{"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.14288\/1.0075636":{"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#departmentOrSchool":[{"value":"Forestry, Faculty of","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/dataProvider":[{"value":"DSpace","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeCampus":[{"value":"UBCV","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator":[{"value":"Lauermeier, Mackenzie","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued":[{"value":"2015-07-29T15:14:48Z","type":"literal","lang":"en"},{"value":"2015-04-07","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/description":[{"value":"The Mountain Pine Beetle (MPB), Dendroctonus ponderosa Hopkins, is a small bark beetle that has affected over 13 million hectares of forests in western Canada and the USA since 1990, and more recently has affected forests at higher elevations and more northern latitudes (Logan et al. 2001). The MPB attacks the trees alone; it has a mutualistic association with fungal species that are mainly in the Ophiostomoid family of the Ascomycota phylum, which provides many biological benefits (Lee et al. 2006a).  To develop a better understanding of the biology and to provide information for the development of MPB growth models, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified from multiple candidate Grosmannia clavigera DNA samples.  G. clavigera is one of the mutualistic fungal species, and DNA samples were used from various populations in western North America.  PCR using DNA oligonucleotides was the main method to obtain the amplified genes for sequencing.  After sequencing at Laval University, Geneious software was used to contig, edit, and align sequences.  Using concatenated sequences, SNPs that were found within the adaptive genes were used to construct three different phylogenetic diagrams.  The geographical locations of the populations tested in the phylogenetic analysis were compared to the genetic distance of the different samples.  The data shows that there is a trend where populations of G. clavigera that are further apart geographically have a greater genetic distance, and populations that are geographically closer together share similar SNP variations.","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/aggregatedCHO":[{"value":"https:\/\/circle.library.ubc.ca\/rest\/handle\/2429\/54222?expand=metadata","type":"literal","lang":"en"}],"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2009\/08\/skos-reference\/skos.html#note":[{"value":"Mackenzie\t \u00a0Lauermeier\t \u00a0 \t \u00a0 FRST\t \u00a0498\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 1\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0Analysis\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0DNA\t \u00a0Variations\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0Genes\t \u00a0under\t \u00a0Selection\t \u00a0on\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0Mountain\t \u00a0Pine\t \u00a0Beetle\t \u00a0(MPB)\t \u00a0Fungal\t \u00a0Associates\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0By\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Mackenzie\t \u00a0Lauermeier\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0A\t \u00a0thesis\t \u00a0submitted\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0partial\t \u00a0fulfillment\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0requirements\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0degree\t \u00a0BACHELOR\t \u00a0OF\t \u00a0SCIENCE\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0FOREST\t \u00a0SCIENCES\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Department\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0Forest\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0Conservation\t \u00a0Sciences\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Faculty\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0Forestry\t \u00a0\t \u00a0University\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0British\t \u00a0Columbia\t \u00a0(Vancouver)\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Supervisors\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Dr.\t \u00a0Richard\t \u00a0Hamelin\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Dr.\t \u00a0Yousry\t \u00a0El\t \u00a0Kassaby\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0April\t \u00a07th\t \u00a02015\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Mackenzie\t \u00a0Lauermeier\t \u00a0 \t \u00a0 FRST\t \u00a0498\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 2\t \u00a0Abstract:\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0Mountain\t \u00a0Pine\t \u00a0Beetle\t \u00a0(MPB),\t \u00a0Dendroctonus\t \u00a0ponderosa\t \u00a0Hopkins,\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0small\t \u00a0bark\t \u00a0beetle\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0affected\t \u00a0over\t \u00a013\t \u00a0million\t \u00a0hectares\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0forests\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0western\t \u00a0Canada\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0USA\t \u00a0since\t \u00a01990,\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0more\t \u00a0recently\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0affected\t \u00a0forests\t \u00a0at\t \u00a0higher\t \u00a0elevations\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0more\t \u00a0northern\t \u00a0latitudes\t \u00a0(Logan\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02001).\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0MPB\t \u00a0attacks\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0trees\t \u00a0alone;\t \u00a0it\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0mutualistic\t \u00a0association\t \u00a0with\t \u00a0fungal\t \u00a0species\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0mainly\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0Ophiostomoid\t \u00a0family\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0Ascomycota\t \u00a0phylum,\t \u00a0which\t 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\u00a0samples.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0data\t \u00a0shows\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0there\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0trend\t \u00a0where\t \u00a0populations\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0G.\t \u00a0clavigera\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0further\t \u00a0apart\t \u00a0geographically\t \u00a0have\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0greater\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0distance,\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0populations\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0geographically\t \u00a0closer\t \u00a0together\t \u00a0share\t \u00a0similar\t \u00a0SNP\t \u00a0variations.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Keywords:\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Fungal\t \u00a0phylogenetic,\t \u00a0phylogeography,\t \u00a0Mountain\t \u00a0Pine\t \u00a0Beetle\t \u00a0(Dendroctonus\t \u00a0ponderosae),\t \u00a0Fungal\t \u00a0symbionts,\t \u00a0Grosmannia\t \u00a0clavigera\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t 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\u00a0\u2013\t \u00a0page\t \u00a013\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Mackenzie\t \u00a0Lauermeier\t \u00a0 \t \u00a0 FRST\t \u00a0498\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 4\t \u00a01.\t \u00a0Introduction\t \u00a0\t \u00a01.1\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0Recent\t \u00a0Mountain\t \u00a0Pine\t \u00a0Beetle\t \u00a0Epidemic\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0Mountain\t \u00a0Pine\t \u00a0Beetle\t \u00a0(MPB),\t \u00a0Dendroctonus\t \u00a0ponderosa\t \u00a0Hopkins,\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0small\t \u00a0bark\t \u00a0beetle\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0affected\t \u00a0greater\t \u00a0than\t \u00a013\t \u00a0million\t \u00a0hectares\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0forests\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0western\t \u00a0Canada\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0USA\t \u00a0since\t \u00a01990,\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0more\t \u00a0recently\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0affected\t \u00a0forests\t \u00a0at\t \u00a0higher\t \u00a0elevations\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0more\t \u00a0northern\t \u00a0latitudes\t \u00a0(Logan\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02001).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0MPB\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0most\t \u00a0recent\t \u00a0outbreak\t \u00a0crossed\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0Rocky\t \u00a0Mountain\t \u00a0barrier,\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0thus\t \u00a0started\t \u00a0to\t \u00a0invade\t \u00a0hybrid\t \u00a0lodge\t \u00a0pole-\u00ad\u2010jack\t \u00a0pine\t \u00a0hybrid\t \u00a0(Pinus\t \u00a0contorta\t \u00a0var.\t \u00a0latifolia-\u00ad\u2010Pinus\t \u00a0banksiana)\t \u00a0stands\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0forests\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0largely\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0part\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0boreal\t \u00a0jack\t \u00a0pine\t \u00a0forests\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0span\t \u00a0across\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0entire\t \u00a0continent\t \u00a0east\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0Rocky\t \u00a0Mountains\t \u00a0(Safranyik\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0Carroll\t \u00a02006).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0This\t \u00a0insect\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0highly\t \u00a0influenced,\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0will\t \u00a0most\t \u00a0likely\t \u00a0continue\t \u00a0to\t \u00a0influence,\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0forest\t \u00a0management\t \u00a0practices\t \u00a0used\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0industry.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a01.2\t \u00a0Mountain\t \u00a0Pine\t \u00a0Beetle\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0Fungal\t \u00a0Symbiont\t \u00a0Biology\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 The\t \u00a0MPB\t \u00a0does\t \u00a0not\t \u00a0enter\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0tree\t \u00a0alone;\t \u00a0it\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0mutualistic\t \u00a0association\t \u00a0with\t \u00a0fungal\t \u00a0species\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0mainly\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0Ophiostomoid\t \u00a0family\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0Ascomycota\t \u00a0phylum,\t \u00a0largely\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0part\t \u00a0because\t \u00a0this\t \u00a0type\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0organism\t \u00a0provides\t \u00a0many\t \u00a0biological\t \u00a0benefits\t \u00a0(Lee\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02006).\t \u00a0This\t \u00a0tiny\t \u00a0bark\t \u00a0beetle\t \u00a0species\t \u00a0carries\t \u00a0parts\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0blue\t \u00a0stain\t \u00a0fungi\t \u00a0such\t \u00a0as\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0spores\t \u00a0within\t \u00a0its\t \u00a0mycangia,\t \u00a0which\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0like\t \u00a0sacs\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0reside\t \u00a0on\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0maxillary\t \u00a0cardines\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0both\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0male\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0female\t \u00a0beetles\t \u00a0(Whitney\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0Farris\t \u00a01970).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0three\t \u00a0main\t \u00a0species\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0fungal\t \u00a0associates\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0MPB\t \u00a0are:\t \u00a0Grosmannia\t \u00a0clavigera\t \u00a0(Robinson-\u00ad\u2010Jeffrey\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0Davidson)\t \u00a0Zipfel,\t \u00a0de\t \u00a0Beer,\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0Wingfled;\t \u00a0Leptographium\t \u00a0longiclavatum\t \u00a0Lee,\t \u00a0Kim\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0Breuil;\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0Ophiostoma\t \u00a0montium\t \u00a0(Rumbold)\t \u00a0von\t \u00a0Arx\t \u00a0(Lee\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02005).\t \u00a0Mackenzie\t \u00a0Lauermeier\t \u00a0 \t \u00a0 FRST\t \u00a0498\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 5\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 When\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0adults\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0able\t \u00a0to\t \u00a0enter\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0phloem\t \u00a0tissue\t \u00a0successfully,\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0females\t \u00a0create\t \u00a0brood\t \u00a0galleries\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0phloem\t \u00a0tissue\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0inoculate\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0cambium\t \u00a0with\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0blue-\u00ad\u2010stain\t \u00a0fungi\t \u00a0spores\t \u00a0(Six\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0Klepzig\t \u00a02004).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0As\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0blue-\u00ad\u2010stain\t \u00a0fungus\t \u00a0mycelium\t \u00a0grows\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0spreads\t \u00a0through\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0sapwood,\t \u00a0it\t \u00a0can\t \u00a0be\t \u00a0used\t \u00a0as\t \u00a0both\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0food\t \u00a0source\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0larvae\t \u00a0(Six\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0Paine\t \u00a01998)\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0can\t \u00a0also\t \u00a0aid\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0beetles\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0restricting\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0tree\u2019s\t \u00a0defenses,\t \u00a0which\t \u00a0help\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0beetle\t \u00a0to\t \u00a0weaken\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0host\t \u00a0tree\t \u00a0(Raffa\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0Berryman\t \u00a01983).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a01.3\t \u00a0Phylogeography\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0Grosmannia\t \u00a0clavigera\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 There\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0significant\t \u00a0correlation\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0population\t \u00a0structure\t \u00a0between\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0MPB\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0its\t \u00a0fungal\t \u00a0symbionts,\t \u00a0which\t \u00a0reveals\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0there\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0an\t \u00a0intimate\t \u00a0relationship\t \u00a0between\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0two\t \u00a0(Tsui\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02014).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0This\t \u00a0type\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0intimate\t \u00a0relationship\t \u00a0can\t \u00a0be\t \u00a0described\t \u00a0as\t \u00a0obligate\t \u00a0since\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0beetle\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0only\t \u00a0vector\t \u00a0by\t \u00a0which\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0fungus\t \u00a0can\t \u00a0move\t \u00a0across\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0landscape\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0into\t \u00a0host\t \u00a0trees,\t \u00a0so\t \u00a0it\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0an\t \u00a0obligate\t \u00a0dependency\t \u00a0on\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0beetle\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0movement\t \u00a0(Roe\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02011).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Within\t \u00a0this\t \u00a0circumstance\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0phylogeographic\t \u00a0structure\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0fungi\t \u00a0ends\t \u00a0up\t \u00a0reflecting\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0northern\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0southern\t \u00a0populations\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0its\t \u00a0range\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0shows\t \u00a0congruent\t \u00a0patterns\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0diversity\t \u00a0(Roe\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02011).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0It\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0also\t \u00a0been\t \u00a0determined\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0over\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0broad\t \u00a0scale\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0analysis\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0there\t \u00a0were\t \u00a0populations\t \u00a0structured\t \u00a0congruently\t \u00a0across\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0three\t \u00a0previously\t \u00a0described\t \u00a0species\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0blue-\u00ad\u2010stain\t \u00a0fungi\t \u00a0(Roe\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02011).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0When\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0population\t \u00a0structure\t \u00a0was\t \u00a0determined\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0Grosmannia\t \u00a0clavierga\t \u00a0by\t \u00a0Tsui\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a0(2012)\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0presence\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0repeated\t \u00a0multilocus\t \u00a0haplotypes\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0regional\t \u00a0populations\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0linkage\t \u00a0disequilibria\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0six\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0regional\t \u00a0populations\t \u00a0indicated\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0clonal\t \u00a0propagation\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0most\t \u00a0likely\t \u00a0form\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0reproduction\t \u00a0(Tsui\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02012),\t \u00a0even\t \u00a0though\t \u00a0it\t \u00a0was\t \u00a0determined\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0this\t \u00a0species\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0capable\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0sexual\t \u00a0reproduction\t \u00a0Mackenzie\t \u00a0Lauermeier\t \u00a0 \t \u00a0 FRST\t \u00a0498\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 6\t \u00a0(Tsui\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02009).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Sexual\t \u00a0recombination\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0alleles\t \u00a0may\t \u00a0be\t \u00a0an\t \u00a0important\t \u00a0contributor\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0high\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0diversity\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0been\t \u00a0observed\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0Grossmannia\t \u00a0clavigera\t \u00a0populations\t \u00a0(Tsui\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02012).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0By\t \u00a0knowing\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0this\t \u00a0species\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0capable\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0sexual\t \u00a0recombination\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0genes,\t \u00a0there\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0an\t \u00a0inherent\t \u00a0potential\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0adaption.\t \u00a0\t \u00a01.4\t \u00a0Analysis\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0Single-\u00ad\u2010nucleotide\t \u00a0Polymorphisms\t \u00a0within\t \u00a0Selected\t \u00a0Genes\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 The\t \u00a0study\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0single-\u00ad\u2010nucleotide\t \u00a0polymorphisms\t \u00a0(SNPs)\t \u00a0can\t \u00a0be\t \u00a0very\t \u00a0useful\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0identifying\t \u00a0DNA\t \u00a0markers\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0evolutionary\t \u00a0studies,\t \u00a0especially\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0non-\u00ad\u2010model\t \u00a0organisms\t \u00a0(Ojeda\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02014).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Specially\t \u00a0designed\t \u00a0primers\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0L.\t \u00a0longiclavatum\t \u00a0were\t \u00a0previously\t \u00a0made\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0used\t \u00a0to\t \u00a0target\t \u00a0SNPs\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0potentially\t \u00a0adaptive\t \u00a0genes\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0may\t \u00a0play\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0role\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0pathogenicity\t \u00a0towards\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0host\t \u00a0(Ojeda\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02014).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0In\t \u00a0my\t \u00a0study,\t \u00a0after\t \u00a0selecting\t \u00a0one\t \u00a0individual\t \u00a0to\t \u00a0represent\t \u00a0each\t \u00a0distinct\t \u00a0population\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0Grosmannia\t \u00a0claviegera,\t \u00a0I\t \u00a0used\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0primers\t \u00a0from\t \u00a0Ojeda\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a0(2014)\t \u00a0to\t \u00a0test\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0SNP\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0variation\t \u00a0within\t \u00a0specifically\t \u00a0selected\t \u00a0genes.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0By\t \u00a0comparing\t \u00a0inter-\u00ad\u2010population\t \u00a0variation\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0single-\u00ad\u2010nucleotide\t \u00a0polymorphisms\t \u00a0it\t \u00a0can\t \u00a0be\t \u00a0determined\t \u00a0if\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0geographical\t \u00a0distance\t \u00a0between\t \u00a0populations\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0also\t \u00a0matched\t \u00a0by\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0amount\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0relative\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0variation.\t \u00a02.\t \u00a0Materials\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0Methods\t \u00a02.1\t \u00a0DNA\t \u00a0samples\t \u00a0used\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0analysis\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 I\t \u00a0obtained\t \u00a013\t \u00a0specific\t \u00a0DNA\t \u00a0gene\t \u00a0sequences\t \u00a0from\t \u00a012\t \u00a0individual\t \u00a0samples\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0previously\t \u00a0extracted\t \u00a0DNA.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Each\t \u00a0sample\t \u00a0used\t \u00a0represents\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0different\t \u00a0population\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0species\t \u00a0G.\t \u00a0clavigera.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0DNA\t \u00a0samples\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0I\t \u00a0amplified\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0described\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0following\t \u00a0table.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Mackenzie\t \u00a0Lauermeier\t \u00a0 \t \u00a0 FRST\t \u00a0498\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 7\t \u00a0Table\t \u00a01.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0DNA\t \u00a0samples\t \u00a0selected\t \u00a0to\t \u00a0be\t \u00a0amplified\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0used\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0study\t \u00a0Date\t \u00a0Collected\t \u00a012-\u00ad\u2010April-\u00ad\u201008\t \u00a003-\u00ad\u2010April-\u00ad\u201007\t \u00a026-\u00ad\u2010March-\u00ad\u201008\t \u00a030-\u00ad\u2010June-\u00ad\u20102010\t \u00a018-\u00ad\u2010May-\u00ad\u20102010\t \u00a014-\u00ad\u2010June-\u00ad\u20102011\t \u00a019-\u00ad\u2010July-\u00ad\u20102011\t \u00a005-\u00ad\u2010December-\u00ad\u20102007\t \u00a024-\u00ad\u2010October-\u00ad\u20102011\t \u00a028-\u00ad\u2010June-\u00ad\u20102011\t \u00a09-\u00ad\u2010June-\u00ad\u20102011\t \u00a026-\u00ad\u2010July-\u00ad\u20102011\t \u00a0Internal\t \u00a0Code\/DNA\t \u00a0code\t \u00a0M002-\u00ad\u201012-\u00ad\u201003-\u00ad\u201006-\u00ad\u2010UC30DL32\/ss500\t \u00a0M001-\u00ad\u201013-\u00ad\u201001-\u00ad\u201006-\u00ad\u2010UC09DL35\/ss235\t \u00a0M002-\u00ad\u201002-\u00ad\u201002-\u00ad\u201003-\u00ad\u2010UC11G1\/4ss433\t \u00a0M024-\u00ad\u201008-\u00ad\u201001-\u00ad\u201006\/TRIA295\t \u00a0M024-\u00ad\u201001-\u00ad\u201001-\u00ad\u201001\/TRIA35\t \u00a0M033-\u00ad\u201004-\u00ad\u201003-\u00ad\u201001\/TRIA655\t \u00a0M033-\u00ad\u201010-\u00ad\u201001-\u00ad\u201003\/TRIA783\t \u00a0M002-\u00ad\u201016-\u00ad\u201001-\u00ad\u201005-\u00ad\u2010UC32G34\/ss484\t \u00a0M033-\u00ad\u201005-\u00ad\u201002-\u00ad\u201006\/TRIA944\t \u00a0M033-\u00ad\u201001-\u00ad\u201001-\u00ad\u201015\/TRIA500\t \u00a0M033-\u00ad\u201004-\u00ad\u201002-\u00ad\u201003\/TRIA\t \u00a0667\t \u00a0M033-\u00ad\u201011-\u00ad\u201001-\u00ad\u201004\/TRIA838\t \u00a0Host\/Substrate\t \u00a0Pinus\t \u00a0contorta\/Larvae\t \u00a0\t \u00a0P.\t \u00a0contorta\/larvae\t \u00a0P.\t \u00a0contorta,\t \u00a0wood\t \u00a0Not\t \u00a0Available\t \u00a0Beetle\t \u00a0Larvae\t \u00a0Pinus\t \u00a0flexilis\t \u00a0P.\t \u00a0contorta,\t \u00a0Ploeam\t \u00a0B\t \u00a0P.\t \u00a0contorta,\t \u00a0wood\t \u00a0Pinus\t \u00a0ponderosa\t \u00a0P.\t \u00a0ponderosa\t \u00a0P.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0ponderosa\t \u00a0P.\t \u00a0albicaulis\t \u00a0Country,\t \u00a0Province\/State,\t \u00a0Locality\t \u00a0Canada\/BC,\t \u00a0Sparwood\t \u00a0Canada\/BC,\t \u00a0Fairview\t \u00a0Canada\/Bc,\t \u00a0Willmore-\u00ad\u2010Kakwa\t \u00a0Canada\/BC,\t \u00a0Tumbler\t \u00a0Rdidge\t \u00a0Canada\/BC,\t \u00a0Smithers\t \u00a0USA\/Utah,\t \u00a0Logan\t \u00a0Canyon\t \u00a0USA\/Idaho,\t \u00a0Boise\t \u00a0Canada\/BC,\t \u00a0Kootenay\/Yoho\t \u00a0USA\/Montanan,\t \u00a0Greenough\t \u00a0USA\/South\t 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\u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 10\t \u00a0(each\t \u00a0unit\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0multiplied\t \u00a0by\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0number\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0samples,\t \u00a0plus\t \u00a0one\t \u00a0extra\t \u00a0unit,\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0each\t \u00a0primer)15\t \u00a0\u03bcl\t \u00a0water,\t \u00a02.5\u03bcl\t \u00a0buffer,\t \u00a00.75\t \u00a0\u03bcl\t \u00a0dNTPs,\t \u00a00.5\t \u00a0\u03bcl\t \u00a0MgCl,\t \u00a02.5\t \u00a0\u03bcl\t \u00a0forward\t \u00a0primer,\t \u00a02.5\t \u00a0\u03bcl\t \u00a0reverse\t \u00a0primer,\t \u00a0and\t \u00a00.2\t \u00a0\u03bcl\t \u00a0Taq\t \u00a0polymerase.\t \u00a0For\t \u00a0each\t \u00a0sample\t \u00a03\t \u00a0\u03bcl\t \u00a0DNA\t \u00a0with\t \u00a022\t \u00a0\u03bcl\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0master\t \u00a0mix.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0positive\t \u00a0control\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0was\t \u00a0used\t \u00a0was\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0DNA\t \u00a0sample\t \u00a0TRIA\t \u00a0409.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0Genetic\t \u00a0Analysis:\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 The\t 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\u00a0within\t \u00a0close\t \u00a0proximity\t \u00a0to\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0Rocky\t \u00a0Mountain\t \u00a0Range.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0shortest\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0distance\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0seen\t \u00a0between\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0Valemount,\t \u00a0BC\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0Golden,\t \u00a0BC\t \u00a0individuals,\t \u00a0with\t \u00a0other\t \u00a0individuals\t \u00a0from\t \u00a0BC\t \u00a0showing\t \u00a0some\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0relatedness.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0In\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0bottom\t \u00a0square\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0majority\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0individuals\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0show\t \u00a0recent\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0changes\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0from\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0USA.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 In\t \u00a0Figure\t \u00a02,\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0top\t \u00a0square\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0two\t \u00a0individuals\t \u00a0from\t \u00a0Black\t \u00a0Hills,\t \u00a0South\t \u00a0Dakota\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0have\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0most\t \u00a0recent\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0change,\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0next\t \u00a0closest\t \u00a0individuals\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0also\t \u00a0from\t \u00a0localities\t \u00a0within\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0USA.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0middle\t \u00a0square\t \u00a0on\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0phylogenetic\t \u00a0tree\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0a\t \u00a0mixture\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0localities\t \u00a0present,\t \u00a0but\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0shortest\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0distance\t \u00a0can\t \u00a0be\t \u00a0seen\t \u00a0between\t \u00a0two\t \u00a0American\t \u00a0samples,\t \u00a0one\t \u00a0from\t \u00a0Unitas,\t \u00a0Utah\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0other\t \u00a0from\t \u00a0Boise,\t \u00a0Idaho.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0bottom\t \u00a0square\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0Figure\t \u00a02\t \u00a0has\t \u00a0two\t \u00a0more\t \u00a0northern\t \u00a0localities\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0more\t \u00a0genetically\t \u00a0distinct\t \u00a0from\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0outgroup,\t 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\u00a0Figure\t \u00a03,\t \u00a0such\t \u00a0as\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0clad\t \u00a0containing\t \u00a0ss383\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0ss388.\t \u00a0Mackenzie\t \u00a0Lauermeier\t \u00a0 \t \u00a0 FRST\t \u00a0498\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 15\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 Overall\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0all\t \u00a0three\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0figures\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0longer\t \u00a0branches\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0outside\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0red\t \u00a0boxes\t \u00a0tend\t \u00a0to\t \u00a0belong\t \u00a0to\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0populations\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0associated\t \u00a0with\t \u00a0geographical\t \u00a0locations\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0more\t \u00a0distant\t \u00a0from\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0geographical\t \u00a0location\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0genetic\t \u00a0populations\t \u00a0that\t \u00a0are\t \u00a0within\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0red\t \u00a0boxes.\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a04.\t \u00a0Discussion\t \u00a0\t \u00a0 While\t \u00a0microsatellite\t \u00a0markers\t \u00a0have\t \u00a0been\t \u00a0used\t \u00a0very\t \u00a0effectively\t \u00a0in\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0past,\t \u00a0and\t \u00a0continue\t \u00a0to\t \u00a0be\t \u00a0effective,\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0identification\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0SNPs\t \u00a0is\t \u00a0increasingly\t \u00a0becoming\t \u00a0the\t \u00a0marker\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0choice\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0large-\u00ad\u2010scale\t \u00a0population\t \u00a0studies\t \u00a0(Ojeda\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02014).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0The\t \u00a0study\t \u00a0of\t \u00a0single-\u00ad\u2010nucleotide\t \u00a0polymorphisms\t \u00a0(SNPs)\t \u00a0can\t \u00a0be\t \u00a0very\t \u00a0useful\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0identifying\t \u00a0DNA\t \u00a0markers\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0evolutionary\t \u00a0studies,\t \u00a0especially\t \u00a0for\t \u00a0non-\u00ad\u2010model\t \u00a0organisms\t \u00a0(Ojeda\t \u00a0et\t \u00a0al.\t \u00a02014).\t \u00a0\t \u00a0For\t \u00a0non-\u00ad\u2010model\t \u00a0organisms\t 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