence of polite forms in his speech is a direct, manifest expression of resistance to Kiyomori and, more generally, to formerly marginalized warrior clans. Ex. 24 Saik\u00C5\u008D: \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00BE\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0095\u0085 \u00E3\u0081\u0093 \u00E5\u0088\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u008E\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E9\u0083\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u00B6 \u00E5\u008D\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u00BF\u00A0 \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A0 \u00E7\u009B\u009B \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00AD\u0090\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u008D\u0081\u00E5\u009B\u009B\u00E4\u00BA\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u0087\u00BA\u00E4\u00BB\u0095 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0095\u0085 \u00E3\u0081\u0093 \u00E4\u00B8\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u00BF \u00E9\u0096\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E8\u0097\u00A4 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E4\u00B8\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u00A2\u00E3\u0082\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E7\u00B4\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00AA \u00E8\u00A8\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E5\u00AE\u00B6 \u00E3\u0081\u008B \u00E6\u0088\u0090 \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u008D\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u00BE\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E4\u00BA\u00AC \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E7\u00AB\u00A5 \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E9\u0083\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u00B9 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u00AB\u0098 \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008B \u00E5\u00B9\u00B3 \u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E5\u00A4\u00AA \u00E3\u0081\u00A0 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E6\u00AE\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E4\u00B8\u008A \u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00AD\u0090\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E5\u00A4\u00AA\u00E6\u0094\u00BF\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E8\u0087\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E9\u0081\u008E\u00E5\u0088\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E4\u00BE\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B2 \u00E5\u0093\u0081 \u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u008F\u0097 \u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0086 \u00E9\u00A0\u0098 \u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00A4\u009C \u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E9\u009D\u009E \u00E3\u0081\u00B3 \u00E9\u0081\u0095 \u00E3\u0082\u0090 \u00E4\u00BD\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u0097 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0085\u0088\u00E4\u00BE\u008B\u00E5\u0082\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E4\u00BE\u008B \u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E9\u0081\u008E\u00E5\u0088\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u008D 130 Nishida, Heike monogatari no kokugogakuteki, 64. 63 Kiyomori: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E9\u00A0\u00B8 \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00B3 \u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00B7\u00A6\u00E5\u008F\u00B3 \u00E3\u0081\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u008D... \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E5\u008F\u00A3\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0080\u008D131 Saik\u00C5\u008D: Although you were the son of the late Punishments Minister Tadamori, you never showed your face at court until you were fourteen or fifteen. The city riffraff used to call you \u00E2\u0080\u0097Towering Heita\u00E2\u0080\u0098 in the days when you hung around Middle Counselor Ienari\u00E2\u0080\u0098s house. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] To rise to the eminence of Chancellor was certainly far beyond the deserts of the son of a man whose very presence in the Courtiers\u00E2\u0080\u0098 Hall provoked resentment. There is no lack of early or current precedent for the appointment of someone of samurai status to a provincial or Police office. How can I be accused of exceeding my station? Kiyomori: Don\u00E2\u0080\u0098t cut off his head just yet. Tie him up tight. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] (Split open his mouth.) (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 66) Saik\u00C5\u008D, proudly declaring himself to be \u00E2\u0080\u0095someone of samurai status\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (saburaihon no mono \u00E4\u00BE\u008D\u00E5\u0093\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u0080\u0085) following the order of the Retired Emperor, sees no excess in his rank or actions and accuses Kiyomori of usurping undeserved status. Characterization of Saik\u00C5\u008D as bold and defiant is further complemented by the way he outlines his view of Kiyomori. He denies Kiyomori the right to make false accusations (Ex. 23): e koso notamafumajikere \u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E5\u00AE\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008C (\u00E2\u0080\u0095I refuse to let you use such language to me\u00E2\u0080\u0096) with the marker of strong prohibition or inappropriateness maji \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098, often seen in the speech of Kiyomori and rarely spoken to him. He goes on to recount Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s career from a humiliating experience in his youth when he was nicknamed Takaheida \u00E9\u00AB\u0098\u00E5\u00B9\u00B3\u00E5\u00A4\u00AA (\u00E2\u0080\u0097Towering Heita\u00E2\u0080\u0098) to the position of daij\u00C5\u008D daijin \u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E6\u0094\u00BF\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E8\u0087\u00A3 (Chancellor) listing several intermediary positions, likewise undeserved in his opinion. Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s accusation essentially mirrors Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s one before in terms of exposing the other side as wrongfully occupying the position at court, not mentioning, however, the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s promotion of Kiyomori in the past. Angered Kiyomori is left speechless and in a plain style (kiru na \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA, sake \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0091) orders guards to torture Saik\u00C5\u008D, referring to him again as 131 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 114. 64 shiyatsu \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4. Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s order to split Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mouth before execution explicitly reveals Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s rage at the opponent\u00E2\u0080\u0098s insolent speech. This sample of conflict dialogue offers us insight into the way power dynamics were encoded in speech strategies. Considering the irregularity of Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s defiant reply (absence of s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style), we can hypothesize about its role in redefining communication \u00E2\u0080\u0095norms\u00E2\u0080\u0096 at court. Extreme absence of s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 politeness indicator where it is expected exposes importance of its functions in regular contexts thereby reinforcing the use of s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 when interacting with superiors. Transgression of the conventional boundaries of speech contrasts with the \u00E2\u0080\u0095norm\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and highlights it. It might be added that ignoring the irregularity of Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s language greatly diminishes the force of his verbal challenge to Kiyomori. What image of the court is conveyed in this interrogation? Not surprisingly, it is a world of factions and struggles for positions. Noteworthy is the background of people competing in the court system. Judging from accusations centered on the undeserved positions of certain characters and their low origins, social mobility was a phenomenon in the capital and it is possible that both Kiyomori and Saik\u00C5\u008D were of low background and that they rose to prominent positions exceptionally quickly, especially Kiyomori. This may explain the peculiar features of Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech, such as shiyatsu \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4 insults used only sporadically in earlier texts (such as Genji monogatari) to mark provincial speech. Heike monogatari reveals how speakers from peripheral, provincial groups moved into the centre of power so quickly that their speech behaviour betrayed their origins. Saik\u00C5\u008D, knowing Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s background, speaks as though they were equals. It is a power struggle between Narichika\u00E2\u0080\u0098s faction (Saik\u00C5\u008D) and Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s clan, and even if Saik\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s brave challenge to the violent usurper Kiyomori is admirable, Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s insults and violence are justified as punishment of rebel conspirators. 65 Senju-no-mae Having discussed several dialogue sequences taking place at the Kyoto court, I will now consider the contrasting interaction at a parallel seat of power located in Kamakura (Kant\u00C5\u008D) headed by Minamoto no Yoritomo, the leader of the bakufu military organization, who succeeded in consolidating control over the eastern provinces. Yoritomo, according to the Kakuichi account, has joined the anti-Heike revolt after obtaining the order from the Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa legitimizing the overthrow of the Heike. Formally, he positions himself as defender of imperial power against \u00E2\u0080\u0095court enemies,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 the Heike. The following episode is a scene of Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s interrogation of Taira no Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s son Shigehira, one of the top Heike commanders, who was taken prisoner and brought to Kamakura. He is accused of burning Nara temples with Buddhist sacred objects, one of the worst crimes that were thought to have led the Heike to ruin. Ex. 25 Yoritomo:\u00E3\u0080\u008C \u00E6\u008A\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u0082 \u00E5\u0090\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u0088\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00B9\u00B3\u00E5\u00AE\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00A1\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u0086\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB \u00E5\u0080\u0099 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E8\u00A6\u008B\u00E5\u008F\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u00AD\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E6\u008A\u0091\u00E5\u008D\u0097\u00E9\u0083\u00BD\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0095\u0085 \u00E3\u0081\u0093 \u00E5\u00A4\u00AA \u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E6\u0094\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u0085\u00A5 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E9\u0081\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E6\u00AE\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BB\u00B0 \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u008F\u0088\u00E6\u0099\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u00B1\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00BB\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00A4\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u00BD\u00AA\u00E6\u00A5\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u008D 132 Yoritomo: Because I have wished to calm His Majesty\u00E2\u0080\u0098s wrath and redeem my father\u00E2\u0080\u0098s honor, the destruction of the Heike has entered into my planning, but it had never occurred to me that you and I might meet here. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] Now tell me, did you destroy the southern capital on Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s orders, or was it your own spur-of-the-moment decision? It was an incredibly wicked deed. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 338) If we compare this interrogation with Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s one discussed earlier, the difference in language is enormous. Shigehira is, of course, of a much higher status than Saik\u00C5\u008D and his crime is not participation in a conspiracy to overthrow Yoritomo, but speaking respectfully 132 SNKBZ, vol. 46, 287. 66 with an \u00E2\u0080\u0095enemy of the court\u00E2\u0080\u0096 who has burned Nara does reveal much about Yoritomo as a leader/judge and about the role of communication in the legitimacy claims of the Eastern \u00E2\u0080\u0095court.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Yoritomo does not torture Shigehira and no insults such as shiyatsu \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4 are addressed to him. What kind of politeness level does Yoritomo find appropriate in the situation? For Shigehira\u00E2\u0080\u0098s actions, he uses one of the highest honorific expressions ~sase tamafu ~\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5, for his own actions (to the Retired Emperor) he uses humble expressions (tatematsuru \u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B). The consistent and abundant use of the polite discourse marker s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 immediately stands out as the way to express a respectful attitude to the addressee, Shigehira. All of these qualities mark very respectful speech. 133 Generally speaking, this speech style is used to talk to people of higher status than the speaker or in formal situations between refined high level people (even of equal position) as a show of mutual respect. 134 Ex. 26 Shigehira: \u00E3\u0080\u008C... \u00E8\u00A1\u0086\u00E5\u00BE\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0082\u00AA\u00E8\u00A1\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0097 \u00E7\u00A8\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B8\u008D\u00E6\u0085\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E4\u00BC\u00BD \u00E3\u0081\u008C \u00E8\u0097\u008D \u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E6\u00BB\u0085 \u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00A4 \u00E4\u00BA\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u008F\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u008A\u009B\u00E5\u008F\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E6\u00AC\u00A1\u00E7\u00AC\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E5\u008F\u0088\u00E9\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u0087\u008D\u00E8\u00A1\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E6\u0098\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E4\u00B8\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u0094\u00AF\u00E5\u0085\u0088\u00E4\u00B8\u0096 \u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009C \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00AE\u00BF \u00E6\u00A5\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E5\u008F\u00A3\u00E6\u0083\u009C \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0082\u0092 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E5\u00BC\u0093\u00E7\u009F\u00A2\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0095\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0089\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0091\u00BD\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u00A4\u00B1\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E6\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E6\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u008F\u00AA \u00E8\u008A\u00B3\u00E6\u0081\u00A9 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AD\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u008D135 Shigehira: It happened by accident when I went to suppress the monks\u00E2\u0080\u0098 violence; there was nothing I could do to prevent it. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] Now our luck has turned, and I have come down here as a prisoner. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] but the thought of coming here had never entered my head. I can only regret the evil act in a former life that has produced this karma. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] It is common enough for a warrior to fall into enemy hands and perish; there is no real disgrace about it. I ask only that you cut off my head with as little delay as possible. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 338) 133 Nishida, Heike monogatari no kokugogakuteki, 330. 134 Ibid. 135 SNKBZ, vol. 46, 288. 67 As for the courtier-warrior Shigehira, his speech is likewise formal and respectful in addition to being an elaborate rhetorical composition about the fate of the whole Heike clan. In terms of language, he does use the polite marker s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 to convey respect to his audience, primarily Yoritomo, although significantly less frequently than Yoritomo. Most sentences remain in a neutral form ending in arazu \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A, ari \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A, nari \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A, for example, with s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style limited to mention of his own actions and feelings. Even talking about his own execution, he uses the honorific passive form hanerarubeshi \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AD\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097 (you should cut off my head). Shigehira\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech greatly moves the audience, warriors present at Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s court, so that Yoritomo finds it necessary to explain his role in the fall of the Heike. Ex. 27 Yoritomo: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u00B9\u00B3\u00E5\u00AE\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u0088\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E7\u00A7\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E5\u00B8\u009D\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BB\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E9\u0087\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u008D136 Yoritomo: I do not in the least regard the Heike as personal enemies. I am simply obeying His Majesty\u00E2\u0080\u0098s orders. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 338) Yoritomo again speaks in a polite and formal manner using s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 repeatedly to show respect to Shigehira. The emphatic negation yumeyume\u00E2\u0080\u00A6zu \u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0081...\u00E3\u0081\u009A and the justification (excuse) tada\u00E2\u0080\u00A6koso \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A0...\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D reveal some of the anguish and sympathy he feels about the destruction of the Heike, as does his insistence on following imperial orders. Using the humble auxiliary verb tatematsuru \u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B, usually addressed to imperial members and high status courtiers, also shifts responsibility for Shigehira\u00E2\u0080\u0098s arrest to the Retired Emperor and the court. In this narrative, Yoritomo is not made to appear as a leader fully independent from the capital court. A little later, upon hearing of Shigehira\u00E2\u0080\u0098s wish to take religious vows, Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s strict decision is still made by taking imperial interests into consideration. 136 SNKBZ, vol. 46, 289. 68 Ex. 28 Yoritomo: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E9\u00A0\u00BC\u00E6\u009C\u009D \u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E7\u00A7\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E6\u009C\u009D\u00E6\u0095\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A \u00E5\u00A5\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00BE \u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u008A\u00AA\u00E3\u0080\u0085 \u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0081 \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u008D137 Yoritomo: That is out of the question. It would be different if he were a personal foe, but he is an enemy of the court entrusted to my care. There can be no thought of such a thing. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 339) Still humbly using tatematsuru \u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B as a sign of respect for the imperial court, he emphatically (yumeyume \u00E5\u008A\u00AA\u00E3\u0080\u0085) forbids Shigehira, whom he calls an \u00E2\u0080\u0095enemy of the court\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (ch\u00C5\u008Dteki \u00E6\u009C\u009D\u00E6\u0095\u00B5), to avoid execution by becoming a monk. Yoritomo stops short of saying \u00E2\u0080\u0095I would let him take the tonsure.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 The unfinished utterance after naraba koso \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D emphasizes that Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s decisions are constrained by the capital court. Such communication samples can be interpreted as demonstrating Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s dependence on imperial legitimization and also highlighting his role in setting up a new semi- courtly judicial space where values mentioned by Shigehira (service to the Emperor, warrior ideals) are upheld and promoted. The refined and learned speech and response to it are not the least elements of the image of Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s rule of law. Compared to Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s interrogations, the court of Yoritomo stands out in a much more favourable light as a place in which the best courtier-warrior qualities of the Taira (epitomized in Shigehira\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech) are well received and, at the same time, the insulting and violent components abundantly present in Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s Rokuhara \u00E2\u0080\u0095court\u00E2\u0080\u0096 are excluded. In this sense, Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s peripheral court gains much more legitimacy than Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s one in the capital ever had. We should not ignore the later date of the Kakuichi text (1371) relative to the events in question, as this fact increases the likelihood of a superposition of later developments onto Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s image. As discussed by Souyri, in the 1230s, half a century after Yoritomo set up 137 SNKBZ, vol. 46, 290. 69 judiciary institutions, the H\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u008D clan reformed the legal system: \u00E2\u0080\u0095The leaders of the bakufu around 1230 were not the provincial warriors who had been Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s companions around 1180. Instead, they had been educated in Confucian principles in the innermost circles of the Kamakura government, and they were familiar with the Chinese classics.\u00E2\u0080\u0096138 The H\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u008D regime\u00E2\u0080\u0098s reliance on Confucian ideology to maintain order can be seen in Shigehira\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech about serving the Emperor, his learned citation of Shi ji (Records of the Historian by Sima Qian, ca. 145-ca. 90), as well as in Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s emphasis on acting by imperial order. \u00E2\u0080\u0095The H\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u008D regents wanted to preserve the status quo\u00E2\u0080\u0094cooperation with the Kyoto court and the great monasteries\u00E2\u0080\u0094and not to create confrontation.\u00E2\u0080\u0096139 A similar position is taken by Yoritomo in the above scene when he sends Shigehira to the Nara monks for execution. These possible later manipulations of Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s image in the narrative were achieved in part through the adaptation of dialogue to project a \u00E2\u0080\u0095Confucian\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and highly learned context on the early Kamakura institutions. In short, the elaborate highly respectful speech of Shigehira\u00E2\u0080\u0098s interrogation would be more suitable for the Kamakura courts under H\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u008D rule than for its earlier prototype under Yoritomo. Thus, language analysis reinforces Oyler\u00E2\u0080\u0098s discussion of narratives being reworked to idealize Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s government. The choice of language for the interrogation scene is one of the components in a larger project of idealizing the past warrior world with Yoritomo represented as a fair judge who, unlike Kiyomori, follows laws and not his personal arbitrary views. Turning now to a brief comparison between Gi\u00C5\u008D in the capital and Senju-no-mae in Kant\u00C5\u008D, we see many parallel attributes, together with a notable difference in terms of 138 Souyri, The World Turned Upside Down, 57. 139 Ibid., 59. 70 communicative roles. Senju-no-mae, a refined daughter of a provincial ch\u00C5\u008Dja140 \u00E9\u0095\u00B7\u00E8\u0080\u0085, is sent by Yoritomo to attend on Shigehira. Ex. 29\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E7\u0094\u00B7\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E8\u008B\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u008F\u0082 \u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u008E\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E6\u0089\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0080\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D \u00E5\u0085\u00B5 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E8\u00A1\u009B \u00E3\u0082\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E4\u00BD\u0090 \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u0091 \u00E6\u00AE\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E4\u00BB\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u008D141 Senju-no-mae: His Lordship was afraid you might consider him boorish if he sent a man. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] He sent me because he thought you would find a woman more agreeable. \u00E2\u0080\u0097If there is anything he wants, learn what it is and tell me,\u00E2\u0080\u0098 he said. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 339) She speaks in the most polite style with numerous honorific and humble forms with the polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 auxiliary (in its feminine saburafu \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 variant, same as Gi\u00C5\u008D). It is significant that in addition to being a servant and entertainer she is also a messenger sufficiently trusted by Yoritomo to mediate his communication with Shigehira. In contrast, no such function is assigned by Kiyomori to Gi\u00C5\u008D. At the same time, Senju-no-mae is exceptionally learned in poetry and Buddhist imay\u00C5\u008D songs:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u00A5\u00B5\u00E6\u00A5\u00BD\u00E3\u0081\u00AD\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00BC\u00A5\u00E9\u0099\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u00A0 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u0090\u008D \u00E5\u008F\u00B7 \u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u0094\u00B1\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u008D.142 Moreover, she is versed in shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi-style Buddhist chants143: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E6\u00A8\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E9\u0099\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00AE\u00BF \u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0090\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0098 \u00E6\u00B5\u0081 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u008C \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E6\u0098\u00AF\u00E5\u0085\u0088\u00E4\u00B8\u0096 \u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009C \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u008E\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u008D.144 Shigehira is astonished by the courtly qualities of the lady in the provincial Kant\u00C5\u008D region: 140 Usually translated as \u00E2\u0080\u0095brothel-keeper,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 but the word also means \u00E2\u0080\u0095head of a clan\u00E2\u0080\u0096 or simply \u00E2\u0080\u0095a rich man.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 141 SNKBZ, vol. 46, 290. 142 Ibid., 292. \u00E2\u0080\u0095All those who desire rebirth/ in Paradise/ must intone the sacred name/ of Amida Buddha.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Translation from McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 340. 143 As is the case with Gi\u00C5\u008D, this passage poses puzzling questions about the education of women and Buddhism. This episode reinforces the seemingly natural relationship of women entertainers with Buddhist content, exemplified in the knowledge of Buddhist concepts and terms, as well as in a consistent predisposition to becoming nuns. Both Gi\u00C5\u008D and Senju-no-mae eventually take religious vows. 144 SNKBZ, vol.46, 292. \u00E2\u0080\u0095A bond from another world unites all those who merely seek shelter under the same tree, who merely scoop water from the same stream.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Translation from McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 340. 71 Ex. 30\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E7\u00A8\u008B\u00E5\u0084\u00AA \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E4\u00BB\u008A \u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u00A3\u00B0 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0088 \u00E3\u0080\u008D145 Shigehira: It is a pleasant surprise to discover such refinement in the eastland. Please sing another song \u00E2\u0080\u0093 anything will do. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 340) The keywords here are y\u00C5\u00AB naru hito \u00E5\u0084\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA (refined person) and \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00BE (Azuma, eastland) the very combination of which aims at closing the perceived cultural gap between Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s seat of power and the court in the capital. The character of Senju-no-mae, with her refined artistic skills, adds a new layer to the constructed image of the eastern provinces. Azuma is not only the land of superior archers and horsemen, 146 but it can also rival the capital in culture and learning. This episode suggests how the capital no longer held exclusive control of culture and how it was possible to encounter refinement and cultivation among non-elite groups in the border regions. Admonition After the failure of the anti-Taira conspiracy, the capital is on the verge of open conflict between Kiyomori and the Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa. One of the main issues is the difference in opinion about the meaning of imperial service. Kiyomori mistakenly considers it to be similar in nature to services rendered in a military organization to a lord by his retainer, with rewards expected in return. When the Retired Emperor attempts to curtail the powers of the Heike clan, despite his imperial status, Kiyomori simply sees him as his lord, and thus considers it his duty to stop serving such a lord and to arrest him. As a newcomer to court politics and a pragmatic leader, Kiyomori attempts to forcibly remove all opposition. In terms of language, the following monologue of Kiyomori exemplifies the quick transition from a 145 SNKBZ, vol.46, 292. 146 See Sanemori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s description of eastern warriors in Chapter 5 (11) in McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 188-9. 72 \u00E2\u0080\u0095courtly\u00E2\u0080\u0096 discussion of politics to military orders, characterizing Kiyomori as a leader who relies on force to settle political issues. Ex. 31 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u0097\u00A2 \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00A7 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u0090\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u0091\u00BD\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E5\u00BA\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0085 \u00E3\u0081\u00A9 \u00E3\u0081\u00A9 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u008F\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u00B8\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B8\u0083\u00E4\u00BB\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u00AD\u00A4 \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E4\u00B8\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A1 \u00E9\u0096\u0080 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E4\u00BA\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E6\u008D\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E9\u0096\u0080 \u00E4\u00BA\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00BC \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E7\u0094\u00B1\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00B3\u0095 \u00E7\u009A\u0087\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E7\u00B5\u0090\u00E6\u00A7\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u0081\u00BA\u00E6\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00AC\u00A1\u00E7\u00AC\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E6\u00AD\u00A4\u00E5\u00BE\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E8\u00AE\u0092\u00E5\u00A5\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00BD\u0093\u00E5\u00AE\u00B6\u00E8\u00BF\u00BD\u00E8\u00A8\u008E\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E9\u0099\u00A2\u00E5\u00AE\u00A3\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B8\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E8\u00A6\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E6\u009C\u009D\u00E6\u0095\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E7\u009B\u008A \u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00B8\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E7\u00A8\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E6\u00B3\u0095\u00E7\u009A\u0087\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E9\u00B3\u00A5\u00E7\u00BE\u00BD \u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u00B0 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u0098\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u00B9\u00B8 \u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E6\u0080\u009D \u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E5\u0084\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u008C\u0097\u00E9\u009D\u00A2\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E8\u00BC\u00A9 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E7\u009F\u00A2\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E5\u00B0\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00BE\u008D\u00E5\u0085\u00B1\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E7\u0094\u00A8\u00E6\u0084\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0088 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E8\u00A7\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E6\u0096\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u0099\u00A2\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E5\u0085\u00AC\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E9\u00A6\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E9\u009E\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u009D\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u008D \u00E8\u0083\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u009B \u00E9\u0095\u00B7 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E5\u0087\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A0 \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0080\u008D147 Kiyomori: (It was) I who put my life in jeopardy for His Majesty time after time. His Majesty ought to have stood by our clan unto the seventh generation, regardless of what others might have said. Instead, he has plotted to crush us [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6]. That is certainly ample cause for resentment! If somebody slanders us in the future, His Majesty is going to decree our destruction. It will be too late for regrets after we are labeled enemies of the state. I am thinking of moving His Majesty to the Toba Northern Mansion or else bringing him here until I can finish restoring order. What\u00E2\u0080\u0098s your opinion of that idea? Of course, his North Guards will probably shoot an arrow in our direction. Pass the word to the samurai to be ready. I will serve this Retired Emperor no longer. Saddle me a horse! Get me a full suit of armor! (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 73) The transition can be seen at the level of content, with Kiyomori first describing former services, then shifting to threats and orders. The utterances become noticeably shorter and more stilted. Contractions such as kore he mare \u00E6\u0098\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0082\u008C (< kore he mo are \u00E6\u0098\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008C), itenzuran \u00E5\u00B0\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093, omohikittari \u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008A increase the tempo and create an impression of rough, warrior-like speech. 148 Before the question ika ni \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB, Kiyomori consistently employs high honorific forms (~sasetamafu ~\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5) for actions related to the Retired Emperor and humble forms (tatematsuru \u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B and mairasen \u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0093) for his own 147 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 132. 148 I avoid labelling this speech \u00E2\u0080\u0095non-courtly\u00E2\u0080\u0096 because in the Heike monogatari narrative it has become a common occurrence even at the top level of court politics. 73 actions. After the sharp turn to military matters after sono gi naraba \u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E5\u0084\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0, there are no honorific forms and the decision to sever ties of service to the Retired Emperor is conveyed using the plain wording omohikittari \u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008A (I break off [my service]), followed by two military orders. 149 In this speech, the shift in Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s attitude is foregrounded through language. In the course of a single monologue, Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s image changes drastically: as a politician he talks at length about his tensions with the Retired Emperor and the possible consequences for the Heike, then, as a military leader, he states his intent to lead forces to arrest the Retired Emperor. His logic, impeccable for a warrior, is accompanied by the sudden turn to speech level appropriate for warriors. Shigemori, presented as the ideal courtier, gives a lengthy admonition addressed to Kiyomori to convince him that his rash decision is inappropriate for a court setting. 150 The speech is one of the samples of pre-modern art of rhetoric and also a clear example of the syncretic relationship between Buddhist, Confucian and Shint\u00C5\u008D ideas, although Confucian values dominate in this case. What are the required components for a persuasive official speech? Firstly, as a subject of lower rank and Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s son, Shigemori consistently uses the polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style with the honorific (ohose \u00E4\u00BB\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u009B) and humble forms (uketamawari \u00E6\u0089\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u008A). Ex. 32 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u00AD\u00A4 \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E4\u00BB\u00B0 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BB \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E6\u0089\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E9\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E6\u009C\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E8\u00A6\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u008D151 Shigemori: Your words make it seem that your luck has come to an end. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 74) Secondly, the speech is highly intertextual with quotations from Chinese classics such as the Shi ji (Records of the Historian), Shi jing (Book of Poetry, 1st millennium BCE), and the 149 Contrasting with the humble form utsushi tatematsuru \u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B \u00E2\u0080\u0095(thinking of) moving (His Majesty)\u00E2\u0080\u0096 earlier in the speech. 150 Even more importantly, it is also directed at the audiences listening to the biwa h\u00C5\u008Dshi performance. 151 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 134. 74 poetic anthology Wakanr\u00C5\u008Deish\u00C5\u00AB (Collection of Japanese and Chinese Poems for Singing, 1013) accompanied with frequent use of kango compounds related to Buddhism, politics and moral values. Ex. 33 (Shi jing quote) \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u0099\u00AE\u00E5\u00A4\u00A9 \u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u008E\u008B \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u009C\u00B0 \u00E3\u0081\u00A2 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E4\u00BA\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u008D152 (Wakanr\u00C5\u008Deish\u00C5\u00AB quote): \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u008D\u0083 \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E9\u00A1\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008F \u00E4\u00B8\u0087 \u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E9\u00A1\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u008E\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u008D153 Shigemori: Under the all-embracing heavens, there is no land but the King\u00E2\u0080\u0098s. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] (The debt I owe him) is weightier than a thousand\u00E2\u0080\u0093nay, than a myriad\u00E2\u0080\u0093gems; [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 75) Evidently, the \u00E2\u0080\u0095ideal\u00E2\u0080\u0096 courtier was expected to make use of his knowledge of canonical texts in Chinese and to affirm his status as a court official by striving to model his speech on the style of official documents. 154 Ex. 34 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u00A4\u00AA \u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E6\u0094\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u00A4\u00A7 \u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E8\u0087\u00A3 \u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00AE\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E8\u0087\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u0094\u00B2 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A4 \u00E5\u0086\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u00A4\u00BC\u00E7\u00BE\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E8\u0083\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E8\u00A7\u00A3 \u00E3\u0081\u0092 \u00E8\u0084\u00B1 \u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u00A4 \u00E5\u00B9\u00A2 \u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E7\u009B\u00B8 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00B3\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E8\u00A1\u00A3 \u00E3\u0081\u0088 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u008E\u00E6\u008D\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E5\u00BF\u00BD \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u00BE \u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E7\u0094\u00B2\u00E5\u0086\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E5\u00BC\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E7\u00AE\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u00B8\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E5\u0086\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u0097\u00A2\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E7\u00A0\u00B4\u00E6\u0088\u0092\u00E7\u0084\u00A1\u00E6\u0085\u0099 \u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u00BD\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00AD\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00A4\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u008F\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BB\u0081\u00E7\u00BE\u00A9\u00E7\u00A4\u00BC\u00E6\u0099\u00BA\u00E4\u00BF\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00B3\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E4\u00B8\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u009B\u009B \u00E3\u0081\u0097 \u00E6\u0081\u00A9 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u00A4\u00A9\u00E5\u009C\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u009B\u00BD\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u0088\u00B6 \u00E3\u0081\u00B6 \u00E6\u00AF\u008D \u00E3\u0082\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u00A1\u0086\u00E7\u0094\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0098\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AA \u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB \u00E5\u00B0\u00A4 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E9\u0087\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u009C\u009D\u00E6\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u008D155 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E6\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E5\u008F\u00AC \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E5\u00BF\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E6\u00B3\u0095\u00E7\u009A\u0087\u00E3\u0082\u0092 \u00E5\u0082\u00BE \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B6 \u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00A4\u00A9 \u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E7\u0085\u00A7 \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u00A4\u00A7 \u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E7\u00A5\u009E \u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E6\u00AD\u00A3 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u0085\u00AB \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00A1 \u00E5\u00B9\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E5\u00AE\u00AE \u00E3\u0081\u0090\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u00A5\u009E\u00E6\u0085\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E8\u0083\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E6\u009C\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u0098\u00AF\u00E7\u00A5\u009E\u00E5\u009B\u00BD \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u00A5\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E9\u009D\u009E\u00E7\u00A4\u00BC\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E4\u00BA\u00AB \u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u008D156 Shigemori: [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] hasn\u00E2\u0080\u0098t it always been a breach of decorum for a man who has attained the chancellorship to put on helmet and armor? [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] When a man discards sacerdotal robes [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] and hastens to array himself in helmet, armor, bow, and arrows, he commits sins against Buddhism by breaking the commandments and losing his sense of shame, and he also ignores the Confucian principles of benevolence, righteousness, proper demeanor, wisdom, and good faith. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] In this world, we have what are known as the Four Obligations: debts we owe to 152 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 135. 153 Ibid., 137. 154 Close to kanbun kundoku reading of Chinese texts in Japanese. 155 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 135. 156 Ibid., 136. 75 heaven and earth, to sovereigns, to parents, and to all living things. The most important is our debt to the sovereign. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] To resort to violence against the Retired Emperor now, with no regard for his great kindnesses, will surely evoke the displeasure of Amaterasu and Hachiman. Japan is the land of the gods, and the gods do not tolerate impropriety. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 74-5) Several structures reoccur in Shigemori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech to enhance the argument and make a coherent statement: -ni arazu ya ~ \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u0084, -s\u00C5\u008Drahinanzu ~ \u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A, concessive -tomo ~\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082 (even if), -beki ~ \u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D (should), and -nominarazu ~ \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A (not only). The language properties of this speech contribute to an image of a courtier as learned and eloquent. We can hypothesize that while non-courtly audiences may have been impressed by the linguistic skills of Shigemori (though likely unable to fully grasp all literary terms and allusions), the courtly listeners were expected to imitate the style of Shigemori in order to be considered worthy courtiers and officials. In short, Shigemori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s \u00E2\u0080\u0095voice\u00E2\u0080\u0096 participated in perpetuating the standard of courtier speech. Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s response demonstrates his change in attitude after hearing Shigemori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s admonition. Ex. 35\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E6\u0082\u00AA\u00E5\u0085\u009A\u00E5\u0085\u00B1\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E5\u0083\u00BB\u00E4\u00BA\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u008D157 Kiyomori: No, no. It would be inconceivable to go so far. I was merely afraid that an unfortunate situation might develop if scoundrels gained the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s ear. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 76) Kiyomori speaks in a very subdued tone, without his former resolve, as is evident from such forms as \u00E2\u0080\u0093muzuran \u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093 (might), nando \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A9 (and such), bakari \u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A (only). The element betraying Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s emotions is the highly irregular use of the polite style s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099. As a general rule, parents never use s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 when speaking to children. In this case, Kiyomori 157 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 139. 76 uses it twice s\u00C5\u008Dzu \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009A (considered to be a zokugokei \u00E4\u00BF\u0097\u00E8\u00AA\u009E\u00E5\u00BD\u00A2 a \u00E2\u0080\u0095vulgar, colloquial form\u00E2\u0080\u0096 of s\u00C5\u008Drawazu \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009A) and s\u00C5\u008Drahe \u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8.158 This reaction can be interpreted either as a mistake due to his emotional state or as a sign that in this situation Kiyomori treats Shigemori not as his son, but as a court official in a formal setting. In the latter case, the communicative function of the s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style brings attention to changes in relationships. This linguistic detail highlights the purpose of the whole scene\u00E2\u0080\u0094to prove the efficacy of Shigemori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s admonition in persuading Kiyomori. In the above discussion, I have identified language properties of Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech and Shigemori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s admonition. The analysis shows how contrast in language reinforces different images of the two characters. Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s quick transition to military language sharply contrasts with Shigemori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s elaborate and courtly speech. Imperial speech In this section I will examine one of the main features of interaction and language use of the top imperial characters such as the Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa. The representation of imperial speech is characterized by the use of so-called jikei hy\u00C5\u008Dgen \u00E8\u0087\u00AA\u00E6\u0095\u00AC\u00E8\u00A1\u00A8\u00E7\u008F\u00BE \u00E2\u0080\u0095self- honorific expressions,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 that is, these characters refer to their own actions using honorific forms and employ humble forms for third or second-person actions directed to the speaker. Modern Japanese does not use honorific expressions to refer to oneself and even in classical texts they are rare. Despite the considerable role played by language use in constructions of the imperial image, it is usually not mentioned outside of linguistic research where it has attracted attention and generated opposing hypotheses. The general problem is whether the emperor actually used 158 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 226 and 229. 77 first person honorific forms in his speech or the biwa h\u00C5\u008Dshi added them for their performance of imperial speech. Supporters of the former hypothesis, like Motoori Norinaga (1730-1801) and Yamada Yoshio (1873-1958), claimed that self-honorific expressions were actually uttered by emperors. These scholars claim that the emperor used honorific forms for himself in order to convey self-respect and recognize his own status, or as simply an adoption of his subjects\u00E2\u0080\u0098 usage. In contrast, Mitsuya Shigematsu (1871-1923), Takagi Ichinosuke, and Kindaichi Haruhiko propose that this was a phenomenon limited to literature. 159 Nishida Naotoshi has conducted a detailed research on this issue involving a wide range of sources from the Kamakura period, including imperial diaries and other texts written by emperors, as well as writings by officials citing emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s words in documents, diaries and historical texts. Nishida\u00E2\u0080\u0098s analysis revealed the rarity of first-person honorific expressions, with usage in the personal writings of emperors limited to tamafu \u00E8\u00B3\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 (\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0086), mesu \u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0099, ohosu \u00E4\u00BB\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0099, and omae \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u0089\u008D, as well as a few other terms. Self-honorific forms, however, were found to be widely used in imperial edicts, especially the forms oboshimesu \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099 and kikoshimesu \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099, which are not found in diaries.160 Nishida concludes that first-person honorific forms were used in the actual language of emperors and that there was also a style of transmitting imperial speech in oral proclamations or edicts written by court officials. Honorific imperial forms in Heike monogatari closely resemble this official style and are thus taken to be expressions imitating the established style of transmitting words of emperors by officials. 161 Nishida comments that since self-honorific expressions were a characteristic of 159 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 320. 160 Ibid., 345-6. 161 Nishida, Heike monogatari no kokugogakuteki, 66. 78 \u00E2\u0080\u0095imperial speech,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 as transmitted inside the court and outside of it, such expressions have sounded natural to courtly audiences witnessing performances of the Heike. 162 Audiences hearing the Heike performed would have been unaware of the actual speech forms used by the emperor, but would have associated the use of first-person honorific speech forms with the emperor. These forms quoted in edicts and heard in Heike performances were likely considered as a characteristic privilege and one of the defining properties of the imperial discourse. The fact that imperial diaries do not contain some common self-honorific forms may be due to the private nature of such writings not intended for public knowledge. Public documents like edicts and performances representing imperial speech reinforced official constructions of imperial status. In any case, the focus in investigations of literary language is not to find out how real emperors spoke, but rather to assess the representation of a character\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech and the functions it plays in characterization that, in turn, forms audience\u00E2\u0080\u0098s perceptions of emperors. The point is that Heike monogatari consistently fills imperial utterances with first-person honorific forms that emphasize the imperial speech and place it into a distinct status category relative to other groups. Let us now see how imperial speech is represented in specific passages. One example can be seen in the dialogue between Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s son Munemori and the Retired Emperor. Munemori is sent by Kiyomori to put the Retired Emperor under house arrest. Ex. 36 Munemori:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u008D Ret. Emperor:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E6\u0088\u0090\u00E8\u00A6\u00AA \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u008B \u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E4\u00BF\u008A \u00E5\u00AF\u009B \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E6\u00A7\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u009B\u00BD\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u0081\u00A5 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00B3\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00B8\u00BB \u00E4\u00B8\u008A \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E6\u00B8\u00A1\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0094\u00BF\u00E5\u008B\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u008F\u00A3\u00E5\u0085\u00A5 \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B \u00E8\u00A8\u0088 \u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u0087\u00AA\u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E4\u00BB\u00A5\u00E5\u00BE\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0080\u008D 162 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 360. 79 Munemori:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E5\u0084\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008E \u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00B8\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E7\u00A8\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u00B3\u00A5\u00E7\u00BE\u00BD\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u00B9\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u0088\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u008D Ret. Emperor:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E5\u00AE\u0097\u00E7\u009B\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E4\u00BE\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u008D163 Munemori: We ask that His Majesty get in quickly. Retired Emperor: What is the meaning of this? I am not aware of having done anything wrong. I suppose you intend to banish me to some distant province or remote island, as you did Narichika and Shunkan. I have merely taken a hand in matters of state because of the Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s youth; if that is unacceptable, I will cease to do so from now on. Munemori: There is no question of any such thing. My father wants you to stay in the Toba Mansion until we can restore order. Retired Emperor: In that case, Munemori, you come with me. (Munemori refuses) (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 126) Arrest of the Retired Emperor is one of Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s most outrageous transgressions, as it puts him perilously close to being an \u00E2\u0080\u0095enemy of the court.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Kiyomori isolated Go-Shirakawa, fearing that he might issue an anti-Heike edict that would destroy their legitimacy. After Shigemori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s death, nobody stopped Kiyomori from proceeding with the treasonous arrest. In the above dialogue, Munemori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s words to the Retired Emperor reveal his psychological state, both tense and resolved (as evident from t\u00C5\u008Dt\u00C5\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086 quickly). He does not phrase his order in usual imperative forms like the honorific verb plus \u00E2\u0080\u0093s\u00C5\u008Drahe ~ \u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8 or -se tamahe ~ \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8, but employs an indirect 164 statement of appropriateness (-beu s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D ~ \u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E5\u0080\u0099) with honorific passive mesaru \u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008B (in this case meaning \u00E2\u0080\u0095to ride, to get into\u00E2\u0080\u00A6\u00E2\u0080\u0096). Go-Shirakawa\u00E2\u0080\u0098s reply contains a number of expressions signalling his perplexed and helpless state: the exclamation ko wa sareba nanigoto zo ya \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0082\u0084, suppositions about the intentions of the Heike -nzuru ~ \u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008B combined with the elliptical ending ni koso \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D, the excuse suru bakari nari \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E8\u00A8\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A and the promise not to interfere -bekarazu wa\u00E2\u0080\u00A6de koso arame ~ \u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008B 163 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 253. 164 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 297. 80 \u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E2\u0080\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0081. As for honorific forms, the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech stays mostly neutral (nari \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A, aru \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B) with a moderate usage of first-person honorific forms (ontoga \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008C and ontomo \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E4\u00BE\u009B, honorific verb oboshimesazu \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009A and second-person action expressed with humble verb maire \u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008C). Imperial authority is confronted with military opposition, against which it is helpless. This representation greatly differs from the traditional constructions of the emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s sacred authority found in the Kojiki, for example. As discussed by Bialock, \u00E2\u0080\u0095peripheral \u00E2\u0080\u0095kami\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (deities) were made to swear an oath of submission to the central authority embodied in the person of the tenn\u00C5\u008D. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] In exchange for their oath, they were [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] incorporated into a sacred order at the apex of which stood the tenn\u00C5\u008D, who mediated and thereby monopolized all sacred speech.\u00E2\u0080\u0096165 In the Heike narrative, the Retired Emperor and other imperial characters still retain the monopoly of sacred speech, emphasized by the exclusive right to use first-person honorific forms, but they are helpless against Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s military forces. Shortly after reaching the place of exile, the Toba Mansion, Retired Emperor says to one of his courtiers: Ex. 37\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E5\u00A4\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E8\u00A1\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u008E\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E6\u00B0\u00B4 \u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u008D166 Retired Emperor: I am sure I will be put to death tonight. Can you arrange for me to bathe? (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 127) There are several cases of first-person honorific forms in his speech in this example: oboshimesu \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099, mesabaya \u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u0084, and ongy\u00C5\u008Dzui \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00A1\u008C\u00E6\u00B0\u00B4. In addition to being a clear distinctive feature of imperial speech (important for aural differentiation of \u00E2\u0080\u0095voices\u00E2\u0080\u0096 by the audience), these instances of unusual honorific usage bring attention to the exceptional 165 Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 122. 166 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 255. 81 status of the emperor in any context so that his privileged speech contrasts even more sharply with the context of exile and overall treatment by Kiyomori. Conclusion In this chapter I examined a limited set of conversation samples in order to reveal language aspects of interaction associated with the court and political affairs. What can be concluded after examining language structures found in interactions in the capital? 167 Analysis of the language properties of communication reveals how language choices construct an image of power relations in the capital. Courtly politics, even in the relatively peaceful time before open battles, is depicted as an arena of factional struggles with rumours, conspiracies, betrayal, arrests, violent interrogations and executions. Competition over hierarchical positions of power, abuse of power and tensions between capital nobility and the provincial military clan of the Heike structure the narrative and make up a large part of the capital politics. Heike monogatari projects a complex image of court interaction by presenting a set of communicative settings associated with the court, a subset of which was discussed in this chapter. Interaction between characters extends beyond the narrative as it shapes the audience\u00E2\u0080\u0098s image of the social hierarchies in the society of the past. The dialogue passages are fictional recreations of the \u00E2\u0080\u0095voices\u00E2\u0080\u0096 of people involved in political matters. For example, Kiyomori \u00E2\u0080\u0095seems totally lacking in refinement\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and he is portrayed as \u00E2\u0080\u0095a tyrant, merciless in his dealings with men who oppose him.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 168 This image varies depending on with whom Kiyomori interacts. In this chapter, I have shown how language elements at the level of words 167 We should be aware that the discursive concept of \u00E2\u0080\u0095court\u00E2\u0080\u0096 or \u00E2\u0080\u0095capital\u00E2\u0080\u0096 is not a fixed entity, but a dynamic set of varied practices. Most of the passages discussed above share the location (capital) in which they take place. 168 Donald Keene, Seeds in the Heart: Japanese Literature from Earliest Times to the Late Sixteenth Century (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1993), 630. 82 and individual utterances combine to create the \u00E2\u0080\u0095voice\u00E2\u0080\u0096 of a given character. Minor choices in pronouns and honorific forms, together with shifts from neutral to polite style in the course of a single dialogue, for example, signal shifts in attitude and convey a character\u00E2\u0080\u0098s challenge of status hierarchies. An argument can be made about the role of the language of conversations in the process of vernacularization in pre-modern Japan. In this case, vernacularization is not so much expressed through the contrast of Chinese to local Japanese (as in the tenth-century Kokinsh\u00C5\u00AB prefaces), as through the demonstration and exploration of various registers of language simultaneously existing in the capital. This process shows that \u00E2\u0080\u0095language, place and power were becoming mutually constitutive through the representations and circulation of vernacular texts\u00E2\u0080\u0096169 such as Heike monogatari. Pollock\u00E2\u0080\u0098s terms \u00E2\u0080\u0095vernacularization of political space\u00E2\u0080\u0096 or \u00E2\u0080\u0095the creation of vernacular polity\u00E2\u0080\u0096170 may indeed be applied to the centers of power conceptualized in the text of Heike monogatari, if we consider the striking range of speech variation coexisting in the capital and the ambiguous status of Kamakura combining peripheral qualities with courtly formality and refinement. Much of this chapter was devoted to characterization techniques\u00E2\u0080\u0094various linguistic and stylistic means to mark qualities and attitudes of characters. Conversations, as represented in the Heike monogatari, often show only minor, 171 but significant, variation or irregularity in form, which can be recognized as such when compared with linguistic scales of higher-lower honorific attitude, polite-impolite, frequent-rare and other relative differences. Fortunately, 169 Pollock, The Language of the Gods, 421. 170 Ibid. 171 The language of the text is a sufficiently uniform system shared by all characters. We do not find one group speaking in Chinese and another in classical Japanese, for example. The aim is to find small variation in the uniformity, a task similar to studying variation in modern Japanese as carried out in the fields of sociolinguistics and pragmatics. 83 such reference scales have been made based on data of the whole text and thus it is possible to assess relative \u00E2\u0080\u0095stances\u00E2\u0080\u0096 or attitudes taken by characters in specific dialogues and then to analyze their role in the political situation in the narrative. Table 6 Discursive interactive settings - Capital / Politics Language forms Participant 1 Participant 2 Expression of Significance Shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi - soften request \u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0080, \u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008C - onbin \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A7 - many \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 and highest honorifics - pronoun \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF - Bud. kango Kiyomori - short sentences - exclamation \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A7 - pronoun \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C - exclamation \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0086 - prohibition \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098 - imperatives \u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 - question \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s \u00E2\u0080\u0095voice\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Delight Discomfort Threat, rude Speech contrast according to setting Dancers speak as nuns Shiraby\u00C5\u008Dshi - shift to regular \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 Mother - Bud. kango - complex ~ \u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082, ~ \u00E3\u0081\u00B0 - emotion \u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097, \u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0088 - pronoun \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C Shift in attitude Defiant to obedient Persuasion as preaching Variation due to personal attitude Persuade in Bud. terms Nuns - Buddhist discourse - mutual honorific \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 - humble \u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B (to Amida) Nuns - \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 about court - \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C to younger Equality Shift court > hermit Solidarity, mutual respect of nuns Conspiracy members - \u00E2\u0080\u0095heiji\u00E2\u0080\u0096 pun - polite form\u00E5\u0080\u0099 Retired Emperor - orders \u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6... \u00E4\u00BB\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C - orders dance \u00E7\u008C\u00BF\u00E6\u00A5\u00BD Solidarity through dance and verbal activity Cooperation Peripheral practice at court Betrayal: Yukitsuna - Questions - \u00E5\u0080\u0099 polite style - humble \u00E6\u0089\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u008B, hearsay Kiyomori - plain style - honorific to Ret. Emperor Change in distance, stranger to advisor Exploit knowledge gap Rumour, hearsay in politics 84 Language forms Participant 1 Participant 2 Expression of Significance Interrogation: Saik\u00C5\u008D - irregular lack of \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style - prohibition \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098 - imperative \u00E5\u00AE\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00B8 - pronoun \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00BE\u00BA - mention nickname Kiyomori - contractions - imperatives - rare insults \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4 - honorific to Ret. Emp. \u00E5\u0090\u009B and derogatory to Saik\u00C5\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089 Defiance Insubordination Speech to inferiors Conflict over positions Ret. Emperor as \u00E2\u0080\u0095axis\u00E2\u0080\u0096 of legitimacy Vulgar speech Legal setting Contrast: Shigehira - polite \u00E5\u0080\u0099 - Bud. and warrior rhetoric Senju-no-mae - polite \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 - Bud. kango Yoritomo - polite \u00E5\u0080\u0099 - humble \u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B (to Emp.) Mutual respect Dependence on imperial court Eloquence Messenger Educated \u00E2\u0080\u0095Ideal\u00E2\u0080\u0096 court Refined \u00E2\u0080\u0095peripheral\u00E2\u0080\u0096 culture Admonition: Shigemori - polite \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style - intertextual, kango - rhetorical questions Kiyomori - shift to irregular polite \u00E5\u0080\u0099 Persuasion Shift in relations Son as official \u00E2\u0080\u0095Ideal\u00E2\u0080\u0096 courtier Power of persuasion Imperial speech Retired Emperor - self-honorific \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008C, \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00A1\u008C\u00E6\u00B0\u00B4 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099 - order with humble \u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008C Munemori - indirect order \u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E5\u0080\u0099 Munemori: anxiety Ret. Emp.: Imperial status Distinct imperial \u00E2\u0080\u0095voice\u00E2\u0080\u0096 In addition, examination of language properties provides supplementary empirical evidence that corroborates hypotheses and claims based on literary analysis of the narrative content. For example, Elizabeth Oyler discusses the \u00E2\u0080\u0095rise of periphery versus corrupt center,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 focusing on the socio-political events in the Kakuichi Heike monogatari narrative. 172 This theme is linked to the construction of idealized interpretations of warrior rule in the past. 173 My 172 Oyler, Swords, Oaths, and Prophetic Visions, 63. 173 Ibid., 135. 85 analysis of the two interrogation scenes, by Kiyomori in the capital and by Yoritomo in Kamakura, demonstrates that the contrast in language forms is an important perspective supporting Oyler\u00E2\u0080\u0098s discussion. In addition to the growth of political influence, the \u00E2\u0080\u0095rise of the periphery\u00E2\u0080\u0096 also involves aspects of culture and learning as is evident from the \u00E2\u0080\u0095Senju-no-mae\u00E2\u0080\u0096 episode, when a provincial entertainer matches a learned warrior-courtier from the capital in refinement and cultivation. Analysis of language functions also brings attention to aspects of interaction at court discussed in literary and historical works and provides complementary data that reinforce the points made. For example, following Amino Yoshihiko\u00E2\u0080\u0098s studies of wandering non- agricultural groups in medieval Japan, David Bialock discusses setsuwa-type narratives, shamanistic utterances and rumour as parts of nomadic speech in pre-modern Japan. He views Heike monogatari and the Kojiki as \u00E2\u0080\u0095narratives that assemble nomadic utterance on a large scale,\u00E2\u0080\u0096174 and discusses their relationship to ritual behaviour. Court conversations provide supplementary evidence of nomadic speech. For example, the speech and dance during the Shishi-ga-tani conspiracy meeting is a relevant sample of nomadic speech performed in the capital with participation of the Retired Emperor. This example shows the presence of marginal entertainment in the political centre and the concomitant reformulation of courtly \u00E2\u0080\u0095norms.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Bialock discusses the \u00E2\u0080\u0095shift from centered to peripheral space\u00E2\u0080\u0096175 as it affected ritual and social behaviour. Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s rude and warrior-like language and the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s support of marginal performances can both be considered \u00E2\u0080\u0095defiled\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (by the standards of the 174 Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 135. 175 See Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 217-8. Defilement came to be seen not as an exterior element to be expelled, but as an interior phenomenon. This transformation changed the perceptions of space, \u00E2\u0080\u0095experienced as both center and a state of liminality invested with strange powers.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Capital elites perceived this shift as social disorder. 86 earlier Heian elites) and their presence in the top levels of power in the capital adds a new layer to Bialock\u00E2\u0080\u0098s discussion. In the next chapter, we will consider language variation phenomena in a set of dialogues involving religious characters. 87 Chapter 2 - Religion In this chapter I will discuss the interaction in the complex sphere of religion as represented in fictional dialogue passages of Heike monogatari. The term \u00E2\u0080\u0095religion\u00E2\u0080\u0096 is undoubtedly an abstract overgeneralization that obscures the diversity of doctrines and practices in premodern Japan. Since this thesis focuses on fictional interaction in Heike monogatari, I follow the classification of the text\u00E2\u0080\u0098s author(s) and consider \u00E2\u0080\u0095religious\u00E2\u0080\u0096 those characters who are labelled as priests (h\u00C5\u008Dshi) or monks, and those settings that involve elite clergy, itinerant monks, warrior-monks, and supernatural beings. I examine language choices attributed by Heike author(s) to these characters and discuss how language variation contributes to their characterization. In general, there is a consensus about the significance of Buddhism as the integral component of most cultural, social and political phenomena in the medieval period, including events of the Genpei War (late twelfth century) and their performed representation as a collection of narratives from the thirteenth century onwards. For example, Keene states that \u00E2\u0080\u0095there was a great upsurge of religious belief during the Kamakura period, and many varieties of literature reveal the omnipresent influence of Buddhism.\u00E2\u0080\u0096176 The canonical texts of the period 177 were likewise Buddhist since \u00E2\u0080\u0095the literate people of the country held the classics of 176 Donald Keene, Seeds in the Heart: Japanese Literature from Earliest Times to the Late Sixteenth Century (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1993), 749. 177 Criticising current trends in religious studies, Dobbins points out that \u00E2\u0080\u0095there is a tendency in modern scholarship to privilege doctrinal treatises and elite texts as the most reliable source on beliefs and practices in medieval religion. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] But the problem with using them as historical sources is that they present an idealized picture of religion...\u00E2\u0080\u0096 See James C. Dobbins, Letters of the Nun Eshinni: Images of Pure Land Buddhism in Medieval Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawai\u00CA\u00BBi Press, 2004), 21. Heike monogatari, not an elite doctrinal work, projects vivid images (not always idealized) of religious characters. Considering the wide circulation of Heike narratives, the images they promoted had great influence on audiences. The role of language in creating these images will be examined in this chapter. 88 Buddhism to be the ultimate norm.\u00E2\u0080\u0096178 At the same time, other religious systems (such as Shinto) or social relation systems (such as Confucianism) were a syncretic part of the overarching Buddhist framework, as exemplified by the content of Heike monogatari. The textual production and circulation of Heike monogatari is closely linked with Buddhism. The probable author, Yukinaga, was a courtier and later monk, the first reciter Sh\u00C5\u008Dbutsu was a blind monk from the eastern provinces, influence and patronage of the Kuj\u00C5\u008D family resulted in the incorporation of the Pure Land Amidist themes such as the belief in mapp\u00C5\u008D, fate, and impermanence as preached by H\u00C5\u008Dnen (1132-1212), and the reciting performances often took place in places of worship in the capital or in public places (crossroads and markets) by the blind monks, biwa h\u00C5\u008Dshi, affiliated with temples. The author(s) regularly present the events in the narrative as convincing proofs of the Amidist concepts of impermanence and futility of relying on one\u00E2\u0080\u0098s own forces to achieve enlightenment. The overall viewpoint or religious framework is undoubtedly and explicitly Buddhist with motifs that came to be later labelled as Shinto, Daoist and Confucian present throughout the narrative, without seeming disruptive. Considering that Buddhism permeates the Heike monogatari and its transmission, I will discuss the ways in which the speech of characters in religious settings is represented in the text, how they speak, and what kinds of communication they establish with their interlocutors. Thus, by analyzing religion in Heike monogatari as a discourse constituted from a number of dialogues, I will discuss what language choices were associated with religious settings or came to be associated with them as a result of wide circulation of the Heike monogatari narratives. How to approach the task of defining certain forms as peculiar to speech of a priest or a monk, for example, is far from obvious. There are several indicators of religious speech such 178 LaFleur, The Karma of Words, 11. 89 as specific terms often used in religious settings and even special discourse forms such as prayer, sermon or petition that constitute the language of religion in the text. It is often the case that numerous kango lexical items and intertextual citations of Buddhist sutras are used in the context of religious activities, because Chinese (often in its kanbun kundoku version) was the language of religious texts and practices, and Chinese discourse was inevitably incorporated into vernacular religious narratives. Characters that can be classified as religious, primarily priests and monks, often do not limit themselves to religious activities. Contrary to political settings discussed in the previous chapter, religious ones are not necessarily concentrated around political centers and show a wider geographical distribution. It does not mean, however, that religious characters are somehow secondary or peripheral. On the contrary, they often interact with military and courtly leaders, participate in military conflicts as warriors and make political decisions. In such cases, their speech does not differ in many respects from the speech of other non-religious characters. Recent research often considers evidence from non-canonical sources to examine \u00E2\u0080\u0095how practiced religion diverges in clear-cut ways from the idealized religion articulated in orthodox doctrine.\u00E2\u0080\u0096179 One of the goals of this chapter is to add a language dimension to the divergence of practice from orthodox doctrine and to show that language of religious characters in Heike monogatari is rarely limited to Buddhist vocabulary and citations from sutras, but covers a much wider range of speech styles. Below we will consider various cases of interaction in religious settings. Special attention will be devoted to 1) unambiguous markers of religious speech as expressions of affiliation to religious community or maintenance of such community with shared speech norms, 2) cases of language interaction aimed at creation of social alignments and power 179 Dobbins, Letters of the Nun Eshinni, 154. 90 asymmetries, and 3) speech properties of individual characters that construct idiosyncratic \u00E2\u0080\u0095voices.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Retired Emperor as medium One example of Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech that is worthy of attention in terms of its language and socio-religious significance is the address to malignant spirits believed to be hindering the Empress\u00E2\u0080\u0098 childbirth. His participation in the role of a shaman in rituals aimed at warding off evil spirits is by itself a clear designation of imperial position as a mediator between the living and the spirits. Obviously the interaction with spirits is done verbally and consists of the following speech followed by an incantation from the Thousand-armed sutra (Senjuky\u00C5\u008D, \u00E5\u008D\u0083\u00E6\u0089\u008B\u00E7\u00B5\u008C). The narrative specifically emphasizes Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech as the most effective contribution to the successful childbirth. Ex. 38 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E7\u0089\u00A9\u00E6\u00B0\u0097 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u0080\u0081 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E6\u00B3\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E5\u00B8\u00AB \u00E3\u0081\u0097 \u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BA\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A5 \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u00B0\u00B1 \u00E4\u00B8\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E5\u0087\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0080\u00A8 \u00E9\u009C\u008A \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u0085\u00B1\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E6\u009C\u009D\u00E6\u0081\u00A9 \u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA \u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E5\u0085\u00B1\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E5\u00A0\u00B1\u00E8\u00AC\u009D \u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BF\u0083\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E5\u00AD\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u00B1\u0088 \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AB \u00E9\u009A\u009C \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E7\u00A2\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u0092 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E9\u0080\u009F \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00BF \u00E3\u0082\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A \u00E9\u0080\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u009E \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u008D180 Retired Emperor: No matter what kind of spirits you may be, you cannot approach Her Majesty as long as this old monk is here. Furthermore, of the angry spirits who have appeared now, every one owed his career to the imperial family\u00E2\u0080\u0098s generosity. Even if you feel no gratitude, how can it be right for you to obstruct this birth? Leave immediately! (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 102) What kind of language forms are chosen to communicate with the spirits? The humble and polite stance taken by the Retired Emperor is evident from the honorific prefix on \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 in onmononoke \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E7\u0089\u00A9\u00E6\u00B0\u0097 (spirits) and the use of oib\u00C5\u008Dshi \u00E8\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00B3\u0095\u00E5\u00B8\u00AB (old monk) as a humble term of self-reference. Furthermore, he simultaneously humbles (to show respect to the Empress) both 180 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 198. 91 himself and the spirits with verbs s\u00C5\u008Drawan \u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093 and tatematsuru \u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B. In the last utterance, after reproaching the spirits for being ungrateful for their careers due to imperial generosity, that is, putting them in a position of subjects, he uses the authoritative compulsory order \u00E2\u0080\u0095humble verb + s\u00C5\u008Drahe \u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E2\u0080\u0096 asserting his high imperial status. In this case, language choices directly participate in the construction of the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s identity as a figure with wide influence that extends even to spiritual beings. Among other notable properties in this speech is the complete lack of first-person honorific forms otherwise quite prominent in imperial speech. In this episode, the Retired Emperor is presented as a priest (an image reinforced by heavy presence of kanbun kundoku elements as well as the subsequent direct quotation of a sutra that highlight the religious dimension of this interaction), with only the final command serving as the reminder of his imperial authority. Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa \u00E2\u0080\u0095known for his cultivation of marginal performers [and] his deep devotion to Buddhist rites\u00E2\u0080\u0096181 achieves control over demonic powers by appropriate incantation that establishes the relations of obligation between him and the spirits. Shunkan An interesting case of verbal behaviour showing the relation between polite forms and the emotional state is the scene when Bishop Shunkan is left behind in exile on the island of Kikai-ga-shima. Language forms in this episode reinforce the image of his separation from the capital, the loss and subsequent restoration of status. First of all, he is not presented as the ideal model of a priest. He participated in the anti-Taira conspiracy meetings held at his villa at Shishi-no-tani, went into exile to Kikai-ga-shima and was denied pardon by Kiyomori. At the island he does not participate in religious pilgrimages and prayers as \u00E2\u0080\u0095a most irreligious 181 Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 218. 92 man\u00E2\u0080\u0096182 tenzei fushin daiichi no hito \u00E5\u00A4\u00A9\u00E6\u0080\u00A7\u00E4\u00B8\u008D\u00E4\u00BF\u00A1\u00E7\u00AC\u00AC\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA.183 Moreover, his misfortune is attributed in part to \u00E2\u0080\u0095his sinful, callous appropriation of the offerings of the faithful.\u00E2\u0080\u0096184 For the purpose of contrast, let us first examine some of the properties characterizing the speech of high ranking Dharma Seal J\u00C5\u008Dken in a formal setting. Ex. 39 \u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E6\u0097\u00A6\u00E6\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E6\u0097\u00A8\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0085\u00B6 \u00E8\u00AC\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008C \u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E8\u0080\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E4\u00BF\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E7\u009B\u00AE\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E7\u0096\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00AF \u00E4\u00BF\u0097 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00B8\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u00BC\u008A \u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u00B0\u0091\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00B5\u00AE\u00E8\u00A8\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E9\u0087\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u009C\u009D\u00E6\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BB\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0090\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E8\u0083\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF \u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0086\u00A5 \u00E9\u00A1\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0085\u00B6 \u00E6\u0081\u0090 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u0087\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0088 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E5\u00A4\u00A9\u00E5\u00BF\u0083\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E8\u0092\u00BC \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E5\u008F\u00A1\u00E6\u0085\u00AE \u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0088 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E5\u0084\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00B8\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E4\u00B8\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u00B1\u0088 \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AB \u00E4\u00BA\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E8\u0087\u00A3 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u00A4\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0088 \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u0094 \u00E6\u0080\u009D \u00E3\u0081\u0097 \u00E6\u0083\u009F \u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082185 Dharma Seal J\u00C5\u008Dken: I can see why you might feel angry just now about the matters you have mentioned. \u00E2\u0080\u00A6 It is a common failing to believe what we hear and doubt what we see. There is much reason to fear the consequences in this world and the next if you listen to the loose talk of worthless men and set yourself against His Majesty, in spite of the extraordinary favor you enjoy. The mind of Heaven is as inscrutable as the vast blue sky: so, without doubt, is that of the Retired Emperor. When an inferior defies his superior, can he be observing proper decorum for a subject? That is something you should consider carefully. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 122) The formal tone, the political significance of the utterance, and the eloquence of the speaker mark the language of J\u00C5\u008Dken as well as other similar \u00E2\u0080\u0095courtly\u00E2\u0080\u0096 admonitions such as the one by Shigemori examined in Chapter 1. Formal politeness to his listener Kiyomori is expressed by the s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style in many sentences; whereas, respect is conveyed by honorific forms - sasemashimasu ~\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099, -sasetamafu ~\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5. The language is quite \u00E2\u0080\u0095regular\u00E2\u0080\u0096 with few contracted forms, no inversions or unfinished phrases, no interjections and exclamations. As expected in formal speech, vocabulary and sentence structures resemble kanbun kundoku style in the high frequency of kango (sh\u00C5\u008Djin \u00E5\u00B0\u0091\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA, fugen \u00E6\u00B5\u00AE\u00E8\u00A8\u0080, goshiyui \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E6\u0080\u009D 182 McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 89. 183 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 170. 184 McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 113. 185 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 243-4. 93 \u00E6\u0083\u009F186) and structures such as ani \u00E8\u00B1\u0088...ya \u00E3\u0082\u0084. The use of Buddhist terminology, for example my\u00C5\u008Dken \u00E5\u0086\u00A5\u00E9\u00A1\u0095 (this world and the next), contributes to the image of J\u00C5\u008Dken as a member of the top clergy, just as the Confucian rhetoric at the end (jinshin \u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E8\u0087\u00A3 and rei \u00E7\u00A4\u00BC) is chosen to convey the political intent of the speech. Unlike Shunkan, who is also a priest of high rank, J\u00C5\u008Dken does not avoid religious discourse and furthermore mixes it with politics. Having established some reference points of formal religious discourse, let us consider how Shunkan\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech differs from it and how it changes in the course of interaction. Hearing the voices of messengers from the capital he is surprised and compares them to voices of tempting devils: \u00E3\u0080\u008C... \u00E5\u008F\u0088\u00E5\u00A4\u00A9 \u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E9\u00AD\u0094 \u00E3\u0081\u00BE \u00E6\u00B3\u00A2 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF \u00E6\u0097\u00AC \u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0085\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0088\u0091\u00E5\u00BF\u0083\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E3\u0080\u008D187 In this case, the simple mention of a four-character kango Buddhist term reminds of Shunkan\u00E2\u0080\u0098s former position of a temple administrator. This phrase also contrasts with Shunkan\u00E2\u0080\u0098s extremely limited use of Buddhist vocabulary in the subsequent scenes. Upon reading the pardon and not finding his name, he clings to Naritsune\u00E2\u0080\u0098s sleeve. Ex. 40\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E4\u00BF\u008A\u00E5\u00AF\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u0088\u00B6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0095\u0085\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E7\u00B4\u008D\u00E8\u00A8\u0080\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E8\u00AC\u0080\u00E5\u008F\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u0083\u00BD\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E5\u0085\u00B1\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00AD\u00A4\u00E8\u0088\u009F \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E4\u00B9\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B9\u009D\u00E5\u009B\u00BD\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u009C\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0098\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E7\u00A8\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E2\u0080\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u008D188 Shunkan: Your father\u00E2\u0080\u0098s miserable conspiracy is to blame for my plight. You can\u00E2\u0080\u0098t simply wash your hands of me. I realize that I can\u00E2\u0080\u0098t go all the way to the capital without a pardon, but please let me travel on this boat as far as the Nine Provinces. (Tidings naturally arrived from the city once in a while) while you two were here\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 99) Even though he pleads to take him along, Shunkan\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech is moderately polite because, regardless of the exiled status, Shunkan is Naritsune\u00E2\u0080\u0098s superior due to his age and high rank. 186 This word appears twice in the text only in the speech of priests. The second occurrence is in Chapter 11 (18) said by ascetic preaching to Munemori. 187 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 190. \u00E2\u0080\u0095Or are those the deceitful voices of devils from the world of desire?\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 98). 188 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 191-2. 94 He does use honorific forms such as obosu \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0099, owasu \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0099 together with the second- person pronoun onoono \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE, but he avoids any polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style endings. The same attitude is reinforced by the imperative tsukete tabe \u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B9, since ordering with the form tabe \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B9, sometimes used even to inferiors, expresses a light degree of respect.189 Taken together, these are the characteristics of the speech addressed to people of equal or somewhat lower status. 190 Ex. 41 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u0080\u0099 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E3\u0080\u008D191 Naritsune: It is entirely natural for you to feel that way. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 99) In contrast to Ex. 40, Naritsune consoles Shunkan with highest honorific forms, double honorific construction oboshimesu \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099 with honorific passive and polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099. As the boat departs Shunkan\u00E2\u0080\u0098s utterances become shorter, more stilted. Ex. 42 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BF\u008A\u00E5\u00AF\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E9\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E6\u008D\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E7\u0090\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E4\u00B9\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E4\u00B9\u009D\u00E5\u009B\u00BD\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u009C\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0080\u008D192 Shunkan: Are you really going to abandon me? \u00E2\u0080\u00A6 Can\u00E2\u0080\u0098t you stretch a point and let me get on? Take me as far as the Nine Provinces, at least. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 100) Shunkan still keeps the imperative tamahe \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8 for polite request. Exclamations sate \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 and ika ni \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB followed by address form onoono \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE (pronoun said to one\u00E2\u0080\u0098s equals) are part of the increasingly desperate image of the Bishop whose words are in no way influenced by his religious background, but rather emphasize the tragedy of a common human. Losing hope, he does not finish the last utterance. Being finally left on the island, he shrieks in panic: 189 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 302. 190 Nishida, Heike monogatari no kokugogakuteki, 63. 191 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 192. 192 Ibid., 194. 95 Ex. 43 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u0098\u00AF \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008C \u00E4\u00B9\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0085\u00B7 \u00E3\u0081\u0090 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0080\u008D193 Shunkan: Let me go with you! Take me! (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 100) These words said while beating his feet against the sand as a child (osanaki mono \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E8\u0080\u0085), mark the extreme degree of Shunkan\u00E2\u0080\u0098s despair. Contrary to his previous pleas, this time Shunkan omits all polite forms (no use of tamahe \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8), resulting in plain short imperative forms that express his complete lack of concern about matters of status or etiquette. This passage is noteworthy in two respects that concern the function of politeness forms. First, Shunkan\u00E2\u0080\u0098s utterance said in an extreme emotional condition reveals to what extent the speaker has to be agitated to drop politeness forms from his speech. Second, the last desperate cry with plain imperatives does reinforce the physical separation between Shunkan and those returning to the capital in the boat. In other words, Shunkan stops speaking as a Bishop from the capital interacting with people of similar space (capital) and background and simply shouts as a desperate person left in exile. The peripheral location of the island is thus paralleled with unusual plain speech and the child-like behaviour of Shunkan. From the Pure Land Buddhist perspective, Shunkan\u00E2\u0080\u0098s despair and helplessness confirm the validity and truth of the Pure Land teachings. As stated by Dobbins, Pure Land was a Buddhism for those aware of their own inadequacies and vulnerabilities, whether cleric or layperson. The sense of vulnerability that propelled people toward its teachings was heightened, it seems, by the conditions and events of medieval Japan. 194 Narratives, such as the one about Shunkan, emphatically promoted these views. The universal nature of human vulnerability is brought to the fore, while membership in religious institutions is portrayed as completely irrelevant in the desperate situation. 193 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 194. 194 Dobbins, Letters of the Nun Eshinni, 60. 96 The task of acknowledging and restoring Shunkan\u00E2\u0080\u0098s status of a bishop by appropriate interaction is taken up by his loyal young disciple Ari\u00C5\u008D who brings a letter from his daughter, later buries his bones at Mount K\u00C5\u008Dya and wanders praying for his salvation. The master- disciple relationship is restored in the course of their dialogue during the dramatic encounter on the island. Ex. 44 Ari\u00C5\u008D:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E7\u0089\u00A9\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0080\u008D Shunkan: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0080\u008D Ari\u00C5\u008D:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u0098\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E9\u0083\u00BD\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00B3\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u00A4 \u00E5\u008B\u009D \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u00AF\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u009F\u00B7 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0086 \u00E8\u00A1\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u008E\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0094 \u00E6\u0088\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00A1\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E3\u0082\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E7\u009F\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u008D Shunkan:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u0098\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u008D Ari\u00C5\u008D:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u009C\u0089\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E3\u0080\u008D195 Ari\u00C5\u008D: Excuse me. Shunkan: What is it? Ari\u00C5\u008D: Do you know where I can find a person called the Hossh\u00C5\u008Dji Administrator, who was exiled here from the capital? Shunkan: I am that man. (falls on the sand unconscious) Ari\u00C5\u008D: Ari\u00C5\u008D is here. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 111) The key shift is the transition from plain shiritaru \u00E7\u009F\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008B (when Ari\u00C5\u008D has not yet recognized Shunkan) to the humble polite maitte s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u008F\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0080\u0099 announcing the disciple\u00E2\u0080\u0098s arrival to his master. 196 Later on, Shunkan talks at length about his life in exile and his family, addressing Ari\u00C5\u008D as nanji \u00E6\u00B1\u009D or onore \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0082\u008C (second-person pronouns for inferiors) and consistently speaking in plain style (ari \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A, nari \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A, -sezu \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u009A, -beshi \u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097). Shunkan\u00E2\u0080\u0098s image as \u00E2\u0080\u0095a most irreligious man\u00E2\u0080\u0096 is partly constructed from his speech, since he does not discuss Buddhist matters and rarely draws on kango vocabulary. The narrative mentions, however, that he did chant the name of Amida Buddha before his death. The above examination has shown the role of language choices in Shunkan\u00E2\u0080\u0098s characterization. The gradual reduction in politeness and 195 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 218-9. 196 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 238-9. 97 complexity of his utterances parallels his despair, isolation, and loss of status. In terms of language, Shunkan stands out as an exception among other priests, monks and nuns featured in Heike monogatari (compare with J\u00C5\u008Dken\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech in Ex. 39 above), primarily by his almost complete avoidance of prayers and Buddhist kango vocabulary. It is my hypothesis that Heike author(s), who label Shunkan as \u00E2\u0080\u0095irreligious,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 consistently stress his non-Buddhist language to highlight that Pure Land is attainable even by \u00E2\u0080\u0095sinful\u00E2\u0080\u0096 people who, like Shunkan, begin to practice nenbutsu only before death. Mongaku The very presence of the narrative about \u00E2\u0080\u0095rough saint\u00E2\u0080\u0096 arahijiri \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u008A197 Mongaku in Heike monogatari greatly expands the perceived scope of activities for a monk. Mongaku is an eccentric monk believed to possess supernatural abilities, who is highly mobile in terms of the places of his activity and his influence at the highest levels of politics. Being one of the few characters who interacts with a wide range of people, from those in the countryside and in the city streets to the imperial court, and is able to converse with deities and worldly leaders such as Minamoto no Yoritomo, he epitomizes the dynamism characteristic of setsuwa-tale elements 198 in Heike monogatari. As an unpredictable ascetic, Mongaku fits well into a tradition of widely known \u00E2\u0080\u0095popular\u00E2\u0080\u0096 religious figures such as Ikky\u00C5\u00AB (1394-1481).199 Adherents of Buddhist schools that put emphasis on severe physical austerities were easily transformed in the popular imagination into exaggerated supernatural figures. Having taken the tonsure they continued to interact with \u00E2\u0080\u0095worldly\u00E2\u0080\u0096 people and, thus, there had to be a way to 197 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 381. 198 Keene, Seeds in the Heart, 568-9. Also see Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 135. 199 A famous Zen priest who \u00E2\u0080\u0095flagrantly disregard[ed] the rules of priestly conduct\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (Keene, Seeds in the Heart, 1079). See Sonja Arntzen, Ikky\u00C5\u00AB and the Crazy Cloud Anthology (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1986). 98 emphasize their difference from common people. One element of eccentric behaviour is verbal communication. Buddhist teachings contributed to the construction of eccentric speech by insisting on the impossibility of expressing enlightenment in words. For Buddhist sects such as Ch\u00E2\u0080\u0098an (Zen), words, considered only an inadequate aid to approach the enlightened state, had to be necessarily illogical and unusual to have some effect on the mind. As stated by Heine, practices of the Ch\u00E2\u0080\u0098an sect stressed \u00E2\u0080\u0095an overcoming and transcendence of the ordinary ways of thinking and expressing.\u00E2\u0080\u0096200 One has only to recall the Chinese kung-an (J. k\u00C5\u008Dan) \u00E5\u0085\u00AC\u00E6\u00A1\u0088, records of sermons or question-answer sessions between master and disciples, \u00E2\u0080\u0095created from the eleventh through the fourteenth centuries\u00E2\u0080\u0096 in China.201 \u00E2\u0080\u0095Kung-ans use language to defeat a reliance on words or speech in order to thereby create a shock effect that stimulates the mind to awaken from its philosophical slumber.\u00E2\u0080\u0096202 These records \u00E2\u0080\u0095capture the conversations and nonverbal exchanges that show how masters sought to break through barriers of language and hierarchy imposed by social and religious structures.\u00E2\u0080\u0096203 The k\u00C5\u008Dan tradition was introduced to Japan by Zen monk D\u00C5\u008Dgen (1200-1253) who produced a variety of texts in the first half of the thirteenth century after his return from China. 204 In addition, the same Ch\u00E2\u0080\u0098an schools in Tang China (about eighth century CE) \u00E2\u0080\u0095are known to have championed the use of vernaculars.\u00E2\u0080\u0096205 Usually the influence of these practices in Japan is traced to Zen monks \u00E2\u0080\u0095commenting on works written in Chinese in so-called sh\u00C5\u008Dmono\u00E2\u0080\u0096 in fifteenth-seventeenth centuries, making wide use of written vernacular including Azuma dialectal features. Even earlier, some religious 200 Steven Heine, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Ch\u00E2\u0080\u0098an Buddhist Kung-ans as Models for Interpersonal Behavior,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Journal of Chinese Philosophy 30, no. 3-4 (September/December 2003): 526-7. Also see Bernard Faure, The Rhetoric of Immediacy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991). 201 Heine, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Ch\u00E2\u0080\u0098an Buddhist Kung-ans,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 528. 202 Ibid., 527. 203 Ibid., 529. 204 Steven Heine, \u00E2\u0080\u0095K\u00C5\u008Dans in the D\u00C5\u008Dgen Tradition: How and Why D\u00C5\u008Dgen Does What He Does with K\u00C5\u008Dans,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Philosophy East and West 54, no. 1 (January 2004): 1. 205 Takeuchi, The Structure and History of Japanese, 23. 99 leaders, such as Nichiren (1222-1282), the founder of the Hokke (Lotus Sutra) Buddhism, openly advocated the use of dialects when preaching. 206 In most cases, individuals related to Buddhism were the ones who pioneered ways to make complex Buddhist texts and ideas more accessible, probably because they were forced to communicate with commoners in various regions far more often than the members of literate nobility. Thus, we can observe two currents in Buddhist views on language, one promoting unconventional illogical speech as a way to enlighten the mind and the other supporting accessibility and clarity. Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech can be hypothesized to have integrated eccentricity from the Zen k\u00C5\u008Dan trend and plain direct simplicity from the tendency to popularization. The Kamakura period is well-known as the time when unorthodox religious teachings gained in popularity among various status groups from top nobility to provincial commoners. Heike monogatari contributes to the projection of a highly varied image of characters involved in religious activities. Far from an orderly centralized group with a unified hierarchy, they differ from each other while co-existing in the overarching framework of Buddhism. This co- existence of official high-ranked \u00E2\u0080\u0095sedentary\u00E2\u0080\u0096 clergy207 with \u00E2\u0080\u0095nomadic\u00E2\u0080\u0096 ascetic/mystic monks is a prominent part of the religious narrative of Heike monogatari. The goal of the following discussion is to assess the role of speech representation of the \u00E2\u0080\u0095nomadic\u00E2\u0080\u0096 monks represented by Mongaku.208 By deciding to place the speech of peripheral characters in the same text with official speech of high-ranked clergy grounded in canonical texts, Heike author(s) do make a claim to its value; that is, Heike author(s) considered 206 Takeuchi, The Structure and History of Japanese, 23. 207 A representative of this group is Dharma Seal J\u00C5\u008Dken (see Ex. 39 above for an example of his speech). 208 Likely there were many similarities between them and the wandering biwa h\u00C5\u008Dshi reciters of the Heike. The term \u00E2\u0080\u0095nomadic\u00E2\u0080\u0096 refers to wandering non-elite ascetics, such as Mongaku, who often display eccentric behaviour (including speech) that links them to supernatural powers. 100 peripheral speech sufficiently significant to be included and recited on a par with other types of speech. This phenomenon can be described as one of the elements of religious vernacularization and can be attributed either to the continental Ch\u00E2\u0080\u0098an school influences or to the similarity in problems faced by Buddhist clergy in the process of promoting Buddhist teachings among wide audiences. Mongaku, openly labelled as arahijiri (rough saint, ascetic), is a primary case for discussion. How is his speech and verbal behaviour singled out among other \u00E2\u0080\u0095voices\u00E2\u0080\u0096? In a wide range of interactive settings, what attitude does he take towards his interlocutors and how is he treated speech-wise in return? By considering these questions I will attempt to sketch the verbal identity of such wandering monks and their relative position in various communicative settings. Several episodes with an itinerant monk Mongaku, who interacts with diverse interlocutors during his wanderings, provides us with valuable information about language variation. As his first trial austerity, Mongaku spends seven days in a hillside thicket with insects and then has the following conversation with a local person. Ex. 45 Mongaku:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E4\u00BF\u00AE\u00E8\u00A1\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E7\u00A8\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u008D Local man: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E7\u00A8\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E5\u0091\u00BD\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u008D Mongaku:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u008D209 Mongaku: Do austerities entail more or less that degree of pain? Local man: How could people survive if they did? Mongaku: Then there is nothing to worry about. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 178) The casual manner of talking about religious austerities is one of the characteristic traits of Mongaku that positions him close to common people. Both sides speak as equals using plain style with no politeness or respect markers. The last utterance conveys Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s attitude 209 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 377. 101 most clearly: the combination of a rare kango term anbei \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0084 (\u00E5\u00AE\u0089\u00E5\u00B9\u00B3)210 with a highly contracted expression gosannare \u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C (from ni koso aru nare \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008C) expresses in a concise way the \u00E2\u0080\u0095voice\u00E2\u0080\u0096 of Mongaku, both religious and rough. The choice of a rare kango term out of many synonymous words can be considered a characterization technique emphasizing his monk status, whereas the contracted expression fits well with the image of a \u00E2\u0080\u0095rough monk.\u00E2\u0080\u0096211 In the following two scenes Mongaku perseveres in a harsh deadly trial he himself devises, namely to stand for twenty-one days under the icy waterfall reciting invocations to Fud\u00C5\u008D. After being carried out unconscious by a divine youth sent by Fud\u00C5\u008D, Mongaku is warmed by a fire built by onlookers whom he scolds in anger: Ex. 46 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E6\u00AD\u00A4\u00E6\u00BB\u009D \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E4\u00B8\u0089\u00E4\u00B8\u0083\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0085\u0088\u00E6\u0095\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u0098 \u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00B8\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E6\u00B4\u009B \u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E5\u008F\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7 \u00E9\u00A1\u0098 \u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0090\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E6\u0097\u00A5 \u00E3\u0081\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E4\u00BA\u0094\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E4\u00B8\u0083\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E9\u0081\u008E\u00E3\u0081\u008E\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0080\u008D212 Mongaku: I made a great vow to stand under the waterfall for twenty-one days while reciting three hundred thousand Fud\u00C5\u008D-invocations. Today is only the fifth day. Who dared bring me here before I had even completed the first seven days? (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 178-9) What can be observed in this utterance is a continuation of the same pattern that mixes Buddhist terminology with spoken plain forms. Wandering ascetics, represented by Mongaku, 210 It appears only once in the Heike text and 3 times in the lengthy (48 volumes) Genpei j\u00C5\u008Dsuiki (A Record of the Rise and Fall of the Minamoto and Taira, ca. 1250). In this case, since the dialogue is about austerities, I consider the rare kango term a marker of Buddhist vocabulary. As will be seen from the subsequent examples, eccentric Mongaku does mix explicitly Buddhist terms with contracted \u00E2\u0080\u0095spoken\u00E2\u0080\u0096 forms. 211 Unfortunately, the domain of humour is largely beyond the reach of my current research on pre-modern dialogues, since it is difficult to say which words and scenes were intended for laughter. This particular scene is a possible candidate for humorous interpretations. The exaggerated \u00E2\u0080\u0095austerities\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and the speech of Mongaku could be viewed as a parody on monks involved in incomprehensible rituals and on their preference for kango vocabulary to seem learned in the eyes of commoners. 212 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 378. 102 were likely comprehensible and familiar to the majority of people precisely because of their plain language and intensive devotion to religious practices. A charismatic individual performing on a local level and drawing curiosity to his actions can successfully gain popular support and develop a \u00E2\u0080\u0095new religion\u00E2\u0080\u0096 loosely based on \u00E2\u0080\u0095official\u00E2\u0080\u0096 doctrines.213 The question of language is one of the central ones for this purpose and it is no coincidence that many leaders of Kamakura-period \u00E2\u0080\u0095new religions\u00E2\u0080\u0096 relied on vernacular speech for preaching. Although this hagiographical account is not necessarily a sermon, its inclusion in the narrative that was recited in a temple by a biwa h\u00C5\u008Dshi monk may have given it some qualities of a sermon. Accordingly, Mongaku does not avoid Buddhist terms (such as jiku \u00E6\u0085\u0088\u00E6\u0095\u0091 invocations to Fud\u00C5\u008D, rakusha \u00E6\u00B4\u009B\u00E5\u008F\u0089 one hundred thousand, daigan \u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E9\u00A1\u0098 great vow), but it does not make his utterance sound formal, since these religious terms are counterbalanced by the predominantly plain forms hardly associated with formal religious activities (utarete \u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6, sugizaru \u00E9\u0081\u008E\u00E3\u0081\u008E \u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u008B, nanimono \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E8\u0080\u0085). The spoken informal tone is evident primarily in the contracted forms miteudo \u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A9 (< mitento \u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8) and the final totte kitaru zo \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009E with onbin totte \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6(< torite \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00A6), both likely intended as signs of anger at those who interfere with his austerities. Mongaku, however, is not shown as a \u00E2\u0080\u0095rough monk\u00E2\u0080\u0096 all the time and the contrast is highlighted to a large extent by the choice of language. Ex. 47 Mongaku: \u00E3\u0080\u008C \u00E6\u008A\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u008D Messenger: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E6\u0098\u008E\u00E7\u008E\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u008B\u0085 \u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E6\u009D\u00A5 \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u009F \u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u008D 213 One example is the popularity of Ikky\u00C5\u00AB, a famous fifteenth-century Zen monk. \u00E2\u0080\u0095[His] wild antics, unconventional Zen, and direct, outspoken approach won him a devoted following in Sakai [among the Sakai merchants].\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Martin Collcutt, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Zen and the gozan,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 3 Medieval Japan, ed. Kozo Yamamura, 614 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 103 Mongaku: Who are you who treat me with this compassion? Messenger: \u00E2\u0080\u00A6We are here by command of our master\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 179) When two divine youths pull out Mongaku from under the waterfall and bring him back to life he addresses them politely (honorific verb mashimasu \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099 and tamafu \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5). They, in turn, respond in plain language (kitareru nari \u00E6\u009D\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A). When they disappear in the sky, Mongaku respectfully refers to Fud\u00C5\u008D\u00E2\u0080\u0098s action with honorific verb shiroshimesu \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099 (to know) saying to himself: Mongaku: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u008C \u00E8\u00A1\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u008E\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7 \u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E8\u0081\u0096 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E4\u00B8\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E5\u008B\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E6\u0098\u008E \u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E7\u008E\u008B \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u008D214 Mongaku: The holy Fud\u00C5\u008D himself knows of my austerities. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 179) What distinguishes this passage (and most other episodes with Mongaku) from the typical dialogue in Heike monogatari is the absence of polite auxiliary s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099. It may be hypothesized that this auxiliary has not fully lost its original meaning of \u00E2\u0080\u0095to serve (a superior)\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and was avoided in specific settings, especially those related to religious domain. As will be discussed later, s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style was not used by preachers, for example.215 This absence of the polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style indicates a space in which \u00E2\u0080\u0095service\u00E2\u0080\u0096 in its courtly or military sense is not as important as the close interpersonal relation and informality. Mongaku does acknowledge the higher status of the divine messengers and Fud\u00C5\u008D by honorific verbs mashimasu \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099, shiroshimesu \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099 and honorific auxiliary tamafu \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5, just as the divine youths use plain forms to Mongaku. Surely the divine world has its own hierarchies that have to be respected, but they are not always institutional ones that require s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style. 214 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 379-80. 215 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 246. 104 Mongaku at court One of the most vivid scenes of a chaotic court is the result of Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s intrusion into the mansion of Go-Shirakawa. Having vowed to rebuild the Jingoji temple, he arrives at the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s H\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u00ABji mansion with a subscription list, a common practice of the late Heian period. For example, by issuing an edict calling for a wide donation campaign, the Retired Emperor himself actively promoted the restoration of the Great Buddha statue at T\u00C5\u008Ddaiji burned in 1180 by the Heike and even personally participated in various related ceremonies. 216 Mongaku, along with H\u00C5\u008Dnen, for example, did raise funds for religious buildings.217 Usually in return for donations they promised accumulation of merit leading to attainment of Buddhahood. Here I examine the representation of the attitude taken by each side in the conflict between Mongaku and Go-Shirakawa\u00E2\u0080\u0098s court. In fact, the presence of Mongaku at court brings about a sequence of rough rude utterances that expose the violent side of the imperial space. The following sequence of utterances is extraordinary in assembling an array of rude informal expressions unlike the ones typically encountered in courtly formal settings. Ex. 48 Retired Emperor: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E4\u00BD\u0095\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0080\u008D Police lieutenant Sukeyuki:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E4\u00BD\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E6\u009D\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E4\u00BA\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u008D Mongaku:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E9\u00AB\u0098\u00E9\u009B\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u00A5\u009E\u00E8\u00AD\u00B7\u00E5\u00AF\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u0098 \u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u0094 \u00E3\u0081\u0098 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB \u00E5\u00BA\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E4\u00B8\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4 \u00E6\u0089\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0088 \u00E5\u00AF\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E7\u00A8\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E6\u0096\u0087\u00E8\u00A6\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0080\u008D Courtiers:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u008D Guard:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0080\u008D Mongaku: \u00E3\u0080\u008C...\u00E4\u00B8\u0089\u00E7\u0095\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E7\u009A\u0086\u00E7\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00AE\u0085 \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E7\u008E\u008B \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u00AE\u00AE \u00E3\u0081\u0090\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E9\u009B\u00A3 \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E5\u008D\u0081\u00E5\u0096\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00B8\u009D\u00E4\u00BD\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E9\u00BB\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E6\u00B3\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0097\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E5\u00BE\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u0089\u009B \u00E3\u0081\u0094 \u00E9\u00A0\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u00A5 \u00E9\u00A6\u00AC \u00E3\u0082\u0081 \u00E9\u00A0\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u00A5 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u00B2\u00AC \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0081 \u00E3\u0082\u0092 \u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E7\u0089\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0080\u008D218 Retired Emperor: Who is that? Hit him on the head! Police lieutenant Sukeyuki: What are you jabbering about? Get out of here. Mongaku: I won\u00E2\u0080\u0098t budge until His Majesty donates an estate to the Takao Jingoji. Courtiers: (bewildered exclamations) 216 Gomi, Ky\u00C5\u008D, Kamakura no \u00C5\u008Dken, 40. 217 Ibid., 41. 218 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 384-5. 105 Guard: I\u00E2\u0080\u0098ve got you! Mongaku: \u00E2\u0080\u00A6 The Three Worlds are a burning house; not even an imperial palace can avoid destruction. You may pride yourself on your imperial position now, but you will not escape the torments of the ox-headed and horse-headed torturers after your journey to the Yellow Springs! (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 181) Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s loud petition interrupts a favourite pastime of the Retired Emperor, a musical performance and singing. Imperial reaction to this inconvenience is highly informal as the use of the insult sokubi \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00B3 emphasizes. This rude attitude immediately escalates the conflict, as the courtiers rush to make Mongaku leave. In response to the police lieutenant\u00E2\u0080\u0098s order, phrased as a command to inferiors (humble verb makaru \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B), Mongaku states his ultimatum in plain language, the only form indicating the higher status of the addressee (Sukeyuki and indirectly Retired Emperor) is the honorific passive yoserarezaran \u00E5\u00AF\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0096 \u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093, which is in fact one of the least honorific choices to show respect. Addressing people of the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s court with a low degree of politeness, together with an emphatic negation mattaku \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008F...maji \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098 and plain (not humble, as might be expected) verb izu \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A5 (to go out, leave), sounds like a demand that overtly challenges imperial authority. In the ensuing fighting in the H\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u00ABji mansion, two brief exclamations increase the diversity of speech, one being the cries of agitated courtiers (kowa ikani \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB) and the other the exclamation etari \u00C5\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0086 of the warrior-guard serving in the mansion. His battle cry as he wrestles with Mongaku belongs quite certainly to characteristic warrior speech. 219 Even after Mongaku has been dragged outside and tied up, he utters a shocking statement, cursing the Retired Emperor. He does make a concession by employing honorific forms thereby 219 The other example in Heike monogatari (Ch. 4-15) also uttered by a warrior upon hitting the mark with his arrow is described as \u00E2\u0080\u0095the archer\u00E2\u0080\u0098s cheer\u00E2\u0080\u0096 in McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 162. 106 acknowledging the imperial status. These forms (with honorific auxiliary tamafu \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5) expressing a relatively low degree of respect 220 are noticeably inappropriate for referring to royalty. Moreover, they are used inconsistently with several verbs (such as idenan \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093) in plain form. The main distinctive feature of Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech, however, is the contracted variant tau \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0086 of the honorific auxiliary tamafu \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 in the expression hokottautomo \u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082 (< hokori tamafu tomo \u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082). This contracted form occurs relatively rarely and as a highly marked form plays a prominent role in characterization. Being limited in distribution, primarily seen in the speech of characters such as Mongaku and Kiso no Yoshinaka, 221 this form fulfills a social function of stigmatization categorizing its users as rough and provincial. 222 The image of Mongaku as an eccentric monk is not only constructed from descriptions of his actions, but also from the language choices he makes. What makes Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s character subversive is the consistent expression of his statements in Buddhist terms. Even his cursing of the Retired Emperor is premised upon one of the central passages of the Lotus Sutra 223 : sangai wa mina kataku nari \u00E4\u00B8\u0089\u00E7\u0095\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E7\u009A\u0086\u00E7\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00AE\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A (The Three Worlds are a burning house). Citing canonical Buddhist texts and demonstrating his mastery of Buddhist vocabulary (j\u00C5\u00ABzen no teii \u00E5\u008D\u0081\u00E5\u0096\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00B8\u009D\u00E4\u00BD\u008D imperial position, gozumezu no 220 Nishida, Heike monogatari no kokugogakuteki, 291. 221 Cousin of Minamoto no Yoritomo. He defeats the Taira forces and temporarily controls the capital (Chapters 7-8). His rough manners shock courtiers as in the following example when he makes fun of a courtier\u00E2\u0080\u0098s name (tsuzumi, or hand drum):\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u008A\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E6\u00AE\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E7\u009A\u00B7\u00E5\u0088\u00A4\u00E5\u00AE\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u008D(SNKBZ, vol. 46, 142) Kiso no Yoshinaka: \u00E2\u0080\u0095Tell me, do they call you the Tsuzumi Police Lieutenant because everyone beats you, or because you stuff your face until it stretches?\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 275) In this example, the form tamafu \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 is used twice in the contracted form tau \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0086. 222 Nishida, Heike monogatari no kokugogakuteki, 291. 223 The Lotus Sutra (hokkeky\u00C5\u008D \u00E6\u00B3\u0095\u00E8\u008F\u00AF\u00E7\u00B5\u008C) is one of the main canonical texts of Mahayana Buddhism in East Asia. Mongaku alludes to the passage in Chapter 3 Simile and Parable, \u00E2\u0080\u0095There is no safety in the threefold world; it is like a burning house\u00E2\u0080\u00A6\u00E2\u0080\u0096 See The Lotus Sutra, trans. Burton Watson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 47-79. 107 seme \u00E7\u0089\u009B\u00E9\u00A0\u00AD\u00E9\u00A6\u00AC\u00E9\u00A0\u00AD\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u00B2\u00AC torments of the ox-headed and horse-headed torturers), Mongaku borrows official Buddhist discourse to attack the court and predict its fate. What image of the palace does this scene promote? First, the palace is not presented as an unattainable space of refinement and power. On the contrary, Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s intrusion and reactions to it prove it to be very permeable to \u00E2\u0080\u0095peripheral\u00E2\u0080\u0096 speech: the Retired Emperor\u00E2\u0080\u0098s rude insult, Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s defiant irreverent speech, the warrior cry and the courtiers\u00E2\u0080\u0098 helpless background exclamations. Second, absence of the polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style in Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s language brings to the fore the dangerous independence of religious wandering ascetics and their status of being outside the system of service to the court. Nishida 224 considers the lack of s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style a characteristic of religious sermons (see H\u00C5\u008Dnen-Shigehira dialogue below). Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s utterances do conform to the preaching style and even the curse is a reminder of the universal nature of Buddhist laws that work equally for all, not exempting even the top rulers. Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s radical understanding of Buddhist doctrines incidentally does not contradict the key themes of Heike monogatari stated in its preface, namely the \u00E2\u0080\u0095impermanence of all things\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and \u00E2\u0080\u0095the fall of the mighty.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 It becomes clear that the Buddhist worldview in its extreme manifestation shapes Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s language choices and his movements (all places, including the palace, considered equally transient) that appear shocking to the courtiers. On a more practical level, the passage does promote the use of spoken forms as a possible way to communicate even in court settings in addition to affirming the wide extent of the phenomenon of wandering individuals with \u00E2\u0080\u0095supernatural\u00E2\u0080\u0096 powers (including the biwa h\u00C5\u008Dshi performers to some degree) who are to be feared for their power to curse and threaten social order in case of conflict. 224 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 245. 108 Let us now turn to a highly dynamic dialogue sequence involving the exiled Mongaku and the police guards who accompany him to Ise. In this satirical episode, Mongaku tricks corrupt police officials, who ask for a bribe, into writing a letter to the Bodhisattva Kannon. This excerpt is primarily significant in terms of (1) the exaggerated gap in politeness and respect expressed verbally in the conversation between the two sides and (2) the mixture of social satire with religion. Ex. 49 Police aides:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u00BA\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00B8\u008B\u00E9\u0083\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BE\u009D\u00E6\u0080\u0099 \u00E3\u0081\u0088 \u00E3\u0081\u0093 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB \u00E8\u0081\u0096 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u008A \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E6\u0088\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E7\u00A8\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E9\u0080\u00A2 \u00E3\u0081\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u0081\u00A0\u00E5\u009B\u00BD\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u009F\u00A5\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u009C\u009F \u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E7\u0094\u00A3 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E7\u00B2\u00AE \u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E6\u0096\u0099 \u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u0089\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u008D Mongaku:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u0096\u0087\u00E8\u00A6\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E6\u00A7\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u00A6\u0081\u00E4\u00BA\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0098 \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u00BE\u0097\u00E6\u0084\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E6\u009D\u00B1\u00E5\u00B1\u00B1\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u00BE\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E5\u00BE\u0097\u00E6\u0084\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A7 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0080\u008D... \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u00B3\u0095\u00E5\u00B8\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E7\u0089\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E6\u009B\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E6\u009B\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0080\u008D... \u00E5\u009C\u009F\u00E7\u0094\u00A3\u00E7\u00B2\u00AE\u00E6\u0096\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u0089\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u0088\u0087\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E6\u00AD\u00A4 \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E4\u00BD\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B2 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E6\u009B\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0080\u008D Police aides:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E8\u00AA\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E6\u009B\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009E\u00E3\u0080\u008D Mongaku:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u00B8\u0085\u00E6\u00B0\u00B4\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E8\u00A6\u00B3 \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E9\u009F\u00B3 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E6\u0088\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E6\u009B\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0080\u008D Police aides:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u00BA\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00B8\u008B\u00E9\u0083\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u008D Mongaku:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u0096\u0087\u00E8\u00A6\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u00A6\u00B3\u00E9\u009F\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E8\u00AA\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00AB \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E7\u0094\u00A8\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u008D225 Police aides: When we Police aides perform this kind of duty, we always try to be nice to the prisoner. How about it, Reverend Sir? You must have friends, even though you have met with this misfortune and are going into exile. Ask them for farewell presents and food. Mongaku: I have no friends I can call on for such favors. But come to think of it, I do know someone in the eastern hills area quite well. I\u00E2\u0080\u0098ll send him a note. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] I don\u00E2\u0080\u0098t know how to write. You write it. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] \u00E2\u0080\u0095I will have great need of farewell presents and food. Please give the bearer of this message something.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Police aides: How shall I address it? Mongaku: Write, \u00E2\u0080\u0097To the Reverend Kannon at Kiyomizu.\u00E2\u0080\u0098 Police aides: You are trying to make fools of us. 225 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 386-7. 109 Mongaku: Not at all. I have complete faith in Kannon. And there is nobody else I can turn to. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 182) Although Mongaku is an exiled monk, the guards treat him with respect, which is expressed in the address form hijiri no gob\u00C5\u008D \u00E8\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E6\u0088\u00BF, the honorific auxiliary tamafu \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5, and the polite verb s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099, a rare occurrence in all episodes with Mongaku. Taking into account the satirical purpose of this scene, the exaggerated politeness of the guards is likely intended for a comic effect. Their greedy expectation of a bribe forces them to sound respectful. Another possibility is that the use of s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 in this case is a parody of the officials\u00E2\u0080\u0098 \u00E2\u0080\u0095service\u00E2\u0080\u0096 \u00E2\u0080\u0093 they keep up formal appearances even when asking for a bribe. In contrast to the guards, Mongaku speaks rudely showing no respect to his interlocutors. His utterances consistently stay in plain style (aru \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008B, kake \u00E6\u009B\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0091), he addresses them with a derogatory pronoun orera \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089 and orders them to write. By treating the guards as inferiors, Mongaku reverses the institutional hierarchy \u00E2\u0080\u0095guard-prisoner\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and demonstrates the vulnerability of the state officials to manipulation. After dictating a long note, he announces that they should address it to Kannon. Comic effect hinges in this line on the broken expectations of the guards and on the reference to Bodhisattva as if she were a common monk. Being outside of the \u00E2\u0080\u0095worldly\u00E2\u0080\u0096 system of relations, Mongaku can allow himself to expose the wrongdoings of secular officials freely. The language use in this episode clearly points to the fact that the monk makes fun of the officials\u00E2\u0080\u0098 greed and corruption and not of the religion. The difference in attitude is clearly shown by the simple comparison of plain rude forms said to the guards (orera \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089, kake \u00E6\u009B\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u0091) with a highly humble form referring to Kannon (tanomitatematsutare \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008C). Overall, Mongaku succeeds in beating the minor police officials \u00E2\u0080\u0095on their own territory,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 that of the bureaucracy and compilation of 110 documents. This kind of witty interaction is a considerable component in the construction of Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s character. Although rough and eccentric, he has a firm will and faith that successfully counteract worldly corruption. 226 Setsuwa like this one aim to show praiseworthy and charismatic qualities of wandering ascetics to wider audiences, simultaneously raising the status of their language style and promoting it as a more acceptable and familiar norm. 227 Mongaku and Yoritomo Let us finally examine Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s dialogue with Yoritomo, both a hagiographical and a political event of primary significance as a result of which Yoritomo raises the anti-Heike rebellion from the eastern provinces. In the Heike narrative Yoritomo does not occupy a prominent place among other characters and his figure is rarely in the center of events. This episode is the first and rare case depicting Yoritomo not as a background abstract leader, but as a more realistic character. This is achieved, out of all possible choices, by means of a religio- political conversation with the eccentric exiled Mongaku. The scene is primarily significant as 226 In this respect Mongaku contrasts with Bishop Shunkan who never mentions religion and, on top of that, is accused of stealing donations. 227 This scene also sheds some light on the premodern literacy situation. Here it is relevant to mention Ogawa Eiichi\u00E2\u0080\u0098s discussion about the existence of different \u00E2\u0080\u0095standard languages\u00E2\u0080\u0096 in pre-modern Japan. He proposes kanbun kundoku as a candidate for a \u00E2\u0080\u0095written standard language\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and wakan konk\u00C5\u008Dbun (dominant language style of Heike monogatari) as a \u00E2\u0080\u0095standard language of understanding.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 According to this hypothesis, there was not a single \u00E2\u0080\u0095standard\u00E2\u0080\u0096 language for all types of communication (reading, writing, speaking and comprehension) in premodern Japan, but several different languages used as \u00E2\u0080\u0095standards\u00E2\u0080\u0096 for specific kinds of communication. This hypothesis helps explain the ability of Heike audiences to understand the complex language of Heike monogatari during oral performances without implying that they could read or write the same text. Now, if we turn to Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s statement about not being able to write (assuming it to be true and not a part of his joke), it seems puzzling since not long before he read a complex kanbun-influenced subscription list not to mention his otherwise learned speech with numerous Buddhist kango terms. Apparently, in pre-modern times it was possible to be able to read without being able to write and kango words were widely understood and even used in speech by people unable to write them down. See Ogawa, Enky\u00C5\u008Dbon Heike monogatari, 480-1. 111 an example of interaction taking place at the intersection of the religious with the political. It also plays a role in constructing a view of relations between the clergy and the military leadership in which the former can talk almost as an equal with the latter. Ex. 50 Mongaku: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u00BA\u0090\u00E5\u00B9\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u00A8\u008B\u00E5\u00B0\u0086\u00E8\u00BB\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u009B\u00B8 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E8\u00AC\u0080\u00E5\u008F\u008D \u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E6\u009C\u00AC\u00E5\u009B\u00BD\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u008D Yoritomo: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u0080\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E4\u00BA\u008B \u00E5\u00AE\u00A3 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00BE \u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E8\u0081\u0096 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u008A \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0094 \u00E6\u0088\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u0095\u0085\u00E6\u00B1\u00A0 \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00B0\u00BC\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u0089\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008D \u00E5\u0091\u00BD\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u008C\u00E4\u00B8\u0096 \u00E3\u0081\u0094 \u00E3\u0081\u009B \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00AF\u008E\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E6\u00B3\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u00BB \u00E8\u008A\u00B1 \u00E3\u0081\u0091 \u00E7\u00B5\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E9\u0083\u00A8 \u00E8\u00BB\u00A2\u00E8\u00AA\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E5\u00A4\u0096 \u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E4\u00BB\u0096\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u008D228 Mongaku: [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] There is nobody these days among either the Genji or the Taira whose physiognomy points to supreme military command as plainly as yours. Revolt now and rule Japan! Yoritomo: No such thought has ever entered my mind. The late Ike Nun saved my worthless life; my sole concern at present is to pray for her salvation by daily summary recitations of the Lotus Sutra. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 183) Mongaku does not speak in a formal honorific tone with Yoritomo. It is true that Mongaku is about ten years older and that his status as a monk may influence his way of speaking, but the absence of formality is most likely due to his \u00E2\u0080\u0095rough\u00E2\u0080\u0096 character that is also responsible for the directness of his proposals. As in the episodes discussed above, Mongaku avoids the polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style, a choice that removes formal recognition of social hierarchies as is commonly observed in preaching. The use of tamahe \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8 in the imperative does not mark any special respect being a common polite form among equals or even said to inferiors. 229 Pronouns unavoidably indicate the speaker\u00E2\u0080\u0098s attitude, and in this case Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s address of Yoritomo with watono \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE is one of the key features in his speech of incitement. The pronoun is used to refer to one\u00E2\u0080\u0098s equals or those slightly lower in status, but its use also indicates a feeling of 228 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 390. 229 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 302. 112 familiarity or friendship. Thus, Mongaku takes the following position or stance vis-\u00C3\u00A0-vis Yoritomo: by speaking as Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s friend and advisor in addition to being a man skilled in reading people\u00E2\u0080\u0098s faces, he flatters Yoritomo and immediately urges him to revolt quickly (hayahaya \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0084). In contrast to Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s bold initiative, Yoritomo responds passively and humbly. When this conversation takes place he is not the military leader of the Minamoto yet, but merely an exiled man immersed in religious matters. His moderate respect of Mongaku is evident in the honorific verb notamafu \u00E5\u00AE\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 (to say) and in the title hijiri no gob\u00C5\u008D \u00E8\u0081\u0096\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E6\u0088\u00BF (Reverend Sir). These forms together with the polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style reveal that Yoritomo treats Mongaku as his equal or as a man of somewhat superior status while attempting to keep the conversation at a formal level. Ex. 51 Mongaku: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u00A4\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00BE\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00BF\u0083 \u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E8\u0089\u00B2\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E8\u00A6\u008B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u008D Yoritomo: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u008D Mongaku:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u0088\u00B6\u00E6\u0095\u0085 \u00E3\u0081\u0093 \u00E5\u00B7\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u0095 \u00E9\u00A6\u00AC \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E9\u00A0\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E6\u00AE\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E5\u00B9\u00B3\u00E6\u00B2\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00A1 \u00E7\u008D\u0084\u00E8\u0088\u008E \u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008B \u00E8\u008B\u0094 \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00BE\u008C\u00E4\u00B8\u0096 \u00E3\u0081\u0094 \u00E3\u0081\u009B \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E5\u00B1\u00B1\u00E3\u0080\u0085\u00E5\u00AF\u00BA\u00E3\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u008A\u00AB \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E6\u0096\u0087\u00E8\u00A6\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E6\u0095\u0085 \u00E3\u0081\u0093 \u00E5\u00AE\u0088 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E6\u00AE\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E5\u0085\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u0080\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u008D230 Mongaku: \u00E2\u0080\u0095He who refuses Heaven\u00E2\u0080\u0098s gifts incurs Heaven\u00E2\u0080\u0098s censure.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] See for yourself the sympathy I have for you. (He draws from his breast a skull in white cloth) Yoritomo: What is that? Mongaku: It is the head of your father, the late Director of the Stables of the Left. After Heiji, it lay buried under the moss in front of the prison; there was nobody who offered prayers on the Director\u00E2\u0080\u0098s behalf. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] (I have carried it around my neck) visiting and praying at many mountains and temples, so I think the Director has been rescued from a kalpa of suffering. You can see I have done my best to be of service to him. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 183) 230 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 390-1. 113 In this scene, Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s skills in manipulation are to a large degree verbal as he balances between roles of an ascetic saint and a political advisor. 231 His task is not a simple one for a monk: he has to convince Yoritomo to give priority to political revolt and revenge for his father over his current preoccupation with prayers. Starting with a quote from Shi ji (Records of the Historian), a political text and not a Buddhist sutra, Mongaku then switches to a different mode, focusing on Buddhist rhetoric with overtones of friendly familiarity. Now addressing Yoritomo with the pronoun gohen \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00BE\u00BA (said to people of equal or somewhat inferior status), Mongaku sets up the show of \u00E2\u0080\u0095Yoshitomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s skull\u00E2\u0080\u0096232 with a highly unusual phrase likely intended to sound mysterious and intriguing (kokorozashi no fukai iro \u00E5\u00BF\u0083\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E8\u0089\u00B2).233 To gain Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s trust he tells of the great religious services he has rendered to Yoshitomo by praying on his behalf and visiting temples with his remains. As he describes his deeds, Mongaku again addresses Yoritomo as watono \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE (marker of familiarity), uses Buddhist terms gose toburafu \u00E5\u00BE\u008C\u00E4\u00B8\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 (pacify the spirit for afterlife) and ichig\u00C5\u008D \u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E5\u008A\u00AB (one kalpa), and emphasizes the services to Yoshitomo with many honorific and polite forms (tatematsuru \u00E5\u00A5\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B, ontame \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u0081, s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099). The use of s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 is striking, being the first 231 Portrayal of the link between priests and political leaders in Kakuichi Heike monogatari (1371) can be an indirect commentary on the influential Zen monks. \u00E2\u0080\u0095[Zen] monasteries had as their patrons members of the warrior and courtly elites. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] Their monks, who must be counted among the intellectuals of the age, [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] served as cultural and political advisers to shoguns and emperors\u00E2\u0080\u00A6\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Martin Collcutt, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Zen and the gozan,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 3 Medieval Japan, ed. Kozo Yamamura, 598 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 232 As plainly stated in Chapter 12 (2) this time Mongaku brought \u00E2\u0080\u0095merely an old skull from somewhere.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 402). 233 Having searched for similar phrases in the online collection of Japanese texts (University of Virginia Library, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Japanese Text Initiative,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 http://etext.virginia.edu/japanese), I could not find any instances of these words combined together with a similar meaning in other Japanese texts. Very low frequency of the phrase suggests that it may be a made-up idiosyncratic combination of words. This rare word choice may indicate Heike authors\u00E2\u0080\u0098 decision to promote eccentric image of Mongaku. 114 occurrence in Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech. Its use signifies the temporary shift in his attitude to Yoritomo that establishes a formal relationship of service and obligation. As a result of this speech, Mongaku can be said to have converted Buddhist services to Yoshitomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s spirit into political service to Yoritomo. In fact, he does go to the new capital at Fukuhara and through his acquaintance, Mitsuyoshi, serving the arrested Retired Emperor, he succeeds in obtaining the edict legitimizing Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s anti-Heike rebellion.234 All of a sudden, Mongaku is a messenger at the top political level and once again he uses the formal polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style in his message to the Retired Emperor via Mitsuyoshi (Mongaku here speaks on behalf of Yoritomo). In the transmitted message Mongaku expresses Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0098s allegiance to the Retired Emperor by humble verbs tamawaru \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008B (to receive) and m\u00C5\u008Dsu \u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0099 (to speak). Ex. 52 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E4\u00BC\u008A \u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E8\u00B1\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u009B\u00BD \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E6\u00B5\u0081 \u00E3\u0082\u008B \u00E4\u00BA\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E5\u0089\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u0085\u00B5 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E8\u00A1\u009B \u00E3\u0082\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E4\u00BD\u0090 \u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u0091 \u00E9\u00A0\u00BC \u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A \u00E6\u009C\u009D \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E5\u008B\u0085 \u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E5\u008B\u0098 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E9\u0099\u00A2\u00E5\u00AE\u00A3\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0085\u00AB \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00A1 \u00E3\u0082\u00B1 \u00E3\u0081\u008B \u00E5\u009B\u00BD \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00AE\u00B6\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082 \u00E5\u0082\u00AC \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00BB \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00B9\u00B3\u00E5\u00AE\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00A4\u00A9\u00E4\u00B8\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0097 \u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u008D235 Mongaku: The Izu Exile Yoritomo says he will mobilize his hereditary retainers in the Eight Provinces, crush the Taira, and restore peace to the land if only he is pardoned and given an edict from His Majesty. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 184) What does the language of this episode tell about the character of Mongaku and, more generally, about the relation between religious ascetics and top levels of power? Being an ascetic or saint he can allow himself to communicate with everybody without a feeling of awe, being above worldly affairs, he is able to meddle into them when he decides, and being outside of service hierarchies he manipulates others by imposing his services to them. His prodigious verbal ability is one of the main qualities helping him gain an upper hand in interaction. This 234 Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa was in a precarious situation at this time having lost his son Prince Mochihito (killed in the course of an anti-Taira rebellion he was persuaded to lead), being under house arrest and witnessing the unchecked Heike power with Kiyomori undertaking transfer of the capital to Fukuhara. 235 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 391-2. 115 image is ambiguous and can be taken as praise for \u00E2\u0080\u0095peripheral\u00E2\u0080\u0096 wandering monks\u00E2\u0080\u0098 power to influence political events and as a warning about the dangers for the whole state stemming from seemingly inoffensive eccentric monks. The Kamakura period saw an expansion of various religious movements including the Zen sect. As an institution, the network of Zen monasteries grew rapidly under the patronage of the Ashikaga shoguns. 236 In the late thirteenth century, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Zen monasteries were built all over Japan. The reasons for their success can be found in the alliance forged between the Zen masters and the leaders of the bakufu.\u00E2\u0080\u0096237 Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s close association with Yoritomo, the founder of the bakufu, can be seen as an early case of this alliance. The analysis of interaction in Examples 50-52 has identified several shifts in language forms that highlight Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s skill in positioning himself as a Buddhist \u00E2\u0080\u0095saint\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and then as a political advisor. The narrative of Mongaku can be seen as a reaction to the close ties between monks and the military leadership and as a reminder that the bakufu was indebted to monks from the very beginning, the Genpei conflict. Meetings of warrior-monks So far I have discussed the speech of religious individuals interacting mostly in one-to- one communicative situations. However, among the religious interactive settings, meetings of the monks deserve to be examined from the language perspective, since this approach reveals some of the conventions considered appropriate on such occasions that distinguish religious meetings from other types of gatherings. The link between language choices and promotion of solidarity among members is one of the key properties to be analysed. 236 Martin Collcutt, \u00E2\u0080\u0095Zen and the gozan,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 3 Medieval Japan, ed. Kozo Yamamura, 600 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 237 Souyri, The World Turned Upside Down, 78. 116 Let us first briefly look at the formality level of other types of meetings in Heike monogatari in order to have some \u00E2\u0080\u0095reference points.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 First, at the meeting taking place in the imperial palace, the Chancellor and twelve senior nobles decide the punishment for an abbot. Consultant Nagakata speaks as follows. Ex. 53 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E6\u00B3\u0095\u00E5\u00AE\u00B6 \u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u008B\u0098 \u00E7\u008A\u00B6 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00AD\u00BB \u00E3\u0081\u0097 \u00E7\u00BD\u00AA \u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E4\u00B8\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A4 \u00E7\u00AD\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E6\u00B8\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E9\u0081\u00A0\u00E6\u00B5\u0081 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8 \u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081...\u00E3\u0080\u008D238 Consultant Nagakata: The legal experts recommend distant banishment, a sentence one degree lighter than execution \u00E2\u0080\u00A6 (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 57) Nishida points out that the use of polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 may be due to Nagakata\u00E2\u0080\u0098s relatively low rank, but it may also be a marker of dignified speech among top courtiers. 239 Among other properties of high official speech is the dense use of kango terms from legal lexicon (kanj\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u008B\u0098\u00E7\u008A\u00B6, shizai itt\u00C5\u008D \u00E6\u00AD\u00BB\u00E7\u00BD\u00AA\u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E7\u00AD\u0089). A second example is the meeting of Bodhisattvas and divinities dressed like senior officials in the imperial palace (the meeting is seen in a dream by a warrior). By their divine decision the Taira lose the Sword of Commission (symbol of imperial authorization to defeat enemies of the court) which is entrusted to Yoritomo. Ex. 54 Hachiman: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0097\u00A5\u00E6\u009D\u00A5 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0082\u008D \u00E5\u00B9\u00B3\u00E5\u00AE\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E9\u00A0\u0090\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E7\u00AF\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00A4 \u00E5\u0088\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E4\u00BC\u008A \u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E8\u00B1\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E5\u009B\u00BD \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AB \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u00B5\u0081 \u00E3\u0082\u008B \u00E4\u00BA\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E9\u00A0\u00BC \u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A \u00E6\u009C\u009D \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u008D Kasuga divinity: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E5\u0085\u00B6\u00E5\u00BE\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E5\u00AD\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u008D240 Bodhisattva Hachiman: The Sword of Commission, temporarily entrusted to the house of Taira, is now to be presented to the Izu Exile Yoritomo. Kasuga divinity: Please give it to my grandson after that. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 172) Again, polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style is used by the Kasuga divinity to acknowledge the superiority of the Great Bodhisattva Hachiman. The conference of the deities follows the style of the top court 238 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 96. 239 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 265. 240 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 362-3. 117 officials and in both cases s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style emphasizes the formality of the meeting and the attention given to hierarchies of power. The top seat in the warrior\u00E2\u0080\u0098s dream is occupied by Hachiman, the god of war and the tutelary deity of the Minamoto, who speaks less formally with sound contractions tabauzuru \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008B (< taban to suru \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u008B) frequently found in warrior speech. Now, having identified the polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style as a typical feature of the official meetings, let us consider the various utterances at the gathering of monks at the Miidera monastery. Warrior-monks 241 decide on the plan for a night attack on Rokuhara to overthrow the Taira. Ex. 55 1) Monks: \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 \u00E6\u00AD\u00A4\u00E4\u00BA\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E5\u0085\u00AD \u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E6\u00B3\u00A2 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF \u00E7\u00BE\u0085 \u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E5\u00AF\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00A4\u009C \u00E3\u0082\u0088 \u00E6\u0089\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E6\u0089\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E4\u00BC\u008A\u00E8\u00B1\u0086\u00E5\u00AE\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u00B0\u0086\u00E8\u00BB\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0082\u00AA\u00E5\u0083\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E5\u0085\u00AD\u00E6\u00B3\u00A2\u00E7\u00BE\u0085\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E5\u00AF\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E9\u00A2\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0096 \u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0081\u00AB \u00E7\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B8\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00A9\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E5\u00A4\u00AA\u00E6\u0094\u00BF\u00E5\u0085\u00A5\u00E9\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u0084\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u008D 2) Shinkai:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00B9\u00B3\u00E5\u00AE\u00B6\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u0096\u00B9\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A9 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E8\u00A1\u0086\u00E5\u00BE\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u0084\u0080\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00B6\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0088\u0091\u00E7\u00AD\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u0090\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E6\u0083\u009C\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E5\u00BE\u008C\u00E6\u0097\u00A5 \u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A1 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u00AF\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0080\u008D 3) Keish\u00C5\u00AB: \u00E3\u0080\u008C \u00E8\u00A8\u00BC \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E6\u008B\u00A0 \u00E3\u0081\u0093 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u00A4\u0096 \u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u008B \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E6\u0088\u0091\u00E5\u00AF\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E6\u009C\u00AC\u00E9\u00A1\u0098\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00A4\u00A9 \u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E6\u00AD\u00A6 \u00E3\u0082\u0080 \u00E5\u00A4\u00A9 \u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E7\u009A\u0087 \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E6\u009D\u00B1\u00E5\u00AE\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 \u00E6\u0099\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E5\u008F\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E7\u009A\u0087\u00E5\u00AD\u0090\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081... \u00E8\u0087\u00AA\u00E4\u00BD\u0099 \u00E3\u0081\u0098 \u00E3\u0082\u0088 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E7\u009F\u00A5\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0085\u00B6\u00E7\u00A7\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E9\u0096\u0080\u00E5\u00BE\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BB\u008A \u00E5\u00A4\u009C\u00E5\u0085\u00AD \u00E3\u0082\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E6\u00B3\u00A2 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF \u00E7\u00BE\u0085 \u00E3\u0082\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E5\u00AF\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0089\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A1 \u00E6\u00AD\u00BB \u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00AB \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0080\u008D242 1) Monks: [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] but we can\u00E2\u0080\u0098t keep sitting here. We must launch a night attack against Rokuhara. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] our frontal attack force of armed monks, commanded by Nakatsuna, should advance against Rokuhara, set fires on the windward side, and strike a single decisive blow. In that way, we can burn Kiyomori out and kill him. 2) Holy Teacher Shinkai: Even though I may seem to be siding with the Taira, I cannot neglect my duty to you or view the temple\u00E2\u0080\u0098s reputation with indifference. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] We ought to postpone 241 In this study, I discuss warrior-monks in the chapter on religion and treat them as a militarized group of monks. Although their meeting takes place in a monastery, they discuss military matters as warriors. For a comprehensive examination of the social origins, political and military activities of warrior-monks see Mikael S. Adolphson, The Teeth and Claws of the Buddha: Monastic Warriors and Sohei in Japanese History (Honolulu: University of Hawai\u00CA\u00BBi Press, 2007). 242 SNKBZ, vol. 45, 308-10. 118 the attack\u00E2\u0080\u00A6 3) Holy Teacher Keish\u00C5\u00AB: There is no need to look outside for proof that a small force can prevail. In the days when he was still Crown Prince, Emperor Tenmu, the founder of our temple, [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] Whatever anyone else may do, I call on my followers to die in battle against Rokuhara tonight! (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 149) It is clear that in this situation the warrior-monks, being fully involved in the anti-Taira rebellion of Prince Mochihito, interact as warriors and do not mention any religious matters. Their vocabulary is military (oshiyosete \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E5\u00AF\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u00A6, youchi \u00E5\u00A4\u009C\u00E6\u0089\u0093, ohote \u00E5\u00A4\u00A7\u00E6\u0089\u008B, taish\u00C5\u008Dgun \u00E5\u00A4\u00A7 \u00E5\u00B0\u0086\u00E8\u00BB\u008D, hikake \u00E7\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0091, hitomomi m\u00C5\u008Dde \u00E4\u00B8\u0080\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A7). Moreover, the speaker in Ex.55-1 makes use of the interjection izaya \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u0084 and forms with onbin sound changes (moude \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00A7 < momite \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00A6, daite \u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 < dashite \u00E3\u0081\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6) that increase the tempo of his utterance and play a role in characterizing him more as a warrior rather than a monk. The overall style of his speech is noticeably plain without honorific forms and polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099. During monk meetings, the norm is to speak without s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style;243 that is, in contrast to courtier meetings, monks prefer to avoid emphasis on formality and hierarchy among themselves. It can be hypothesized that the use of plain forms is a linguistic way to enhance solidarity among the members of warrior-monk groups. 244 This reasoning is supported by the sharp contrast in the speech of the Holy Teacher Shinkai who is portrayed as a supporter of the Heike. 245 His call to postpone the attack on the Heike (Ex. 55-2) puts him in opposition to the rest of the assembly and prolongs the discussions, disrupting the night attack on Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0098s forces. What is noteworthy is the fact that his political opposition to the warrior-monks\u00E2\u0080\u0098 243 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 266. 244 This observation is also true for warriors who are not monks. As pointed out by Nishida, s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style is not used in interaction between companions and friends of low status. The use of this style between fellow warriors emphasizes formality, distance and even hostility. See Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 254-6. 245 His political alignment is due to economic reasons: he had received prayer commissions from the Heike. After the attack\u00E2\u0080\u0098s failure, warrior-monks destroy his cloister and he seeks Heike support in the Rokuhara. 119 assembly is paralleled by language choices that are markedly different. Even ignoring the content of his statement, several features that can be said to break the norms of religious assemblies define the tone of the speech: the consistent use of polite auxiliary verb s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 and some of the highest honorific forms -sasetamafu ~\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 and oboshimesu \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099 with humble verb m\u00C5\u008Dsu \u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0099 for own action. Nishida considers the presence of s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 forms to be a sign of Shinkai\u00E2\u0080\u0098s humble attitude to the audience.246 It may be added that his politeness is out of place as it brings uncustomary formality into the monks\u00E2\u0080\u0098 assembly and hinders the solidarity and unity of its members. The speech in the s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style readily evokes associations with court official meetings with defined hierarchies of power and formal atmosphere. Clearly such language is an irregularity at the warrior-monk meeting, and Shinkai\u00E2\u0080\u0098s choice identifies him as a pro-Heike official rather than a monk, and given the circumstances, a traitor of the Miidera warrior-monks. This linguistic evidence confirms the significant role played by language variation in issues of group formation since by being too humble and formal Shinkai emphasizes his separation from the assembly. The contrast of Shinkai\u00E2\u0080\u0098s language is further strengthened by the following reply (Ex. 55-3) given to him by the Holy Teacher Keish\u00C5\u00AB, a senior monk of similar old age and high status. In his speech, Keish\u00C5\u00AB follows the conventional plain style247 (with honorific forms only used to show respect to the emperor of the past) and ends with a military decision uchijini seyo ya \u00E6\u0089\u0093\u00E6\u00AD\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u0084 (let\u00E2\u0080\u0098s die in battle), plain and emphatic (particle ya \u00E3\u0082\u0084). Shinkai\u00E2\u0080\u0098s speech with s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 (Ex. 55-2) found between the speech of other warrior-monks (Ex.55-1 and Ex.55-3), 246 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 266. 247 The use of plain style at religious meetings is a characteristic of the setting and the same Holy Teacher Keish\u00C5\u00AB speaks in a very polite formal way with Prince Mochihito. Ex.\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E5\u008F\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0090\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u008D \u00E2\u0080\u0095Take him (Keish\u00C5\u00AB\u00E2\u0080\u0098s disciple) anywhere at all.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 152). 120 both without s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099, clearly stands out and points to the importance of language variation in the representation of contrast between characters. Investigation of stylistic differences has helped better assess the difference in tone and stance of the opposing sides at the meeting. In this episode, language style of various speakers (plain vs. formal) highlights their political alignments. Failure of one speaker to follow the common pattern of interaction disrupts the solidarity of the group. The energetic plain military speech of the majority emphatically contrasts with his formal polite speech. H\u00C5\u008Dnen\u00E2\u0080\u0099s sermon Having examined some of the communication properties of religious discourse, many of them political and unrelated to religious matters, let us consider the speech of the exclusive domain of the clergy\u00E2\u0080\u0094the sermon\u00E2\u0080\u0094and some of its language properties. The dialogue between H\u00C5\u008Dnen, the founder of Pure Land Buddhism in Japan, and one of the top courtier- warriors of the Heike, Shigehira, takes the form of Shigehira\u00E2\u0080\u0098s confession about his evil deeds and anxieties about afterlife followed by the sermon in which H\u00C5\u008Dnen outlines the key teachings of Pure Land Buddhism. The interlocutors have been for years in a master-disciple relation. Ex. 56 \u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E5\u00BA\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00BA\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u009F \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00B3\u00E4\u00B8\u008A\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u00A6\u008B\u00E5\u008F\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E7\u00BD\u00B7 \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u008B \u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E6\u0086\u008D\u00E6\u0085\u00A2 \u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BF\u0083\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u00BD\u0093\u00E6\u009D\u00A5\u00E3\u0081\u00AE \u00E6\u0098\u0087 \u00E6\u00B2\u0088 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E9\u00A1\u0098 \u00E3\u0081\u00AD\u00E3\u0081\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E4\u00B8\u008A\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E6\u0085\u0088\u00E6\u0082\u00B2 \u00E3\u0081\u0098 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E6\u0082\u00AA\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AC\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E6\u0096\u00B9\u00E6\u00B3\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E5\u0080\u0099 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u008D248 Shigehira: I must have been taken prisoner because I was destined to meet you again. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] (I was) too proud and arrogant to worry about my fate in the next world. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] Please, Your Holiness, be compassionate and merciful. If there is a way to save such a sinner, tell me of it. (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 334) 248 SNKBZ, vol. 46, 279-80. 121 The disciple Shigehira\u00E2\u0080\u0098s respectful attitude to his religious guide is conveyed by the humble forms makaru \u00E7\u00BD\u00B7\u00E3\u0082\u008B, the honorific auxiliary tamafu \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5, and the choice of the polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style for the whole confession. Ex. 57 H\u00C5\u008Dnen:\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E8\u00AA\u00A0\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E5\u008F\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E9\u009B\u00A3 \u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u009F \u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E4\u00BA\u00BA\u00E8\u00BA\u00AB \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E4\u00B8\u0089\u00E9\u0080\u0094 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A5 \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E4\u00BB\u008A\u00E7\u00A9\u00A2\u00E5\u009C\u009F \u00E3\u0082\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u00A9 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u008E\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E6\u00B5\u0084\u00E5\u009C\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u00AD\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0082\u00AA\u00E5\u00BF\u0083\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E6\u008D\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0096\u0084\u00E5\u00BF\u0083\u00E7\u0099\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B8\u0089\u00E4\u00B8\u0096 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u009C \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u00AB\u00B8\u00E4\u00BB\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E5\u00AE\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E9\u009A\u008F\u00E5\u0096\u009C \u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E3\u0080\u008E\u00E5\u00B0\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E7\u00A7\u00B0 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u0090\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u008F\u00B7 \u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E8\u0087\u00B3 \u00E3\u0081\u0097 \u00E8\u00A5\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E6\u0096\u00B9 \u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0080\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E9\u0087\u0088 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E5\u00B0\u0082 \u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u00B1 \u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E5\u0090\u008D\u00E5\u008F\u00B7\u00E3\u0082\u0092 \u00E7\u00A7\u00B0 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B0\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E8\u00A5\u00BF\u00E6\u0096\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E8\u0087\u00B3\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E8\u00A1\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u008E\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E4\u00BD\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00A2\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E5\u00BA\u00A7 \u00E3\u0081\u0096 \u00E8\u0087\u00A5 \u00E3\u0081\u0090\u00E3\u0082\u008F \u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0099\u0082 \u00E3\u0081\u0098 \u00E5\u0087\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0088 \u00E8\u00AB\u00B8 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0088 \u00E7\u00B8\u0081 \u00E3\u0081\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u008D\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B8\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E6\u00A5\u00AD \u00E3\u0081\u0094\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E5\u009B\u009B \u00E3\u0081\u0097 \u00E5\u00A8\u0081 \u00E3\u0082\u0090 \u00E5\u0084\u0080 \u00E3\u0081\u008E \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u00BF\u0083 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E5\u00BF\u00B5 \u00E3\u0081\u00AD\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E5\u008F\u00A3 \u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E7\u00A7\u00B0 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u00BF\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00AF \u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0080\u0081...\u00E3\u0080\u008D249 H\u00C5\u008Dnen: It is a sorrow beyond sorrow that you should face the prospect of returning to the Three Evil Paths after having enjoyed the rare good fortune of being born a man. But the Buddhas of the Three Worlds must surely feel happiness because you have now abandoned wicked thoughts and embraced good ones, desirous of rejecting the impure world and achieving rebirth in the Pure Land. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] It is explained, \u00E2\u0080\u0097He who intones the sacred name with all his heart will enter the Western Paradise.\u00E2\u0080\u0098 [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] and if you meditate on Amida Buddha in your heart and keep his name on your lips, always and everywhere, whether you are walking, standing, sitting, or lying down, [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 334-5) As for H\u00C5\u008Dnen, his speech is similarly respectful, as is customary in polite communication (honorific auxiliary tamafu \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 and honorific forms \u00E2\u0080\u0093mashimasu ~\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099), with a notable total absence of polite formal s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style. Nishida identifies avoidance of s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099, even in the presence of tamafu \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5, as the marker of a \u00E2\u0080\u0095preaching style.\u00E2\u0080\u0096250 Other properties include influences from kanbun kundoku (such as negawakuwa \u00E9\u00A1\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF in Ex. 56), the long sentences with clauses linked by -te ~\u00E3\u0081\u00A6 and -ba ~\u00E3\u0081\u00B0 forms, and the high presence of kango vocabulary. Kango density and complexity does differentiate the master\u00E2\u0080\u0098s utterances from 249 SNKBZ, vol. 46, 280-1. 250 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 245. 122 those of the disciple. For example, if Shigehira can handle kango compounds consisting of two characters (such as jihi \u00E6\u0085\u0088\u00E6\u0082\u00B2), H\u00C5\u008Dnen freely employs highly complex and rare four-character compounds (gy\u00C5\u008Dj\u00C5\u00ABzaga \u00E8\u00A1\u008C\u00E4\u00BD\u008F\u00E5\u00BA\u00A7\u00E8\u0087\u00A5, shinnenkush\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u00BF\u0083\u00E5\u00BF\u00B5\u00E5\u008F\u00A3\u00E7\u00A7\u00B0) and even several seven-character slogans. This is undoubtedly a case of so-called \u00E2\u0080\u0095code switching\u00E2\u0080\u0096251 from \u00E2\u0080\u0095Chinese\u00E2\u0080\u0096252 to the kanbun kundoku variety of pre-modern Japanese since the religious formula obeys syntactical rules of Classical Chinese and it is pronounced as is, according to on-readings. Clearly H\u00C5\u008Dnen does not expect Shigehira to understand the formulas in \u00E2\u0080\u0095Chinese\u00E2\u0080\u0096 and provides translation into kanbun kundoku Japanese. In this way, H\u00C5\u008Dnen\u00E2\u0080\u0098s identity as a priest and religious guide is linked with (or constructed by means of) his language ability. To initiate Shigehira into the community of Amidist believers means in part to share with him the knowledge of sacred formulas that were apparently recited orally. To make sure the above properties are not random, but comprise a set of features making up the \u00E2\u0080\u0095style of preaching\u00E2\u0080\u0096 we turn to another sermon given by Honsh\u00C5\u008Db\u00C5\u008D Tang\u00C5\u008D, an ascetic from \u00C5\u008Chara, to the captured Munemori before execution. Ex. 58\u00E3\u0080\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u0089\u00E3\u0081\u009A\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E6\u009C\u0080\u00E5\u00BE\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E6\u009C\u0089\u00E6\u00A7\u0098 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u00BE \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00A6\u00A7\u00E3\u0081\u009C\u00E3\u0082\u0080\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A4\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u009F \u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E5\u00BF\u0083\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B9\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082 \u00E7\u0094\u009F \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0091\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0088\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BF\u00E3\u0081\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00B8\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u0098\u0094\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0090\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E9\u009B\u00BB \u00E3\u0081\u00A7\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E5\u0085\u0089 \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E6\u009C\u009D \u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E9\u009C\u00B2 \u00E3\u0082\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E4\u00B8\u008B\u00E7\u0095\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u0092\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u0091\u00BD\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0082\u0092\u00E3\u0082\u0084\u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E8\u00AA\u00B0 \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008C \u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E5\u0098\u0097 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA \u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B8\u008D\u00E8\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B8\u008D\u00E6\u00AD\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u0096\u00AC\u00E3\u0080\u0082\u00E8\u00AA\u00B0\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00A1\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u009D\u00B1 \u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E7\u0088\u00B6 \u00E3\u0081\u00B6 \u00E8\u00A5\u00BF \u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E6\u00AF\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00BC \u00E3\u0081\u008C \u00E5\u0091\u00BD \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u00A1 \u00E3\u0080\u0082... \u00E3\u0080\u008E\u00E6\u0088\u0091 \u00E3\u0081\u008C \u00E5\u00BF\u0083 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E8\u0087\u00AA \u00E3\u0081\u0098 \u00E7\u00A9\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E7\u00BD\u00AA \u00E3\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u0084 \u00E7\u00A6\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E3\u0081\u008F \u00E7\u0084\u00A1 \u00E3\u0082\u0080 \u00E4\u00B8\u00BB \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0086 \u00E3\u0080\u0081 \u00E8\u00A6\u00B3 \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E5\u00BF\u0083 \u00E3\u0081\u0098\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E7\u0084\u00A1 \u00E3\u0082\u0080 \u00E5\u00BF\u0083 \u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E6\u00B3\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E4\u00B8\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00B6 \u00E4\u00BD\u008F \u00E3\u0081\u00A2\u00E3\u0082\u0086\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E6\u00B3\u0095 \u00E3\u0081\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 \u00E3\u0080\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E5\u0096\u0084\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E6\u0082\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u0082\u00E7\u00A9\u00BA \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u0086 \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00A8 \u00E8\u00A6\u00B3 \u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0082\u0093 \u00E3\u0081\u009A \u00E3\u0082\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u008C\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E4\u00BB\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 \u00E5\u00BF\u0083 \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0081\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u008D \u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0081\u00B2\u00E3\u0081\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0081\u00B5\u00E4\u00BA\u008B\u00E3\u0081\u00AB\u00E3\u0081\u00A6\u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0080\u0082...253 251 It occurs when a speaker switches between different codes in the course of a single interaction. See Llamas, The Routledge Companion to Sociolinguistics, 208. 252 I put \u00E2\u0080\u0095Chinese\u00E2\u0080\u0096 in brackets because on-readings provided in furigana are adapted to Japanese phonology. 253 SNKBZ, vol. 46, 424-5. 123 Honsh\u00C5\u008Db\u00C5\u008D Tang\u00C5\u008D: You must not trouble your mind about your son now. Both of you would suffer great agony if you were to see each other at the end. Even in past ages, few men have known such happiness and prosperity as you experienced from the time of your birth on. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] What, then, shall we say of human life in this world, a flash of lightning, a morning dewdrop? [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] Who has tasted the elixir of eternal youth and immortality? Who has prolonged his days like Dongfang Shuo or the Queen Mother of the West? [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] Thus the Buddha teaches, \u00E2\u0080\u0097Our minds are void of themselves; sin and blessedness lack true existence. When we meditate on the mind, there is no mind. The laws do not dwell in the Law.\u00E2\u0080\u0098 To regard good and bad as unreal is to be in accord with the Buddha\u00E2\u0080\u0098s mind. [\u00E2\u0080\u00A6] (McCullough, The Tale of the Heike, 395-6) Clearly, a number of properties coincide with those in Ex. 57: the use of honorific forms oboshimesu \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099, -sasetamafu ~\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5; the expressions from kanbun kundoku such as iwanya \u00E3\u0081\u0084\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0082\u0093\u00E3\u0082\u0084; the presence of four-character compounds and the explanatory paraphrase of a sutra passage in \u00E2\u0080\u0095Chinese.\u00E2\u0080\u0096 One notable novelty is the imitation of Chinese word order Verb-Object (nametarishi fur\u00C5\u008Dfushi no yaku \u00E5\u0098\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0082\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B8\u008D\u00E8\u0080\u0081\u00E4\u00B8\u008D\u00E6\u00AD\u00BB\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E8\u0096\u00AC) by inverting the regular Japanese word order Object-Verb. As in H\u00C5\u008Dnen\u00E2\u0080\u0098s sermon above (Ex. 57), Honsh\u00C5\u008Db\u00C5\u008D Tang\u00C5\u008D does not use the polite s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style except for two times closer to the end of his sermon, presumably when he addresses Munemori directly. 254 In this case, the last passage in s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style is not a part of the sermon, but a more personal formal address to Munemori as the former head of the Heike clan. From a religious and political viewpoint, the inclusion of Pure Land doctrines into the Heike monogatari narrative was not an ordinary matter as it positioned the narrative as a tool for promotion of Amidist discourse. First of all, H\u00C5\u008Dnen\u00E2\u0080\u0098s radical new teaching was opposed by institutional schools (such as Tendai) and by the other sects (Nichiren\u00E2\u0080\u0098s one, for example) to the point that H\u00C5\u008Dnen was exiled from the capital in 1207.255 On the other hand, H\u00C5\u008Dnen\u00E2\u0080\u0098s 254 Nishida, Heike monogatari no buntaironteki, 246. 255 Souyri, The World Turned Upside Down, 72-3. More detailed discussion in Gomi, Ky\u00C5\u008D, Kamakura no \u00C5\u008Dken, 180-3. 124 teachings found wide popular support in the capital and later in the provinces due to the clarity of the teachings and the ease of practice. 256 Historical H\u00C5\u008Dnen was able to gain support among a wide range of people. For example, the influential capital official and imperial regent Kuj\u00C5\u008D no Kanezane was one of his disciples. Heike monogatari is known to be steeped in Amidist views, thus taking a specific political and religious stance to the events described. Here it is relevant to mention Paul Varley\u00E2\u0080\u0098s observation that many Taira from the capital (but no peripheral Minamoto) seek assurance of rebirth in Amida Buddha\u00E2\u0080\u0098s Pure Land paradise.257 Without suggesting a religious motif for the Genpei conflict, it is still necessary to recognize the subversive religious stance taken by the Heike narrative. It would be interesting to consider the role of Heike monogatari recitals throughout the land in spreading the Pure Land teachings and worldview in the provinces. Conclusion Analysis of the data in this chapter has revealed some of the language aspects of communication in the diverse religious domain represented in the Heike narratives. In a number of cases, author(s) clearly attributed different language choices to characters depending on their religious attitude, practice and setting. I have examined samples of official vs. \u00E2\u0080\u0095nomadic\u00E2\u0080\u0096 speech, personal vs. group settings, religious vs. politicized religious interactions and in each case the difference in language can be detected. Analyzed characters have distinct \u00E2\u0080\u0095voices\u00E2\u0080\u0096 that determine how they are perceived by Heike audiences. If these voices were different, then audiences would have different perceptions of the characters. In other words, if Mongaku calls Yoritomo watono \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE, it shows that he addresses Yoritomo 256 Gomi, Ky\u00C5\u008D, Kamakura no \u00C5\u008Dken, 192. 257 Varley, Warriors of Japan, 115. 125 in a familiar and friendly manner. If he would use other more formal address forms, the image of their relationship would be different. Similarly, if H\u00C5\u008Dnen uses Chinese formulas from sutras in his speech and other monks do not, it does give him a special status relative to others. Since language markers indicate extralinguistic information such as social alignment and power asymmetries, the clergy\u00E2\u0080\u0098s258 reluctance (except for political settings) to use s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style, for example, does put them into a group beyond relations of \u00E2\u0080\u0095service,\u00E2\u0080\u0096 in contrast to the court and the military spheres. In the rare cases when monks do use the polite auxiliary s\u00C5\u008Dr\u00C5\u008D \u00E5\u0080\u0099, as does Mongaku to Yoritomo or Holy Teacher Shinkai to the monk assembly, the shift into political discourse is strongly marked showing the speaker as a political advisor and messenger in the first case and as a traitor of the warrior-monks\u00E2\u0080\u0098 cause in the second one. Table 7 Approximate classification of priests by language style Courtly Religious institution Use of formal \u00E5\u0080\u0099 General speech style H\u00C5\u008Dnen +/~ + x Purely religious J\u00C5\u008Dken + + o Religious and political Shunkan + + x Irreligious, courtly, wabun Warrior-monks - + x Military Mongaku - - x o Rough and religious Political and religious service In some cases, however, the priests and monks do not even mention religious matters and in their speech they rarely or never cite sutras or employ kango compounds. This is especially true of Shunkan, who speaks in wabun and never brings up religion despite being an institutional priest of high rank, and of warrior-monks whose utterances are fully military in their content and do not differ from those of warriors. 258 Used as a collective term for all involved in religious practice, even if in name only. 126 As the language evidence shows (Table 7), in the world presented in Heike monogatari there is no uniform way of speaking in the religious community. This means that diversity in the religious domain has a linguistic dimension. Author(s) of Heike monogatari used various language means to represent diversity. I have discussed how the speech of different characters is encoded in the Heike text and how language variation participates in characterization. The Heike narrative portrays a wide diversity among the priests, each possessing particular preferences in language choices and a particular manner of interaction. It is notable that they differ not by supporting opposing religious teachings, but by their involvement in matters outside of religion proper, that is, politics and war. Most of the priests examined in this chapter interact either in political affairs or in military ones. In the narrative, only Amidist priests (most notably H\u00C5\u008Dnen) and partly the ascetic Mongaku are positioned outside of politics and war. What do these results and the prominence of \u00E2\u0080\u0095unorthodox\u00E2\u0080\u0096 speech, especially in the case of Mongaku, contribute to our understanding of vernacularization of religious discourse? Bialock suggests that unofficial discourse of setsuwa genre \u00E2\u0080\u0095gave rise to new forms of vernacular history as it invaded the sphere of historical narrative.\u00E2\u0080\u0096259 In Heike monogatari, he sees a shift in discursive codes as unofficial setsuwa \u00E2\u0080\u0095began to combine in unprecedented ways with official document style and other formal rhetorical modes, ultimately disrupting, inverting, and relativizing the hierarchy of styles that had prevailed up to about the eleventh century.\u00E2\u0080\u0096260 How do the language results examined here correlate with this discursive shift? It is clear that language evidence corroborates this view in many respects. Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s \u00E2\u0080\u0095rough\u00E2\u0080\u0096 utterances do not replace or merge with the official rhetoric of J\u00C5\u008Dken or H\u00C5\u008Dnen\u00E2\u0080\u0098s preaching, but exist in a 259 Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 296. 260 Ibid. 127 parallel way occupying their level in the hierarchy of language styles. Mongaku, because of his skilful manipulation of eccentric speech, has more influence on the political events than institutional priests and, thus, narratives focusing on his interactions at court and with Yoritomo participate in the inversion of language and social hierarchies. The inclusion of \u00E2\u0080\u0095unorthodox\u00E2\u0080\u0096 language choices in the same narrative with high-level formal speech necessarily relativizes the hierarchy of language styles while putting emphasis on the possibility for religious discourse to assume many \u00E2\u0080\u0095worldly\u00E2\u0080\u0096 forms, ranging from military to political. As seen from Tables 7 and 8, the involvement of religion in secular matters is represented and reinforced by the diversity of language styles attributed to characters of priests and monks. 128 Table 8 Discursive interactive settings - Religion Language forms Participant 1 Participant 2 Expression of Significance Retired Emperor - humble verbs for himself, \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style (to Empress) - honorific \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 for spirits - order: humble + \u00E5\u0080\u0099\u00E3\u0081\u00B8 Malevolent spirits (silent) - shift from polite respectful attitude priest \u00EF\u0083\u00A0 spirits to authoritative command to imperial subjects Retired Emperor as priest, medium Ability to order spirits Shunkan - gradual decrease in politeness \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0099, \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 > \u00C3\u0098 - address to equals \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00AE - plain imperative forms - no Buddhist speech, few kango, long wabun passage - plain style \u00E3\u0081\u0082\u00E3\u0082\u008A, \u00E3\u0081\u00AA\u00E3\u0082\u008A Naritsune, courtiers - high honorific \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099 with polite \u00E5\u0080\u0099 disciple Ari\u00C5\u008D - plain form > polite \u00E5\u0080\u0099 \u00E2\u0080\u0095irreligious\u00E2\u0080\u0096 man despair recognition of master\u00E2\u0080\u0098s identity Parallel between physical and linguistic separation from capital Re-establish status of Bishop Mongaku 1) - plain forms, contractions - include religious kango 2) - polite honorific \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0099, \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 - no \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style 3) - responds with defiance Plain verb + \u00E3\u0081\u00BE\u00E3\u0081\u0098 - curses Retired Emperor - low honorific forms, inappropriate and contracted \u00E3\u0081\u009F\u00E3\u0081\u0086 < \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 (rare stigmatized form) - consistent presence of Buddhist vocabulary 4) - rude, informal, no respect - plain style, derogatory pronoun \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0082\u008C\u00E3\u0082\u0089, orders 1) Commoners - plain style 2) Divine messengers - plain style 3) At court - rude, informal expressions \u00E3\u0081\u009D\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00B3 - warrior exclamation 4) Police guards - formal polite \u00E5\u0080\u0099, honorific \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 - polite address \u00E8\u0081\u0096\u00E3\u0081\u00AE\u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E6\u0088\u00BF Eccentric monk Rough and religious Not always rough Polite to divine challenge to the imperial authority mixture of \u00E2\u0080\u0095voices\u00E2\u0080\u0096 at court relg.+courtly+milit. monks outside of imperial service satire and religion reversal of hierarchy \u00E2\u0080\u0095guard- arrested\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Close to commoners - in the peripheral areas Ability to communicate with divine forces \u00E2\u0080\u0095corrupt centre\u00E2\u0080\u0096 Intrusion of \u00E2\u0080\u0095peripheral speech\u00E2\u0080\u0096 into the court Curse as sermon? Witty charismatic monk tricks corrupt officials 129 Language forms Participant 1 Participant 2 Expression of Significance 5) - informal: avoids \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style - pronoun \u00E3\u0082\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00A8\u00E3\u0081\u00AE (emphasizes friendly attitude of advisor) -pronoun \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1\u00E8\u00BE\u00BA (equality) - Buddhist kango \u00EF\u0083\u00A0 \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style (relations of service), Honorific prefix \u00E5\u00BE\u00A1 5) Yoritomo - passive and humble - honorific verb \u00E5\u00AE\u00A3\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 - polite formal \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style Interaction of equals, Mongaku\u00E2\u0080\u0098s initiative direct, informal familiarity shift in attitude: relg. service \u00EF\u0083\u00A0 polit. service Intersection of religious with political Religious manipulation of political leaders by \u00E2\u0080\u0095peripheral\u00E2\u0080\u0096 ascetics Warrior-monk meeting - informal, plain style, no \u00E5\u0080\u0099 - military vocabulary, onbin - no mention of religion Overall assembly style shift: - \u00E5\u0080\u0099 \u00EF\u0083\u00A0 + \u00E5\u0080\u0099 \u00EF\u0083\u00A0 - \u00E5\u0080\u0099 (traitor) Shinkai - consistent use of polite auxiliary \u00E5\u0080\u0099, high honorific forms ~\u00E3\u0081\u0095\u00E3\u0081\u009B\u00E7\u00B5\u00A6 \u00E3\u0081\u00B5, \u00E3\u0081\u008A\u00E3\u0081\u00BC\u00E3\u0081\u0097\u00E3\u0082\u0081\u00E3\u0081\u0099, humble \u00E7\u0094\u00B3\u00E3\u0081\u0099 for own actions: shift to official formal meeting style Solidarity and in- group equality Traitor breaks assembly speech conventions Monks speaking like warriors Ling. contrast = polit. alignment H\u00C5\u008Dnen - respectful \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 - complete absence of \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style - high density of complex kango compounds - intertextual: citing sutras - code-switching: 7-character religious formulas in Classical Chinese Shigehira - humble forms for himself, honorific auxiliary \u00E7\u00B5\u00A6\u00E3\u0081\u00B5 to H\u00C5\u008Dnen, - consistent \u00E5\u0080\u0099 style - moderate use of 2- character kango religious terms - some kanbun kundoku influence: \u00E9\u00A1\u0098\u00E3\u0081\u00AF\u00E3\u0081\u008F\u00E3\u0081\u00AF \u00E2\u0080\u0095preaching style\u00E2\u0080\u0096 initiation into Amidist teachings H\u00C5\u008Dnen as a rare case of a purely religious character Knowledge of Amidist formulas as a prerequisite for faith 130 Conclusion This thesis has examined the language of interaction between characters as represented in dialogue passages of Heike monogatari. Drawing on linguistic and stylistic analyses of the text and on recent studies of the literary, socio-political and religious aspects of Kamakura- period narratives, I have analyzed language variation in selected dialogues from Heike monogatari and the role of language forms in constructing asymmetries in social status and power between characters. The study has aimed to show the language aspects of character interaction and their role in characterization. This research follows in its approach the themes influencing current studies of premodern Japanese texts, including Heike monogatari. The theme of continuous construction of the past by later narratives that are reworked and reinterpreted has been central to recent studies. 261 In the present research, I view the fictional dialogue representing interaction between characters as one of the most effective means of projecting \u00E2\u0080\u009Cimages\u00E2\u0080\u009D of the characters that help shape audience\u00E2\u0080\u0099s imagination of the past. As information directly received by audiences listening to Heike performances, language forms contributed to the reception of characters. I have discussed various language means and how they highlight diverse ways of interaction that demonstrate the qualities of characters and their attitudes in specific settings. This thesis has also examined texts as expressions of power. 262 Power asymmetry is consistently encoded in the dialogues, and negotiations of status and power are prominently expressed by language choices. The decision of the text\u00E2\u0080\u0099s author(s) to include \u00E2\u0080\u009Cperipheral\u00E2\u0080\u009D 261 For example, see Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, Hidden Histories and Oyler, Swords, Oaths, and Prophetic Visions. 262 The complex relation between texts and power is discussed by Bialock in Eccentric Spaces, Hidden Histories and by Pollock in The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, for example. 131 voices and to represent them as prominently participating at the highest levels of power is an effective statement about the inversion of hierarchies at the time of the Genpei war. Following a trend in current studies to examine underrepresented sides of the narratives, 263 this thesis brings attention to minor variation in language forms and shifts in style that are often neglected despite being an integral component of the narrative. They play a significant role in enhancing the overall depiction of interaction and emphasizing the relations between characters. This approach fits into another prominent tendency of current research: to avoid vast generalizations based on clear-cut binary oppositions (such as center-periphery or Buddhism-Shinto) and instead examine phenomena in all their complexity. Accordingly, instead of considering a character\u00E2\u0080\u0099s image as a given, I discuss how the image is partially constructed and enhanced by small details of language on the level of specific dialogues. By so doing, I avoid generalizations and try to make small claims grounded in specific empirical data. Overall conclusions and significance Analysis of selected dialogues in this thesis has clarified the role of language and style in the portrayal of the socio-political status of characters, their interpersonal relations, and attitudes toward each other. I have identified evidence of stylistic variation in the text and by analyzing it I have revealed language aspects of characterization in Heike monogatari. By selecting a specific language style for each interacting character, the author(s) projected a particular image that has shaped audience\u00E2\u0080\u0099s perceptions of that character. Even minor variation in the use of pronouns or polite forms, for example, often expresses attitudes and stances of characters. In the course of dialogues they negotiate their own positions and make attempts to 263 For example, see Dobbins, Letters of the Nun Eshinni and Oyler, Swords, Oaths, and Prophetic Visions among other works. 132 manipulate their interlocutors. Which language choices they make determines whether they recognize the status hierarchy or not, and whether they claim membership in one group or another. Especially prominent in the examined dialogues is the interplay between language use and space. In the Heike monogatari\u00E2\u0080\u0099s representation of the world, the clear binary relation between the center and the periphery is blurred and both spaces share a number of speech properties. The \u00E2\u0080\u009Cperipheral\u00E2\u0080\u009D speech of Kiyomori, Mongaku, and warriors is present in the capital, while \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccourtly\u00E2\u0080\u009D speech is one of the features of Yoritomo\u00E2\u0080\u0099s peripheral court in Kamakura. The contrast in speech between Kiyomori and Yoritomo is one of the components in the contest over authority and legitimacy. Another speech contrast between formal dignified priests and eccentric monks confirms the author(s)\u00E2\u0080\u0099 avoidance of uniform simplified representations of the diverse Buddhist community. Overall, the study has examined some of the nuances of language use that not only testify to the literary mastery of the author(s), but also have continuously influenced audiences\u00E2\u0080\u0099 perceptions of characters and of the historical past. In this study, I do not propose a new literary interpretation of Heike monogatari, but approach the textual data with stylistic analysis. It is intended as a supplement to studies of Heike monogatari from socio-historical, literary, and religious perspectives. By bringing attention to language variation in premodern Japanese texts, this research offers insight into ways status, power, social relations and affiliations are encoded in the language of Heike monogatari dialogues. Strengths and limitations of the study Despite the prominence of stylistic variation in the text, there are still no studies in English devoted entirely to the tonal and language complexity of Heike monogatari. The 133 present study is the first stylistic analysis of the language use in the Heike dialogues. Without limiting the analysis to descriptions of style, I examine the link between language forms, characterization, and constructions of power asymmetry. The study combines linguistic and literary approaches in a complementary way. In addition to recent studies of Heike monogatari in English, I rely on several linguistic works by Japanese scholars. Thus, it becomes possible to supplement interpretations of characters and settings with empirical language evidence. Another feature of this research is the inclusion of the Japanese text of Heike monogatari. Unlike most studies in English that often exclude Japanese text, I provide large parts of dialogues in full as they are the primary data. Longer dialogue sequences convey the dynamics of interaction and show how the mutual attitudes of the speakers shift. Since methods of analysis of language variation in premodern Japanese texts are not yet developed, it is necessary to discuss several limitations of this research. First, for a text as long and diverse as Heike monogatari the scope of this study is far from comprehensive and resembles a collection of case studies. This approach, however, is suitable for an examination of variation in a large sample of data. Second, the classification of data is undeniably somewhat artificial and does not represent the only possibility of categorizing available data. Any simple categorization fails to account for the complexity of characters and settings in the text. Since there are many cases with no clear-cut boundaries between discourse settings (such as court and religious settings, for example), labelling a setting as \u00E2\u0080\u009Ccourtly\u00E2\u0080\u009D is a great simplification. There is a similar difficulty in categorizing characters appearing in different communicative situations. Third, a great part of analysis is qualitative in nature as I have not done an independent statistical analysis of the text. This does not mean that claims are fully subjective, since they 134 are interpretations based on presence or absence of specific linguistic forms in the text samples. The most subjective claims are the ones about the impact of Heike discourse on communication relationships in society. Here, it is crucial to avoid projecting modern stylistic interpretations onto interpretations of texts by the audiences in the past. Overall, however, the attempt was made to correlate my interpretations with results obtained from quantitative analysis (where possible) from linguistic and stylistic research done by Japanese scholars. Finding a way to analyze literary discourse from a linguistic viewpoint puts a difficult dilemma before a researcher. As noted by Pearce, \u00E2\u0080\u009Cthe aim should be to avoid two fundamental failings: production of an uncoordinated collection of comments on linguistic features, and production of critical conclusions formulated in such a way as to lack examinable empirical content.\u00E2\u0080\u009D264 This statement pinpoints a general problem with linguistic approaches to literary texts. I agree that to produce an interpretation it is not enough to describe linguistic elements found in a sentence or a passage as often happens in linguistic or stylistic studies. A strong argument about a text has to go beyond description to say something critical about the functions of particular language elements in a text and outside of it. I hope that in most cases I avoid a shortcut of slipping into meaningless lists of features. Also, I emphasize that the object of this study is not necessarily the spoken language of the Kamakura period, but the literary and discourse representations of relations and power dynamics in fictional character interaction. Essentially I try to answer the question of what linguistic variation means in Heike monogatari as a literary work and what role language plays in constructing the image of society and power at the time of the Genpei conflict for later audiences. 264 Roger Pearce, Literary Texts: The Application of Linguistic Theory to Literary Discourse (Birmingham: Birmingham University, 1977), 29. 135 Future research directions Heike monogatari is a very long narrative with many characters. For future research, linguistic and stylistic properties of many other episodes can be studied. Since the conflicts of the Genpei war are described in detail in the text, communication in military settings is one of the primary areas for stylistic analysis. It seems particularly important to add comparative elements to analysis of dialogue interaction. Methods can be developed to trace how a character\u00E2\u0080\u0099s speech changes depending on the genre or the time period of the text. For example, how is Kiyomori\u00E2\u0080\u0099s speech represented in Edo-period narratives and in what ways is it different from the Heike representation? Stylistic analysis can potentially supplement the discussion of changes in reception of the Genpei war by later audiences. Another way to approach communication represented in Heike narratives is to classify dialogues by categories such as \u00E2\u0080\u009Cpersuasion,\u00E2\u0080\u009D \u00E2\u0080\u009Corder,\u00E2\u0080\u009D and \u00E2\u0080\u009Cdemand,\u00E2\u0080\u009D in order to assess which stylistic choices are associated with each category. For example, what language choices differentiate persuasion speech of a courtier from that of a warrior? 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"Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International"@en . "http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/"@en . "Graduate"@en . "Interaction between characters in Heike monogatari dialogues: language forms and functions"@en . "Text"@en . "http://hdl.handle.net/2429/27643"@en .