{"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.14288\/1.0094025":{"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#departmentOrSchool":[{"value":"Arts, Faculty of","type":"literal","lang":"en"},{"value":"Asian Studies, Department of","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/dataProvider":[{"value":"DSpace","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeCampus":[{"value":"UBCV","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator":[{"value":"Donner, Neal Arvid","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued":[{"value":"2010-02-16T21:35:19Z","type":"literal","lang":"en"},{"value":"1976","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#relatedDegree":[{"value":"Doctor of Philosophy - PhD","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeGrantor":[{"value":"University of British Columbia","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/description":[{"value":"This thesis consists of an annotated translation, with introduction, of the first two of the ten rolls of the Mo-ho-chih-kuan The Mo-ho-chih-kuan is no. 1911 of the works contained in the Taisho edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon (Taisho-shinshu-daizokyo in Vol. 46 from page 1 to page 140. The first two rolls, Chapter One of the whole work, run from page 1 to page 21.\r\nThe Mo-ho-chih-kuan derives from a series of lectures given over the summer months of the year 594 A.D. by the founder of the T'ien-t'ai\r\nschool of Chinese Buddhism, Chih-I (538-597). Kuan-ting, a disciple of Chih-i, took notes on these lectures and subsequently revised and edited them until they reached approximately the form in which the text is now available.\r\nThe Mo-ho-chih-kuan is devoted to the elucidation of meditation techniques and their philosophical underpinnings. This is apparent from the title alone, which I have rendered \"The Great Calming and Contemplation,\" and which represents the Sanskrit maha-samatha-vipasyana. Chih and kuan are the two aspects of meditation for Chih-I and the T'ien-t'ai school, signifying the negative and the positive approaches to religious practise: on the one hand the mental defilements, illusions and errors must be calmed, halted and eradicated (chih), and on the other hand the practitioner views, contemplates and has insight into (kuan ) the nature of Ultimate Reality. \"Calming\" (ohih) is quieting the mind, contemplation (kuan) is making it work properly.\r\nWhat I have undertaken to translate is the first chapter of the whole work, the Synopsis.  This chapter may be considered a reduced-size version of the whole, though it also contains much material that is either not in the other chapters or is there presented in a different way. It is best known for its exposition of the \"Four Kinds of Samadhi\" or programs of religious practise: the constantly-sitting samadhi, the constantly-walking samadhi, the half-walking\/half-sitting samadhi, and the neither-walking-nor-sitting samadhi. These involve respectively sitting quietly in the lotus posture, walking while reciting the name of the Buddha Amitabha, pronouncing dhavanls while alternating between sitting and walking, and using one's every thought and every act for contemplation.\r\nThe author Chih-i classifies meditation (calming-and-contemplation) into three types: the gradual, the variable and the sudden. The Mo-ho- chih-kuan deals with the \"sudden\" variety, in which the practitioner's identity with Ultimate Reality is recognized from the very beginning of his religious practise. This form of meditation is consistent with the Mahayana Buddhist position that there is no ontological difference between the defilements of mind and enlightenment: there is nothing that does not enter into the nature of the Real.\r\nThis chapter may be considered","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/aggregatedCHO":[{"value":"https:\/\/circle.library.ubc.ca\/rest\/handle\/2429\/20325?expand=metadata","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2009\/08\/skos-reference\/skos.html#note":[{"value":"THE GREAT CALMING AND CONTEMPLATION OF CHIH-I CHAPTER ONE: THE SYNOPSIS (translated, annotated, and with an introduction) by NEAL ARVID DONNER B.A., Oberlin College, 1964 M.A., University of Michigan, 1968 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Asian Studies We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA April 1976 (c) Neal Arvid Dormer, 1976 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the require-ments for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make i t freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representatives. It is understood that publica-tion, in part or in whole, or the copying of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. NEAL ARVID DONNER Department of Asian Studies The University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1W5 Date ?A 3~M+JL 1^1 (, i i ABSTRACT This thesis consists of an annotated translation, with introduction, of the f i r s t two of the ten ro l l s of the Mo-ho-chih-kuan -f^ J |f|L \u2022 The Mo-ho-chih-kuan is no. 1911 of the works contained in the Taisho edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon (Taisho-shinshu-daizokyo <^^f K^k M- ), in Vol. 46 from page 1 to page 140. The f i r s t two r o l l s , Chapter One of the whole work, run from page 1 to page 21. The Mo-ho-chih-kuan derives from a series of lectures given over the summer months of the year 594 A.D. by the founder of the T'ien-t'ai ^ \u00a3 school of Chinese Buddhism, Chih-i ^ jjjj (538-597). Kuan-ting 5^. ^ , a disciple of Chih-i, took notes on these lectures and subsequently revised and edited them until they reached approxi-mately the form in which the text is now available. The Mo-ho-chih-kuan is devoted to the elucidation of meditation techniques and their philosophical underpinnings. This is apparent from the t i t l e alone, which I have rendered \"The Great Calming and Contemplation,\" and which represents the Sanskrit maha-samatha-vipasyana. Chih jk- and kuan are the two aspects of meditation for Chih-,i and the T'ien-t'ai school, signifying the negative and the positive approaches to religious practise: on the one hand the mental defile-ments, illusions and errors must be calmed, halted and eradicated {chih jX- ), and on the other hand the practitioner .views', contemplates and has insight into {kuan\/$$, ) the nature of Ultimate Reality. \"Calming\" [ohih) is quieting the mind, contemplation [kuan) is making i t work properly. What I have undertaken to translate is the f i r s t chapter of the a reduced-size version of the whole, though i t also contains much material that is either not in the other chapters or is there presented in a different way. It is best known for i t s exposition of the \"Four Kinds of Samadhi\" or programs of religious practise: the constantly-sitting samadhi, the constantly-walking samadhi, the half-walking\/half-sitting samadhi, and the neither-walking-nor-sitting samadhi. These involve respectively sitting quietly in the lotus posture, walking while reciting the name of the Buddha Amitabha, pronouncing dhavanls while alternating between sitting and walking, and using one's every thought and every act for contemplation. The author Chih-i classifies meditation (calming-and-contemplation) into three types: the gradual, the variable and the sudden. The Mo-ho- chih-kuan deals with the \"sudden\" variety, in which the practitioner's identity with Ultimate Reality is recognized from the very beginning of his religious practise. This form of meditation is consistent with the Mahayana Buddhist position that there is no ontological difference between the defilements of mind and enlightenment: there is nothing that does not enter into the nature of the Real. This chapter may be considered i v To Ccutoly iva TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT i i TABLE OF CONTENTS . iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION 1 I. THE BACKGROUND OF THE Mo^ho-chih-kuan 1 II. THE STRUCTURE OF THE Mo-ho-chih-kuan 10 A. The Ten Chapters 10 B. The Synopsis 19 III. THE THREE TRUTHS AND THE THREE VIEWS 27 IV. TRANSLATION NOTES 30 KUAN-TING'S INTRODUCTION 36 I. LINEAGE OF THE TEACHING 36 II. THE THREE KINDS OF CALMING-AND-CONTEMPLATION 42 A. Gradual 42 B. Variable 43 C. Perfect and Sudden 45 III. SCRIPTURAL PROOF . 51 FOOTNOTES FOR KUAN-TING'S INTRODUCTION 60 CHIH-I'S INTRODUCTION 84 I. THE TEN GREATER CHAPTERS 84 V Page II. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 90 III. THE STRUCTURE OF THE SYNOPSIS 92 FOOTNOTES FOR CHIH-I'S INTRODUCTION 94 THE SYNOPSIS: GREATER CHAPTER ONE 101 LESSER CHAPTER ONE: AROUSING THE GREAT THOUGHT 101 I. BODHICITTA IN SANSKRIT AND CHINESE 101 II. EXCLUDING THE WRONG . 101 A. Detailed Discussion on Bodhicitta 102 B. General Discussion on Bodhicitta' 105 C. Receptivity and Response 113 III. REVEALING THE RIGHT 114 A. The Four Noble Truths 114 1. Arising and Perishing 115 2. Non-arising and Non-perishing 115 3. Innumerable 116 4. Actionless 118 B. Ten Occasions for the Bodhicitta 120 1. Inferring from Truth 121 2. Seeing the Marks of the Buddha 124 3. Seeing Magical Apparitions 126 4. Hearing Various Dharmas 127 5. The Gatha 132 6. Remaining Occasions for the Bodhicitta . . . . 135 7. The Three Kinds of Calming-and-Contemplation 135 vi Page 8. Questions and Answers 139 C. The Four Great Vows 140 1. Arising and Perishing 141 2. Non-arising and Non-perishing 143 3. Innumerable 146 4. Actionless 149 D. The Six Identities 163 1. Identity in Principle 164 2. Verbal Identity 165 3. Identity of Religious Practise 165 4. Identity of Resemblance 166 5. Identity of Partial Truth 167 6. Ultimate Identity 168 FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER ONE 172 LESSER CHAPTER TWO: ENGAGING IN THE GREAT PRACTISE 231 I.. CONSTANTLY-SITTING SAMADHI 232 A. Method of the Practise 232 1. Body 232 2. Speech 233 3. Mind 234 (a) Empty 235 (b) Provisional 236 (c) Middle 236 (d) The three paths 237 v i i Page B. Exhortation to Practise 238 II. CONSTANTLY-WALKING SAMADHI 240 A. Method of the Practise 241 1. Body . 241 2. Speech 243 3. Mind 243 B. Exhortation to Practise 248 III. HALF-WALKING\/HALF-SITTING SAMADHI 249 A. Vaipulya Samadhi 250 1. Method of the Practise 250 (a) Body 250 (b) Speech 251 (c) Mind 252 2. Exhortation to Practise 256 B. Lotus Samadhi 257 1. Method of the Practise 257 (a) Body 257 (b) Speech 258 (c) Mind . . 258 2. Exhortation to Practise 261 IV. NEITHER-WALKING-NOR-SITTING SAMADHI 262 A. The Different Names for Thought 264 B. Main Discussion 265 v i i i Page 1. The Physical and Vocal Aspects of the Practise 266 2. The Contemplation of the Good 271 (a) The four phases of thought 271 (b) The six senses and the perfection of giving . 274 (c) The six acts and the perfection of giving . 279 (d) The other five perfections in the six senses and the six acts 281 (e) The perfection of morality 285 (f) The perfection of forebearance 288 (g) The perfection of exertion 288 (h) The perfection of meditation 289 (i) The perfection of wisdom 290 3. The Contemplation of Evil 291 (a) On the mind which contemplates evil . . . 293 (b) The arising of desire in the mind . . . . 296 4. The Contemplation of Neutral Dharmas 301 C. Caveats for the Practise of this Samadhi 304 FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER TWO 320 LESSER CHAPTER THREE: EXPERIENCING THE GREAT EFFECTS . . . . 414 FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER THREE . 416 LESSER CHAPTER FOUR: RENDING THE GREAT NET 419 FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER FOUR 421 ix Page LESSER CHAPTER FIVE: RETURNING TO THE GREAT ABODE 422 I. THE THREE QUALITIES OF ULTIMATE REALITY 423 II. THE UNTHINKABILITY OF THE THREE QUALITIES 425 III. THE THREE QUALITIES AND THE THREE OBSTACLES 428 IV. THE MEANING OF \"PURPORT\" AND \"RETURNING\" 430 FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER FIVE 432 APPENDIX - CHART I 439 CHART II 440 BIBLIOGRAPHY 441 POSTSCRIPT: THE MAHAYANIZATION OF THE CHINESE DHYANA TRADITION..460 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 - The Ten Greater Chapters and Their Characteristics 89 Figure 2 - The Effects of the Dharma (Religious Practise) and Moral Behavior 319 X ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Above a l l I am grateful to my teacher, my friend and my inspira-tion, Leon Hurvitz, for the indispensable guidance he has furnished me through the trackless vastness of Chinese Buddhism, and for the fascination he has given me for the phenomenon of language. Arthur Link and Shotaro Iida have each a special place in my heart for the knowledge they shared and the kindness they extended to me during my time at this University. Sekiguchi Shindai and Ocho Enichi opened many doors and displayed great generosity to me during my stay in Japan. Mrs. Maryse E l l i s and Winnie Leung have reshaped my pecks and scribbles with great precision and a fine sense of the esthetic. Alan Sponberg and Jean Pietarinen fed, housed and comforted me during the crucial last stages of composition. And my dear wife Carol and children Erich and Rebecca made a thousand sacrifices to free my time: every page of this is partly them. 1 TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION I. BACKGROUND OF THE MO-HO-CHIH-KUAN This thesis is an annotated translation of the f i r s t chapter of (538-597), the monk who fi n a l l y knit together into a coherent unity the disparate fragments that Chinese Buddhism had become in the four hundred years since the last decades of the latter Han dynasty, when the f i r s t sutras become available to educated Chinese in the language which they could read. Not that there were in his day no other men devoted to this vast eclectic enterprise: i t is well known that Chih-i borrowed heavily from the \"three southern and seven northern\" However not only did his own scheme of doctrinal classification turn out to be more comprehensive and influential than those of his pre-decessors and competitors, but he also brought religious practise into his great synthesis so firmly that the T'ien-t'ai school which he founded was saved from the death-grip of ste r i l e scholasticism nearly until modern times. In short, he united practise with doctrine, and doctrine with practise, where his predecessors had attempted only to arrange the various doctrines in the sutras in an understandable and consistent whole. His role in uniting Chinese Buddhism has often been compared to the role of his patron, the teachers or sytems of doctrinal classification {p'an-chiao 2 f i r s t emperor of the Sui dynasty, in uniting the north and south of China for the f i r s t time since the Han. Indeed, the analogy is closer yet: before the Sui the north of China is said to have been oriented towards the practical side of Buddhism, just as it s leaders were men of action, often barbarian in ancestry\u2014while the south tended towards the theoretical, the doctrinal, since its leaders and upper classes were aristocrats and scholar o f f i c i a l s . It is not my purpose to investigate the history of the period however, nor to analyze the relationship between Chih-i and his imperial patron. The only point which needs emphasis is the congruence between doctrine and practise in the philosophy of Chih-i. In his own words, they are like \"the two wings of a bird\" or \"the two wheels of a cart.\" Most of Chih-i's works f a l l easily into the category of either doctrine or practise. What l i t t l e is known about his thought in the West derives mostly from the doctrinal side, and within that i t is primarily his system of doctrinal classification (not \"sutra criticism\") that is expounded in outline in Western sources. This is the so-called \"Five Periods and Eight Teachings\" j\u00a3- 8^ A. %JC. , a matter I shall also not touch upon here, except to mention that recently Professor Sekiguchi Shindai ^ j j t 7^ has thrown serious doubt on the received opinion that this represents correctly the thought of Chih-i. See for example his art i c l e : \"Goji hakkyo-ron\" Jk. ^ J $ L \"f^ g\" in the Tendai-gaku-ho ^ u ^ \u00bb 1 4 (November 1972), or \"Goji hakkyo wa Tendai kyohan ni arazu\" #f ;V A ^ %>LP] l~ ~$j in the Indo-gaku-Bukkyo-gaku-kenkyu \u00a3p J\u00a7^_ ^  \/ J ^ ^ L ; ^ %j , 21 , 1 (1973). Less known hitherto (though hardly much less, considering how l i t t l e is s t i l l known about his doctrine) is the side of his system dealing with religious practise. About half of the thirty-five of Chih-i's works s t i l l extant (there is a convenient l i s t i n g of these as well as his lost works in L. Hurvitz' Chih-i, p. 332) deal with practise, as can be immediately seen from their t i t l e s , which a l l contain words like ch 'an ^SJ^ , chih-kuan St- , san-mei . or kuan-hsin ^tfl \u2022 ^he three best-known works of Chih-i (and the longest with the exception of a commentary to the VimalakTrti) are the \"Pro-found Meaning of the Lotus sutra\" (Fa-hua-hsuan-i %l ), the \"Words and Phrases of the Lotus sutra\" (Fa-hua-wen-chu and the \"Great Calming and Contemplation\" (Mo-ho-chih-kuan j^, jfcJllL), the latter being the subject of this annotated translation. These are widely known as the \"Three Great Texts of the Lotus\" ('school or sutra) yk-^T 2~ , or simply as the \"Three Great Texts\" ^, y\\. . The f i r s t two belong to the doctrinal part of Chih-i's works, as they are both commentaries to the Lotus sutra in their different ways. The third of the \"Three Great Texts\" is the Mo-ho-chih-kuan (to be abbreviated hereafter as MHCK), the only one of the three which deals with the religious practise \"wing of the bird.\" Though by its in-clusion in the category of the \"Three Great Works of the Lotus\" one might expect i t to be primarily based on the Lotus sutra like the other two, in fact i t has very l i t t l e to do with that scripture, beyond an occasional vagrant quotation and the \"Lotus samadhi\" which is expounded in the Synopsis of the MHCK in the section on Half-Walking\/ 4 Half-Sitting Samadhi. Even the Lotus samadhi is based for the most part not on the Lotus sutra i t s e l f but on the Kuan-p'u-hsien-ching *$j^J^ J\/L^t' a brief sutra which is related, but not identical to, the last chapter of the Lotus (on the contemplation of the bodhisattva Samanta-bhadra). Professor Sekiguchi has used this fact in his criticism of the \"five periods and eight teachings\" summation of T'ien-t'ai doctrinal classification. For i f we accept that the Lotus sutra is the summation of the Perfect Teaching, superior to a l l other sutras, and we accept that doctrine and practise must be congruent, as Chih-i states so often and so forcefully, then how is i t that the Lotus plays such a small part in Chih-i's single most important text on religious practise? (For Sekiguchi's arguments, see his article \"Shishu-zammai\" K2? in the Tendai gakuho, No. 15, 1972, pp. 11-18). In fact i t seems that for Chih-i the Perfect Teaching is not the monopoly of any one sutra, but can be found in a great variety of scriptures, including a l l those (and they are many) drawn upon for the MHCK. The reason that Chih-i set the Lotus sutra above a l l the rest in his evaluation of Buddhist scriptures is that i t is so comprehensive: according to i t , every animate being, without exception, will achieve supreme, perfect enlightenment, not even excepting the Buddhist Judas, Devadatta, nor even women (though they have to change into men on the way). No animate being is outside the fold, nor a fovteviovi any Buddhist scripture, for a l l are the word of the Buddha. The later sectarian emphasis of the T'ien-t'ai and particularly the Japanese Nichiren school on the Lotus as superior to a l l other scriptures has veiled the catholicity of Chih-i's original thought. Within the category of Chih-i's works on practise there is a group of three texts each of which is regarded as representative of one of the three kinds of calming-and-contemplation jS- 4f[ St-as expounded by Chih-i. (Kuan-ting mentions this trio in his intro-duction to the Synopsis, but I will briefly repeat.) The Shih-ch'an-po- lo-mi-tz'u-ti-fa-men ^ >^ \u00a7 | % >K ^ ^ (also known as the Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men ^ ^ ^ ?^ , in ten (or twelve) r o l l s , represents his systematization of the gradual calming-and-contemplation. This work he delivered in lecture form in 571 A.D.; i t was taken down by his disciple Fa-shen >^ \"Ejr and afterwards edited by his greatest disciple Kuan-ting >Jj|. :f|| . The Liu-miao- fa-men WJT >\u00a3. ?^ , in only one r o l l , represents his \"systematiz-ation\" (though i t is not an independent system) of the variable ^ calming-and-contemplation. And the MHCK i t s e l f , in ten r o l l s , a series of lectures delivered in 594 A.D., is the summation of the \"sudden\" 4 ^ calming-and-contemplation. This was taken down by Kuan-ting and edited several times after Chih-i's death before i t reached the form in which i t is known to us today in the Taisho canon of Chinese Buddhist scripture 2- &( ^ flfa $k . The \"variable\" calming-and-contemplation is merely an alternation between the different stages of the \"gradual,\" as occasion demands and conditions permit, and the text which represents this form of practise is a mere seven pages in the Taisho canon, so i t does not occupy a large place in the corpus of Chih-i's works. Several of his lesser-known works on practise are longer than this one. There remain 6 the Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men (seventy-five Taisho pages) and the MHCK (one hundred forty Taisho pages) as Chih-i's principle works on religious practise. The Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men was by far the most comprehensive system-atization of Buddhist practise to date. It stands near the beginning of Chih-i's career just as the MHCK stands near the end, and is comparable to the later work in many ways. The structure of the two works is very similar, down to the number of the chapters and even their names. It is of great interest, however, that while Chih-i MHCK and others of the master's later opera, so that since that time, i t has been the term ohih-kuan which has signified religious practise appropriated for i t s e l f the term which Chih-i had already discarded as not comprehensive enough. It is well.known that oh'an represents the Indie word dhyana and chih-kuan represents samatha-vipasyana, but as Chih-i used the two terms, they have several levels of meaning not included in the Indian originals. Each represents for him the whole of religious practise, not merely the \"meditation\" aspect which is one of the Three Knowledges {sila3 samddhi, prajnd). Morality {sila) and wisdom {prajna) are also included in the meaning of them both. But in his later years Chih-i grew to regard religious practise as fundamentally composed of two elements, the static and the dynamic, the negative and the positive, so that ohih-kuan became a more in the in the T'ien-t'ai (and Tendai) school, while the Ch'an school suitable term for him than ch'an (which has a connotation of quietism and is skewed toward the negative side of the duality). For additional remarks on chih-kuan see part IV of this introduction. One of Chih-i's meditation works has been translated into English by Goddard and Wai-tao, in A Buddhist Bible. This is the Hsiao-chih-kuan <h -it- \/JJI|L > known more formally as the Hsiu-hsi-chih-kuan-tso- ch'an-fa-yao ^ ^ J \u00a3 - | | ^ , j^jl and occupying about twelve pages in the Taisho canon. Inadequately annotated as the translation i s , i t is s t i l l the only one of Chih-i's many works to have appeared in a Western language. (L. Hurvitz, however, has published a translation of a brief fragment of the MHCK, a key passage from Ch. 7 on the famous doctrine of \"the macrocosm in a moment of thought\" in Sources of Chinese Tradition, ed. Wm. Theodore de Bary, Vol pp. 322-328. Much of this fragment has been republished in The  Buddhist Tradition, also edited by de Bary). Because of its t i t l e , the Hsiao-chih-kuan is often mistakenly regarded as a synopsis of the MHCK (since the names of the two works mean respectively \"the small samatha-vipasyana\" and \"the great samatha-vipasyana.\" In fact this work can be regarded rather as a synopsis of the Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men, the text on gradual practise; i t is only indirectly related to the MHCK i t s e l f . In the gradual practise, one moves from level to level, up the ladder of the fifty-two stages as enunciated by the Ying-1uo-ching 3-% ~$a~ ( a Chinese forgery) and in the doctrine of Chih-i. From shallow to deep, from low to high, the degree of one's insight 8 increases until the final attainment of Buddhahood. This is not yet the Perfect Calming-and-Contemplation, the Sudden Calming-and-Contem-plation which is expounded by the MHCK. As the Synopsis of the MHCK explains repeatedly (and most concisely in the \"core\" statement in the introduction by Kuan-ting), Ultimate Reality is seen here to be present at the very start of one's practise. The doctrine of the Six Identities, original with Chih-i, is a more suitable means to express the stages of this kind of calming-and-contemplation than the fifty-two stages, for in the Six Identities i t is emphasized at every stage that the practitioner is identical with his goal. The two schemes may be compared, however, and in Chart I of the Appendix,I have arranged them in parallel for easy reference. In the Perfect Teaching (and calming-and-contemplation) there is nothing which is excluded (just as the Lotus sutra and the Nirvana sutra exclude no beings from Buddhahood): every defilement in the mind and behavior of the ordinary person is just as much Ultimate Truth as the most enlightened thought of the most elevated saint. The difference between the two lies in the fact that the ordinary person is not yet aware of this. There is no lower reality, no nescience, no samsara, transcending which we might enter into a higher reality, enlightenment or nirvana. Since there is no lower, there is also no higher (which can be postulated only by comparison with the lower): i t is only in the way we think about these things that nescience or enlightenment can be present. But i f we inquire into the nature of our thinking as well, we see that i t is as Ultimate as any other phenomenon, both as empty and as real as the Buddha himself. The MHCK is the summation of this monistic approach to religious practise in the East Asian Buddhist tradition. It drew together nearly a l l in the realm of practise that preceded i t and influenced nearly a l l that followed i t , and so formed one of the crucial nodes in the history of Chinese Buddhism. It is so comprehensive that i t came to be regarded in the Nichiren sect of Japanese Buddhism as the second Lotus sutra, and i t s author as the Buddha of the period of the reflected Dharma 'jf^L y & . (Nichiren himself is regarded in his school or sect as the Buddha of the period of the decay of the Dharma 'Ak > while the daimoku yj^L $ or invocation of the t i t l e of the Lotus sutra\u2014namu myoho renge kyo Jfe- J$y ^ - - i s looked upon as the third Lotus). The T'ien-t'ai school ranks with the Ch'an as one of the two great systems of religious practise in East Asia, but there exists no single work of this scale on practise in the Ch'an school, for the adherents of the latter made a virtue of the avoidance of written texts: pu-li-wen-tzu yf-v J L i L ^ r \u00bb ohiao-wai-pieh-dhuxm (no dependence on texts or words, a special transmission outside the--written--teachings); the bulk of Ch'an texts are therefore anecdotal, and T'ien-t'ai monks never tired of denouncing their rivals for this one-sided adherence to unlettered practise. But while the MHCK is a text on practise, i t is founded firmly in the scriptures, as quotations from the latter are advanced to corroborate nearly every assertion made in the body of the text. Therefore i t singles i t s e l f out as at neither the extreme of \"practise 10 without doctrine\" JjSjfc nor the extreme of \"doctrine without practise\" jj^ ^_i^jfi_ , both of these being misshapen forms of Buddhism which Chih-i characterized as pertaining on the one hand to the teachings of the \"a%arca-masters of benighted illumination ^% $P a n c* o n ^ e o t n e r to the \"Dharma-masters of texts and words\" % >\u00a3. V? . These two kinds of distortions of Buddhism were later to be represented, in the minds of T'ien-t'ai adherents (certainly by the time of Chan-jan y\u00a7r sixth patriarch of the T'ien-t'ai and a contemporary of Hui-neng ^g, ^ jtL; \u00bb sixth patriarch of the Ch'an), respectively by the Ch'an and the Hua-yen schools. So commanding is the eminence of the MHCK in East Asian Buddhism that the expression ohih-kuan (samatha-vipasyana) i t s e l f is often used without ambiguity to refer to i t . II. THE STRUCTURE OF THE MHCK A. The Ten Chapters The MHCK is found in volume 46 of the Taisho canon, pp. 1-140. It is in theory made up of ten chapters of which I have translated the f i r s t , The Ta-i 7^\"^,. or Synopsis (T46.1-21). This Synopsis occupies two of the ten r o l l s of the MHCK, or in terms of Taish5 pages, about one-seventh of the whole. Though this is the longest segment of Chih-i's works yet to appear in a Western language, i t is a mere fragment of the whole corpus which he has l e f t behind (and much of 11 his work has been lost as well, in particular a twenty-roll commentary of the Taisho canon are occupied by Chih-i's works (either dictated or written by himself), approximately 285 of these belonging to texts devoted to the elucidation of practise. Even i f we ignore those of his works contained only in Zokuzokyo (these being a l l quite brief one-r o l l items) what has been here translated comprises less than ten percent of his work on practise, and about two percent of his entire body of lectures and writings. The Synopsis i s , as the name implies, an outline or compendium of the whole MHCK, and as such, is self-contained. In fact, in form i t is less truncated than the MHCK i t s e l f , since the last three of the originally projected ten chapters of the whole work were never delivered, nor were the last three of the ten sections in Chapter Seven. As the text i t s e l f explains (T46.5b), the five chapters of the Synopsis (which we shall call the Lesser Chapters) may be correlated to the ten chapters of the whole (which we call the Greater Chapters), according to the following scheme: ). About one thousand pages 12 Ten Greater Chapters Five Lesser Chapters 1. Synopsis 2. Explanation of Terms 3. Characteristics of the Essence of the Teaching 4. Inclusion of All Dharmas 5. One-sided versus Perfect Calming-and-Contemplation 6. 25 Preparatory Expedients 7. Right Contemplation 8. Fruits and Recompense 9. Starting the Teaching 10. Returning of the Purport 1. Arousing the Great Thought Arousing the Great Thought Arousing the Great Thought Arousing the Great Thought Arousing the Great Thought 2. Engaging in the Great Practise Engaging in the Great Practise 3. Experiencing the Great Effects 4. Rending the Great Net 5. Returning to the Great Abode As we see from the chart, the f i r s t five Greater Chapters correspond to Lesser Chapter One; Greater Chapters Six and Seven correspond to Lesser Chapter Two; and the last three chapters of each l i s t correspond., one-to-one. It is clearer from the l i s t of-Lesser Chapters than the l i s t of Greater Chapters, yet true of them both, that their sequence contains an inner logic: namely that they represent the progress of the religious practitioner from the f i r s t arising of the thought of enlighten-ment (bodhicitta)--viher) he realizes the possibility of Buddhahood within himself--to the final absorption into the indescribable Ultimate Reality, 13 beyond a l l teaching, beyond a l l thought. Between the two events are the religious practise i t s e l f which he will engage in as a consequence of his bodhicitta; the karmic rewards which he earns as a consequence of his practise; and his teaching of others which in the Mahayana arises as a natural consequence of his own attainment: for he has at this stage transcended the self-other distinction and is incapable of concentrating only on his own realization. In fact the practitioner goes \"up\" and \"down\" at the same time at every stage, both seeking upwards and transforming downwards from the time of his f i r s t vows. Yet the \"downward\" activity is also separable from the \"upward\" in a sense, and in that case follows naturally upon the attainment of the practitioner, while preceding his final absorption in the realm about which nothing can be said. Greater Chapters Two through Five are relatively short, occupy-ing in sum only fourteen pages (one r o l l ) of Taisho text; Lesser Chapter One i t s e l f is ten pages long (one r o l l ) , barely shorter than these four Greater Chapters, though i t purports to be an outline of them (excluding the possibility that i t outlines i t s e l f ) . This leaves Chapter Six and Chapter Seven as the principle chapters in the MHCK aside from the Synopsis. Chapter Six is likewise one roll in length, or about thirteen Taisho pages, and Chapter Seven, incomplete though i t i s , takes up a l l the rest of the MHCK as we have i t today. The content of Chapter Six is the twenty-five preparatory \"expedients\" j) . These are arranged in five groups of five 14 members each: (a) the five conditions: keeping the disciplinary code, having sufficient clothing and food, situating oneself in a quiet place, halting one's worldly affai r s , acquiring worthy friends; (b) suppressing the desires for the five objects of the five senses; (c) discarding the five hindrances of craving, anger, sleepiness, restlessness and doubt; (d) regulating the diet, sleep, body, breath and mind; and (e) the practise of aspiration, exertion, mindfulness, discrimination (between the lesser joys of the mundane world and the greater joys of samadhi and prajna) and concentration of mind. Half of the above-mentioned Hsiao-chih-kuan >)> St- of Chih-i is occupied in the explanation of these twenty-five items, and they may be found in the Goddard\/Wai-tao translation of this work in A Buddhist Bible, as well as in the much earlier (1870) partial translation by S. Beal of the same work in A Catena of Chinese Buddhist Scripture. In 1951 G. Constant Lounsbery published a French translation (Dhydna pour les debutants) of the Goddard\/ Wai-tao rendition, and since then a German translation of the same work has been made from the French. Primarily derived' from the Ta-chih-tu-lun, these twenty-five preparations for the practise proper also appear in the Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men where the explanation of them is con-siderably more detailed (twenty-five Taisho pages) than that in the MHCK or the Hsiao-chih-kuan. Thus they run through the work of Chih-i from the early days to the very end, and clearly were regarded by him as an indispensable part of the practise. They are not mentioned in the Synopsis of the MHCK as a group of twenty-five, but have been partially represented by a somewhat different analysis: that of the Three Acts (body, speech and mind). 15 Chapter Seven of the MHCK expounds the famous Ten Modes of Con-templation ^ and the Ten Realms or objects of Contem-plation - j \" ifyj . This presentation corresponds to the Four Kinds of Samadhi t- which are contained in Lesser Chapter Two of the Synopsis, the main difference (apart from length) being that the classification in Chapter Seven is made on the basis of mental c r i t e r i a , while in the Synopsis i t is made on physical c r i t e r i a . Ten objects of contemplation are postulated, and each is to be contemplated in ten different ways. The f i r s t of the ten realms or objects is skandhas\/ ayatanas\/dhabus, amounting more or less to the physical world (though the dhatus do include the consciousnesses generated by the interaction of senses and their objects). One is then to apply as necessary the ten Modes of Contemplation to objects f a l l i n g in this category: these Modes include (1) viewing i t as unthinkable, (2) arousing the true and proper thought of enlightenment, (3) s k i l l f u l l y calming the mind, (4) destroying everywhere (impure) dharmas, (5) distinguishing between impediments and aids, (6) cultivating the (thirty-seven) Parts of the Way, (7) employing auxiliary methods to suppress (defilements), (8) knowing (one's own) stage of advancement, (9) cultivating forebear-ance, and (10) dispensing with one's attachment to the Dharma. The f i f t h , sixth and seventh r o l l s of the (ten-roll) MHCK are entirely taken up by the exposition of the ten Modes of contemplating the f i r s t Realm. L. Hurvitz's translation from MHCK (in Sources of Chinese  Tradition, Vol. I, pp. 322-328) is taken from this section. In the remaining three ro l l s of the whole MHCK are discussed the second through the seventh objects of contemplation, each in ten modes as above, 16 but the last three objects of contemplation are l e f t untreated. The rest of the objects (Realms) of contemplation are then (2) the defile-ments, (3) illness, (4) the features of karma, (5) evil s p i r i t s , (6) meditation i t s e l f , (7)(wrong) views, (8) arrogance, (9) the Two Vehicles, and (10) bodhisattvas. There is a logic to the arrangement of both the Ten Modes and the Ten Realms of contemplation, but i t would take us too far afield to discuss these in detail. To my knowledge there is nothing in Western languages on this subject, but among many Japanese books, the recent (1968) Tendai-gaku ^ ^ v by Ando Toshio 4r #f< has rather a detailed treatment, pp. 217-264. That is a l l that exists of the MHCK. The last three Realms, and following them, the last three chapters of the work, were never expounded at a l l by Chih-i, according to tradition, a fact that has created a great deal of discomfort among Buddhists in East Asia for the thousand or so years. Music-lovers in the West are similarly irked by the unfinished state of Bach's Art of the Fugue. Why should this summa have been l e f t incomplete? Chanjan's explanation has become the traditional one: the end of the summer varsa retreat caused the termina-tion of the lectures. In other words the lecturer ran out of time. Recently Professor Sekiguchi has proferred another explanation (found e.g. in his Tendai Shikan no Kenkyu Xl$b(7)Pft^fu PP- 54-64). To begin with he notes that after the-end of that summer three years s t i l l remained of Chih'i's l i f e in which he s t i l l had the chance to complete the work. Moreover, the Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men, Chih-i's early summation of the gradualistic approach to meditation, not only has a 17 similar ten-chapter structure (with each chapter in the earlier work corresponding precisely to the same chapter in the MHCK), but is marked by exactly the same e l l i p s i s : the last part of chapter seven is missing along with chapters eight, nine and ten. In addition, the last three Lesser Chapters (in the Synopsis) of the MHCK are exceedingly brief, though clearly Chih-i s t i l l had plenty of time to expound on these subjects at greater length i f he had wanted to as i t was s t i l l the beginning of the summer. The explanation is rather, Sekiguchi feels, in the fact that Chih-i wanted to direct his teaching to the beginner on the path, and did not want to waste words describing i t s furthest reaches. In his Ssu-chiao-i- \\JP J^- , at T46.752b, Chih-i states clearly that \"what is necessary is to make the doctrine and the practise clear to beginners; i t is f u t i l e and meaningless to expound about saints, bodhisattvas and Buddhas,\" while at T46.739a of the same work, he says he will \"only indicate the chapters for the upper stages.\" Having himself no false illusions that he was a highly realized being, Chih-i ', knew i t was a waste of time to expound to beginners on stages which he himself had yet to reach. Nevertheless the Synopsis of the MHCK does contain comments on these upper reaches in outline, since the last three Lesser Chapters correspond to the last three Greater Chapters, and through the centuries the disappointment of the T'ien-t'ai community has been assuaged by the presence of these three Lesser Chapters in the Synopsis. In fact, of the three i t is only Lesser Chapter Five which has anything 18 of substance to say that has not already been said elsewhere in the Synopsis: Lesser Chapters Three and Four are so short as to be practically nonexistent. B. The Synopsis Lesser Chapter One is preceded by two introductions, the f i r s t by Kuan-ting (occupying about two Taisho pages) and the (rather brief) second one by Chih-i himself. S t r i c t l y speaking these both f a l l out-side the Synopsis, but in a broader sense they may be included, since the MHCK is traditionally regarded as an integral work and these intro-ductions are not separated from the main text. The MHCK is famous for beginning with the words chih-kuan ming-standing and tranquility). These are the words of Kuan-ting, not Chih-i, but for anyone at a l l conversant with the T'ien-t'ai (or Tendai) tradition they immediately call to mind the whole work. Perhaps equally famous and also by Kuan-ting is the \"core\" statement at T46.1c23-2a2, identified as such in my translation. This is a concise and eloquent characterization of the \"sudden\" method of calming-and-contemplation which the entire MHCK is devoted to expounding. In addition, Kuan-ting presents the lineage of the teaching, seeking to give the MHCK authenticity. Beginning with the Dharma i t s e l f , which is eternal, he traces the\"golden-mouth\" ^ <2 transmission through twenty-four patriarchs from the Buddha through Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu to one Simha. At this point the transmission is broken, ching (Calming-and-contemplation means luminous under-19 and Kuan-ting starts again with Chih-i and works backwards to Hui-ssu ^ & (515-577) and the latter's teacher Hui-wen %\u2022 SL (dates in doubt). He discourses then at some length on the merit of the Dharma, as revealed in numerous scriptural quotations. Kuan-ting's introduction is known to be a good deal longer than i t was in his earlier editions of the MHCK. The text as we have i t today is the third of the three versions he made, but the earlier two are no longer extant. Both of these were entitled the Yuan-tun-chih-kuan 1^ 1 $H ^-^L) \u00bb but differed in that the f i r s t was twenty ro l l s and the second reduced to ten. Even the f i r s t version was preceded by Kuan-ting's lecture notes, so that we are at four removes from the actual words spoken by Chih-i that summer in the year 594. Professor Sato Tetsuei in his definitive Tendai Daishi no Kenkyu %. & \/\\. fyp (7) Iffi (1961) ha s sai d nearly al 1 there i s to say about the differences between these three versions (see pp. 370-379). Apparently one of the two earlier versions reached Japan, for one of the Japanese commentators, Shoshin \"i^ L _jfL (2nd half of the 12th century, dates unknown) uses i t in his commentary, the Shiki Chan-jan too mentions fourteen places where the text of the f i r s t version differed from the third, and eleven places where the second differed from the third. The f i r s t of the three versions was longer in the main text, but Kuan-ting's introduction was shorter, containing only the section on the three kinds of calming-and-contemplation (which includes the core statement). 20 Kuan-ting's introduction is followed by Chih-i's own brief introduction, which presents the structure of the whole and the Synopsis as I have outlined them above. Then the MHCK proper begins, Lesser Chapter One and Greater Chapter One. Lesser Chapter One is entirely devoted to the bodhioitta, the arising of the f i r s t thought of enlightenment, which signals the beginning of the religious quest for a bodhisattva. This is when he (or she) f i r s t conceives the two impulses, the downward as well as the upward one. Inasmuch as the older Chinese translation for the word bodhi was too Chih-i understands the bodhioitta as \"the Way followed by the mind,\" and proceeds to discuss ten false Ways or Paths (actually more correctly rendered by the Sanskrit word gati or mavga for \"destinies,\" as in the Ten Destinies from hell to Buddhahood). He then presents ten right Ways. The \"right\" bodhicittas are arranged according to how the practitioner can be inspired to seek enlighten-ment for himself and others, whether by inferring from Truth, or by hearing the Dharma expounded, or by seeking the Buddha and his characteristic marks, or by seeing the magical powers of the Buddha, etc. The last six of these ten \"kinds of bodhioitta\" he leaves unexplained, though Chan-jan f i l l s in some of the gaps. Key elements of the doctrine of Chih-i appear in this Lesser Chapter One. Perhaps most important for the comprehension of the text is the concept of the Four Kinds of Four Noble Truths. Here Chih-i arranges the Four according to four kinds of exposition, corresponding to four degrees of receptivity in the listener: arising-and-perishing, 21 neither-arising-nor-perishing, the innumerable, and the actionless. It is this scheme rather than the better-known one of the Four Teachings (Tripitika, Shared, Separate and Perfect 2^. ^ ' j ) that is employed in the MHCK to classify the different degrees of teach-ing, but in his commentary, Chan-jan refers repeatedly to the so-called Four Teachings to assist the reader in determining the level at which Chih-i is discoursing at any given time. It is not the case that Chih-i does not resort to the Four Teachings terminology at a l l , and in the other Greater Chapters more use is made of these terms than in the Synopsis, but there are in the Synopsis only a few passing references to them. Actually the two schemes are for Chih-i only two ways of referring to the same thing. Later in the T'ien-t'ai tradition the interpretation of the Four Teachings came to diverge rather markedly from Chih-i's intent, as i t came to denote a system of scjn^tural c l a s s i f i -cation, implying that any given sutra must belong to one or another of the four. Each of the ten kinds of bodhicittas can result from Truth transmitted in any one of four ways, and any one of these four ways can be understood again in four ways, so there are theoretically a total of 160 kinds of bodhicitta that are implied by the analysis in Lesser Chapter One. Other concepts presented in this chapter include the Four Vows, the Six Identities, receptivity-and-response, the Four siddhantas and the four bodies of the Buddha (the lowest of the traditional three is here subdivided into two). For the explanation of these terms and 22 concepts I refer the reader to the main text and my own commentary in the footnotes. Lesser Chapter Two is perhaps the most famous part of the whole MHCK in that i t contains the exposition of the well-known Four Kinds of Samadhi. These are a classification of a l l methods of religious practise on the basis of the tetralemma ( i s , is not, both, neither) as applied to the alternatives of \"si t t i n g \" and \"walking.\" Hence we have the four: \"constantly s i t t i n g , \" \"constantly walking,\" \"half-walking and half-sitting,\" and \"neither walking nor s i t t i n g . \" The third of these is divided into two, so that in fact there are five methods outlined in this chapter. Each of these is based on at least one scripture, which is li b e r a l l y cited in the text, with or without attribution. The Ta-chih- tu-lun and the Nirvana sutra are quoted throughout this chapter but are not the basis for any specific practises. The Ta-chih-tu-lun however is without any question the most frequently cited text in the whole Synopsis. Chih-i classifies the practise into what to do and what not to do with the body, voice and mind, with the section on mind occupying a good deal more space than the others, particularly for the final kind of Samadhi, the \"neither walking nor sitting.\" It is therefore un-just to say, as some have, that the Four Samadhis deal only with the physical aspects of the practise, that i t is only in Chapter Seven that the mental discipline is expounded. Following the presentation of the method of the practise, there is an exhortation for each of the kinds of samadhi ( i t must be under-23 stood that \"samadhi\" here means \"method of religious discipline\" in addition to i t s usual sense), encouraging the practitioner to engage in i t and describing the benefits derived from i t . The only exception is the \"neither walking nor sit t i n g \" samadhi, which since i t involves the contemplation of evil is uniquely dangerous and requires words of caution rather than of exhortation. Although in late T'ang and after there arose a tendency to view the constantly-walking samadhi as that to which Chih-i attributed the greatest importance, i t is clear that this is a distortion that arose as a result of Pure Land influence, for the walking samadhi is that in which the recitation of the name of the Buddha Amitabha is practised. As Ando Toshio states in his Tendai Shiso-shi j f ^ ^  & (1959, pp. 380-387), i t was rather the sitting samadhi and the neither-walking-nor-sitting samadhi which had the highest place in Chih-i's mind, inasmuch as they represent the fundamental practise of sitting meditation on the one hand, and meditation practised in a l l aspects of daily l i f e on the other. Here Chih-i would have no quarrel with the Ch'an school. The Constantly-Sitting Samadhi is based on two \"ManjusrT sutras\" the Hen-shu-shih-li-so-shuo-ching 5 ^ %fy ty\\ ?f\\ ^  $k and the Wen-shu-shih-li-wen-ching ^ $fy flij $k . It is also known as the One-Practise ^ Samadhi, and permits the use of the voice to recite the Buddha's name (in this case the identity of the Buddha is not specified) i f necessary to dispel sleepiness or other mental obstructions. 24 The Constantly-Walking Samadhi is based on the Pratyutpanna-samadhi-sutra (Pan-chou-san-mei -chi ng -j^ _$f\" j s - ^^^b in i t s three-roll translation by Lokaksema of the Latter Han dynasty, as well as on a treatise attributed to Nagarjuna, the Dasabhumi-vibhasa-sastra-(Shih- chu-p'i-p'o-sha-lun -\\ ^ i - $L ! ^ '^%^ ). It is also known as the Buddha-standing JL samadhi, since aside from the recitation of the Buddha Amitabha's name, the practise involves the visualization of the Buddha as i f he were standing before the practitioner. This is said (by Professor Fukushima ^ of Otani University, Kyoto) to be one of the only two of the Four (or Five) Kinds of Samadhi practised today in Japan, the other being the Lotus samadhi that is one of the two half-walking, half-sitting methods of practise. The reason that this is s t i l l practised is clearly that i t approaches Pure Land meditative techniques. Each of these f i r s t two kinds of practise is to be engaged in for ninety days. Half-Walking\/Half-Sitting Samadhi is divided into two kinds, the Vaipulya samadhi and the Lotus samadhi. \"Half-walking and half-sitting\" means that the practitioner alternates between walking and sit t i n g . Both of these methods of practise contain esoteric elements, meaning principally the use of dharanis. The Vaipulya samadhi is so called because the scripture upon which i t is based is the Ta-fang-teng-t'o- lo-ni-ching ^ ffy, ^ i ^ ^ \u00bb sanskritizable as the *Maha-vaipulya-dharam-sutra. This is a practise which laypeople may also engage in, and the period of the practise is only seven days (compared to the rigorous ninety days required by the previous two). 25 The Lotus samadhi i s , contrary to i t s name, not based primarily on the Lotus sutra, but on the Kuan-p'u-hsien-ching ^ ^ \/ - ^ ' $k the \"sutra expounding the method of contemplating the bodhisattva Samantabhadra.\" However this sutra is closely related to the Lotus i t s e l f and may be considered an expansion of i t s last chapter. This method of religious practise involves a complex visualization of the bodhisattva Samantabhadra appearing before the practitioner mounted on a white elephant with six tusks. It is said to be the practise of this \"Lotus samadhi\" which enlightened Chih-i's teacher, Hui-ssu. Last of the Four Kinds of Samadhi is the Neither-Walking-nor-Sitting Samadhi, also known as the \"Samadhi of Following One's Own Thought\" ^ \"j\u00a7\u00a3. ^ and the \"Samadhi of Awakening to (the nature of) Mind\" ^- \u2022 ^ a r m o r e space is devoted to this than to any of the others in the Synopsis. The scripture upon which i t is based is the Ch'ing-kuan-yin-ching \" f ^ |\u00a7jL\"'fj\"' \u00bb and liberal citations are made, a l l unattributed, from Hui-ssu's Sui-tzu-i-san-mei ^fizj^ JE) ^- \u2022 The sutra is used primarily to buttress the physical and vocal aspects of the practise, while the mental aspect is expounded in great detail without much reference to the sutras. It involves practising contemplation in a l l aspects of behavior, whether walking, standing, s i t t i n g , lying down, speaking or being silent, and for a l l the six kinds of sense-activity (including as usual the mind i t s e l f as a sense). Each of these twelve categories of experience is analyzed into four phases of origination and disappear-ance, and i t is shown how the transition from one phase to the next 26 is in every case incapable of being apprehended by the mind. In addition, thought i t s e l f is classified into good, evil or neutral thought, and the contemplation of each of these is described. Portions of the exposition approach a Yogacara analysis of mind. The contempla-tion of evil is perhaps the most interesting of a l l the methods expounded in this Lesser Chapter Two on the Four Samadhis. All the objects of contemplation in Greater Chapter Seven are also \" e v i l , \" so that i t is possible to say i t is this \"Samadhi\" which most closely summarizes the contemplations in Chapter Seven. The guiding principle here is \"Do not try to suppress the evil thought, but dispassionately watch i t arise.\" The practise is compared to landing a large and \" e v i l \" fish: one must play out the line and let him surface and submerge freely until he is worn out and can be pulled in by the slender, weak line (of meditation). Lesser Chapters Three and Four are so short that no more needs to be said about them than already has been. The discussion on the final absorption of the practitioner, and of the purport of a l l the teachings, into the Secret Treasury, the Great Abode, is of quite some interest. I have provided a chart in the Appendix (Chart II) which illustrates the ideas employed in this chapter. Here I will mention only that the discussion turns on the Three Qualities of Ultimate Reality\u2014the Dharma-body, Wisdom, and Liberation\u2014and the way in which they relate to each other. 27 III. THE THREE TRUTHS AND THE THREE VIEWS Chih-i drew from two sources to arrive at his tri p l e view of the nature of things: a passage from the Ying-1uo-ching ife- ^ \u00a7(T24.1014b) a n d a passage from the Madhyamika-karikas (Ch. 24, verse 17 of KumarajTva's Chinese version,the ChUng-lun ^ z&ff T30.33b; verse 18 of the same chapter in the Sanskrit'). The passage in the Ying-luo-ching speaks of the Three Views: the View which enters into emptiness from the provisional the View which enters into the provisional from emptiness ^ x iJtfL\/|HL and the View of the Middle Way and Ultimate Truth ^2^$p ~~ Ijfo ^ $JL The third of these takes alternate forms: neither empty nor provisional $L and both empty and provisional ^ . The f i r s t two Views are also simply known as the View of Emptiness and the View of Provisionality: both are considered expedients ~j) compared to the ultimate perspective represented by the third. The Three Truths are in contrast drawn from the verse (\"the gccthd\") in the Karikas which was said to have catalyzed the enlightenment of Hui-wen, the teacher of Chih-i's teacher Hui-ssu. This verse is quoted in the text of the Synopsis of the MHCK at T46.5c28-29. Modern scholars agree that Nagarjuna had in mind no other truth besides the Two Truths which permeate the Madhyamika dialectic, Ultimate and Provisional {paramartha-satya, samvvti-satya), but Chih-i and the T'ien-t'ai school accept that verse 24.17 expounds not two Truths but Three. As Walleser (Die Mitt!ere Lehre Nagarjunas) translates the passage from the Chinese, \"Was abhangiges Entstehen ist,\/Das nennen 28 wir Leerheit;\/Diese wird abhangig erkannt,\/Das i s t der mittlere Weg.\" I would render i t , \"We call empty that which has arisen through causes and conditions, fa t3 ^ % fi[ tL^,\\.4k yet i t is also a provisional designation qh This, again, is the meaning of the Middle Way rjJV ^ \u2022 \" (Chih-i quotes the verse in a slight variation that does no harm to the sense: his f i r s t line is and the last character of his second line is ^ )\u2022 The form of the Chinese does suggest that three names are being given to the same dharmas, particularly with the character jjf> beginning both the third and fourth line. However, as Streng (Emptiness- p. 213) renders the passage from the Sanskrit, there is no suggestion at a l l of Three rather than Two Truths: \"The 'origin-ating dependently' we call 'emptiness1;\/This apprehension, i.e., taking into account (all other things), is the understanding of the middle way.\" The Sanskrit for the passage runs: Yah pratTtya-samutpadah  sunyatam tarn pracaksmahe\/Sa prajnaptir upadaya pratipat saiva madhyama \"We call dependent origination 'emptiness.' In association i t is (conventional) designation. This is the Middle Way.\" The Three Truths represent the inherent nature of things while the Three Views represent the wisdom which is acquired by the practitioner . The Three Views may be aligned with the Three Wisdoms or kinds of omniscience, spoken of at length in Lesser Chapter Five and mentioned in numerous other places in the Synopsis. For Chih-i the Three Truths\/Three Views represent the completion of a tetralemma: once both extremes have been stated (and unlike Nagarjuna, but like the Yogacara branch of Mahayana Buddhism, he understood emptiness as an extreme, the simultaneous 29 d e n i a l and the s i m u l t a n e o u s a f f i r m a t i o n o f both extremes must a l s o be proposed. The view o f emptiness c u t s our attachments t o what we t h i n k to be r e a l i t y : t h i s view i s f o r C h i h - i f i r s t t h e view o f the HTnayana Mahayana ( \" s u b s t a n t i a l e m p t i n e s s \" 'ffft ). In the f o r m e r case t h i n g s a r e a n a l y z e d down to t h e i r components ( t h e s e l f i s broken down i n t o skandhas, f o r example) to show t h e i r e m p t i n e s s , w h i l e i n the l a t t e r case t h i n g s a r e seen as empty j u s t as t h e y a r e : not o n l y can r e a l i t y be broken down i n t o dharmas, but the dharmas the m s e l v e s have no r e a l i t y , no autonomy, no own-being, p r e c i s e l y because t h e y a r i s e from causes and c o n d i t i o n s . The f i r s t c ase c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e Four Noble T r u t h s o f a r i s i n g - a n d - p e r i s h i n g , the second t o the Four Noble T r u t h s o f n o n - a r i s i n g - a n d - n o n - p e r i s h i n g . The view o f p r o v i s i o n a l i t y , second o f the t h r e e moments i n C h i h - i ' s d i a l e c t i c , a s s e r t s t h a t d e s p i t e t h e i r e m p t i n e s s , t h i n g s s t i l l e x i s t i n a c o n d i t i o n a l way. T h i s view i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the h i g h e r Mahayana, o f b o d h i s a t t v a s , who r e - e n t e r t he w o r l d t o h e l p u p l i f t the animate b e i n g s i n i t , and who t h e r e f o r e must p r o v i s i o n a l l y r e g a r d as r e a l both the b e i n g s whom the y save and the s u f f e r i n g they a r e saved from. S t i l l t h e y know t h a t emptiness i s the U l t i m a t e R e a l i t y , and so i n g o i n g both \"up\" and \"down\" a t t h e same time t h e y t r e a d t he M i d d l e Way. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o the Four Noble T r u t h s a t the l e v e l o f the Innumerable. Here the Three T r u t h s ( n o t t o be c o n f u s e d w i t h the Four Noble T r u t h s ) a r e u n d e r s t o o d s e q u e n t i a l l y . The h i g h e s t degree o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s when the p r a c t i t i o n e r can r e c o g n i z e a l l o f the Three T r u t h s i n any one o f them, and when he ) and second t he view o f the lower 30 has attained for himself to the Three Views as simultaneous and completely present in every thought. This is synonymous with the Perfect and Sudden Teaching (from the standpoint of doctrine) and with the Perfect and Sudden Calming-and-Contemplation (from the standpoint of practise )\u2022 It is the view of the Buddhas. IV. TRANSLATION NOTES The word ohih-kuan jfc- presents quite a problem when one must render i t in English. Although i t is well known that i t corres-ponds to the Sanskrit samatha-vipasyana, i t has taken on a number of other meanings in the Chinese which are not present in the Sanskrit. Kuan jjfjj)^  alone can mean practise as opposed to doctrine (as in the expression ohiao-kuan evh-men ^.^tjt, f\\ )\u00bb but within the binome ohih-kuan the character kuan refers only to one aspect of religious practise. Chih -^ jg on the other hand is often said to correspond to samadhi-, (and kuan to prajna) in the group of the Three Knowledges (excluding slla). However, for Chih-i religious practise also clearly includes the keeping of the disciplinary code, hence ohih-kuan covers a l l three Knowledges. Though early in his career Chih-i used the word oh'an to refer to the whole of religious practise, he eventually came to sub-stitute ohih-kuan precisely because of the richness of i t s meanings. Ch'an connotes quiescence alone, more or less the chih jh- half of the binome ohih-kuan. But just as doctrine and practise are each 31 as indispensable as wings of a bird, practise by i t s e l f also has a double nature, which the term chih-kuan is eminently well adapted to express. At the same time as the bodhisattva is putting an end to delusion he is intuiting the nature of Ultimate Reality. The f i r s t operation is chih and the second kuan, corresponding to the difference (ultimately no difference at a l l ) between nirvana (blowing out, extinction), and bodhi (realization, awakening, enlightened intuition). Chih is like a closed and windless room, kuan like the lamp that burns brightest when the a i r is s t i l l . Chih is the soap that loosens the d i r t , kuan is the clear water that rinses i t away. Chih is the hand that holds the clump of grass, kuan the sickle that cuts i t down. Both terms may be used to refer to the nature of Ultimate Reality as well as to the methodology of religious practise: in that case a different English translation is called for. I have concluded that chih-kuan may be understood at three levels. Insofar as the term refers to the two basic approaches to the methodology of religious practise, I have used the English \"calm-ing-and-contemplation.\" Here chih-kuan is understood as a cause. However, i t may also refer to the result or effect of religious practise: in that case the English \"serenity and insight\" is more appropriate. And f i n a l l y i t may be understood as a description of not the practitioner, but of Ultimate Reality i t s e l f (we provisionally make a distinction between them): then one may say \"quiescence and luminosity.\" In the last case Chih-i himself often glosses chih-kuan Because the MHCK is a work on the methodology 32 of religious practise for the most part, \"calming and contemplation\" is how I usually render the term. But expecially in Lesser Chapter Five I have been forced to use sometimes \"serenity and insight\" and sometimes \"quiescence and luminosity.\" The word dharma I take as an English word and therefore have not usually i t a l i c i z e d i t . I understand the word in a minimum of two senses, and have therefore made a distinction between Dharma and dharma. The former refers to the Buddha's teaching (or alternatively the eternal Truth: the two meanings are ultimately synonymous), and the latter to phenomenal things, as in the Abhidharma analysis of samsara. The difference between the two meanings of dharma >\u00a3\\ is clear in a phrase like \"All dharmas are the Buddha's Dharma t^? tfy (T46.9al3 in the MHCK), a phrase which can only mean \"there is no phenomenal thing which is not identical with the Ultimate Reality as expounded II in the teachings of the Buddha.\" To say a l l dharmas are Buddha-dharmas\" as one often finds in translations of Buddhist texts is to obscure the sense to the point of u n i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y . The meanings of dharma may further be aligned with the Three Bodies of the Buddha: Dharma as Ultimate Reality corresponds to the Dharma-body of the Buddha, Dharma as the teaching of the Buddha corresponds to the Body of Recompense, and dharma as phenomena corresponds to the Body of Response (the form-body, nirmana-kaya). Shih-hsiang I consistently render as \"Ultimate Reality.\" Shih and li ^  I translate as \"Provisional Truth\" and \"Ultimate Truth,\" samvrti-satya and paramdrtha-satya: they are in this context Buddhist, not Neo-confucian terms. Frequently the term yun-yun ^ appears between major portions of the text, though sometimes i t is inserted in the middle of a dis-course. Apparently this means that Chih-i said something in his lecture which Kuan-ting did not trouble to write down, either because i t was self-explanatory or for some other reason. I have \"translated\" the term with three dots \". . .\" Sometimes three dots appear within a scriptural quotation: in that case I mean to communicate that the quote in the MHCK is an abridgement of the passage as i t stands in the Taisho canon. I capitalize technical terms whenever I translate them into English, e.g. the Three Wisdoms, the Six Perfections etc. Some Sanskrit terms are now part of the English language, so when I use these in the text they are neither underlined nor i t a l i c i z e d , e.g. nirvana (but not samsdva) , bodhisattva, sutra, samadhi, Mahayana, dharma, HTnayana, karma. Quotations in the MHCK are seldom perfectly verbatim, but I have in general not commented on the discrepancy i f i t does not make much difference to the sense. I have made an effort to track down every quotation iii the main text and identify its location in the Taisho edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon, by volume, page and column number (and sometimes line number). Thus column two of page eighteen of the MHCK is identified as T46.18b. On occasion I give the Taisho number of a whole work (different from the volume number). The MHCK can for example be identified as T#1911. In a very few cases I have been forced to emend the text. These places I have clearly identified. 34 I take responsibility for a l l section headings and divisions, though in most cases I have used either Chan-jan's commentary or state-ments in the main text to determine these. The section headings are not part of the text. Whenever a phrase that seemed like a section _ heading occurred in the main text, I l e f t i t in the body of the trans-lation and repeated i t in my own section heading. Most texts are referred to by their Chinese names, in romanization and with characters: information on them may then be found in the alphabetized bibliography. A very few of the best-known works I have referred to by their Sanskrit names; the Pancaviifisati, the VimalakTrti, the (Mahayana) Nirvana sutra, the Abhidharmakosa, the Madhyamaka-karikas and the Agamas. Despite my use of the Sanskrit names for these texts, I refer in a l l cases to the Chinese version unless otherwise stated. Three scriptures I refer to by their well-known English names; the Lotus sutra, the Diamond sutra, and the Heart sutra. A l l these are listed in the bibliography under their Chinese names, but I preface the main l i s t i n g in the bibliography with the'list of the above scrip-tures along with their Chinese names. MHCK means the Mo-ho-chih-kuan, TCTL means the Ta-chih-tu-lun ^ ^ \"f(?p the BSKS means the Bussho-kaisetsu-daijiten \/fy -f^L K ^ - ^ . The text which I have used as the standard is the Taisho (T46.1-21). However, I have found i t more convenient to read the MHCK in the edition of the Bukkyo Taikei y$j? \"^C ^  as reprinted in Tendai  Daishi Zenshu fi^ & X . ^ ^ \u2022 The latter text contains more errors than the Taisho, but I have corrected the errors by comparison 35 with the latter, and Chan-jan's commentary (which I refer to as CJ) is printed there in tandem with the MHCK text, along with three Japanese commentaries: the Shiki -^ CA %X^> (by Shoshin \u00a3nj\u00a3. J&z \u00bb f l \u2022 latter half of 12th century), the Kogi \"jj- (by Chiku ^ j\u00a3 , 1780-1862), and the Kojutsu 2 i L by Shudatsu ^ , 1804-1884). Chan-jan (711-782) was only three generations removed from Chih-i, being the sixth patriarch (and reviver) of the T'ien-t'ai school while Chih-i is counted as the third (Kuan-ting, 561-632, being the fourth). His commentary, the Chih-kuan-ju-hsing-ch'uan-hung-chueh Sit-- i ^ is the classical commentary on the MHCK. I have con-stantly referred to i t but not always taken i t s advice as to interpre-tations. Many other commentaries exist: Professor Sekiguchi has liste d forty-eight at the end of his kakikudashi rendition of the MHCK (Iwanami Bunko; 1966). Only twelve of these are six or more rolls in length, however, and the four commentators in the Tendai Daishi  Zenshu edition have taken several of these into account, citing passages from them from time to time. ***** The MHCK does not waste many words trying to describe the way in which the food of Ultimate Truth tastes, for Chih-i is well aware of its inexpressibility. Language is used here rather in an injunctive fashion: the MHCK is a recipe for making the food. Then the practitioner can taste i t for himself. 36 INTRODUCTION BY KUAN-TING I. THE LINEAGE OF THE TEACHING la Calming and contemplation (which mean, reversing their sequence), luminous understanding and tranquility, had not yet been heard of in former generations, when Chih-i, beginning on the 26th day of the 4th month of the 14th year of K'ai-huang (594 A.D.), at the Jade-spring monastery ^ . ^ L ^ in Ching-chou, expounded (this work) twice a day^ throughout the summer, compassionately raining down (his wisdom). Al-though his desire to preach knew no bounds, he only completed the (section on the) realm of false views, and thereupon brought to a halt 3 the turning of the wheel of the Dharma, and did not discourse on the \/ v 4 final portion (of the whole work). Yet drawing water from a stream, one seeks its source, and scenting an aroma, one traces i t s origin. The Treatise says, \"In my practise I have not had a teacher.\"^ And a sutra says, \"I (Sakyamuni) received the prophecy of Buddhahood from (the Buddha) DTpankara.\" A(secular) writing says, \"It is best to have inherent knowledge, but to acquire i t through study is next best.\"^ a The Buddhist teachings are vast and subtle. Do they shine of themselves with the heavenly light of truth,' 7 or is their blue derived from an indigo plant? If a practioner hears the lineage of the transmission of the g treasury of the Dharma, he can judge i t s authenticity. Through the ages (in his previous lives) the Greatly Enlightened World-Honored One 37 practised every sort of religious discipline. Then (in his l i f e as Sakyamuni, after leaving his home), for a period of six years he suppressed heterodox views (in himself), and subdued Mara^ by raising a single finger. (After this) he f i r s t (preached) at the Deer Park (in Benares), thereafter at Vulture Peak (near Rajagrha), and f i n a l l y at the Sala grove (the place where he died, near SravastT). He transmitted the Dharma to (his disciple) Mahakasyapa (#2), who (after the Buddha's death and cremation) divided (the Buddha's)^ ashes into eight portions (to dis-tribute as relics) and convened the First Council (at Rajagrha) (in order to compile) the Tripitika. He (in turn) transmitted the Dharma to Ananda (#3). Ananda entered the wind-producing samadhi amid the river 12 (Ganges) and magically divided his body into four parts. He (had previously) transmitted the Dharma to Sanakavasa (or Sanavasika)(#4), Sanakavasa, the nectar (of the Dharma) raining from his hands, c l a r i f i e d the teachings in five hundred parts, and transmitted the Dharma to Upagupta (#5). The latter obtained the Third (of the Four) Fruits while s t i l l a layman, and after having accepted the monastic code 13 (become a monk) obtained the Fourth Fruit. He transmitted the Dharma to DhTtika ( # 6 ) . DhTtika, when he f i r s t mounted the (ordination) platform (became a monk) had obtained (only) the f i r s t f r u i t (of arhatship), but after he thrice (repented his willingness to accept) the monastic code, he obtained the Fourth (and highest Fruit. He transmitted the Dharma to Bibhaka (#7), who in turn transmitted i t to Buddhanandi ( #8 ) . The latter transmitted i t to Buddhamitra ( #9 ) , who administered the Three Refuges^ to a king and defeated a numerologist in debate. He transmitted the Dharma to the bhiksu Parsva ( #10 ) . When Parsva emerged from the womb, his hair was (already) white. His hands 16 emitting light, he took in them a (Buddhist) sutra. He transmitted the Dharma to Punyayasas, who himself defeated Asvaghosa (#12) in debate, shaved the latter's head and made him his disciple. Asvaghosa wrote the Rastrapala, (a drama which) dealt with transience, suffering and emptiness (sunyata). Those who witnessed i t became enlightened to the Path. He transmitted the Dharma to Bilva (#13), who wrote a treatise on anatman?^ False views were annihilated wherever this treatise was current. He transmitted the Dharma to Nagarjuna (#14). Nagarjuna was 1 o born beneath a tree {avjuna) and achieved enlightenment through the 19 instrumentality of a serpent deity (ndga). , He transmitted the Dharma to (Arya)deva (#15). (Arya)deva gouged out the eye of a (golden statue of (a) god, then (miraculously) provided him with a myriad fleshly eyes. He transmitted the Dharma to Rahula (#16). The latter recited from memory a book containing the names of demons, and thereby overwhelmed an unbeliever (with his marvelous a b i l i t y and converted him). He transmitted 20 the Dharma to Samghananda (#17), who, speaking in verses {gdthas), tested (the understanding of) an arhat, and transmitted the Dharma to Samghayasas (#18). Samghayasas saw a city while wandering along the seashore, and there preached in verses [gdthas). He transmitted the Dharma to Kumarada (#19), (whose powers were such that) once, upon see-ing a myriad horsemen, he was able to remember the color of each horse, and know the name and distinguish the clothing of each horseman. He transmitted the Dharma to Sayanta (#20). For the benefit of those (monks) who had committed grave offenses (against the monastic code), 39 Sayanta (magically) created a fiery p i t, and made them enter and do penance there. The pit transformed into a pond and their sins were extinguished. He transmitted the Dharma to Vasubandhu (#21), who in turn 21 transmitted i t to Manura (#21). Manura divided (the populace) into 22 two parts separated by the Ganges, and converted one of the parts\u2022 He transmitted the Dharma to HaklenayaSas (#23), who in turn transmitted i t to Simha (#24). Simha was (mortally) wounded by (order of) the 23 king of Damila. When he was put to the sword, milk flowed (from his wounds). There were twenty-three men who transmitted the treasury of the Dharma,. beginning with Mahakasyapa and ending with Simha. But 24 \/ x Madhyantika and Sanakavasa (#4) received the Dharma at the same time, 25 so (including Madhyantika) there were twenty-four men. These teachers were a l l prophesied by the golden mouth (of the Buddha). They were a l l saints who were able to benefit great numbers of people. * \u2022* * * * In former times there was a king who (decided) not to establish a stable on monastery grounds, but placed i t instead near a slaughterhouse.' How much more lik e l y (than a beast in a stable) are worldly (humans), when encountering saints, to benefit (from their teachings)! Again, a brahmin was selling skulls, of which a rod could be passed clean through some, half through others, and not at a l l through the remainder. (Buddhist laymen) built a stupa for those which the rod passed completely through, performed memorial services for them, and were 27 consequently reborn as gods. The essential (feature) about hearing the Dharma is that i t has such merit. It is in order to confer this 40 28 benefit that the Buddha has transmitted the treasury of the Dharma. -In this (work on) calming and contemplation, (the master) T'ien-t'ai Chih-i has explained teachings y\u00a3\u00bb Ffc] which he practised within his own mind. When Chih-i was born, light f i l l e d the room, and in his eyes there were double pupils. (Later) he performed the confessions of the Lotus Sutra and pronounced mantric syllables (dJiaranis). Then taking 30 the place of the teacher from whom he had received the Dharma, he - - - 31 lectured on the golden-lettered Prajnaparamita-sutra. The Ch'en and Sui states esteemed him and gave him the t i t l e of \"imperial teacher.\" He died in the meditation posture, having attained the stage of the Fifth 32 Class of Disciples. Therefore i t says in the (Lotus) sutra, \"(The accumulated merit of) 33 one who gives the seven precious jewels to each being in four hundred myriads of hundreds of millions of t r i l l i o n s of countries, who converts and endows them (all) with the six superhuman powers, is not equal to even the one-thousand-millionth (part of the merit) of one who experiences 34 the f i r s t glimmer of joy (at hearing the Dharma)..\" How much less is i t comparable to (the merit achieved by) the f i f t h (and highest of the \u2022DC five) classes of disciples! The text (of the Lotus) also says, \"(Those who expound the Lotus sutra are) the messengers of the Tathagata, they perform the work of the Tathagata in the service of the Tathagata.\" The Nirvana sutra says, \"This is a bodhisattva at the f i r s t (stage of the four kinds of bodhisattvas upon whom the world) relies.\" Chih-i studied under Nan-yiieh (Hui-ssu, 515 - 577 A.D.). The latter's meritorious practise was inconceivably (profound); for ten 41 years he did nothing but recite scripture. For seven years he practised the vaipulya samadhi. For three months he practised the constantly-sitting samadhi and suddenly attained perfect realization. The (meaning of the) doctrines >-\u00a3 of both Mahayana and HTnayana 39 were transparent and readily accessible to him. Hui-ssu studied under the dhyana-master Hui-wen. The latter (was active) during the reign of Kao-tsu of the Northern Ch'i dynasty (550-589). He walked unmatched40 through the area (between) the Yellow 41 River and the Huai River. Others were not aware of (the depth of his attainment in) the Dharma. People tread the earth and gaze at the heavens, yet have no idea of (the earth's) solidity nor (heaven's) 42 loftiness. Hui-wen's mental discipline was exclusively founded on the TCTL, which was expounded by Nagarjuna, the 13th patriarch % ^ in the line of those who transmitted the treasure of the Dharma. It says in Chih-i's Treatise on Contemplating the Mind (T#1910), \"(I) entrust myself f|? pp~ - 43 - -to the teacher Nagarjuna.\" By this evidence (we) know that Nagarjuna is the founder (of our lineage). Q: A sceptic (might) say, \"The Madhyamaka-sastra^ (MMK) clears 45 away, while calming-and-contemplation builds. How could they be the same? A: There are seventy Indian commentaries (to Nagarjuna's MMK) AC in a l l ; one should not accept (only) that of Pingala, while reject-ing (the commentaries by) other teachers. 4^ Ic Further, i t says in (the verses of) the Madhyamaka-karikas, \"I declare those dharmas which have been produced through causes and conditions to be void; they are also (mere) provisional designations; 48 this, again, is the meaning of the Middle Way.\" \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 II. THE THREE KINDS OF CALMING-AND-CONTEMPLATION Chih-i transmitted Hui-ssu's (doctrine of the) three kinds of calming-and-contemplation: gradual, variable and perfect-and-sudden. These a l l (belong to) the Mahayana; they a l l treat Ultimate Reality as their object, and are alike called calming-and-contemplation The beginning of the gradual calming-and-contemplation is shallow, but later on i t is deep, (the progression thus) resembling a ladder. As for the variable calming-and-contemplation, the earlier and later stages alternate, just as (the color of) a diamond thrust into the 49 sunlight (varies depending on its position). In the perfect-and-sudden calming-and-contemplation, the earlier and later (stages) are undivided, (so that the practise is) comparable to a magician's mounting into . space.^ It is for the sake of the three (types of) native faculties that we teach this threefold doctrine and cite 51 these three similes. Having finished the abbreviated explanation (of the three kinds of calming-and-contemplation), (we) continue (now) with the expanded explanation. A. Gradual Calming-and-Contemplation (Even) at the beginning of gradual calming-and-contemplation one is aware (without really understanding i t ) of Ultimate R e a l i t y \" ^ . 43 This Ultimate Reality is d i f f i c u l t to understand, but the gradual 52 (method) is easy to practise. (1) One begins by taking refuge in b s v 53 the monastic code ^ whereby one's conduct is reformed, and 54 (tendencies towards) f i r e , blood and the knife are brought to a halt, 55 so that one reaches the three pleasant destinies. (2) The next stage is the practise of meditation , in which one wipes out the far--flung net of desire and achieves the meditations \u00b0f ( t n e Realms of) Form and Formlessness. (3) Next one cultivates concentration free of outflows ^ 5^ {unasrava-samadhi)^ terminating one's imprisonment in the Three Realms and reaching the path (leading to) nirvana. (4) Next one cultivates good will and compassion, disregarding one's own (progress towards) enlightenment and reaching the bodhisattva CO path. (5) Finally one cultivates (the perception of) Ultimate Reality, arresting (in himself) the prejudices of the (two) extreme 59 \/ \\ views and achieving the eternal Way. These (above five stages) are the features of the gradual calming-and-contemplation, which is shallow at the start but f i n a l l y profound. B. Variable Calming-and-Contemplation There is no particular sequence of stages in the variable (calm-ing-and-contemplation). (At times) i t may employ the gradual method (which we have outlined) above, and (at times) i t may employ the sudden method (which we discuss) below, alternating between these two, now 60 shallow and now deep, sometimes in (the realm of) the mundane and sometimes in (the realm of) Ultimate Truth. 6 1 (The \"variable\" method) 44 may signify that the Worldly is to be understood (in its aspect) as 62 the Ultimate Truth, or i t may signify that one understands the Ultimate Truth (merely in its limited sense) as producing good and 63 *) eradicating e v i l . It may involve the calming \"j- of contemplation |||^, thus achieving serenity ^ ; or i t may involve the illumination J??,of calming St- , thus achieving insight |f|^ . 6 4 That is why i t is called the \"variable\" calming-and-contemplation. Q: A sceptic might say, \"(These three types of calming-and-contemplation) belong to the same (Mahayana) teaching, have the same (Ultimate Truth) as their object, and have the same name (\"calming-and-contemplation\"). How is i t that you so abruptly differentiate them?\" A: Though they are the same, they are not the same; and though 65 they are not the same, they are the same. There are six types within (the f i r s t stage of) gradual (calming-and-contemplation): three CC each of good and bad destinies. There are altogether three parts in (concentration) free-of-outflows, so that we have in a l l twelve c~1 points of difference. The reason we call this the \"variable\" calming-and-contemplation is that we are discussing various (differences and not the shared features). C O Q: (The types of calming-and-contemplation in) this chapter are in the same Mahayana, (they aim at) the same Ultimate Reality \"jT 3$ and are the same in being called \"calming-and-contemplation.\" Why then 69 is this chapter called \"On Distinctions?\" A: Though they are the same, they are not the same; and though they are not the same, they are the same. Within (the calming-and-contemplation of) gradual stages there are nine^\u00b0 points of difference, while within the variable calming-and-contemplation there are four points of difference, 7 1 (thus making) in a l l thirteen point of difference. The only reason we call this the \"variable\" calming-and-contemplation is that we are stressing multiplicity in our choice of words. (In the same way) a l l the saints treat unconditioned 72 {asamskrta) dharmas as having differences. This is the sense (in 73 which the distinctions we have made should be understood)-74 C. The Perfect and Sudden Calming-and-Contemplation The perfect and sudden (calming-and-contemplation) from the very beginning takes Ultimate Reality ^ as it s object. No matter what the object (of contemplation) might be, i t is (seen to be) 75 identical to the Middle. There is (here) nothing which is not the Ultimate Reality .Jt- \"Jjf . When the objects of cognition are iden-t i f i e d with the Dharma-realm {dharmadhdtu), and when thought rests in the Dharma-realm alone, then there is not a single shape nor smell 7fi that is not the Middle Way. The same goes for the realm of self, the realm of Buddha and the realm of living beings. 7 7 Since a l l 78 skandhas and ayatanas are Thusness, there is no Suffering to be cast away.7^ Since nescience [avidyd) and defilements {klesas) are identical with enlightenment {bodhi) , there is no Origin of Suffering (craving) to be eradicated W\\ . Since (the two) extreme (views) are the Middle (Way) and false views are the Right (View), there is no Way to be cultivated. Since birth-and-death {samsara) is identical with nirvana, there is no Annihilation to be achieved. Because of the 46 inexistence of Suffering and of the Origin of Suffering, the mundane does not exist; because of the inexistence of the Way and of Annihilation (of the Cause of Suffering), the supramundane does not exist. The single, unalloyed Ultimate Reality \"J|\" is a l l there on is--no entities whatever exist outside of i t . That (all) entities are by nature quiescent is called chih (samatha3 calming, concen-tration, stopping, cessation, serenity); that, though quiescent, (this nature) is ever lustrous , is called kuan jjfj^  {vipasyana, contemplation, insight). Though a verbal (distinction) is made between earlier and later (stages of practise), there is (ultimately) no duality, no distinction between them. This is what is called the 81 \"perfect-and-sudden calming-and-contemplation.\" Now omitting the gradual and the variable (calming-and-contemplation from the discussion, we shall further explain the perfect-and-sudden (calming-and-contemplation) by reference to the sutras. (The bodhisattva) Bhadrasiras of the subtle qualities, who had 82 penetrated to the extremely profound, said, \"When a bodhisattva dwelling in samsara f i r s t gives rise to the thought (of enlightenment. bodhioitta), and when he seeks enlightenment single-mindedly, firmly and without vacillating, then the merit contained in that single thought is profound, vast and limitless, and even the Tathagata, when describing in detail (that merit), cannot exhaust i t , though he expound on i t to the end of time.\" This bodhisattva hears the perfect Dharma, gives rise to perfect faith, establishes perfect practise, dwells in the stage of perfection, adorns himself with perfect merit, and by means of his perfect energy establishes living beings (in the Dharma).83 What does i t mean to hear the perfect Dharma? One hears that samsara (the mundane) i s identical to the Dharma-body (the supra-mundane), that the defilements are identical to Wisdom {prajna), that 84 bondage is identical to liberation {moksa). Though there are three % \u00ae 85 names (for Ultimate Reality), there are not three substances ' | [ ^ Though this is only one substance, three names are given i t . These three have but a single mark 1$ ; in reality there is no distinction between them. Since the Dharma-body is the Ultimate (Reality), Wisdom and Liberation are also the ultimate; since Wisdom is pure, the other two (Dharma-body and Liberation) are also pure; since Liberation is unimpeded, so are the other two. A l l Dharmas that one may hear are the same--they are a l l fu l l y endowed with the Buddha's Dharma and are irreducible (to separate and conflicting teachings). This is what \"hearing the perfect Dharma\" means. What is perfect faith 4\"! ? It is the conviction 4% that a l l entities are empty, that they are (nevertheless) provisionally existent, 86 and that they are the middle (between these extremes). Though (ultimately) there are not three (separate Views), (provisionally) there are three. (To say) that separately they do not exist fore-stalls })$, (the interpretation) that there are three, while (to say) that there are three illuminates (the truth in) each of them. Yet in the absence of either forestalling or illuminating (the differences between) them, (one has the conviction that) a l l entities are (alike) 87 ultimate, pure and unimpeded. When hearing of the profoundity and the vastness, not to fear nor doubt; and when hearing of the shallow 48 and the narrow, to s t i l l have courage in one's mind--this is what is called (having) perfect faith. What is perfect practise? To intently and singlemindedly seek unsurpassed enlightenment (anuttara-samyak-sambodhi)\\ (to practise) the middle even while adhering to the extremes; to perfectly cultivate the Three Truths without being distracted; to be neither pacified ^ by the infinite nor agitated by the f i n i t e , but, neither agitated nor quiescent, to directly enter the Middle Way--this is what is meant by \"perfect practise.\" What is i t to enter the stage J^\u00a3- of perfection? It i s , upon entering the very f i r s t stage 'ji (of bodhisattvahood) to realize that any one stage is a l l stages, that they are a l l ultimate, pure and O Q free (unimpeded). This is what is meant by the \"stage of perfection.\" 90 What is the adornment of perfect freedom? The {Avatamsaka) sutra extensively explains the features of freedom. (As i t says), one may enter samadhi even in one sense-facul ty ^ .(indriya), or one may rise from samadhi and expound (the Dharma) with another sense-faculty, or one may (simultaneously) both enter and leave samadhi with the same sense-faculty, or one may neither enter nor leave i t with a (certain) sense-faculty. The same holds for each of the (six) senses. One may enter samadhi with respect to one sense-object, or leave i t and expound (the Dharma) with respect to another, or both enter and leave with respect to a single sense-object or neither enter nor leave thus. The same holds for each of the (six) sense-objects. One may enter samadhi in this direction or leave i t and expound in that direction, or in the same direction both enter and leave, or neither enter nor 49 leave. Or one may enter samadhi with respect to one object, or rise and expound with respect to one object,or both enter and leave, or neither enter nor leave from samadhi with respect to one object. To be exact, when even with respect to one sense or sense-object one enters and leaves from samadhi, or both, or neither, then one is free of every karmic retribution proper, as well as of (every) dependent karmic re-91 tribution. This is what is meant by \"the adornment of perfect 92 freedom.\" It is comparable to how the sun, in revolving about the 93 four great continents (brings i t about that at any one time), when in one place i t is noon, in another i t is morning, in another evening, and in another midnight. It is because (its position) varies as i t revolves that, though there is but a single sun, i t is seen differently . . 94 from (these) four places. The freedom of a bodhisattva is like this. What is i t to perfectly establish animate beings (in the Dharma)? By emitting a single beam of light, (a bodhisattva) can bring living beings the benefit of attaining (knowledge of Ultimate Reality as) identical to Emptiness, identical to Provisionality, and identical to the Middle Way, as well as the benefit of (being able to) enter samadhi, leave i t , or both, or neither. This holds for walking, standing, 95 si t t i n g , lying, speaking, being silent, or any activity whatever. Whoever is destined 7fj (by his previous acts) will see (the Truth), just as (a person with) eyes sees light. One without this capacity will not perceive, (just as) i t is always dark for the blind. 50 97 Hence we cite the dragon-king (naga) as an i l l u s t r a t i o n . In height he compasses the six heavens (of the Realm of Desire), and in breadth reaches across the (above-mentioned) four continents. He raises a l l manner of clouds, wields a l l manner of thunder, flashes a l l manner of lightning and causes a l l manner of rain to f a l l , and (does i t ) without budging from his own palace. His activity appears different 98 to everyone (who sees him). This is what a bodhisattva is like. Having attained internally and for himself f u l l realization of (the Ultimate Truth which is simultaneously) identical to Emptiness, Provis-i o n a l l y and the Middle, he (is able), without disturbing the Dharma-nature y& (dharmatd), to (externally) cause (animate beings) to gain a variety of benefits and engage in a variety of activities (while enlightened). This is what is called \"establishing living beings (in the Dharma by means of his) perfect energy.\" On the very f i r s t stage (of the bodhisattva path) the mind is already like this--how much more so is this true for the middle and later (stages)! The Tathagata untiringly extols this Dharma; those who hear i t rejoice. Sadaprarudita (\"the ever-weeping one\") sought (wisdom) in the e a s t . \" Sudhana sought (the Dharma) in the south. 1 0 0 (The bodhisattva) Bhaisajyaraja burnt (his own) arm (as a sacrifice to the Buddha)] 0 1 P'u-ming (risked having his own) head cut o f f . 1 0 ^ \"Even i f one should thrice a day give up his own l i f e as often as there are grains of sand in the Ganges, this would s t i l l not compare to the power (of the merit attained by one who writes down, preaches, 1 QO etc.) a single verse (of the Dharma).\" S t i l l less could the feat of carrying a burden on one's shoulders for a b i l l i o n kalpas compare 51 to the blessing of the Buddha's Dharma. This doctrine (of sudden attainment) is found in one sutra just as (we have quoted i t ) . 1 ( J ^ Other sutras similarly (support this doctrine). Q: A skeptic might say that he would like to hear firm (scriptural) 105 proof for the other (two types of) samadhi. A: (It is true that this would be desirable), but the scriptures and treatises are vast, and cannot be cited in detail. Nevertheless we shall briefly mention one or two. III. SCRIPTURAL PROOF FOR THE THREE KINDS OF CALMING-AND-CONTEMPLATION106 A. The VimalakTrti says, 1^ 7 \"When (the Buddha) f i r s t sat beneath the bodhi-tree, and by his power overcame Mara, he attained nectar-like {amrta) nirvana . . . and won enlightenment >^ ^ . He thrice turned 108 the wheel of the Dharma for the b i l l i o n worlds. The wheel was fundamentally and forever pure, which is attested to by the fact that gods and men have been enlightened thereby. It was then that the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha) appeared in the world.\" This was the beginning of the gradual teaching. 1 (^ (The VimalakTrti) also says, 1 1^ \"The Buddha expounds the Dharma with a single sound, but each type of animate being understands i t in i t s own way. . . . Some fear and some rejoice, some develop aversion and some are freed from doubt. This is (an example of his) superhuman and unique power.\" This is the (scriptural) proof for the variable teaching. (The VimalakTrti) also says, 1 1 1 \"(The Buddha) teaches that dharmas neither 52 exist nor inexist, for i t is by reason of causes and conditions that they arise. Yet though there is no self, no doer and no recipient (of 112 karmic retribution), s t i l l this does not mean that good and evil 113 karma are also done away with.\" This is the (scriptural) proof for the sudden teaching. B. It says in the Pancavimsati 1 4 (There are) gradual practise, gradual study and the gradual Way.\" This is (scriptural) proof of the gradual (calming-and-contemplation), 1 1 5 (The Pancavimsati) also says, \"When a jewel is wrapped in (cloth of) various colors and placed in water, the color (of the water) varies according to (the color of) the substance (used to wrap the jewel). This is (scriptural) proof of the variable (calming-and-contemplation or teaching). It also says, 1 1^ \"From the rise of the very f i r s t thought (of enlightenment), they s i t in the place of enlightenment {bodhimanda), turn the wheel of the Dharma \"118 and save animate beings. This is (scriptural) proof of the sudden (calming-and-contemplation). 119 C. It says in the Lotus, \"Such persons will by this Dharma enter gradually into Buddha-wisdom.\" This proves the gradual (calming-and-120 contemplation). (The Lotus sutra) also says, \"If they should not -sfoje'^ ieve this Dharma, then l e t other profound Dharmas show, encourage, benefit and delight them xfc 4'] -Ir - \" ^ This proves the 122 variable (calming-and-contemplation). (The Lotus sutra) also says, \"(I--the BuddhaT-) have openly cast away the expedient teaching {upaya) 53 and expound (now) only the supreme Way.\" This proves the sudden (calming-and-contemplation). - 123 D. The Nirvana sutra says, \"From the cow there comes milk, from milk comes cream, from cream come butter curds, from butter curds comes butter, and from butter comes ghee.\" This proves the gradual (calming-and-contemplation'or teaching). It also says (in the 124 Nirvana sutra), \"When poison is put in milk, then the milk can k i l l people, (and this is true for the progressive essences of milk) 125 up to ghee, which also can k i l l people i f poison is put in i t . \" This proves the variable (calming-and-contemplation). (The Nirvana \u2022j oc sutra) also says, \"In the Himalayas there is a grass called ksanti. If a cow eats i t then one (eventually) obtains ghee (from 127 the cow's milk).\" This proves the sudden (calming-and contemplation). E. It says in the Wu-liang-yi-ching jjj^ ' J $$. , \"When the Buddha turned the wheel of the Dharma, he f i r s t rained down l i t t l e drops to wash away the dust of a l l desires, thus opening the gate to nirvana, fanning the wind of liberation, eradicating the keen sufferings in the world, and bringing into existence the purity and I oo coolness of the Dharma. Next he rained down (the doctrine of) the twelve causes and conditions (of dependent origination), by which he wash-129 130 ed the land of nescience, and blotted out the glare of false views. Finally he poured forth the unexcelled Mahayana, arousing the thought of 54 1 on enlightenment in a l l (beings).\" This proves the gradual (teaching). F. It says in the Avatamsaka (Hua-yen) sutra, \"When the sea-dragons {sdgara-ndga) rain into the ocean drops the size of carriage axles,, (the ocean alone is capacious enough), other places cannot endure i t . The perfect )Ji) {paripurna) sutras were preached for beings of superior 132 capacity; (adherents to) the Two Vehicles were as i f deaf and dumb.\" G. It says in the VimalakTrti, \"When entering a campaka grove, (only the strong perfume of the campaka tree's flowers) but no other scent, can be smelled. (In the same way), one who enters this room perceives 133 nothing but the fragrance of the merit of Buddhas.\" H. It says in the Suraiigama sutra, \"If one grinds a myriad kinds of incense (together) into a b a l l , and a single particle (of this ball) is 134 burnt, (the smoke) is endowed with a l l the (component) vapors.\" I. It says in the Pancavimsati, \"Through his total omniscience (a bodhisattva) knows a l l dharmas. (Sariputra, you) should train in the 135 perfection of wisdom.\" J. It says in the Lotus, \"(The bodhisattvas and wheel-turning kings, gods and dragons come, each) joining his hands reverently and wishing 136 to hear of the perfect Way. 55 K. It says in the Nirvana sutra, \"For example, i t is as i f there were someone swimming in the great ocean; know that in so doing he makes use of the water of a l l rivers. 1 ,,137 L. It says in the Avatamsaka sutra, \"For example, i t resembles (the shining of the sun): f i r s t at sunrise the high mountains (alone) are 138 illuminated, then deep valleys, and then plains.\" The plains correspond to the variable, the valleys to the gradual, and the high mountains to the sudden (calming-and-contemplation). Everything quoted above is the authentic word from the golden-mouth 139 (of the Buddha). It is the Dharma as revered by the Tathagatas of past,^present and future. It had no beginning, no matter how far back in the past; i t is unlimited and boundless in the present; and i t will r o l l ceaselessly on into the future. (Its nature is) unthinkable in any of the Three Times. Know that calming-and-contemplation is the teacher of a l l (these) Buddhas. Since the Dharma is eternal, the 140 Buddhas are also eternal. So too is i t b l i s s f u l , personal and pure. How could anyone f a i l to believe such scriptural proof? Once one believes the Dharma (of the three kinds of calming-and-contemplation), one needs to know the three texts (in which i t is expressed). (The f i r s t of these is) the Tz'u-ti ch'an men ^> ^ , 1 4 1 which comprises thirty r o l l s . The extant ten-roll v e r s i o n 1 4 2 was privately taken down in writing by (the monk) Fa-shen \"\\% 1 4 3 of the Ta-chuang-yen monastery TV | j * Jjf. <jr . (The second of these) is the text on variable (calming-and-contemplation), the Liu-miao-(fa-)- men -h ky y\u00a3s )?t] - 1 4 4 In accordance with the meaning of \"variable, 1 56 145 i t l i s t s (the practises of) the twelve dhydnas3 the nine meditations (on death), 1 4 6 the eight liberations {vimoksa),147 insight-contemplation {vipasyana), disciplined practise , effects (or practise), austerities, (the twelve) causes-and-conditions, and the Six Perfections. (This.text) makes the rounds (of the aforementioned techniques) freely 148 and without constraints, both vertically and horizontally. The \u2022a % president of the department of affairs of state, Mao-hsi ^L-gT , requested Chih-i to produce this work. (The third text is) the Yuan-tun \\Ji (i.e. MHCK), taken down in ten rolls by (the monk) Kuan-ting ~J$. 1% in the Jade-spring monastery ~i>%.^ in the province of Ching $i] . Though there are these three texts, do not warp or harm your own (understanding) by adhering to (this merely provisional dis-tinction between) the texts. The TCTL says, \"Whether they perceive (the Perfection of) Wisdom or not, everyone is in bondage and everyone is l i b e r a t e d . \" 1 4 9 (The way in which such) texts (ought to be regarded) is analogous to this. Q: A skeptic would say that since a l l dharmas (ultimately) have the mark j$ of n i r v a n a ^ , (This mark) is impossible to put into 150 words. For the Nirvana sutra says, \"The origination of something existent cannot be explained . . . the failure of something inexistent to originate cannot be explained.\" 1 5 1 Whether (one attempts to discourse) in summary or in detail, the path of language is cut off, and there is neither anyone to explain nor anything to be explained. (Continuing the objection), Sariputra said, \"I have heard that in regard to liberation there is nothing to be said; therefore I do not know 57 1 co what to say about i t . \" ( S t i l l continuing the objection), the VimalakTrti says, \"What is expounded lacks (the capacity) to be ex-pounded or indicated. Those who listen to the Dharma (being expounded) \u2022J (TO can neither hear i t nor attain (to an understanding of i t ) . \" Thus neither does a person have the a b i l i t y to expound i t , nor is the Dharma expoundable, yet (you) speak of teaching people. A: 1^ 4 But (you) mention only one (of the two) extremes,^ without taking the other into consideration. (1) The Nirvana sutra says, \"Because of causes and conditions, i t is nevertheless possible to I cc expound (the Dharma).\" (2) The Lotus sutra says, \"(The Buddhas) expound (the Dharma) for animate beings by recourse to numberless expedients [upaya) and a variety of causes and conditions.\" 1^ 7 (3) It also says, \"It was by the power of expedients that (Sakyamuni) expounded I CO (the Dharma) to the five bhiksus.\" (In fact the Dharma) can-be expounded, both in summary and in detail. (4) It says in the Nirvana sutra, \"A person with (normal) eyes describes (the color of) milk to 159 one who is blind.\" This shows that the Ultimate Truth can be explained. (5) The (Sheng)-tien-wang-pan-jo-po-mi-ching ^ 5 \u00a3 -J8L-5S M. says, \"Though a mantra {dhdranl) is (ultimately) 1 cr\\ without words and letters, yet words and letters express a mantra.\" This shows that the Worldly (Provisional) Truth can be explained. Besides, the Tathagata always relies upon the Two Truths (Ultimate 1 fil and Worldly) to preach the Dharma. (6) The VimalakTrti says, \"Being separate from the essence of words and letters--this is identical with 1 f<9 liberation.\" Thus expounding is (ultimately) identical to not-\/ 58 expounding. (7) The Nirvana sutra says, \"If (a bodhisattva) should understand that the Tathagata never expounds the Dharma at a l l , then \u2022j C O he is one who has heard much of i t (bahusruta).\" This shows that non-expounding j_s expounding. (8) The Ssu-i-fan-t'ien-so-wen-ching says, \"The Buddha and his disciples constantly engage in two forms of practise, now expounding and now being s i l e n t . \" 1 6 4 (9) The Lotus sutra says, \"Whether he is going or coming, standing or s i t t i n g , (the Buddha) constantly expounds the wondrous Dharma ^ like a down-165 pour of rain. (10) It also says, \"If you wish to seek the Buddhist \"I cc Dharma, follow constantly those who have heard much of i t , \" (and) \"A worthy friend {kalydna-mitva) is an important cause and condition (for enlightenment), for he converts and leads you, and 167 enables you to see the Buddha.\" (11) The Nirvana sutra says, 1 fiR \"Clouds and thunder in the air produce flowers on ivory.\" How could there ever f a i l to be preaching (of the Dharma)? If one\" sets.preaching and silence in opposition to each other, then one f a i l s to understand the meaning of the teaching, and departs further and further from the Ultimate Truth $^ . There is however no Ultimate Truth apart from preaching, and no preaching apart from Ultimate Truth, for preaching and non-preaching are identical to each other. There is no duality, no difference between them; the Ultimate Truth is identical to mundane particulars ^ (the Provisional Truth). The Compassionate One (preaches because he) takes pity on a l l those who have not heard (the Dharma). It is as though the moon were hidden behind a mountain range, and one raised a (round) fan to simulate i t ; 59 or as though the blowing of the wind had ceased, and one shook a tree 169 to indicate (the effect the wind would have). These days people's minds are dull, and (to attain) profound vision is accordingly d i f f i c u l t . But by relying on visible form j ^ , , their eyes may attain (this vision); recourse to the written word makes i t easier for them. But i f one were then to damage (his understanding) by imprisoning himself in the written word (text), then i t would be essential for him to realize that a text is not an (absolute) text. And having penetrated to the realization that a l l written words are (ultimately) neither (absolute valid) writings nor non-(valid) writings, then he can achieve complete understanding through a single text. It is in light of this principle that these three texts have been used to create a gate through which the One is achieved. This completes the brief explanation of the origination (of the MHCK).170 60 FOOTNOTES INTRODUCTION BY KUAN-TING Probably morning and evening. Part seven (seventh of the Ten Realms of objects of contemplation) of Chapter Seven of the whole MHCK. 3 Stopped preaching. 4 Parts eight, nine and ten of Chapter Seven, as well as the whole of Chapters Eight, Nine and Ten. This is from the Ta-chih-tu-1un (T#1509), which I refer to here-after as TCTL. Lamotte sanskritizes the t i t l e as Maha-prajna-paramita- upadesa-sastra, and refers to i t therefore as the Mpps. However many scholars believe that the work was composed originally in Chinese by KumarajTva. Lamotte translates the above passage, \"Ma conduite n'a pas de mattre.\" It is found in the TCTL at T25.65al. 6Chan-jan (hereafter to be referred to as CJ) cites the T'ai-tzu-jui-ying-pen-ch'i-ching ^ \/fe &V M. (T#l85) for this prophecy. The passage in question may be found at T3.473a. 6a From the Confucian Analects (4.16.9). Legge's translation (p. 3) renders i t , \"Those who are born with the possession of knowledge are the highest class of men. Those who learn, and so, readily, get possession of knowledge, are the next in excellence.\" The passage in the Analects goes on (in Legge's translation), \"Those who are dull and stupid, and yet compass the learning, are another class next to these. As to those who are dull and stupid and yet do not learn\u2014they are the lowest of the people.\" Legge notes that elsewhere in the Analects (7.19) Confucius says, \"I am not one who was born in the possession of knowledge.\" ^Obviating a teacher, g I.e. Is their wisdom derived from a teacher? The simile of the indigo plant is derived from Hsiin-tze (Ch. 1), who compares the knowledge which a pupil receives from his teacher with the blue derived from the indigo plant. 61 y The Dharma;1ineage which Kuan-ting now proceeds to set forth is derived primarily from the Fu-fa-tsang-yin-yuan-chuan ^ ^?3$(XiQ , T#2058,found at T50. 297-322. Sanskrit equivalents for proper names I have drawn from Bu-ston's History of Buddhism as trans-lated by E. Obermiller, p. 108-109 and vol. 6 of the Mochizuki ' Dictionary, p. 27 of the appendix. 1 0While in meditation beneath the Bodhi tree, at the time of his great enlightenment. 1 1 The Chinese word is a transcription of the Sanskrit s a r l r a (body). 1 2 \u2014 * Knowing he was about to die, Ananda l e f t Magadha for VaisalT, north across the Ganges. Ajatasatru, s t i l l the king of Magadha,_sent soldiers out to stop him, while the king of VaisalT,^hearing of Ananda's impending ar r i v a l , sent soldiers out to greet him. Ananda was halfway across the river when he saw these two hosts on the opposite banks of the river, so in order to be equitable, he rose into the a i r and (in Hsiian-:tsang's version of the story in his Great T'ang Records of the  Western World T#2087) cremated himself, causing his ashes and unburnt \"r e l i c s \" to f a l l half on the northern bank and half on the southern bank, so that there was some for each king. The Fu-fa-tsang-yin- yu'an-ch'uan has i t that he also sent a portion up to the Trayastrmsa heaven atop Mt. Sumeru and another portion down to the naga-king in the ocean, making four parts in all (T50.303b). When Hsuan-tsang visited this spot (according to him, 30 li southeast of the Svetapura monastery), there was a stupa on either bank of the Ganges marking this event. Th. Watters mentions this briefly in Vol. II, p. 80 of his On Yuan  Chwang's Travels in India. 13 The Four Fruits represent attainment of the four stages of arhat-ship: stream-winning, one more rebirth, non-returning (i.e. no more rebirths) and f u l l arhatship. 14 Buddha, Dharma, Sangha. 15 CJ: Having been in the womb for 60 years. 16 Shiki points out that the phrase \"his hands emitting light, he took in them a sutra\" actually belongs, according to the FFTYYC, to the account onPunyayasas,the next patriarch. The latter caused Asvaghosa to accept the Buddhist sutras (thus the phrase is to be interpreted in a causative sense), i.e. converted him to Buddhism by defeating him in debate. 62 1 7The Buddhist denial of a self or soul. I Q The f i r s t of the two sheng is written \"J^  in the FFTYYC. 19 Wherefore he was called Nagarjuna. 20 The gdthas formed a riddle: \"What is i t that is born from the seed of a wheel-turning king (oakravartin) and enters nirvana, but is neither a Buddha, an arhat nor a pratyeka-buddha.\" The arhat was unable to answer, and so consulted Maitreya in the Tusita heaven about i t . The answer which Maitreya gave him was \"a clay vessel,\" for this object is made by applying mud to a potter's wheel (thus the potter becomes the \"wheel-turning king\") and eventually breaks (enters nirvana), but is not a Buddha, arhat nor pratyekabuddha. 2 1 0 r Manoda. 22 CJ: Those to the south of the Ganges. 23 Skt: Dravida. According to Hsuan-tsang this was in South India, 1500-1600 U south'of Cola. 24 ' Said to be contemporaneous with Sanakavasa. 25 Counting the Buddha himself, the lineage contains twenty-five people. 26 This story too is taken from the FFTYYC. It seems that a certain king used a fierce elephant to trample criminals to death. A time came when the elephant refused to carry out his task, merely smelling and licking his supposed victims without harming them. Upon inquiring among his ministers, the king found the reason to be that the elephant's stable had recently been moved to the neighborhood of a Buddhist monastery, and the animal was doubtless being influenced towards compassion by the teachings he heard emanate from the monastery. The king there-fore ordered the stable moved to the vicinity of a slaughterhouse, where-upon the elephant soon regained his erstwhile blood-lust. 27 Again from the FFTYYC. The brahmin had at f i r s t no success in selling the skulls, and so became angry and cursed and v i l i f i e d those who refused to buy them. The Buddhist laymen of the city were frightened at this and agreed to buy. First, however, they tested the skulls by 63 slipping a rod through the ear-holes, saying that they attached the greatest value to those which could be penetrated completely (so that the rod came out the other side), less to those which could be penetrated only partly, and no value at all to those which were impervious. The brahmin was amazed at their making such distinctions, but they explained that in the f i r s t case, the skulls had belonged to persons who in l i f e had heard the Buddha's wondrous preaching, and had thereby attained to great wisdom (attained vacuity of mind!). The second type of skulls had belonged to people who, though they had heard the teaching, did not comprehend i t f u l l y , while the final category of skulls had belonged to people who had not heard the teaching at a l l . The laymen bought only the f i r s t type of skulls. Their rebirth as gods was of course far from complete enlightenment. 28 Or \"storehouse.\" This word is used for the Pali or Skt. pitaka, \"basket,\" meaning the \"three baskets\" {tripitika) which comprise the Buddhist scriptures in their traditional division: sutra, vinaya and abhidharma. Here i t may be taken to refer broadly to the Mahayana scriptures as well. 29 CJ: His parents attempted unsuccessfully to conceal this fact. Kogi feels this phrase refers merely to a single pupil in each eye. the famous poet Li Po mentions such double pupils in his poem \"Climbing to the ancient battlefield of Huang-wu.\" 3^Hui-ssu. Hui-ssu is said to have copied the 25,000 PPS (Pancavimsati- sahasrika-prajnaparamita-sutra in 25,000 lines), the version of the PPS upon which the TCTL is a commentary, in gold characters. 32 This is a category devised by Chih-i, which postulates five classes of disciples below the traditional forty-two or fifty-two grades of attainment leading to Buddhahood. \"His own stage of enlightenment was relatively low because he had devoted to the training of his disciples energies that he could otherwise have applied to his own development.\" (Hurvitz, Chih-i, p. 172). CJ gives the date of death as:the 24th day of the 11th month. 33 Gold, silver, lapis l a z u l i , moonstone, agate, coral, and amber, as Soothill renders their names in his Lotus translation. 34 Slightly paraphrased from the Lotus, ch. 18, T9.46c. The sutra has i t that the merit of the last person in a chain of f i f t y each expounding the Lotus to the next, who rejoices at hearing even a single verse of the sutra, is as great as described. 64 35 Namely, the attainment of Chih-i. As elaborated later in the MHCK, the stage of the Five Classes of Disciples is equivalent to the third of the Six Identities. Those who rejoice at hearing the Dharma, as in the above Lotus quotation, are the f i r s t of the Five Classes, while Chih-i is supposed to have attained the f i f t h . The latter Class is called \"properly practicing the Six Perfections,\" in which one's practise is to exhaust oneself for the sake of others. 3 6Lotus, Ch. 10, T9.30c. 37 Broadly referring to Chapter 8 (roll 6) of the Nirvana sut,ra, T12.637a. This chapter is entitled \"the four dependables\" <P (in Yamamoto's very inferior translation), and describes four kinds of humans upon which people in the world may rely or depend upon, take refuge in. In the sutra they are identified with (1) one who is not yet r id of his klesas but who nevertheless is able to benefit the world; (2) the streamwinners and once-returners; (3) the non-returners; and (4) arhats. The interpretation of these categories varies with the school of Buddhism, but though the names are the same as the HTnayana categories of the Four Fruits, they are generally held to be only out-wardly HTnayanistic, and actually bodhisattvas. In the Perfect Teaching (highest of the Four Teachings) as outlined in Chih-i's Fa-hua-hsu'an-i (roll 5), they are identified with (1) the Five Classes of Disciples and the stage of the Purity of the Six Senses; (2) the ten abodes ; (3) the ten stages of action ~jr \/\/rf and the ten stages of diversion - f 3^. fe) ; ( 4 i f T t e n stages proper -f and the stage of near-Buddhahood \\% &r '. OQ Both of these samadhis are described in the later section on the Four Ways of Practising Samadhi. 39 His understanding was at once both lucid and profound. 40 CJ: There being none who could compete with him in converting people to the Dharma. 4 1 C J : North of the Yellow River (Hopei) and south of the Huai River. 42 And in the same way, people in the world at large were never aware of Hui-wen's excellence though he was among them a l l the time. 4 3Paraphrased from the Kuan-hsin-lun % \u00a3\/ov i % , T46.585c, where the text has \"make obeisance to\" rather than \"entrust myself.\" The meanings of the two expressions are practically the same, however. 65 44 - -Containing Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka-karikas with the commentary by Pirigala. 45 The former is destructive and the latter constructive: via negativa as opposed to via positiva. 46 This is Richard Robinson's--and others'\u2014hypothetical and not universally agreed-upon restoration of oh'ing-mu , \"blue-eyes,\" the author of the Chung-lun ^ (Madhyamaka-sastra), the commentary on Nagarjuna's MMK which Kumarajiva translated and which became the standard commentary on this work in East Asia. 4 7 C J mentions in particular three other commentaries; (1) by Asariga, the Shun-chung-lun ^ T30.39-50; (2) by Rahula, also called the Chung-lun. This is no longer extant; and (3) by Bhavaviveka, the Prajna-pradTpa, T30.51-135. CJ quotes Chinese Buddhist opinion that the one by Pingala is inferior to the others, and hence not to be taken as the only standard. The Taisho canon also contains a commentary by Sthiramati, translated long after CJ's death,,in the Sung dynasty. 48 Chapter 24, verse 18 of the Karikas. I have followed the Robinson translation mainly, except for providing emphasis under the words \"void,\" \"provisional\" and \"middle.\" I do this because of the importance of this verse as the locus classicus for Chih-i's doctrine of the Three Views (or Three Truths), corresponding to these three words. This passage from the Karikas is repeatedly referred to in the MHCK as well as Chih-i's other works, and is said to be what enlightened Hui-wen. Scholars agree that Chih-i (and Hui-wen) read into the text a third Truth (the Middle) where Nagarjuna's Sanskrit mentions only two, the usual Two Truths of pavamartha-satya and samvriti-satya. CJ points out that of the four lines of the verse quoted, only one is \"destructive,\" as i t mentions the term \"void\"; the other three are \"constructive,\" dealing with production, provisionality and the Middle Way. 49 From the Nirvana sutra, Chapter 21, Tl2.75a. Page 595 of Yamamoto's translation. Here i t is stated that the \"color\" & or outward appearance of one in the state of vajra-{diamond) samadhi is like the color of a diamond thrust into the sunlight. When among the populace, such a bodhisattva is seen differently by each person who looks at him. Vajra-(upama-)samadhi is here equivalent to calming-and-contemplation. 50 CJ: Space is of the same essence whether close to or far from the ground. Thus Ultimate Truth is one and complete in i t s e l f , yet the practitioner stil1 needs to resort to the twenty-five preparatory \"devices\" -jjf as outlined in Chapter Six of the MHCK, and the ten methods of contemplation discussed in Chapter Seven. 66 51 CJ: Though there are three kinds of faculties, there is in reality only the one sudden truth or complete teaching. The under-standing of a l l three types of people is \"sudden,\" but in their practise those of \"sudden\" temperament are sudden, those of gradual temperament are gradual, and those of variable temperament are now sudden, now gradual. 52 The gradual practise is now outlined in five stages. 53 L i t e r a l l y , \"One turns away from evil (in oneself) and turns towards right (behavior).\" 54 Standing for the three painful destinies: h e l l , animals and hungry ghosts. 55 Asuras, men and gods. 56 This refers to the Three Realms of (in ascending order) Desire, Form and Formlessness: kamadhatu3 rupadhatu and arupadhdtu. They may be thought of as mental states. 57 y \"Outflows\" are equivalent to klesas, the passions or impurities, like pride, anger and the rest, which obstruct the vision of things-as-they-are. 58 Here the practitioner vows for and works towards the enlightenment of other beings than himself. 59 The two extreme views are the view that reincarnation never comes to an end (the permanence of the atman:sasvatavada) and the view that there is no reincarnation (the extinction at death of the atman: ucchedavdda); or alternately this may refer to the view of existence -7$ and the view of inexistence . The eternal Way, being eternal, would seem to be an affirmation of sasvatavada at one level at least. The Nirvana sutra, however, preached the \"permanent, pleasant, personal and pure\" nature of the Ultimate, in apparent contradiction to the older Buddhist doctrine, which held fast to the principle of impermanency and egolessness. A l l HTnayana and most other Mahayana sutras avoided attributing eternality to anything, even the Buddhist Dharma or Way, as in the formulation of the above \"two extreme views,\" which were to be eschewed. 60 Only the gradual method admits of the shallow\/deep distinction. 67 The Shih\/Li ^ opposition, which very roughly corresponds to the Platonic distinction between the actual and the ideal, was an integral part of the doctrine of the Hua-yen school, but was also used much earlier among Chinese Buddhists. In the MHCK this pair is generally synonymous with the Two Truths, samorti-satya and pavamavtha-saU\/a. CJ matches this pair with mundane AT w and supramundane , the f i r s t three and the fourth of the four siddhantas (see below), as well as the Two Truths. Shih\/Li is often translated \"fact\/ principle,\" but this rendering obscures the meaning the terms have in this context. -62 CJ: One views skandhas and ayatanas in their aspect of Ultimate Truth. CO This sentence refers to the second and third of the four siddhantas 3%- (means of \"perfecting\" beings, methods of expounding scripture, or*degrees of wisdom) found in the TCTL (roll 1, T25.59b-61b). Lamotte in his translation of this work calls them the \"four points of view\" (points de vue), and believes they are an expansion of the Two Truths, with the Provisional Truth subdivided into the f i r s t three siddhantas and the Ultimate Truth equivalent to the fourth siddhanta. This jibes with CJ's comment above on the subject of'Shih\/Li , Chih-i, following his teacher Hui-ssu, understood the term %\u2022> ^ a s mixed Chinese and Sanskrit, meaning \"universally giving,\" interpreting ^ in i t s ordinary Chinese meaning and as short for ^ ff. ity (Skt. dana, giving, f i r s t of the Six Perfections). In fact the whole word, and not merely half of i t , is a transcription of a Sanskrit word, namely siddhanta. The four siddhantas are (1) Worldly\u2014appealing to the desire inherent in beings for happiness and thereby arousing their interest (notice that this resembles the f i r s t of the Five Classes of Disciples); (2) Individual --bringing about good mental states and behavior in accordance with the capacities of beings to receive such a teaching; (3) therapeutic-suppressing evil mental states and behavior; and (4) Ul timate\u2014reveal ing the true nature of reality. 6 4Thus calming and contemplation 30_,, may each be trans-formed into the other to achieve serenity jfc and insight jjlj^ . 65 -Kogi: They are the same in teaching, object and name, but different in details of practise ^ ffl . cc Hell, hungry ghosts and animals; asuras, men and gods. These destinies are not usually bad or good, but painful and pleasant. 67 These distinctions are made only with respect to the gradual calming-and-contemplation. Concentration-free-of-outflows i s , as above, the third stage of the five. Each of the other three stages remains 68 undivided, so that we have 6 + 1+3+1 + 1 =12. The three parts of concentration-free-of-outflows are probably the Three Realms, though perhaps i t would be more reasonable to have broken down the second stage, rather than this third stage, into the Three Realms. CJ, Shiki, and Kogi attempt a variety of explanations to reach the total of 12 differences (none of them the same as I have used here), quoting numerous other commentators, but i t seems a great deal of effort expended to very l i t t l e purpose. 68 This question and i t s corresponding answer are practically identical to the previous question and answer. One suspects that an older version of the text is preserved here side by side with a revision of i t . 69 CJ explains that though this former chapter-title has dropped out of the text i t s e l f , i t cannot hurt to ask the question (which in fact has essentially already been asked). The f i r s t question-and-answer pair is probably the revised version, and this pair the original written down by Kuan-ting, or else close to i t . 7 ^ S i c . Kogi informs us that this figure is arrived at by counting the f i r s t of the five stages as six, and each of the next three stages as one (the f i f t h stage is here omitted from the computation): 6+ 1+1 + 1= 9. 7 1 These are the two pairs of the Worldly siddhanta\/W\\timate siddhanta and calming\/contemplation, in which each member of a pair can be considered from the point of view of the other, making four permutations: AB, BA, XY, YX. 72 The Buddhist schools posited various numbers of unconditioned dharmas--three in the case of the Sarvastivadins and Sthaviravadins, and six in the case of the Yogacarins\u2014though they were a l l in agreement that ultimately there was only the one reality. 73 CJ takes the opportunity to note here that though the terms \"sudden, gradual and variable\" are borrowed from the Four Methods of Teaching (a method of classifying scriptures--the fourth method is \"secret\"), their meanings here are not the same as in that context. For example, the \"sudden\" method of teaching refers solely to the Avatam-saka sutra, supposed to have been delivered abruptly by Sakyamuni just after he emerged from samadhi upon having achieved enlightenment. He only turned to the \"gradual\" method of teaching when no one was able to understand what he was trying to say. 74 This paragraph is known as the \"core\" statement of the MHCK, its d i s t i l l e d essence. For centuries i t has been chanted by T'ien-t'ai and Tendai monks as a part of their religious discipline. 69 75 The highest of the Three Truths. 7 Ft Oda's dictionary (p. 381 a)holds that the f i r s t of these three phrases deals with contemplation, the second with calming, with contem-plation corresponding to the Truth of provi s i o n a l l y and calming corres-ponding to the Truth of emptiness. When both of them are applied to the Dharma-realm, the Truth of the Middle is generated. \"Shape\" and \"smell\" stand for a l l sense-data, and by extension to the whole of phenomenal existence. 7 7That i s , these too are a l l identified with the Middle Way or the Ultimate Reality. 78 I.e. a l l components of the phenomenal world. 79 Beginning here, the Four Noble Truths are discussed from the standpoint of the sudden calming-and-contemplation. 80 As the MHCK deals with later at some length, the Nirvana sutra speaks of four types of Four Noble Truths, which Chih-i arranged in accordance with his four categories of teaching: HTnayana, shared by both HTnayana and Mahayana, special to Mahayana, and perfect. The highest of the four types is that mentioned here, which identifies the defilements with enlightenment and samsara with nirvana in a thorough-going monism. This is called the \"actionless\" h\\ . Four Noble Truths. Since samsara is nirvana just as i t is,\"no action is necessary to move from the former to the iatter--though i t must be emphasized that Chih-i never denies the necessity of practise (unlike some later\" . thinkers in the T'ien-t'ai tradition, particularly in the hongaku movement in Kamakura Japan, which eventuated in a much-criticized antinomianism that has much in common with the so-called Tantra of the l e f t hand), for much effort is necessary to realize that no effort is necessary! 81 Here ends the \"core\" statement of the MHCK. op From the Avatamsaka-sutra (Ch. 8, roll 7, T9.432-433a). The quotation is not quite verbatim, but the variations do not affect the meaning. \"Bhadrasiras\" is a restoration to Sanskrit of Hsien-shou g), which might also be rendered \"Bhadramukha.\" This bodhisattva's name is applied to the t i t l e of this chapter 8 of the Avatamsaka. \"Hsien-shou\" is also one of the names of the famous Fa-tsang, third patriarch of the Hua-yen school in T'ang China. 83 This sentence is Kuan-ting's summary of a long passage in the Avatamsaka which immediately follows the above quote. The word \"perfect\" y|j is however his own. Kuan-ting goes on to explain each phrase of the sentence. 70 84 Li t e r a l l y , karma due to defilement. These are the Three Obstacles to enlightenment 5 - Y3j\u00a3 and the Three Qualities of Ultimate Reality t- ?A%. (see Introduction). The term \"substance\" should not be understood in a s t r i c t sense, but simply means \"that to which the name refers,\" the referend. 86 These are the well-known Three Views of the T'ien-t'ai teaching, with the same names as the Three Truths. The former are acquired by the practitioner and the latter are inherent Truth. Kogi emphasizes (against another commentator which he quotes) that i t is the Three Views, not the Three Truths, which are under discussion here. 87 These refer to the nature of the Three Qualities, as above. 88 CJ adds that faith arises in dependence on Ultimate Truth and is in turn the foundation of practise. He quotes a narrative from the Fa-chu-pi -y'u-chinq ^ \u00b0M \u00bb t n e Dharmapada-with-parables (T4.579c-580a. This is Chapter 4 \"Simple Faith\" of the translation from the Chinese of this work by Samuel Beal, in Trubner's Oriental Series, 1878, reprinted in 1971 by the Varanasi Book House in India), which t e l l s how the Buddha, in order to convince a reluctant audience of the value of faith, conjured up a man who walked on water across a deep river. Upon being asked how this was possible, the Buddha replied that the water-walker had been told on the other side of the river that the water was shallow. The power of his faith in the shallow-ness of the river enabled him to cross the river to hear the Buddha's teaching, wetting only his ankles. Thus the Buddha proved to the skeptics the power of faith, and consequently they were a l l converted and became Buddhists. The latter three adjectives represent, as usual, the Three Qualities. CJ says each stage contains a l l the other just as the (Sanskrit) letter \"A\" contains within i t s e l f a l l the merit of a l l Buddhas. Hence perfection is in a sense attained from the very outset. 3 U T h i s paragraph should explain \"adorns himself with perfect merit,\" as above, but the \"himself\" has become \"freedom\" $ fa-in Kuan-ting's commentary on the passage at this point, .\/.Actually, Chapter 8 of the Avatamsaka speaks of both these subjects consecutively, while Kuan-ting appears to treat them as the same thiing. The below explanation of \"perfect freedom\" is abbreviated from the sutra, T9.438b-c. 71 These two types of karmic retribution refer to that generated by oneself (i.e. by sense-faculties) and that generated by the environ-ment (sense-objects, things, places). 92 CJ: One's external activity is free (unobstructed) when one has reached the stage of realizing the identity between the Three Truths and (one's own everyday) mind \u2014 ~- jjpj, . Of the Three Truths, the empty corresponds to samadhi, the provisional to leaving samadhi and expounding the Dharma, and the Middle Way to the other two (\"both\" and \"neither\"). Here is the ubiquitous tetralemma in one of its many forms, the most familiar being perhaps\" i s \/ i s not\/both-is-and-i s - not\/neither-is-nor-is-not.\" 93 In Buddhist cosmology these surround Mt. Sumeru, the center of the world. Starting in the south and moving counterclockwise, these are Jambudvipa (our world, or alternatively, India), Purva-videha, Uttara-kuru and Apara-godanTya. 94 CJ c l a r i f i e d the analogy by identifying noon with both-entering-and-leaving samadhi, morning with rising and expounding, evening with entering samadhi, and midnight with neither-entering-nor-leaving samadhi. For enlightenment is compatible with any mode of activity. 96 I believe this reference to beings incapable of achieving enlightenment must be understood to refer to their present l i f e only, for Chih-i and Kuan-ting surely did not differ from the overwhelming trend of Chinese Buddhist thought, in which a l l beings have the capacity, be i t only after countless ages, to achieve enlightenment or Buddhahood. As CJ makes clear in his commentary, this illustration bears more on the bodhisattva's freedom than on his establishing beings in the Dharma. CJ cites native Chinese texts, the Shuo-wen and the Kuan-tzu, on the powers of dragons, but goes on to say that, being non-Buddhist, such books have not exhaustively described those powers; so he quotes the Avatamsaka sutra on the same subject\u2014a text which speaks of Indian nagas, not Chinese dragons, be i t noted, though the same Chinese character is used for them both and Chih-i was not aware of the difference. According to CJ, the clouds in the metaphor correspond to the bodhisattva's incarnate form ^ [ , thunder to his preaching, lightning to the light he emits, and rain to his compassion. 72 As Shiki says, the next four scriptural references (those to Sadaprarudita, Sudhana, Bhaisajya-raja and Sutasoma) refer rather to the zeal of the aspirant than to the idea that he has already attained, at the very outset, what he has set out to find. The story of Sadaprarudita is found in the Pancavimsati and its accompanying commentary, the TCTL (T25.731a, f f . , Ch. 88, entitled \"Prarudita\"). He was tireless in his pursuit of prajna-paramita, until one day he heard the Buddha's voice speaking from the air and telling him to go eastwards, to be absolutely indefatigable, not to harm his bodily features lest this bind him in samsara ( i t is ironic that this point should be mentioned, given what follows below about the bodhisattvas Bhaisajyaraja and Sutasoma and their mortification of the body), to seek enlightened companions, etc. After having begun his journey eastwards, he realized he had forgotten to ask the voice how far he should go and whom he should seek out. In sorrow, therefore, he wept for seven days and seven nights as bitterly as i f he were mourning a son, whence his name, \"the ever-weeping one.\" Eventually the voice spoke again from the a i r and gave him proper directions. 1 0 0From the Gandavyuha, the last chapter of the Avatamsaka sutra. There the story is told of how this bodhisattva sought the Dharma from a series of fifty-three acquaintances, achieving realization f i n a l l y upon encountering ManjusrT. See D.T. Suzuki, Essays in Zen  Buddhism, 3rd Series, for a partial but extensive translation and commentary. 1 0 1 T h i s story is found in the Lotus sutra, Ch. 22 of the Sanskrit text and i t s translation by H. Kern, Ch. 23 of the Chinese text and i t s English translations. This bodhisattva 1s name is often translated: \"The Medicine-King,\" i.e. \"King of Healing.\" Actually Bhaisajyaraja also burns his whole body as a votive act, but both body and arm are later magically restored. E. Ziircher in his Buddhist  Conquest of China (p. 282) comments on the cult of religious suicide, based on this passage in the Lotus, that developed in China. Certainly, the monks of South Vietnam who did this for other reasons in the late 1960's were clearly aware of the scriptural precedent. Kogi also cites the Karuna-pundarTka-sutra % ^ (*& (T#157, T3.167-233: ro l l 6) for this story. \"P'u-ming\"Vft is Sankritizable as \"Samantaprabhasa.\" CJ quotes the Jen-wang-ching ]4c \u00a3 T8.830 for this story. This sutra is generally believed today to be a Chinese forgery, but i t has been most influential in Chinese Buddhism. The TCTL has a version of the same story, but cg-lls the protagaonist by his more usual name of Sutasoma $$L vL '1%J% . Lamotte in his TCTL translation l i s t s numerous Pali, Sanskrit and Chinese sources for\"lhTs (p. 261). In English i t is found in a highly prolix form in Jataka #537 as trans-lated by the Pali Text Society. According to the story, this king 73 was seized by a prince (Kalmasapada, \"the one with blemishes on his legs,\" identified in the Jataka as a former incarnation of Angulimalya), who had vowed to k i l l 1000 kings in order to become a king himself. Sutasoma begged for time to f u l f i l l a promise he had made to a mendicant to give him alms and was given a temporary reprieve. He promised to return, however, and risked his l i f e to f u l f i l l that promise, whereupon Kalmasapada f i n a l l y spared his l i f e and released his other captives as weli. 103 This is almost a verbatim quote from Ch. 15 of the Diamond sutra, The Vajracchedika-prajna-paramrita-sutra. Numerous English translations are available. The text used by Kuan-ting was of course that by KumarajTva, Taisho #235. 104 I concur with Shiki against CJ in believing that this refers only to the Avatamsaka quote above. 105 I.e., for gradual and variable calming-and-contemplation as well as for the sudden variety. 1 p c Kuan-ting now gives scriptural proof for a l l three varieties of calming-and-contemplation\u2014though i t seems he is sometimes treating these as equivalent to the Sudden, Gradual and Variable Teachings (the;:Tnreefold Methods of Conversion), which they are not\u2014from four sutras, for the gradual alone from one sutra, and for the sudden alone from six sutras. Finally he ties them up with another quotation from the Avatamsaka sutra. There are thus twelve sets of quotations. 1 0 7T14.537c, Ch. 1. Luk translation, p. 6. 108 CJ explains (this explanation not being in the Seng-chao\/ KumarajTva commentary on the VimalakTrti) that the wheel can signify crushing the defilements (klesas), while the three turns of the wheel signify respectively: indicating, exhorting and proving rf* Jftj) iffii. . This refers to the way in which the Buddha expounded the Four Noble Truths to his f i r s t five disciples in the deer park. In the \" f i r s t turn of the wheel\" he indicated each of the Four Truths: \"this is the truth of suffering\" etc. In the second turning of the wheel he exhorted his disciples to f u l l y realize these truths, and in the third turning he offered himself as proof that f u l l realization was possible. Considering that the \"wheel\" turned three times for each of the Four Noble Truths, one derives the so-called (Abhidharma-kosa T29.128c) twelve aspects of practise Jrf {akara3 a term with many uses, even within the Kosa. In works translated by Hsuan-tsang, i t is often used to signify the world as object of consciousness, whether real, as for the Kosa, or imagined, as for the Yogacara). One must not confuse 74 these three turnings of the wheel of the Dharma with the three turns mentioned by Bu-ston, namely the HTnayana, Madhyamika and Yogacara traditions. In the Agamas the three turnings of the wheel, in the non-Bustonian sense, is mentioned in the very short SDtrcron the TJvree Turnings of the Wheel of the Dharma 5- $ j | ^ . (T2.504a-b), \"translated in the T'ang dynasty, or in the Sutra on the  Turning of the Wheel of the Dharma %% -A $w (T2.503b-c), a translation by An Shih-kao of the Latter Han. The Pali analogue (in which the twelve aspects of practise are mentioned) is the Dharma- cakkappavattana-sutta (Sutra on the Turning of the Wheel of the Dharma), which appears with slight variations in the Anquttara-nikaya,  Samyutta-nikaya, Mahavagga and (in Sanskrit) in the Lalita-vistara, and is conveniently available in English in the Sacred Books of the East, vol. XI (Buddhist Suttas), as translated by T.W. Rhys Davids in 1881, as well as in the PSli. Text Society translations of the aforementioned Pali works. J.J. Jones translated into English the Lalita-vistara. By Chan-jan's time the Hsuan-tsang translation of the Ko\u00a3a was avail-able in China, and he might have used i t in his commentary here, but more probably used the earlier Paramartha translation (T29.280a).; 109 According to the later T'ien-t'ai doctrine of the Five Periods, this is the second of the five. After he had failed to communicate with his audience in the Avatamsaka sutra, f i r s t of the five and containing the \"sudden\" teaching, the Buddha turned to the gradual method and began expounding the Agamas so as to prepare his listeners over time for the ultimate teaching of the Lotus. ^T14.538a, Ch. 1, p. 7 of the Luk translation. ^Vl4.537c, Ch. 1, p. 6 of Luk's translation. This immediately precedes the f i r s t of these three quotations from the VimalakTrti. 112 I.e., dharmas do not exist. 11 ^  I.e., dharmas do not inexist. 1 1 4 C f . the TCTL, r o l l 87, T25.666b. 115 CJ understands \"practise, study and the way\" to represent the Six Perfections: \"practise\" corresponds to giving {dana) and exertion (vzrya), \"study\" to discipline (stla) and meditation (dhyana), and \"the Way\" to forebearance {ksanti) and wisdom {prajna). 1 1 6TCTL, r o l l 59, T25.477b. 75 1 1 7 T C T L , r o l l 38, T25.342b. I I Q \/ The TCTL and P a n c a v i m s a t i do not however say here t h a t a l 1 b o d h i s a t t v a s a r e l i k e t h i s , o n l y t h a t t h e r e a r e t h o s e who e t c . , e t c . T h i s l e a v e s room f o r t h o s e who ar e not e n l i g h t e n e d from t h e v e r y s t a r t . 1 1 9 C h . 7, T9.25c, Murano ( p . 131) t r a n s l a t e s , \"They w i l l be a b l e t o e n t e r the Way by my t e a c h i n g , but n o t i m m e d i a t e l y . \" 120 I was unable t o l o c a t e t h i s quote i n the L o t u s . The e x p r e s s i o n \"show, encourage, b e n e f i t and d e l i g h t \" i s one o f the items i n both Oda's and M o c h i z u k i ' s d i c t i o n a r i e s , but the passage t h e y c i t e (Ch. 7, T9.25a, p. 128 o f Murano 1s t r a n s l a t i o n ) i s n o t the same as t h i s one. 121 These f o u r a c t s a r e o f t e n c i t e d i n a group t o s u b s t i t u t e f o r the s i n g l e e x p r e s s i o n \"expound t h e Dharma.\" 1 2 2 C h . 2, T9.10a, p. 43 o f Murano's t r a n s l a t i o n . 1 2 3 T 1 2 . 6 9 0 c - 6 9 1 a , r o l l 13, Ch. 19, p. 348 o f Yamamoto's t r a n s -l a t i o n . T h i s i s the locus classicus o f the well-known metaphor o f the F i v e F l a v o r s Jk~^J^_ , adopted by C h i h - i t o c l a s s i f y t h e Buddha's t e a c h i n g . The s u t r a c o n t i n u e s , \"By u s i n g ( t h e ghee) one e r a d i c a t e s a l l s i c k n e s s , f o r a l l m e d i c i n e s a r e c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n i t . Oh sons o f good f a m i l y , i t i s a l s o thus w i t h t h e Buddha (and h i s t e a c h i n g ) . From the Buddha come the twelve d i v i s i o n s o f s c r i p t u r e , from the t w e l v e d i v i s i o n s o f s c r i p t u r e come the s u t r a s , from the s u t r a s come the yaipu%aa(Mahayana) s u t r a s , from the vaipulya s u t r a s comes prajnaparamitdj and from prajnaparamita. comes mahaparinirvana, which i s t o be compared w i t h ghee ( t h e u l t i m a t e e s s e n c e ) . Ghee i s analogous t o the Buddha-n a t u r e . \" M o c h i z u k i (p. 1300b) c o n t e s t s the t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n e s e i n t e r p r e -t a t i o n s , which a l l have the F i v e F l a v o r s r e p r e s e n t the temporal sequence o f the Buddha's t e a c h i n g d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e ; he b e l i e v e s i n s t e a d t h a t the s u t r a o n l y means t o say t h a t t h e r e are p r o g r e s s i v e r e f i n e m e n t s , from t h e whole corpus o f the t e a c h i n g down t o mahaparinir-vana i t s e l f , the f i n a l meaning and p u r e s t e s s e n c e o f th e t e a c h i n g . The t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n r e p l a c e s the twelve d i v i s i o n s o f s c r i p t u r e w i t h the Avatamsaka f o r the f i r s t p e r i o d , r e p l a c e s the \" s u t r a s \" w i t h the Agamas f o r the second p e r i o d , and adds the L o t u s t o the f i f t h p e r i o d t o j o i n the N i r v a n a s u t r a i t s e l f . Of c o u r s e the f o u r t h F l a v o r i s t h e P r a j n a p a r a m i t a s u t r a s , n o t s i m p l y t h e P e r f e c t i o n o f Wisdom {prajnaparamita). 1 2d T12.784c, r o l l 27, Ch. 23, p. 723 o f Yamamoto's t r a n s l a t i o n . The q u o t a t i o n may be c o n t i n u e d t o c l a r i f y t he p o i n t : \" A l l ( t h e f i v e p r o g r e s s i v e e s s e n c e s ) c o n t a i n p o i s o n , y e t m i l k i s not c a l l e d \"cream,\" 76 nor is cream called \"milk,\" and this is so (for the different stages) right up to ghee. Although the names change, the poisonous essence is not lost. If the ghee is taken, even i t can s t i l l k i l l people, though in fact that poison has not been put (directly) into the ghee. It is the same with the Buddha-nature of animate beings: though they dwell in five (different) Destinies (i.e. the Six Destinies of the samsaric world, minus asuras) and are incarnated in different bodies, s t i l l their Buddha-nature is always one and unchanging.\" Perhaps i t seems odd to compare the Buddha's teaching to poison, but in the previous quotation, which comes earlier in the same sutra, the Buddha's teaching is compared to medicine, and after a l l poison can be thought of as a kind of medicine, to heal the disease of l i f e i f you wi11. 125 Actually this is a misquote, which obscures the sense of the original. The point is that the ghee can k i l l even though poison has not been put directly into i t , as the sutra makes clear. The MHCK adds the character (\"put\") just before \"poison\" ^ where i t does not appear in the original (T12.784c9). 1 2 6T12.770b, ro l l 25, Ch. 23, p. 663 of Yamamoto's translation. 127 What the ksanti grass is I could not determine. However the Japanese probably'borrowed this word from the Nirvana sutra in the Chinese transcription ^ of the word to refer to garlic: ninniku. To continue the quote from the sutra text given in Taisho: \"There are also other grasses, but i f the cow eats them, then no ghee (is produced). Yet despite the absence of ghee in this case, one cannot say that there is no ksanti grass in the Himalayas. It is the same with the Buddha-nature. The Himalayas represent the Tathagata, the ksanti grass represents the great nirvana, and the other grasses represent the twelve divisions of scripture.' If living beings are able to listen to, receive and be enlightened by this great nirvana, then they will perceive the Buddha-nature. Though one_does not hear from the twelve divisions of scripture (i.e. the HTnayana) that there is (Buddha-nature in a l l beings), i t cannot (on that account) be said that there is no Buddha-nature.\" 1 oo CJ: This represents the least of the Three Vehicles [svavakas). 129 The sutra in the original adds \"old age, sickness and death.\" 130 CJ. This represents the middle one of the Three Vehicles (i.e. pratyeka-buddhas). 77 131 l,3lT9.384b. 132 T9.573a. The original text of the sutra as given in Taisho may be rendered, \"For example i t resembles the great rain that the sea-dragon kings rain down, in that only the great ocean, and no other place, can receive i t . Bodhisattva-mahasattvas are like this (ocean), but none of the (ordinary) animate beings, nor srdvakas, nor pratyekabuddhas, nor bodhisattvas even up to the ninth stage (of the ten stages of bodhisattvahood) can (fully) receive the . . . Tathagata's great rain of the Dharma. Only those bodhisattvas dwelling in the realm of the Dharma-cloud (the tenth stage), a l l of them, can^receive and keep i t . . . In r o l l four of his Fa-hua-wen-chu ~$ JL**), Chih-i describes Sariputra and the other disciples as \"deaf and dumb\" because they failed to understand the meaning of the Avatamsaka \"sudden\" teaching. Kuan-ting's \"quote\" from the Avatamsaka here is typical of many such quotes which we find in the MHCK: though the sense of the paraphrase is accurate, there has been a complete transformation of the text (quite apart from the \"deaf and dumb\" statement tacked onto the end), telescoping the verbose and extravagant Indian text into authentically terse literary Chinese. The Indian flavor remains, however, in the use of transcribed Sanskrit words for \"sea\" {sdgara) and \"sutra,\" each of these words requiring three characters used for their phonetic value alone, instead of the ordinary Chinese one-syllable words and far more i n t e l l i g i b l e to the average literate Chinese. 1 3 3T14.548a, Ch. 7, p. 76 in Luk translation. The text in the sutra goes on, \"and does not delight in smelling the perfume of the (inferior) merit of svavakas and pratyekabuddhas. 134 T15.633b. The text in the sutra i t s e l f runs, \"'Oh Sthiramati, i t is as i f there were a king whose ministers had ground into powder a hundred thousand kinds of incense. If someone should then come, seeking a single (kind of incense) from (the mass of powder), not wanting the other (types of) incense with their aromas mixed together; then Sthiramati, could a single kind of incense be thus obtained, unmixed with others, from the powder of a hundred thousand kinds of incense, or not?' 'It could not, Oh World-Honored One!' 'Sthiramati, since the body and mind of this bodhisattva (in the surahgama\u2014heroic stride--samadhi) is perfumed by a l l the Perfections, he constantly gives rise to the Six Perfections in every thought.'\" TCTL T25.137c, r o l l 11, Ch. 16. \"Total omniscience\" is the highest of the three wisdoms presented in TCTL (T25.259a, ro l l 27, Ch. 42), where i t is described as the Buddha's wisdom, as opposed to bodhisattva's wisdom (discriminating omniscience ^ ) and the wisdom of adherents to the Two Vehicles (holistic omniscience 78 KV )\u2022 Why does the Pancavimsati assign in Ch. 16 to bodhisattvas a form of wisdom supposedly reserved (in Ch. 42) for Buddhas? Because Kuan-ting misquotes slightly. Where the sutra reads *k - **T) ~~ *J) 7$\\>\" (A bodhisattva who wishes) to know a l l Dharmas in a l l their aspects (should practise the Perfection of wisdom),\" Kuan-ting, or at least,the present text of the MHCK,adds the character ^ to yield * k - ^ J ) - % p %P-~~<T) y& , translated as above in the main text of MHCK. Later in the MHCK (r o l l 3) these three wisdoms or omnisciences are assigned to the Three Truths, which permeate the MHCK, and i t easy to imagine that Kuan-ting saw one of the three where i t was not in fact present. 1 qc T9.6c, Ch. 2, Murano translation, p. 26. 137 T12.753b. The sutra adds, \". . . springs and ponds. A bodhisattva-mahasattva is like this. Know that when he practices the diamond (vajra) samadhi, he thereby practices a l l samadhis. T9.616b. This concludes Kuan-ting's series of twelve script-ural proofs. The passage in the sutra from which this last quote or para-phrase is drawn may be rendered, \"For example, i t resembles (the shining of the sun:) f i r s t at sunrise the kings of a l l great mountains are illumin-ated; next (the sun) illuminates a l l the (rest of the) great mountains; next i t illuminates the diamond {vajra) mountains; only then does i t completely illuminate a l l the great earth. The rays of the sun do not think, 'I shall f i r s t illuminate the kings, and so on until I completely illuminate the great earth.' It is because the mountainous territory has higher and lower elevations that there is an earlier and a later in regard to illumination. The Tathagata, the One Deserving Offerings, the Perfectly Enlightened One, is like this. . . . The \"sun,\" that i s , the wisdom of the boundless Dharma-realm, emits the i n f i n i t e , unimpeded light of wisdom; i t f i r s t , illuminates a l l the kings of mountains--the bodhisattva-mahasattvas, then the pratyeka-buddtias, then the sravakas, then the beings who have been determined to have a favorable capacity (for enlightenment), for (beings) are converted in accordance with (their capacity for) response (to the teaching). Only then does (the light of wisdom) illuminate the rest of living beings, including even those determined to be of evil nature, and create the causes and conditions for their future benefit. The sunlight of the Tathagata's wisdom does not think, 'I will f i r s t illuminate bodhisattvas, and so on up until those determined to be of evil nature.' He simply emits the light of great wisdom, and (thus) illuminates a l l sons of the Buddha everywhere.\" Evidently this passage from the Avatamsaka is better fitted for illustrating differences in capacities, hence calming-and-contemplation, than differences in teachings. 139 This can be true only after we allow for Kuan-ting's usually imprecise citations (though in this he differed not at a l l from his contemporaries), quite apart from the fact that none of the sutras quoted were composed earlier than half a millenium after Sakyamuni's death and none of them in Chinese. Such historical considerations hardly matter though, i f the Dharma is indeed eternal, as he states so elegantly below. 79 It was the Nirvana sutra that revolutionized Chinese Buddhism by its advocacy of the permanent (eternal), pleasant ( b l i s s f u l ) , personal (endowed with selfhood) and pure nature of Ultimate Reality, as distinguished from the transient, painful, egoless and defiled nature of safnsava. JL 4 1Its whole t i t l e is Shih-ch'an-po-lo-mi tz'u-ti fa-tmen ^ ^% % ~M T4? i n \u00bb \"On the gradual doctrine of the perfection of dhyana\" (T#1916). Note the use of the word ch'an {dhyana) in the t i t l e , which was largely supplanted by chih-kuan in Chih-i's later works. As the f i r s t and third rolls are sometimes each divided into two, this work is also said to be in twelve r o l l s , e.g. as lis t e d in the Taisho. 143 In 571 A.D. It was later edited by Kuan-ting. Chih-i, pp. 174-175. See L. Hurvitz, 144 T#1917. These are the four trances (dhyanas) from the Hinayana tradition, the four emptinesses (probably borrowed from the Ta-ch'eng-vi-chang 7v j j l 1^  T#1851, an early Buddhist encyclopedia by Ching-ying Hui-yuan -M -f.^  ^f. ^ , who was contemporary with Chih-i), and the four in f i n i t e states of mind {brahmavihdras: maitvt., kavuna, mudita3 upeksa, or good w i l l , compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity). The four'emptinesses {sunyatas) are fa-hsiang-k'ung fe) (the emptiness of marks of dharmas), wu-fa-k'ung j \u00a3 >jj? (the emptiness of dharmas of inexistence, tzu-fa-k'ung ^ ' 5^  J^? (the emptiness of own-being of dharmas), and ta-fa-k'ung ^ >J? (the emptiness of other-being of dharmas). See Oda, p. 277c. 146 In these originally HTnayana meditations one contemplates the progressive stages of putrefaction and disintegration of a human corpse, in order to counteract fleshly attachments. See Oda, p. 291a or Conze, Buddhist Meditation, for a l i s t . 1 4 7See Oda 1413a, TCTL (T25.215a-216a, r o l l 21) or the Liu-miao  fa-men i t s e l f for these obscure meditations. Lamotte deals with them at them at some length in his TCTL translation notes and cites the Nikayas where they are found. They are apparently a refinement of the four samapattis, in which the practitioner withdraws progressively further from form, consciousness, etc. These are dealt with in the DTqhanikaya (#15). English translation in Dialogues of the Buddha, part II, pp. 68-70: \"The Eight Stages of Deliverance.\" 80 148 I.e., with no necessary temporal sequence, or preference as to location. 149 T25.190c, r o l l 18, Ch. 29. The TCTL passage may be rendered, \"One who does not perceive the Perfection of Wisdom is in bondage; but one who does perceive the Perfection of Wisdom is also in bondage. One who perceives the Perfection of Wisdom gains liberation; but one who does not perceive the Perfection of Wisdom also gains liberation.\" According to Lamotte, these lines were originally composed by Rahula and later inserted in the TCTL. They are two of the twenty verses of the Prajnaparamita-stotra, which forms the preface of many of the Sanskrit versions of the prajnapdvamitd sutras. Lamotte supplies the Sanskrit text as well as his own French translation of i t . 150 From the Lotus (T9.10a, Ch. 2, Murano translation p. 42). The commentators f a i l to identify this as from the Lotus. 1 5 1T12.733c, rol l 18, Ch. 22, Yamamoto translation p. 515. The sutra identifies the former of these situations with the endless series of births of living beings, and the latter with nirvana, while also characterizing as inexplicable the origination of something inexistent and the failure to originate of something existent, as well as origination and non-origination themselves. This may be compared with Nagarjuna's Madhyamakarikas 21:12-13, which in Streng's translation (in his book entitled Emptiness) reads, \"An existent thing does not originate from (another) thing; and an existent thing does not originate from a non-existent thing. Also, a non-existent thing does not originate from another non-existent thing; and a non-existent thing does not originate from an existent thing. An existent thing does not originate either by i t s e l f , or by something different, or by i t s e l f and by some-thing different (at the same time). How then can i t be produced?\" 152 Vimalakirti, T14.548a, Ch. 7, Luk translation p. 75. CJ says this quote refers to the Perfect Teaching. 1 5 3T14.540a, Ch. 3, Luk translation p. 22. The sutra adds that this is like a magician expounding the Dharma to apparitions which he has himself created. 154 Here follow eleven sutra quotes supporting the u t i l i t y of expounding the Dharma. 155 I.e. the extreme of inexistence, corresponding to emptiness. 156 T12.733c, following almost immediately after the passage quoted by the skeptic above. 81 I J \/T9.7b, Ch. 2, Murano translation p. 29. 158 T9.10a, Ch. 2, Murano translation p. 42. This Lotus quote follows immediately upon the quote in which the skeptic framed his objection above. This refers to the, time of the f i r s t turning of the wheel of the Dharma, directly after Sakyamuni's enlightenment under the Bodhi tree. CJ calls the f i r s t of these two Lotus quotes in the answer to the objection the \"greater expressibility\" and the \"lesser expressibility,\" as they indicate on a large and small scale that the Dharma, though incapable of being put into words, can s t i l l in a sense, that i s , expediently, be verbalized for the sake of living beings. ^T12.688c, Roll 13, Ch. 19. Yamamoto translation pp. 340-341. Kuan-ting has here summarized a long passage from the sutra: \"Oh son of good family, a l l these unbelievers (tirthikas) are foolish and childish, without either wisdom or expedients; they are unable to fu l l y comprehend permanence, suffering or bliss, purity or impurity, self or non-self, l i f e or non-life, beings or non-beings, reality or un-reality, existence or inexistence. They grasp only a small part of the Buddha's Dharma. Falsely imagining that there is permanence, bliss, selfhood and purity, they in fact do not understand (the real) permanence, b l i s s , selfhood and purity. It is just as with a person blind from birth, who, not knowing the color of milk, asks another, saying, 'What is the color of milk like?' The other answers, 'The color is white like a seashell. 1 The blind one asks again, 'Is this color of milk then like the sound of a seashell?' 'No.' 'What is the color of a seashell like?' 'It is like the tip of an ear of rice.' The blind one asks again, 'Is then the color of milk soft like the tip of a rice-ear? What again is the (color of) the t i p of a rice-ear like?' The other answers, 'It is like snow.' The blind one asks again, 'Is then the tip of a rice-ear cold like snow? What again is (the color of) snow like?' 'It is like a white crane.' Thus, a l -though this person, blind since birth, hears four similes, he is ultimately unable to arrive at the real color of milk. It is the same with unbelievers, who are ultimately unable to realize the permanent, b l i s s f u l , personal and pure (nature of reality). Oh son of good family! It is for this reason that the Ultimate Truth is within our Buddhist Dharma, and not in the non-Buddhist paths.\" Though Kuan-ting has quoted this passage in support of his contention of the expedient predicability of Ultimate Truth, i t is clear from the context as translated here that at this point the sutra is making the opposite point for the time being--for in fact, the color of milk cannot be explained to someone congenitally blind! T8.720C. Ch. 12 on dharanls. * 82 1 fil This sentence may also be from a sutra, but I could not deter-mine which one. Sekiguchi in his kakikudashi version of the MHCK does put the sentence in quotes, indicating i t is from a sutra. I CO T14.548a, Ch. 7, Luk translation p. 75. This follows soon after the f i r s t of the two VimalakTrti passages quoted by the skeptic. However the MHCK text is apparently corrupt here, omitting a crucial negation that stands in the Taisho text of the VimalakTrti, so that the MHCK text should read here, \"Not being separate. . . .\" An interlinear handwritten note in the woodblock of the ehon (combined MHCK and CJ commentary) in L. Hurvitz's possession makes the emendation. The sutra passage i t s e l f may be rendered, \"Speech, words and letters\u2014these a l l have the mark [laksana) of liberation. Why is this? Because liberation is not within fior without, nor is i t between the two; and words and letters,too are not within nor without, nor between the two. For this reason, Sariputra, liberation cannot be expounded without words and letters. Why is this? Because al1 dharmas have the mark of liberation.\" My emphasis. 1 6 3T12.764c, Roll 24, Ch. 22, Yamamoto translation p. 639. In India \"hearing much\" was synonymous with erudition. ^ 4Visesa-cinta-brahma-pariprccha: T15.50c, 51, Roll 3. I D OT9.208, Ch. 5, Murano translation p. 101. 1 F ft I could not find this quote in the Lotus. Even Kogi, usually reliable in locating citations, does not mention the exact source. It consists of two 5-character phrases, which hints that i t might be in the 5-character verse portions of the Lotus, but i t is not. It might yet be in a prose passage, but that would make i t much harder to find, and I did not attempt to scan the entire sutra's prose passages for these few words. It could simply be Kuan-ting's own introduction to the quote which follows, later mistakenly assimilated to the quote i t s e l f . 1 6 7T15.60c, Ch. 27, Murano translation p. 304. 1 6 8T12.652b, Ch. 12, Roll 8, Yamamoto translation p. 196. The word \"ivciry\" is written, and may also be interpreted as, \"elephant tusk(s)\" % . CJ offers three different interpretations of \"flowers on ivory\": (a) flowers in grass, (b) splendid phrases appearing on actual tusks of elephants, (c) actual flowers appearing on actual elephant tusks. The metaphor is obscure, and i t is best to give the context from the sutra. \"For example, when in the sky thunderbolts flash and 83 clouds arise, flowers (seem to) appear on a l l ivory. Without thunder-bolts no flowers would appear, nor would there even be names for them. The Buddha-nature of animate beings is like this, for being constantly obscured by the defilements, i t cannot be seen. This is why I teach that animate beings are without self. If one can hear this marvelous scripture called Mahaparinirvana, then he perceives (his own) Buddha-nature, like flowers on ivory. Even i f he has heard a l l the samadhis of the (HTnayana) sutras, he will not understand the subtle marks of the Tathagata i f he has not heard this sutra, just as no flowers can be seen on ivory without a thunderbolt. But having.heard this sutra, he will understand the secret treasury of the Buddha-nature preached by al l the Tathagatas, just as flowers may be seen on ivory by (the light of) a thunderbolt. Having heard this scripture, he will immediately understand that a l l the numberless animate beings have a Buddha-nature.\" As this passage makes clear, and CJ points out, the thunderbolts (i.e. lightning) are to be> compared with the preaching of the Dharma (in this case specifically the Nirvana sutra), without which the truth that a l l beings possess a Buddha-nature would not be revealed. Evidently, the sense is not that thunder causes flowers to grow on ivory or elephant tusks, as Kuan-ting's short quotation would seem to imply, but that lightning flashes produce a flower-like glistening on the ivory, re-vealing its inherent splendor. 169 The moon and wind are always present (\"wind\" really means \"the atmosphere,\" \"air\" in this context), but when unmanifest t d people may be (provisionally) indicated in these ways. 1 7 0Here ends Kuan-ting's introduction to the MHCK. The next section, s t i l l preceding the MHCK proper and its Greater Chapter One, the Synopsis, is usually thought to be Chih-i's own words, taken down and edited later by Kuan-ting. 84 CHIH-I'S INTRODUCTION I. THE TEN GREATER CHAPTERS We shall now l i s t the ten chapters (of the MHCK). Chapter One is the Synopsis. Chapter Two is on the explanation of termsJ Chapter Three is on the characteristics of the essence (of the teaching). Chapter Four is on the inclusion of (all) dharmas (in calming-and-contemplation). Chapter Five is one one-sided and perfect (calming-and-contemplation). Chapter Six is on the (twenty-five preparatory) expedients. Chapter Seven is on the (practise) proper of (calming-3 and-) contemplation. Chapter Eight is on the fruits and recompense (of the practise). Chapter Nine'is on starting the teaching. 4 Chapter Ten is the returning to the (ultimate) purport. (Dividing the whole into 5 these) ten (chapters) is simply a convention of enumeration, (the number ten) being neither many nor (too) few. The f i r s t chapter shows that what is to be sought is in the Ultimate Jjj^ - , 7 while the last chapter returns to the basic purport (of the text) and carries i t to i t s ultimate conclusion. Thus the beginning and the ending being well-accomplished, the general (argument) is in the ten chapters. (In speaking of) the \"origination\" ^ fit (of the text) we deal simply with the sequence of the ten chapters. The Ultimate Truth is quiescent and devoid (of attributes) ^ , lacking both birth and creator , origination and o r i g i n a t o r ^ - ^ ; yet since there j_s (the chain of) causes and conditions, the ten chapters 85 Q a l l are born and originate. If we distinguish between (these two forms of coming into existence), earlier chapters \"give birth\" (to later ones), while later chapters \"have been originated\" (by earlier ones). 9 (The terms) \"conditioned origination\" ^ and \"producing a sequence\" ^ may be treated in the same way.10 Having been veiled in foolish delusion for numberless eons, unaware of the identity of nesqteoce and enlightenment, we now awaken to this (truth). This is why we call (Chapter One) the \"great aspiration.\" 1 1 Once having understood' the identity of nescience and enlightenment, we are no longer subject to transmigration yjk-^jb , which is why we call this (state) \"serenity\" jt- (i.e. \"calming\"). It is lustrous and utterly pure\u2014which is why we call this \"insight\" ||J^ (i.e. 1 p \"contemplation\"). When we have heard the terms we attain to the essence (to which they r e f e r ) . 1 3 The essence comprises (all) dharmas,14 15 including both one-sided and perfect (calming and contemplation). (Preparatory) expedients arise through an understanding of (the difference between) one-sided and perfect (calming-and-contemplation), and when these expedients have been instituted, right contemplation 1 7 may be perfected. Having perfected right contemplation, we gain 1 o wondrous fruits and recompense. Teaching (ability) derives from the self-attained Dharma, so that one (is able to) teach others. Then self and other are both at peace, and they alike revert to eternal serenity ^ . 2 0 It is only because we have not attained to non-birth and non-origination that the birth and origination (of these ten chapters is set forth). For, once we comprehend non-birth and non-origination, mind and conduct are alike quiescent and devoid 86 (of a t t r i b u t e s ) ) ^ J ^ , the path of language is cut off, and there >7 tr\u00b1> .\u00a3 ^As is serene p u r i t y ^ The division (into chapters is undertaken because) the merit in the ten chapters is like a jewel in a bag: i f i t were not groped after 22 and then displayed, no one would be able to see i t . (a) of these ten chapters, which (deal with) Ultimate Truth, which with Provisional Truth, and which with neither Ultimate nor Provisional Truth? (b) Which (deal with) the preaching of sages, which with their silence, and which with neither their preaching nor their silence? (c) Which (deal with) meditation {samadhi), which with wisdom {prajna), and which with 23 neither meditation nor wisdom? (d) Which deal with eyes, which with 24 legs, and which with neither eyes nor legs? (e) Which (deal with) cause, which with effect, and which with neither cause nor effect? (f) Which (deal with) self, which with other, and which with neither self nor other? (g) Which deal with) shared (dharmas), which with unshared (dharmas), and which with neither shared nor unshared (dharmas) (h) Which are summary, which detailed, and which neither summary nor detailed? (i) Which are extended (explanations), which abbreviated, and which neither extended nor abbreviated? (j) Which are horizontal, 26 which vertical, and which neither horizontal nor vertical? Let 27 questions be freely put forward regarding such diverse (distinctions). 28 (a) The f i r s t eight chapters deal with the Ultimate Truth, which (though ultimate) is nevertheless in union with the Provisional Truth. The single Chapter (Eight) on fruits and recompense deals 87 29 with the Provisional Truth which (though provisional) is nevertheless in union with the Ultimate Truth. Chapter (Ten) the Returning ofthe Purport deals with neither the Ultimate Truth nor the Provisional Truth, (b) Right Contemplation (Ch. 7) (corresponds to) the silence of the sages, while the other eight chapters (excluding the last) correspond to the preaching of the sages. The Returning of the Purport (Ch. 10) corresponds neither to preaching nor silence, (c) Part of Right Contemplation (Ch. 7) is on meditation (samadhi), while the other eight chapters (excluding the last) and the other part of (Ch. 7) are on wisdom {prajnafS. ). Returning of the Purport (Ch. 10) is on 30 neither meditation nor wisdom. (e) The chapters from the Synopsis up through Right Contemplation (Ch. 7) are the cause. The chapter on 31 Fruits and Recompense (Ch. 8) is the effect. Returning of the Purport is neither cause nor effect, (f) The f i r s t eight chapters are on self-practise, Starting the Teaching (Ch. 9) is on conversion of others, and Returning of the Purport is on neither self nor other. 32 (d) The Synopsis up through Starting the Teaching correspond to eyes, Expedients (Ch. 6) through Fruits and Recompense (Ch. 8) correspond 33 to legs, and Returning of the Purport to neither eyes nor legs, (g) The Synopsis through Right Contemplation are on shared (dharmas), Fruits and Recompense and Arousing the Teaching are on unshared (dharmas), while Returning of the Purport is on neither shared nor unshared (dharmas). (h) Only the Synopsis is summary, while the (next) eight chapters are detailed, and Returning of the Purport is neither summary nor detailed, (i) The Synopsis is abbreviated, the (next) eight chapters are extended, and Returning of the Purport is 88 34 neither abbreviated nor extended. (j) The Characteristics of the Essence (Ch. 3) is vertical, the next eight chapters are horizontal, 35 and Returning of the Purport is neither horizontal nor vertical. Chapter A B C D E F G H I J 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ultimate ultimate ultimate ultimate ultimate ultimate ultimate preach, preach, preach, preach, preach, preach, silence wisdom wi s dom wi sdom wisdom wisdom wisdom wisdom\/meditation eyes eyes eyes eyes eyes legs legs cause self shared summary abbreviated horizontal cause cause cause cause cause cause self self self self self self shared shared shared shared shared shared detail detai1 detail detail detail detail extended extended extended extended extended extended horizontal vertical horizontal horizontal horizontal horizontal 8 provis. ultimate preach, preach. wisdom legs eyes effect self unshared detail extended horizontal 9 wisdom effect other unshared detail extended horizontal 10 - - - - - - -Chapters 2, 4 and 5 a l l f a l l in the same categories, as well as Chapter 6 i f i t is considered \"eyes\" holds at the beginning of his Chapter 7. Chapter 9 may also be considered vertical, according to CJ Figure 1. The Ten Greater Chapters and Their Characteristics 00 vo 90 II. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Q 3 6 What is the difference between the \"abbreviated description\" 37 and this Synopsis? A: Broadly speaking, only the terms are different, the meanings being the same. But they may also be distinguished in that the \"abbreviated description\" dealt with a l l three kinds (of calming-and-contemplation), while the Synopsis deals only with the sudden (calming-and-contemplation) . Q: If you discuss an openly revealed view ^ in relation to the openly revealed teaching $|) ^ > then you should also discuss a secret view ^ J|\u00a3 in relation to the secret teaching . A: I have already distinguished between the openly revealed and the secret. Now I elucidate only the openly revealed without expounding 38 the secret (teaching). Q: When you make such a doctrinal distinction (between openly revealed and secret), can (secret contemplation) be discussed or not? A: For some (individuals) i t can, and for some i t can not. The teachings are words with which the exalted Sage regales lower beings. The Sage is able to expound both openly and in secret, while the preachments of ordinary people (e.g. like myself) can pass on only the openly revealed and not the secret explanation. What (teaching) then could listeners rely on to achieve a (secret) contemplation? As for those who can achieve (secret contemplation), they are the ones who have 39 reached the stage of purity of the six sense-organs. They can \" f i l l the b i l l i o n worlds with the single subtle sound (of the Dharma).\"4^ Hence they are able to transmit the secret teaching. If one trains in 91 contemplation he develops (the a b i l i t y to expound) the Dharmas in which he has trained, but does not develop (Dharmas) in which he has not trained. But one may speak of \"secret contemplation\" in the case of those people who manifest (good or bad) karmic influences from past lives $ . 4 1 Q: Being f i r s t shallow and afterwards profound is (called) gradual contemplation. Which kind of contemplation is f i r s t profound and after-wards shallow? A: That would be variable contemplation. Q: Which kind of contemplation is shallow from start to finish? A: That would be the HTnayana sense (of contemplation), and has nothing to do with the three kinds of calming-and-contemplation. Q: The HTnayana is also the teaching of the Buddha; why then do you negate it? If you are going to negate (everything which is not the Ultimate), you should not (even) speak of the \"gradual\" calming-and-contemplation. A: I have already distinguished between the Mahayana and the HTnayana, and do not intend to expound the HTnayana. When I now use the term \"gradual,\" (I mean) simply the gradual (transition) from hidden 42 to manifest (realization). Thus \"gradual\" has no HTnayana sense here. The HTnayana knows Ultimate Reality neither at the start nor the finish (of the path of religious discipline), so i t is not the \"gradual\" (calming-and-contemplation) of the present (discussion). Q: You have indicated three texts (on calming-and-contemplation), and texts (belong to the category of) visible form . Is then this \"visible form\" a gate (to Ultimate Reality) or is i t not? If (visible 92 form) is such a gate, and moreover is Ultimate Reality ( i t s e l f ) , then what more could there be to achieve? (On the other hand), i f (visible form) is not such a \"gate,\" then how could you s t i l l say that \"every shape and smell is the Middle Way\"? A: Texts and gates are both Ultimate Reality. That animate beings have many perverted and few upright qualities is indicated in texts. For i t is through texts that one attains to (the truth that is in) texts, (that is) not in texts, and (that is) neither-in-texts-nor-43 not-in-texts. Texts are that (aforesaid) gate, for one achieves Ultimate Reality ^ %fj through i t . Texts are that gate, and a l l Dharmas are contained in the gate. (The Ultimate Truth) is identical with the gate, with non-gates, and with neither-gates-nor-non-gates. HI. THE STRUCTURE OF CHAPTER ONE, THE SYNOPSIS 44 Here we explain the ten chapters. We begin with the Synopsis, which contains (the whole) from beginning to end, crowning i t from f i r s t to last. Because the sense of the whole work is diffuse and d i f f i c u l t to perceive, we now select (from the whole) to make the five (lesser) chapters (of the Synopsis). These are (1) Arousing the Great Thought (of Enlightenment, i.e. bodhicitta); (2) Engaging in the Great Practise; (3) Experiencing the Great Effects (of the Practise); (4) Rending the Great Net; (5) Returning to the Great Abode.45 What does \"Arousing the Great Thought\" mean? Since animate beings are benighted, have an inverted (view of re a l i t y ) , and f a i l to awaken (to the truth) by themselves, (this text) stimulates them, causing 93 their awakening: both their upward seeking (for their own enlight-enment) and their downward transforming\"^ 4 (of other beings). 4 6 What does \"Engaging in the Great Practise\" mean? If, even though the thought of enlightenment {bodhicitta) has already been aroused, (animate beings) make no progress in their seeking of the Path, and for a long period f a i l to achieve (their objective), then (this text) stimulates their resolute endeavor, and has them practise the Four Kinds of Samadhi . 4 7 What does \"Experiencing the Great Effects\" mean? \"Even though one does not seek to be reborn in the Brahma-heaven, one is automatically compensated (for one's efforts) by rebirth there.\" 4 8 (The text) 49 praises this wondrous recompense and (thereby) gladdens the heart. What does \"Rending the Great Net\" mean? The various sutras and treatises open people's eyes, but people adhere to some of these and doubt others, affirm one and deny the rest. (The blind man in trying to gain an understanding of the color of milk) hears (the word) \"snow\" and says \"cold,\" . . . hears \"crane\" and says \" i t moves.\"50 (This chapter shows that the Truth) permeates the sutras and treatises, loosens the bonds (of adherence to one or another) and releases us from the confines (of any one interpretation). What does \"Returning to the Great Abode\" mean? In the (Ultimate) Dharma there is no (opposition of) beginning and end, no (opposition of) passage and obstruction to (the Dharma).51 If one realizes C^c? the Dharma-realm, then (he finds) in i t no beginning or end, no passage or obstruction. It is void $ \\ \u00bb radiant K. , 52 unhindered and free. (I have) set down the five lesser chapters in order to express (the meaning of) the ten greater chapters. . . . 94 FOOTNOTES GENERAL INTRODUCTION BY CHIH-I 1 Particularly the terms ohih JX- and kuan jfyf^ These are to precede the practise proper of calming-and-contem-plation. They concern such things as correct posture, diet, apparel, location, but do not deal with the mental aspects of calming-and-contemplation, which are of course the main practise. Half of Chih-i's Hsiao-chih-kuan 0- \u00a3- (T#1915) deals with these in abbreviated fashion, derived not from this Chapter Six, however^ but from the parallel Chapter Six of the Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men >fc If H (T#1916), mentioned above by Kuan-ting in connection with the gradual calming -and-contemplation. See the English translation of the Hsiao-chih-kuan in Goddard and Wai-tao, A Buddhist Bible. This is the major chapter of the MHCK, occupying well over half of the entire work. It is theoretically divided into ten sectipns, corresponding with the ten realms or objects of contemplation , but the actual MHCK ends in the seventh, leaving undiscussed the last three parts of this chapter as well as the last three chapters of the whole work, Chapters Eight through Ten. 4 Here Chih-i planned to discourse to his students on how they should best teach others, in accordance with the bodhisattva's vow to devote himself to the enlightenment of others. That i s , the fact that i t would not be sufficient merely to teach his disciples how to attain enlightenment themselves makes this chapter a logical necessity. 5 I follow CJ for this long parenthesis. I.e. i t is a convenient number to work with. Neither Chih-i, CJ nor the other commentators attempt to j u s t i f y this number by reference to the subject material as absolutely necessary. Nevertheless i t has some sense as we see below. Once one has taken the position, as every Mahayana Buddhist must, that no description has absolute validity (this very assertion has just been made in this text), one way of describing is much as good as another. The same comments could be made about the ten \"such-likes\" in Chih-i's philosophy as well as many of his other numerical categories, and he would surely agree that these are a l l of only provisional validity. 95 This character renders <3h from Sanskrit, the last letter of the Siddham alphabet in some arrangements, which is used like the Greek letter omega to indicate that beyond which there is nothing more. Hui-ssu's last work (lost) was the Ssu-shih-er-tzu-men \\cfl? + s- % f\u00ae\\ , in two r o l l s , which assigned these forty-two letters to the forty-two stages of enlightenment. Roll 48 of the TCTL discourses on the esoteric meaning of each of these letters. It says of the letter dh, \"One who hears i t realizes that a l l dharmas are incapable of being'attained. . . . There are no letters beyond dh.\" (T25.4Q9a) In the MHCK text here, the Taisho edition has jjfc instead of ^  ; this is simply the vulgar version of the same character, which so far as meaning goes, stands for \"tea.\" 8Thus what may be said of the origination of a l l dharmas is applied to the chapters of the MHCK i t s e l f . Q Following CJ 1s interpretation. Chih-i makes a hairsplitting distinction between sheng and oh'i , which really have the same meaning here. 1 0These terms, while on one level exactly synonymous with each other and with both \"birth\" and \"origination\" may also be distinguished just as \"birth\" and \"origination\" were distinguished. A pun on the binome , which also means \"synopsis.\" 12 The preceding two sentences correspond to Chapter Two, the explanation of terms. 13 Corresponding to Chapter Three. 14 Corresponding to Chapter Four. 15 Corresponding to Chapter Five. ^Corresponding to Chapter Six. ^Corresponding to Chapter Seven. 1 8Chapter Eight. 1 9Chapter Nine. 96 20 Chapter Ten. CJ remarks here that the final three chapters were not expounded because practise arises on the basis of understand-ing (Chapter Seven), implying that f r u i t s , teaching of others and reversion to serenity will come about automatically once correct insight is attained. The following MHCK passage on the place of each chapter relative to the others seems, however, to suggest that Chih-i did intend to expound all ten chapters. It is interesting that Chih-i understands the arrangement of the chapters in the MHCK to correspond with the stages of development of a person on the religious path. It is a chain of cause-and-effect, analogous to the 12-fold chain of dependent origination, but with enlightenment rather than suffering as the final outcome. There seems to be an implication that mastering the text from start to finish leads one to enlightenment ineluctably. If so, there are wondrous fruits to be had from this solitary lucubration! 21 No longer needed, but not incapable of being used. 22 The merit is there regardless, but these distinctions lessen the labor of understanding the text. 23 These are two of the well-known Three Knowledges, with morality {slla) omitted. They also correspond respectively to calming [samatha) and contemplation (vipasyand). ?4 From a metaphor in the TCTL (T25.640c, Roll 83, Ch. 69): \"It is as i f , in hot weather, there were a cool and pure pond. Anyone with eyes and legs can enter i t . \" Eyes correspond to wisdom [prajnd) and legs tojDractise. See Oda, 1738c, quoting Chih-i's Fa-hua-hsiian-yi ^ T & %K (T# 1 7 1 6> Roll 4) for this correspondence. CJ also says that eyes correspond to understanding and legs to practise. p c \"Unshared dharmas\" are qualities which only the Buddha has. and does not share with other animate beings. There is a traditional l i s t of eighteen of these dharmas in ro l l twenty-six of the TCTL. However, here i t is more likely qualities which sages do not share with others that are under discussion. ^\u00b0A \"vertical\" chapter is one in which there is discussion at different levels of profundity. CJ comments on these terms at length. 27 The following answers to the above questions are not given in exactly the same order as the questions. The answer to the fourth question (D), on eyes and legs, is inserted after the answer to the sixth (F), on self and other. 28 Actually the f i r s t seven plus Chapter 9, as CJ points out. 97 2 9 C J : For i t concerns the ^ function\" )f) or dynamic effect of the realization of \"substance\" . on CJ adds that samadhi and prajnd may be interpreted as calming and contemplation, samatha and vipasyana. 31 CJ adds that Chapter 9 , on Starting the Teaching, should be in-cluded under effect. 32 CJ notes that Chih-i really means here only chapters One through Five plus Chapter Nine. 33 CJ: The f i r s t five chapters are one's own \"eyes,\" while Starting the Teaching (Ch. 9) deals with producing eyes in other people. Later, at the beginning of Chapter Seven, Chih-i remarks that the f i r s t six chapters deal with \"eyes\" or wisdom, so that Chapter Six changes categories. The preparations in Chapter Six for the true meditation which is to follow are thus either the beginning of practise, or i f not considered the real practise, are the last stage before the beginning of practise. Finally, of the three chapters stated here to be on practise, Chapters Six and Seven are on intentional, willed practise, while Chapter Eight on fruits and retributions is on practise in the sense of activity, only the activity is no longer aroused at the price of effort, but has become effortless and natural. 34 The distinction abbreviated\/extended apparently has the same meaning as the distinction summary\/detailed; of the ten distinctions, this is one of the only two that CJ f a i l s to comment on, the other being self\/other, which is clear enough to need no comment. The absence of a comment on this distinction suggests that since the meaning of the two distinctions is the same he had nothing to add to what he had a l -ready said about the summary\/detailed distinction. Hence one suspects Chih-i of padding a l i t t l e to arrive at the f u l l total of ten distinctions. CJ: It is because Chapter Three discusses both the shallow and the profound that i t may be said to be vertical. The other chapters, except Chapter Ten, are provisionally declared horizontal, but on closer inspection a l l but Chapter Two (explanation of terms) may be found to have variations in profundity and hence may be thought of as both horizontal and vertical. This chapter analysis may be represented schematically as in the accompanying chart. Notice that Chapter Ten f i t s in none of the categories. This is because i t is beyond a l l dualisms. 98 J D C J believes these questions and answers were inserted by Kuan-ting. 3 7The \"abbreviated description\" ^kr is the section which dis-tinguished the three calming-and-contemplations. 38 CJ comments that the question is based on a confusion of the three kinds of calming-and-contemplation--gradual, sudden and variable\u2014with the four modes of teaching (also known as the four dharmas of conversion. See Hurvitz, Chih I)--gradual, sudden, variable and secret. The f i r s t three of the four modes of teaching, taken together, are the openly revealed teaching as opposed to the secret teaching. In the latter case the Buddha preaches \"with a single voice,\" in the words of the VimalakTrti, but each listener, fancying himself the only one spoken to, hears only what he is capable of understanding. He i s , as i t were, closeted with the Buddha, receiving private instruc-tion, hence the \"secret\" teaching. In the variable teaching the message is also variously received by those of various capacities, but they do not think themselves alone. The names of three of the four modes of teaching being identical to the names of the three kinds of calming-and-contemplation, one might expect there also to be a fourth \"secret\" calming-and-contemplation corresponding to the secret teaching. In fact the two sets of categories are quite different and the analogy is a false one. The sudden mode of teaching is exemplified in the way that Chih-i thought the Avatamsaka sutra was expounded\u2014where the Buddha spilled out the whole message at once, with no concession to the capacit-ies of his listeners. But the sudden calming-and-contemplation refers to immediate and sudden comprehension of the truth rather than sudden disclosure. The same can be said, mutatis mutandis, for the gradual mode of teaching versus the gradual calming-and-contemplation; in short, the difference is between sending and receiving the Dharma, ex-pounding and understanding, teaching and learning, objective expression and subjective realization. As for the variable mode of teaching and the variable calming-and-contemplation, the contrast is not so neat, as the former refers to differing degrees of comprehension in the listeners, while the latter refers to the var i a b i l i t y of methods of contemplation. 39 This is in the T'ien-t'ai teaching of Chih-i the highest of > the stages of worldlings, equivalent to the Ten Stages of Faith -f , the lowest group in the scheme of fifty-two stages of the bodhisattva, and to the fourth in the l i s t of the \"Six Identities.\" See the chart in the Appendix for further details of Chih-i's combination of the fifty-two stages with the Six Identities. It is worth noting in passing that Chih-i's successors assigned him to the third of the Six Identities (in accordance with his deathbed statement), so that his attainment could not be regarded as high enough to pass on the secret teaching. 99 40 From the Lotus, T9.49c, Ch. 19, Murano translation p. 254. 4 1 I.e., there is something \"private\" about their particular discipline, based as i t is on their particular karmic history. 42 JThese are the Three Truths Even at the start one is in possession of the Truth. 43, 4 4 A c t u a l l y only Greater Chapter One and i t s five parts\u2014the five \"lesser chapters\" of the MHCK\u2014are now to be discussed. 45 CJ: The word \"great\" is used in these five lesser-chapter headings because they are considered shorter versions of the \"great\" other nine chapters. This is also the reason, he says, for the name \"Synopsis\" for Chapter One. \"Synopsis\" is written ^ \" ^ t - . , and though i t is a conventional binome meaning l i t e r a l l y \"great sense, general meaning,\" hence \"outline\" or \"synopsis,\" i t could also be read \"the meaning or sense of the great (chapters).\" 46 The bodhisattva is devoted to both his own enlightenment and that of other (lesser) beings, so he goes \"up\" and \"down\" at the same time. 47 See the text below for detailed explanations of these: s i t t i n g , walking, walking-and-sitting, and neither-walking-nor-sitting \"samadhis\" or programs of religious discipline. 48 From the Nirvana sutra, Tl2.613c, Roll 2, Ch. 2, Yamamoto translation p. 39. The Brahma-heaven is the lowest of the heavens in the Realm of Form, only one step above our Realm of Desire. A story is told in the sutra here about a compassionate female who was rewarded by rebirth in the Brahma-heaven. The sutra also states at this point, \"Even though such a person does not seek liberation, i t comes of i t s e l f (to such a one).\" 49 CJ: Many people starting out on the path are unclear about their final goal (which is its own reward). Hence this Lesser Chapter Three to encourage them. 50 From the above Nirvana sutra quote, 3a21-22. CJ glosses \"passage\" as the Three Qualities (of Ultimate Reality): Dharma-body, Wisdom and Liberation. \"Obstruction\" he glosses as the Three Obstacles to enlightenment: klesas, karma and samsara. 100 5 2 C J comments that the sense of the text l i e s in the f i r s t two of the \"lesser\" chapters, while the next three are added for the sake of completeness. In fact, the last three lesser chapters are extremely brief, and the bulk of the Synopsis is in lesser chapters one and two. However these last three \"lesser\" chapters correspond respectively to the last three \"greater\" chapters, chapters eight, nine and ten of the whole MHCK, which were never expounded by Chih-i and exist only in name. Hence these \"lesser\" chapters are valuable as a partial substitute for the missing \"greater\" chapters. 1 0 1 LESSER CHAPTER ONE AROUSING THE GREAT THOUGHT (bodhicitta-utpada) There are three sections in (this chapter on) Arousing the Great Thought: (I) \"bodhicitta\" in Sanskrit and Chinese,1 (II) Excluding the Wrong, and (III) Revealing the Right. I. \"BODHICITTA\" IN SANSKRIT AND CHINESE \"P'u-t'i\" -\u00a3f [bodhi) is an Indian sound for what is here (in China) called the Way j^ L } \"Chih-tuo\" ^ $ (oitta) is an Indian sound (for what) is here called \"mind\" <^ , that i s , the cognitive mind \u00a3 tz iCJ\" . 3 In India (\"heart\") is also called wu-li-tuo 5^ iS^ V (hrdaya), which means the center (or heart) of grasses and trees. 4 (\"Heart\") is also called (in Sanskrit) yi-li-tuo f^- . 5 Here (in China) the essence (or core) of an aggregate is called hsin i C II. EXCLUDING THE WRONG Now in excluding wrong (interpretations of the word oitta), we exclude the hsin \u00bb\u00a3x meaning (essence of) an aggregate or (heart of) grasses and trees, (and assert the correct interpretation to be) solely \"the cognitive mind\" M i u . \"The Way\" [tao~$ ) also has summary and itemized (interpretations). Here we again select from among them, summing up ten. 6 102 A. The Detailed (Itemized) Discussion on Bodhicitta 1. If one's mind is at every moment exclusively occupied by craving, anger and delusion, 7 so that though one (attempts to) bring them under o control, they will not be banished, and though one (attempts to) Q extract them, they do not come out, (but rather) increase overwhelmingly with the passing of days and months, and i f (as a consequence) one commits the ten evil acts to an extreme degree, 1 0 like the five eunuchs [sandha), then one arouses the mind (or \"thoughts\") (leading to rebirth) in hell, and follows the path of f i r e . 1 1 2. If one's mind at every moment desires the increase of one's firewood,1'\" and i f one thus commits the ten evil acts to a middling degree, like Devadatta, who enticed a multitude (of 500 monks to follow 13 his schismatic views), then this gives rise to the animal mind, and one follows the path of blood. 3. If one's mind desires at every moment that one's name will be 14 heard in the four remote (lands) and the eight directions, that one will be praised and exalted, and i f , though without true inner virtue, one compares himself ground!essly to saints and sages, and i f one thus 15 commits the ten evil acts to the lesser degree, like Makandika, then this gives rise to the mind of ghosts, and one follows the path of the knife. retinue , like the sea drinking in a l l rivers, or f i r e consuming 12 4. If one's mind constantly desires at every moment to be superior to others, and while unable to bear being looked down upon, ridicules others and esteems i t s e l f , like a kite (bird), who f l i e s high and looks down, and i f one thus externally displays (the five virtues of) kindness, justice, (observance of) rites, knowledge and f a i t h , 1 7 then he gives 18 rise to the good mind of the lesser degree and follows the path of titans {asuras). 5. If one's mind delights at every moment in worldly pleasures, gratifying the stinking body and pleasing the foolish mind, and i f he thus gives rise to the good mind of the middling degree, then he follows 19 the path of human beings. 6. If one's mind understands ^tt at every moment the multitude of 20 torments to which beings of the three bad (paths) are subject, how pain and pleasure are intermingled for humans, and how among the gods there is only pleasure; so that (to achieve) the bliss of the gods one stops up the six senses, neither issuing forth from them nor entering 21 into the six (corresponding) sense-objects --then one gives rise to the good mind of the higher degree, and follows the path of the gods. 7. If one's mind desires authority ^ ^ at every moment, so that everyone submits and carries out the least act of body, speech, or mind that one wants performed, then one gives rise to the mind of the lord of the (sixth and highest) heaven of the Realm of Desire, and one follows the path of Mara. 104 8. If one's mind desires at every moment to acquire keen intelligence, perspicacity, superior talent and courageous wisdom that penetrate everywhere and radiate in a l l directions, then one gives rise to the mind of worldly wisdom, and follows the path of the Nirgranthas.22 9. If in one's mind there is at every moment l i t t l e obscuring by external pleasures (arising) from the five sense-objects and the Six Desires, 2 3 but one's mind is heavy with the internal pleasures of the on ( f i r s t ) three trances {dhyanas), which are like a stone spring, then 25 one gives rise to the Brahma-mind and follows the path of the Realm 2fi of Form and the Formless Realm. 10. If one's mind understands typ at every moment how the common person is immersed in transmigration through the (three) good and (three) bad (destinies), while these are denounced by the sages and saints, and (understands) how the destruction of evil is based on purified wisdom, purified wisdom is based on purified meditation, and purified 27 meditation is based on purified morality, and i f one thus esteems these three dharmas like one starving and parched (values food and drink), then one gives rise to an undefiled mind, and follows the path of the 28 Two Vehicles. 105 B. General Discussion on Bodhicitta Whether i t is mind or Path (which is being discussed, the meanings) to be excluded are extremely numerous. It is thus for the sake of brevity alone that we have mentioned (only) ten. One could expand on the higher degrees and summarize the lower degrees, or expand on the lower degrees and summarize the higher\u2014the number ten is used 29 only to f i l l out (the l i s t to a convenient round number). (The procedure of) mentioning one class (at a time from among the ten) is (merely) to furnish a point of departure for the discussion; the predominating (tendency in the mind of an animate being) is what is 30 f i r s t cited. It is in this sense that the TCTL says, \"An immoral mind fa l l s to hell, an avaricious mind f a l l s to (the destiny of) hungry ghosts, 31 and a shameless mind f a l l s to (the destiny of) animals.\" 32 v It may be a wrong thought ?)p- that is f i r s t aroused, or 33 i t may be a right thought which is f i r s t aroused, or both right and wrong may be simultaneously aroused. For example, elephants, fish and the wind (can) a l l muddy the water of a pond. The elephants symbolize external (negative influences), the fish symbolize internal (negative influences), and the wind symbolizes both of these arising together. Again, the elephants symbolize wrong (states of mind) which originate from without; the fish symbolize how inner contemplation, when feeble, is agitated by the two extremes (of annihilationism and eternal ism); the wind symbolizes how the inner and the outer merge and intermingle in their defiling (of the mind's original purity). Again, the nine (lower) paths are samsara >jz-#Ci > a n c l m a y be compared to silkworms entangled in their own (cocoons). The tenth 106 path is nirvana, and may be compared to the solitary prancing of a fawn: though (beings in this class) achieve their own liberation, they are not yet f u l l y in possession of the Buddha's Dharma. Because both (the f i r s t nine and the tenth path) are wrong, they are both excluded (from the true meaning of bodhioitta). The f i r s t nine are worldly\u2014unmoving, they f a i l to emerge (from samsara). The tenth (path) does emerge (from > 37 samsara), but is lacking in Great Compassion. Both (the former and the latter) are wrong, hence both are excluded. The same may be said for a variety of doctrinal categories, such as \"conditioned\" (samskrta) and \"unconditioned\" (asamskrta), \"with outflows\" and \"without outflows\" (asrava and anasrava) , \"good\" and \" e v i l \" , \"defiled\" and \"pure,\" \"in bondage\" and \"liberated,\" \"Ultimate Truth\" and \"Worldly OQ Truth.\" Again, the nine (lower) paths are involved in the Truth 39 of worldly suffering, while the tenth path is not. Though (the latter) does not bear on the Truth of Suffering, (beings in this class) have warped (understanding), are clumsy (in their means of salvation), (hold that nirvana necessarily involves the reduction of the body to) ashes (and the extinction of consciousness), and (tarry) near (the conjured c i t y ) . 4 0 Hence both (the f i r s t nine and the tenth path) are wrong, and both are excluded &p (from the real meaning of bodhioitta). While \"conditioned\" and \"with outflows\" are involved in the Truth 41 of the Cause of Suffering, the tenth path is not. But though this is so, (HTnayanists) are warped, (tarry) near, (uphold the doctrine of) ashes, 42 and are clumsy. Thus again, both (the f i r s t nine and the tenth path) are wrong, and are excluded. 107 Next, \"good\" and \" e v i l , \" \"defilement\" and \"purity,\" are involved 43 in the Truth of the Way. The tenth path is the Truth of the Way, but though this is the case, i t is excluded (along with the other nine) as above. Next, \"bondage\" and \"liberation,\" \"Ultimate Truth\" and \"Provisional Truth,\" are involved in the Truth of Annihilation (of craving). 4 4 Although the tenth path is the Truth of Annihilation, i t is excluded as above. If you have understood the meaning of (the above discourse on the ten wrong bodhiaittas), then your mind will be aroused and the thought (of enlightenment) set in operation for your every sense-organ and sense-object, throughout the three kinds of activity and the four bodily 45 postures. Contemplate a l l of these in such a way, and do not allow defiled thoughts to arise. Even i f they should arise, quickly destroy 46 them. Just as a clear-sighted person is able to avoid a poor and 47 hazardous road, an intelligent person in the world can distance himself from a l l the varities of e v i l . Even a beginning practitioner becomes a refuge for the world i f he has understood the meaning (of the above discourse). . . . Q: Does the practitioner himself arouse the thought (of enlighten-ment), or does someone else (i.e. the Buddha) arouse i t in him through 48 teaching? 49 A: Whether by oneself or by the other, together or separately, i t cannot be done. We are discussing the arousing of the thought (of enlightenment) only (in the sense of) the interaction of (the practitioner's) 108 receptivity and (the Buddha's) response jf^, (to i t ) . It is com-parable to a child f a l l i n g into water or f i r e , and his parents frantically rescuing him. As i t says in the VimalakTrti, \"When their (only) child f a l l s i l l , 50 the father and mother also f a l l i l l . \" It says in the Nirvana sutra, \"A father and mother favor a sick child. 1 (A bodhisattva) moves the (immovable) mountain of Dharma-nature ti\u00a3 \u00bb he enters the sea of samsara. Hence he engages in the Illness-practise 52 and the Child-practise. This is what is called arousing the thought (of enlightenment) by receptivity-and-response. It says in the \"Dhyana-sutra\" (Ch'an-ching ^ ), \"The Buddha expounds the Dharma by responding?^ (to the listeners' capacities) in four (ways): (1) responding to their desires, (2) responding to what is appropriate, (3) responding to (the impurities in them which are to be) suppressed and (4) responding to (i.e. in accordance with) doctrinal 53 Truth.\" (1) (At f i r s t ) in order to win over their minds, he preaches by delighting their minds. (2) Taking cognizance of their karmic habits ^ accumulated from past lives, he makes i t easy for them to accept and practise. (3) Seeing the gravity of their i l l n e s s , he provides them with the appropriate amount of medicine. (4) When in the course of time their capacity for the Way has ripened, then as soon as they hear the Ultimate Truth they awaken (fully) to the Way. How could this be anything but the benefit of the receptivity-and-response which responds to the capacities (of beings)? 54 In the TCTL the four siddhantas (are expounded). When there i s a gap between the worldly (teaching) and the (true) Dharma, this is 109 called the Worldly {siddhanta). (Preaching as much of the Truth) as beings can bear (to hear) is called the Individual (siddhanta). These two siddhantas are the same as the (above) Four Kinds of Response VS? \"V* 55 l i !L \u2022 This is also the meaning of \"receptivity-and-response.\" We cite further the five \"Moreovers\" J\u00a3-^IL 7 i L (reasons for preaching the Prajna-paramita-sutras) in the TCTL:\"(The Buddha)preached the Prajna-paramita-sutras (1) in order to elucidate the various practises of bodhisattvas; (2) in order to have bodhisattvas increas-ingly (employ) the samadhi of the contemplation of Buddha (buddha-anusmvti-samadhi);56 (3) in order to teach the qualities (of those bodhisattvas who have reached the stage) of no backsliding (avaivartika); (4) in order to eliminate the evils and false doctrines of the disciples (of false teachers); and (5) in order to teach the Ultimate Truth. 5 7 These five \"Moreovers\" are not different from the four Kinds of Response and four siddhantas. They are also the same 58 as the five causes-and-conditions. If in preaching one f a i l s to respond to (the listener's) receptive capacity, then one (merely) torments him instead of benefitting him and there is no benefit in teaching him. r q But i f (one acts with) the thunder-rain of great compassion, then (the listener's vision) can proceed from dim to clear. It says in the Treatise, \"Samsara neither has an end nor is endless, for the True Dharma and those who expound i t are hard for a 60 listener to encounter.\" Ultimate Reality i s , however, neither hard nor easy (to attain to), neither existent nor inexistent: that is what is meant (in the quote) by \"the True Dharma.\" Those who expound no and those who listen to such (a Dharma) are what is meant (in the quote) by \"real expounders and l i s t e n e r s . \" 6 1 That there is benefit (to be gained) through the ( f i r s t ) three siddhdntas is what is meant (in the quote) by \"having an end,\" while the benefit (obtained) through the Ultimate siddhdnta is what is meant (in the quote) by 62 \"neither having an end nor endless. Thus the meaning of receptivity-and-response is that the Great Purpose (of the Buddha's teaching) can be discriminated through knowledge of (the realm of) causal origination. Thus though the terms \"the Four Kinds of Response\" v3Z? , \"the four siddhdntas\" and \"the five (causes-and-conditions)\" 6 4 are different, their meanings are the same. Now to explain (further): the Four Kinds of Response <SP T^__ are the benefit (accruing to the listener) from the Greatly Compassionate 7v \/ % response (of the preacher to the listener's capacity), while the four siddhdntas are the universal giving (of the Dharma) by the Compassionate ^ (preacher). 6 5 This is in effect J ^ . no more 66 than the difference between l e f t and right. As for the expression \"causes and conditions,\" in some cases the cause is in the (teaching) sage and the condition in the ordinary person, while in other cases 67 the cause is in the ordinary person and the condition is in the sage. This is the interaction 3<L \u00b0^ receptivity and response. Know 68 then that when there is (proper) correspondence of word and meaning 69 within each of these three categories, then their meanings are the 70 same. I l l 1. (The term) \"responding to their desires\" stresses what (people) value on the basis of their Karmic history; while (the term) \"the Worldly siddhanta\" stresses the separation between the different retributions (which people) receive. 7 1 This is merely the difference between cause and effect. 2. (The term) \"Responding to What is Appropriate\" means choosing the teaching to f i t the person. (The term) \"the Individual {siddhanta)\" 72 \" means viewing the person so as to f i t the teaching to him. This is merely the difference between the enjoying of (something) and 73 that which is enjoyed. 74 As for the Five Causes-and-Conditions, (1) The beliefs and desires of animate beings (practitioners) become the cause of, and the 75 Buddha preaching that one dharma is a l l dharmas becomes the condition of, the great thought of enlightenment. In the Sutra this is \"respond-ing to their desires,\" while in the Treatise, 7 7 this is the \"Worldly (siddhanta).\" (2) that the beings are very energetic and valiant (is the cause), and the Buddha preaching that one practise is a l l practices (is the condition): this corresponds to the Four Samadhis. In the Sutra this is (called) \"Responding to what is appropriate'! while in the Treatise i t is called the \"Individual siddhanta.\" (3) and (4) The beings' possession of the great wisdom of sameness is the cause, and their experience of the Buddha's preaching that the eradication of one (impurity) is the eradication of a l l (impurities) (is the condition), whereby they gain the supreme recompense as well as mastery of the 78 sutras and treatises. In both (the sutra and the Treatise) this is 112 81 (called) \"therapeutic\" \" f ^ :A . (5) The beings' possession of the wisdom-eye of the Buddha is the cause, and their experience of the Buddha's preaching that one ultimate is a l l ultimates (is the condition) whereby they (reach) \"the returning to the p u r p o r t \" f < | and the quiescent voidness $L . In both the sutra and the Treatise 79 this is called the \"Ultimate\" (Kind of Response or siddhanta). on Now to match the Five (Causes-and-)Conditions with the five Reasons for Preaching the Prajna-paramita-sutras) 3- ; (1) The thought of enlightenment is the basis of a l l practise. In the treatises a variety of practises are mentioned, but the difference (between the thought of enlightenment and these practices) is merely that between 82 root and branch. (2) The Four Samadhis are practice in general, while mindfulness of the Buddha ^ jfy is a particular practise. But this is only the difference between general and particular. (3) The Supreme Recompense is more precisely (both) the \"like-valued 83 ef'feet\" ni&yanda-phala) and the \"unl i ke-val ued effect\" ; vipdka -phala) (arising) from environmental factors ^$C_ or from one's own actions \u00a3\u00a3\u2022 . (The term) avaivavtika (the non-returner) mentions only an \"unlike-valued\" (effect :vipaka-phala) as a feature of those who have entered the stages (of enlightenment). This i s , however, only the difference between (mentioning) both members or only one member of a pair. (4) \"Removing the mire of doubt in the scriptures and treatises\" (lays emphasis on) the sutras and treatises as the places on which the doubt-attachment (is focused). \"Eliminating the evils and false doctrines of the disciples\" (lays emphasis on) the people in whom this 113 error arises. This is merely the difference between place and person. OA (5) It is easy to see that \"beginning-and-ultimate\" and \"supreme principle\" are (essentially) the same term. 8 5 There is thus no differ-ence between (these two), and their meaning is the same. C. Receptivity-and-Response Explained in Terms of the Three Kinds of  Calmi ng-and-Conternplation Now (on the one hand) the saints preach in many ways: gradually or not gradually, exhaustively or not exhaustively, 8 6 mixing i^\u00a3. or not mixing (the \"gradual\" with the \"sudden\"). 8 7 (On the other hand) animate beings receive the benefit (of the teaching) in dissimilar ways: gradually or not gradually, exhaustively or not exhaustively, mixed or unmixed. Gradual: The Four siddhdntas and the Five (Causes-and-)Conditions 88 correspond (one-to-one) to each other. Variable: The Four siddhdntas correspond to a single Cause-and-Condition, a single Cause-and-Condition 89 corresponds to a single siddhdnta. Sudden: Each and every Cause-(and-Condition) contains (all) four siddhdntas, and (each of) the four 90 siddhdntas contains (all) the five (Causes-and-)Conditions. Thus (the different categories) may be brought into correspondence with each other in a variety of ways. (The rest of them) can be 91 understood along the same lines. . . . They may also be summed up in the single (expression) \"calming-and-contemplation.\" To arouse the thought of enlightenment is \"contemplation,\" and to halt perverted 9 2 thinking \/C^  is \"calming.\" 114 Moreover the five Lesser Chapters (of the MHCK) are nothing but the ten Greater Chapters (abbreviated). The f i r s t five Greater Chapters 93 have only the single meaning of arousing the thought of enlightenment. (Greater Chapter Six on) Expedients and (Greater Chapter Seven on) 94 Right Contemplation are nothing but the Four Samadhis. The Chapter on Fruits and Recompense95 explains only painful and pleasant (karmic retributions). The painful is the karmic retribution ^ 96 of (attachment to) the Two Extremes, while the pleasant is the supreme 97 and wondrous karmic recompense. The chapter on Starting the Teaching 9 8 turns from individual practice ^ |) \/o- towards the benefitting of others. The provisional teachings may be conferred and the (final) truth revealed through the Buddha's own body, 9 9 or else the gradual and abrupt (teachings) may be transmitted and disseminated by his images h%*- in the nine (lower) d e s t i n i e s . 1 0 0 (Greater Chapter Ten on) the Returning of the Purport likewise means simply Returning to the Great Abode, 1 0 1 the secret 102 treasury. Know then that the sense of the Greater and Lesser chapters is the same. III. REVEALING THE RIGHT KINDS OF BODHICITTA A. The Four Kinds of Four Noble Truths The name and the features of the doctrine of the (Four Kinds of) the Four Noble Truths derive from the chapter on saintly conduct in 103 the Nirvana sutra. (The four kinds are) arising-and-perishing, 115 neither-arising-nor-perishing, the innumerable, and the actionless. 1. Arising-and-Perishing 104 (At this level) Suffering and the Origin of Suffering are the 105 mundane cause and effect, while the Way and Annihilation are the supramundane cause and effect. Suffering shifts through i t s three phases while the Origin of Suffering flows through the four mental s t a t e s . 1 0 7 The Way opposes and eliminates (the defilements), while Annihilation annihilates the existent and makes i t revert to inexistence. Though (they differ in that the f i r s t pair are) mundane and (the second pair) supramundane, they are a l l s t i l l (in the realm of) change and difference. That is why they are called the Four Noble Truths of arising-and-p e r i s h i n g . 1 0 9 2. Non-Arising 1 1 0 (At this level) Suffering no longer i n f l i c t s i t s e l f (on the prac-titioner), for a l l (things are understood to be) empty. How indeed 111 could something which is empty drive away something (else) which is 112 (also) empty? \"Form is identical with emptiness, and the same is 113 true for sensations, perceptions, impulses and consciousness.\" Hence (Suffering) lacks the mark of i n f l i c t i n g i t s e l f (on animate beings). (By the same token, the) Cause of Suffering lacks any marks of according (with s u f f e r i n g ) . 1 1 4 Both cause and effect being empty, how then could an emptiness as cause be in accord with an emptiness 115 as effect? The same holds for a l l (the varieties) of craving, anger and stupidity {raga3 dvesa3 moha). 116 The Way is marked by non-duality: there is (ultimately) nothing that suppresses y\u00a3 (the defilements) nor any (defilements) to be suppressed. In emptiness there is not even a single (entity): how then could there be two (entities)? 116 Since dharmas have not blazed up (into existence, they are not now extinguished. It is because they neither blaze up nor are extinguished that (the Four Noble Truths at this level) are called the Four Noble Truths of non-arising. 1 1 7 3. Innumerable Analytical investigation discloses numberless features within Suffering. The suffering in a single destiny comes in innumerable -fe forms: how much more (innumerable is i t ) in ( a l l ) ten 119 destinies. Thus there are various \"innumerables.\" These innumer-able categories cannot be perceived by the Two Vehicles, whether by their wisdom or their eyes, but they can be understood by bodhisattvas. Thus, there are innumerable distinctions (in the suffering endured by those) in hell: being flayed with swords, chopped up, roasted, minced, and many more, so many they cannot (all) be named or (their number) estimated. How much the more is this so for the body ^ (rupa) in the other (nine) destinies, as well as for sensations, perceptions, impulses and consciousness. How could grains of sand or drops in the sea ever be exhausted? Hence the Four Noble Truths (at this level) are not capable of being perceived fa L^> by the Two Vehicles, but the wisdom eye of bodhisattvas can penetrate them The Cause of Suffering as well has innumerable features (at this level): craving, anger, stupidity, and a l l the various (deluded) acts 117 of mind, body and speech. The karma (generated) by the Cause of Suffer-bends, its shadow becomes skewed, or as when the voice sounds loud, its this fact without erring. There are also innumerable features in the Noble Truth of the Way: 121 analytical and holistic (wisdom), clumsy and s k i l l f u l expedients, 122 crooked and straight, long and short (paths), provisional and real. Bodhisattvas elucidate this faultlessly and with precision. There are also innumerable features to (the Noble Truth of) Annihilation. Such-and-such expedients are capable of annihilating the earliest stage of realization J 2 3 such-and-such (other) expedients are capable of annihilating thought ( i t s e l f ) . Within each of (these expedients) there are innumerable principle and ancillary (subdivisions) j\u00a3. $fi , but bodhisattvas perceive clearly that there is (ultimately) not a hair of difference (between them). Despite the fact that expedients, which are in and of themselves empty ju \u00bb have innumerable subdivisions, there are ultimately no (subdivisions) at a l l . Even though there are none, we do not err or go astray by distinguishing numerous varieties. Moreover, certain 73L expedients can annihilate by analysis the four stages (of intellectual and emotional 124 delusion). Also, certain expedients can completely annihilate ing is also incalculable ^ . (It is just as) when the body echo indistinctly resounds. 120 Bodhisattvas simply shed light on the f ur stages. 125 Certain expedi nts c  annihilate dust-sand delusions. 126 Certain expedients can annihilate (fundamental) nescience. 127 Though there are innumerable (such expedients), they with each other. 118 We also make distinctions (among people and their receptivity) in employing the ( f i r s t ) three siddhdntas, so that there are innumerable (such distinctions); but there is no such plurality where the Ultimate siddhdnta is concerned. Though there is no (ultimate) plurality %i ^ , (at this level the Four Noble Truths) are discussed along the lines of plurality ^ ; hence the term \" i n n u m e r a b l e \" - ^ \" i s used, and these are called the \"Innumerable\" Noble Truths. 1 po 4. Actionless All of the actionless Four Noble Truths are Ultimate Reality and unthinkable. (At this level) i t is not only the Ultimate Truth ^ - which lacks plurality ^ : the three (lower) siddhdntas and all (other) dharmas also lack plurality. This is understandable (from what has been said previously), so (I) shall not record any more d e t a i l s . 1 2 9 If the Four Noble Truths are brought into correspondence vertically 1 OQ with the (Four) Lands, some (lands) have more, and some (lands) have less (of the Four Noble Truths). All four are present in the Co-dwelling 131 Land, while there are three in the Land of Expedients, there are 132 two in the Land of Recompense, and there is only one in the Land of (Permanence), Quiescence and Illumination. If (the Four Kinds of the Four Noble Truths and the Four Lands are) contrasted horizontally then the Co-dwelling (Land) corresponds to arising-and-perishing, (the Land of) Expedients to neither-arising-nor-perishing, (the Land of) Real Recompense to the innumerable, and (the Land of Permanence), 134 Quiescence and Illumination to the actionless. 119 Also when (this principle is) expounded in summary, i t is called the Four (Noble) Truths, while when i t is expounded in detail, i t is called the twelve causes-and-conditions {pratltya-samutpada). Suffer-ing is the seven items including consciousness, name-and-form, the 135 six sense organs contact, sensation, birth and old-age-and-death. The Cause of Suffering is the five items including nescience, impulses (karma), craving, attachment and existence. The Way is the expedients employed to suppress the (twelve) causes-and-conditions. Annihilation is the (state of) annihilation (of a l l the twelve) from nescience to old-age-and-death. Hence the Nirvana sutra distinguishes Four (Kinds of) Four 137 Noble Truths as well as four kinds of the twelve causes-and-conditions: \"Contemplating (the causes-and-conditions) with lower wisdom, one attains the enlightenment of a svaoaka; contemplating with intermediate wisdom, one attains the enlightenment of a pvatyeka-buddha; contemplating with higher wisdom, one attains the enlightenment of a bodhisattva; and contemplating with supreme wisdom, one attains the enlightenment of a Buddha.\" 1 3 8 139 Again, in the gathd of the Middle Treatise \"Whatever is produced by causes-and-conditions\" is (the level of) arising-and-perishing. \"That I declare to be empty\" is (the level of) neither-arising-nor-perishing. \"It is also called 'provisional designation\" 1 is (the level of) the innumerable. And \"It is also called the truth of the Middle Way\" is (the level of) the a c t i o n l e s s . 1 4 0 Another interpretation is that (in the gathd) \"causes-and-conditions\" are the Cause of Suffering, \"what is produced by them\" is Suffering, 120 while the expedients which eradicate Suffering are the Way, and the disappearance of Suffering and its Cause is Annihilation. Further, when the gdthd speaks of \"causes-and-conditions1,1 these are the same as nescience, 1 4 1 while what arises through them is impulses 142 ^ , name-and-form, the six sense-organs etc. Hence i t says in a text \"The Buddha taught his cleverer disciples the non-arising and non-perishing features of the twelve causes-and-conditions.\" This refers to the f i r s t twenty-five chapters (of the Karikas). (And i t says \"He) taught his dull disciples the arising-and-perishing features of the twelve causes-and-conditions.\" 143 This refers to the last two chapters (of the Karikas). 144 Know then that when the Treatise's gdthd is summarily interpreted w l ^ %%.> > i t s four lines may be identified with the Four Kinds of the Four Noble Truths, while when i t is interpreted in detail, (its four lines) may be identified with the four kinds of (wisdom which view) 145 causes-and-conditions. This completes the analysis of the Four 146 Kinds of Four Noble Truths. B. Ten Occasions for the Rise of the Thought of Enlightenment The sutras explain various (occasions for) the rise of the thought of enlightenment: (1) the thought of enlightenment may be aroused by one's inference from various Truths ; 1 4 7 (2) or the thought of enlightenment may be aroused by seeing the various marks i{% of the Buddha; (3) or by seeing the various superhuman powers 1^\\h^ (of the I AO Buddha); (4) or by hearing various Dharmas; (5) or by wandering 121 in various lands; (6) or by seeing various animate beings; (7) or by seeing the performance of various (religious) practices; (8) or by 149 seeing the destruction of various Dharmas; (9) or by seeing various evils ; (10) or by seeing others suffer in various ways. Having begun by briefly mentioning ten kinds of (inspiration for the thought 150 of enlightenment), we now explain in more detail. . . . 151 1. Arousing the Thought of Enlightenment by Inferring from Truth (a) Arising-and-perishing The dharma-nature y ^ k f i - i s sufficient unto i t s e l f $ and just-so ~3&> . The Cause of Suffering cannot stain i t , Suffering cannot torment i t , the Way cannot lead to i t , and Annihilation cannot purify i t . Like the moon, which may be hidden but not harmed by clouds, the dharma-nature is perceived as soon as the defilements [klesas) have been cleared away. It says in a sutra, \"Annihilation is not the Ultimate Truth: \/N. 159 i t is via annihilation that one realizes ^ the Truth.\" If even Annihilation is not the Ultimate Truth, how then could the (other) 153 three Noble Truths ever be? That there is no enlightenment in the defilements, and no defilements in enlightenment--this is called Arousing the Thought of Enlightenment, upwardly seeking for the Buddha's Way and downwardly transforming animate beings - i i f c . ' f - \/ C by inferring from the Four Noble Truths (at the level) of arising-and-perishing. (b) Non-arising Arousing the thought (of enlightenment) by inferring from the Four Noble Truths (at the level) of non-arising: the Dharma-nature is 122 not different from Suffering or the Origin of S u f f e r i n g \u2014 i t is merely that in going astray in Suffering and the Origin of Suffering, one loses (sight of) the Dharma-nature.154 Similarly, water (freezes and) congeals into ice, yet there is no ice apart from (the water). To achieve (the understanding that) Suffering and the Origin of Suffering are lacking in Suffering and the Origin of Suffering is to realize the dharma-nature. 1 5 5 If this is true (even) of Suffering and the Origin of Suffering, how much truer i t is of the Way and of Annihil-156 ation! It says in a sutra, \"The defilements are identical with enlightenment, enlightenment (bodhi) is identical with the defilements (klesas).\" \"^?his is called arousing the thought of enlightenment, upwardly seeking and downwardly transforming, by inferring from the Four Noble Truths (at the level of) non-arising. (c) The Innumerable (Arousing the thought of enlightenment by) inferring from (the Four Noble Truths at the level of) the Innumerable: here the Dharma-nature is called Ultimate Reality \u2022 This is not even the realm of the Two Vehicles\u2014much less that of the ordinary person K \u2022 158 Beyond the two extremes there separately exist pure dharmas. It is like the ten similes of the Fo-tsang-ching ^ . . 159 This is called arousing the thought of enlightenment, upwardly seeking and downwardly transforming, by inferring from the Four Noble Truths (at the level) of the Innumerable. 1 2 3 (d) Actionless (Arousing the thought of enlightenment by) inferring from (the Four Noble Truths at the level of) the Actionless: Here the \"Dharma-nature\" and \" a l l dharmas\" are not two, not separate. This is true even for mundane dharmas, not to mention the Two Vehicles. To seek Ultimate Reality apart from mundane dharmas is like leaving empty space in one place to look for i t in another. Ultimate Reality is one with 6^ * mundane dharmas, and there is no need to reject the I C\"| _ mundane to turn towards the saintly. A sutra says, \"Samsara is 1 g o 1 6 3 identical with nirvana.\" Every shape and odor is the Middle Way. This is called arousing the thought of enlightenment, upwardly seeking and downwardly transforming, by inferring from the Four Noble Truths (at the level) of the Actionless. If one has (perfectly) inferred (the nature of) a single dharma, then he fathoms the Dharma-realm, reaching i t s (uttermost) limits and 1 6 4 plumbing i t s depths, the Supreme both horizontally and vertically, and f u l l y comprehends J i t both the provisional ^ and the Ultimate 1 e c Truth . It is only when (the impulses to) upward seeking and downward transforming are both present (in this realization) that this can be called arousing the thought of enlightenment. Enlighten-ment {bodhi^$%J is also called the Way 2 ^ The Way can lead right to the horizontal and vertical Other Shore, and this is the meaning of \"the paramitd y f f l j ^ ^ of arousing the thought (of enlighten-ment) bodhioitta-ui^pdda-pdramritd) }^ Hence, even though we make fine distinctions between shallow and profound (ways of) inferring from Truth, nevertheless the provisional and the Ultimate ^ are universally 124 coextensive. In what follows, each and every dharma (is to be viewed) in this way. 2. Arousing the Thought of Enlightenment by Seeing the Marks of the  Buddha 1\u2122 (a) Seeing the Marks of the Inferior Body of Response 1 6 9 (The bodhicitta occurs) i f one sees the Tathagata in the body born of his father and mother, the marks on his body vivid and prominent, (each) clearly occupying i t s (proper) place, splendid and radiant; i t is a body such as even (the divine craftsman) Visvakarman could not have made, 1 7 0 with marks superior to those adorning wheel-turning kings, so rare in the world. There is nothing like the Buddha any-where in the heavens or the world\/v-t^L\"^-, he has no peer in (any of) the worlds in the ten directions. (Then one vows): \"May I attain Buddhahood, and be the equal of the King of the holy Dharma; and I (vow to) save the numberless and inexhaustible animate beings.\" 1 7 1 This is arousing the thought of enlightenment, upwardly seeking and downwardly transforming, by seeing the marks of the (inferior Body) of Response of the Buddha. 1 70 (b) Seeing the marks of the superior body of response. (The bodhicitta occurs) i f seeing the Tathagata, one realizes that there is no Tathagata in the Tathagata; and seeing the marks, one 170 realizes that the marks are not (real) marks. The Tathagata and his marks are both like space. There is in emptiness no Buddha, and much less could there be (his) marks. To see that the Tathagata is not 125 the Tathagata is to see the Tathagata. To see that the marks are not (real) marks is to see the marks. (Then one vows): \"May I attain Buddhahood, and be the equal of the King of the holy Dharma; and I vow to save the numberless and inexhaustible animate beings.\" This is arousing the thought of enlightenment, upwardly seeking and down-wardly transforming, by seeing the marks of the superior (body of) response (of the Buddha). 1 7 4 (c) Seeing the marks of the body of recompense If one sees the Tathagata, his marks are such that there is no (form) not manifested (from his body). (His body is) like a clear mirror, in which one may see images of all forms. Neither ordinary 176 person nor saint can fathom them a l l . (For example), even the god Brahma cannot see (the mound of f]esh--usnlsa--on) the top (of the 177 178 Buddha's head); and even Maudgalyayana cannot fathom his voice. A treatise says, \"The formless body of Ultimate Truth is (the meaning of) 'non-adorning adornments. 1\" 1 7 9 (Then one vows): \"May I attain I gQ Buddhahood, and be the equal of the King of the holy Dharma. . . . This is arousing the thought of enlightenment, upwardly seeking and downwardly transforming, by seeing the marks of the body of recompense. 1 ol (d) Seeing the marks of the Dharma-body If one sees the Tathagata and becomes aware fa that the Tathagata' wisdom deeply penetrates the marks of (animate beings') evil or good conduct, illuminating everything in a l l the ten directions; that his subtle and pure Dharma-body possesses the thirty-two marks; that 126 each and every one of the marks ^kPf is identical to Ultimate Reality; and (one perceives) the Dharma-realm which is Ultimate Reality, entire and undiminished, (then one vows): \"May I attain Buddhahood and be the equal of the King of the holy Dharma. . . . \" This is arousing the thought of enlightenment, upwardly seeking and 1 g3 downwardly transforming, by seeing the marks of the Dharma-body. 18 3. Arousing the Thought of Enlightenment by Seeing Magical Apparitions (a) Inferior body of response (arising-and-perishing) How does seeing the Buddha's various magical apparitions arouse the thought of enlightenment? (This can happen) i f one sees the Tathagata relying upon (the power of) his fully-realized meditations 185 (maula-dhyana) to concentrate his mind on producing a single, not many, I oc (apparitions); or when (one sees him) emit a single beam of light, 187 which f i l l s every place from the AvTci hell to the Bhavagra heaven with the resplendency of fiery light, so that (everything in) heaven and earth is clearly illuminated, and sun and moon (seem to) cease their double shining, their natural light hidden and not apparent. (Then one vows): \"May I attain Buddhahood and be the equal of the King of the holy Dharma. . . . \" (b) Superior body of response (non-arising) If one sees the Tathagata responding to animate beings in reliance upon the Tathagata's Truth of non-arising, not in (merely) two forms (as above), but able to cause each of the beings to see 127 the Buddha (as i f he were) in front of them alone, (then he vows): \"May I attain Buddhahood and be the equal of the King of the holy Dharma. . . . \" (c) Body of Recompense (The Innumerable) If one sees the Tathagata in samadhi, relying on the Tathagata-189 garbha to produce (incarnations) in the four bodily positions and in any of the countless lands )fj^ in the ten directions while in (his) Dharma-nature ever unperturbed, then he vows: \"May I attain Buddhahood and be the equal of the King of the holy Dharma. . . . \" (d) Dharma-body (The Actionless) (The bodhicitta may arise) i f one sees the Tathagata as not di f f e r -ent from his magical apparitions, the Tathagata creating them and the magical apparitions creating (other) Tathagatas, an inexhaustible production of apparitions, each producing yet others, yet a l l beyond the grasp of thought {acintya), and a l l the Ultimate Reality, engaging Buddhahood and be the equal of the King of the holy Dharma. . . . \" 191 4. Hearing Various Dharmas How does hearing the various Dharmas arouse the thought of enlight-enment? (In general), one may (hear the Dharma) from Buddhas and from worthy friends (Kalydna-mitra) t o r o n e m a y ( n e a r i t ) 1 9 2 from the rolls of the sutras. in the works (Then one vows): \"May I attain 128 (a) Arising-and-Perishing Hearing a single phrase on arising-and-perishing, one understands that (all) mundane and supramundane dharmas are incessantly arising 1 g o and perishing, and changing from moment to moment, (and on the other hand) that the (contrasting) quiescence which is morality , wisdom 194 and liberation is the (Ultimate) Truth. (Then one vows): \"May I 195 attain Buddhahood and come to be able to preach the pure Way. Or else one may upon hearing (the Teaching of) arising-and-perishing understand that none of the Four Noble Truths arises or perishes, and 1 gg that in emptiness there is no thorn (of suffering) to be extracted. Then who could suffer, who could (be in the grip of) the Cause of Suffering, who could engage in religious practise, and who could become enlightened? (These Four Truths are) ultimately pure, 1 9 7 with 198 both subject and object quiescent. (Then one vows): \"May I attain Buddhahood and come to be able to preach the pure Way. . . . \" Or one may upon hearing (the Dharma of) arising-and perishing understand that the latter opposed to non-arising-and-non-perishing makes a duality; that the Middle is the denial of both of these (extremes); and that the Middle Way is pure and pre-eminent $C , transcending samsara and nirvana. (Then one vows): \"May I attain Buddhahood and be able to expound to animate beings the Supreme Way, pre-eminent and transcendent like the (lotus) flower above the (muddy) water, like the moon in the sky. . . . Or else one may upon hearing of (the Dharma) of arising-and-perishing understand that the Ultimate Truth is simultaneously both arising-and 129 perishing and non-arising-and-non-perishing, and neither of t h e s e , 1 9 8 a and (thus) sees clearly J?\u00bb, of arising-and-perishing and non-arising-and-non-perishing that for both of these, each (of the Three Truths) is identical to (the other) three, that the three are neverthe-less one (Truth), and that the (Secret Treasury) of the Dharma-realm is completely endowed with permanence and b l i s s . 1 9 9 (Then one vows): \"May I attain Buddhahood and be able to expound the Secret Treasury to animate beings, (transforming them) just as a person of meritorious conduct ^rf? can take a stone and make i t a jewel, or take poison and make i t medicine. . . . 2 0 0 (b) Non-arising (The bodhioitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing (the Dharma of) non-arising, one should understand that the Two Vehicles (attain the 201 state of) non-arising in the Three Realms, while bodhisattvas have 202 yet to do so. (The bodhioitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing (the Dharma of) non-arising, one understands that a l l the Three Vehicles (attain the 203 state of) non-arising in the Three Realms. (The bodhioitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing (the Dharma of) non-arising, one should understand that the Two Vehicles do not partake of (the true non-arising), that (non-arising) pertains only to bodhisattvas. For bodhisattvas f i r s t cease to be reborn i n 2 0 4 the common samsara, and then cease to be reborn in the supernal samsdva as well. (The bodhioitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing a single (Dharma of) non-arising, (one should understand that) a single non-arising 130 . \u201e \u2022 \u2022 ^ 206 is a l l non-ansmgs ^ ^ >~ w - - - i\u2014 (c) Innumerable (We continue the exposition of) \"If one should hear a phrase of (the Dharma of) the Innumerable\" in like fashion. (The bodhicitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing (the Dharma of) the Innumerable, one understands as the Innumerable such features of the Two Vehicles as the way of expedients, the Four Noble Truths, and 207 the Sixteen Truths. (The bodhicitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing the (Dharma of the) Innumerable, one understands that though the Two Vehicles employ i t on themselves, eradicating (their own) delusions ^ (defilements), they are unable to (use i t to) transform others Kt ; and that (in contrast) bodhisattvas (not only) use this (Dharma of) the Innumerable to eliminate their own delusions, but also transform others (with i t ) . (The bodhicitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing (the Dharma of) the Innumerable, one understands that the Two Vehicles have no part in i t 'jf , that i t is present only with bodhisattvas. 2 0 8 Bodhisattvas employ i t to eradicate their mundane^-p^p dust-sand delusions 2 0 9 while 210 also suppressing their supramundane dust-sand delusions. (The bodhicitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing (the Dharma of) the Innumerable, one should understand that the Two Vehicles have no part in i t , that i t is present only with bodhisattvas. (Here) bodhisattvas employ i t to eradicate their mundane and their supramundane dust-sand delusions, 211 while also suppressing nescience. (The bodhicitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing (the Dharma of) the Innumerable, one understands that i t is present only for bodhisattvas, who employ i t to suppress and eradicate nescience 131 212 (d) The Actionless (We expound) \"If one should hear (the Dharma of) the Actionless\" in like fashion. (The bodhioitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing (the Dharma of) the Actionless, one should understand that (the Truth) is not something that Buddhas, gods, men or titans [asuras) have 213 acted to produce. The Two Vehicles attain this (level of the) Actionless. The Ssu-i-ching (Visesa-cinta-brahma-pariprccha T#l586) says, \"We have studied the actionless, and so already act in our attain-ment of enlightenment,\" but bodhisattvas cannot attain (actionless 215 enlightenment). . . . (The bodhioitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing (the Dharma of) the Actionless, one should understand that the Three Vehicles a l l attain i t . 2 1 6 (The bodhioitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing (the Dharma of) the Actionless, one should understand that i t is not the realm of the Two Vehicles, much less that of the ordinary person. (Here) bodhisattvas destroy the provisional Actionlessness and attain the 217 real Actionlessness. (The bodhioitta may be aroused) i f , upon hearing (the Dharma of) the Actionless, one should understand that the Actionless which is 218 identical to the provisional is the real Actionlessness. If this has been understood, then hearing a single phrase (of the Dharma) is enough for one to completely comprehend a l l phrases (of the Dharma), until one has reached the point where all phrases and a l l dharmas (and\/ 219 or Dharmas) are (mutually) unimpeding. . . . 132 5. Additional Explanation: The gathd from the Madhyamika-karikas (24.17) Now since there are numerous interpretations for (each level of) 220 the doctrine, i t is d i f f i c u l t to make i t clear. Hence we set forth a fresh explanation, (this time) in reference to the gathd of the 221 Treatise. (a) Arising-and-perishing Arising-and-perishing: If i t is stated that \"I declare whatever arises through causes and conditions to be empty,\" then having spoken of that which arises through causes and conditions, how does one arrive 222 at the identity of that with emptiness? (On the contrary), one must f i r s t exhaustively analyze these causes and conditions; only then does one understand emptiness. One then calls \"identical to emptiness\" 223 that which is (only) comparatively empty. \"It is also called provisional designation \" means (at this level) that the conditioned %j is too empty and weak to stand alone, and only comes into being through the help of a multitude of conditions. It is provisional because dependent on conditions, not because of being a conferred 223a expedient. \"It is also called the meaning of the Middle Way\" means (at this level) that one calls that \"the Middle Way\" which is 224 separate from (the two extreme views): annihilationism and eternalism. This is not the Buddha-nature sort of Middle Way. If this is the way (the gathd) is interpreted, then although the three phrases (quoted from the gathd) are a l l \"empty,\" they leave the meaning of \"identical 133 225 with emptiness\" incomplete, to say nothing of \"identical with provisionality\" or \"identical with the Middle.\" This is the meaning of the Four Noble Truths (at the level) of arising-and-perishing. (b) Non-arising If \"that which arises through causes and conditions\" is identified just as i t is with emptiness, without having to resort to destruction (to achieve emptiness), but is not yet (completely) identified with provisionality or the Middle as well, then even though provisionality and the Middle have been posited, they both have a tendency towards 226 emptiness. Why is this? Because (i) dharmas are identical with emptiness due to their lack of own-being j--3^ {svabhava); ( i i ) even their provisionality is identical with emptiness, because i t is (only) provisionally that they are established (as entities); ( i i i ) their middleness is also identical with emptiness, because they are separate 227 from the two extremes of annihilationism and eternal ism. Though these (above) three statements differ verbally, they a l l tend towards emptiness o)^ >J^. . Thus, they are neither the inferior analytical Dharma of the Two Vehicles nor the more advanced Separate or Perfect (Teachings). They are a l l in fact nothing but the idea of a l l (the Three Truths being) empty, (as in the simile of) the three animals 228 crossing the river. (c) The innumerable If one understands that (the Ultimate Truth is) (i) identical with emptiness, ( i i ) identical with provisionality, and ( i i i ) identical to the Middle, these three (statements) are in a sequence, each differing 134 229 from the others (in meaning). (i) The three phrases of the gdthd are a l l empty, for (dharmas) are without subjecthood S~ {svabhdva), (dharmas) are empty postulates, and (dharmas) belong to neither 230 extreme. ( i i ) The three (phrases) are a l l provisionality, for each 231 uses words. ( i i i ) The three phrases are a l l the Middle, for the f i r s t is the Middle Truth, the (second is the) Middle Capacity, and (the third is) the Middle R e a l i t y . 2 3 2 (d) The actionless If one understands that (the Ultimate Truth is) identical with emptiness, identical with provisionality, and identical with the Middle, then (this means at this level that) though (there are) three (statements), s t i l l they are (really) only one, that though there is (really) only 233 one statement, s t i l l i t is three. (These two formulations) do not exclude each other, (i) A l l three are empty because (the Truth) is impossible to characterize in words ^ . ( i i ) All three 234 are provisional merely because they use words. ( i i i ) All three are the Middle because they are identical to the Ultimate Reality ^ vf $ . \"Emptiness\" is merely used as a name, but here i t includes provisional-ity and the Middle: for i f \"emptiness\" is (fully) realized, then one also realizes \"provisional\" and \"the Middle.\" This is just as true 235 for the other (two). Be i t known then that when a single Dharma is heard, the whole variety of interpretations may arise, and a variety of vows are inspired. These are in fact the various (ways of) arousing the thought of enlightenment. 6. The Remaining Ways of Arousing the Bodhicitta 135 Arousing the thought of enlightenment by (5) seeing or hearing of Pure Lands; (6) (seeing) the congregation of disciples; (7) (seeing the performance of various) religious practises; (8) (seeing) the destruction of the Dharma; (10) experiencing suffering; and (9) (seeing) 237 the rise of faults, have (also) been listed above and may be under-238 stood (similarly). They shall not be noted down in any more detail. 7. The Three Kinds of Calming-and-Contemplation We have already discussed at length many (kinds of bodhicitta); now we shall sum them up in the three kinds>of calming-and-contemplation. Q: But there is not even one Dharma-nature. How could (Truth) be inferred from three (kinds of calming-and-contemplation) or four (Teachings)? A: To say that there are one, two, three, four (etc. categories in Truth) is to say that while the Dharma-nature is the object in which we err, Suffering and the Cause of Suffering are the subjective erring; that while the subjective error may be slight or severe, the object of the error may be (considered) identical to or separate from (the practitioner). Thus when one distinguishes between the mundane and the supramundane, there are four kinds of Suffering and the Cause of Suffering, while with respect to the capacity f ( o f animate beings) to grasp the Truth, there are one, two, three, four (or more) di f f e r -ences. . . . 136 If\"in the mundane realms someone of dull faculties errs severely in the Truth, his Suffering and Cause of Suffering are also severe; while i f someone of sharp faculties errs only slightly in the Truth, his Suffering and Cause of Suffering are also slight. The same (differ-ences) obtain in the supramundane realm for the slight and severe (erring) of persons of sharp or dull faculties. The Dharma-nature is what is to be understood ^ , while the Way and Annihilation refer to the subjective understanding. The object of understanding may be considered either identical or separate, while the subjective understanding may be either clever or inept. In the mundane realms, the object of understanding is separate from the subject of understanding for those of dull faculties; thus they are inept. But the object and the subject are identical for those of sharp faculties; thus they are clever. The same (differences) obtain in the supramundane realm for the (views of) identity and separateness of clever or inept persons. Why is this? Because when the Provisional and the Ultimate are (thought of as) separate, benighted delusion is already severe. It i s , for example, like a father and son who think of each other as strangers, so that both their anger and their striking (of each other) are severe. Anger represents the Cause of Suffering, and the blows represent Suffering. If one understands that the defilements are identical to the Dharma-nature, that the Provisional and the Ultimate are identical to each other, then Suffering and the Cause of Suffering are t r i f l i n g . If, even though (the two persons) are not a c t u a l l y ( t h e same) bones and f l e s h , t h e y y e t t h i n k o f each o t h e r as 240 f a t h e r and son, then anger and blows a r e s l i g h t . The same c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a p p l y f o r ( p a i r s o f o p p o s i t e s ) l i k e the g r o s s and the s u b t l e , branch and r o o t , the s h a r e d and the s e p a r a t e , the 241 u n i v e r s a l and the p a r t i c u l a r , the d i f f i c u l t and the ea s y . 242 ( i ) One might say ( r e s p e c t i v e l y ) \" s e v e r e \" and \" s l i g h t \" because i n t h e mundane realms S u f f e r i n g and t h e Cause o f S u f f e r i n g l u r k i n the de p t h s , w h i l e i n the supramundane r e a l m they have a r i s e n and d e p a r t e d . Or one might say \" s h a l l o w \" because i n the mundane realms s k i n - d e e p d e l u s i o n s ( a r e e r a d i c a t e d ) ; and \"deep,\" because i n the supramundane re a l m f l e s h - d e e p d e l u s i o n s (as w e l l ) a r e e r a d i c a t e d , ( i i ) Or one might say \" i n e p t \" because i n the mundane realms one f o l l o w s o t h e r s ' i d e a s , and \" s k i l l f u l \" because i n the supramundane realm one f o l l o w s one's own. Or one might say \" s k i l l f u l \" because i n the mundane realms one c a l l s on the ( i n d i v i d u a l ) c a p a c i t y f o r e n l i g h t e n m e n t , and \"inept\" because i n the supramundane realm one does n o t do so. ( i i i ) Or one might say \" c o a r s e \" because i n the mundane realms t h e r e e x i s t both s u b j e c t and o b j e c t , and \" s u b t l e \" because i n the supramundane realm t h e r e i s (no d i s t i n c t i o n between) s u b j e c t and o b j e c t . Or one might say \" s u b t l e \" because i n the mundane realms the u l t i m a t e o f the L e s s e r Path 243 (HTnayana) i s i n the c o n j u r e d c i t y , and \" c o a r s e \" because i n the supramundane r e a l m the u l t i m a t e o f the G r e a t e r Path (Mahayana) l i e s i n the t r e a s u r e - l o d e . 2 4 4 ( i v ) Or one might say \"branch\" because i n the mundane rea l m s t h e r e i s a d v e n t i t i o u s d e f i l e m e n t %~J*i , 2 4 5 and \" r o o t \" because i n the supramundane realms ( d e f i l e m e n t and t r u t h a re 138 ultimately) the same substance. Or one might say \"root\" because the mundane realms are in the beginning, and \"branch\" because the supra-mundane comes later. (v) Or one might say \"shared\" because the mundane realms are in both the Lesser and the Greater (Vehicles), and \"separate\" because the supramundane is only within the Greater (Vehicle). Or one might say \"small\" because the mundane realms are one-sided, and \"separate\" because they are shallow; or \"great\" because the supra-mundane realm is perfect, and \"shared\" because i t has no separation in i t . (vi) Or one might say \"non-universal\" because in the mundane realms (the Truth revealed is) truncated, or \"universal\" because the supramundane encompasses the (whole) Dharma-realm. Or one might say \"universal\" because the mundane is present in al l sages and saints, and \"non-universal\" because the supramundane is present only in the 24fi Great Object of Mind. (vii) Or one might say \" d i f f i c u l t to eradi-cate\" because in the mundane realms (only) the expedients of the Two Vehicles are employed, or \"easy to eradicate\" because in the supra-mundane realm, one relies solely on unimpeded wisdom. Thus one may in these various ways expound (by using opposite expressions) interchange-Now i f we sum this up i t can be easily understood. If we take (the f i r s t two pairs), \"shallow\/deep\" and \"slight\/severe,\" this is the 248 sense of the gradual view. If we take (the sentence which deals with) not distinguishing between the One Reality and the Four Noble Truths, this is the sense of the perfect (and sudden) view. 2 4 9 If we take (all the pairs like) \"slight\/serious\" reciprocally, this 250 is the sense of the variable view. A l l three (ways) are features of the Mahayana Dharma; there-fore they should (all) be understood. Whoever sees the meaning of this understands the three kinds (of calming-and-contemplation): the gradual revealing of the right? the variable revealing of the right, 251 and the perfect-and-sudden revealing of the right. 8. Questions and Answers Q: If there are four kinds of the Cause of Suffering, why are 252 there only two kinds of Suffering, the effect? A: If the delusions ^ follow from (defects in the) understand ing, then there are four kinds (of Suffering., corresponding to the Four Kinds of Four Noble Truths). If the(defects in the) understanding follow from the delusions, then one only experiences the two kinds of samsara. For example, when in the HTnayana delusions follow from (defects in the) understanding, the (latter are divided into two, namely delusions of) intellect and those of emotion; while i f the (defects in the) understanding follow from the delusions, then there is 253 only the common samsara. Q: Suffering and the Origin of Suffering could be \"dharmas which arise through causes and conditions\" (in the gdthd), but why are the OCA Way and Annihilation also (included at that level)? A: Suffering and the Cause of Suffering are what is to be eradica ted t^L , while the Way and Annihilation are what do the eradicating. (At the level of the arising-and-perishing Four Noble Truths), the 140 eradicating (pair) are denoted according to what they eradicate. Both (pairs) then belong to.the category of \"dharmas which arise through 255 causes and conditions.\" Hence i t says in the Nirvana sutra, \"With the annihilation of nescience as the cause one attains the shining 256 lamp of perfect enlightenment.\" This is also causation. Q: The dharma-nature is that in which one errs. (Being unitary), how can i t be two, and how can i t be four? A: It is because the dharma-nature is considered from the stand-point of both the provisional and the real that (one can say) there are two (dharma-natures), while i f (in addition, the differences in) 257 individual capacity are considered, there are four (dharma-natures). If this has been understood, then (the other nine kinds of bodhicitta from) (#2) Seeing the Marks and (#3) Hearing the Dharma, to (#9) (Seeing) the Rise of Faults, as well as the four kinds (of bodhicitta within each of these), can be distinguished and discussed 258 at length along similar lines. 259 C. The Four Great Vows Here we \"reveal the right\" with reference to the (Four) Great Vows. We have already set forth the meaning (of bodhicitta) in the sections on Inferring (the Truth of) the dharma-nature, Hearing the Dharma, etc. Now for the benefit of those who have not yet understood, (we further elucidate their meaning, this time) with reference to the Four Great (Vows). 141 An additional (reason to bring up the topic of the Four Vows is that) while the Four Noble Truths mainly explain upward seeking and downward transforming with reference to the understanding , the Four Vows mainly explain upward seeking and downward transforming with 260 reference to the volitive impulse. Also, while the Four Noble Truths are concerned with Buddhahood in (all) the Three Times in explain-ing upward seeking and'downward transforming, the Four Vows emphasize p e n Buddhahood in the future (only). Also, the Four Truths, in explain-ing upward seeking and downward transforming, deal with a l l the sense-organs, while the Four Vows, in explaining upward seeking and downward transforming, deal exclusively with the mental sense-organ {mana'indriya). Making distinctions in such a way makes this easier to understand, but those who have (already) understood need not await (further explanation). 1. Arising-and-Perishing 263 (a) Cause of suffering Thoughts (in the mind) do not arise independently, but depend on (other dharmas as) conditions in order to arise. The mind sense-organ is the cause (of the thought), mental and physical objects iitk\/1| are the conditions (of the thought), and the thought which is aroused is the dharma which is produced (by the cause and condition). The sense-organs {indriya) and what they perceive\/ 1^ {rajas), the subject and 264 its objects, shift through the three states, arise and depart by 265 stealth, continually are born and perish again, never pausing for a moment. They fli c k e r like lightning, quick as a running stream. 142 (b) Suffering Forms are bubbles, sensations are like foam, perceptions are like 266 flames, impulses are like mirages, consciousness is like an 26 7 apparition. One's country, fi e l d s , house, wife, children, and fortune--(all) are lost in a single instant: here one moment and gone the next. The Three Realms are impermanent, while (the body is like) a pep basket (of snakes, containing) nothing but suffering. (c) The Way \"If four mountains approached you from the four directions there would be no place to escape to; the only thing l e f t would be to focus 269 the mind exclusively on morality, meditation, and wisdom.\"-(d) Annihilation 270 Vertically eradicating the Perverted Views and horizontally 271 annihilating the sea of (birth-and-) death {samsara), one crosses the 272 stream of (conditioned) existence. A sutra says, \"I (the Buddha) was once like a l l of you, oblivious to the Four (Noble) Truths; for 273 this reason I revolved (in samsara) for ages.\" It is similar to (being in) a burning house. Why then be immersed in self-indulgent 274 play (instead of trying to escape the flames)? Hence good will and compassion produce the Four Great Vows, remove (others') suffering, and confer joy upon them, just as when Sakyamuni 275 saw the plowing (of the f i e l d ) , or when Maitreya saw the destroyed 276 watch-tower. It is in this sense (that we speak of the Four Vows). 2 7 7 143 Because of the clear understanding of the Four Truths, one is not in any of the nine states of bondage; and because of having made the Four Great Vows, one is not in the single state of (solitary) libera-278 tion. This is neither bondage nor (solitary) liberation, but the arousing of the true and proper thought of enlightenment. 2. Non-Arising Next, simply by contemplating how a single moment of thought arises through the mutuality of sense-organ and sense-object, (one understands 279 that) there is nothing producing or produced that is not empty. Though we provisionally speak of the arising of thoughts, there is in this arising neither own-being (svabhdva), other-being, nor both 280 together, nor causelessness (the absence of both). When something arises, i t comes neither from i t s e l f , nor from another, nor from both t\u00bb nor from neither; when i t perishes i t goes neither east, west, south nor north. This thought does not reside within nor without, nor in both, 281 nor between the two, nor has i t a constant being of its own. All i t has is it s name, and that name is \"the thought.\" The word (\"thought\") 28? neither persists nor f a i l s to persist. Since i t is incomprehensible \"*f A^f > the arising (of the thought) is identical to the absence of (its) arising, while also identical to the absence of the absence of (its) arising, and (its) existence and (its) inexistence are both quiescent. Worldly simpletons speak of what \"exists,\" but the wise know inexistence. This is just as (a child, who reaches out to touch) the moon in the water, rejoices (to think i t is there), but then grieves to find 144 he has lost i t ; while for adults there is neither grief at losing i t 283 nor joy at acquiring i t . Reflections in a mirror and magical apparitions are further examples of this. It says in the Ssu-i-ching (Visesacinta-brahma-pariprccha) (T#586), \"Suffering is without arising, the Cause of Suffering without accumulation (of suffering) ^ \u00bb t h e Way is non-dual, 284 and Annihilation does not arise.\" It says in the Nirvana sutra, \"(Bodhisattvas) understand that there is no Suffering in Suffering, and are thus in possession of the Ultimate Truth {paramartha-satya) ... and they understand that there is no Annihilation in Annihilation, and poc are thus in possession of the Ultimate Truth.\" (a) Cause of Suffering The Cause of Suffering being as i t is identical with emptiness, one should not chase after the shimmering of the sun like a thirsty deer (thinking i t to be substantial water). (b) Suffering Suffering being as i t is identical with emptiness, one should not 287 grasp at the moon in the water like the foolish monkey. (c) The Way The Way being as i t is identical with emptiness, one should not 288 say, \"I am engaging in the identical-with-emptiness practise.\" It 289 is as in the simile of the raft. If the Dharma is to be discarded, how much more is whatever is not the Dharma (to be discarded)! 145 (d) Annihilation Annihilation being as i t is identical with emptiness, one should not say i t means that after animate beings live for a certain time (they die). For who is there who could intuite (the Ultimate Truth of true) Annihilation through annihilation (of his own li f e ) ? Since samsara is identical with emptiness, how could i t ever be discarded? Since nirvana is identical with emptiness, how could i t ever be attained? It says in a sutra, \"I do not want there to be in non-arising dharmas any cultivation of the Way, anywhere from the Four Mindfulnesses to 290 the Eightfold Holy Way; and I do not want there to be in non-arising dharmas (anutpattikadharmah) the attainment of any f r u i t , anywhere from 291 the Streamwinner to the Arhat.\" Following the example (of the scriptural citation) i t should also be said, \"I do not want there to be in non-arising dharmas either form, sensation, perception, impulses or consciousness; and I do not want there to be in non-arising dharmas either craving, anger or stupidity.\" 293 One s compassion for animate beings is alone sufficient to 294 inspire the vow to relieve them of the two kinds of suffering and 295 bestow upon them the two kinds of joy. Because of realizing the emptiness of Suffering and the Origin of Suffering, one is not in the nine states of bondage; and because of realizing the emptiness of the Way and Annihilation, one is not in the one state of (solitary) liberation. In this case, (one's realization of) neither-bondage-nor-liberation arouses the true and proper thought of enlightenment. The meaning of \"revealing the right\" is (then) clear. 146 3. The Innumerable Simply upon contemplating the arising of a single moment of thought (in association) with the sense-organs and sense-objects, (one sees that this) arising of a thought is nothing else than provisional \u00bb 2 9 6 (and that such a) provisionally designated thought is the origin of (both) delusion and understanding i ^ , ^ ^ - . 2 9 7 Thus one thinks of the Four Truths as having innumerable aspects (a) and (b) Suffering and the Cause of Suffering 297a There are no separate dharmas in the Three Realms: there is only the operation of the one mind -~ . But the mind is like a 298 skilled painter, producing a l l sorts of forms; i t constructs the Six Destinies, making distinctions among and evaluating innumerable varieties (of form). It is these (false) views and attachments which we call the light and grave aspects of the Cause of Suffering both in and beyond the Three Realms, and i t is samsara in such a sense which is (what we call) the light and grave aspects of Suffering in both the common samsara as well as the supernal samsara. (c) The Way (in i t s 37 parts) By going back and inverting this (same impure) mind, one produces understanding (in oneself): just as the painter ( f i r s t ) washes away the (previous) forms and then paints (over them) in his c o l o r s ^ ^ \u00bb 2 \" (Arising-and-perishing): (At this level) we speak of contemplating (the truth) that the body is impure, and so on up to the truth that the mind is impermanent.300 Such (an understanding of the) parts of the 301 Way leads in a roundabout fashion to the conjured city. 147 (Non-arising): Contemplating the body, (one realizes that) the body is empty. . . , and contemplating the mind, (one realizes that) the mind is empty. (Hence) there is no impermanence in an empty (mind) . . . nor any impurity (in an empty body). Such (an under-standing of the) parts of the Way leads directly to the conjured city. (The numberless): When contemplating the impermanence of the body, (one realizes that its) impermanence is the same as i t s emptiness, . . . and contemplating the Dharma-nature t i i - of the body, (one realizes that) i t is neither permanent nor impermanent, neither empty nor non-empty. . . . When contemplating the mind (one's realization) is the same. Such (an understanding of the) parts of the Way leads in a (The actionless): When one contemplates the Dharma-nature of the body, (one realizes that) i t is neither pure nor impure, while (simultan-eously) realizing that i t is both pure and impure, . . . and contemplat-ing the Dharma-nature of the mind, (one realizes that) i t is neither permanent nor impermanent, while (simultaneously) realizing that i t is both permanent and impermanent. Such (an understanding of the) parts of the Way leads directly to the treasure lode. (d) Annihilation (Arising-and-perishing): (In the teaching at this level), i f a person's intellectual delusions ^ ^ 3 0 4 have been annihilated, he is called a Stream-winner, and i f the delusions of emotion ^ t j l - \\ ^ ) have (also) been annihilated, he is called (an attainer of one of the 305 next) three fr u i t s . roundabout 148 (Non-arising): (In this teaching), where the person's intellectual delusions have been annihilated, he is said to be at the level of one views, while i f his delusions of emotion are annihilated he is said to be at (the level of) sparse -M. (desire), (the level of) separation (from desire), (the level of) having understood 2, $ f > until he makes an onslaught against his residual karmic influences ^7 and is called 307 a pratyekabuddha. (Innumerable): (In this teaching), the annihilation of the person's intellectual and emotional delusions is called the Ten Abodes -j\" fa ; the annihilation of the dust-sand (delusions) is called the Ten Stages of Action ^ and the Ten Stages of Diversion -f x*] ; the annihilation of nescience is called the Ten Stages Proper -f k%L-{dasabhwni), near-Buddhahood $f ^ and f u l l Buddhahood ^ , 3 0 8 (The actionless): (In this teaching), the annihilation of both the person's intellectual and emotional delusions, as well as his dust-sand delusions, is called the Ten Stages of Faith -f ; while the annihilation of nescience (as well) is called the Ten Abodes \\0- , the Ten Stages of Action \\ 4 ^ , the Ten Stages of Diversion -f , the Ten Stages Proper \\ ^H. \u00bb near-Buddhahood and f u l l Buddhahood. (At this level) we differentiate the Way and Annihilation (and Suffering 311 and the Cause of Suffering) into a total of sixteen teachings, reaching (ultimately) Buddhist teachings as (numerous as) the sands of 312 the Ganges. In making these distinctions and evaluations, (we know that ultimately) nothing can be said about the inexpressible; yet ( i t is as clear as) seeing a f r u i t in the palm of the hand, and there is no mistaking that everything arises from the mind: i t could come from nowhere else. Contemplating this one thought (in this way), one is able to com-prehend ineffable thought ^ ; by this ineffable thought one 313 is able to comprehend the ineffable Dharma; (comprehending this) one 314 is able to comprehend the ineffable non-thought and non-Dharma. 315 The contemplating of a l l thoughts i s analogous to this. The ordinary person in (one of) the nine states of bondage f a i l s to perceive or to understand (the truth). He is like someone very rich but blind who sits in a treasure chamber, unable to see the jewels, 316 impeded in his movement and hurt by them instead. Thus, the Two Vehicles in their feverish sickness take (the jewels) for demons, tigers, dragons and snakes, so that they abandon them and hasten away, reeling 317 and in pain for more than f i f t y years. Though (solitary) liberation and (the nine states of) bondage diff e r (from each other), they are alike in that they are bereft of the incomparably precious treasure of the Tathagata. (But bodhisattvas) frame the great vows of good will and compassion, (in which they vow to) eliminate suffering and confer joy. This is neither bondage nor (solitary) liberation, but the arousing of the true and proper thought of enlightenment. The meaning of \"revealing the right\" is then clear. 4. The A c t i o n l e s s 3 1 8 Next, (we contemplate) the fact that when a single moment of thought comes into being through the mutual action of sense-organs and sense-objects, i t is identical with Emptiness, identical with Provisionality and identical with the Middle. Sense-organ and sense-object (too) are 150 both the Dharma-realm, both ultimate emptiness, both the Tathdgata-garbha, and both the Middle Way. vi. 319 Why are they identical with Emptiness? (Because) these a l l 3*-come into being through conditions [pratyaya): whatever originates conditionally lacks autonomy (subjecthood)-ij^; i- , and to lack autonomy is to be empty. Why are they identical to Provisionality? Because despite their lack of autonomy they s t i l l arise. Consequently, they are 320 (to be considered) provisional. Why are they identical to the 321 Middle? (Because despite being identical to opposite extremes), they do not extend beyond the Dharma-nature. They are a l l identical to the Mean. Know therefore that a single moment of thought is identical with Emptiness, identical with Provisionality, and identical with the Mean. Al l (Three Truths) are ultimate emptiness, a l l are the Tathagata-garbha, a l l are the Ultimate Real ity \"J^\" iff) . Though they are not 322 three, they are three; though they are three, they are not three. (The Three Truths) are not combined & (into a single principle) nor separated - ^ j ^ (into three), yet they are both combined and separated, 323 as well as neither uncombined nor unseparated. One can (say) neither that they are the same nor that they are different? yet (in a sense) 324 they are the same, and (in a sense) they are different. (Consider) for example (the relationship between) light and a mirror. The light illustrates \"identity with Emptiness,\" the reflected image illustrates \"identity with Provisionality,\" and the (surface of the) mirror illustrates \"identity with the Middle.\" (These three can be) neither combined nor separated (when the event 151 of reflection of an image occurs), yet they are combined and they are separated. They are not in a one-two-three (sequence), yet there is no 325 obstacle to their being in a one-two-three (sequence). This one moment of thought is (to be understood) neither vertically nor horizon-t a l l y , 3 2 6 (its real nature is) inconceivable *j ~f|^ {acintya). This is true not only for the self, but also for (other) animate beings and for the Buddha. It says in the Avatamsaka sutra, \"(One's own) mind, the Buddha and (other) animate beings: there is no difference between these OO \"7 three.\" Know (therefore) that your own mind Z^'^ contains the whole of the Buddha's Dharma. The Ssu-i-ching Jg. (Visesa-cinta-brahma-pariprccha) says, \"It is (only) when one is foolish in one's understanding of skandhas, ayatanas and dhdtus that one seeks enlightenment. The skandhas, ayatanas and dhdtus are identical to i t . There is no enlightenment 328 apart from them.\" The VimalakTrti says, \"The Tathagata's liberation is to be sought v X 3?Q in the mental processes >rf of animate beings.\" If animate beings are (already) identical with enlightenment, then they cannot attain anything further; i f animate beings are (already) identical with nirvana, then nothing further can be annihilated. This being the case for a single mind, i t is the case for a l l minds and for a l l dharmas as well. The P' u-hsien-kuan(-ching) J|| ^ is making the same point when i t says, \"(The Buddha) Vairocana is omnipresent \" ^ J ) ^ \u2022330 152 Know therefore that a ll dharmas are the Buddha's Dharma, for they are (all) the Tathagata and (all) the Dharma-realm. Q: If so, then why is i t (also).said, \"Disport your mind in the 331 Dharma-realm as i f in space?\" and \"Nescience and enlightenment are 332 identical to ultimate emptiness\"? A: (i) These (quotations which you have mentioned) take (the word) 333 emptiness as the point of departure. ( i i ) It also says (in the scriptures), \"(Each) single mote of dust contains a b i l l i o n rolls of sutras.\" (Thus), the whole of the Buddha's Dharma is contained in the mind, like seeds (are contained) in the earth, or like a ball of (different kinds of) incense. These (similes) take (the idea of) existence as the point of departure. But existence is identical to inexistence, and to neither-existence-nor-inexistence. ( i i i ) It is also said that \"There is no shape nor smell that is not the Middle 338 Way.\" This is to take the word \"Middle Way\" as the point of departure. (But) the Middle is identical to the extremes (existence and inexistence, provisional and empty), yet is neither identical nor non-identical to them\u2014it is complete and undiminished. (Hence) do not damage the perfect (truth) by conforming (too closely) to words - ^ f \" > (thus) falsifying the holy meaning. If you are able to understand this, then (you will understand that when) a single moment of thought (conditioned) from sense-organ and sense-object arises, the sense-organ has in i t eighty-four thousand 3 4 0 t r e a s u r i e s 3 4 1 of the Dharma ^ 7 7 ^ . The same goes for the sense-object. And when a single moment of thought arises, i t too 153 has in i t eighty-four thousand treasuries of the Dharma. The Buddha's Dharma-realm encountering the Dharma-realm gives rise to the Dharma-342 realm, for there is nothing which is not the Buddha's Dharma: samsara 343 is identical to nirvana. This is called the Truth of Suffering. 344 In one sense-object there are three sense-objects, and in one 345 thought there are three thoughts. Each of these sense-objects is accompanied by eighty-four thousand kinds of defilement {klesas) J^, ^ , and the same goes for each thought. Craving, anger and stupidity are identical to enlightenment; (all) the defilements are identical to enlightenment. This is called the Truth of the Cause of Suffering. Each defilement inverted jffift is the eighty-four thousand - - 346 samadhis; i t is also the eighty-four thousand dharanls; i t is also the eighty-four thousand methods of suppression (of the klesas);^ i t is also the eighty-four thousand Perfections. 3 4 8 349 \"Nescience transformed is identical to enlightenment,\" just as ice melted becomes water. (Enlightenment) is not some other distant thing, nor does i t come from some other place. It is completely present in each and every moment of thought. It is like (what is produced by) the wish-fulfilling gem [ointamani): neither existent nor inexistent. Say i t does not exist and you l i e , but say i t exists and you broach a false view. It cannot be cognized with the mind nor (truthfully) spoken of with words. 350 Animate beings who dwell amid this unthinkable, unfettered Dharma nevertheless create fetters (for themselves) by (the process of) 351 mentation. They seek liberation amid dharmas devoid of liberation. 154 For this reason great good will and compassion arise (in the mind of the bodhisattva), and (these in turn) arouse the Four Great Vows, (the 352 vows to) eliminate the two kinds of suffering and confer the two kinds of joy. Consequently this is called the unfettered, unliberated arousing of the true and proper thought of enlightenment. (At the level of) the three lower Teachings we discoursed in terms of the Four (Noble) Truths. Now (in the Perfect Teaching) we speak instead in terms of the Storehouse of the Dharma, the defilements, samadhi, and the Perfections, but the meaning (should nevertheless) be , 353 clear. Q: When in the earlier (portion of the MHCK) you excluded the 354 Wrong (kinds of bodhioitta), (you) spoke of the (Two Vehicles as) \"wrong\" . Now in (this section on) Revealing the Right, why do you include (the lowest of the Four Teachings, i.e. the Two Vehicles) as \"Right\"? 3 5 5 A: (i) The reasons these are included as \"right\" are ( f i r s t ) , 356 because (bodhisattvas even in the lower teachings) a l l are \"neither-in-bondage-nor-in-(solitary-)'1iberation,\" they a l l are (in the state of) upward striving; (second) because (lower bodhisattvas) arrive at the Real gradually; and (third), because (though) the Real is 358 d i f f i c u l t for them to know, (they) borrow the Provisional to reveal the Real. These three (reasons) for saying that (bodhisattvas of the lower Teachings) are to be included as \"right\" are on the pattern of the Worldly siddhanta. ( i i ) Moreover, while the Provisional does not include the Real, the Real does include the Provisional: thus I say 155 (they are to be) included as \"right\" because I wish to have this inclusiveness clearly and easily understood. This single (reason) is on the pattern of the Individual siddhanta. ( i i i ) Moreover, one thought of enlightenment {bodhioitta) is a l l thoughts of enlightenment. If (we) did not expound (on one), then a l l of them would be unknown (to us). Hence (we) say (they are to be included as) \"right.\" This one (reason) c l a r i f i e s the (meaning of the) \"right\" on the pattern of the Therapeutic siddhanta. (iv) If one speaks at the ultimate level, the f i r s t three (Teachings) deal with the Provisional, and the (fourth and) final one with the Real. For example, i t is like a skilled physician with a secret method of treatment_that includes a l l methods; and ( i t is like) the panacea {agada) that includes the virtues of a l l other medicines; and i t is like eating (a mixture of) milk and gruel, for nothing more is needed; and i t is like the wish-fulfilling gem {ointamani), containing everything 359 (within i t s e l f ) . (Having heard this explanation), one ought to be able to understand the meaning of the (distinction made between the two kinds of) Revealing the Right: (namely) the Provisional and the Real. ***** Again, (we call this) the One Right {bodhioitta) because i t is the Cause and Condition (bringing about the realization) of the One Great Event {avtha) ^ f\u00a3)#$c. 3 6 0 Why is i t \"One\"? Because i t is a single Real ^ and not false \/ J , 3 6 1 because the One Way is what is 1 5 6 pure, and because a l l those who have no more obstacles (to their progress) depart from samsara via this One Way. Why is i t \"Great\"? Because being by nature broad and vast, i t subsumes many things: i t is the great wisdom, i t is the great eradication (of defilements), i t is (a path) traversed by the great, i t is the roar of a great lion, and i t greatly benefits both the ordinary person and the saint. The reason the word \"Event\" is used is that this is the manner in which (all) the Buddhas of the ten directions and the Three Times oc o behave, so that by this (conduct) one can attain the Buddha's Way for oneself, and by i t one can lead animate beings to enlightenment. We call (the bodhicitta) the \"Cause and Condition (for enlightenment)\" because i t is through this as a cause that animate beings (come to) experience the Buddha, and through this as a condition that a response is aroused (toward them) in the Buddha. Again, the Right {bodhicitta) cannot be said to be three (Truths), 3c nor can i t be said to be one, nor neither three nor one, nor both 3 6 4 three and one. This is why i t is called the Unthinkable Right {bodhicitta). Again, the Right is not something made {samskrta-dharma) ; i t is not made by Buddhas, gods, men or asuras. The eternal object-realm is without qualities ^ jjk %Q , and the eternal wisdom lacks anything to take as an object % ^ ^ 4$^  . (On the one hand) objectless wisdom perceives the quality-less object-realm, and (on the other), the quality-less object-realm functions as what the objectless wisdom perceives. Wisdom and object-realm are myster-157 iously one, yet we (provisionally) say \"object-realm\" and \"wisdom.\" This is why i t is called the Unmade ^  ^ . 3 6 5 Again, the Right {bodhioitta) is as i t is said to be in the Wen-shu--4 ^ \u00a3r, 4<} j*) | g |\u00a3 shih-li-wen-p'u-t'i-ching 5 ^ # ffl ^ f!L &f : (i) \"The destruction of a l l arising is what is called the Arising of the Thought of Enlightenment {bodhioitta-utpada), yet i t is also true that the Thought of Enlightenment must be aroused according to (one's understanding of) the f e a t u r e s ^ of enlightenment {bodhi). ( i i ) Again, while (the bodhioitta) lacks (the nature of) arising, i t does arise,\" and while i t lacks (the nature of) being-in-accord-with (the features of enlightenment), i t is nevertheless in accord with (the features enlightenment), ( i i i ) Again, what is called the arising of the thought of enlightenment transcends a l l destruction (of these features, while transcending a l l being-in-accord-with) the features of enlightenment; and (at the same time) illuminates (the real meaning of) both destruc-368 tion and being-in-accord-with. These three ways (of saying that i t is) \"neither the same (as enlightenment) nor different (from enlighten-ment)\" are (respectively) equivalent to Ultimate Truth, Provisional Truth, and Neither-Ultimate-Nor-Provisional-Truth =lf ^ ^ . 3 6 9 That is why this is called the Right {bodhioitta). To il l u s t r a t e the meaning of this: (expressions like) the \" A c t i o n l e s s \" ^ ^ (or \"Un-made\"), the \"Unthinkable,\" the \"Cause of the One Great Event\" a l l speak (simultaneously) of destruction , being-in-accord-with f%_ and neither, and both. 158 370 (The Thirteen Differences): (i) The f i r s t three (interpretations of the Right bodhicitta) are what the lower, middle and higher wisdom perceive, while the final (teaching) is what the supreme X wisdom perceives, ( i i ) The f i r s t three have (stages) in common , while the final one is unique ( i i i ) The f i r s t three are shallow, 372 near, and roundabout, while the final one is profound, far and direct. (iv) The f i r s t three are great when contrasted with inferior (teachings), while the final one is the greatest among the great , (v) highest of the high, (vi) most perfect of the perfect, (vii) most complete of the complete, ( v i i i ) real est of the real, (ix) truest of the true, (x) most f u l l y disclosed {nltdrtha) of the full-disclosed, (xi) the mystery of mysteries, (xii) subtlest of the subtle, and ( x i i i ) most unthinkable of the unthinkable. Those who are able thus to arouse the thought of enlightenment in such a way as to exclude the Wrong and reveal the Right {bodhicitta), to realize the provisional yet know the R e a l , 3 7 3 (such beings) are 374 the seeds of all the Buddhas. H ***** 07c (The Ten Similes for the Virtues of the Bodhicitta):7 (i) Like adamanatine which originates from the essence of metal the Buddha's thought of enlightenment originates in his great compassion: thus i t comes before all other religious practices, ( i i ) (Arousing the bodhioittais) like taking the asavu medicinal plant (Bhumea lacera): one f i r s t swallows the pure water (of compassion), 159 377 chief among religious practises, ( i i i ) Just as the life-faculty (j~va) is the most important of a l l the faculties, this thought is the most important of a l l the Buddha's True Dharma j\u00a3_ {saddharma) and right practise jE- ^ \" f \u2022 (iv) It is just as a prince, when born, bears the (physical) markings iffl of a king, so that government ministers revere 378 him and he wins great renown. (v) (The bodhicitta) is like the sparrow (kalavinka), whose voice excels those of other birds even when 379 he is s t i l l in the egg. Thus this thought of enlightenment has 380 tremendous power, (vi) It is like a (lute) string made of lion sinew, 381 38? (vii) like a lion's milk, ( v i i i ) like a hammer made of adamantine, 383 (ix) like Narayana's arrow, (x) and like the wish-fulfilling gem, i t contains (potentially) a multitude of treasures, and can wipe out the misery of poverty. Even i f one is somewhat lazy and (thereby) loses some of i t s majesty, (the thought of enlightenment) contains in i t s e l f the merit of a l l bodhisattvas, and is able to bring about unsurpassed and perfect enlightenment {anuttara-samyak-sambodhi) in the Three Times. If this thought (of enlightenment) is understood j ^ ^ - , then one effortlessly ^ i f ^ achieves calming-and-contemplation. Contemplation is the unaroused, yet unobstructed (vision of this thought), and calm-384 ing is the quiescence of i t s (essential) nature. Calming-and-contemplation is identical to enlightenment, and enlightenment is identical to calming-and-contemplation. It says in the Pao-1 iang-ching ^ | (Ratna-rasi-sutra), 385 '\"If a monk {bhiksu) does not cultivate the Dharma of a monk, then 160 . \/ 386 in the chiliocosm 7x \"f there will be no place (for him) even to 387 388 spit, much less receive the offerings (of laymen).1 Sixty monks 389 wept bitterly and said to the Buddha, 'We are soon going to die, and cannot receive the offerings (of laymen).' The Buddha said, 'You 390 harbor thoughts of shame; very good, very good!' One monk asked the Buddha, 'Which monks may receive offerings?' The Buddha answered, 'One who practises the (proper) conduct of a monk \"Jt in the assembly of monks i ^ f and thus earns the benefits of (being) a monk, may receive o f f e r i n g s . ' \" 3 9 1 The four incipient {*) and four per-3Q2 fected Fruits w ^ are the assembly of monks, the thirty-seven Parts of the Way are the (proper) conduct of a monk, and the Four Fruits are the benefits of (being) a monk. \"The monk again asked the Buddha, 'What about (a monk) who has given rise to the Mahayana thought (of enlightenment)?' The Buddha answered, 'If one gives rise to the Mahayana thought (of enlightenment) and seeks omniscience -* ^jj , 393 then even though he may not conform to (the rules) of the assembly (of monks), practise the (proper) conduct of a monk or have earned the benefit of (being) a monk, he s t i l l may receive o f f e r i n g s . ' 3 9 4 The monk was astonished and asked, 'How can such a person receive 395 offerings'? The Buddha said, 'This person receives clothes enough to cover the whole earth and food equal in volume to Mt. Sumeru. Moreover he is ultimately able to requite the almsgivers' (danapatl) 396 kindness.\" 1 Know therefore that even the highest f r u i t of the HTnayana is s t i l l inferior to the f i r s t thought (of enlightenment) in 397 the Mahayana. 161 The Ju-1 ai -pi -mi -tsang-ching ^_ 'jjfc tfj^ ^ ( Tathagata-guyha-kosa) s a y s , 3 9 8 \"If a person (i) harms his father, who has become 399 a pratyeka-buddha; or ( i i ) steals things belong to the Three Jewels; or ( i i i ) d e f i l e s 4 0 0 his mother, who has become an arhat; or (iv) slanders the Buddha with untrue allegations; or (v) sows discord in the samgha with double talk; or (vi) v i l i f i e s holy men with hateful speech; or (vii ) ruins seekers (with lascivious talk); or ( v i i i ) is angry enough (to commit) the f i r s t of the five Retrograde A c t s ; 4 0 1 or (ix) avaricious enough to appropriate things belonging to those who observe the monastic code; 4 0 2 or (x) foolish enough to adhere to the extreme views (of eternal ism and annihilationism)--then (oh Kasyapa), such a person is evil even within the ten evil a c t s . 4 0 3 But i f (this evil person) understands Jfca the Tathagata's teaching that there is in conditioned 404 dharmas no self, person, animate being or life-substance, no arising nor perishing, no defilement nor attachment, and that their essential nature is pure\u2014and ( i f ) one understands that the essential nature of al1 dharmas is pure 4 0 5\u2014then I do not teach, (oh Kasyapa), that such a one, comprehending fyp- and believing -j\"^. \/ V (these teachings), goes to hell or receives the retribution of the (other) evil destinies. Why? (Because, oh Kasyapa), there is in dharmas no accumulation (of sin), no Cause of Suffering and no Suffering. Dharmas a l l f a i l to either arise or p e r i s t ; 4 0 6 their arising takes place due to a conflu-ence of causes and conditions, and they perish as soon as they arise. (Kasyapa), i f thoughts\/^ perish as soon as they a r i s e , 4 0 7 then a l l the bonds {bandhana) also perish as soon as they arise. Understood in this way, there is noplace where (the sin could be) committed, and even i f the sin had duration, there would be no place for i t to occur. We may compare this to a room, dark for a hundred y e a r s , 4 0 8 wherein a lamp is l i t . The darkness could not then say, 'I am the master of this room, having dwelt here so long; I do not consent to leave.' For (in fact) once the lamp is l i t , the darkness immediately vanishes. 1 , 4 0 9 The meaning (of what I am saying) is the same (as what is said in the s u t r a ) . 4 1 0 This sutra indicates precisely (the nature of) the four above (kinds of) bodhioitta.411 \"If one understands the Tathagata's 412 exposition of the law of causation\" indicates the f i r s t bodhioitta; \" i f (one understands that) there is no arising nor perishing\" indicates the second bodhioitta; \"If (one understands that) essential nature is pure\" indicates the third bodhioitta; and \" i f one understands that the essential nature of a l l dharmas is pure\" indicates the fourth bodhioitta. If even the f i r s t (of these) bodhioittas is already capable of eradicating the (karma produced by) the gravest (ways of committing the) ten evil acts, then how much more (efficacious) must the second, third and fourth bodhioittas be! The practitioner who hears of this supreme and wondrous merit (of the bodhioitta) must spontaneously rejoice, (for i t s arising) is like the dark becoming light, the (stinking) castor-oil (seed) becoming a (fragrant) sandalwood 413 tree. 1 0 Q: The term \"causes-and-conditions\" has been used in a l l (the four levels of understanding). Why is i t (now) applied to only the f i r s t view? 163 A: This term is applied (to the f i r s t level of bodhioitta) only because i t is in the f i r s t (line of \"the gdthd\"). Also, causation is an aspect of the Provisional Truth \"Ij^Q , so that i t is convenient to (apply this term to) the f i r s t view. But i f we say \"arising-and-perishing,\" the application of this term) is restricted to the f i r s t view (bodhioitta). The other three have features which they share (with each other and the f i r s t view) as well as features restricted (only to them), but they are named on the basis of which doctrines 414 are peculiar to them. D. The Six Identities Q: When you now \"Reveal the Right (bodhioitta) \"in terms of the Six Identities, is this 'Right' (bodhioitta) something which is present for a mere beginner Ifyfl , or is i t present for one in the final stages 41\/- ?\"415 A: As in (the simile of) the burning wick in the Treatise: \"It is neither at the beginning nor apart from the beginning, 416 neither at the end nor apart from the end.\" If the practitioner's wisdom and faith are (both) sufficient, then when he hears (the teaching) that a single moment of thought is identical with the Right (bodhioitta), his faith prevents him from disparaging (the teaching), 4 1 7 while his wisdom prevents him from 418 fearing i t . (In this case the beginning and the end are both Rightly understood by him). But i f he lacks faith, then he esteems (only) the saintly realms yjft^, (believing) he has no part in 164 wisdom himself; while i f he lacks wisdom, then he turns arrogant, declaring himself the equal of the Buddha. (In these one-sided cases) the beginning and the end are both Wrong(ly understood). These are the 419 reasons one needs to understand the (doctrine of the) Six Identities. They are (1) Identity in Principle, (2) Verbal Identity, (3) Identity of (Religious) Practise, (4) Identity of Resemblance, (5) Identity of Partial Truth, and (6) Ultimate Identity. These Six Identities range from the ordinary person to the saint. Because they begin with the 420 ordinary person they eliminate doubt and fear, and because they end 421 with the saint they eliminate arrogance. 1. Identity in Principle Identity in Principle (means that each) single moment of thought is identical to the Ultimate Truth of the Tathdgata-garbha -\u00a3tz $L j | ^ It is identical to emptiness because of its suchness (tatha), identical to provisional ity because of i t s garbha (-nature) , 4 2 2 and identical to the Middle because i t is the Ultimate Truth . It is unthinkable (but true) that the Three Wisdoms are f u l l y present in (any) single thought. As we have explained above, the Three Truths are a single Truth, but also neither three nor one. Every shape and every odor contains a l l dharmas, and so too for every thought. This is what is called the Identity-in-Principle (level of the) Right bodhicitta. It is also the Identity-in-Principle (level of) calming-and-contemplation. Identical-to-serenity ~$P$JLis called calming j i ^ , and identical-to-shining-(wisdom) U f ^ j ' s called contemplation ;|\u00a3, . 165 2. Verbal Identity Verbal Identity: Even though the Ultimate Truth is identical to 424 \/ x 425 these, (one may) be unaware of this in daily l i f e , and not having heard the (doctrine of the) Three Truths, be completely unacquainted with the Buddha's Dharma. (Such people are) like cattle and sheep, whose eyes do not distinguish the (four) cardinal or the (four) inter-mediate directions. But i f one should hear, whether from personal acquaintances ifo. or the rolls of the sutras, of the one reality of enlightenment which is discussed above, one can then attain to verbal 426 comprehension (of the Truth) that a l l dharmas are the Buddha's Dharma. 427 This is the bodhi(oitta) (at the level) of Verbal Identity. It is 428 also the Verbal Identity (level) of calming-and-contemplation. For the restlessly upward-seeking mind to come to rest, having (finally) heard what i t has chased about everywhere to hear--this is called calming (at the level of words); to place one's faith only in (this intellectually understood) Dharma-nature and not in the many (forms in which i t is manifested) is called contemplation (at the level of words). 4 2 9 3. Identity of Religious Practise The Identity of Religious Practise: One who does no more than hear the terms and expound them is like an insect that accidentally produces the written signs of language ^- by i t s (random) gnawing on a tree, unaware whether they are characters or n o t . 4 3 0 Without even comprehending (the meaning of the words of the Dharma), how could 166 (anyone) be enlightened? It is essential that one's insight ^ J s ^ l l ^ 431 be c l a r i f i e d to the point where Ultimate Truth and (one's own degree of) wisdom are in correspondence, so that one's actions are con-gruent with one's words, and one's words congruent with one's 432 actions. It says in the Hua-shou-ching ^ \"For the most part (people) f a i l to practise what they preach. It is not with words, 433 but solely in the mind that I realize {bodhi).\" When mind and mouth are in correspondence with each other, one has the bodhii-oitta) of the Identity of Religious Practise. Four lines (of verse) in the Treatise evaluate the degree of wisdom achieved by hearing (the Dharma). 4 3 4 Similarly, when the eye encounters sunlight, one understands (what one sees) clearly and without distor-435 tion. Though one has yet to match (oneself) perfectly to the Ultimate Truth, the contemplation of one's thought does not cease. It is like the simile in the Shou-leng-yen-san-mei-ching l | ^ J j f c . - ^ ^ ^ of shooting arrows at a target. This is called the bodhi(-oitta) of (the Identity of) Religious Practise. To constantly bear this in mind is called contemplation, and to halt (all) other thoughts is 437 called calming. . . . 4. Identity of Resemblance The Right bodhii'-oitta) (at the level) of the Identity of Resem-blance: As his contemplation becomes ever clearer and his calming ever more serene, (the practitioner at this level nears his objective) just 167 as (the archer) becomes increasingly accurate with practise. This is called the wisdom achieved through contemplation (at the level) of the Identity of Resemblance. (At this level) none of the mundane means of livelihood are in opposition to each other, and a l l one's thoughts and evaluations (turn out to be) what has been expounded in the sutras 438 of previous Buddhas. It is as explained in (my discussions else-where on) the purity of the six senses. 4 3 9 (At this stage) completely 440 suppressing nescience is what is called calming, and the wisdom which is patterned after (resembles) the Middle Way is what is called contemplation. . . . 5. Identity of Partial T r u t h 4 4 1 The Identity of Partial Truth: Through the power of contemplation achieved at the level of the Identity of Resemblance (the practitioner . 442 now) enters the stage of the copper wheel. Beginning here to destroy nescience, one perceives the Buddha-nature and opens up the treasure-lode (of the true Dharma) to reveal Thusness. These are called the Abode of the Arising of the Thought 4 4 3 (and so on) up to the stage ^ iAl 444 of near-Buddhahood i^r , as nescience grows increasingly weak and wisdom increasingly prominent. Similarly, from the f i r s t day up to the fourteenth day (of the lunar month), the disk of the moon 445 becomes more perfect as the darkened area vanishes. If a person is to achieve enlightenment ^ in a Buddha's body, then he passes through the Eight Stations ,\\ 1\u00ae ffy , 4 4 6 (while i f he) is to achieve enlightenment in a body of (one of the other) nine destinies, 168 i t is through incarnations as (expounded) in the chapter on Avaloki-tesvara (Chapter 25 of the Lotus sutra), as the (Lotus) sutra teaches at greater length. This is called the bodhi(-citta) of the Identity of Partial Truth. It is also called the calming-and-contemplation of (the Identity of) Partial Truth, and the wisdom {bodhi) and eradicating {nirvana) (at the level) of Partial Truth. 6. Ultimate Identity The bodhi(oitta) of Ultimate Identity: A single notch beyond the Near-buddha ^ ^ and (the practitioner) enters into f u l l Buddhahood When the light of his wisdom is perfect and complete, with nothing more to add, this is called the (final) f r u i t of enlightenment. When in mahanirvana the defilements have been eradicated, with nothing 447 remaining to eradicate, this is called the Fruit of Fruits. The Near-buddha does not pass (into this stage): only a Buddha is able to. 448 Beyond aha there is no further Way to be expounded. That is why this is called the bodhi(aitta) of Ultimate (Identity), and also the calming-and-contemplation of Ultimate I d e n t i t y . 4 4 9 ****** We now illu s t r a t e a l l (the Six Identities) with (a single) simile. (1) Suppose there is a pauper with a cache of treasure around her house that no one (including herself) is aware of. (2) A friend shows her (where i t is buried), so that she becomes aware (of i t s existence). 169 (3) She clears away the weeds and (begins to) dig i t out, (4) gradually getting closer and closer to i t . (5) She reaches and opens the cache of treasure', (6) empties i t and puts i t to use. By applying this 451 sixfold illustration (the Six Identities) can be understood. . . . Q: What is the meaning of the five (kinds of) enlightenment {bodhi) in the T r e a t i s e ? 4 5 2 A: The Treatise vertically classifies the stages of the Separate 453 (Teaching), whereas we now vertically classify the stages of the Perfect (Teaching(. 4 5 4 (Yet) matching up (the two s e t s , 4 5 5 (1) The First Arising of the Thought corresponds to Verbal ( I d e n t i t y ) ; 4 5 5 3 456 (2) The Suppressing Mind corresponds to (the Identity of) Religious 457 Practise; (3) The Clear Mind corresponds to (the Identity of) 458 Resemblance; (4) Emerging Towards (Enlightenment) corresponds to (the Identity of) Partial Truth; and (5) The Supreme Mind 4 5 9 corresponds to Ultimate Identity. These terms (from the TCTL) may also be used to name the stages in the Perfect (Teaching) ||) ^  : 4 6 0 (1) The First Arising of the Thought is the Ten Abodes -\\ ; (2) the Suppressing Mind is the Ten Stages of Action \"t' ; 4 6 1 Q: \"Eradicating (the defilements) has already taken place in the (Ten) Abodes \"f^J- . why now is there (again) \"suppressing\" in the (subsequent) Ten Stages of Action -f ? A: Here i t is with the True Way (Mahayana) that the suppression 463 (of the defilements) is accomplished. Similarly, in the Hinayana destroying intellectual delusions is called \"eradicating,\" while in the 170 case of the emotional delusions (this operation) is called \"suppressing\" . . . . 4 6 4 (3) The Clear Mind 4 6 5 is the Ten Stages of Di vers ion - f ^ f a ; (4) Emerging Towards is the Ten Stages Proper -f ; (5) and the Supreme (Mind) is f u l l Buddhahood -JrJT^ . 4 6 6 Again, the five kinds of bodhi (from the TCTL) are completely contained in the Ten Abodes - j ' , (and a l l the other stages as well), up to the Ultimate (stage) of f u l l Buddhahood MJ\/ . 4 6 7 Hence i t says in the Shih-ti-ching-lun -\\ -V& $$.\"t(jff^ that every stage from the f i r s t one on contains the merit of a l l (the Ten) Stages -\\ k^B, . 4 6 9 That is the meaning of the present discussion. Q: What is the reason that the (doctrine of the) Six Identities is taught with reference to the Perfect (Teaching alone)? A: When one contemplates dharmas in the Perfect (Teaching or calming-and-contemplation), they are a l l spoken of in terms of the Six Identities. Hence in the Perfect sense the Six Identities are employed for a l l dharmas when judging the stage (of progress that one has reached). This is not the case for other (Teachings), which is why we do not apply this (doctrine of Six Identities to the other Teachings). Why would i t be inappropriate to apply this (Six Identities) to those Teachings? Because they are \"shallow and near,\" 4 6 9 a and do not (expound),, the proper meaning of the (Perfect) Teaching. ******* 171 Thus, in the above (text) where we have excluded the wrong (bodhi-oitta), we f i r s t excluded only the Truth of Suffering, (the bodhioittas, i.e. destinies) in which there was a rising and a fa l l i n g within the mundane world. In the next (section) we excluded only those kinds of wisdom (whose view) of the Four Noble Truths was round-about, clumsy, shallow and near. 4 7 0 Next 4 7 1 (and f i n a l l y ) , we dealt with the stages 472 of the Six Identities. (The wheel of the Dharma has thus) rolled (by degrees) towards the profound and the subtle. This indeed is \"Revealing the Right (bodhioitta).\" Know therefore that \"the wondrous pearl which is clear as the moon is at (the bottom of) a chasm nine levels deep, beneath the jaws of a \"473 black dragon, but those with (sufficient) will and merit will surely reach i t . Otherwise, one would be like ordinary people in the world , coarse and shallow, drifting in the a i r , (or like those who) struggle for possession of t i l e s , rocks, grass and sticks, mistakenly calling them jewels, 474 (but actually) immensely ignorant. 172 FOOTNOTES LESSER CHAPTER ONE AROUSING THE GREAT THOUGHT {bodhioitta-utpada) 1 -J-The actual t i t l e of this section is \u00bb (regional speech), interpreted by CJ as \"the difference in speech and sounds between the two regions India and China.\" Actually the two components of the word bodhioitta, bodhi and oitta, are all that is discussed in this brief section. 2 I.e., p'u-t'i is a transliteration of the Indian term bodhi, while the translation for the same Indian term is too . The latter is the older Buddho-Taoist translation of bodhi, which by Chih-i's time was partly obsolete. The newer translation of bodhi, which has much less of a Taoist flavour, was ohueh #r (awakening): this has essentially the same meaning as the Indian term bodhi. Bodhi is of course a cognate of \"Buddha,\" which means \"the awakened one,\" and the Sanskrit word Buddha is hence sometimes rendered ^ Jj^ , \"the awakened one.\" 3 As opposed to the multitude of other meanings of this Chinese character, e.g. \"the physical heart.\" 4 Though their meanings in Sanskrit (and English) are almost entirely different, oitta (mind) and hrdaya (heart) are both translated as hsin in Chinese. 5 Merely another transliteration of hrdaya, differing only in the f i r s t character of the three comprising the word. The following ten \"ways\" are actually unfavourable rebirths, hence gati in Sanskrit rather than bodhi. Thus Chih-i understands bodhioitta-utpada as \"arousing the thought of the Way,\" so that he is now concerned to exclude the lesser \"ways\" as false paths, wrong turns on the journey to enlightenment, false bodhioittas. In his discussion hsin (oitta) sometimes seems to mean \"thought\" and sometimes \"mind.\" The f i r s t six of these ten \"ways\" are the same as the traditional Six Destinies, from hell to gods. 7The well-known Three Poisons, equal to rdga, dvesa and moha in Sanskrit, except that in the process of transition to China, dvesa (aversion, hate) became \"anger\". 173 \"This is the attempt to use \"calming.\" 9 This is the attempt to use \"contemplation.\" 1 0The ten evil acts are k i l l i n g , stealing, adultery, lying, slander, harsh speech, frivolous speech, covetousness, anger (or hatred in the Sanskrit tradition), and wrong views. See Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva  Doctrine, pp. 199-204, for detailed comment on these. They may be committed in three degrees according to the TCTL(T25.663a, Roll 86): great (corresponding to hell), middling (animals) and lesser (hungry ghosts, pretas). 1 1 The path (destiny, gati) of f i r e , the path of blood, and the path of knives, are the three lowest of the ten rebirth states, namely hell, animals and spirits (hungry ghosts). The story of the five eunuchs -is contained in the Wei-ts'eng-yu-yin-yuan-ching ^ ^ #|c $ X (Taisho #754,Tl7.583-584). These were originally five lazy monks, who in a time of famine posed as sages, pretending to be deeply immersed in meditation, but actually harbouring a l l sorts of evil thoughts. Though they succeeded in gaining a handsome livelihood for themselves, the ultimate result of their deception was to plunge them for eons into hell. They were reborn then over a long period f i r s t as hungry ghosts, then animals, until four of them ended up as castrated palanquin-bearers in a royal palace, and one of them as a cleaner of latrines. All s t i l l resisted the Dharma, even when confronted by the Buddha. 12 I.e., there is no end to i t . '^Devadatta tried to persuade the Buddha to let him take charge of the Satfigha, then f a i l i n g to gain consent, tried to do so without the Buddha's permission, thus committing the grave sin of \"fomenting dis-cord in the Samgha\" (one of the five grave sins, a l l of which he ultimately committed). CJ cites the Four-part Vinaya (Taisho #1428, Roll 16), Five-part Vinaya (Taisho #1421, Roll 3), and Nirvana sutra (Tl2.812a: Roll 31, Ch. 24, Yamamoto translation p. 836), and quotes directly the TCTL T25.252b, Roll 26), where Devadatta is reviled by the Buddha as \"a fool, a corpse, a swallower of s p i t t l e . \" The TCTL mentions earlier his commission of the sin of fomenting discord in the Samgha, and goes on to detail his commission of the other four grave sins. Lamotte in his TCTL translation (pp. 873-874) has a long note on this schism, for which he has culled numerous sources. For an English treatment of the schism, see Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 86ff. A general term for barbarian countries in the north, south, east and west. 174 l 3From the TCTL (T25.63c-64a, Roll 1, Ch. 2). The Buddha is here quoted that the Way is not something that can be attained by views {drsti), tradition [Sruti), knowledge {jnana) or moral conduct, nor by'the absence of these, but is rather to be attained by the abandoning of a l l attachment. Makandika argued in reply that i t should be attainable by simply saying nothing at a l l . The TCTL quotes the stanzas containing Makandika's heretical view and the Buddha's refuta-(and corresponding English translation) is found in the Magandiya-sutta, one of sixteen suttas in the 4th chapter of the Suttanipata ( i t s e l f the f i f t h and last section of the Khuddaka-nikaya). See Lamotte's note on p. 39 of his TCTL translation. Later in the TCTL (T25.82b, Roll 3, Ch. 6), Makandika is cited as the founder of a religious order (the Magandika) whose adherents believed that through contemplating the corpse of their founder they would gain the Way of Purity {visuddhimdrga). 1 c CJ: But the kite is nevertheless not superior to the peacock (a flightless bird). 1 7 C J says this is a reference to Ch. 38 of the Tao-te-ching of Lao-tzu, which he quotes verbatim: \"When the Way is lost, its Power remains behind; when i t s Power is lost, kindness remains behind; when kindness is lost, justice remains behind; when justice is lost, the rites remain behind; when the rites are lost, knowledge remains behind; when knowledge is lost, faith remains behind.\" See Waley's translation, The Way and its Power, p. 189. The Way which is in Lao-tzu the origin of a l l these virtues is expressed by the same word tao ^  that Chih-i accepts as a translation of bodhi and uses to signify the ten unfavour-able ways of rebirth in this section. Clearly a Buddhist meaning is being imposed on the Taoist quotation. This practise was less common by the Sui dynasty than in previous centuries in China, when Buddhism was s t i l l in the earlier stages of assimilation. 1 8 I n which the ten good acts are practised. 19 CJ: Here one is intermediate between the painful, lower destinies and the good in the destiny of the gods. I.e., hell, animals, hungry ghosts. 21 I.e., relating to one's environment in neither a sensory nor a motor fashion. tion of i t from the The Pali o 20 Originally one of the six non-Buddhist ascetic schools at the time of Sakyamuni, namely the Jains, but used here in a wider sense to mean any non-Buddhist pursuing religious emancipation. 175 23 This part of the text is probably corrupt. These six desires\" are a rather miscellaneous l i s t of attachments, to colour, forms, enticing behaviour, artful speech, soft and smooth skin, and attractive faces of men and women. They are to be overcome by the Nine Meditations on Death (described at TCTL: Roll 21, Ch. 35). OA The TCTL (T25.120c, Roll 8, Ch. 14) distinguishes between external and internal pleasures, with the latter (the bliss of nirvana) comparable to the water that rushes up from the recesses of a stone spring. 25 That i s , the mind which practices the four brahma-viharas or maitrl, kavuna, muditd, upeksa: goodwill, compassion, sympathetic joy and equa-nimity. ?fi These, along with the Realm of Desire, make up the Three Realms, from which the practitioner has now separated himself, as stated above in the MHCK text. Traditionally the Brahma-heaven is considered iden-tical with the f i r s t of the four d%ana-heavens in the Realm of Form; i t is subdivided into three Brahma-heavens, while the term is also used loosely to apply to the whole Realm of Form. Here Chihri seems to extend the meaning of the term s t i l l more to include the Formless Realm. As for the above reference to the three dhydnas, CJ states that the search for pleasure (or bliss) is limited to the f i r s t three of the four dhyanas, for in the fourth dhyana one separates oneself from even the bliss of dhyana. Thereis another set of three dhydnas, with ninety-six subdivisions, given in Roll 9 of the MHCK, but this does not seem to be what is being referred to here. 27 y These are of course the well-known triad of slla, samddhi, prajnd. 28 CJ comments that this is a lower path than the Mahayana because morality is made the basis, and no consideration is given to saving other beings. 29 CJ notes for instance that the highest stage could be broken down into two--srdvakas and pratyeka-buddhas--vihUe the Lotus and VimalakTrti l i s t respectively six and five lower (subhuman) Ways (gatis or Destinies in this case, not bodhis) , depending on whether asuras are counted separately or not. Chih-i follows the Lotus as usual and l i s t s six of these. CJ adds that to denote an animate being by one of the ten Ways is not to suggest that the other nine are not also present in the being's mind. The mind of a single living being is categorized according to the predominating tendency, which is turn determines the 176 appropriate karmic retribution in the next l i f e . Chih-i and CJ are full y conscious of the tentative and provisional nature of these categories. Later generations of T'ien-t'ai scholars were often much less liberal in their interpretations, as heuristic analysis gradually hardened into dogma. 31T25.219a, Roll 21, Ch. 36. The third of these phrases is actu-all y not in the TCTL, and was apparently added by Chih-i to f i l l out his comment on the three lowest destinies. The TCTL is at this point discussing the usefulness of contemplating pure morality and generosity in removing the fear of having an unfavourable rebirth: for \"an immoral mind fears being reborn in hel l , and an avaricious mind fears being reborn as a hungry (craving) ghost.\" The same person may be at different times avaricious or immoral, but his rebirth-fear varies with whichever negative tendency predominates at the time. 32 Any of the ten listed above, or any subdivision within them. 33 CJ says that the rising of \"wrong\" thought precedes the true \"arousing of the thought\" ^L. i t s e l f , which comes into play only when right thought arises. Thus he understands bodhioitta-utpada correctly as arousing (awakening) the thought of enlightenment, in contrast to Chih-i, who^keeps to the old (and erroneous) interpretation J_TThe pond of course symbolizes the mind. 35 This simile might well be from a sutra, but the commentators do not give a source and I was unable to locate one myself. oc From the Nirvana sutra, T12.660b, Roll 9, Ch. 6, Yamamoto translation p. 230. In the sutra i t is the iaahantika who is compared to the silkworms. 37 For the Hmayanists pay no heed to the suffering of others, being devoted solely to their own liberation. 38 The f i r s t nine paths correspond to the f i r s t member of each of these pairs, the tenth (HTnayana) path to the second. Though the HTnayana bears on the unconditioned, the absence of outflows, the good, the pure, liberation, and the Ultimate Truth, unlike the Mahayana i t is s t i l l dualistic, making discriminations between the lower and the higher, self and other, samsara and nirvana. 34. 39 The f i r s t of the Four Noble Truths. CJ adds that the text should include the second of the Four, craving as the Cause of suffering, for the beings of the nine lower paths are involved in this as well. 177 40 The words in parentheses in the previous sentence are due to CJ. This is one of the passages in MHCK that i(s so e l l i p t i c a l as to be completely unintelligible without further commentary. The \"conjured city\" is a famous parable from the Lotus sutra (T9.26a, Ch. 7, Murano translation pp. 131-132): here the expedient (HTnayana) teaching of the Buddha is compared to a magic, unreal city conjured up for the exhausted treasure-seekers by the leader of the expedition, to give them a rest on the way to their goal. Once they recover their strength he causes i t to disappear. This whole parable is implied by the single word \"near\" \u00a3 ^ in the MHCK text! 41 I.e., Hmayanist beings have conquered craving. 42 The same four defects of the Hmayana as listed above, but in a different order. 43 The fourth of the Four Noble Truths traditionally. However Chih-i usually reverses the order of the last two Truths so as to place Annihilation (nirvana) at the end. CJ notes that actually \" e v i l \" and \"defilement\" do not'belong to the Truth of the Way and are included only for contrast. 44 Traditionally the third of the Four Noble Truths. Here again the negative half of each pair--\"bondage\" and \"Provisional Truth\"~is included only for contrast, and does not otherwise belong here. 45 The three kinds of activity are those of body, speech and mind. The four bodily postures are walking, standing, si t t i n g , reclining. 46 These sentences clearly reveal the lecture format of the text. 47 \"Road\" here also means \"path,\" which is Chih-i's understanding of the meaning of bodhioitta. 48 CJ and Kogi emphasize that this question and answer pair is now on the level of \"right\" bodhioitta, beyond the ten wrong bodhioittas (paths). It is s t i l l possible even now however to go off the track, and this Q-A pair is thus a further corrective for the practitioner who has now presumably separated himself from a l l ten of the lower paths. 49 This is a form of the tetralemma. 50 T14.544b, Ch. 5, Luk translation p. 50. To continue the passage in the sutra, \"If the child recovers, the father and mother also 178 recover. In the same way, bodhisattvas love a l l animate beings as their own children. When the beings are i l l , the bodhisattvas are also i l l , and when the beings recover, the bodhisattvas also recover.\" The bodhisattva VimalakTrti is here explaining to ManjusrT, who has come to inquire after his illness, the nature of his illness: he suffers because in re-entering the realm of samsara in order to save animate beings, he feels their suffering as his own. 51T12.724a24-a27, Roll 18, Ch. 20, Yamamoto translation p. 479. The passage in the sutra reads, \"It is like a man with seven children, among whom one f a l l s i l l . Though the father's and mother's feelings (toward the children) are not unequal, they are nevertheless especially partial to their sick child. Great King, the Tathagata is like this. Though (his feelings) toward living beings ore not unequal, he is never-theless especially partial toward sinners m .\" Aside from the sickness analogy, this quote from the NirvSna sutra makes an interest-ing assertion, which is not clear in Chih-i fs abbreviated quote, about Buddha's partiality toward sinners. 52 These two are the f i f t h and fourth of a l i s t of five practices given in the Nirvana sutra (Tl2.673b, Roll,11, Ch. 19, Yamamoto translation p. 281'j. The f i r s t , second and third of these are Saintly-practise, Pure-practise and Heavenly-practise. Rolls 11-18 of the Nirvana sutra are occupied in explaining these five practises: Ch. 19 (T12.673-693) is on the f i r s t , Ch. 20 (T12.693-728) is on the second, and Ch. 21 (Tl2.728-730) is on the fourth. The Heavenly-practise (#3) is mentioned only briefly, as the sutra refers the reader to a scripture named Tsa-hua No sutra or treatise of this name is known to exist, but a fsa-hua-ching Ipp. 4|r is recorded that is no longer extant (see BSKS 7.64c). As for the Illness-practise (#5), no mention of this is made after the o r i g i n a l J i s t of the Five Practises in the Nirvana sutra, but Ch. 18 of the sutra, preceding the l i s t (which i t s e l f opens Ch. 19), deals with illness as a metaphor for the suffering of beings in samsara. If this chapter is an explanation of the f i f t h of the Five Practises, i t is out of place. Following Oda's definition (Oda, p. 514c), Saintly-practise (#1) means employing morality, meditation and wisdom (the ancient triad); Pure-practise (#2) means employing a pure mind to remove suffering and confer happiness; Heavenly-practise (#3) means a subtle practise based on the natural and inherent K f\u00a3\\ Ultimate Truth (this is obscure); Child-practise (#4) involves revealing the lesser HTnayanistic practises out of a sense of compassion, as when the Buddha treats beings like his own children; and Illness-practise (#5) means healing the illness of the beings' suffering. Here in the MHCK of course the Illness-practise and the Child-practise refer specifically to the bodhisattva's attitude towards beings, comparing him to a parent and the beings to sick children. 179 53 I could not find this passage in any of the sutras contained in the Taisho canon which include the word ch'an in their t i t l e s . Shiki states that he too searched a l l the \"Ch'an-ching\" without finding this passage. He believes, and I concur, that i t is from a sutra no longer extant. It may be one of the three lost works listed by BSKS (6.391c) under that t i t l e : translations by An Shih-kao or Lokaksema of late Han, or GTtamitra of the E. Tsin. In any case, these \"Four'Ways of Responding to Capacities of Animate Beings to Receive the Teaching\" NJP are evidently identical in content to the four siddhantas, as CJ also notes. 54 . \u00b0T25.59b. 55 Actually they are the same as the f i r s t two of the four ways. The third and fourth siddhantas of the TCTL are not only identical in meaning to the third and fourth Kinds of Response as given in the mysterious \"Dhyana-sutra,\" but identical in name as well. The f i r s t and second of each group differ in name only; thus there is a one-to-one correspondence between the members of each group. 56 \"To see innumerable Buddhas with the eye of thought.\" T25.108c-109a). This developed into the nien-fo (nembutsu^ practised to this day in modern Japan--simply repeating the Bu name over and over: \"namu-amida-butsu, namu-amida-butsu, .... 57 These are from a l i s t of about twenty (according to Lamotte's enumeration) or twenty-one (CJ) or twenty-three (Shiki) reasons for preaching the Prajna-paramita-sutras which take up the entire f i r s t chapter of the TCTL (T25.57c-62c). the five are respectively f i r s t , second, fourteenth, f i f t h and sixteenth in the sequence, following Lamotte's enumeration. 5 8Another name for the five Lesser Chapters of MHCK--the Synopsis\u2014 according to Kogi as well as a later CJ comment. As we see a l i t t l e later (5a8), these can be regarded as either cause or condition depending on the practitioner's own resolution and commitment: \"condition' is merely a weaker form of \"cause.\" 59 I.e., f u l l y heedful of the listeners' a b i l i t y to understand, their receptive capacity. 6 0 I n this case, \"The Treatise\" means the Chung-lun ^ (T#1564) instead of the TCTL, at T30.39a (Ch. 27, the 25th stanza of the karikas of Nagarjuna). CJ and the Taikei edition of MHCK (as well as the e\/zon\u2014combined main text and CJ's commentary\u2014from which the latter is derived) treat only the f i r s t ten characters of this phrase as a sutra quote, and the last ten as Chih-i's comment on the 180 sutra, merging with what follows. Kogi also makes a rare mistake and puts the quote at \"6.12\" of the Chuhg-lun. In addition, the seventh of^the twenty characters in the quote should be instead of the |c which stands in today's MHCK text. This stanza is one in a group (21-27) which refute, the false view of annihilation: that things come to a real end {ucehedavada, one of the Two Extreme Views). The whole stanza can be rendered, \"Samsara n a s neither an end nor is without an end, for the True Dharma and those who expound i t are hard for listeners to encounter.\" *Pingala explains in the Chung-lun that i t is true that as long as one f a i l s to gain the True Dharma one continues to cycle in samsara, but since hearing the Dharma and gaining the Path puts an end to samsara i t is not correct to say samsara is truly endless: this refutes the 3rd and 4th members of the tetralemma on uoahedavada. in the Sanskrit of the MMK there are thirty stanzas in Chapter 27 as against thirty-one in the Chinese of KumarajTva (Robinson, p. 30, fa i l s to notice this discrepancy in his comparison of the two versions), and this stanza is the one missing from the Sanskrit. The stanzas immediately before and after stanza 25 of the Chinese correspond to stanzas 24 and 25 of the Sanskrit (i.e., they are consecutive), of J. May's translation of (a major part of) the Prasannapada. This stanza is also missing from the karikas of Bhavaviveka's PrajflapradTpa tyfajfe ^ P-W (T#1566). It may possibly be an interpolation by KumSrajTva or *Pingala (*Vimalaksa). CJ understands only the f i r s t half of the stanza as a quote, and so understands the \"hard to encounter (gain, achieve)\" as applying to the Dharma, those who expound i t and the listeners: the three are the receptivity, the response, and the Dharma which passes between them (as we might think of an electric current passing between an anode and a cathode). He then understands the last ten characters of the stanza along with the next ten characters of the MHCK text as Chih-i's statement on this Dharma. Thus the use to which this quote is put in the MHCK has l i t t l e relation to it s original sense or context. 0 1 Chih-i obviously understands ohen _ f l - , f i r s t character in the quote, to apply to expounders and listeners as well as the Dharma, while the original context of the quote as well as *Pingala's commentary on i t compel me to understand the shen ^ J L as applied only to the Dharma. C O CJ points out that this division of the four siddhantas conforms to the Two Truths. That i s , the f i r s t three siddhantas are the Provis-ional Truth and the fourth is the Ultimate Truth (this is in agreement with Lamotte's analysis). He also states that the four are the meaning of receptivity-and-response: this is also clearly true, for the preacher must consider the receptivity of his audience before deciding which method of teaching {siddhanta) to respond with. 181 From the Lotus, T9.7a, Ch. 2, Murano translation p. 28. 64 I.e., the five chapters of the MHCK Synopsis. 65 & Jt<9 The interpretation of siddhdnta ft- as \"universal giving\" was Hui-ssu's idea. I have commented above on his misunderstanding. CC CJ: When we are on the l e f t of something, we say i t is to the right, while when we are on the right of something, we say i t is to the l e f t . fi7 The \"teacher\" can be considered the MHCK text i t s e l f , so that i t can have the role of either cause or condition. As CJ says, i f the particular being's (practitioner's) thought of enlightenment is especially valiant,- he need only provisionally employ a sage teacher as an assisting condition, while he is himself the real cause. But i f his \"good roots\" are weak, he is a mere condition, while the sage teacher in trying to rouse him and push him onward becomes the true cause (of further progress on the path). 68 I.e., when the terms are correctly defined. 69 _ The Four Kinds of Response ^  uiL, , the Four siddhantas and the five \"Causes and Conditions,\" says CJ, but in that case the Five Moreovers 3- I^L'-'JC have been omitted from the summation. 7 0Chih-i now compares the f i r s t and second Kinds of Response to the f i r s t and second siddhdnta respectively, but leaves the third and fourth of each group uncontrasted since not only their meanings but their names as well are identical. 7 1The former is the subjective state of mind, the latter the \"place\"--CJ says skandhas and dyatanas, hence the world--in which one arrives as a karmic result of that subjective state of mind. 7 2 L i t e r a l l y \"stop.\" 73 I.e., the difference between the person being taught and the teaching i t s e l f . 74 Now Chih-i matches up the Five Causes-and-Conditions (the five chapters of the Synopsis) with the Four Kinds of Responding and the Four siddhdntas. The 3rd and 4th Lesser Chapter correspond together to the 3rd siddhdnta and 3rd Kind of Response. 182 \/ JThis and the other \"one is a l l \" statement in this passage are closely analogous to the \"macrocosm in a moment of thought\" idea for which Chih-i is famous, and which is very close to the doctrine of the Avatamsaka sutra (and the corresponding Chinese Buddhist school of Hua-yen). 7 6The lost \"Ch'an-ching\" $5 in which is contained the l i s t of the Four Kinds of Response ^7 . 7 7The TCTL as above. '\"This is \"rending the great net\" of others' doubts, chapter 4 of the Synopsis. In Chapter 3 the practitioners gain recompense for them-selves, in Chapter 4 they turn towards others; in Chapter 3 they eradicate what remains of their own impurities, in Chapter 4 they eradicate the impurities of others. 79 CJ: Their own practice is wondrously f u l f i l l e d , and their con-version of others is wondrously completed. 80 The five chapters of the Synopsis. p i Or: \"the Treatise,\" i.e. the TCTL. U <\"CJ: The thought of enlightenment guides the practices, the practices f u l f i l l the vow to become enlightened. Though root and branch differ, they alike perfect the tree of enlightenment [bodhi-tree). These are two of the five effects , which are in Abhidharma correlated with the six causes -7^ ^  . These terms were standardized in Chinese later on by Hsiian-tsang but here they are given in the terminology of the KumarajTva translation of the TCTL. In the f i r s t case the effect of an act is good, bad or neutral like the act (cause). In the second case, the effect is pleasurable or painful (that i s , heaven or he l l ) , and hence of a different nature from the morally good, evil or neutral act (cause). 84 This is the last of the ten \"such-likes\" by which Chih-i adum-brates the nature of dharmas in his theory of \"the macrocosm in a single moment of thought\" \u2014 ^ . Here i t is used as a name for the final chapter of the Synopsis. 183 Both can be regarded as translations of paramdrtha, so Chih-i is right in saying they are the same term, though Shiki thinks there may have been an error here, since the actual words differ. Shi ki also proposes however that since unlike the f i r s t four categories there is no pair relationship (root\/branch, etc.) between the two terms, i t is justifiable to say the names are the same'. His second speculation is I believe the correct one. 8 6These two pairs both mean \"gradual\/sudden.\" 87 I.e. either variable or not variable. CJ emphasizes that a l l sorts of false doctrines may arise i f these three are not understood at the same time to be one. 88 As above. 89 CJ: They can be mixed together in any combination. 90 CJ: Each dharma contains a l l dharmas. 91 CJ adds that the Four Kinds of Response and the Five Moreovers (Reasons for Preaching the Prajna-paramita-sutras) are to be understood similarly. 92 CJ: The three kinds of calming-and-contemplation, as well as the five chapters of the Synopsis (\"causes-and-conditions\"), the Five Moreovers, the Four Kinds of Response, and the Four siddhdntas, do not have any meaning which is not included in the meaning of \"arousing the thought of enlightenment\" and \"halting perverted thinking.\" The difference between one and three calming-and-contemplations is merely the difference between general and particular. 93 I.e., Lesser Chapter One. 94 I.e. Lesser Chapter Two. 95 Greater Chapter 8. I.e., the absolute existence and absolute inexistence of dharmas, or as CJ puts i t , a one-sided overstressing of provisionality on the one hand and of emptiness on the other. 1 9 7 C J : This is what accords with Ultimate Reality 98 Greater Chapter Nine. 99 Highest of the ten destinies. 1 0 0 T h i s corresponds to Lesser Chapter Four, as CJ verifies. He raises the question why, i f their content is essentially the same, Lesser Chapter Four (\"Rending the Great Net\") and Greater Chapter Nine (\"Starting the Teaching\") have such different t i t l e s . He answers himself to the effect that \"arousing the teaching\" means to benefit others, and \"rending the net\" means to remove their doubts. These are fundamentally the same. 1 0Vhe t i t l e of Lesser Chapter Five. 102 \"Treasury\" corresponds to the Sanskrit gavbha, usually taken to mean \"embryo\" in Sanskrit, as in Tathagatagarbha, but generally translated as tsang ( receptacle, storehouse, womb, treasury ) in Chinese. Here the sense is more that of what contains than of what is contained, and indeed, the Nirvana sutra, which Chih-i quotes constantly, uses i t in this sense (T12.616a, Roll 2, Ch. 3, Yamamoto translation p. 50). Yamamoto translates here \"the undisclosed store-house\" where I have \"the secret treasury.\" 103 Roll.11. The sutra does discuss the Four Noble Truths, but is not explicit about the Four Kinds of Four Noble Truths. The latter is actually original with Chih-i, and f i t s the doctrine of the Four Teachings: the f i r s t kind within these Four Kinds, \"arising-and-perishi is associated traditionally with the Tripitika Teaching (HTnayana), the second kind is associated with the Shared Teaching, the third with the Separate Teaching, and the fourth with the Perfect Teaching. 104 The f i r s t two Noble Truths. 105 The fourth and third Noble Truths as traditionally listed. Chih-i always l i s t s these two in the reverse of the traditional order. According to CJ, these are the \"four marks of dharmas,\" i.e. origination (arising), persistence, change and annihilation (perishing) j d t i , sthiti, anyathdtva, anityatd\u2014minus the second. The Abhidharma-kosa of Vasubandhu vacillates as to whether \"persistence\" and \"change,\" being the state of a dharma after i t s arising but before i t s perish-ing, are two names for the same state or actually two different states. Chih-i evidently takes the former position, and CJ does so e x p l i c i t l y , saying in his commentary here that \"persistence\" is omitted because 185 people would otherwise tend to form the idea of a Dharma's permanence. This of course would f a l l afoul of the original Buddhist principle of constant flux or impermanence. 1 0 7 I . e . , four basic defilements or klesas. One l i s t of four includes (1) the mistaken view that there is a self ^ $a ; (2) the mistaken view that what is made up of the five skandhas, namely the physical^tnd mental body, is unitarv-^:^; (3) infatuation with the self iyi'tfj and (4) s e l f - p r i d e - ^ ^_{asmimdna). However there being also other l i s t s , i t is hard to say which one Chih-i had in mind. I no I.e., the HTnayana teaching centers on the flux of dharmas (and not the eternal Truth). 1 OQ At the level of the lowest of the Four Kinds of Four Noble Truths, equivalent to the HTnayana, arising and perishing are taken as real, hence the name. CJ notes that while the naive and untrained person does experience suffering, he is not aware of i t s status as a principle or truth. The srdvaka or HTnayanist monk perceives i t as a truth, but only the bodhisattva understands that suffering is devoid of suffering, for he is no longer mired in the dualism of suffering\/ non-suffering. The same can be said where the other three Noble Truths are concerned. 1 1 0\"Non-arising\" is an abbreviation for \"neither-arising-nor-perish-ing.\" In contrast to the HTnayana position, the Four Noble Truths are here not taken as absolutes, but each shown to be empty. The same is done at this level with a l l the categories of Buddhist doctrine (not to speak of non-Buddhist categories). 1 ] 1 I . e . the Way. 112 I.e. Suffering. 113 Verbatim from the Heart Sutra as translated by Kumarajiva (T#251), though this passage happens to be identical to the better-known translation of Hsiian-tsang (T#252), which postdates Chih-i. J 1 4\"According\" or \"harmonizing\" is a translation of 4*^, a gloss on ^ which i t s e l f translates samudaya, the Second Noble Truth. Sqmudaya (meaning craving. Actually the word can mean either \"collection, multitude, aggregate\" or \"producing cause\" according to Monier-Williams), is the cause which harmonizes or \"aggregates\" with the effect, Suffering. 186 115 I.e., how could they have any relationship with each other as separate entities? If they are both the same there could be no relationship between them. 1 1 6 I follow Kogi, who glosses #. as . 1 1 7 F o r a more detailed explanation of this Shared Teaching, CJ refers us to the Visesa-cinta-brahma-pariprccha (T#586, Roll 1) and to his own commentary ^ Roll 2b: T#l717) on Chih-i's Fa-hua-hsuan-i 118 \"Innumerable\" here means \"indeterminate number\" as well as \"i n f i n i t e \" , i.e. indeterminately large. 119 I.e., any number of different analyses may be valid. 120 CJ: Body and voice correspond to the Cause of Suffering, while shadow and echo correspond to the effect, Suffering i t s e l f . 121 The former achieves emptiness by analyzing the phenomenal world into parts, the latter realizes emptiness in things as they are. 122 CJ says the last two pairs are another reference to the parable of the conjured city in the Lotus sutra (T9.26a, Ch. 7, Murano translation pp. 131-132). 123 Where the Four Noble Truths are f u l l y realized. The lower stages are \"annihilated\" to clear the way for the higher. 1 2 4These four stages are drawn from the SrTmala-simhanada-sutra. They classify defilements (klesas) into four major groups: intellectual delusions (e.g. erring in the Four Noble Truths) and three varieties of emotional delusions: (errors of attachment in the Realms of Desire, Form and Formlessness). Sometimes a f i f t h stage of delusion is added to these, au-\u00a3<$\/a( nescience), regarded as the source of the other four. All but avidya are eradicated by the Two Vehicles. In the system of the Three Delusions 5- , intellectual -|L\u00a3k and emotional delusions ^ a r e the f i r s t one, nescience the third which only Buddhas can fu l l y eradicate. 125 I.e., without resorting to analysis to reduce them to emptiness. 187 These are the second of the Three Delusions, associated with bodhisattvas. They obstruct bodhisattvas in their teaching of others, preventing the awakening of their listeners to Dharmas \"as numerous as grains of dust or sand,\" which they could use to instruct animate beings. This also corresponds to the third of the Four Vows: \"I vow to learn (all) the Buddha's Dharma, no matter how vast (numerous).\" 127 The third of the Three Delusions, eliminating which one enters into Buddhahood. 128 Associated with the Perfect Teaching. 129 Apparently this last statement is Kuan-ting's own. CJ remarks here that i t is not only the Way and Annihilation, but also Suffering and the Cause of Suffering, which are Ultimate Reality: the f i r s t and second pair of the Four Noble Truths are in fact not different from each other, not two. And though Kuan-ting (or Chih-i) seems to feel that further explanation is unnecessary, we shall gild the l i l y by remarking that at the level of the Actionless Four Noble Truths, or what is the same, in the Perfect Teaching, nirvana and samsara, enlightenment and the defilements, are identical with each other, non-dual. The so-called \"core\" of the MHCK (T46.1c-2a) makes this point very powerfully. Thus Suffering and its Cause need not be extinguished in order to gain liberation: at the ultimate level no action whatever is required to move from \"here\" to \"there\", because ultimately there can be no distinction between \"here\" and \"there\". 130 These are four types of lands corresponding to the three bodies of Buddha and four levels of being: (1) the co-dwelling land, where ordinary people and sages may both be found; (2) the Land of Expedients, where Hinayanistic srdvakas and pratuekabuddhas, who are imperfectly realized, dwell; (3) the Land of Real Recompense, where the bodhisattvas are; and (4) the Land of Permanence, Quiescence and Illumination (words which stand for the Three Qualities 5- Of the three bodies of the Buddha, the body of response M and Dharma-body correspond respectively to the f i r s t and fourth* of these lands, while two bodies of recompense are recognized, a higher and a lower, and assigned respectively to the second and third of the Four Lands. Ando Toshio, in Tendai-gaku (pp. 160-164) compares this scheme with a slightly earlier Thre^ e Lands theory of the Sui dynasty Hui-yiian (Ching-ying Hui-yiian y$%X i\u00a3t^ ), and believes that Chih-i borrowed from and reshaped Hui-yiian s theory. Note however that Chih-i emphasized in his Fa-hua-hsuan-i (T#1716) the identity between the Four Lands as well as between the Three Bodies, as well as between Lands and Bodies. This standpoint is essential to his philosophy of the whole being present in a potential state in any part of the whole. He went so far as to assert the primacy of the lowest land, holding that the higher lands 188 have no existence apart from i t and the lowest Buddha-body. He divided the Co-dwelling Land into pure and defiled, corresponding to the Western Paradise of Amitabha, and our world, in which Sakyamuni made his appearance. These two Buddhas are known as the superior response body and the inferior response body respectively. It is the inferior response body (Sakyamuni) in the defiled Co-dwelling Land that is central for Chih-i, as the locus and the means of reaching enlightenment for oneself and assisting other beings towards this goal. The above Hui-yiian tended towards an idealism in which the highest land and body was exalted, but Chih-i cleaved to a kind of practicality which was intolerant of airy flights of theology. See Ando, op_. c i t . 131 The defilements and the intellectual and emotional delusions have been eradicated, but nescience and the \"dust-sand\" delusions s t i l l remain; hence the Noble Truth of Suffering is not applicable here any more. 132 Both Suffering and i t s Cause are absent. 133 The Truth of Annihilation. 134 This means that the Lands should correspond further with the Four Teachings. However the lowest Land is for ordinary people, and the second for HTnayanists, while in the Four Teachings i t is the lowest Teaching which corresponds to the HTnayana. 135 These are numbers 3-7 and 11 -12 of the twelve. In Abhidharma theory the f i r s t group is regarded as the effect (suffering) in the present l i f e , and the second group as the effect in the future l i f e . 1 qg Numbers 1-2 and 8-10 of the twelve. The f i r s t group i s the cause in the past l i f e , the second group the cause in the present l i f e . 1 3 7 A c t u a l l y the sutra (at T12.768c, Roll 25, Ch. 23, Yamamoto translation p. 657) classifies four kinds of wisdom which view the causes-and-conditions<##f.J^$$4i.^f but loosely i t amounts to the same thing. There is also an explanation of four kinds of pvatxtya-samutpdda in the Kosa (Roll 9 of Hsuan-tsang1s translation), but this is unrelated. 1 Nirvana sutra, loc. c i t . Once again the two lower stages do not f i t exactly the Four Teachings, for in the latter group sravaka and pratyeka-buddha are placed together in the lowest stage of the four, not separated as they are here. 189 139 Madhyamaka-karikas of Nagarjuna, Ch. 24, verse 14 of the KumarajTva translation, at T30.33b. This is the passage that reputedly enlightened Hui-wen, Chih-i's dharmic grandfather, the teacher of Chih-i's own teacher Hui-ssu. It has been translated from the original Sanskrit into English (along with the rest of the karikas) by Streng, in Emptiness. The MHCK text differs slightly but not essentially from the Taisho text of KumarajTva's Chinese. 140 Here Chih-i has matched up the four lines of the famous gathd with his four kinds of Four Noble Truths. CJ adds that dependent origination \\S is fundamental to a l l dharmas, that i t is only in accordance with differences in viewing (contemplating) that the Three Truths of emptiness, provisionality and the Middle apply. Dependent origination is to be contemplated in a l l four of the Teachings. 1 4 1 Kogi thinks that \"impulses\" [safhskdra, second in the chain) should be added to \"nescience\" here. Probably he is right. ^ 4 2Kogi cites Koroku to the effect that \"consciousness\"\"^ should be substituted here for \"impulses.\" Probably he is right. 143 These two quotes are from the Middle Treatise commentary to the f i r s t two verses of the f i r s t chapter of the karikas T30.1b, somewhat paraphrased. The last two chapters of the karikas are on the twelve causes-and-conditions and on false views respectively (drsti). CJ states that Chapter 26, on pratitya-samutpada, was misunderstood by former teachers to be directed to the pratyeka-buddha (and Chapter 27 was thought to be directed to the sravaka), who is traditionally supposed to be enlightened through his solitary contemplation of the principles of causation. (This last supposition is incidentally based, in a l l probability, on a mistaken etymology deriving pratyeka (\"by himself\") from pratyaya (\"condition\")). Actually, says CJ, these former teachers were not aware that pratZtya-samutpdda was the central theme of the whole Middle Treatise, and eminently Mahayanistic. Things are empty because caused: \"empty\" and \"caused\" are two ways of saying the same thing. As for Chapter 27, i t s subject is \"false views,\" and we may easily suppose i t to have been directed at the HTnayana proper. Here Chih-i has quoted an older interpretation of the chapter divisions in the Middle Treatise with which CJ does not agree. 1 4 4 I . e . , Ch. 24, verse 14. 145 Kogi comments that \"summarily\" means no distinction is made between the Three Times (past, present, future), while \"in detail\" means this distinction is made. As detailed above, the twelve causes-and-conditions can be divided into four groups (1-2, 3-7, 8-10, 11-12) when they are regarded as causes in a past l i f e leading ultimately to effects in a future l i f e . 190 146 CJ points out that the Four Noble Truths are the Ultimate Truth upon which a l l the varieties of bodhicittaare necessarily based. This is why Chih-i discusses the Noble Truths before coming to the bodhicitta i t s e l f . CJ also emphasizes that ten bodhicittas are enumerated (rather than some other number) merely for the sake of convenience in discussion. 147 An intellectually inspired bodhicitta. 148 When this bodhicitta is described in detail in the below text of the MHCK, the word ^ j>if)_ has changed to jrf %P \"magical creations, The a b i l i t y to create the latter is only one of\"the many supernatural powers of the Buddha, and i t is the only one which Chih-i discusses. 149 \"Teachings\" as opposed to the dharmas meaning \"things\" as in bodhicitta #4. 150 Chih-i only discusses the f i r s t four of the ten in the below text, but CJ goes on in his commentary to deal with the other six. CJ helpfully provides for' us three other l i s t s from the scriptures of occasions for the rise of the bodhicitta; he l i s t s seven (out of twenty-seven in the original) from the Dasa-bhumi-vibhasa-sastra(-t^i yfr \u2022> T#1521, at T26.35a-b. Shi ki points out that the'sixth item in his l i s t is not the same as in the sastra), ten from the Upasaka-sTla-sutra TO. <$\u2022 % ni M , T#1488, at T24.1035b-c) and six (out of a l i s t of twelve) from the Avatamsaka-sutra (T9.450b. More bodhicittas are also listed on pp. 451-452 of this sutra). He also mentions two more sutras which give l i s t s , the Ta-fang-pien-fo-pao-en-ching ( ^  \\$L_$f> \"?fiJi' T#l55 at T3.136a-b. This has a l i s t of twelve) and the Sukhavati-vyuha (T#366). These l i s t s overlap each other and Chih-i's own, but four items are mentioned in the l i s t s quoted by CJ that do not appear in the MHCK. ^  These are: (a) \/from the teaching of bodhisattvas (this from the Dasa-bhuml-vibhasa-sastra); (b) not delighting in cleaving to a non-Bud dliiirr~wayTTcTT^ causes and conditions within one; and (d) c r i t i c i z i n g one's own faults (the latter three are from the Upasaka-sTla-sutra). Even among these four-, (a) can be assimilated to the MHCK's (4), (b) to the MHCK's (8) and (9), (c) to the MHCK's (1), and (d) to the MHCK's (9). Not only has Chih-i given some structure to this disparate heap, but CJ claims that even the exact sequence of the ten bodhicittas is determined in a way that he describes, from the f i r s t glimmering of truth to the final involvement in the suffering of others. 151 ^<a \"Truth\" means the Four Noble Truths here. Chih-i devotes a paragraph to each of the Four Kinds of the Four Noble Truths, thus assimilating \"Truth\" to his scheme of the Four Teachings. 191 '^Kogi cites the Nirvana sutra (T12.682c, Ch. 19, Yamamoto trans-lation p. 317) for this quote. In fact the MHCK text is rather far from the Nirvana sutra here, but one can say that in general the sense does not depart from the sutra. The sutra explains that not seizing upon external marks is what is meant by \"the Ultimate Truth\" and \"dwelling in mahaparinirvana,\" while \"annihilation\" means simply eliminating the defilements from oneself. I CO CJ: (At this level) the dharma-nature is considered separate from the Four Noble Truths. I.e., misunderstanding them, one likewise misunderstands the Dharma-nature. The same principle could be expressed using the terms samsdva and nirvana instead. 155 I.e., these terms are not to be understood as absolutes, they have no \"self-nature,\" \"own-being\" {svabhdva). 156 I.e., the latter two of the Four Noble Truths are a forteviovi lacking in own-being. 1 5 7KogJ_ refers us to the Visesa-cinta-brahma-pariprccha (T#586) for this famous phrase: T15.39b29.' Compare this with the \"core\" statement of the MHCK at T46.1c-2a. The sutra text is not so outspoken as Chih-i however, for i t says only, \"There is enlightenment in the defilements, and defilements in enlightenment.\" (My emphasis)^!fj|<f ^  ^  }|^ ^*&f& In the sutra this phrase comes near the end of a discourse on detachment, where i t is emphasized that the Dharma should not be the object of craving any more than anything else; i t is followed by a long l i s t of the benefits to be achieved from this realization. Interestingly enough--considering the later uses that were made of the phrase \"Enlightenment is identical to the defilements (i.e. immoral conduct)\"--these benefits include the a b i l i t y to keep the disciplinary code, as well as the power to not behave in impure ways. This famous phrase is actually of the same meaning, however, as the even more famous \"emptiness is form, form is emptiness\" from the Heart and other Prajna-paramita sutras. The Ch'an and San-lun (Chinese Madhyamika) schools emphasized this identity in a negative way, by calling both enlightenment and the defilements empty. Thus these schools cleared away attachment to either and held out as an ideal the entry into the empty, quiescent, markless realm. On the other hand, in T'ien-t'ai and Hua-yen this identity was emphasized in a positive way, by the teaching that since there is no \"world of enlightenment\" outside the phenomenal world, the real nature of the defilements themselves must be identical with enlightenment and the Dharma-realm. In fact the T'ien-t'ai has a threefold understanding of this identity ftp . As outlined by Oda, p. 1080-c, this identity is like (a) metal and wood being joined (as in a tool), so that the 192 nature of one must be realized in order to realize the other (the Shared Teaching); (b) the front and back of the same object (Separate Teaching); (c) water and waves, in which the way of viewing is the only real difference\u2014no thing needs to be done objectively to achieve enlightenment but eradicate one's own nescience {avidya). I CO Existence and inexistence, arising and non-arising. 1 5 9The Ju-1ai-tsang-ching4yg^fej^t(T16.457.-60, T#666). This is known to have been t i t l e d Tathagata-kosa in Sanskrit. It uses numerous similes to show how the embryo (in this sutra garbha or clearly means \"embryo\" or \"seed,\" not \"womb\") of the Tathagata is present in a l l beings. At T16.457c the sutra states that \"The Buddha sees that a l l the kinds of beings have the embryo {garbha j ^ ) of the Tathagata (in them),\" and goes on to say that like honey surrounded by bees, like treasure hidden in the house of a pauper, etc., this embryo i s , though in us a l l , hidden and available only to those who seek. 1 6 0The \"noumenal\" and the \"phenomenal.\" 1 gi As i f they were separable from each other. 162 f K5gi identifies this in the Visesa-cinta-brahma-pariprccha (T#586), located at Tl5.41 a), \"Samsara is nirvana . . . nirvana is samsara.\" 163 This sentence is in the \"core\" of MHCK. 164 Kogi: horizontal means a l l the dharmas of the ten destinies, vertical means the Three Truths. 165 K5gi: the multiplicity of dharmas on the one hand, and the Three Truths on the other. 166 \u00a3 That i s , the Sanskrit word bodhi is translated too ffi in Chinese, Chih-i is saying. 167 The Sanskrit means \"the perfection of arousing the thought of enlightenment. Actually this is not one of the Six Perfections, nor even one of the Ten Perfections [pdramitas). While modern scholarship more or less accepts that paramita means \"perfection\" or \"great virtue,\" the traditional explanation is generally \"the other shore,\" based on what Dayal feels is an erroneous analysis of the word (Dayal'.pp. 165-166). Thus Chih-i uses an erroneous etymology of paramita to tie in with and buttress his erroneous understanding of the root meaning of the word bodhi. 193 These are the thirty-two major marks ^) and eighty minor marks )Of . Lists of both may be found in Hurvitz, Chih-i : (the appendix and of only the thirty-two major marks in Dayal , The  Bodhisattva Tradition, pp. 300-305 (see also TCTL T25.90a-91a and Lamotte's translation for these), and include such items as an image of a 1000-spoked wheel on the sole of each foot, and hair that curls clockwise. The thirty-two'derive from a pre-Buddhist idea of the superman in India, the eighty are a later scholastic addition by Buddhists. These marks are also considered at times to be numberless. 169 Corresponding to the Tripitika Teaching, lowest of the Four Teachings. ^ 7 0This statement is made of the second mark, the 1000-spoked wheel on the feet, in the TCTL T25.90b (Roll 4). \"Visvakarman\" means \"maker of everything,\" \"the omnipotent one.\" ^ A s CJ points out, these two phrases are in different words the fourth and the f i r s t of the famous Four Vows, which themselves come under discussion in the next section of Chapter One of this Synopsis. These four vows are: 1. May I save a l l animate beings, no matter how numerous. 2. May I eradicate a l l (my) defilements, no matter how inexhaus-tible. 3. May I learn a l l the Dharma, no matter how immeasurable. 4. May I attain supreme Buddhahood. To save (preach to) the beings the doctrine (Dharma) must be studied, and to attain Buddhahood the defilements must be eradicated, so that the third and the second vows are implied by the f i r s t and the fourth. Actually there are only two vows a bodhisattva makes: the \"upward\" one (which is the same as in the HTnayana) and the \"downward\" one (unique to the Mahayana). The other two are implied in these. The f i r s t appearance of the Four Vows in Chinese Buddhist literature is in Chih-i's Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men (T#1916), according to Ando, Tendai-gaku,(p. 244), but a very similar version appears in the sutra called the Hsin-ti-kuan-ching \/tf kXLM, (T#159, Roll 7). This sutra was, however, translated in the T'ang dynasty, after Chih-i's death. The version used in the modern Japanese Zen sect derives from Hui-neng's Platform Sutra (post-dating Chih-i by several generations) and differs only very slightly from that found in the Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men W #f o f Chih-i or the MHCK. 172 Corresponding to the Shared Teaching. 194 173 CJ: One realizes the emptiness of both the marks and the Buddha which have already been seen in the previous stage. But though the marks are \"non-marks,\" i t is not correct to say there are no marks at a l l ; for that, says CJ, would be to use the word \"empty\" too loosely. 174 CJ: At this level one perceives the marks seen at the previous (Tripitika) level to be empty. However, though the marks are not marks (or \"are non-marks\"), i t is not correct that there are no marks. CJ quotes the Chao-lun (T#1858), where i t says, \"Appearances (marks ) shine in the eye but are not shapes, the eight sounds f i l l the ear but are not sounds.\" 175 Corresponding to the Separate Teaching. 1 -jc CJ: Those at the previous two levels of the teaching as well as those in this Teaching who have not attained the ten states -ttiL {bhumis). 1 7 7The usmsaor mound of flesh on the crown of the Buddha is one of the thirty-two major marks, and is traditionally supposed to be invisible to anyone but a Buddha \u2014 though i t is clearly present in Buddhist iconography. 178 ' This wonder-working disciple of Sakyamuni wanted to find how far the Buddha's voice reached, but no matter how far he magically transported himself, the voice was s t i l l as clear and distinct as i f the Buddha were standing right before him. The story may be found in the TCTL (T25.127c, Roll 9, Ch. 15), in the Guhyaka-vajra-pani-sutra (in the Ratnakuta collection of sutras, T#310, at Til.56c-57a), in CJ's commentary here, and in the Ekottaragama (Roll 29). An \"excellent voice\" (brdhma-svara) is another of the thirty-two major marks. 179 &'f#]^Uyfcf.^$?ffe provisionally Sanskritizable as *Vajracchedika-prajna-paramita-sutra-sastra (T#1511), at T25.786a. This quote corresponds to two lines of five-character verse in the sdstra3 which is a commentary on the Diamond SOtra. The verse is attributed to Maitreya. Asanga's commentary on this verse points out that the word \"adornments\" means \" m a r k s . 180 The vow to save animate beings should follow here to maintain the parallelism with the preceding two sections on seeing the marks of the inferior and superior bodies of response; i t is merely for the sake of brevity that the whole phrase is not repeated every time. Even the statement on upward seeking and downward transforming is l e f t out below for the same reason. 195 181 Corresponding to the Perfect Teaching. 1 pp CJ: This \"wisdom\" is the Dharma-body i t s e l f . \u2022j go CJ sums up this section on Seeking the Buddha by emphasizing that there is in fact only one body, but there are four ways of looking at i t . In each case what is before the practitioner is the Tripitika Buddha (\u00a7akyamuni or any fleshly Buddha) with i t s thirty-two marks, but i t is viewed in four different ways. 184 As remarked above, the power to produce magical creations, manifestations or incarnations, is the only one of the Buddha's super-human powers with which Chih-i deals. 1 gg The eight dhyanas of the Realm of Form and the Formless Realm are each divided into two--the fully-realized ( meditation and the partial one-achieved respectively by extinguishing \\s*Pf or merely suppressing ^ the defilements (klesas) of the previous stage. 1 gg CJ: The one magical incarnation speaks when the Buddha speaks, is silent when he is silent, etc. In other words i t has no freedom of activity. 1 gy Respectively, the lowest h e l l , and the highest heaven in the Formless Realm. 1 gg This is what happens in the Secret method of teaching, third of the Four Methods of Teaching. ^ 8 9 C J says garbha means the Ultimate Truth 3%. \"fit . 190 CJ quotes approvingly the beginninq of the Maha-pratikarya- nirdesa (Ta-shen-pien-ching %ty%&\u00a3\u00a3. > T#310.2z), where iT s a y s , \"All dharmas 'are magical creations\" and \"Good and evil\", motion and rest, are a l l the marks of magical creations.\" This i s to say that there is nothing which is not miraculous. 191 Each of the Four Teachings in this section on hearing the various Dharmas can be interpreted by the listener in four ways, corresponding again to the Four Teachings, so that in a l l there are theoretically sixteen divisions. CJ says this sixteen part breakdown could have been carried out for the other bodhicittas too. Thereafter the text enters upon a renewed explanation based on \"the gathd.\" 196 192 \"Hear\" can also mean \"read\" in this case. 193 This, says CJ, corresponds to Suffering and the Origin of suffering. 194 Morality and wisdom are the Way, liberation is Annihilation. 195 The vow has been modified to emphasize the Dharma or teaching in accordance with this section. S t i l l , we may assume that none of the previous vows are abrogated. In fact this formulation too includes both the \"upward\" and the \"downward\" vows. 196 As CJ points out, this is a reference to a passage in the Nirvana sutra (T12.781a, Roll 27, Ch. 23, Yamamoto translation p. 709). The phrase in the Nirvana sutra may also be translated, \"If in emptiness there is no thorn, then how can we say i t (should be) extracted?\" 1 9 7 C J : \" P u r e \" > ^ means \"empty\" 4 . 198 I.e., there is ultimately neither a distinction between suffer-ing and enlightenment nor is there \"someone\" who suffers or is enlightened. CJ calls Suffering and the Cause of Suffering the object ^ , the Way (practise) and Annihilation (enlightenment) the subject ^ , and asserts that these are \"quiescent\" because non-dual. 199 CJ adds, \"and selfhood and purity.\" 2 0 0 C J comments that stones and jewels (or poison and medicine to take another example) do not in their original nature dif f e r from each other. The difference lies only in the way they are perceived or experienced . Thus also for any dharmas. 201 Desire, form and formlessness. 202 CJ says this is because (for listeners at this level) there is no difference between bodhisattvas and ordinary people. That i s , this being the level of the Tripitika Teaching listeners (while the teaching i t s e l f is the Shared Teaching), no distinction can yet be made by these people between ordinary worldly people and bodhisattvas, who are in the world but not of i t . 203 CJ: Here ( i t is understood by listeners that) bodhisattvas as well as sravakas and pratyekabuddhas eradicate the intellectual and emotional delusions (impurities) )\u00a7- ~f\u00bb 197 204 Attain the non-arising of. 205 ' These are two kinds of samsara which are expounded in the Srimala-devi-simha-nada-sutra (T#49, at T12.219c, Ch. 5). This doctrine is differently interpreted by the Chinese Buddhist schools, but roughly speaking the schools agree that the mundane samsara or transmigration is that experienced by ordinary persons (animate beings) as they cycle back and forth through the Six (lower) Destinies, while the supra-mundane samsara.is that experienced by sages, HTnayanists and the lower bodhisattvas, who have temporarily achieved purity and wisdom (the Pure Land), but cycle back again into delusion, since they have not yet eradicated the root ignorance [avidya, third of the Three Delusions 5 . ^ < ) that s t i l l stands between them and perfect enlightenment. pof. CJ: Hearing just the (Sanskrit) sound A--the ultimate conden-sation of the Dharma--is enough (for each person) to achieve perfect understanding (of the Ultimate Truth). This is another statement of \"the macrocosm in a single moment of thought\"^ ^ . _ sixteen Truths are possibly from the l i s t in the Ying-luo-ching % (T#1485, which is probably a Chinese \"forgery\"). These are sixteen divisions of the wisdom of discrimination 4g. \u00a3>] 9% of a bodhisattva of the f i f t h stage of the ten stages (dasdbhwni), sixteen methods of appealing to the capacity of animate beings. The l i s t is an expanded form of the l i s t of ten given in the Avatamsaka-sutra (T#278). It is more li k e l y , however, that these, sixteen are the sixteen stages of eradicating intellectual delusions fL>^. given in the Ta-ch'eng- yi-sheng -K. W-^k^ (T#1851, Roll 17) or (after Chih-i's time) in the Kosa (T#1558, R O M 23). These are the successive partial and complete realization of the Four Noble Truths in the Realm of Desire (8 items), and the partial and complete realization of the Four Noble Truths in the two higher realms taken together (8 items). For details on the f i r s t set of sixteen see Mochizuki, p. 2288c, and for the second, see Oda, p. 420a. 208 This being the stage of the \"Separate\" Teaching. 209 Obstacles to teaching others. Second of the Three Delusions 2^\u00b0CJ: These are bodhisattvas of the ten stages of action -h f ^ , numbers 21 -30 of the fifty-two stages. 211 Third of the Three Delusions. CJ says these are bodhisattvas of the ten stages of diversion \u00abf 3jfL v*? \u00bb numbers 31 -40 of the fifty-two stages. The section on the Innumerable response (to the Innumerable teaching) has here been divided into two. 198 u \"\"Kogi is perplexed that here nescience is eradicated,for that is presumably the final step toward Buddhahood, and the discourse is s t i l l at the level of the Separate, not the Perfect, Teaching. He therefore suggests this means that \"nescience is suppressed as an expedient -^ f ^JtL(means) to (the future) complete eradication\" in the stage of the Actionless (Perfect Teaching). In this section on hearing the Dharma as the Innumerable, we have encountered the Three Delusions: (1) those of int e l l e c t and emotion; (2) the dust-sand delusions-referring to the countless (as grains of dust or sand) Dharmas which must be exhausted in the teaching of others; (3) nescience i t s e l f \u2014 eradicated only in the Separate and Perfect Teachings, ^ as i t is the most basic delusion and hence the last to be eliminated. Sravakas and pratyekabuddhas enter nirvana by eradicating the f i r s t of these (this much they share with bodhisattvas), but bodhisattvas go on to f i r s t suppress and then eradicate the next two. The second of these, \"(in-numerable as grains of) dust or sand\"--refers not to countless delusions but to countless Dharmas. There is only one delusion from the subjective point of view. This item is parallel to the third of the Four Vows, a discourse on which follows below in the MHCK main text, and to the second of the Three Truths (provisionality) and hence to the second of the Three Wisdoms. It is thus intimately connected to the teaching activity of a:bodhisattva. CJ adds that these Dharmas are innumerable (or immeasurable) in the same way that the waters of rivers and the sea, though actually a certain amount, are conventionally called \"immeasurable.\" C X 6 Jilt can mean either \"actionless\" (when referring to the absence ofany need for action on the part of the practitioner) or \"uncreated,\" \"unproduced\" (when referring to the object of cognition instead of the subject). 2 1 4 K o g i quotes the Samyuktagama (T#99, Roll 12), \"The Buddha told the bhiksus, 'The law of dependent origination was not made by me or by anyone else.'\" 215 T15.37a (Roll 1). The sutra says here, \"Nirvana is only a name, and like space, which is also only a name, cannot be grasped. . . .\" The 500 bhiksus listening to this discourse respond, \". . .We have now attained (the real nature, Ultimate Reality .\"^^\u00a7 ) of a l l the defilements, and act though unable to act . . . Nirvana has the nature of actionlessness (uncreatedness), and i t is bgcause we have attained i t that we say we act though unable to act.\" Sariputra thereupon praises them forvtheir understanding. The phrase \"bodhisattvas cannot attain ( i t ) \" ^ 4s\" ^ v ^ t f ^ ^ is not part of this sutra passage, though the commentators treat i t as i f i t were. CJ says that bodhisattvas do not eradicate (their defilements), hence do not attain the actionless (from the viewpoint of this shallowest understanding of the actionless, the Tripitika \"receptivity\"). HTnayanists might easily hold that because they (bodhisattvas) act in the world, they have not eradicated their defilements. 199 21 fl Because this is the Shared Teaching, HTnayanists and bodhisattvas both grasp the actionless as the non-arising %. 217 CJ: The provisional is the thirty stages (of the fifty-two) preceding the Ten Stages proper -\\ - t ^ , while the \"real\" is the last twelve of the fifty-two. \"The bodhisattvas do not act after having eradicated (their defilements); hence this is called \"the Actionless.\" 218 CJ: The lower Two Truths as understood in the earlier stages are f i n a l l y understood to be identical with the Middle Way. Nothing is rejected now, everything is the Ultimate Truth in this, the highest of the Four Teachings. 219 I.e., the Ultimate Truth (the Ultimate Reality) is seen where-ever one looks or whatever one reads or hears. 220 I.e., there are several (4) receptivities for each response, several ways of understanding each aspect of the Dharma. 221 The Middle Treatise, T#l564, 24.17 of the Madhyamika-karikas. This is the same verse we encountered above, that which supposedly enlightened Hui-wen, and which provides the scriptural foundation for Chih-i's theory of the Three Truths. Chih-i goes through the verse line-by-line now. 222 Thus thinks the practitioner at this level. 223 CJ says this is just as a man who has fallen from a c l i f f is (in effect) already dead, even though he has yet to reach the ground. 223a CJ explains that there are two kinds of provisionality: (a) being dependent on conditions, and (b) being created by the Buddha for the purpose of benefitting animate beings. Here only the f i r s t kind is intended. CJ also states that the same distinction can be made for the other Two Truths: Emptiness and the Middle Way. In the modern world we tend not to take seriously type (b), preferring philosophy to sorcery, but they seemed of equal status to Chih-i and Chan-jan. 224 \/ Uccheda-vdda and sds'vata-vada. This is a type of Middle Way also known to the HTnayana, as CJ remarks. It is a mean between doctrinal extremes, while the sort mentioned next, the Middle Way of the Buddha-nature, i s a mean between ontological extremes, namely being and nothingness, existence and inexistence. 200 This meaning is perfected only in the Perfect Teaching. There and therealone is the true meaning of emptiness understood. CJ cites a few examples from the Madhyamagama here to show some of the senses of the \"Middle Way\" at this lowest level of teaching, e.g., moderate religious conduct (neither voluptuary nor overly ascetic) 226 Hence they lack the tripartite symmetry of the Perfect Teaching. 227 I.e., empty of. p o p From the Upasaka-sTla-sutra (T#1488, Roll 1). The three animals are a rabbit, a horse and an elephant, who cross the river at varying depths. These represent the Three Vehicles: svdvakas, pratyeka-buddhas and bodhisattvas. The legs of the elephant alone reach the river's bottom, while the rabbit must swim across on the surface and the horse is intermediate between the two. All cross the river and a l l perceive the Dharma-nature (emptiness), only there are differences in depth. This simile as a whole represents the Shared Teaching's way of under-standing. 229 It is only because of this sequential understanding of the Three Truths that this level f a l l s short of the Perfect Teaching. Each statement taken individually is equivalent to the Perfect Teaching. 230 They are neither absolutely existent nor absolutely inexistent. 231 Words are inherently \"provisional.\" 232 CJ: They are consecutively the Middle Truth since they are separate. They are the Middle Truth because (as empty, they are)separate from the extremes, the Middle Capacity because (as provisional) no distinction is made in capacity to receive the teaching, and the Middle Reality because (the third phrase) refers to the Ultimate Reality (bhutakoti) of the Dharma-nature. These are consecutive, not simultan-eous, and CJ assigns the three phrases here to the Ten Abodes, the Ten Stages of Diversion, and the Ten Stages Proper {dasabhumi). 233 I.e., appears in three forms. 201 234 CJ says this sounds the same as the Separate Teaching (cf. above), but is not the same, because while the Separate Teaching deals with the statements sequentially, here there is' an identity between the three statements. 235 I.e., i f alternately \"provisional\" or else \"the Middle\" is ful l y realized, then the remaining terms are also understood, for the three terms are absolutely equivalent, being nothing more than three ways of describing the same Truth. 236 Here CJ denounces those for whom mere sitting meditation and quieting of the mind are the same as the bodhioitta. They are ignorant of the Dharma; they achieve no results and so do not seek upwards; they have no compassion, and so do not transform downwards. 237 The last two items have their sequence reversed from that given at the beginning of this section on arousing the thought of enlightenment. 238 This last sentence seems to be an insertion by Kuan-ting and not Chih-i's statement. Evidently Chih-i said something about these other six ways which Kuan-ting was not in a mood to set down in writing. CJ in his commentary goes into each of these in some detail, but I omit this except to say that according to him, the destruction of the Dharma arouses the bodhioitta because seeing this happen creates the impulse to defend the Dharma; while \"seeing faults\" refers to perceiving the presence of the Cause of Suffering in animate beings. 239 CJ states that the rest of this discussion on the bodhioitta deals with only the f i r s t of the ten kinds, Inferring from Truth, by way of example, and the other nine are implicitly to be dealt with in the same way. Each of the ten is divisible into four times four types as above. Thus there are in a l l 160 kinds of bodhioitta which f a l l into his system theoretically, but they may be summed up in the three kinds of calming-and-contemplation. 240 CJ: The Tripitika and Separate Teachings speak of the separate-ness, the Shared and the Perfect Teachings speak of the identity, of Suffering and the Cause of Suffering with the Dharma-nature. 241 That i s , at one level of insight opposites are indeed opposites, but at another, their mutual identity is understood. 24? \u00a3 ^ T h a t i s , \"heavy\" and \"light.\" 243 The parable referred to earlier from the Lotus sutra. The con-jured city is a mere way-station on the path to perfect enlightenment, the treasure lode in the parable. 202 244 Thus even the ultimate aim can be called \"coarse,\" perhaps because i t is a more real--solid\u2014objective than the wraithlike con-jured city; throughout this pasage Chih-i means to show the freedom with which words can be used where i t suits one's purpose. 2 4 5 L i t e r a l l y , \"guest dust,\" an expression for the klesas (defile-ments) from the VimalakTrti sutra (T14.545a). 2 4 6The Ultimate Truth. 247 The last pair, \"difficult\/easy,\" is not reversed, but CJ says that is merely an abbreviation. He supplies the missing half of the pair, saying that the defilements and delusions are \"easy to eradicate\" in the mundane realms because even a beginner can destroy them, or that they are \" d i f f i c u l t to eradicate\" in the supramundane realm because i t is only in the later stages of the path that they are eradicated. 248 The gradual calming-and-contemplation. 249 This refers to the brief, two-sentence objection above which appears near the beginning of this section, \"But there is not even one Dharma-nature. How could i t be inferred from three (kinds of calming-and-contemplation) and four (Teachings)?\" 250 The reverse of slight\/severe is deep\/shallow in the text, but \"slight\" (light) means \"shallow\" and \"severe\" (heavy) means \"deep.\" Thus in the variable view any pair of antonyms may be treated in this reciprocal way. 251 \"Revealing of the right\" bodhicitta that i s , as opposed to the \"excluding of the wrong,\" as in the section headings of this Chapter One of the Synopsis of the MHCK. 252 CJ says \"Suffering\" refers to the above-mentioned (7a7) common and supernal samsara. The questioner, expecting cause and effect to be congruent, asks why there should be four of the cause and only two of the effect. As a matter of fact, Suffering i t s e l f is also classed into four kinds, like each of the other three Noble Truths, while on the other hand, the Cause of Suffering may, as the text goes on to say, be considered to f a l l into two types. Apparently l i t t l e more is being said in this f i r s t Q-A exchange (which I confess I find obscure) than that the number of subdivisions into which these f i r s t two of the Four Noble Truths are broken down is essentially arbitrary. A similar point has just been made in the preceding section on the use of antonyms. 203 253 The fate of the ordinary person, his mind too torn by blind emotion even to begin the ascent to insight already begun by the HTnayana saint. 254 This question refers to the one-to-one correspondence made between the Four Teachings and the four lines of the gdthd (7a24ff). According to Chih-i, each of the Four Noble Truths can be understood in a l l four of these ways. The questioner understands how the f i r s t , samsaric, pair of Noble Truths could be considered statements on conditioned dharmas, but he has d i f f i c u l t y grasping how the second, nirvanic, pair of Noble Truths could be statements on the conditioned. For normally, nirvana is associated with the unconditioned. 255 Thus we escape the contradiction involved in viewing the Way and Annihilation as belonging to the realm of the conditioned (caused). They belong to the conditioned only in the sense that what they eradicate is in the realm of the conditioned. 2 5 6T12.732a (Roll 19, Ch. 22). ManjusrT makes this statement to the Buddha in reply to the Buddha's question on the causative origin of a sudden great effulgence of light about them, though at f i r s t he hems and haws about, repeating that because the light is the light of prajnd (wisdom), compassion, Tathagata, etc., i t must be uncaused, beyond the causal realm. 257 CJ explains that the individual capacity may be either clever or dul1. 258 Chih-i thus avoids having to repeat his final remarks on bodhioitta in this section (7b20 to this point) for the other three levels of Teaching in Inferring from Truth (bqhioitta #1) and the other nine bodhioittas. 259 We now come to a renewed explanation of bodhioitta, based this time on the Four Vows made by a l l bodhisattvas at the time of the rising of their f i r s t thought of enlightenment. The previous explana-tion of bodhioitta was based on the Four Noble Truths. 260 Desiring, hoping, vowing, praying for, etc. CJ explains that the Four Noble Truths, that i s , Truth in general>arethe ground giving rise to the vows. One must have a certain measure of familiarity with and understanding of the Dharma before the desire for perfection in oneself (.upward seeking) and others (downward transforming) comes to fruition. 204 pel The Truths are s t i l l concerned with cause and effect: the f i r s t two Truths form a temporal pair of cause and effect, as do the last two. Also Truth is no respecter of time. pep For Chih-i the seat of the w i l l , which is essential for making the Vows. Suffering, f i r s t of the Noble Truths, may be brought about through any of the six sense-organs. The character , used for the Sanskrit mccnas (mind), has the additional meaning'of \"intention,\" absent in the Sanskrit word. CJ notes that s t r i c t l y speaking, a l l the sense-organs may participate in the Vows, since each of the six implies al l the others (by the T'ien-t'ai axiom that every part of the whole contains the whole (and a l l of it s parts) implicitly). 263 CJ says the order of the f i r s t pair of Noble Truths is now reversed, as is the second, because here the discussion is arranged from subtle to gross, while previously, when discussing the Noble Truths themselves, the order was from gross to subtle. The Vows have to do with the mind, which is subtle, and so the Cause of Suffering, being primarily located in the mind, receives f i r s t mention. 264 Arising, changing, and perishing. As before, persistence, the fourth dharmic state,is omitted. 265 I.e., their whence and whither unknown to anyone. 2 6 6The in Taisho (8al7) should be emended to 275\\< for \"city of the Gandharvas\"; CJ has the latter character in his commentary on the word, as does the Bukkyo Taikei edition of the MHCK text. 267 In this way each of the five skandhas, the whole internal world, is unreal, deceptive, fleeting. 2 6 8 C J quotes the Nirvana sutra (T12.742c-743a, Roll 21, Ch. 23) for this simile, f i l l i n g in the missing characters. The four elements which compose the body (and the sense organs) are here compared to four poisonous snakes imprisoned in a basket. 269 This paragraph on the Way is nothing but a rephrasing of another passage in the Nirvana sutra (Tl2.781c, Roll 27, Ch. 24). In the Taisho text of the sutra, however, the King recommends (in answer to the Buddha's question) focusing the mind exclusively on morality (observation of the rules of disciple) and giving {dana), while both MHCK and CJ substitute the Three Knowledges (morality, meditation, wisdom). Also while the sutra identifies the four mountains with birth, old age, 205 sickness and death, the four torments of the body, CJ alters this somewhat, and says the four mountains represent the four elements, while the four directions represent birth, old age, sickness and death. 270 The Perverted Views are the seeing of permanence, pleasure, selfhood and purity where there is none. 271 s Vertical means that klesas, perverted views, etc., a l l the Causes of Suffering, are eliminated progressively from the grossest to the subtlest, while horizontal means that Suffering i t s e l f , considered as integral, is eliminated at a certain moment. CJ remarks that \"vertical\" and \"horizontal\" could be applied in the opposite fashion with just as much validity, merely by considering the Cause of Suffering as integral and Suffering as divisible. 272 I.e., the Three Realms: of desire, form and formlessness. 2 7 3From the Nirvana sutra (T12.693b-c, Roll 14, Ch. 20). The sutra goes on to state that i t was seeing (understanding) the Four Noble Truths that put an end to the Buddha's entrapment in samsara. 274 This refers to the famous parable of the burning house in the Lotus Sutra (T9.12ff, Ch. 3), where a father, seeing his children blithely playing in their house while the flames threatened to burn them alive, told them falsely that there were a sheep-drawn cart, a deer-drawn cart and an ox-drawn cart (the Three Vehicles: sravaka, pratyekabuddha, and bodhisattva) outside the house, in order to get them to come out; then once they were safely outside, he presented them with a single great bejewelled ox-drawn cart (the Mahayana). 2 7 5 C J quotes the 1% $ L (T3.472-483, Roll 1) for the story of the young Siddhartha's compassion for the insects turned up by the plowshare, whom birds came to harass and devour. The same story appears in most of the tales of the Buddha's l i f e . It is of interest that in the passage quoted by CJ the sutra gives an early l i s t of Four Vows (T3.475c), made by Siddhartha just before he saw the plowing, i.e., \"I wish to save those yet unsaved, I wish to release those yet un-released, I wish to bring peace to those not yet at peace, and I wish to enable those to attain the Way who have not yet attained i t . \" The Four Vows appear also in the Tao-hsing-po-lo-ching (T#224) and the Ying- luo-ching 3fj| Vj? (this is probably a Chinese forgery of the late 4th or early 5th century), and then in Qhih-i's writings for the f i r s t time in his Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men ~M ^ * f H (T#1916). Chih-i's formulation of them is close to that in the Ying-luo-ching, and was adopted by many other schools outside the T'ien-t'ai. 206 CJ quotes the ?f| fe &1L (T#454:T14.424b) for the tale of Maitreya's rising of the thought of enlightenment. He saw destroyed a jewelled watch-tower which had been presented to him, became aware of how a l l things are subject to dissolution, and consequently entered into meditation to become a Buddha. Unlike the previous example, this bodhicitta arose more from a realization of transience than from an impulse of compassion. 277 The realization of compassion and transience produces the Vows, arouses the thought of enlightenment. The story of the plowing seems to illustrate \"downward transforming,\" while the story of the watch-tower seems to illustrate \"upward seeking.\" 278 These are the ten negative states, or destinies from hell to HTnayana, which were discussed at the beginning of this section on the bodhicitta. 279 Sense-organs and sense-objects are what produces, the thought is what is produced. 280 One may alternatively translate the above sentence \"there is in this arising no selfhood, no otherhood, nor both together, nor cause-lessness.\" These are called the four natures. Things come into existence in dependence on other things, not by themselves; thus they have no selfhood (self-nature, own-being, svabhava, or even, thingness). But the things that condition their emergence have by the same logic no selfhood themselves, hence from the i n i t i a l point of view they have no \"otherhood.\" Thus there is no selfhood nor otherhood in origin-ation; i f neither of these is present, then their combination is absurd; and equally unthinkable is causeless emergence, i.e. without either self or other\u2014for like A and not-A, there is nothing which is not covered by these mutually exclusive alternatives (as far_as the realm of language goes). Chih-i is clearly paraphrasing Nagarjuna's Madhyamika-karikas in the translation of KumarajTva, Chapter 15 on svabhava. 281 Which i t would need in order to be uncaused. This sentence is merely a restatement of the previous one. 282 Being i t s e l f as empty as what i t names. 2 8 3From TCTL (T25.102b, Roll 6, Ch. 11). The adults of course represent men of wisdom, who know the real nature of things. 2 8 4T15.39a, Roll 1. 207 285 From T12.682c, Roll 12, Ch. 19. The sutra compares ordinary people (who are subject to the f i r s t two Noble Truths but do not under-stand them) to HTnayanist monks (who understand the Four Noble Truths but f a l l short of Ultimate Truth) and to bodhisattvas (who perfectly understand the absence of Suffering in i t s e l f (and of the Cause of Suffering in r t s e l f ) , and are in possession of the Ultimate Truth as regards the Way and Annihilation. 286 CJ: The convergence of heat, a i r and rubbish (fuel) gives rise to a flame, and this combined with the deer's thirst causes him to see the flame as ^ ater. The Taisho version of the MHCK text gives the character as an alternate for ?;\u00a7> , yielding (with the follow-ing character) \"windblown flame\" instead of \"shimmering (i.e. flame-ish) of the sun.\" CJ (and Sekiguchi in his kakikudashi Japanified version of the text) goes by the alternate, speaking of the generation of actual f i r e . But in the Seng-chao\/KumarajTva commentary to the VimalakTrti (T# 475 , T38.341b), Seng-chao says, \"Thirsty, he sees the flame (glimmer) of the sun, and mistakes i t for water,\" and in the four-roll Lankavatara sutra (translated by Gunabhadra: T16.491a), i t speaks of a herd of deer tormented by thirst,'who mistake the \"spring-time flame\" for water. Hence I tend to think, in opposition to CJ and Sekiguchi, that no true f i r e is being spoken of, that this is a case of the kind of water-like mirage the hot sun can project onto a f l a t surface: a road, desert, or plain. 287 CJ quotes this story, found in the Mahasamghika vinaya at T22.284a. Here Devadatta in his misleading of the community of monks is compared to a monkey chieftain who saw the moon in a well under a tree. Thinking to take i t for himself, he held a branch of the tree while having his simian retainers hang from his t a i l . Unfortunately the branch broke and they a l l f e l l in the well. 288 CJ: If a l l is empty, then how could one possibly practise identity (with emptiness) and not non-Tdentity? For there is nothing nonempty which could be excluded from what is empty\", this would be comparable to shunning space in one place to seek i t in another. 289 One uses the raft only so long as one needs i t to cross the river, discarding i t then as a burden to further progress. Thus even the idea of enlightenment and the word \"emptiness\" are to be discarded. These are the f i r s t and last of the seven categories of practise (\"seven branches\") that make up the thirty-seven Parts of the Way. They stand for a l l thirty-seven. 208 291 The Streamwinner and the Arhat are the f i r s t and fourth of the Four Fruits (the others being the Once-returner and the Never-returner. Chih-i paraphrases this passage from the Pancavimsati, T8.271b, Ch. 26. This is also in the sutra section of the TCTL, T25.437b-c, Roll 53, Ch. 26. In this passage Subhuti is trying to enlighten Sariputra as to how a l l the Dharmic categories are empty at the ultimate level (that of non-arising dharmas). 292 Chih-i supplies parallel comments on Suffering (via the five skandhas) and the Cause of Suffering (the Three Poisons, representing a l l the klesas) to supplement the mention in the sutra of the Way (in it s thirty-seven parts) and Annihilation (as the Four Fruits). Actually Chih-i misquotes the sutra slightly in order to create a parallelism; the Four Mindfulnesses and the Eightfold Holy Way are not mentioned at this point in the sutra. 293 CJ adds, \"For their failure to perceive the truth, the non-arising, illusory (nature of things).\" 294 (1) Suffering internal in origin (bodily illness and mental\/ emotional disturbance); and (2) Suffering external in origin (caused by robbers and wild animals, or by natural disasters). 295 Presumably mental and physical happiness or well-being. 296 For i t s arising or origination is dependent. 297 CJ quotes the Lankavatara sutra and the TCTL here to j u s t i f y the idea that Ultimate Reality i t s e l f can be the cause of both error and truth, both evil and good, both impurity and purity. The Lahkavatara says (Tl6.619a, Roll 5, Ch. 5, in Siksananda's translation which post-dates Chih-i), \"The Tqt.ha.gatagarbha is the cause of good and e v i l . \" CJ then quotes the TCfL to the effect that though elephants muddy a pond and pearls c l a r i f y i t , i t is the pond i t s e l f that is the origin of the muddiness and the c l a r i t y , the elephant and pearls being merely conditions or occasions. 2 9 7 a K o g i quotes the TCTL (T25.276b, Ron 29, Ch. 45), \"Everything in the Three Realms is produced by the mind.'\" CJ: The mind stands for the Cause of Suffering, the forms for Suffering. 209 299 ~\u00a3 CJ substitutes (to color, paint) for \u00a3\u00a7- (white earth), but the meaning comes to the same thing. 3 0 0These two stand for the Four Mindfulnesses, which in turn stand for a l l the thirty-seven Parts of the Way. The Four Mindfulnesses are of particular importance however, for in the Nirvana sutra, Ultimate Reality is frequently characterized in exactly opposite terms. The Four Mindfulnesses are that the body is impure, perception is painful, the mind is impermanent, and the dharmas are devoid of selfhood. 301 In the Lotus again, the conjured city is the provisional resting-place, to which one is guided by expedient teaching, while the treasure lode is the final destination, the Ultimate Truth. 302 F i l l in the corresponding statements for perception and the dharmas. Similarly for the next few sentences in this section on the Four Mindfulnesses. 303\u201e . As above. 3 0 4Emend %fy to ^ ( or i ^ , . No commentators mention this problem, and neither of my suggested alternatives resembles the character I wish to strike out, but i t is absurd for \"the seeing of the truth\" |L %fy to be annihilated at this earliest stage. According to the TCTL (Roll 78), the Streamwinner is at the stage where a l l the intellectual delusions have been eradicated. Professor Sekiguchi has verbally approved this emendation of the text. 305 There are four stages on the arhat path: Stream-winner, Once-returner, Never-returner, and Arhat, with each stage further divided into i t s beginning and i t s completion. 3 0 6Fourth of ten levels given in the Pancavimsati (T8.346b, 259c), and also in the TCTL sutra section (T25.417a). 3 0 7These four are stages 5 through 8 of the Pancavimsati l i s t . As for stage 8, one must keep in mind that the delusions are present in three forms: their actual manifestations, their seeds and their residual karmic influences (vasana). Thus arhats eliminate the actual manifestations of the intellectual and emotional delusions, while \"private buddhas\" (pratyekabuddhas) go on to eliminate their residual lurking influences as well. 210 308 The last two stages of-the fifty-two are alternate Chinese translations of the Sanskrit sambuddha (understood wrongly by the translators as samabuddha in the f i r s t case) which came in the Chinese tradition to be considered separate stages. At this point the practitioner annihilates the so-called Three Kinds of Delusions, namely the intellectual\/emotional delusions, the dust-sand delusions, and f i n a l l y the root of delusion, nescience i t s e l f , as he progresses up the latter forty-two of the fifty-two stages. 309 Lowest of the fifty-two stages. 3 1 0The rest of the fifty-two. 311 The Four Teachings times the Four Truths, i.e. the four kinds of Four Noble Truths. Emend to vf^- , which is the character used in Chinese to represent the River Ganges. Perhaps a copyist was tempted to substitute the water radical for the heart radical on the basis of the meaning. Sekiguchi in his Si no-Japanese text of the MHCK also emends the character back to the heart radical in this way. 3 1 3 K o g i quotes CJ's Sou-yao-chi %V to support the inter-pretation that hsin means here \"thoughts\" and fa means here \"dharmas\" (with a small \"d\", i.e., objects of thought^. 314 I.e., their dharma-nature, says CJ. The nature of dharmas is their absence of nature, their lack of own-being. Thus both thought and dharmas are as empty of substance and selfhood as anything else. 315 As distinguished from the previous contemplation of a single thought. on c. Presumably as a consequence of stumbling and f a l l i n g against them. 317 CJ claims that this represents the Six Destinies, ten years for each of five of them, and a fraction of a decade for the destiny of asuras. q i p Here Chih-i switches from the Four Noble Truths to the Three Truths (of Emptiness, Provisionality and the Middle). Noting this, CJ says the latter is the substance of the former, while Kogi goes on to identify Suffering and i t s Cause with Provisionality, the Way with Emptiness, and Annihilation with the Mean. This seems to be going a bit too far, however. 211 319 Kogi says this character refers to a l l possible dharmas. 320 They have not real, but \"borrowed\" existence, as the Chinese suggests.AsTh. Stcherbatsky says, \"Borrowed wealth is not real wealth.\" (Central Conception of Buddhism). 3 2 1 Following CJ. 322 CJ says the f i r s t phrase of this pair expresses provisionality, the second emptiness, and that there should be a third phrase for the Mean, namely \"they are neither three nor not-three.\" The absence of this phrase he takes to be a mere abbreviation. 323 This is the Middle again in three forms: the negation of opposites, the assertion of opposites, the negation of the negation of opposites i\\\\ z}\\ & '}\\ %\\ ( b u t i n t n e o r y t n i s could be carried on indefinitely). 324 Restating the argument in more contemporary terms, we may say that the truth is on the one hand d i f f e r e n t i a t e , on the other hand undifferentiate, and f i n a l l y something which neither of these opposite expressions can convey. Similarly, light is conceived of today as consisting of (differentiated) particles, or also (undifferentiated) waves, or as something which can ultimately not be caught in this net of opposites. Then i t must be added that these three ways in which to conceive of light can both be completely identified with each other and completely distinguished from each other. 325 I follow CJ in interpolating the character for \"one\" in the second \"one-two-three.\" The sentence seems to mean that (due to the nature of language) one is forced to present sequentially the different aspects of the Ultimate Truth, but the sequence in which they are presented is only provisional and not to be taken as a necessary one. All aspects are true and not true at the same time. The sequential understanding of the Three Truths is considered characteristic of the Separate Teaching, third of the Four Teachings. Ultimately the Three Truths can be taken neither as successive nor as simultaneous. ??7 T#278:T9.465c29. Here is the context before and after the quote drawn from the sutra by the MHCK: \"As for the mind, so for the Buddha; as for the Buddha, so for animate beings. . . . The Buddhas al l comprehend that everything devolves from the mind \" f ^ A ^ . He who can understand this sees the true Buddha.\" 212 3 2 8T15.52b. 329 T14.544c6, Ch. 5. I follow Robinson's unpublished translation of this sutra for the rendering of s^l Tf . 330 T9.392c. More usually called by the name Kuan-p'u-hsien-ching, this sutra is regarded as an appendix to the Lotus in the T'ien-t'ai (and subsequent Nichiren) tradition because of its similarity to the last chapter in the Lotus i t s e l f , both of them dealing with the practise of repentance through the contemplation of Samantabhadra (see the MHCK's Lesser Chapter Two, the section on Lotus-samadhi). Of three Chinese translations, the only one s t i l l in existence is that by Dharmamitra of the E. Tsin, while GTtamitra's and Kumarajiva's were already lost at an early time, according to the BSKS. It may be that the KumarajTva version was that upon which Chih-i relied, as he generally did i f there was a KumarajTva translation of the sutra in existence. His quote here follows Dharmamitra's translation in the Taisho word for word, but the evidence here is too slim to determine which version Chih-i actually used. From the Avatamsaka sutra (T9.409c). 332 Kogi, usually reliable, marks this as from Roll 8 of the Nirvana sutra. If this is the case, then the quoted sentence is a summary, not a quote, of a passage on the relationship of nescience and enlightenment which reads, \"Enlightenment and nescience\u2014the wise understand that they are in their nature the same, and this very non-dual nature is the Real.\" (Tl2.651c) Following this, the sutra moves on to illustrate this principle by the simile of the Five Flavors of milk--butter, cheese, etc.--already alluded to in the MHCK. Finally i t is said, \"Nescience inverted is enlightenment.\" (T12.652a6) The MHCK quotes this last sentence without attribution below (9bl). There is however no mention of \"ultimate emptiness\" in the passage. 333 CJ: Truth being one at the ultimate level, the one truth is emptiness. 334 Here the one truth has become the tri p l e truth of Empty, Provisional and the Middle. 335 As CJ points out, this metaphor is from the Avatamsaka sutra (T9.624a, 625a) and\/or the Chiu-ching-i-ch'eng-pao-hsing-lun^Mahayana- uttara-tantra-sastra-vyakhya (T31.827b). CJ quotes the story contain-ing the metaphor at length from the Avatamsaka. In brief, there are a b i l l i o n rolls of scripture locked into a mote of dust, and hence of no benefit to animate beings. A certain wise and powerful sage comes along and releases them, in consequence of the compassion he feels for 213 animate beings. Clearly the miracle tale is meant to illustrate a metaphysical principle, that the whole of the Dharma is contained in every single dharma or element of existence. That a l l motes of dust have this property is expl i c i t l y stated in the Mahayana-uttara-tantra- sastra-vyakhya i t s e l f (T31.827bl4). 336 1 Kogi says this simile is from the Shan-chu-i-tien-tzu-so-wen-ching J\u00a7: ^i-JL \u00a3-3~ &\\ P\u00ab] (Susthita-mati-devaputra-pariprccha). This 3-rol l sutra was translated twice into Chinese, but as the second of these (contained in the Ratnakuta sutra collection) was accomplished in Sui times, i t must have been the earlier N. Wei version to which Chih-i had access ( i f indeed Kogi is right about the source of the simile). Here i t is stated that a l l the dharmas of enlightenment depend upon the soil of proper conduct for their nourishment and growth, like herbal grasses and forests growing in the earth (T12.128a). The simile is put to a somewhat different use by Chih-i here than in the sutra--or perhaps Chih-i had no scriptural source in mind at a l l . This would not be the case for the following simile on the ball of perfume, found in a better-known sutra and already alluded to once in the MHCK. 337 ' From the Shou-leng-yen-san-mei-ching (Surangama-samadhi sutra) (T15.633b). Here i t is stated by the Buddha that bodhisattvas are permeated through and through with the Six Perfections, each as in-separable from the others as a single kind of incense would be i f ground up and mixed with a hundred thousand others. 338 This quote is from the MHCK i t s e l f , from the paragraph regarded as^the quintessence, the core of the work (T46.1c-2a). Kogi cites the Pancavimsati for authority, where i t says form (the f i r s t skandha) is identical to tathata, and likewise for the other skandhas. One also thinks immediately of the nearly identical assertion in the Heart-: sutra. J j rThus each of these expressions, \"emptiness,\" \"existence (pro-visionality),\" and \"the Middle,\" ultimately means the same thing, namely Ultimate Reality. It is merely that the Real is approached from three different viewpoints, which merge after the f i r s t superficial attempts at characterizing the truth. 3 4 0 I . e . , an unlimited number. The commentators expend much energy in discussing how this figure is arrived at, but as CJ also says i t is a mere metaphor, their cogitations need not concern us here. 341 Or storehouses, or pitakas (baskets). Kogi says this word means skandhas. 214 342 Sense encounters object to produce a moment of thought, but each of these three components of the event is i t s e l f identical to the Dharma-realm. 343 Chih-i makes this f i r s t Noble Truth relate to the physical world, to objective facts, to sense-objects (\"dust\"), while applying the 2nd Noble Truth to the area of mental phenomena. The latter then transforms into the Way, the former into Annihilation. 344 Kogi: According to whether i t is liked, disliked or regarded with indifference. 345 -Kogi: Pleasure, pain, and equanimity. 346 CJ here quotes the TCTL for the difference between samadhi and dharanl, summarizing this by saying the nature of the former is meditation, while the nature of the latter is wisdom. Actually the passage in question (T25.269a-b) states that while samadhi is purely a mental phenomenon, dhdvariv goes beyond this, for i t can be present in the person whatever his\"state of mind, even i f he is angry, accompany-ing him everywhere like a shadow accompanies a form. DhdranT is attained only after much samadhi, while samadhi alone is meditation minus wisdom; i t is like a newly-shaped clay vessel, which only when fired in the kiln of wisdom can hold water, or carry people across a river, in short become dhdvarvL. 3 4 7 C J : This is the Way. 348 CJ: This is Annihilation. 349 Li t e r a l l y , \"Lack of light transformed is identical to light.\" Fron the Nirvana sutra, T12.652a. 350 Unfettered, that i s , by any word or conception. 3 5^CJ: \"Mentating\" (i.e. thinking )means making distinc-tions like ordinary\/saintly, Ultimate Truth\/Wordly Truth, animate\/ inanimate. 352 Inner and outer, as above. 353 CJ: People of the two lowest Teachings may dif f e r in their degree of astuteness, but they are>,alike in being able to understand only the destruction of thought -J$^ as the highest goal. At the level of the Separate Teaching (#3 of the Four), i t is the dis-tinction between nescience and enlightenment which is fundamental. 215 But i t is only a practitioner of the Perfect Teaching who knows that the mind (complete with a l l its differentiating activity) i_s the Dharma-realm. 354 Following CJ. He explains that in Excluding the Wrong, the Two Vehicles (HTnayana) are the \"one (solitary) state of liberation\" \u2014 ^ which i s , along with the nine states of bondage, excluded from the proper meaning of bodhicitta. Now however the HTnayana is included in the f i r s t two of the Four Teachings, a l l of which are affirmed as \"Right\" . In short, the questioner wants to know why the HTnayana seems to be rejected on the one hand and accepted on the other. The answer to the conundrum lie s in the fact that bodhis-attvas are present in a l l of the Four Teachings. 355 See note 354 above. 3 5 6Following CJ. 357 But they do arrive. 358 I.e., make use of expedients [updya). 359 According to CJ, these four similes illustrate respectively the Teaching $L , Wisdom V% , religious practise 4^ and Ultimate Truth . They also illustrate the four siddhdntas, says CJ, except that similes 2 and 3 apply to siddhdntas 3 and 2 respectively. That i s , the panacea is likened to the Therapeutic siddhdnta; and the milk and gruel is likened to the Individual siddhdnta, because the latter nourishes, like food, whatever incipient tendencies there are in the practitioner toward the vision of the Real. \"Panacea medicine\" is written in the text in a transliterated form of the Sanskrit word agada, meaning free from disease, or a medicine bringing about this state. The Avatamsaka (Hua-yen) sutra (T9.465a, Roll 10; and T9.777a, Roll 59) compares its wondrous powers to the action of wisdom. 360 This term is used in Ch. 2 of the KumarajTva Lotus sutra (p. 28 of the Murano translation). The One Great Event (or Purpose) may be considered the Buddha's wisdom, i.e. enlightenment i t s e l f , and its Cause is the bodhicitta. 361 This pair of antonyms also may mean \" f u l l \" (or \"substantial\") and \"empty\". 216 362 Or purpose, fact, a f f a i r , activity, ceremony, abstract thing. 363 364 taking another meaning of the character shih TThus there is nothing which i t can be said to be. CJ: \"The paths of language and thought are cut off.\" 365 Also meaning \"the Actionless.\" To rephrase the idea, the perceiver is ultimately nothing without the perceived and vice-versa, yet we speak conventionally as i f these concepts were independently i n t e l l i g i b l e . In consequence i t must be said that ontology and epistemology are only conventionally distinct, for knowing and being are ultimately inseparable. The scent of Nagarjuna is strong here. 3 6 6Reading ^ instead of the MHCK's ^ , on the basis of the text in the sutra. J U \/T13:482a. This is paraphrased somewhat from the KumarajTva translation of the \"Sutra of the Questions of ManjusrT on the bodhioitta.\" Following this sutra paraphrase, the rest of the paragraph (up to 9c9-10: \"That is why i t is called the Right [bodhioitta)\") is in the Chinese misleadingly presented as i f i t were also extracted from the sutra. It is not however (with the exception of \"neither same nor different\" %-\/S^-f^r near the end of the paragraph), as I have used quotation marks to indicate. Evidently Chih-i wished to clothe the idea in the sutra in the symmetry of his doctrine of the Three Truths. For some reason, when CJ requotes a larger section of the sutra for his commentary, he uses the Bodhiruci (N. Wei) translation (T14.484b) of the \"same\" (though differing in many details) sutra (but Shiki sets the matter right by quoting the KumarajTva translation again), called in this case the Chia-yeh-shan-ting-ching^jflz. $Q]Xi 3% :*the Gajasirsa- sutra, or the \"Sutra delivered from Elephant-(Head-) Peak.\" As the t i t l e s show, the Bodhiruci version is t i t l e d according to the place where the sutra is supposed to have been spoken, Mt. Gaja (or \"elephant (head) peak\"), while the KumarajTva version is t i t l e d according to the identity of the Buddha's interlocuter, ManjusrT. It is hard to say why CJ ignored the KumarajTva translation in his commen-tary, for generally where more than one translation of an Indian Buddhist text had been done, i t was that by KumarajTva ( i f one existed) which was taken as the standard in the T'ien-t'ai tradition. Perhaps CJ simply didn't have a KumarajTva text available and was forced into this departure. He would scarcely have memorized the Bodhiruci version in preference to that of KumarajTva. Incidentally, there are two other translations of this sOtra in the Taisho canon (T#566, T#567), 217 but these are not used by either Chih-i or CJ, though Shiki does mention the second. T#568, the Wen-shu-shih-1i-wen-ching ^7^.%^ ^ is quite a different work, despite the similarity of i t s name to T#564, the KumarajTva translation of the sutra quoted in the MHCK. \u20223CD Otherwise expressed, the thought of enlightenment depends on one's prior idea of what enlightenment could be, but at the same time escapes a l l description. 369 Or Empty, Provisional and Middle, the Three Truths. 370 Between the three provisional teachings and the one ultimate teaching. 3 7 1 Foil owing CJ. 372 CJ says the f i r s t two are \"shallow,\" the third is \"roundabout.\" These expressions are used in the Lotus to distinguish between the conjured city and the treasure-lode, elements of a metaphor which we have already encountered in the text of the MHCK. 373 -Kogi explains that \"to realize the provisional\" means to use expedients (upaya) ski 1 l fully so as to accord with the ordinary world of secular emotions i ^ f j ^ i ^ f # > while \"to know the Real\" means to realize that the mundane world is nothing but (i.e. identical to) the subtle activity of the Dharma-nature. 374 CJ adds that they are also the seeds of the other two of the Three Jewels: Dharma and Sangha. 375 The f i r s t five have to do with the positive benefits of the bodhioitta, the second five with i t s property of extinguishing negative factors. 376 Vajra: in another context this word might mean \"diamond\" or \"thunderbolt.\" 377 According to the Hinayanist Sarvastivadin school, this is the substance created by karma that supports the continuation of warmth and consciousness in the body while i t is alive. 378 The reference is to the traditional thirty-two marks of a \"wheel-turning king\" or cakravartin, universal monarch. CJ says that in the same way, even though the bodhisattva has yet to achieve Buddhahood, his merit exceeds that of even the most exalted HTnayanist. 218 379 From the TCTL: T25.267a, Roll 28, Ch. 43. More precisely, the TCTL says that the bodhisattva, though he may not yet have broken out of his shell of nescience, expounds the Dharma with a voice (i.e. a f a c i l i t y , a s k i l l ) superior to that of the Two Vehicles or the non-Buddhists. q p n From the Avatamsaka (Hua-yen) sutra: T9.778c. This is from the part of the sutra known independently as the Gandavyuha. Such a string is like the bodhicitta because its sound is so prominent that i t drowns out the sounds of the other lute strings: likewise the bodhicitta drowns out cravings associated with the five senses as well as drowning out the preaching of the Two Vehicles. 381 The very next simile in the Avatamsaka sutra, in the same place. Lion's milk, when added to a vessel containing cow's, horse's and sheep's (i.e. the Three Vehicles, as in the Lotus sutra's parable) milk, is supposed to make the other kinds of milk disappear. The bodhicitta similarly eradicates the defilements. 382 CJ: It smashes the mountain-peak of extreme (non-middle) views. qpq The Cosmic Man in Indian tradition, often identified with Brahma. His arrow can pierce a disk of iron, says CJ. Similarly, a bodhisattva's compassion can pierce any target. 384 Kogi comments that contemplation is the destruction of the defilements, while calming is being not in conflict with worldly things. One must say however that normally i t is calming which is defined as the function that eradicates (\"stops\" jt- ) the defilements. qpc The sutra reads here (T11.640a), \"If one who is not a monk calls himself a monk, saying his conduct is pure though i t is not.\" ooc q This expression means 1000 , i.e. one b i l l i o n . _ But the sutra has where the MHCK has ^ , so following the sutra we should read \"on the great earth\" instead of \"in the chiliocosm (cosmos).\" 387 Including food, clothing, incense, and everything necessary to sustain a monk's l i f e and practise. qpp As CJ points out, Chih-i's \"60 monks\" is \"200 monks\" in the sutra; CJ attempts to j u s t i f y the discrepancy by saying Chih-i must 219 have used a different translation. However Shiki points out that no other translation was ever made of this sutra, while a similar passage, using \"60 monks\" occurs in the Four-part Vinaya (Ssu-fen-lu <&'\/?4f>), the vinaya of the HTnayana Dharmaguptaka school. The MHCK passage is nevertheless mainly based on the Pao-1iang-ching as stated. 389 The sutra adds, \"without gaining the f r u i t of arhatship. 390 The sutra adds, \"fearing for your future lives.\" 391 The monks fear that because they have not yet won liberation they may not rightfully accept offerings, but the Buddha reassures them that i t ' i s not only the liberated who have this right. 392 The Streamwinner, Once-returner, Never-returner, and Arhat are each subdivided into incipient and perfect levels: the \"turning toward\" ffl and the \" f r u i t \" % . 393 I believe the character ^  \" f a l l \" does not f i t the context and should be emended to ^ \"follow,\" \"obey\" or \"conform to.\" 394 This portion in the MHCK relating to the virtue of a Mahayan-i s t i c monk who does not keep the monastic code, does not appear either in the sutra nor in CJ's requote of what is clearly the same text. In the sutra the Buddha is emphasizing that monks who have not won liberation may, given that their practise is diligent, receive offerings. Chih-i takes this a step further: for him the monk evidently need not even be diligent, as long as he has aroused in himself the thought of enlightenment--for the latter contains (in the Perfect-and-Sudden-Teaching) the whole of the Buddha's Way. The rest of the MHCK Synopsis and the other chapters of the MHCK as well go on to outline the religious practise that one who has had the thought of enlightenment will naturally feel bound to engage in. 395 This sentence also does not appear in the sutra. 396 This long sutra passage may be found at T11.640a-b. The Pao-1iang-ching or Ratna-rasi-sutra is the 44th in the Ratnakuta collection of Mahayana sutras in the Taisho canon. Most of Chih-i's quotation is a very approximate paraphrase. The paraphrase is especially loose, as Shiki points out, starting from where Chih-i's \"quotation\" reads, \"One monk asked the Buddha.\" The sutra text is reproduced verbatim only for a few conspicuous (hence easily remembered by the quoter) examples like \"very good, very good!,\" \"Mt. Sumeru\" and \"spit.\" CJ quotes here from the same Pao-1iang-ching (T11.639a-b) a l i s t of thirty-six faults of a monk, mentioning twelve items of the l i s t . But Shiki notices 220 the sutra has only thirty-two items in the original, saying that CJ's digit \"6\" in the number \"36\" > -t ~K is a mistake, but himself errs in mentioning that CJ's l i s t contains thirteen of these thirty-two items, namely numbers 1-12 and number thirty-two from the sutra. Then Kogi correctly points out Shi ki's mistake, commenting that CJ l i s t s only twelve, not thirteen of the thirty-two items; for as i t happens, 1 -12 (as well as #32) but either he or a copyist carelessly this l i s t is not what I want to draw but I find here an interesting case of the CJ does l i s t dropped #3. attention to way in which corrected in in. Chih-i, paraphrasing or twice: i t The content of at this point, errors made in earlier texts are scrupulously (at times) later commentaries at the same time as new errors creep on the other hand, seems to have been quite casually (and misinterpreting\u2014deliberately?) a text he saw once is certainly not a widely-used sutra. 397 It is worth repeating that this point is not made in the sutra at a l l . The commentators seem aware of this but loathe to point i t out expl i c i t l y . 398 T17.844c-845a. This is a two-roll sutra whose translator is unknown. The f u l l Chinese t i t l e is sanskritizable as Mahavaipulya- tathagata-guhya-garbha-sutra, but is also referred to in the Indian and Tibetan traditions as the Tathagata-guhya^kosa and the Tathagata-garbha-sutra. Santideva's collection, the Siksasamuccaya, contains a sizable quotation from this sutra on the ten evil acts, which is also the subject of this MHCK quotation. For a discussion of the ten evil acts, see Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine, pp. 199-204. 399 The sutra has him k i l l i n g his saintly father. 400 Fornicates with. Namely k i l l i n g one's father (evidently repeating item #1). The other four items of this l i s t are k i l l i n g one's mother, k i l l i n g an arhat, shedding the blood of a Buddha, and destroying the harmony of the samgha, in ascending order of seriousness. 402 Evidently repeating item #2 in part. 403 The f i r s t three of the ten evils are physical, the next four are verbal (essentially variations on the prohibition against lying) and the last three are mental, the well-known raga-dvesa-moha or Three Poisons in another guise. Here the ten evil acts are each de-scribed as being committed to the utmost possible degree. 404 -The sutra adds, \"and no producer nor recipient of karma, no knower, no seer, and no person {pudgala).\" 221 405 CJ assigns these successive ideas which are to be understood by the practitioner to each of the Four Teachings, in ascending order. As Shiki notices, the sutra reads here %-'W<> (\"they,, arise and perish without persisting\") where the MHCK has %\\ % (\"they neither arise nor persist\"). 4 0 7 I n this case Chih-i or Kuan-ting adds \"as soon as\" \u00a3j , an improvement over the sutra text, for i t is absent in the sutra where i t should be present to f u l f i l l the parallelism with both previous and subsequent sentences. 4 0 8The sutra has \"An enormous room, dark for a hundred thousand years, without doors or windows or even a needle-size crack in the wall, so that no light, whether from sun or moon, fi r e or sparkling jewel, can possibly enter.\" How p a l l i d the Chinese version has become by comparison! 409 ^The sutra goes on to make the point explicit: the Buddha then told Kasyapa that in the same way, the karma-obstacles created over a b i l l i o n kalpas can be overcome with the light of wisdom, the belief in and understanding of the law of causation and the doctrine of egolessness (andtmavada). Thus the sutra argues that the slightest bit of light overcomes a vast amount of age-old darkness, i.e. that the bodhioitta at the start of the religious quest represents, no matter how feeble its wisdom, the end of the absolute dominion of nescience. 410 CJ notes that the sutra's simile is valid only for the bodhioitta of the Tripitika teaching\u2014for as we see, i t mentions only the under-standing of causation and egolessness as the meaning of the \"glimmer of light.\" 411 In fact the evidence suggests that Chih-i's imposition of his four categories (which are in effect the Four Teachings) on the sutra is rather procrustean, though in his favour i t does seem as i f the sutra mentions the doctrines of causation, egolessness, etc., in roughly ascending order of profundity (or should we say historical development), and hence lends i t s e l f well to such treatment. This and the next three bodhioittas are associated respectively with the Four Kinds of Four Noble Truths, dealing with the content of the realization. They have nothing to do with the ten bodhioittas outlined earlier, which deal with the occasion or inspiration of the bodhioitta. 222 This last simile is from the Nirvana sutra, T12.727c-728a, Roll 18. The castor-oil plant and the sandalwood tree are often paired to represent the klesas and bodhi respectively, because of the difference in their aromas. 4 1 4Thus \"non-arising,\" \"numberless\" and \"actionless\" are particular terms applying only to one each of the four levels of teaching or bodhicitta. \"Arising-and-perishing\" is also such a particular term, but \"causation\" (i.e. causes-and-conditions) is not, whence arose the hypothetical questioner's confusion. 415 CJ says these alternatives are respectively Identity in Principle and Verbal Identity, the f i r s t and the sixth of the Six Identities (see below). 4 1 6 A c t u a l l y from the Pancavimsati, but contained in the TCTL at T25.584c-585c, with the TCTL comment at 585c. The flame of enlightenment cannot be identified exclusively with either the f i r s t glimmer when the wick is l i t or the final f i r e blazing from the torch; i t is both and neither at the same time. The flame is a true flame no matter how small, yet the f i r s t lighting of the f i r e is not the same as the final blaze of anuttava^samyak-sambodhi. Thus in the Six Identities, or six levels of identity which the practitioner has with the Buddha and Ultimate Truth\/Reality, one is identical (to Ultimate Reality) in one's essential nature already at the very f i r s t level, but not yet f u l l y realized nevertheless. Having asserted that the very f i r s t thought of enlightenment puts an end to the darkness, that Ultimate Reality is everywhere you look, Chih-I must now forestall the interpretation that a l l stages of the Path, the Way, are the same. As CJ says, (a) the \"Six\" (of the expression \"Six Identities\") suppresses arrogance (thus he c r i t i c i z e s both non-practising lecturers\u2014K5gi takes these to be of the Hua-yen (Kegon) school\u2014and benighted practitioners of dhyana for mistaking the f i r s t glimmer for the final f r u i t ; these respectively neglect samatha (calming) and vvpasyand (contemplation) in their practise); and (b) the \"Identity\" helps waj^ d off self-depreciation. Kojutsu quotes CJ's Chih-kuan-ta-i : i \u00a3 $ L ^ ~ \u00a7 U > where i t says \"'Identity' because of being the same at the level of Ultimate Truth \"ff. f*) & c & f , 'Six\" because of being distinct at the level of Provisional Truth % \u2022\" The Six Identities are (1) Identity in Principle ff-ljSf (one could say, \"Identity at the Level of Ultimate Truth (Alone),\" but for the clumsiness of such an expression), (2) Verbal I d e n t i t y ^ , (3) Identity of (Religious) Practise j f tM^ \u00bb ( 4) Identity of Resemblance 3^ , (5) Identity of Partial Truth ft % I f , and (6) Ultimate Identity . The f i r s t three of these are prior to the f i r s t of the fifty-two Stages scheme that Chih-i borrowed from the Hua-yen and Ying-luo -sL. sutras, so that counting these three, 223 there are in a l l f i f t y - f i v e stages in the ladder of the Perfect\u2014 Actionless\u2014Teaching. See Chart I in the Appendix for details on the relationship of the Six Identities and the fifty-two Stages. 417 It also keeps him from disparaging his own a b i l i t y to reach the goal. Kogi says faith means to accept the teaching directly without superimposing one's personal opinions. 418 Since he knows he is included in this identity. 419 CJ: To believe that the Ultimate is only in the Buddha and not in ordinary people, is to be wrong about the (meaning of the) final stage (Ultimate Identity); while to believe that since the Ultimate Truth inheres in ordinary people they are identical (in every respect) to the Buddha, is to be wrong about the (meaning of the) beginning stage (Identity in Principle). The Six Identities doctrine has the function of leading us away from both these fallacies, in that both the identity of the ordinary person with, as well as his separation from, Ultimate Reality are stressed. That i s , \"both beginning and end are affirmed.\" The \"benighted meditators\" (who lack vipasyand or contemplation) make the second of these two mistakes, resulting in their becoming arrogant about their Buddhahood, while the word-bound sophists (who lack samatha or calming) value only saints, and f a i l to appreciate that the Ultimate inheres in even the worst of us. By \"sophists\"j^, 1;^ ffi CJ often means Hua-yen masters (especially Fa-tsang), and by \"benighted meditators\" ^ he just possibly could be referring to the Ch'an school. 420 The ordinary person's faith and the fact of their being Iden-t i t i e s helps to remove doubt and fear. At this stage then a person may be assured that though he is not the equal of the highest saints, he is in a sense already enlightened. 421 \/ As stated before, the fact of their being Six (i.e. graded from lowest to highest) helps to eliminate arrogance. The practitioner then is clear about the fact that though he may already be \"enlightened,\" .he is not the equal in every sense of the highest saints or the Buddha. 422 Tsang ^ \/ ,. whether i t means garbha (embryo or womb) or \"storehouse,\" is the name of something relatively concrete, hence pro-visional, compared to the other components of the expression Ju - l a i -tsahg-1i (Tathagata-garbha + l i ) . CJ incidentally reveals his understanding of the word tathagata-garbha by saying at this point, \"All animate beings possess the (or a) tathagatagarbha.\" 224 423 Thus Chih-i breaks down the phrase \"Ultimate Truth of the Tathagata-garbha\" into his Three Truths, just as he has done with the gdthd and numerous other phrases and ideas. These Three Truths then correspond one-to-one to the Three Wisdoms he mentions in the next sentence. 424 Meaning a l l particulars. 425 CJ: Just as people use light in a l l their activities without being aware of i t . 426 CJ comments here that i t is a mistake for people to seek Truth while scorning the (verbal) teachings. Kogi is more pointed yet, and wonders archly why, since words and names do (in their limited fashion) lay open the nature of things and are furthermore essential to carry on religious practise at a l l , there should be those who discard them and revere the slogans \"A special transmission outside the teachings\" and \"not setting up words or letters.\" Of course this is a direct attack on the Ch'an school (\"Zen\" for Kogi). 427 Chih-i (or Kuan-ting) drops the hsin here whicK is jieeded to write bodhioitta in Chinese, so he is l e f t with the word ^ ;#|_ , i.e. bodhi, not bodhioitta. Evidently the distinction between the two is not of much importance to him. 428 Presumably to merely read (and not practise) treatises such as the present one (MHCK) could elevate the practitioner no higher than this Verbal Identity. 429 A Christian at this level would be attached to the name and concept of God but would not yet recognize God-in-all-things. 430 For to be real they have to have a meaning. This is from the Nirvana sutra, T12.618b-c. In the sutra this simile is used to illustrate the tentative nature of the words used in the Buddha's teach-ing. Just as insects do not understand the meaning of the words their t r a i l s accidentally form, ordinary people do not truly understand what the Buddha means when he denies the existence of the atman, or when he speaks positively of selfhood (as he does in the Nirvana sutra i t s e l f ^ . 431 CJ: For intellectual understanding (Identity #2) of the prin-ciple of Truth (Identity #1) must precede proper practise (Identity #3). Chih-i here exhorts the listener to comprehend what has only been verbally grasped so far at the level of the previous Identity. 225 432 I.e., \"Practise what you preach and preach what you practise.\" 433 \/ Known in Sanskrit as the Kusala-mula-samgraha, with the quoted passage found at T16.140b. The f i r s t five characters of Chih-i's quote are extracted from the f i r s t ten characters (a couplet of two five-character lines). The whole passage in the sutra may be rendered, \"There is nothing that verbal explanations (alone) can accomplish, for there is a great deal of (high-sounding) talk in the world which f a i l s to be carried out. It is not with words and explanations, but with the mind alone that I practise (the Way of) the bodhisattva. In the world there are many who say they have become Buddhas but are unable to act in accordance with their words. Such people a l l speak empty words, and ultimately f a i l to attain the real recompense 4 f (which is enlightenment). If one could attain Buddhahood merelyoy mouthing words, then everyone who spoke would attain Buddhahood.\" 4^ 4 TCTL T25.101b, Roll 5, Actually these are six pairs of five-character lines: \"(1) One who has (inherent) wisdom but has not heard much (of the Dharma) does not know the Ultimate Reality: i t is like being in utter darkness with (healthy) eyes but nothing to see. (2) Nor can one know Ultimate Reality i f one has heard a great deal (of the Dharma) but lacks wisdom: i t is like being in a brightly l i t area with a lamp but no eyes. (3) One who has heard much and whose wisdom is keen is what is called f i t to receive (the Dharma). (4) But one who has neither heard (the teachings) nor possesses wisdom we call an ox in human form.\" (I have used the alternate characters #19, #20, and #21 given in the Taisho to translate the passage). Thus one may either have native wisdom or have heard the teaching, or both or neither: this is another occurrence of the tetralemma. CJ lines up the second alternative with Verbal Identity and the third with the Identity of Religious Practise. 435 From the Diamond sutra (Vajracchedika-prajna-paramita-sutra), T8.750c. In the sutra the passage says, \"SubhOti, when a bodhisattva practices in his mind (the Perfection of) Giving \\dana) while dwelling on the Dharma, i t is like a person entering the darkness and seeking nothing. If (on the contrary) a bodhisattva practices in his mind (the Perfection of) Giving while not dwelling on the Dharma, i t is like a person having eyes and in the brightness of sunlight seeing a variety of forms.\" 4 3 6The \u00a3urangama-samadhi-sutra: T15.633c-634a. The Buddha here compares the learning of the surangama samadhi, i.e. the deepening of religious practise, with learning archery. Just as in the latter discipline one begins by aiming at large targets, then gradually 226 reduces the size of the target until one is able f i n a l l y to hit the hundredth part of a hair, so too in religious practise one begins with the easy (studying f i r s t what brings delight, then sympathetic joy or good w i l l , then compassion, etc.) and ends with the d i f f i c u l t . One's early practise may not \"match\" the Ultimate Truth, but eventually one does achieve this through a gradual deepening of one's practise. 407 It bears repeating at this point that Chih-i regarded himself only as having reached the highest of the five stages in this Identity (see Appendix, Chart I): the \"proper practise of the Six Perfections.\" In this stage one has yet to be a saint, and has not yet purified the six senses (for that occurs in the next Identity of Resemblance). It also is the last stage before entering the f i r s t of the fifty-two stages, the bodhisattva path proper. 400 CJ: \"But their words cannot yet be called sutras.\" This is because their pronouncements are not original with them, but as yet merely resemble, or are imitative of, what has been said before. 439 Another name of this stage. We have now entered the lowest stage of the bodhisattva path proper as outlined in the fifty-two-stage scheme, which i t s e l f belongs to the Separate Teaching (i.e. that teach-ing which makes distinctions). See Chart I in the Appendix. This Identity #4 is equivalent to the ten stages of faith -r\/ \\^ of the Separate Teaching. Practitioners at this level equal and surpass the Buddhas of the Tripitika and Shared Teachings, which can go no further. 440 Remember that the defilements of the mind are eliminated in two stages: suppression f i r s t and (final) eradication ^ f i r -second. This Identity coincides with the next forty-one of the f i f t y -two stages, i.e. a l l those remaining except for the final stage of perfect Buddhahood. 4 4 2 I n the Ying-luo-ching $k six wheel-turning kings are described, each with a wheel of different composition. The idea derives from the concept of the four wheel-turning kings of Mt. Sumeru (mentioned in the Abhidharmakosa for example): the wheels these latter turn are made of iron, copper, silver and gold. They respectively govern the southern continent (our own land of JambudvTpa); the southern and eastern continents; the southern, eastern and western continents; and a l l four continents. The Ying-luo-ching, at T24.1016a, identifies the f i r s t of these (the turner of the iron wheel) with the Ten Stages of Faith, the second (the turner of the copper wheel) with 227 the Ten Abodes and goes on to identify the next two with the Ten Stages of Action and Ten Stages of Diversion, while adding two more wheel-turners to f i l l out the rest of the fifty-two stages except for the very last one. See Chart I in the Appendix for these correspondences. Thus the last five of the six wheel-turning kings, starting with the turner of the copper wheel, correspond to this Identity of Partial Truth. CJ also says that \"wheels\" are mentioned here because they crush the defilements like a millstone wheel (crushes grain). 443 First of the Ten Abodes & 444 The 51st stage, just preceding perfect Buddhahood. 445 Note that the f u l l moon of the fifteenth day is reserved for the last stage, number fifty-two, the Sixth Identity, perfect Buddhahood. The simile is from the Nirvana sutra, T12.724b. At T12.567a-b in the same sutra, the simile of the moon is also used, here to argue that Buddhahood is always present, but it s appearance waxes and wanes like that heavenly body. 446 These are the traditional eight stages of a Buddha's l i f e : (1) descending from the Tusita heaven, (2) entering the womb, (3) dwelling in the womb, (4) issuing from the womb, (5) leaving his home, (6) achieving the Way (becoming enlightened under the bodhi tree), (7) turning the wheel of the Dharma, and (8) entering mahdparinirvdna. In the T'ien-t'ai tradition, the third stage is omitted and \"overcoming Mara\" is inserted between #5 and #6 of the above l i s t . 447 Enlightenment is considered under two aspects as always, accord-ing to whether one looks forward or back; achieving supreme wisdom (bodhi) or eradicating the defilements (nirvana). 448 The last letter in one arrangement of the Siddham alphabet, symbolizing the Ultimate Truth. 4 4 9 C J : Enlightenment (bodhi) and calming-and-contemplation are just other names for the Identities. 450 From the Nirvana sutra, Tl2.407b. 451 The simile as given in the sutra differs from Chih-i's abbrev-iated paraphrase in that there is there no suggestion of six stages in the finding of the treasure. The doctrine of six stages in the finding 228 of the treasure , -that i s , the doctrine of the Six Identities, is evidently original with Chih-i. Yet he does not alter the sense of the sutra: that enlightenment or Buddhahood is present a l l along, and achieving i t is nothing but a process of discovery. TCTL T25.438a, Roll 53. These five are, in ascending order (1) The First Arising of the Thought \/oN , (2) The Suppressing Mind & \/ a * , (3) The Clear Mind e f l #0 , (4) Emerging Toward \u00a3 I'] and (5) the Supreme Mind. The TCTL consistently speaks of bodhi, not bodhioitta, but in this whole section Chih-i vacillates between the two expressions, and seems to treat them as synonyms. 453 One of the few MHCK references to one of the Four Teachings. This question-and-answer pair may have been added by Kuan-ting. The lower two of the Four Teachings are not mentioned however. 454 The only difference is that the TCTL does not use the word or the idea \"Identity\": i t does not emphasize so strongly as Chih-i the ultimate sameness of the lowest stage with the highest stages. 455 Omitting Identity in Principle because enlightenment is s t i l l completely unmanifested at this stage. 455a TCTL: \" S t i l l in the in f i n i t e (sea of) samsara, one has the idea of supreme, perfect enlightenment. To call this 'enlightenment' is to name the cause by the effect.\" CJ: One has yet to begin religious practise. 456 TCTL: \"(This is) the practise of the (Six) Perfections and the conquest of the defilements.\" CJ: The conquest of the defilements is s t i l l incomplete. 457 TCTL: \"One perceives clearly the features, both distinctive and shared, of dharmas in past, present and future.\" CJ: Here one eliminates darkness. TCTL: \"Gaining the power of expedients while in the Perfection of Wisdom, yet not being attached to the Perfection of Wisdom, eradica-ting a l l the defilements, seeing a l l the Buddhas in the ten directions, attaining forebearance at non-arising dharmas {anutpattika-dharma-ksanti), etc. TCTL: \"Achieving supreme, perfect enlightenment.\" 229 460. \"\"\"\"This correspondence does not jibe well with the previous one. Oda (1630c) gives s t i l l another. 461 The third, fourth and f i f t h kind of bodhi from the TCTL should be mentioned at this point, but another question-and-answer pair are f i r s t interposed. 462 N \"Suppressing\" \\K precedes \"eradicating\" (||\u00a3f in the Abhidharrr and in \" a l l the teachings\" , as CJ says; in the Ten Abodes, (after entering the Identity of Partial Truth) the intellectual and emotional delusions are eradicated. (See Appendix, Chart I) How then, asks the questioner, could this be followed by a mere \"suppression\" as the TCTL l i s t suggests, i f we assume that the Six Identities and the TCTL l i s t are as compatible as Chih-i would have us believe. 463 In the Ten Stages of Action the dust-sand delusions, second of the Three Delusions are f i r s t suppressed and then eradicated. The eradication of the previous two groups of delusions does not however bring the HTnayanist as far as even the suppression of the dust-sand delusions. 464 Thus Chih-i gives two answers to the questioner, one valid for Mahayana, the other for HTnayana. As for the second answer which re-lates to the HTnayana, Shiki remarks here that both eradicating and suppressing apply to both the intellectual and the emotional delusions so that we have four po s s i b i l i t i e s , contrary to Chih-i's suggestion that there are only two. However since each kind of delusion (defile-ment) is f i r s t suppressed and then eradicated, and since intellectual delusions are dealt with before those of emotion, the latter member of the former pair precedes the former member of the latter pair:, one kind of eradicating precedes the other kind of suppressing. The sequence of which Shiki speaks is (i) suppress intellectual delusions, ( i i ) eradicate intellectual delusions, ( i i i ) suppress emotional delusions, (iv) eradicate emotional delusions. Shi ki says that one kind of eradication ( i i ) precedes one kind of suppression ( i i i ) . 465 Here we return to the matching-up of the five kinds of bodhi-in the TCTL with the fifty-two stages. ^\"\"Notice that Near-buddhahood 3f i^Jf, has been skipped, and the Ten Stages of Faith l e f t out of the matching at the start. The traditional authorities differ on the correspondences between the different systems of stages, as d i f f i c u l t as they are to reconcile. The issue is too complex and permeated with scholasticism to devote further space to here; i t deserves a monograph in it s own right. 466, 230 I have supplied the character J r before^5- ^  to preserve the parallelism of the two phrases here. 468T26.175c-176b. This is the Dasa-bhumi-vyakhyana by Vasubandhu, translated by Bodhiruci in the 6th century. There are several sentences on these two Taisho pages (175-176) that approximate this MHCK paraphrase. 4 6 9 A t T26.176b the sutra says, \"One mounts the vehicle of a l l the Perfections from the (very) f i r s t stage yg, .\" At 175c i t says, \"In each of the Ten Stages, bodhisattvas are completely endowed with a l l the partial Dharmas that f a c i l i t a t e enlightenment.\" 4 6 9 a C f . again the parable of the conjured city in the Lotus :sutra. 470 Once again the parable of the conjured city. 4 7 1 C h i h - i (or Kuan-ting) skips over the Ten Bodhicittas section here. 472 CJ says (correctly) that both the Four Vows and the Six Iden-t i t i e s belong to \"Revealing the Right.\" Actually the preceding section on the Four Noble Truths is also with Revealing the Right, but i t is not so treated here. 473 The f u l l moon symbolizes final and complete enlightenment, as on the fifteenth day of the lunar month. Though none of the four BukkyS Taikei commentators say so, this is nearly verbatim from \u00a3huang-tzu, Ch. 32. Only Shiki says i t is from \"a secular book\" ^ ^ , while CJ irrelevantly cites several passages on the wish-fulfilling gem from the TCTL:that bear only a vague relationship to the text. Chuang-tzu says, \"The pearl worth a thousand pieces of gold must surely have been in the nine-level chasm, under the jaws of a black dragon.\" As Morohashi says, this image was used in later literature to i l l u s -trate the defying of great danger for the sake of a greater reward. Incidentally, Morohashi quotes the MHCK passage here as well as Chuang-tzu in elucidating the meaning of \"the pearl of the black dragon\" . 474 A simile from the Nirvana sutra (T12.617c, Roll 2). Those who take impermanence, suffering, egolessness and impurity to be the Ultimate Truth are compared there to \"People who in springtime swim and play in a great pond, and drop a lapis lazuli into deep water. They all jump into the water to hunt for the jewel, and fight over the differ-ent t i l e s , rocks, grass, sticks, sand and pebbles they find, as each person t e l l s himself he has found i t , rejoices, but then emerges from the water to realize he is mistaken and does not have the real jewel.\" o 231 LESSER CHAPTER TWO ENGAGING IN THE GREAT PRACTISE OR THE FOUR SAMADHIS1 Second in the exposition of calming-and-contemplation is the elucidation of how by advancing (in the practise of) the Four Kinds of p Samadhi, one enters the stages of the bodhisattva (path). One who wants to mount to the stage of f u l l Buddhahood will not be able to do so without engaging in religious practise. But i f he under-stands well how to gather and agitate (the raw milk), he will be able q to produce the ghee (of enlightenment). The Lotus sutra says, \"See again the sons of the Buddha performing a variety of religious practices in order to seek the Buddha's Way.\"4 The methods of practise are numerous, but we sum them up in four (kinds): (1) constantly s i t t i n g ; (2) constantly walking; (3) half-walking and half-sitting; and (4) neither walking nor s i t t i n g . 5 What is generally denoted by. the term \"samadhi\" is \"taming,\" \"rectifying\" and \"stabilizing\" ffl j l ^ (the mind). 6 It says in the TCTL, \"When the mind dwells on a single spot without s t i r r i n g , this is called samadhi.\"7 The Dharma-realm is (such a) single spot. When right contemplation JE- jjf||_, can dwell (on it) and be unwavering, one contemplates the mind jjl^ > ^ with (these) four methods of practise as (external) conditions, taming and rectify-ing (the mind) with the help (of these) as conditions. Hence a l l (four methods) are called \"samadhi.\" 232 I. CONSTANTLY-SITTING SAMADHI First (of the four ways of practising samadhi) is Constantly Sitting (Samadhi), which derives from the two prajnd (sutras) Wen-shu- shuo jti 5$-\"fjt 8 and Wen-shu-wen ji ?J\\ , 9 and is also called the One Practise -~ ^  samadhi J \u00b0 l i b Now I shall f i r s t explain the method (of the practise), then exhort (the practitioner) to engage in i t . Within the section on method, under (1) body, I discuss what should be done and what should not be done f$\\ }JL (with the body); under (2) speech, I discuss what should be spoken and when to be silent S\/u c?c\u00ab ; and under (3) mind , I discuss calming-and-contemplation.^ A. The Method of the Practise 1. Body As for the bodily (posture), one should s i t constantly and not 12 walk, stand or l i e down. One may be in a group, but i t is better to be alone. Sit in a quiet room or out of doors in a peaceful place, 13 apart from a l l clamor, in a rough chair [pltha) with no other seats at your side. For a period of ninety days s i t in the proper position, 14 legs crossed, the neck and backbone perfectly straight, neither moving 15 nor wavering, not drooping nor leaning on anything, vowing to your-self while s i t t i n g that your ribs will not even touch the (side of the) 16 chair. Much less should you l i e down Tike a corpse, f r o l i c about or stand up. Except for walking meditation ^ eating and relieving yourself, simply s i t , properly facing the direction of (a) Buddha, and as time passes do not falter even for a moment. What i s permitted is just sitting: do not do what i s not permitted. 19 Do not cheat the Buddha, do not defy (your own) mind, and do not deceive animate beings. 2. Speech. As for when to vocalize and when to be silent, i f one has become very tired during si t t i n g , or is troubled by illness, or is overcome on by sleepiness, (or i f ) internal or external obstacles invade and deprive the mind of regulated thinking, and one is unable to (other-wise) get rid of (these unfavorable influences), then recite intently the name of a Buddha J^f- %$\u00b1 - A^Ja. %~ ^ and ashamed and repentant, entrust your l i f e (to the Buddha). The merit (obtained from this practise) is just the same as (the merit obtained by) reciting the 22 names of (all ) the Buddhas of the ten directions. What is the pur-pose of this? It is like a person whose depression or joy is stopped 23 up: i f he raises his voice and sings or cries, then his sadness or laughter may be manifested ^ % It is the same with the practitioner. When the (vital) a i r strikes seven places in the body, the bodily act is completed, and when the echo of the voice emerges from the l i p s , the vocal act is 24 completed. The two (together) aid the mind , bringing to fruition the practitioner's capacity (for enlightenment) and causing 25 him to experience the Buddha stooping down (to contact him). Similarly, a person who is unable to pull something heavy by himself enlists the aid of someone nearby, so that he succeeds in l i f t -ing i t easily. Thus, i f the religious practitioner's mind is weak and he is unable to clear away the obstacles (to his meditation by his own unaided power), then by reciting the name \"%$\u00b1J& (of Buddha) and beseeching (the latter's) aid, (he can bring i t about that) even unfavorable conditions 2 6 are unable to ruin (his composure). If you have s t i l l not understood this Dharma, then become familiar with those (individuals or scriptures) who do understand wisdom (prajna), 27 and practise and study according to what you hear (from them). (Thereby you) will be enabled to enter the One-Practise Samadhi, see all the Buddhas face-to-face, and mount to the stage of a bodhisattva. Compared to (perfect) quietness, even reciting sutras or spells 28 V U is noisy: how much (noisier) yet is mundane speech! 3. Mind In the calming-and-contemplation of the mind, just s i t and rectify your thought Dispel evil thoughts and discard 29 disordered fantasies; mix in no (other) mental activity and do not 30 grasp (mentally) at forms. Just identify the objects of cognition with the Dharma-realm and rest your thought in the Dharma-realm alone ^ >&.^r~. \"Identifying the objects of cogniti on (with the Dharma-realm)\"is calming, and \"resting thought (in the Dharma-32 realm) alone\" is contemplation. 235 If you are confident K%. that all,dharmas are the Buddha's 33 Dharma, then there is no earlier (time) and no later, no (temporal) 34 boundary at a l l , no knower and no expounder (of the Dharma). If there is neither knower nor expounder, then (the Ultimate Truth) is neither existent nor inexistent, neither the knower nor a non-knower. Dwell then where no dwelling is possible, apart from these where a l l the Buddhas dwell. Do not be alarmed upon hearing this profound Dharma! For this Dharma-realm is also called \"enlightenment\" {bodhi), and also \"the realm of the unthinkable,\" and also \"wisdom\" (prajnd), and also \"the non-arising and non-perishing.\" Thus there is no duality, no separation between a l l the dharmas and the Dharma-realm. 11c When you hear that there is no duality or separation, harbor no doubts (in your mind). One who is able to contemplate in this way contemplates the ten oc names of the Tathagata. (a) Empty 0 7 When contemplating the Tathagata one does not say (or think) \"f^ that the Tathagata is the Tathagata, 3 8 and there is (for such a 39 person) no Tathagata which is (or \"functions as\") a Tathagata, nor is there any Tathagata's wisdom (by which a) Tathagata could be known.40 Then the Tathagata and the wisdom of the Tathagata lack 41 42 the mark of duality, the property of motion, and the property of having been made; they are situated neither in any direction nor two extremes, in the perfectly quiescent Dharma-realm, 236 apart from (all) directions; they are not in the Three Times nor apart from the Three Times; they are at neither of the two (extremes) nor yet apart from the two (extremes); they are neither defiled nor pure. 4 4 This contemplation of the Tathagata (discloses) his marvellous nature 7^ ^ . 4 5 Like space, he is without imperfections, and (contem-plating) him rectifies the thought j\u00a3 ^ . (b) Provisional View the Buddha's major and minor marks as i f you were seeing your own form shining from the mirror-like surface of water. At f i r s t you see a single Buddha, then Buddhas in (all) the ten directions. It is not that one uses superhuman powers to go (elsewhere) to see the Buddha;simply by staying in the same place one sees a l l Buddhas, hears them expound the Dharma and comprehends the meaning of the Reality of Thusness i f ^ % \\ f ^ (c) Middle See the Tathagata (in his form aspect) so as to benefit (other) animate beings, but do not seize upon his (external) marks j[% \u00ab 4 7 Transform a l l animate beings (with the teaching) and turn them towards nirvana, but do not seize upon the (external) features 48 of nirvana. Make use of the (Two) great Adornments (in your teaching) so as to benefit a l l animate beings, but do not see the (external) features of the great adornments. (For the Ultimate Reality is) without either form or features 1[$ ; 4 9 i t cannot be seen, heard, or known (as an o b j e c t ) . 5 0 The Buddha is not attainable by realization, his marvellous nature is supreme. Why? (Because) the 237 Buddha is identical to the Dharma-realm. If (one were to) attain the Dharma-realm by means of the Dharma-realm, this would be a contradiction. There is no realization and no attainment. (d) The Three Obstacles 5 1 (i) (Suffering:) Contemplate the features of animate beings as i f they were the features of Buddhas, and the number in the realm of animate beings as the same as the number in the realm of Buddhas: there are unthinkably many Buddha-realms and likewise unthinkably many realms of 52 i> animate beings. That in which animate beings dwell q$- is the same as that in which space dwells. Dwell then in (supreme) wisdom by 53 means of non-dwelling Dharmas, featureless Dharmas. If you do not see worldly dharmas j\\ ~Ak , how could you reject them? If you do not see saintly Dharmas ^ v& , how could you adopt them? 5 4 The 55 same goes for samsara and nirvana, f i l t h and purity. Neither re-jecting nor adopting anything, but simply dwelling in the Limit of Reality [bhutakoti) jS^- --to view animate beings in this way is 56 what is the true Dharma-realm of the Buddha. ( i i ) (The Defilements). When contemplating craving, anger, stupidity and a l l the defilements, always (think), \"These are impulses ^'f [sarhskara) of perfect quiescence > ^ , motionless impulsesj^^if-j\"; they are not dharmas of samsara, yet neither are they dharmas of 57 nirvana.\" Practise the Buddha's Way by casting away neither (wrong) views f^) ^ 5 8 nor unconditioned ^ (dharmas), neither practising the Way nor not-practising the Way: this is what is called to properly dwell in the Dharma-realm of the Defilements. 238 ( i i i ) (Karma). When contemplating (beings) with heavy karma, (con-sider that) though there is no (karma) as bad as (that generated by) 59 the Five Perverted Acts, nevertheless \"the Five Perverted Acts are identical to enlightenment. . . . Enlightenment and the Five Perverted Acts are not separate t h i n g s ^ ^--^. 6 0 \" There is no perceiver, no knower, no maker of discriminations.\" Both the features of perverted sins z ^ l ^ and the features of Ultimate Reality are unthink-able, indestructible and lacking in fundamental nature {svabhdva). All the causative action of karma takes place in the Limit of Reality {bhutakoti), neither coming nor going, neither cause nor effect. This is (what is meant by) contemplating karma as the sign \u00a3j? of the Dharma-realm. The sign of the Dharma-realm cannot be destroyed even by the Four Demons; the demons cannot affect i t . Why (not)? (Because) the demons (themselves) are the sign of the Dharma-realm. How could the sign of the Dharma-realm destroy the sign of the Dharma realm? If you apply this idea to a l l dharmas then you will understand (their true nature). Everything that I have said stands in the text of the (ManjusrT) sutras. 6 3 B. Exhortation to Practise The Exhortation to Practise encourages the practitioner by citing 64 the real merit (to be derived from the Practise). Dharmas in the Dharma-realm are (the same as) the true Dharma of the Buddha > and (they are) the sign of bodhisattvas. (If you can) \"hear this Dharma without being alarmed or taking fright, then (you) will plant roots of merit for eons in a hundred thousand cc million million Buddha-fields.\" For example, a rich man who has lost a jewel, and afterwards returns and finds i t , is f u l l of 67 68 joy in his heart. In the same way, before the four assemblies have heard this Dharma they are in a state of suffering, but i f they hear i t , and believe and understand i t , they then become joyful. 69 \"Know (therefore) that such people have seen the Buddha.\" You have already in the past heard this Dharma from the MaffjusrT (sutras). \"Sariputra said that one who understands the meaning of this is what is called a bodhisattva-mahasattva . . . Maitreya said that such a person comes near to the seat of the Buddha, for the Buddhas (are ones who) have awakened to this Dharma. . . . Hence ManjusrT said that to hear this Dharma without bei tig alarmed is the same as seeing the Buddha.\"'70 \"The Buddha said that (such a person) dwells in the place whence there is no returning \/ T N ^ , , is endowed with the Six Perfections\" 7^ and with a l l the Buddhas Dharmas. Those who wish to achieve a l l the Buddha's Dharmas, the major and the minor marks (of Buddhahood), a noble demeanor A (^e 72 a b i l i t y toj expound the Dharma, sound (-forebearance), the Ten 73 Powers, and fearlessness, should engage in this One-Practise Samadhi By practicing diligently without shirking, one will be able to enter i t . It is like caring for a jewel--the more i t is polished, the more 74 i t shines. (By this practise) one acquires unthinkable merit. \"If a bodhisattva is able to learn i t , he will quickly win enlightenment. 240 If monks and nuns hear (this practise being expounded) without being alarmed, then they will follow (the example of) the Buddha in their abandonment of the secular l i f e \u00a3w . If laymen and-women listen without being alarmed, they will truly entrust themselves 4&-(to the Buddha).\"75 This encomium is derived from both (the ManjusrT) sutras. . . . II. CONSTANTLY-WALKING SAMADHI Second is the Constantly-Walking Samadhi. First (within this division) is the method (of the practise), next the exhortion to engage in i t . (Within the section) on method, under (1) body (is discussed) what should be done, and what should not be done; under (2) speech, (what should be) spoken and (when to be) silent; under (3) mind, calming-and-contemplation. This Dharma originates from the Pan-chou-san-mei-ching which is alternatively (named) the Buddha-standing (-sutra) jt- , 7 7 There are three meanings 7 8 of \"buddha-standing.\" First is the majestic power \"fy of the Buddha. Second is the power of samadhi. Third is the power of (one's own) fundamental merit. \"(By these) i t is possible during meditation to see (all) the present 79 Buddhas of the ten directions standing before one.\" One will see the Buddhas of the ten directions as (vividly and) in as much pro-fusion as a clear-eyed person sees stars on a clear night. This is why (this) is called the samadhi of Buddhas-standing. 241 The Shih-chu-p' i-p'o-sha-lun j^ L ^ says in gdthas, \"The abodes \/^t J|t of this samadhi may be distinguished into lesser, 81 medium and greater; such a variety of features have to be discussed.\" (The sdstva goes on to say), \"'Abodes' (means) that within either the f i r s t dhydna, or the second, or third or fourth, by arousing these powers one is able to produce samadhi. That is why the term 'abodes' 82 (is used).\" The f i r s t dhydha is the lesser (abode), the second the medium, and the third and fourth the greater. \"Or else 'lesser' means one remains (in samadhi) for a small amount of time. Or else one views a small number of realms; or else one sees a small number of Buddhas; for these reasons one would use the word 'lesser'. The same goes po for 'medium' and'greater.'\" A. Method of the Practise 1. Body Regarding the body, constant walking is what is prescribed. \"When practising this Dharma, avoid unworthy acquaintances as well as foolish 84 people, relatives and (people hailing from your) native place.\" \"Stay continually alone in one place, without desiring what other people 85 seek.\" \"Always beg for the food (which you eat), but do not accept special alms.\" Decorate in a dignified way fifa Sfo the meditation hall #\u00a77 , providing i t with ritual implements, ritual food ^ 8 7 and sweet f r u i t . Wash the body 8 8 and change clothes (in the interval between) leaving (the meditation hall) on the l e f t (side of the doorway) and entering i t on the right. (The bodily practise 242 consists of) nothing but walking back and forth for a period of ninety days. By employing internal and external disciplines of which a keen-minded teacher approves, (you will) be able to eliminate the obstacles (to your practise). \"Look upon (the teacher) from whom you hear (the teaching of) this samadhi as i f he were the World-Honored 89 One.\" Do not despise or be angered at him, and do not ( c r i t i c a l l y ) 90 view his shortcomings and virtues. You should (be willing to) rend both skin and flesh to serve your teacher--how much the more then (should you be willing to serve) other (animate beings)! Serve the teacher as a servant would serve an eminent family, (for) i f you should develop loathing of your teacher, i t will only be more d i f f i c u l t to 91 achieve this samadhi that you seek. Treat (your) external protec-92 tors as i f they were mothers caring for (their) children, and treat fellow (monks) as i f you were together braving some p e r i l . (You) should seek and vow thus: \"Though my muscle and bone may waste away, (I will) train in this samadhi without resting until I have achieved i t . \" Arouse (in yourselves) such great faith that nothing could 93 destroy i t ; pour forth such great effort that nothing can equal i t ; let the wisdom you have attained be (so great that) no one can reach i t ; and always serve (your) good teacher 9 4 obediently tf&J^ -95 Until the three months are over do not entertain worldly thoughts or desires for even as long as i t takes to snap the fingers; until the three months are over do not l i e down or leave ^ ift 9 6 for even as long as i t takes to snap the fingers; until the three...months are over walk without pausing, except for the time around ^3 sitting down to eat; and expound the scriptures to others without 97 coveting clothing or food (from them in return). 243 It says in gdthas in the Shih-chu-p'i-p'o-sha-lun, \"(In order to bring about this samadhi) stay near worthy friends, be diligent without slacking off , > let (your) wisdom be extremely firm, and let there be no spurious motions ^r^jj in the power of (your) f a i t h . \" 9 7 ^ 98 2. Speech*0 The mouth's speech or silence: while with the body you walk for ninety days without pausing, (at the same time) with the mouth recite the name of Amitabha Buddha (likewise) for ninety days without pausing, and with the mind think of Amitabha Buddha for ninety days without pausing. You may recite and think simultaneously, or f i r s t think and then recite, or f i r s t recite and then think, but reciting and 99 thinking (are to be) carried out continually without pausing. The merit accruing from reciting the name of Amitabha is equal to that of reciting (the names) of (all) the Buddhas in the ten directions, but Amitabha alone is to be regarded as the focus of this practise. In short, every step, every utterance, and every thought (should be devoted to) the Buddha Amitabha. 1 0 0 3. Mind Under \"mind\" we discuss calming-and-contemplation. Think of the Buddha Amitabha ten t r i l l i o n Buddha-lands to the west, in a jewelled pavilion under a jewelled tree, (on an island) in a jewelled pond in a jewelled land, expounding sutras while sitting amid a congregation of bodhisattvas. 1 0 1 Think of the Buddha ^  ^ contin-ually (like this) for three months. How should you think (of the 1 op Buddha himself)? Think of (his) thirty-two marks, one by one in reverse order, from the thousand-spoked wheel on the sole of (each) 103 foot to the invisible (mark at the) top of his head. Then you should think (of a l l the marks) in the proper order, from the mark at the top of his head to the thousand-spoked wheels (on his soles), and (think to yourself), \"Let me come to have these marks as well.\" Ponder (in this way) as well: \"Do I achieve Buddhahood via the mind? Do I achieve Buddhahood via the body? (No), the Buddha's (mind) is not to be achieved via (my) mind, nor is (the Buddha's body) to be achieved via (my) body, nor is the Buddha's body jfcj to be achieved via (my) mind, nor is the Buddha's mind to be achieved via (my) body . 1 0 4 Why? As concerns \"mind,\" the Buddha is without mind; as concerns 105 \"body,\" the Buddha is without body. Hence perfect enlightenment (sambodhi) is not to be achieved via \"body\" or \"mind\" (considered as distinct entities). The Buddha's body is already e x t i n c t , 1 0 6 his consciousness is already extinct, and likewise (for his other three skandhas). The foolish do not understand the extinction that the Buddha expounded, but the wise do understand i t . Buddhahood is not to be achieved via body or speech, nor is Buddhahood to be achieved even via wisdom. 1 0 7 Why (not)? (Because) wisdom seeks the un-attainable. When the self ^ seeks the (nature of) self ^ , i t is ultimately unable to find i t . Nor is there anything to be seen, for a l l dharmas are fundamentally lacking in content ^ Destroy (the concept of) the fundamental, eradicate (the idea of) the foundation! ******* 245 108 It is like seeing in a dream the seven (precious) jewels and (your) relatives ( a l l ) rejoicing: upon waking and remembering (the dream), (you) have no idea where they could be. Think of the Buddha in this way. Again, i t is like (the story of) the (wanton) woman named Sumana 'j\\ ?\u00ae\\ (\"the beautiful\") in SravastT, 1 0 9 hearing of whom (a certain man living in Rajagrha) rejoiced. At night he dreamt that he had intercourse with her, but upon awakening and remembering (his dream), (he realized), \"She did not (really) come (to me), nor did I (really) go to her. Yet I did enjoy her in just the way (I dreamed of).\" This is the way in which you should think of the Buddha} 1 0 It is like a parched and starving man walking through a great swamp. (Falling asleep), he dreams of delicious food, but when he awakens (he finds that) his belly is ( s t i l l ) empty. Thinking to yourself of a l l dharmas as dreams, you should think of the Buddha in the same way, over and over again without pausing. This thought will produce (in your mind) the land of the Buddha Amitabha. 1^ This is called \"thinking 112 in accordance with (external) features.\" (Again, i t ) is like when a person holds (any) jewel above a lapis lazuli (vaidurya) so that the image of (the former) appears in the l a t t e r . 1 1 3 Again, i t is like when a monk contemplates bones from which various (colors of) light (seem to) emanate: neither is there anyone who brings (the light to his eyes), nor is (the light) in the bones themselves. (What he sees) is nothing but the work of his mind. 246 It is like an image in a mirror: neither of external nor internal origin. One sees the image (only) because the mirror is clean. ****** If the body of the practitioner is pure, then whatever is in his 114 possession is pure. If he wants to see the Buddha, he will see the Buddha. Seeing (the Buddha), he will beseech (him to expound the Dharma). Having beseeched, he will be answered, hear sutras and greatl . . 115 rejoice. 116 Think to yourself, \"Whence does the Buddha come (that I see him before me)? (From nowhere, and) neither is there any place to which I go (to see him). 1 1 7 I see whatever I think of, (and i t is my) mind which creates the Buddha. When mind sees i t s e l f i t i_s the 118 Buddha. Mind is the Buddha mind, i t is my own self. (On the other hand), when (my) mind sees the Buddha, i t does not know i t s e l f , (for) 119 mind does not see i t s e l f . Having thoughts in the mind is nescience , while, having no thoughts 1 2 0 is nirvana. These Dharma cannot (ultimately) be indicated in words. They are a l l products of thought. And even though (one may speak as i f ) thought exists, i t is to be understood as (itself) no more than empty. 121 It says in gdthds3 \"Mind does not know mind: what has mind cannot see mind. When thoughts arise in the mind, this is nescience; 1 22 when thoughts are absent this is nirvana.\" (The sutra also says), 123 \"The Buddhas attain liberation via the mind. When the mind is 124 without a blemish i t is called pure. (Even in) the Five (lower) 125 Destinies i t is fresh, clear and unstained. Whoever understands this attains the Great Way.\" This is called the \"Seal of the Buddha\" \u2014 126 (in the sutra). \"There is (in the Seal of the Buddha) nothing to be coveted, nothing to be attached to, nothing to be sought after, 127 . . . and nothing which could be an object of thought. There is nothing to be possessed and nothing to be desired. Hence there is nowhere from which (the Seal of the Buddha) could arise, and nowhere whither i t could vanish. There is nothing which could be annihilated. (This is) the essence of the Way, the foundation of the Way. 103 (Adherents to) the Two Vehicles cannot destroy this Seal.\" How much less (could i t be destroyed by demons! . . . The Shih-chu-p'i-p'o-sha-lun explains that a bodhisattva who has just had the thought of enlightenment thinks f i r s t of the (thirty-two) 129 physical marks of the Buddha. (In the same way), for each feature f i r s t think of (1) its substance , (2) its action and 130 (3) its effect ^ . (By contemplating) the functioning of the marks you can attain the Lesser Power ~'f ^  j) . Next, think of the Forty Unshared Dharmas of a Buddha, and (you) will attain Middling Power in the mind. Next, think of the Buddha of Ultimate Reality jj| ^0 (\"real marks\") and you will attain the Superior Power of Buddha. Yet be attached neither to the form-body nor to the Dharma-body (of the Buddha). 1 3 1 It says in gathas, \"Be attached to neither the form-body nor the Dharma-body, but be ful l y aware that a l l dharmas are eternally 132 quiescent, like space.\" 248 B. Exhortation to Practise The Exhortation to Practise: If one should wish to acquire wisdom (as vast) as the ocean, so that no one could be his teacher; (and i f he should wish) that he could, while sitting here,- and without resorting to superhuman powers, see a l l the Buddhas, hear everything they expound, and accept and remember a l l (that he hears from them), (then he should bear in mind that) Constantly-Walking Samadhi is of a l l meritorious (actions) the best. This samadhi is the mother of the Buddhas, the eye of the Buddhas, the father of the Buddhas; ( i t is) the unproduced jjfit >\u00a3_ , greatly 133 compassionate mother. All Tathagatas are produced from these 134 two dharmas. 1 qc \"(If) a b i l l i o n worlds with (all their) grasses and trees were to be pulverized, and each mote of dust became a Buddha-world, (and i f one were to) f i l l a l l these (Buddha-) worlds with treasure to use as alms, then the merit derived from this would be exceedingly great. Yet i t would not compare to (the merit obtained from) hearing this 136 samadhi (-sutra) without astonishment or fear, much less to (the merit obtained from) practising i t with concentrated mind T^_\/^N . It is like the f i e l d which (indirectly) produces 137 the cow's milk. How much greater (again will be the benefit i f ) one is able to perfect this samadhi!\" Hence (the merit obtained from this samadhi) is incalculable, immeasurable. The (Shih-chu-p'i-)p'o-sha(-lun) \/)\u00a3 H % TJf s a y s , 1 3 8 \"If the fires (at the end) of the kalpa, o f f i c i a l s , bandits, malice, 249 poison, ndgas, (wild) beasts and a host of diseases should assail will be constantly protected, thought of and praised by a l l the devas3 nagas, (and other members of) the eight divisions (of superhuman beings) and a l l the Buddhas. They will a l l want to see him and come to wherever he i s . Those who hear of this samadhi will a l l rejoice just as much as ( i f they had gained) the above four kinds of merit. All the Buddhas and bodhisattvas in the Three Times will rejoice. (But the merit of actually performing this samadhi) exceeds even the above four kinds of merit.\" 1 4 0 Not to practise such a Dharma (samadhi) means to lose an incalculably precious treasure, and both men and gods 1 4 1 will grieve over this; (one who does not practise this samadhi) resembles a person with a benumbed sense of smell who is unable to smell sandalwood, or a farm lad wagering a precious jewel against a 142 (mere) ox. . . . III. HALF-WALKING HALF-SITTING SAMADHI Third is the explanation of the Half-Walking Half-Sitting (Samadhi). Again the Method (of the Practise) comes f i r s t , followed by the Exhortation to Practise. The method of the practise (is again divided into) what should be done and what should not be done with 250 the body, what to utter and when to keep silent with the mouth, and the calming-and-contemplation of the mind. This (practise) derives from two sutras. (The f i r s t of these), the (Ta-)fang-teng(-t'o-lo- ni-ching) 7y -^f <$j| ^ 4 says, \"Circumambulate a hundred twenty times. (Then) retire, s i t and ponder (the s u t r a ) . 1 4 5 The Lotus (sutra) s a y s , 1 4 6 \"If the person recites this sutra either walking or standing, or ponders i t while si t t i n g , I (Samantabhadra) will appear to him mounted on a white elephant with six tusks.\" (By these quotes) one may know that both (these sutras) employ the method of half-walking and half-sitting. 147 A. Vaipulya Samadhi The Vaipulya (Samadhi) is of utmost nobility and cannot be be-l i t t l e d . If you wish to practise i t , \"(regard) a divine manifestation 13b ^ as proof (that you are ready).\" 1 4 8 \"Seek f i r s t the dream-kings, and i f you see one, then this allows (you) to practise this repentance . \" 1 4 9 1. The Method of the Practise (a) Body \"Decorate a meditation chamber jjl, \"fcjf? \" 1 5 \u00b0 in a quiet p l a c e , 1 5 1 and \"daub scented mud on the ground and on the inside and outside 152 (walls) of the chamber;\" make a round altar and color i t brightly. \"Drape i t with five-colored pennants and burn incense from the sea-153 side,\" light a lamp and lay out a high seat (on the altar). 251 Petition the twenty-four images of worship (in the chamber), for though 154 many, they will not be a hindrance. Provide ritual food (for the images) and devote yourself totally to them. \"(Your) clothing, shoes 155 and straw sandals should be both clean and new,\" but i f you have nothing new, wash what you have that is old. Do not confuse what is to be put on and what is to be taken off when leaving or entering (the meditation chamber). \"During the seven days observe the forenoon 156 157 fast, and wash (the body) three times daily.\" On the f i r s t day (of the seven) make offerings to (all) the monks (present), as much or as l i t t l e as you wish. (Then), ask one who understands both the internal and external monastic code ^ to be your teacher and accept from him the twenty-four rules of conduct ^ 1 5 8 and the 159 dhdranZ spells. Tell the teacher the sins you have committed, and \"be sure to do this on the eighth or the fifteenth day of the 160 (lunar) month.\" By no means should this be decreased, but you may continue for as long as you are able to endure i t . \"No more than l fil ten people (should engage in this practise at a time).\" Laypeople l fi? are also permitted (to engage in this practise. (Practitioners) must cut (themselves) three garments (and sew them) with single seams, in order to prepare (themselves) for the ritual of the Buddha's Dharma. 163 (b) Speech Speech: (what to) vocalize and (when to) be silent. Recite beforehand the dharanZ spell(s) (in the sutra) once, so as to profit (by their help). On the f i r s t day, calling thrice in unison J ^ . >cz 252 iii) invoke the Three Jewels, (all) the Buddhas of the ten ( d i r e c t i o n s ) , 1 6 4 the father and mother of the Vaipulya(-sutra), 1 6 5 and the ten Princes of the Dharma.166 The method of invoking (the above bodhisattvas, etc.) is given in the Kuo-ch'ing-po-lu \\^ -J^ Ii} ^3^.. 1 6 7 After the invocation, burn incense and mentally offer up 168 (to them your) Three Acts. When the offering is finished, bow 169 to the Three Jewels which you have just invoked. After bowing, weep compassionately, raining tears with an intent and sincere mind, and confess your sins. Then arise and circumambulate. Neither dawdle nor hurry, and (recite) with neither too high nor too low (a v o i c e ) . 1 7 0 Upon finishing the circumambulation and (the recitation of) the spell, bow (again) to the Ten Buddhas,171 the Vaipu1ya(-dharanT-sutra), and the Ten Princes of the Dharma. Then withdraw (from the altar), s i t down and ponder . 1 7 2 After finishing this, rise again to circumambulate and (recite) the spell. Then retire, s i t and ponder again. Upon finishing this, begin (the cycle) over again. Continue in this way to the end of the seven days. Starting on the second day, omit the invocation, but keep performing a l l the other 1 7? practices (to the very end). ^ (c) Mind For mind, (the practise is) calming-and-contemplation. When the sutra recommends \"pondering\" %\u2022> ^ , ( i t means) to ponder the mo-ho-t'an-ch'ih -|sj\" ^ dhavan'}1^ Translated, this means \"Great 1 75 Hidden Essence, Preventing Evil and Sustaining Good.\" \"Hidden Essence\" means nothing else than Ultimate Reality 4f , the Middle 176 Way, True Emptiness jS- . 253 The (Ta-fang-teng-t'o-lo-ni) sutra s a y s , 1 7 7 \"I come from the midst of True Reality _Jr $ . True reality has the mark of quiescent void-ness ZJ&yfyjfQ \u2022 (The monk asked i f there was anything to be sought in this quiescent voidness. The bodhisattva replied), There is nothing to be sought in the mark of quiescent voidness. . . . The seeker too 1 -jo is empty, and the one who attains, the one who is attached, the one who treats things as real , 1 7 9 the one who comes (and goes during the samadhi practise), the one who speaks and the one who questions, al l these are empty too. Quiescent voidness and nirvana are also both empty, and a l l of space and its divisions y ^ % [ ~ are also empty. It is therefore in the midst of where there is nothing to seek that I seek (True Reality). Such an emptiness of emptiness is the Dharma of True Real i ty % % 2L & 1 8 1 This (emptiness) is the same as the eighteen kinds of emptiness in \" ' 182 the Pancavimsati. Furthermore, the Nirvana sutra's emptiness of (the city) Kapilavastu, emptiness of the Tathagata, and emptiness of r 183 mahaparinivana are not different (from this emptiness ). l o\u00b0 If you employ the wisdom of this (realization of) emptiness in everything which you encounter, there will be nothing that does not mature (your) insight. Fang-teng {vaipulya) can mean \"broad and level,\" but in this case fang means \"method\" {fa ). There are four methods (by which one may approach) wisdom. (Thus one) may say that one enters the pure, cool pond (of wisdom) from four gates, that i s , \"methods\" % , 1 8 4 Teng ^ means that the Ultimate Truth SS. which is to be joined (to the practitioner's own mind) is (everywhere) the same Jf- <^ 1 8 5 great wisdom. 254 Having (the practitioner) seek after the dream-kings is a pre-1 oc liminary expedient for (the practise of) the ( f i r s t ) two Views. The meditation chamber ( l i t : the \"place of the Way\") j j l J^p is a 187 realm ^p- of cleanliness and purity. (Here) the husked (grain) which is the (beings in the) five abodes \/j\u00a3 is stored (and winnowed) to reveal the \"rice\" (kernels) which are Ultimate 1 oo Reality. Also this signifies the Dharma-body being adorned with meditation (samadhi) and wisdom (prajnd). The scented (mud)_ and daubing 1 gg signify the supreme monastic code [slla). The five-colored 190 covering signifies how the contemplation of the five skandhas and the resultant liberation from the defilements arouses one's good will and compassion (so that they) cover the Dharma-realm. The round altar signifies the immovable land of Ultimate Reality. The silken 191 pennants signify the understanding that enlightenment is dynamic-all y produced ^ when the defilements which overlie the Dharma^ realm are overturned. That the pennants and the altar are not separated from each other signifies that there is no separation be-192 tween dynamic and non-dynamic (enlightenment). The incense and 1 9 3 ' lamp signify the monastic code (s-TZa) and wisdom {prajnd). The high seat signifies that though a l l dharmas are empty, ( s t i l l ) a l l 194 the Buddhas dwell in this emptiness. The twenty-four images signify the enlightened wisdom that contemplates the twelve causes-and-conditions in both backward and forward sequence. The ritual food signifies the bitter vinegar of impermanence, a contemplation that assists (one along) the Way. The clean new clothes symbolize acquiescence fiL {ksdnti) in the quiescent voidness $X.v<^ 255 The accumulation of anger (and the other delusions ^ ) is called \"old,\" while overturning anger (and the other delusions) and producing (this) acquiescence is called \"new.\" The seven days (of the practise) signify the seven (limbs of) enlightenment. 1 9 5 9 The \"one day\" signifies the one Ultimate Truth \u00bb ^ a n c' t n e three washings signify how by viewing the One Reality a n d practising the Three Views, one may wash away the Three Obstacles and purify the 197 Three Wisdoms. The \"one teacher\" signifies the one Ultimate Truth. The twenty-four rules of discipline signify the twelve causes-and-conditions (contemplated) both backwards and forwards, producing that conduct (which arises) in association with the (undefiled) Way 198 . -(anasrava-samvava). The (recitation) of the dharant is in correspondence ^ j ' 1 9 9 (with the contemplation of the causes-and-conditions), for the Ying-luo-ching explains that there are ten kinds of the twelve causes-and-conditions, making (in a l l ) 120 items. 2 0 0 Each (recitation of the) spell (corresponds to) one item (of the 120). These (120 items) can be summed up simply as the 201 Three Paths, which are suffering, karma and the defilements. To now recite as dhavanls these (120) causes-and-conditions is equivalent to reciting as dhdranTs the Three Paths while repenting (of one's failings in each of the paths). The worldly repentance is to repent in the path of suffering and the path of karma, while the ultimate repentance \u00a3 ^ 202 is to repent in the path of defilements. The text (of the sutra) says, \" ( i f one) breaks (any of) the rules of conduct ^ , from those for novices (sramaneva) to those for great monks {bhiksu), then (by his repentance) he cannot f a i l to be restored to l i f e as 203 a monk (in the assembly of monks).\" This is the passage (in the sutra) for repentance in the path of karma. \"The purification of the eye, ear and (the other six) sense-organs\" is the passage (in the sutra) for repentance in the path of s u f f e r i n g . 2 0 4 \"On the seventh day one sees the Buddhas of the ten directions, hears (them expound) ' the Dharma, and attains(the stage of) no backsliding {avaivartika)\" is 2 the passage (in the sutra) for repentance in the path of defilements. When the Three Obstacles are eliminated, then the tree of the twelve 206 causes-and-conditions is destroyed, and (one realizes that) the abode of the five skandhas is empty. 207 Pondering Ultimate Reality, one truly eradicates these (Three Obstacles). That is why this is called the repentance of the real Dharma of the Buddhas. 2. The Exhortation to Practise The Exhortation to Practise: The Buddhas in attaining to the Way al l rely upon this Dharma. This is the father and the mother of 208 Buddhas, the supremely great treasure of the world. \"Whoever is able to practise i t gains the entire treasure; one who only reads and recites i t gains a middling part of the treasure; and one who performs offerings (to i t ) with flowers and incense gains an inferior part of the treasure'.' 2 0 9 (In the sutra) the Buddha and ManjusrT teach that (even) the inferior part of the treasure is inexhaustible: 257 210 vaster yet are the middling and the superior parts. \"If one were to pile treasure from the earth up to the Brahma-heaven to offer to the Buddha, (the merit from this) would ( s t i l l ) be less than (the merit gained by) providing one who remembers (this) sutra with a single meal 211 and thereby f i l l s his body. (The merit to be gained) is as 212 expounded in more detail in the sutra. . . . 213 B. Lotus Samadhi For the Lotus samadhi too, the explanation (is divided into) the Method and the Exhortation to Practise. 1. The Method of the Practise The method is (again) what should and should not be done with the body, (what to) utter and (when to be) silent with the mouth, and the calming-and-contemplation of the mind. (a) Body Of bodily acts there are ten prescribed: (1) rigorously clean the meditation chamber 2J\u00a7^  l^fo ; (2) clean the body; (3) make 214 offerings with the Three Acts; (4) petition the Buddha; (5) bow to the Buddha; (6) repent of (sins committed with) the six sense-organs; (7) circumambulate (the Buddha-image); (8) recite the sutra; (9) perform sitting meditation ; and (10) realize the (true) marks (of Ultimate Reality). There exists a separate (work of) one r o l l (on this subject) called the Fa-hua-san-mei-ch'an-i ^ lJi<> written by the T'ien-t'ai master (i.e. C h i h - i ) . 2 1 5 It has been disseminated in the world, and is esteemed by practitioners (of the Way). 2 1 6 (b) Speech Since the (above l i s t ) includes (the category of) vocalizing and 217 being silent, we shall not discuss this under a separate heading. (c) Mind The mind's calming-and-contemplation: The P'u-hsien-kuan(-ching) 218 says, \"Merely recite Mahayana (sutras) without entering into samadhi.\" During (all) the six times of day and night repent of.sins 219 (committed with each) of the six sense-organs. The Chapter on )fe 4 & 42 Peaceful Practises l$\u00a3 2^ cza says, \"In a l l the dharmas there are 220 none (which a bodhisattva) practises . . . he neither practises nor 221 makes discriminations.\" The two sutras fundamentally complement each other. How could (anyone) cling to (one) text and reject (the other), opposing (them to each other)? The sequence in which they appear (in these two quotations) is merely conditional (and not to be treated as significant), for there is no important difference (between them). In the Chapter on Peaceful Practises, are not \"protecting, 222 remembering, reading, reciting, and expounding (the sutra)\" (and) \"bowing (to a l l the bodhisattvas of the ten directions) respectfully 223 from the bottom of the heart\" worldly ~% (practises)? The Kuan-p'u-hsien-ching explains the featureless Jjft repentance: \"Since one's own mind is void of i t s e l f , there is no subject (in which) sin 224 or merit (could inhere),\" (and) \"The sun of wisdom can clear away 259 the (frost and dew of sins).\" Is this not the (practise of) Ultimate Truth \u00a3 f ? 2 2 6 The master Nan-yiieh (Hui-ssu) spoke of the peaceful practise with features 7J^  and of the f e a t u r e l e s s ^ ^ \u00a7 peaceful p r a c t i s e . 2 2 7 Is i t not true that the terms (\"with features\" and \"featureless\") mean Worldly ^ and Ultimate ? What is called \"practise with features\" is merely a preliminary ^ )%\\^ , 2 2 8 by passing through the Worldly and practising the repentance of the six sense-organs, to the practitioner's (true) entering of realization. What is called the \"featureless (practise)\" is the expedient consisting of contemplating directly the emptiness of a l l dharmas. At the time of the marvelous realization both of these (methods) may be discarded. Once this is understood, one is no longer perplexed by (the difference between) the two sutras. Now we shall (describe how to) practise the contemplation by 229 following the text (of the Kuan-p'u-hsien-ching). Where (the sutra) says, \"A white elephant with six tusks,\" this signifies the six undefiled superhuman powers of the bodhisattva (Samantabhadra), for the sharp action of the tusks is as quick as the superhuman powers (of the bodhisattva). The great strength of the elephant signifies the (overwhelming) weight of the Dharma-body. It is because he is without defilement or stain that the elephant is white. The three men on his head, one holding a vajra prod, one holding a vajra wheel, and one holding a wish-fulfilling gem, signify that the Three Wisdoms abide at the summit of undefilement. . . . The guiding of the elephant 260 by the prod signifies how wisdom guides religious practise. The turn-ing of the (vaQva) wheel signifies the issuing forth (from the empty) into the provisional. The wish-fulfilling gem signifies the Middle. That there are pools on the tusks signifies that the Eight (Degrees of) Liberation are the substance of meditation \"5?^  , 2 3 0 and the (six) superhuman powers are the activity produced by (the power of) samadhi : for substance and activity )f] are not separate from each other. At the tips of the tusks are pools, and in the pools are (lotus) flowers. The flowers signify the Wondrous Cause \u2022^\/\"^j .231 The Cause is the purifying of Buddha-lands and the benefitting of animate beings by (the activity of) the superhuman powers (of the bodhisattva), and the Cause arises from the superhuman powers just 232 as the flowers emerge from the pools. In (each) flower there is a maiden -\u00a3* , signifying good will [maitrl). If she lacked uncon-ditional good w i l l , how could she (even) with the aid of superhuman power shrink herself until small enough to enter this world of ours {sahdloka)? The superhuman powers are set in motion by good will in 233 the same way as the maidens are held aloft by the flowers. The maidens hold musical instruments, signifying the four modes of con-234 version (samgraha-vastu). When good will is practised both physically and verbally, various kinds of equalizing actions and 235 236 favorable actions are manifested. That the two kinds of giving, of wealth and of the Dharma, may take many diverse forms depending on the person is analogous to the i n f i n i t e variety of sounds (produced) from the five hundred musical instruments. To be shown 261 these forms, so joyous to behold, is the samadhi of the (contemplation of the) physical body of Samantabhadra. Whatever (the practitioner) desires will be manifested to him; i t does not necessarily have to be an image of Samartabhadra (the color) of a white jewel. The uttering 237 of the dharanl is the suffusing of the mouth with good will while expounding a variety of Dharmas. All this is the Lotus samadhi by another name. Whoever (fully) understands the meaning of this will (be able to sit) atop the body of the elephant and freely create (his own) teachings. 2. Exhortation to Practise 238 The Exhortation to Practise: It says in the P'u-hsien-kuan-(ching) 239 that i f anyone in the Seven Assemblies breaks the disciplinary code ^ and wishes to \"expunge in the time i t takes to snap the fingers the sins (committed during) a hundred quadrillion incalculable kalpas of birth-and-death {samsara)\" ( i f he) wishes to arouse the thought of enlightenment, and enter nirvana \"without eradicating the defilements, purify his sense-organs without separating himself from the five kinds of desire (associated with them), and see what is beyond the obstacles (defilements) 2L ^  ( i f he) \"wishes to see corporeal projections Jf' (of the Buddha), s 242 like Prabhutaratna and Sakyamuni\"; ( i f he) wishes to acquire a l l the words and dharan's of the Lotus samadhi, enter the chambers of 243 the Tathagata, \"put on the robes of the Tathagata,\" s i t on the throne of the Tathagata, and (there) expound the Dharma to devas, nagas and (the rest of) the eight kinds of superhuman beings; ( i f he) wishes to have (the vision of) \"the great bodhisattvas ManjusrT and 244 Bhaisajyaraja then he should \"practise this Lotus sutra, read and recite the Mahayana (sutras), be mindful of the things of the Mahayana,\"245 make this emptiness-wisdom ^ correspond with (the thoughts in his own) mind, and be mindful of the mother of a l l bodhisattvas. It is from the Ultimate Reality of thought \/\u00a3-that (such) supreme expedients are derived. \"All sins are like frost ?4fi and dew: they are cleared away by the sun of wisdom.\" If (the nature of) a l l things is completely understood in such a way, there is nothing which one will not be adequate to accomplish Jifc \/ f - - | f - \/ ^ . Whoever is able to remember this sutra will be able to see me (Samantabhadra), and will also (be able to) see you (the Buddha), and will thereby make an offering to (the Buddha) Prabhutaratna and the (other) corporeal projections of the Buddha. It is just as the sutra says at greater length. Who could hear such a Dharma and f a i l to give rise to the thought of enlightenment? It is only the base, the stupid, benighted and ignorant (who could f a i l to respond to this Dharma). IV. NEITHER-WALKING-NOR-SITTING SAMADHI Fourth is Neither-Walking-nor-Sitting Samadhi. The above (three methods of practising samadhi) have dealt exclusively with walking and s i t t i n g , but this differs from them in order to complete the 247 tetralemma. This is why i t is called \"Neither-Walking-nor-Sitting Samadhi.\" Actually i t includes walking and sitting as well as a l l other modes of behavior ~- ^7} , and is what the teacher Nan-yueh (Hui-ssu) called \"(the samadhi of) following one's own thought\" 7^f_ 7g 248 H &r . (This means that) whenever any thought arises, one (uses i t to) practise samadhi. The Pancavimsati calls i t \"the samadhi of awakening to (the nature of) thought 2- . 1 , 2 4 9 It is clear that (all three terms mean one's) consciousness (i.e. mind) is enliohtened wherever one's thought(s) may roam. Although there are three names for i t , this is really only a single dharma. Now we shall explain the term {chueh-i-san-mei) according to the s u t r a ( s ) . 2 5 0 Chiieh means 'enlightened understanding' and i -J?, means 'mental dharmas\" \/ 0 s , 2 5 1 San-mei (samadhi) 252 is as has been previously explained. \"When the practitioner's mental dharmas arise, (he is to) reflect upon and contemplate them without paying heed to the origin or termination, the whence or the whither of (this mental) activity ^j) . 2 5 3 That is why the term ohileh-i^j^ (\"becoming enlightened as to the nature of thought\") is used. Q: \"Mental dharmas are numberless; why do you discuss enlighten-ment only with respect to the mind ( i t s e l f ) : 2 5 4 A: By inquiring into the origin of dharmas (we realize that) j , 255 they are a l l created by the m i n d . \" Therefore we take (the word) \"mind\" -^ff as our verbal point of departure. 264 A. The D i f f e r e n t Names f o r \"Thought\" Hfl (The f u n c t i o n by which) one c o g n i z e s the o b j e c t - r e a l m ~%\\ ^ '^ fjFJfc and which d i s t i n g u i s h e s ( t h e p o s s e s s o r o f t h i s f u n c t i o n ) from t r e e s and st o n e s i s c a l l e d hsin |C V (oitta). Next, the making o f judgements y=\u00a3 j?- 257 i i - , x i s c a l l e d i -^T (manas). ( F i n a l l y ) , d i s c r i m i n a t i n g c o g n i t i o n ^ \"5 C^12 1 S c a l l e d shih (vijnana) . 2 5 8 \"Whoever makes such d i s t i n c t i o n s ( a b s o l u t e ) f a l l s i n t o p e r v e r s i o n s o f mind, 259 thoughts and views. \" How c o u l d t h i s be c a l l e d e n l i g h t e n m e n t >-^j\u00a3 ' Enl i g h t e n m e n t i s \" u n d e r s t a n d i n g ^ %P ( a ) t h a t oitta \/o iL\u2014 260 n e i t h e r i n c l u d e s nor does n o t i n c l u d e manas -^T , and n e i t h e r i n c l u d e s nor does n o t i n c l u d e vijnana ; 2 6 1 (b) t h a t manas n e i t h e r i n c l u d e s nor does not i n c l u d e oitta, n e i t h e r i n c l u d e s nor does n o t i n c l u d e vijnana; and (c) t h a t vijnana n e i t h e r i n c l u d e s nor does n o t i n c l u d e oitta. S i n c e oitta, manas and vijnana are not one, t h r e e names a r e e s t a b l i s h e d ; and s i n c e t h e y a r e n o t t h r e e , we tea c h t h a t t h e r e i s o n l y a s i n g l e n a t u r e g I f one und e r s t a n d s t h a t a name i s n o t (an a b s o l u t e ) name & %\\ %z , then (one under-st a n d s t h a t ) n e i t h e r i s \" n a t u r e \" ( t o be taken as an a b s o l u t e ) n a t u r e ^\\^L 3h ^  f ^ - S i n c e ( t h o u g h t ) i s n o t a name, i t i s not t h r e e ; and s i n c e i t i s not \" n a t u r e \" sf}jL , i t i s n o t one. S i n c e i t \" i s n ot one, i t i s not c o n c e n t r a t e d , 2 6 3 S i n c e i t i s not concen-t r a t e d , i t does not ( a b s o l u t e l y ) e x i s t ; and s i n c e i t i s not. d i s p e r s e d , i t i s - n o t empty ( i n e x i s t e n t ) . . S i n c e i t does n o t - ( a b s o l u t e l y ) e x i s t , i t i s not eter n a l . { s a s v a t a ) ; and s i n c e i t i s not empty, i t i s not (capable of being annihilated [uoohedaj). If one holds neither the view of eternity nor the view of annihilation, then in the end one perceives neither unity nor separateness \"If one contemplates manas -j | r , this includes oitta and vijnana } a s w en as a l l (other) dharmas. If one destroys manas, then nescience is also destroyed t%_ , and the other defile-265 ments (likewise) a l l vanish . This is why, although there are 26 5 3 many dharmas, we use only thought -^\u00a7*_ [manas ) \u00b0 3 d to explain (this) samadhi. . . . ' C o n t e m p l a t i o n ' m e a n s taming and rectifying \" ^ J J|_ 2 6 6 (the mind). That is why we say, 'the samadhi of awakening to (the nature of) thought ^ ^- ^ . \" 2 6 7 \"Following one's own thought\" \"JL and \"neither-walking-nor-sitting\" may be understood hereby. 2 6 8 B. Main Discussion We divide this discussion into four parts. The f i r s t is on the (physical and vocal aspects of the practise as presented in a) sutra. The second is on the (contemplation of) good (dharmas). The third is on (the contemplation of) evil (dharmas). The fourth is on the (contemplation of) neutral (dharmas). Whatever methods of practise from the sutras which have not been included in the previous three 269 (kinds of samadhi) belong to (this samadhi of) \"Following One's Own Thought.\" 266 1. The Physical and Vocal Aspects of the Practise We shall now delineate the features of this samadhi with refer-ence to the Ch'ing-kuan-yin-ching \"f^\" . 2 7 \u00b0 Adorn a meditation chamber \u2022ify in a quiet place with banners {pataka), parasols {chattra) and censers. Petition images of (the Buddha) Amitabha and the two bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta, which(should be) placed on the western side (of the meditation chamber). 271 Provide tooth-cleaning sticks [dantakastha) and pure water (for 272 them). If i t is convenient, then on the l e f t and right \"daub 27*3 (your own) body with incense, (once i t has been) washed clean.\" Put on clean new clothing, and starting on the day for the uposatha ceremony, you )shouTd be situated facing in the westerly direction, 274 \"and throw the five bodily members to the ground.\" Pay reverence 275 ' to the Three Jewels, Seven Buddhas, Sakyamuni, Amitabha, the three 276 \/ dhdranls, the two bodhisattvas (Avalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta) 277 and the saintly assembly. Then kneel and \"burn incense and scatter 278 flowers.\" Direct your thoughts with the utmost sincerity, as i f they were the eternal Dharma. After finishing the offering, assume P7Q the (cross-legged) lotus posture, with \"body erect and mind regulated.\" 280 \"Fix the thoughts and count the breaths,\" making each thought 281 correspond to ten breaths. When ten thoughts (i.e. 100 breaths) have been completed, arise and burn incense in honor of animate beings, and petition thrice the above Three Jewels. Then \"call thrice the 28? names of the Three Jewels, call in addition (the name of) Avalokit-esvara, and join the ten fingers and palms. Then recite the four-283 line gdthas.\" Then recite the dhdrari'(s) three times, or once, 284 or seven times, depending on the lateness of the hour. After reciting the spell, confess your sins and repent of them, pondering meanwhile which rule you have transgressed against. Upon completing the confession and the cleansing, pay respects to those whom you have just petitioned. Then let one person mount the dais to chant or recite the text of this sutra, while the others (in the group) listen attentively. This method should be followed in the morning and the early evening. In the other (four) periods of the day, one may OJ, . 5\u00a3 286 follow the standard practises ^ 'j-f^ . Whoever dislikes omissions and abbreviations may consult the sutra to supplement the practise. . . The sutra says, \"The eye responds to form: how then can concen-tration be maintained? . . . and the mind {manas) responds to the 287 objects of mind: how then can concentration be maintained?\" The Ta-chi-ching A- p^; 10- s a y s , 2 8 8 \"Suchness is the dwelling-place of the mind <fyu- )<? fe. . 1 , 2 8 9 These (two) texts both enter into the limit of the Real ^ 2, T^k , which is only another name for Suchness and Emptiness. \/ 290 (Sariputra answered), \"(The element) earth lacks solidity.\" If we say that earth exists, then by \"exists\" we mean \"real\" ^ , and \"real\" is what \"solid\" means. But i f we say that earth inexists, or that i t both exists and inexists, these (descriptions) are also (on the level of) provisional reality , and hence they too are included in the meaning of (the term) \"solid.\" (The text) explains here the ultimate incomprehensibility \/ f^ (of the element earth) by negating its (supposed) nature of solidity. 291 \"The nature of water is not to abide (anywhere).\" If we say that water exists, then by \"exists\" we mean \"abides,\" etc. until 268 even to say that water neither exists nor inexists is ( s t i l l \"in the realm of) \"abides.\" Now (water) does not abide in the existence 292 tetralemma, nor in the inexistence tetralemma, nor even in the in-describable That is why i t is said, \"The nature of water is not to abide.\" 293 \"The nature of wind is unimpedability.\" If we contemplate wind as existing, then \"existing\" means (in this case) \"impeded,\" etc., until to say that \"wind neither exists nor inexists\" (is also inapplic-able). Even the inexistence tetralemma f a i l s (to characterize wind). That is why i t is said, \"The nature of wind is unimpedability.\" 294 The element f i r e is unreal.\" Fire does not arise from i t s e l f , (nor from something else), nor from both, nor without a cause (i.e. neither). It fundamentally lacks a self-nature (own-being, svabhava), and \"exists\" only in dependence upon (causes-and-)conditions. That is why (the sutra) says i t is unreal. So much for the contemplation of form (the four elements). \"Sensation, perception, impulses and pqc consciousness (too) each enter into the limit of the Real.\" Thus for the contemplation of the (five) skandhas. Now the twelve causes-and-conditions are (similarly) each like an echo in a one canyon, as solid as (the core of) a banana tree, as (evanescent as) dew or lightning. By pondering ><\u00a7 ^ at every moment in this way one may perfect the contemplation of emptiness. One should practise (such contemplations) assiduously so as to make (one's own thought) coincide (with Ultimate Reality). The foundation (of practise), 297 which is contemplative wisdom, must not be lacking. The dhdranZ (E^) for Eradicating and Suppressing Poisons and Harmful Influences has the a b i l i t y to destroy the Obstacle of Retribution. 2 9 8 (Upon hearing Avalokitesvara t e l l how efficacious this dhdvanl was for curing disease, delivering from fear, etc.), \"The \/ 299 people of Vaisali became as calm as they had been before.\" The dhdranl (B-j) for Destroying Bad Karma has the a b i l i t y to destroy the Obstacle of karma. \"(By hearing i t ) , even a person who violates (the rule of) chaste conduct {brahmacavya) can clear away the f i l t h and restore (himself) to p u r i t y . \" 3 0 0 The six-letter phrase dhdranT (C) has the a b i l i t y to destroy the 301 Obstacle of defilements. There can be no doubt that i t purifies the sense-organs of the Three Poisons and brings about the achievement of the Buddha's Way. The \"six letters\" (of the t i t l e ) signify the six (incarnations of) Avalokitesvara, who are capable of destroying 302 the Three Obstacles in (each of) the Six Destinies. (1) The Avalokitesvara of Great Compassion destroys the Three Obstacles in the destiny of hell. It is because the suffering in this destiny is so intense that i t is appropriate (for him) to employ his great compassion. (2) The Avalokitesvara of Great Good Will destroys the Three Obstacles in the destiny of hungry ghosts. It is because there is starvation and thirst in this destiny that i t is appropriate (for him) to employ his great good w i l l . (3) The Avalokitesvara of Leonine Fearlessness destroys the Three Obstacles in the destiny of animals. It is because 303 the king of beasts is majestic and fierce that i t is appropriate (for him) to employ his fearlessness (in this destiny). (4) The Avalokitesvara of the Universal Shining of Great Light destroys the Three Obstacles in the destiny of titans (asuras). It is because of the preponderance of the envy and distrust in that destiny that i t is appropriate (for him) to employ (his attribute of) universal shining. (5) The Divine Hero Avalokitesvara destroys the Three Obstacles in the destiny of human beings, where there exist both provisional ^ and Ultimate Truth . He is called \"divine\" because (he uses) the provisional truth to suppress (people's) arrogance, and \"hero\" because (he uses) the Ultimate Truth to enable people to see (their own) Buddha-nature. (6) The Mahabrahma Profound Avalokitesvara destroys the Three Obstacles in the destiny of gods. Brahma is the lord of the gods, so that by indicating (their) lord, one includes the vassals ,, 304 as well. Enlarging upon this, (we may consider) the six Avalokitesvaras to signify the twenty-five samadhis. (The Avalokites'vara of) Great Compassion signifies the undefiled samadhi (#1); (the Avalokites-vara of) Great Good Will signifies the samadhi of mental delight (#3); the Leonine (Avalokitesvara) signifies the samadhi of nonreturning {avaivartika) (#2); (the Avalokitesvara of) Great Light signifies the blissful samadhi (#4); the Heroic (Avalokitesvara) signifies the four 307 samadhis beginning with the apparitional samadhi; the Mahabrahma (Avalokitesvara) signifies the seventeen samadhis beginning with the unmoving samadhi (#9). Think about this yourself and you will see what is meant. This (CKY) sutra may be used for repentance by persons in any of the Three Vehicles. (Thus) i f one disciplines himself and there-by saves himself, k i l l i n g the bandits which are the defilements, then 271 he achieves the status of an arhat. If his merit is abundant and capacities sharp, then upon contemplating nescience, impulses, and the rest (of the twelve causes-and-conditions), he achieves the status of a pratyekabuddha. If he gives rise to great compassion, so that his body (shines) like lapis lazuli and Buddhas can be seen in (his every) pore, then he attains the suvahgama (heroic stride) samadhi and dwells in (the stage of) nonreturning. Throughout the Mahayana sutras there are practices of this type, such as the repentances (i.e. dharanis) of the Seven Buddhas and the Eight Bodhisattvas (in the sutra of that t i t l e ) , 3 0 9 or the (repentance i n -volving the) eight hundred days of cleaning latrines in the (sutra on _ \/ 310 contemplating) Akasagarbha (bodhisattva). Such (texts and 311 -practices) as these a l l belong to (the category of the samadhi of) \"following one's own thought.\" 2. The Contemplation of the Good Second is (the section) dealing with (the contemplation of) good (dharmas) Jl|- . This f a l l s into two parts: f i r s t we distinguish the Four Phases of Thought <& zf, , and next we deal with the varieties of the good. 3 1 2 (a) The Four Phases of Thought To begin with, we explain the Four Phases of Thought. Mind (oitta) or consciousness (vijnana), being formless, is impossible 313 to see, (but i t s operation or temporal sequence) may be distinguished in terms of the four (successive) phases ^ (of each thought), namely not-yet-thinking ^ , about-to-think -^T , thought (-proper) j\u00a3- , and thinking-completed ^ 2_J . \"Not-yet-thinking\" denotes 272 the (fact of the) thought not yet having arisen. \"About-to-think\" denotes the thought on the verge of coming into being. \"Thinking(-proper) denotes (the thought) as such dwelling in opposition to the object-realm \/4 ^ \"Thinking-completed\" denotes the (fact of the thought's dwelling in) opposition to the object-realm having come to an end *\\\\> *H \u2022 Whoever understands these four fu l l y will enter into (their) One Feature ^ %Q and their Featur-lessness J j t j$ . 3 1 5 Q: The not-yet-thinking has not arisen, and the thinking-completed is already gone. There i s no thought \/CN in either of these, meaning that they are (both) f e a t u r e l e s s j f f i . How then can they 316 be contemplated? A: Although the not-yet-thinking has not arisen, i t is neverthe-31 7 less not ultimately inexistent. Similarly, a person (at f i r s t ) has not performed an action, but then he performs i t . Yet i t cannot .be said simply because the action has not yet been performed that there is then no person. If i t is asserted that no person is present (at that point), then who performs the action afterwards? It is (in fact): precisely because there is not-yet-performing of the action that.there can be a performing of the action. It is the same with the mind\/Aj- : i t is on account of there being a not-yet-thinking.that there can be an about-to-think. How could an about-to-think exist i f there had been no not-yet-thinking? Hence, although ( i t is true that the thought in it s phase of) not-yet-thinking is not yet in existence, i t does not follow (from this fact) that thinking is completely inexistent. As for the thinking-completed, i t can be contemplated despite the phase of thinking-proper having perished. 273 319 Similarly, when a person has finished doing something, one cannot say that he is then inexistent If i t is asserted that there is no person present (at that point) ^ k % ^ ^ ^ ^ . \u00bb then who has just performed the action ^ ? The \"perishing of mind\" (C N -Jf}^ , which is the thinking-completed ^ 2-> . is analogous to this: one cannot say that the perishing is eternal, for i f so, this would be annihilationism [ucchedavada), (the assertion of) 320 the absence of both cause and effect. Hence, although ( i t is true that the thought in i t s phase of)thinking-completed has perished, i t is s t i l l possible to contemplate i t . Q: What is past is gone, what is future has yet to arrive, and what is present does not persist (abide) yf^ ; yet there is no 321 thought \/C independent of the Three Times. What thoughts are there then to be contemplated? A: Your question is erroneous. For i f the past were permanently extinguished, one could ultimately not have knowledge of i t ; i f the future were (entirely) yet to come, one could not have knowledge of i t ; 322 and i f the present did not persist (at a l l ) , one could not have knowledge of i t . How then could the saints have known mind in the Three Times? Even (unenlightened) spi r i t s and gods know about them-323 selves and others in the Three Times. How then could practitioners of the Buddha's Dharma have such annihilationist, tortoise-hare and 324 rabbit-horn views (as you suggest by your question)? Know then that although mind \/CN in the Three Times lacks any fixed reality 'fL.^ \u00bb i t 1 S nevertheless possible to have knowledge of i t Hence i t is said in gdthds, \"What the Buddhas have expounded is that although (the mind) is empty, i t is s t i l l not inexistent, and that although i t continues, i t is not eternal (unchanging) ^ . Thus 325 neither sin nor merit is lost.\" One who upholds the view of extinction (of mind) resembles a blind person encountering color (form) f^ L : (for the implication of such an assertion is that) there could then be in the Buddha's teaching no eye of right contemplation, (religious practise) would be f u t i l e , and there would be nothing to be 326 attained. Once the practitioner understands that there are four (temporal) phases ^3? in thought, then he is able to use his detached wisdom to reflect upon and contemplate the good and evil thoughts which his mind produces. 327 (b) The Six Senses and the Perfection of Giving Next we deal with good phenomena J j f \" ' ^ \u2022 These are numerous, but here we shall consider them under the Six Perfections. One who is in possession of the (six) sense-objects should be even-minded in the six kinds of perception (which he has of them); while one who lacks possessions should (practise ddha) in the six 328 acts. Taking together (these six kinds of) evenmindedness and (six kinds of) actions, there are (altogether) twelve items under consideration (for each of the Six Perfections). We take f i r s t the case of the phases in which the eye perceives 329 form. Not-yet-seeing, about-to-see, seeing(-proper) and seeing-completed: the thought iC N in each of i t s four phases is incapable of seeing, yet i t is not valid (to say) i t does not see Turning the focus of contemplation back to the thought \/ which 330 is aware of form, (we see that) i t is not of external origin, for i f i t were, (the image) would not be present within the self; nor is i t of internal origin, for i f i t were, i t would not depend on causes 331 and conditions. As (its origin) is neither within nor without, neither is i t (from somewhere) in between. It is not eternally self-existent ( i t lacks own-being, svabhdva). Know then that that which is aware of form is ultimately empty and quiescent. The form which is being contemplated is the same as space, while that which contemplates form is as good as blind. (The same analysis applies to the other five kinds of sense-perception), up to the (sixth, the) mind sense [manas), which is aware of dharmas as i t s objects. The not-yet-being-aware, the about-to-be-aware, the being-aware proper, and the being-aware completed\u2014the thought in each of its four phases is incapable of being apprehended [anupalabdhi). Turning the focus of contemplation back q qp to the thought \/Cx which is aware of dharmas, (we see that i t too) is of neither external nor internal origin. There are no dharmic objects >&\/ff_ nor is there anyone who could regard them as dharmas : 3 3 3 both are the same as emptiness. Such is the contemplation on the six kinds of perception. . . . The eye, form, space and light (are a l l necessary for \"seeing\" 334 to take place): none of these (alone) can see or discriminate. 276 Cause and conditions combine to produce the visual consciousness, while the visual consciousness as cause and condition produces the mind-335 consciousness (manovijnana). When the mind-consciousness has arisen i t is able to discriminate. (Conversely), the visual conscious-16a ness exists in dependence on the mind-consciousness. 337 ( F i r s t ) , the visual consciousness is capable of seeing; then once the seeing is completed, i t produces craving, and, defiled by the 338 longing for visual form, one breaks the rules of conduct which he has accepted: these are the four phases of thought which lead to the destiny of hell. When in reality one's mind thirsts for form, but one conceals and denies i t , this is (the operation of) the four phases of thought in the destiny of (hungry) ghosts. If one develops an attachment to form, such that he contrives on behalf of himself and his possessions, this is (the.operation of) the four phases of thought in the destiny of animals. When one discriminates between his own form (i.e. physical body and material possessions) and that of others, and views himself as superior to them, this is the (operation of the) four phases of thought in the destiny of asuvas. When one does not take things (i.e. form) without being given them, but having been 339 given them, behaves towards this \"form\" in such a way that he develops kindness, non-assertiveness, uprightness, f a i t h , intelligence--in short the five rules of discipline and the ten good acts--this is (the operation of) the four phases of thought in the destiny of humans and gods. When in contemplating thought in it s four phases (one directs his attention to): (a) the arising-and-perishing of the 277 features of the thought \/ C v , (b). the impermanence \/ f v of each thought, (c) the three kinds of sensation 3 4 0 in each thought, (d) the lack of autonomy \/?s Q fe- of each thought, and (e) (the 341 fact that) each thought (arises) in response to causes and conditions, then this is the operation of the four phases of thought in the destinies of the Two Vehicles. Upon contemplating the four phases of thought in oneself, one finds that the state of one's error and suffering is just as explained. Then when one contemplates another's four phases of thought, (and finds) the same, i t arouses one's good will and compassion, (which inspires) 342 the practise of the Six Perfections. What is the reason (for the practise of the Six Perfections)? It is that the nature and features >f\u00a3 of the objects of the six kinds of sense-perception are thus: for countless ages so stubborn and foolish, so persistent and tenacious, that i t is impossible to renounce them. And even i f one proves able to renounce them, one cannot (completely) dispel -tr them. If one now contemplates sense-objects as not (real) sense-objects JlfL Jlk- $\\ yil , then there will be no (real) perception of these sense-objects; i f one contemplates (one's own) sense-organs as not (real) sense-organs, then there will be no attachment to the self; (and) i f one contemplates the other person as incapable of being apprehended, then there will be in addition no recipient (of the g i f t ) . 343 (The realization that) these three elements are a l l empty is what is called the Perfection of Giving. The Diamond sutra says, \"For a person to give while dwelling in 344 forms, sounds, odors, tastes, tangibles and dharmas is called practising Giving while dwelling in features \/j\u00a3 >ft^  , and is comparable to a man entering a dark (room) and seeing nothing. But not to dwell in sounds, tastes, etc., is the fe a t u r e l e s s ^ t Giving, and may be likened to a man with eyes seeing the whole array of forms in the light of the sun.'\"3 3 To say simply that (the bodhisattva) sees no features is e l l i p t i c a l 346 and d i f f i c u l t to understand. Actually he does not see form either as with features or as featureless, or both, or neither. Wherever there are features to which he has been attached, he withdraws from them and dispels them (from his mind). He does not develop (any of) 347 the sixty-two (false) views: this is what is called \"featureless giving.\" When (from here) to the Other Shore (the practitioner) enlists a l l dharmas in his practise of Giving and thus perfects the Mahayana, this is (the operation of) the four phases of thought for bodhisattvas. Again, i f one contemplates the four phases of thought as being the same as space, this is (to regard them as) permanent; not to perceive them is (to experience) pleasure; not to develop karma via them is selfhood; and their inability to defile means that one is pure. 348 This is (the operation of) the four phases of thought for Buddhas. Although the four phases of thought are in this way empty, one 349 may actually see in emptiness various manifestations of the four phases of thought (and other dharmas) until one sees everywhere the Dharmas of the Buddha (as numberless) as the sands of the Ganges, thus perfecting the (view of the) Mahayana. These are the four phases of thought of provisional designation. If (Ultimate Reality is) empty, i t should not be endowed with the 350 Ten Destinies. But since the destinies arise through causes-and-conditions, they as well do not in substance exist. Since they do not OCT (actually) exist, they (too) are empty; yet since (from the stand-point of the provisional truth) they are not empty, they do exist. Neither (their) emptiness nor their existence can be apprehended, yet (the Ultimate Truth) illumines both their emptiness and their existence. (Contemplating) the Three Truths in just such a way is to be in possession of the Buddha's wisdom and vision, and to ful l y understand the four phases of thought. In the same way, when one contemplates the four phases of thought (during) the five-fold perception of sounds, odors, tastes, tangibles and dharmas, he perfectly realizes the unthinkability of the Three Truths. This may be understood by reference to the preceding (dis-cussion), and (I) shall not trouble to record further (details). (c) The Six Acts and the Perfection of Giving Next (we discuss) the practise of (the Perfection of) Giving while 353 contemplating the Six Acts. In contemplating the not-yet-walking jji & , 3 5 4 the about-to-walk, walking-(proper), and walking-completed, (one realizes that) the four phases (of going), whether they occur slowly or rapidly, are incapable of being apprehended, and even their unapprehendability cannot be perceived ^ 4|f . Directing then one's contem-plation back to the (fundamentally) enlightened mind (within oneself) '^t ^ ' ( \u00b0 n e r 6 9 1 \" \" 2 6 5 that) i t neither comes from outside nor arises from within, nor from between (the two), nor is i t perman-ently self-existent. Neither walking nor the walker exists: (both) are ultimately empty and quiescent. Even so, because of the activity ^ of the mind there are (such things as) going and coming. The going and coming may 355 be for the purpose of breaking the disciplinary code, or i t may be 356 for the purpose of deceiving others, or i t may be for the purpose qc ~l of (acting like) a dependent, or i t may be for the purpose of 358 acting superior to others, or i t may be for the purpose of righteous-3^  >aS 359 ness 3k and deference , or i t may be to engage in good acts and\/or dhydna , 3 6 0 or i t may be (to gain) nirvana, 3 6 1 or i t may be for the purpose of (practising) good will and compassion. When one engages in the Six Acts having discarded (attachment to the reality of) the six sense-objects, then expedients, going and coming, raising the foot and lowering i t , are a l l like magical apparitions ^7 \u2022 Then entranced and abstracted 'PX. j f l 5 3 6 4 (the practit-ioner) forgets both self and other \"\u00a3Pf . (In that state) he could not call (a place at the end of) a thousand-mile ^ road \"distant\" nor a place a few steps away \"near\". Whenever he accomplishes anything 4ft , he does not empty (the deed) of merit by anticipating a (favorable) karmic recompense for i t . Abiding thus in Giving, he embodies the whole of the Buddhas's Dharma, (as vast) as the sands of the Ganges, is in possession of the Mahayana, and is able to reach the Other Shore. Now in contemplating a single moment of thought (in the Perfect Teaching), (one realizes that a l l ) the ten dharmas (destinies) are ful l y included in i t . The one (moment of thought) is not uncondition-not unconditionally ten, hence they can be one. It is neither one nor ten, yet also both one and ten. Thus the Three Truths are fu l l y contained in (each) single moment of thought. Standing, s i t t i n g , lying down, speaking, being silent, and a l l other actions, are of the same nature (as walking). This may be understood by reference to the preceding (discussion). The Lotus sutra therefore says, \"Again, (I) see sons of the Buddha giving beautiful robes and excellent garments as alms in order to seek the Way of the Buddha through (the virtue of) Giving.'\" This is the same idea (that I am expounding). (d) The other Five Perfections in the Six Senses and Six Acts In the preceding we have discussed (the Perfection of) Giving by reference to Twelve Items (the Six Acts and the six kinds of perception). We shall now discuss individually each of the Six Perfections by reference to each of the (twelve) items. \"(i) When the practitioner of great compassion, not apprehending their (worldly) features. Then the beings are able to be fearless towards (such a) bodhisattva. This one, hence i t can be the Ten (Destinies). The ten are animate beings with the eye is (to practise the Perfection of) Giving while walking. 371 ( i i ) There 282 372 are no beings whom he injures or causes loss, nor does he apprehend their evil or their meritorious features. This is called (practising the Perfection of) Morality (s~la). ( i i i ) When he walks, thoughts 373 do not arise in his mind; hence he is unperturbed and without any 374 particular abode. (His five) skandhas, (twelve) ayatanas, and (eighteen) dhdtus likewise are a l l quiescent. 3 7 5 This is called (practising the Perfection of) Forebearance (ksanti). (iv) When he 37fi walks, he does not apprehend the raising or the lowering of his feet. In his mind there is no (sequence of) f i r s t thinking (about something) and afterwards understanding i t ~ip\\%?4%L^ - 3 7 7 There is (for him) no arising, persistence or perishing in any dharmas. This is called (practising the Perfection of) Exertion (vZrya). 37Q (v) He does not apprehend (his) body or mind, samsara or nirvana. Among a l l the dharmas there are none which he senses, thinks of, or develops an attachment to. He neither savors (nirvana) nor misconducts 380 himself (in samsara). This is called (practising the Perfection of) Meditation (dhyana). (vi) When he walks, his head and the (other) 381 six parts of his body are like clouds (to him), like shadoows, dreams, apparitions, echos or phantoms, without arising or perishing, 38? extinction or permanence. He realizes his skandhas, ayatanas, and dhdtus to be empty and quiescent, and he (conceives himself to be) 383 neither in bondage nor liberated. This is called (practising the Perfection of) Wisdom (prajnd).\" The details are as stated at length in the Shou-leng-yen-ching (Suraiigama-samadhi-sutra).384 283 (The bodhisattva) is quiescent and endowed with the marks of samadhi jj$ even while walking. If (the practitioner) is not aware of this (proper attitude), impurities are produced in his samadhi and he develops an attachment to the flavor of meditation . But i f he were now to contemplate (his mind) in samadhi, (he would realize that) there is no mind in (this) mind. Where then could the samadhi o p c be taking place? Know therefore that this samadhi (of attachment) arises from perverted views. When one contemplates properly, he sees neither emptiness nor non-emptiness; he destroys (in his mind) the features of meditation and does not develop attachment (towards them). qpc Produced (as i t is) through (the proper use of) expedients, this is a bodhisattva's understanding (of samSdhi). If the practitioner is not yet (sufficiently) realized ^ ^n* , he may judge \"^-J' his own mind in contemplation, thinking (to him-s e l f ) , \"This (mind of mind) is marvelously wise.\" Attached then to 387 (his own) wisdom, he thinks himself exalted. This is called the wisdom-obstacle ^sj 7^ [jneyavarana).^^ Then in the same way as (those adhering to) the non-Buddhist paths, one f a i l s to achieve liberation. (But i f ) one reflects upon (his own) contemplating mind, then he does not perceive any place where i t abides, (and becomes aware that) i t lacks both arising and perishing, that ultimately there 389 exists neither a contemplator nor a noncontemplator. The con-390 templator being inexistent, who then contemplates the dharmas? Not to apprehend anyone whose mind is performing the contemplation is to have separated (oneself) from whatever (impure) thoughts (are produced) in contemplation. The TCTL says, \"Once thoughts and opinions have been eliminated, minds which have given rise to absurd prattle a l l enter into 391 extinction. Then the countless hordes of sins slough away and the pure mind (is revealed) in i t s eternal oneness. Whoever is of such nobility and marvelous (attainment) will be able to see wisdom (prajnd).\" The Ta-chi-ching JK.^ means the same thing when i t says, \"Contemplate every thought \u00a7 i C v . 1 , 3 9 2 Within such 393 practices as these are contained the Three Samadhis. In the f i r s t of these contemplations, one does away with a l l the various (mundane) features of existence, perceiving neither an inner nor an outer; this is (called) the samadhi of emptiness. In the next contemplation one is able to destroy the features of (even) emptiness; this is called the samadhi of featurelessness. In the last of these contemplations, one does not perceive (even) the doer; this is the samadhi of action-lessness. Again, by destroying the Three Perversions of Thought \" 394 395 S- 1*'J and the Three Poisons, transcending the stream of the Three (Realms of) Existence, and overcoming the malice of the Four 396 397 Devils, one attains the (Six) Perfections. Yet when one has encompassed the Dharma-realm and developed (on the Path) to the point where he is f u l l y endowed with a l l Dharmas , i t is hardly the case that he merely masters the Six Perfections and the Three Samadhis and leaves i t at that. And i f one has in (his practise of) walking become f u l l y endowed with a l l Dharmas, then this 398 will also be so for the other eleven items. 285 (e) The Perfection of Morality Next, when the bodhisattva is again passing among the six sense-objects, he combats (their attraction) and holds (his mind steady), restrained and purified (of vagrant thoughts) 'f$L'%<$ \"1$. >^  > as i f he were holding a (brim-full) jar of o i l so as not to s p i l l a 399 \\ single drop. Also when engaged in (any of)the Six Acts, he is (similarly) dignified and restrained, with a (mental) fence (between him and worldly temptations) in his comings and goings: this is called observing the rules of conduct. The (karmic) reward of observing the rules of conduct is to rise (in one's next l i f e to a higher destiny), there to experience joy, but this is not samadhi, and is not what is called a \"Perfection.\" However, i f he attains to the wisdom born of contemplation, then his Morality will be perfect of its own accord throughout the Twelve Items. 4 0 0 401 It has been said that as one contemplates form-not-yet-seen, form-about-to-be-seen, (form-being)-seen, and (form-) having-been-seen, i.e. the four phases of thought (in the act of seeing form), and thus investigates (these aspects of the mental event) in a variety of ways, 4 0 2 one (finds that he) cannot apprehend the mind whence (these 17a phases of thought) a r i s e , 4 0 3 nor can he apprehend the mind which is doing the contemplating. 4 0 4 (The mind) is not inner or o u t e r 4 0 5 and lacks \u2022 both going and coming; 4 0 6 i t is quiescent and lacks both arising and perishing. 407 If one is able to contemplate in this way the seven evil acts of body and speech 4 0 8 as pure like space, then this is to observe the three kinds of discipline (known as): (i) the faultless -&^\\ , ( i i ) the unbroken , and the unpierced \/f^ ^409 ( j v ) -t 0 destroy a l l evil thoughts and opinions in the four phases of thought is to observe the unmixed > j ^ j i . rule of conduct, 4 1 0 (v) not to be confused by the (mere transpiring of the) four phases of thought is to observe the accompanying-samadhi ^-c^C rule of conduct, 4 1 1 (vi) for the four phases of thought not to arise (at a l l ) is to observe the accompanying(-the-study-of-)the-Path rule of conduct, 4 1 2 (vii) to (be able to) discriminate between the various (cases of) the four phases of thought without getting bogged down (in these distinc-tions) is to observe the non-attached ^jf rule of conduct, ( v i i i ) to unerringly discriminate the four phases of thought is to observe the wise-know!edge-of-the-praiseworthy \"pjj^ rule of 414 conduct, (ix) to understand how the four phases of thought contain (in themselves) a l l dharmas is to observe the unimpeded fc- rule of conduct of the Mahayana, (x) to be aware of the Four (ultimate) Qualities of the four phases of thought is to observe the ultimate rule * A * r\u00bb Jk 415 of conduct yL^ fc, \u2022 416 Once the mind has become clear and unsullied, i t avoids both extremes. Yet having correctly entered into the Middle Way, i t illumines both the Truths (of emptiness and p r o v i s i o n a l i t y ) . 4 1 7 Being completely in possession of the unthinkable realm of the Buddha, there is no diminution (of i t s attainment) . 418 419 The perceiver of form, the form-dharma, and the act of perceiving are (alike) incapable of being apprehended %\\ \"vj ^  , (i) That these three a l l vanish (upon being contemplated) is (the 287 Perfection of) Giving, ( i i i ) That one allows one's mind to repose un-waveringly in the form and the perceiver of the form is called (the Perfection of) Forebearance. (iv) That one remains uninterruptedly undefiled by form and the perceiver of form is called (the Perfection of) E x e r t i o n . 4 2 0 (v) That one is undistracted by form and the perceiver of form is called (the Perfection of) Meditation, (vi) And that (one views) form and the perceiver of form as like a mirage or a magical apparition is called (the Perfection of) Wisdom. 421 (To regard) form and the perceiver of form as resembling space is called the samadhi of emptiness. Not to apprehend (any features in) this emptiness is called the samadhi of feature!essness. The absence of both subject and object is called the samadhi of actionlessness. Not merely the Three Truths, the Six Perfections and 422 \/ the Three Emptinesses, but a l l the Dharmas of the Buddha, (numerous as) the sands of the Ganges, may be understood analogously. Once one has contemplated in this manner the sense-object which is form, the other five sense-objects (are to be contemplated) similarly, as are 423 the six kinds of sense-perception and the Six Acts. The Lotus sutra is making the same point when i t says, \"I further see the sons of the Buddha, perfectly s t r i c t (in their observance of the rules of discipline), and thereby seeking the Way of the Buddha.\" 4 2 4 ' 288 (f) The Perfection of Forebearance Next we deal with the good (dharma) which is (the Perfection of) 425 Forebearance. Reflecting upon (the Six) Acts and (the six kinds of) perception, ( i t is clear that) for any of them, there are (times when events are) in opposition, and (times when events are) in accord. Being in accord means (that events proceed) as we would lik e , while being in opposition 7^  means (events proceed in a way) counter to our wishes. (A bodhisattva is) neither angered when (events are) in opposition nor attached when (events are) in accord. There is 427 428 (for him) neither seeing nor seer, neither act nor actor. Every-thing (else which could be said about Forebearance) is as explained . 429 above. (g) The Perfection of Exertion Next we deal with the good (dharma) which is (the Perfection of) Exertion. It has been said of old that \"Exertion has no separate substance; i t simply means the diligent performance of everything 11430 one does, yet from the standpoint of doctrinal (analysis) one would 431 expect i t to have a separate substance. Similarly, nescience permeates a l l the (lesser) defilements, yet there is also a separate 432 (defilement called) \"nescience.\" If now one were to rely (solely) on the recitation of sutras to discipline and inspire his mind, this would resemble (the Perfection of) Exertion. Yet even though he were to do this unremittingly both day and night, becoming fluent and s k i l l f u l (in recitation), s t i l l this would not be either meditation 289 nor wisdom. Now i f we contemplate the breath (during such recitation), (we realize that) after i t touches the seven places (in the body), (its components) converge to produce the voice, which is like an echo, neither internal nor external, with neither the reciter nor the recited present (in i t ) . If a l l this is investigated in terms of the four phases of thought, one will not (erroneously) posit a perceiver of the sense object (sound), nor a producer (of the sound) among these (diverse) conditions (pratyaya). Recite (the scripture) with a mind uncontaminated by the defilements, and every thought will flow into the great sea of nirvana. This is what is called (the Perfection of) Exertion. . . . (h) The Perfection of Meditation {dhydna) Next we deal with the varieties of meditation. The fundamental nine meditations (on death), the (eight) Degrees of Liberation, and so on, are only meditation (dhyana). They are not the Perfection (of 433 Meditation). Though a person may contemplate the four phases of thought upon entering into samadhi, s t i l l he will f a i l to perceive 434 the mind. What then could be the locus of his samadhi? Achieve Treatise, after elucidating eight (of the nine) meditations (on . 437 death), the author of the Treatise explains a l l the dharmas, (including) the Ten Powers and the Four Kinds of Fearlessness \\Z\u00a3? (rather) the true reality 435 subsumes a l l dharmas. of meditation, whereby i t This is why in the f i f t h (roll) of the 438 (Nowadays) the teachers of (this)\" Treatise do not 290 penetrate to the profound meaning (of this passage). They a l l say 439 that the Treatise is mistaken, but they should not say this. The sole reason that the author of the Treatise explains at length a l l (these other) dharmas is in order to c l a r i f y how the Eight Meditations (on death) create the features of the Mahayana. . . . (i) The Perfection of Wisdom Next we deal with (the Perfection of) Wisdom. In the explanatory 440 Treatise, Wisdom [prajna) is understood\"in eight ways. . . . Now worldly wisdom as well can be used to contemplate the six 441 kinds of perception and the Six Acts. Then when one investigates worldly wisdom by means of the four phases of thought, (he finds that) he is unable to apprehend i t . All (of the contemplations connected with this) are as we have explained above, and similarly for a l l other 442 good dharmas. Q: If (as you say) one dharma includes a l l dharmas, contemplation (alone) should be sufficient; what need should there be to employ calming as well? One Perfection should be sufficient; why employ the (other) five? 443 A: The Six Perfections perfectly supplement one another, just as when (soldiers) don armor and advance into the ranks (of the enemy), they have to remain close together. ... . Contemplation 444 is like a lamp, and calming like a closed room. (The way in which these two reinforce each other is comparable to) washing clothes or cutting grass. . . , 4 4 5 (Yet) i t is also the case that (the Perfection 291 446 of) Wisdom is ( i t s e l f ) the Dharma-realm, and includes everything in i t s e l f . (From this standpoint) there is no need for other Dharmas. 447 But the other Dharmas are (also) the Dharma-realm; (each of them) includes everything in i t s e l f as well and has no need of wisdom. For (from the ultimate standpoint), (the Perfection of) Wisdom is identical to a l l (other) Dharmas, and a l l Dharmas are (each) identical to (the Perfection of) Wisdom. There is no duality, no difference (between them) ^ jk. . . . . 3. The Contemplation of Evil Third, (we discuss) employing (the samadhi of) following one's own thought to survey the array of evil phenomena ^> Now good and evil have no fixed (nature). Thus the (Six) Anti-*r 448 perfections are e v i l , and moral behavior at the worldly level is good; but when the karmic recompense (from good behavior in one's previous lives) is exhausted in the destinies of humans and gods, one f a l l s back again to the three (painful) destinies, 449 and these are already \" e v i l \" again. Why is this so? Because neither the Antiperfections nor moral behavior at the worldly level 4 ^ c a n extricate one (from the round of samsara), so that in substance both of these are \" e v i l . \" Now (in contrast) the Two Vehicles do abolish suffering, where-fore they may be called \"good.\" Yet though the Two Vehicles are \"good,\" they are only able to deliver the individual himself (from suffering), and (consequently) are not the mark of a (truly) good person. 2 9 2 The Great Treatise says, \"Rather develop the mentality \/C^ of a leprous fox than that of a sravaka or pratyekabuddha.\" Know therefore that samsara and (Hinayanistic) nirvana are both e v i l . What (should be) called \"good\" is the combination of the com-passion and good will of bodhisattvas in their (work towards the) salvation (of beings), (equipped as they are) with the Six Perfections. Yet although they are able to save beings in these two ways, (what they do) is comparable to storing food in a poisoned vessel, so that i t 4 5 2 k i l l s whomever eats i t , and this is again e v i l . The Three Vehicles are alike in that they eradicate (the defile-ments), and this (can be) called \"good.\" But they f a i l to perceive 4 5 3 the separate Ultimate Truth and regress to adherence to (one or the other of) the two extremes (of emptiness and provisionality). Since they have not yet blown out (the flame of) nescience, this is again \" e v i l . \" 4 5 4 The Separate Teaching is \"good,\" yet though (practitioners at this level) perceive the Separate Ultimate Truth, they get bogged down in expedients. Hence this cannot be called the Ultimate Truth (either). The Nirvana sutra says, \"Before now, we (could) a l l have 4 5 5 4 5 l been called holders of false views.\" Are not \"false views\" evil? The Perfect Dharma (Teaching) alone is (properly) called \"good.\" called \"the Way,\" while whatever runs counter to Ultimate Reality is (In i t ) , whatever accords 4 5 7 with Ultimate Reality is called \"the Non-Way. 4 5 8 But i f (the practitioner) achieves the realization that evil things are not e v i l , that everything is Ultimate Reality, then he achieves the 293 Way of the Buddha through practising the Non-Way. (On the other hand), i f he develops an attachment towards the Way of the Buddha, then even though he does not efface its nectar, the Way turns into 459 the Non-Way. When good and evil are discussed in such a way (the terms) can (ultimately) mean the same thing. We shall now discuss them insofar as they are d i s t i n c t . 4 6 0 (On that assumption) moral behavior at the worldly level i s \"good\" and the (Six) Antiperfections are \" e v i l . \" But having already dealt with the contemplation of good dharmas, we now go on to elucidate the contemplation of e v i l . (a) On the Mind Which Contemplates Evil Despite one's prior contemplation of the good, the Antiperfections may not have ceased to exist, for defilements being vast (in number), there is no time when they do not arise (even in one's own mind). And i f one contemplates another's (mind), (he becomes aware that) there is no end to e v i l . Hence when one performs the meditation (in which i t is perceived that) there is nothing in the whole world to rejoice about, he perceives no good people, and there is (for A CO him) no good country. All he sees is the evil (in the world) and (hence) is himself enveloped by i t . Even though (those whom one instructs) may not possess all the (Six) Antiperfections, they may s t i l l give rise to some of these. (They may be) (i) . predominantly avaricious, or ( i i ) predominantly immoral, or ( i i i ) predominantly angry, or (iv) predominantly lazy, or 294 (v) predominantly drinkers of alcoholic s p i r i t s , or (vi) they may be necessarily flawed and tormented. Who among them (could be said to be) without faults? As for those who abandon the secular l i f e and part from the world, but who are incomplete in their practise and, like the laiety, (continue to) enjoy the (objects of) desire, such as these are not (true) practitioners of the Way, and they are partially e v i l . If even avhats (can s t i l l be burdened with) residual defilements, how much more is this true for ordinary folk! If an ordinary person wantonly indulges in e v i l , he will be crushed (in his next l i f e ) and plummet (into one of the lower destinies), whence he will not (be able to) escape for a long time. (This is why) one should practise the wisdom of contemplation in the midst of e v i l . Like householders who lived when the Buddha (Sakyamuni) was s t i l l in the world, those with wives and children, and those involved in governmen-tal or other worldly d u t i e s \u2014 a l l of these are s t i l l capable of achiev-ing the Way. (For example), in the case of Angulimalya, the more (people) he slew, the greater was his good will {maitvl),464 Jeta and Malika (respectively drank and gave people) wine, yet they were 465 moral in their behavior. Vasumitra remained chaste though she engaged in sexual intercourse, and Devadatta's false views were (actually) right ones J L . If amid evils there were nothing but e v i l , so that the practise of the Way were impossible, then people would forever remain un-enlightened. But because the Way j_s_ present (even) amid e v i l , i t is easily deprived of their native (wisdom). 463 (Such persons) are 295 possible to attain saint!iness even though one may engage in the Antiperfections. Know therefore that evil does not obstruct the 468 Way. Nor does the Way obstruct e v i l . (For example), the Stream-winner's carnal desires grew and grew, 4 6 9 Pilinda(-vatsa) was s t i l l arrogant, (despite being a monk); 4 7 0 Sariputra became angry. 4 7 1 Yet how could there be any loss or gain in their (ultimately) unde-f i l e d (nature)? For example, in space light and dark do not exclude each other. 472 This is the meaning of the emergence of the Buddha's enlightenment. If a person has by nature a great number of desires and is seeth-ing with contamination, so that despite his efforts to counter and suppress them, they continue to increase by leaps and bounds\u2014then he should simply direct his attention wherever he wishes. Why? Because without the arising of the Antiperfections, he would have no chance 473 to practise contemplation. It is like going fishing. If the fish is strong and the fishing line weak, (the fish) cannot be forcibly pulled in (from the water). 4 7 4 (Instead, one) simply lets the baited hook enter (and get caught in) the fish's mouth, and depending on how close the creature approaches, allows i t to dive and surface freely. Then before long i t can be harvested (from the water). 4 7 5 The practise of the contemplation of the Antiperfections is the same. The Antiperfections are represented by an evil f i s h , and contemplation is represented by the baited hook. If there were no fis h , there would be need for hook or bait: the more numerous and large the fish are, the better. They will a l l follow after the baited hook without rejecting i t . These Antiperfections will similarly not for long withstand the attempt to bring them under control. (b) The Arising of Desire in the Mind How then should this contemplation be practised? If a desire arises, then contemplate i t minutely in i t s four phases: not-yet-desiring, about-to-desire, (the act of) desire-proper, and desiring-476 completed. In order for the (phase of) about-to-desire to arise, must the (phase of) not-yet-desiring ( f i r s t ) perish, or not perish, 477 or both, or neither? (i) If (the phase of) not-yet(-desiring) perishes in order for the about-to(-desire) to arise, then do (the perishing and the arising of 478 the respective two phases) coincide or are they separate? If they coincide, then we have the contradiction of arising and perish-479 ing (being simultaneous). If separate, then the arising lacks 480 a cause. ( i i ) If the not-yet-desiring does not perish in order for the about-to-desire to arise, then do (these two) coincide or are they separate? If they coincide, then both would be in existence together, 481 and there would be no limit to the origination (of new entities). If separate, then the arising would again lack a cause. ( i i i ) Assume that (the not-yet-desiring) both perishes and does not perish in order for the about(-to-desire) to arise. But i f (the 297 second phase) arises from the non-perishing (of the f i r s t ) , there 482 would be no need for (the latter's) simultaneous perishing. How could (such) an indeterminate cause produce a determinate effect? Even i f (the perishing and the non-perishing of the phase of non-yet-desiring) were the same in substance > they would diff e r in their (fundamental) nature 'T^ - ; while i f they were different in substance there could be no relationship between them. (iv) Or assume that (the not-yet-desiring) neither perishes nor does not perish in order for the about-to-desire to arise. Is the locus of this doubly negated ( f i r s t phase) existent or inexistent? If existent, then how can we say i t is doubly negated? If inexistent, how could inexistence be capable of producing anything jBfc ^ j J |}\u00a3 ? 4 8 3 As the (analysis by the) tetralemma makes clear, one cannot per-ceive the arising of (the phase of) about-to-desire. 4 8 4 Apply the tetralemma once more. You will not perceive (as coin-cident with) the perishing of the not-yet-arisirig, either the arising, the non-arising, the both-arising-and-not-arising, or the neither-arising-nor-not-arising of the about-to-desire. (The details of this contem-485 plation) are as above. Contemplating (thus) the Antiperfection which is desire, i t becomes clear (to us) that i t is ultimately empty and quiescent, 4 8 6 (as well as) doubly lustrous. 4 8' 7 It is a l l as explained above. This is what we call the baited hook. Whenever the Antiperfections arise, this contemplation will 488 illuminate (their emptiness). Though (you) will neither perceive their arising nor the illumination (of their arising), nevertheless they will both arise and be illuminated. Again, in contemplating this Antiperfection (desire), (consider) from which sense-object i t has arisen. Was i t from form {rupa)l 298 Was i t from another (of the six)? (Consider too) from which act i t has arisen. From walking? From another (of the six)? If i t (arose) in response to (the seeing of) form, was i t (in response to) the not-yet-seeing (of the form), the about-to-see, the seeing(-proper), or the seeing-completed? If ( i t arose) in response to walking, was i t (in response to) the not-yet-walking, the about-to-walk, the walking (-proper), or the walking-completed? What was the object for which (the desire) arose? Was i t for (i) the breaking of the moral code (i.e. immorality)? ( i i ) For (the acquisition of) dependents? ( i i i ) Was i t out of jealousy? (v) Out of kindness and deference? (vi) Was i t (a desire for) good meditation? (vii) For (solitary) nirvana? ( v i i i ) For the Four V i r t u e s ? 4 8 9 (ix) For the Six Perfections? For the Three Samadhis? 4 9 0 (x) For 491 the Buddha's Dharma, (as vast as) the sands of the Ganges? When one contemplates in this way, (one realizes that) there is no perceiver of the sense-object and no subject opposed to the object-492 world; yet even so the double shining (of contemplation) on the sense-object and the perceiver, on the sense-organ and the object-world,is bright. (The three aspects of the desire), as magical apparition, as emptiness, and as (true) Dharma-nature, do not obstruct 493 each other. Why is (there no mutual obstruction)? Because i f Antiperfections 494 obstructed the Dharma-nature i t would involve the destruction of the Dharma-nature; while i f the Dharma-nature obstructed the Anti-perfections, the latter would not be able to arise (at a l l ) . Know therefore that the Antiperfections are identical with the Dharma-299 nature. When an Antiperfect!on arises, then the Dharma-nature arises (with i t ) ; and when the Antiperfection ceases to be, the Dharma-nature 495 also ceases. The (Chu-fa-)wu-hsing-ching \"J^ \" y&^\"^T says, \"Desire is identical to the Way, and the same is true for anger and 18b stupidity. Thus the whole of the Buddha's Dharma is contained in these three dharmas. But i f one should seek enlightenment [bodhi) apart from desire, (one would be as far from i t ) as earth is from 496 heaven.\" Desire is identical to enlightenment. The VimalakTrti says, \"By following the Non-way, (a bodhisattva) 497 achieves the Buddha's Way.\" \"All animate beings are (already) identical to the features of enlightenment, so they cannot further attain i t ; they are (already) identical to the features of nirvana, so they cannot further (attain) extinction (nirvana)\" 4 9 8 \"To those who are haughty (the Buddha) preaches that separation from carnality, anger and stupidity is what is called liberation. But to those who lack haughtiness, he preaches that the nature of carnality, 499 anger and stupidity is the same as liberation.\" \"All the defile-ments are the seeds of the Tathagata.\" 5 0 0 (Knowing that) there is no twoness or distinctiveness in either the color of mountains or the taste of the sea, contemplate a l l evils 501 as the unthinkable Ultimate Truth. If one constantly practises contemplation-wisdom 5 0 2 (in viewing e v i l ) , then the evil and Ultimate Truth will match each other like shape and shadow. This is called the stage of (the Identity 300 of) Religious Practise. One who is able (to view) a l l evil dharmas and mundane means of livelihood as not in contradiction with Ultimate Reality, is at the stage of (the Identity of) Resemblance. 5 0 4 Advancing further, one enters (the stage of) the Copper Wheel and (begins to) destroy the root of the Antiperfections, which are nescience. The bending of the root and the snapping of the twigs (gradually) reveals the Buddha-nature. This is the stage of the (Identity of) Partial Truth. Finally (those who become) Buddhas extirpate the fountainhead of the Antiperfections. This is called the stage of Ultimate (Identity). Within the Antiperfection which is desire are contained vertically the Six Identities and horizontally the Six Perfections; this is true for a l l (other) dharmas as well . . . . 5 0 7 Contemplate next the Antiperfection of anger. 5 0 8 If someone is very angry, so that he is surging with emotion and pouring i t forth unceasingly, unable to arrest or (at least) subdue i t , then he should allow (the anger) to arise of i t s own accord, and (he should) illuminate i t with (the practise of) calming-and-contemplation. In contemplating the four phases (of the anger), he should inquire from whence they arise. If their arising cannot be apprehended, then 509 neither can their perishing. (He should then) consider (each of) 510 the Twelve Items, asking from whom the anger arises, who is the angry one, and who is the object of anger. Contemplating in this manner, (he realizes that) no place can be apprehended where the anger occurs. (Its) coming and going, the traces ( i t leaves behind) 511 as well as i t s manifest features are a l l both empty and quiescent. 301 512 The contemplation of anger in the Ten Destinies and the contempla-513 tion of the anger in i t s Four Qualities are as explained above (in the section on the contemplation of desire). . . . Thus one 514 attains the Way of the Buddha in the Non-way which is anger. (One should) contemplate in a similar fashion the (other four) Antiperfections of immorality, laziness, mental distractedness and the stupidity of (adherence to) false (views) -ftp * a s w e 1 1 a s a 1 1 other evil phenomena. 4. The Contemplation of Neutral Dharmas Fourth is the contemplation of what is neither good nor e v i l , those dharmas (whose nature is) neutral \"J\"\u00a3j and indefinite & 515 '\"IT ' \u2122 e r e a s o n ^ 1 S n e c e s s a r y to contemplate these is that there are some people who by nature do neither good nor e v i l ; ( i f only good or evil dharmas were used for contemplation) there would be no way for them (to achieve) the supramundane by following their own thought. Then what could these people do? The Great Treatise says, \"The Perfection of Wisdom is (also) 516 present in the (morally) neutral.\" (By this authority) one may practise the contemplation (of neutral thoughts). In contemplating these neutral (thoughts), (inquire) whether they are different from, or the same as, good or evil (thoughts). If the same, then they are not neutral (after a l l ) . If different, then does the neutral (thought) arise with the perishing, or the non-perishing, or both, or neither, of the (prior) good or evil (thought)? In seeking (the nature of) good and evil (thoughts), (one realizes) they cannot be apprehended; how much the less (could one apprehend) 302 neutral (thoughts)! For are they the same as, or different from, (good or e v i l , i.e. morally valued \\ ^ , thoughts)? (Implied answer: neither). Since they are not the same, they do not coincide (with morally-valued thoughts); and since they are not different, 518 (the two types) are not separate. Since they do not coincide (with morally-valued thoughts), (neutral thoughts) do not arise, and since they are not separate (from the aforementioned), they do not \u2022 u 519 perish. (Consider) too from which of the Twelve Items the neutral (thought) has arisen, for whom i t has arisen, and who is the one (thinking) the neutral (thought). When one contemplates in such a way, (he views the neutral thought) as the same as the mark of space (i.e. emptiness); yet a single neutral dharma also gives rise to the Ten Destinies and a l l the dharmas (in them); and the neutral (mental dharma) 520 is also identical to the Dharma-nature. That the Dharma-nature is eternally quiescent is the meaning of \"calming.\" That, though quiescent, i t is eternally luminous, is 521 the meaning of \"contemplation.\" One attains to the Buddha's Way through the Non-way of (the contemplation of) neutral (thoughts). The neutral (thoughts) 522 function then as the Dharma-realm. Horizontally embracing a l l dharmas, and vertically including the Six Stages (Identities), (each neutral thought is) f u l l y endowed in both height and breadth. (The rest of the contemplation may be inferred) by analogy with the fore-going discussion (on the contemplation of e v i l ) . . . . 303 Now i f (the samadhi of) following one's own thought is explained in terms of the final Good, this is the gradual sense (of calming-and-523 contemplation). If (the samadhi of) following one's own thought is explained (in terms of) both good and e v i l , then this is the sudden 524 sense (of calming-and-contemplation). And i f (the samadhi of) following one's own thought is explained in terms of the good which involves including and applying ^jpp 5 2 5 (the other two calming-and-contemplations at liberty), then this is the variable sense (of calming-and-contemplation). . . . ****** The Four Kinds of Samadhi differ in method, but their view of Ultimate Truth is the same. The methods employed in the ( f i r s t ) three practises give rise to many doctrines which assist (progress on) the Way ^ ' ' 3 u t a l s o s e t i n m o t i \u00b0 n factors which (may) obstruct the Way \" f ^ ^ L - ^ as (the fourth practise of) \"following one's own thought\" is (comparatively) meager in method, i t gives coy rise to few of these (associated) factors. Whoever understands only the (doctrines) assisting (progress) on the Way which are produced by these methods will be unable to comprehend the features of the provisional truth; but by understanding the contemplation on Ultimate Truth there will be nothing at the pro-visional level which one will not comprehend. Moreover, without achieving a state of mind which has a (correct) view of Ultimate Truth, the (understanding of) features of the provisional truth and 304 (the doctrines) assisting (progress) on the Way will not be perfected. But i f such a state of mind has been achieved, then the samadhi which takes such features at the provisional level (as i t s object) will spontaneously perfect i t s e l f . If one practises the Way at the level of provisional features, then he is able to achieve mental control upon entering the meditation chamber, but is unable to do so after leaving. There i s , however, no break (in contemplation) for (one who practises the samadhi of) following one's own thought. It is only in the ( f i r s t ) three samadhis that (certain prescribed) methods are employed; but the view of Ultimate Truth is common to a l l four. . . . Q: Each of the (discussions on the) f i r s t three samadhis contains an exhortation to practise. Why does only this (fourth way) lack it? A: The Non-way of (the contemplation of) the Six Antiperfections is (assuredly) the Way of Liberation; but those whose faculties are dull and who are heavily beset with obstacles (might misunderstand 529 and) founder (in the sea of defilements) upon hearing (of this Non-way). If we were then to add an exhortation to practise, their misunderstanding would be a l l the more severe. C. Caveats for the Practise of This Samadhi North of the river Huai (in northern China) there are people who cultivate the Mahayana emptiness, but who dispense with moral restraints 530 and seize the snake (of desire). I t e l l you now that the teachers which they previously had used good dharmas as (objects of) contem-plation; but as a long time passed without their penetrating (to realization), they released their minds (from the previous moral restraints) and turned towards evil dharmas as (objects of) contempla-tion. (Thereby) they did succeed to a small extent in concentrating their minds and gained a weak understanding of emptiness. But they take no cognizance of (their listeners') faculties nor l i f e circum-stances and do not penetrate to the sense of the Buddha's (teaching). They simply take this one Dharma and teach i t indiscriminately to others. Now once they have taught others (this Dharma) for a long time, i t may happen that one or two (of their disciples) gain some benefit. But this is like insects accidentally producing (legible) characters by their (random) gnawing at a tree. Then they take this as proof and say (their evil doctrine) has been verified. They call other (contrary teachings) l i e s , laugh at those who observe moral prohibitions and who cultivate the morally good, saying (the teachings of such people) are not the Way. Expounding nothing but (this pernicious doctrine) to others, they cause a host of evils to be committed everywhere. Now when blind and sightless disciples, who are unable to t e l l right from wrong and are dull of mind and heavily (burdened) with defilements, hear such preachings, then they act out their lusts. Submitting fa i t h f u l l y and obediently (to this teaching), they a l l discard moral prohibitions. There is nothing wrong they f a i l to do, and their sins accumulate (as high as) mountains. At length 306 the common people are brought to hold (the moral precepts) in as low esteem as so many weeds. As a result, the king of the land and his ministers exterminate the Buddha's Dharma. This noxious tendency has 532 penetrated deeply, and even now has yet to be rectified. The Shih-chi ^ ~%JLJ s a y s> \" ^ t n e end of the Chou dynasty a certain person appeared with dishevelled hair and stripped naked, who did not observe the rules of ceremony. As a result, the Ch'lian V 533 Jung ^ 3& barbarians (of the west) invaded the country.\" The few (males of the ruling family) who were not exterminated hung on like a (single) thread, while the princesses of the Chou gradually died o u t . 5 3 4 To take another example, Juan Chi 1 % , J^|* was a gifted person 535 who \"wore dishevelled hair and let his belt hang loose.\" In later times the children and grandchildren of the nobility imitated him 5(held that)only by engaging in mutually shameful conduct with servants could one achieve naturalness fj)' J$L, , and called those who vied to uphold the rules of conduct \"country bumpkins.\" These were portents of destruction for the house of Ssu-ma (the Eastern Chin *%L^Q dynasty). 5 3 6 The (Northern Chou) annihilation (of Buddhism) by Yii Wen-yung \u00a3sp 5 C ^ 5 3 7 was also (partly) due to the evil deeds of (Wei) Yuan-sung fu ^ , 5 3 8 These (two men) were the evil spirits --&7\\ tfk- (behind) the destruction of the Buddha's Dharma, and they were also evil s p i r i t s for the times. This could hardly have any connection with the (real) meaning of \"following one's own thought.\" 307 Why (not)? (Because such things happen rather) when stupid people of this kind, completely lacking in widom, nevertheless put faith in their teachers; when, coveting the latter's attainments, they conclude that \"This is the Way\"; and when, following their emotions as being the easiest (way to behave), they self-indulgently grasp at 539 pleasure without (attempting to) correct their delusions. Take for example (the story of the famous beauty) Hsi Shih & \"Once she was stricken with a mental illness and took such delight in grimacing and groaning that even the hundred hairs of her eyebrows al l grew contorted. Yet i t served only to enhance her beauty. The other women in the neighborhood, being ugly from birth, imitated her grimaces and groans, but only grew so loathsome in appearance that the poor moved far away and the rich closed their gates, (the fishes) who dwelt in grottoes dove deeper yet and flying things escaped into the heights.\" 5 4 0 Those aforementioned people (disciples) are similar to these (ugly women): like mad dogs they chase after thunder 5 4 1 and create for themselves karma leading to h e l l . How deplorable this i s , how painful (to behold)! Once they have tasted the pleasure deriving from (the satisfaction of) desire, they can no longer stop themselves. They are like bluebottle f l i e s , stuck (to what they eat) by (their own) saliva. This, in brief, is (the nature of) the fault of dissipation. The fault of their teachers is that they do not achieve (com-prehension of their disciples') native faculties, nor understand the 308 sense of what the Buddha teaches. The reason that the Buddha taught that desire is identical to the Way is that, by observing (the differences in) capacities of animate beings, he knew that some among them were so base and deficient in merit that they could never 542 cultivate the Way in the midst of good. If such beings were (simply) l e f t to their (unexamined) e v i l , there would be no end to their transmigration; so (the Buddha) had them practise calming-and-contemplation during (the mental act of) desiring. It was because they were completely unable to stop (desiring) that he created this doctrine. Similarly, parents who see that their child has taken i l l , (may on occasion) give him yellow dragon potion in preference to any other 543 medicine. Though i t scores the teeth and makes him vomit, i f (the child) takes (the medicine), i t will cure his sickness. The Buddha is like this (in administering the \"medicine\" of the Dharma): he f i t s his doctrine to the capacities (of his listeners). A nimble horse needs to see but the shadow of the whip for him to 544 follow the proper path. That desire and the Way are identical is the (true) sense of the Buddha's (teaching). But the Buddha (also) taught, on behalf of those animate beings who are not suited for the practise of calming-and-contemplation amid evil (phenomena), that i t is good (phenomena) which are what is called the Way. The Buddha thus has two doctrines (which he applies to f i t the occasion). Why then do you (libertines) denounce good and cleave to evil? By such behavior you put yourselves in a position of 309 545 superiority to the Buddha and commit what are clearly transgressions both publicly and before the Buddha. (It is true that) there may be times when emergencies arise and, under pressure of affairs of state, (you are) unable to engage in the practise of the good. (The Buddha then) allows calming-and-contemplation to be practised in the midst of e v i l . But there is now no emergency and no pressure (of government aff a i r s ) . Why then do you employ (in your teaching) nothing but the medicine of milk, thereby poisoning the wisdom-life ^ ^p\" 5 4 6 547 of other people? That is why in the Agamas 5 4 8 ( i t says that) i f a cowherd is sure 549 of a good crossing-place, he can pacify his herd. If he has d i f f i c u l t y finding a good crossing, then he has no choice but to use a bad crossing. Yet i f the bad crossing is very perilous, then of a hundred (head of cattle) he might f a i l to get a single one across. You are now without (pressing) affairs of state, and are fortunate to (be able to) drive your cattle (as i t were) over a good crossing, onto a good road. Why then do you mire both yourselves and others in the bad p a t h ? 5 5 0 To destroy the Buddha's Dharma, lose sight of (his) majestic light, and enmesh animate beings in error are (acts of) the worst kind 551 of friend. Such are the errors of those who f a i l to comprehend the meaning of what the Buddha (teaches). Again, level and steep paths are both capable of being followed: the steeper alternative is used i f there is some obstacle (in the level path). (Similarly), both (the contemplation of) good and (the 310 contemplation of) evil will afford (the practitioner) passage (towards his goal); after his capacities have been scrutinized (by the teacher), 552 he may enter (the contemplation of) the Antiperfections. But i f , by rejecting the good and keeping exclusively to the e v i l , you are able (as you imply by your actions) to achieve (the goal) via the Non-way, why then do you not walk on water or f i r e and clamber over mountain precipices? Since (in fact) you are unable to proceed along (such) steep paths even in the worldly (realm), how much less (likely is i t that you could) understand the True Way through proceeding on evil (paths)! Is this at all possible? Moreover, you are unable to take cognizance of (peoples' di f f e r -ing) faculties and l i f e circumstances. Even a single person some-times desires good, sometimes evil--his preference (for one or the other) is not fixed. S t i l l more (indeterminate are the preferences) of countless numbers of people. Despite this, i t is with (the teaching of the fulfillment of) desire alone that you instruct people ])L> . The VimalakTrti says, \"I think that srdvakas do not take account of the (mental) faculties of people and (for this reason) should not c c q expound the Dharma (to them).\" When (practitioners of) the Two Vehicles do not take account of (their listeners), even they cannot help but f a i l to accord with (the latters') capacities. How much greater (is your failure), blind, benighted, eyeless and self-willed as you are ! Themselves violating (the teachings of) the sutras, they miss both (their listeners') capacities and Ultimate Truth. How could 311 their stupid delusions have suddenly come to such a pass? If a person (monk) should appear who, without discriminating the capacities (of his listeners) practises and expounds this 555 (doctrine), then he is a corpse for the ocean of the disciplinary 556 code, and should be ostracized as the Vinaya prescribes. Do not 557 let poisonous trees flourish in the landowner's courtyard. . . . 558 Moreover, upon examining (your) evil conduct, (we find that) in fact i t is a selective kind of immorality. You say that desire is identical to the Way (and so are willing to) debauch any and a l l females. But you cannot (bring yourself to say that)-since anger is 559 (also) identical to the Way, (one can) injure any and a l l males. You love only the delicate and smooth feeling (of a woman's body), affirming i t as the Way, while you fear the painful feeling of being beaten, and deny that that is the Way. One you do, but not the other. (You say that) the Way is in one and not in the other. Stupid and benighted as lacquer (is black), you only defile and harm (people), like a corpse contaminating a beautiful garden. . . . In rebutting this warped behavior (of theirs), (one can speak) as above, or else confront them with water, f i r e , knives or clubs. Then they either f a l l silent or answer, \"You don't understand that I 561 am always able to enter (these pleasures).\" These are wicked and shameless words, which moreover (reveal that) these people do not 562 comprehend the meaning of (the doctrine of) the Six Identities. The reason why i t is necessary to deliver this (remonstrance) is that while the f i r s t three methods of practise are rather arduous 312 and hence require an \"exhortation to practise,\" in (the method of) 563 following one's own thought, one \"softens his light\" and enters into e v i l , which is at f i r s t the easier (to practise), and hence requires cautionary words (to forestall excesses). In the same way, when taking as medicine a large amount of yellow dragon potion, one ought to provide oneself with plain hot water to 565 supplement and neutralize i t . . . . Q: When (the practitioner) concentrates his mind by means of right contemplation in the Middle Way, then the practise is (already) sufficient. What need has he to (further) employ the confusing Four Kinds of Samadhi throughout various good and evil phenomena and the Twelve Items? The water is muddied and the pearl is clouded (by these gratuitous complications). Too much wind causes the beating of 566 waves. How can this add to the c l a r i t y and stillness (of the water)? A: It is as in the case of a pauper: i f he acquires even a l i t t l e 567 i t is enough: he does not ask for something better. If one con-templates the mind using only one of these methods (of samadhi) and c c p the mind turns out to (prefer) variety, then what can one do (but employ additional methods). (Not to do so) would be a deficiency in one's own practise. If one uses (only this single method) to instruct others JY*> \\-%L> , ( i t must be realized that) the natures of other people may be contrary (to one's own) and not the same. The defile-569 ments that a single person possesses are naturally countless. Hov much more (numerous) then are (the defilements of) many people! 313 Or i t is like the case of a physician: though he gathers a l l kinds of medicines to match a whole variety of diseases, s t i l l , one kind of patient needs (only) one kind of medicine to treat (his) one kind of disease, and will fear the many (other) medicines in the physician's possession. Your questioning (the need for more than one meditative technique) resembles this (patient's fear). The mental diseases which are the defilements are innumerable and boundless, for even a single person as well as for many. How could they be (countless) for one person alone? If someone should want to hear (expounded) the Four Kinds of Samadhi, and is made joyous by hearing this, then (you) ought to expound (them) to him anywhere: this is (1) the Worldly siddhdnta. If, on account of hearing of the Four Kinds (of Samadhi), he gradually comes to engage in religious practise and becomes capable of generating good dharmas, then furnish him with a more detailed exposition of the Four (Kinds of Samadhi), this is (2) the Individual siddhdnta. Or i f the (same) person has (reached the point where) i t is appropriate for him to bring his various evils (defilements) under control within the practise of the Constantly-Sitting (Samadhi) and the others up to and including (the Samadhi of) Following One's Own Thought, then the proper method of exposition is called (3) the Therapeutic siddhdnta. When this person has, through the use of (each of these) four Dharmas (samadhis), utterly achieved realization, then this is (the state of) (4) the Ultimate siddhdnta. As many as four doctrines are required for even a single person. Why then (should they) not be used? 314 If (the Four Samadhis are to be expounded) to many people (at the same time), then one of them may want (to hear of) the Constantly-571 Sitting (Samadhi) while three do not; or one of them may want (to hear) the Constantly-Walking (Samadhi) while three do not--in such a case the (method of the) Worldly siddhanta is to always follow the preference of the majority. The same goes for the other three 572 siddhantas. Moreover, a single Kind of Samadhi contains (in i t s e l f ) the mean-ings of (all) Four siddhantas. (Taking for example the f i r s t two Samadhis), i f (the practitioner) wants to walk, then (he should) walk; 573 but i f he wants to s i t , then he should s i t . If when he walks his good roots mature and he enters (thereby) into a l l Dharmas, he should at such a time (continue to) walk; while i f when he sits his mental state becomes clear, joyous and relaxed, he should at such a time 574 (continue to) s i t . If (his mind) becomes torpid and dull during si t t i n g , then to shake off ^ f i t . 5 7 5 (the torpidity) he should walk; while i f he grows distracted or tired during walking, he 576 should s i t . If during walking he becomes entranced and perfectly serene, then he should (continue to) walk; while i f during sitting he gains mental composure and acuteness, he should then (continue to) 577 s i t . The (applications of the Four siddhantas to the) other three (Kinds of Samadhi) is analogous. . . . Q: The good is conducive to Ultimate Truth and can (therefore) be used in the practise of calming-and-contemplation. But evil con-travenes Ultimate Truth: how can (one who engages in evil) practice calming-and-contemplation)? 315 A: In the Great Treatise's elaboration of (intellectual) capac-it i e s and fetters {samyojana) there are four (categories of people). First are those of keen capacities who are also unfettered (by the defilements). Second are those of keen capacities who are fettered. Third are those of dull capacities but unfettered. Fourth are those 579 of dull capacities who are also fettered. The f i r s t category is the highest. (Disciples like) Sariputra and others from the time that the Buddha (Sakyamuni) was alive in the world were people of this type. If (such) a practitioner practises calming-and-contemplation within good dharmas, he w i l l , by virtue of his energetic practise of good dharmas, have no (karmic) fetters in the future, and his constant practise of calming-and-contemplation will make his (intellectual) capacities keen. 5 8 0 If he has mastered these 581 two principles in the past then even slight practise in the present will earn him the corresponding ( f r u i t ) , and starting from the stage of (the Identity of) Religious Practise, he will enter the stage of (the Identity of) Resemblance and (finally) the True Reality. Those who are not able to enter (these upper Identities) in the present because of having lacked (mastery of) the two principles in the past can, by cultivating the good in the present, quickly enter (the upper Identities) in the future. In the next category are those who attain the Way because of the sharpness of their capacities, despite an accumulation of sins and a great weight of (karmic) fetters. During the time when the Buddha was in the world, King A j a t a s a t r u 5 8 2 and Angulimala were examples of 3 1 6 such people. Though their perverted sins and (consequent) fetters were so grave that they should have been (and rightly were) reborn in hel l , s t i l l by seeing the Buddha and hearing (his exposition of) the Dharma they (were able to) awaken and achieve sainthood. Their karmic fetters could not obstruct (their enlightenment) because of the keenness of their (intellectual) capacities. Those practitioners of today who engage in calming-and-contemplation while in the midst of evil are of this kind. Because they engender evil they will have karmic fetters in the future, but because they practise calming-and-contem-plation their intellectual capacities will be keen in their.next lives. If you should encounter (such a) friend, encourage him to enter the True Way. How could (you only c r i t i c i z e them by) saying that evil dharmas contravene the Ultimate Truth, and not approve their cpq practise of calming-and-contemplation? Next are those who are of dull capacities but without fetters. In the time when the Buddha was in the world Cudapanthaka was an example of such a person: although he committed no transgressions in the Three Acts (of body, speech and mind), he was by nature exceedingly dull (of i n t e l l e c t ) . (It took him) ninety days to (learn to) recite (this one) unsophisticated stanza: \"The wise do not engage in evil acts of body, speech or mind; constantly exhibiting firmness of mind, they are not infatuated with (objects of) desire; nor do they assent to CO A the profitless ascetic practices in the world.\" Those of the present day, who observe the monastic code and engage in the practise of good, but do not train in calming-and-contemplation,will, despite having no karmic fetters in the future, find i t exceedingly d i f f i c u l t to awaken to the Way. 317 In the final category are a l l those who both engage in evil and f a i l to practise calming-and-contemplation. (On the one hand) they f a i l to achieve the Way because they do not practise calming-and-contemplation. Their faculties are so dull that even repeating an explanation a thousand times leaves them s t i l l ignorant and uncompre-hending. (On the other hand), on account of committing numerous sins, they have every kind of karmic fetter. They are like lepers, whose numbed bodies may be stabbed with needles to the very bone without their being aware of i t . They beshroud themselves in nothing but ., 585 e v i l . For these reasons, although the good is conducive to Ultimate Truth, the Way derives (primarily) from (the practise of) calming-and-contemplation. For though evil contravenes Ultimate Truth, keen (intellectual) faculties destroy the fetters (produced by i t ) . It 586 is the Way alone which is noble. How could (mere worldly) evil abrogate (the effects of) calming-and-contemplation? The Nirvana sutra says, \"One who is lax in (observing) the dis-ciplinary code is not called (truly) lax; but one who is lax in the Vehicle (the Dharma) is (rightly) called l a x . \" 5 8 7 The four categories (yielded by the pairing) of \"laxity\" and \"strictness\" (with \"Dharma\" and \"morality\") ought to be elucidated in detail in the same 588 way as were the meanings of \"capacities\" and \"fetters\" above. ... . That is the meaning of the statement in a sutra, \"Better to be 589 Devadatta than Udraka Ramaputra.\". . . . One should practise by diligently listening (to the Dharma) or by pondering i t , 5 9 0 318 never pausing having once begun., (The Supreme importance of the Dharma) may be illustrated by 591 the case of the drunken brahmin who took the tonsure or the 592 actress who donned monastic robes. . . . CAUSE EFFECT (i) s t r i c t in Dharma, s t r i c t in morality (iv) s t r i c t in Dharma, lax in morality ( i i i ) lax in Dharma, s t r i c t in morality (iv) lax in Dharma, lax in morality Examples: (i) Sariputra ( i i ) Ajatasatru ( i i i ) Cudapanthaka (iv) Ordinary people sharp intellectual capacities, few fetters sharp intellectual capacities, many fetters dull intellectual capacities, few fetters dull intellectual capacities, many fetters Figure 2 The Effects of the Dharma (Religious Practise) and Moral Behavior 320 FOOTNOTES LESSER CHAPTER TWO ENGAGING IN THE GREAT PRACTISE OR THE FOUR SAMADHIS Though the expression 2- l i t e r a l l y means \"the four kinds of samadhi, the word \"samadhi\" also means for Chih-i a program of religious practise, so that one could also translate the subtitle of this Lesser Chapter Two as \"The four programs of religious practise.\" As the content of the discourse makes clear, i t is the, method for arriving at the proper state of mind [bodhi) which Chih-i stresses in this chapter, not different meditative states of mind, or \"different samadhis.\" The MHCK is a work on the cause of enlightenment, not on the effect (enlightenment i t s e l f ) . Chih-i does however recognize the traditional meaning of the word in his definition of i t below. 2 CJ: \"Though one may have had the thought of enlightenment already, one can hardly speak of 'stages' without (actually) practising.\" At this point i t is clear that we are already past the f i r s t and second of the Six Identities, since these two precede actual practise. From the viewpoint of practise they are not yet stages at a l l . Kojutsu quotes CJ from later in his MHCK commentary to the effect that even the third of the Six Identities is not yet a proper bodhisattva stage--i t is only when we reach the fourth Identity (beyond what Chih-i said he had attained himself) that we come to the f i r s t of the f i f t y -two stages, the f i r s t of the Ten Stages of Faith -f ^ . 3 This is a reference to the Five Flavors or stages in the manu-facture of ghee from milk, used in the Nirvana sutra to il l u s t r a t e ^ the progressively finer essences of the Dharma. The character (chisel) in the MHCK text must be understood as a loan for (to gather, collect, come together). The latter character is in Tact that used in the locus classicus of this simile in the Nirvana sutra (T12.777c), and the former character is given in the Taisho edition of this sutra as an alternate. Morohashi also attests the inter-changeability of the two. 4T9.3a. 5 The methods are thus classified according to bodily posture. The meditations in the main section of MHCK, Greater Chapter Seven, 321 the Ten Modes (and objects) of contemplation, are classified accord-ing to what is done with the mind. Oda in defining samadhi (2~ p. 661a) refers to this passage in the MHCK and augments the phrase: \"taming the unruly mind,\" \"rectifying the crooked mind,\" \"stabilizing the distracted mind.\" The Chinese transcription of samadhi $~ B^L, i f read according to the meaning of the characters rather than their pronunciation, means \"the three darknesses (mysteries).\" This may be the reason the word is defined here with exactly three other characters. 7T25.110b. CJ quotes a different passage on samadhi from the TCTL, claiming that the MHCK quote is a paraphrase, but Shiki points out the mistake. CJ's quote (at T25.234a) amusingly compares samadhi to the straightening of a meandering snake's path when i t passes through a bamboo tube. It is of interest that the TCTL mentions \"four kinds of samadhi\" in the same passage used by Chih-i here, a few sentences later than his quote. They are wholly different from Chih-i's however, being classified as samadhi contemplating each of the Three Realms, plus samadhi without any of the Three Realms as it s object. 8We n-\u2022 s hi - s h i h -1 i - s o - s hu o-mo - h,o- pan- j o - po -1 o -mi -ching jp) tflVLMifife^MSJ^ Chinese name is sanskritizable to \"ManjusrT-niPde^a-mana-prajna-paramita-sutra,\" but the actual Sanskrit name is Anya-saptasatika-nama-prajna-paramita-sutra. The passage on the \"One Practise\" ^ is at T8.731a-c. It is too long to translate in this note however. 9Wen-shu-shih-li-wen-ching. ^ ify fy] ) ^ . Actually this is not t i t l e d as a prajnd-pdramitd sutra, but prajna-pdvamitd is definitely mentioned in the text. - There exists no Tibetan or Sanskrit version today, so that the t i t l e in Sanskrit is guesswork, but the Chinese could be rendered something 1 ike*Man j.usrT-pariprccha-(sutra) The passage on the Constantly Sitting (One Practise) Samadhi is found at T14.507a and reads as follows: \"ManjusrT asked the Buddha, 'By what further means can one bring about this samadhi?' The Buddha said, 'By shame, repentance, reverence, and by giving alms, you can serve and speak to the people of the Dharma as i f making offerings to the Buddha. You can bring about samadhi by these four methods. Then for nine days have no thoughts of self \u00a3j\u00a3 -4(i \u2022 Simply s i t , concen-trating your thought ^ j f - ' f e \" x\\ without mixing in other mental activity ^zfy%^<$L . Except for eating, walking, and attending to your natural functions, you may not rise at a l l . 1 0There is a dispute on the meaning of , which I translate here as One Practise. CJ himself is inconsistent, saying f i r s t that this refers to the Practise of the One (Dharma, Teaching or Truth), 322 but then that i t signifies rather the One Posture, si t t i n g , not the One Truth: for since a l l the four ways of practising samadhi refer to the same Truth, this interpretation would not serve to distinguish them. Shiki discusses this at length, quoting several scriptures where the term \u2014- tf[ is used. The consensus seems to be that every-where else but in the MHCK, the \"One\" uniformly refers to the Practise of the Ultimate Truth, Dharmakaya, the One Principle, the object of contemplation. The Wen-shu-shuo sutra is no exception. But in the MHCK the term is mainly used in a sense different from that in the other scriptures, namely \"single-practise,\" or the primary bodily posture of si t t i n g , the venerable \"lotus-seat\" (padmdsana). ^Thus each of the three possible acts is discussed from f i r s t the positive and then the negative point of view. 12 CJ: In a meditation hall. 13 This is one of the eighteen articles a monk is allowed to possess. Its dimensions are prescribed in various Vinayas, e.g. the Ssu-fen-lu \u2022 Mochizuki (p. 2546a) has a drawing of this. 14 CJ says right leg over l e f t , but Kogi gives both po s s i b i l i t i e s . Neither of the ManjusrT sutras is specific on this point. 15 CJ: Without either large or small motions. 16 The reference to ribs in this sentence makes i t quite clear that Chih-i is speaking of sitting in a chair with a back (or side), not merely a mat or a platform.* 1 7 T h i s is a s t r i c t l y controlled walking exercise between periods of sitting meditation, and has five benefits (CJ quoting the Ssu-fen-lu <P y7?4&, the Dharmagupta Vinaya): (1) i t develops the a b i l i t y to walk great distances, (2) develops the thinking faculty, (3) reduces illn e s s , (4) helps the digestion, and (5) enables one to meditate longer. Shiki gives details on the proper hand position and distances to be traversed, while CJ reminds us that one must neither hurry nor dawdle. I o CJ says this should be Amitabha in the west, but the two ManjusrT sutras say nothing about this point. 19 Following CJ, who says, \"To defy one's own mind is to cheat the Buddha.\" 323 20 CJ: Respectively the defilements (klesas), and spir i t s or unworthy acquaintances. 21 For CJ this would be Amitabha as he has already mentioned. 22 In the light of Pure Land developments, there is a controversy (cited by Shiki) as to whether the practise of reciting the Buddha's name is primary or merely an auxiliary practise within the T'ien-t'ai school. But CJ says, \"In following the Practise one is silent, in removing obstacles one vocalizes.\" and the text of the MHCK also seems to indicate clearly that, as Shiki indeed concludes, this is definitely an auxiliary practise, to be used to counter obstacles like sleepiness and vagrant thoughts as they arise, but not unless they arise. For as the Wen-shu-shih-1 i-wen-ching ^jfLfeij^ 1) P\u00bb| text states (as also MHCK), one's mind is primarily to be focused on the ultimate dharmadhdtu , the realm of the Ultimate--and not on anything less than that. 23 CJ: And does not flow out. 24 This is an idea drawn from the TCTL: T25.103a, Roll 6. Here i t is said that udana, one of.the five vital airs of the human body (namely that which issues upwards (ud-) and out of the mouth), rebounds (echoes) from the navel and impinges on seven bodily parts (the top of the head, the gums, teeth, l i p s , tongue, throat and chest), before issuing from the mouth as speech. The TCTL, unlike Chih-i makes no special dis-tinction between the bodily and vocal act. For the TCTL, the emphasis is on. the idea that the sound of speech is brought into existence through a variety of causes, but there is no real speaker: the voice is a simile for the unreality of dharmas. 25 In the light of what is said later, this must be understood as the Dharma-body of the Buddha, simply another expression for the unreifiable Ultimate Truth. 26 Such as those listed above in the main text. 27 CJ interprets \"those who understand\" as the Prajna-paramita-sutras, especially the two above-mentioned ManjusrT sutras. Kogi however interprets the phrase as meaning worthy friends and acquain-tances, which seems more in accordance with the sense of the MHCK. Kogi adds that i t is because one hears the friends' pronouncements on the Dharma that this passage belongs to the section on speech. 324 CJ notes that reciting sutras is forbidden only for this con-stantly-sitting samadhi, not necessarily for the other three. Also i t is worth noting that at the end of the Wen-shu-shih-1i-wen-ching from which Chih-i has borrowed selectively here, the recitation of spells is recommended for the curing of disease and for raim-making, among other uses (T14.508c). This however has l i t t l e to do with meditation as such. CJ says this is the \"calming\" part of the practise. We may regard the two imperatives of this sentence as the same worded in two ways, i.e. \"unburden yourself of the klesas.\" 30 CJ says this is the \"contemplation\" part of the practise. 3 1 This is l i f t e d directly from the *ManjusrT-nirdesa. 32 CJ says these two operations'are simultaneous. The eight characters of this sentence also appear in the \"core\" statement of MHCK, at T46.1c. 33 Alternative translations: \"everything is endowed with Buddha-hood,\" \"there is nothing which is not the Truth,\" \" a l l things are the Buddha's teaching.\" 34 A bodhisattva monk engages in his own practise (knowing) and also seeks to transform others (expounding). CJ says both of these are identical to the Dharma-realm. CJ: \"In the Middle, which is yet identical to the extremes.\" 36 This probably means he perceives Buddhahood in all its aspects. As CJ says, simply to contemplate the Dharma-realm is to see that i t is identical to the ten names of the Tathagata in his body of response. This is yet another way of saying that the Ultimate and the mundane are identical. CJ then cites the ten names in question, though as he l i s t s them there are twelve. His l i s t is drawn from the Wen-shu-shih-1i-wen-ching (*ManjusrT-pariprccha), T14.506cl8-19. Other nearly identical l i s t s may be found in the Ying-1uo-ching (T24.1020a) and in the Nirvana sutra (T12.710cl2-13 to 712cl). Since the Ying-luo-ching is today regarded as a Chinese \"forgery,\" i t must have borrowed its l i s t from some Indian source, but one cannot say definitely which one. At any rate the ten names given in the Ying-luo- ching are (1) Tathagata, (2) Deserving of Offerings, (3) Rightly Omniscient, (4) Foundation of Enlightenment, (5) Well-gone, (6) Knower of the World, (7) the Supreme One, (8) Tamer of Men, (9) Teacher of Gods, and (10) Buddha (the Enlightened One). 325 37 CJ: \"That i s , his Dharma body, his ultimate aspect.\" If one substitutes the phrase \"Ultimate Reality\" for \"Tathagata\" everywhere in this passage, the rest of the meaning becomes quite clear in Western terms. 3 8 C J says that \"not speaking\" % ^ means ^  * J ^ , i.e., \"unable to apprehend.\" 39 CJ: \"This phrase indicates the emptiness of the object realm.\" 40 Kogi: For i f the object-realm is eradicated, the subject-realm must likewise vanish. 4 1 C J : For both have vanished. Kogi: Their identity results from their inexistence. 42 CJ: Being omnipresent. 43 Following CJ. This means that the Middle Way is identical to the extremes, to the antipodes of every dualism. 44 Kogi: They are the water deep beneath the waves: undisturbed by, yet just as wet as, the waves on the surface. 45 CJ: For the Tathagata is both omnipresent and absent. 46 This passage recommends a visualization exercise. Once one has succeeded in viewing the Ultimate Truth as empty, the form aspect of the Buddha (Ultimate Reality) can be presented before one by the power of one's own contemplation, and this form aspect can be used as a further teaching agent. 4 7 C J : \"With the power of great compassion one sees (the marks), while with the power of great wisdom one avoids seizing upon them. Nirvana and the (two) adornments (as below) are to be treated in the same way.\" To paraphrase: Use form, symbols, images and speech to help others on the path, but don't be so foolish as to take these as synonymous with Truth, for Ultimate Truth transcends a l l forms. 48, Merit and wisdom %% <)%%A%-326 CJ: \"Form is the substance \u00bb features are the external appearance of the Dharma. 50 CJ: \"Though one sees the Tathagata and hears his preaching, one knows that the real meaning of the Dharma is devoid of seeing and hearing, etc.\" 51 These three (suffering, defilements, karma) are traditionally regarded as forming a vicious c i r c l e , with each member of the series causing the next, and the last causing the f i r s t . 52 Shiki and Kogi at this point enter into a long discussion of, among other things, how beings can be \"limitless\" (as i t says in the sutras) i f \" a l l beings\" become Buddhas (as i t also says in the sutras). Further, i f a l l beings were f i n a l l y to become Buddhas, so that no unenlightened beings remained, how then could the perfect compassion of these Buddhas be exercised, a quality as fundamental to Mahayana Buddhahood as wisdom? Does the number of Buddhas increase and the number of unenlightened beings decrease as more and more of the latter achieve Buddhahood? \"\"\"CJ: View the space-like object-realm with space-like wisdom. 54 CJ: \"Since animate beings are identical to Buddhas, nothing worldly exists which could be rejected. Since Buddhas are identical to animate beings, there is nothing saintly which could be adopted.\" 55 CJ: These are the Four Noble Truths at the level of the Unmade (the Actionless), i.e. f i r s t and fourth, second and third. 5 6 0 r , \"is the Dharma-realm of the true Buddha.\"jJJL $p . 57 CJ tries to align the clause in quotations with the Three Truths. Perfect quiescence does f i t nicely with Emptiness, and neither-samsara-nor-nirvana f i t s well enough with the Middle. But he is surely mistaken in thinking that by motionless impulsesjjjk-'f^ 4rf Chih-i meant the truth of Provisionality. Kogi endeavors to make \"motionless impulses\" f i t Provisionality better by saying that these \"impulses\" #*f i n f a l l i b l y conform to things f J fi*,--for since \"things\" f a l l in the category of the \"provisional,\" thTs can be f i t t e d to the truth of Provisionality. It seems clear that CJ is trying to read too much into the text of the MHCK, while the later commentator (Kogi) does handstands trying to reconcile CJ's inter-pretation with the text. 327 CJ gives the VimalakTrti as authority for this, where i t says (T14.539c, Ch. 3, Luk translation p. 20), \"Meditation is practising the thirty-seven Parts of the Way while unmoving amid (wrong) views.\" 59 Killing the father, mother or an arhat, destroying the harmony of the saragha, and shedding the blood of a Buddha. 60 CJ: For they are both inherent in the nature of mind. 61 Wen-shu-shih-li-so-shuo . . . ching, T8.728c. 62 These demons represent everything that destroys good in the world, and are listed traditionally as (1) Mahe^vara, lord of the Realm of Desire, (2) the defilements, (3) skandhas, and (4) death. From the TCTL (T25.99b, Roll 5). 63 J7V3 \u00a32 CJ notes that the Ch'an school Jf; misused these sutras, though he does not mention just how. 64 I suspect that this sentence, like many of those which introduce new sections of the text, is Kuan-ting's addition, for this kind of t i t l i n g has the ring of being meant for a reader rather than a listener. 65 I.e., phenomena in their aspect of Ultimate Reality are what the Buddha's teaching is a l l about. 66 Directly quoted from the Wen-shu-shih-li-so-shuo . . . ching (T8.727b). 6 7 Paraphrased from the Wen-shu-shih-li-so-shuo . . . ching (T8.730b). 68 Monks, nuns, Buddhist laymen and laywomen. 69 Wen-shu-shih-li-so-shuo . . . ching (T8.727c. 7 0Quoted nearly verbatim from the Wen-shu-shuh-1i-so-shuo . . .  ching (T8.727c). CJ comments that the \"seat\" of the Buddha is what he relies upon, his support -ffjf 4$C, i.e. Ultimate Truth % 3 $ . -The difference between Buddha and Ultimate Truth is the difference between the subject ^ a n d the object of final realization, hence ultimately no difference at a l l . 328 Wen-shu-shih-1 i - s o - s h u . . . c h i n g (T8.727c-728a). The s u t r a makes c l e a r t h a t i t i s t h e f e a r l e s s h e a r i n g o f the Dharma o f the P e r f e c t i o n o f Wisdom which endows t he l i s t e n e r w i t h the o t h e r f i v e P e r f e c t i o n s . 7 2 T h i s i s p r o b a b l y -f' T% one o f th e Ten F o r e b e a r a n c e s , found i n t he c h a p t e r on the Ten Fo r e b e a r a n c e s (Ch. 24) i n the Hua-yen (Ava-tamsaka) s u t r a (T9.580-585). I t i s the a b i l i t y t o r e s i s t the impulse towards f e a r and a s t o n i s h m e n t when h e a r i n g t h e sound j^jt {Sabda) o f the Dharma b e i n g expounded. 73 There a r e two l i s t s o f t h e s e . The f i r s t i s a l i s t o f the t e n k i n d s o f mental powers o f a Buddha, found a c c o r d i n g to M o c h i z u k i ' s d i c t i o n a r y (p. 2403) ^ i n both the Agamas and the Mahayana s c r i p t u r e s : e.g. i n the P a n c a v i m s a t i ( R o l l 5 ) , the Hua-yen s u t r a ( R o l l 5 6 ) , the Y i n g - l u o - c h i n g ( i n the c h a p t e r on cause and e f f e c t ) , and the TCTL ( R o l l 24). The second l i s t i s more p r o b a b l y t h a t which i s i n t e n d e d h e r e , f o r i t i s found o n l y i n Mahayana s c r i p t u r e s , b e i n g the t e n powers a b o d h i s a t t v a a t t a i n s i n the n i n t h o f the Ten Stages o f D i v e r s i o n -f\"$?_to) T h i s i s mentioned i n the Hua-yen s U t r a ( R o l l 3 9 ) , t h e Pan-chou-san-mei-c h i n g (s'urarigama-samadhi s u t r a , and the TCTL ( R o l l 25). The s c r i p t u r e s a r e not w h o l l y i n agreement f o r e i t h e r l i s t . The second H u a - y e n - 1 i s t has the powers o f (1) p r o f o u n d mind, (2) i n c r e a s i n g l y p r o f o u n d mind, (3) e x p e d i e n t s , (4) wisdom, (5) vows, (6) p r a c t i c e , (7) v e h i c l e , (8) s u p e r n a t u r a l a b i l i t i e s , (9) e n l i g h t e n m e n t , (10) t u r n i n g the wheel o f the Dharma. The S a n s k r i t f o r t h e s e powers i s r e s p e c t i v e l y ( o m i t t i n g the f i n a l bala f o r each item) asaya, adhydsa, pvayoga, prajnd3 pvanidhd-na 3 oaryd3 ydna3 vikuvvana, bodhi, dharma-oakra-pravavtana. 74 T h i s s i m i l e i s a l s o from the W e n - s h u - s h i h - 1 i - s o - s h u o - c h i n g (T8.731b). 7 5 W e n - s h u - s h i h - l i - s o - s h u o - c h i n g (T8.731c). 7 6 T h e P r a t y u t p a n n a - s a m a d h i - s u t r a : (T#417, one r o l l ; o r T#418, t h r e e r o l l s } ! Both a r e t r a n s l a t i o n s by Lokaksema o f the L a t t e r Han dyn a s t y . The s h o r t e r i s m e r e l y an a b b r e v i a t e d v e r s i o n o f the t e x t o f the l o n g e r , w i t h o n l y e i g h t as a g a i n s t s i x t e e n c h a p t e r s . We s h a l l f o l l o w the l o n g e r v e r s i o n , s i n c e e v i d e n t l y i t was t h a t which C h i h - i used. I t i s i n c i d e n t a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g and d o u b t l e s s no c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t t h e l a y b o d h i s a t t v a B h a d r a p a l a i s the o s t e n s i b l e h e a r e r o f both t h e Pan-chou-san-mei-ching and t h e o t h e r t e x t quoted l a t e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n on the C o n s t a n t l y - W a l k i n g Samadhi, namely the S h i h - c h ; u - p ' i - p ' o - s h a - l u n ( D a s a - b h u m i - v i b h a s a - s a s t r a ) . 329 Buddha-standing is also the alternative name for this program of religious practise (\"samadhi\") in the MHCK. In the Taisho canon the f u l l alternate t i t l e of the sutra is given as -f 7jf $p jlL ~%\\ J2~ $L \u00bb i.e. \"the Sutra on the Samadhi in which All the Buddhas of the Present Time and the Ten Directions Stand in Front of (the practitioner).\" 78 I.e., three factors which bring about the phenomenon of the Buddha, or Buddhas, appearing in front of the practitioner. These three items occur at Tl3.905c\"in the Pan-chou-san-mei-ching. 79 i \\ Pan-chou-san-mei-ching (T13.905a). 80Dasa-bhumi-vibhasa-sastra, T26.20-123. This is attributed to Nagarjuna, and translated by KumarajTva. It is a commentary on the f i r s t two stages of the ten in the Dasabhumika sutra ( i t s e l f part of the Avatamsaka sutra). 81T26.88b. 8 2 I b i d . 8 3 I b i d . 84 From the Pan-chou-san-mei-ching (Tl3.904b-c): much abbreviated. The last two categories of people are to be avoided because of the mental and emotional entanglements their presence inevitably involves. 85 Tl3.909c in the .sutra. 86 Tl3.909c and 916c in the sutra. There are two ways for a monk to accept alms: (a) as a special favor from a donor, or (b) accord-ing to where he sits or stands in the line of monks. Since by the latter method a l l favoritism, which might s t i r up egotistical thoughts, is avoided, i t is the preferred alternative. CJ l i s t s ten benefits of, and quotes several scriptures on, begging for one's food, important for his Chinese audience to understand, since this practise was not traditional in China. The term ^ ^ presents something of a problem. CJ under-stands the second character as equivalent to (\"fish\"), but according to Morohashi's dictionary i t can also be used for (\"offering\") j\u00a7 \/ f j | \u00a3 is am accepted Buddhist term for ritual food, especially that usecl during mourning\u2014though in this case i t clearly 330 has nothing to do with mourning. Later, when the preparations for the third of the four samadhis (half-walking, half-sitting) are being described, the term is used to mean ritual food. 88 Hands and head (face?), according to CJ. 89 \u00b0*T13.909c in the sutra. 90 Ibid. Paraphrased. 91 CJ quotes both the sastva (Shih-chu-p'i-p'o-sha-lun) (T26.ll5c-116a) and the TCTL (T25.414b-c) at length on the interesting problem of what attitude a disciple should have towards a teacher of less than supreme merit. Both texts agree strongly that a teacher is to be respected whatever his faults, for the sake of extinguishing the dis-ciple's arrogance i f for no other reason. As the TCTL says, not respecting a poor teacher would be analogous to having water in a deep well but no bucket to get i t out, or disdaining to accept jewels because of the poor condition of the bag containing them. Similarly, water does not flow to a high place. 92 I.e., the lay community, which provides for the monk's material needs. 93 CJ: This is the faith that there are no dharmas which are not the Buddha's Dharma. The latter implies then that there is nothing (outside of the Dharma) which could destroy (the Dharma). 94 CJ: \"Good\" means the teacher understands what impedes and what assists samadhi, guides the practise and does not waste the student's time. 95 The four items in this sentence are the f i r s t of four groups of four items each in Ch. 3 of the Pan-chou-san-mei-ching, on the Four Facts or Conditions (actually four times four facts) which hasten a bodhisattva's attainment of this samadhi (T13.906a). The second group of four is mentioned immediately following this in the MHCK. 96 The 3-roll Pan-chou-san-mei-ching uses the same expression as the MHCK here for \" l i e down or leave\" th $ , but the 1-roll Pan-chou-san-mei -ching (T13.899c) as well as the Shih-chu-p'i-p'o-sha-lun (T26.86c) have Qf? @^ (\"sleep\"). The sdstva and the 1-roll version of the sutra therefore seem to be saying i t is a l l right to l i e down at times as long as one does not f a l l asleep. The sdstva does l i s t at T26.86c as a condition for this samadhi that one should not sleep at al\" 1 % > b u t the Taisho text gives the alternate & for the second character of these four, which would make the claTise 331 read \"not to constantly sleep,\" which implies that some sleep is permissible. . . . The sutra and the sastva contain much of the same information on meditational practise, and the Sastra even mentions the sutra in at least one place (T26.86b3), but the problem of the exact relationship between the two works is beyond our scope. 97 Having completed the second group of four conditions listed in both the sutra and the sastra, Chih-i omits the third and fourth groups. 97a T26.86b. 98 All three acts, not only speech alone, are dealt with here. 99 CJ explains that despite the statement about alternating the mental and the vocal act, in fact there should not be even a single moment when one is not mindful of Amitabha. 1 0 0 I n the 3-roll Pan-chou-san-mei-ching (which is the version that Chih-i seems to rely upon! the Buddha Amitibha is made to say, \"Think continually of me ^  & 4)G f>C . % ^ ( i f y \u00b0 u wish to be re-born in my Pure Land). (T13.905b). However the 1-roll Pan-chou-san-mei -ching, which is that used by the Hui-yiian of the 4th century as well as thie T'ang Pure Land school has, \"Think continually of my name.\" 'jg fe ' \u00a3 J | 7^ \/j^L For Chih-i the mental act is primary: the name of Amitabha is for the l i p s , not the mind. In this method of samadhi i t is Amitabha himself, not merely his name, of which one should be mindful. This slight difference between the two versions of the sutra contributed to divergent trends in the interpretation of the nien-fo (Jap: nembutsu) : the T'ien-t'ai or wisdom-tendency, and the Pure Land, or faith (bhakti) tendency. 1 0 1 This sentence is in the sutra at T13.905a, except^that in the sutra the number of Buddha-lands is one quintillion(TO ), and no mention is made of the jewelled scenery. 1 0 2 I b i d . T13.905b. 103 Usually said to be identical with the usryvsa, the fleshy lump on his cranium. 104 Following CJ for the whole sentence. 105 Buddha\" here means \"Ultimate Reality\" or the realization of same. No concepts at a l l are valid at this level. 1 0 6 0 r \"empty.\" 332 Here the same statement as before (on ultimate emptiness) is made from the point of view of the three kinds of action (bodily, vocal, mental). Above, the statement on emptiness has been made from the point of view of the mind\/matter duality as well as from the point of view of the five skandhas. I Qg Here begins a series of six similes, a l l found in the Pan-chou-san-mei-ching at T13.905a-c. 109 This story also occurs in the TCTL at T25.110b. In these sources there are three wanton women and three sex-starved men dreaming of them from afar. 1 1 0 I t hardly needs to be pointed out how remarkable is this con-cept of the nien-fo ^ \/Jp , which seems to parallel the passionate meditations of St. Teresa on God as the divine spouse. But as the TCTL makes clear, the point in this Buddhist context is that a l l dharmas are empty, yet like the woman in the dream, they s t i l l do function, in spite of their emptiness. ^ T h e Western Paradise, the Pure Land. 112 CJ analyzes these dream events into three components; the ground or perceptual f i e l d upon which the dream i ^ projected , the projecting mind or moment of mental force ~$L* , and the dream (projection) i t s e l f . This triad he then interprets in three ways: (1) (ultimate) nature of mind\/act of viewing\/resultant of viewing; (2) Dharma-body\/Body of Retribution\/Body of Response; and (3) The Buddha-apart\/the practitioner\/the Buddha-as-seen. Perhaps i t would not be a distortion to say these are three ways of talking about the thing-in-itself\/the perceiver\/the perceived. The next three similes are to be interpreted in the same threefold way, says CJ. 113 CJ: The two correspond respectively to the perceptual f i e l d and the dream of the previous examples. 1 1 4 C J : His thoughts. 115 Also from Pan-chou-san-mei-ching (T13.905c). 1 1 6 T h i s whole quite corrupt paragraph is likewise from the Pan- chou-san-mei -ching (T13.905c-906a). 333 1 1 7 T h i s recalls the simile of the wanton Sumana above. The sutra adds here that a l l the Three Realms are mind-created. 118 ^ Emending to to agree with both the 1 - roi 1 and the 3-rol1 Pan-chou-san-mei-ching, as well as with the two sutras which are differently t i t l e d but essentially the same work done by different translators at a later time (T#414 and T#419). I have also emended the Taisho punctuation of this passage on the basis of a comparison with these other versions as well as with a very similar passage in the TCTL (referred to by Shiki) at T25.276b. 119 This seems at f i r s t a contradiction of the above, but CJ explains that though seeing of the Buddha takes place, ultimately there is no subject apprehendable which does the seeing. What is being seen is the nature of dharmas, which is no-nature. 120 -Kogi: Putting an end to the re l a t i v i t y of subject and object. 121 Pan-chou-san-mei-ching (T13.906c). 122 '\"T13.909a. 123 CJ explains that Buddhas become Buddhas by regarding their own minds (presumably before they are yet Buddhas) as not different from a Buddha's mind. 124 The sutra has \"Mind is pure, bright and without a blemish.\" Here \"pure\" and \"unblemished\" are interchanged, and & (\"called,\" \"named\") has been substituted for Vfy (\"bright\"). The latter deviation from the sutra may have been due to Kuan-ting misunderstand-ing Chih-i's spoken words, since the two characters are homonyms. 125 CJ explains by the well-known simile of the imagined flower in the a i r : the a i r on which i t seems to be superimposed is not actually affected by i t s \"presence.\" 1 2 6T13.919b. \"The Seal of the Buddha\" is the t i t l e of the last chapter in the sutra, Ch. 16. Oda (p. 1552a) refers to this passage in both MHCK and CJ's commentary, and in accordance with the latter defines the Seal of the Buddha as the nature of dharmas (things as they are), i.e. Ultimate Real ity. ^ ^ 127 CJ distributes these three acts among the Three Truths\u2014empti -ness,provisionality, and the Middle\u2014but I would say this is excessive. The description of the nature of the \"seal of the Buddha\" has far more than three items in the sutra. 334 1 po CJ: With their annihilationistic approach to nirvana. 129 T26.86a. This is from a four-line gathd which reads, \"If a bodhisattva who has just had the thought of enlightenment thinks of the Buddha in terms of the marvelous features (denoted by) the ten names (of the Buddha), then he will not lose (the image of) the Buddha, just as ( i f he were looking at his own) image in a mirror.\" The commentary to the gathd l i s t s the ten names, the same as those mentioned by CJ previously in his commentary to the MHCK, in the section on Constantly-Sitting Samadhi. The sdstra then explains the mirror simile in terms we have seen Chih-i use: \"When a bodhisattva has attained samadhi, i t is as i f he were looking at the image of his own face in a mirror, or as i f he were seeing the features of his (own) body (re-flected) in clean water. At f i r s t the image he sees conforms to (the image of) the Buddha as he has thought of him before. Once he (is able to) see the image (of a single Buddha), then i f he should desire to see a l l the Buddhas of other lands, he will surely see them as he has (previously) imagined them, without anything to obstruct (his mental image).\" l ?n From the sdstra (T26.64c27-29). The sdstra says, \"Each of the thirty-two major marks (of a Buddha which are spoken of) in the Abhid-harma has three parts: (1) the substance of the mark - j f ^ (2) the action of the mark -jfQ \"t\u00a3 , and (3) the effect of the mark \u2022^ Q The next two characters in MHCK are , and are understood by CJ as a fourth \"part\" of a mark, \"the function of the mark,\" but this does not appear in the three-item l i s t in the sdstra, and probably should not be included as a fourth aspect of a mark of Buddha. )^ ) could then be regarded as a miscopied repetition of H \u00a3 \u00bb but I prefer to translate the two characters as a connective phrase: \"(by contemplating) the functioning of the marks (in their three aspects).\" However, CJ's interpretation of the \"functioning of the mark\" (as the fourth item in the l i s t ) is that this is the power of themark to benefit living beings and fa c i l i a t e their progress on the Way. In the sdstra (T26.86a) these three degrees of power ^ \u00a3 $ are matched with the contemplation of the three bodies of the Buddha. The thirty-two marks belong to the Body of Response (the \"form-body, nirmana-kaya), the Forty Unshared Dharmas (being non-physical personal-ity characteristics or capacities) to the Body of Recompense [sambhoga-kaya), and Ultimate Reality (\"the real marks\") to the Dharma-body. The MHCK text is here nothing but a paraphrase of the sdstra. As for the Forty Unshared Dharmas--the l i s t of eighteen found inter a l i a in the TCTL is more commonly encountered, but the l i s t of unshared dharmas varies from scripture to scripture, and goes as high as 140 (when i t 335 includes the thirty-two and the eighty major and minor marks). The forty are given in this sdstra at T26.71c-72a as well as by CJ, and include such items as being able to f l y at w i l l , having numberless forms, being able to read minds, etc. 1 3 2The sdstra (T26.86a). 133 In the Pan-chou-san-mei-ching, the passage reads (T13.913c), \"This samadhi is the eye of bodhisattvas, the mother of a l l bodhis-attvas, the refuge of a l l bodhisattvas, that from which a l l bodhisattvas are born.\" CJ identifies the \"mother of Buddhas\" (as the MHCK renders the passage) with the wisdom that perceives reality 4^ ^  , the \"eye of the Buddhas\" with the perception of the Middle (Way), and the \"father of the Buddhas\" with expedients (updya). Since the text also mentions the samadhi as the \"compassionate mother,\" CJ explains that the \"wisdom that perceives reality\" is the source, the biological mother we might say, of Buddhas, but great compassion is the nourishing mother. CJ thus identifies both wisdom and compassion with the feminine principle. 134 No commentator mentions which these two might be. Perhaps Chih-i had in mind \"father and mother.\" 135 This section is an unattributed, abbreviated, but mostly accurate quote from the sdstra (T26.87c-88a). The same simile is found however in the sutra (Tl3.907c-908a). 13g The sdstra has \"From hearing the samadhi (-sutra) of a l l the Buddhas appearing before one.\" Apparently hearing the text read out loud is supposed to be nearly as efficacious as actually doing the samadhi. 1 3 7The unit of land measure ah'ing is equal to about eight hectares or twenty acres. In the famous example from the Nirvana sutra already cited in the MHCK, the Buddha is represented by the cow and his teachings by the milk. 138 ' T26.88a-b in the sdstra. This is highly abbreviated. 139 The sdstra also mentions his being assailed by malicious bandits (in MHCK the characters for \"malicious\" and \"bandits\" Jpj]^  have been inverted), lions, tigers, wolves, vicious beasts, ndgas, poison-ous snakes, yaksas, raksasas, kumbhandas, pisdaas, humans, nonhumans, as well as by diseases of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, mouth and teeth among others. 336 The paraphrase of the sdstra represented by the three preceding sentences (\"Those who hear . . . kinds of merit.\") is garbled in the MHCK. The sdstra says (T26.88b2-12), \"If there were a person who had merely heard of this samadhi, he would s t i l l be joyful in four ways that would turn himtowards supreme enlightenment. (1) When constantly seeking to hear much of how the Buddhas of the past practised the bodhisattva path, he rejoices in (their) samadhis, (while thinking), 'I too am like that 1; (2) (when hearing of) the -Buddhas of the present he rejoices in their samadhis, (thinking) 'I too am like that 1; (3) (when hearing of how) the Buddhas of the future will practise the bodhisattva path, he rejoices in (their) samadhis, (thinking) 'I too (will be) like that'; (4) (when hearing) of the samadhi that the bodhisattvas of the past, future and present practise . . . (thinking), 'I also rejoice 1 . . . . Such vicarious joy _i7?iiL-jS is n o t a hundredth part, not a hundred quadrillionth (10\" ) part of the supreme merit (of actually performing the samadhi), to the point that no numerical simile can convey (how great the merit i s ) . (The actual practise of) this samadhi confers incalculable, unlimited recompense.\". 141 CJ: \"Those who themselves practise samadhi.\" 142 Pan-chou-san-mei-ching (Tl3.907a-b). In the sutra a merchant offers to sell a jewel, so bright i t can be used at night to light the way, to a farm youth. The youth does not recognize the true value of the jewel and is willing to pay only one ox for i t . 143 The translation of the t i t l e is l i t e r a l . It actually means \"the practise of samadhi while alternately walking and sit t i n g . \" This samadhi-practise is also intended for laypeople, as the text later makes clear, and was quite popular among them because of the relative ease of the practise (compared at least to the 90-day practises which the samadhis of constant walking and of constant sitti n g involve). 14\/1 _ 'These Chinese name of this sutra is sanskritizable as *Maha-vaipulya-dharanT-sutra, but i t s original Sanskrit t i t l e i s unknown. Chih-i is believed to have been acquainted with this sutra (and the samadhi-practise contained in i t ) even before he came to know Hui-ssu. The sutra is an esoteric one (as revealed by i t s t i t l e ) , and was available in China by 413 AD, which though centuries after the Pan-chou- san-mei -ching (Pratyutpanna-samadhi-sutra) used for the Constantly Walking Samadhi, was s t i l l well before the mass of esoteric scriptures that were translated during T'ang times and later: for more than ninety percent of the items in the four volumes of the Taisho canon devoted to esoteric texts were translated after the Sui dynasty. l The sutra reads (T21.645b), \"Recite this text 120 times while circumambulating 120 times, then retire, s i t and ponder. After f i n i s h -ing the pondering, recite this text again. (Continue) like this for seven days.\" 337 T9.61a-b, Ch. 28 on Samantabhadra, the last chapter in the Lotus. The Ta-fang-teng . . . ching l i s t s at the beginning of it s third r o l l (T21.652-653) the practises to be engaged in on each of the seven days. Much of this section in MHCK is drawn from that part of the sutra. Another work by Chih-i, the 6-Taisho-page Fang-teng-san- mei-hsing-fa -jf % 3-9%~^vbs (T#1940) contains a fu l l e r treatment of this method of samadhi than the MHCK i t s e l f does here. \u00b0T21.642a11 in the sutra. 149 T21.652a5 in the sutra. Earlier in the sutra, at T21.642a, the Buddha says, \"Do not publicize irresponsibly such a subtle Dharma (as this one); you should regard a divine manifestation as proof (that you are ready to hear this Dharma). Why is this called a divine manifes-tation? A son of good (family) should have twelve dream-kings. If he sees one of these kings, then he may be taught (this Dharma).\" At T21.652a of the sutra, the Buddha says, \"Whether I am s t i l l alive or whether I have already departed this world, i f a son or daughter of good family comes to where you live and seeks (to be taught this) dharanZ sutra, then have him seek for the twelve dream-kings. If he sees one, then you should teach him the seven-day practise.\" The names of the twelve \"dream-kings\" are listed in the sutra at 642a in trans-literated Sanskrit (or other non-Chinese language). These names are obscure and I have made no attempt to restore them. Under his entry for \"twelve dream-kings\" Oda cites only this passage from the sutra, which is not much help, while Mochizuki has no entry at a l l in his dictionary: the idea is not widely known in the Sino-Japanese tradition. However, i t is clear that the term \"dream-king\"^ actually means the same as \"divine manifestations\" jtf 9$ > and signifies certain auspicious dreams which the practitioner may have when asleep, that may be understood as a kind of signal to him. These dreams include five for laypeople: (1) flying, (2) seeing images, r e l i c s , stupas and crowds of monks, (3) a king on a white horse, (4) oneself crossing a river on an elephant, (5) climbing a high mountain on a camel's back. They include four for monks: (6) climbing a platform and turning towards \"wisdom,\" (7) receiving ordination, (8) sitting by a Buddha-image and asking other monks to provide offerings, (9) entering samadhi while seated beneath a tree. There is one for kings: (10) travelling far and wide with a sword at one's side. There is one for government ministers: (11) seeing people washing and dressing themselves. And there is one for wives ^ As. (the Taisho text of the sutra has the alternate which would then mean \"gods and humans\"): (12) riding a sheep-drawn cart into deep water where poisonous snakes lurk. These dreams then are signs or omens that the practitioner is ready to receive the teaching. 338 150 Passim in the sutra. 151 CJ: \"Preferably in a monastery.\" I CO The sutra has (T21.650b), \"Make a number of kinds of incense or in other places, \"Burn a number of kinds of incense.\" It goes on (650b), \"Daub mud on the inside (wall) of the chamber, and draw on i t with colored strokes.\" Apparently the sutra is referring to the making of frescoes. 153 T21.652-653, -passim. 154 T21.646bl5. Shiki says the twenty-four are ten Buddhas (pre-sumably one for each of the ten directions) and ten \"princes of the Dharma,\" plus the (personified?) Vaipulya-dharanT-sutra, Sariputra, and the two bodhisattvas Sound-of-Thunder and Bouquet-of-Flowers (the latter two being personages addressed in the sutra). There is however no evidence that these twenty-four are what were meant by the author of the sutra. 155 T21.645b27. Shiki notes that some authorities prescribe bare feet for these devotions, but others permit footwear. Actually the sutra omits mention of shoes and straw-sandals here. CJ says that the same footwear should not be worn both inside and outside the meditation chamber. 156 This is the regular practise for monks, but as CJ says, this is meant now to be applied to laypeople as well. 157T21.645b26-27. I CO The twenty-four rules are given in the sutra at 645c-646b, and are, by way of example, (1) the admonition to give food and bedding to starving animate beings when they need i t , (2) a prohibition against committing sodomy with beasts, (3) a prohibition against admonishing a monk who keeps wife and children, . . . . (12) a prohibition against tel l i n g a man his wife is committing adultery, etc. Each rule is declared to be for bodhisattvas, and they are a l l designated for lay-people, not members of the monastic community. 159 Numerous sets of dharanzs are given in the sutra, but I shall not attempt to reproduce them here. The sutra says (at 647b24) that this dMvanl sutra, when practised, remembered, read and recited, possesses marvelous supernatural power for protection against a l l sorts of threats like f i r e and wild animals. 339 T21.645c2. CJ says this means both the \"white month\" and the \"black month,\" terms used in the Indian tradition to denote the fortnights in which the moon is either waxing or waning. This would then add the 23rd and the 30th day of the lunar month to those days designated for the confession. 161T21.650b27. \u2022J CO The sutra at 650c says they should however f i r s t ask their parents. I CO At T650c-651a the sutra says these three garments are different from the three traditionally used by monks [antarvasa, uttarasangha, sahghati.). 164MHCK has \"ten Buddhas\" , but comparison with the sutra verifies that what is meant is \"the Buddhas of the ten directions\" - j \" i) ?$n . The character fang j$ has dropped from the MHCK text at some point. 165 At 643a in the sutra Kusumaketu bodhisattva is praised as the mother of a l l the dharmas, but he denies this, saying instead that i t is the dharnni that could be characterized as both the father and the mother (of the dharmas). 166 \\ I.e., bodhisattvas. The sutra at 650b counsels invoking their names\u2014as well as the name of the Buddha Sakyamuni\u2014if a monk or practitioner is in need of protection or help. Among these bodhisattvas are the well-known ManjusrT, Akasagarbha, and Avalokitesvara: they are called \"princes\" on the analogy of the Buddha being called the \"King\" (of the Dharma). With two exceptions, these Princes of the Dharma and the twelve Princes of the Dharma mentioned as listeners at the very beginning of the sutra (T21.641a) are completely different. 167 This sentence was clearly inserted into the MHCK after Chih-i's death by Kuan-ting, for the Kuo-ch'ing-po-lu was compiled in 605 AD, twelve years after Chih-i's death. This wprk i s , along with the Sui-t'ien-t'ai-chih-che-ta-shih-pieh-chuan \" f | K Q ^ 3& ><-%W (also by Kuan-ting), one of the two most important source materials for Chih-i's l i f e . Both these works have been mined by L. Hurvitz for his study Chih-i. The Kuo-ch'ing-po-1u (referred to hereafter as the KCPL) is divided into 104 articl e s , consisting mostly of o f f i c i a l correspon-dence relating to Chih-i. Article #6|v(at 146.796b-798c) however, which is entitled \"Fang-teng-ch'an-fa\" ^ (\"the method of repentance in the Vaipulya (sutra)\"), summarizes this sutra's religious 340 practise, and is therefore more or less parallel to the MHCK's treatment of the same subject. But while the MHCK summarizes the twenty-Taisho-page sutra in one Taisho page, the KCPL devotes three pages to this subject. As for the \"method of invoking\" the afore-mentioned beings, Kuan-ting's summary merely adds they are to be invoked with \"concentrated mind\" ^- . The sutra (650b) adds that these beings will surely respond by coming to the practitioner, furnishing him protection and security, and eliminating his suffer-ing. 1 CO Body, speech, and mind. 169 The act of invoking the Three Jewels is not mentioned in MHCK or in the sutra, but according to the KCPL i t is to precede the in-voking of a l l the rest--the ten Princes of the Dharma, the twelve Dream-kings, etc. This is further evidence of the influence of Kuan-ting on the text of the MHCK as we have i t today, the third of the three editions he made. 1 7 0KCPL says the voice should be \"neither too rough nor too fine.\" 1 7 1See note 164. '\"XJ reminds us here that for details on the content of this \"pondering,\" we may consult the following section on the method of practise for the mind. 1 73 The preceding seven sentences (MHCK: T46.13bl8-b21) are much closer to the KCPL (T46.797b-c) than to the sutra. The sutra has at T21.645b28-cl only this much: \"Recite these phrases 120 times and circumambulate 120 times. Then retire (from the altar), s i t and ponder. Having finished the pondering recite again these phrases. (Continue) like this for seven days.\" The only important difference between the MHCK and the KCPL text here is that in the last of the seven sentences (\"Starting on the second day. . . .\") the former has j> (13b21) where the latter has ^  0 . CJ comments that this j> in the MHCK means the second cycle of the practise, but Kogi asserts that the second character is a mistake and should be written $ , so that i t refers to the second day of the seven-day practise. There being no reference in the sutra to ^ , 3% , the chara-cter 8<j- in the MHCK here is surely a copyist's error for $ , and the KCPL version is the correct one. Hence I have followed the KCPL in my translation. 1 7 4 T h i s is the f i r s t of the many dhdranls in the sutra (T21.642a). As the MHCK text says immediately below, the character t'an -^jj? means \"preventing e v i l \" . This character does not have such a meaning in Chinese, rather i t is being used here for its phonetic value to represent a Sanskrit sound. In that case the likelihood is that i t 341 stands for the Sanskrit letter da. As Mochizuki suggests (pp. 3183-3184a), this da can stand for the (Prakrit) word dahati (Sanskrit dahati, to burn); and signifies therefore \"burning away the defile-ments.\" 1 7 5 Mo-hoM^{for Sanskrit maha, as in the t i t l e of the MHCK it s e l f ) means great\"; fan (for Sanskrit dahati) means \"burning away the defilements,\" i.e. \"preventing e v i l \" ; ch'ih jf4f means sus-taining good ^ J g - . However, I am unable to explain how dhdranZ could have meant 'bidden essence\" to Chih-i. Perhaps he had in mind a tradition tracing the word to the Sanskrit root dha (to put), which with a number of different prefixes {antar-, api-3 vi-ava-, etc.) can mean \"to hide\" or \"hidden\". However the word dhdvarii is actually derived from the root dhr (to hold). 1 7 6 C J avers that (\"secret\") means a l l dharmas are one dharma \u2014 VD ^9 ~1* ^  while zfcr (\"essence\") means one dharma includes a l l dharmas and Kogi supports him. This seems highly doubtful however. 1 7 7T21.645a. The Buddha is t e l l i n g a story about a former bodhi-sattva ! who went into a city disguised as a mendicant to beg for food. A monk asked him whence he had come. He answered, \"I come from the midst of True Reality.\" The monk then asked, \"What is Reality?\" The bodhisattva replied, \"True Reality is what has the mark of quie-scent voidness.\" 1 7p CJ: Attached to samadhi. 179 Following CJ, who says this means the practitioner taking himself as a real self and the practise as his real possession. 180 This sentence occurs in the sutra just after the sentence I have translated above as \"There is nothing to be sought in the mark of quiescent voidness.\" l^The sutra says at this point, \"It is because emptiness is empty that i t is real.\" 1 8 2See the appendix of T.R.V. Murti's The Central Philosophy of  Buddhism for a l i s t i n g of these. 1 pq T12.765c, Roll 24. The Nirvana sutra states here how the teaching that dharmas have an own-being is only for worldlings, but that dharmas have no own-being (or \"self-nature\") is a teaching 342 reserved for the wise. For there is actually nothing that is really seen. Prajna cannot be practised, nirvana i t s e l f cannot be entered. The Six Perfections, the five skandhas, the Tathagata, a l l are empty. \"That is why,\" said the Buddha, \"I told Ananda at Kapilavastu not to grieve (for the destruction of the city and its inhabitants). Ananda said then, 'But Tathagata, World-honored One, a l l my relatives have been exterminated. Why should I noj mourn? Both the Tathagata and I were born in this city, are of the Sakya clan, and have (the same) relatives. Why should the Tathagata be the only one who does not mourn?' (The Buddha replied), 'Ananda, you see Kapilavastu as some-thing really existing, but I see i t as empty, quiescent, and in-existent. You see the Sakya clan a l l as relatives (of yours), but because I practise (the view of) emptiness, I do not see any of them (as really existing). For this reason, you become grief-stricken, while my body and visage shine more brightly than ever.'\" 1 8 4Here fang ^ could also mean \"direction.\" The simile of the pure and cool pond is from the Pancavimsati and its accompanying commentary, the TCTL (T25.639c, 640c, Roll 83). Here Subhuti is presented as believing that only the clever can \"enter the gate\" (of the Dharma, Ultimate Reality, etc.), but the Buddha corrects him, explaining that one's potentiality for this depends not on the sharpness or dullness of one's (mental) faculties, but simply on one's diligence, right thinking and mental concentration. In fact there are \"four gates\" or teachings which are available to f i t the differing capacities of different people: the gate of existence, the gate of inexistence, the gate of both and the gate of neither (the identity of the four gates is not disclosed in this portion of the TCTL but the category is well-known). Wisdom is like a cool pond in hot weather, which anyone with eyes and feet can enter. But those without the will or desire to enter i t will stay outside the pool no matter how close they are to i t . Later in the MHCK (T46.73-75, Roll 6, Ch. 7), Chih-i discusses these Four Gates in detail. 185 -c P'ina-teng -T -<f as a Buddhist technical term means not having distinctions,\" and so is a quality of the Ultimate rather than the Provisional Truth (insofar as the former can be said to have any qualities at a l l , that i s ) . Emptiness and provisionality. l o \/ I . e . , a \"Pure Land.\" At KCPL (797b4) i t says, \"(All these) adornments make i t resemble the Pure Land.\" 343 1 gg None of the four commentators gives a scriptural source for this metaphor. But CJ indicates an old sense of ah 'ang (in the word for \"meditation chamber\" ^ j ^ ) : the portion of a f i e l d where the harvested grain is gatherecTafter the harvest, and where the husk is winnowed from the kernel. Then in spring the same area is resown to produce seedlings which are soon transplanted to the rest of the f i e l d . Ch'ang also means a place used for (non-Buddhist) religious offerings to sp i r i t s . The expression Jz-(\"five abodes\") is not mentioned by the commentators either; however in KCPL (T46.796b29-cl) Kuan-ting \"quotes\" from the sutra (though the sutra does not contain these exact words--at 652b i t jays only, \"You should summon a l l animate beings to the meditation chamber on the f i r s t day.\"), \"This Vaipulya-sutra has immeasurable power, i t can make a l l (1) humans, (2) gods, (3) asuvas, (4) hell-dwellers, and (5) hungry ghosts (pvetas) come to the meditation chamber.\" These are five of the traditional Six Destinies. Then at 796c3, the KCPL has, \"The (category of the) Five Destinies elucidates (the realm of) s u f f e r i n g . \" ^ . ^ L ^ P ^ Hence I believe we may equate the \"five abodes\"^, Jfe. of the MHCK text with the Five Destinies (Paths, courses, gatis) as explained above in Kuan-ting's KCPL. 189 CJ: The supreme monastic code is daubed everywhere on the Ultimate Truth. 190 CJ: And realizing their fundamental vacuity. 191 The fact that they should be silk did not appear in the above MHCK text to which this passage refers (13b3), but this detail is present in the sutra (and also in the KCPL (797b4-5). 192 I.e., on the one hand enlightenment may be considered a change from a previous state, while on the other hand i t is always present and unchanging. 193 CJ: The scent and light permeate the meditation chamber in the same way that sila and prajnd permeate the Pure Realm. 194 CJ: Buddhas dwell in the emptiness which is the realm of Ultimate Truth 1$_ ^ . \"195 This is the f i f t h and most advanced of a group of five kinds of acquiescence (forebearance, ksanti) found in the Jen-wang-ching h*\" \u2022 There are many different l i s t s of ksantis, containing from two to fourteen items; in this particular one progress towards Buddhahood is correlated with the ksanti achieved: (I) suppression of the defilements, (2) faith, (3) being in accord with the Way, (4) non-origination, and (5) nirvana i t s e l f . 344 1 Q ca Later in the MHCK (T46.89c, in Ch. 7) these seven are pre-scribed for ad libitum use during meditation: the f i r s t three {dharma-vioaya, vtvya, pptti) as a stimulant i f the mind grows sleepy and torpid, the fourth, sixth and seventh {pvasvabdhi, samadhi, upeksa) i f the mind grows restless and vagrant. Only the f i f t h , smrti or mind-fulness, is to be practised at a l l times. s% v - 1 9 6 T n e sutra and MHCK have simply \"wash three times a day\" 8 ^ ^ The character for \"one\" \" \u2014 \" does not appear in either text in connection with washing (see the next phrase of the MHCK text). Chih-i is apparently taking liberties in his interpretation of the meaning of the r i t u a l . The sutra does not make interpretations, but there may have been a non-textual tradition on which Chih-i was drawing, e.g. through his experience with Hui-ssu. 197 The Three Obstacles are the defilements, karma and retribution (i.e. painful rebirths). CJ says contemplation is what washes, while the defilements are what is washed away, yet since the self (body) J f ' is (essentially) undefiled, both washer and washed are pure. CJ's comment guards against a Hfnayanistic approach to spiritual cultivation, i.e. taking the attitude that the defilements are real. 198 This is the highest of the three kinds of monastic discipline in abhidharma theory (e.g. Kosa, Roll 14). Within the HTnayana, this pertains only to saints, being a consequence of their undefiled (anasrava) meditation in the Realm of Form and the Formless Realm. The lower two types of monastic conduct pertain respectively to that created by ordinary [asrava) meditation in the Realm of Form, and by meditation in the Realm of Desire. 199 When the f i r s t character of this binome lacks the mouth radical (as CJ and Kogi both refer to i t in their comments), the whole binome usually refers to writing two lines of a poem in such a way that mean-ingful and \"empty\" characters, as well as level and deflected tones, are parallel. The character ahu vfy usually means to transfer or delegate (e.g. authority), but here the mouth radical has apparently been added because of the \"oral\" use of the dhavani. 2 0 0 C J quotes the l i s t of these ten kinds from the Ying-luo-ching (T24.1015a), but as Shiki notes and a perusal of the sutra in the Taisho canoa confirms, the f i r s t item in his l i s t has \"I see the non-dual\"- jfy % ^ where i t should have \"I see twelve\" $ ^ -f ^ - ; i.e. the character ^ is a copyist's error for the character ~f-CJ gives no explanation for any of these ten items besides the bare names, referring the reader to the sutra i t s e l f . However the sutra too merely l i s t s them without explanation. Kogi refers us to the Ta-ch'eng-345 i-chang Jr^  & by the Sui dynasty Hui-yiian, but though there is a six-Taisho-page article in this work on the twelve causes-and-conditions (pratltya-samutpada), there is nothing there about ten kinds of dependent origination, nor any mention of 120 items. Hui-yiian does mention forty-four and seventy-seven kinds of wisdom which perceive these twelve items (four and seven ways of viewing the eleven transitions from link to link of the chain), and the sum of these two figures is 121, tantalizingly close to 120, but of no relevance to this passage in the MHCK after a l l . Hui-yiian is drawing these categories from^quite another scripture, the Tattvasiddhi-sastra (Ch'eng-shih-lun j& W \"f\u00a7^ ). It seems we shall have to rest with the bare names of the ten Kinds of dependent origination, as given in the Ying-luo-ching. These are (1) oneself seeing the twelve; (2) mind being the twelve; (3) the twelve as nescience; (4) the twelve dependently arising from each other; (5) the twelve aiding (each other's) completion; (6) the twelve in the Three Acts (body, speech, mind); (7) the twelve in the Three Times; (8) the twelve in the three kinds of suffering (suffering brought about by physical torments like heat, cold, hunger, etc.; by the loss or destruc-tion of something pleasant; and by the fact of universal impermanence; (9) the twelve as devoid of own-being ^ ; and (10) the dependently originating twelve. 201 These are also known as the Three Obstacles and as the Triple Wheel: the defilements cause karma which causes suffering in turn, and suffering completes the cycle by generating renewed defilements. These may in general be regarded as an abbreviation of the twelvefold chain, in the same way as the Three Knowledges (morality, meditation, wisdom) are an abbreviation of the Eightfold Way. 202 Since the defilements are the ultimate cause of f i r s t karma and then suffering, to repent of only the latter is merely a provisional repentance, which does not get at the root of things: i t is easy to repent or regret the fact that one is suffering or burdened with a load of karma. In the beginning of Ch. 6 of the MHCK (T46.39c3-41c6), these two are discussed at much greater length, with about two Taisho pages devoted to them, more than twice the space alloted to the whole of this third of the Four Ways of Practising Samadhi. This is worth a study in i t s e l f , and would be necessary for determining Chih-i's understanding of repentance, but i t must here be regretfully omitted as beyond the scope of this thesis. 203 T21.656bl-4, 26. CJ: If he has committed serious infractions, he is a dead man as far as the Dharma is concerned, but by repenting of them he can come to \" l i f e \" again, and there is no sin that cannot be effaced (by this method). The sutra gives in this passage four different dharanZs to use for the repentance r i t u a l . Taking them in 346 order of appearance on pages T21.656-657 of the sutra, we can call them A, B, C, and D. These are to be recited in the presence of a witnessing monk a certain number of times for each repentance: 1400 times for dhdrani A (meant for monks who have committed one of the four grave sins, pdrdjika),forty-nine times for dhdrani B (meant for nuns who commit one of the eight grave sins), 600 times for dhdrani C (meant for bodhisattvas) and 400 times for dhdrani D (meant for male or female novices as well as laymen or laywomen). The four grave sins are incontinence (sodomy), k i l l i n g of humans, stealing more than a certain defined amount (i.e. grand larceny), and lying so as to represent oneself as holy. The eight grave sins, which are applicable to nuns, are the above four plus (5) touching a man with unchaste intent, (6) interacting in eight certain ways with a man, (7) conceal-ing before the assembly the sins of a fellow, and (8) following monks about and currying favor with them in order to gain absolution from sins. 204 I could not locate any passage in the sutra dealing with the purification of the sense-organs. However, the MHCK passage beginning \"These can be summed up simply\" (13c20) and ending below with \"is the passage for repentance in the path of impurities (c26) is mostly present in the KCPL (T46.798b), with in particular the statement in-cluded that \"consciousness, name-and-form, etc. are the path of suffer-ing.\" Actually the KCPL distributes these \"Three Paths\" in a way quite different from the MHCK: each is assigned to certain members of the twelve-fold chain. The path of defilements is there assigned to members #8 and #9 of the chain (trsnq\/cravi r\\q and updddna\/attachment); the path of karma is assigned to members #2 and #10 {samskdra\/impulses and bhava\/existence); and the path of suffering is assigned to members #3 and #4 (uij'nana\/consciousness and n^arupa\/name-and-form), \"etc.\" 205 T21.653b-c. The text for the seventh day of the seven-day practise contains these words, used to describe the f r u i t of the practise. 206 In the twelve links of probitya-samutpada, the f i r s t two may be considered the root of the \"tree\" of samsara, the last two the f r u i t , and the intervening eight the rest of the tree. CJ goes into some detail on this point, and Kogi refers us to Hsuan-tsang's translation of the Abhidharma-mahavibhasa-sastra (0-p'i-ta-mo-ta- p'i-p'o-sha-lun n%^L]% (T27.122b)- but this postdates Chih-i. y 207 And not merely suppresses. 208 The sutra says (647c), \"This sutra . . . is the great precious treasure of animate beings,\" and (648a) \"This sutra . . . is the great treasury of a nation.\" 347 T21.647c. CJ comments that each level of devotion should include everything in the levels beneath. Thus recitation and the giving of offerings are to be included at the highest level, and making offerings is to be included at the middle level. 210 T21.648a. 211 T21.649a. T21.649a. \"Offering to the Buddha one's head, eyes, body, wife, children, elephants, horses and the seven precious gems is inferior in merit to a single bow before a ro l l of this sutra.\" Naturally yet greater merit accrues from actually performing the practise out-lined in the sutra. 213 This samadhi-practise is based primarily on the Kuan-p'u-hsien- ching ffil^ 1% (T#277), not on the Lotus sutra. However the former sutra is''considered by Chih-i (and his successors in the T'ien-t'ai school) to be a kind of appendix to the Lotus: for i t is essentially no more than an expansion of the last chapter of the Lotus, the chapter on Samantabhadra. The Kuan-p'u-hsien-ching has recently been translated into English by Miyasaka Kojird (with revisions by P. Del Campana), and published together with the Soothil1\/Kato trans-lation of the Lotus i t s e l f and Tamura's translation of the Wu-1iang- i-ching J t JfTir 214 Body, speech and mind. 215 This is clearly another place in the MHCK where Kuan-ting is speaking, not Chih-i. 2i g This separate work by Chih-i on the Lotus samadhi is found at T46.949-955. While the MHCK devotes l i t t l e more than half a Taisho page to this method of practising samadhi, the Fa-hua-san-mei-ch'an-i (hereafter referred to as FHSM) spreads over almost seven Taisho pages, and is hence far more detailed on this subject than the MHCK--except that the discussion is restricted to the physical (and vocal) practise in that work. The situation is thus parallel to the case of the preceding Vaipulya samadhi: while this mode of practise receives some-what less than a Taisho page of treatment in MHCK. Chih-Vs separate work the Fang-teng-san-mei-hsing-fa -fi ^  B~ ^ -Jj^ devotes about six pages to i t . The FHSM is divided into five chapters: (1) the exhortation to practise; (2) preparatory \"expedients\"'; (3) entering the meditation chamber; (4) the method of the practise; and (5) realizing the (true) marks (of Ultimate Reality). Of these, the fourth chapter is by far the longest, occupying most of the text, 34S This chapter contains ten sections, which are in fact nothing but expansions of the ten bodily prescriptions that have just appeared in the main MHCK text above. The categories are identical, except that #10 of the MHCK l i s t , \"realizing the (true) marks,\" has become Chapter-five of the FHSM, while #4 of the MHCK l i s t , \"petition the Buddha\" is replaced in the independent work by two items: \"petition the Three Jewels\" and \"praise the Three Jewels.\" Thus the FHSM is primarily nothing but an expansion of these ten bodily prescriptions in the MHCK section on the Lotus samadhi. The BSKS (10.68b, ar t i c l e by H. Ono j^^) believes that the FHSM contains material not by Chih-i, but as early as the time of the Sung T'ien-t'ai patriarch Tsun-shih ^ (963-1032), i t was believed to be of Chih-i's \"authorship^Un the form of a lecture), though like the MHCK i t is supposed to have been written down by Kuan-ting. This is not the place, however, to proffer a translation of the FHSM. 217 This is item #8, \"reciting the sutra.\" The FHSM says that either the whole (Lotus) sutra or just the chapter on Peaceful Practises (Ch. 14) may be recited. CJ adds that this l i s t may be said to include calming-and-contemplation for the mind under item #9 (sitting meditation). However this is dealt with at greater length in the MHCK below than in the FHSM. '\"luT9.389c. The name of the sutra should read Kuan-p'u-hsien-ching according to a l l three Chinese_translations of the sutra. The context in the sutra is as follows: \"Ananda, i f there should be monks or nuns, laymen or laywomen, devas or nagas-or any other of the eight divisions of superhuman beings, or any animate beings, who recite Mahayana sutras, engage in Mahayana practise, and aspire to the Mahayana, who wish to see the physical form of the bodhisattva Samantabhadra,; the stupa of the Buddha Prabhutaratna, the Buddha Sakyamuni and his magical incarnations, who wish to purify their six sense-organs--then they should learn this contemplation, which by its merit will eliminate every obstacle and allow them to see the marvelous form (of Samanta-bhadra). Even without entering into samadhi, but just because they recite and remember (Mahayana sutras), and concentrate their minds (on them) continuously with every thought, never separating (themselves) from the Mahayana, for from one day to three-times-seven days, they will be able to see Samantabhadra. Those whose obstacles are heavy will see him after seven-times-seven days, those whose obstacles are heavier after one rebirth, those with s t i l l heavier obstacles after two rebirths, and those whose obstacles are heavier yet after three rebirths. It is because their karmic retributions are thus dissimilar that I expound (the Dharma) in different ways.\" The sutra goes into detail about each of these repentances. 349 ??fl The Lotus adds here, \"Yet he contemplates a l l dharmas as Ultimate Reality. 221 T9.37a, Ch. 14 of the Lotus. Kern translates from the Sanskrit thus: \"(The bodhisattva) clings to no law whatever and sees the real character of the laws (or things); (he refrains) from investigating and discussing these laws.\" 2 2 2T9.37a. 2 2 3T9.38a. 224 T9.392c. This is from a famous passage: \"What is sin, what is merit? Since one's own mind is void of i t s e l f , sin and merit are with-out a subject. Similarly with a l l (other) dharmas: they lack both persistence and perishing. Such a repentance\u2014in which one contemplates the mind as lacking (the nature of) mind, and the other dharmas as. not abiding in themselves, but (sees them) a l l as liberated, as the Noble Truth of Annihilation, and as quiescent\u2014is called the Great Repentance, the Adorned Repentance, the Sinless Repentance, the Destroyer-of-Mind-and-Consciousness \/c N H v Repentance.\" 225 \u00b0T9.393b. 2 2 6 I . e . , the \"featureless practise\" 227 This is found at J.46.700al8-b7 in Hui-ssu's Fa-hua-ching-an-le- hsing-i -A* ^ I S ^ f t (The Meaning of Peaceful Practises in the Lotus sutra). The featureless practise (i.e. non-specific practise) is what he calls mental quiescence in a l l possible situations: while walking, standing, s i t t i n g , lying down, drinking, eating, speaking. The practise \"with features\" (700a29), i.e. specific practise, is what he calls the practises outlined in the last chapter of the Lotus, that on the contemplation of the bodhisattva Samantabhadra, which he says consists of thinking of the words of the Lotus devoutly without entering samadhi (the Lotus says for three weeks), until Samantabhadra himself appears before the practitioner mounted on a white elephant with six tusks. The Kuan-p'u-hsien-ching is an expansion of this subject. 2 2 8Following CJ, who understands ^ fL as ^ | , the introduction to a piece of music. 350 229 Here is the passage of the sutra relevant to this part of the MHCK (T9.389c-390a): \"By the power of his wisdom the bodhisattva Samantabhadra appears magically (before the practitioner) mounted on a while elephant with six tusks and seven legs. Beneath the seven legs grow seven lotuses. The elephant is a b r i l l i a n t white, whiter than crystal or even the Himalayas, and his body is 450 leagues (yojanas) long and 400 leagues high. At the tip of the six tusks are six bath-ing-pools, and in each of these grow fourteen lotuses equal in size to the pools, blooming as luxuriantly as the most excellent of celestial trees [pdrijdta, the coral tree, Erythrina indica, or in legend the tree of paradise). There is a bejewelled maiden upon each blossom, scarlet of countenance and more radiant than a nymph, with five harps appearing magically in her hands, and 500 other musical instruments accompanying each harp. . . . On the head of the elephant are three magically-produced men: one holds a golden wheel, one a jewel, and the third a vajra-prod with which he guides the elephant. The elephant does not tread on the ground but seven feet up in the a i r , yet he leaves footprints, each with the mark of a perfect 1000-spoked wheel. From between each spoke of each wheel grows a great lotus, and from each lotus appears magically another elephant with seven legs, follow-ing the f i r s t , so that every stride of the great elephant produces 7000 elephants to follow him as his retinue. . . . (On a pedestal on the elephants back) sits a bodhisattva, cross-legged in the lotus posture, named Samantabhadra, his body pure as a white jewel.. . . with rays of golden light streaming from every pore of his body. . . . \" 230 Shiki quotes the VimalakTrti (T14.549c), \"The water of samadhi brims f u l l in the bathing pools of the Eight (Degrees of) Liberation.\" meditation) are found in the Agamas, N'ikgyas (DTghanikaya II, pp. 70-71, 111-112: translated by Rhys Davids in Dialogues of the Buddha, Vol. II, pp. 68-70, 119-120), and in the TCTL (T25.215a-c: see Lamotte, pp. 1281-1283), among other places. They include (1) viewing impure external phenomena (corpses, etc.) while preserving an idea of internal form, (2) viewing externals while lacking an idea of internal form, (3) viewing pure external phenomena; then the four samdpattis or formless trances, namely (4) the i n f i n i t y of space, (5) the i n f i n i t y of consciousness, (6) the i n f i n i t y of nothingness, and (7) neither-perception-nor-non-perception; and lastly, (8) the final discarding of sensation and thought {nirodha-samdpatti). 231 The Wondrous Cause is the great religious practise of a bodhi-sattva. It is strange however to find flowers identified with a cause, where usually they represent the effect. 232 Shiki wonders understandably how the Cause\" coming from the superhuman powers can be likened here to flowers growing from the pools, for i t is the tusks, not pools, which are supposed to (actually degrees of 351 symbolize the powers (the pools being the degrees of liberation, i.e. samadhi). His answer is that the powers (tusks) are based in turn on meditation (the pools), implying that after a l l the \"Cause\" does come from meditation, only via the powers. The sequence in question is thus meditation;-*- powers\"Cause,\" which is then symbolized by pool + tusk flower. As can be seen, the interpretation of the image has become rather forced, as we are asked by Shiki to imagine, in effect, that pools grow tusks, which in turn produce lotus flowers. This is no harder to imagine, however, than pools on the tips of six tusks of a single elephant! 233 As Shiki notes, the symbolism has gone awry again: i f the super-human powers are said to derive from good w i l l , then the tusks ought to be pictured as acquiring mobility (somehow) from the maidens; on the other hand i f we take the image of the maidens on flowers as primary (as we should, since that, rather than the interpretation, is what stands in the sutra), then according to the symbolism as stated so far, we must interpret that \"good will is supported by the Cause.\" This time Shiki has no answer for the problem, nor have I, except to say that either the metaphor has grown procrustean or the text is corrupt. 234 Thus they beguile the listener like a bodhisattva beguiles animate beings with his exposition of the Dharma. The four modes of conversion are methods for winning over beings and leading them towards enlightenment. They include (1) dona, giving them what they ask for, whether wealth or teachings; (2) pviya-vddita, beguiling their minds with s k i l l f u l parables; (3) artha-earua, arousing their good physical, verbal and mental activity, and (4) samdndrthatd, causing them to act the same as oneself, the teacher. to. 235 Respectively the fourth and third safngvdha-vastus just alluded 2 3 6The f i r s t samgrdha-vastu. 237 T9.390c. \"After practising in this way day and night for three times seven days, (the practitioner) will gain the dharanZ of revolution. By this dharanZ he will remember and not forget the subtle Dharma expounded to him by the Buddhas and bodhisattvas.\" In the Soothill-Kato translation of the Lotus sutra, i t says (p. 434, note 1) that the \"dharanZ of revolution\" is the contemplation of the void. The Kuan-p'u-hsien-ching contains no dhavanZs, but the chapter on Samantabhadra in the Lotus sutra does, both in the Sanskrit, and in the Chinese of KumarajTva. Kern's translation of the Sanskrit, and Soothill's as well as Murano's translations of Kumarajiva's Chinese, a l l contain the text of this dharanZ'in romanized Sanskrit. 352 2 3 8The character kuan f^j^ , is out of place once again. 239 All the male and female members of the Buddhist community: monks, nuns,novices of both sexes, and laypeople of both sexes, plus the siksamanas (the youngest novices). 2 4 0T9.393c6-7. 241 4lT9.389c7-9. 242 ^T9.389cl9-20. 243 \u2022 T9.39al2. 244 Both of these phrases are at T9.393b20-21. 245 T9.389c. The Samantabhadra chapter of the Lotus has a prac-t i c a l l y identical passage referring to i t s e l f instead of Mahayana sutras in general. The Kuan-p'u-hsien-ching does not i t s e l f \"mention the Lotus. 2 4 6T9.393bl2. 247 This samadhi is \"neither x nor y,\" while the others are \"x, \"y\" and \"both x and y.\" This accounts for a l l p o s s i b i l i t i e s . 248 This is also the name of an extant work by Hui-ssu (Sui-tzu-i- san-mei), found not in the Taisho canon but in the Zokuzokyo (2.3.4: volume 98, leaves 344-354)^v 11 is said to. be based on the Shou-lenq^  yen-san-mei-ching j& 5- &>h(Surangama-samadhi-sutra), and is divided'into six chapters, one for each mode of behavior: walking, standing, s i t t i n g , sleeping, eating and talking. It speaks of the Buddha-nature as dlaya, the eighth consciousness, and hence betrays Yogacara influence, rare in the T'ien-t'ai tradition at this early date: for i t is Madhyamika thought rather than Yogacara that permeates the MHCK and Chih-i's other works (though by CJ's time, Yogacara influence on T'ien-t'ai Buddhism was quite marked). 249 There is extant a one r o l l work by Chih-i bearing this t i t l e (Chiieh-i-san-mei ^ -jt. t, Qfr-), which we shall refer to as CISM (T46.621-627). It is said to be a relatively early work of his, dating to before he moved to Mt. T'ien-t'ai. In length i t is only 353 minutely longer than this MHCK section on the same subject. Much in this part of the MHCK is l i f t e d practically verbatim (without attribu-tion) from the earlier work. These parts I have put in quotation marks and identified their location in the CISM. This \"chueh-i\" fy^^ samadhi is number seventy-two of a l i s t of 108 samadhis in Kumar aj iva 1s translation of the Pancavimsati, where i t says (see the sutra in the TCTL, T25.398a20-21), \"By dwelling in this samadhi one acquires the Seven Limbs of Enlightenment in a l l samadhis.\" The TCTL commentary to this passage says (T25.401a25-27), \"In achieving this samadhi one causes a l l samadhis to become undefiled (anasrava) and in correspon-dence with the Seven Limbs of Enlightenment, just as a pound {chin ^ , 600 gms) of molten stone %z v\"f can make a thousand pounds of copper look golden.\" In Conze's translation of the Sanskrit Pancavimsati, i t is number seventy-six in a l i s t of 112 \"concentrations\" in his Ch. 15, \"The Concentrations\" (The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom, p. 135), where he translates, \"In Possession of the Limbs of Enlightenment: one acquires, through a l l concentrations, the Seven Limbs of Enlightenment.\" The Pancavims'ati i t s e l f in Dutt's edition (Luzac 1934), upon which Conze's translation is primarily based, has only (p. 202, line 5-6) \". . . saptabodhyahgani pvatildbhate . . . .\" (\"acquires the Seven Limbs of Enlightenment\"). Hsuan-tsang's translation of the Pancavimsati reads here ( T 7 . 7 6 b l 8 r 2 0 ) , \"The samadhi of possession of the Limbs of Enlightenment Jjk 'yjT. Z- 7^ : w n e n o n e abides in this samadhi one causes a l l one's samadhis to be furnished with the Seven Limbs of Enlightenment and rapidly achieves perfection.\" This seems to confirm that the TCTL interpretation, rather than Conze's, should be followed. That i s , the meaning of this samadhi in the Pancavimsati is that i t transforms and improves one's other samadhis by \"adorning\" them with the Seven Limbs: discrimination of phenomena {dharma-vicaya), energy {vZrya), joy {prZti), tranquility {prasrabdhi), mindfulness {smrti), concentration {samadhi again).and equanimity {upeksa). The character i -JL in the phrase chiieh-i r ^ f L is puzzling a t ' f i r s t , as i t does not seem to easily f i t the meaning a l l the four commentators assign to the samadhi, and especially since Hsuan-tsang does not use this character in his translation of the Pancavimsati passage. Moksala's Pancavimsati translation (the Fang-kuang-pan-jo-ching TftL-JL -#K_-?Ez has \"The samadhi of possession of (the Seven Limbs of) Enlightenment: one who abides in this samadhi Will be in possession of the Seven (Limbs of) Enlightenment >j\u00a7f -^1 (T8.24b).\" Dharmaraksa's Pancavimsati translation (the Kuang-tsan^an^jo-ching %% -?\u00a3 M ) *~ *~ \"The samadhi of the divvsipns of enlightenment \" f ^ : wnerLPn\u00a3. n m o n r \u00bb*TS' \u2014-ST abides in this samadhi ^ L ^ , one rapidly reaches enlightenment in a l l samadhis.\" (T8.192a). As can be seen from the above quotations, we may regard the phrase chueh-i -jjf^ as originally a binome translating bodhi or \"enlightenment;\" implying the \"Seven Limbs of Enlightenment.\" However the Chinese tradition goes on to a s s i g n - ^ c value of its one, a separate meaning, so that chueh-i was later under-stood as \"enlightened mind,\" or \"enlightened thought.\" Thus Mochizuki 354 says in his dictionary (1834c) that this means \"whenever a thought^, arises one is enlightened (through i t ) ; whenever a thought arises one practices samadhi (with i t ) . \" Thus also the MHCK interpretation, though in the CISM Chih-i gives both interpretations of the meaning of the name (T46.621b-c). Shiki also cautions that chueh-i has many meanings. It is further worth pointing out that the ParTcavimsati and the TCTL say nothing about the content or method of this samadhi, only that practising i t (whatever \" i t \" is) causes one to be in possession of the Seven Limbs of Enlightenment in whatever other samadhis one might practise. Chih-i goes much farther in interpreting i t s content, both here in the MHCK as well as in his separate work, the CISM. Actually this interpretation is not the one in the Pancavimsati, for in accordance with the Chinese understanding, i t takes chueh-i as verb-object (\"becoming enlightened as to the (nature of) thought\") in-stead of a binome noun meaning bodhi or bodhyahga. In CISM (T46.621c) i t says i means \" a l l thought and mental dharmas ..\" The character i usually stands for manas alone, mind as the sixth sense, but Shiki and K5gi both observe that mental dharmas (thoughts, impulses, feelings, etc.) may be included in going to some lengths to justify the extension of meaning. Hence I usually render i -jT^ by the English word \"thought,\" so as to include both \"mind\" (as the origin of thoughts^) and thoughts them-selves. 252MHCK T46.11a. 253 CISM T46.621c. I.e., he must view them as they are in the present, just as they present themselves to him, and not reflect on their past or future. 2 5 4 I . e . , \"why just and not ? ^ \/tf \/tf 2 5 5 C I S M : T46.621C . 256 CJ: \"There are too many mental dharmas to l i s t , so we use \"mind\" (thought) , their creator, to stand for them a l l . \" Kogi: \"Thought is ih% overall substance >^ of the mind-king, the mental dharmas i t s particular functioning tffj . Hence (we say that thought is the) creator.' 257 Measuring, intending, planning, devising, estimating. . . . 355 258, \u00a3\" J UCJ cautions us here that these are really three names for the same thing, as the MHCK goes on to say more elegantly. It is like f i r e , he says, being called \"flame,\" \"blaze\" or \"fuel-burner.\" Yet at the provisional level of truth distinctions can be made between the different functions of thought. He mentions that some people use the three terms for thought (mind) in past, present and future time respectively, or for mind in the eighteen dhdtus, the twelve ayatanas, and the five skandhas respectively\u2014but he (right-fully) brushes these interpretations aside. 259 CISM,Ibid. This text says, \"If one seizes on such (distinc-tions), he f a l l s into perversions of mind, perversions of thought, and perversions of views.\" ^\"'CISM says (Ibid.), \"If oitta t<f neither includes nor does not include manas , then i t neither includes nor does not include vijnana either,' c i n d so on. The MHCK form of the statements seems preferable. Now CJ says this is explained in more detail in the Pan-chou-san-mei-ching (Pratyutpanna-samadhi-sutra) at a place (the beginning of the second r o l l , Ch. 5 on non-attachment) which has already been extensively quoted in MHCK in the section on Constantly-Walking Samadhi above (T13.908b-c). Actually, as we have seen, the sutra discusses here how Buddhahood is attained by neither body nor mind as such, for these are mere conceptual distinctions, to be discarded on the path to enlightenment. The general idea is hence the same as in the present passage, but nothing is said in the sutra about the distinction or lack of distinction between oitta, manas and vijnana. 262 Classifying these assertions according to the Three Views, CJ notes that \"not name\" (the critique 0 f terminology) is the view of Emptiness, and \"not nature\" (the critique of absolute essences) is the view of Provisionality. Then we may add, reading between the lines as Chih-i's audience is unquestionably meant to do, that to accept and deny simultaneously both denials is the Middle view. The next five sentences are nothing but corollaries to this paradoxical Truth, which by its very \"nature\" must be phrased in contradictory terminology, e.g., \" i t is neither long nor short, fat nor thin.\" CISM has the characters and interchanged in this sentence, but this does not seem to f i t the required sense. 264 CISM, Ibid-. 356 2^5aCIS!M has here \"awakening to (the nature of) thought\" in place of \"thought.\" 265 CJ: \"The Perfect Teaching not only regards mind as the basis of a l l dharmas, but also (teaches its) extinction because of its being the source of a l l the defilements and nescience.\" As Kogi goes on to point out, mind may be viewed as identical both to the Dharmakaya, i.e. Ultimate Reality, and to the defilements which obscure i t : to understand this double identity is simultaneously to realize Truth and to destroy nescience. Thus Truth and nescience are but two names for the same \"thing,\" \"fact\" or \"condition.\" ?fifi At CISM, T46.621cl, jumping back to nearly the beginning of the f a i r l y lengthy passage from CISM on which this MHCK section is based, we have \"Samadhi is taming, rectifying, and stabilizing (the mind). This is the same statement that appeared previously in theMHCK (T46.11a 18-19). 267 CISM, Ibid. This text follows now with a second explanation for the name of this samadhi, namely the one found in the Pancavimsati and the TCTL, which may be considered the correct one from the Indian point of view._ This explanation, as I have mentioned above, says that chueh-i r ^ - j j j . means bodhi or even bodhyahga rffc , the Seven Limbs of Enligntenment, and that this samadhi enables one to be provided with the Seven Limbs of Enlightenment in a l l other samadhis. In CISM Chih-i goes on (T46.621c24-25) to say this means that \" a l l dharmas are samadhi, for a l l are fundamentally permanent, quiescent and unmoving,\" so that he pushes the meaning of the sutra interpretation in the direction of his own often repeated assertion that there is nothing which is not the Truth. CISM goes on to give six levels of meaning for the Seven Limbs of Enlightenment, dealing with each of them in some detail. There is a close resemblance between this scheme and his Six Identities, but the f i t is not a perfect one. pep I.e., they are just other names for the same samadhi as has been discussed under \"the samadhi of awakening (to the nature of) thought.\" \"Sui-tzu-i\" ^_JQ~%~ is of course Hui-ssu's term, and the t i t l e of his 1-roll work in the Zokuzokyo, the Sui-tzu-i-san-mei 7cL @ For Hui-ssu however this term apparently meant neither \"the samadhi of following (i.e. contemplating) one's own thought,\" nor \"the samadhi of the Seven Limbs of Enlightenment,\" but \"the samadhi exercised in a l l modes of l i f e . \" His work discusses the practise of samadhi in the Six Acts (walking, standing,fitting, sleeping, eating, speaking), so that sui-tzu-i 7i!_ ^  has for him the more colloquial meaning of \"whatever one desires,\" \"discretionary,\" \"optional.\" That i s , i -jsL. means for him the w i l l , a meaning quite distant from the meaning of oitta, manas or vijnana, but a more authentically Chinese meaning of the character than these. Later in the MHCK (Roll 3), s t i l l another meaning is given for sui-tzu-i: 357 \"(the teaching that) accords with the Buddha's thought,\" i.e. para-mdrtha-satya. as opposed to the teaching that \"accords with others' thoughts \"j^\/i-&\"lT-i samvvti-satya. This sense of the term is derived from the Nirvana sutra (T12.820b-c). 269 \" I.e., the constantly-sitting, constantly-walking, and half-walking-half-sitting samadhis. 270 T#1043. Hereafter abbreviated to CKY. This is an esoteric sutra, to which Chih-i wrote an important one-roll commentary, the Ch'ing-kuan-yin-ching-su $$L^B \u2022 This commentary became the source for the theory of the inherent inclusionf^-jiLin the Buddha-nature of e v i l , promulgated by the T'ien-t'ai monk Ssu-ming <$? \u00aef\\ in' the Sung; this theory holds that there exist both acquired and inherent kinds of good and e v i l , so that even the purest Buddha-nature is not \" completely devoid of an (uhmanifested) evil nature. The stitra i t s e l f mainly deals with the curing of disease by the chanting of dhdranls. There is also a summary of the methods of practise in the sutra in Kuan^ting's KCPL (T46.795b-796a). 271 CJ says the tooth-cleaning sticks symbolize wisdom, which clears away (i l l u s i o n ) . These are important tools for oral hygiene, used traditionally in India in place of the toothbrushes we now use. They are not exactly toothpicks, for they are not sharp, and one is supposed to chew on them over a f a i r l y long period of time, not just poke away at pieces of food l e f t in the teeth immediately after meals. They are s t i l l widely used today as far from India as Senegal, where the present writer has witnessed them in use. They are one of the \"eighteen objects\" which a bodhisattva is allowed to. carry with him on trips, according to the P'u-sa-ti-ch'ih-ching ^ (roll b), and connected since their mention in this MHCK text (which i t s e l f derives from the mention of them in the CKY stitra, T20.34c) with the religious practise denoted as the repentance of Avalokitesvara. CJ says these tooth-cleaners are to be held in the l e f t hand of Avalokitesvara, with a wash-bowl in the right hand, but Kogi points out justly that this prescription is not present in the CKY sutra. 272 CJ says the water, clear and s t i l l , symbolizes meditation. 2 7 3The sutra has 7y^ \"ashes\" for \"incense\" % here (T20.35c), and Kogi-and Shiki agree that there has been a copyist's error. 01A CKY, T20.34C. In his commentary to this sutra. (T39.972a-b), Chih-i identifies these bodily members with the five skandhas: l e f t hand and leg are yin and associated with sarhskara-skandha and rupa-skandha (impulses and form) respectively; right hand and leg are yang, associated with samjnd and vedand (perception and sensation), while the head is naturally associated with vijnana (consciousness). This position is used because i t is the ultimate bodily expression of veneration. 358 2 7 5Mentioned at CKY T20.35c. Chih-i's commentary (T39.975b) says these are the Seven Limbs of Enlightement. ?7Fi These are given in the sutra at T20.35-36. 277 ' Sravakas and pratyekabuddhas as well as Buddhas and bodhis-attvas. 278 CKY T20.34c. This is a standard formula found in many other sutras. Shi ki observes that here and in the Lotus samadhi the petitioning comes only after these offerings have been made, the opposite of the sequence given in the Fang-teng-ching. 279 The sutra has the prescription here of l e f t hand over right (CKY T20.36c), contrary to the Indian practise but in accordance with the Chinese. This is quite an anomaly. 2 8 0CKY T20 .34C. 281 CJ here expands on the meaning of breath-counting, his dis-cussion mostly borrowed from Chih-i's CKY commentary (T36.972c). Depending on the level of the practitioner the meaning varies. At the lowest stage, this exercise accomplishes physical tranquillity and harmony, and extinguishes bad karma: this is apparently the main significance for those below the human state in the ladder of the ten destinies. Next, for men and gods i t also generates good thoughts, Next, srdvakas use i t in their practise of the Four Mindfulnesses, and discover each of the five skandhas operating in the actoof breathing. Next, pratyekabuddhas view the breaths as past causes and present plus future effects. CJ says a l l the above s t i l l belong to the Tripitika teaching. In the Shared Teaching, one identifies each of the Six Perfections with a round of breathing [dana = not being attached to the thoughts, slla not arousing evil thoughts while counting, etc.). In the Separate Teaching one views the breaths as neither empty nor provisional but as between these extremes, the Middle; and in the Perfect Teaching one sees the breaths as simultaneously empty, provisional and the Middle. CJ goes on to remind us that the same provisions apply, mutatis mutandis, to the other parts of the practise as i t is being outlined. 282 CJ: Symbolizing the removal of the Three Obstacles. ppq CKY T20.34C. The gathas may be translated, \"(1) I beseech (you) to save me from suffering and disasters, to include everything as the object of (your) great compassion, to shine beams of pure light 359 everywhere, and to annihilate the darkness of nescience. (2) Come unfailingly to where I am in order to release me from suffering, de-filements and a l l manner of disease, and confer great peace upon me. (3) I now bow my head to you, in reverence to the one who, upon hearing his name, saves (those who speak it ) from disasters; now I entrust myself to the father, who has good will and compassion towards the world. (4) I ask only that you come unfailingly, to release me from the sufferings created by the Three Poisons, and to confer upon me happiness in this l i f e and great nirvana (thereafter).\" 284 Shiki notes that in the Shingon sect in Japan the number of recitations is fixed, since for them i t is the dhdrani i t s e l f which is the basis of the practise. Here the number is not fixed, for contemplation is what is fundamental for the T'ien-t'ai (\"Tendai\" for Shiki), not the dhdraryis. As for which dharanTs are to be recited, CJ advises the prospective practitioner to refer to the CKY, and I must do the same. Let i t be said however that there are actually four dhdrants given in the sutra; these may be called, after the CKY text, the (a) dhdrani' for saving and protecting animate beings by a l l the Buddhas of the ten directions, (b) the dhdrani for destroying evil karma-obstacles, (c) the six-letter dhdrani, and (d) the abhiseka dhdrani. It is not usually clear which ( i f not a l l four) of'these dharanl is being referred to in a given passage. The KCPL says however (T46.795c23-24) that dhdrani: (b) is the one which should be used at this point. ppc CJ: At the beginning of each half of the (12-hour) day. 2 8 6The KCPL (T46.796a) says here, \"At other times than these, sitting meditation and paying respects to the Buddha (are practises which) rest on the eternal Dharma.\" Hence these two practises are permissible at any time, even i f no ceremony is in progress. 287 CKY T20.37a. In the sutra, an earnest and devout monk named Upasena asks Sariputra, \"How, while I am counting breaths and petitioning the Honored One to expound liberation to me, can (I) main-tain (my) concentration? For (my) eye and visual consciousness respond to form: how then can I maintain my concentration? My ear and aural consciousness respond to sound: how then can I maintain my concentra-tion? My nose and olfactory consciousness respond to odors: how then can I maintain my concentration? My tongue and gustatory conscious-ness respond to tastes: how then can I maintain my concentration? (The trio body\/touch-consciousness\/tangibles is omitted). My mind and mind-consciousness {manovijndna) respond to objects of mind (dharmas): how then can I maintain my concentration. . . . Thus these consciousnesses are thieves (of the attention), prancing about like monkeys. How then shall I maintain my concentration in the face 360 of these gamboling six sense-orgarjs and the ubiquitous dharmas which are their objects? In the sutra Sariputra's answer to this question follows immediately. In the MHCK, a quote from the Ta-chi-ching 7^ - <j; $t and a comment on i t and the CKY passage are f i r s t interposed. 288 \u2014 This sutra is called in Sanskrit the Maha-vaipulya-maha-samnipata- sutra. Kogi identifies the location of this quote as Roll 23 of this sixty-roll work. The passage which seems to come closest to the sense of the MHCK \"quote\" (a mere three characters) is in the tenth of the seventeen component sutras in this sutra collection, the Hsu'-k'ung-mu , ; i J\u00a3 $ (\"ON T N E E Y E O F S P A C E \" ) : T13.168c. 289 The apparently corresponding sutra passage runs, \"The bodhi-sattva Bright-star %. asked, 'Where is the dwelling-place of wind?' (The Buddha answered), 'Son of good family, wind resides in space.' (The bodhisattva) asked again, 'Where then does space reside?\" (The Buddha answered), 'Space dwells everywhere.' (The bodhisattva) asked again, 'Where then does \"everywhere\" reside?' (The Buddha) replied, 'Where \"everywhere\" resides cannot be explained. Why (not)? Because i t is separate from a l l places, because no places can be contained in i t , and because, being neither number nor name, i t cannot be measured. It is not enlightenment nor insight, existence nor inexistence. . . . It is the nature of reality, the unimpeded gate to a l l dharmas. That is why \"everywhere\" has no dwelling place.'\" The passage Kogi believes Chih-i to be quoting from says nothing about either mind or suchness, but i t does clearly make the point, relevant to the MHCK here, that a l l dharmas (which would implicitly include mind, whether as oitta, manas or vijndna) dwell in or rest on the inexplicable nature of reality (suchness). Hence (one must conclude), i t is unnecessary to worry (as does the monk Upasena in the previous quote) about the object-world impinging on and ruining one's concentration\u2014for i t is a l l Suchness anyway. This seems to be an acceptable answer to Upasena's question, and is essentially the point made by Sariputra in his answer to the question of Upasena, quoted now in the MHCK. 290 ' \" u T h e CKY text which is quoted here says (T20.37a), \"Then Sari-putra told Upasena, 'You should now contemplate the element earth as lacking the nature of solidity, the nature of the element water as not to abide, the nature of the element wind as unimpedability . . . and the nature of the element f i r e as unreal . . . form (matter), sensation, perception, impulses and consciousness are each in their nature ^ and features @^ the same (in this respect) as (earth), water, f i r e and wind. All enter into the limit of the Real.' When Upasena had heard these words, his body became like water and fi r e (as they had just been characterized), he achieved the samadhi of the Four Elements, comprehended perfectly the emptiness and 361 featurelessness of the five skandhas, k i l l e d the bandits (of his mind), the defilements, (attained) vast c l a r i t y of mind, became an arhat, and spewing f i r e from out of his body, ( burnt himself to ashes) and entered parinirvana. Sariputra then gathered his relics (unburnt bodily parts and ashes) and erected a stupa over them.\" 2 9 1CKY, Ibid. 292 The existence tetralemma: \"It exists, i t doesn't exist, both, neither.\" The inexistence tetralemma: \"It inexists, i t doesn't inexist, both, neither.\" 2 9 3CKY, Ibid. 294 CKY, Ibid. 295 CKY,:ibid. In this passage what begins as a statement about the nature of the external world passes immediately into a statement on the nature of statements about the external world. Thus earth is said at f i r s t to lack solidity (or firmness or hardness) but soon i t is clear that the contention is that no statement about earth or any-thing else can be taken as \"firm,\" \"solid\" or absolutely valid. One would expect the text to say \"water is not wet,\" and \"wind does not move,\" on the analogy of \"earth lacks solidity.\" But instead of using paradoxical statements, i t is with generally accepted descrip-tions of these phenomena that the sutra characterizes water and wind, i.e. as non-abiding and as unimpedable (or \"permeable\"). The common-sense descriptions of these are in this case convenient platforms for the vault into and past the two tetralemmas (of existence and in-existence). This is because water and wind (as well as fire) are even from the provisional standpoint insubstantial. As for \" f i r e is unreal\" one would expect on the analogy of the statement about earth \" f i r e is not hot.\" CJ too wonders why in this case the opposition suggested is that between causation by self and causation by other rather than between \" i s \" and \"is not\" as for the previous three elements, but answers his own question by declaring that self = existence, and other = inexistence. The argument given by Chih-i is in the style and practically in the words of the Madhyamaka- kari kas. Kogi e x p l i c i t l y says that both kinds of emptiness, that of nature ^ (ontological) and that of features (epistemological), apply. For not only do these four elements and five skandhas lack any nature, but a l l attempts to describe them likewise ultimately f a i l . As the MHCK says, and Kogi quotes here again, \"Even the tetralemma of jjn= existence f a i l s (to characterize wind).\" That, in Kogi's opinion, is the assertion of the (epistemological) emptiness of features. 362 296 The banana tree is a popular simile to illustrate the absence of an atman, for i t s trunk has no real center: the tree is made up entirely of successive layers of leaves. 297 Or else, says CJ, one may digress into profitless asceticism. 2 9 8The MHCK text here has ^  for \"eradicating\" instead of as in the sutra. The two characters are interchangeable however. For easier reference I have assigned the letters A, B, C, and D to the four dhdranls contained in the CKY. These letters stand respectively for the dharanl at T20.35a6-15, the dharanl at T20.35a24-b8, the dharanl at T20.36a, and the dharanl at T20.37c. Each of these has a (f a i r l y long) name in the sutra. Dharanl A is \"the dharanl for summoning Buddhas of the Ten Directions to save and protect animate beings,\" dhdrani B is \"the dharanl for destroying the obstacle of bad karma, and for eradicating and suppressing poisons and harmful influences,\" dharanl C is \"the greatly auspicious six-letter phrase for delivering (beings) from suffering,\" and dharanl D is \"the auspicious dharanl for abhiseka.\" {Abhiseka being a ceremony of ini t i a t i o n involving the sprinkling of water or o i l over the head). However the name of dharanl B has been divided into two in the MHCK discussion: \"for destroying the obstacle of bad karma\" and \"for eradicating and suppress-ing poisons and harmful influences.\" I refer to these respectively as dharanl B-j and dhdrani B^, as i f they actually represented different dhdranls instead of only different halves of the name of the same dharanl. In the MHCK text which follows, Chih-i assigns one dharanl to each of the Three Obstacles. Following the sequence in the MHCK text then, we have i t that dharanl B2 destroys the Obstacle of retribution (suffering, samsara), dharanl B] destroys the Obstacle of karma, and dharanl C destroys the Obstacle of the defilements. Thus neither dharanl A nor dharanl D is mentioned in the MHCK, while dhdrani B i s mentioned twice (under the separate halves of itssname) so as to arrive at the necessary number of three (for the Three Obstacles). 299 CKY T20.35a. However in the sutra these statements refer to dharanl A (unmentioned in the MHCK) rather than dharanl B. 300r^Y T20.35b. The text says at greater length (just following dharanl B), \"Al1 fears, poisons and harmful influences (will disappear), a l l evil s p i r i t s , tigers, wolves and lions w i l l , upon hearing this dharanl, have their mouths closed and stopped up, and be unable to cause harm. Even a person who violates (the rule of) chaste conduct and commits the Ten Evil Acts w i l l , upon hearing this dharanl, have the f i l t h washed away and be restored to the state of purity. Even i f your karmic obstacles are f i l t h y and bad, call on the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara and recite and remember this dharanl. Your Obstacle of karma will then be destroyed and you will see the Buddha before you.\" 363 J U , T h i s dhdrani is comprised of some f i f t y characters in Chinese, so that the number of characters cannot be the meaning of the \"six letters\" in the t i t l e of the dharanl. There are numerous theories on the meaning of this t i t l e . Chih-i himself says in the MHCK below that they signify six incarnations of Avalokitesvara, one for each of the (lower) six destinies. In Chih-i's commentary to CKY however (T39.975b-c), he gives two additional interpretations, one linking the \"six letters\" with the (purification of the) six sense-organs, and the other linking them with the \"six subtle gates\" -fc Jjfc f% The \"six subtle gates\" are both the subject and the t i t l e of tjhih-i's separate work, the 1-roll Liu-miao-fa-men ^ -tfjr f^l , mentioned in Kuan-ting's introduction to the MHCK (T46.3a6) as Chih-i's treatise on the \"variable\" calming-and-contemplation. The \"six subtle gates\" are (1) counting the breaths, (2) following the breath mentally, (3) calming, (4) contemplation, (5) self-reflection, and (6) purification. Chih-i also mentions disparagingly in his CKY commentary the views of other teachers that these six letters refer to the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Samgha, each written in two characters in Chinese), or else the Three Jewels (each in one character) plus Avalokitesvara (in three characters: Kuan-shih-yin)^, Kogi cites here the work by the Japanese Tendai monk Myokaku 3$ ^ TJ084-?), the Shitsudon Yoketsu &&J&%& a treatise dealing with the Siddham script and Chinese transliterations of Sanskrit. At T84.551c-552b, Myokaku takes up the problem of the meaning of the \"six letters\" of the Six Letter dhdrani: he rejects the \"Three Jewels,\" \"Three Jewels plus Avalokitesvara\" and \"Six Incarnations of Avalokitesvara\" as false interpretations, and also argues that the \"six subtle gates\" interpretation cannot be supported. Suggesting then his own interpretation, he points out that the number 6 is often esoteric-al l y represented by the character sha, vjr for the Sanskrit letter s, short for sad, meaning \"six.\" However T h e character sha can also stand for the Sanskrit word sampanna (\"complete\"), he observes, and in his opinion, the correct t i t l e of the dhdrani should be \"the universally efficacious dhdrani\": meaning one which has a much wider use than those which deal only with the destruction of evil karma, the healing of disease, the fulfillment of worldly wishes, etc. The mistake was made therefore in misunderstanding a hypothetical t i t l e , \"the sha >'}' dharanl,\" in his opinion. s A Oda (T827c) cites Hotan's JJL %% (1654-1738)%unpublished commentary on the CKY, the Kannon Sangenki >^\/%~ ~& \u2022 Accord-ing to Hotan, the \"six letters\" refers to six characters within the dharanl, namely an-t'o-li-po-t'u-li P^,--j\u00a7; -$\u00a3L-^\" % which are the fourth to ninth characters in the whole dharanl. The Japanese pronunciation of this six-character phrase is andarl^pahdari, the re-stored Sanskrit pronuncation is *amdali-pamdali} and Hotan takes this to mean dhapdna, namely the regulated inhalation and exhalation that is employed in meditation and that is mentioned repeatedly in the CKY under the term \"counting the breaths\" jijC. \/f>. . This phrase occurs in dharanl A and (in the form of a slignt variant) in dharanl B. Essentially the same phrase appears several times in the dhdranls of the related scripture, the Liu-tzu-chou-wang-ching \u2022<**: ^ - r f u ^ - f f l k 3 364 the \"Six-character-dharanT-king sutra\" (T20.38b). It is a clever solution that Hotan has suggested. Could i t be the right one? There is also the well-known dharanZ (or mantra) om-mani-padme-hum, which is written with six letters in Sanskrit, though no trace of this pronunciation appears in the CKY dharanT C. There exists further a six-letter dharanZ connected with ManjusVT, which could hardly have anything to do with this one. Whichever of these explanations is correct, i t is a fact that both the T'ien-t'ai and Japanese Shingon tradition have assumed the \"six letters\" to refer to the six incarnations of Avalokitesvara and the six destinies in which they appear. Though this interpre-tation is in accord with (and very l i k e l y based upon) the MHCK explanation (which follows now in the text), i t seems unlikely that i t is correct, for i t has no basis in the sutra i t s e l f . 302 This conflicts with the statement Chih-i has just made, in which he assigns this dharanZ to the destruction of the obstacle of the defilements alone. 303 To preserve the parallelism one would expect a statement about this particular destiny, as being e.g. f u l l of dangerous blood-thirsty animals, instead of a statement about Avalokitesvara in his leonine incarnation. 304 In the later Esoteric tradition, a different set of six incarnations of Avalokitesvara is applied to the six destinies, but Shiki c r i t i c i z e s this as an unjustified later accretion. 305 -From the Nirvana sutra, Tl2.690b. These samadhis are correl-ated in the sutra to the so-called twenty-five \"existences\" \"TQ , or better, \"states of existence,\" with one samadhi to annihilate each \"existence.\" The twenty-five existences are simply a vertical breakdown of the Three Realms. Thus the Realm of Desire contains fourteen levels of existence broadly divided into the six destinies (one level of existence for each of the lowest four d e s t i n i e s \u2014 h e l l , animals, hungry ghosts, asuras; four levels of existence, specifically the four continents of Buddhist cosmology, for the human destiny; and six levels of existence for the heavenly destiny). The Realm of Form contains six levels of existence, namely the four dhydhas (with the f i r s t subdivided into two, and the fourth subdivided into three). The Formless Realm contains four levels of existence, namely the four formless meditations (samapattis). As the MHCK text ahead states, the f i r s t four Avalokitesvaras are applied respectively to the lowest four destinies, the f i f t h Avalokitesvara is applied to the f i f t h (human) destiny (which is subdivided, as I have stated, into four existences), while the sixth and most exalted Avalokitesvara, is 365 applied to everything above t h i s , in other words to the rest of the Realm of Desire (namely the s i x heavens associated with t h i s Realm),\"and tb a l l of both the Realm of Form and the Formless Realm: in other words, to a l l the supra-human levels of existence. one. MHCK has the second and th i r d samadhis of this l i s t inverted from what stands in the Nirvana sutra. The sutra has nothing to say, in c i d e n t a l l y , about the matching of Avalokitesvara's incarnations to any of these samadhis. 307 In the Nirvana sutra this group of four, the only ones applied to the human destiny, ends with the \"apparitional\" -&tz samadhi instead of beginning with i t , making i t #8 in the l i s t of twenty-f i ve. 308 This i s said to be the f i r s t stage of bodhisattvahood. 309 The sutra's f u l l t i t l e i s Ch'i-fo-pa-p'u-so-shuo-t'o-lo-ni-shen-chou-ching Jc 4? j\u00a7. f l f t i l t ft ^ *JLQ\u00a3 ^ t h i \" dharanZ sutra spoken by the Seven Buddhas and the Eight Bodhisattvas.\" 3 1 0The Kuan-hsu'-k'ung-tsang-p'u-sa-ching % f i $ . S ^ $ L $ l This sutra teaches monks and laypeople how they can efface the sin of transgressing against the d i s c i p l i n a r y code by c a l l i n g on the bodhisattva Akasagarbha and performing certain r i t u a l acts (including the Augean task mentioned here in the MHCK text). 311 A l l of them dharanZ sutras, hence \"esoteric.\" 3 1 2 Which boils down to a discourse on the Six Perfections. 313 Following Kogi. 314 I t must be remembered that i n the Buddhist analysis of the eighteen dhatus, manas as the sixth \"sense-organ,\" i . e . the organ of thought, combines with mental objects (dharmas) to produce the \"mind-consciousness\" (manovigndna). Thus a thought ( i . e . an element within manas -4L ) never stands alone, but i s always i n association with i t s (mentalfobject. This i s also true of the fi v e vijnanas or conscious-nesses a r i s i n g out of the interaction of the fi v e senses with the fiv e sense-objects. 315 \"Understanding them f u l l y \" involves applying the tetralemma to each. CJ says that the One Feature i s the fact that these four 0 stages of a thought are a l i k e incapable of being apprehended ^ A - f (anupalabdhi); the Featurelessness (or \"No Feature\") equivalent to asvabhdva i s the fact that this One Feature i s i t s e l f inexistent, empty. 366 This idea of the Four Phases of Thought is partially original with Chih-i, though in Abhidharma there is the similar idea of the four stages in the existence of dharmas (arising, persistence, change, perishing), and in Hui-ssu's SUi-tzu-i-san-mei the f i r s t two of the four phases are discussed. Both of these are, however, narrower treatments than Chih-i's. -na CJ attacks here those \"practitioners of dhyana W *3 who contemplate simply the non-arising of thinking for they are m ignorance of \"where\" this \"non-arising\" might be 5f>> - ^ a ^ l&p fa #L , or how i t is related to thinking i t s e l f . The not-yet-thinking and the thinking-completed do correspond to the absence of thought, but have meaning only in relation to the thinking proper. CJ goes on to compare contemplation to the putting out of a f i r e : to finish the job a l l four stages of activity, including a l l potential states, must be brought to an end, not just the f i r e proper, for other-wise the conflagration will only begin again. CJ then notes a certain classification of contemplation into two sjirts. which is mentioned in the Ch an-ch'a-shan-e-yeh-pao-ching & *\u00a7\u00a3z _j\u00a7- %L i$L (a work which is very l i k e l y a Chinese \"forgery\"), at T17.908a-b. These two are \"the contemplation of \"consciousness-only\" \u00abj\u00a3 and the contemplation of Tathata, with the latter considered the more exalted. The present contemplation on the Four Phases of Thought corresponds to the \"consciousness-only\" contemplation in the Chan-ch'a  . . ..ching, according to CJ. Shiki wonders ju s t i f i a b l y i f this is the same \"consciousness-only\" which is found in Yogacira Buddhism, especially in the Ch'eng-wei-shih-lun m\u00a3 ' f ^ of Hsuan-tsang. Answering himself in the negative, he explains that both con-sciousness (mind) and form are transformations of Tathata, according to the sutra, and any dharma of either is (potentially) the whole. One may take either mind or form to represent the whole. He says that, unlike Yogacara texts, this sutra does not assert that mind has primacy, or that a l l dharmas are transformations of alaya, the storehouse consciousness. Shiki goes on at length to l i s t and discuss ten varieties of \"consciousness-only\" teachings drawn from various sutras and treatises, and KSjutsu also deals with the problem in detail. This is of quite some interest for Vijnanavada studies, but does not further concern us here. J I UThe questioner is taking the side of those who believe only in contemplating the thinking-proper. 31 7 CJ: It is not permanently inexistent. Kogi: Though there are vicissitudes in the mind's activity, i t s substance does not vanish. 3 1 8 C J : Though acts of awareness (i.e. thoughts having an object of thought) come and go, the mind which supports them is in-destructible, and continually capable of producing more thoughts. (One 367 might say that CJ is making the same distinction as that in Abhidharma between manas (always present) and manovijndna (dependent on the presence or absence of the particular dharmas which manas takes as i t s object and in turn presents to manovijndna). Contemplating this, one avoids taking the Nine (less-than-Buddha) Destinies as objects of awareness, and enters into the (real) Buddha-mind \/CN . 319 CJ: The mind (thought?) <C cannot be inexistent after its viewing of things is over. 320 \"Cause\" probably means the mind and \"effect\" i t s thoughts. Without an underlying mind, religious practise would have no point and the whole theory of karmic causation would be undermined. 321 CJ identifies this statement as from the Diamond Sutra. The closest that the KumarajTva translation (certainly the one Chih-i relied upon) of this sutra comes is at T8.751b27-28, where i t says, \"Subhuti! The past mind is impossible to apprehend {anupalabha), the present mind is impossible to apprehend, and the future mind is impossible to apprehend.\" A very similar passage occurs in the VimalakTrti at T14.542b. 3 2 2Taking here J$k $~ as synonymous with the ^ ^S. contained in the question to which this statement is an answer. 323 Through their superhuman powers. 324 Tortoise-hairs and rabbit horns are common similes for some-thing real only in name, used here simply to denounce the objector's point of view as absurd. 325 And so the law of karma is preserved. This is from the TCTL, T25.64c. Here is Lamotte's translation of the gathd, together with the preceding verse in the TCTL to afford context: \" S ' i l y a une acte (karman), i l y a aussi des fruits (phala). L'inexistence de 1'agent {kdraka) de l'acte et du f r u i t , C'est la loi absolue^parama) et profonde {gambhlra) Que le Buddha a pu decouvri.\/\/ II y a vide {sunya) mais non pas aneantissement {uocheda ), Continuete' {probanda), et non pas eternite (sas vata), Peche {dpatti) et merite {punya), et non pas destruction {viprandsa). Telle est la loi que pr\u00a3che le Bouddha.\" This quote follows a passage in the TCTL where the question arises of how hearing (which can stand for \"knowing\") is possible at a l l , seeing that neither the auditory organ alone nor the auditory consciousness, nor the mind-consciousness {manovijndna) is able to hear. The answer is that i t is the combination of these which condition the mirid^-.consciousness {manovijndna) to produce the phenomen-on of hearing. Thus hearing ( or mutatis mutandis, knowing) is 368 possible, along with a l l the possibilities for sin and merit, despite the emptiness (dependent nature) of each of the factors into which i t can be analyzed. 326 That i s , even at the level of Provisional Truth attainment would be impossible. 327 The discussion moves now to the practise of the f i r s t Perfection, ddha, or giving, as this relates to the activity of the senses and the body. The analysis of the activity of the eye as i t perceives form {rupa) is meant to stand for the analysis of a l l the six sense-organ\/ sense-object interactions involved in the practise of ddha. 3 2 8Walking, standing, s i t t i n g , lying down, speaking and being silent. These are borrowed from Hui-ssu's Sui-tzu-i-san-mei Q -4fL 5- ^.except that for \"lying down,\" Hui-ssu has \"sleeping,\" and instead of \"being silent\" he has \"eating.\" a l l . 329 This is the f i r s t of the twelve items and can stand for them 330 This probably stands for the visual consciousness. 331 I.e., the form viewed by the eye. 332 jt-This \"thought\" should s t r i c t l y be the manovijn'dnaJ&J9l the consciousness which arises when manas takes (is aware of) dharmas as objects. Hsin i ~ v is quite a vague term to use in this context, where the precise Abhidharma analysis of mind and perception is basic to the discussion. O O O \"Taking fa as a verb. 334 CJ says this l i s t of four elements (conditions, pvatyaya) which combine to produce the visual event in the mind {manovijndna) should be broadened to include (visual?) consciousness. He also points out that of the five senses, only vision requires light. Shiki adds that of the remaining four senses, only the ear requires space. All five, however, require vijnana and their corresponding sense-objects. 335 That i s , they produce the image of form in the manovijndna, after i t has passed through the visual consciousness. CJ says i t is the visual consciousness alone that as a cause {hetu) produces (the 369 event in) manovijndna, while the eye, form, space and light are con-ditions [pvatyaya). Shiki explains this means that these \"condition\" the mind-consciousness (manovijnana) only in the sense that they previously conditioned the arising of visual consciousness. Thus, unlike the visual consciousness, they do not contribute directly to the formation of manovijnana (or events therein). At this point i t is worth recalling that the main difference between hetu and pvatyaya is that the former is a stronger \"cause\" than the latter, which is a mere contributing, or proximate, cause. 336 As CJ says, this and the previous sentences mean that the mind consciousness and the visual consciousness act as causes for each other. According to him, the former can cause the latter because the instantaneous disappearance of each moment of thought in the mind-consciousness may be considered a cause producing the mind-sense {manas). Then when the latter regards \"the other object realms,\" the visual con-sciousness is produced again. Koroku (quoted by Kogi) believes the . phrase \"the other object realms\" refers to (only) dharmic objects but Kogi c r i t i c i z e s this interpretation, saying instead that i t means the objects of awareness (presumably six, hence including visual objects) in the previous instant \" ^ > j , ^ | c )\u2022 337 CJ points out that this is close to the Sautrantika position. 338 This stands for a l l six objects of perception. 339 I reverse the preceding two groups of four characters each. Pain, pleasure and neither. 341 CJ says this is the meditation of the Four Mindfulnesses, for s\"vdx>akas, plus the law of causation for pratyekabuddhas. Thus (a) \"arising-and-perishing\" is equivalent to the mindfulness of the \"impermanence of the mind,\" (b) \"impermanence of each thought\" is equivalent to the mindfulness of the \"impurity of the body\" ( s i c ) , (c) the \"three kinds of sensation\" is equivalent to \"sensation is suffering,\" and (d) \"non-autonomy\" is equivalent to the \"absence of selfhood in the dharmas.\" It is hard to see how (b) can f i t \"the impurity of the body\": i t seems a repetition of \"impermanence of the mind.\" Perhaps what was originally ^ was miscopied to produce ^ fe . * 342 Hence this is the destiny of bodhisattvas. 343 The g i f t (sense-object), giver (sense-organ), and recipient. 344 I.e. he apprehends them as real. 370 345 This is pieced together and paraphrased from two places in the Diamond sutra, T8.749al2-15 and Ibid. 750b29-c3 (the KumarajTva translation). As CJ points out, these considerations apply to the other five of the Six Perfections in addition to the Perfection of Giving. All of these are seen to be empty. 346 \"Form\" stands for a l l six sense-objects. 347 This expression broadly means the whole universe of false views, but there are several different breakdowns. CJ goes into great detail about these (quoting Kuan-ting's Ta-pan-nieh-p'an-ching-su \u2022K- -J$t_ ^ ^ 1^- ' Nirvana sutra commentary, Roll 23) on these, and 0da*(pp. 1831-32) also gives specifics, but rather than digress on a discussion of a l l these, I mention here only two of Chih-i's arrangements of the sixty-two views. The f i r s t of these (cited by CJ) is in his Fa-hua-wen-chii(T34.56b5-8, Roll 4b). It says each of the five skandhas can be viewed as the self, or as separate from the sel f , or as greater than (inclusive of) the self, or as smaller than (included in) the self, making twenty p o s s i b i l i t i e s ; this is multiplied by the Three Times to yield sixty, and the two fundamental false views (the extreme views of permanence and annihilation) are added to make sixty-two. Chih1!' also sets forth a somewhat different view in his Jen-wang- hu-kuo-pan-jo-ching-su, \u2022 basing'himself here on the Pancavimsati (Roll 14) and the TCTL (Roll 70): here he gives the last two of the sixty-two views as the identity and the separateness of body and mind. The Nirvana sutra (Roll 23) as well as the Agamas and Nikayas (see for example the Brahma-jala-sutta, f i r s t of those in the DTgha-nikaya) a l l mention this subject as well. A thorough analysis of this variety of \"sixty-two view\" schemes, taking into account historical development, would occupy a whole monograph. For now i t needs only to be borne in mind that \"sixty-two\" in effect means \" a l l , \" that despite their differences, each l i s t of sixty-two attempts to denote the whole universe of possible false views. 348 Here we have the four attributes of Ultimate Reality as de-clared by the Nirvana sutra, the affirmation of what HTnayana Buddhism called perverted views when applied to the safnaric world. 349 I.e., in the ten destinies as above. 3 5 0 I n this context fa-chieh %~ has to be interpreted as gati rather than as dharma-dhdtu. 351 That i s , they have no independent nature of their own. 371 352 -> The use of the word \u00a3\u00a3j (to write down, record) suggests that this is an insertion by Kuan-ting. Chih-i himself may or may not have gone on orally to analyze the perception of the rest of the six sense-objects. 353 Meditation accompanying these Six A c t s j s the main subject of Hui-ssu's Sui-tzu-i-san-mei & 3~ V>%. . As I have pointed out above, however, Hui-ssu's l i s t differs somewhat from Chih-i's. In the MHCK only the f i r s t of these,walking, is discussed, leaving the rest to be understood be analogy, while Hui-ssu deals with each in about the same detail. here means the same as jf. . The latter formulation would nave preserved the parallelism. 355 CJ aligns this form of activity with the destiny of hel l , and matches the succeeding forms of activity with the other destinies, as noted in the footnotes which follow this one. The reader may judge for himself whether they are a good f i t . 3 5 6Hungry ghost. 357 Animals. One is tempted to translate this form of activity as \"(having or coveting many) dependents,\" but in the ten destinies i t \" i s animals which are dependent on humans, hence my translation. 358 Asuras. These beings are traditionally bellicose. 359 Humans. These two virtues, especially the f i r s t , f a l l within the sphere of Confucian teaching. 360 CJ: These are respectively the ten good acts as practised by gods in the Realm of Desire, and the four trances {dhyana) practised by gods in the Realm of Form. Shiki thinks, however, that dhyana j& here means a l l eight dhyanas, including the upper four belonging to ' the Formless Realm. 361 y Srdvakas and pratyekabuddhas, seeking a \"solitary\" nirvana. 3 6 2Bodhisattvas. 363 I.e., that which is in the realm of the provisional. 372 364 I take these four characters as essentially synonyms, or two synonymous binomes. They mean the state of spellbound ecstasy, where consciousness subsists without either of the poles of subject and object. In Ch. 14 of the Tao-te-ching a similar expression is used to characterize the Tao i t s e l f . Waley translates \"vague sem-blance\" and John C. Wu as \"undefinable and unimaginable.\" Here i t i s , however, the practitioner who is being characterized. 365 This formulation is reminiscent of the doctrine of karma-yoga in the Bhagavad-gTta, action without attachment to the fruits of action. 366 Or: i t is not determined, ordained, absolute. 367 This is at T9.3b, in the f i r s t set of gdthas in Ch. 1 of the Lotus. In this passage the bodhisattva Maitreya is addressing ManjusrT, saying, \"I see the sons of the Buddha, who, abiding in the power of their forebearance, are able to endure hate, censure and beatings from arrogant people in order to seek the Way of the Buddha . . . I see bodhisattvas . . . giving beautiful robes and excellent garments worth tens of millions, as well as priceless clothes, to Buddhas and monks.\" Kern's version (translating from the Sanskrit) has substantially the same meaning, and says (p. 14), \"Others offer in the presence of the JTna and assemblage of disciples hundreds of kotis of clothes, worth thousands of kotis, and garments of priceless value.\" Clearly this is a manifestation of the virtue of Giving, but there is nothing else here which seems to be relevant to the discussion in the MHCK. 368 Each of the Six Perfections contains a l l the others (as CJ says). This makes thirty-six Perfections. These can be practised in any of the Twelve Items, so we have 432. These can be applied to any of the Ten Destinies, yielding 4320. And each of these has it s four phases, so in a l l there are theoretically 17,280 units of analysis that are implied by the MHCK here. Fortunately Chih-i does not carry this analysis to the bitter end. 369 This whole long paragraph on the practise of the Six Perfections is l i f t e d nearly verbatim from Hui-ssu's Sui-tzu-i-san-mei (leaf 344, right side, lower register). To emphasize this I have put quotation marks around the entire paragraph. 3 7 0\"Walking\" ^ may be taken to signify a l l the Six Acts, a l l activity in general. The Chinese character indeed usually has this broader sense. Hui-ssu has in this place, \"When the bodhisattva walks... broade 373 371 CJ: \"Giving\" because the bodhisattva, having no possessions, gives them the gi f t of fearlessness (merely by walking in their vicinity) 3 7 2 C J : \"Causing them loss\" ^ would be f a i l i n g to view them in their aspect of Ultimate Reality j j ^ ^ j j . 373 CJ: The thoughts which do not arise are those at the two extremes: emptiness or provisionality, inexistence or existence. 374 CJ: He abides rather in a l l places. 375 CJ: Since they are identical to the Dharma-realm, Ultimate Reality. in.\" 37fi Perhaps one should gloss this as \"is not mentally involved 3 7 7 C J quotes the Ta-ch'eng-ch'i-hsin-lun j ^ j L & ^ (The \"Awakening of Faith\") to explain this, where i t says, \"By becoming aware ,$|p fa of the arising of evil in the previous instant, one can prevent i t from occurring in the subsequent instant.\" The prac-titioner has now reached the point where he does not distinguish between the two instants. 378 CJ: Because for him every moment is the (ultimate) Dharma-realm and there is no interval between arising and perishing for him. 379 CJ: Avoiding the two extremes he realizes them both to be identical with the Middle. However, Hui-ssu's Sui-tzu-i-san-mei says here, \"He does not apprehend the Middle Way (either).\" 3 8 0Following CJ. 381 CJ: Two arms, two legs, and his trunk. 382 CJ: He is not permanent as ordinary people in the world conceive things to be permanent, nor extinct after the thinking of the HTnayana. 383 CJ: Because his skandhas (etc.) are the abode of ultimate emptiness, the two extremes of bondage and liberation do not exist (for him). 374 384 In this sutra, at T15.633b-c, the Buddha states that a bodhis-attva is endowed at every moment with the Six Perfections\u2014when raising and lowering his feet, when breathing in and breathing out, etc.--and then t e l l s *Sthiramati (Saramati?) |\u00a3 *Jk that the Six Perfections permeate a bodhisattva's body and mindso utterly that no one of them can be considered separate, just as i t is impossible to extract only a single kind of incense from a lump composed of the mingled powder of a hundred thousand kinds of incense. (This much has been cited earlier in the MHCK text). The Buddha then continues, \"How does a bodhisattva produce the Six Perfections in every moment? *Sthiramati, that these bodhisattvas are a l l evenminded (upeksd) and without attachments is (their) Perfection of Giving. That their minds are perfectly quiescent and utterly lacking in evil is their Perfection of Morality. That, knowing exhaustively the features of mind \/>i>N jffl , they can dwell amid the whole array of sense-objects yet be unharmed by them, is their Perfection of Forebearance. that by diligent con-templation and a discriminating mind ^fy they come to know the (various) separate features of min* J^ xz ~jfQ is their Perfection of Exertion. That, having tamed their minds, they are utterly and perfectly quiescent is their Perfection of Meditation (dhyana). That they contemplate mind ffi^ \/ O * , know mind %B- , and f u l l y comprehend the features of mind i C N \"^f is their Perfection- of Wisdom.\" 385 CJ: He contemplates the mind which just developed an attach-ment, (realizing thereby that) i t is inexistent. Without any mind to be in samadhi, where could he imagine the swcahgama samadhi to be taking place? 386 I.e., in a l l the six senses and Six Acts. 387 CJ rightly remarks that for him even to conceive of his mind as his own is evidence that his understanding is s t i l l on a gross level. How much more erroneous then for him to think \"his\" mind is exalted! 388 I.e., the \"obscuring of the knowable.\" This is one of \/the so-called Two Obstacles, translated later by Hsuan-tsang as the Obstacle to the Knowable 9& 7% . It arises from attachment to dharmas (or the Dharma) \u2022>% . The other Obstacle, the Defilement Obstacle ^ I 5^ (klesdvarana), is on a lower plane, to be over-come f i r s t before the remaining Obstacle to the Knowable can be cleared away. This arises from attachment to the self I.e., one who does not engage in contemplation. Neither the experienced meditator nor the man on the street can be discovered to have a principle of selfhood. 375 390 The recognition that the subject is inexistent does away with the object as well. 391 T25.190b. However, the TCTL has instead of \"minds which have given rise to absurd prattle\" tz? , \"dharmas of speech\" \"f[ When thoughts disappear, then according to the TCTL, words likewise vanish, but according to the phrase that Chih-i uses, i t is the minds containing the thoughts which vanish. 392 This paraphrase seems to be from T13.177b-c, in the Pao-chi-p'u- sa-p'in ^ -*\/ pa (Ratnacuda-pariprccha) section of this sutra collectioir(known in Sanskrit as the Maha-samnipata-sutra). Here the Buddha is discoursing on the contemplation of mind, and states that the nature of mind cannot be perceived in either internal or external ayatanas (sense-organs or sense-objects), or both, or in the skandhas or in the dhdtus (177bll-13). The question arises of whether the mind one is trying to perceive is the same as or different from the mind which is doing the perceiving (contemplating). If different, one would be forced to admit the existence of two minds (an absurdity). If the same, one could not perceive i t any more than a finger tip can touch i t s e l f (177bl4-16). Similarly, the mind cannot be said to be either produced or not produced of causation, either eternal or subject to extinction, either internal or external, either existent or inexistent. Contemplating the mind is like writing on water; the mind is like a stream, a flame. Yet i f a bodhisattva can bring his mind to a stop and hold i t undistracted to a single place, he is then practising calm-ing J~ [samatha). This is what i t means to know the nature of mind. Once the bodhisattva knows his own mind, he knows the minds of other beings and can expound the Dharma to them. The same Ratnacuda-pari prccha (in an earlier translation by Dharmaraksa) is also included in the Ratnakuta sutra collection (Ta-pao-chi-ching jz. ^ jfa ^ at Til.662b-663a, though the idea is expressed somewhat differently there Perhaps a sentence at 662cl4 sums up the thought: \"When the bodhis-attva contemplates (his own) mind as inexistent, this is the cessation of thought -jg^ {manas-samatha?).\" 393 A l i s t unrelated to Chih-i's Four Kinds of Samadhi, these are also known as the \"Three Gates to Liberation\" or the \"Three Doors to Deliverance\" (vimoksa-dvava). These correspond to the Chinese tf\u00a3 (emptiness), JSjfc -^g (featurelessness), and (wishlessness). The third of these is given in the older tradition as Jifc hfy (the actionless) as in the ensuing passage. According to Oda (p. 618c), in the f i r s t of these one contemplates the absence of selfhood in dharmas; in the second, one contemplates the absence in nirvana of ten features including the five ordinary sense objects, masculinity and femininity, and the three stages in the existence of each dharma (originating, changing, perishing) ;'in~the third , one dwells in samsaric dharmas without engendering attachment (or purposeful activity) in oneself for them. 376 394 -These are mentioned in r o l l thirty-seven of the Nirvana sutra, and include thinking falsely about the six sense-objects ^T*^)] . harboring false views in regard to worldly and ultimate dharmas Jjl^'j, and as the basis of the other two, using a benighted mind to falsely apprehend things (<S fy] . CJ says they a l l f a l l in the category of delusions of intellect J ^ , jg^ . w- -v^CJ says these belong to the delusions of emotion, j?- or Defilements, karma, death and Mahesvara, lord of the Realm of Desire. 397 CJ interprets this sentence as a chain of cause and effect, with each link following logically from the previous one. Thus, because one has destroyed the Three Perversions of Thought one can in turn annihilate the Three Poisons, etc. 398 I.e., the remaining five of the Six Acts along with a l l the six varieties of sense-perception. 399 This simile is from Roll 20 of the Nirvana sutra, and may be found at T12.740a > p. 541 of the Yamamoto translation. Here a bodhisattva's state of mind is compared to that of a man who has been ordered by his king to go among a crowd of people carrying a brimful jar of o i l , but not to s p i l l a single drop, or else he will be instantly slain be a second man following him about with a drawn sword. Such a man is as capable of resisting the attraction of sense-objects as a bodhisattva, so deep is his concentration. This simile has given birth to the expressiorvfor \"carelessness\" in the modern Japanese colloquial, yudan -^ spr , meaning l i t e r a l l y \"oil-cut.\" That i s , \" i f one is so careless as to let the o i l s p i l l out, then one's head gets cut off.\" 4 0 0 0 n l y i f Morality is tinged (\"adorned\") with wisdom (and the other Perfections) will i t be truly perfected. This is an example of the previous assertion that each of the Six Perfections contains the other five. 401 This paragraph deals with contemplation at the level of emptiness, f i r s t of the Three Truths. 402 CJ: I.e. via the tetralemma and the sixty-four units of analysis to be mentioned below. 377 CJ says \"whence they arise\" # fe means the four phases of thought in the Six Destinies ^ \u2022 404 CJ: Only when both object and subject vanish is the gate to the Mahayana perfected. 4 0 5Subject or object. 4 0 6 C J : \"Neither inner nor outer\" refers to the six sense percep-tions, while \"lacking both going and coming\" refers to the Six Acts. Thus one may infer a similar argument for a l l the Twelve Items by analogy with the contemplation of the seeing of form. 407 This paragraph deals with contemplation at the level of the provisional, second of the Three Truths. 4 0 8 I . e . , the Ten Evil Acts minus those of mind. These are k i l l i n g , stealing and adultery (for the body) and lying, slander, harsh speech and frivolous speech (for speech). 409 Here and below Chih-i presents a l i s t of ten degrees or levels of conduct (these are not, s t r i c t l y speaking, rules of discipline) which is apparently not derived in toto from any one source, but assembled from several, particularly the TCTL and the Nirvana sutra. At the start of Greater Chapter Six of the MHCK (T46.36b-c, Roll 4a), he gives a slightly different form of the same l i s t , with an explanation of each item appended. There he explains the f i r s t three items of the l i s t as presented here by using the example of an unmarred pot that is capable of holding i t s contents. Shiki also reports a slightly different l i s t in the Yu'an-tun-chih-kuan (the early version of the MHCK which was evidently s t i l l available to him, though i t is lost today)., Mochizuki's dictionary has seven different l i s t s for the Ten Degrees of Conduct, but Chih-i's seems to draw primarily on those of the TCTL (T25.225c-226a)--also contained in the Pancavimsati portion of the TCTL (T25.667c) in somewhat different form--and the Nirvana sutra (T12.675a). The TCTL includes explanations for these, but the Nirvana sutra does not. Six of the ten items in the l i s t here in Greater Chapter One of the MHCK are derived from the TCTL: numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, and 8. Number 9 is half TCTL and half from the Nirvana sutra, while number 10 is from the Nirvana, sutra. That leaves the origin of numbers 5 and 6 in doubt; but according to Kogi, these two are collapsed in the MHCK Chapter Six l i s t to \"being in accord with the Way\" T^ XJ.\u00bb whic ^ according to Kogi and also Chih-i's own P'u-sa-chieh-i-su J | (T40.563cl7) is the same as the 'pL (\"being in accord\") which occurs in the Nirvana sutra l i s t . The significance of the matter does not seem to equal i t s com-plexity, and a proper study for the T'ien-t'ai, let alone Chinese Buddhism, would be lengthy indeed. 378 410MHCK (T46.36c, Ch. 6) says that at this level one does not mix even mere thoughts of breaking the rules of conduct with the fact of not breaking them. This term MHCK Chapter Six not denoted as a separate item of the l i s t of ten, but used as an explanation for the \"unmixed\" rule that is item 4 of both l i s t s (MHCK Greater Chapter One and Six). Oda (p. 1223c) notes that i t is one of a l i s t of three rules of conduct ^ in Roll 14 of the Kosa. 412 , Items 5 and 6 form a natural pair (absent from the MHCK Chapter Six l i s t ) , in that in the f i r s t case, observance of proper conduct is simultaneous with, and caused by, immersion in the con-templative state of mind, while in the second case, the same result is achieved by study of the Path. Interpreting this, one is tempted to conclude that by this scheme, sZla is not a fu l l y independent member of the ancient triad sZla-sajnadhi-prajnd, but may be caused by the practise of either of the other members. 413 As Chih-i explains further in Chapter Six of the MHCK, this is the absence of attachment towards their own deluded thoughts that arises in saints once they have perceived the Ultimate Truth. Oda (1711a) makes a similar statement, but emphasizes the lack of attachment to the five sense-objects as well. 414 MHCK Chapter Six says that this and the next item are rules of conduct which pertain to the activity of bodhisattvas in benefitting others. This is hence beyond the level of the Two Vehicles. 415 These are the Four Qualities of Ultimate Reality, as the Nirvana sutra expounds them: permanence, pleasure, selfhood, and purity. This is the highest point of the Path, f u l l and complete knowledge of things as they are, hence perfect conduct. This corresponds to .Jt Jrfc (\"the perfected rule of discipline\"), last in the l i s t in Chapter Six of the MHCK. 416 This begins the discourse on contemplation at the level of the Middle, third of the Three Truths. 417 I.e., i t is simultaneously at neither and at both of the extremes (emptiness and provisionality): these are the two forms of the Middle Truth. 418 In this paragraph each of the other five Perfections is shown to \"adorn,\" to intermingle with, the Perfection of Morality, along the lines of the ball-of-incense simile from above. 379 419 Form as an object. 4 2 0 I n the Kosa (T29.141b, Roll 27) there is a group of four practises sS? l m ~ engaged in by a TathSgata, the third of which is the \"Uninterrupted Practise\" Jfe fi\\ . This is described as indomitable energy and courage'at every moment--i.e. never lapsing or allowing a gap or interruption to creep into the flow of one's concentration. The other three practises are (1) without residue (of wisdom or merit to be achieved), (2) practising for three asamkhya kalpas, and (4) devotion to the object of study, combined with humility. See Oda (709c). 4 2 1 C J adds r%Lj%% \u00bb the act of perceiving, so as to parallel the three items starting the previous paragraph. 422 These are the Three Samadhis as above. 423 The MHCK text upon which CJ based his commentary did not contain the words \"Six Acts\" ^ , but he advised supplying them. They were in fact supplied by a later hand, and modern texts contain these characters. 4 2 4 T h i s is from Chapter One of the Lotus (T9.3b), the same passage as the previous Lotus quote (T46.16bl7-18 in the MHCK text), but whereas the previous sentence illustrated the Perfection of Giving, this illustrates the Perfection of Morality. The Kato-Soothill trans-lation of the sutra renders the passage, \"Further I see perfect (observers of the) commandments, in strictness without flaw, pure as precious pearls, who thereby seek the Buddha-way.\" 425 CJ says that since this is dealt with much more summarily than the previous Perfections, we are to infer much of the argument from what has been said about Giving and Morality. 426 By his Forebearance he is able to resist the p i t f a l l s of the pleasant as well as being able to endure the painful with equanimity. 427 This stands for a l l six sense-perceptions. 428 This stands for a l l the Six Acts. The MHCK deals with Forebearance only from the point of view of emptiness, leaving the provisional and the Middle points of view unexplicit. 380 Kogi and Kojutsu add that this simply means not being lazy. The latter goes on to call to our attention a spot in the TCTL where something very similar is said (T25.629b5-7, Ch. 68, Roll 81): \"If a bodhisattva begins by putting to use the (dharma-) gate which is Exertion, (he will) enter into a l l the (other) Perfections. 'Exertion' means that he diligently practices the (other) five Perfections, both body and mind vigorous, neither pausing nor stopping. 'Exertion' has no other separate substance.\" Also at 632a4 the TCTL states that \"Exertion is the foundation for a l l that is good. Without i t there are no good dharmas to be attained, but by its power, the (other) five Perfections come into being.\" Both these passages are from Ch. 68 of the TCTL, which is devoted to elucidating a l l the different pairs of Perfections possible when \"abiding in Perfection X one keeps Perfection Y,\" etc. Each Perfection has five besides i t s e l f with which i t may be combined, so that thirty pairs are discussed, half of them reciprocals of the other half. This is a clear elucidation of the \"mutual adorning\" of the Six Perfections (though the term \"adorn-ing\" does not appear here in the TCTL), illustrating the same point as the Nirvana sutra does with i t s simile of the ball of incense, referred to above. 431 CJ adduces another TCTL passage (T25.174c) to support this assertion, opposite from that made in the previous statement, that there is a separate \"Exertion.\" This is from the TCTL chapter on the Perfection of Exertion. \"The bodhisattva treats the power of Exertion as the chief (Perfection). It is only when the (other) five Perfections are being practised (with i t ) that i t is called the bodhisattvic Perfection of Exertion. For example, i t is like combin-ing a number of medicines to cure a serious disease. A bodhisattva's Exertion is just so: i f one practices only Exertion, without being able to practise the (other) five Perfections, this is not what is called the bodhisattvic Perfection of Exertion.\" Kogi comments on this passage that i t is like Exertion being a lord and the other five Perfections being retainers, and that opposing i t to the other five surely j u s t i f i e s calling i t \"separate.\" Thus we may say that because Exertion (as a Perfection) never stands alone, i t is \"not separate\" from the others. Yet as the foundation of all practise, i t is essential in every aspect of the Path, so indispensable that i t is convenient to view i t as a \"something\" apart from other \"somethings,\" a Perfection apart from other Perfections, transcendent as well as immanent (in the \"body\" of religious practise). 432 I.e., nescience (avidya) i t s e l f can be either general or particular. 433 For dhydna to qualify as a Perfection i t cannot stand alone, but must be \"adorned.\" Unadorned, as CJ says, i t is merely \"worldly dhydna\" . 381 4 3 4 C J : \"Mind\" means \"the distracted mind\" , the opposite of samadhi or concentration. 435 CJ and Kogi agree that the text counsels here passing beyond the opposites of distractedness and concentration so as to reach true meditation, which excludes nothing. This passage shows clearly why \"concentration\" is by no means always a satisfactory translation for samadhi or dhyana, at least in the Mahayana sense of these words, for these practises must involve passing beyond the dualism of dis-ciplining the mind versus leaving i t undisciplined. This is parallel to the difference between the HTnayana and the Mahayana interpretations of nirvana (extinction). 4 3 6 C J says this should be \"Roll 38\" of the TCTL, but Shiki and Kogi say Roll 48, which corresponds to the text as we have i t in the Taisho canon. None of the commentators explains how the number \"five\" y\u00a3__ crept into the text. 437 \/ TCTL T25.402-6. In this passage (though not elsewhere, e.g. at T25.217b) the sutra and the sdstra both omit mention of the ninth meditation, namely on the cremation of the body. In Roll 9 of the MHCK (T46.121c, in the section on the contemplation of dhyana, sixth of the \"Ten Realms\" for contemplation), i t says that a person should practise a l l but the last of the nine. This is evidently because cremation implies complete annihilation, which is anathema to the Mahayana. 438 These are the Buddha's fearlessness in announcing his omni-science, and that he has eradicated a l l his impurities, as well as his fearless exposition of a l l the obstacles to enlightenment and the Way to overcome them (TCTL T25.241b-c). In addition, the TCTL deals with the well-known thirty-seven Parts of the Way, the forty-two letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, the eighteen unshared dharmas of bodhisattvas, etc. 439 The identity of these \"teachers of the Treatise\" is unknown. Apparently they f e l t the TCTL omits the ninth meditation on death by an oversight, or copyist's error. Chih-i holds against them that the text is by no means in error, for to finish with the annihilation of the body as presumably the highest contemplation would tend to conceal, not reveal, the ultimate, comprehensive truth. CJ e x p l i c i t l y emphasizes the power of the eighth meditation on death, on bones, as being the most f r u i t f u l . 382 440 The TCTL passage in question is at T25.139a-140a. This passage on prajnd occurs in the midst of several chapters on ddna, the Perfection of Giving, rather than in one of the chapters dealing directly with prajnd. The Buddha here t e l l s Sariputra that a bodhisattva dwells in the Perfection of Wisdom by not dwelling in dharmas. He goes on to explain six definitions (not eight) current in the world. The \"seventh definition\" is actually the statement that a l l of the f i r s t six are correct (which is rejected by the Buddha), and the \"eighth definition\" is the statement that the sixth alone is correct, which is the position that the Buddha takes in response to Sariputra 1s query as to which of these six interpretations of prajnd is the true one. CJ too explains that numbers 7 and 8 are not actually separate definitions. The six remaining interpretations of the Perfection of Wisdom are (i) as the root of undefiled wisdom; ( i i ) as defiled wisdom; ( i i i ) as every level of wisdom from the f i r s t arising of bodhioitta to final realiz-ation; (iv) as both defiled wisdom and undefiled wisdom; (v) as undefiled, unconditioned, invisible nonduality; (vi) passing beyond the bounds of the tetralemma on existence and incapable of having its features apprehended. 4 4 1\"Worldly wisdom\" ?\u00a3\\ is the f i r s t of three kinds of wisdom given in the Lankavatara sutra, the others being transcendent wisdom Jji p^ j 9% and supreme transcendent wisdom &-t\u00a3:F|| - t - t - ^ These are identified respectively with the wisdom of non-Buddhists and ordinary people, the wisdom of srdvakas and pratyekabuddhas,. and the wisdom of bodhisattvas and Buddhas. However there is some doubt as to whether Chih-i used the Lankavatara at a l l , and shih-ohih ~& is a simple enough expression that i t could easily have had another source. 442 CJ thinks this means the rest of the Six Perfections, but Shiki disagrees, holding that \" a l l other good dharmas\" means all.those besides the Six Perfections, which Chih-i has just finished discussing. He includes the making of Buddha-images, building of pagodas (stupas), and the exposition of the Dharma as \"other good things.\" CJ points out that at the beginning of this section on contemplating the good, Chih-i said that there are a great number of good things, but that he would deal for now with only the Six Perfections. Kogi takes the side of CJ, but I personally must agree with Shiki. 443 Answering the two parts of the question in reverse order. 444 \u00ab CJ: Wisdom without meditation (prajnd without samadhi, contem-plation without calming) is like a lamp exposed to the wind, unable to illuminate anything. Hence the need for the stillness of samadhi (calming), which like a closed room enables the lamp of wisdom (contem-383 piation) to shine undisturbed. To train disproportionately in^wisdom exacerbates false views (Shiki calls this \"false wisdom\" JfR % ^ ), but to train disproportionately in samadhi exacerbates foofisnness (Shiki calls this \"benighted meditation\" 9& jf% ). Each must be kept in balance with the other. ' 4 4 5These are two of nine similes from the Nirvana sutra (T12.793c) which illustrate the joint action of samadhi and prajna (or, in the terms of the MHCK, calming and contemplation). A bodhisattva f i r s t uses samadhi and then prajna, just as in washing clothes one uses f i r s t lye (we might say soap) to loosen the d i r t , then pure water to rinse the clothes clean; or just as in cutting reeds (with a sickle) one f i r s t grasps them in one hand, then cuts them off with the blade held in the other hand. Similarly, one f i r s t shakes a tree, then uproots i t ; f i r s t puts on armor and weapons, then goes out to battle the enemy; f i r s t clears land and then plants seeds, etc. Thus both samadhi and prajna, calming-and-contemplation, are necessary. Neither soap nor pure water alone will clean dirty clothes, nor will a single hand be able to cut down reeds. 446 Speaking now from the ultimate viewpoint, that of the Perfect Teaching. 447 I.e., the other Five Perfections. 448 Li t e r a l l y , \"coverings.\" These are the opposites of the Six Perfections, and are thought of as covering up and preventing the emergence of the latter. They are (in the order of the Perfections) avarice, immorality, anger, laziness, mental distraction, and stupidity. Three of them are equivalent to the Three Poisons (the f i r s t , third, and sixth). They appear in the TCTL (T25.303c-304b, Roll 33) and also later in the MHCK (Roll 8). The Chinese term pi is a happy one in this connection, since besides having the meaning of \"cover, obscure,\" i t is near to homophonous. \u2022 with the character pi w& , which means \"to destroy\" or \" e v i l . \" The latter character is the more frequently used in the TCTL (e.g. T25.232a-b). 449 Hell, animals, hungry ghosts. The destiny of asuras is not counted here as one of the three painful destinies. In fact the karmic recompense or retribution of good or evil behavior is not i t s e l f good or e v i l , but pleasant or painful. However, the three lowest destinies can be, and often are, called \" e v i l \" because evil behavior is what causes beings to be reborn in them. This is what the Buddhists call \"naming the effect by the cause.\" 4 5 0The character tu cannot in this context mean \"Perfection,\" paramita, as i t usually does in the MHCK. Here i t is short for the term shih-tu 0% ft above. 384 451 Shiki claims to have verified this \"quote\" but gives no ro l l number for TCTL-, which is what this term ta-lun j^&n always means in the MHCK. Nor does CJ provide us with a r o l l number. Kogi says he looked in TCTL but could not find this passage. Nor was I able, even by using the Taisho indices for TCTL and many other of the major works in the canon to which MHCK refers from time to time, to find the passage. Oda's dictionary does have a l i s t i n g (p. 14b) for the phrase \"mentality of a leprous fox\" ^ =$1 ^ \"f ' \u00b0 N \u00bb but i t refers us back to this passage of the MHCK. (Dda himself states that the ascription to TCTL is false. He goes on, however, to cite a similar\\phrase from another text, the Ta-sa-che-ni-kan-tzu-so-shuo-ching T X ^ f t j S - T L I L ^ f ^ - S L j f S . > which he evidently feels is the source of the MHCK quote: \"If one does not observe the code of conduct, then he will not even earn (in the next l i f e ) the body (sic) of a leprous fox, much less a body of merit.\" (T9.359a) This is from a passage in the sutra on the essential importance of observing the code of conduct. The sutra, however, reads \"body of a leprous fox\" rather than, as in the MHCK, \"mind (mentality) jC^ of a leprous fox,\" and says nothing about the Two Vehicles. A simile from TCTL (T25.262a, Roll 27). This passage makes the point that unless a bodhisattva rids himself of the Three Poisons, he is like a poisoned jug that vitiates a l l the nectar (merit) that can be poured into i t . 453 According to which the Middle is recognized as a higher truth than the extremes of emptiness and provisionality. In the Perfect Teaching the identity of a l l three is recognized. 454 This is the f i r s t occurrence in MHCK of the term Separate Teaching ^ i ] -^jr_ . 455 \/ T12.648a28, Roll 7. The Buddha has just expounded to Kasyapa the Four Features of Ul timate. Real ity x\u00a3f (permanence., pleasure, selfhood, and purity), and Kasyapa responds that from this day forth he is enlightened. He then makes the statement which is here quoted. 456 -' Apparently Chih-i assigns Kasyapa's previous understanding to the Separate Teaching, though I cannot say that I understand why. 457 I.e., in \"good\" fashion. 458 CJ: This is the relative sense of the Perfect Teaching, in which \"good\" means \"in accord with\" and \" e v i l \" means \"not in accord with\" (things as they are, the Ultimate Reality). Here there is s t i l l an opposition between what is a true teaching and what is not. 385 459 CJ: \"This is the absolute sense of the Perfect Teaching, in which 'good' means (completely) achieving or penetrating to Ultimate Reality i t s e l f , and 'evil' means s t i l l being attached (to the Way or the Teaching).\" No matter how exalted the teaching, attachment to i t is s t i l l e v i l , for i t is not i t s e l f a f i t object of worship. The finger may be pointing accurately enough at the moon, but one may s t i l l err by taking the finger for the moon. K5gi adds that at the relative level of the Perfect Teaching there are s t i l l distinctions being made between different teachings: \"This is Perfect, this is not.1 But at the absolute (non-dual) level, there are no distinctions to be made between teachings (for \"there is nothing which is not the truth.\") Thus even in the Perfect Teaching the practitioner may s t i l l err by forming an attachment to i t , and at the most rarefied level this is what is called e v i l . 4 6 0 K o g i : \"This applies to beginner's contemplation alone.\" CJ: Here the discussion is limited to the worst of the above-mentioned forms of e v i l , namely the Six Antiperfections. 4 6 1 T h i s is f i f t h in a l i s t of Ten Meditations -\\ ^  from TCTL (T25.229-232, Roll 23, in the chapter on the Ten Meditations, Ch.~37T. These meditations are (and I rearrange their sequence here) on impermanence, suffering, absence of self, and impurity of the body (these rectify the four inverted views); on death, impurity of one's food, and on the fact that there is nothing in the whole world to rejoice about \u2014 i\/# \/^\"*T^\"$S-5 a n d o n three features of nirvana: that i t is the cutting-off, the separation from, and the exhausting of the defilements. The meditation on nothing-in-the-whole-world-to-rejoice-about is a broad term meaning essentially the cultivation of a negative attitude towards samsara in general. This is of course a f a i r l y low-level meditation compared with that, already mentioned in MHCK, that sees good and evil as identical, and truth in everything. 4 6 2 A t loo. ait., the TCTL divides evil phenomena into b e i n g s ^ $~ and lands , which one can take as equivalent to the living and the non-living world. 463 As CJ explains, the f i f t h item is equivalent to being mentally distracted, the opposite of the Perfection of Meditation, since drinking deranges the a b i l i t y to concentrate (but see below in the MHCK text for some kinder words about the use of alcohol). The sixth item is equivalent to stupidity, the opposite of the Perfection of Wisdom. 386 4 6 4From the Yang-chiieh-mo-lo-ching -^T J% IjL 4& > the *Anguli-malika-sutra. This is a much expanded Mahayanistic version of the HTnayana Angulimala-sutra in e.g. the Majjhima-nikaya (No. 86. Translated by I.B. Horner in Vol. 2 of Middle Length Sayings, pp. 284-292) and the Madhyamagama (the Chinese translation of the Sarvastivadin scripture: at T2.280c-281c). The story also occurs in the Jataka tales (#537) and in Hardy's Manual of Buddhism, etc. CJ quotes at length from the Mahayana version. Briefly, the story runs as follows. A young brahmin, lusted after by his teacher's wife, refused to satisfy her. She became enraged and falsely reported to her husband that the young man raped her; in consequence the teacher ordered him to expiate the crime by k i l l i n g a thousand people. He followed the teacher's orders and terrorized the populace as a result, taking a finger {anguli) from each of his victims to fashion a necklace {mala), whence his name. (The HTnayana story lacks this prologue.) Ultimately he was on the verge of k i l l i n g his 1000th victim, who happened to be his own mother (in the HTnayana version i t is the Buddha himself), but was stopped in the nick of time by the Buddha's arrival on the scene. The Buddha f i r s t lured him away from his mother, then expounded the Dharma to him, whereupon he attained arhatship and acquired the six superhuman powers. As CJ remarks, i t is significant (in the Mahayana story) that by his k i l l i n g he was both protecting his teacher's wife from the wrath of her husband and f u l f i l l i n g the command of his teacher. Kogi adds that by his k i l l i n g he realized the Ultimate Truth of non-arising ( >\u00a3. , or \"lifelessness\"!). Hence every-time he killed i t was in'^a sense a moral act. As the MHCK says, his impulse to confer joy (his good w i l l , maitvt) was in proportion to his k i l l i n g . 4 6 5From the Wei-ts'eng-yii-yin-yuan-ching ^ if\\ 19 1^.$^. (T17.585a-b). ,Jeta (or Jetr) was a prince, one of the sons of King Prasenajit of SravastT. One day he approached the Buddha and asked to be released from his previous vow to keep the Five Prohibitions for laymen (not to k i l l , steal, commit adultery, l i e , or drink s p i r i t s ) , and have conferred on him instead the rule of the avoidance * of the Ten Evil Acts. The latter category is very similar to the former, except that i t adds the three mental acts called the Three Poisons, subdivides \"not lying\" into four parts, and most significantly here, omits the prohibition against drinking. Jeta f e l t this pro-hibition was too d i f f i c u l t to keep, and he wanted to avoid the sin of breaking i t . He was at times entertained at banquets by various luminaries of the realm, or entertained them, and though he was careful to control himself on such occasions and to behave properly, he f e l t that drinking with these people contributed to the general merriment and pleasure. The Buddha congratulated him on his insight and assured him that there was no harm in making people happy, in fact i t was a positive good. It was merely that this was a lesser good {dsvava) 387 than the good of helping people to attain nirvana {anasrava). King Prasenajit tried to take the argument a step farther, and argued that wine is actually anasrava (undefiled): \"When people drink wine they become joyous. Since they are joyous, they f a i l to give rise to defilements (of the mind). Since they lack defilements, they do not torment or harm anything. Since they do not harm anything, their three kinds of activity (bodily, mental, vocal) are pure, and the path of purity (visuddhi-marga) is the same as undefiled anasrava (undefiled) conduct.\" The Buddha did not however accept his reasoning. As for Malika, she was the wife of the same king. Her story is told in the sutra immediately following that of Jeta (T17.585b-586a), and the upshot of i t is the same: that insofar as wine makes people happy i t must be considered good, for once people are happy they will not commit evil acts. The king went on a hunting t r i p , as the story goes, but forgot to order food to be brought along. When he began to get hungry he asked for food, but since there was none to be had, he became so angry that he ordered his courtiers to k i l l the royal cook. (However they privately hesitated to carry out the order, knowing he was the best cook in the land). Malika overheard this, and saved the situation by appearing perfumed, beautifully adorned, bearing meat and wine, and followed by dancing g i r l s . The food and drink she then shared with the king. Understandably, the king's wrath was mollified, and Malika sent an o f f i c i a l to countermand his order to slay the cook, representing this as the king's own order. The next day the king was f u l l of remorse about his brutal command, but she was able to please him once again by te l l i n g him the cook was s t i l l alive. Thus she not only drank s p i r i t s , but lied and adorned her body: the latter act being in violation of the l i s t of eight prohibitions (including the five, plus adorning the body, sleep-ing in a high bed and eating after noon), yet the Buddha assured the king upon hearing this story that breaking the prohibitions in this way was not s i n f u l , but on the contrary highly meritorious (585c8-9). As long as wine confers joy and dispels gloom i t is not wholly e v i l . The king went on to t e l l the Buddha the story of how he had recently managed to calm down the formerly quarrelling potentates of his realm by inviting them to a great feast and there ensuring that everybody was well-doused with wine among other pleasures. He con-cluded his case with the statement (586a23-bl), \"These people did not quarrel because of the wine; rather their resentment and quarrels were s t i l l e d and peace could prevail because of their drinking i t . Is this not a virtue of wine? . . . If people drink wine, they become joyful. If their mood is joyful, they develop no evil thoughts. Not to develop evil thoughts is equivalent to being virtuous of mind, and i f one is virtuous of mind, he will experience good (karmic) recompense. Besides, Oh World-honored One! When monkeys drink wine they dance, so why not people too?\" The Buddha explained to him that Malika's virtue lay more in the giving than the wine, and that the impulse to give was prominent in her precisely because she fa i t h f u l l y 388 followed the Buddha's teaching. She was otherwise very faithful to the five prohibitions for laypeople. Discipline is necessary, explained the Buddha, just as i t is necessary to keep a child d i s c i -plined when he is a student; for i f you can keep him from dissipating himself, there will ultimately be nothing he does not know, and he will be able to be a teacher of others. CJ describes the Malika story as one on the subject of saving beings while breaking the rules of conduct. A bodhisattva is \"good in the midst of e v i l \" when engaged in benefitting those in need of salvation. (Kogi comments on CJ here that the bodhisattva's great compassion allows him to save others from plunging into evil (painful) rebirths with never a thought for the bad karma accruing to him from his own infraction of the moral code). One might say this is the negative aspect of the transference of merit {parinama)). Yet CJ advises caution. This doctrine is not to be interpreted as permitting an arrogant and wil l f u l transgression of the moral code. From the Gandavyuha (part of the Hua-yen-ching, Avatamsaka sutra). For this story CJ quotes the 80-roll T'ang translation (T10.365b-366a), which came out after Chih-i's death. Chih-i could have been familiar, however, only with the earlier Buddhabhadra (60-rol l ) translation; in this version of the sutra the story appears at T9.71bc-717b. As the story goes, Vasumitra (\"friend of the world,\" \"everybody's pal\") was one of fifty-three worthy friends {kalyana-mltra) whom the pilgrim Sudhana encountered on his journey towards perfect realization (he met her about a third of the way through his journey). She was a beautiful and wise woman who made a practise of inviting men to enjoy her in order that she would have an opportunity to teach them the Dharma. As CJ comments, she used their desire to free them from desire (a frequent simile for this is using a thorn to extract a thorn). This then is another case of \"good in the midst of e v i l . \" Kogi says that on the worldly level this means \"using desire to enter the Path ^? \u00bb\" and o n the ultimate level this means that the limit (extremeT\"o-f desire is also the Limit of Reality (bhutakoti) 4& ^ ~$fc' \u2022 We seem in these passages to be approach-ing Vajrayana Buddhism. 467 This is from Ch. 12 of the Lotus, the chapter on Devadatta. (Apparently this chapter was not part of the sutra for much of the time between KumarajTva and Chih-i). Here the Buddha predicts that even Devadatta will attain Buddhahood. Devadatta's virtue lay in expounding the Dharma to the Buddha in a previous incarnation and thereby helping him reach enlightenment. This is a famous passage in the Lotus, followed by the also renowned statement that even women can reach Buddhahood. 389 468 CJ carefully specifies that this is true only as lo changes and reforms one's e v i l , not i f there is no change \/(_, , p , \"4t Again, this is not to be interpreted as license, ancraoes not mean that to persist in one's evil ways does not block one's progress. 469 This apparently refers to the story of Nanda, alluded to but not recounted in detail in TCTL (T25.70c, Roll 2), the same place from which the,next two illustrations (the story of Pilindavatsa and the story of Sariputra) are derived. All three of these stories are given as illustrations to answer the question of how i t is that achats and pratyekabuddhas d i f f e r from Buddhas, i f like the latter they have destroyed attachment, aversion and pride [rdga, dvesa, mana) in them-selves. The TCTL then takes the story of Sariputra to illustrate the fact that traces of aversion may remain, the story of Nanda to i l l u s -trate traces of attachment,xand Pilindavatsa to illu s t r a t e traces of pride. In the MHCK the Sariputra story is moved from f i r s t in the sequence to last. CJ aives us a wholly different reference (the Ch'u-yao-ching $ J Q | | ) for the Streamwinner, but the l i k e l i -hood is that Chih-i was at least partly drawing^on the TCTL for this as well as the next two stories (Pilindavatsa, Sariputra). This likelihood is strengthened to jiear certainty by a quote Shiki makes from the Yiian-tun-chih-kuan Ijl St- \/fflj (the earlier edition of the MHCK, unfortunately lost today): \"Pilinda(vatsa) s t i l l had resi-dual pride, and the residues of Nanda's desire were weightier than his defilements proper.\" The passage from the Ch'u-yao-ching, cited below, does not mention the name of Nanda, unlike the TCTL. The story of Nanda is a famous one, and appears in many places in Buddhist literature and iconography. Lamotte in his TCTL translation mentions in a footnote (p. 118) many occurrences of the tale: Jataka #182 (in English translation in Jataka Stories, Luzac 1969, Vol. II, pp. 63-64); in the Fo-pen-hsing-chi-Ching $k 4 f i ( t n e l a r 9 e Jataka collection; the story is dt T3.911b-14b, translated into English by Beal in Romantic Legend, pp. 369-378); English translations from the Pali versions are in Rhys Davids' Buddhist Birth Stories, (p. 128), Burlingame's Buddhist Legends (I, pp.^217-223) and Rhys Davids' Brethren (pp. 126-127). Asvagho\u00a7a's Saundarananda (see E.H. Johnston's English translation) also has this story. As Lamotte t e l l s the story in his footnote, Nanda, half-brother of the Buddha, l e f t his wife to join the Samgha, but continued to be plagued by memories of her. In order to extinguish his longings, the Buddha took him to the Trayastrimsa heaven and showed him nymphs incomparably more beautiful than his wife, telling him he could have any one of them after he died i f only during this l i f e he stayed with the Samgha as a monk. When the Buddha told the other disciples what had happened, they all'laughed at Nanda and, ashamed, he renounced 390 his concupiscence and quickly attained to the state of an arhat. When a donkey in a previous existence, he had allowed himself to be tethered by a merchant who promised him a female donkey in re t u r n ^ As the story is found in the Ch'u-yao-ching $ mf. $ k (T4.699b-c, Roll 17; CJ and Kogi both erroneously say Roil 11), there was once a woman who was hounded to the brink of mental and physical exhaustion by the excessive sexual demands made upon her by her husband. In despair she consulted a monk for advice, and he suggested asking her husband rhetorically i f such conduct befitted a Streamwinner ( f i r s t of the Four Fruits leading to Arhatship). She followed the monk's advice, whereupon her husband was ashamed and as a result attained the stage of non-returning (third of the Four Fruits). After a time the woman became concerned about the opposite problem: her spouse no longer took any interest in her. When in front of the assembly of her relatives she asked him why, he responded by bringing to her a brightly-painted and perfumed jar which he had secretly f i l l e d with excrement. He invited her to, i f she really loved him, fondle and play with the jar as i f she were loving and fondling him. He then broke i t open so that the f i l t h and accompanying vermin spilled out. \"Can you play with the jar now?\" he asked. \"I would rather die,\" she replied. He then explained that he was even more repulsed by her body than she by the jar of excrement. The gathd which concludes the story runs, \"When an intrepid person enters dhydna and views the impurity produced by body and mind, there arises in him abhorrence for these, just as for the painted jar.\" Now as the MHCK interprets the story, \"the Way does not obstruct e v i l . \" That i s , a person who was already following the Way--a Stream-winner, at the lowest stage of the Way--was s t i l l capable of being lascivious. However, the sutra does not say that the man was a Streamwinner at the start, only that he was overly f i l l e d with carnal desire. The only mention of \"Streamwinner\" comes in his wife's rhetorical question, mentioned above in my synopsis of the story., CJ substitutes (i.e. Streamwinner) for the sutra's a t the start of his e l l i p t i c a l quotation of the sutra. In other words, this detail of the sutra story had to be changed to make i t a good example of \"the Way does not obstruct e v i l . \" 4 7 0From TCTL (T25.71a, Roll 2). Lamotte in his translation of the TCTL says the ultimate source for this story is probably the Mo-ho-senq-ch'i-lu f% - f^r %X (one of the four great vinayas of the Chinese canon), at T22.487c. The monk Pilindavatsa wanted to cross the Ganges to beg for food. Coming to the river's edge, he snapped his fingers and said to the river, \"Lowly slave, stop flowing!\" The river parted for him and let him pass, but it s god went to the Buddha and complained about being addressed with such contempt. The Buddha then told Pilindavatsa to apologize to the river god. He obediently went and, joining his palms, said to the god, \"Lowly slave, 391 do not be angry. I apologize to you.\" All those within earshot laughed to hear this renewed insult accompanying the apology. However, the Buddha reassured the river god that the apology had been sincerely meant. It was just that Pilindavatsa, as a result of having been a brahmin throughout his last five hundred lives, was used to being arrogant and v i l i f y i n g others. Though he was not truly arrogant any more, he could not help using the same forms of expression that he previously had. Thus, concludes the TCTL, even though avhats have eliminated their defilements, the latter may s t i l l persist in a residual form, as vasanas, perfumi ngs. Roll 27, translated by Chavannes in his Cing Centes Contes et Apologues), but this version is shorter and not so detailed as the one that CJ quotes. In fact CJ is drawing on the TCTL as in the case of the previous two stories: T25.70c-71a. The story runs as follows. Sariputra, told by the Buddha that he had eaten impure food, vomited i t a l l up and (in anger) vowed not to accept any more invitations by laypeople (to eat or associate with them). King Prasenajit was quite nonplussed at this, and complained to the Buddha that he could hardly acquire great faith under such conditions, used as he was to listening to Sariputra^s expositions of the Dharma. The Buddha explained to the king that Sariputra's mind could not be changed, for as a result of the karmic influence from his previous lives he was exceedingly stubborn. Once he had been a poisonous serpent who had bitten a king. Summoned magically by the king's doctor to swallow down his own poison or else be forced into a blazing f i r e , he chose the latter. ^ ^ Lamotte (p. 118, note 1) cites the Shih-sung-lu -j* g$ $ p (T23.463c-464a) as the source for this story, and translates the rele-vant passage in f u l l . It seems that when a certain layman threw a banquet for the members of the samgha, Sariputra and other senior monks were given much better food than the novices.^ Rahula (at this time s t i l l a novice) complained to the Buddha that Sariputra did not have the right to eat better than other:monks. Sariputra there-upon vomited out what he had eaten and to the end of his l i f e refused to accept any more invitations to dine out, but ate only begged food. Though the MHCK version of the story reads, \"Sariputra became than anger, so that $yL here can be interpreted as having the same meaning as the Sanskrit 'avesa (aversion). This is the character used to substitute for dvesa in the category of the Three Poisons, but generally cannot be interpreted as anything but \"anger,\" a departure from the meaning of the Sanskrit word. angry\" more a case of aversion 392 CJ: \"In (empty) space there is no light or dark, for light and dark are dependent on form ^ (ruga) to obstruct each other. (In the same way), there is in the 'space' of the Dharma-nature fundamentally neither good nor e v i l . It is only in the passions of the ordinary person that good and evil obstruct each other . . . for they are the same in both substance and essence. One who comes to such an understanding is assuredly manifesting enlightenment. Hence he can bring (himself) to practise calming-and-contemplation (even) amid e v i l . Having realized that there is nojultimate) evil in e v i l , he has seen i t s substance and it s essence. ^ . Thus he knows that ultimately ('in substance and in essence*\") neither good nor evil exists at a l l . \" Kogi takes CJ's words as a springboard to argue for the Evil-in-the-Buddha-nature theory , an idea which is supposed to derive from CJ, but is implied in the MHCK i t s e l f . This theory affirms that just as there is Buddha-nature inherent in every being, so too evil is inherent, though unmanifested, in every being including the Buddha. This must be the case because, as the MHCK and Chih-i's other works affirm, each of the Ten Destinies contains a l l the other nine, so that the two end-points, hell and Buddhahood, also contain each other. Good and evil being relative to each other, neither can be completely purified of the other. Now in the present MHCK passage as well as the CJ commentary, the Ultimate Reality is apparently being presented as devoid of both good and e v i l . Kogi, wishing to defend the >y<JL fJL theory, is therefore quick to say that Ultimate Reality is devoid only of good and evil as the unenlightened person understands them, but they are both actually present in Ultimate Reality. He is arguing especially against those (e.g. in the Hua-yen, Kegon, school) who wish to present Ultimate Reality as pure, devoid of impurity, while Chih-i is arguing against those who would hold that the only f i t objects of contemplation are the pure and the \"good\" ones. Chih-i is being practical, not speculative. 473 CJ emphasizes that he then destroys these desires. Kogi says that this means the practitioner comes to understand the substance of desires and therefore is no longer in their sway. 474 CJ: The fish stands for desires and the fishing line for the power of contemplation. 4 7 5 T h i s simile is from the TCTL (T25.526b, Roll 66). \"It is like a fish who nibbles at a hook: though he may s t i l l disport himself in the water of the pond, know that i t will not be long before he leaves i t . A practitioner (of the Way) is like this too, for i f he deeply believes and delights in the Perfection of Wisdom, he will not (continue to) live for long in samsara.\" Chih-i has refined the simile from what stands in the TCTL. The latter text makes the point that once you have tasted of wisdom (truth, Ultimate Reality), you are sure to 393 achieve i t eventually: the hook, the taste of the bait, is already in your mouth, and you have but to be pulled from the water of samsara. Chih-i uses the simile to show how the power of contemplation can overcome even desires which are stronger than i t s e l f by \"playing the line\" as one would while trying to land a powerful marlin with a rod and reel, now letting out some line and now reeling i t in again, until the massive beast (lust, desire, avarice, craving) is exhausted and can be hauled in. CJ cautions us that this degree of advancement is s t i l l of a-fairly low order, that the practitioner here merely \"enters the Stages,\" which as Kogi interprets i t , means the level of the \"Purity of the Six Senses, i.e. the Identity of Resemblance (Identity #4). This leaves forty-two of the Fifty-two Stages s t i l l to be traversed. 4 7 5 a T h e text i s probably corrupt here. 47fi CJ points out that desire (avarice, craving) is the f i r s t of the Six Antiperfections (i.e. the opposite of the Perfection of Giving). Here i t is made to stand for a l l the various evils and defilements; the other Antiperfections are not discussed separately, except for anger, which is mentioned briefly at the end of this section. 4 7 7 A typical application of the tetralemma. The f i r s t of the four phases or moments of desire, as of any act, mental or otherwise, is simply i t s prior inexistence. If we inquire into the mechanism of the origin of a thought (desire), we must ask just how i t changed from being not present to being present. Did it s inexistence (the f i r s t of the four phases) cease in order that its impending existence might take place? Or does its impending existence come into being without the previous inexistence ceasing? Or both? Or Neither? To ask such questions, i t is clear that \"the existence of a desire\" and \"the inexistence of a desire\" must both be thought of as entities apart from the desire i t s e l f . As we see in the subsequent passages, Chih-i has no hesitation in c r i t i c i z i n g such a point of view. 478 Do they occur at the same point in time? 479 CJ: It is like saying that where a lamp is destroyed light comes into being. 4 8 0 C J : It is like saying that a flame can come into being any-where spontaneously without a lamp to have ignited i t , or that we could have cheese without milk. Things could (by this hypothesis) spring into existence anywhere at a l l . 481 For there would then have to be an \"inexistent not-yet-desiring\" which preceded the \"existent not-yet-desiring,\" and this 394 would by the same logic not yet have perished at the moment of the arising of the \"existent not-yet-desiring.\" With such an in f i n i t e regression there could never have been a time when the desire was completely inexistent. 482 CJ: If the f i r s t phase is both existent and inexistent by the time the second arises, we have opposite causes producing the same effect (an absurdity). These opposites could not even co-exist, much less work together to produce a common effect. 483 CJ: And i f both, we are back to case ( i i i ) of the tetralemma, dealt with above. 4 0 H A s CJ comments, when one contemplates the arising of one's desires like this at a l l times, then both their nature and their features vanish. (Kogi says \"nature\" means their reality and \"features\" their names). The result of this mind-wracking cogi-tation on the origin of desire is not that the practitioner reaches a rational solution, but that, intellectually exhausted, he is forced to admit the impotence of his rational processes to give a coherent account of what he knows through common sense is obviously taking place: the arising of desire in his mind. 485 Chih-i is in this passage analyzing not the four phases of thought (desire) so much as the transitions between the four phases. CJ works out in detail what is implied by the analysis of Chih-i. Each phase may be considered to arise, or not, or both, or neither, in order for the arising, or perishing, or both, or neither of the next phase to take place. This makes 4 x 4 = 16 possible types of transitions between any two adjacent phases. There being four gaps between phases to analyze in this way (including the gap from the last back to the f i r s t , as in a c i r c l e , since this would represent the transition from a former thought to a subsequent one), the transitions from each to the next may take place in a total of sixty-four ways. Chih-i has ex p l i c i t l y discussed only four, and (in the last paragraph) suggested another four. In every case i t is a matter of seeking the later moment in the earlier, and being unable to find i t , e.g. i f , if <CJ: T46' 207bl2-13). If t h i s ^ l l seems senseless or needlessly complex, remember that i t is a model of the false, not of the true, and also that i t is specifically intended for those of dull mental ity \"^L . (CJ: T46.207c25). Brighter individuals should be able to realize at a single glance that the development of a desire is incapable of being apprehended by discursive thought. It is the foolish who find this kind of exercise necessary (but \"foolish\" here means \"those lacking intuition,\" not \"those with low IQ's'.1). All this belongs to the contemplation of emptiness, f i r s t of the Three Views. 395 Kogi: For i t is shorn of both nature and features jfQ . This would correspond to \"calming.\" 487 K5gi: For neither subject nor object (practitioner nor thoughts) are lost. This would correspond to \"contemplation.\" 4 8 8Following CJ. 489 Permanence, pleasure, selfhood and purity. 4 9 0Emptiness, feature!essness, wishlessness. 491 Thus the desire may have had eleven different kinds of objectives (item nine has two parts), which correspond respectively to the Ten Destinies according to CJ, from hell to Buddhahood. The Six Perfec-tions and the Three Samadhis probably belong together at the level of the bodhisattva. 492 \"Double\" because i t illuminates both the emptiness and pro-visional ity of things. 493 The Three Truths are not exclusive of each other, but blend into one another, each being true while the others are also true. The \"magical apparition\" (provisional) aspect refers to the desire in the above Ten Destinies. 494 I.e., i f the Provisional obstructed the Middle Truth. 495 CJ: The text means to encourage the contemplation of the Dharma-nature j_n the Antiperfections. The Dharma-nature i t s e l f neither comes into being nor ceases to be, but (at the level) of r e l -ative truth) varies i t s aspect with the object being contemplated. At the level of Ultimate Truth, however, neither Antiperfection nor Dharma-nature exd;sts,and a fovteriovi neither of these comes into being or ceases to be. Whoever has understood this can view desire as identical with the Dharma-nature. 496 The sutra i t s e l f says (T15.759c), \"Desire is nirvana, and the same is true for anger and stupidity. Thus there are countless Dharmas of the Buddha in these three. Whoever distinguishes desire, anger and stupidity (from nirvana or the Buddha's Dharma) is as far from the Buddha as earth is from heaven.\" According to the BSKS (5.281), this scripture bases i t s e l f on prajna thought to negate practically every item in the traditional repertoire of Buddhist practise., Ando Toshio (in Bukkyogaku-ronshu, p. 276) includes i t with the Surangama-samadhi-sOtra and the VimalakTrti as one of the 396 scriptures that ex p l i c i t l y declared, before the time of Chih-i, the identity between antipodal categories like the defilements and enlightenment, or sexual (and a l l other forms of) misconduct and the Buddhist Way; he explains that these texts thereby invited mis-interpretation and misuse to the extent that many Buddhists understood their doctrines as a simple eulogy of evil ways and thus exposed the samgha to anti-Buddhist persecution and morality campaigns. Fully aware of the dangers this doctrine presented, Chih-i includes moral discipline and purification as essential preliminaries to the contemplation of Ultimate Truth. See e.g. the twenty-five preliminary \"expedients\" of Chapter Six as well as the whole formal structure of the meditative techniques in both the Synopsis and the rest of the MHCK. The same quotation reappears in a slightly different form later in the MHCK (Roll 8a), in two fragments. \"Desire is identical to the Way. This is also true of anger and stupidity. Thus a l l the Buddha's Dharma is contained in these three dharmas. . . . One who is attached to unobstructed dharmas is as far from the Buddha as earth is from heaven.\" (T46.103bl5-16 and 103c9). This is in the section on contemplating the defilements, the portion of the main text that corresponds to this section on the contemplation of evil in the Synopsis. Perhaps i t is venturing too far afield, but i t maybe of interest that a very similar statement occurs in the esoteric yfc section of the Taisho canon (as revealed by the Taisho index for the esoteric section, under ^ ): \"The Three Poisons of worldly desire, anger and stupidity are identical to the realm of the Tathagata.\" (T18.537c28) This is from the I-ch'ieh-pi-mi-1sui-shang-ming-i-ta- chiao-wang-i-kuei - -b\/; jpp I i L - t A | K f L i ^ (Sarva-rahasya-nama-tantra-raja), translated into Chinese early in the Sung dynasty and emphatically a scripture of the Vajrayana. The sutra quotation is very close'in meaning to Chih-i's famous dictum that \"the defilements are identical to enlightenment\" ^ \"\\% -1* \u2022 t n a t \" i s' klesas are no different from bodhi\u2014and i t is also very similar in meaning to what is said in the \"core\" of the MHCK that \"there is not a single shape nor smell that is not the Middle Way.\" (T46.1c) CJ comments that the sDtra quotation above correctly elucidates the identity between the Antiperfections and the Buddha-nature. T14.549a, the beginning of Chapter 8 in the sutra. CJ glosses \"Non-way\" as the Antiperfections and the \"Buddha's Way\" as (the Dharma-)nature , thereby pointing to the identity between the Antiperfections ( e v i l , klesas, passions, defilements, delusions, obstacles) and the ultimate nature of reality (Dharma-nature). 4 9 8T14.542b, in Ch. 4. The sutra text i t s e l f reads, (Buddha to Maitreya:) \"If Maitreya attains supreme, perfect enlightenment, then a l l animate beings should likewise attain i t . Why is this? Because 397 a l l animate beings are marked by enlightenment. If Maitreya attains extinction, then a l l animate beings should likewise attain i t . Why is this? Because the Buddhas a l l know that every animate being is ultimately quiescent and extinct; being marked by nirvana, they do not further (attain) extinction.\" CJ comments, \"How could the Dharma-nature be separate from desire?\" 499 T14.548a, in Ch. 7. CJ comments that \"those who are haughty\" refers to HTnayana (the Two Vehicles) and ordinary people, though the sutra is more probably referring only to the former. He adds that i f i t were not for these two classes of people (i.e. i f only, bodhisattvas and Buddhas existed), the doctrine of the separation between defilements and enlightenment would not have to be preached at a l l ; the doctrine now being broached in MHCK (and VimalakTrti, etc.) is not meant for their i l k . T14.549b. ManjusrT is explaining how, just as\"lotus seeds must be planted in the mud, and will never germinate in empty space, so the seeds of the Buddha will flourish only when planted in the mire of worldly defilements {kiesas). In truth, the metaphor would be improved to say that the defilements are the manure for the seeds of the Tathagata. 5 0 1The color of mountains is always the same and the taste of the sea is always the same. The taste of the sea is often compared to the taste of enlightenment, the same no matter' how many beings enter (or are present in) i t . E.g. the source that CJ suggests, the Nirvana sutra (T12.805a-b, Roll 30). Here mahaparinirvana is said to be unthinkable in eight ways like the sea. The third way is that i t is a l l the same salty taste. This means, explains the sutra, that a l l animate beings have the same Buddha-nature, belong to the same One Vehicle, achieve the same one liberation through the same cause, etc. CJ adds that this and the color-of-mountains simile both illustrate that outside the Dharma-nature there are no other Dharmas. As for the color of the mountains, CJ points to a passage in the TCTL (T25.752b-c, Roll 100) according to which i t is non-Buddhist books that speak of Mt. Sumeru, the center of the world, as being of only a single color, while in the Buddhist Abhidharma each of the four sides of the mountain is said to be of a different color. \"Some say\" that birds change their color according to which side of the Mountain they f l y on. This is like the Perfection of Wisdom: a l l dharmas enter into i t and take on i t s \"color,\" namely the one feature which is its \"featurelessness\" jgjf. -^g , in turn like the feature!essness of empty space. The TCTL also contains a statement on the \"one taste\" of the sea (T25.752a5): \"Just as a hundred rivers merge in the ocean, so 398 too (all dharmas) are of the same one taste.\" This taste is the emptiness of own-being \\ f a as the sutra specifies at 751c. The location of this passage is so close to the one about the color of Mt. Sumeru in the TCTL that i t seems more likely than the Nirvana sutra passage to have been in Chih-i's mind when he cited the simile, but CJ does not mention i t . 502 Oda (p. 353b) defines this as \"the wisdom which views Truth.\" 503 This is the third of the Six Identities. The f i r s t two have been omitted as not pertaining to practise. The fourth, f i f t h and sixth are mentioned next. 504 Fourth of the Six Identities. This is equivalent to the Ten Stages of Faith, f i r s t group in the fifty-two stages. 505 Mentioned above in the MHCK at l O c l l , this is turned by the second of the Six Wheel-turning Kings, and corresponds to the entry into the Ten Abodes - j ' . See the chart in the Appendix. 506 Fifth of the Six Identities. It is,only here that nescience begins to be eliminated. This Identity contains forty-one of the fifty-two stages, a l l those remaining except the supreme f r u i t of f u l l Buddhahood J^j . 507 CJ: The Six Identities differ in depth, but among the Six Perfections none takes precedence. 5 0 8 T h i s is third, not second, of the Six Antiperfections, but does follow desire (craving) in the l i s t of the Three Poisons. The third of the Three Poisons, stupidity, is also one of the Anti-perfections. It is interesting to note that when the character is used, as i t is here, to denote the opposite of the Perfection of Forebearance (ksdnti), i t is perhaps better translated \"aversion\" than \"anger\", for though fyl does not in isolation mean \"aversion,\" the latter term seems to be the better antonym for Forebearance. This may shed some light on the puzzle of why the Chinese used a character that apparently means \"anger\" as a translation for dvesa in the l i s t of the Three Poisons. 509 CJ comments that this contemplation has sixty-four parts, 4 x 4 x 4, as in the case of the contemplation of desire. 510 Six Acts and six objects of perception. 399 511 CJ: This is the View of Emptiness. 512 CJ: This is the View of Provisionality. CJ: This is the Middle View. The Four Qualities are again permanence, pleasure, selfhood and purity, marks of the Ultimate Reality (in the Nirvana sutra). 514 \"Non-way\" harks back to the Vimalakirti quote. CJ reminds us that that quote and the Chu-fa-wu-hsing-ching #5* $L quote on the Three Poisons both apply to the contemplation of anger as well as to the contemplation of desire. 515 These are phenomena of indeterminate moral nature, which create neither favorable nor unfavorable karmic retribution. CJ says this includes a l l thoughts i<s (or \"states of mind\") other than those involving the Perfections and Antiperfections. But Kogi objects that this is not what the Kosa teaches. In fact, among the forty-six mental dharmas in the seventy-five dharma scheme of the Kosa, there are six classes: three kinds of \" e v i l \" dharmas (totalling eighteen), ten good dharmas, ten universally-present dharmas, and eight indeterminate dharmas. Vivya . (exertion) is the only one of the Six Perfections to figure by name in the good dharmas (though some others lurk in the l i s t as negatives of evil dharmas or defilements), and the Antiperfec-tions are scattered between the evil dharmas and the indeterminate ones. But this is not a Mahayana work and so could not be expected to contain a l i s t of the Six Perfections. J , u F o r this quote Kogi cites from the TCTL a passage at T25.588a, Roll 75. Here the TCTL is making the point that prajnd-paramitd can also be practised while dreaming, and in dreams a l l three moral natures are present: good, evil and neutral. 517 CJ reminds us that this contemplation must also consider the neutral thought's non-arising, arising-and-not-arising, and neither-arising-nor-not-arising, each of these being juxtaposed to the four tetralemmic possibilities of the prior thought. This gives the contemplation sixteen parts. But the nature of neutral thoughts is too indistinct >W > says CJ, to justify further analysis by means of the four phases of thought, so the contemplation of the neutral differs from the contemplation of good and evil thoughts in having only sixteen instead of sixty-four parts. 518 Kogi: The f i r s t half of the sentence means that the three kinds of thoughts (good, e v i l , neutral) are different (\"not the same\") in their activity or functioning -f> , while the second half means the three kinds of thoughts a l l belong to the same mind \u2014 \/ i * . 400 519 CJ: In fact since they neither arise nor perish, they are the same in substance and nature ^ i . as good and evil thoughts, differing only in name. 520 CJ reminds us that this last sentence presents the Three Views (Truths) of emptiness, provisionality and Middle. 521 v These two sentences play on the dual meaning of ohih-kuanat-(ontologicaKas well as epistemological). When we \"stop\" i t -and \"look\" > we have insight into the quiescence and luminosity J38x of Ultimate Reality (the Dharma-nature). But \"quiescence\" is stopping, and \"luminosity\" is looking. CJ says this is using the single calming-and-contemplation (rather than the three: the gradual, sudden and variable) to sum up. 52?-This sentence replaces the usual scriptural quotation. \"Non-way\" -ilp is an expression from the VimalakTrti quote above (T46.18b3), and CJ reminds us that the Chu-fa-wu-hsing-ching %7Q 4*t AS quote (18a29) in the MHCK is relevant as well. He adds that neutral thoughts are to be included in the Antiperfection of stupidity (opposite of wisdom, prajna). 523 Focusing on the f r u i t of Buddhahood, one must pass through the whole series of inferior states before reaching i t . The f r u i t cannot be gotten instantaneously, for evil mental states are here s t i l l thought of as different from i t . 524 Kogi: For then the Ultimate Truth is manifested in whatever features are presented to the mind of the practitioner. c p c This is an expression used later in the MHCK (T46.68b, Roll 5b) as a,name for the fourth of ten varieties of the tetralemma, in which the four lines of the tetralemma \"include and may be applied to\" respectively the ordinary person, the Two Vehicles, bodhisattvas, and Buddhas (meaning existence, inexistence, both, and neither) Kojutsu interprets the f i r s t character in the binome as while CJ refers to the second consistently as 526 Kogi interprets \"factors which may obstruct the Way\" as karmic manifestations. Religious practise can arouse latent factors which may temporarily prevent further progress. 527 CJ repeats the thesis in more detail. The four ways of practising samadhi (five, i f we count half-walking-half-sitting samadhi as two, for Vaipulya samadhi and Lotus samadhi) each have 401 different objects of contemplation, including the Three Paths (defilements, karma and suffering) for sitting samadhi; the thirty-two marks for walking samadhi; the dhdrani for Vaipulya samadhi; the six-tusked white elephant for Lotus samadhi; and one's own good, e v i l , and neutral thoughts for this final samadhi-of-following-one's-own-thought. These objects of contemplation are not the same, but the mind viewing them is always the same, and the Ultimate Truth which is the final objective may always be characterized in the same three aspects of empty, provisional and Middle. So the difference in the methods is at the provisional, not the ultimate level. Kogi adds that i t is because i t dispenses with the provisional levels of practise that the final method of samadhi produces few karmic manifestations. The MHCK seems to argue that the final practise, the contemplation of thought i t s e l f , is a purer and more elevated (but also more dangerous) practise than the others. 528 CJ cautions us that this does not mean that the final way of practising samadhi contains no methods at a l l - - f o r in fact any methods not included in the previous three come under this heading\u2014but only that i t does not need to use such worldly expedients. Or, \"(perform actions which would cause them to) sink to(lower destinies).\" 530 As CJ says, contemplating -desire (or any of the evils) is like seizing a snake. He gives us scriptural authority for the simile, a HTnayana sutra called the 0-1 i-cha-ching 7\u00bbJ (*Arista-sutra). This is No. 200 in the Madhyamagama (Tl.763b-766b) and corresponds to the Pali Alagaddupama-sutta. (\"The \"sutra on the parable of the water snake\") No. 22 in the Majjhima-nikaya. The Pali Text Society English translation of the text is in Middle Length Say-ings, Vol. 1, pp. 167-182, translated by I.B. Horner. The story in the Madhyamagama is as follows (Tl.763b-764b). It seems that a certain monk named Ar ista was, on the strength of his misunderstanding of the Buddha's teaching, going about blithely advocating the satisfying of desire as the Way. The other monks, fai l i n g to set him right, persuaded the Buddha to remonstrate with him. The Buddha called Arista a fool who had wrongly grasped the doctrine, and went on: \"It is like a person wanting to catch a snake. He goes to the forest to find the snake, spies a huge one and seizes i t by the middle of the body. But the snake turns and, raising its head, bites him with its poison on the arms and legs. It was only because (this person) did not know the correct method of grasping the snake that he came to so much grief. . . . But i f you want to grasp a snake in the right way, take an iron pole in your hand, and when you see a really large snake, f i r s t press the pole down on i t s neck, then seize 402 his head in your (other) hand. Even i f the snake reaches back i t s t a i l , i t will only coil around (the pole) and not bite your bodily members.\" CJ says that entering evil without contemplative methods is the same as trying to catch a snake without such a pole. Thus for CJ the snake in the parable stands for desire, and he suggests that there i_s a right way to handle desire, namely to contem-plate i t , without rejecting i t out of hand. However, in the sutra i t seems that the snake also symbolizes the Dharma, the Buddha's teaching, and that Arista's error was in wrongly grasping the Dharma. The Buddha is quite clear here that desire and sense-pleasure are entirely negative, so that the sutra is actually quite orthodox in the HTnayana tradition of seeing desire as entirely e v i l . CJ seems to have altered the sense of the HTnayana sutra to f i t i t into this section on the (Mahayana) contemplation of e v i l . In his defense, however, i t can be said that the snake parable is immediately followed in the sutra by the famous raft parable, in which i t is taught that the Dharma is to be put away like a raft once one has crossed the wide river of samsara. So the Buddha seems to subtly hint that once one has understood how great an impediment to spiritual advancement are sensual pleasures, one may (on the other side of the river) engage in (contemplating?) them again. The derivation of the Pali t i t l e of the sutra, Alaggadupama, is of some interest. Alagadda (in Sanskrit, alagarda or alagardha) means \"water snake,\" and upama means \"parable,\" so we have \"the parable of the water snake.\" However, the Sanskrit alagardha can be analyzed into ala (the sting in the t a i l of a scorpion or bee) and the root grdh (to desire, be greedy for: this verb is cognate to the English \"greedy\"). Hence ala + gardha could mean l i t e r a l l y \"the poisonous sting which is desire.\" Then the etymology would argue for the inter-pretation that the snake represents desire, not the Dharma. Kojutsu believes that there is both a right \"{\u00a3\u2022 and a wrong ^f? kind of carnality (desire). The \"right\" kind obstructs only the practise, not the intellectual understanding of the Way. Thus scholars can engage in i t but not monks. 531 Kogi says this happens where such a teacher accidentally manages to f i t the teaching to the student, but without understanding why the latter benefits from i t . 532 Chih-i is certainly alluding above a l l to the f a i r l y recent (574-577 A.D.) Northern Chou persecution of Buddhism which occurred just before the pro-Buddhist Sui dynasty conquered the north (581) and ended only seventeen years before the lectures comprising the MHCK were delivered (594). Evidently Chih-i thought the elements of decay s t i l l persisted in the North. He gives the impression that i t was immorality among the Buddhist community that brought on the persecution, while K. Ch'en (Buddhism in China, pp. 186-192) emphasizes that i t was the foreign origin of the religion that exposed i t to be used by the 403 Chou ruler to show, by suppressing i t in favor of Confucianism, how unbarbarian and Chinese he was. Though Ch'en hardly mentions i t except in his summary of the famous memorial by Wei Yuan-sung against Buddhism (\"undesirable elements had entered the community and i t needed to be screened and purged\"), one cannot help thinking that Chih-i may have a part of the truth. It would have been more d i f f i c u l t for the emperor to persecute Buddhism i f i t had not already made i t s e l f vulnerable by the behavior and doctrines of some of its clergy. 5 3 3 T h i s passage is not in the Shih-chi but, the Tso Ch uan 7J\u00a3 ^ (22nd year of the annals of the Duke of Hsi yg) . Couvreur in his translation has 637 B.C. for this year). As i t says, \"Formerly (Couvreur says about 770 B.C.), when Emperor P'ing ip- (770-720) had nipved his residence to the east (Loyang), the grand prefect Hsin-yu if> stf came to the Yi \\f River (in Honan) and saw there someone with dishevelled hair performing a sacrifice in an open f i e l d . (The prefect) said, 'Before a hundred .years'have passed, this country w i l l , I fear, be occupied by the barbarians of the west 1%,. The rules of ceremony are already not being observed here.' Then in autumn (686 B.C., i.e. less than a hundred years later), the princes of the Ch'in and Chin transported the barbarians ^ of Lu Huan y%, to the Yi River.\" As the text of the Tso Ch uan \u2022 says, the sightJing of the man in dishevelled hair took place in the 8th century B.C., with the prophecied population movement occurring in the 7th century B.C., so we can safely say that this was not the \"end of the Chou dynasty,\" as Chih-i would have i t . Also, according to the Tzu Hai dictionary, the barbarians did not attack the Yi River d i s t r i c t but were persuaded to move there. Nor does the Tso Ch Uan mention that the body of the man performing sacrifices was naked. However Chih-i's point is clear and CJ makes i t explicit: just as improper performance of the rites was a sign of the decadence of the ancient house of Chou, so the current decadence of the Buddhist clergy, the monks' neglect of the proper ways of behavior, was a sign of the end of an era (and the impending destruction of the samgha). The barbarian invasion of China is com-parable, says CJ, to^the monks' destruction of \"rigjht views.\" This is Chinese ideas of dynastic change to explain the recent downturn in Buddhism's fortunes in China. Perhaps also i t is not entirely an accident that Chih-i chose a tale of the ancient Chou dynasty to illustrate his point, for the recent Buddhist persecution was in fact carried out by a new Chou dynasty, the Northern Chou, i t s e l f of barbar-ian origin. 534 The \"princesses of the Chou\" could.well be a pun, referring both to real princesses in the ancient Chou dynasty as well as to the legitimate bearers of the Buddhist tradition, i.e. virtuous monks, in the Northern Chou dynasty during which the Buddhist persecution took place. to compare vinaya ,and to use 404 From the Chin-shu ^ A , Roll 49. This man was one of the \"Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove,\" the Neo-Taoist group in the Three Kingdoms period who were famous for drinking wine and indulging in eccentric behavior. 536 Thus Chih-i holds that the tragic loss of Northern China to the barbarians (311-316 A.D.), an event in the history of East Asia comparable to the f a l l of the Roman Empire, was to be blamed on the moral degeneration of youth, i t s e l f caused by the teachings of the licentious and undisciplined Neo-Taoists of the Eastern Chin. 537,-Emperor Wu. CJ mentions also the Taoist Chang Pin as one who egged Emperor Wu on to persecute the Buddhists. K. Ch'en in his account of the Northern Chou persecution (Buddhism in China, p. 192-4) states that the Buddhists in later times twisted history to blame this Taoist alone for the persecution rather than the renegade Buddhist monk Wei Yuan-sung. (The latter presented the famous memorial to Emperor Wu in 567 recommending the abolition of the Buddhist church). It is of interest then that Chih-i, speaking only seventeen years after the persecution ended, mentions only the Buddhist monk. There seems to be a consensus, however, that Chang Pin and Wei Yuan-sung were the two advisors of Emperor Wu most responsible for the persecu-tion, whatever their precedence. 539 Not only do they sin but they are unrepentant. CJ makes the implied simile explicit: Wei Yuan-sung is comparable to a bad teacher of the Dharma, while Emperor Wu is comparable to a misled and foolish disciple. It is clear too that faith in one's teacher is not enough. As CJ says, \"First train yourself in the teachings, and only then put faith in the teacher.\" This is a more skeptical attitude towards the disci pie-teacher relationship than expounded earlier in this chapter, where i t was said that to despise an inferior teacher is like having a well but no bucket to get out the water. 540 From Chuang-tzu, the bulk of the passage from Ch. 14, while the part about the dwellers in grottoes and the flying things is from Chapter Two. These passages correspond to pp. 160-161 and p. 46 of Burton Watson's translation of Chuang-tzu. CJ quotes Kuo-hsiang's commentary to this Chuang-tzu tale. Kuo-hsiang holds that the story illustrates the necessity of adapting the rules of behavior to the occasion. In this, Hsi Shih was successful, the ugly women not. The behavior of the latter was like dressing a monkey in the robes of the Duke of Chou: the monkey will only bite and tear the garments. CJ says i t is the same for the samadhi of following one's own thought\u2014this practise must be adapted to the 405 occasion and used only when appropriate. Hsi Shih then illustrates the kind of person who can practise contemplation while having entered e v i l , having sharp faculties and f i t t i n g the time. CJ goes further and interprets the four kinds of beings who try to avoid the ugly women: the poor signify Hinayana devotees (for the nirvana of the latter involves \"going far\"), the rich signify Mahayana devotees (they close the doors of the \"Secret Treasury\" jyjt' ), the fishes signify practitioners of worldly good (firm in upholding the moral code, they \"dive deep\"), and the birds signify practitioners of medi-tation (they soar to higher worlds of s p i r i t ) . All four types of people turn away from evil doctrines ife. , just as the poor, the rich, fishes and birds a l l turn away from an ugly spectacle ^ f t > 0 5 4 1 C J : Their madness is desire, the thunder the evils they pursue (the objects of their desires). 542 Kogi: Such beings have keen faculties, not d u l l , for as CJ has already stated, i t was to bodhisattvas (those \"lacking in arrogance\") that the Buddha expounded the identity between the Three Poisons and liberation. But despite the sharpness of their faculties, they have accumulated heavy karma from past lives. 543 This is a black, bitter medicine derived from excrement, said to be efficacious against fevers and various serious diseases. Urine was one of the only medicines permitted to the ancient samgha: but the current reference is to the native Chinese, not the Indian Buddhist, tradition. Shiki quotes a source which recommends drinking several cups of this substance ( l i t e r a l l y , up to ten he ^ , where a he is about 1\/3 of a pint). 5 4 4From the Samyuktagama (T2.234a-b, Roll 33), or an alternate version of the same simile at T2.429b-c. The Pali version of this sutra is in the Kesi Vagga, 12th of the twenty-seven Vaggas in the Catukka  Nipata (book of fours) in the Ahguttanikaya, and translated by F.L. Woodward in the Pali Text Society Book of the Gradual Sayings, Vol. II, pp. 118-120. The gist of the simile is that there are four kinds of good horses (i.e., horses which can respond at a l l to the rider), comparable to four kinds of listeners to the Dharma. The nimblest of them will obey the will of the horseman upon seeing only the whip's shadow. The others have to be struck on their hair, or their skin, or be cut to their very bones, depending on how responsive they are. The f i r s t horse is like those who develop aversion to the world merely upon understanding the meaning of suffering, old age, sickness and death for other villages than their own. The other three horses are like those who f a i l to grasp the meaning of impermanence unless i t applies to their own village, or to their own friends and relatives, or to their very own bodies. The lesson must be made more obvious in proportion to the dullness of the listeners. 406 By denouncing one of his two doctrines. 546 3^ Z2\u2014 This expression hui-ming w is a mistranslation of the Sanskrit ayusmat (\"having l i f e , \" i .e*. \"aged\" or \"long-lived,\" a respectful form of address), where the possessive suffix -mat has been misunderstood as mati (\"mind,\" \"intelligence\"). The mistrans-lation hui-ming is then interpreted in the Chinese Buddhist tradition as \"the lifewhich is wisdom,\" i.e. the l i f e of the Dharma-body, which lives on wisdom just as the physical body lives on food. b 4 \/From a simile in the Nirvana sutra (T12.617-618c, Roll 2, Ch. 2). Briefly, this passage deals with the difference between the false (non-Buddhist) permanence, pleasure, selfhood and purity, and these same qualities as the true teaching of the Mahayana\u2014especially the Nirvana sutra. Those who teach the validity of these four qualities at the worldly level are compared to an incompetent doctor who indis-criminately uses milk to treat every illness. (This is comparable to the naive viewpoint of ordinary people, as yet unschooled in Buddhist truth, even that of the HTnayana). A wiser doctor arrives in the kingdom and persuades the king that this milk is'poisonous, has the other doctor banished, and proceeds to prescribe a variety of medicines\u2014sweet, salty, sour, e t c . \u2014 f o r the variety of diseases from which the subjects of the kingdom are suffering. (This is like the HTnayana teaching of impermanence, non-self, etc.) Finally however, the king himself grows i l l and the medicine which the doctor prescribes turns out, to the king's great surprise, to be milk again. He was able to do this because, unlike the f i r s t doctor, he could discriminate between patients and give them now one medicine, now another, according to their requirements. Though pure milk might not have been right for everyone i t was appropriate this time for the king. (This corresponds to the Buddha respecting the differences in the capacities of those who hear the Dharma). Milk was prescribed therefore in both the f i r s t and third cases, but when administered as medicine by an ignorant doctor i t was poison and caused harm rather than good. As the sutra says, even i f ignorant doctors should happen to treat a disease success-f u l l y in this way, i t is like the worms who accidentally produce legible characters through their random gnawing on the bark of a tree. Chih-i alludes to this parable in order to c r i t i c i z e those of his contemporaries who ignorantly preach the contemplation of evil and the identity between immorality and enlightenment without knowing what they are talking about. Being ignorant of the true meaning of what they teach and ignorant as well of the capacities of their listeners, they do harm rather than good. Though superficially their teachings may resemble what is being said in the MHCK, i t is two stages inferior to i t , and certainly inferior to the teaching that evil should be avoided and good cultivated. 407 Ekottaragama (T2.794,795a, Roll 46, sutra 49). The same sutra appears in a slightly different form in the Samyuktagama (T2.342c-343b) and as a separate translation by KumarajTva, the Fang-niu-ching Tj^L & \u2022 The very similar Pali version appears in two places: trie Anguttaranikaya (XI.18) and the Majjhimariikaya (33), with the Pali Text Society's English translations in The Book of the Gradual  Sayings (Vol. 5, pp. 224-227) and in Middle Length Sayings (Vol. T, pp. 271-277). The latter translation (by Miss I.B. Horner) is de-f i n i t e l y superior to the former (by F.L. Woodward). 549 The sutra l i s t s eleven ways in which a good cowherd cares for his animals. These include being able to recognize them, caring for their wounds, leading them to good pastures, knowing the location of watering-places (as the translation from the Pali has i t ) and fords, respecting the leaders of the herd, etc. (there are slight variations among the various versions). These items are then compared to eleven ways in which a monk should behave: he should recognize that the four elements comprise a l l material shapes, should be unattached to sense-objects, know the \" f i e l d \" of the Eightfold Way, etc. The \"watering-place\" of the Englislrtranslation from Pali corresponds to \"resting place\" J^j- 2 _ in the Chinese. This is one of the eleven items, and \"knowing \u20ache ford\" (crossing place) is another. Chih-i has picked two of the eleven items from the l i s t and linked them together: \"If he is sure of a good crossing place he can pacify his herd.\" (Here the noun phrase \"resting place\" changes to a verb in the MHCK quote, with \"herd\" as the object of the verb)._ His further comments on the simile have nothing to do with the Agama text. 550 In both Chinese and English the word which means \"morally e v i l \" can also mean \"of inferior quality\": \"bad\" in English, *J3L in Chinese. Then \"bad path\" ^ \u00a3j\u00a7 can mean both immoral benavior and a road which is f u l l of obstructions and hard to use. 551 Such a \"friend\" is the polar opposite of the \"worthy friend,\" who helps one advance along the Way. 552 That i s , i f there is some reason why the contemplation of good\u2014the \"straight and narrow\"\u2014cannot be effective in his case. c e o O O JFrom Ch. 3 of the VimalakTrti (T14.541a). Purna Maitra-yaniputra has just told how VimalakTrti once reproved him for preach-ing to some new monks without f i r s t entering samadhi and determining the receptivity of their minds to the teaching. Purna therefore believed himself to be unfit to pay a v i s i t to VimalakTrti on his sickbed and begs the Buddha to excuse him from this duty. 408 554 \"Even they\" because they are scrupulous in teaching the doctrine of the separation from desire. 555 Namely, that evil is the Way. 5 5 6 C J quotes the Ssu-fen-lii 4& (roll 1) to the effect that a monk who has broken the code is to be ostracized just as the ocean rejects a corpse. This ostracism {pravrajana) can take three forms: temporary expulsion, enforced silence, and permanent expulsion. 5 5 7 I n the Nirvana sutra (T12.620c, Roll 3, Ch. 4) the Buddha com-pares the proper and laudable expulsion of a sinful monk from the samgha to the act of a wealthy householder {grhapati) who removes poisonous trees from his property, or the act of a young man who plucks grey hairs from his head. CJ mentions here that the monk is to be expelled whether he acts out this evil conduct or only preaches i t . 558 The, rebuttal of the libertine position which follows is based on the category of the Three Poisons: desire (craving), anger (aversion) and stupidity. 5 5 9 0 r \"be injured by.\" Stupidity being the third of the Three Poisons, we can safely assume that the libertine would not affirm i t as the Way either. 561 These two responses seem to be inverted from the sequence of the two challenges. That i s , the libertines' response to the verbal rebuttal is the argument that evils can be entered into at any time; and their response to the physical threat is to f a l l silent. Chih-i often employs this kind ofchiasmus in his arguments. By saying they can \"always enter\" into 'a sense-pleasures they differ from Chih-i, who said above that \"the steeper path is taken i f there is an obstruction,\" that the Way must f i t the situation and the person. Kogi comments that these people are deluded in thinking that entering (sensual pleasures) can be seen (only) in entering (sensual pleasures): the Dharma (he says) is that not-entering is identical to entering. Therefore, we must conclude, they should not have to engage in immoral activity to show that they understand the Dharma. 562 As Chih-i would say, they grasp the \"Identity\" but not the \"Six.\" These, teachers would be at the level of Verbal Identity, second lowest of the six. They have heard the Dharma that the defilements and enlightenment are identical, but have yet to attain to an iota of personal realization. \"A l i t t l e knowledge is a dangerous thing.\" 409 5 6 3From the Tao-te-ching \\JL*i& #f (Chapter Fourb '[(The Tao) softens i t s light and mixes with the profane world (?] jfz J^. \u2022\" Only the f i r s t half of the sentence is in the MHCK, but i t implies the second: in this fourth type of \"samadhi\" one mixes with the pro-fane world, instead of just shutting oneself up in a meditation chamber. 5 6 4 I n the MHCK the explanation of each of the f i r s t three methods of practising samadhi is followed by a section called the \"exhortation to practise.\" Only this fourth method, the method of following one's own thought, is followed by a passage advising restraint rather than zeal. CJ: Vinaya teachings (\"hot water\") are necessary in case of excessive involvement in the contemplation of evil (\"yellow dragon potion\"). Fififi CJ: \"Water\" stands for right contemplation, \"peart' for Ultimate Truth, and \"wind\" for the variety of religious practises. 567 This simile seems to f i t the question better than the answer. It may be that the character ta (\"answer\") has been misplaced. 5 6 8Following CJ. 569 CJ: And one's own practise differs according to whether one is at the beginning of the path or well on the way. 570 CJ: Even i f we grant provisionally that a single method is sufficient for one's own practise, i t would be erroneous to teach this same one method to everyone. 571 This means the rest of the group of listeners, no matter how many they might be. 572 So when the Individual and Therapeutic siddhantas are to be the method of exposition, the specific content of each of these (that i s , which of the Four Samadhis is to be taught) should be adapted to the needs of the majority of the listeners. The Ultimate siddhanta would not vary however. 573 CJ: This is the Worldly siddhanta. 410 574 CJ: This is the Individual siddhdnta. 575 - \/ This word is used to translate the Sanskrit dhuta (extreme religious austerities), which is in origin a past participle of the root dhu, meaning to shake or agitate. One \"shakes off\" the defile-ments by engaging in such austerities. 576 CJ: This is the Therapeutic siddhdnta. 577 CJ: This is the Ultimate siddhanta. 578 In fact the f i r s t two of the Four Samadhis have been discussed, leaving only two, not three. 579 From TCTL (T25.239a). This passage describes in detail the Buddha's a b i l i t y to know the varying capacities of beings for receiving the teaching. The TCTL gives^examples for the f i r s t three categories, though not for the fourth: Sariputra and Maudgalyayana typify the f i r s t group, Ahgulimala the murderer (whom we have already encountered) illustrates the second, and Cudapanthaka, famous for his stupidity, the third. CJ says the fourth category is that of ordinary people. The MHCK has inverted the f i r s t two categories from the TCTL sequence, but CJ says this is because religious practise is under discussion here, and so the highest type of disciple should be placed f i r s t . In what follows, the MHCK discusses each of the four categories, in descending order of excellence. 580 Kogi: The practise of good eliminates future karma; the practise of (calming-and-)contemplation promotes future keenness of mind. 581 The practise of calming-and-contemplation and the practise of the good. 582 This king killed his father, the kindly King Bimbisara, in order to gain the throne for himself, and conspired with the evil disciple Devadatta to do away with the Buddha. CJ cites a long passage from the Nirvana sutra (T12.717-728, Roll 17, Ch. 20) where King Ajatasatru is described as suffering from boils a l l over his body because of his misdeeds in past lives. Only by going to the Buddha to repent of his sins and be instructed in the Dharma is he healed. The TCTL passage on the four categories of people mentions only Ahgulimala, but not Ajatasatru as examples for this category. 411 583 This refers d i r e c t l y to the statement made by the questioner above. 584 The story of the virtuous but stupid monk Cudapanthaka i s scattered in many places throughout the scriptures, with quite some variation in the stanza that he was expected to learn. CJ cites sev-eral sources for this story, including the (as usual) TCTL (T25.268a), the Ekottaragama (T2fc601a-b) and the Parable Dharmapada (Fa-chu-p'i- yu-chTng *m (T4.588c-589b). The stanza as given in the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya (the source Lamotte uses in his re-t e l l i n g of the story in a footnote to his TCTL translation) at T23.796b i s quite close in words and meaning to what i s given in the MHCK, but while the MHCK has s i x lines of f i v e characters each, the former work has four lines of seven characters each. Unable to memorize such a long verse (\"each new l i n e he learned drove the l a s t out of his memory,\" as E.B. Cowell puts i t in his translation of the same story in Jataka #4), he was given a simpler verse to learn by the Buddha (though as MHCK has i t , he succeeded in learning the o r i g i n a l and longer one in ninety days). Despite his s t u p i d i t y , learning this one verse perfectly enabled Cudapanthaka to astound his contemporaries with his magical powers and mastery of the Dharma. Other places where the story may be found are in S. Beal's translation of the Parable Dharmapada (pp. 47-48) and B.P. Bapat's translation of the Shan-chien-p 'i-p'o-sha Jst- ^ jju (which i s in turn the Chinese translation of the Pan Samantapasaaika), pp. 463-467. Lamotte names many of these sources i n his TCTL footnote. 585 These are the prthagjana, ordinary people, says CJ. The related passage of the TCTL gives no example for these, but apparently they form the bulk of humanity. And not good actions as opposed to e v i l ones. 5 8 7T12.641b. The MHCK inverts the order of the two clauses i n this sentence from what stands in the sutra. Here the Buddha has been explaining to Kas'yapa that a bodhisattva who in the service of protecting and promoting the Dharma commits acts that contravene the di s c i p l i n a r y code, and who repents of his i n f r a c t i o n s , remains un-stained by them. The example i s given of a young brahmin who lures into his confidence the usurper of a throne, poisons him, and restores the throne to i t s r i g h t f u l occupant. His act i s only apparently a crime, for i t has a higher purpose. A bodhisattva may behave in an outwardly criminal fashion yet be no criminal, because of his high a l t r u i s t i c purposes. He i s in short above morality. 412 588 CJ goes ahead and makes this explicit for us. These four new categories may be regarded as the cause, and the previously explained combinations of capacities and fetters as the effect, (i) Those who are s t r i c t in both the Dharma (of the Mahayana) and morality will both be keen of mind and lack fetters; ( i i ) those who are s t r i c t in keeping to the Dharma but morally lax will have sharp capacities but be burdened with karmic fetters; ( i i i ) those who are lax in the Dharma but morally strict will be intellectually weak but lack karmic fetters; and (iv) those who are lax in both Dharma and morality will be both intellectually weak and burdened with karma. See Figure 2. 589 As CJ says, the former, despite his misdeeds, recited Buddhist sutras, so that after his karma had been used up in hell he achieved liberation; whereas the latter practised mere worldly meditation ~% whereby he could never attain final liberation. This reference is not to a sutra (according^o CJ 1s annotation), but to the Tsa-o-p'i- t'an-hsin-lun jkfy. ft, I*? (Samyukta-abhidharma-hrdaya- sutra, one of trie important ctbhidharma sources available before the time of Hsuan-tsang), at T28.949c. According to this text, Devadatta ended up achieving the status of a pratyeka-buddha, once the karmic retribution for his evil deeds committed during Sakyamuni's lifetime had been used up (by a lengthy sojourn in hell). On the other hand, Udraka Ramaputra was a great non-Buddhist sage who had attained the stage of neither-perception-nor-nonperception (the highest of the four \"formless trances\" or samdpattis). He was the third teacher that Sakyamuni encountered after setting out on his original quest for en-lightenment, and the one from whom he learned this meditation. This Abhidharma text t e l l s briefly the same story about him that may be found in more detail in the TCTL (T25.189a), namely that at a certain point in his l i f e he lost his superhuman powers, including the a b i l i t y to f l y , because of being touched by a woman before he had attained purity of mind. Attempting to regain his powers, he sat in concentration in a forest but was disturbed by the calling of birds; he moved to a river bank only to be disturbed by the splashing of fighting f i s h . Incensed, he vowed to k i l l these beings, and as a consequence was re-born (after 80,000 kalpas, when the merit from his meditations had been used up) as a flying fox, and slew a l l the creatures on the land, in the a i r and in the water that he encountered. Deeply burdened with sin then, he plummeted in his next l i f e to the Avici (lowest) he l l . The TCTL uses this story as an example of the erroneous think-ing of those who make an absolute distinction between distraction and concentration (meditation, samadhi), who get angry {dvesa) at being distracted and develop attachment \\raga) to concentration. 590 As CJ points out, the former practise is for the dull of mind and the latter for the clever. 591 From TCTL (T25.161b). .A drunken brahmin approached the Buddha and asked to be ordained as a monk. The Buddha accordingly had Ananda shave the man's head and outfit him in monk's robes. When the brahmin regained his sobriety he was aghast at his own behavior, changed his mind about membership in the samgha and hurriedly departed. 413 Naturally the other monks were puzzled as to,why the Buddha had ordained such a man in the f i r s t place, but Sakyamuni explained that for innumerable ages the fellow (in his previous lives) had not entertained the slightest thought of entering the religious path. Now his drunkenness had stimulated his f i r s t tentative leanings in that direction and begun the process which would, after many rebirths, eventuate in his attainment of enlightenment. The point of the story, as the TCTL i t s e l f states, is that the incalculable merit gained from becoming a monk makes one superior to any layman, even those who scrupulously observe the five rules of discipline (not to k i l l , steal, l i e , commit adultery or imbibe s p i r i t s ) . CJ restates: \"A monk's breaking of the disciplinary code is superior to a layman's keeping of the code, for keeping the lay prohibitions does not lead to liberation.\" 592 From TCTL (T25.161a-b, just preceding the tale of the drunken brahmin. The Buddha declares here that \"Even though they break the code and f a l l into sin, those who have abandoned the secular l i f e for the Buddha's Dharma w i l l , after the karmic retribution for their sins has been exhausted, obtain liberation.\" The example is then given of the nun Utpalavarna (Pali: Uppalavanna). This woman appears in numerous stories and is described by Thomas Watters, in his On Yuan Chwang's  Travels in India (Vol. I, p. 338), as \"one of the greatest and most noted of the bhiksunls ordained by the Buddha.\" In the TCTL story, she is said to have acquired the six superhuman powers and attained arhat-ship. She used to frequent the houses of the wealthy and praise the religious l i f e in conversation with their wives, encouraging them to become nuns. They objected, saying they were s t i l l young and beautiful and would on that account not be able to adhere to the monastic code. \"All right,\" she said, \"break i t then.\" \"But then we will f a l l to hell!\" they objected. \"Then f a l l to hell,\" she answered. The nun Utpalavarna went on to explain that in a past l i f e she was an actress who used to put on a l l sorts of costumes. Once she put on a nun's habit just to amuse herself, in consequence of which she actually became a nun in a later l i f e (during the time of the Buddha Kasyapa). S t i l l impure, however, she harbored pride in her own beauty and violated the rules of discipline, which caused her to go to hell when she died and endure a l l sorts of torments. Once her sins were, expiated, she was reborn as the woman telling the story, met the Buddha Sakyamuni, became a nun once more and attained the six superhuman powers and arhatship. In this way, she continued, i f a person takes monastic vows, then these become the cause for final arhatship, even i f the person should break the vows, the disciplinary code. But one who merely commits evil deeds and never takes the vows can never win liberation. 414 LESSER CHAPTER THREE EXPERIENCING THE GREAT EFFECT In Chapter Three ( i t is explained how) calming-and-contemplation has been expounded for the purpose of illuminating the pure and great effect and recompense am1 due the bodhisattva (who engages in the practise). If his practise should deviate from the Middle Way, then (he will experience) retribution at the two extremes; while i f his practise should follow )>|ft the Middle Way, then he will earn the supreme and wondrous recompense. Even i f he has not yet emerged from the common samsara, the recompense he earns in his current l i f e 2 will s t i l l d i f f e r from (be superior to) what 3 accrues to those in (the Buddha-land) of the Seven Expedients. S t i l l more (superior to the recompense of rebirth in the Buddha-land of Expedients) is the True Recompense.4 The city of (All) Fragrances, with its seven levels and the sides of its bridges like a painting, are the features (of this Buddha-land).5 These ideas will be set forth in greater detail in (Greater Chapter Eight. Q: The Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men ^fc ^ (also) explains practise 4^ ; and realization \"|^r . In what respects does i t agree with and differ from this (chapter on) the effect and recompense (of the practise)? 415 A: \"Practise\" means learning ^ and (religious) practise 4f , while \"realization\" means giving rise to and attaining 9^ \u2022 Again, \"practise\" means the like-natured cause ^ 1*2 {sabha.ga-h.etu) and \"realization\" means the like-natured effect ^ {nisyanda-phala).8 Both of these can be earned during l i f e . However, the karmic recompense which is now under discussion is set apart and lies in future lives. For this reason i t differs from (the \"realization\" \"pffc of) the Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men. The Two Vehicles have only the like-natured effect ^} (in the present l i f e ) , and no recompense \"^J^. (in future l i v e s ) , but the Mahayana 9 has them both. . . . 416 FOOTNOTES LESSER CHAPTER THREE EXPERIENCING THE GREAT EFFECT 'These two characters can be interpreted separately or together. When treated separately, the \"effect\" results from a cause \u00ae while the \"recompense\" J^\u00a3_ results from a condition . Here-after I shall translate the binome simply as \"recompense\" however, (unless i t is a negative recompense, in which case I sometimes use the word \"retribution.\") There are many other names for a negative rec-ompense: obstacle, defilement, fetter, delusion, etc. 2 The Nirvana sutra (Tl2.717a, Roll 17) distinguishes between recompense in the present l i f e (the \"flower\" -s\u00a3 ) and that in future lives (the \" f r u i t \" % ). The TCTL, however! (T25.140c, Roll 11), calls the recompense of happiness in this and future lives the \"shadow\" f& of the tree, the state of srdvakas and pratyekabuddhas the \"flower^ 4p , and the state of a Buddha the \" f r u i t \" % . Here I follow the interpretation of the Nirvana sutra. \"Fruit\" and \"effect\" are both translations of the same Chinese character. It i s , however, not convenient to translate the character consistently with one or the other of these two English words, since the connotations of both are included. JThis sentence and the following one on the features of the City of All Fragrances inspires a great deal of scholastic interpretation on the part of the commentators. The common samsara ^ is the ordinary cycle of birth and rebirth in the lower six destinies to which the ordinary person is subject, and is opposed to the supernal samsara ^? ft, rebirth in the Pure Land as a consequence of saintly behavior and religious practise (this samsara is reserved for the Two Vehicles). Later in his commentary to the MHCK (Roll 8, part one), CJ distinguishes as many as seven kinds of samsara, including both of these. The Buddha-land of the Seven Expedients refers to the second lowest of the four Buddha-lands which we encountered earlier in the MHCK (Chapter One, note 130). Chih-i expounds these in his commentary to the VimalakTrti (in the section on the sutra's chapter one, On Buddha-lands), the Wei-mo-ching-hsuan-su. These four lands are (to repeat myself) (i) the Co-dwelling Land (inhabitated by both ordinary people and saints), ( i i ) the Land of (the Seven) Expedients with Residue, ( i i i ) the Land of Real Recompense without Obstacles, and (iv) the Land of Permanence, Quiescence and Illumination. All four of these are 417 called Buddha-lands, despite the presence of less-developed beings in the lower three, because the Buddha enters them a l l for the,purpose of expounding the: Dharma to the beings and leading ~ \u00ab them towards enlightenment. It is his Body of Response (the physical body) which enters the f i r s t (Co-dwelling) land, his Body of Recompense (inferior and superior) J$Ly(which enters the next two lands, and his Dharma-body which enters (is native to) the highest land. The f i r s t of these lands is further subdivided into our ordinary world (JambudvTpa) and the Western Paradise. As for the second land, the term \"expedients\" -ft h%_ here refers to the seven kinds of beings which reach this land, not to methods or devices as is usually the case. The seven indicated are srdvakas and pratyekabuddhas of the Tripitika and Shared Teachings (totaling four kinds of beings) plus bodhisattvas in the Shared, Separate and Perfect Teachings. This category is said to derive from the parable of the grasses and trees in Chapter five of the Lotus sutra, where the Buddha's teaching is compared to rain, and the beings to the variety of grasses and trees (some short, some medium, some t a l l ) which use the rain, each according to its own capacity. The third land contains only bodhisattvas, and the^foyrth land is the abode of a l l , .. ^ , J X J\/tr^ Now CJ states that the Buddha-land promised the practitioner is number three, the Land of Real Recompense without Obstacles, where nescience has been completely eliminated but true Buddhahood is not yet f u l l y manifested. As the MHCK says here, the practitioner attains rebirth in a land higher than the land of the Seven Expedients (number two). The \"retribution of the two extremes\" CJ interprets to mean the f i r s t and second lowest Buddha-lands; land #1 is the extreme of existence, land #2 the extreme of inexistence (emptiness). The \"common\" samsara is identified with land #1 (and the supernal samsara with land #2), so that i t is apparently contradictory for Chih-i to be saying that even i f the practitioner does not emerge from i t , he will experience the karmic reward of land #3. CJ says that since he has eliminated nescience, he must necessarily have surpassed the common samsara- he is there only to expound the Dharma to the beings of that p l a n e d . 4 This, according to the Nirvana sutra explanation, would mean recompense in future lives. CJ states, and Kogi agrees, that this recompense is represented by land #3. 5From the Pancavimsati (contained in TCTL, T25.734a-b, Roll 97, Ch. 88). The sutra here describes a Buddha-land (city) called All Fragrances (*Sarvagandha), the abode of the preaching bodhisattva Dharmodgata, to which Sadapralapa (the Ever-Weeping ^ w& ) makes his way at the cost of great effort, in order to hear the'Dharma. There is a f l o r i d description in the sutra of the c i t y , rather typical Buddhas, the Secret Treasury 418 of Mahayana rhetoric, which includes the statement that i t has seven levels, is \"majestic as a painting Jfik^F1 ~%_ \" and that \"the sides of the bridges (leading to i t ) are as broaa and pure (?) as the earth ^ ^ J t P * & % & t f y f \u2022 \" In the MHCK these two phrases are abbreviated and joined to arrive at th? phrase \"the sides of the bridges are like a painting\" y% fc2-^ \u2022 A promise which is never kept, just as the promises below, con-cluding Lesser Chapters Four and Five, to discourse further on their subjects in Greater Chapters Nine and Ten respectively, are also never kept. CJ says that though the end of the summer retreat {varqa) was reached, so that conditions were unfavorable for continuing to the very end of the original plan, s t i l l there could be no harm in provisionally indicating the--as i t turned out\u2014nonexistent later chapter. Sekiguchi has a different theory, as I have mentioned in the introduction. 7CJ says this refers to Ch. 7 of the earlier meditation text, which corresponds to Ch. 7 of the MHCK, Right Contemplation It JjH^  p The effect has the same moral nature (good, evil or neutral) as the cause. Q Chapter Seven in the Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men on \"Practise and Realiza-tion\" is generally regarded as parallel to Chapter Seven in the MHCK (Right Contemplation), not to (the theoretical) Chapter Eight on the karmic recompense. One would therefore expect the hypothetical ques-tioner here to inquire about the similarities and differences between this MHCK chapter and Chapter Eight (not Seven) of the earlier work, entitled \"the Effect and Recompense (of dhyana)\" ^ 4^ . 419 LESSER CHAPTER FOUR RENDING THE GREAT NET In Chapter Four (is explained how) this calming-and-contemplation has been expounded for the purpose of rending (both one's own and others' doubts arising from the variation i n ) 1 the great net of the sutras and treatises. If a person s k i l l f u l l y uses calming-and-contem-plation to contemplate (his) thoughts i C s , then, his inner wisdom made luminous, he will comprehend f u l l y a l l the teachings, both gradual and sudden, just as i f by smashing (a single) grain of dust he had extracted a b i l l i o n r o l l s of sutras. (All) the Buddha's Dharma, (as extensive as) the sands of the Ganges, shines within a single thought Whoever wishes to benefit the beings outside (himself, ought to) establish teachings that f i t their capacities, expound (the Dharma) in accordance with their competence, and match (the doctrine) to them. (This procedure should be followed) right up to the time that he has attained Buddhahood and (the a b i l i t y to) conjure up things (out of thin a i r ) , (at which time) he may (take form as) the King of the Dharma to expound the sudden and the gradual Dharma, or as a bodhisattva, or as a srdvaka, deva, asura3 human, (hungry) ghost, or as a form in any of the Ten Destinies, (and expound a teaching) that f i t s (the beings he encounters) and arouse (the thought of enlightenment in them). 420 He may be asked questions by the Buddha and reply extensively with sudden or gradual (teachings), or he may repress his own capacities (for preaching) and ask the Buddha, so that the Buddha replies with 3 a sudden or a gradual Dharma-wheel. These ideas will be set forth at greater length when we come to Chapter Nine. They are also briefly indicated in (Greater Chapter Four on) Inclusion of (All) Dharmas 421 FOOTNOTES LESSER CHAPTER FOUR RENDING THE GREAT NET 'Following CJ and Kogi. 2 In the Chinese the f i r s t two of the four clauses making up this sentence are taken together as the condition, as indicated by the character ^  that follows the second. However, to avoid a tautology the second clause needs to be understood as belonging to the consequence of the condition, together with the third and fourth clauses. I have so translated. 3 - -The form of Mahayana sutras is usually a dialogue with either a bodhisattva or the Buddha expounding the Dharma in them. 4 Greater Chapter Four i s , along with Greater Chapter Two, one of the two briefest chapters in the MHCK, and sets forth the contention that the \"one practise\" \u2014 ^ of calming-and-contemplation com-prehensively includes the whole of the Buddhist teaching within i t s e l f . The discussion divides the latter into six elements: Ultimate Truth, delusion, wisdom, practise, stages of attainment and teaching 3^. ^ ^| fa JfflL, \u2022 Normally the absent Greater Chapter Nine is regarded as the expansion of the very brief Lesser Chapter Four, but the MHCK indicates here that some of the same material is in the extant Greater Chapter Four. This is a real boon, for the portion of Greater Chapter Four which deals with this (the sixth of the six parts of the chapter) is several times the length of the meager Lesser Chapter Four. It is found at T46.31b-32a. 422 LESSER CHAPTER FIVE RETURNING TO THE GREAT ABODE In Chapter Five (is explained how) calming-and-contemplation has been expounded in order to return (the practitioner) to the ultimate emptiness of a l l Dharmas, which is (what is meant by) \"the Great Abode.\"1 It is easy for a sticky hand to adhere (to what i t touches), and i t is hard to awaken from somniloquent dreaming. Sealing up the text and limiting i t s sense, one declares one's own (impoverished understanding of i t ) to be right, and vies to seize t i l e s and pebbles while saying (and thinking) they are lapis l a z u l i . (Such a one) 4 f a i l s to understand even familiar things and explicit words; how then could he not err in the remote Ultimate Truth, the secret teaching? This is why i t is necessary to discuss the returning of the (doctrine's) purport -|) JJf (to the Great Abode of Emptiness). 5 The \"returning of the purport\" signifies the place whither the purport of the text returns, like the sea to which (all ) streams of water flow, or the sky at which (all ) flames point. 6 (You should) discern the hidden and achieve the remote without pausing or stagnating anywhere (along the way).7 Be like the wise minister who fathoms the meaning of his king's esoteric words. Understand (the real meaning of) everything that you hear expounded and arrive thereby at 423 the stage of omniscience. Whoever understands this also comprehends the returning of the purport (to the Great Abode). \"Purport\"-^\" means turning towards the Three Qualities (of Ultimate Reality) jS, 9 , and \"returning\" means causing others to likewise enter into them: this is why this is called \"the returning of the purport.\" 1 0 Again, \"returning\" means entering into the Three Qualities oneself and \"purport\" means causing others to enter into them: this is why this (chapter) is called \"the returning of the purport.\" I. THE THREE QUALITIES OF ULTIMATE REALITY Now we shall explain the \"returning of the purport\" again, both in summary and in detail. (As for the summary explanation), the Buddhas appear in the world in order to bring about the One Great Event \/v ij^ ,^ (and to f u l f i l l this intent) they display a variety of forms and enable animate beings a l l to see the Dharma-body (in these forms). Once (the beings) have perceived the Dharma-body, 12 Buddhas and beings both return to the Dharma-body. Again, the Buddhas expound a variety of Dharmas by which they cause animate beings to completely master the total omniscience \u2014 f$ \"^ 3 1 3 of the Tathagata. Once in possession of this omniscience, both 14 Buddhas and animate beings return to Wisdom. Again, the Buddhas exhibit a variety of expedients, superhuman powers and magical transformations by which they liberate (beings) from their bonds. They do not enable only a single person to annihilate (his bonds), for (the bonds of) a l l beings are annihilated by the annihilating (power) 424 of the Tathagata. Once (their bonds) have been annihilated, both 15 Buddhas and beings return to Liberation. It says in the Nirvana sutra, \"Having placed a l l (my) children at rest in the Secret 16 Treasury, I myself will also abide there before long.\" These are the summary features of the \"returning of the purport\" (to the Great Abode or Secret Treasury). The detailed aspects (of the Three Qualities). There are three kinds of (Buddha-) bodies: f i r s t is the physical body ^ J f , second is the body of the Teaching y& , and third is the body of Ultimate Reality (For these) the meaning of the \"returning\" that takes place upon the termination of teaching activity 1 is that the physical body returns to Liberation, the body of the Teaching returns to Wisdom, and the body of Ultimate Reality returns to the Dharma-body. There are (also) three kinds of Wisdom (omniscience) which may be postulated: f i r s t is the discriminating omniscience ^J. 9^ , second is h o l i s t i c omniscience ~- ^fj %Q , and third is total omniscience $L f^. (For these) the meaning of the \"returning\" that takes place upon termination of the teaching activity is that ( i f one has) discriminating omniscience he returns to Liberation, i f holistic omniscience he returns to Wisdom, and i f total omniscience he returns to the Dharma-body. There are three kinds of Liberation: f i r s t is liberation from the bondage of ignorance ifcG , second is the liberation from the bondage of attachment to features (of doctrine) ~$SL , and third is liberation from the bondage of (root) nescience 4k A If one terminates teaching 425 activity and returns to the (Ultimate) Truth, then upon being released from the bondage which is (ordinary) ignorance one returns to Libera-tion, upon being released from the bondage which is attachment to the features (of doctrine) one returns to Wisdom, and upon being released from the bondage which is nescience one returns to the Dharma-body. For this reason \"the returning of the purport\" in its specific aspects also (means) returning into the Secret Treasury of the Three Qualities (of Ultimate Reality). II. THE UNTHINKABILITY OF THE THREE QUALITIES Now the Three Qualities are (in reality) neither three nor one, but unthinkable. Why? If we say that the Dharma-body is the Dharma-body and that alone, then (what we are positing by such a statement) is not the (real) Dharma-body. Know therefore that the (real) Dharma-body is a body, while also being not a body as well as being neither of these P[ Ij' Pi \u2022 When one abides in the surahgama (heroic) samadhi, various manifestations (of the Buddha) appear as material images, which is why we use the term \"body.\" Once i t s activity is finished, i t returns to Liberation. Wisdom illuminates (for us) the fact that form (matter) is not (absolute) form 20 which is why we use the expression \"not a body.\" Once the activity (of the non-body, the Buddha's teaching), is finished, i t returns 426 to Wisdom. (Finally) the body of Ultimate Reality is neither the 21 body of material images nor the body of the Teaching, which\"is why we use the expression \"neither body nor non-body.\" Once the activity (of the body of Ultimate Reality) is finished, i t returns to the Dharma-body. \"Returning\" means attaining (oneself) to the realization that these three bodies are neither the same nor different, and \"purport\" ^ means expounding (to others) that these three 22 bodies are neither the same nor different. In both of these (acts) one enters into the Secret Treasury, and this is why we use the expression \"the returning of the purport.\" If we say that Wisdom is Wisdom and that alone, then (what we are positing by such a statement) is not (real) Wisdom. Know therefore that (real) Wisdom is knowing, while also being not-knowing, as well as neither of these fa %\\ fa^^P ^ %Y . 2 4 Wisdom at the level of discriminating omniscience has universal knowledge of 25 the provisional, which is why we use the term \"knowing.\" Once i t s activity is finished i t returns to Liberation. Wisdom at the level of holistic omniscience has universal knowledge of the Truth (but 26 not of details), which is why we use the expression \"not-knowing.\" Once i t s activity is finished i t returns to Wisdom. Wisdom at the level of total omniscience has universal knowledge of the Middle, which is why we use the expression \"neither knowing nor not-knowing.\" Once i t s activity is finished, i t returns to the Dharma-body. \"Return-ing\" means attaining (oneself) to the realization that these three Wisdoms are neither the same nor different, and \"purport\" means 427 expounding (to others) that these Three Wisdoms are neither the same nor different. In both of these (acts) one enters into the Secret Treasury, and this is why we use the expression \"the returning of the purport.\" If we say that Liberation is Liberation and that alone, then (what we are positing by such a statement) is not (real) Liberation. Know therefore that (real) Liberation is Liberation, while also not Libera-tion as well as neither of these Liberation at the level of the purity of expedients 7j ^IL^ 2 7 tames (the passions of) animate beings but is not soiled (by them), which 28 is why we use the term \"Liberation.\" Once i t s activity is finished i t returns to Liberation. Liberation at the level of the purity of \u2022\/ST! 29 the whole >y does not perceive the features of either beings 30 or Liberation ( i t s e l f ) , which is why we use the expression \"not-Liberation.\" Once it s activity is finished i t returns to Dharma-body. Whether we attain to the realization (ourselves), or explain to others, that these three Liberations are neither the same nor different, both (the self-realization and the teaching activity) enter into the Secret Treasury, and this is why we use the expression \"the returning of the purport.\" 428 III. THE THREE QUALITIES AND THE THREE OBSTACLES 32 Now the Three Qualities are neither \"new\" nor \"old,\" yet they 33 are (at the same time) new and old. Why is this? When the 34 Three Obstacles impede the Three Qualities, nescience impedes the Dharma-body, attachment to the features of the Teaching impedes Wisdom, and ignorance impedes Liberation. We call the Three Obstacles \"old\" because (we provisionally regard them as) pre-existing \"7^  , and we call the Three Qualities \"new\" because they (may be provisionally regarded as) appearing only once the Three Obstacles have been eradicated. But (from the ultimate point of view) the Three Obstacles are identical to the Three Qualities, and the Three Qualities identical to the Three Obstacles. Because of the former, the three Obstacles are (ultimately) not oldrarid because of the latter, the Three Qualities are (ultimately) not new. Because they are not-new yet new, the Three Qualities exist (for the practitioner) as acquired at every stage from the rising of the thought of enlightenment to the ultimate (attainment of Buddhahood). And because they are not-old yet old, the Three Obstacles exist to be suppressed at every stage from the rising of the thought of enlightenment to the ultimate (attainment of Buddhahood). Because of being both new and not-new, both old and not-old, the Three Qualities exist as the (unchanging) nature of Ultimate Truth. . If one completely attains to the understanding that the Three Qualities are neither new nor old 3fi yet also are new and old, that they are neither the same as nor different from (the Three Obstacles), and one (instructs) others accordingly--then the purport (of the teaching has indeed) returned into,the Secret Treasury. Now to explain (the three Obstacles individually), (a) Nescience is called old because i t is pre-existent, while the Dharma-body, which 37 is enlightenment, is called new because i t eradicates nescience. But (at the ultimate level) nescience is identical to enlightenment, and enlightenment is identical to nescience. Because of the former, nescience is not old, while because of the latter, enlightenment is not new. (b) Attachment to the features of the teaching is called old because i t is pre-existent, while (the view of) feature!essness is called new because i t eradicates (attachment to) features. (But at the ultimate level, the presence of) features is identical to featurelessness, and featurelessness is identical to (the presence of) features. Which could be new and which old? (c) Ignorance is called old because i t is pre-existent, while knowledge is called new because i t eradicates ignorance. (But at the ultimate level) ignor-ance is identical to knowledge, and knowledge is identical to ignorance. Which then could be new and which old? If one has attained to the realization that the new and old are neither the same nor different, whether (they are considered) in 38 summary or in detail, and i f one teaches others accordingly, then this is what is called \"the returning of the purport into the Secret on Treasury.\" (Pairs of antonyms like) vertical and horizontal, analyzing and synthesizing & , 4 0 beginning and end, 4 1 are a l l to be understood similarly. 430 IV. THE MEANING OF \"PURPORT\" AND \"RETURNING\" (The words) \"purport\" and \"returning\" are also to be understood in this way. \"Purport,\" \"non-purport,\" \"neither purport nor non-pur-port,\" \"returning,\" \"non-returning,\" \"neither returning nor non-returning\"--each of these must (be understood in such a way that i t ) enters into the Secret Treasury. This can be understood on the analogy of the foregoing (discussion), for \"purport\" is one's own 42 practise, \"non-purport\" is teaching others, and \"neither purport nor 43 non-purport\" is where self and other are both absent. Such is the (ultimate) quiescence of the Three Qualities of the \"returning of the purport.\" What terms could denote it? Not knowing what to call i t , we force upon i t such designations as \"the Middle Way,\" \"Ultimate Reality,\" \"the Dharma-body,\" \"neither-quiescence-nor-luminosity\" 4 4 5^ Jt- $Y$$-> \u00bb o r s u c n designations as \"total omniscience,\" the \"Great Wisdom of Sameness,\" .if- ^  7X. , 4 5 the \"Perfection of Wisdom,\" \"Insight\"; 4 6 or such designations as \"the \/ 47 suvahgama samadhi,\" \"mahdpariniwdna, \" \"the unthinkable liberation,\" 48 or \"serenity.\" Know therefore that every single one of the whole array of features, teachings, and superhuman powers enters into the Secret Treasury. This \"returning of the purport\": what is i t , where is i t , who 49 is it? The \"returning of the purport\" means that the path of speech is cut off {sarva-vdda-oaryd-uccheda) that the abode for the function-ing of thought is annihilated {citta-pravftti-sthiti-nivodha), and that (Ultimate Reality) is eternally quiescent like space. This will be set forth at greater length in Chapter Ten. 432 FOOTNOTES LESSER CHAPTER FIVE RETURNING TO THE GREAT ABODE Kogi: Practise and realization return one f i n a l l y to where there are no distinctions to be made between cause (practise) and realization (effect), nor between self and other. 2 CJ quotes for this metaphor a story for which Kogi gives the correct location: the Samyuktagama (T2.173b-c, Roll 24, sutra 620). Briefly, monks s t i l l attached to sense-objects are compared by the Buddha to a foolish monkey who cannot resist touching bird-lime or pitch which a hunter has set out to trap them. First one of the monkey's hands gets stuck to the pitch, and then as he tries to free himself, his other hand, both legs and mouth become stuck as well. The hunter then appears, impales the poor animal on a pole, and carries him off for dinner. The monkey, explained the Buddha, is like those monks who f a i l to guard the gates of their senses atten-tively. In the MHCK the emphasis seems rather to be on the dangers of being attached to doctrine, the words of the Buddhist (or any) teaching. CJ also notes that the story may be found in the Nirvana, sutra (T12.761a, Roll 23). The Pali version is in the Samyutta-nikaya (47.1.7: in the Mahavagga, Book III, 1.7). This is the \"Monkey sutra\" (Makkata-sutta), translated by E.L. Woodward in the Pali text Society's Kindred Sayings (Vol. V, pp. 127-128). Mrs. Rhys Davids also has an English translation in her Buddhist Psychology, p. 35, where she observes what the reader may have already noticed, the remarkable similarity between this story and the Uncle Remus story of Brer Rabbit and the Tarbaby (which must i t s e l f have come from Africa). q This metaphor from the Nirvana sutra (Tl2.617c) has been used already in the MHCK. 4 CJ takes the opportunity here to comment ironically on the \"dhyana-masters\" of sudden enlightenment (almost certainly meaning Ch'an school monks), belonging to the Bodhi-tree lg^iffi monastery of Kuei-chi ^4jh -fp^ ; he characterizes them as \"attaining to the remote Ultimate Truth without (being able to) understand ordinary discourse\" and \"able to realize the profound Ultimate Truth yet 433 uncomprehending of familiar things. Shiki comments on this that anyone who realizes the Ultimate Truth should be able to understand mundane matters too, which he takes as proof that (these) zengi ^ ^(dhyana-masters) do not gain the true nonarising. By the time of Shiki (12th century Japan), the term zengi did mean \"Zen monk\" and not merely \"dhyana master,\" but even in CJ's time i t may have already begun to have the same connotation. Both CJ and Shiki are certainly denouncing in general the non-rational approach for which Zen is so famous. JCJ mentions that the character - J j f (for \"purport\") is fre-quently written ^ (to point, indicate) in MHCK texts available in his day, but that the latter character and i t s meaning are appropriate only for the case of teaching others. For one's own practise, the character ought to stand as ^ , without the hand radical. Kogi also remarks that the fact that by his time (Japan of the late Edo period) the character is written jg- is a result of emendations carried out in the meantime. * \"CJ makes the similes explicit: water and f i r e are like the (verbal) teaching, their \"flowing\" and \"pointing\" is like the meaning of the teaching, and the sea and sky are like the \"place\" that the teaching aims at. I believe i t would not be a distortion to add that these three are also respectively comparable to the three bodies of Buddha: the bodies of response and recompense, and the Dharma-body. 7CJ: If you discern the hidden (esoteric) teaching and achieve (comprehend) the remote Ultimate Truth, then you will not stop at the exoteric (revealed) teaching, nor stagnate in (merely) proximate truths. \"Based on a parable in the Nirvana sutra (T12.662b, Roll 9). Here the Buddha is compared to a king who orders saindhava to be brought to him. The Sanskrit word saindhava is however ambiguous, being an adjective derived from the word sindhu (\"river,\" \"Indus river,\" \"ocean,\" or \"the province of Sind\"), and so can mean \"maritime,\" \"a horse from Sind,\" \"a person from Sind,\" \"the salt which is so plentiful in Sind,\" \"a container for water,\" etc. The sutra l i s t s four possible meanings: salt, jug, water and horse. Only a wise minister will be able to guess which of the four the king wants at a particular time: salt i f he wants to eat, a jug i f he wants to imbibe, water i f he wants to wash, and a horse i f his fancy turns towards sport. The wise disciple of the Buddha like-wise knows, argues the Nirvana sutra, that when the Buddha preaches the (HTnayana) doctrine that a l l dharmas are impermanent, bring suffering, lack selfhood, and are impure, he means esoterically that the nature of Ultimate Reality is permanence, pleasure, selfhood and purity. Dharma-body, Wisdom, Liberation. From a philological standpoint one can hardly agree that-^T \"purport\" and j^a \"returning\" can be distinguished along the self-and-other dimension. As the meaning of \"returning\" is discussed below and above i t seems to have nothing to do with instructing others or f a c i l i t a t i n g their entrance into the Secret Treasury (final enlightenment). However in the very next sentence Chih-i reverses the meanings of the two characters. ^From Chapter two of the Lotus sutra (T9.7a). As explained in the sutra, the \"one great event\" is the enlightenment of each being, the wisdom by which they are the Buddha's equal. 12 As one of the three qualities. 13 Highest of the Three Wisdoms (or kinds of omniscience) and pertaining only to Buddhas. This corresponds to the Middle Truth. The Two Vehicles attain \"holistic Omniscience\"\u2014-^'^ (knowledge of the whole, corresponding to the Truth of Emptiness) and bodhisattvas attain the discriminating omniscience ^ ^ (knowledge of the parts of the whole, corresponding to the Truth of Provisionality) These will be mentioned again in the MHCK below. As one of the Three Qualities. 'As one of the Three Qualities. Tl2.616b, Roll 2. The passage in the sutra goes on to speak of the \"Secret Treasury\" as having the Three Qualities (Dharma-body, Wisdom, Liberation) not separately but together, just as three dots are needed to make the letter \" i \" in the Siddham alphabet do or three eyes are on the brow of Mahesvara: in : both cases not only are al l three necessary but they must be in the right arrangement: not strung out either vertically or horizontally. ^Elsewhere these are known as the bodies of response, recompense and the Dharma-body. 1 g The \"teaching activity\" is represented by Lesser Chapter Four and Greater Chapter Nine, just as the \"returning\" is represented by this Lesser Chapter Five and Greater Chapter 10. 19 These three kinds of bondage resemble the category of the Three Delusions 3~ (and in fact CJ later in this chapter equates the two groups): intellectual-and-emotional delusions, dust-435 sand delusions, and nescience. Chih-i usually holds that those who transcend these delusions are respectively the Two Vehicles, bodhi-sattvas and Buddhas. The Three Truths also apply to these beings respectively (and the delusions which they eradicate): empty, pro-visional and Middle. 20 This applies to the aforementioned \"body of the Teaching.\" 21 Kogi: In Ultimate Truth there is neither a self who could practise nor an other who could be taught. 22 t. The character -p does not mean \"explain\" or \"preach,\" but its homonym (with the hand radical) T^j can be so construed. As mentioned in a previous note, these two characters were confused early in the history of the MHCK text. 23 Personal realization and teaching others. 24 Compare Seng-chao's famous essay, \"On Wisdom lacking Knowledge\" ^ f o i t y ( i n t h e Chao-lun, T45.153a-154c), translated both by Liebenthal (Chao-lun, pp. 64-80) and by Robinson (Early  Madhyamika in India and China, pp. 212-220). 25 Kogi: It does not err in i t s cognition of (phenomenal) things. pc Since this kind of \"knowing\" takes only Ultimate Reality, i.e. Emptiness, as i t s object, i t cannot be called knowledge in the ordinary sense. 27 The three kinds of Liberation expounded here have different names from the three kinds introduced just previously, but the meanings are the same. The terms used here are identical to the names of the three kinds of nirvana which Chih-i discusses in his commentary to the Suvarna-prabhasa-uttama-sutra (the Chin-kuang-ming  hsuan-i \/\u00a3: ^ \u2022% % : J~! The three may be matched to the three Buddha-bodies also under discussion here. 28 This form of Liberation applies to bodhisattvas. 29 Release from attachment to the features of the teaching. 30 It ignores parts in favor of the whole. This is characteristic of the Two Vehicles and correspondingly of the Truth of Emptiness. 436 31 This statement on the third Liberation is much briefer than the statements on the third Buddha-body and the- third wisdom. 32 \"New\" means the Qualities are acquired through religious practise, appearing where they were not present before, while \"old\" means pre-existing ( ^ 7| or ^ 7fi ) due to karma from previous lives. 33 Kogi says this statement should include the Three Obstacles as well as the Three Qualities. He also says that the Three Qualities being neither new nor old is the Ultimate Truth of the Dharma, while the Obstacles being old and the Qualities being new refers to the sequential meaning of the Dharma, where the practitioner progresses from lesser to greater understanding. 34 Not the better-known Three Obstacles which have already come up in the text of the MHCK (defilements, karma and suffering), but the forms of bondage from which the three aspects of Liberation release the practitioner, i.e. the inverse of the three kinds of Liberation. 35 The same principle is expressed by the \"Identity\" of the Six Identities. 3 6 C J : For the provisional and the Ultimate Truth are not-two yet two. 3 7 L i t e r a l l y , \"light eradicates the absence of 1 ight\" 0$ ^JJ t i taJk *$\\ 38 That i s , whether the Three Qualities and Three Obstacles are each seen as three (making nine Qualities and nine Obstacles) or as one. 39 CJ says that the l i s t i n g of Dharma-body, Wisdom and Liberation as such is vertical, while dissecting each into its three aspects is horizontal. 40 Parts and whole, the three and the one, the nine and the three. 41 CJ: The beginning and end of Sakyamuni's teaching career, or else the f i r s t thought of enlightenment of a practitioner and his complete and perfect enlightenment. 437 42 Kogi: \"Non-purport\" because the teaching must be adapted to their deluded passions (rather than to the Ultimate Truth). 43 Chih-i leaves us to interpret \"returning,\" \"non-returning\" and \"neither returning nor non-returhing\" on our own by comparison with what has already been said. 4 4Here ohih Jt- and kuan can be understood as what is perceived as the result of practise, rather than as tools to achieve this final state. These and the three preceding terms are now being used as descriptions (names) for (provisionally) objective Ultimate Reality. Unfortunately no one pair of English terms can be as malleable as the Chinese ohih and kuan. In my introduction I have spoken of the different meanings of the expression chih-kuan. 45 A term for the Buddha's wisdom, found inter a l i a in the Lotus  sutra (T9.32b, Ch. 11). All dharmas are the same in their ultimate nature (namely in lacking own-being, in a l l being empty), and animate beings are the same in that they ultimately a l l attain an awareness of this fact. AC These four terms are positive descriptions of (provisionally) subjective Ultimate Truth, f i n a l l y no different from Ultimate Reality but conceived of as i f i t were an attribute of the practitioner rather than the \"outside world.\" 4 7From the chapter of the same name in the VimalakTrti (T14.546b-c, Ch. 11). A bodhisattva who has won this liberation can put Mt. Sumeru in a mustard seed, oceans in a single pore of his skin, hold the universe in his hand, and bend time i t s e l f to f i t his purpose\u2014for he has f u l l y realized the voidness of a l l these things. 48 \/ These four terms are negative descriptions of the same (pro-visionally conceived) subjective Ultimate Truth. The preceding group of four terms and this group stand in the same relationship to each other as bodhi and nirvana, while the f i r s t of these three groups of terms is comparable to Tathagata-garbha. Or to use English, the three groups of terms refer respectively to Reality, enlightenment, and extinction. As Chih-i says, there is no difference between these three. 49 - & Kogi says the f i r s t of these three questions wipes out n l m J S \" t - \/ ; c ? (subjective designations), the second wipes out substance ~t. (objective designates), and the third wipes out the subject(designator) himself - t |.> (that which regards i t s e l f as existent). Nothing else is l e f t . ' A P P E N D I X CHART I: THE SIX IDENTITIES AND THE FIFTY-TWO STAGES CHART II: THE RETURNING OF THE PURPORT INTO THE GREAT ABODE \/ ) IDENTITY STAGE WHEEL 1. I. in Principle 2. Verbal I. 3. I. of Religious Practise (Five Classes of Disciples) 4. I. of Resemblance Ten Stages of Faith (purity of six sense-organs) Iron 5. I. of Partial Truth Ten Abodes Copper Ten Stages of Action Silver Ten Stages of Diversion Gold Ten Stages Proper Lapis Lazuli Near-Buddhahood Wish-fulfill ing Gem 6. Ultimate I Full Buddhahood Chart I The Six Identities and the Fifty-Two Stages oo to LIBERATION WISDOM DHARMA-BODY Liberation (as three) Liberation ' from Ignorance \\ Liberation from the ^ Features of the Teaching \\ Liberation from A Root Nescience Wisdom (as three) Discriminating' Omniscience \\ Holistic Omniscience 1 \\ Total Omniscience t Buddha-Body (as three) Physical Body ' of Buddha \\ Body of the Buddha's 1 Teaching \\ Body of Ultimate Reality Provisional Empty Middle Chart II The Returning of the Purport into the Great Abode o 441 BIBLIOGRAPHY Page I. PRE-MODERN JAPANESE TEXTS CITED . . .v 442 II. NON-BUDDHIST CHINESE TEXTS CITED 442 III. BUDDHIST TEXTS IN CHINESE REFERRED TO BY ENGLISH TITLE 443 IV. BUDDHIST TEXTS IN CHINESE REFERRED TO BY SANSKRIT TITLE 443 V. BUDDHIST TEXTS IN CHINESE CITED 444 VI. MODERN WORKS CITED , SELECTED LIST OF 456 FREQUENTLY USED ABBREVIATIONS: TCTL, see Ta-chih-tu-lun (V) MHCK, see Mo-ho-chih-kuan (V) BSKS, see Ono Gemmyo (ed.), Bussho  Kaisetsu Daijiten (VI) 442 BIBLIOGRAPHY I. PRE-MODERN JAPANESE TEXTS CITED Kannon Sangenki \"I\" %; ~&>%Z> , one r o l l . By Hotan )^ L\"I^  (1657-1738). MS. in libraries of Taisho University, Ryukoku University, etc. Kogi % (Makashikan Bugyo_Kogi F% ffo tff i&rljfc ), 10 r o l l s . By Echo Chiku &M % (1780-1862). Bukkyo Taikei . # | S L X 3 N a n d Tendai Daisfii Zenskn* \u00a3 & . Kojutsu %% 2*L (Shi.kan Bugyo Kojutsu X M $k %1 It&'ijk. ), 6 r o l l s . By Daiho Shudatsu ^ \"\u00a7 ^  f& (1804-1884). Bukkyo Taikei and Tendai Daishi Zenshu. w Koroku 1& (Makashikan-bugyo-koroku fj iff XJjtjft ^ ), 23 r o l l s . By Koken fu ffc (1652-1739). MS in libraries of Kyoto University, Koya-san University, Ryukoku University, etc. Shiki ^ I L J S h i k a n Shiki j\u00a3~$$LP*ib ), 10 r o l l s . By Ho j ibo Shoshin ^~^WW~% ( f l . \"late 12th century). Bukkyo Taikei, Tendai Daishi Zenshu and Nihori Bukkyo Zensho (Vol. 2271 Shitsudon Yoketsu & Ofc , 4 r o l l s . By Myokaku ^H'^, (1084-?). T84.501-567 (#2706). 7 \u00b0 II- NON-BUDDHIST CHINESE TEXTS CITED Chuang-tzu #2 9\" E r\"-ya $J I-ching j | Li-ching Po-wu-chih ^ #7 %%> Shih-chi Shih-ching ^ Shuo-wen - f j ^ jjr^ Tao-te-ching  Tso-ch'uan -fa, )^ Yii-p'ien j\u00a3 ^ III. BUDDHIST TEXTS IN CHINESE REFERRED TO BY ENGLISH TITLE  Heart Sutra. See Pan-jo-hsin-ching. Diamond Sutra. See Chin-kang-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-ching. Lotus Sutra. See Miao-fa-1ien-hua-ching. IV. BUDDHIST TEXTS IN CHINESE REFERRED TO BY SANSKRIT TITLE  Abhidharma-kosa. See O-p'i-ta-mo-chu-she-lun. DTrghagama. See Ch'ang-o-han-ching. Ekottaragama. See Tseng-i-han-ching. Madhamagama. See Chung-o-han-ching. 444 Madhyamaka-karikas (plus commentary). See Chung-lun. Nirvana sutra. See Nieh-p'an-ching. Pancavimsati. See Mo-ho-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-ching. Saiiiyuktagama. 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Chu-fa-wu-hsing-ching \"f$ ~& ^ , 2 r o l l s . ^Tl5.750-761 (#650). Tr. KumarajTva. Sarvadharma-praVrtti-nirdesa. Ch'u-yao-ching $ ^ $k , 20 or 30 r o l l s . T4.609-776 (#212). Tr. Chu Fo-nien. Udana-Varga. 446 Chuan-fa-lun-ching , one r o l l . T2.503b-c (#109) Tr. An Shih-kao. Dharma-cakra-pravartana-sutra. Chueh-i-san-mei 'X ~%- 2- ^  (CISM), one r o l l . T46.621-627 (#1922). By Chih-i. Chung-lun ^ f^* , one r o l l . By Rahul a, t r . Paramartha. Not extant. Chung-lun W , 4 r o l l s . \"T30.1-39 (#1564). Madhayamaka-sastra (Madhyamaka-karikas plus commentary by *Piiigala (*Vimalaksa ^ g ) Chung-o-han-ching , 60 r o l l s . Tl.421-810 (#26). Tr. (Gautama) Sahghadeva. Madhyamagama. Fa-chu'-pi -yu-chins ^ %) ^ $ i , 4 r o l l s . -T4.575-609 (#211). Tr. Fa-chu and Fa-li ^ ji. . Dharmapada, Udanavarga. Fa-hua-ching-an-le-hsing-i , one r o l l . T46.697-702 (#1926). By Hui-ssu. Fa-hua-hsuan-i , 20 r o l l s . T33.681-815 (#1716). By Chih-i. Fa-hua-hsuan-i-shih-ch'ien ^ ^' , 20 r o l l s . T33.815-end (#1717). By Chan-jan (764 A.D.). Fa-hua-san-mei-ch'an-i J\u00a7\" 2~ tj& m , one r o l l . T46.949-955 (#1941). By Chih-i. Fa-hua-wen-chu 'sk^jf^ty , 20 r o l l s . T34.1-151 (#1718). By Chih-i. Fan-wang-ching ^ 4$ , 2 r o l l s . T24.997-1010 (#1484). Tr. attributed to KumarajTva. This may be a Chinese forgery. Fang-kuang-pan-jo-ching 2: , 20 r o l l s . T8.1-147 (#221). Tr. Moksala. Pancavimsati. 447 Fang-niu-ching 1>kA M- , one r o l l . T2.546-547 (#123). Tr. Kumara-jTva. Gopala-sutra. Fang-teng-san-mei-hsing-fa ~% Jz- , one r o l l . T46.943-949 (#1940). By Chih-i. Fang-teng-t'o-lo-ni-ching ^ \"?\u00a3 ^ 1L M . See Ta-fang-teng-t'o-lo-hi-ching. Fo-pen-hsing-chi-ching , 60 r o l l s . T3.655-932 (#190). Tr. Jnanagupta. Jataka tales. Fu-fa-tsang-yin-yuan-ch1uan 6 r o l l s . T50-297-322 (#2058). Tr. Kekaya ^  and T'an-yao % tf\u00ae in 472 A.D. Hsiao-chih-kuan *h XJffi, , one r o l l . T46.462-474 (#1915). By Chih-i. Hsin-ti-kuan-ching ||\u00a3 , 8 r o l l s . T3.291-331 (#159). Tr. Prajna (T'ang). Hsiu-hsi-chih-kuan-tso-ch'an-fa-yao one r o l l . See Hsioa-chih-kuan. Hsu-k'ung-mu-fen JL S 4?\" , one r o l l . T13.173-175 (#397.10). Tr. Dharmaksema. Hua-shou-ching ^ % ,10 r o l l s . T16.127-209 (#657). Tr. KumarajTva. Kuiala-mula-samparigraha. Hua-yen-ching 5^  )0L$Q , 60 r o l l s . T9.395-788 (#278). Tr. Buddha-bhadra. Avatamsaka-sutra. \"Old\" translation. I-ch'ieh-pi-mi^sui-shajig-ming-i-ta-chiao-wang-i-kuei fatyJ&'^LXJb % k ^ % fyJ t w o r o 1 1 s ' T18.536-541 (#888). Tr. Shin-hu -fy, \"fl|_ (*Danapala) in Sung. Sarva-rahasya-nama-tantra-raja. 448 I-tsu-ching j | A. $L , 2 r o l l s . T4.174-190 (#198). Tr. Chin-ch' i en. ArthavargTya. Jen-wang-ching h> 3- *M- ,2 r o l l s . T8.825-834 (#245). Tr. Kumara-jTva. Jen-wang-hu-kuo-pan-jo-ching-su 5 r o l l s . T33 253-286 (#1705). ) Ju-lai-pi-mi-tsang-ching ^ #^J |? , 2 r o l l s . T17.837-846 (#821). Tr. unknown. *Tathagata-garbha-sutra (*Tathagata-guhya- kosa). Ju-lai-tsang-ching $S , one r o l l . T16.457-460 (#666). Tr. Buddhabhadra. Tathagata-garbha-sutra. Jui-ying-ching i$Q jfe. $Q , 2 r o l l s . T3.472-483 (#185). Tr. Chin-ch' i en. Kuan-hsin-lun $$L>^ ^ , one r o l l . T46.584-587 (#1910). By Chih-i. Kuan-hsu-k'ung-tsang-p'u-sa-ching | f l L M~*%\u2022 \"^C ^ , T13.677-680 (#409). Tr. Dharmamitra (Liu Sung). Kuan-p'u-hsien-ching $fL-% ^ , one r o l l . T9.389-394 (#277). Tr. Dharmamitra (Liu Sung). Kuang-tsan-pan-jo-ching 10 r o l l s . T8.147-217 (#222). Tr. Dharmaraksa. Pancavimsati. Kuo-ch'ing-po-lu 110 7^ ~\u00a3 4^- (KCPL), 4 r o l l s . T46.793-824 (#1934). Ed. by Kuan-ting (605 A.D.). Leng-chia-ching 4 r o l l s . Tl6.480-514 (#670). Tr. Gunabharda (Liu Sung). Lankavatara-sutra. Leng-chia-ching Ai)*$L ,10 r o l l s . T16.514-586 (#671). Tr. Bodhiruci (N. Wei). Lankavatara-sutra. 449 Leng-chia-ching ^ , 7 r o l l s . T16.587-640 (#672). Tr. Siksananda (T'ang). Lankavatara-sutra. Liu-miao-fa-men ^ , one r o l l . T46.549-555 (#1917). By Chih-i. Liu-tzu-chou-wang-ching % tfl* 3- , one r o l l . T20.38-39 (#1044). Tr. unknown. *Sada-ksara-vidya-mantra. Mi-chi-chin-kang-li-shih-e jS\" i i L^I^ 1] ^ ? -* ^  , 7 r o l l s . Til.42-80 (#310.3). Tr. Dharmaraksa. Mi-luo-hsiaTsheng-ch'eng-fo-ching , one r o l l . T14.423-426 (#454). Tr. KumarajTva. *Maitreya-vyakarana. Miao-fa-lien-hua-ching Jij\/ $kj$ii\u00a3$it 7 r o l l s . T9.1-63 (#262). Tr. KumarajTva. Mo-ho-chih-kuan ^ , 10 r o l l s . T46.1-40 (#1911). By Chih-i. Mo-ho-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-ching , 27 r o l l s . T8.217-425 (#223). Tr. KumarajTva. Pancavimsati. (Also present in Ta-chih-tu-lun). Mo-ho-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-ta-ming-chou-ching r% l*J one r o l l . T8.847-848 (#250). Tr. KumarajTva. Prajna-paramita- hrdaya-sutra (Heart sutra). Mo-ho-seng-ch'i-lu\/^ Pf $1 , 40 r o l l s . T22.227-549 (#1425). Tr. Buddhabhadra and Fa-hsien. Mahasanghika Vinaya. Nieh-p'an-ching , 36 rol l s (southern edition). Tl2.605-853 (#375). Tr. Dharmaksema (N. Liang). Mahaparihirvana-sutra (Mahayana). 0-li-cha-ching 1*\\ 4& one r o l l . Tl.763-766 (#26.200). Tr. (Gautama) Saiighadeva. Alagaddupama-sutra, Arista-sutra. Pa-pei-p1u-sa-ching , one r o l l . T13.920-924 (#419). Tr. unknown. Pratyutpanna-samadhi-sutra. 450 0-p'i-ta-ma-chu-she-lun 1$ 30 r o l l s . T29.1-160 ,(#1558). By Vasubandhu, t r . Hslian-tsang. Abhidharmakos'a. O-p'i-ta-mo-ta-p'i-p'a-sha-lun I*5! |cdL\/& & tfo , 200 r o l l s . T27 (entire) (#1545). Tr. Hslian-tsang. *Abhidharma-mahavibhasa-sastra. Pan-chou-san-mei-ching 3 r o l l s . Tl3.902-919 (#418). Tr. Lokaksema (179 A.D.). Pratyutpanna-samadhi-sutra. Pan-chou-san-mei-ching , one r o l l . Tl3.897-902. (#417). Tr. Lokaksema. Pratyutpanna-samadhi-sutra. Pan-jo-hsin-ching , one r o l l . T8.847-848 (#250). Tr KumarajTva. Prajna-paramita-hrdaya-sutra (Heart sutra). Pan-jo-hsin-ching >^ $S , one r o l l . T8.848-849 (#251). Tr. Hslian-tsang. Prajna-parami ta-hrdaya-sutra (Heart sutra). Pan-jo-po-16-mi-to-hsin-ching-$&\"3\u00a3 Ijlj^ $ & . See Pan-jo-hsin-ching (tr. Hsiian-tsang). Pan-jo-teng-lun-sh r o l l s . T30.51-135 (#1566). By Bhavaviveka, t r . Prabhakaramitra. Prajna-pradTpa (commentary on the Madhyamaka-karikas of NagarjunaJ! Pao-chi-p'u-sa-p'in % ^ *?tz , 3 r o l l s . Tl3.175-184 (#397.11 ). Tr. Dharmaksema. Ratnacuda-pari prccha. Pao-hsing-lun % tt ffe\" , 4 r o l l s . T31.813-848 (#1611). Tr. Ratnamati, Mahayana-uttaratantra-sastra-vyakhya. Pao-liang-ching % ^ , 2 rolls.. Til.638-648 (#310.44). Tr. Shih Tao-kung ^ J ^ | - \u2022 Ratnarasi-sutra. Pei-hua-ching % < j [ , 10 r o l l s . T3.167-233 (#157). Tr. Dharmaksema. Karuna-pundarTka-sutra. 451 P'u-hsien-kuan-ching ^ ffiL . See Kuan-p'u-hsien-ching. P1u-sa-chieh-ching See P'u-sa-ti-ch'ih-ching. P'u-sa-chieh-i-su.-^\"^ Jk$L , two r o l l s . T40.563-580 (#1811). By Chih-i. P1 u-sa'ti-ch 1i h-chi ng , 10 r o l l s . T30.888-960 (#1581). Tr. Dharmaksema. An abbreviation of the Yogacarabhumi-sastra. P'u-sa-ying-luo-pen-yeh-ching ^ ffe. S^r \u00a3&\"3\u00a3-\"jjjt . See Ying-luo-ching. San-lun-hsuan-i 2~%%Q \" , one r o l l . T45.1-15 (#1852). By Chi -tsang (599 A.D.). Shan-chien-lu-p'i-p'o-sha , 18 r o l l s . T24.673-801 (#1462). Tr. Samghabhadra (489 A.D.). A modified translation of Buddhaghosa's Samantapasadika. Shan-chu-i-t'ien-so-wen-ching J | - A*-^? K 1*1 $3. , 3 r o l l s . Tl2.115-134 (#341). Tr. Vimuktajnana, Prajnaruci (N. Wei). Susthi ta-mati-devaputra-pari prccha. Sheng-man-ching )$5 $k , , one r o l l . T12.217-223 (#353). Tr. Gunabhadra (Liu Sung). SrTmaladevi-simhanada-sutra. Sheng-man-shih-tzu-hou-i=ch'eng-ta-fang-pien-fang-kuang-ching j^p *3l - j | L * %Jk$l s e e Sheng-man-ching. * Sheng-shan-li^ten-so-wen-ching - J ^ r %*% KtH $L . See Shan-c'.v-\" ehxiri r t . S i encSOswen-chi n g . Sheng-t'ien-wang-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-ching 7 r o l l s . T8.689-729 (#231). Tr. Upasuna (565 A.D.). *Pravara- deVa-raja-pariprccha (*SUVikranta-Vikrami-pariprccha). 452 Shih-ch'an-po-lo-mi-tz'u-ti-fa-men # J >#L^ S 5 ^ ) * 1 , See Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men. Shih-chu-p'i-p'o-sha-lun ^ fL^i^ifo , 17 r o l l s . ^ T26.20-123 (#1521).y Attributed to Nagarjuna, t r . KumarajTva. *Dasabhumi- vibhasa-sastra. Shih-sung-lli t3] ^ , 61 r o l l s . T23.1-470 (#1435). Tr. Punyatara, KumarajTva. *Sarvastivada-vinaya. Shih-ti-ching-lun *t ^ M ,U r o l l s . T26.123-204 (#1522). By Vasubandhu, t r . Bodhiruci. Dasabhumika-vyakhyana. Shou-leng-yen-san-mei-ching H JpL ^ ^ , two r o l l s . T51.629-645 (#642). Tr. KumarajTva. Surangama-samadhi-sutra. Shun-chung-lun \"1| + , two r o l l s . T30.39-50 (#1565). By Asanga, t r . Bodhiruci and Gautama Prajnaruci. Asanga's commentary on Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka-karikas. Sou-yao-ch i 0. * %h , 10 r o l l s . Zokuzokyo 2.4.2-3. Full name: Mo-ho-chih-kuan-ju-hsing-sou-yao-chi. By Chan-jan. Ssu-fen-lu <\u00ae $ ^ , 60 r o l l s . T22.567-1015 (#1428). Tr. Buddhayasas and Chu Fo-nien. Dharmagupta-vinaya. Ssu-i-ching r o l l s . T15.33-62 (#586). Tr. KumarajTva. Vi sesa-ci nta-brahma-pari prccha. Ssu-i-fan-t'ien-so-wen-ching %\u2022 %\u2022 ^ 7^ f l f ft\\ . See Ssu-i-ching, Ssu-shih-er-tzu-men \\0 \\ > f\\ . By Hui-ssu. Not extant. ! Sui-t'ien-t'ai^chih-che-ta-shih-pieh^chuan l\\ one r o l l . T50.191-198 (#2050). By Kuan-ting. ' Sui-tzu-i-san-mei T$L 9 Ms ^~ , one r o l l . Zokuzokyo 2.3.4 (Vol. 98, leaves 344-354 of Taiwan edition). By Hui-ssu. 453 Ta-ch'eng-ch 1i-hsin-lun , one r o l l . T32.575-583 (#1666). Attributed to Alvaghosa, t r . Paramartha. Ta-ch'eng-chung-kuan-shih-lun 2r^-^ %%, 4^ ^0 , 9 r o l l s . T30.136-159 (#1567). By Sthiramati, t r . An Wei-ching Ta-ch'eng-i-chang A %l , 26 r o l l s . T44.465-end (#1851). By Ching-ying Hui-yuan. Ta-chi-ching 7 ^ $ S , 60 r o l l s . T13.1-409 (#397). Tr. Dharma-ksema . Maha-vaipulya-maha-samnipata-sutra. Ta-chih-tu-lun T%S%fej , 100 r o l l s . T25.57-757 (#1509). A t t r i -buted to Nagarjuna, tr. KumarajTva. *Maha-prajna-paramita-upadesa- sastra. Ta-fang-pien-fo-pao-en-ching 7 r o l l s . T3.124-167 (#156). Tr. unknown (latter Han). Ta-fang-teng-ju-lai-tsang-ching -K 4j* ^ \u2022 See Ju-lai-tsang-ching. Ta-fang-teng-ta-chi-ching j \\ j\u00a3 7N- . See Ta-chi-ching. Ta-fang-teng-ta-chi-ching-hsien-hu-fen 7 \\ ^ ^ ^E^ff .^ 5 r o l l s . Tl3.872-897 (#416). Tr. Jnanagupta (Sui). Pratyutpanna- samadhi -sutra (Bhadra-pala-sutra). Ta-fang-teng-fo-lo-ni-ching X $ , 4 r o l l s . T21.641-661 (#1339). Tr. Fa-chung (*Dharmasangha) in N. Liang. *Maha-vaipulya-dharanT-sutra. Ta-pan-nieh-p'an-ching X - T ^ ' J ^ I ^ , see Nieh-p'an-ching. Ta-pan-nieh-p'an-ching-su A ?it ^  3\u00ae , 33 r o l l s . T38.41-230 (#1767). By Kuan-ting. 454 Ta-pao-chi-ching A 4 | 3 $ , 120 r o l l s . Til.1-687 (#310). Tr. Bodhiruci (T'ang). Ratnakuta. Ta-p'in ^ . See Mo-ho-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-ching. Ta-sa-che-ni-kan-tzu-so-shuo-ching 10 r o l l s . T9.317-365 (#272). Tr. Bodhiruci (early 6th century). Bodhi sattva-gocara-upaya-vi saya-vi kurvana-ni rdesa. Ta-shen-pien-hui ^ % f y ^ t , 2 r o l l s . Til.492-450 (#310.22). Tr. Bodhiruci (T'ang). Maha-pratiharya-nirdesa. Ta-t'ang-hsi-y'u-chi i t , 12 r o l l s . T51.867-948 (#2087). By Hsiian-tsang (646 A.D.). T'ai-tzu-jui-ying-pervcha-ching ;K 3$} J ^ . . See Jui-ying-ching. ^ T'ien-wang-pan-jo-ching -$ jL o ^ t . See Sheng-t'ien-wang-pan-jo-lo-mi-chi ng. Tsa-o-han-ching , 50 r o l l s . T2.1-374 (#99). Tr. Gunabhadra (Liu Sung). Samyuktagama. Tsa-o-p'i-t'an-hsin-lun^ T\u00bbf % J i^ffo, 11 r o l l s . T28.869-966 (#1552). By Dharmatrata, t r . Gunavarman (Liu Sung). Samyukta- abhidharma-hrdaya-sastra. Tseng-i-han-ching , 51 r o l l s . T2.549-831 (#125). Tr. (Gautama) Saiighadeva. Ekottaragama. Tz'u-ti-ch'an-men ofc % $f . , 10 r o l l s . T46.475-548 (#1916). By Chih-i. Wei-mo-ching 3 r o l l s . T14.537-557 (#475). Tr. KumarajTva. VimalakTrti-nirdesa. 455 Wei-mo-ching-hsuan-su ^ * ^ , 6 r o l l s . T38.519-562 (#1777). By C h i h - i . A commentary t o the V i m a l a k T r t i . W e i - t s ' e n g - y u - y i n - y u a n - c h i n g ^ 7\/^  ) E ) , 2 r o l l s . T17.575-588 (#754). T r . T ' a n - c h i n g - f ^ (KumarajTva t r a n s l a t i o n l o s t ) . *Maha-maya-sutra. ~* Wen-shu-shih-1 i - s o - s h u o - c h i n g J L ^ V ? M fyilL&IL, 2 r o l l s . T8.726-732 (#232). ^  T r . M a n - t ' o - l o - h s i e n # rfe $1 (*Mandra). S a p t a - s a t i k a - p r a j n a - p a r a m i t a - s u t r a ( 7 0 0 - v e r s e PPS); Wen-shu-shih-1i-so-shuo-mo-ho-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-ching 1%%^^% y]L%1&$& \u2022 See W e n - s h u - s h i h - l i - s o - s h u o - c h i n g . W e n - s h u - s h i h - l i - w e n - c h i n g ^ ^ - ^ ^ 1 ftl $S , 2 r o l l s . T14.492-509 (#468). T r . S e n g - c h i a - p ' o - l o (*Sahghabara, *Saiighavarman), i n 518 A.D. M a n j u s r T - p a r i p r c c h a . W e n - s h u - l i - w e n - p ' u - t ' i - c h i n g , one r o i 1 . Tl4.481-483 (#464). T r . KumarajTva. G a y a s T r s a . Wu-fen-lu 3*',S'^ , 30 r o l l ' s . T22.1-194 (#1421). T r . BuddhajTva and Chu Tao-sheng ( L i u Sung). MahTsasaka-vinaya. W u - l i a n g - i - c h i n g J$fc-%. , one r o l l . T9.383-389 (#276). T r . *Dharmagatayasas. * A m i t a r t h a - s u t r a . W u - l i a n g - s h o u - c h i n g ^ f e H f ' , one r o l l . T12.346-348 (#366). T r . KumarajTva (402 A.D.). S u k h a v a t i v y u h a , A m i t a b h a - s u t r a . Yang-chUeh-mo-lo-ching , 4 r o l l s . T2.512-544 (#120), T r . Gunabhadra ( L i u Sung). A n g u l i m a l i k a - s u t r a . Y i n g - l u o - c h i n g A 4-Af . 2 r o l l s . T24.1010-1023 (#1485). T r . a t t r i b u t e d t o Chu F o - n i e n . A c c e p t e d today as a f o r g e r y . To be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from 1 4 - r o l l Y i n g - l u o - c h i n g (T#656). 456 Yuan-tun-chih-kuan ) J | $8 , 10 or 20 r o l l s . Not extant. By Chih-i. The f i r s t and second edition of the Mo-ho-chih-kuan. Yu-p'o-sai-chieh-ching 1 r o l l s . T24.1034-1075 (#1488). Tr. Dharmaksema (N. Liang). Upasaka-sTla-sutra. VI. MODERN WORKS CITED, SELECTED LIST OF Akanuma Chizen , Kanpashibu Shiagon Goshoroku &^&^&3.j&>\u00a3#L' T 5 k y 5 : H a J i n k a k u S n o b 5 ' 1 9 5 8 -Akanuma Chizen, Indq Bukkvo Kovu Meishi Jiten \u00a3 | | J Kyoto: Hozokan, 1967. Ando Toshio 4? JS&^^jt \u2022 Tendai-gaku A & \u2022 Kyoto: Heirakuji Shoten, 1968. ^ And5 Toshio. Tendai Shiso-shi $f~3^: \u2022 Kyoto: Hozokan, 1959. Ando Toshio. Tendai-gaku Ronshu: Shikan to J5do ft^^f^j^ j t ^ f f i . Kyoto: Heirakuji Shoten, 1975. Beal, Samuel. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese. Taipei: Ch1eng-wen Publishing Co. (reprint), 1970. Chan, Wing-tsit. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. 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Tendai Shikan no Kenkyu. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1969. Stcherbatsky, Th. The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word 'Dharma'. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1970. Streng, Frederick J. Emptiness: A Study in Religious Meaning. New York: Abingdon Press, 1967. Tamura Yoshiro and Miyasaka Kojiro et al_. Muryogi-ky5: the Sutra of  Innumerable Meanings; and Kanfugen-gyo: the Sutra of Meditation  on the Bodhisattva Universal-Virtue. Tokyo: Rissho Kosei-kai, T974^ Ueda Bannen X 7} & . Daijiten . Tokyo: Kodansha, popular edition, 1965. ' Yamamoto Kosho uU ^ - ^ ^ 2 ( t r . ) . The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra. Ube City (Yamaguchi-ken): Karinbunko, 1973. Waley, Arthur. The Way and Its Power: A Study of the Tao-te-ching and  its Place in Chinese Thought. New York: Grove Press, 1958. Watson, Burton. The Complete Works of Chuang-tzu. New York: Columbia University Press, 1968. POSTSCRIPT THE MHCK AND THE MAHAYANIZATION OF. THE CHINESE^ DHYAMA TRADIT10N Edward Conze, speaking for himself, succeeds at the same time admirably in summing up the HTnayanist attitude towards meditation when he says that Noise is a thorn in the side of dhydna. . . . Its ubiquitous and distracting effects give additional force to Peguy's definition of modern c i v i l i z a t i o n as one vast conspiracy against the spiritual l i f e J and elsewhere that The ideas expounded in this book are only too easily disturbed by the hideous and brutish noises emanating from machines of a l l kinds (cars, motorcycles, lorries, wire-lesses, television sets, electric d r i l l s , helicopters, and, of course, aeroplanes roaring, whining and screaming over-head. . . , and by the constant interruption of the deep brooding indispensable to their comprehension.2 It is a poignant statement on the present Western knowledge of Buddhist meditation that this foremost transmitter to the English-speaking world of the wisdom sutras of the Mahayana (\"form is emptiness, and emptiness form\") can take the position that there is anything at al l which must be excluded from the meditative practise of Buddhism. In fact the Buddhist scriptures as preserved in Indie languages have very l i t t l e to say about the Mahayana practise of meditation, so that one who relies, as does Mr. Conze, on Sanskrit and Pali writings to present Buddhist meditation has no choice but to present only its 461 HTnayana aspect. We must rather look to Tibetan and East Asian Mahayana Buddhist documents i f we wish to gain an intellectual understanding of the kind of meditative practise which corresponds with the ideas which Mr. Conze himself has translated from the Sanskrit), we find an eloquent reply to the above statements quoted from Mr. Conze's books: When a bodhisattva contemplates the col l e c t i v i t y of dharmas, (he understands that) whether he is distracted or concen-trated, there is ( s t i l l ) no mark of duality to them. But other people (who wish to meditate try to) exclude distraction and seek concentration, developing thoughts of anger amid dharmas of distraction, and developing thoughts of attachment amid dharmas of concentration. 3 By \"other people\" is clearly meant the devotees of the HTnayana among others. The Chinese knowledge of Buddhist practise followed a course similar to that which we may observe in the modern world. Though a Mahayana wisdom sutra, the Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines (Asta- sahasrika-prajna-paramita-sutra), was translated as early as the last part of the Latter Han dynasty, i t was centuries before the Madhyamika philosophy was ful l y understood, and longer yet until corresponding Mahayana meditation methods could be developed. One of the ways to understand the history of Chinese Buddhism is to view the intertwining and the separation of the prajna tradition and the dhyana tradition. 4 Both had their origin in late Han, in the translations respectively of Lokaksema >L ^ i ^ l L f f ^ and An Shih-of the Mahayana form of Buddhism. the great Chinese commentary to the Pancavimsati (a Mahayana wisdom sutra 462 k a o ^ ^ f - ^ , but until the middle of the 6th century, not long before the reunification of China under the Sui dynasty, i t was only the \u2022prajnd tradition which could be considered Mahayanist. There were elements of Mahayana thought in the dhyana tradition from the very beginning, but the emphasis tended to be either on the magical and super-human powers attainable through certain exercises and breathing techniques (an aspect which caught the fancy of the simpler Chinese and their simpler barbarian conquerors) or on contemplations which promoted one's separation from the polluted world and afforded entry to the \"other side of the river\" which was nirvana. Only with the rise of the Pure Land, the T'ien-t'ai, and the Ch'an schools, the same schools which sinifi e d Buddhist thought, did the dhyana tradition f i n a l l y take on a predominantly Mahayanistic flavor, as i t had by this time become clear that there was no ontological difference between \"this side\" and \"the other side.\" The effort which the Chinese masters of these schools poured into validating their ideas by reference to scriptures translated from Indie languages does not detract from their great originality in developing forms of practise and meditation which were appropriate to the true epistemological meaning of emptiness as taught in the wisdom sutras and Madhyamika treatises. Their Indian and Central Asian mentors had not succeeded in making this leap. The need for a balance between dhyana and prajnd was stressed well before Buddhism crossed to China; i t was part of the three-fold approach which included also s l l a , morality or discipline in conduct 463 (the word samadhi is generally used instead of dhyana in this context). These \"three knowledges\"5^^ are a simplification of the Eightfold Way, and traditionally one way to understand their mutual relationship was that dhyana {samadhi) and s i l a produce prajnd\u2014in this case prajnd is understood as an effect or result, though i t may also be considered a cause, and then is better understood as \"intellection,\" \"gnosis\" or \"discernment.\" The Buddhist system of discipline, essential though i t may be to the monastic l i f e , lacked appeal for those Chinese not willing to commit themselves totally to the new religion imported from the West. The dilettantes who in the early period formed the great majority of those interested in Buddhism tended either towards elegant metaphysical speculations on emptiness {sunyatd), which could until the time of the great Madhyamika translator KumarajTva (early 5th century) be more or less blended with the \"pure talk\" and \"mysterious learning\" of the intellectual Neo-Taoists; or they tended towards the more plebian thau-maturgy which they perceived in such texts as the Anapanasmrti-sutra, An Shih-kao's translated compilation of HTnayanistic methods of breath control, and which seemed to promise longer l i f e and superhuman powers. The f i r s t group identified with the prajnd tradition, the second with the dhyana tradition. The third (usually listed as f i r s t ) of the \"three knowledges,\" s i l a , also remained fundamentally HTnayanistic for centuries, con-siderably longer in fact than the dhyana aspect. The vinayas or codes of discipline employed within Chinese Buddhist monastic institutions were those of Indian HTnayana schools like the Mahasafighika and the 464 Sarvastivada. It was only in Japan that this third \"knowledge\" was f i n a l l y Mahayanized in East Asia, by Saicho (767-822), the founder of the Japanese extension of the T'ien-t'ai. It is interesting then that the Mahayanization of the Three Knowledges proceeded in the reverse order from their traditional l i s t i n g , which is s%la, samadhi, prajna, a sequence which is supposed to correspond to the internal structure of the Buddhist Path. Most modern accounts of the development of Chinese Buddhism deal mainly with the prajM aspect, the process by which the Chinese f i r s t identified Buddhist emptiness ^ with the non-being of their own Taoist tradition and over the centuries came to grasp its real epistemological sense. Here I would Tike to discuss Chinese trends in the dhyaha aspect whose literary culmination is in the Mo-ho-chih- kuan (MHCK) of Chih-i. Three translations of the Late Han laid the foundation for the development of the dhyaha tradition in China: the Anapana-smrti-sutra ifiiitflkftl (T#602), the Yogacarabhumi & \u00a3fl j \u00a3 (T#607) and the Pratyutpanna-samadhi -sutra 4% & 2^ $L (T#417\/418), the f i r s t two accomplished by An Shih-kao and the last by Lokaksema. The Yogacarabhumi, originally composed by the Indian Sarvastivadin monk Saiigharaksa, was later retranslated (in 284 AD) in a more complete version (T#606) by Dharmaraksa; i t is a completely different work from the perhaps better-known and immensely long work of the same Sanskrit name (T#1579;\u00a3fl* fa ftn ) by the Mahayana patriarch Asahga (but attributed to his legendary teacher Maitreya by the Chinese). The latter work was trans-465 lated in f u l l in the 7th century by Hslian-tsang and often in fragmen-tary form before that. Both are supposed to be treatises on Buddhist yoga (the real meaning of dhyana in the broad sense in which the term is usually used in East Asia), but the former is HTnayanist, and the latter a Yogacarin Mahayanist revision of Sarvastivadin abhidharma theory. The Anapana-smrti-sutra is not truly a sutra, but a compilation from earlier Indian sources of the method of meditation that focuses on one's inhalation and exhalation. It contains nothing of importance that is not also present in the section on this subject in Sangharaksa's Yogacarabhumi. These two translations by An Shih-kao were at f i r s t more popular than the Pratyutpanna-samadhi-sutra, but the latter work was ultimately more important in the development of Chinese Buddhist meditation, for i t contains the f i r s t explanation in Chinese of the buddhdnusmrti method ^  , the contemplation, mindfulness or visual-ization of the Buddha (in this case Amitabha), which became the basic meditative technique of the thoroughly Mahayanistic Pure Land school. It is a l l but certain that i t was the scriptural authority used by Hui-yuan,%i|_ ^ when he led what was later dubbed his White Lotus Society in a famous group vow to be reborn in the Pure Land of Amitabha (402 AD), an event regarded as the remote harbinger of the later Pure Land school. This sutra is also the scriptural authority for the Constantly-Walking Samadhi in the Synopsis as delineated in the Synopsis of the MHCK i t s e l f (where the emptiness of the Buddha is clearly stated in a most un-HTnayanistic fashion). Later when the Pure Land school as 466 such developed however, this scripture was largely replaced by the (forged) Kuan-wu-liang-shou-fo-ching j f c ^ jfc % 1%, *&- (T#365), and the exercise of visualization of Amitabha gradually came to be replaced by the far simpler exercise of reciting and meditating on the name of Amitabha. In the MHCK emphasis is laid upon visualizing the Buddha with a l l his characteristic marks as well as the Dharma-body or ultimate aspect of the Buddha, which is to be considered \"empty.\" The presence of this Constantly-Walking Samadhi in the Synopsis of the MHCK provided part of the justification for many T'ien-t'ai monks of the Sung dynasty to devote themselves to Pure Land practices to the point that they became practically devotees of the school of that name. T'ang Yung-t'ungji| $ ^ classifies the meditations used in Chinese Buddhism from the Han to the end of the Eastern Chin (420 AD) into four major types: 7 1. Respiration-meditation,^Jjj^ o r ^ \/ ^ r {dnapanasmvti). This was early understood as a means to superhuman powers, though i t is more properly an antidote to discursive thinking. An Shih-kao's translations, together with the later prefaces to these by monks like K'ang Seng - h u i J ^ f $ ^ and T a o - a n ^ . , were the avenue by which this form of meditation was introduced in it s Buddhist guise. However i t seems certain that certain breathing techniques already were being practiced among Taoists well before the Buddhist con-tact, and this was doubtless one of the main reasons for the g popularity of Buddhism in the late Han dynasty. They . are also typical of the earliest forms of Indian yoga; i t is an open :467 question whether the early Taoist and Indian types of breathing yoga may have had a common source in prehistoric times. The Indian concept of the atman clearly has some relationship to these, for the word in origin means \"breathe\" (cf. German atmen3 to breathe). The same can be said for the etymology of the English word \" s p i r i t . \" Even today the counting of the in-breaths and the out-breaths is the f i r s t method of focusing the mind which is taught in the Zen school. It is mentioned as an auxiliary technique in both the Surangama-samadhi -sutra ^ and the Ch' ing-kuan-yin-ching^-^ \"is (the Sutra on the Supplication to Avalokitesvara), two of the scrip-tures upon which the Four Samadhis of the MHCK Synopsis are based, but without playing much of a part in the MHCK i t s e l f . Though never wholly abandoned in Chinese or Japanese Buddhism, this method of meditation was too closely associated with the HTnayana to be more than a preliminary to the more advanced Mahayana meditations later practised in East Asia. Contemplation of the Impure\u00a7C ^ ( a ' s u b h a - b h a v a n a ) . T h e p U r p 0 s e of this meditation is to counteract craving and desire. Epitomized by the contemplation of the nine or ten stages of putrefaction and dissolution of the human corpse, this is like respiration-meditation identified with the HTnayana, but unlike this had no Taoist ante-cedents and failed to develop much popularity in China. It is mentioned in practically a l l the HTnayanist dhyana sutras and treatises translated into Chinese, and was especially esteemed by Hui-kuan^. , the disciple of KumarajTva otherwise prominent 468 for his advocacy of gradual enlightenment as against the sudden enlightenment preached by Tao-sheng, another of KumarajTva's disciples. Both the gradual approach and the contemplation of the impure were stigmatized as HTnayanistic, so i t may be said that in this respect Hui-kuan represented a reactionary tendency in the development of Chinese Buddhism. The HTnayanistic orientation of KumarajTva's contemporary Buddhabhadra may be seen by the fact that the major meditation scripture which he trans-lated (ca. 413 AD), the Dharma tara-dhyana-stitra (T#618) of the Kashmiri an Sarvastivadin patriarch Buddhasena, confined most of its attention to this contemplation of the impure and the afore-mentioned respiration-meditation. The f i r s t eight of the seventeen chapters of this text deal with respiration-meditation, the next four with the contemplation of the impure, while the other chapters deal with the contemplation of numerical categories from the Abhidharma like the 18 dhatus, the four unlimited states of mind, the five skandhas, the twelve dyatanas, and the twelve links of dependent co-orgination, such contemplations fal l i n g more in the category of HTnayana prajna. than dhyana. Contemplations on emptiness or on the Buddha are there completely lacking. 3. Contemplation (visualization) of the Buddha (buddhanusmrti). This generates faith and removes doubt. This contemplation is present in the HTnayana as part of the contem-plation of the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sahgha). As I have mentioned, this became the primary meditation exercise of the Pure Land school, where the Buddha in the meditation is the Mahayanistic Buddha Amitabha. It may also be considered Mahayanistic in that i t is simple enough to be practised easily by laymen, and unlike the contemplation of the impure, which promotes revulsion from the world, involves the contem-plation of something far more pleasant than cadaverous putrefac-tion. As the Pure Land school developed in later times, however the Buddha and his Land tended to be hypostatized as something separate from the meditator, which must be considered a degen-eration of the prajnd aspect of this practise. This meditation was originally based on the Pratyutpanna-samadhi-sutra as translated by Lokaksema (T#417 and # 418, in one and three rolls respectively), 1 1 but this sutra was later supplanted in the Pure Land (though not the T'ien-t'ai) tradition by the Kuan-wu-1iang- shou-fo-ching (T#365), which is along with the longer and the shorter SukhavatT-vyuha^ one of the three basic scriptures of the Pure Land. In the Constantly-Walking Samadhi of the MHCK, where Chih-i's concept of the Three Truths is applied to this meditation, we find that the Buddha is to be viewed not only in his physical form but also as empty and as identical to the meditator's own body and mind. Such a degree of .^sophistication in this meditation was not suitable for the laypeople who formed the overwhelming majority of Pure Land devotees, nor was this a part of the buddhdhusmrti meditation in i t s HTnayana form. Samadhi of the Heroic Stride\u00ae {surangama-samadhi). This is praised in many scriptures as the most eminent form of meditation in the Mahayana. For example the Surangama-samadhi-sutra.(T#642) i t s e l f states that only a bodhisattva of the tenth 12 of the ten stages is capable of performing i t . Unlike the previous three forms of meditation i t has no specific content, signifying rather contemplation of emptiness in a l l one's acts and thoughts, and the realization of the Six Perfections in every mode of physical, vocal and mental behavior. The Nirvana sutra (roll 27) equates i t to the Perfection of Wisdom {prajna-pdramitd), vajra-samadhij, lion's-roar samadhi, and the Buddha-nature\"\/^. Although the major sutra in which this is expounded, the Surangama-13 samadhi-sutra, was translated again and again, the KumarajTva version is a l l that has come down to us, apart from a forgery of the T'ang dynasty. This \"method\" of meditation is what is detailed in the Neither-Walking-nor-Sitting Samadhi of the Synopsis of the MHCK (where, importantly, the specific method of the contemplation on the four phases of thought is added to i t ) , and also evidently formed a great part of the inspiration for Hui-ssu's Sui-tzu-i-san-roeljjl-& jlj ^ ~ \u00bb i t s e l f quoted frequently without attribution in this part of the MHCK. This \"meditation\" generated a great deal of interest among the \"dark-learners\" in the heyday of Neo-Taoism, for inasmuch as it s purpose was to transcend form and develop wisdom {prajnd), they concluded that i f they could develop wisdom there should be no need for meditation. It accelerated the tendency of Southern intellectuals to neglect specific methods of meditation in favor of dandling about in their heads the concept of sunyatd, insofar as they were able yet to understand i t . 471 Despite two centuries of the dhydna tradition as I have outlined above, the famous monk Hui-yiian (344-416) s t i l l f e l t the lack of suitable guides for meditation keenly enough that he commissioned disciples to journey to the west to garner more information on this subject, and later requested Buddhabhadra to produce his afore-mentioned translation of the dhydna text by Buddhasena. Seng-jui i$ , lamenting the paucity of relevant scriptures, likewise be-sought his master KumarajTva to translate dhydna texts. Both these requests produced f r u i t , but the three works (T#613, #614, #616) translated by KumarajTva, eminently a member of the prajna stream in Chinese Buddhism, turned out to be l i t t l e better suited for truly Mahayana meditation than the HTnayanistic efforts of Buddhabhadra. They were not yet an efficient means to the realization of the Mahayana emptiness, to the vision of Ultimate Truth in every scrap of the phenomenal, to the understanding that there is no separation between nirvana and samsara. KumarajTva himself must be credited with mediating the final Mahayanization of the prajna tradition in China (after centuries in which sunyata or emptiness was misunderstood as analytic as in the HTnayana or ontological as in Neo-Taoism), but the Mahayanization of the dhydna tradition had yet to occur. The most popular of KumarajTva's three dhydna translations was the T s o - c h ' a n - s a n - m e i - c h i n g ^ f f i ( T # 6 1 4 : \"the sutra on the samadhi of sitting meditation\"), not a sutra but his compilation primarily from the dhydna teachings of certain Sarvastivadin patri-14 archs, like Vasumitra, Upagupta, Kumaralata, etc. This text 472 treats meditation under five main headings: (1) the contemplation of the impure, (2) the cultivation of good-will [maitrT., one of the four Unlimited States of Mind, brahmavihdras), (3) the contemplation of the twelve-linked chain of dependent origination {pratltya-samutpada), (4) respiration-meditation, and (5) the contemplation or visualization of the Buddha. KumarajTva did introduce some Mahayana ideas in an appendix to the Tso-ch'an-san-mei-ching, compiled from the Vasudhara- sutra # # fcl (T#482) and in his Ch1 an-fa-yao-chieh\/fff &t(T#616), but essentially he did nothing but transmit HTnayana meditation methods from the Sarvastivadin school to China, methods with which as we have seen, the Chinese were already acquainted. Dharmamitra (356-442), another foreign HTnayanist monk, produced s t i l l more translations of dhyana texts slightly after KumarajTva's time. His Wu-men-ch'an-ching- yao-yung-f a j i f\\ & f$L $r M ^ (T#619) focused on the same five categories as KumarajTva's Tso-ch'an-san-mei-ching, with special emphasis (significantly, by this time) on the visualization of the Buddha. Two other texts attributed to him (T#277 and #409) deal respectively with the visualization of the bodhisattvas Samantabhadra and Akasagarbha, the former figure being the subject of the MHCK's Lotus Samadhi in the section of the Synopsis on Half-Walking\/Half-Sitting Samadhi. Yet the Mahayana emptiness had yet to be integrated into the meditation delineated by Dharmamitra. The dhydna and prajna traditions were never f u l l y separate, par-ticularly wherever actual monastic l i f e was carried out. Yet after the dissolution of KumarajTva's school in Ch'ang-an with the f a l l of the Yao Ch'in dynasty in 417 AD,exegetical studies (the prajna stream) 473 declined in the North, while in the South from the Liu Sung (to 479 AD) 15 a similar deterioration of meditative practise was in effect. Even before this time the major centers of dhyana practise in the South, Hsiang-yang (365-379), led by Tao-an, and Lu-shan (380-417), led by Hui-yiian, had been of northern origin. With their passing, the combin-ation of northern dhyana with southern prajnd which they strenuously advocated lacked powerful adherents until nearly the time of the Sui reunification. Hui-yiian in particular stressed visual representations and sensual contact with the Buddha, concerned as he was to appeal to the lay element in his group. He consequently made great use of icons and images as well as concrete visualizations of the Buddha, while simultaneously stressing the need for the wisdom approach. But in his fusion of semi-Mahayanistic dhyana with semi-Mahayanistic prajnd ( i t is doubtful whether he ever really understood sunyatd properly), just as in the group vow which! he led to be reborn in the Pure Land, he was too far ahead of his time to have much influence in meiding\/the two streams permanently. His organization dissolved upon his death. Very few foreign monks arrived in the South thereafter, and the decline there of the dhyana tradition was evident everywhere, except in a few regions close to the border with the North, such as Ching-chou and 16 Szechuan ( i t is of some interest that the former area was the birth-place of Chih-i). Yet nourished by the interest of the aristocratic Chinese court, the southern prajnd tradition continued to develop in the form of exegetical studies of treatises like the Tattvasiddhi 4 % (T#1646) and the Dalabhumivyakhyana - t t V l & t f c (T#1522); 474 and likewise stimulated by the interest in practical shamanism of the barbarian dynasties, the northern dhyana tradition (including a marked tendency towards devotional ism) was far from moribund. Towards the end of the Northern Wei a tendency towards scriptural study began to develop in the North again under the influence of certain Indian Mahayana masters. 1 7 In 531 AD Buddhasanta translated the retranslated by Paramartha in the South in 563 AD, T#1593)?and p a r t i c i -pated with Gunamati and Bodhiruci in the translation of the Dasabhumika- vibhasa(sastra) (T#1521) attributed to Nagarjuna, in 508 AD. Both these texts heightened interest in the philosophy of Mahayana Buddhism, while at the same time these masters emphasized a practise of dhyana founded in such Mahayana texts. The study of the Mahayana Nirvana sutra increased apace, while the same Bodhiruci converted the monk T'an-luanf[ (476-542) to in i t i a t e the history of the Pure Land school, eminently a dhyana movement in the wider sense of the word (practise as opposed to intellectualized study). Bodhidharma, f i r s t (and semi-legendary) patriarch of the Ch'an tradition, also appeared in the North at this time, sometime between 516 and 526 AD, advocating a non-dual and direct form of practise founded in the Mahayanist Lahkavatara-sutra. Hui-wenfi >C , the obscure \" f i r s t patriarch\" of the T'ien-t'ai school, flourished in the North in the middle of the 6th century, and according to tradition became enlightened through reading a verse from the Madhyamaka-karikas of Nagarjuna as translated by KumarajTva in the C h u n g - l u n ^ ( t h i s is the famous gdthd which figures so prominently (T#1592) of Asanga (which was to be 475 in the MHCK, and which is the origin of the theory of the Three Truths). T'an-luan (the disciple of Bodhiruci), Hui-ssu (the disciple of Hui-wen, and Chih-i's teacher), and Hui-k'e^_*J (the disciple of Bodhid-harma), transmitted the inspiration of their teachers to their own followers, and so paved the way for the fecund growth of respectively the Pure Land tradition, the T'ien-t'ai tradition, and the Ch'an tradition, in the T'ang dynasty. We thus find that during the 6th century the Northern emphasis on meditation and devotion came at last to be founded in Mahayana treatises and sutras instead of compilations by HTnayanist masters like Sahgharaksa and Buddhasena on which Chinese dhyana had formerly relied. After the middle of the century, not long before the reunifi-cation of China by the Sui dynasty (589 AD), the second T'ien-t'ai patriarch Hui-ssu went south where in the year 560 he acquired his most famous pupil, Chih-i. We may take this as a convenient date marking the introduction of the inchoately Mahayanized dhydna tradition into the South. In succeeding years there was significant intercourse be-tween Chih-i's associates and disciples and the Madhyamikan San-lun school on Mt. She$^ M in the south; the latter school also maintained an emphasis on meditation founded firmly in Mahayana prajna. In fact the Ta-chih-tu-lun, which is constantly quoted by Chih-i in the MHCK , was regarded equally highly in the San-lun, while the Chung-lun, which furnished the stimulus for Hui-wen's enlightenment, was one of the San-lun's \"three t r e a t i s e s , a l l of which belonged to the Madhyamika stream of Mahayana. It is not clear at the present stage of research whether the San-lun's equal emphasis on dhyana and prajnd was a result of stimulus from the T'ien-t'ai tradition, but i t is clear that the San-lun Mahayanized the philosophically reactionary Ch'eng-shih\/Qjj ^ (Tattvasiddhi) prajnd: tradition with i t s more correct understanding of the meaning of sunyata. Then given as a hypothesis the stated influence from T'ien-t'ai, the latter may be said to have Mahayanized the dhyana tradition within the San-lun school. After Hui-k'e (487-593), the second patriarch of the Ch'an transmission, this school also moved to the South, where i t was to attain its greatest influence. The later dispute on patriarchal succes-sion between the followers of Shen-hsiuS^f and those of Hui-neng (initiated by Hui-neng's disciple Shen-huvff' %. in 734 AD) can be read as a classical confrontation between the old HTnayanist and the new Mahayanist dhyana. This dispute is usually understood as a continuation of the old Chinese conflict between the gradual theory and the sudden theory of enlightenment, but the former tended to be identified with the HTnayana and the latter with the Mahayana. Shen-hsiu, representing the gradualistic approach, advocated diligent action to \"wipe the bright mirror of the mind clean of the dust that obscures enlightenment.\" This betrayed a view of Ultimate Truth (the bright mirror of the mind) as separate and distinct from the defilements including nescience, and of T'ang's four categories of meditation is closest to the Contemplation of the Impure, quite definitely a HTnayan-i s t i c variety. Hui-neng is on the contrary reputed to have upheld 477 the view that since there is no mind or mirror at a l l (i.e. both are \"empty\"), there could be no dust to obscure them. That i s , enlightened mind and defilements are not different. Chih-i frequently makes the same statement or similar ones. E.g. at T46.17c, If a person has by nature a great number of desires and is seething with contamination, so that despite his efforts to counter and suppress them, they continue to increase by leaps and bounds\u2014then he should simply direct his atten-tion wherever he wishes. Why? Because without the arising of the Antiperfections, he would have no chance to practise contemplation. Thus i t was not the T'ien-t'ai alone which promulgated a Maha-yanized form of dhyana, in which i t was linked with the Mahayana prajnd, though perhaps i t was the f i r s t school to do so (in the persons of Hui-ssu and Chih-i). All the great Buddhist schools of the Sui and T'ang emphasized both dhyana and prajnd, this being a result of the influence \/ 19 of northerners like Hui-ssu, Bodhiruci, Buddhasanta and Bodhidharma. Though Tao-an, Hui-yiian and Seng-jui had long before, in the fourth and f i f t h centuries, advocated the union of dhyana and prajnd, only the third of these men could be said to have understood the Mahayana emptiness, while in the dhyana aspect of their Buddhism a l l three were restricted to the HTnayana approach. Hence i t was only by Sui-T'ang times that Chinese Buddhism could be said to have reached i t s f u l l inner flowering, signifying at once the Mahayanization of the dhyana stream, the incorporation and creative adaptation of the prajnd stream, and the blending together of the two into a unified whole. 478 Though Chih-i was an important influence in this process, i t would have occurred without him, as the momentum towards this goal was being built up in a l l areas of Chinese Buddhism. His unique contribu-tion in the area of Mahayana dhydna (for which he now used the old term chih-kuan^<0^) (samatha-vipasyuna), indicating thereby a union of dhyana and prajna within the dhydna aspect i t s e l f ) was to produce for the f i r s t time in Chinese Buddhist history a great body of work which codified Mahayana practise, laying down a specific and detailed series of graded exercises and \"samadhis\" which could f i n a l l y supplant the meditation texts of the foreign HTnayana patriarchs. Until then this had never been done by representatives of the other schools, nor even (so far as is known) by any thinkers in the Indian sub-continent. His Great Calming and Contemplation (MHCK) is the key text within this body of work. One would be ju s t i f i e d therefore in translating the Chinese t i t l e Mo-ho-chih-kuan^ \u00a3^\"}t by the expression \"Summation of Mahayana Meditation,\" where mo-ho (for the Sanskrit mahd, great) has 20 the double sense of \"Mahayana\" and \"summation.\" In the MHCK we find therefore no references to the earlier HTnayana dhyana treatises, but rather a consistent use of Mahayana sutras and sdstras to justify the philosophy behind the practise as well as many of the details of the practise i t s e l f . Instructions are given as to how to s i t or walk, what to do with the voice, and what to do with the mind, that exceed in precision anything up to then in the Chinese Mahayana tradition: i t is no surprise therefore that this text is s t i l l used in East Asia (at least in Taiwan and Japan) as a 479 meditation guide. In addition the MHCK's emphasis on meditation and realization in a l l aspects of thought and behavior (as in the Neither-Walking-Nor-Sitting Samadhi) was in f u l l agreement with the Pure Land and the Ch'an, being both f u l l y Mahayanistic and ful l y Chinese. The latter schools, while unlike the T'ien-t'ai in that they made no important contribution to the Mahayana prajna (in fact were partly de-generate in this respect), exceeded the T'ien-t'ai in their creative sinification of dhyana (again understood broadly as practise), to the point that by the time of the Sung dynasty, T'ien-t'ai monks themselves 21 were increasingly attracted to them both. The story of these develop-ments must be told at another time. 480 POSTSCRIPT FOOTNOTES Buddhist Meditation, p. 41. Buddhist Thought in India, pp. 8-9. 3TCTL T25.188C - 189a. HBoth Zurcher and Demi e v i l l e feel that in i t s Chinese usage the word dhyana is often better rendered \"yoga,\" meaning the. whole of Buddhist practise rather than a specific mental exercise or state. When opposed to prajnd this is the sense in which i t should be taken. 5 \/ See Demieville's excellent article on this text and the early dhyana tradition in China, \"La Yogacarabhtimi de Sahgharaksa,\" in the Bulletin d'Ecole Franchise d'Extreme Orient, 44, 2 (1954), pp. 339-446. See Zurcher, Buddhist Conquest of China, p. 220ff. H^an Wei Liang-Chin Nan-Pei Ch'ao Fo-Chiao-shih >\u00a3j^ ^ $ jfi % }ft ^Ziircher, 0\u00a3. c i t . , p. 33. 3T15.633b. T20.34c. ''Scholars are s t i l l in disagreement about the exact relation-ship between these two versions of the sutra: whether the shorter is a later abridgement of the longer, or the longer a later spurious amplification of the shorter. See Zurcher, pp. 220-221 and T'ang, p. 768. 12T15.631a. T'ang l i s t s nine versions: op_. c i t . , pp. 770-771. 14 \/ See Demieville, op. c i t . , p. 357. 1 5T'ang, p. 774. 1 6T'ang, p. 774. 1 7T'ang, p. 779. 1 8T'ang, p. 796. 1 9T'ang, p. 797. 20 One could go so far as to sanskritize dhyana-samgraha\" instead of the usual \"Maha-samatha-vipasyana.\" 21 1 See Ando Toshio, Tendai-gaku, p. 372ff. 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