{"@context":{"@language":"en","Affiliation":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#departmentOrSchool","AggregatedSourceRepository":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/dataProvider","Campus":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeCampus","Creator":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","DateAvailable":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","DateIssued":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","Degree":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#relatedDegree","DegreeGrantor":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeGrantor","Description":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/description","DigitalResourceOriginalRecord":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/aggregatedCHO","FullText":"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2009\/08\/skos-reference\/skos.html#note","Genre":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/hasType","GeographicLocation":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/spatial","IsShownAt":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/isShownAt","Language":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/language","Program":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeDiscipline","Provider":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/provider","Publisher":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/publisher","Rights":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/rights","ScholarlyLevel":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#scholarLevel","Title":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/title","Type":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/type","URI":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#identifierURI","SortDate":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/date"},"Affiliation":[{"@value":"Applied Science, Faculty of","@language":"en"},{"@value":"Architecture, School of","@language":"en"}],"AggregatedSourceRepository":[{"@value":"DSpace","@language":"en"}],"Campus":[{"@value":"UBCV","@language":"en"}],"Creator":[{"@value":"Oberti, Oberto Eugenio","@language":"en"}],"DateAvailable":[{"@value":"2010-01-21T21:45:55Z","@language":"en"}],"DateIssued":[{"@value":"1974","@language":"en"}],"Degree":[{"@value":"Master of Architecture - MArch","@language":"en"}],"DegreeGrantor":[{"@value":"University of British Columbia","@language":"en"}],"Description":[{"@value":"This thesis is a study of contemporary urban design in North America. The physical aspects of the architecture of the city are examined in the light of the history of ideas and of urban design.\r\nWhile most studies show the development of modern architectural and urban design as a chronology of ever new trends and discoveries in a continuous line of progress, this work shows that many essential features of design are not new and have not been changing. On the contrary, ideas developed in the eighteenth century can be regarded as the essential source of inspiration of many aspects of contemporary design.\r\nThe central theme of the thesis is that the body of thought developed in the late eighteenth century - defined as romantic thought - is still at the origin of the motivation of contemporary urban design. The study identifies the essential traits of the prevailing style of urban and architectural design and relates them to the main themes of the romantic tradition. The point made is that this tradition has become a very uncritical one and that the establishment of alternative and new traditions is thus made very difficult, if not impossible.\r\nThe method followed in the thesis is to make hypotheses of influences between eighteenth century thought and contemporary notions affecting the physical design of cities. The hypotheses are supported by the evidence of the thoughts and projects of representative thinkers quoted and by the attitudes, the laws and the patterns of physical design found in our days.\r\nAmong the sources used in this thesis the reader will find passages ranging from Edmund Burke and Immanuel Kant to Jane Jacobs, Frank Lloyd Wright and Arthur Erickson. A large body of thoughts from famous and less famous people who spoke and worked in a representative way is used throughout the thesis. Illustrations of \"prophetic\" designs from the age of Boullee and Ledoux and of many existing projects are introduced to clarify the arguments. Many examples were chosen from Vancouver, British Columbia, but typical examples from the entire North American continent are included.\r\nMost of the aspects influencing design are considered. The reader will find an examination of established patterns of existing urban design in North America, an analysis of the attitudes toward the city and architecture observations on the by-laws and the economic system influencing design decisions. This material is used to show that there is a great inertia of old styles and ideals which prevent the establishment of alternative life styles and of truly new canons of design, despite a general consensus about the need for some truly new approach in the physical design of our cities.","@language":"en"}],"DigitalResourceOriginalRecord":[{"@value":"https:\/\/circle.library.ubc.ca\/rest\/handle\/2429\/18850?expand=metadata","@language":"en"}],"FullText":[{"@value":"R O M A N T I C M O T I V A T I O N A N D N O R T H A M E R I C A N U R B A N D E S I G N by Oberto Eugenio O b e r t i B . A r c h . , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1969 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE i n the School o f A r c h i t e c t u r e accept t h i s thes i s as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA September 13, 1974 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I a g r e e t h a t t h e L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e a n d s t u d y . I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d by t h e H e a d o f my D e p a r t m e n t o r by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . D e p a r t m e n t o f School o\u00a3 A r c h i t e c t u r e The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a V a n c o u v e r 8 , C a n a d a D a t e Sept:. 13, 1974 I . ABSTRACT This thes i s i s a study o f contemporary urban design i n North America. The p h y s i c a l aspects o f the arch i t ec ture o f the c i t y are examined i n the l i g h t o f the h i s t o r y o f ideas and o f urban des ign. While most studies show the development o f modern a r c h i t e c t u r a l and urban design as a chronology o f ever new trends and d i scover ies i n a continuous l i n e o f progress , t h i s work shows that many e s s e n t i a l features of design are not new and have not been changing. On the contrary , ideas developed i n the eighteenth century can be regarded as the e s s e n t i a l source o f i n s p i r a t i o n o f many aspects of contemporary des ign. The c e n t r a l theme o f the thes i s i s that the body o f thought developed i n the la te eighteenth century - defined as romantic thought - i s s t i l l at the o r i g i n o f the motivat ion o f contemporary urban des ign. The study i d e n t i f i e s the e s s e n t i a l t r a i t s of the p r e v a i l i n g s t y l e o f urban and a r c h i t e c t u r a l design and r e l a t e s them to the main themes o f the romantic t r a d i t i o n . The point made i s that t h i s t r a d i t i o n has become a very u n c r i t i c a l one and that the establishment of a l t e r n a t i v e and new t r a d i t i o n s i s thus made very d i f f i c u l t , i f not imposs ible . The method fol lowed i n the thes i s i s to make hypotheses o f inf luences between eighteenth century thought and contemporary notions a f f e c t i n g the p h y s i c a l design of c i t i e s . The hypotheses are supported by the evidence o f the thoughts and projec t s of representat ive thinkers quoted and by the a t t i t u d e s , the laws and the patterns o f p h y s i c a l design found i n our days. I I Among the sources used i n th i s thes i s the reader w i l l f i n d passages ranging from Edmund Burke and Immanuel Kant to Jane Jacobs, Frank Lloyd Wright and Arthur E r i c k s o n . A large body of thoughts from famous and less famous people who spoke and worked i n a representat ive way i s used throughout the t h e s i s . I l l u s t r a t i o n s o f \"prophetic\" designs from the age o f Boullee and Ledoux and o f many e x i s t i n g projec t s are introduced to c l a r i f y the arguments. Many examples were chosen from Vancouver, B r i t i s h Columbia, but t y p i c a l examples from the ent i re North American continent are inc luded. Most of the aspects in f luenc ing design are considered. The reader w i l l f i n d an examination of e s tab l i shed patterns of e x i s t i n g urban design i n North America, an analys i s o f the a t t i tudes toward the c i t y and arch i t ec ture observations on the by-laws and the economic system in f luenc ing design dec i s ions . This mater ia l i s used to show that there i s a great i n e r t i a of o ld s ty les and idea l s which prevent the establishment o f a l t e r n a t i v e l i f e s ty les and o f t r u l y new canons of design, despite a general consensus about the need for some t r u l y new approach i n the p h y s i c a l design of our c i t i e s . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The ass is tance and the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f thought and o f c r i t i c i s m given by Professors W. Gerson and C. Wisnicky of the School of A r c h i t e c t u r e and by Professor E . Hundert o f the Department o f H i s t o r y o f the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia made poss ib le many improvements i n the text o f the t h e s i s . My p a r t i c u l a r grat i tude i s d i r e c t e d toward Professor A. Rogatnick of the School of Arch i t ec ture o f the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia. His unique, m u l t i - l i n g u a l cu l ture and his depth of thought i n a r c h i t e c t u r e , ar t and h i s t o r y made poss ib l e a d i f f i c u l t new exp lora t ion i n the f i e l d of urban des ign. His understanding and c r i t i c a l help were most use fu l i n t h i s long research . IV T A B L E OF CONTENTS I n t r o d u c t i o n p . 1 B a c k g r o u n d p . 1 T e r m i n o l o g y p . 7 P u r p o s e p . 13 O r g a n i z a t i o n p . 14 1. The E x i s t i n g P a t t e r n and P l a n o f t h e M o d e r n N o r t h A m e r i c a n C i t y p . 25 2. The S u b u r b a n T y p e and S t y l e o f D e v e l o p m e n t and R e l a t e d U r b a n S y s t e m s p . 50 3 . Some C o n t e m p o r a r y U r b a n and A r c h i t e c t u r a l P r o b l e m s and D i s c u s s i o n s : The H o r n s o f a D i l e m m a p . 96 4. The R o l e o f R o m a n t i c i s m as a C o n d i t i o n i n g F a c t o r f o r A r c h i t e c t s and O t h e r P e o p l e I n v o l v e d i n U r b a n D e v e l o p m e n t s p . 1 2 3 5. R o m a n t i c A t t i t u d e s and U n w r i t t e n R o m a n t i c Laws i n t h e M o d e r n N o r t h A m e r i c a n C i t y p . 1 3 8 6. E c o n o m i c and P o l i t i c a l F a c t o r s : F r e e E n t e r p r i s e , O w n e r s h i p , E q u a l i t y , e t c . p . 1 5 8 7. B y - L a w s and O t h e r L e g a l F a c t o r s p . 1 8 3 8. H i s t o r i c a l and E t h n i c O r i g i n s o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n C i t i e s p . 2 0 6 9. A r c h i t e c t u r a l T r e n d s and C r e e d s R e l a t e d w i t h R o m a n t i c i s m p . 2 4 9 10. T h e o r i e s D e v e l o p e d by some R o m a n t i c s p . 2 8 4 V . 1 1 . C o n t e m p o r a r y E f f e c t o f H i s t o r i c I d e a s p . 3 0 1 1 2 . V a n c o u v e r i n L i g h t o f t h i s S t u d y p . 3 0 9 1 3 . S u m m a r y a n d C o n c l u s i o n s p . 3 4 4 B i b l i o g r a p h y p . 3 5 3 1. INTRODUCTION  Background At the b a s i s of the urban form and a r c h i t e c t u r e of the modern North American i n d u s t r i a l c i t y l i e s an e n t i r e world of p h i l o s o p h i c a l , e t h i c a l and r e l i g i o u s thought, of newer and ol d e r t r a d i t i o n s , of a t t i t u d e s taken f o r granted and, indeed, of p r e j u d i c e . It i s an urban form i n many ways uniquely North American, and uniquely a f f e c t e d by the body of thought developed only i n the l a s t three c e n t u r i e s , or, more c l e a r l y , by the c u l t u r e developed by the i n t e l l e c t u a l r e v o l u t i o n i n i t i a t e d around the middle of the eighteenth century. Most books of h i s t o r y of modern a r c h i t e c t u r e , such as Peter C o l l i n s ' Changing Ideals i n Modern A r c h i t e c t u r e ( 1 ) , are focused on the p e r i o d which begins with the new way of t h i n k i n g i n the second h a l f of the eighteenth century. These works seem to be concerned mostly with the h i s t o r y of changing i d e a l s and with the many in n o v a t i o n s of the modern age up to our days. The i n t e r e s t of t h i s study i s centered on those i d e a l s which d i d not change s i g n i f i c a n t l y from the time of t h e i r develop-ment to our days, and which became more and more profoundly i n g r a i n e d i n our c u l t u r e : i n other words here we are emphasizing the c o n t i n u i t y of a body of thought under the s u r f a c e of changing fashions and of experiments. The N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t y has b e e n s e l d o m p r a i s e d and o f t e n s h a r p l y c r i t i c i z e d , b u t i t i s o n l y now, p e r h a p s , t h a t i t s v i a b i l i t y as a s y s t e m has come u n d e r g r e a t e r s c r u t i n y and i s s o m e t i m e s s e r i o u s l y q u e s t i o n e d . As an e x a m p l e o f s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s o f two c i t i e s - s e e n as f u n c t i o n i n g s y s t e m s -one may c o n s i d e r an a n c i e n t c i t y s u c h as Rome and a newer c i t y s u c h as W a s h i n g t o n . Rome i s a c i t y t h a t d e v e l o p e d o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e , t h a t went t h r o u g h many t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , and t h a t a d o p t e d a f l e x i b l e u r b a n p a t t e r n , a d a p t i n g t o needs and s i t -u a t i o n s w h i c h c h a n g e d r a t h e r p r o f o u n d l y . An A m e r i c a n j o u r n a l i s t v i s i t i n g Rome e a r l y i n 1974* , made t h e c o m p a r i s o n o b s e r v i n g t h a t Rome w i t h o u t c a r s seemed t o be as e n j o y a b l e and l i v e a b l e as b e f o r e . W a s h i n g t o n i s n o t p r e p a r e d t o a d a p t t o a s i m i l a r c h a n g e : i t w o u l d become i m p o s s i b l e and f r i g h t e n i n g . The i m p l i c a t i o n s b e h i n d an e x a m p l e s u c h as t h i s a r e more p r o f o u n d t h a n i t i s g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t . T h i s t h e s i s w i l l a t t e m p t to i l l u s t r a t e many c r u c i a l and a t t i m e s f o r g o t t e n s o u r c e s o f i n s p i r a t i o n i n t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s w h i c h s h a p e s t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t y , i n many c a s e s an u n c r i t i c a l and r a t h e r i r r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s . T h e r e a r e many r o m a n t i c i d e a l s , s u c h as a r e t u r n t o n a t u r e o u t s i d e t h e c i t i e s and a l o v e f o r i s o l a t i o n , w h i c h p l a y e d *a t a t i m e when c a r s were b a n n e d and t h e s p e c t r e o f c i t i e s w i t h o u t g a s o l i n e was l o o m i n g . 3. a g r e a t r o l e i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h o u g h t t h a t s h a p e d t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t y . An a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n s c i o u s and u n c o n s c i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h i s k i n d o f c i t y may h e l p us t o see many r e a l and f i c t i t i o u s p r o b l e m s i n a t r u e r l i g h t , a n d t o d i r e c t f u t u r e a r c h i t e c t u r a l e f f o r t s t o w a r d a b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d and more g e n u i n e s e r v i c e . Human a s p i r a t i o n s do c h a n g e i n t i m e , and i t w o u l d be wrong t o i m a g i n e as undemo-c r a t i c t h e a t t e m p t t o g u i d e s u c h a s p i r a t i o n s t o more r a t i o n a l and s o c i a l i d e a l s , an a t t e m p t to p u t f o r w a r d new and b e t t e r i d e a l s s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e d e m o l i t i o n o f e s t a b l i s h e d i l l u s i o n s . T h e s e i l l u s i o n s may be so d e e p l y r o o t e d i n t h e common c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t t h e y b l i n d t h e v i e w o f a n y t h i n g e l s e - a m i s t a k e n l o v e o f e m o t i o n a l i s m p e r p e t u a t e s as p r e j u d i c e s t h e t e n e t s o f f o r g o t t e n p h i l o s o p h i e s . A c o n t e m p o r a r y N o r t h A m e r i c a n u r b a n d w e l l e r may r e a d , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e f r o n t page o f a w e e k l y m a g a z i n e : \" O u r A r c t i c w i l d l i f e needs a p e r m a n e n t home away f r o m man and m a c h i n e \" (2), o r he may e x a m i n e a s t u d y o f a w a t e r f r o n t r e d e v e l o p m e n t u n d e r a h e a d l i n e : \" C o n c r e t e o r p a r k s : i t ' s y o u r c h o i c e \" (3). A f a l s e c o n c e p t o f n a t u r e seems t o i m p a i r o u r a b i l i t y to a s s e s s p r e s e n t p r o b l e m s c o o l l y and t o make r a t i o n a l c h o i c e s f o r t h e f u t u r e . A c a p t i o n f r o m a p o p u l a r c o m i c s t r i p s u m m a r i z e s t h e common r o m a n t i c v i e w o f N a t u r e (4) : 4. N a t u r e i s s e e n as t h e s o u r c e o f g o o d n e s s and as s o m e t h i n g w h i c h c a n be o p p o s e d to man and h i s p r o d u c t s . N a t u r e i s a l s o s e e n as w i s d o m , and as s p e a k i n g to t h e good man t h r o u g h an i n n e r m y s t e r i o u s v o i c e . \" O n l y man can do e v i l \" , b u t t h e n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t s a r e a l w a y s g o o d . One s h o u l d s t a y away f r o m c i v i l i z a t i o n t o a v o i d c o r r u p t i o n (an i d e a t h a t r e m i n d s one o f R o u s s e a u ) . To h a v e t o l i v e i n c i t i e s and t o b u i l d c i t i e s c o n s e q u e n t l y becomes a p r o b l e m . T h i s i s j u s t one example o f a r o m a n t i c d i l e m m a t h a t we have i n h e r i t e d . The main theme o f t h i s t h e s i s i s t h a t \" f r o m t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o t h e p r e s e n t d a y , a r t and l i t e r a t u r e and p h i l o s o p h y , and e v e n p o l i t i c s , h a v e been i n f l u e n c e d , p o s i t i v e l y o r n e g a t i v e l y , by a way o f f e e l i n g w h i c h was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f w h a t , i n a l a r g e s e n s e , may be c a l l e d the r o m a n t i c movement . E v e n t h o s e who were r e p e l l e d by t h i s way o f f e e l i n g were c o m p e l l e d t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f i t , and i n many c a s e s 5. were more a f f e c t e d by i t t h a n t h e y knew\" (5) ( B . R u s s e l l ) . The N o r t h A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t seems t o h a v e b e e n most p r o f o u n d l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e new way o f t h i n k i n g , w h i c h we w i l l c a l l r o m a n t i c i s m . The N o r t h A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s s h a r e d v e r y l i t t l e o f t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e and o f t h e E n g l i g h t e n m e n t , as i t was known i n t h e g r e a t p a r t o f E u r o p e . The most p r o n o u n c e d i n t e r e s t s o f t h e e a r l y c o l o n i a l p e o p l e were w o r k , m o r a l i t y a n d r e l i g i o n . A g e n t l e , s e n t i m e n t a l , p r e - r o m a n t i c l i t e r a t u r e f l o u r -i s h e d i n t h e S o u t h f o r t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t o f t h o s e who c o u l d r e a d a n d had t h e s p a r e t i m e f o r i t . The N o r t h A m e r i c a n r e v -o l u t i o n was f o u g h t n o t o n l y i n t h e name o f l i b e r t y , b u t a l s o i n t h e name o f G o d . A h i g h d e g r e e o f i d e a l i s m , o f m o r a l i s m , o f m y s t i c i s m , and o f i n s p i r e d s e n t i m e n t a l i s m had a l w a y s b e e n p r e s e n t s i n c e t h e e a r l y t i m e s o f c o l o n i z a t i o n , p r o v i d i n g a f e r t i l e g r o u n d f o r the new t i d e o f t h o u g h t . The l o v e and t h e f e a r o f n a t u r e , s e e n b o t h as t h e p r e s e n c e and as t h e p u n i s h m e n t o f G o d , were among t h e o r i g i n a l common s e n t i m e n t s o f t h e s e t t l e r s , a l s o . The s k e p t i c a l w o r s h i p o f r e a s o n , d o u b t , a g n o s t i c i s m , and t h e i r o n y , t h e w a s t e , t h e r e f i n e d l i f e - s t y l e o f t h e e n l i g h t e n m e n t were h a t e d by N o r t h A m e r i c a n s , as i f t h e y were t h e h e i g h t o f c o r r u p t i o n . B e n j a m i n F r a n k l i n , b e l i e v e d t o be t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e e n l i g h t e n m e n t i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , p r e a c h e d m o r a l i t y , p a r s i m o n y and i n d i v i d u a l l i b e r t y . The r e a l i s m and 6. t h e s e n t i m e n t a l i s m , t h e renewed m y s t i c i s m a n d t h e i d e a l i s m , t h a t l a t e r m a n i f e s t e d t h e m s e l v e s as l e a d i n g t r e n d s i n t h e r o m a n t i c a g e , were m o t i f s o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n l i f e s t y l e s i n c e t h e e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , e v e n i f i n p r i m i t i v e f o r m s . A l m o s t n o t h i n g was done i n N o r t h A m e r i c a t h a t w o u l d h a v e l e f t a l a s t i n g t r a c e o f t h e a r t and t h o u g h t o f t h e age p r e c e d i n g r o m a n t i c i s m . B a r o q u e a r t and a r c h i t e c t u r e n e v e r a c h i e v e d a d o m i n a n t s t a t u s i n t h e B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s . The r o m a n t i c age f o u n d N o r t h A m e r i c a a v i r g i n l a n d t o c o n q u e r and t o m o u l d e x c l u s i v e l y a c c o r d i n g to i t s d r e a m . The dream o f t h e i m m i g r a n t s was a dream o f l i b e r t y , o f i n d i v i d u a l a c h i e v e m e n t s , o f r e b e l l i o n , o f g r e a t and i n v i n c i b l e i d e a l s t h a t h a d t o be f u l f i l l e d i n a new l a n d . N o r t h A m e r i c a was d e v e l o p e d as a dream l a n d where t h e r o m a n t i c i d e a l s c o u l d be f u l f i l l e d . O n l y i n N o r t h A m e r i c a was t h e r e a c l e a n s l a t e and a w e a l t h o f r e s o u r c e s t h a t p e r m i t t e d t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f s u c h dreams on a g r a n d s c a l e . I t became a l a n d o f dreams where E u r o p e a n s w o u l d come t o t r y t o do what c o u l d h a v e n o t b e e n done i n E u r o p e . T h i s i s one o f t h e r e a s o n s why t h e r e i s a u n i f o r m i t y o f s t y l e s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a t h a t does n o t e x i s t i n E u r o p e , where t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f a l o n g h i s t o r y and o f a s l o w and d i f f i c u l t d e v e l o p m e n t h a v e p r e v e n t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g o f a u n i f i e d d r e a m . T o g e t h e r w i t h t h e new t i d e o f t h o u g h t came t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e two f a c t o r s has b e e n 7 . i n t e r p r e t e d by some as i f t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n h a d p r o d u c e d t h e e s s e n t i a l b a c k g r o u n d f o r t h e new way o f t h i n k i n g . The f a c t u a l e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s t h e s i s , h o w e v e r , i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i d e a s p r e c e d e d t h e i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t made them p o s s i b l e . Thus we see t h a t t h e s u b u r b a n t r e n d p r e c e d e d a n d c r e a t e d t h e s t a g e f o r t h e n e e d o f c a r s , and t h a t t h e c a r -o r i e n t e d c i t y was c o n c e i v e d and p a r t l y d e s i g n e d by p e o p l e l i k e F r e d e r i c k Law O l m s t e d ( 6 ) e v e n b e f o r e t h e c a r c o u l d be d r e a m e d . In a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n we see d r a w i n g s o f b u i l d i n g s w h i c h c o u l d n o t be b u i l t w i t h o u t r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e b e f o r e t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e was known ( 7 ) . I n t e g r a l t o t h e theme o f t h i s t h e s i s i s t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t i d e a s and dreams a r i s e b e f o r e t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l o r p o l i t i c a l b r e a k t h r o u g h s n e c e s s a r y t o i m p l e m e n t t h e m . T e r m i n o l o g y R o m a n t i c i s m h e r e i s n o t d e f i n e d as t h e n a r r o w c a t e g o r y w h i c h o p p o s e s i t t o n e o - c l a s s i c i s m . J o h n C a n a d a y o b s e r v e d i n t h e \"New Y o r k T i m e s \" ( 8 ) : \" I t i s a t r u i s m by now t h a t t h e s e e d s o f t h e r o m a n t i c movement were c a r r i e d w i t h i n t h e c l a s s i c a l r e v i v a l , b u t t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h i s r e v i v a l i t s e l f was a r o m a n t i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n has n o t b e e n r e c o g n i z e d . \" A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n \" i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e w i t h a s i n g l e c h a r a c t e r o r w i t h a g r o u p o f s t a t i c c h a r a c t e r s t h e e s s e n c e o f R o m a n t i c i s m \" ( 9 ) . T h i s i s why t h e r e 8. a r e so many d i f f e r e n t s t u d i e s and d e f i n i t i o n s o f r o m a n t i c i s m . L . Geymonat n o t e s (10) t h a t b o t h a n t i - r a t i o n a l i s m and t h e r a t i o n a l i s m o f t h e i d e a l i s t s ( e . g . F i c h t e , S c h e l l i n g , H e g e l ) a r e a s p e c t s o f r o m a n t i c i s m . K. J o e l i n P e r U r s p r u n g  d e r N a t u r p h i l o s o p h i e aus dem G e i s t e d e r M y s t i k m a i n t a i n e d (11) t h a t r o m a n t i c i s m came f r o m the m y s t i c i s m o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n . M. V i n c i g u e r r a t h o u g h t t h a t r o m a n t i c i s m was a German r e n a i s s a n c e r e t a r d e d by t h e R e f o r m a t i o n and t h a t \" i t p r o c e e d s f r o m an i n t e r i o r c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n o p p o s i n g c o n c e p t s o f l i f e \" ( 1 2 ) . B . C r o c e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n a p r a c t i c a l and a t h e o r e t i c a l r o m a n t i c i s m , q u o t i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s made by G o e t h e and H e g e l ( 1 3 ) . N . A b b a g n a n o , t h e n o t e d h i s t o r i a n and e x i s t e n t i a l i s t , w r o t e ( 1 4 ) : \" R o m a n t i c i s m was b o r n when t h i s c o n c e p t o f r e a s o n ( r e a s o n a c t i n g i n a l i m i t e d f i e l d and o f l i m i t e d v a l u e , as i t was t h o u g h t e a r l i e r - n . a . ) was a b a n d o n e d and an i n f i n i t e f o r c e w h i c h i n h a b i t s t h e w o r l d and r u l e s i t and t h e r e f o r e c o n s t i t u t e s t h e e s s e n c e i t s e l f o f t h e w o r l d - b e g a n t o be u n d e r s t o o d as r e a s o n . T h i s p a s s a g e was made by F i c h t e , who i d e n t i f i e d r e a s o n w i t h the i n f i n i t e I o r a b s o l u t e S e l f - C o n s c i o u s n e s s and made o f i t t h e f o r c e f r o m w h i c h t h e e n t i r e w o r l d i s p r o d u c e d . I n f i n i t y i n t h i s s e n s e i s an i n f i n i t y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s and o f p o w e r , i n a d d i t i o n to e x t e n s i o n and d u r a t i o n . A l t h o u g h v a r i o u s l y c a l l e d by t h e r o m a n t i c p h i l o s o p h e r s ( F i c h t e c a l l e d i t I ; S c h e l l i n g , A b s o l u t e ; H e g e l , I d e a o r S e l f - c o n s c i o u s R e a s o n ) , t h e I n f i n i t e P r i n c i p l e was c o n s t a n t l y u n d e r s t o o d as c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a c t i v i t y , 9. l i b e r t y , c a p a b i l i t y o f c o n t i n u o u s c r e a t i o n . D e s p i t e t h e common f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s , t h e i n f i n i t e P r i n c i p l e was i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e r o m a n t i c s i n two f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t w a y s . The f i r s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , c l o s e r t o t h e i d e a s o f t h e \" S t u r m und D r a n g \" , c o n s i d e r s i n f i n i t y as a s e n t i m e n t , t h a t i s as f r e e a c t i v i t y , f r e e o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o r b e y o n d e v e r y d e t e r m i n a t i o n , and t h a t i s r e v e a l e d i n man i n t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h a r e more s t r i c t l y r e l a t e d w i t h s e n t i m e n t , t h a t i s i n r e l i g i o n o r i n a r t . The s e c o n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n u n d e r s t o o d i n f i n i t y as a b s o l u t e R e a s o n , w h i c h moves w i t h r i g o r o u s n e c e s s i t y f r o m one d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r , so t h a t e v e r y d e t e r m i n a t i o n may be d e d u c e d f r o m the o t h e r n e c e s s a r i l y and a - p r i o r i . T h i s i s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h p r e v a i l e d in t h e g r e a t f i g u r e s o f r o m a n t i c i d e a l i s m , F i c h t e , S c h e l l i n g and H e g e l , a l t h o u g h S c h e l l i n g i n s i s t e d on the p r e s e n c e , i n t h e i n f i n i t e P r i n c i p l e , o f an u n c o n s c i o u s o r i m m e d i a t e a s p e c t , s i m i l a r t o t h a t w h i c h c h a r a c t -e r i z e s t h e a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f man. The two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f i n f i n i t y were o f t e n i n c o n t r a s t and H e g e l e s p e c i a l l y l e d t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e p r i m a c y o f s e n t i m e n t . But i t i s t h e i r c o n t r a s t and t h e i r s t r u g g l e w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s one o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l t r a i t s o f r o m a n t i c i s m i n the w h o l e o f i t s c o m p l e x i t y . \" 10. C . C a p p u c c i o n o t e s (15) t h a t \" r o m a n t i c i s m r e p r e s e n t s a new e p o c h o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . . . i n i t s most o b v i o u s e x p r e s s i o n s i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f f i r s t o f a l l as an o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e e n l i g h t e n m e n t , a l t h o u g h i n i t s e s s e n c e i t was t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f the e n l i g h t e n m e n t and c o n s e r v e d many o f t h e i d e a l c o n q u e s t s d i v u l g e d by t h e E n c y c l o p a e d i s t s . . . E x a l t a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m and r e l i g i o u s e x i g e n c y a r e t h e two c o m p l e x e l e m e n t s w h i c h d o m i n a t e t h e r o m a n t i c s p i r i t u a l w o r l d . . . \" From R u s s e l l t o A b b a g n a n o and C a p p u c c i o t h e r e i s a common c o n s e n s u s t h a t a new u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w o r l d and a new c o n s c i o u s n e s s emerged i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . C h i e f a r c h i t e c t s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e v a s t hody o f k n o w l e d g e t h a t f o l l o w e d , l a y i n g i t s f o u n d a t i o n s , were men l i k e R o u s s e a u and K a n t , l i k e B o u r k e and S c h i l l e r . The \" C o p e r n i c a n r e v o l u t i o n \" made by K a n t h a d p r o b a b l y g r e a t e r c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a n t h e F r e n c h r e v o l u t i o n . i t s e l f . I t i s t h e new u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h i c h p e r m e a t e d t h e v a s t new body o f k n o w l e d g e t h a t was d e v e l o p e d t h e n and a f t e r w a r d s w h i c h w i l l be c a l l e d r o m a n t i c i s m t h r o u g h o u t t h i s t h e s i s . To c l a r i f y t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s new u n d e r s t a n d i n g - a f a r r e a c h i n g r e v o l u t i o n o f t h o u g h t i n w h i c h no one c o u l d a v o i d b e i n g i n v o l v e d - we may o b s e r v e t h a t b e f o r e f o r a \" r a t i o n a l i s t \" s u c h as L e i b n i z s e n t i m e n t d i d n o t seem t o be a d i f f i c u l t y , j u s t as f o r a r a t h e r \" s e n t i m e n t a l \" p o e t as P e t r a r c a r e a s o n d i d n o t seem t o be a p r o b l e m . P e r f e c t i o n . , a p p e a r e d r a t h e r as a 11. harmony\" and a c o o p e r a t i o n o f a l l f a c t o r s o f t h e u n i v e r s e w i t h -o u t c o n f l i c t , and p e r f e c t i o n was c o n s i d e r e d p o s s i b l e . S e n t i m e n t and r e a s o n , n a t u r e and human i n d u s t r y , o r g a n i c l i f e and s c i e n c e , most o f t h e t e r m s w i t h w h i c h t h e l a s t two c e n t u r i e s h a v e b e e n c o n t e n d i n g were n o t new t e r m s and h a d b e e n s t u d i e d and d i s c u s s e d b e f o r e u n d e r many d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s . But t h e f e a t u r e o f t h e new age i s t h a t o f s e e i n g them i n n e c e s s a r y c o n t r a s t , as o p p o s i n g p o l e s o r f o r c e s . C o n t r a s t i s t h e d o m i n a n t f e a t u r e . P e r f e c t i o n , i f a t t a i n a b l e , i s t h e r e s u l t o f a s t r u g g l e , i t i s the, c a l m a f t e r t h e t e m p e s t o f B e e t h o v e n i n t h e s i x t h s y m p h o n y , o r t h e i d e a l o r d e r t h a t f o l l o w s t h e s t r u g g l e o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n . The new way o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s a d i a l e c t i c way o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g where t h e r e may be a p r o -g r e s s i o n t o s u b l i m i t y t h r o u g h c o n t r a s t s . T h i s was a m a z i n g l y e x p r e s s e d by t h e c u b i s t s , who t r i e d \" the s i m u l t a n e o u s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e a s p e c t s o f an objec t ' . ' (16) d e l i v e r i n g w i t h a s t o n i s h i n g a b i l i t y and s u c c e s s a c o o r d i n a t e d s e r i e s o f c o n t r a s t s . P r e v i o u s ages h a d o t h e r d o m i n a n t f e a t u r e s . I f I h a d t o g i v e a t i t l e t o t h e c e n t u r i e s o f r o m a n t i c i s m , p e r h a p s I w o u l d c a l l i t t h e Age o f C o n t r a s t , j u s t as I w o u l d g i v e a t i t l e s u c h as t h e Age o f R e l i g i o n t o t h e m e d i e v a l c e n t u r i e s . I t i s n o t t h a t d u r i n g t h o s e c e n t u r i e s e v e r y o n e was a b e l i e v e r , b u t one c o u l d h a r d l y h a v e a s o c i a l l i f e w i t h o u t c o m i n g t o t e r m s w i t h r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . S i m i l a r l y c o n -t r a s t i n g r o m a n t i c i d e a l s h a v e p r o f o u n d l y p e n e t r a t e d o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n . 12. C o n t r a s t s h o u l d n o t be i n t e n d e d as a s t r i c t c a t e g o r y and p u r e l y i n a d u a l i s t i c s e n s e . R o m a n t i c , f o r e x a m p l e , was a l s o t h e l o v e f o r i n f i n i t y and f o r e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n s . Among o t h e r t h i n g s , a new f o r m o f r a t i o n a l i s t i c i d e a l i s m was b o r n , where e v e r y t h i n g had t o be p r e c i s e l y c a t e g o r i z e d ; e v e n l o g i c and s c i e n c e were i d e a l i z e d . (The d r a w i n g s f o r a c e n o t a p h t o Newton by B o u l l e e a r e one among many i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h i s i d e a l i z i n g t r e n d , where m y s t i c i s m and s c i e n c e come t o a s o r t o f d i a l e c t i c u n i t y . ) Many p e o p l e h a v e b e e n c o n f u s e d by t h e i n c r e d i b l e e c l e c t i c i s m w h i c h d e v e l o p e d a t t h e t i m e , n o t o n l y i n a r c h i t e c t u r e , where G r e e k , R o m a n e s q u e , G o t h i c o r o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s t y l e s p r o -v i d e d new i n s p i r a t i o n and c o n t r a s t s , b u t a l s o i n t e r m s o f o p p o s i n g a t t i t u d e s and i d e a s , some d i r e c t l y d e v e l o p e d f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y , a n d some r e v i v e d f r o m many c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e . The same r a t i o n a l i s t i c a t t i t u d e s t h a t h a d f o r m e d t h e g e n e r a t i o n s o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y became r o m a n t i c once t h e y were r e l a t e d t o a b s o l u t e i d e a l s o r a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e new t r i b u t e t o t h e s e n t i m e n t a l s i d e . N o t i n g t h a t t h e word and t h e i n t e r e s t f o r a e s t h e t i c s r o s e t o g e t h e r w i t h r o m a n t i c i s m one m i g h t even s a y , p e r h a p s , t h a t r o m a n t i c i s m was an a e s t h e t i c a n d s u b j e c t i v e v i e w o f t h e w o r l d , a l t h o u g h d e v o t i o n t o an i d e a l , w h i c h c o u l d be common ,. many t i m e s b r o u g h t p e o p l e b a c k t o g e t h e r . The o p e r a h o u s e and t h e s t o c k e x c h a n g e may be s e e n as e x a m p l e s o f new t e m p l e s o f f o l l o w e r s o f an i d e a l i n w h i c h t h e v i r t u o s o and t h e e n t e r p r e n e u r a r e e x a m p l e s o f new h e r o e s : t h e g i f t e d g e n i u s e s . 1 3 . A p p r o a c h The o p i n i o n t h a t w i l l emerge f r o m t h i s t h e s i s i s t h a t many o f t h e c o n t r a s t s and o f t h e o p p o s i n g p o l e s a n d o f t h e a t t i t u d e s g e n e r a t e d by t h e r o m a n t i c mood may n o t be n e c e s s a r y a n d may n o t be r e a s o n a b l e . Many o f t h e d e s i g n s o l u t i o n s a d o p t e d i n t h e l a s t ' h u n d r e d y e a r s (and e a r l i e r ) w i l l be c r i t i c i s e d . T h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t what i s modern i s r o m a n t i c and t h a t what i s r o m a n t i c i s b a d . The a u t h o r i s n o t a r e a c t i o n a r y and w o u l d be d i s a p p o i n t e d by an a t t e m p t t o r e t u r n t o t h e \" a n c i e n r e g i m e \" o r t o e v e n o l d e r s t y l e s . A t t a c k i n g t h e p r e s e n t i n o r d e r t o p r a i s e t h e p a s t i s n o t a t a l l t h e i n t e n t o f t h i s t h e s i s . T h e r e i s no d isagreement w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t , d e s p i t e d i f f i c u l t i e s and m i s t a k e s , t h e r e has b e e n a t r u e p r o g r e s s o f l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e l a s t two c e n t u r i e s and t h a t some o f t h e most r e w a r d i n g a r t i s t i c a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l works h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e same t i m e . And t h e c r i t i c i s m t h a t t h e r e a d e r may n o t e i n some p l a c e s a g a i n s t an i l l a d v i s e d d e s i r e f o r a c e r t a i n m o r a l o r d e r s h o u l d n o t be c o n s t r u e d as an a t t a c k a g a i n s t m o r a l o r d e r \" t o u t court ' : ' . P u r p o s e In f a c t , p r o v i n g a p h i l o s o p h y o r a new modus v i v e n d i i s n o t t h e o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s w o r k . The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s t h e s i s i s t h a t o f c o l l e c t i n g many s c a t t e r e d e l e m e n t s a l o n g one m a i n t h e m e , so t h a t f u r t h e r s t u d i e s may be made and so t h a t o t h e r s who a r e w i l l i n g may p r o c e e d w i t h a d d i t i o n a l work a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f 1 4 . t h e t h e m e . The t h e s i s w i l l s u g g e s t many r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n a r c h i t e c t u r a l and n o n - a r c h i t e c t u r a l e v e n t s . T h e r e i s a d e q u a t e d o c u m e n t a t i o n t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e w e l l f o u n d e d . Much o f i t w i l l be f o u n d i n t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y . The t h e s i s i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h s h o w i n g s e v e r a l ways i n w h i c h u r b a n d e s i g n and a r c h i t e c t u r e a r e c o n d i t i o n e d by a . s o r t o f r o m a n t i c t r a d i t i o n t h a t i s n o t f u l l y r e c o g n i z e d a n d q u e s t i o n e d , by t h o s e who a r e i n v o l v e d i n i t i n c o m t e m p o r a r y l i f e . The i d e a s b e h i n d t h e p r e s e n t \" s y s t e m \" o f d e s i g n and o f a r c h i t e c t u r e go u n c h a l l e n g e d w i t h p o s s i b l e p e r n i c i o u s i n f l u e n c e on t h e f u t u r e o f o u r c i t i e s . R o m a n t i c c o n t r a s t s and d u a l i s t i c t r e n d s , s u c h as t h a t o f t h e man who wants t o l i v e i n t h e woods and work i n t h e m e t r o p o l i s may be s e r i o u s l y q u e s t i o n e d w i t h t h e c o l d eye o f a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s - and i f f o u n d t o be d e t r i m e n t a l p e r h a p s t h e y s h o u l d be r e - e v a l u a t e d . O r g a n i z a t i o n The t h e s i s i s o r g a n i z e d t o p r e s e n t f i r s t t h e o b s e r v a t -i o n s on t h e p r e s e n t and t h e n t h e h i s t o r i c a l k e y . T h i s i s done i n -o r d e r t o p o i n t o u t t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e p r e s e n t u r b a n p a t t e r n t h a t must be n o t e d and i n o r d e r t o u n d e r l i n e t h e i d e a s , t h e a t t i t u d e s , t h e l e g a l and e c o n o m i c f r a m e w o r k t h a t must be o b s e r v e d i n t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on d e s i g n . A f t e r t h i s i n i t i a l e x a m i n a t i o n - w h i c h o u t l i n e s e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e modern c i t y , o f modern a t t i t u d e s a n d s o c i a l f a c t o r s , o f modern d e s i g n and a r c h i t e c t u r e -t h e h i s t o r i c a l e l e m e n t s a r e i n t r o d u c e d . The r e a s o n f o r w h i c h 1 5 . t h i s method has been c h o s e n i s t h a t i t a l l o w s one t o f o c u s on f a m i l i a r e l e m e n t s and t o g a i n a r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f o l d t r e n d s and o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g i n f l u e n c e o f c e r t a i n o l d and p e r h a p s h a l f f o r g o t t e n i d e a s . To a n a l y s e t h e p r e s e n t f i r s t seems t o d e v e l o p a b e t t e r p e r s p e c t i v e . The p r e s e n t i s o u r l i f e . By s t a r t i n g w i t h an o b s e r v a t i o n o f e l e m e n t s o f t h e p r e s e n t we may f o l l o w a p a t h t o t h e i r o r i g i n s and b e g i n t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e a s o n why t h e y e x e r t a f o r c e t o d a y . E a c h c h a p t e r has a s p e c i a l t h e m e . The f i r s t c h a p t e r i s c o n c e r n e d m o s t l y w i t h t h e g e o m e t r y , t h e s e p a r a t i o n s and t h e s t r i c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f b l o c k s o f t h e f a b r i c o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s . T h i s o v e r a l l v i e w i s i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e i t a l l o w s one t o o u t l i n e what i s s u p p o s e d t o be t h e a n t i - s e n t i m e n t a l p o l e o f t h e u r b a n s t r u c t u r e (and t o r e f l e c t on some c o n s e q u e n c e s o f what may be s e e n as r o m a n t i c p e r f e c t i o n i s m o r r a t i o n a l i d e a l i s m ) . The s e c o n d c h a p t e r i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e c o n t r a s t i n g p o l e o f i n t e r e s t s : t h e s e n t i m e n t a l and p i c t u r e s q u e a e s t h e t i c s , n a t u r e , t h e g a r d e n , t h e i n d i v i d u a l f r e e e x p r e s s i o n , t h e \" s u b u r b a n s t y l e ' . ' . In a way t h e l o v e o f o r g a n i c n a t u r e and o f t h e p i c t u r e s q u e i s t h e n e c e s s a r y e l e m e n t o f c o n t r a s t t o t h e n e e d o f g e o m e t r y , o f o r d e r , o f i d e a l p r e c i s i o n , o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , o f u n i f o r m i t y shown by t h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l o r d e r o f t h e g i a n t z o n e d g r i d . 1 6 . T h e s e two b a s i c p o l e s i f i n t e r e s t s a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e f i r s t two c h a p t e r s b e c a u s e t h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e l e i t m o t i f o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y u r b a n s c e n e : on one s i d e , t h e l a w , U t o p i a n and i d e a l r e a s o n , z o n i n g , n e a t b l o c k s o f c o l o u r on a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l map, g e o m e t r y , e n g i n e e r i n g , s c i e n c e , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , e q u a l i t y , u n i f o r m i t y o f r u l e s . On t h e o t h e r s i d e i n d i v i d u a l i s m , c r e a t i v e f r e e d o m , o r g a n i c n a t u r e , d e t a c h e d b u i l d i n g s , c u r v y p a t h s , t h e i m i t a t i o n o f n a t u r e and even t h e i m i t a t i o n o f p a s t s t y l e s . The t h i r d c h a p t e r has f o r theme t h e c o n t r a s t and t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f i d e a l r a t i o n a l and o f s e n t i m e n t a l i r r a t i o n a l p o l e s o f i n t e r e s t s i n t h e p u b l i c d e b a t e s w h i c h seem t o i n f l u e n c e p u b l i c o p i n i o n . A p a r t i c u l a r theme i s t h e c o n f l i c t s e e n b e t w e e n t h e man-made c i v i l i z a t i o n o f t h e c i t y and t h e c a l l o f o r g a n i c n a t u r e . Some o f t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n s and o f t h e i l l u s i o n s - i n t e r m s o f d e s i g n - g e n e r a t e d by t h e o p p o s i n g i n t e r e s t s a r e n o t e d . The f o u r t h c h a p t e r i s an a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a r c h i t e c t and o f h i s o f f i c e , c a u g h t b e t w e e n t h e image o f c r e a t i v e g e n i a l i t y and t h e p r e s s u r e s f r o m t h e r u t h l e s s l o g i c o f b u s i n e s s and o f p o l i t i c s , b e t w e e n i n s p i r a t i o n and t h e v u l g a r r e a l i s m o f money . The n o t i o n s o f r o m a n t i c i d e a l i s m and r e a l i s m become e l e m e n t s o f c o n t r a s t i n g and o p p o s i n g f o r c e s i n t h e d a i l y o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l o f f i c e , where t h e c o m p e t i t i o n -and t h e p r e s s i n g r h y t h m o f t h e f r e e e n t e r p r i s e s y s t e m seem t o p l a c e an i n s u f f e r a b l e l i m i t t o t h e i n t u i t i o n and t o t h e c r e a t i v e r o l e o f t h e a r c h i t e c t . D e s i g n and p r o d u c t i o n become two c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e a c t i v i t i e s . The f i r s t d e r i v e s f r o m 17. i n t u i t i v e c r e a t i v i t y , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d i s d o m i n a t e d by t h e n e e d o f e f f i c i e n c y and s p e e d . The a r c h i t e c t becomes an a l i e n a t e d g e n i u s i n t h e r o l e o f an i n s p i r e d h i g h p r i e s t o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t The f i f t h c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s p o p u l a r n o t i o n s and a t t i t u d e s d e r i v e d f r o m r o m a n t i c dreams and a f f e c t i n g t h e i m a g e s o f what t h e c i t y s h o u l d l o o k l i k e . The \" s u b u r b a n s t y l e \" has become an a t t i t u d e : e v e n i n d u s t r i e s a n d o f f i c e s must grow i n t h e m i d d l e o f g r e e n p a r k s w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e , s p r e a d o u t i n a n a t u r a l s e t t i n g . H i g h d e n s i t y i s s e e n as t h e o p p o s i t e o f e v e r y -t h i n g d e s i r a b l e i n t h e c i t y . The c l e a n , o r d e r l y a n d p i c t u r e s q u e n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f an i d e a l v i l l a g e o f o l d t i m e s i s t h e image c u l t i v a t e d by t h e m a j o r i t y . The l i n k b e t w e e n N o r t h e r n r o m a n t i c i d e a l s , A n g l o - S a x o n c u l t u r a l d i r e c t i o n s and t h e s e . i m a g e s o f t h e c i t y i s n o t e d and e m p h a s i z e d . The p o i n t t h a t i s g r a d u a l l y made t h r o u g h a l l o f t h e s e i n i t i a l c h a p t e r s i s t h a t t h e r e a l q u e s t i o n o f what k i n d o f a c i t y we want i s o b l i t e r a t e d by a w ide r a n g e o f c o n t r a s t i n g p a r t i c u l a r n o t i o n s a b o u t t h i s o r t h a t a s p e c t o f a d r e a m c i t y . The s t r u g g l e f o r r o m a n t i c i d e a l s becomes t h e b a s i s f o r a g r e a t d e a l o f c o n f u s i o n . The o b j e c t i v e i s to h e l p t h e r e a d e r t o u n d e r -s t a n d t h a t t o be i n v o l v e d i n t h e d i l e m m a : \" c o n c r e t e o r p a r k s ? \" , q u o t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n , means t o a v o i d t h e t r u l y c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n s , i n t e r m s o f d e s i g n , a b o u t what k i n d o f a c i t y we want t o c h o o s e , t h a t i s what k i n d o f dreams a r e r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o d a y and f o r t h e f u t u r e . T h r o u g h o u t t h e s e c h a p t e r s 1 8 . i t i s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r scheme w h i c h became t h e p r e v a l e n t m o d e l f o r t h e c i t y i n N o r t h A m e r i c a was c h o s e n and f i x e d upon two and even more c e n t u r i e s a g o . I t s h o u l d be c l e a r a t t h e end t h a t a s i n g l e m i n d e d d r e a m , m o s t l y d e r i v e d f r o m i d e a s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i s s t i l l t y p i c a l l y s e l f -i m p o s e d by N o r t h A m e r i c a n s as t h e o n l y a c c e p t a b l e u r b a n and a r c h i t e c t u r a l s y s t e m c o n c e i v a b l e f o r now and f o r t h e f u t u r e . The s i x t h and s e v e n t h c h a p t e r s d e a l w i t h t h e e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , l e g a l and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s w h i c h seem t o c o n d i t i o n t h e p r e s e n t \" s y s t e m \" o f p l a n n i n g and o f d e s i g n i n g , n o t i n g t h a t t h e d e f e n c e o f t h e c h o s e n v a l u e s seems t o be w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d i n a p o s i t i v e manner t h r o u g h t h e s e f a c t o r s . An a t t e m p t i s made t o show how s t r o n g l y r o m a n t i c n o t i o n s h a v e b e e n e m b o d i e d i n t h e e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l and l e g a l f r a m e w o r k . i n w h i c h t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y d e s i g n p r o c e s s t a k e s p l a c e . In t h e e i g h t h , n i n t h and t e n t h c h a p t e r s t h e p a t t e r n s o f d e s i g n n o t e d a r e r e l a t e d t o e a r l i e r h i s t o r i c a l a n t e c e d e n t s and t o i d e a s w h i c h d e v e l o p e d a t t h e o u t s e t o f t h e r o m a n t i c p e r i o d . In t h e e i g h t h c h a p t e r t h e g r i d o f t h e U t o p i a n r u r a l p l a n n i n g by Penn a n d t h e c u r v e s o f t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c dream by O l m s t e d a r e shown t o be a t t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e \" g a r d e n c i t y \" c o n c e p t . In t h e n i n t h c h a p t e r t h e e f f e c t o f n o t i o n s a b o u t t h e s u b l i m e and o f n a t u r e upon d e s i g n a r e i n t r o d u c e d . The r e v o l u t i o n -a r y a r c h i t e c t u r e o f t h e end o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y i s shown 19. as t h e p r o t o t y p e o f t h e modern p a t t e r n o f r o m a n t i c c o n t r a s t . In c h a p t e r t e n t h e o r i g i n s o f romantic i d e a s a r e r e -t r a c e d , r e l a t i n g t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s made i n p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s t o a s p e c t s o f t h o u g h t s o f t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l men o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h and n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . C h a p t e r s e l e v e n , t w e l v e and t h i r t e e n draw t h e c o n -c l u s i o n s . The c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o f d a i l y u r b a n l i f e and what seems t o be a b l i n d and u n q u e s t i o n e d a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e p e r m a n e n c y o f ou tmoded s t y l e s , t o a p o i n t b e y o n d t h e r e a l m o f c r i t i c i s m , a r e n o t e d i n c h a p t e r e l e v e n . C h a p t e r t w e l v e has a l i s t o f e x a m p l e s o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s t y l e as d e r i v e d f r o m t h e r o m a n t i c i n t e r p r e -t a t i o n s o f c o n t r a s t s and o f n a t u r e i n t e r m s o f t h e a e s t h e t i c s o f t h e s u b l i m e and o f t h e b e a u t i f u l . . C h a p t e r t h i r t e e n i s t h e c o n c l u s i o n p r o p e r . C o n c l u d i n g N o t e As an end t o t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n I may s a y w i t h t h e E n c y c l o p a e d i a o f t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s (1934) t h a t : \"The c l e a r e s t m i n d s o f t o d a y a r e q u i c k l y o u t g r o w i n g t h e c r u d e c o n t r a s t o f r o m a n t i c and c l a s s i c \" ( 1 7 ) , and recommend as a h e l p - e v e n i f somewhat l i m i t e d and o u t d a t e d - t o t h e r e a d i n g o f t h e t h e s i s t h e d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n u n d e r t h e t i t l e \" R o m a n t i c i s m \" i n t h a t E n c y c l o p a e d i a . I am n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h a r i c h e r d e f i n i t i o n o f r o m a n t i c i s m i n t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e . The a u t h o r , G . B o r g e s e , c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f an e n l i g h t e n e d r o m a n t i c . APPENDIX NOTE 20. A n o t e must be made o f some i m p o r t a n t s t u d i e s w h i c h a r e a k i n d o f a n t e c e d e n t t o t h i s w o r k . Among t h e s e t h e most i m p o r t a n t by f a r seems t o be The I n t e l l e c t u a l V e r s u s t h e C i t y , t h e w e l l - k n o w n s t u d y by M o r t o n and L u c i a W h i t e . I t opens w i t h t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t \" the d e c a y o f t h e A m e r i c a n c i t y i s one o f t h e most p r e s s i n g c o n c e r n s o f t h e n a t i o n \" (18) and i t r e v i e w s t h o s e t h i n k e r s who \" v i r t u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e o u r i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n as i t i s known t o d a y \" (19) s h o w i n g t h a t \" the i n t e l l e c t , whose home i s t h e c i t y a c c o r d i n g t o some s o c i o l o g i s t s , has p r o -d u c e d t h e s h a r p e s t c r i t i c i s m o f t h e A m e r i c a n c i t y . \" ( 2 0 ) . The s t u d y c o n c l u d e s t h a t \" the w i l d e r n e s s , t h e i s o l a t e d f a r m , t h e p l a n t a t i o n , t h e s e l f - c o n t a i n e d New E n g l a n d t o w n , t h e d e t a c h e d n e i g h b o u r h o o d a r e t h i n g s o f t h e A m e r i c a n p a s t \" (21) and t h a t a \" s e l f - c o n s c i o u s f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e v a l u e s t h a t c i t y p l a n n e r s a r e s e e k i n g t o r e a l i z e i n t h e A m e r i c a n c i t y ; i s n e c e s s a r y .'(22) . T h e ' s t u d y p o i n t s out w i t h s u r p r i s e a f u n d a m e n t a l s i m i l a r i t y o f a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e c i t y f r o m p e o p l e a p p a r e n t l y as d i f f e r e n t as Thomas J e f f e r s o n and F r a n k L l o y d W r i g h t , B e n j a m i n F r a n k l i n and F r e d e r i c k Howe. Where t h e s t u d y f a i l s i s i n n o t p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h e s i m i l a r i t y i s n o t so much a h i s t o r i c a l a c c i d e n t as t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e new t r a d i t i o n o f t h o u g h t a r i s i n g i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . In N o r t h A m e r i c a t h e s k e p t i c i s m and t h e s a t i r e o f Hume and V o l t a i r e were l i t t l e known d u r i n g t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The l i t e r a t u r e o f t h a t age and t h e war o f i n d e p e n d e n c e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a may 21. be s e e n as an a n t e c e d e n t t o t h e m a i n themes o f t h e new age o f t h o u g h t , w h i c h f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y w i l l be c a l l e d t h e r o m a n t i c a g e . T h i s s t u d y w i l l show t h a t t h e e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e s o f d e s i g n d e v e l o p e d f r o m l a t e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h o u g h t a r e s t i l l a p p l i e d t o d a y , even i f t h e o r i g i n s may be f o r g o t t e n by t h e l e s s p r e p a r e d , and t h a t we a r e s t i l l w a i t i n g f o r s o m e t h i n g t r u l y new, s o m e t h i n g t h a t w i l l r e s o l v e f o r -the n e x t c e n t u r y t h e now o b v i o u s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o f what was modern two h u n d r e d y e a r s a g o . A t r u e r e n e w a l o f p r i n c i p l e s o f d e s i g n i s b e c o m i n g more and more n e c e s s a r y . T h i s seems to be among t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f what may be r e g a r d e d as t h e most c o m p r e h e n s i v e h i s t o r y o f modern a r c h i t e c t u r e , t h e m o n u m e n t a l S t o r i a d e 1 1 ' A r c h i t e t t u r a M o d e r n a by R. B e n e v o l o , w h i c h s p a n s f r o m t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o o u r d a y s : \" I f t h e modern movement were t o be l e f t b e h i n d , t h i s a d v a n c e w o u l d r e p r e s e n t a much more r a d i c a l : , s t e p t h a n any o f t h e c h a n g e s shown up t o h e r e : i t w o u l d t r u l y be n e c e s s a r y t o s t a r t a g a i n , w i t h t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s . To u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e r i o u s n e s s o f t h i s d i f f i c u l t y i s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i s c e r t a i n l y n o t h e l p i n g c o n t e m p o r a r y a r c h i t e c t s t o l i v e h a p p i l y , b u t w h i c h p l a c e s i n a w e l l d e f i n e d p e r s p e c t i v e d u t y a n d hope t o w a r d t h e f u t u r e 1 . 1 . (23) 22. I n t r o d u c t i o n (1) PETER C O L L I N S ; C h a n g i n g I d e a l s i n M o d e r n A r c h i t e c t u r e M o n t r e a l , 1967 (2) \"Weekend M a g a z i n e \" , v o l . 2 4 , N o . 2 , J a n u a r y 12 , 1974 , f r o n t page (3) \"The V a n c o u v e r S u n : , M a r c h 9 , 1974 , p . 4 7 , a r t i c l e by ALAN D A N I E L S . (4) \"The V a n c o u v e r S u n \" , J u l y 28 , 1973 , Sunday c o m i c s t r i p s . (5) BERTRAND R U S S E L L : A H i s t o r y o f W e s t e r n P h i l o s o p h y , New Y o r k 1965 ( f i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1 9 4 5 ) , p . 6 7 5 (6) H i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o u r b a n d e s i g n , i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i s d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r 8. (7) T h i s c a n be s e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e d r a w i n g s by B o u l l e e and L e d o u x shown i n c h a p t e r 9 . E . L . B o u l l e e and C . N . L e d o u x were a c t i v e i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . (8) JOHN CANADAY: T o g a s and C h i t o n s as R o m a n t i c D i s g u i s e s , f r o m \"The New Y o r k T i m e s \" , S u n d a y , O c t o b e r 1, 1972 , p . 2 5 (9) G . DE RUGGIERO: L ' E t a d e l R o m a n t i c i s m o , L a t e r z a 1974 ( f i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1 9 4 3 ) , v o l . 1 1 , p . 3 5 2 (10) L . GEYMONAT: S t o r i a d e l P e n s i e r o F i l o s o f i c o , M i l a n 1960 , v o l . I l l , p . 2 1 : \"Vedremo che n e i g r a n d i i d e a l i s t i - F i c h t e , S c h e l l i n g , H e g e l - i t e m i o r a r i c o r d a t i d e l p e n s i e r o r o m a n t i c o s i r i v e r s t o n o d i un f o r m u l a r i o f i l o s o f i c o p e r m o l t i l a t i d i v e r s o da q u e l l o r e l i g i o s o -s e n t i m e n t a l e d e i p o e t i ; c i o non m u t e r a p e r o l a l o r o s o s t a n z a . N e l l o s t e s s o p e n s i e r o d i ; H e g e l . . . 1 1 a s p i r a z i o n e m i s t i c a v e r s o 1 ' i n f i n i t o . . . a s s u m e , s e n z a r i s e r v a d i s o r t e , d e l l a p i u ' s c h i e t t a c u l t u r a r o m a n t i c a . \" (11) K. J O E L ; Der U r s p r u n g d e r N a t u r p h i 1 o s o p h i e aus dem  G e i s t e d e r M y s t i k , 1900 , p . 1 4 (12) M. V I N C I G U E R R A : R o m a n t i c i s m o , B a r i 1 9 3 1 , p . 6 3 - 4 (13) B . C R O C E : S t o r i a d ' E u r o p a n e l S e c o l o X I X , 1932 , p . 4 7 (14) N . ABBAGNANO: S t o r i a d e l l a F i l o s o f i a , T u r i n 1963 , v o l . I l l p a r a g r a p h 538: \" I I r o m a n t i c i s m o n a s c e i n v e c e quando q u e s t o c o n c e t t o d e l l a r a g i o n e v i e n e a b b a n d o n a t o 23. e p e r r a g i o n e c o m i n c i a ad i n d e n d e r s i una f o r z a i n f i n i t a ( c i o e o n n i p o t e n t e ) che a b i t a i l mondo e l o d o m i n a e p e r c i o c o s t i t u i s c e l a s o s t a n z a s t e s s a d e l mondo. Q u e s t o p a s s a g g i o v i e n e e f f e t t u a t o da F i c h t e che i d e n t i f i c o l a r a g i o n e con l ' l o i n f i n i t o o A u t o c o s c i e n z a a s s o l u t a e ne f e c e l a f o r z a d a l l a q u a l e l ' i n t e r o mondo e p r o d o t t o . L ' i n f i n i t a . i n q u e s t o s e n s o e u n ' i n f i n i t a . d i d i c o s c i e . n z a e d i p o t e n z a , o l t r e che d i e s t e n s i o n e e d i d u r a t a . P e r q u a n t o v a r i a m e n t e c h i a m a t o d a i f i l o s o f i r o m a n t i c i ( F i c h t e 1 0 c h i a m o l o , S c h e l l i n g A s s a l u t o , H e g e l I d e a o R a d i o n e a u t o c o s c i e n t e ) , i l P r i n c i p i o i n f i n i t o f u c o s t a n t e m e n t e i n t e s o come c o s c i e n z a , a t t i v i t a , l i b e r t a , c a p a c i t a d i c r e a z i o n e i n c e s s a n t e . Ma p u r s u l f o n d a m e n t o comune d i q u e s t i c a r a t t e r i i l P r i n c i p i o i n f i n i t o venne i n t e r p r e t a t o d a i r o m a n t i c i i n due modi f o n d a m e n t a l i d i v e r s i . La p r i m a i n t e r -p r e t a z i o n e , p i l i v i c i n a a l l e i d e e d e l l o S t u r m und  D r a n g , c o n s i d e r a l ' i n f i n i t o come s e n t i m e n t o c ioe\" come a t t i v i t a l i b e r a , p r i v a d i d e t e r m i n a z i o n i o a l d i l a d i o g n i d e t e r m i n a z i o n e e che s i r i v e l a n e l l ' u o m o a p p u n t o i n q u e l l e a t t i v i t S \" che sono p i u s t r e t t a m e n t e c o n n e s s e con i l s e n t i m e n t o c i o e n e l l a r e l i g i o n e e n e l l 1 a r t e . La s e c o n d a i n t e r p r e t a z i o n e i n t e s e l ' i n f i n i t o come R a g i o n e a s s o l u t a che s i muove con n e c e s s i t a r i g o r o s a da una d e t e r m i n a z i o n e a l l ' a l t r a , s i c c h e o g n i d e t e r m i n a z i o n e p u 6 e s s e r e d e d o t t a d a l l ' a l t r a n e c e s s -a r i a m e n t e e a p r i o r i . E q u e s t a 1 ' i n t e r p r e t a z i o n e che p r e v a l s e n e l l e g r a n d i f i g u r e d e l 1 ' i d e a l i s m o r o m a n t i c o , F i c h t e , S c h e l l i n g , ed H e g e l , p e r q u a n t o S c h e l l i n g i n s i s t e s s e s u l l a p r e s e n z a , n e l P r i n c i p i o i n f i n i t o , d i un a s p e t t o i n c o n s a p e v o l e o i m m e d i a t o , a n a l o g o a q u e l l o che c a r a t t e r i z z a l ' e s p e r i e n z a e s t e t i c a d e l l ' u o m o . Le due i n t e r p r e t a z i o n i d e 1 1 ' i n f i n i t o f u r o n o s p e s s o i n c o n t r a s t o ed H e g e l s p e c i a l m e n t e c o n d u s s e l a p o l e m i c a c o n t r o i l p r i m a t o d e l s e n t i m e n t o . Ma p r o p r i o 11 l o r o c o n t r a s t o e l a l o r o p o l e m i c a c o s t i t u i s c e uno d e i t r a t t i f o n d a m e n t a l i d e l m o v i m e n t o r o m a n t i c o n e l suo c o m p 1 e s s o . \" ABBAGNANO i s t h e f i r s t e n t r y i n t h e E n c y c l o p a e d i a o f  P h i l o s o p h y , New Y o r k 1967 . (15) C . C A P P U C C I O : \" S t o r i a d e l l a L e t t e r a t u r a \" , F l o r e n c e , 1953 , p . 5 1 0 - 5 . 24. (16) JOHN CANADAY: M a i n s t r e a m s o f M o d e r n A r t , New Y o r k 1965 ( f i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1 9 5 9 ) , p . 4 5 8 (17) G . BORGESE: R o m a n t i c i s m , \" E n c y c l o p a e d i a o f t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s \" , New Y o r k 1934 , p . 4 3 3 , v o l . X V I I (18) M . \u00a7 L . WHITE: The I n t e l l e c t u a l V e r s u s t h e C i t y , New Y o r k , 1964 ( f i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 1 3 (19) I b i d e m , p . 1 5 (20) I b i d e m , p . 15 (21) I b i d e m , p . 2 3 6 (22) I b i d e m , p . 2 3 5 (23) R. B E N E V O L O : S t o r i a d e l 1 ' A r c h i t e t t u r a M o d e r n a , B a r i 1973 ( f i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1 9 6 0 ) , p . 8 9 3 25 . 1 . THE E X I S T I N G P A T T E R N AND PLAN OF THE MODERN NORTH AMERICAN C I T Y An i d e a l o r d e r i s a t t h e b a s i s o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n u r b a n f a b r i c . The u r b a n w o r k e r o f t h e m o d e r n m e t r o p o l i s m i g h t w e l l f i n d i t c h a o t i c , f r u s t r a t i n g and u n b e a r a b l e , b u t f r o m t h e e a r l y f o u n d e r s t o o u r c o n t e m p o r a r y p l a n n e r s t h e a t t i t u d e h a s b e e n t h a t o f p r e c i p i t a t i n g an a b s t r a c t m a t h e m a t i c a l w o r l d i n t o t h e g r a n d p h y s i c a l d e s i g n o f o u r c i t i e s . M a t h e m a t i c a l f i e l d s and C a r t e s i a n d i a g r a m s l o o k l i k e an i n t e l l e c t u a l b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e z o n e d g r i d o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n m e t r o p o l i s . N o r t h A m e r i c a seemed t o be i d e a l l y s u i t e d , w i t h i t s v a s t n e s s and r e s o u r c e s , f o r e s t a -b l i s h i n g t h e new o r d e r , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e i n t r i c a c i e s and c o m p l e x -i t i e s o f t h e c o r r u p t , s l o w m o v i n g o l d w o r l d . In t h i s c h a p t e r we w i l l e x a m i n e z o n i n g and s u b d i v i d i n g l a n d as a s p e c t s o f t h e d r e a m o f p e r f e c t o r d e r , a d r e a m i n f l u e n c e d by m o r a l i m p e r a t i v e s as w e l l as by t h e f a s c i n a t i n g b e a u t y o f t h e s c i e n c e s . I t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h i s d r e a m seems t o be more i n -f l u e n c e d by t h e two d i m e n s i o n a l c o n d i t i o n i n g o f t h e map t h a n by t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l r e a l i t y o f t h e p h y s i c a l b u i l d i n g s o f t h e c i t y . Z o n i n g , t h e s y s t e m by w h i c h c i t i e s a r e d i v i d e d up i n t o a r e a s o f s p e c i a l i z e d o r s i n g l e u s e , i s one o f t h e most s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s o f modern N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s . We seem t o p r i d e o u r -s e l v e s on i t , d e s p i t e some c o n t r o v e r s i e s . Z o n i n g i s o f t e n i n -d i c a t e d as a s t a n d a r d o f c i v i l i z a t i o n t o members o f o t h e r u r b a n 26. s o c i e t i e s , and as t h e l a s t s t a g e o f u r b a n p r o g r e s s . Many p l a n n e r s i n o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s a r e s t u d y i n g t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n a c h i e v e m e n t s i n t h i s f i e l d , and a r e t r y i n g t o p r o p o s e f o r m s o f z o n i n g t o t h e i r c o u n t r i e s , t o r e o r g a n i z e c i t i e s w h i c h a r e l a c k i n g a s t r i c t s e p -a r a t i o n o f u s e s and a c t i v i t i e s and t o b r i n g a new f o r m o f o r d e r t o t h e i r c i t i e s . A c i t y s u c h as P a r i s , f o r i n s t a n c e , w o u l d be v e r y c o n -f u s i n g f o r a p l a n n e r t r y i n g t o d e f i n e z o n e s o f s i n g l e u s e . I n N o r t h A m e r i c a , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , c o l o u r e d maps i n d i c a t i n g u s e s , w i t h one c o l o u r p e r u s e , a r e an a c c e p t e d way o f d i v i d i n g a c t i v i t i e s t a k i n g p l a c e i n an u r b a n a r e a , and t h e y a r e a t o o l b e l o n g i n g t o t h e l a s t s t a g e i n t h e p r o g r e s s o f p l a n n i n g . They a r e s e e n as an e f f i c i e n t , c l e a r , c l e a n and o r d e r l y way o f o r g a n i z i n g a c t i v i t i e s , and even as a s o p h i s t i c a t e d t o o l f o r t h e s t u d y o f how t o p r e v e n t c o n f l i c t s and h a z a r d o u s c o n d i t i o n s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i t i e s . T h e r e i s a c e r t a i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l s a t i s f a c t i o n f r o m t h e c l a r i t y o f a map c h a r t i n g t h e u s e s o f t h e l a n d i n a c i t y , and t h e map i t s e l f i s c o n s i d e r e d a r e a s o n a b l y f l e x i b l e s y s t e m s u s c e p t i b l e o f c o n t i n u o u s i m p r o v e m e n t . The map i s a c o n c r e t e b a s i s f o r s t u d y and d i s c u s s i o n , and may even become a c l e a r l e g a l t o o l when i t i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e z o n i n g b y - l a w s o f a c i t y . From t h e a i r most c o n t e m p o r a r y . N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s sfrow o b v i o u s r e s u l t s o f z o n e d ' d e v e l o p m e n t , w i t h ' c l e a r l y d e f i n e d a r e a s o f h i g h and low d e n s i t y , r e s i d e n t i a l s u b u r b s , c o m m e r c i a l c e n t r e s , i n d u s t r i a l p a r k s , p a r k s , e t c . Z o n i n g has been t h e m a j o r 27. t o o l used i n the s t r u g g l e a gainst urban chaos, and i t must have appeared even more reasonable and r a t i o n a l to those who noted that i t i s b a s i c a l l y the same system that many a r c h i t e c t s would apply to d i v i d e a c t i v i t i e s i n most or i n the more complex designs. The f a c t that zoning was used as a t o o l i n the process of p l a n n i n g North American c i t i e s by law, r a t h e r than through an a u t o c r a t i c designer or team of d e s i g n e r s , as Haussmann d i d i n P a r i s , a s s o c i a t e d the n o t i o n of the zoning map with that of democratic p l a n n i n g . The zoning map was seen as something proposed by the e l e c t e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and s u b j e c t to  ri c o n t i n u a l approval and v e r i f i c a t i o n by the e l e c t o r a t e and i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t was easy to understand, and i t d i d not seem to imply a choice of v a l u e s : i t did* not imply the choice of an a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t y l e and the people were l e f t f r e e , to a large extent, to choose any s t y l e to s u i t t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l development. Zoning seemed to be an impersonal system:, l e s s s u b j e c t to the whims of.an a u t o c r a t i c person, and seemed to have the ob-j e c t i v e q u a l i t i e s that a t t r a c t people to the co o l world of the s c i e n c e s . The c r i t e r i a on which the zones were e s t a b l i s h e d could be d i s c u s s e d and changed, i f necessary, on the b a s i s of q u a n t i t a t i v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s supported by s t a t i s t i c a l and s o c i a l s t u d i e s . What might have been endless debates on the b a s i s of pure opinions could f i n d a c o n v i n c i n g s o l u t i o n , i t was hoped, with the support of s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s . Zoning, proposed and approved i n the form of by-laws, became a system of p l a n n i n g North American c i t i e s without what was seen as an undemocratic master p l a n , of the kind proposed 28. by t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n w i n g o f r o m a n t i c i s m , w h i c h a d v a n c e d t h e i d e a o f a . c o m p l e t e d e s i g n p r e p a r e d by an i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e f o r an e n -t i r e c i t y . But t h e c o n c e p t o f z o n i n g a c i t y s h a r e s some o f t h e c l a s s i c a l r o m a n t i c i d e a l i s m t o o . I t comes f r o m a c o n c e p t o f o r d e r i n w h i c h e a c h t h i n g has t o f a l l i n t o a s p e c i f i c p l a c e , e a c h a c t i v i t y has t o be l o c a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o a c a t e g o r y o f t h e u s e o f l a n d i n a d e s i g n a t e d a r e a - - a c o n c e p t w h i c h a r o s e w i t h t h e l a t e e n l i g h t e n -ment and t h e E n c y c l o p e d i a . I t i s an i d e a l o f p e r f e c t i o n t h a t may r e m i n d one o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s p e c i e s o f L i n n e u s , o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f M e n d e l e j e f f , and o f t h e r a t i o n a l -i z e d r o m a n t i c i s m w h i c h v i e w e d p e r f e c t i o n and b e a u t y as t h e p r o d u c t o f an a b s o l u t e o r d e r n o t u n l i k e t h a t . o f t h e most p r e c i s e s c i e n c e s . The o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a l l a c t i v i t i e s u n d e r c a t e g o r i e s was s o m e t h i n g t h a t was not* a l i e n f r o m t h e way o f t h i n k i n g o f s u c h an i n f l u e n t i a l n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y i d e a l i s t as H e g e l , f o r e x a m p l e . To m a r r y r a t i o n -a l i s m and r o m a n t i c i s m , s o m e t i m e s i n an i d e a l i s t i c and s o m e t i m e s i n a p r a g m a t i c f a s h i o n , o f t e n i n a new s y n t h e s i s o f E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n s , i s p a r t o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n h e r i t a g e ; i n f a c t , t h e f u s i o n o f t h e two seems t o be a t t h e o r i g i n o f t h e common i d e a l o f p e r f e c t i o n . The c o n c e p t o f z o n i n g a l s o r e s p o n d s t o an i d e a l o f n e a t -n e s s t h a t c a n be t r a c e d b a c k t o \" p u r i t a n i c a l \" m o r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . I t may be more t h a n a c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t t h e a r t i s t i c g e o m e t r i c a l n e a t n e s s o f a movement s u c h as De S t i j l , and t h e p e r f e c t i o n i s m o f t h e p a i n t i n g s by M o n d r i a n , were c o l o u r s a r e l a i d o u t i n n e a t , p u r e and s t r o n g l y d e f i n e d \" z o n e s \" , w h i c h do n o t o v e r l a p and do n o t m i x , 29. a r e c o n t e m p o r a r y . We m a y n o t e t h a t i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b o u n d a r i e s o f n a t i o n s s t a r t e d t o b e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d a n d t h e m a p s s h o w e d w i t h a s i n g l e c o l o u r t h e i r n e a t l y d e f i n e d t e r r i t o r i e s . I t i s a p e c u l i a r i t y t h a t w e f i n d i n z o n i n g m a p s , w h e r e , i n t e r e s t i n g l y , c o l o u r s o f d i f f e r e n t u s e s n o r m a l l y d o n o t m i x , a n d h a v e a n a p p e a r -a n c e a n d a p a t t e r n e x t r e m e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f g e o l o g i c a l m a p s , f o r e x a m p l e , w h e r e a l l c o l o u r s i n d i c a t i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e g r o u n d i n t e r m i n g l e i n a n a l m o s t p s y c h e d e l i c p a t t e r n . T h e e s s e n c e o f z o n i n g i s t h a t o f s e p a r a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s a n d o f d e f i n i n g t e r r i t o r i e s f o r a c t i v i t i e s , a n d j u s t a s e v e r y o t h e r i d e a l r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f a d r e a m i t c a u s e s a w k w a r d p r o b l e m s i n i t s a b s o l u t e q u e s t o f s e p a r a t i o n , s u c h a s t h a t o f m o v i n g e n t i r e s e g m e n t s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f a c i t y f r o m o n e c o m p a r t m e n t o f a c t i v i t y t o a n o t h e r w h e n a c h a n g e o f a c t i v i t y i s r e q u i r e d . Z o n i n g h a s b e c o m e s u c h a c o m p l e t e s y s t e m t h a t e v e n t h e e x c e p t i o n h a s b e e n c a t e g o r i z e d a n d \" z o n e d \" : t h e r e a r e z o n e s f o r c o m p r e h e n s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t s w h e r e d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i t i e s a r e p e r m i t t e d t o i n t e g r a t e i n o n e l a r g e b l o c k , a l m o s t a s i n a m i n i - c i t y w i t h i n t h e c i t y . I n e v i t a b l y , t h e r e i s z o n i n g i n s i d e t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e b l o c k . Z o n i n g h a s p r o d u c e d a k i n d o f t e c h n i q u e o f s e p a r a t i o n s o f a c t i v i t i e s . i n w h i c h s o m e t e r r i t o r i e s a r e u s e d a s b u f f e r z o n e s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i c t s . T h e g r e e n s p a c e s o f p a r k s a r e u s e d a s b u f f e r z o n e s i n a v a r i e t y o f c i r c u m -s t a n c e s ; e v e n a p a r t m e n t s a r e o f t e n s e e n a s b u f f e r s b e t w e e n s i n g l e f a m i l i e s a n d c o m m e r c i a l u s e s o r l i g h t i n d u s t r y . T h e z o n i n g m a p h a s i n f l u e n c e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p l a n n i n g a s a d i s c i p l i n e c o n c e r n e d m o r e a n d m o r e w i t h a t w o d i m e n s i o n a l l a y -30. out r a t h e r than with the complex t o t a l f a b r i c of the c i t y , d e s p i t e many s t u d i e s and o b s e r v a t i o n s c a l l i n g f o r a d i f f e r e n t understanding and a d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e . Mrs. Beverly Moss Spatt, a Commissioner of the New York C i t y Planning Commission, a teacher and a s c h o l a r , notes i n A Proposal To Change The S t r u c t u r e of C i t y Planning: \"Perhaps the most s e n s i t i v e and t h e r e f o r e the most s u s c e p t i b l e area of development c o n t r o l i s that of zoning. A l e g i s l a t i v e device to r e g u l a t e the use and i n t e n s i t y of use of land, more- f r e q u e n t l y than not zoning has proven to be an imperfect and imprecise implementing t o o l . It should be emphasized that there i s nothing wrong with the * concept; r a t h e r , the d i f f i c u l t y l i e s i n the p r a c t i c e or a d m i n i s t r a - t i o n of z o n i n g . \" * ^ F. Choay sees, s i n c e the middle of the l a s t century, \"a new type of p l a n n i n g on the p a r t of the p1anner. The process of urban o r g a n i z a t i o n at t h i s p o i n t l o s e s i t s o r i g i n a l immediacy, as i t now evolves about an o b j e c t that has been removed from i t s context by a n a l y s i s ; f o r the f i r s t time the u m b i l i c a l cord has been cut, so to speak, and the c i t y i s subjected to c r i t -(2) i c a l p l a n n i n g . \" However, H. C h u r c h i l l , among o t h e r s , sees the development of p l a n n i n g r a t h e r as the r e s u l t of d i s a p p o i n t i n g r o u t i n e s : \"The p r a c t i c e of c i t y p l a n n i n g c o n s i s t s of l i n e s on paper and t a b l e s of f i g u r e s from c a l c u l a t i n g machines\", and advocates the view that \"the a r t of c i t y p l a n n i n g i s four f 3\") \u2022dimensional\". J But t h i s view i s w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g , j u s t as a paean of sentimental p r a i s e to an i d e a l c i t y model which i s never r e a l i z e d i n a c t u a l i t y . In f a c t , s i n c e the time of C a m i l l o S i t t e , * T h i s i s a fundamental a t t i t u d e r e g a r d i n g the contemporary design of the m e t r o p o l i s w h i c h transforms i n t o an i l l u s i o n most attempts toward a c r i t i c a l examination. 31. one o f t h e f o u n d e r s o f t h e t h e o r y o f c i t y p l a n n i n g as an a r t i n t h e r o m a n t i c t r a d i t i o n , t h e s t u d y o f u r b a n p r o b l e m s and p r o p o s a l s h a s more and more t a k e n on t h e a s p e c t o f t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l s k e t c h e s , p l a n s and maps, i n w h i c h h o r i z o n t a l s y m b o l i s m and a k i n d o f h o r i z o n t a l t h i n k i n g has s t r o n g l y p r e v a i l e d i n a l l e s s e n t i a l m a t t e r s . R e n d e r i n g s i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s have been u s e d m a i n l y as a e s t h e t i c means o f p e r s u a s i o n a f t e r t h e f a c t o f t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l d e s i g n has t a k e n p l a c e . Z o n i n g has d e v e l o p e d as a k i n d o f h o r i z o n t a l t o o l , i n w h i c h s e p a r a t i o n s a r e s e e n e x c l u s i v e l y i n a h o r i z o n t a l f a s h i o n . Not e v e n c o n d o m i n i u m s and t h e S t r a t a T i t l e s A c t have c h a n g e d t h i s e x c l u s i v e way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t u s e s . Condominiums p o t e n t i a l l y p r o v i d e an o c c a s i o n f o r a v e r t i c a l m i x o f u s e s , where d i f f e r e n t f l o o r s c o u l d be d e d i c a t e d t o d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i t i e s . T h i s i s done i n many c i t i e s o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . The c o l o u r e d c h e c k e r b o a r d s o f o u r c i t i e s h ave b e e n d e s i g n e d and c o n t i n u e t o e x i s t as h o r i z o n t a l s e p a r a t i o n s o f u s e s . One c a n n o t f a i l t o n o t e t h a t i n modern p l a n n i n g , t h e p l a n n i n g p r o f e s s i o n and t h e c o n c e p t o f z o n i n g s t a r t e d a l m o s t c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s l y i n o u r r e c e n t h i s t o r y . T h i s t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l v i e w o f c i t i e s and o f s e p a r a t i o n o f u s e s i s r e f l e c t e d a l s o i n t h e most c u r r e n t t h e o r i e s a d v a n c e d t o e x p l a i n o r p r e d i c t t h e p a t t e r n t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f u s e s and o f l a n d v a l u e s i n u r b a n a r e a s , as i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e Con-c e n t r i c Zone C o n c e p t ( f i g . 1 ) , by t h e S e c t o r C o n c e p t and by t h e (4) M u l t i p l e N u c l e i C o n c e p t ( f i g . 2) . These d i a g r a m s and t h e o r i e s t h a t b o t h e x p l a i n and p r o d u c e t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y N o r t h A m e r i c a n CONCENTRIC ZONE CONCEPT 1. Centra l B u s i n e s s Dis t r i c t 2. Zone of T r a n s i t i o n 3. Zone of W o r k i n g m e n ' s Homes 4 . Zone of Be t te r R e s i d e n c e s 5. C o m m u t e r s ' Z o n e 5 * - \u2022 * V F i g u r e 1 SECTOR CONCEPT MULTIPLE NUCLEI CONCEPT I- Central Bus iness Distr ict 6. Heavy Manu fac tu r i ng 2. Who lesa l e Light Manufac tu r ing 7. Ou t l y i ng Bus iness D i s t r i c t 3 . L o w - C l a s s Re s i den t i a l 8. R e s i d e n t i a l Subu rb 4 . M e d i u m - C l a s s R e s i d e n t i a l 9. Indus t r i a l S u b u r b 5. H i g h - C l a s s R e s i d e n t i a l F i g u r e 2 33. p a t t e r n a r e m a t e r i a l c o n t a i n e d i n most t e x t b o o k s o f p l a n n i n g and u r b a n e c o n o m i c s . Most e c o n o m i s t s t e n d t o s u p p o r t t h e t h e o r y i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e C o n c e n t r i c Zone C o n c e p t , d e v e l o p e d by Homer H o y t , i n w h i c h t h e y see t h e c i t y as f o l l o w i n g a k i n d o f n a t u r a l p a t t e r n o f e c o n o m i c g r o w t h . The v e r y use o f t h e word \" s u b d i v i s i o n \" r e f l e c t s an i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e o r i g i n o f t h e p r e s e n t p a t t e r n . I t i s a s y s t e m where t h e s u b d i v i s i o n o f p a r c e l s o f l a n d has b e e n c o m p l -emented by a s i m i l a r s u b d i v i s i o n o f u s e s and a c t i v i t i e s . In t h e p r e s e n t p a t t e r n t h e most p r e v a i l i n g s y s t e m i s t h a t o f h o r i z o n t a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , j u s t as p r o p e r t y was d i v i d e d h o r i z o n t a l l y , w i t h a p h y s i c a l s e p a r a t i o n n o r m a l l y p r o v i d e d by . p u b l i c open s p a c e s , m o s t l y by r o a d s . Not o n l y i s e a c h a c t i v i t y t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y , g e n e r a t i n g a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t s t y l e o f l i f e and code o f f a s h i o n ( f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e same p e r s o n who d r e s s e s up i n a b u s i n e s s s u i t f o r t h e day i n t h e o f f i c e w i l l p r a c t i c a l l y u n d r e s s t o go s h o p p i n g w i t h r u n n i n g s h o e s i n t h e e v e n i n g and t h e n d r e s s up a g a i n maybe t o go to a c l u b o r to some e n t e r t a i n m e n t ) , b u t e a c h b u i l d i n g and t y p e o f b u i l d i n g ( o f f i c e t o w e r , s i n g l e f a m i l y d w e l l i n g , d u p l e x , c o m m e r c i a l r o w , e t c . ) i s c l e a r l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e o t h e r s and s e p a r a t e l y c l a s s i f i e d . The s p i r i t o f t h e E n c y c l o p e d i s t s has b e e n a p p l i e d t o p l a n n i n g and a d i c t i o n a r y o f u s e s a n d o f b u i l d i n g s has b e e n c r e a t e d . The b u s i n e s s c e n t r e f o r e x a m p l e i s a . p l a c e w h e r e one s e e s men i n b u s i n e s s s u i t s a n d s e c r e t a r i e s m o v i n g a r o u n d a t c o f f e e b r e a k s , w h i l e t h e s h o p p i n g c e n t r e i s a p l a c e where one 34. s e e s h o u s e w i v e s i n r u n n i n g s h o e s , w i t h a few c h i l d r e n u n d e r s c h o o l a g e . The o b s e r v a t i o n s r e l a t i n g z o n i n g and b e h a v i o u r a l p a t t e r n s c o u l d become v e r y . d e t a i l e d and i n v o l v e d . A l a r g e number o f s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n f o c u s e d p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e e f f e c t s o f s u b -u r b a n r e s i d e n t i a l z o n i n g on b e h a v i o u r . A new a c t i v i t y g e n e r a t e d by t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s , c o m m u t i n g , has become a m a j o r a c t i v i t y i n i t s e l f . A l s o a h i e r a r c h y o f a c t i v i t i e s , o f c l o t h i n g and o f q u a l i t y o f b u i l d i n g s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r m s o f f i n i s h e s and o f d u r a b i l i t y ) has b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , w i t h t h o s e c o n s i d e r e d more n o b l e r e c e i v i n g g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n . The most f a s c i n a t i n g f a c t i s t h a t e v e n e n j o y m e n t i s o f t e n c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r some c a t e g o r y : \" r e c r e a t i o n a l \" o r \" c u l t u r a l \" o r \" s p i r i t u a l \" and so o n . T h e s e c a t e g o r i e s may be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e r e s p o n s e t o a r o m a n t i c i d e a l i s t i c u r g e (as A r t h u r E r i c k s o n a c u t e l y n o t e s s u c h a word as h o u s i n g c o u l d n o t have b e e n c o m p r e h e n d e d i n m e d i e v a l S i e n a ) and t o t h e n e e d o f r a t i o n a l i z i n g e a c h a c t i v i t y a c c o r d i n g t o an i d e a l o r d e r and p e r f e c t i o n . We must zone a . r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a i n o r d e r t o b r i n g i t up to a c e r t a i n i d e a l s y m b o l i c p e r f e c t i o n and b e a u t y t h a t i s p r o p e r o f d w e l l i n g s a l o n e ; and e v e n e a c h t y p e o f d w e l l i n g has t o be c l a s s i f i e d , - i n a k i n d o f h i e r a r c h y t o s y m b o l i c p e r f e c t i o n , where t h e i n d i v i d u a l d r e a m e s t a b l i s h e s t h e u l t i m a t e v a l u e c h o s e n f r o m an e c l e c t i c and e n c y c l o p e d i c c o l l e c t i o n . In a s i m i l a r manner a l l t h e o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s h a v e t o be s e e n i n i s o l a t i o n and c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g l y ; f o r e x a m p l e t h e p e r f e c t c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y has t o be d e v e l o p e d f r o m a s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n a t e d c o m m e c i a l a r e a . S u c h an a t t i t u d e was f o r e i g n t o t h e way o f t h i n k i n g o f p r e v i o u s c i v i l i z a t i o n s . Someone has n o t i c e d t h a t z o n i n g was 35. a l r e a d y a p p l i e d i n V e n i c e i n t h e e a r l y M i d d l e Ages ( a n d e v e n e a r l i e r i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e and A l e x a n d r i a ) on a n a t i o n a l b a s i s , b e c a u s e t h e T u r k s , t h e J e w s , t h e G e r m a n s , t h e A r m e n i a n s , e t c . , had t h e i r . d i s t i n c t a r e a s o f a c t i v i t y ; b u t t o s a y t h i s i s t o m i s -u n d e r s t a n d t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e modern m e a n i n g o f z o n i n g , w h i c h i s r a t h e r t h e o p p o s i t e : z o n i n g means h o r i z o n t a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and s e p a r a t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s , n o t o f p e o p l e . In t h e e x a m p l e o f V e n i c e , t h e p e o p l e who were s e p a r a t e d had a c o m p l e t e i n t e g r a t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e i r d o m a i n s , j u s t as t h e V e n e t i a n s d i d i n most o f t h e i r c i t y . In N o r t h A m e r i c a t o o , a s e p a r a t i o n o f p e o p l e on a r a c i a l b a s i s h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d i n many p l a c e s . T h i s o c c u r r e d s o m e t i m e s t h r o u g h e c o n o m i c a c c i d e n t and s o m e t i m e s t h r o u g h p r i v a t e e c o n o m i c c o n t r i v a n c e and s p e c i a l c o v e n a n t s r a t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h u r b a n p l a n n i n g , and i t d i d n o t a l t e r t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e u r b a n p l a n and o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s . The c o n c e p t o f s e p a r a t i o n i s a t t h e b a s i s o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n u r b a n s y s t e m , c o n t r a r y t o what t h e s p i r i t o f t h e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n o r C a n a d i a n democracy\" i s s u p p o s e d t o b e , and i t r e s p o n d s t o a n e e d t h a t has f a r - r e a c h i n g ' r o o t s . The o v e r a l l p l a n o f c o n -t e m p o r a r y c i t i e s r e v e a l s a t r e m e n d o u s e f f o r t t o s e p a r a t e e a c h d a i l y p u r s u i t and a c t i v i t y f r o m t h e o t h e r , i n a s t r i c t h o r i z o n t a l s y s t e m o f c a t e g o r i e s and e v e n o f v i s u a l s y m b o l s . I t has b e e n as sumed t h a t . t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n a p p r o a c h t o p r o b l e m s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y t o u r b a n p r o b l e m s , i s a f l e x i b l e and p r a g m a t i c a p p r o a c h , b u t t h i s i s an i l l u s i o n t h a t c o u l d n o t be f u r t h e r f r o m what a c t u a l l y h a p p e n e d and i s h a p p e n i n g . 36. P i e c e m e a l p r a g m a t i c and e c o n o m i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , n o r m a l l y i n v o k e d t o e x p l a i n t h e p r e s e n t u r b a n p r o b l e m s , a r e o n l y a way o f d e l a y i n g a d e b a t e on t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h have b e e n d i c t a t i n g p a t t e r n s and p l a n s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y c i t i e s . In f a c t , one o f t h e l a s t e c o n o m i c s t u d i e s p r e p a r e d f o r t h e c i t y o f C a l g a r y i n d i c a t e d t h a t a c h a n g e o f u r b a n p a t t e r n and o f p h i l o s o p h y o f p l a n n i n g w i l l have t o be made i n o r d e r t o a v o i d a b s u r d r e s u l t s , i n c l u d i n g b a n k r u p t c y f o r t h e c i t y , b u t i t was n o t i n d i c a t e d what c h a n g e h a d t o be made. I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s t e p o u t o f a c u l t u r a l t r e n d and t o p r o p o s e a c h a n g e o f r o u t e . T h e r e i s a C a l v i n i s t i c and p u r i t a n -i c a l r e l i g i o u s p r e c e d e n t p r e s s i n g t h e n e e d f o r c l e a r , c l e a n and o r d e r l y s e p a r a t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s , where t h e t i m e t a b l e o f t h e day i s a c h i e f f a c t o r o f o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t was o n l y by s e p a r a t i n g , c a t e g o r i z i n g and i d e n t i f y i n g c l e a r l y e a c h a c t i v i t y t h a t i t was f e l t t h a t t h e y c o u l d be p u r s u e d i n t h e r i g h t m o r a l o r d e r . I t was t h u s t h a t t h e y c o u l d be made c l e a n and b r o u g h t t o t h e i r n o b l e p e r f e c t i o n . The E n c y c l o p e d i a o f t h e ac t iv i t i e s\" o f a c i t y as sumed a n o b l e m o r a l v a l u e , and z o n i n g became a t o o l t o w a r d t h i s e n d . The s u b d i v i s i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s a c c o r d i n g t o a p r e c i s e t i m e t a b l e was a l s o c o n s i d e r e d p a r t o f t h e m o r a l and s u p e r i o r o r d e r . The s t o r y o f t h e h o u s e w i v e s o f K e o n i g s b e r g , who were a b l e t o t e l l t h e t i m e by M r . K a n t ' s d a i l y a p p e a r a n c e s i n h i s p u r s u i t s , i s f a m o u s . The same s p i r i t p e r m e a t e d ' t h e A m e r i c a . o f B e n j a m i n F r a n k l i n and p e r m e a t e s a g r e a t p a r t o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y b u s i n e s s c o m m u n i t y . I t i s an o u t l o o k i n w h i c h t i m e i s n o t o n l y money , i n t h e C a l v i n i s t i c t r a d i t i o n , b u t a l s o t h e o r g a n i z e r o f e a c h a c t i v i t y a c c o r d i n g t o a p r e c i s e d i v i s i o n . T h i s may be r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e 37. f a c t , t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p e o p l e move f r o m t h e zone o f one a c t i v i t y t o t h e n e x t a t t h e same t i m e . E n t i r e s e c t i o n s o f t h e c i t y may become empty a f t e r t h e h o u r s o f t h e i r common u s e . Many s t u d i e s h a v e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h i s has l e d t o d a n g e r o u s s i t u a t i o n s i n many N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s , where s t r e e t s have b e e n a b a n d o n e d t o a n t i -s o c i a l e l e m e n t s d u r i n g c e r t a i n h o u r s . T h e r e i s no n e e d t o m e n t i o n a l l t h e p r o b l e m s o f r u s h h o u r c h a n g e o f a c t i v i t y a t t h e same t i m e by e v e r y o n e i n t h e c i t y . Y e t i t was t h r o u g h s u c h o r d e r l y s e p a r a t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s c a r r i e d o u t a t a s p e c i f i c t i m e and p l a c e by e v e r y b o d y t h a t t h e i d e a l , p e r f e c t i o n f o r e a c h a c t i v i t y was l o o k e d f o r . R a t i o n -a l i s t i c , a e s t h e t i c and m o r a l r o m a n t i c . g o a l s become m i x e d i n t h e s e i d e a l p u r s u i t s o f o r d e r . The c l o c k and t h e c o l o u r e d maps do n o t p r o v i d e a t r u l y r e a s o n a b l e s y s t e m o f o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s . H o w e v e r , when p e o p l e a s k : \" A t what t i m e do y o u go t o w o r k ? \" , two q u e s t i o n s l o a d e d w i t h m o r a l v a l u e s have to be a n s w e r e d . F i r s t , w h e t h e r y o u s t a r t work a r o u n d t h e t i m e t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d r i g h t f o r a s o u n d and r e l i a b l e p e r s o n , and s e c o n d , w h e t h e r y o u do o r do n o t work i n t h e same l o c a t i o n where y o u s l e e p . Many o t h e r m o r a l v a l u e s a r e t i e d w i t h t h e l o c a t i o n and t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e p l a c e o f w o r k , w i t h t h e t i m e and p l a c e o f m e a l s and w i t h t h e t i m e when one goes t o b e d . A c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n w o u l d show t h a t o u r z o n e d and t i m e d a c t i v i t i e s a r e a l l e n v e l o p e d , i n f l u e n c e d and g u i d e d by a c o m p l e t e and s e l d o m q u e s t i o n e d s y s t e m o f m o r a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l v a l u e s . But q u e s t i o n -i n g t h e v a l u e s and t h e s y s t e m i s u s u a l l y b l i t h e l y a v o i d e d . B . M . S p a t t , w i t h t y p i c a l l y b l i n d b i a s , d e c l a r e d : \" I t s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g wrong w i t h t h e c o n c e p t ; r a t h e r , t h e d i f f i c u l t y 38. l i e s i n t h e p r a c t i c e o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f z o n i n g . \" T o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r z o n e d s e p a r a t i o n s N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s grow w i t h an e v e r w i d e n i n g s y s t e m o f s u b d i v i s i o n s , e a c h o f w h i c h i s d e s i g n e d as a p a r t of\" a n - i d e a l s e p a r a t e v i l l a g e . The c i t y - e x p a n d s as a c o n g l o m e r a t e o f v i l l a g e s , w e l l o r d e r e d w i t h t h e i r v a r i o u s z o n e s and w i t h t h e i r c o m m e r c i a l and m u n i c i p a l c e n t r e s . The p a t t e r n i s t h a t o f a c o n s t e l l a t i o n . o f s t a r s and o f an e v e r w i d e n i n g s y s t e m o f c e n t r e s , w i t h t h e s e p a r a t e b u i l d i n g s v i s u a l l y t a k e n as t h e s t a r s . The c i t i e s l o o k l i k e a s o r t o f M i l k y Way. From t h e a i r , e s p e c i a l l y a t n i g h t , N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s show a p a t t e r n d r a m a t i c a l l y o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m many , s e m i - r u r a l g a l a x i e s ; \" the f a \\ A m e r i c a n m i g r a t i o n was a t o m i c \" , a n d ' l i k e atoms, o r s t a r s w h i c h s c a t t e r e d and t h e n t h i c k e n e d and g r o u p e d , the- b u i l d i n g s grew i n t h e f i e l d s o f t h e new c o n t i n e n t . as m i x e d u r b a n - r u r a l s e t t l e m e n t s , w i t h m i l l i o n s o f d e t a c h e d e d i f i c e s . The c h e c k e r b o a r d a p p e a r a n c e o f modern N o r t h A m e r i c a n g e o g r a p h y f r o m t h e a i r has d i s t a n t o r i g i n s t h a t r e l a t e t h e r e c t a n g l e s o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e t o t h o s e o f t h e v i l l a g e s and towns and i n t u r n t o t h e s u b d i v i s i o n o f f a r m s . O r i g i n a l l y i t seemed r e a s o n a b l e t o s u r v e y and s u b d i v i d e t h e l a n d w i t h r e c t a n g l e s , w h i c h f i n a l l y d e t e r m i n e d t h e s h a p e o f p i e c e s o f p r o p e r t y C e r t a i n l y s u r v e y o r s gave i m p e t u s t o a t r a d i t i o n o f p l a t t i n g r e c t a n g l e s on a map. \" A t t h e t i m e and t o meet t h e n e e d s o f t h e moment, no b e t t e r s y s t e m o f p a r c e l l i n g l a n d f o r s e t t l e m e n t c o u l d h a v e b e e n \u2022 d e v i s e d . But a l a s t i n g mark has b e e n l e f t upon t h e e n t i r e c o u n t r y s i d e , w h i c h w i l l (cn f o r a l l t i m e a f f e c t t h e s u b d i v i s i o n o f l a n d \" . T h i s s y s t e m b r i n g s 39. o n e ' s m i n d b a c k t o t h e g e o m e t r i c a l i n c l i n a t i o n s ( o f P l a t i o n i c o r i g i n ) o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e and t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a b o u t t h e s p e e d and s u d -d e n e s s o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c o l o n i z a t i o n , when t h e r e was n o t e v e n t h e t i m e and t h e money t o g i v e a g e o g r a p h i c a l b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n mos t o f C a n a d a and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s : a l i n e was drawn on a map and i t was l e f t t o f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s t o f i n d o u t e x a c t l y where t h a t l i n e a c t u a l l y f e l l and what i t w o u l d d i v i d e . The c u r i o u s a c c i d e n t a l , i s o l a t i o n o f P o i n t R o b e r t s b e t w e e n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e i s one c u r i o u s ' r e s u l t o f t h i s k i n d o f t w o -d i m i n e s i o n a l g e o m e t r i c s i m p l i c i t y . \" In 1 7 8 5 , on t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f Thomas J e f f e r s o n , C o n g r e s s p a s s e d a l a n d o r d i n a n c e , w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n p l a c i n g a huge c h e c k e r -b o a r d o f s u r v e y l i n e s o v e r a l l t h e m i l e s o f c o u n t r y n o r t h and west o f t h e O h i o r i v e r , a c h e c k e r b o a r d t h a t was r e g a r d l e s s o f c o n t o u r s and r e l e n t l e s s - as f a t e . When one r e a l i z e s t h a t as a r e s u l t o f t h i s method a l l t h e f a r m s , a l 1 t h e s u b u r b a n a r e a s , a l l v i r g i n c o u n t r y n o r t h and west o f t h e O h i o r i v e r , were b o u g h t and s o l d i n r e c t a n g -u l a r p l o t s , e i t h e r i n t h o s e o f t h e Government's o r i g i n a l s u r v e y o r i n s u b d i v i s i o n s o f i t s s q u a r e s , i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e l a n d o w n e r , w h a t e v e r h i s i n c l i n a t i o n s , w o u l d f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o ge t away f r o m r e c t a n g u l a r p l a t t i n g . I f h i s t r a c t was s m a l l , and i f h i s s t r e e t s were t o be d i r e c t e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e s t r e e t s p l a t t e d - in a d j o i n i n g t r a c t s , he was a l m o s t c o m p e l l e d t o a d o p t s u c h an a r r a n g e m e n t . T h u s i t i s n o t a l w a y s l a c k o f i m a g i n a t i o n , n o r f a i l u r e t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f an a d j u s t m e n t o f p l a n , t o c o n t o u r , n o r i n s e n s i b i l i t y t o b e a u t i e s o f n a t u r e o r t o t h e c h a r m o f t h e p i c -4 0 . t u r e s q u e w h i c h i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f i d e l i t y o f t h e t y p i c a l A m e r i c a n town t o r e c t a n g u l a r p l a n n i n g . \" R e c t a n g u l a r p l a n n i n g was a l s o a d o p t e d i n C a n a d a and g e n e r a l l y won t h e s u p p o r t o f a u t h o r i t i e s and p l a n n e r s a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a . B e c a u s e o f t h e i n s i s t e n c e t h a t a11 \" p a r a l 1 e 1 s \" c o n v e r g e at t h e p o l e s , i n C a n a d a . t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e e a r t h n e c e s s i t a t e d more c o r r e c t i o n s t o t h e r e c t a n g l e s t h a n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Many u n c o n s c i o u s a t t i t u d e s and p h i l o s o p h i e s f a v o u r e d o r t h o g o n a l o r r e c t a n g u l a r p l a n n i n g : t h e g e o m e t r i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t t h e age o f i d e a l i s m i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t , a c e r t a i n p a p e r a t t i t u d e a l r e a d y n o t e d r e g a r d i n g z o n i n g a n d t h e s u b d i v i s i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s on c o l o u r e d s q u a r e s , t h e e a s e o f work o f d r a f t s m e n w i t h t h e s e t o f s q u a r e s , t h e s p e e d and s i m p l i c i t y o f a r e c t a n g u l a r s u b -d i v i s i o n on t h e d r a f t i n g b o a r d . L a r g e r e c t a n g u l a r f a r m s s o l d as one p a r c e l c o u l d be s u b d i v i d e d a l l a t o n c e i n t o many t i n y i d e n t i c a l p i e c e s w i t h t h e same c r i t e r i a t h a t were u s e d f o r t h e o r i g i n a l l a r g e r s u b d i v i s i o n s . T h u s t h e s t r e e t p a t t e r n o f most c i t i e s , p l a n n e d and g r o w i n g q u i c k l y , was d e t e r m i n e d i n a r e c t a n g u l a r f a s h i o n . I t was soon d i s c o v e r e d t h a t b e c a u s e o f t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e e a r t h t h e r e c t a n g u l a r s y s t e m o f s u r v e y i n g was l e s s t h a n p e r f e c t and l i n e s w o u l d o f t e n n o t i n t e r s e c t at t h e e x p e c t e d p o i n t s . J o g s had t o i n t e r r u p t t h e e s t a b l i s h e d s t r a i g h t l i n e s t o make t h e c o r n e r s m e e t . T h e s e r e m a i n e d e v e n i n t h e s t r e e t p a t t e r n s o f t h e c i t i e s , where t h e r e g u l a r i t y o f t h e g r i d had t o be i n t e r r u p t e d h e r e and t h e r e . D e s p i t e t h e a t t e m p t made on a c o n t i n e n t a l s c a l e , an a b -s o l u t e r e g u l a r i t y o f r e c t a n g l e s c o u l d n o t be o b t a i n e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , e v e r y e f f o r t was made t o s t i m u l a t e r e c t a n g u l a r p e r f e c t i o n , o f t e n t o a p o i n t o f a b s u r d i t y and i n e f f i c i e n c y . 41. Many p r a c t i c a l a r g u m e n t s were a d v a n c e d i n f a v o u r o f r e c t a n g u l a r s u b d i v i s i o n s a g a i n s t t h o s e r o m a n t i c s who f o u n d them a n t a g o n i s t i c t o t h e i r p i c t u r e s q u e o b s e s s i o n s . T h i s c o n f l i c t became e s p e c i a l l y s t r o n g i n t h e f i e l d of , h o u s i n g , where t h e r e c t a n g u l a r s t r e e t s were so o f t e n o p p o s e d on t h e a d j a c e n t p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y by c u r v i l i n e a r p a t h s and d r i v e w a y s , p u n c t u a t e d by i r r e g u l a r l y p l a n t e d s h r u b s and t r e e s . \"The New Y o r k c o m m i s s i o n e r s , i n j u s t i f y i n g t h e i r a d o p t i o n o f a r e c t a n g u l a r s t r e e t p l a n , s a i d t h a t t h e y h a d r e j e c t e d an i r r e g u l a r s y s t e m d e l i b e r a t e l y , f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t a c i t y i s c o m p o s e d p r i n c i p a l l y o f t h e h a b i t a t i o n s o f men, and t h a t s t r a i t -s i d e d and r i g h t - a n g l e d h o u s e s a r e t h e most c h e a p t o b u i l d and t h e most c o n v e n i e n t t o l i v e i n ! (Note A) However t h e s e and many o t h e r p r a c t i c a l a r g u m e n t s s h o u l d n o t m i s l e a d one t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y were t r u l y t h e most i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s on w h i c h a c h o i c e had b e e n made. O p p o s i n g v i e w s c o u l d be h e a r d w i t h e q u a l s t r e n g t h and c o n v i n c i n g a r g u m e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y f r o m B r i t a i n , where many p l a n n e r s s u p p o r t e d t h e p i c t u r e s q u e c u r v i -l i n e a r p l a n o f s t r e e t s , s u c c e s s f u l l y e x e c u t e d i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a t B a t h w i t h t h e C r e s c e n t o f J o h n , W o o d , t h e Y o u n g e r , one o f t h e f i r s t r o m a n t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e b a r o q u e c u r v e and f u r t h e r e x a g g e r a t e d i n t h e u n d u l a t i o n s o f L a n d s d o w n C r e s c e n t . We can see how d i f f e r e n t p l a n s c o u l d h a v e b e e n c h o s e n , i n t h i s c e n t u r y , f r o m s u c h B r i t i s h d e s i g n s as t h e p l a n o f L a r k h i l l E s t a t e , \" H o u s i n g o f The W o r k i n g C l a s s e s \" , L i v e r p o o l , t h e p l a n o f S p r i n g w o o d - A l l e r t o n E s t a t e , L i v e r p o o l ( f i g . 3 ) , t h e p l a n f o r Moss P a r k s i t e , G l a s g o w , and t h e p l a n o f P o r t s d o w n H i l l H o u s i n g S c h e m e , P o r t s m o u t h ( f i g . 4 ) , f o r e x a m p l e . 42. F i g u r e 3 43. B O K - 0 \\ O H Jt POfc I S\\l< IV I i I P D R . T S D O W N M I L L H O V S I N G S C H E M E F i g u r e 4 44. The m a i n r e a s o n s f o r t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g p r e v a l e n c e o f t h e g r i d s y s t e m o f s u b d i v i d i n g l a n d and o f p l o t t i n g s t r e e t s i n a r e c -t a n g u l a r manner must be f o u n d i n t h e d e l i b e r a t e c h o i c e o f a r e c -t a n g u l a r g e o m e t r i c o r d e r as a s u p e r i o r f o r m o f o r d e r , i n t h e d e s i r e t o make new s u b d i v i s i o n s and c i t i e s a t g r e a t s p e e d a l l a t o n c e f r o m b a r e l a n d , and in a s i m p l i s t i c and r u r a l v i e w o f t h e c i t y t h a t a s s i g n e d t o e v e r y o n e an e q u a l r e c t a n g u l a r f i e l d . The h i g h i d e a l i s m o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n , c o l o n i z a t i o n w o u l d n o t e a s i l y h a v e p e r m i t t e d i n -d i v i d u a l , i r r e g u l a r and d i s o r d e r l y i n i t i a t i v e s i n t h e s u r v e y i n g  and i n t h e p a r c e l l i n g o f l a n d , t h e g r e a t e s t p a t r i m o n y t h a t c o u l d be s h a r e d by t h e new c o m m u n i t y . The use o f t i m e was a n o t h e r t r u l y i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r ; t h e p a r s i m o n y o f e a r l y N o r t h A m e r i c a n m o r a l i t y r e q u i r e d t h e f u l l e s t use o f t i m e and t h e maximum s p e e d o f d e v e l o p -m e n t . What a p p e a r e d t o be t h e most s i m p l e s y s t e m h a d t o be a d o p t e d a l m o s t on m o r a l g r o u n d s . F i n a l l y , t h e c i t y was n o t s e e n as a h i g h l y i n t e g r a t e d f a b r i c w i t h a c o m p l e x s y s t e m o f p u b l i c and p r i v a t e p a r t s , b u t m e r e l y as a more d e n s e c o n g l o m e r a t e o f s e p a r a t e b u i l d i n g s , as a c o m m u n i t y o f many more l a n d o w n e r s w i t h s m a l l e r p a r c e l s o f l a n d , as a p l a c e where s m a l l e r l o t s h a d l a r g e r b u i l d i n g s and where most o f t h e l o t s h a d b u i l d i n g s on t h e m . O p p o s i t e t o what t h e E u r o p e a n e x p e r i e n c e h a d b e e n , i n t h e v i e w o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n , i t was t h e open l a n d , n o t t h e c i t i e s , t h a t made t h e n a t i o n . N o r t h A m e r i c a n s were d i r e c t i n g t h e i r d r e a m s , n o t t o t h e c i t i e s t h a t t h e y were b u i l d i n g , b u t t o t h e i r i n f i n i t e l y v a s t l a n d , g e o m e t r i c a l l y p l o t t e d . The v i r g i n l a n d i n f r o n t o f them c o n s t i t u t e d an i d e a l o c c a s i o n where t o t r a n s f o r m i n t o r e a l i t y t h e dream o f a new o r d e r , a d r e a m  n o t c o n f i n e d w i t h i n any b o u n d a r i e s , b u t i n f i n i t e l y e x p a n s i b l e . APPENDIX NOTE A \"The r e c t a n g u l a r p l a n has o t h e r a d v a n t a g e s and e c o n o m i e s . I t i s so e a s i l y made t h a t o n e ' can 1 make i t h i m s e l f , w i t h o u t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f r e t a i n i n g e x p e r t s k i l l s ; i t r e d u c e s t h e c o s t o f s u r v e y i n g t o a minimum and makes t i t l e d e s c r i p t i o n s e a s y t o w r i t e . I t s r e g u l a r i t y s i m p l i f i e s a s y s t e m a t i c d e s i g n a t i o n o f s t r e e t s ; and b e c a u s e o f i t s s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n d i s t a n c e s c a n be r e a d i l y c o m p u t e d . T h i s , t o be s u r e , w o u l d be w o r t h more i f t h e s t a n d a r d s were t h e same f o r a l l . c o m m u n i t i e s . But t h e y v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y , so t h a t one must know t h e s c a l e i n e a c h c i t y . A p l a n , t o o , w h i c h p r o v i d e s , u n i f o r m l o t d e p t h s makes t h e l e v y i n g o f a s s e s s m e n t s e a s y . W h e t h e r t h e s e be by t h e f r o n t f o o t o r by t h e s q u a r e f o o t ; and i t n o t o n l y i n d u c e s c o - o r d i n a t i o n i n t h e s t r e e t p l a n s o f new s u b d i v i s i o n s , b u t i t p r o m o t e s t h i s b e t w e e n t h e new s u b d i v i s i o n s and t h e e x i s t i n g s t r e e t p l a n . I t i s f u r t h e r c l a i m e d t h a t t h e l o n g s t r a i g h t s t r e e t s , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y o f e v e r m a k i n g more t h a n one ; t u r n , i n c r e a s e t h e r a p i d i t y o f t h e t r a f f i c movement and h e n c e a r e o f s p e c i a l v a l u e i n ease o f f i r e - - an a r g u m e n t o f f s e t i n p a r t by t h e f a c t t h a t for - any d e s t i n a t i o n n o t on t h e same s t r e e t one must t r a v e r s e two s i d e s o f a t r i a n g l e . F u r t h e r m o r e , a u t o m o b i l e s have made a p r o m i s c u o u s r a p i d i t y o f t r a f f i c ^ m o v e m e n t on r e s i d e n c e s t r e e t s a d a n g e r and a n u i s a n c e . 46. D o u b t l e s s , f i n a l l y , t h e v e r y u n i v e r s a l i t y o f t h e p l a n ' s a d o p t i o n i n A m e r i c a i s a c o n v e n i e n c e , i n t h e s e d a y s o f v a s t l y i n c r e a s e d t r a v e l . Our towns may be m o n o t o n o u s , b u t a t l e a s t one c a n f e e l p r e t t y much a t home i n any o f them and c a n h a r d l y l o o s e h i s way. W i t h t h e . r e c t a n g u l a r s t r e e t p l a n , one may have t o j o u r n e y a l o n g e r d i s t a n c e t h a n s h o u l d be n e c e s s a r y b u t one w i l l n o t n e e d t o r e t r a c e h i s s t e p s . \" A l l t h e s e a r g u m e n t s i n f a v o u r o f a C a r t e s i a n g r i d - -d e s p i t e t h e e f f i c i e n t and s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l - - do n o t c o n s i d e r t h e f a c t u a l v a l u e o f o b s e r v a t i o n s w h i c h weaken t h e e n t h u s i a s m f o r t h e s t r i c t r e c t a n g u l a r s y s t e m . F i r s t o f a l l , as s o o n as s t r e e t s c h a n g e t h e i r names f r o m t h a t o f c o n -s e c u t i v e numbers o f s t r e e t s and a v e n u e s , and t h e p e r f e c t r e g u l a r i t y o f t h e s y s t e m i s b r o k e n , an a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l e t r e n d i n t i m e , t h e s y s t e m becomes a f r u s t r a t i n g l a b y r i n t h . F o r e x a m p l e , i f one i s g i v e n an a d d r e s s s u c h as A l m a S t r e e t i n V a n c o u v e r , a n d t h e s e n d e r i c a n n o t i d e n t i f y t h e number o f t h e s t r e e t s b e f o r e and a f t e r , o n l y a map w i l l a l l o w h i m t o l o c a t e i t . T h e r e w o u l d be no p e c u l i a r l a n d m a r k o r u n u s u a l g e o m e t r i c a l f e a t u r e t h a t w o u l d a l l o w h im t o i d e n t i f y r e c o g n i z a b l e p o i n t s i n a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a r o u t e . In a b a r o q u e p l a n on t h e o t h e r h a n d , w i t h i t s s t r o n g i d e n t i f i a b l e l a n d m a r k s i n t e r m s o f g e o m e t r i c a l s h a p e s and o f a r c h i t e c t u r e , d i r e c t i o n s c a n be g i v e n r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e name o f s t r e e t s . In t h e g r i d s y s t e m , o n l y p o s t e d s p e e d l i m i t s o r a c l o s u r e t o t r a f f i c may r e g u l a t e t h e f l o w o f t r a f f i c , w h i c h w o u l d o t h e r w i s e have t h e maximum s p e e d on any a r t e r y . A t t h e same t i m e , e x c e p t on t h e same s t r e e t , 4 7 . t h e d i s t a n c e t r a v e l l e d f r o m one. p o i n t t o a n o t h e r w o u l d b e , i n most c a s e s , t h e maximum, b e c a u s e one i s c o n s t a n t l y r u n n i n g a l o n g t h e s i d e s o f r e c t a n g l e s , i n s t e a d o f r u n n i n g a l o n g t h e s h o r t c u t o f d i a g o n a l s . The a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e g r i d s y s t e m does n o t r e q u i r e a t r a v e l l e r t o u s e t h e map o f an u n f a m i l i a r c i t y i s e x a g g e r a t e d . In most c a s e s t h e s y s t e m has s e l d o m d e v e l o p e d a c c o r d i n g t o an i d e a l o r d e r a n d t h e map r e m a i n s a, n e c e s s i t y i n o r d e r t o a v o i d g e t t i n g l o s t . From t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f \u2022 s u r v e y i n g , t a x a t i o n and t i t l e d e s c r i p t i o n e x p e r i e n c e a l o n e w o u l d t e a c h us t h a t t h e i r r e g u l a r i t y o f t h e l o t , d o e s . n o t c o n s t i t u t e a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f i c u l t y , e s p e c i a l l y i f i t has s t r a i g h t s i d e s o r r e a s o n a b l y g e o m e t r i c c u r v i l i n e a r b o u n d a r i e s r e l a t e d t o u n a m b i g u o u s , r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s . The m e a s u r e s a r e t a k e n once and f o r a l l . F i n a l l y , t h e a r g u m e n t o f t h e New Y o r k C o m m i s s i o n e r s does n o t seem t o be r e l e v a n t where b u i l d i n g s must be s e t b :ack f r o m t h e s t r e e t s : , t h e s t r e e t s may meet a t i r r e g u l a r a n g l e s or. r u n i n a c u r v i l i n e a r f a s h i o n . , b u t b u i l d i n g . . f r o n t s do n o t h a v e t o be p e r -f e c t l y p a r a l l e l t o t h e s t r e e t . CHAPTER 1 - THE E X I S T I N G PATTERN AND PLAN OF THE MODERN NORTH AMERICAN C I T Y . (1) B . M . S P A T T : A P r o p o s a l t o Change t h e S t r u c t u r e o f  C i t y P l a n n i n g , New Y o r k . 1 9 7 1 , p . 8 1 . (2) F . CHOAY: The M o d e r n C i t y : P l a n n i n g i n t h e 1 9 t h C e n t u r y , New Y o r k 1969,. p . (3) H . CHURCHILL: . The C i t y Is t h e P e o p l e , New Y o r k 1945 p . 186 . (4) F . S . CHAPIN J R . : U r b a n L a n d Use P l a n n i n g , C h i c a g o 1 9 6 5 , p . 14 , 15 . (5) H . SYMONDS: The Q u e s t i o n o f H o u s i n g , V a n c o u v e r 1 9 6 7 , p . 44 . (6) The s t u d y showed t h a t a c o n t i n u o u s e x p a n s i o n o f t h e c i t y o f C a l g a r y i n t h e n e x t q u a r t e r o f c e n t u r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e x i s t i n g t r e n d s w o u l d c a u s e s u c h an e s c a l a t i o n o f e x p e n d i t u r e s by t h e c i t y i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e t h e e s s e n t i a l s e r v i c e s t h a t n o t e v e n a 100% t a x a t i o n o f t h e p r o j e c t e d i n c o m e o f i t s p o p u l a t i o n c o u l d s a v e i t f r o m ever, i n -c r e a s i n g d e f i c i t s . The s t u d y e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e p a t t e r n was t h a t o f e v e r i n c r e a s i n g e x p e n s e s f o r e v e r d e c r e a s i n g s e r v i c e s . (7) B . M . S P A T T : A P r o p o s a l t o Change t h e S t r u c t u r e o f  C i t y P l a n n i n g , New Y o r k 1 9 7 1 , p . 8 1 . (8) M. NOVAK: The R i s e o f t h e U n m e l t a b l e E t h n i c s , New Y o r k 1 9 7 1 , p . 92 . (9) How t o S u b d i v i d e , 1 9 4 9 , p a r t I , p . l . 49. (10) C M . ROBINSON: C i t y P l a n n i n g , New Y o r k 1816 , p . 20 - 2 1 . (11) C M . ROBINSON: C i t y P l a n n i n g , New Y o r k 1 9 6 1 , p . 22 . (12) F . LONGSTRETH THOMPSON: S i t e P l a n n i n g i n P r a c t i c e , L o n d o n 1923 , p . 5 1 , 5 3 , 138 , 139 . 50. 2 . THE SUBURBAN TYPE AND S T Y L E OF DEVELOPMENT  AND R E L A T E D URBAN SYSTEMS We w i l l now e x a m i n e some o f t h e a t t i t u d e s w h i c h t e n d t o complement o r t o o p p o s e t h e s e a r c h f o r a p e r f e c t s c i e n t i f i c o r d e r , f o r an i n f i n i t e l y v a s t and e x p a n s i b l e s y s t e m , f o r c l a s s i f i c -a t i o n s , f o r g e o m e t r y , f o r n e a t n e s s and a c e r t a i n m o r a l o r d e r n o t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r . We w i l l o b s e r v e t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e a t t r a c t i o n t o t h e p i c t u r e s q u e i n c i t y d e s i g n and t h e d e s i r e f o r c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e w i t h i n t h e u r b a n c o n t e x t . In t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r we l o o k e d a t z o n i n g and s u b -d i v i s i o n o f l a n d ; i n t h i s c h a p t e r we w i l l l o o k a t t h e s p r a w l i n g s u b u r b a n m e t r o p o l i s , t h a t i s , a t t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e a b s t r a c t b o u n d a r i e s and zones s u p e r i m p o s e d on t h e l a n d . We w i l l l o o k a t t h e p h y s i c a l atoms o f t h e f a b r i c o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c i t i e s : i t s i n d i v i d u a l , d e t a c h e d b u i l d i n g s . We w i l l a l s o o b s e r v e s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f a s o c i a l and a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t y l e t h a t has become p r e v a l e n t i n N o r t h A m e r i c a n u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t . B e s i d e s t h e d e t a c h e d b u i l d i n g , t h e h o u s e and g a r d e n , t h e e c l e c t i c i s m o f t h e v a r i o u s s t y l e s and f a s h i o n s o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s u b u r b a n - o r i e n t e d m e t r o p o l i s t h a t w i l l be e x a m i n e d h e r e , we w i l l a l s o o b s e r v e some a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s s u b u r b i a , and 5 1 . t h e s u b u r b a n s t y l e as a g e n e r a l , e n d l e s s s y s t e m , as a c o n c e p t o f d e s i g n w h i c h i s u s e d t o accommodate a l l t h e a c t i v i t i e s and a m e n i t i e s o f t h e c i t y . I t w i l l be shown t o be t h e o p p o s i t e o f t h e m i x e d and i n t e g r a t e d s y s t e m t h a t one may d e r i v e as a scheme o f many E u r o p e a n c i t i e s , w h i c h grew o v e r a l o n g e r p e r i o d o f t i m e and u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f many c u l t u r a l and l i f e s t y l e s . \"His argument being, why travel five hundred miles of tourist-jammed highway to reach nature's wilds when, by complete absence of effqrt... \" CD T h i s c h a p t e r i s d i v i d e d i n two p a r t s : t h e f i r s t i s a p r e s e n t a t i o n . o f s u b u r b i a as a r o m a n t i c f l i g h t f r o m t h e c i t y t o w a r d t h e j o y o f t h e g r a s s , t h e woods , t h e p u r i t y o f a i r , t h e s i m p l i c i t y o f l i f e , t h e v i l l a g e a t m o s p h e r e , e t c . ; t h e s e c o n d i s a c r i t i c i s m o f s u b u r b i a as a s y s t e m o f d e t a c h e d and i n d i v i d u a l b u i l d i n g s . The i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h i s s y s t e m w i t h t h e i d e a s o f t h e b e a u t i f u l and o f t h e s u b l i m e d e v e l o p e d i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i l l be e x p a n d e d upon i n c h a p t e r n i n e and t e n . I \u2022 \"What makes t h e b i g c i t y b a d i s t h e omnibus c h a r a c t e r o f i t s c o n t e n t s . I t i s a j u m b l e and a c o n f u s i o n , i n c o h e r e n t and t h e r e f o r e i n e f f i c i e n t . The s m a l l e r s i z e and more s e l e c t q u a l i t y o f t h e e l e m e n t s e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e s u b u r b make i t more p r o m i s i n g t o t a k e h o l d o f t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e c i t y a t t h a t p o i n t . . . t h e s u b u r b s a r e s i m p l e r , more h o m o g e n e o u s , more r a t i o n a l , and c o n s e q u e n t l y more m a n a g e a b l e . P u l l i n g a l a r g e r f r a c t i o n o f t h e c i t y o u t i n t o them i s e q u i v a l e n t to u n s c r a m b l i n g a mess o f c o m p l i c a t i o n s and s e r v e s t o d i v i d e u r b a n s o c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s up i n t o masses o f s u c h p r o p o r t i o n t h a t m a n k i n d can p e r h a p s h a n d l e t h e m . The s u b u r b s a t l e a s t g i v e i t a b e t t e r c h a n c e t o (2 i t r y . \" T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s were w r i t t e n i n 1925 when z o n i n g b y - l a w s were i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e i n g i n t r o d u c e d a c r o s s t h e c o n t i n e n t . A l i t t l e more t h a n a q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y a f t e r -wards t h e s u b u r b s were t r i u m p h a n t l y s p r a w l i n g a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a , and were b e i n g more c l o s e l y s t u d i e d . Among t h e o t h e r s , W i l l i a m W h i t e J r . , o f F o r t u n e m a g a z i n e , h a d b e e n s t u d y i n g P a r k F o r e s t , where \"he h a d had t h e s t r a n g e f e e l i n g o f b e i n g v i r t u a l l y t h e o n l y m a l e i n t h e p l a c e d u r i n g t h e d a y t i m e ; t h e men were a l l a t work downtown o r a t v a r i o u s p l a n t s a r o u n d C h i c a g o , and t h e r e were some j o k i n g r e f e r e n c e s t o h i s b e i n g ( 3 ) l o o s e i n a h a r e m \" . He l a t e r n o t e d i n an a r t i c l e : \" O d d l y , i n t h i s t i m e o f ' u r b a n i z a t i o n ' , when more p e o p l e a r e l i v i n g i n m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s t h a n e v e r b e f o r e , t h e c e n t r a l c i t y i t -s e l f seems t o be g e t t i n g f u r t h e r a l i e n a t e d f r o m what most p e o p l e c o n c e i v e as t h e A m e r i c a n Way o f L i f e . More and m o r e , i t w o u l d seem, t h e c i t y i s b e c o m i n g a p l a c e o f e x t r e m e s - a p l a c e f o r t h e v e r y p o o r o r t h e v e r y r i c h , o r t h e s l i g h t l y o d d . H e r e and t h e r e , i n p l e a s a n t t r e e - s h a d e d n e i g h b o u r h o o d s , t h e r e a r e s t i l l i s l a n d s o f m i d d l e - c l a s s s t a b i l i t y , b u t f o r t h e y o u n g c o u p l e on t h e way u p , t h e y a r e n e i g h b o u r h o o d s o f t h e p a s t . T h e y a r e o f t e n t h e l a s t s t a n d o f an e t h n i c g r o u p , and t h e p e o p l e i n them a r e g e t t i n g o l d . The once d o m i n a n t w h i t e P r o t e s t a n t m a j o r i t y has l o n g s i n c e d i s p e r s e d , and among t h e C a t h o l i c s and t h e Jews who h a v e b e e n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y ' s m i d d l e c l a s s , t h e y o u n g e r p e o p l e a r e l e a v i n g as f a s t as t h e y a r e a b l e . When s c a r c e l y any b u t t h e w e l l - t o - d o l i v e d i n s u b u r b i a , a home t h e r e was a d e s i r a b l e g o a l ; now i t i s b e c o m i n g a s o c i a l \u201e(4) i m p e r a t i v e . \" The g r o w t h o f t h e s u b u r b s a c q u i r e d s u c h g i g a n t i c p r o p o r t i o n s t h a t even t h e r e t h e d e s i r e d v a l u e s b e g a n t o be s e e n i n j e o p a r d y . H . C l a y T a t e w r o t e a b o o k , B u i l d i n g a B e t t e r Home  Town , d e d i c a t e d \"to t h e i n t e l l i g e n t y o u n g p e o p l e who a r e b e g i n n -i n g t o t u r n away f r o m c e n t r a l i z a t i o n t o t h e n o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n q u e s t o f t h e good l i f e . T h e y a r e t h e g u a r d i a n s o f t h e A m e r i c a n d r e a m . \" ^ ^ \"The s m a l l t o w n , t h e s m a l l c o m m u n i t y , t h i s i s what seems good a b o u t t h e s u b u r b t o most o b s e r v e r s , what n e e d s t o be p r e s e r v e d , and what t h e l a r g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s h o u l d n o t be p e r m i t t e d t o d e s p o i l . The N o r t h A m e r i c a n dream i s a dream o f i n d e p e n d e n c e w h i c h has a l w a y s b e e n s t r o n g l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h the f e a t u r e s o f t h e r u r a l l i f e and t h e s t y l e o f t h e v i l l a g e , s e e n as a n a t u r a l p r o t o t y p e o f the i d e a l s m a l l communi ty at t h e o r i g i n s o f d e m o c r a c y . was i n t e r p r e t e d i n a l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c f a s h i o n by Le C o r b u s i e r i n t h i s s k e t c h : B r o a d a c r e C i t y (7) i s an e x a m p l e o f t h e d r e a m , w h i c h where t h e r e i s a s y n t h e s i s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f many N o r t h A m e r i c a n towns and c i t i e s . I t was i n t h e s m a l l c o m m u n i t y t h a t t h e d e m o c r a t i c v i r t u e s were b e l i e v e d to f l o u r i s h and p r o s p e r . The i d e a l s o f e q u a l i t y , o f b r o t h e r h o o d and o f i n d i v i d u a l i n d e p e n d e n c e were t h o u g h t t o be f o s t e r e d by i t s a t m o s p h e r e . The s i m p l i c i t y and t h e c l o s e n e s s t o n a t u r e o f t h e v i l l a g e l i f e was p r a i s e d . The v i l l a g e g r o u p e d a r o u n d t h e c h u r c h was o f t e n p o r t r a y e d as an i d e a l p i c t u r e s q u e image o f s e r e n i t y and o f s i m p l i c i t y . The v i l l a g e r was c o n s i d e r e d n a t u r a l l y i n c l i n e d t o w a r d f r i e n d l i n e s s , l i b e r t y a n d i n d e p e n d e n t r e l i g i o u s w o r s h i p . He was c o n s i d e r e d o f n a t u r a l l y s o u n d m i n d , n o t t h r o u g h t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and c o r r u p t i o n g i v e n by b o o k - l e a r n i n g b u t t h r o u g h t h e n a t u r a l t r a i n i n g o f common s e n s e . F o r m e r p r e m i e r , o f B r i t i s h ' Co l u m b i a , W-. B e n n e t t , u s e d to r e f e r t o i t as t h e \" C . S . d e g r e e \" . * O t h e r s c a l l e d i t \" h o r s e s e n s e \" ) . The v i l l a g e was s e e n as a c l a s s l e s s s o c i e t y , and i t s f o l k l o r e was c h e r i s h e d . I t was a s m a l l c o m m u n i t y where e v e r y o n e knew h i s n e i g h b o u r , and human r e l a t i o n s were k e p t s i m p l e , good and s t r o n g . \"The p r o b l e m w i t h t h e v i l l a g e m e n t a l i t y i s n o t one *W. B e n n e t t , p r e m i e r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n t h e n i n e t e e n -s i x t i e s w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n , was a man who r o s e t o power f r o m a s m a l l town i n t h e i n t e r i o r o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and who h a d g r e a t f a i t h i n t h e i n n e r g u i d a n c e o f common s e n s e . He h a d no f o r m a l u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t i o n . o f f a c t c u t o f v a l u e s , and i t i s c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h e x a m i n i n g t h e b e n e f i t s w h i c h t h e s m a l l town s u p p o s e d l y b e s t o w s . T h u s , t h e p r o b l e m i s n o t l i m i t e d t o t h e p r e s e n t s u b u r b and t h e p r e s e n t g e n e r a t i o n . I t e x t e n d s t o T o c q u e v i 1 1 e ' s N o r t h w e s t town and J e f f e r s o n ' s w a r d , t o t h e E n g l i s h p a r i s h and t h e ( 9 1 E u r o p e a n v i l l a g e b e f o r e A m e r i c a . \" The f a r m was s e e n i n a l i g h t s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f v i l l a g e l i f e . The i n d i v i d u a l f a r m was t h e u l t i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e v i r t u e s o f t h e u p r i g h t man, i n d u s t r i o u s , i n d e p e n d e n t a n d c l o s e t o n a t u r e . H i s i n t e r e s t i n t h e l a n d made h i m n a t u r a l l y d e d i c a t e d t o t h e d e f e n c e o f t h e d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s . The towns were s e e n as g r o u p s o f l i t t l e v i l l a g e s and o f f a r m s , where i d e a l l y a l l p i e c e s o f l a n d and a l l h o u s e s were s u p p o s e d t o be e q u a l and open t o t h e v i e w o f t h e f r e e c o m m u n i t y , where t h e f o r m o f t h e b u i l d i n g s was n o t s u p p o s e d t o be i n c o n t r a s t w i t h common t a s t e , e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e m a j o r i t y , and where t h e w i l l o f t h e m a j o r i t y was s u p p o s e d t o be a c c u r a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d by f r e e e n t e r p r i s e , open c o m p e t i t i o n , and t h e e l e c t i o n o f a s m a l l l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t . The new i m m i g r a n t s , c o m i n g f r o m a l l p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , n o r m a l l y e m b r a c e d t h e s e i d e a l s as p a r t o f t h e i r new l a n d and o f t h e i r new c o n d i t i o n . T h e s e i d e a l s , whose i m p l e m e n t a t i o n was p o s s i b l e o n l y i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , b e c a u s e o f i t s f o r m a t i o n , o f i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s and o f i t s s i z e , became t h e s o u r c e o f a s t y l e o f l i f e and o f b u i l d i n g t h a t we may now r e c o g n i z e as d i s t i n c t l y N o r t h A m e r i c a n , e v e n i f i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l o r i g i n s a r e m a r k e d l y E u r o p e a n . \"A w e l l known B r i t i s h c r i t i c r e c e n t l y w r o t e t h a t t h e r o o t s o f t h e s p r a w l p r o b l e m go b a c k t o t h e r o o t s o f A m e r i c a . Ian N a i r n o f t h e L o n d o n O b s e r v e r s a y s : ' A m e r i c a n s t e n d t o f o r g e t t h a t t h e p i o n e e r i n g e r a ended a l m o s t a c e n t u r y ago when t h e r a i l w a y s r e a c h e d C a l i f o r n i a . L a n d i s s t i l l t r e a t e d as t h o u g h i t were an i n e x p e n d a b l e c o m m o d i t y l i k e t h e b u f f a l o . T h e r e ' l l a l w a y s be more a r o u n d t h e c o r n e r i s s t i l l t h e r u l i n g p r i n c i p l e ' . N a i r n c a l l s s u b u r b i a a ' d i s i n t e g r a t i n g l a n d s c a p e an e n v i r o n m e n t o f ' t o t a l c o n f u s i o n and m e d i o c r i t y ' , a p l a c e where y o u c a n d r i v e f o r ' h u n d r e d s o f m i l e s w i t h o u t e v e r f e e l -i n g r e a l l y f r e e o f t h e s u b u r b a n t e n t a c l e s ' \" . As s o o n as t h e economy and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n made i t f e a s i b l e , t h e c i t y d w e l l e r s f l e d \"en masse\" t o t h e g r e e n e r y o f t h e v i l l a g e s i n t h e s m a l l s u b u r b a n - m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . Z o n i n g a l l o w e d t o d e f e n d t h e s e new f r o n t i e r s o f r o m a n t i c i s m as c l e a n d o r m i t o r i e s a g a i n s t t h e e x p a n d i n g i n d u s t r i e s and o t h e r t h r e a t s a t l e a s t f o r t h e l i f e s p a n o f a g e n e r a t i o n . \"The s u b u r b a n f 12\") m y s t i q u e \" c a u s e d a m i g r a t i o n o f p e o p l e t o s u b u r b i a w h i c h \" s i n c e W o r l d War II has b e e n more t h a n a g r a d u a l t r e n d ; i t (13) has b e e n a s t a m p e d e . \" \" C l e a r l y t h e norm o f A m e r i c a n a s p i r -a t i o n i s now i n s u b u r b i a . The h a p p y f a m i l y o f TV c o m m e r c i a l s , o f m a g a z i n e c o v e r s and ads l i v e s i n s u b u r b i a ; w h e r e v e r t h e r e i an i d e n t i f i a b l e b a c k g r o u n d i t i s t h e l a n d o f b l u e j e a n s and s h o p p i n g c e n t e r s , o f b r i g h t new s c h o o l s , o f b a r b e c u e - p i t p a r t i c i p a t i o n , g a r d e n c l u b s , P T A , d o - i t - y o u r s e l f , and g r e e n lawns . n ( - 1 4 - 1 The N o r t h A m e r i c a n w o r k e r seems t o h a v e a n e e d t o f l e e e v e r y e v e n i n g t o t h e s u b u r b a n d w e l l i n g as i f i t were h i s r o m a n t i c n e s t . F o r h i m i t i s a r e f u g e f r o m s m e l l i n e s s , s o c i a l d i s o r d e r , h e c t i c a c t i v i t y , c r o w d s , p o l l u t i o n , and t h e l a c k o f g r e e n e r y and c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e . In h i s e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d t h e c i t y has b e e n p o r t r a y e d b o t h as * a p h y s i c a l a n d m o r a l h o r r o r ; t h e n o v e l s and news o f t h e l a s t two h u n d r e d y e a r s h a v e f o c u s e d more on t h e c r i m e , i n j u s t i c e and c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e c i t y , t h a n on i t s c u l t u r e , r e f i n e m e n t and m u t u a l human i m p r o v e -m e n t . H i s t o r i c a l n o v e l s t e n d e d t o c o n f i r m t h e p o r t r a i t t h a t B u r c k h a r d t c o m p l e t e d ( d e s p i t e h i s a r t i s t i c a d m i r a t i o n ) o f t h e I t a l i a n c i t i e s o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e : c e n t r e s o f c o r r u p t i o n . S u c h i n f l u e n t i a l N o r t h A m e r i c a n s as J e f f e r s o n , E m e r s o n T h o r e a u , P o e , H a w t h o r n e and M e l v i l l e , among o t h e r s p o p u l a r i z e d s i m i l a r n o t i o n s a b o u t t h e c i t y . E v e n c o m m e r c i a l A m e r i c a d i s -l i k e d t h e c o m m e r c i a l i s m o f c i t i e s . H a w t h o r n e i n \"The M a r b l e F a u n \" s e e s Rome as a town o f \" e v i l s c e n t s \" , \" h a r d h a r s h c r i e s \" , \" g u i l t y s h a d o w s \" , \" u n e a s y s t r e e t s \" , \" e v i l s t r e e t \" , \" s t o n y - h e a r t e d s t r e e t s \" , \" s i n \" , \" c r i m e \" , \" h a r d p a v e m e n t s \" , \" m o u l d i n e s s \" , \" a n c i e n t d u s t \" , \" c o l d f o r m a l i t i e s \" n e r v o u s n e s s \" , l a b y r i n t h i n e i n t r i c a c i e s \" ; i t i s \" c h i l l y , \" g l o o m y \" \" m e l a n c h o l y \" , \" s i c k l y \" , \" b l o o d - s t a i n e d \" , \" d r e a r y \" , \" f i l t h y \" , \" f o u l \" , \" c o r r u p t \" , \" w i c k e d \" , \" d i s s o l u t e \" . ^ 1 5 - 1 In \"The New Adam and E v e \" , where Adam and Eve r e t u r n t o B o s t o n a f t e r a l l i t s i n h a b i t a n t s have d i s a p p e a r e d , \" H a w t h o r n e 60. i m p l i e s t h a t t h e y were i n n o c e n t l y o b s e r v i n g t h e r e m a i n s o f a r a c e w h i c h p a i d a p r i c e f o r i t s ' r e v o l t a g a i n s t n a t u r e ' . But t h i s c r i t i c i s m was n o t i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h H a w t h o r n e ' s d i s a p p r o v a l o f B r o o k F a r m , f o r i t h a d a f f o r d e d h i s h e r o C o v e r d a l e 'some g r o t e s q u e s p e c i m e n s o f a r t i f i c i a l s i m p l i c i t y ' and was f u l l o f ' A r c a d i a n a f f e c t a t i o n ' . The c o m m e r c i a l c i t y and t h e s o c i a l i s t f a r m h a d b o t h d e p a r t e d f r o m n a t u r e . B o t h were i n t h i s s e n s e u n r e a l \" . ( - 1 6 ' ) (Note A) . O n l y when t h e c i t y had t h e c h a r a c t e r s t i c s o f t h e p i c t u r e s q u e i t has b e e n l o o k e d upon w i t h l o v e . I t i s i n t h e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e s u b u r b s e s p e c i a l l y t h a t t h i s r o m a n t i c dream o f t h e p i c t u r e s q u e h a s b e e n p u r s u e d . L i t t l e c a s t l e s , I t a l i a n v i l l a s , c o t t a g e s , a n d any s t y l e t h a t c o u l d make an a t t r a c t i v e p i c t u r e i n t h e m i n d o f t h e v i e w e r , mushroomed i n t h e s u b u r b s - m i l d a f f i r m -a t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y and o f p e r s o n a l c h o i c e i n the g e n e r a l f l i g h t f r o m t h e c i t y . \" B e i n g s e g r e g a t e d p o p u l a t i o n s , s u b u r b a n i t e s may have a n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y t o c o n f o r m i t y , b u t , more t h a n any o t h e r p e o p l e , t h e y t e n d t o l o o k a n x i o u s l y a r o u n d t o see what t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s a r e d o i n g and b u y i n g . T h e y seem t o t h i n k t h e y must h a v e w h a t e v e r anyone e l s e h a s , n o t b e c a u s e t h e y n e e d i t b u t b e c a u s e o t h e r p e o p l e h a v e i t , and t h e y seem t o want v e r y much (171 t o be p a r t o f t h e g r o u p . \" v J T h i s e x p l a i n s b.oth why f a s h i o n s i n s u b u r b a n d w e l l i n g s may be so s w e e p i n g and why s u b u r b a n d w e l l e r s may f a l l f o r odd and e x o t i c s t y l e s , b e c a u s e an e x o t i c d i s p l a y i s p a r t o f t h e f a s h i o n . I t a l s o e x p l a i n s why d e s p i t e so many s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s t h e s u b u r b a n d w e l l i n g i s so t y p i c a l l y and m o n o t o n o u s l y t h e same. I t has t o be remembered t h a t n o r m a l l y t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n s u b u r b a n i t e i s among the . new r i c h and i s d e s -p e r a t e l y t r y i n g t o e s t a b l i s h f o r h i m s e l f a c e r t a i n s t a t u s , \" c l a s s \" , a n d r e c o g n i t i o n , by d o i n g what has b e e n d e t e r m i n e d by t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e \" s u c c e s s f u l p e o p l e \" to be g o o d . T h i s i s e v e n more s i g n i f i c a n t when i t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t N o r t h A m e r i c a n s a r e i m m i g r a n t s , a n d sons and d a u g h t e r s o f i m m i g r a n t s , who want t o become a c c e p t e d and w e l l c o n s i d e r e d , w i t h o u t h a v i n g a s t r o n g and i n d e p e n d e n t s e t o f v a l u e s . V a l u e s and s t a t u s a r e i d e n t i f i e d . What y o u b e l i e v e makes y o u p a r t o f a s o c i a l g r o u p r a t h e r t h a n p a r t o f a p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r e n d , w h i c h may be s o c i a l l y u n d e f i n a b l e . The N o r t h A m e r i c a n l o v e and e v e n w o r s h i p o f N a t u r e h a v e some h i s t o r i c a l p r e c e d e n t s w h i c h s h o u l d n o t be f o r g o t t e n , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on some e a r l y r o m a n t i c f a s h i o n s . I t was i n t h e R e n a i s s a n c e t h a t a c o n t a c t w i t h N a t u r e was f o u n d by t h e n e o -P l a t o n i c a r i s t o c r a c y i r i . i the I t a l i a n v i l l a s . P a l l a d i a n i s m b r o u g h t t o t h e A n g l o - S a x o n w o r l d n o t o n l y s t y l e , b u t a l s o a t a s t e -a r i s t o c r a t i c a t t h e b e g i n n i n g - f o r a v i l l a i n t h e c o u n t r y , a t l e a s t as a summer r e t r e a t . 62. K i n g L o u i s XIV p r o b a b l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e most famous p r e c e d e n t , by c h o o s i n g to b u i l d V e r s a i l l e s as a s u b u r b a n r o y a l p a l a c e and p e r m a n e n t l y l e a v i n g t h e c i t y . The r i s e o f s u c h s u b u r a b a n p a l a c e s meant a t l e a s t a p a r t i a l d e c a y o f t h e c i t i e s in- the f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r y . In N o r t h A m e r i c a \" the p i o n e e r s t o t h e s u b u r b a n f r o n t i e r h a v e b e e n f o l l o w e d n o t o n l y by masses o f ( 1 Q \"V r e t a i l t r a d e o u t l e t s , b u t by i n d u s t r y a l s o . \" A s i m i l a r phenomenon h a d h a p p e n e d b e f o r e a r o u n d V e r s a i l l e s , w h i c h became an e c o n o m i c c e n t r e o u t s i d e P a r i s and a v i l l a g e more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e c i t y i t s e l f . In t h e r o m a n t i c N o r t h A m e r i c a n s u b u r b s , e s p e c i a l l y at t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e f i r s t and t h e w e a l t h i e s t p e o p l e who i s o l a t e d t h e m s e l v e s a t t h e o u t s k i r t s o f t h e c o m m e r c i a l c i t y h a d a t e n d e n c y t o mix t h e i r m o d e r a t e r e s p e c t f o r d e m o c r a t i c i d e a l s w i t h an a r i s t o c r a t i c dream f o r t h e i r d w e l l i n g s ( e s p e c i a l l y i n the s o u t h e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s ) , homes i n s p i r e d by t h e i l l u s t r i o u s p r e c e n d e n t s o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e as w e l l as by t h e m e d i e v a l f e e l i n g f o r c a s t l e s i n t h e c o u n t r y . N o b l e i s o l a t i o n was c h o s e n w i t h a memory o f t h e p a s t . Somet imes i t a p p e a r s t h a t a t t h e b a s i s o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n e g a l i t a r i a n and m a s s - p r o d u c e d s u b u r b s t h e r e i s t h e a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e e v e r y c i t i z e n w i t h a m i n i a t u r e V e r s a i l l e s o f h i s own t a s t e . One has t o n o t e , a l s o , t h a t t h e W h i t e House i t s e l f has a l l t h e f e a t u r e s o f a l a r g e r and e a r l i e r s u b u r b a n h o u s e . I t i s a c o u n t r y m a n s i o n s e t i n t h e m i d s t o f u r b a n W a s h i n g t o n . -USN&WR Photo C o n s t r u c t i o n of m o d e r n f reeways h a s o p e n e d a pa th f o r i n d u s t r y a n d c o m m e r c e to fo l l ow the o u t p o u r i n g of p e o p l e f r o m m a j o r m e t r o p o l i t a n c e n t e r s into the s u b u r b s . Wh i le t h e p o p u l a t i o n of N e w Y o r k C i t y r e m a i n s v i r t u a l l y u n c h a n g e d , s u b u r b a n c o m m u n i t i e s l i ke t h i s o n e in Su f fo lk C o u n t y , N .Y . , a re b u l g i n g w i t h new r e s i d e n t s . | (19) In a d d i t i o n to t h e i d e a l m o t i f s , t h e r e a r e p r a c t i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a s o n s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e g r o w t h o f s u b u r b i a i n t h e p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n s , even i f t h e y a r e m o s t l y r e l a t e d to a r o m a n t i c b a c k g r o u n d . The s u b u r b a n i t e moves away f r o m t h e c i t y , e v e n i f he c a n n o t move t o o f a r , i;h o r d e r t o a s s e r t h i s i n d i v i d u a l i t y and h i s d e s i r e f o r p r i v a c y and f a m i l y l i f e . In h i s d e t a c h e d h o u s e he i s h i s own m a s t e r and n o b o d y can b o t h e r h i m ; t h e r e he has room f o r a l l t h e members o f h i s f a m i l y , and h i s c h i l d r e n can p l a y s a f e l y and s t i l l h a v e some c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e . \u2022 In a d d i t i o n , t h e s u b u r b a n d w e l l i n g endows t h e f a m i l y w i t h t h e r e s p e c t due h o m e o w n e r s , w h i c h i n t u r n makes t h e f a m i l y p a r t o f a s m a l l e r , more h o m o g e n e o u s , c l e a n and t h o r o u g h l y b o u r g e o i s m u n i c i p a l i t y . In t u n e w i t h t h i s he e x p e c t s t o f i n d a f i t t i n g s c h o o l and c i v i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . A v i l l a g e - s i z e communi ty may be r e c r e a t e d . By way o f f r i n g e b e n e f i t s t h e s u b u r b a n d w e l l i n g i s a s o u n d i n v e s t m e n t , p a r t l y s u b s i d i z e d by a u t h o r i t i e s who c o n s i d e r h o m e o w n e r s h i p a remedy t o s o c i a l e v i l s , and i t i s a d e f e n c e a g a i n s t i n f l a t i o n . \"One p r o - s u b u r b a n w r i t e r has l i s t e d some o f t h e f e a t u r e s o f s u b u r b i a w h i c h he b e l i e v e s i m p r o v e t h e q u a l i t y o f l i v i n g f o r a d u l t s : 'New m e c h a n i c a l c o n t r i v a n c e s i n t h e home, t h e w e a r i n g o f c a s u a l c l o t h e s f o r c o m f o r t , o u t d o o r d i n i n g , f l o w e r s , l a w n s , p e t s , a l l t h e s e and many more pay p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i v i d e n d s , i n t h e f o r m o f i n d i v i d u a l a c h i e v e m e n t , p r i d e i n o w n e r s h i p and w o r k m a n s h i p } a n d communi ty a p p r o v a l and a d m i r a t i o n . A d d e d t o t h e s e a r e t h e s o c i a l a s s e t s o f more i n t i m a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e n e i g h b o u r s , p l e a s u r e s o f g o s s i p and v i s i t s . The n e t r e s u l t i s t o g l a m o r i z e l i f e i n t h e s u b u r b s as a p l a c e o f r e t r e a t f r o m the t h r e a t s and f r u s t r a t i o n s o f u r b a n l i v i n g . R e t r e a t f r o m t h e f r u s t r a t i o n s o f u r b a n l i f e , i n f a c t , i s a b a s i c v i r t u e o f t h e s u b u r b s . \" \" A l t h o u g h W i l l i a m W h i t e was one o f t h o s e w r i t e r s who a t t a c k e d s u b u r b i a i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s , he o f f e r e d an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r i t s p h e n o m e n a l g r o w t h b a s e d on h i s s t u d y o f t h e P a r k F o r e s t s u b u r b . ' I n most c a s e s t h e d o m i n a n t f a c t o r s f o r t h e move t o s u b u r b i a were t h e s p a c e f o r t h e money , t h e a m e n i t i e s n o t anywhere e l s e a v a i l a b l e , and most i m p o r t a n t , t h e f a c t t h a t i t was so w e l l s e t up f o r c h i l d r e n . P a r k F o r e s t e r s went t h e r e f o r q u i t e r a t i o n a l and e m i n e n t l y s e n s i b l e r e a s o n s . Once t h e r e , h o w e v e r , t h e y c r e a t e d s o m e t h i n g o v e r a n d a b o v e t h e o r i g i n a l b a r g a i n . . . a s o c i a l a t m o s p h e r e o f s t r i k i n g v i g o r . The d e v e l o p e r s were q u i c k t o r e c o g n i z e i t and f i r s t t h e y were j u s t a d v e r t i s i n g P a r k F o r e s t (21) as h o u s i n g b u t t h e n b e g a n t o a d v e r t i s e h a p p i n e s s ' \" . y On a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n , e v e n s u b u r b a n c o n d o m i n i u m s a r e now a d v e r t i s e d as h a p p i n e s s . V i l l a M o n t e c i t o , f o r e x a m p l e , i s a d v e r t i s e d on t h e r a d i o u n d e r t h e s l o g a n \"come t o c l u b M o n t e c i t o \" , as i f i t were t h e p l a c e o f p e a c e and h a p p i n e s s . (Note B) U s u a l l y t h e s u b u r b a n d w e l l i n g i s a b u i l d i n g o f one o r two s t o r e y s , w i t h a s t r u c t u r e i n wood f r a m e , l o c a t e d i n t h e m i d d l e o f a r e c t a n g u l a r l o t , a v e r a g i n g s i x t y by a h u n d r e d a n d t w e n t y f e e t , w i t h t h e s m a l l e r s i d e f a c i n g t h e s t r e e t . In f r o n t o f i t t h e r e i s a s t r i p o f g r a s s , a few f e e t w i d e , p a r a l l e l t o t h e r o a d , b e l o n g i n g t o t h e c i t y , w h i c h c a n n o t be t o u c h e d e x c e p t t o m a i n t a i n i t . In most c a s e s t h e b u i l d i n g i s e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h a low g a r d e n and a c lump o f s m a l l t r e e s . A d r i v e w a y a n d a f o o t p a t h u s u a l l y c o n n e c t t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e b u i l d i n g t o t h e p u b l i c r o a d . T h e r e i s a g a r a g e o r c a r p o r t on one o f t h e s i d e s . T h i s u s e d t o be i n t h e b a c k and t o l e a d t o an a l l e y , w h i c h f o r m e d s o m e t h i n g l i k e an e l o n g a t e d common i n f o r m a l c o u r t i n t h e b a c k o f two rows o f s u b u r b a n h o u s e s , b u t t h i s p r a c t i c e has b e e n d i s -c o n t i n u e d i n t h e more modern s u b d i v i s i o n s , and e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e e l e g a n t s u b u r b s . The b u i l d i n g i s t h e sum o f a number o f rooms g e n e r a l l y r e c t a n g u l a r , s e p a r a t e l y d e d i c a t e d t o t h e v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e f a m i l y : s l e e p i n g , w a s h i n g , c o o k i n g , d i n i n g , l i v i n g , e t c . The d w e l l i n g i s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f l i t t l e b o x e s p i l e d i n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t w a y s , a l l open t o t h e o u t s i d e ; and t h e e x t e r i o r i s b a s i c a l l y a b a r e p i e c e o f g r o u n d , r e w o r k e d i n t o a g a r d e n . The o d d e s t t h i n g a b o u t t h i s b u i l d i n g i s t h a t most windows h a v e t o f a c e d i r e c t l y o t h e r windows o f s i m i l a r b u i l d i n g s , and t h a t e v e n f r o m t h e p u b l i c r o a d i t i s a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d b e i n g s e e n e x c e p t by p u l l i n g t h e d r a p e s . The \"New Y o r k e r \" ' -has a good s k e t c h o f a t y p i c a l s u b u r b a n s i t u a t i o n : I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h i s e x p o s u r e t o t h e p u b l i c i s n o t a c c i d e n t a l , b u t d e l i b e r a t e : t h e good c i t i z e n has n o t h i n g t o h i d e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , and i n f a c t h i s f a m i l y l i f e i s a k i n d o f show t o h i s n e i g h b o u r s , a c o n t i n u o u s t e s t i m o n y o f h i s good l i f e . The n e i g h b o u r s c o n s i d e r t h e i r r i g h t to know what i s g o i n g o n , and nobody has t h e r i g h t , even l e g a l l y , t o h i d e . The h e i g h t o f f e n c e s i s n o r m a l l y s u b j e c t t o b y - l a w s , and f e n c e s w h i c h w o u l d c o m p l e t e l y s c r e e n a b u i l d i n g , e s p e c i a l l y a two s t o r e y b u i l d i n g , w o u l d be i l l e g a l even i f one d a r e d t o t h i n k o f p u t t i n g up s u c h a t h i n g . T h i s l e a d s e v e n t o t h e a v o i d a n c e o f c u r t a i n s i n l i v i n g room w i n d o w s . The l i v i n g room becomes a show-c a s e . I t i s even c o n s i d e r e d an o f f e n c e t o s h u t t e r o n e ' s windows a g a i n s t t h e n e i g h b o u r s . I t i s one o f t h e r e a s o n s why l i v i n g rooms a r e a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y p l a c e d on the s t r e e t . r The s t r e e t i s n o r m a l l y q u i e t and does n o t l e a d a n y w h e r e i n p a r t i c u l a r . The o r i g i n a l g r i d s y s t e m was i n t e r r u p t e d i n t h e more modern d e v e l o p m e n t s by a s y s t e m o f c u l de s a c s and o f m e a n d e r -i n g c u r v e s w h i c h c a t e r t o t h e p i c t u r e s q u e t a s t e and s u p p r e s s t h e amount and s p e e d o f v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c . To r e a l i z e t h a t i n s u b u r b i a one i s n o t i n a c i t y i t i s enough t o be d r o p p e d by c a r i n t h e m i d d l e o f a p a r k - l i k e s u b u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t , s u c h as West V a n c o u v e r , B . C . One i s i n no man's l a n d , m i l e s away f r o m any f a c i l i t y , f r o m a n y t h i n g t h a t one may n e e d o r want to do e x c e p t w a l k i n g a l o n e . The f a c t t h a t one i s n o t i n a p a r k becomes o b v i o u s b e c a u s e e v e r y o n e , i n c l u d i n g t h e d o g , knows t h a t t h e s t r a n g e r does n o t b e l o n g t h e r e . One c o u l d d i e t h e r e , e s p e c i a l l y a t n i g h t , as i f one were i n a d e s e r t o r i n an u n -f a m i l i a r f o r e s t . The p e o p l e l i v i n g i n t h e s u b u r b a n r e t r e a t s become more s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by r o m a n t i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r e n d s t h r o u g h t h e i r s t y l e o f l i f e , and t h e i r i s o l a t i o n becomes a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s e n s e o f g u i l t and a d e s i r e t o be \" i n v o l v e d \" . In \" C r e s t w o o d H e i g h t s \" , f o r e x a m p l e , p e o p l e a d o p t \"a s y s t e m i n w h i c h an i d e a l i z e d g o a l i s  u s u a l l y c o u n t e r p o i s e d by an o p p o s e d w i s h . The i d e a l o f l i v i n g i n a s m a l l - t o w n , s e m i - r u r a l a t m o s p h e r e i s met by a d e s i r e t o be as n e a r t h e m e t r o p o l i s as p o s s i b l e . D e s i r e t o o c c u p y an e x c l u s i v e p r e s e r v e i s m a t c h e d by an i d e a l o f i n c l u s i v e n e s s and w a r m t h . D e s i r e t o l i v e i n a s e p a r a t e c o m m u n i t y w i t h m u n i c i p a l a p p u r t -e n a n c e s a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e H e i g h t s i s a c c o m -f 2 31 p a n i e d by g u i l t a t t h e ' s e 1 f i s h n e s s ' o f t h i s d e s i r e \" . J S o b i n n o t e s t h a t \" t h e men, women and c h i l d r e n o f s u b u r b i a a r e f 241 n e v e r q u i t e t o g e t h e r and n e v e r q u i t e a l o n e \" i n t h e i r f a m i l y and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . T h i s i s v e r y much i n t u n e w i t h t h e i d e a l o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n m i d d l e c l a s s i n d i v i d u a l , who may be o f t e n d e s c r i b e d as a l o n e r . , , r o m a n t i c a l l y i n c a p a b l e o f b e i n g s i n c e r e and o p e n , and y e t who wants t o f e e l t h a t he o r she i s \" m i x i n g \" w i t h p e o p l e a l l the t i m e , i s n e v e r q u i t e a l o n e , and i s a l w a y s e x p o s e d t o t h e v i e w and comment o f t h e o t h e r s . I s o l -a t i o n and a communi ty a r e d e s i r e d a t t h e same t i m e . A number o f s t u d i e s h a v e o u t l i n e d t h e a d d e d cos t h e \" s u b u r b a n myth\" i s i n e v i t a b l y c a u s i n g , b e g i n n i n g w i t h c o s t o f s e r v i c i n g h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f s e p a r a t e s m a l l t s t h a t t h e l o t s o v e r a v a s t a r e a . But d e s p i t e t h e i n c r e d i b l e s p r a w l o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s , d e s p i t e the w a s t e o f l a n d c a u s e d by t h e d i s p l a y o f g r a s s t h a t nobody can u s e , d e s p i t e a l l t h e o t h e r c o s t s a n d p r o b l e m s t h a t t h i s s p r a w l adds t o t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n c i t y -f r o m i m p o s s i b l e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o a l a r g e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e e n e r g y c r i s i s - most p e o p l e a r e s t i l l p r o p o s i n g as a s o l u t i o n t o c u r r e n t \" h o u s i n g p r o b l e m s \" t o \"make i t c l e a r t h a t we h a v e r 251 p l e n t y o f l a n d t o t a k e c a r e o f o u r g r o w t h f o r y e a r s t o come\" and t o s u p p l y more s e r v i c e d l a n d a t l o w e r c o s t s , w h e t h e r t h r o u g h i n c e n t i v e s t o p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e o r t h r o u g h p u b l i c l y owned l a n d b a n k s . Y e t t h e same p e o p l e who make and i m p l e m e n t t h e s e p r o p o s a l s a r e t h o s e who may v i s i t a p l a c e s u c h as P a r i s , who f a l l i n l o v e w i t h some p i c t u r e s q u e a s p e c t s t h a t t h e y may g r a s p t h e r e i n a p a r t i c u l a r s p o t and who t h e n r e g r e t t h a t we do n o t h a v e s u c h an a t m o s p h e r e . P e o p l e n o t e t h a t o u r c e n t r a l c i t i e s h a v e b e e n d e c a y i n g . As a c o n s e q u e n c e t h e p r o p o s a l s f o r more l a n d f o r \" h o u s i n g \" a r e m a t c h e d by s i m i l a r l y i l l f o u n d e d p r o p o s a l s f o r p i c t u r e s q u e r e n e w a l d e v e l o p m e n t s downtown. In t h e l a s t y e a r s \" p e d e s t r i a n m a l l s \" and \" s i d e w a l k c a f e s \" h a v e b e e n more and more p r o p o s e d as a p a n a c e a f o r u r b a n i l l s . R. Mann adds t o t h e s e (2 71 a l s o \"open a i r f i s h and v e g e t a b l e m a r k e t s \" . A p i c t u r e s q u e m y t h , i n t h e s t y l e o f a s m a l l E u r o p e a n t o w n , f o r t h e u r b a n c e n t r e o f t e n m a t c h e s t h e s u b u r b a n myth o f a p i c t u r e s q u e home among t h e woods . 71. The g r o w t h o f s u b u r b i a i s f o s t e r e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c h o i c e o f d o r m i t o r i e s o f f e r e d t o t h e u r b a n w o r k e r s i s q u i t e l i m i t e d b o t h i n t e r m s o f l o c a t i o n and o f t y p e o f a c c o m m o d a t i o n . One can c h o o s e b e t w e e n a h o t e l , a r e n t e d a p a r t m e n t , an a p a r t m e n t i n c o n d o m i n i u m , a r o w h o u s e , a d u p l e x , o r t h e s i n g l e f a m i l y d w e l l -i n g . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f some h o t e l s and a p a r t m e n t s i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o r e o f some o f t h e l a r g e s t c i t i e s , a l l o f t h e s e a c c o m m o d a t i o n s t r y to come as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o t h e c o n c e p t , t h e s t y l e , and t h e f a s h i o n o f t h e s u b u r b a n o n e , w h i c h i s a t t h e t o p o f t h e s c a l e f o r c o n v e n i e n c e and p r e s t i g e , i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . The h o t e l i s by f a r t h e most e x p e n s i v e s o l u t i o n . Some o f t h e most l u x u r i o u s modern h o t e l s , e v e n i f downtown, t r y t o r e c r e a t e t h e s u b u r b a n p a r a d i s e , as t h e B a y s h o r e Inn c o u l d e x e m p l i f y i n V a n c o u v e r . U s u a l l y t h e s e h o t e l s t e n d to become c o m p l e t e s e l f c o n t a i n e d u n i t s , w i t h a s m a l l s h o p p i n g c e n t r e w i t h i n , a p o o l and r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a , and a r e s o r t o r c o u n t r y s i d e a tmo-s p h e r e . T h e y a r e t r y i n g t o c o n c e a l t h e u n p l e a s a n t r e a l i t y o f b e i n g i n t h e m i d d l e o f a c i t y . The r e n t e d a p a r t m e n t i s t h e n e x t most e x p e n s i v e s o l -u t i o n a f t e r t h e h o t e l . And r e n t i n g i s e q u i v a l e n t t o l o s i n g money , b e c a u s e t h e t e n a n t does n o t b u i l d up an e q u i t y . I t i s a l s o r i s k y , b e c a u s e t h e p e r s o n who r e n t s i s e x p o s e d t o a l l t h e d a n g e r s i m p l i e d i n h a v i n g a l a n d l o r d , h a v i n g to meet p a y m e n t s e v e r y m o n t h , and h a v i n g t o pay e v e r i n c r e a s i n g r e n t due t o i n f l a t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y r e n t i n g i s t h e o n l y s o l u t i o n f o r t h e p o o r , who pay t h e c o s t o f i n f l a t i o n i n f u l l . The c h o i c e o f r e n t a l u n i t s o f t e n i s l i m i t e d , and many l a n d l o r d s and managers have v e r y s t r i c t p o l i c i e s , e x c l u d i n g e n t i r e c a t e g o r i e s o f p e o p l e , s u c h as c o u p l e s w i t h c h i l d r e n , s t u d e n t s , e t c . f r o m t h e i r u n i t s . N o r m a l l y t h e most modern b u i l d i n g s a r e t h e most d e s i r e d and t h e most e x p e n s i v e . T h e s e f a l l m o s t l y i n two c a t e g o r i e s : t h e h i g h r i s e t o w e r s on t h e down-town b l o c k s , and t h e l o w e r r i s e s p r e a d o u t t o w n h o u s e s o f t h e a r e a s b e t w e e n t h e s u b u r b s and t h e c o r e o f t h e c i t y . T h e s e a p a r t m e n t b u i l d i n g s i n f o r m and s t y l e s h a r e a l l t h e c o n c e p t s o f t h e s u b u r b a n f a s h i o n : t h e y have most o r a l l o f t h e windows t o t h e o u t s i d e , t h e y a r e d e t a c h e d b u i l d i n g s w i t h some l a n d s c a p i n g s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m , and s t a n d i n i s o l a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r e s t o f t h e c i t y e x a c t l y as t h e s i n g l e , f a m i l y d w e l l i n g does on i t s t i n y s u b u r b a n l o s t . E v e n i n t e r m s o f a t m o s p h e r e and o f f a c a d e t h e s e apartment b u i l d i n g s t r y t o keep as much as p o s s i b l e o f t h e \" s u b u r b a n m y t h \" . C o n d o m i n i u m s o f f e r n o t h i n g d i f f e r e n t , e x c e p t t h e l e g a l s e t u p . T h e i r i n i t i a l s u c c e s s was n o t o v e r w h e l m i n g and d e v e l o p e r s h a d t o \" c a s t a c o n c e r n e d eye at t h e v a c a n c y r a t e \" o f some c o n d o m i n i u m s . A p a r t f r o m o t h e r r e a s o n s , i n v o l v i n g t a s t e , m a r k e t i n g and h a b i t s , t h e a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e s m a l l s h a r e o f r e a l e s t a t e owned i n many c o n d o m i n i u m s d i d n o t seem t o o f f s e t s u f f i c i e n t l y t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e s e s e m i - s u b u r b a n i n e x p e n s i v e b u i l d i n g s , so t h a t t h e a d v a n t a g e w i t h r e s p e c t t o o u t r i g h t r e n t i n g , f o r t h e b u y e r , was r a t h e r s m a l l . H o w e v e r , d e v e l o p e r s seem t o f i n d more a d v a n t a g e o u s t h e s a l e o f t h e a p a r t m e n t s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e r e n t a l , a n d t h e h o u s i n g s h o r t a g e i s p r o d u c i n g a m a r k e t where t h e r e i s a l m o s t no o t h e r c h o i c e b u t t o buy what i s o f f e r e d . W i t h t h e i n c r e a s i n g i n f l a t i o n t h a t may come, and w i t h r e n t c o n t r o l s , t h e e n t i r e p i c t u r e may c h a n g e d r a s t i c a l l y i n f a v o u r o f c o n d o m i n i u m s , and t h i s may become t h e common s e t up o f a p a r t m e n t s o f t h e f u t u r e . In c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n a p a r t m e n t b u i l d i n g s , E u r o p e a n b u i l d i n g s i n c o n d o m i n i u m h a v e a v e r y s m a l l r a t e o f d e p r e c i a t i o n , and t h e i r r e a l e s t a t e v a l u e s i n c r e a s e a t a t t r a c t i v e r a t e s , o v e r a number o f y e a r s , i n d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r l o c a t i o n s . E u r o p e a n f l a t s i n b u i l d i n g s i n c o n d o m i n i u m s a r e a p r i m e t y p e o f r e a l e s t a t e i n v e s t m e n t , and a r e t r e a t e d j u s t l i k e l o t s a r e t r e a t e d i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , f o r s p e c u l a t i v e p u r p o s e s , w i t h t h e a d v a n t a g e t h a t t h e y c a n p r o d u c e i n c o m e . The N o r t h A m e r i c a n b u i l d i n g - o r c l u s t e r o f b u i l d i n g s -i n c o n d o m i n i u m s h a r e s i n t h e s u b u r b a n s t y l e n o t o n l y b e c a u s e i t t r i e s t o r e c a p t u r e t h e s u b u r b a n a t m o s p h e r e , b u t b e c a u s e i t i s a c o m p l e t e l y d e t a c h e d f a b r i c . One m i g h t s a y t h a t row h o u s e s , an o l d t y p e o f a c c o m m o d a t i o n , a r e t h e o n l y N o r t h A m e r i c a n b u i l d i n g d e s i g n e d f o r c o n t i n u i t y , b u t i t w o u l d a c t u a l l y be a m i s t a k e . The t y p i c a l row h o u s e , a l t h o u g h s h a r i n g s i d e w a l l s f o r e c o n o m y , i s i n e v e r y o t h e r r e s p e c t i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e d e t a c h e d s u b u r b a n h o u s e . I t i s s i m i l a r l y s e t b a c k f r o m the s t r e e t , a l l i t s windows a r e open t o t h e o u t s i d e , and i t s f r o n t and b a c k y a r d s a r e e q u a l l y open t o p u b l i c v i e w . In a d d i t i o n , r o w h o u s e s , l i k e o t h e r d w e l l i n g s , a r e g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r as a c a t e g o r y and h a v e no o t h e r u s e s m i x e d i n w i t h t h e m . T h e r e a r e a few c o m p r e h e n s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t s where r e s i d e n t i a l and o t h e r u s e s a r e m i x e d . T h e i r n a t u r e h o w e v e r i s t h a t o f b e i n g i s o l a t e d c e n t r e s , and t h e y a r e n o t d e s i g n e d t o merge i n c o n t i n u i t y w i t h a s i m i l a r u r b a n p a t t e r n . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e y n o r m a l l y s t a n d out as d i s t i n c t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t m a s s i v e u n i t s , as l a r g e d e t a c h e d b u i l d i n g s i n w h i c h e v e r y t h i n g i s e n c l o s e d . O f t e n , t h e y a r e o v e r s i z e s h o p p i n g c e n t r e s , o r c o m p a c t s h o p p i n g c e n t r e s . S h o p p i n g c e n t r e s , t h e t y p i c a l p r o d u c t o f s u b u r b i a , n o r m a l l y end up b e i n g \" c o m p r e h e n s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t s \" anyhow, b e c a u s e t h e y s o o n become s u r r o u n d e d by a p a r t m e n t t o w e r s and h o t e l s . T h e s e c o m p r e h e n s i v e c e n t r e s h a v e much more t o do w i t h t h e v i l l a g e i d e a l t h a n w i t h t h e c i t y . W i t h t h e i r d e s i g n , \" i n a p r o f o u n d m i s r e a d i n g o f t h e m a r k e t , a r c h i t e c t s a r e f a s t m a k i n g t h e i m p r o b a b l e com-b i n a t i o n o f Le C o r b u s i e r ' s ' s k y s c r a p e r c i t y ' and t h e s e l f -c o n t a i n e d E n g l i s h 'New Town' i n t o t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l c l i c h e o f o u r t i m e s . \" ( 2 8 ) 7 5 . (29) 76. I I In the North American urban panorama each building is designed as a detached and separate unit in the fashion of the suburban dwelling, regardless of its size, location and use; from office towers to warehouses the building normally is a detached fabric, located near the centre of the property and embellished by some landscaping at the periphery whenever possible. The \"model of a new residential project wi l l typical ly show \"a series of high rise tower apartments set in geometric patterns on an abstract green space carefully preserved against human encroachment.\" The new term of \"industrial park\" is indicative of a similar mentality. By contract, even a superficial observation from the air of a European city like Paris would show a contrary pattern; the buildings extend rather uniformly and occupy the periphery of the blocks between the streets, ending with a sidewalk, and maybe even further, covering the sidewalk i t s e l f with an arcade, and ending just above the street. 7 7 . A few i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f E u r o p e a n e x a m p l e s may i n d i c a t e more c l e a r l y some f e a t u r e s o f a c o n t r a r y p a t t e r n : The c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e b u i l d i n g s . C o n t i n u o u s b u i l d i n g s s c r e e n e d by t h e s c a l e o f t h e t r e e d b o u l e v a r d s . U n i f o r m i t y c o n c e a l s d i f f e r e n t u s e s even i n e l e g a n t s e c t i o n s : s h o p s , o f f i c e s , r e s i d e n c e s , s m a l l w a r e h o u s e s , d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e s , e t c . 7 9 . An a r c a d e o r a g a l l e r y a l l o w s t h e c o n t i n u o u s body o f J b u i l d i n g s t o e x t e n d above t h e p e d e s t r i a n s i d e w a l k s . E n c l o s e d c o u r t s and g a r d e n s a l l o w many a r r a n g e m e n t s . 8 1 . We have mentioned in the f i r s t chapter that the North American cit ies tend to expand as a set of ever increasing vi l lages, with an unlimited suburban sprawl. \"Urbanologist Raymond Vernon wondered why the general American public paid l i t t l e attention to the downgrading reports that suburbia had been receiving. The answer he cameup with was that, to most Americans, suburbia represents progress and improvement, while ( 3 1 1 they view the cit ies as being at a s tandst i l l .\" But in fact, i t is the vil lage mentality which perpetuates i t se l f . \"Thus, while cr i t i c s who are sometimes very well-informed scholars are pinpointing the flaws and problems of suburbia, the general public appears more concerned with the personal benefits they see in suburbia relative to their particular (32\") situation\". The villages multiply in size and number. As we noted in the previous chapter, the North American urban fabric is atomic. It develops multiplying individual , detached, isolated constructions, growing like the stars in an ever expanding sky. In this i t is deeply romantic. It tends to in f in i ty . It is the opposite and even a rebellion against the f ini te and limited walled c i ty . However, it seems to be a rebellion in the fashion of an explosion. \"Nearly two-thirds of Canadians l ive in single detached (331 dwellings\". J In the best of the circumstances constructions of the new residential-units look like this: 82 . The a t o m i c u n i t s a r e g r o u p e d i n v i l l a g e s a r o u n d s h o p p i n g and b u s i n e s s c e n t r e s , and a l l t o g e t h e r t h i s c o m p l e x f o r m s a b i g g e r i n d i v i d u a l u n i t . Somet imes i t i s e v e n p o l i t i c a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t as a m u n i c i p a l i t y , o r two o r t h r e e o f t h e s e v i l l a g e s a r e g r o u p e d i n t o a m u n i c i p a l i t y . I t i s a d e v e l o p m e n t by d o t s and n u c l e i o f d o t s , r a t h e r t h a n an e x p a n d i n g n e t w o r k o r o t h e r i n t e r r e l a t e d p a t t e r n . Many p e o p l e e q u a t e h i g h w a y s w i t h l i n e a r d e v e l o p m e n t : t h e y a r e w r o n g . The h i g h w a y s h a v e n o t h i n g on t h e s i d e s , a l l t h a t t h e y do i s t o s u p p l y means o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , movement , u n r e l a t e d t o t h e b a r e g r o u n d on t h e s i d e s . P e o p l e may n o t e v e n l o o k at t h e s i d e s e x c e p t t o f i n d where t h e y h a v e t o t u r n . H i g h w a y s and s t r e e t s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a h a v e become t h e answer t o t h e s h e e r p r o b l e m o f movement , s e e n as a movement o f i s o l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s and b e t w e e n i s o l a t e d v i l l a g e s o r n u c l e i o f a c t i v i t y . T h i s i s why t h e f r e e w a y and t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a r h a v e e n j o y e d so much p o p u l a r i t y i n s i d e t h e p r e c i n c t s of the North American metropolis, as opposite to public rapid transit . (Note C). Zoning fostered the isolation of act iv i t ies in each vil lage and in the metropolitan context formed by the conglomeration of the vi l lages . The consequence is that according to the time when the various act iv i t ies are supposed to take place, a stream of atomic individuals trans-fers at once from one zone to the other. When people go away from work, the business zone tends to be deserted as a f ie ld after the battle, an inviting area for drunks and criminals to roam through. When people go to work and to school the suburb empties in a similar manner. The hurly-burly of the shopping centres during peak act ivi ty and the vastness of the parking lots (how many times have you been unable to remember exactly where you left your car?) gives a good image of the conse-quences of these atomic movements in a polar fashion, from one centre of activity to the other, from one coloured block on the zoning map to the other. There is an eclectic mixture of styles which go together with the areas, not only in fashions of clothing but also in architecture. The business centres retain whatever is left of formality, in a r ig id code of semi-informality. The buildings have eliminated the capitals, and have stream-lined vert ica l ly . Their classicism has been defined chiefly by Mies Van der Rohe. The exterior skin is permanent and shiny. 84 . I t b e a r s w i t n e s s t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n and f 3 4\") t o \" p u r i t a n i c a l a r c h i t e c t u r a l \" t e n d e n c i e s w i t h t h e e l i m i n -a t i o n o f o p e n l y d e c o r a t i v e o r n a m e n t s and w i t h m a t e r i a l s w h i c h seem t o e x p r e s s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f h o n e s t y and t r u t h f u l n e s s t o t h e n a t u r a l a s p e c t o f m a t e r i a l s . In f a c t t h e s e m a t e r i a l s t u r n out t o be q u i t e d i f f e r e n t and g e n e r a l l y more a t t r a c t i v e t h a n what t h e y a r e r e a l l y l i k e i n u n t r e a t e d and u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d f o r m . The d e s i g n i s a ne.at s e t - u p o f l i n e s and p l a n e s , n o r m a l l y a l l s t r a i g h t . The b u i l d i n g s e x p r e s s e f f i c i e n c y ; i n o r d e r t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h e i d e a o f s u c c e s s and o f w e a l t h e x p e n s i v e m a t e r i a l s and e q u i p m e n t a r e e x p o s e d w i t h a b u n d a n c e . S h o p p i n g c e n t r e s on t h e o t h e r h a n d a r e s t a g e s e t s f o r an i n f o r m a l and gay a u d i e n c e . The s h o p p i n g i s e n c l o s e d , t h e s t a g e s e t i s i n s i d e and one does n o t see a n y t h i n g f r o m t h e huge p a r k i n g l o t o r g a r a g e , e x c e p t a l a r g e u t i l i t a r i a n o b l o n g b u i l d i n g . I n s i d e t h e s t y l e i s e x o t i c and e x t r a v a g a n t , f u l l o f s t r i k i n g c o l o u r s and l i g h t s , d e l i b e r a t e l y e l a b o r a t e , h e a v i l y d e c o r a t e d , gay and s l i g h t l y c o n f u s i n g . M a t e r i a l s a r e o f t e n o b v i o u s l y f a l s e and i m i t a t e d . E v e r y t h i n g l o o k s t e m p o r a r y . W h i l e i n t h e o f f i c e s e v e r y t h i n g i s r e m o v a b l e b u t made t o l o o k s t r o n g , s t a b l e and w e l l f i n i s h e d , i f n o t p e r m a n e n t , i n t h e s h o p p i n g c e n t r e e v e n t h e p e r m a n e n t s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i n s i d e i s c o n c e a l e d by m a t e r i a l s l o o k i n g p u r p o s e f u l l y t e m p o r a r y . The window s h o p s and t h e i n t e r i o r d e c o r keep c h a n g i n g , and t h e r e a r e a l m o s t a l w a y s some s p e c i a l s a l e s g o i n g o n . I t i s as i f t h e s t y l e were i n s p i r e d by t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f buy now, l a t e r i t w i l l be t o o l a t e . The i n d i v i d u a l h o u s e i s the f r e e s t y l e i n t h e c o n t e x t o f s u b u r b i a : I t i s t h e l i t t l e u n i v e r s e o f w h i c h t h e f a m i l y , e s p e c i a l l y t h e h o u s e w i f e , a l w a y s d r e a m e d . I t may be T u d o r , o r C o l o n i a l , o r C o n t e m p o r a r y , o r s o m e t h i n g e l s e . The h o u s e i s a s l i g h t l y i n f o r m a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d r e a m , where t h e f a m i l y r e t i r e s a t t h e end o f t h e d a y and d u r i n g week e n d s . The e x t r e m e a c c e n t u a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t y l e o f e a c h a c t i v i t y i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s i n p a r t made e a s i e r and i n p a r t c r e a t e d by t h e s t r i c t i s o l a t i o n o f e a c h a c t i v i t y , b o t h i n p l a c e and t i m e . T h i s r e f l e c t s an i d e a l , n o t t o o d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e one t h a t want s t o see a s p e c i f i c s t y l i s t i c f o r m f o r e a c h f u n c t i o n . By t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f s t y l e i t i s e v e n p o s s i b l e to r e c o g n i z e t h e u s e and t h e a c t i v i t y . E v e n an i t e m s u c h as t h e window w o u l d be enough to d i s t i n g u i s h an o f f i c e b u i l d i n g f r o m a d w e l l i n g ; an e n t i r e l i s t o f m a t e r i a l s , f r o m r e f l e c t i v e g l a s s and g l a s s p a n e l s t o p r e c a s t e x p o s e d c o n c r e t e , c o u l d be made t o i n d i c a t e t h e c a t e g o r i z e d u s e s o f t h e m . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , 86. even i f apartment towers may be structurally similar to office buildings, the style is markedly different. One wi l l hardly ever see an office building with balconies, or an apartment tower wrapped in shiny reflective glass. And apartment buildings try to camouflage themselves as much as possible to give the impres-sion of being in a resort or in a suburban situation, maybe with a Spanish arcade at the entry, or with some sort of Tudor remin^ -iscence. By contrast one has to note that in the linear pattern of a city like Paris every act ivi ty participates to a degree in the other ac t iv i t i e s , both in terms of style and of physical proximity. The surface treatment of the facade may be inter-changeable for an office, for an apartment, or for a restaurant. In addition to being atomic, the North American urban fabric is outward oriented, extrovert, while the fabric of a city like Paris would be more of the introvert type. Most act iv i t ies in the North American detached buildings take place at the periphery of a service core and in front of an area glazed to an unobstructed view. The interior of most buildings is v is ible from the nearby buildings and public spaces in a striking manner (that i s , the attention is even drawn to look inside), while at the same time the interior is strongly in-fluenced by the design for a view. The outside is the over-whelming fact of the North American building; i t is always present, even more noticeable than the furniture or even, maybe, than the people inside. For example, chesterfields in 87. most d w e l l i n g s w i l l f a c e a l a r g e p i c t u r e window g i v i n g t h o s e s e a t e d on i t t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e v i e w , b u t a t t h e same t i m e p u t t i n g them on d i s p l a y f o r t h o s e o u t s i d e ; f a c i n g a d r a m a t i c v i e w o f t h e c i t y f r o m h i g h up makes an o f f i c e more a t t r a c t i v e , and t h e l a r g e g l a z e d a r e a becomes t h e m a i n f e a t u r e o f t h e r o o m . On t h e c o n t r a r y , i n many E u r o p e a n c i t i e s t h e i m m e d i a t e e f f e c t o f b e i n g i n s i d e t h e b u i l d i n g i s t h a t one may c o m p l e t e l y f o r g e t t h e o u t s i d e ; t h e w a l l a c t s as a d e f i n i t e s e p a r a t i o n . I t i s e x t r e m e l y common t o s e e E u r o p e a n l i v i n g rooms w i t h t h e m a i n c h e s t e r f i e l d s w i t h t h e windows i n t h e b a c k . T h i s h a p p e n s e v e n i n t h e a p a r t m e n t s on t h e h i g h e r f l o o r s i n t h o s e l o c a t i o n s t h a t do a f f o r d a s c e n i c v i e w o f t h e c i t y , w h i c h i s t h e n e n j o y e d r a t h e r f r o m a b a l c o n y . When one wants t o see t h e o u t s i d e , i t h a p p e n s t h a t one a c t u a l l y s t e p s o u t s i d e . G r a p h i c a l l y t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n s t y l e c a n be s y n t h e s i z e d by d i a g r a m 1, and t h e E u r o p e a n s t y l e by d i a g r a m 2, where t h e d a r k e n e d a r e a i s t h e p a r t o f t h e p r i v a t e l a n d w h i c h i s b u i l t u p : d i a g r a m 1 d i a g r a m 2 8 8 . D i a g r a m 1 shows t h e p l a n o f a b u i l d i n g t h a t s i t s i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e p r o p e r t y i n t h e r u r a l t r a d i t i o n o f t h e f a r m e r o f c o l o n i a l t i m e s . I t i s t h e d i a g r a m o f t h e b a s i c u n i t o f t h e a t o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f N o r t h A m e r i c a . I f t h e s e u n i t s a r e added up and s e p a r a t e d by p u b l i c c o r r i d o r s , we have t h e t y p i c a l p a t t e r n o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n p l a n ( d i a g r a m 3): D i a g r a m 3. I n d i a g r a m 1 i t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e b e t t e r p a r t o f t h e l a n d i s o p e n , and open t o t h e o u t s i d e . The b u i l d i n g i t s e l f has t o open f r o m a l l s i d e s t o t h e o u t s i d e . The o u t s i d e i s even more d o m i n a t i n g b e c a u s e o f t h e v a s t n e s s i t h a s ; t h e p r o p o r t i o n i s s u c h and so d i r e c t e d t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n o u t s i d e and i n s i d e i s an e v e r p r e s e n t f e e l i n g . The o u t s i d e i s a l w a y s p r e s e n t t o t h o s e i n s i d e ; a t t h e same t i m e , i n most c a s e s f r o m t h e o u t s i d e t h e v i e w o f t h e i s o l a t e d b u i l d i n g i s eye c a t c h i n g , and t h e a c t i v i t y b e h i n d t h e windows i s h i g h l y n o t i c e a b l e . F o r t h o s e o u t s i d e , t h e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e b u i l d i n g draws a t t e n t i o n and a t t i m e s i s even d r a m a t i c ; f o r t h o s e i n s i d e t h e v a s t n e s s o f t h e s p a c e o u t s i d e draws as much a t t e n t i o n and i s s o m e t i m e s e q u a l l y d r a m a t i c . I t i s t h i s u n i q u e s e t o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t we c a l l t h e e x t r o v e r s i o n o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n s t y l e . The open s p a c e s 89 o u t s i d e c r e a t e a c o n s t a n t t e n s i o n , On t h e c o n t r a r y d i a g r a m 4 i n d i c a t e s a d i f f e r e n t t y p e o f d e v e l o p m e n t and o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s , as i t t o o k p l a c e i n many c o u n t r i e s i n E u r o p e and A s i a , i n many d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s : i i \u2022 D i a g r a m 4. I t i s a s t y l e t h a t c o u l d be d e f i n e d , by c o n t r a s t , as l i n e a r ; i t i s n o r m a l l y a c c o m p a n i e d by a f a i r l y m i x e d a r r a n g e -ment o f u s e s . The open s p a c e s a r e p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y s m a l l e r and c l e a r l y d i v i d e d b e t w e e n e n c l o s e d p r i v a t e , and p u b l i c . The b u i l t up a r e a i s so c l o s e t o t h e open s p a c e s t h a t i t c r e a t e s no drama and t e n s i o n ; i t i s a l m o s t l i k e a h i g h f e n c e , o r a s i d e w a l l w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s t h e movement. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c o n t r a s t a t l e a s t t h e s e two d i f f -e r e n t s y s t e m s b e c a u s e i t i s n o r m a l l y t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d t h a t t h e a t o m i c t y p e o f d e v e l o p m e n t i s t h e one d i c t a t e d by t h e m a r k e t and by t h e n a t u r a l e c o n o m i c f o r c e s . I n s t e a d e x p e r i e n c e i n many d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s and t r a d i t i o n s shows t h a t o t h e r s o l u t i o n s c a n be e q u a l l y o r more v i a b l e e ven i n t e r m s o f p u r e e c o n o m i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , when t h e y a r e a l l o w e d , and w o u l d t e n d t o 90 . show t h a t t h e s o u r c e o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n s t y l e i s o f a n o n - e c o n o m i c n a t u r e . I n f a c t , r e c e n t s u b d i v i s i o n s i n some o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s show t h a t t h e m a r k e t i s now p r e s s u r e d by e c o n o m i c c o n -s i d e r a t i o n s t o t r y t o t a k e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n s ; t h e r e a r e l o t s t h a t a r e b e i n g s o l d w i t h c o n c r e t e b l o c k s a t t h e p e r i m e t e r , on t h r e e s i d e s , so t h a t t h e owners c a n e x t e n d t h e i r b u i l d i n g s t o t h e w a l l a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r b u i l d i n g s and make b e t t e r u s e o f a s m a l 1 e r l o t . I t i s an o v e r s i m p l i f i e d C a l v i n i s t i c p r e j u d i c e t h a t r 35\") \" i n o u r s o c i e t y , e v e r y b o d y l i k e s t o make a p r o f i t \" . J ' T h e r e a r e many s m a l l and l a r g e p r o f i t s t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n s w i l l n o t l i k e t o make, f o r many r e a s o n s , un-l e s s f o r c e d t o . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e m a j o r i t y o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n s w i l l n e v e r f r e e l y e l e c t t o r i d e a f r e e bus t o work, g o i n g a t t h e same s p e e d as a p r i v a t e c a r , d e s p i t e t h e s a v i n g s . U l t i m a t e l y , t h e d e s i r e s and m o t i v e s t h a t d r i v e most p e o p l e may be r e l a t e d t o v a l u e s w h i c h have n o t h i n g t o do w i t h m a k i n g a p r o f i t , w h i c h may be q u i t e i r r a t i o n a l and w h i c h may n o t have been s c r u t i n i z e d s u f f i c i e n t l y f o r a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e . A good e x a m p l e i s t h e one q u o t e d e a r l i e r , o f t h o s e d e v e l o p e r s who s t a r t e d t o s e l l P a r k F o r e s t as money v a l u e i n t h e f o r m o f h o u s i n g , and who t h e n n o t i c e d t h a t p e o p l e were more a t t r a c t e d b y t h e a p p e a l o f an i d e a l s t y l e o f l i f e . 9 1 APPENDIX NOTE A In the Anglo-Saxon l i terary tradition classical Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle have been portrayed as defenders of the community of small or limited size. \"Classical Greece appears as the f i r s t defender of the values of the Modern suburb, for there the small community was original ly presented as the centre of the good l i f e and there philosophers f i r s t insisted that an ideally satisfactory state must be limited in size\" ' This interpretation may be argued. The Greek debate about the Polis was centered on the perfect form of government. Size was a marginal consideration, which must be understood in the ancient Greek technological and p o l i t i c a l context. One can easily see that in proportion a town of 30,000 in the geography of ancient Greece was comparable to a city of anywhere from 500,000 to 3,000,000 today, as far as density, f a c i l i t i e s and communications are concerned. In addition only free citizens were counted. No relation with the modern suburban vil lage can be truly found: the Greek town was a city in the f u l l sense of the word, autonomous and se l f -suff ic ient . The suburbs are specialized municipalities which depend from the metropolis for their very existence. 92 N O T E B T h i s i s a p h o t o c o p y o f t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t f o r V i l l a M o n t e c i t o a s i t a p p e a r e d o n t h e _ \" V a n c o u v e r S u n \" : T h i s w e e k e n d , t a k e a d r i v e t o t h e m o u n t a i n . Beautiful Burnaby Mountain! ' A twenty-five minute drive from the hustle and bustle of downtown Vancouver and you're back to nature. Out where the air is fresh and clean, the trees are green and growing, and the woods are there to wander. It's a g reat place to visit and now, it's a great place to live. Now there's Montecito 2000-the ultimate in condominium luxury and liveability. Nestled on the shaded slop\u00a9 \u2022of Burnaby Mountain, Montecito 2000 is convenient to both shopping and schools. And right next door is an eighteen hole golf course. Each two, three or four-bedroom condominium comes with a wide choice of decorator options; private balcony or garden; and professionally landscaped and maintained grounds . that leave you lots of spare time to . enjoy doing what you enjoy doing. * ' And at Montecito 2000, prices start at $27,500 with down payments as low as $1,600 and mortgage at 8%% ' . 'V ,,V ?> Take a drive to the mountain this !'fj-weekend. Our display home is open , ; fromnponto6pTm.' Phone 291-6664. X; : Please keep this map as municipal by-laws i'l restrict the use of directional signs. . ^4% MONTECITO200B CD DawsonDevelopmentsLimited fe Y O U R K E Y T O J C O N T E M P O R A R V LIVING ^rS-^r-^g^J\/ '(\u00a3&S?_ N o t e t h e c a l l t o c o m e \" b a c k t o n a t u r e \" f r o m t h e \" h u s t l e a n d b u s t l e o f d o w n t o w n \" , \" o u t w h e r e t h e a i r i s f r e s h a n d c l e a n , t h e . -t r e e s a r e g r e e n a n d g r o w i n g , a n d t h e w o o d s a r e t h e r e t o w a n d e r . \" 9 3 . NOTE C P u b l i c r a p i d t r a n s i t has h a d a c o n t i n u o u s h i s t o r y o f d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s and f a i l u r e s i n t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n m e t r o p o l i s , and has s e l d o m b e e n f r e e l y s u p p o r t e d by t h e m a j o r i t y , d e s p i t e i t s c o n v e n i e n c e and r e l a t i v e i n e x p e n s i v e n e s s f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l u s e r s . E v e n more t h a n f o r o t h e r f o r m s o f p u b l i c t r a n s i t t h e s i z e o f d e f i c i t s seems t o be o f t e n o v e r w h e l m i n g , d e s p i t e t h e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t o f l o c a l and o f s e n i o r g o v e r n e m n t s . The V a n c o u v e r Sun o f F e b r u a r y 2 7 t h , 1974 , r e p o r t s u n d e r t h e t i t l e : \" C l o s u r e looms f o r B A R T \" : \" O f f i c i a l s o f t h e most modern r a p i d t r a n s i t s y s t e m i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s a y t h e y may h a v e t o c l o s e t h e l i n e u n l e s s t h e r e i s more money t o c o v e r o p e r a t i n g l o s s e s . Two s e n i o r o f f i c i a l s o f t h e San F r a n c i s c o Bay A r e a R a p i d T r a n s i t d i s t r i c t t o l d a s t a t e s e n a t e c o m m i t t e e T u e s d a y t h a t t h e y b e l i e v e t h e 7 5 - m i l e commuter t r a i n s y s t e m w i l l n e v e r pay i t s way. T h e y a d d e d t h a t u n l e s s t h e s t a t e g i v e s them f r e s h f i n a n c i a l a i d t h e e n t i r e $ 1 . 6 - b i l l i o n BART s y s t e m may s i m p l y c l o s e t h i s f a l l a f t e r l e s s t h a n two y e a r s o f p a r t i a l s e r v i c e . \" CHAPTER 2. (1) \"The Vancouver Sun\", July 30, 1974, p,3. (2) M. P. DOUGLASS: The Suburban Trend, New York 1925, P. 122 (3) J . SEELY, A. SIM, E. LOOSLEY: Crestwood Heights, Toronto 1956, p. V. (4) W. WHITE JR.: Are Cities Un-American?, from \"Fortune\" Sept. 1957. (5) H. CLAY TATE: Building a Better Home Town, New York 1954. Dedication. (6) R. WOOD: Suburbia. Boston 1958, p. 16 (7) F. L. WRIGHT: Broadacre City, Chicago 1945 (8) LE 60RBUSIER': Le Corbusier 1934-38, Zurich 1945, p. 67 (9) R. WOOD: Suburbia . Boston 1958 , p. 260 (10) \"The Vancouver Sun\", March 12, 1974, p. 34. (11) D. P. SOBIN: The Future of the American Suburbs, Port Washington, N.Y. 1971, p. 73 (12) D. P. SOBIN: The Future of the American Suburbs, Port Washington, N.Y. 1971, p. 65 (13) D. P. SOBIN: The Future of the American Suburbs, Port Washington, N.Y. 1971, p. 65 (14) W. WHITE J r . : Are Cities Un-American? from Fortune Sept. 1957. (15) M. and L. WHITE: The Intellectual Versus The City, M.I.T. 1962, p. 45 (16) M. and L. WHITE: The Intellectual Versus The City, M.I .T. 1962, p. 44 (17) D. P. SOBIN: The Future of the American Suburbs, Port Washington, N.Y. , 1971, p. 73 (18) B. BERGER: Working-Class Suburb, Berkeley 1960, p. 9 (19) \"U. S. News \u00a3 World Report\", August 7, 1972: New Role  of the Suburbs, p. 5 2 (20) D.P. SOBIN: The Future of the American Suburbs, Port Washington, N.Y. , 1971, p. 69 (21) D.P. SOBIN: The Future of the American Suburbs, Port Washington, N.Y. , 1971 p. 66 9 5 . ( 2 2 ) \" N e w Y o r k e r \" , J u n e 9 , 1 9 7 3 , p , 4 1 ( 2 3 ) J . S E E L Y , A . S I M , E . L O O S L E Y : C r e s t w o o d H e i g h t s , T o r o n t o 1 9 5 6 , p . 4 1 . ( 2 4 ) D . P . S O B I N : T h e F u t u r e o f t h e A m e r i c a n ' S u b u r ' b s , P o r t W a s h i n g t o n , N . Y . , 1 9 7 1 , P . 7 3 ( 2 5 ) \" T h e V a n c o u v e r S u n \" , J u n e 2 3 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 3 5 ( 2 6 ) \" T h e V a n c o u v e r S u n : , J u l y 2 8 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 , a n d \" T h e P r o v i n c e \" J u n e 2 6 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 6 . ( 2 7 ) \" T h e V a n c o u v e r S u n : , J u n e 1 2 , 1 9 7 3 , p . l a n d M a r . 9 , 1 9 7 4 , P . 4 7 ( 2 8 ) W. W H I T E J r . ; A r e C i t i e s U n - A m e r i c a n ? f r o m \" F o r t u n e \" S e p t . 1 9 5 7 . ( 2 9 ) \" T h e V a n c o u v e r S u n \" , J u l y 1 3 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 3 1 ( 3 0 ) W. W H I T E J r . : A r e C i t i e s U n - A m e r i c a n ? f r o m \" F o r t u n e S e p t . 1 9 5 7 . ( 3 1 ) D . P . S O B I N : T h e F u t u r e o f t h e A m e r i c a n S u b u r b s , P o r t W a s h i n g t o n , N . Y . , 1 9 7 1 , p . 6 8 . ( 3 2 ) D . P . S O B I N : T h e F u t u r e o f t h e A m e r i c a n S u b u r b s , P o r t W a s h i n g t o n , N . Y . , 1 9 7 1 , p . 6 8 . ( 3 3 ) \" T h e V a n c o u v e r S u n \" , A p r i l 1 8 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 5 0 . ( 3 4 ) R . L . D E L E V O Y : \" A d o l f L o o s \" i n E n c y c l o p a e d i a 0 f M o d e r n  A r c h i t e c t u r e , L o n d o n 1 9 6 3 , p . 1 7 8 ( 3 5 ) \" T h e V a n c o u v e r S u n \" , J u n e 2 3 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 3 5 , i n t e r v i e w o f R i c h a r d M a n n b y M i k e G r e e n b y . ( 3 6 ) R . W O O D : S u b u r b i a . B o s t o n 1 9 5 8 , p . 2 6 0 3. SOME CONTEMPORARY URBAN AND A R C H I T E C T U R A L PROBLEMS AND D I S C U S S I O N S : THE HORNS OF A DILEMMA I t i s now a b o u t two h u n d r e d y e a r s s i n c e t h e c o n t r o v e r s y and t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n \" n a t u r a l \" , \" o r g a n i c \" and \"human\" t h i n g s on one s i d e , and \"man made\" and \" a r t i f i c i a l \" and \" m e c h a n i c a l \" t h i n g s on t h e o t h e r was b r o u g h t to l i f e and e x a m i n e d by t h e f i r s t r o m a n t i c s . I t i s n o t an a c c i d e n t t h a t t h e r o m a n t i c movement and t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n d e v e l o p e d t o g e t h e r , and t h a t p a t r o n s o f r o m a n t i c a r t drew t h e i r f i n a n c i a l w e l l b e i n g f r o m t h e i n c r e a s i n g p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e new economy, n o t w i t h o u t some s e n s e o f g u i l t . One o f t h e most r e c e n t a s p e c t s o f t h i s c o n t r o v e r s y i s t h e a t t a c k a g a i n s t t h e a u t o m o b i l e , s e e n as t h e m e c h a n i c a l i d o l t h a t d e s t r o y s n o t o n l y n a t u r e , t h a n k s t o b y p r o d u c t s s u c h as f r e e w a y s , i n t e r c h a n g e s , p o l l u t i o n , e t c . , b u t a l s o t h e q u a l i t y o f human l i f e and e v e n t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e c i t i e s . A t i t l e on t h e f r o n t page o f \"The V a n c o u v e r Sun\" o f May 2 4 , 1973 , r eads ' : \" C i t y subway p r o p o s e d . New downtown p l a n p u t s p e o p l e a h e a d o f v e h i c l e s . \" And i n t h e a r t i c l e one r e a d s t h a t \"downtown s h o u l d be made a p l a c e f o r p e d e s t r i a n s \" . S i m i l a r t i t l e s , a r t i c l e s , and r e p o r t s f r o m p u b l i c and p r i v a t e p l a n n i n g a g e n c i e s a r e f o u n d now and 97. t h e n i n p u b l i c a t i o n s i n many N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s . T h e a u t o m o b i l e i s o n e o f t h e m o s t p o p u l a r v i l l a i n s i n c o n t e m -p o r a r y d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t u r b a n p r o b l e m s . W a l k i n g i s s e e n a s a v i r t u o u s a n d p u r e a c t i v i t y - as o p p o s e d t o d r i v i n g - w h i c h s h o u l d b e f o s t e r e d a t a n y c o s t ; we may b e a p p r o a c h i n g t h e m e n t a l i t y o f p r o h i b i t i o n i n a i l l u s i o n a r y c r u s a d e a g a i n s t c o n t e m p o r a r y p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . ^ 1 ^ 98. Many urban c r i t i c s , a t t r i b u t e to the advent and the use of the automobile the decay of the . c i t y c e n t r e s , the suburban-i z a t i o n of c i t i e s , the lack of s o c i a l l i f e and of opportun-i t i e s f o r encounter, and many more i l l s of our c i t i e s and of our c i v i l i z a t i o n . Yet these people do not r e a l i z e that the automobile, l i k e most i n d u s t r i a l products and other aids created by human beings, d i d not s p r i n g from a r b i t r a r y circum-stances, or as a r e s u l t of chance. As M a r s h a l l McLuhan put i t , \"many people would be disposed to say that i t was not the machine, but what one d i d with the machine, that was i t s meaning or message. In terms of the ways i n which the machine a l t e r e d our r e l a t i o n s to one another and to o u r s e l v e s , i t mattered not i n the l e a s t whether i t turned out c o r n f l a k e s or C a d i l l a c s . \" This i s a mistake. \"In a c u l t u r e l i k e ours, long accustomed to s p l i t t i n g and d i v i d i n g a l l things as a means of c o n t r o l , i t i s sometimes a b i t of a shock to be reminded t h a t , i n o p e r a t i o n a l and f 2) p r a c t i c a l f a c t , the medium i s the message.\" We f i n d that i n the case of the automobile, the machine was developed and marketed by the same kind of people and at the same time that suburban l i v i n g was becoming more f a s h i o n a b l e and zoning laws were beginning to be proposed. The people who could a f f o r d i t were already 99 . d e s e r t i n g t h e c i t y , c o m m u t i n g t h e s t r e e t c a r s , r a i l w a y s and l e s s e f f i c i e n t p r i v a t e means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . I t was t h e t i m e when t h e i d e a s o f E b e n e z e r Howard were f o s t e r i n g t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n dream o f g a r d e n s u b u r b s . The a u t o m o b i l e came as t h e p r o d u c t o f a w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d c u l t u r e , w h i c h , as M o r t o n f 3\") and L u c i a W h i t e have c l e a r l y e x p l a i n e d ^ , was a l r e a d y i n t r i n s i c a l l y a n t i - c i t y . F r a n k L l o y d W r i g h t i n h i s i d e a l \" B r o a d a c r e C i t y \" made t h e a u t o m o b i l e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e p l a n . The a u t o m o b i l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n i t s N o r t h A m e r i c a n v e r s i o n , was t h e medium c r e a t e d by an e s t a b l i s h e d c u l t u r a l m e s s a g e . I t was i n e e e d as i n s t r u m e n t a l i n e m p h a s i z i n g t h e s h a p e o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t y as s u b d i v i s i o n s o f l a n d . H o w e v e r , t h e i d e a s were a l r e a d y t h e r e . * I t was t h e message t h a t c r e a t e d t h e medium. I t may be o f n e g l i g i b l e u s e s i m p l y t o l a m e n t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e a u t o m o b i l e and t o p r o p o s e d i f f e r e n t means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n as a s o l u t i o n t o t h e i l l s o f t h e c i t y ; what i s p r o b a b l y much more i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r i s t h a t what p e o p l e t h i n k a b o u t t h e c i t y and u r b a n l i f e i n g e n e r a l i s what s h a p e s t h e c i t y . * I n t h i s s e n s e , I f e e l t h a t one s h o u l d c o r r e c t and c l a r i f y t h e a p h o r i s m c o i n e d by M c L u l a n ; o t h e r w i s e an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t - t h e . s e q u e n c e i n t i m e - w o u l d be l o s t i n f a v o u r o f a v a g u e i d e n t i t y w h i c h w o u l d n o t r e f l e c t t h e r e a l a s p e c t s o f c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t s . 100. J . L . S e r t s a i d i n 1947: \" O u r m a s t e r y o f s p e e d has become u s e l e s s i n o u r c i t i e s . T h e i r m a i n a r t e r i e s a r e o f t e n c l o g g e d w i t h v e h i c l e s , as t h o u g h 'some k i n d o f a r t e r i o s c l e r o s i s h a d a t t a c k e d t h e c i t y s t r u c t u r e ' . In some c a s e s h o r s e s moved f a s t e r s i x t y y e a r s ago t h a n a u t o m o b i l e s f 4) do now.\" A q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y has p a s s e d and a u t o -m o b i l e s have k e p t m u l t i p l y i n g , e v e n i f t h e p r o b l e m s h a v e i n c r e a s e d and i n many p l a c e s a h o r s e o r a b i c y c l e w o u l d i n d e e d p r o v i d e f a s t e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . M o s t o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n s c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h e a u t o -m o b i l e and t h e c i t y i g n o r e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a u t o m o b i l e i s a d e l i b e r a t e c h o i c e made by t h e m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d v i e w o f l i f e and o f t h e c i t y . R i c h a r d G e r s t e n b e r g , c h a i r m a n o f G e n e r a l M o t o r s C o r p o r a t i o n , i n r e p o r t i n g t h e r e c o r d s a l e s g r o w t h a t t h e a n n u a l s t o c k h o l d e r s ' m e e t i n g i n 1973 , r e m a r k e d t h a t s u c h g r o w t h \" i s a c o m p e l l i n g a n s w e r t o t h o s e who a r e so q u i c k to w r i t e t h e e p i t a p h o f t h i s i n d u s t r y and t o s a y t h a t t h e p e o p l e ' s l o v e a f f a i r w i t h t h e a u t o m o b i l e i s over .\" ' ' ' ' - ' The a u t o m o b i l e was c r e a t e d i n o r d e r to h a v e a c e r t a i n c i t y , and i t s r o l e c a n o n l y i n c r e a s e w i t h t h e g r o w t h o f s u c h a c i t y . T h i s i n v o l v e s a s t y l e o f l i f e , among t h e o t h e r t h i n g s , t h a t exp la ins why t h e a v e r a g e c a r s o l d i n N o r t h A m e r i c a has to be so l a r g e e v e n i f i t i s u s e d m o s t l y i n t h e c i t y and i t s s u b u r b s , and i t i s s e l d o m f u l l y o c c u p i e d , w h i l e t h e a v e r a g e E u r o p e a n c a r , by c o n t r a s t , i s so much s m a l l e r , e v e n i f i t i s u s e d more 101 . o f t e n o u t s i d e t h e c i t y and t o c a r r y s e v e r a l p e o p l e and l u g g a g e . The N o r t h A m e r i c a n a u t o m o b i l e i s a f o r m o f t r a n s p o r t a -t i o n p r o d u c e d by t h e same p h i l o s o p h y t h a t d r o v e t h e p e o p l e to t h e s u b u r b s . I t i s a r u r a l dream p a r t l y d e r i v e d by a s e n s e o f u r b a n c l a u s t r o p h o b i a , by a d e s i r e o f b i g n e s s , o f open s p a c e s , o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m , and o f u n l i m i t e d e x p a n s i o n . What p e o p l e do n o t seem t o r e a l i z e , i n t h e i r o u t c r y a g a i n s t t h e a u t o m o b i l e , i t s p o l l u t i o n , t h e u r b a n f r e e w a y s , e t c . , i s t h a t t h e r u r a l dream o f t h e f l i g h t t o s u b u r b i a c a n n o t be a c c o m p l i s h e d by p e d e s t r i a n m a l l s and p u b l i c mass t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m s ; l e s s c a r s t h r o u g h t h e c i t i e s w o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y mean a h i g h e r d e n s i t y o f p e o p l e r e s i d i n g i n t h e c i t y and o v e r a s m a l l e r h o r i z o n t a l a r e a . The f a i l u r e o f p u b l i c s y s t e m s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n N o r t h A m e r i c a and t h e e v e r i n c r e a s i n g s p r a w l o f t h e s u b u r b s and o f t h e i r d o u b l e c a r p o r t s s h o u l d teach us t h a t i n a z o n e d c i t y e x p a n d i n g w i t h e v e r l o w e r d e n s i t y p r i v a t e means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a r e i n e v i t a b l e . The p a r a d o x i s t h a t t h e f l i g h t to t h e s e r e n i t y o f t h e g a r d e n s u b u r b s , t h e f l i g h t t o t h e more o r g a n i c and n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t away f r o m t h e d i r t y p a v e m e n t s o f c i t y s t r e e t s , has p r o d u c e d a g i g a n t i c g r o w t h o f s u b u r b a n o r i e n t e d i n d u s t r i e s , f r o m a u t o m o b i l e s and h i g h w a y s to lawn mowers and lawn f e r t i l i z i n g m a c h i n e s . 102. The recent mild energy cr is i s in the United States has suddenly shown more vividly some of the costs and the implicit dangers of the continuous expansion of the low-density zoned and suburban metropolis.. People had to line up for hours at gas stations in order to continue their daily routines. Tom Wicker, of the \"New York Times\", noted from a city of North Carolina: \"A fuel shortage is a serious matter anywhere, but in cit ies dependent on the automobile, i t could become a catastrophe, i t is not just that, here in Charlotte as elsewhere, mass transit f a c i l i t i e s are minimal. In addition this city has been built outward from its own centre in long gl i t tering strings of p last ic , neon, glass and ersatz. For miles before a motorist reaches what used to be the c i ty , shopping centres, fast-food joints , service stations, apartment and housing developments, glass office buildings line the roads in endless tribute to an i l lusory prosperity. What happens to the motels, the sprawling cut-rate department stores, the highway .restaurants and the one-stop auto service centres i f potential customers have no gas with which to drive to their sprawling parking lots?\"'-6'' (And there are many cit ies in North America where to be unable to drive between isolated precincts means to be exposed to the danger of physical violence. The suburban garden cit ies may suddenly show in bitter ways their isolation from the urban context). 103 . As we noted in the previous chapter, what has happened is that the exodus to nature toward the suburbs has been followed by a massive movement of commercial act ivi t ies in the same direction; the metropolis has grown as a conglomerate of regional commercial centres and residential suburbs spread over a vast expanse of land, where the individual automobile has become more and more the only means of transportation. This most mechanical device has become an essential part of the general return to nature in the picturesque suburbs and of the l i f e l ine  necessary to maintain them. The romantic disgust with the automobile, i ts noise, i ts pollution, i ts speed through the serenity of the quiet streets and its crowding through the main arteries, is being expressed now by the closure of important central streets to private cars. The \"machine\" is publicly rejected with the establishment of pedestrian malls. Here picturesque dreams and the crusade against the automobile have a f ie ld day. 1 0 5 . Ecologists and conservationists may believe that ripping the pavement of a downtown street to bring back yet another garden with shrubs and trees and fountains in front of shops and stores means to begin a new - more \"human\" and \"organic\" -pattern in the city. But is i t not a revival of the City Beautiful concept in a new style? Despite the supposed death of the Beaux Arts ideals, we see that the image of beautiful, sublime, ar t i s t i c or picturesque scenes as the typical stage setting continues to fascinate people are are concerned about urban problems. As an example one may see the study \"Granville as f 71 a Pedestrian Transitway\" adopted by the City of Vancouver for the new pedestrian mall transforming Granville Street. The objective is to \"beautify the street as a major pedestrian f 81 street in the downtown peninsula.\" 1 J Among the other things, f 91 \"parades and festivals\" are proposed to keep the area alive. The sketches of the proposed future arrangement seem to indicate rows of trees and sidewalk cafes as the most notable new elements. 106 107. 108 . For the reader who is not familiar with Vancouver one has to note that the people shown in the sketches could not be residents of the neighbouring blocks, because apartments are not foreseen in the surrounding area. Granville Street is not a street leading from one centre of pedestrian activity to another, l ike the Galleria in Milan (which goes from Piazza della Scala to Piazza del Duomo, the two most prestigious centres of the c i ty ) , i t is a street going from an eight-lane vehicular bridge to an old empty transcontinental railway station on the waterfront of the harbour. Finally Vancouver is a city that cannot count on a great pedestrian activity outside some sort of gallery, because i t is aff l icted by an unusual amount of steady rain. Cafes on open sidewalks are undoubtedly a dream transplanted from a vision of a sunny southern European town. Oddly, this new pedestrian area is at a great distance from Gastown, the previous project of urban beautification and pedestrian enclosure. Gastown is a renewal of a square and adjacent streets aimed at recapturing the atmosphere of an old vi l lage. It remained isolated, no provision has been made to introduce any residential quarters for a population that could focus around i t , and the shops and restaurants that took advan-tage of the atmosphere depend upon tourists and commuters. After a few years, its degree of success has already begun to give disappointments. It was another picturesque dream improperly 109 . transplanted; in Europe these squares and streets are supported by the l i f e of an integrated urban system and by the presence of a resident population around them that caters to the services offered there. (Note A.) Often,it seems as i f a beautiful stage, may be in the style of the central square of an ideal v i l lage , were a l l that is proposed to avoid the further decay of the urban centres or to solve the problems of the disintegrating c i t i es . An engineer, an alderman who was elected to the municipal council of Vancouver,ran on a p o l i t i c a l platform which included: \"Revitalize downtown by plazas and sidewalk cafes. - Freeze development where necessary (West End).\"'-1^-' But what good wi l l sidewalk cafes make to revital ize downtown i f high density residential developments nearby are going to be stopped? The underlying assumption seems to be that people would commute to the cafes as they do to the business centre. Sidewalk cafes seem to capture the imagination of the North American traveller as the key to a romantic dream of a c i ty . Even the premier of Brit ish Columbia, returning from his f i r s t tr ip to the European continent, could not refrain from reporting the news that, \"In Paris the sidewalk cafes are just fantastic, just fantast ic .\"^* As a consequence of the tr ip he decided to relax local liquor laws to encourage the adoption of this European idea. centre of For the redevelopment of Granville Vancouver, the architects included Island, at the among the 110. the suggested uses \"a museum, gal leries , a fine arts school, f 121 a f ish, fruit and vegetable market,\" ' etc. These are some of the most typical romantic visualizations of low-density leisure-oriented act iv i t i e s , lending themselves in an excellent way to picturesque renderings giving a sketchy idea of scenes taken from vague recollections of places somewhere between Istanbul and Paris. Houston \"is luring people from the suburbs with a new kind of mall. It's called the Gal ler ia: a three-level, air-conditioned, enclosed complex in the most affluent part of the c i ty . Modeled after a shopping gallery in Milan, Italy, i t also has touches of Rockefeller Centre in New York a n d San Francisco's Ghirardel l i Square.\"* This \"Galleria\" is also considered an \"antidote for loneliness\": \"Loneliness-isolation in a crowd - is a major problem in a fast-growing, mobile urban centre like Houston\" and\"a lot of people are drawn to the Galleria to overcome loneliness. Here they can mingle with the crowd, do things, and feel part of something -(1 3) i f only temporarily\". This is a confused para l l e l : the Galleria in Milan is simply composed of a portion of two intersecting streets covered by a glazed roof and reserved for pedestrians, mainly as a shortcut between two main squares and as a distinguished public area; i t was not \"zoned\" for a specialized act iv i ty: there is just as much shopping in any of the neighbouring streets. I l l . It is hard to believe that these kinds of scattered developments can do anything to decrease the expansion of the suburbs and to change the trends of the present urban pattern in North America. On the contrary, they only seem to emphasize the prevailing style of l i f e . These pedestrian centres exist only as commercial temporary ghettos or clubs of commuters. Their integration with the rest of the city is quite irrelevant, i f ever considered. Despite the fact that these are pedestrian areas, most of the pedestrians arrive by means of private cars; perhaps one per car. The.same romantic dualist ic trend that sees as necessary a return to nature but that would like to abolish those automobiles and those highways that have been used to follow the ideal , also sees man as losing against the advance of industrial ization and the city as an \"inorganic\", heartless \"mechanical\" product of industry and economics. Developers then become public foes, the enemies of nature and of the ideal model of the \"organic\" city. These issues become the object of strong public debate when new high density developments are proposed in places where pretty old buildings or parks would be lost by the defenders of art and nature. The positions become polarized between the defenders of economic reason, and even of science and effeciency, and those who want to advance the ideal model dear to the romantic heart. An inf luential writer such as Lewis Mummford has seen the conflict between technological and organic development almost 112. as a matter of l i f e and death for the future of c i v i l i za t i on : \"The internal problems of the metropolis and of its subsidiary-areas are relections of a whole c iv i l i za t ion geared to expansion by s t r i c t l y rational and scient i f ic means for purposes that have become progressively more empty and t r i v i a l , more infanti le and f 141 primitive, more barbarous and massively irrat ional .\"^ J \"The renewal of l i f e is the great theme of our age, not the further dominance, in ever more frozen and compulsive forms, of the machine.\" Morton and Lucia White noted; \"like so many earl ier cr i t i c s of the c i ty , Mumford is enthralled by the notion of the organism, by Emersons's and Coleridge's view that there is an invidious distinction to be drawn between mechanically imposed form and organic form that grows from within.\" Mumford, like many other people fearful of the advances of industry and of the conflict that they see between man and the machine, does not seem to realize that the real conflict is not between man or nature and man-made mechanisms, but internally between human ideas and desires that shape our romantic and contradictory c i v i l i z a t i o n . It is conflicting ideals, not the machinery that may express and serve them, which are the source of the shape of our \"barbarous\" or crazy c i t i e s . Mumford came near to this understanding when he observed: \"One cannot bring about the renewal of the city by replacing old structures with new buildings that only confirm the obsolete pattern of city growth and that rest solely on the equally n 71 obsolete ideological foundations of 'mechanical progress'\". 1 1 3 . The problems of the city are \"a matter that must be attacked at f 1 g 1 the source\". But he failed to identify the true source. This is the mainstream of philosophy which allows people not only to be dedicated to \"mechanical progress\", but also to see problems  in terms of conflicts between man and machine, or between \"Art and Technics\", or between intuit ion and reason, for example. We owe to this dualist ic representation of rea l i ty , which we may have inherited from the need for anguish of the romantic generations, not only the inabi l i ty to see the truth of the circumstances that confront us, but even the creation of some of the conflicts which are worrying so many people, and which are presented as necessary or even inevitable. Instead,of.seeing the complexities of real l i f e unfolding in a variety of ways with an integral and calm eye, ready to take advantage of what is useful and to reroute what is harmful, recognizing a mixture where pleasant and unpleasant can never be completely separated, the world is seen exclusively as a set of polarized extreme tendencies, where i t is necessary to take sides and to fight the enemy to the end. This fight can be absurd i f the enemy turns out to be f i c t i t ious . It is the struggle in perennial and grand conflicts that rewards the missionary and heroic sp ir i t of the romantic movement, of which we are s t i l l part in many ways. The contra-dictions of the modern metropolis are seen only from one extreme or the other, and instead of being eliminated, they are made permanent: thus we zone residential suburbs and we discourage driving. 1 1 4 . The struggle to save nature from human pollution and to save the rural belt around the cit ies may be seen in this l ight , as examples of cases where the emotionalism of popular crusades grows in a state of public confusion and romantic ideals obscure understanding of the basic issues. Recently the provincial government of Brit ish Columbia, an \"avant garde\" government, has undertaken the duty of saving the rural belt around Vancouver with an almost sacred zeal, arousing an uproar only from the defenders of private enterprise, un-controlled economy and \"laissez faire\" theories, not because the basic idea of preserving agricultural land as something.better than urban development could be questioned, but simply because another area of speculative investments has been restricted. Again lines of battle have been drawn between the \"obviously\" good and the \"obviously\" bad. The principle of the goodness of saving a rural belt around Vancouver is not seen as a debatable issue among the majority. (One may be astonished to note here that Brit ish Columbia has less than 5% of the popu-lation density of European countries, including such mountainous and partly rural countries as Switzerland and Austria). The question was only whether or how much developers and speculators might be f inancially hurt by a ban on rezoning as urban land agricultural land. At the same time the side effects of such a decision, the inevitable increase in density of the c i ty , the rise in the prices of urban land and the end of the growth 115. of suburbia once a l l the available urban land is used - namely the end of the romantic ideal of a garden city for the metropolis -have a l l been put out of mind. The dream of the saved rural belt and the passion of the debate about who is going to make or to lose money have, at least temporarily clouded over a l l other conflicting obsessions. It is significant that only a short time after the decision to preserve the rural belt had been made, \"The Vancouver Sun\" came out with the t i t l e \"Council faces dilemma on West End* re zoning\". (19) The dilemma was whether to allow a further in-crease in density at the core of the city or to put a limit to i t . The opening paragraph of the art ic le said: \"City council wi l l decide Tuesday whether i t ' s worth risking large rent increases for West End residents to improve the quality of l i fe in their area.\" It is important to note that in the news media and in the minds of the majority good quality of l i f e and lower density seem  to be identifiable terms even at the expense of l imiting the number * The\"West End\" is a residential d i s tr i c t in Vancouver, close to the downtown area. 1 1 6 of people who should be allowed to take advantage of \"downtown\" residences to their own convenience and pleasure and for the good of the city (lessening commuter t ra f f i c , adding more people to populate the streets, shops, outdoor cafes, etc. , thus making the city function properly). Whether this is true or not is never actually discussed in public. When people talk about \"the quality of Life\" certain values are taken for granted and form the basis of common understanding. Yet these unchallenged sets of values that form the underlying philosophy or cultural trend are those which should honestly be exposed and c r i t i c a l l y reviewed. It may turn out, then, that some of the dilemmas are improperly understood, or even f i c t i t ious . * It is the underlying philosophy that sets in motion entire chains of decisions at the origins of the problems which people like Mumford and many others have perceived mostly in their unpleasant external manifestations, and then explained in terms of a dualist ic interpretation. * The system of romantic values, which leads to a certain notion of what the relationship between nature and the fabric of the city should be. It is the belief in an organic system where sparse detached buildings and low-density settlements blend with parks and allow a contact with nature. 1 1 7 . A planner did note in the case mentioned before that in Vancouver \"citizens are not oriented to large city thinking; they are rural-oriented and that's why they are interested in greenbeltsi\" But these occasional observations after the fact may be more useful to s t i r isolated arguments than to provide an insight into the complexities, profundities and pervasiveness of a strong cultural tendency. It i s , after a l l , worth the trouble to study this matter further, for the attitudes of the citizens of Vancouver are bound to coincide to a great degree with those of people in many parts of North America. The mayor of Toronto \"said he is not against high-rises as such but said they wi l l not be tolerated i f they are built at the expense of existing neighbourhoods\" and that \"most of the automobiles can effectively be banished from within a f 21) radius of two miles of the city centre.\" The conservative government of the province of Ontario has promised legislation to preserve farmland and to establish a parkway greenbelt around the area of metropolitan Toronto. In Vancouver the third crossing of Burrard Inlet, a bridge or a tunnel to relieve the traf f i c of the existing bridges, was stopped for fear that i t would have increased the traf f ic and the density of the downtown area to an * untolerable level . The episode of the Spadina expressway was an antecedent in Toronto. The Spadina expressway was designed to connect the core of metropolitan Toronto with the system of peripheral free-ways. It was stopped. The public reacted against the danger of excessive traff ic and density downtown. 1 1 8 . Yet the only true solution to implement the ideals of a city which does not grow in density and is limited by a per-manent rural belt at the outskirts is that of a moratorium on population growth, something that no one is proposing in the open and that may be economically unfeasible even i f i t were p o l i t i c a l l y possible. In the current trend of population growth, which wi l l not be stopped in the foreseeable future, to advocate less auto-mobile traf f ic is to advocate at the same time an inevitable  increase in density. To advocate lower density is to ask for more  land and more private means of transportation in the metropolis. These are the inescapable dilemmas of those who choose the ideal of a romantic garden city but at the same time would like to see i t limited in size and for pedestrians only. The ultimate weapon that romantic conservationists and ecologists may use against the city is the fear of pollution: however true the problem of pollution i s , i t is also the last device used to keep the public worried about the need for ever larger parks and green spaces, as i f these were the elements determining the quality of l i f e in a c i ty . It seems that the ideal city of the future is to look like vine covered Angkor Vat at the moment of i ts discovery. It is as i f a city were considered more livable i f i t had more parks and greenery; in this respect, cit ies like Venice and Siena should be considered utterly unhappy. In a new proposal such as the redevelopment of the industrial 1 1 9 . area around False Creek, a sea inlet at the heart of Vancouver, to scatter residential buildings as i f in park and to provide a pedestrian v i l lage- l ike atmosphere and a large percentage of parkland were the answer in terms of design to the future of the ci ty. Mostly land reclaimed from a sea inlet at the very edge of Vancouver's downtown d i s t r i c t . This could form a beautiful sea water basin at the centre of the city. 120 . APPENDIX NOTE A The \"Vancouver Sun\" of August 3, 1974 (p. 18), reports: \"A York County grand jury said Friday the Yonge Street Mall is a disgrace and should be closed.\" Monday, August 5, 1974 a public holiday, downtown Vancouver was closed to traf f i c for the enjoyment of pedestrians, who were supposed to s t r o l l around and to enjoy the sun from the instant sidewalk:? cafes. The public response was so unenthusiastic that the experiment wi l l not be repeated. Kimberley, B . C . , had the honour of appearing on f 2 2) newspapers for this prize winning beautification project: B A V A R I A N S T Y L E street in Kimberley has won B.C. Regional awards went to Downtown Business-1973 Park and Tilford trophy for beautification in men's Association of Port Alberni, Chilliwack Gen-eral Hospital Garden Park, Poison Park in Vernon, Inland Natural Gas of Kamloops and Dawson Creek 122. CHAPTER 3 - SOME CONTEMPORARY URBAN AND ARCHITECTURAL PROBLEMS AND DISCUSSIONS: THE HORNS OF A DILEMMA. (1) \"The Vancouver Sun\": August 9, 1973, p.4. (2) MARSHALL McLUHAN: Understanding Media, New York 1966, p. 23. (3) M. \u00a7 L. WHITE: The Intellectual Versus the City, Harvard 1962. (4) J . L. SERT: Can Our Cities Survive?, Cambridge, Mass. 1947. (5) \"The Vancouver Sun\", May 5, 1973, p. 25. (6) \"The Province\", December 4, 1973, p. 5. (7) BAIN, BURROUGHS, HANSON: Granville as a Pedestrian Transitway, Vancouver 14 September 1973. (8) Ibidem, p. 43 (9) Ibidem, p. 11 (10) \"The Vancouver Sun\" , December 9, 1972, p. 49 (11) \"The Vancouver Sun\" , June 15, 1973, p. 1 \u00a7 2. (12) \"The Vancouver Sun\" , June 12, 1973 (13) \"U.S. News $ World Report\", June 18, 1973, p. 45. (14) LEWIS MUMFORD: The City in History, New York 1961, p. 554 (15) LEWIS MUMFORD: Art and Technics, New York 1952, p. 157. (16) M. $ L. WHITE: The Intellectual Versus the City, Harvard 1962, p . 205 \u2022 (17) LEWIS MUMFORD: The City in History, New York 1961, p. 554 (18) LEWIS MUMFORD: The City in History, New York 1961, p.554. (19) \"The Vancouver Sun\" , January 18, 1973. (20) \"The Vancouver Sun\" , March 15, 1973, pp. 8. (21) \"The Vancouver Sun\" , March 13, 1973, p. 30. (22) \"The Vancouver Sun\", Sept. 21, 1973, p. 43. 123. 4 . THE ROLE OF ROMANTICISM AS A CONDITIONING FACTOR  FOR A R C H I T E C T S AND OTHER PEOPLE INVOLVED IN URBAN  DEVELOPMENTS \" D e v e l o p m e n t i s p r o g r a m a b l e ; D i s c o v e r y i s n o t p r o g r a m a b l e . \" ' - ' ' ' ' ' T h i s s t a t e m e n t by B u c k m i n s t e r F u l l e r s y n t h e s i z e s some o f t h e r o m a n t i c d i l e m m a s p o s e d by t h e n e e d t o r e c o n c i l e t h e n e c e s s a r y work o f r e a s o n w i t h t h e c r e a t i v e f l a s h o f i n t u i t i o n , w h i c h may s t r i k e a t random and e n t e r i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e p l a n n e d p a t h o f r e a s o n . A l s o , i t u n d e r s c o r e s and i t e x p l a i n s t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l o r i g i n s o f some o f t h e b a s i c c o n f l i c t s t h a t a r e s a i d to e x i s t b e t w e e n t h e w o r l d o f i n d u s t r y , o f e n g i n e e r s and o f p l a n n i n g a g e n c i e s , and t h e c r e a t i v e w o r l d o f a r c h i t e c t s - two w o r l d s r u l e d by d i f f e r e n t laws and o b j e c t i v e s : t h e f i r s t p r e s u m a b l y f o l l o w i n g (2) \u2022 t h e d i c t u m o f \" the M o l o c h t h a t knows no God b u t m o r e \" v J ' t h e s e c o n d , t h e a r c h i t e c t s a t l e a s t w o u l d l i k e t o b e l i e v e , r e s i d i n g w i t h i n t h e d o m a i n o f h u m a n i t y and n a t u r e . A c c o r d i n g t o c i r c u m s t a n c e s and p r o f e s s i o n s p e o p l e d i v i d e t h e m s e l v e s b e t w e e n t h o s e who w i s h t h e u n p r o g r a m m a b l e and t h o s e who w i s h \" s o u n d d e v e l o p m e n t \" . One s i d e seems drawn t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e h e a r t , o f s p o n t a n e i t y , o f c r e a t i v i t y , o f v i s i o n , o f i n s p i r a t i o n , and e v e n o f h a p p y r a n d o m n e s s . The o t h e r seems t o r e s p o n d t o t h e needs o f p r a c t i c a l i t y , o f \" r e a l i s m \" , o f m a t e r i a l n e c e s s i t i e s , o f 1 2 4 . b u r e a u c r a t i c p l a n n i n g , o f c o m p r o m i s e d and r e a s o n e d s o l u t i o n s , o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s . In o u r s o c i e t y i t i s o f t e n t h e one who s i d e s w i t h \" c r e a t i v i t y \" who i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e h e r o , w h i l e t h e m o n e y - m a k e r who s i d e s w i t h p r a c t i c a l i t y and \" r e a l i s m \" , i s c l a s s e d among t h e v i l l a i n s . The a r c h i t e c t i s e x p e c t e d t o t a k e t h e s i d e o f \" c r e a t i v i t y \" , o f human v a l u e s , o f p e o p l e , o f s p o n t a n e i t y , o f d i s c o v e r y , o f i n t u -i t i o n , a g a i n s t t h e f o r c e s o f money , o f t e c h n o l o g y , o f m e c h a n i z a t i o n , o f d r y and u n i n s p i r i n g r e a s o n . The a r c h i t e c t i s e x p e c t e d t o be a g e n i u s , t h e man g i f t e d w i t h v i s i o n who can c h a n n e l human e f f o r t s t o w a r d s t h e c r e a t i o n o f i n s p i r i n g and p r a i s e w o r t h y e n v i r o n m e n t s . E v e n i n t h e team o f a r c h i t e c t s t h e p e o p l e e v e n t u a l l y want t o know who i s t h e one i n s p i r i n g t h e d e s i g n , who i s t h e l e a d e r , who h a d \"the i d e a \" . T h i s i s t h e image t h a t has b e e n c r e a t e d by c r i t i c s and h i s t o r i a n s f o r p e o p l e as r e m o t e as B r u n e l l e s c h i o r as r e c e n t as W r i g h t , M i e s Van d e r Rohe o r A r t h u r E r i c k s o n . I t i s a w i d e s p r e a d image t h a t does n o t make t h e work o f t h e a r c h i t e c t e a s y . C l i e n t s want t o see i n t h e i r a r c h i t e c t someone who i s as c e r t a i n as a g e n i u s s h o u l d be and who can r e a d t h e i r m i n d s . U l t i m a t e l y he must be t h e c r e a t o r o f f o r m f r o m a m a g i c p e n c i l , an a r t i s t w o r k i n g o u t o f h i s i n t u i t i o n and i n s p i r a t i o n and g i v i n g s h a p e t o t h e i r u n e x p r e s s e d dreams i n t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d . The r e a s o n s f o r t h e f o r m s c h o s e n may be o f l i t t l e i n t e r e s t t o t h e c l i e n t , and may be as numerous and c o n f l i c t i n g as t h e p h i l o s o p h i e s 125. o f t h e l a s t c e n t u r y , f r o m u t i l i t a r i a n f u n c t i o n a l i s m t o c o m m u n i t a r i a n r e a l i s m , f r o m h i s t o r i c a l r e m i n i s c e n c e s t o an i d y l l w i t h n a t u r e . A n y t h i n g g o e s , p r o v i d e d t h e d r e a m o f t h e c l i e n t i s c a p t u r e d o r t h e dream o f t h e a r c h i t e c t can be s u c c e s s f u l l y p r e s e n t e d t o h i m . B e c a u s e t h e a r c h i t e c t as an i n t u i t i v e man c a n o n l y have an i n d i v i d u a l i n s p i r a t i o n , h o w e v e r , e a c h d e s i g n must u l t i m a t e l y be an i n d i v i d u a l s t a t e m e n t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r e v a i l -i n g i m a g e . By t r a i n i n g and by p o p u l a r n o t i o n t h e a r c h i t e c t n o r -m a l l y f a l l s i n t o t h e h a b i t o f s e e i n g h i m s e l f as a k i n d o f a r t i s t i c g e n i u s , and h i s n o t i o n s o f what t h i n g s s h o u l d be t e n d t o become s t r o n g e r and s t r o n g e r w i t h l e s s and l e s s c r i t i c a l s c r u t i n y . The a r c h i t e c t becomes a v i c t i m o f t h e image o f g e n i u s t h a t i s c a s t on h i m . \" D e s i g n \" means , among t h e o t h e r t h i n g s , p e r s o n a l o r i g i n a l i t y and i n v e n t i o n . The more \" a u t h e n t i c \" an a r c h i t e c t t r i e s t o b e , t h e more v i v i d t h e s u b t e r r a n e a n c o n t r a s t s b e t w e e n h i s p e r s o n a l i t y and t h e c l i e n t o r t h e o t h e r i n t e r e s t s b e c o m e . In many o f f i c e s t h e c l i e n t h i m s e l f o f t e n becomes t h e p h i l i s t i n e v i l l a i n who t h r e a t e n s t h e e n t i r e c r e a t i o n , and who has t o be p e r s u a d e d t o a c c e p t t h e d e s i g n and t h e v i e w s o f h i s a r c h i t e c t w i t h good o r b a d m a n n e r s . Somet imes t h i s may n o t s u c c e e d , and t h e a r c h i t e c t may t h e n b lame \" s o c i e t y \" f o r some o f h i s c o m p r o m i s e d and r u i n e d d e s i g n s , o r f o r some d e s i g n s w h i c h were n o t a c c e p t e d . In t h i s way t h e a r c h i t e c t may open h i s way to a s o r t o f r o m a n t i c i s o l a t i o n . 126. E a c h d e s i g n i s s u p p o s e d t o be new and s e p a r a t e , and t o r e f l e c t t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e man, t h e team and t h e i n s t i t -u t i o n t h a t p r o d u c e d i t . The h u m i l i t y o f t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f d e v e l o p m e n t w o u l d be b r a n d e d \" i m i t a t i o n \" . T h i s f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f \" c r e a t i v i t y \" and o f \" i n s p i r a t i o n \" i s one o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r w h i c h a r c h i t e c t s t o o , i n g e n e r a l , a r e a g a i n s t a t o t a l c i t y p l a n , and w o u l d f i n d i t a d i c t a t o r i a l i m p o s i t i o n w h i c h w o u l d d e s t r o y t h e i r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r i n d i v i d u a l i n s p i r a t i o n and f r e e d o m o f e x p r e s s -i o n . I t i s an e x a s p e r a t e d i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t w o u l d r e n d e r i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r a r c h i t e c t s t o work a l l t o g e t h e r as a p r o f e s s i o n t o w a r d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f an u r b a n p l a n a g r e e a b l e t o a l l . U n i t y i s i m p o s s i b l e . The a r c h i t e c t i s a r o m a n t i c l o n e r . The a r c h i t e c t may be a n x i o u s t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h p e o p l e , to work f o r p e o p l e , t o d e v e l o p an e n v i r o n m e n t f o r p e o p l e , b u t i n f a c t t h e p e o p l e a r e the g r e a t v i c t i m s o f a r c h i t e c t u r e i n t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t y , even i f p e o p l e a r e i n t h e mouth and i n the d r a w i n g s o f many a r c h i t e c t s . R e n d e r i n g s show l o t s o f p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n a l l s o r t s o f h a p p y a c t i v i t i e s . A r c h i t e c t G e o f f r e y M a s s e y r a n and was e l e c t e d to p u b l i c o f f i c e i n V a n c o u v e r s a y i n g : \"I w i l l work f o r p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d d e v e l o p m e n t o f V a n c o u v e r ' s downtown w a t e r f r o n t . . . C i t i z e n ' s i n v o l v e m e n t i n a l l s t a g e s i n r 3\") new d e v e l o p m e n t . \" Y e t t h e s e good i n t e n t i o n s f a i l t o m a t e r i a l -i z e e v e n i n a s t r u c t u r e d w o r k a b l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m b e t w e e n \" the p e o p l e \" and \" t h e d e s i g n e r s \" . T h e y r e m a i n a g e n e r a l n a i v e f e e l i n g o r u r g e w h i c h many l e a d e r s p r e t e n d t o s a t i s f y t h r o u g h a 127. number o f m e e t i n g s w i t h l a r g e g r o u p s o f p e o p l e r e g a r d i n g t h e most e m o t i o n a l i s s u e s o f t h i s o r t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t - m e e t i n g s w h i c h s e l d o m r e s u l t i n r e a s o n e d , l o g i c a l a c t i o n , i f any a c t i o n r e s u l t s a t a l l . The p o p u l a r image and t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n t h a t a r c h i t e c t s f o l l o w seem t o c o n s p i r e to make t h e a r c h i t e c t f e e l a l o n e and o p p o s e d to o t h e r p e o p l e . The a r c h i t e c t t e n d s t o e m p h a s i z e h i s p u r e a r t i s t i c commitment as a s o r t o f \" p u r i t a n -i c a l \" o p p o s i t i o n t o 1he ways o f t h e w o r l d , i n w h i c h he i s a \" p u r e \" l o n e r . H i s code o f e t h i c s i s s u p p o s e d l y s t r i c t e r t h a n t h a t o f c o m p a r a b l e p r o f e s s i o n s , s u c h as e n g i n e e r i n g . T y p i c a l i n j u n c t i o n s i n the b y - l a w s o f a l m o s t any N o r t h A m e r i c a n i n s t i t u t e o f a r c h -i t e c t s w i l l show t h a t \"no A r c h i t e c t may engage d i r e c t l y o r ( 4 ) i n d i r e c t l y i n any o f t h e b u i l d i n g o r d e c o r a t i n g t r a d e s \" , and t h a t an a r c h i t e c t i s n o t p e r m i t t e d t o a d v e r t i s e o r t o compete as b u s i n e s s m e n d o . As a c o n s e q u e n c e t h e a r c h i t e c t may be r e w a r d e d by t h e f e e l i n g o f h a v i n g a more p u r e p r o f e s s i o n and o f h a v i n g a g r e a t e r d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e v a l u e s o f a r t , o f c o n s e r v a t i o n and o f i m p r o v e -ment o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t he i s h a m p e r e d by i s o l a t i o n i n t h e b u s i n e s s c o m m u n i t y and by an u n e a s y f e e l i n g o f b e l o n g i n g t o a v e r y weak a n d r e s t r i c t i v e p r o f e s s i o n . He t e n d s t o be a g a i n s t e n g i n e e r s and p l a n n e r s b e c a u s e he s e e s them i n v a d i n g upon h i s p r o f e s s i o n and d o i n g p o o r l y what he i s s u p p o s e d t o do b e t t e r . 128. In p a r t i c u l a r he i s a g a i n s t t h e e n g i n e e r b e c a u s e he b e l i e v e s t h e e n g i n e e r a c t u a l l y d e s i g n s w i t h o u t t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d t h e v i s i o n o f t h e a r c h i t e c t , and b e c a u s e t h e e n g i n e e r seems t o a n a l y z e p r o b l e m s a n d t o p r o m o t e d e v e l o p m e n t s a c c o r d i n g t o what he b e l i e v e s may be an e x c e s s i v e l y m e c h a n i c a l , m a t e r i a l i s t i c and p r o f i t - o r i e n t e d p h i l o s o p h y . He i s a g a i n s t t h e p l a n n e r s o m e t i m e s f o r s i m i l a r r e a s o n s , b u t more o f t e n b e c a u s e t h e p l a n n e r seems t o a c t as a b l i n d l y r a t i o n a l i s t i c b u r e a u c r a t and t o work a c c o r d i n g t o c o d e s and r o u t i n e s w h i c h do n o t l e a v e any room f o r i m a g i n a t i o n , d e s i g n and c r e a t i v i t y . The p l a n n e r i s d i s a p p r o v e d f o r h i s . o s t e n s i b l y n a r r o w - m i n d e d a i m t o w a r d s t a t i s t i c a l e f f i c i e n c y , s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n and p r o g r a m m i n g . D e v e l o p e r s and p o l i t i c i a n s t o o a r e c a s t i g a t e d by t h e a r c h i t e c t f o r what he s e e s as a d e f i c i e n c y o f h i g h m o r a l s . D e v e l o p e r s a r e s e e n as e n e m i e s o f d e s i g n , o f good t a s t e , o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , u l t i m a t e l y as e n e m i e s o f t h e p e o p l e and f r i e n d s o f t h o s e o t h e r \" v i l l a i n s \" , t h e e n g i n e e r s . The d e v e l o p e r i s s e e n as c o r r u p t , as t h e man o r the g r o u p who w o u l d p r o d u c e and s e l l t h e l e a s t f o r t h e most p r o f i t . The d e v e l o p e r i s s e e n as t h e t y p i c a l p h i l i s t i n e , e v e n when he i s t h e c l i e n t . He i s s o l d t o t h e p r o f i t m e n t a l i t y and t o \" the M o l o c h t h a t knows no God b u t m o r e \" . H e r e p r e s e n t s m e c h a n i c a l i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and u n l i m i t e d g r o w t h f o r c i t i e s . He want s economy, r e p e t i t i o n and u n i f o r m i t y and has no p a t i e n c e f o r a r t s and c r a f t s , f o r d e t a i l s and f o r t h e c r e a t i v e o r i g i n a l i t y 129 . o f t h e a r c h i t e c t . He i s f o r t h e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e d e n s i t y , w h i l e t h e a r c h i t e c t i s f o r a s p r e a d o f d e n s i t y a c c o r d i n g t o \"good d e s i g n \" , \"human s c a l e \" , l a n d s c a p i n g and p r o p o r t i o n . The a r c h i t e c t wants to f o s t e r c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e , w h i l e t h e d e v e l o p e r i s e x p e c t e d to want t h e maximum p o s s i b l e a r t i f i c i a l e n c l o s u r e . The d e v e l o p e r i s e q u a t e d w i t h the p o l l u t e r , w h i l e t h e a r c h i t e c t b r i n g s n a t u r e t o t h e p e o p l e i n t h e c i t y . The a r c h i t e c t i s a g a i n s t p o l i t i c i a n s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e n o t \" p u r e \" e n o u g h ; t h e y c o m p r o m i s e , t h e y a r e s u p p o s e d l y weak i n t h e i r s t a n d a g a i n s t p h i l i s t i n e d e v e l o p e r s , t h e y do n o t h a v e \" v i s i o n \" and t h e y do n o t a l l o w c r e a t i v i t y t o e x p r e s s i t s e l f . But t h e a r c h i t e c t h i m s e l f o f t e n c a n be a c c u s e d o f p o s s -e s s i n g c e r t a i n p h i l i s t i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; h i s f a i t h i n i n t u i t -i o n , v i s i o n s , i n n a t e c r e a t i v e a b i l i t y makes h i m d i s r e g a r d a n y t h i n g t h a t l o o k s p e d a n t i c o r s c h o l a s t i c . He i s i n c l i n e d t o l i t t l e s t u d y a n d to a v o i d t h e t e d i o u s a s p e c t s o f t r a i n i n g ; e v e n a r c h i t e c t u r a l e d u c a t i o n i t s e l f i s a p r o b l e m . Thus a r c h i t e c t s may be e a s y v i c t i m s o f u n s c r u t i n i z e d c u l t u r a l t r e n d s and o f c y c l i c a l f a s h i o n s . The p o s i t i o n o f t h e a r c h i t e c t seems t o be as d i f f i c u l t as t h a t o f anyone who has t o r e c o n c i l e i n t u i t i o n and r e a s o n w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e f i r m l y b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e y c a n n o t be r e c -o n c i l e d . The a r c h i t e c t i s c a u g h t i n a t y p i c a l and c r u c i a l r o m a n t i c d i l e m m a . I t i s a d r a m a t i c s i t u a t i o n , i f t a k e n i n c o m p l e t e and s e r i o u s good f a i t h . Many a r c h i t e c t s seem t o be p e r m a n e n t l y f r u s t r a t e d and many o t h e r s c h a n g e t h e i r r o l e . Some 130 . s u r r e n d e r and work f o r d e v e l o p e r s , l e n d i n g t h e p r e s t i g e o f t h e i r more p u r e p r o f e s s i o n t o make a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e p u b l i c t h e a f f r o n t s t o n a t u r e and common t a s t e t h a t d e v e l o p e r s s o m e t i m e s seem t o make . A r c h i t e c t s a r e o f t e n f r u s t r a t e d by t h e l i m i t a t i o n s i m p - -r | ?osed by t h e s y s t e m o f z o n i n g and o f t h e \" s u b u r b a n s t y l e \" o f d e s i g n . T h o s e a r c h i t e c t s who t r y t o be f a i t h f u l t o t h e i r v o c a t i o n to c r e a t i v i t y and t o t h e p u r e p r o f e s s i o n at t i m e s u n i t e t h e i r v o i c e s w i t h t h e o t h e r s , who s e r v e t h e d e v e l o p e r s , to f i g h t t h e s t r i c t l i m i t a t i o n s i m p o s e d by b y - l a w s and r u l i n g a u t h o r i t i e s f o r t h e d e s i g n o f new b u i l d i n g s , b u t b o t h f a i l . The f i r s t ones do n o t h a v e t h e means t o see t h e r e a l r o o t s o f t h e o b s t a c l e s , and i n s t e a d o f c h a l l e n g i n g t h e b a s i c i d e a s a t t h e r o o t s o f t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s , t h e y make a g e n e r a l p l e a f o r r a t h e r v a g u e n o t i o n s , s u c h as f r e e d o m o f c r e a t i v i t y o r more human n e e d s , and t h e o t h e r s a r e e a s i l y d e f e a t e d as p e o p l e w i t h a v e s t e d i n t e r e s t i n g e t t i n g away w i t h a n y t h i n g t h a t t h e y w a n t . B e c a u s e o f i t s u l t i m a t e d e p e n d e n c e on an o b s c u r e n o t i o n o f i n t u i t i o n , t h e r i g h t i n t u i t i o n t h a t t h e \" g i f t e d \" a r c h i t e c t s h a v e , d e s i g n t e n d s t o have t h e f e a t u r e s o f an o c c u l t s c i e n c e . Somet imes a c o m p l e x m e t h o d o l o g y i s u s e d t o b r i n g d i g n i t y and o r d e r t o t h e c r e a t i v e w o r l d o f i n t u i t i o n and t o s u p p l y t e c h n i c a l , s o c i a l and s c i e n t i f i c f o u n d a t i o n s . D r a f t s m e n a r e t h e l a r g e b u r e a u c r a c y w h i c h i s e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f m a k i n g t h e o c c u l t s c i e n c e w o r k , i n g e n e r a l , once t h e d e s i g n c o n c e p t s have b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d by s e n i o r a r c h i t e c t s . The r e s u l t o f t h i s p r o c e s s 1 3 1 . i s t h a t t h e r e i s a g r e a t i n e r t i a o f i d e a s , o f p r i n c i p l e s , o f methods t h a t go u n c h a l l e n g e d , as i f t h e y were t h e d e p o s i t o f a r e l i g i o n , b e c a u s e an u n c r i t i c a l , l a r g e and h a r d w o r k i n g b u r e a u c r a c y i s t r a i n e d and e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e m . The s t r e n g t h o f t h e s t a t u s quo i s r e i n f o r c e d by a wrong e m p h a s i s on s p e e d : an i n t u i t i o n o f t h e \" g i f t e d \" p e o p l e ( c a l l e d a l s o , w i t h b i b l i c a l r e m i n i s c e n c e , \" t a l e n t e d \" p e o p l e ) i s g i v e n t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n teams o f d r a f t s m e n , whose main c o n c e r n i s t h a t o f t u r n i n g o u t r e a s o n a b l e w o r k i n g d r a w i n g s as f a s t as p o s s i b l e . Money i n t h i s c a s e w o u l d be an a c c e p t e d r e a s o n f o r s p e e d . \"Time i s money\". Once t h e p u r e f l a s h o f c r e a t i v e i n t u i t i o n has p e r m i t t e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a d e s i g n c o n c e p t , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t i m e and money r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f w o r k i n g d r a w i n g s become q u i t e a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e c o n s c i e n c e o f t h e a r c h i t e c t . But t h e o r i g i n a l c o n c e p t s d e v e l o p e d by i n d i v i d u a l s o r teams o f d e s i g n e r s , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e , a c o m p l e x m e t h o d o l o g y and many i n t e n s e m e e t i n g s , and w i t h t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f g r e a t e x p e r i e n c e and o f v o l u m i n o u s i n f o r m a t i o n , o f t e n e x p r e s s i n t u i t i v e  d e c i s i o n s w h i c h r e p e a t e v e n i n a p e d a n t i c way e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n s  o f a r c h i t e c t u r e . A b l i n d t r a d i t i o n c o u l d c o n t i n u e e n d l e s s l y t h r o u g h t h i s p r o c e s s , w i t h o u t e v e n b e i n g d e t e c t e d . The same \" i n t u i t i v e \" c r e a t i v e p a t t e r n c o u l d be f o l l o w e d by g e n e r a t i o n s o f \" t a l e n t e d \" men, i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a p o p u l a r r e b e l l i o n . I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t a r c h i t e c t u r a l p r o f e s s i o n a l 1 3 2 . a s s o c i a t i o n s e x p r e s s l y f o r b i d t h e i r members t o c r i t i c i z e t h e d e s i g n work o f o t h e r members . The u n d e r s t a n d i n g and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a new i n t e l -l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n o f d e s i g n , as a common b o d y on . w h i c h to grow and t o work and t o c o n t r i b u t e f o r many d e s i g n e r s , d r a f t s m e n and t r a d e s m e n , i s made v e r y d i f f i c u l t . The d e v e l o p m e n t o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s i g n i s a m o n o p o l y i n t h e hands o f s o m e t h i n g n o t t o o d i f f e r e n t f r o m an o c c u l t s e c t : p r i n c i p l e s o f d e s i g n may h a v e b e e n p l a c e d b e y o n d t h e r e a l m o f r e a s o n a b l e c r i t i c i s m . And i n most c a s e s t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l c r e a t i v e c o m m i t -ment and u s e f u l n e s s and t h e n e c e s s a r y p r a c t i c a l r o u t i n e s i s b r o k e n b e t w e e n two c a t e g o r i e s o f p e o p l e , b e t w e e n two a c t i v i t i e s : t h a t o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s i g n e r s and t h a t o f t h e d r a f t s m e n . The c r e a t i v e and t h e p r o d u c t i v e p r o c e s s e s h a v e b e e n \" z o n e d \" . In a d d i t i o n t h e b u i l d e r i s n o r m a l l y c u t o f f f r o m t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e s i g n and t o t h e w o r k i n g d r a w i n g s f o r e t h i c a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l r e a s o n s , and even , i n t h e c a s e o f a p r o j e c t management w i t h a team o f e n g i n e e r s and a r c h i t e c t s the b u i l d e r w i l l h a v e a h a r d t i m e c o - o p e r a t i n g w i t h d e s i g n e r s and d r a f t s m e n . The c o n s e q u e n c e i s t h a t a g r e a t amount o f t i m e i s s p e n t p r o d u c i n g s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and d r a w i n g s whose m a j o r o b j e c t i v e i s t h a t o f b e i n g a l e g a l p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e i n d e p e n d e n t a r c h i t e c t u r a l o f f i c e and p o s s i b l y a l e g a l t r a p 1 3 3 . f o r t h e b u i l d e r . D e t a i l s w h i c h do n o t work o r d i f f i c u l t i e s , i n t e r m s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h i c h went u n d e t e c t e d w i l l n o r m a l l y i n c r e a s e t h e c o s t f o r t h e c o n t r a c t o r u n l e s s he was g o o d e n o u g h t o s p o t them b e f o r e b e i n g i n v o l v e d and t o c l a r i f y t h e m a t t e r w i t h the a r c h i t e c t . The a r c h i t e c t r e g a r d s t h e b u i l d e r as a p o t e n t i a l l e g a l enemy, and t h u s i s o l a t e s h i m s e l f e v e n f u r t h e r f r o m t h o s e w i t h whom he o u g h t t o be w o r k i n g i n c l o s e c o n t a c t . D e s p i t e t h e e m p h a s i s on d e s i g n and c r e a t i v i t y , t h e a c t u a l method o f w o r k i n g makes t h e a r c h i t e c t s as a g r o u p more i n c l i n e d to a c t u a l r e p e t i t i v e p r a c t i c e s t h a n e n g i n e e r s . T h i s h a p p e n s d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t g e n i a l a r c h i t e c t s see t h e m s e l v e s as i n v e n t o r s e v e n more t h a n e n g i n e e r s . I d e a s , w h i c h a r e more b a s i c d i s c o v e r i e s t h a n new t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o n t r i v a n c e s , a r e o f t e n l e f t u n u s e d , i g n o r e d and u n q u e s t i o n e d by a p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p t h a t has i s o l a t e d i t s e l f t o an i n t e l l e c t u a l r o m a n t i c l i m b o . T h u s i n t h e \" c r e a t i v e \" p r o c e s s o f t h e d e s i g n o f most p r o j e c t s t h e same t r i t e r o m a n t i c b a s i c n o t i o n s come o u t a g a i n and a g a i n m o v i n g t o w a r d t h e a s s e m b l y l i n e o f w o r k i n g d r a w i n g s : p e o p l e , n a t u r e , \" d e s i g n \" , and u l t i m a t e l y b e a u t y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a t e s t f a s h i o n , o f t e n c o n t r a s t e d by e m o t i o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e e v i l power o f money and c o m m e r c i a l i s m , as i f t h e s e c o n f l i c t s were r e a l l y n e c e s s a r y and h a d t o r e a l l y e x i s t . 1 3 4 . Now p l a n n e r s and p o l i t i c i a n s a l s o t e n d t o e m p h a s i z e t h e n e e d f o r p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , and t h e n e e d o f c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e and o f r e c r e a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s , a g a i n s t e x p l o i t -a t i o n o f t h e l a n d i n h i g h d e n s i t y and p o l l u t i o n . . The t r e n d o f p o l i t i c i a n s has b e e n s h i f t i n g , d u r i n g t h i s c e n t u r y , f r o m b e i n g b u s i n e s s - o r i e n t e d t o p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d . The themes t h a t p l a g u e t h e r o m a n t i c a r c h i t e c t a r e b e i n g f o l l o w e d by p o l i t i c i a n s and o ther p r o f e s s i o n a l s . The o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n s seem t o t r a i l t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f a r c h i t e c t s , b e c a u s e t h e image o f t h e a r c h i t e c t as t h a t o f t h e r o m a n t i c h e r o i s s t i l l p o p u l a r and t h e i s s u e s and m o t i f s r a i s e d by a r c h i t e c t s seem t o a p p e a l t o t h e p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n as p a r t o f t h e r o m a n t i c s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t v i s i o n a r y m o n s t e r s . S c h o o l s o f a r c h i t e c t u r e and o f p l a n n i n g a r e p l a c e s where s t u d e n t s o f t e n d e v e l o p an u n d e t e c t e d i n t e r e s t f o r t h e r o m a n t i c d r a g o n s . G r e a t d e b a t e s p r o f o u n d l y i n v o l v e t h e a c a d e m i c commun-i t y o f f u t u r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s ; and s t u d e n t s l e a r n n o t o n l y how t o s e l l t h e i r d r e a m s , b u t e s p e c i a l l y how t o c r e a t e i s s u e s t o be  f o u g h t f o r o r a g a i n s t . U l t i m a t e f a i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l i s m and p e r s o n a l i n t u i t i o n make c o m m u n i c a t i o n s among t h e f u t u r e d e s i g n e r s d u b i o u s and p r o b l e m a t i c , so t h a t - e s p e c i a l l y when t h e c r i t i c i s m o f p r o f e s s o r s i s n o t i m m e d i a t e l y a v a i l a b l e - e v e r y o n e seems t o be w o r k i n g w i t h a d i f f e r e n t m o n s t e r and i n a d i f f e r e n t p l a c e , e v e n i f t h e m a i n themes o f t h e s t r u g g l e a r e q u i t e r e p e t i t i v e and 1 3 5 . common. E m o t i o n a l i s m makes d i f f i c u l t a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . D e s i g n i s an o c c u l t m y s t i q u e where a few h i g h p r i e s t s d e l i v e r sermons i n an o b s c u r e l a n g u a g e i n f l u e n c e d by t h e v o c a b u l a r l y o f t h e p r o m i n e n t p h i l o s o p h e r s o f t h e r o m a n t i c a g e : \" D e s i g n i s f o r m - m a k i n g i n o r d e r Form emerges o u t o f s y s t e m o f c o n s t r u c t i o n G r o w t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n In o r d e r i s c r e a t i v e f o r c e In d e s i g n i s t h e means - where w i t h what when w i t h how much The n a t u r e o f s p a c e r e f l e c t s what i t wants t o be . . . In t h e n a t u r e o f s p a c e i s t h e s p i r i t and t h e w i l l t o e x i s t a c e r t a i n way D e s i g n must c l o s e l y f o l l o w t h a t w i l l . . . T h r o u g h t h e n a t u r e - why T h r o u g h t h e o r d e r - what T h r o u g h d e s i g n - how . . . \" ^ ^ In t h e d a r k n e s s i l l u m i n a t e d by s u c h f l a s h e s o f i n t u i t i o n f a i t h i n n a t u r e and o r g a n i c l i f e seem t o be a t t h e b a s i s o f t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l r e l i g i o n . L o u i s S u l l i v a n and F r a n k L l o y d W r i g h t a r e s t i l l among t h e o l d p r o p h e t s . N a t u r e i s s e e n as an u n c o r r -u p t e d s o u r c e o f w i sdom ( R o u s s e a u i s i n t h e b a c k ' . o f o u r m i n d s ) t h a t must be p r e s e r v e d and w i t h w h i c h we must be i n c o n t a c t ; i t p r o v i d e s us w i t h t h e w i sdom o f t h e r i g h t r e a s o n t h a t e v o l v e s and d e v e l o p s i t s e l f as i t w o u l d n o r m a l l y i f men were n o t t e m p e r i n g i m p r u d e n t l y w i t h n a t u r e . Man has t o l e a r n and t o a d a p t h i m s e l f t o n a t u r e . H i s e n v i r o n m e n t must be o r g a n i c and one w i t h n a t u r e . 1 3 6 . N a t u r e a c t u a l l y i s i n t e r p r e t e d i n a way t h a t i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f an i d e a l i s t i c s o r t o f H e g e l i a n r e a s o n f o r m i n g t h e u n i v e r s e , t o w h i c h we must s u b m i t o u r s e l v e s . And t h e a r c h i t e c t s e e s h i m s e l f as a c u s t o d i a n , a d e f e n d e r and an i n t e r p r e t e r , t h r o u g h i n s p i r a t i o n and i n t u i t i o n , o f t h e c o r r e c t d e v e l o p m e n t and e v o l u t i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s e , g u i d i n g t h e \" s p a c e s h i p e a r t h \" ( B u c k m i n s t e r F u l l e r ) i n t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n . CHAPTER 4 (1) R. BUCKMINSTER F U L L E R : I n t u i t i o n , New Y o r k 1970 , p . 2 9 (2) F . L . WRIGHT: \"The L i v i n g C i t y \" i n : F r a n k L l o y d W r i g h t :  W r i t i n g s and B u i l d i n g s , by KAUFMANN and RAEBURN, New Y o r k 1960 , p . 2 5 9 . (3) \"The V a n c o u v e r S u n \" , December 9 , 1972 , p . 4 9 . (4) BY-LAWS o f The A r c h i t e c t u r a l I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , a r t i c l e 5 1 , p a r a g r a p h ( 1 ) . (5) F . L . WRIGHT: \"The L i v i n g C i t y \" i n : F r a n k L l o y d W r i g h t :  W r i t i n g s and B u i l d i n g s , by KAUFMANN and RAEBURN, New Y o r k 1 9 6 0 , p . 259 . (6) LOUIS KAHN i n L o u i s Khan by V . S C U L L Y J R . , New Y o r k , 1962 , p . 1 1 4 . 1 3 8 . 5. R O M A N T I C . A T T I T U D E S AND UNWRITTEN ROMANTIC LAWS  IN THE MODERN NORTH AMERICAN C I T Y . P o p u l a r n o t i o n s a b o u t t h e a r c h i t e c t , o f t e n s e e n as a s o r t o f h i g h p r i e s t o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , a r e a c c o m p a n i e d by e v e n s t r o n g e r common o p i n i o n s a b o u t what t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s h o u l d be l i k e . J a n e J a c o b s n o t e d : \"To s a y t h a t c i t i e s n e e d h i g h d w e l l -i n g d e n s i t i e s and h i g h n e t g r o u n d c o v e r a g e , as I am s a y i n g t h e y d o , i s c o n v e n t i o n a l l y r e g a r d e d as l o w e r t h a n t a k i n g s i d e s w i t h t h e m a n - e a t i n g shark.\"'- ' ' ' ' ' In t h e i d e a l r o m a n t i c h a b i t a t i o n \" e v e r y t h i n g i s i n i t s p l a c e . The a b r u p t n e s s , t h e b a r b a r i t i e s o f t h e w o r l d a r e f a r away. T h e r e i s n o t much s o u n d , e x c e p t p e r h a p s t h e m u s i c a l w h i r r and c l a c k o f a mowing m a c h i n e b e i n g p u s h e d f 2 ) b a c k and f o r t h o v e r a n e i g h b o u r i n g l a w n . \" What was t h e d r e a m o f E b e n e z e r H o w a r d , f o r t h e E n g l i s h s u b u r b a n r e s i d e n c e and t h e g a r d e n w h i c h i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f i t , ' -i s now t h e e s t a b l i s h e d i d e a l . I t i s now a common n o t i o n t h a t i t i s g a r d e n s and p a r k s t h a t make c i t i . e s b e a u t i f u l and l i v a b l e . One i s s u p p o s e d t o l o v e , r e v e r e , c u l t i v a t e and know n a t u r e as p a r t o f h i s c i v i l i z e d and s u f f e r e d u r b a n c o n d i t i o n . To know t h e p r o p e r names o f d e c o r a t i v e v e g e t a t i o n i s a s i g n o f e d u c a t i o n , o f good t a s t e and o f p r o p e r i n t e r e s t s , and w h i l e t h e m e m o r i z a t i o n o f L a t i n v e r s e s i s no l o n g e r f a s h i o n a b l e , 1 3 9 . t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e p r o p e r L a t i n b o t a n i c a l names c l a s s i f y i n g f l o w e r s and s h r u b s r e m a i n s a s i g n o f r e f i n e d c u l t u r e and o f s o p h i s t i c a t e d m i n d i n a l a r g e segment o f o u r s o c i e t y . The v i e w o f \" n a t u r e \" , e v e n i f o n l y a chunk o f t r e e s , i s c o n s i d e r e d a l m o s t an e s s e n t i a l n e e d . An a p a r t m e n t must h a v e a v i e w on t h e s e a , on a p a r k , o r a t l e a s t on a g o l f c o u r s e , o r a s e c l u d e d h i l l s i d e , w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e . E v e n i f i t were n o t f o r b i d d e n by t h e b y - l a w s , a u n i t w i t h no windows ( t e c h n i c a l l y p e r f e c t l y f e a s i b l e ) w o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a s c a n d a l . Names s u c h as \" T w e l v e P i n e s \" o r \" M a g n o l i a M a n o r \" a r e among t h e a d v e r t i s i n g d e v i c e s u s e d t o a t t r a c t b u y e r s t o c o n d o m i n i u m s . The g a r d e n and t h e lawn a r e s u c h an i n d i s p e n s a b l e s y m b o l t h a t p e o p l e w i l l s i m u l a t e a lawn w i t h p a i n t e d g r a v e l , o r p l a s t i c g r a s s , o r g r e e n o u t d o o r c a r p e t i n g , i n p l a c e s w h e r e , as i n A r i z o n a , t h e lawn becomes p r a c t i c a l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e . E n t i r e s e c t i o n s o f d e p a r t m e n t and o f f o o d s t o r e s a r e d e d i c a t e d t o g a r d e n s and l a w n s . T h e s e a r e t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l c r e a t i v i t y , s t a t u s , and t a s t e , and t h e y a r e t h e s u b j e c t o f many c o n v e r s a t i o n s and p r o u d r e m a r k s . G a r d e n i n g i s a l s o c o n s i d e r e d a h e a l t h y a c t i v i t y , j u s t l i k e j o g g i n g , and t h e t r e e s a r e known t o h a v e a b i o l o g i c a l p u r i f y i n g f u n c t i o n , w h i c h i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o an a l m o s t c a t h a r t i c v i e w o f t h e t r e e s i n r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e c i t y . I f h i g h d e n s i t y o r i n d u s t r y c a n n o t be a v o i d e d , i t must t a k e t h e f o r m o f i s o l a t e d b u i l d i n g s i n a w e l l l a n d s c a p e d s e t t i n g . 140. \"Industrial Parks\" are encouraged. \"A 1966 popular booklet on the proposed Off ic ia l Plan for Toronto declared that \" t a l l , free-standing apartments in landscaped grounds wi l l be encouraged\"' Elegance and beauty are expected only from isolated buildings in landscaped open grounds, wherever possible. Other arrangements are seen as infer ior , i f not slum-like. Not long ago a proposal such as that of taking down the trees along the sides of the streets of the West End, in Van-couver, to make way for wider roads, caused a minor uproar. A gentle old Scottish lady explained with horror that when she was in Quebec \"the French\" used to bulldoze away a l l the trees to make wider roads. Also as a consequence of this attitude the car is seen as an enemy of nature, and ultimately of people. The car and the garden are at war. And yet as we noted earl ier in Chapter 3, the same forces back both. The more suburban gardens that are created, isolated from places of employment, shopping, entertainment and education, the more private cars are needed. An efficient public capillary transportation system has proven again and again to be economically unfeasible for North American c i t i e s , and becoming increasingly so. The suburban cit izen simply cannot understand the need to support public services. An unspoken or unconscious preoccupation with private fac i l i t i e s at the expense of public ones seems to be the dream that motivates the majority, whether these dreams be logical and possible or not. 1 4 1 . The p r i v a t e means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and t h e p r i v a t e g a r d e n r a t e e q u a l l y h i g h among t h e i d e a l s and t h e dreams o f t h e p e o p l e . A f t e r a l l , t h e s u c c e s s f u l N o r t h A m e r i c a n f r e e e n t r e p r e n e u r does n o t t r a v e l i n a bus and does n o t l o o k a t a s i d e w a l k f r o m a l i t t l e b a l c o n y : t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n image o f s u c c e s s i s n o t l i v i n g n e c k t o n e c k w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e . I n s t e a d , i s o l a t i o n m i d s t l a r g e s p a c e s c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h i s i m a g e . The N o r t h A m e r i c a n h e r o i s t h e s u c c e s s f u l l o n e r . The r o m a n t i c r e t u r n t o n a t u r e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a has b e e n m o s t l y a movement o f i s o l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s , a t t h e h e a d o f a f a m i l y , e a c h t o w a r d h i s own g a r d e n . P a r t o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n d r e a m has b e e n t h a t o f a s s e r t i n g o n e ' s s u p e r i o r i t y , i s o l a t i o n and s u c c e s s a t t h e o u t s k i r t s o f t h e c i t y . The more s u c c e s s f u l and t h e more m o r a l man i s e x p e c t e d t o l i v e t h e r e , c l o s e t o t h e g r a c e o f h i s g a r d e n and t o t h e i n s p i r a t i o n o f n a t u r e , w i t h h i s f a m i l y . The s t a t i s t i c s show t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s u c h a dream f 41 when e v e r y o n e wants t o s h a r e i t : 80-r I 1\u20141 1 1 t- 1 1 1 1900\u201410 1910-20 1920-30 1930-40 1940-50 1950-60 1960-70 142 . To have a suburban house with a garden has become almost a moral goal in North America. Being married and l iving in a house in the suburbs increase substantially not only one's respectability, but also one's credit rating and social acceptance. Love between man and woman and love for nature are recognized ideals, united in a sentimental view of l i f e . One has to note that h i s tor ica l ly romanticism seems to have grown earlier and stronger in the northern Anglo-Saxon countries. There, better than anywhere else, the love for emotional inspiration and self -sat isfact ion, the love for nature and the love for isolation developed as a total way of l iv ing and as a complete philosophy. Moral and ideal factors, rather than being drawn from experience, were derived from inner sentiments as a source of inspiration to shape l i f e and experience and to recreate the world according to the ideal . For socialites in North America the beautification of c i t ies became an increasingly popular hobby, just as cultural gossip had been a hobby in the earl ier French society. \"\u2022'What ought to be' has nearly as much real ity as 'what is*. It is something 'go go for* \" . ^ ^ Thus there is always a great deal of concern about urban matters among leaders of the North American communities, and in general, aesthetic urban matters draw a considerable amount of interest. The missionary romantic sp ir i t often manifests i t s e l f as a crusade to improve.sections of the c i ty . 143. For those who could not afford the suburban house a substitute for suburbia in the city was made possible by town-houses with a certain amount of open space held in common, or with small individual gardens where density permitted i t . But for the remaining urban dwellers picturesqueness and the planting of trees are proposed again and again in various forms to revital ize the c i ty . Drawing large malls with plenty of trees and shrubs and happy strol lers and no cars has become a cliche, and i t has become identified with the concept of \"revitalization\". In Life for Dead Spaces Goodman and Eckardt^ propose a system, i l lustrated with appealing renderings f u l l of people among trees and shrubs: pedestrian malls would become the nuclei of rev i ta l izat ion. In ;The Heart of Our Cities' Victor: (71 Gruen follows similar l ines. To eliminate the car, to bring the trees into the decaying centers of the cit ies (and perhaps add a few sidewalk cafes) is the common recipe for the i l l s of the modern North American c i t i e s . These visual dreams originating with remote memories and visions of happy European villages are deeply rooted and are repeatedly presented as the urban solution. For example, in the 1929 Plan for Vancouver, in the chapter \"Civic Art Report\", on the page where considerations about the \"Burrard Street Site\" f 81 are made } there is an attractive picture of \"Foreshore Development, Monteaux (sic) , Switzerland.\" The actual development 144. of the town of Montreaux, on the lake of Geneva, in French Switzerland, may have nothing to do with the actual development of Vancouver, a less than a century-old harbour on the Canadian Pacific coast. Yet these romantic images play a major role in guiding pol i t ic ians , planners, and voters, presenting false and unattain-able ideals. I may note, incidentally, that Switzerland is one of the paradises of the Anglo-Saxon world. The pretty images of geranium pots decorating the window s i l l s of the buildings of small Swiss villages are among those dearest to the romantic imagination. Projects of attractive developments attempt to recreate a vil lage atmosphere around landscaped open spaces designed to foster neighbourhood communities. The mistaken assumptions of this kind of design have been exposed in an art ic le published by Progressive Architecture in October 1973 : \"One widely accepted tenet is that large, shared open areas around project buildings are desirable. On the assumption that every resident could use these areas for recreat-ion and leisure, open space requirements often have been met by building higher and assembling superb locks. The automobile, seen as an anathema, has been banished from the inner space and through roads removed. Since main building entrances are often designed to face away from perimeter streets and into the shared space, their use requires a circuitous route from the street, parking 145 . or public transportation. Even at its busiest, anonymity makes i t a no man's land in large projects.\" The question that should be raised when renderings of these open spaces are presented is whether there is a real basis to believe that they wi l l be used for leisure and recreation as i t is assumed. Actually these common landscaped spaces have become, in many places, a nest of crime, and are feared by the tenants. Crime has transformed the common spaces into feared areas and entire sections of c i t i es , not to speak of individual buildings, are treated as i f they were in a virtual state of siege. Patrols, security checks and circumspect behaviour take the place of open urban c iv i l i zed l i f e . The fragmented, specialized aspects of urban l i fe imposed by the ruling taste are threatened as i f in an urban nightmare. Despite this , specialized act iv i t ies , open spaces, and low density remain the ideal of the maj ority . Against facts and evidence crime is said to be fostered by high density per se (a study released in December 1972 by the Vancouver police showed that contrary to popular opinion crime is proportionally higher in suburban areas such as West Vancouver than in high density areas such as the West End). It is an example of the deeply rooted idea in the northern, Anglo-Saxon mind that the city must be evi l and f u l l of criminals and vices. This is how cit ies were portrayed in \"puritan\" 146 . l i terature since the Renaissance. Sometimes one must suppose that Rome, the metropolis by antonomasia, is s t i l l Babylon, s t i l l the power of darkness, sti11 a creation of the devi l . This is why one may see with no surprise that from Sweden to Australia the papers bring us examples of determined opposition to the growth of c i t ies : \"The Vancouver Sun\" of December 15, 1972 ^ ^ reports that the Swedish government has made i t policy to consider urbanization 'an evi l per se'. Gn March 31, 1973^^ the same paper reports that \"The higher you go, the madder you get\" and explains that in Sydney, Austral ia, \"The unanimous decision by the 12 aldermen of Kogarah, a 'garden suburb' with a population of 50,000, wi l l restr ict future residen-t i a l dwellings to no more than three storeys for environmental and mental health reasons\". One would wonder whether the Parisians, for example, must be half crazy, because so many among them live above the third floor. Many psychologists and psychiatrists have been suppor-ting this prejudice although evidence for this support has so far been superf ic ia l . \"I told the council that i t is generally accepted in psychiatric circles that the higher you go,< the madder you get\", said Dr. Koller of Kogarah, mentioning unspec-f 121 i f i ed \"research done in many cit ies throughout the world\". Design, cultural and qualitative aspects seem to be completely ignored in this kind of research and assessment, which is practical ly impossible to make i f one considers a l l the factors involved. 1 4 7 . P r o b a b l y J . M. R i c h a r d s i s r i g h t when he s a y s J : \"The s u b u r b a n s t y l e - t h a t s t y l e w h i c h i s , we a r e t o l d , t h e v e r y c i t a d e l o f d e b a s e d and v u l g a r t a s t e - i s , i n f a c t , p a r t o f t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e E n g l a n d we h a v e a l l grown up i n . \" T h i s seems to be t r u e w h e t h e r we a c t u a l l y grew up i n E n g l a n d o r n o t , p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e o f t h e t r e m e n d o u s i n f l u e n c e o f t h e E n g l i s h f a s h i o n and t a s t e - e v e n i n non A n g l o - S a x o n c o u n t r i e s - i n t h e p a s t c e n t u r y . R i c h a r d s c o n t i n u e s : \"The s u b u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t i s t h e c h o i c e o f p e o p l e who know what t h e y l i k e , a n d t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f t h e s u b u r b may e v e n be c a l l e d a t r u e c o n t e m p o r a r y v e r n a c u l a r . \" \"The h o u s e has a l w a y s r e s i s t e d c h a n g e and d r a s t i c t e c h n i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t b e c a u s e i t i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t r e s o u r c e o f t r a d i t i o n and c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e . C u s t o m and s y m b o l have as much t o do w i t h t h e s h a p i n g o f h o u s e s as a l m o s t a n y t h i n g e l s e . The h e a r t h o f t h e ( 1 4 1 E n g l i s h c o t t a g e , - s a y s A r t h u r E r i c k s o n - t h e c o u r t y a r d o f t h e v i l l a , t h e F r e n c h w i n d o w , t h e p a i n t e d c l a p b o a r d o f New E n g l a n d , h a v e become l i k e words i n a l a n g u a g e - s y m b o l s o f p a s t a t t i t u d e s and ways o f l i f e t h a t s t a n d f o r c o m f o r t o r g r a c e o r s e c u r i t y . P e o p l e w i l l buy t h e s y m b o l i n p r e f e r e n c e t o p e r f o r m a n c e . Now Cape Cod comes o u t i n a l u m i n u m . What more c o u l d one w a n t ! C o n t r a s t t h i s w i t h 1he p a t t e r n o f h o u s e s i n any o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n o r L a t i n c u l t u r e s ( c u l t u r e s , w h i c h , by t h e way , have a s t r o n g s e n s e o f s o c i a l i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p ) . T h e r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l h o u s e u n i t d e f e r s t o t h e s o c i a l s p a c e - t h e s t r e e t , t h e s q u a r e - t h e s p a c e b e t w e e n . The p e r i m e t e r o f t h e h o u s e t h a t a d j o i n s t h e s o c i a l s p a c e , w h e t h e r i t i s t h e h o u s e w a l l o r g a r d e n w a l l , j o i n s w i t h 148. a l l the other houses to form the architecture of the communal space while, within the privacy of the walled area, each family can, unseen, live its different l i f e . But even now, in Italy and France, they are beginning to buy Texas ranch houses.\" Ruralism and specialization.of act iv i t ies are spreading as fashionable myths. Specialization has created a certain routine, and has built into the people the need for clean, neat, defined separations. People \"go\" to work, \"go\" shopping, and i t is felt that a certain distance should separate these act iv i t i es . Even i f you are a professional and i t is legally permissible, an office in your house detracts from the seriousness of your a c t i v -i ty . Similarly an office on the side of a drugstore is not as convincing as an office inthe middle of two hundred other offices. A specialized tower is a sign of good taste, order and prestige. Although the pure office tower \"constitutes a tremendous waste of we 11-developed land that is used only about twelve hours a day\"^*^ i t is presented as the most efficient building techni-cally and economically because i t is the right thing, supposedly, in 1he minds of businessmen and of the majority. Specialization is consdered very important in residential buildings too, and the high rise apartment building of distinction is similar to the suburbs in that i t s t r i c t l y isolates i t s e l f from any other use. Separation is a sign of distinction and of prestige. The people of success and distinction want to find their togetherness in the separation of a club. 1 4 9 . In t h i s r e s p e c t t h e \" i n t e g r a t e d \" b u i l d i n g s s u c h as t h e J o h n H a n c o c k t o w e r i n C h i c a g o and o t h e r \" c o m p r e h e n s i v e \" d e v e l o p -ments a r e w o r k i n g on t h e b a s i s o f s o c i a l s e p a r a t i o n ; t h e y a r e c l e a n and n e a t and s e p a r a t e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y a r e c o m p l e t e l i t t l e , s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , e n c l o s e d w o r l d s . T h e i r s l o g a n i s : \" y o u n e v e r n e e d t o w a l k o u t s i d e \" o f t h e s e b u i l d i n g s . The t y p i c a l v i ew o f t h e c i t y i s h e r e no l o n g e r m e r e l y a d i s t o r t i o n as s e e n t h r o u g h r u r a l e y e s ; i t i s v i r t u a l l y n e g a t e d and d i s r e g a r d e d . In f a c t , j u s t o u t s i d e t h e w e l l - g u a r d e d g a t e s o f s u c h a b u i l d i n g t h e r e c o u l d be r i o t s , s l u m s , m i s e r y ; f r o m i n s i d e y o u do n o t e v e n h a v e t o h e a r a b o u t i t . A t w o r s t , y o u s w i t c h t h e t e l e v i s i o n c h a n n e l . The new f o r m o f i n t e g r a t i o n t h a t i s b e i n g p r o p o s e d i n s t e a d o f t h e z o n e d c i t y i s i n f a c t e v e n a more f e a r f u l s e p a r -a t i o n . I t i s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f a c l u b . I t i s t h e same a t t i t u d e and t h e same c u l t u r e t o i t s e x t r e m e s . The s t e p i s f r o m a f r a g -m e n t a t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s to a c l o s e r g r o u p i n g o f a c t i v i t i e s w i t h an a p a r t h e i d o f s o c i a l g r o u p s . C u r i o u s l y p e o p l e who t a k e p r i d e i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y were b o r n i n N o r t h A m e r i c a and t h a t t h e i r a n c e s t o r s were among t h e o r i g i n a l A n g l o - S a x o n s e t t l e r s s o m e t i m e s c o m p l a i n t h a t new i m m i g r a n t s \" s t i c k t o g e t h e r \" and \" d o n ' t m i x \" . \" T h e s e i m m i g r a n t s a d o p t t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e n a t i v e A m e r i c a n * , t h e y wear h i s c l o t h e s , t h e y s t e a l h i s name and t h e y a r e b e g i n n i n g t o t a k e h i s women, b u t t h e y s e l d o m a d o p t h i s r e l i g i o n o r u n d e r s t a n d h i s i d e a l s . \" ^ 6 ' ' *0f c o u r s e , n o t an I n d i a n 150 . The newcomers were supposed to mix with the natives, but at the price of a complete renunciation of their intel lectual and psychological background. The fe ar of the newcomers, with a confused, unknown and mistrusted cultural background, is part of an important and contradictory racial attitude, whereby the imm-igrant is at one and the same time welcomed, assimilated and rejected. It would be a mistake to overlook the significance of the Anglo Saxon racial attitude in the organization or urban l i f e , in North America. The theories about evolution developed in the nineteenth century found a fer t i l e ground in the racial observations that people such as Hume and Kant* had contributed, where the Northern and in particular the English race is por-trayed as the best and the black races are shown to be at the bottom of the human scale of values. The evolution of man from the primates became the sc ient i f ic base for a theory of racial evolution as well, in which the inferior races, such as the black races, were seen as closer to the animals, as i f they were primates just come down from the trees. Other races were seen as intermediate stages, and the Anglo-Saxon race was seen as obviously the most developed, advan-ced, c iv i l i zed and good race. Progress therefore also acquired a kind of moral mean-ing, implying among the other things the acquisition of the values *Kant's observations on races were made popular in the English speaking world in the f i r s t half of the nineteenth century. Some of these are quoted in Chapter 1. Racism and romantic idealism often nourished each other. 151 . o f t h e most d e v e l o p e d r a c e . T h i s i s why i t i s n o r m a l l y c o n s i d e r e d o n l y a m a t t e r o f t i m e and o f p a t i e n t e d u c a t i o n b e f o r e e v e r y b o d y e l s e w o u l d r e a c h t h e s t a g e i n w h i c h i t w o u l d r e c o g n i z e t h e v a l u e s and t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e l e a d i n g r a c e as t h e b e s t . A t t h e same t i m e t h e o t h e r , i n f e r i o r and f e r a l r a c e s were s e e n as a t h r e a t and as a d a n g e r i f t h e y c o u l d n o t be i m p r o v e d : t h e r e c o u l d be a f a l l i n g b a c k i n t h e l i n e o f p r o g r e s s and d e v e l o p m e n t , a c a t a -s t r o p h e d e s t r o y i n g t h e a d v a n c e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n , and t h e A n g l o -S a xon l e a d i n g r a c e c o u l d be t h r e a t e n e d o r even w i p e d o u t . The a t t e m p t t o p u r i f y , t o make c l e a n , b e a u t i f u l and good t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s i n v o l v e d a l s o an a t t e m p t t o c o n t r o l and t o mould t h e n o n - A n g l o - S a x o n s . M a d i s o n G r a n t , i n \"The P a s s i n g o f t h e G r e a t R a c e \" , f 1 7) e x p r e s s e d some o f t h e common f e a r s : . . . . I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t i n l a r g e s e c t i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y t h e n a t i v e A m e r i c a n w i l l e n t i r e l y d i s a p p e a r . He w i l l n o t i n t e r - m a r r y i n t o i n f e r i o r r a c e s and he c a n n o t compete i n t h e sweat shop and i n t h e s t r e e t t r e n c h w i t h t h e newcomers. One t h i n g i s c e r t a i n : i n any s u c h m i x t u r e , t h e s u r v i v -i n g t r a i t s w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d by c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e l o w e s t and most p r i m i t i v e e l e m e n t s and t h e s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i t s o f t h e N o r d i c man: h i s s t a t u r e , h i s l i g h t c o l o u r e d e y e s , h i s f a i r s k i n and l i g h t - c o l o r e d h a i r , h i s s t r a i g h t n o s e and h i s s p l e n d i d f i g h t i n g and m o r a l q u a l i t i e s , w i l l h ave l i t t l e p a r t i n t h e r e s u l t a n t m i x t u r e . \" 1 5 2 . The N o r d i c g r o u p saw i t s e l f as a m i s s i o n a r y g r o u p t h a t was s u p p o s e d t o s a v e c i v i l i z a t i o n a f t e r h a v i n g b r o u g h t i t t o i t s h i g h e s t s t a n d a r d s . J u s t as t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t was s e e n as t h e p r o m i s e d l a n d , t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e f o u n d i n g r a c e were s e e n a g a i n and a g a i n as t h e new M e s s i a h s . T h i s i s why o u r c o n f i d e n c e and a b i l i t y t o p u t e v e r y t h i n g i n t o a p r o p e r p l a c e and t o c r e a t e a n e a t l y o r g a n i z e d community s u p p o s e d l y s h o u l d n e v e r be l o s t . The a n g e l i c q u a l i t y o f t h e s u p e r i o r d e s t i n y o f t h e A n g l o - S a x o n r a c e i s a l s o a t t h e r o o t s o f what i s c o n s i d e r e d i t s u n w r i t t e n r i g h t t o s e p a r a t i o n and d o m i n a n c e . A l e t t e r t o a V a n c o u v e r c o l u m n i s t p u b l i s h e d on \"The f 181 V a n c o u v e r S un\" r e a d s : \" I t a k e e x c e p t i o n t o y o u r h a r s h , u n j u s t and o f t e n - t i m e s u n w a r r a n t e d c r i t i c i s m o f A n g l o S a x o n s h o l d i n g l a w f u l power i n t h e co m m u n i t y , t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r r a c e s and ' e t h n i c ' g r o u p s . I f y o u c a r e t o r e a d h i s t o r y y o u ' l l f i n d t h a t w h e r e v e r t h e A n g l o S a x o n has s e t f o o t , j u s t i c e a n d p r o g r e s s has f l o u r i s h e d - n o t t h e smugness and a r r o g a n c e y o u c o n j u r e up. De m o c r a c y , as we know i t t o d a y , s p r i n g s f r o m t h e A n g l o S a x o n s y s t e m o f f a i r p l a y . Would y o u deny i t ? C o l o n e l W i n f i e l d J o n e s summed i t up t h i s way: 'The A n g l o - S a x o n i s t h e typeman o f h i s t o r y . To h i m must y i e l d t h e s e l f - c e n t e r e d Hebrew, t h e c u l t u r e d G r e e k , t h e v i r i l e Roman, t h e m y s t i c O r i e n t a l . The P s a l m i s t must have had h i m i n mind when he s t r u c k h i s s o u n d l e s s h a r p and s a n g : '0 L o r d ; t h o u h a s t made h i m a l i t t l e l o w e r t h a n t h e a n g e l s , and h a s * c r o w n e d h i m w i t h g l o r y and h o n o r . Thou h a s t made h i m t o ha v e 1 5 3 . dominion over the works of thy hands; Thou hastput a l l things under his feet.' \" Walter Lippman made this comment about this f 191 kind of attitude: \"...We have this feeling - this comes from the Puritans - that we are a chosen people with a mandate from God Himself to make a perfect world for ourselves and everybody else. Of course that is a terrible myth.\" This is why in North America in general there has been a silent but deliberate imposition of a certain order on the c i t i es , and an order cast upon situations and things rather than developed through a harmonization, in time, of existing and evolving factors. Even in a place like Houston, where there is not a zoning by-law, the cul tural , p o l i t i c a l , economic and legal pressures have produced the same result as in the other c i t i e s , after the introduction of written by-laws. The silent agreement on attitudes and values is actually more powerful and pervasive than the laws. \"The Anglo-Saxon fears overpopulation and crowding. The Anglo-Saxon claims to trust human beings, and to trust as well the benevolence of nature; he abjures the darker, tormented, pessimistic views of Europeans. The Anglo-Saxon relaxes in a clean, orderly, neat, virtuous world; he has a terror of noise, confusion, d i r t , human density, tangled emotion. (Contrast a New England Congregational church with a Spanish chapel or Jesuit baroque). But the terror is not clearly stated. The Anglo-Saxon trusts the human heart and the benevolence of nature only under certain conditions: when both are under the control his 154. own w i l l has i m p o s e d . The A n g l o - S a x o n i s n o t ' a t home' i n t h i s \"f201 u n i v e r s e ; he must m a s t e r i t . F u n d a m e n t a l l y , i t t e r r i f i e s h i m . I n l i g h t o f t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s we c a n h a v e a g r e a t e r f 211 i n s i g h t i n t o what J a n e J a c o b s n o t e s : \" P e o p l e g a t h e r e d i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f b i g - c i t y s i z e and d e n s i t y c a n be f e l t t o be an a u t o m a t i c - i f n e c e s s a r y - e v i l . T h i s i s a common a s s u m p t i o n : t h a t human b e i n g s a r e c h a r m i n g i n s m a l l numbers and n o x i o u s i n l a r g e numbers. G i v e n t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w , i t f o l l o w s t h a t c o n -c e n t r a t i o n s o f p e o p l e s h o u l d be m i n i m i z e d i n e v e r y way: by t h i n n i n g down t h e numbers t h e m s e l v e s i n s o f a r as t h i s i s p o s s i b l e , and b e y o n d t h a t by a i m i n g a t i l l u s i o n s o f s u b u r b a n l a w n s and s m a l l town p l a c i d i t y . I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e e x u b e r a n t v a r i e t y i n h e r e n t i n g r e a t numbers o f p e o p l e , t i g h t l y c o n c e n t r a t e d , s h o u l d be p l a y e d down, h i d d e n , hammered i n t o a s e m b l a n c e o f t h e t h i n n e r , more t r a c t a b l e v a r i e t y o r t h e o u t r i g h t h o m o g e n e i t y o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i n n e r p o p u l a t i o n s . I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e s e c o n f u s i n g c r e a t u r e s - so many p e o p l e g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r - s h o u l d be s o r t e d o u t and s t a s h e d away as d e c e n t l y and q u i e t l y as p o s s i b l e , l i k e c h i c k e n s on a modern e g g - f a c t o r y f a r m ... S y s t e m s o f t h o u g h t , no m a t t e r how o b j e c t i v e t h e y may p u r p o r t t o b e , have an u n d e r -l y i n g e m o t i o n a l b a s e and v a l u e s . The d e v e l o p m e n t o f modern c i t y p l a n n i n g and h o u s i n g r e f o r m has b e e n e m o t i o n a l l y b a s e d on a glum r e l u c t a n c e t o a c c e p t c i t y c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f p e o p l e as d e s i r a b l e , and t h i s n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n a b o u t c i t y c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f p e o p l e has h e l p e d deaden p l a n n i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l l y . \" 155 . APPENDIX NOTE The \" I n t e r n a t i o n a l H e r a l d T r i b u n e \" o f J u n e 26 , 1974 , r e p o r t e d onvj^he f r o n t p a g e : \" C o n g r e s s m a n S e e k s t o Plow Funds I n t o B a c k y a r d G a r d e n s \" . \" R e p . James B u r k e , D - M a s s . , i s c u l t i v a t i n g an i d e a t h a t he t h i n k s i s as r i p e as sweet c o r n i n A u g u s t . . . F o r s t a r t e r s , R e p . B u r k e has a s k e d t h e House A g r i c u l t u r e c o m m i t t e e t o e n a c t a b i l l d i s t r i b u t i n g f r e e v e g e t a b l e s e e d s t o home g a r d e n e r s , t h r e e p a c k e t s to a f a m i l y . T h e n he p e r s u a d e d h i s c o l l e a g u e s on t h e Ways and Means C o m m i t t e e t o a p p r o v e t e n t a t i v e l y a 7 p e r c e n t i n v e s t -ment t a x c r e d i t f o r b a c k y a r d g a r d e n e q u i p m e n t . ' T h e home and f a m i l y g a r d e n t a x c r e d i t a m e n d m e n t 1 , as he s t y l e d i t , w o u l d l e t g a r d e n e r s s u b t r a c t up t o $7 on t h e i r i n c o m e - t a x b i l l s i f t h e y s p e n d up t o $100 on h o e s , r a k e s , w h e e l - b a r r o w s , s p a d e s , p i t c h f o r k s and s u c h . . . R e p . B u r k e , who remembers w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e n o s t a l g i a t h e V i c t o r y G a r d e n p r o d u c e he r a i s e d as a b o y , no l o n g e r g a r d e n s h ims e 1 f . . . R e p . Hays g a r d e n s on w e e k - e n d s - t o m a t o e s , p e a s , b e a n s , c o r n a n d so on - b u t t h i s i s an e l e c t i o n y e a r , w h i c h means he c a n ' t keep up w i t h t h e weeds t h e way he o u g h t . P e r s o n a l l y , he has b e e n more u p s e t by t h e r i s i n g p r i c e o f f l o w e r s t h a n i n f l a t i o n a t 1 5 6 . t h e v e g e t a b l e c o u n t e r . ' I u s u a l l y p u t i n g e r a n i u m s a r o u n d t h e h o u s e when t h e t u l i p s a r e f i n i s h e d ' , Rep. Hays s a i d . ' T h i s y e a r g e r a n i u m s went o u t o f s i g h t . I p l a n t e d m a r i g o l d s i n s t e a d . ' \" CHAPTER 5 (1) JANE J A C O B S : The D e a t h and L i f e o f G r e a t A m e r i c a n C i t i e s , New Y o r k 1961 , p . 2 1 8 (2) J . M . RICHARDS: The C a s t l e s on t h e G r o u n d , L o n d o n , 1946 , p . 9 . (3) ALAN POWELL: The C i t y : A t t a c k i n g M o d e r n M y t h s , T o r o n t o 1972 , p . 4 1 (4) A . DOWNS: O p e n i n g Up t h e S u b u r b s , Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y 1973 , T a b l e 1 (5) D. MACFADYEN: S i r E b e n e z e r Howard and t h e Town P l a n n i n g  Movement , M a n c h e s t e r 1933 , p . 1 1 (6) GOODMAN AND E C K A R D T : L i f e f o r Dead S p a c e s , New Y o r k 1963 . (7) VICTOR GRUEN: The H e a r t o f Our C i t i e s , New Y o r k , 1964 . (8) A P l a n f o r t h e C i t y o f V a n c o u v e r , B . C . 1 9 2 1 , e d i t e d by t h e V a n c o u v e r Town P l a n n i n g C o m m i s s i o n , p . 2 4 3 (9) \" P r o g r e s s i v e A r c h i t e c t u r e \" , O c t o b e r 1972 , p . 9 2 10) \"The V a n c o u v e r S u n \" , December 15 , 1972 , p . 3 11) \"The V a n c o u v e r S u n \" , M a r c h 3 1 , 1973 , p . 8 9 12) \"The V a n c o u v e r S u n \" , M a r c h 3 1 , 1973 , p . 8 9 13) J . M . RICHARDS: The C a s t l e s on t h e G r o u n d , L o n d o n , 1946 p . 13 14) H . SYMONDS: The Q u e s t i o n o f H o u s i n g , V a n c o u v e r 1967 , p . 4 4 15) \" P r o g r e s s i v e A r c h i t e c t u r e \" , O c t o b e r 1972 , p . 9 2 16) M. NOVAK: The R i s e o f t h e U n m e l t a b l e E t h n i c s , New Y o r k 1972 , p . 8 6 17) M. NOVAK: The R i s e o f t h e U n m e l t a b l e E t h n i c s , New Y o r k 1972 , p . 8 6 18) \"The V a n c o u v e r S u n \" , M a r c h 28 , 1973 , l e t t e r t o A . F o t h e r i n g h a m 19) \"The V a n c o u v e r S u n \" , A p r i l 7, 1973 , p . 6 20) M. N o v a k : The R i s e o f the U n m e l t a b l e E t h n i c s , New Y o r k 1972 , p . 8 6 21) JANE J A C O B S : The D e a t h and L i f e o f G r e a t A m e r i c a n C i t i e s , New Y o r k 1961 , p . 2 2 0 1 5 8 . 6 . E C O N O M I C A N D P O L I T I C A L F A C T O R S , F R E E E N T E R P R I S E , O W N E R S H I P , E Q U A L I T Y , E T C . I t i s a c o m m o n a s s u m p t i o n t h a t s o c i e t y a c t s i n t e r m s o f t h e b e s t m a r k e t v a l u e . T h e m o n e t a r y v a l u e - a n d u s u a l l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h i s t h e a b s t r a c t v a l u e - o f a n o b j e c t i s c o m m o n l y e s t a b l i s h e d f r o m w h a t t h e p e o p l e w i l l b e w i l l i n g t o p a y f o r i t . T h i s i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a l m o s t a \" l a w o f n a t u r e \" . ( A q u e s t i o n c o m e s t o o n e ' s m i n d : e v e n i f o n e g i v e s h i s l i f e f r e e , i s t h a t v a l u e l e s s ? ) . I t i s a l a w o f n a t u r e n o t d i s s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e e s t a b -l i s h e d b y H o b b e s , t h a t e a c h m a n i a a w o l f t o a n o t h e r m a n ( \" h o m o h o m i n i l u p u s \" ) a n d t h a t r e c e n t l y l e d t o a s i t u a t i o n i n t h e h o u s i n g m a r k e t f i t t i n g l y d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g \" l i k e c a n n i b a l i s m \" ^ ' ' ' W h e t h e r c a n n i b a l i s m i s a d e v i a t i o n f r o m n a t u r e o r i s p a r t o f n a t u r e m a y b e d e b a t e d . H o w e v e r , w h a t h a s b e c o m e c l e a r e r i n t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s i s t h a t t h e r i g h t s o f t h e m a r k e t i n i t s u n l i m i t e d f r e e c o m p e t i t i o n m a y h a v e t o b e c u r b e d . A s t r o n g e r a n d s t r o n g e r m o v e -m e n t t o w a r d c o n t r o l s h a s d e v e l o p e d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e d i s -t o r t i o n s o f w h a t w a s s u p p o s e d t o b e a n a t u r a l l y f r e e m a r k e t . T h e v i e w s o n t h e m a r k e t o f r e a l p r o p e r t y a n d o n o t h e r k i n d s o f m a r k e t s h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y a l m o s t e v e r y p h i l o s o p h y t h a t h a s a r i s e n f r o m t h e R e n a i s s a n c e t o o u r d a y s . T h e r e a r e t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e t h a t m e n a r e b a s i c a l l y b a d a n d n e e d t h e d e f e n c e o f g o v e r n m e n t , l i k e H o b b e s , a n d t h e r e a r e t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e t h a t m e n a r e b a s i c a l l y g o o d a n d , l i k e L o c k e a n d R o u s s e a u , b e l i e v e 1 5 9 . that a s s u r i n g \" n a t u r a l \" c o n d i t i o n s of l i f e the best r e s u l t s w i l l be obtained. It i s probably to Locke that we can a t t r i b u t e the gr e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e on North American thought r e g a r d i n g the concepts of p r o p e r t y . He maintained that the s t a t e of nature i s a s t a t e of peace, benevolence, mutual a s s i s t e n c e and defence. In the s t a t e of nature the p r o p e r t y was i n common i n the sense that a l l men had the r i g h t to draw the means of t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e from what nature o f f e r s to them. Locke gave an o r i g i n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to t h i s theory,which was as o l d as the e a r l y Middle Ages, saying that although the s t a t e o f nature i s i d e a l , i t i s a l s o true that the i n d i v i d u a l has a n a t u r a l r i g h t to possess.and c o n t r o l a l l that with which he has \"mingled\" the work of h i s body, such as the land that he c u l t i v a t e s . He was probably i n f l u e n c e d both by the examples of the c o l o n i s t s i n North America and by the s u p e r i o r c a p a c i t y of pro d u c t i o n of p r i v a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l economy i n comparison with the common c u l t i v a t i o n of more p r i m i t i v e systems. Fundamentally he thought that through h i s labour man extends, i n a way, h i s p e r s o n a l i t y to the ob j e c t s he produces, and by spending h i s energies working on them he makes them a p a r t of h i m s e l f -property becomes an extension of man, i n the jargon of McLuhan, and of post-Kantian philosophy. Property e x i s t s even without the need of any e x p l i c i t agreement of a l l the members of the community; i t i s a r i g h t that every i n d i v i d u a l bears i n h i s own f 21 person, j s u t as he bears the p h y s i c a l energy of h i s own body: 160 . T h e r e f o r e s o c i e t y does n o t c r e a t e s u c h a r i g h t and c a n n o t r e g u l a t e i t e x c e p t w i t h i n d e t e r m i n a t e l i m i t s , s i n c e b o t h s o c i e t y and t h e g o v e r n m e n t e x i s t , a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y , i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e p r e -e x i s t i n g r i g h t s t o p r o p e r t y {we w i l l s ee t h i s c o n c e p t e x p r e s s e d i n t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e M u n i c i p a l A c t o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a q u o t e d i n C h a p t e r seven). When L o c k e e n u m e r a t e s \"the n a t u r a l r i g h t s , he a l w a y s s p e a k s o f \" l i f e , l i b e r t y and p r o p e r t y \" , * b u t i n f a c t p r o p e r t y i s t h e o n l y n a t u r a l r i g h t t h a t he e x a m i n e s c a r e f u l l y and w i t h g r e a t e m p h a s i s . He e s t a b l i s h e d a c o m p l e x o f i n d i v i d u a l and i r r e v o c a b l e r i g h t s w h i c h l i m i t t h e co m p e t e n c e o f t h e community i n d e f e n c e o f l i b e r t y and p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y o f p r i v a t e p e r s o n s . I n t h i s r e s p e c t he i s t h e f o r e r u n n e r o f l i b e r a l i s m , s i n c e he p r e s u m e d t h a t t h e two t h i n g s -t h e d e f e n c e o f common good and t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f p r i v a t e r i g h t s -l e a d t o t h e one i d e n t i c a l r e s u l t . H i s t h e o r y was b a s e d on t h e i d e a t h a t i n t h e harmony o f n a t u r e t h e good i s i n any c a s e t h e f i n a l end o f e v i 1 . D u r i n g t h e A m e r i c a n r e v o l u t i o n t h e s l o g a n \" l i f e , l i b e r t y and p r o p e r t y \" c h a n g e d t o t h a t o f \" l i f e , l i b e r t y and t h e p u r -s u i t o f h a p p i n e s s \" . I n t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n c e o f J u l y 4, 1776, one r e a d s : \"We h o l d t h e s e t r u t h s t o be s e l f -e v i d e n t , t h a t a l l men a r e c r e a t e d e q u a l ; t h a t t h e y a r e endowed by t h e i r C r e a t o r w i t h c e r t a i n u n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t s ; t h a t among t h e s e a r e l i f e , l i b e r t y and t h e p u r s u i t o f h a p p i n e s s \" (3). The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p r o p e r t y and h a p p i n e s s h a d a l w a y s a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on N o r t h A m e r i c a n t h i n k i n g and l e d some p e o p l e t o b e l i e v e t h a t h a p p i n e s s c o u l d be p a r t o f a p u r c h a s e . We made a r e f e r e n c e e a r l i e r i n t h e s e o n d c h a p t e r t o t h e n o t i o n o f b u y i n g \" h a p p i n e s s \" when one buys a h o u s e . 161 . L o c k e ' s i n f l u e n c e o n t h e p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t a n d o n t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r e m i s e s o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n s b o t h i n F r a n c e a n d i n A m e r i c a w a s g r e a t . E v e n h i s m o r e s k e t c h y i d e a s , s u c h a s t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f p o w e r s a n d t h e i n e v i t a b l e w i s d o m o f t h e d e c i s i o n s o f t h e m a j o r i t y , r e m a i n e d a f u n d a m e n t a l p a r t o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n d e m o c r a t i c c r e e d . H i s i n f l u e n c e o n t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y h a s b e e n p r o f o u n d . A m o n g t h e o t h e r s , B e n t h a m a n d u t i l i t a r i a n i s m w e r e \" t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f B a c o n ' s , H o b b e s ' a n d f 4 ) L o c k e ' s m e t h o d o l o g y \" . *\u2022 L o c k e h i m s e l f w a s o f P u r i t a n d e s c e n t , a n d h i s i d e a s f u s e d w e l l w i t h t h e C a l v i n i s t i c i d e a l r e g a r d i n g p r o p e r t y a n d o w n e r s h i p w h i c h w a s e n t r e n c h e d i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e r o m a n t i c r e l i g i o u s r e v i v a l a n d t h e r i s e o f t h e b o u r g e o i s i e g a v e e v e n m o r e s t r e n g t h t o t h e d e f e n c e o f p r i v a t e a n d i n d i v i d u a l p r o p e r t y a s a t a n g i b l e a n d v i s i b l e p r o o f o f g o o d m o r a l c h a r a c t e r a n d o f p e r s o n a l v a l u e . O w n e r s h i p o f p r o p e r t y , e s p e c i a l l y o f r e a l e s t a t e , w a s t h e n e w t i t l e t o n o b i l i t y b o t h i n a s o c i a l a n d i n a m o r a l s e n s e . P r o p e r t y w a s n o t s u p p o s e d t o b e h i d d e n . O w n i n g g o l d w a s a l w a y s c o n s i d e r e d l e s s v i r t u o u s t h a n o w n i n g a r a n c h ( e v e n t u a l l y i t b e c a m e i l l e g a l i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ) , a n d t h e p e r s o n w h o r e n t e d w a s s e e n a s s o m e t h i n g l e s s t h a n t h e p e r s o n w h o o w n e d a h o m e , e v e n i f b o t h o w n e d t h e s a m e t o t a l w o r t h . T e n a n t s w e r e n o t a l l o w e d t o v o t e i n c i v i c e l e c t i o n s . I t w a s f e l t t h a t o n l y t h e t a x - p a y e r s - p r o p e r t y o w n e r s a n d b u s i n e s s -m e n i n p a r t i c u l a r - w e r e t h e o n e s w h o w e r e s u p p o s e d t o h a v e a d i v i d e n d i n t h e c o u n t r y . T h e i r o b v i o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e g e n e r a l w e l f a r e g a v e t h e m a s p e c i a l a u r a o f s a n c t i t y . O w n i n g p r o p e r t y w a s s e e n a s a k i n d o f s p e c i a l r i g h t t o a f i r s t c l a s s c i t i z e n -162 . ship, and as a sign of abi l i ty to participate in the business of running the country. A visa to the North American countries may not be granted even today to people who do not own a certain minimum sum of money. Several witnesses report that apparently during the depression of the nineteen th ir t i e s , in the towns of the prairies people were arrested for walking in the streets without carrying any money. Not owning anything was a sign of bad char-acter and intentions, and taken as an offence. Being of good character meant to be wil l ing to work hard and therefore to have property. It was considered a theological impossibility that a man could be of good character and wil l ing to work and have no property at a l l . The same mixture of faith in nature and in a certain kind of divine providence or inspiration allowed the creators of the American dream to believe that the majority of taxpayers would naturally determine the best course of action. The majority has been granted a kind of collective holiness. Just as earl ier the kings were ruling by divine right, the majority came to be seen as a body naturally inspired to move in the right direction. Romanticism not only wanted to bring the people back to nature, but also wanted to transfer the responsibility of the decision-making process from a rather small aristocracy to the crowd. The crowd would freely deter-mine the true destiny of the nation. Many mechanisms were devised to allow the masses to express their desires in an orderly and 1 6 3 . accurate manner ( i n c l u d i n g d i c t a t o r s h i p ) , and a l s o to p r o t e c t the m i n o r i t y from being completely wiped out. In the economy the f r e e marketplace was supposed to determine a c c u r a t e l y the w i l l of the m a j o r i t y ; a kind of n a t u r a l mechanism, through what were supposed to be the laws of demand and o f f e r , i n a regime of f r e e e n t e r p r i s e , f r e e owner-sh i p , competition and e q u a l i t y , was at work to shape the economic d e s t i n y and p r o s p e r i t y of the n a t i o n . A mechanical and n a t u r a l -i s t i c view of the economy was i n h e r i t e d and a p p l i e d by the romantic b o u r g e o i s i e from the philosophy of the r a t i o n a l i s t i c e n l i g h t e n -ment. The laws of the economy soon became another i n s t a n c e of romantic dualism. On one side there was the mechanism of the market, on the other there was the s t r u g g l i n g i n d i v i d u a l . The economic hero soon became as admired and as popular as the great a r t i s t and p o l i t i c i a n . The s t o r i e s of the Carnegies and the R o c k e f e l l e r s became l i k e the s t o r i e s of the s a i n t s of the l a t e middle ages. T h e i r foundations became i n s t i t u t e s f o r the b e t t e r -ment and the progress of mankind, making t h e i r names shine f o r generations, and maybe f o r e t e r n i t y . The economic hero became a p a r t of the American dream, j u s t as the i n v e n t o r or as the e x p l o r e r . An u n l i m i t e d land with u n l i m i t e d resources was su p p l y i n g a market with u n l i m i t e d growth. The dream of i n f i n i t y had expanded i n t o the economy; and yet the market was supposed to be a t i g h t , mechanically r e g u l a t e d system. The economic hero was supposed to master i t s laws and to p r e v a i l as an i n d i v i d u a l ; the great f r e e enterpreneur dominating 1 6 4 . over u n l i m i t e d growth. Development was seen as a mission i n which the g i a n t f r e e enterpreneurs were the high p r i e s t s . Success was a v i r t u e which i n p a r t could be taught and i n p a r t was a d i v i n e g i f t , an i n d i c a t i o n of having been chosen. S e l l i n g became a duty and a t e s t : the market was supposed to be the t r u t h f u l judge of the value of the i n d i v i d u a l and of h i s products. The a r c h i t e c t too, as everybody e l s e , became hard pressed to succeed, both as a businessman and as an a r t i s t . S e l l i n g h i s ideas, h i s p e r s o n a l i t y , h i s image became extremely important; he was now a c t i n g as a f r e e enterpreneur with a p u b l i c , r a t h e r than as the designer f o r a powerful l o r d . I t was now \"the market\" that supposedly decided the success of the a r c h i t e c t and of the developer. Taking the market toward the d e s i r e d d i r e c t i o n was supposed to be the new task of the s u c c e s s f u l man. P u b l i c r e l a t i o n s became a very important p a r t of the s e l l i n g a c t i v i t y , and a new f i e l d of study. E f f i c i e n c y and speed were soon d i s c o v e r e d to be among the most p r e s s i n g demands of the market. But speed was the most important f a c t o r . I t was not only important to s e l l one's pro-ducts, but to s e l l them f a s t , f a s t e r and f a s t e r . Speed was a l s o an instrument f o r b e a t i n g the competition of the f r e e market'. The market was a r a t h e r u n p r e d i c t a b l e e n t i t y and t h i s f e e l i n g gave a general sense of i n s t a b i l i t y , making speed even more im-portant'. What was d e s i r e d today may not be as d e s i r a b l e tomorrow. 1 6 5 . F a i t h i n u n l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s a n d t h e e m p h a s i s o n s p e e d b r o u g h t t h e dawn o f t h e a g e o f c o n s u m i s m ; i n f a c t c o n s u m i s m a n d a d v a n c e d c i v i l i z a t i o n b e c a m e i d e n t i f i e d . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s t r e n d p r o d u c t s w e r e d e s i g n e d t o be p r o d u c e d a n d c o n s u m e d r a p i d l y , f o r e v e r c h a n g i n g d e m a n d s . M o s t b u i l d i n g s w e r e d e s i g n e d t o b e t e m p o r a r y , t o l a s t o n e o r t w o g e n e r a t i o n s , a n d i n f a c t t h e y w e r e c o n s u m e d a n d t u r n e d i n t o s l u m s . T h e t i m e s p a n a l l o w e d f o r t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s i s b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y s h o r t a n d t o d a y i t i s n o t i n -f r e q u e n t f o r b u i l d i n g i n s p e c t o r s t o m e n t i o n t h a t t h e y e x p e c t a w o o d f r a m e b u i l d i n g t o l a s t o n l y t w n e t y y e a r s . T h e r e a r e c a s e s i n w h i c h t h e l i f e s p a n o f a b u i l d i n g i s o u t l a s t e d b y t h e m o r t g a g e . \" T h e m a r k e t \" p r o d u c e d r o t t e n t w o s t o r e y h o u s e s a n d s k y s c r a p e r s w h i c h s t o o d f o r y e a r s s i d e b y s i d e . We m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r t h e c o m p e t i t i o n t o s e l l t h e f a s t e s t r u b b i s h i n t o w n i n t e r m s o f d r a w i n g s ; a c t u a l l y t h e c o m p e t i t i o n t o s e l l t h e f a s t e s t s a l e a b l e r u b b i s h h a d b e c o m e a g e n e r a l t r e n d f o s t e r e d b y t h e m a r k e t . I n t h e a g e o f c o n s u m i s m p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a n d g a r b a g e d i s p o s a l a l o n e a r e b e c o m i n g c r u c i a l i n d u s t r i e s , w h i c h do n o t s e e m t o h a v e t h e c a p a c i t y t o k e e p up w i t h t h e momentum o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e r e f u s e g e n e r a t e d b y t h e m a r k e t . I t i s w i t h a c e r t a i n a l a r m t h a t p e o p l e t o d a y a r e b e g i n n i n g t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e s y s t e m i m p o s e d b y \" t h e m a r k e t \" i s c h a l l e n g i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h a t v e r y n a t u r e o f w h i c h i t i s s u p p o s e d t o b e t h e e c o n o m i c f a c e t , a n d i t s e e m s t o be d e s t r o y i n g i t s e l f . Now p e o p l e a r e b e -g i n n i n g t o t a l k a b o u t a n \" e n e r g y c r i s i s \" i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , a n d a b o u t a s c a r c i t y o f l a n d . T h e r o m a n t i c f e e l i n g o f an i m p e n d i n g c a t a s t r o p h e i s s u c c e e d i n g t o t h e v i s i o n a r y d r e a m a n d t h e f e e l i n g 1 6 6 . of unlimited space. There had been signs before warning that the market and the majority may not be that wise after a l l . The collapse of the stock market and the depression of the thrit ies had been the most notable example. In the f i r s t years of this decade the economists were bewildered again. It is beginning to be recognized that \"the market\" may be crazy and unpredictable, undefinable, volat i le and i rrat iona l . It is noticed that \"the market\" is a rather mysterious, undefinable entity. The wisdom of the majority and of consumism are beginning to be questioned too. More controls of the free economy are invoked and applied. Some of the social-i s t i c remedies are beginning to be applied to the North American countries. Waste of resources is no longer just i f ied by speed of neeting a demand only. Strong his tor ica l and p o l i t i c a l reasons however seem to have conjured to make a phantom abstract entity, \"the market\", the arbiter of a l l values and developments. The market was a faceless inst i tut ion hopefully controllable by those already established in a position of managing large capitals. It was a machinery sanctified by operation according to what was believed to be a sum of natural laws, independent of cultural values. It allowed the establishment of a new aristocracy, according to free laws of competition, through the creation of limited companies, where a small number of people could control, without a risky personal financial involvement, the assets of a large number of people. 167. Europeans have often cr i t i c i sed the inclination of North Americans to refer everything, ultimately, to values in terms of money. They have not realized the magniture of the prob-lem and of the task of shaping countries made of immigrants, who came from scores of different nations, cultures and rel igions. It was believed that in such a p lura l i s t i c culture the only way to work was to leave personal values at home and to establish the money value as the only valid and natural common denominator among the people. This was very much in tune with the Calvinist ic morality of the i n i t i a l ruling class. At the same time the things which established themselves at the top of the monetary scale of values became identif ied with status and as such became desirable or even necessary. This is another reason for which the house with garden became a common denominator among the ideals of the growing middle classes. This was also a reason for shaping the cit ies according to what were, supposedly, the practical needs, in a very prag-matic manner, and avoiding discussions that would have involved considerations of such dangerous, touchy, emotional and un-measurable things as sentimental or cultural values. Land too was subdivided across the continent simply according to the rules of rectangular surveying and of the market. \"Town planning is the art of laying out c it ies to serve the business requirements, conveneince, health and comfort of the public. It is guiding the growth of a vi l lage or a city in conformity with a sc ient i f ic design.\" The city as the 1 6 8 . Aristotel ian centre of the \"good l i fe\" is deliberately forgotten. S tr ic t ly pragmatic considerations and the fear of conflicts and of physical hazards were the important matters, and only these were allowed to put some restrictions to the free play of the market. How could a Chinese, a Ukrainian, a Negro and an Anglo-Saxon have made decisions together? Therefore the pattern of ownership was developed trying to adhere to a sense of geometrical equality. We must note again that the romantic revolution was also the revolution of bourgeois liberalism against the previous systems of tyrannical or of feudal origin. Many by-laws, such as setback laws, reflect an interpretation of the ideal of equal opportunities for a l l in their properties, the defence of individual private property, the ideal of non-encroachment, of l iberty with conflicts prevented through legis lat ion. Individual ownership, and particularly ownership of land, was such a sacred thing that for a long time in North America such things as the ownership of a portion only of a building could not be conceived. Real estate was called real because it was tied to the land. Free enterprise, in real estate as well as in the other f ie lds, was fostered, protected, and regulated through various legal frameworks, such as city by-laws. Land development was protected and encouraged, but i t was also realized that the citizens had to be protected from possible excesses of free entrepreneurs. Original subdivision 1 6 9 . were planned with these things, and particulary with equality, in mind: and what is more perfectly equal than a square of land assigned to each c i t izen, apparently according to the ideal of ancient U t o p i a s ? Thus untouchable boundaries established through ownership and early subdivisions of land paralyzed the cit ies into gridiron patterns, s t r i c t ly zoned to protect the investment made by each c i t izen. The new moral and religious conscience revived by romanticism stood behind the protectionist attitude toward this system of real estate. The property owner and the taxpayer were the aristocrats of the new system and of the new conscience of the bourgeois community. And like the old aristocrat, the new property owner lives in the fear of change, a change daily emphasized -by the uncertainties of the economic free market, and relaxing in the comfort of the legal boundaries and constraints which he expects to be designed to protect his established interests. The bourgeois started fostering the free market (as opposed to the aristocrat who wishes i t closed) unt i l he acquired property and by extension some of the privileges of aristocracy; then be began to desire to close the market to others. The desire for s tabi l i ty and the fear of such foreign elements as blacks, Orientals, or Jews, for example, led to the establishment of restr ict ive covenants. Country clubs and other private institutions in the form of a club sheltered even more the new class. 170. The r ig id i ty of the present t i t l e s to property is out of the reasons for which the pattern that was so quickly established in the North American cit ies is now so slow to change: The rectangular lots of the North American system may be contrasted with such a view as that of the lots of Arnol, Lewis (figure 1), and of Pitminster, Somerset (figure 2), in England^-*, which witness a slow and complicted subdivision of land and transfer of t i t l e s over a long period of time, without a geometrical or equalitarian rule. Today the image of these old English sub-divisions is appreciated for picturesque aesthetic qualities -and new subdivisions in Olmsted's style may imitate them -rather than as an example of slower and less mechanical sub-division of land, which cannot be imitated in a short time and larger scale. The frightening view of such a thing as (71 Daly City (figure 3), California^ ' , allows one to see even more clearly the contrast of the North American type of land development and subdivisions. Here we see the effect of the senseless speed at which tiny equal lots for tiny equal houses eat up huge portions of land at the outskirts of c i t i e s . These developments foster, in turn, additional land speculation. We have already mentioned the absurdity of a market that spends twenty mill ion dollars on a parcel of land for a skyscraper, while a shack occupies the next parcel, perhaps for an entire generation. It is believed that the \"market\" proves these things right; after a l l , i f there were no economic convenience involved, presumably they would not happen. (Note A). il F i g u r e 1 172. F i g u r e 2 F i g u r e 3 1 7 4 . This is a misconception, because the economic convenience of most land developments is simply coming from expenses added to other parties, normally the public in the form of municipalities and especially in the form of future generations, which inherit exorbitant costs of land and of services as well as a mess to clean up. Inflation makes most uneconomical skyscrapers economical in the long run. This means that we a l l pay for them. From the point of view of the individual developer of the single parcel of land, in the present conditions, i t would seem that to build the most compact building on a small portion of the lot is the most economical thing to do. This, however, is not the true situation of a free market, and even this economic argument would collapse i f different conditions were allowed. With different laws and with more respect for future generations the developer could choose to establish a more permanent building attached to other more permanent buildings. The overall cost could be very similar with the savings provided by attached and unified buildings and more compact services, and the remaining property could be left with a clear design for recreational and future uses. The market then would not be fragmented into small lots and limited to considerations of return within a relat ively short-range speculative return, but would consider a long range return and the total gain of a large number of people including future generations. 1 7 5 . It may sound U t o p i a n , but this pattern corresponds to a large extent to the pattern of the development of many ci t ies of other continents, where property is subject to different regulations and people inherit amortized and sound buildings. The problem is that the \"economic cannibalism\" already mentioned is deeply rooted in our society. l t used to be a trend built into the romantic culture that different genera-tions would compete, rather than help each other, so that the general attitude of the older generations was that of exploiting the new generations, through the pretext of \"the market\", in this particular case. The enmity among generations was such that each generation would tend to secure only its immediate desires,and would try to use the other generations to this end. A recent example in Vancouver, which reached the proportions of a scandal, was the way renters were treated by owners of wood-frame apartments with a high rate of depreciation, who converted their apartments into condominiums forcing young and old to buy their rented accomodations - a sort of legalized blackmail, reaping an irrat ional prof i t , which was the compensa-tion for no work and no significant additional investment. Similarly, experience is not considered a precious possession to be passed from one generation to another, but is used as an economic weapon by the older generations both to protect themselves and to exploit the new generations as long as possible. Therefore just as in design, there is an interest 1 7 6 . in keeping \"the market\" as a mysterious notion, despite the fact that it is indeed a vague and volat i le body. Consumism was, in fact, an economic notion masking plain egoism; i t is particularly unfortunate that under the false pretenses of rapidly and cheaply accommodating growing needs a large part of urban North America was built and designed for rapid decay. This trend seems to be even emphasized by newly framed rental and condominium units. It has been noted that the fathers tend to create an environment which is intolerable to the next generation. As architect R. Mann observed \"when father trades in real estate in a sel lers' market, he is art i f ic ial ly creating prices which his own son wi l l never be able to match. It's l ike cannibalism. We've created this market and now our own ( 81 children are not going to have a place to l ive in the c i ty .\" Two of the most damaging aspects of the a r t i f i c i a l low density of North American cit ies produced by the establish-ment of the single family dwelling as the desirable form of l iv ing are the wild land speculation, especially at the outskirts, and the economic ruin of the municipalities at the core of the modern metropolis. The major burden of the expendi-tures for public f a c i l i t i e s is borne by the c i t ies at the core, which receive none of the suburban homeowners' house taxes, but only their business taxes ( i f they own a business downtown) which must be maintained at a reasonably low level to entice businesses to retain a downtown location. This is one of the 177. f a c t o r s i n a s y s t e m t h a t f o s t e r s t h e e v e n t u a l b a n k r u p t c y o f t h e u r b a n m u n i c i p a l i t i e s , a s , f o r e x a m p l e , New Y o r k , where t h e c i t y i s i n a d e s p e r a t e f i n a n c i a l p o s i t i o n w h i l e o u t e r m u n i c i p a l i t i e s p r o s p e r . The c o s t o f t h e s u b u r b a n s p r a w l i s s e l d o m p u b l i c l y a c k n o w l e d g e d : i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n s t r u c t i n g an e f f i c i e n t ( i n t e r m s o f c o s t , r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t , a c c e s s i b i l i t y t o t h e a v e r a g e member o f t h e p u b l i c and s p e e d ) p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m , t h e r o a d n e t w o r k , t h e n e e d f o r a t l e a s t two c a r s p e r h o u s e h o l d , t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f the p r o p e r t i e s , t h e s a n i t a r y and s t o r m s e w e r s , w a t e r , g a s , t e l e p h o n e , and e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s , t h e l a n d h e l d f o r s p e c u l a t i v e p u r p o s e s i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e g i g a n t i c s p r a w l ( i n c r e a s i n g e v e n more t h e d i s t a n c e s , ) t h e d i v i s i o n s , t h e q u a r r e l s and t h e i n d e p e n d e n t d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s s p r e a d o v e r a l a r g e a r e a . To j u s t i f y a l l t h i s i n t e r m s o f what \"the m a r k e t \" w a n t s , one w o u l d h a v e to be b l i n d t o t h e f a c t t h a t the m a r k e t i s c r e a t e d by a r b i t r a r y v a l u e s , and t h a t t h e s e v a l u e s c a n be s u b j e c t e d t o s c r u t i n y and c a n be  c h a n g e d . I t i s b e g i n n i n g to be n o t i c e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t \" the m a r k e t \" i s p r i c i n g o u t o f t h e s u b u r b a n dream t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f t h e new g e n e r a t i o n s , who w i l l n o t be a b l e t o a f f o r d t h e s i n g l e f a m i l y d w e l l i n g b e c a u s e o f s k y r o c k e t i n g l a n d v a l u e s . The u l t i m a t e r e s u l t o f t h i s k i n d o f i n f l a t i o n a r y l a n d m a r k e t , where t r a d i n g i n r e a l e s t a t e has b e e n a t r a d i t i o n a l way o f b o t h b e a t i n g and c a u s i n g i n f l a t i o n , w i l l be t h a t o f f o r c i n g a c h a n g e o f l i f e s t y l e . 178. I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e l a n d m a r k e t has n o r m a l l y e x p l o i t e d p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h more t h a n i n d u s t r i a l g r o w t h . T h i s w o u l d n o t be s u r p r i s i n g i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e f a c t t h a t i n d u s t r i a l a n d t e c h n o l i g i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t s have h a d o n l y a m i n o r i n f l u e n c e on t h e b u l k o f low r i s e f r a m e d d w e 1 1 i n g s . . H o m e r H o y t , i n (9) h i s s t u d y o f C h i c a g o l a n d booms i n t h e c e n t u r y e n d i n g i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h i r t i e s , showed t h a t l a n d and r e a l e s t a t e booms o c c u r r e d a l m o s t i n d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e r e a l o r e x p e c t e d p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h , w h i c h u n t i l now has n o t b e e n p l a c e d u n d e r c o n t r o l , w h i l e t h e y a r e somewhat i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n i n d u s t r i a l g r o w t h . O t h e r f a c t o r s p u s h i n g up l a n d v a l u e s a r e new t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r o u t e s , new d i r e c t i o n s o f e x p a n s i o n and r u m o r s o f e x p e c t e d d e v e l o p m e n t s . But t h e most g e n e r a l f a c t o r p u s h i n g up t h e v a l u e s o f r e a l e s t a t e i s i n f l a t i o n and t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f l a r g e amounts o f c a s h . I t i s c u r i o u s t h a t t h e new t r e n d t o w a r d a no g r o w t h p o l i c y i s c a u s i n g an even g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e o f r e a l e s t a t e v a l u e s i n t h e u r b a n a r e a s , b u t t h a t u l t i m a t e l y o n l y z e r o p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h w o u l d make no u r b a n g r o w t h f e a s i b l e : o n c e a l i m i t i s p l a c e d on e x p a n s i o n b o t h h o r i z o n t a l l y and v e r t i c a l l y , t h e r e i s no way f o r t h e c i t y t o g o . H o w e v e r , i t w o u l d s o o n be f o u n d t h a t e v e n z e r o p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h w o u l d n o t be e n o u g h t o s t o p d e v e l o p m e n t : t h e p e o p l e w i l l n e v e r be s a t i s f i e d w i t h j u s t what t h e y h a v e . I t i s t h i s d r i v e f o r an i m p o s s i b l e dream w h i c h a c t u a l l y i s a t t h e r o o t s o f \"the market\". But the fact that no growth is proposed is an ultimate evidence of the deeply rooted isolation and egoism of the remedies advanced by the romantic generations. A necessary concluding observation must be that the subdivision of the suburban house and garden is not rational and i t is not the dictate of a free market. Something else would be truer in terms of economy. 180 . APPENDIX Note A In March 1972, in my paper The Suburban Ideal and  the City, I wrote of the towers which complement the fabric of the contemporary suburban-oriented metropolis of detached buildings: \"They are considered examples of efficiency and economy, which may be true i f they are considered in isolat ion, yet the economic argument collapses when the expensive towers are observed in the global economy and plan of the city and of i ts suburbs. In addition the present economic cycles of the existing urban situations seem to show that booms in the construction of high rise buildings are repeatedly followed by a rapid and substantial increase of the vacancy rate. The production of towers can flood the market of an average city in a matter of a few years, and has a size, a speed and an inert ia that makes i t d i f f i cu l t to gauge even to developers.\" On August 5, 1974, \"Barron's\" magazine published the art ic le Shaky Sky's caper's'.' A Nationwide Glut in Office Space  Has Hit , by D.L. Thomas, where we read: \"The situation is equally grim in many cit ies around the U.S. , ranging from Los Angeles and Tulsa to Atlanta and Miami. In some areas, there is a glut of office space that wi l l take four or more years to absorb. The downtown financial d i s tr ic t of Los Angeles has been hit particularly hard: buildings erected six years ago 181. are s t i l l 25% vacant. Moreover, the picture is even worse than i t appears. Besides existing unrented space, numerous buildings are s t i l l in the construction stage. Since i t takes three or four years to plan and build a skyscraper, developers can't stop quickly when rentals dry up. They are forced to complete them and add to the surplus.\" This is one among the many factors of a compelling evidence that would indicate that a continuous horizontal development of medium density, which can be stopped or started without major financial committments, makes much more economic sense. The true reasons for which isolated skyscrapers are preferred and have been continuously growing for almost a century must be found in motives that have nothing to do with the f ie ld of s tr ic t economic convenience. A compendium on the other problems related with sky-scapers may be read in The Uncertain Future of The American  Skyscraper, published on November 20 , 1972 , by \"U.S. News \u00a7 World Report\". In the art ic le we read this observation by Lewis Mumford: \"There's nothing revolutionary about the World Trade Centre. Tal l buildings are outmoded concepts - this is Victorian thinking. Skyscrapers have always been put up for reasons of advertisement and publ ic i ty . They are not economically sound or efficient - in fact they are ridiculously unprofitable -and the Trade Centre's fate is to be ripped down as nonsensical.\" 182 . CHAPTER 6 (2) (3) (4) (5) (1) RICHARD MANN, f r o m \"The V a n c o u v e r S u n \" , J u n e 23 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 35 . JOHN L O C K E : C o n c e r n i n g C i v i l G o v e r n m e n t , S e c o n d E s s a y , C h a p t e r V , S e c t i o n 25 . D e c l a r a t i o n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e , f r o m \" A m e r i c a n S t a t e P a p e r s V o l . 43 o f \" G r e a t Books o f t h e W e s t e r n W o r l d \" by E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a . RUSSEL K I R K : The C o n s e r v a t i v e M i n d , C h i c a g o 1953 , p . 131 From a l e a f l e t i s s u e d by t h e M i n n e a p o l i s C i v i c and Commerce A s s o c i a t i o n i n 1916 , i n CHARLES M. ROBINSON, C i t y P l a n n i n g , New Y o r k , 1916 . (6) P . N U T T G E N S , The L a n d s c a p e o f I d e a s , L o n d o n , 1 9 7 2 , F i g u r e 2 \u00a7 3 . \" N a t i o n a l G e o g r a p h i c \" , F e b r u a r y 1968 , p . 220 & 2 2 1 . RICHARD MANN, f r o m \"The V a n c o u v e r S u n , J u n e 2 3 , 1973 , p . 35 . HOMER H O Y T : One H u n d r e d Y e a r s o f L a n d V a l u e s i n C h i c a g o , C h i c a g o 1 9 3 3 . (7) (8) (9) 183. 7. BY-LAWS AND OTHER LEGAL FACTORS It was at the beginning of this century that the intel lectual stage was ready, in North America, for a codification into law of the urban pattern than had been developed. \"The view was expressed that i f the new subways produced only increased congestions of l iv ing and business conditions they would be a doubtful benefit to the c i ty . Under the leadership of Mr. McAneny the Board of Estimate and Apportionment appointed a commission in 1913 to study and propose regulations for l imiting the height and size of bui1 dings.\"^^ This was taking place in New York City. In the cultural background, high Density and disorder had been established for a long time as the enemies of the North American and puritanical way of l i f e . They were seen to be as much a threat to c iv i l i zed man as alcohol. Cities were growing rapidly with a large inflow of immigrants, both from overseas and from the countryside, and with a sporadic rise to great wealth. The law of the jungle-considered according to nature - emphasized by the social and economic theories commonly held at the turn of the century, was having generally upsetting results both in business and in real estate ownership. 1 8 4 . \"No landowner in any part of the city could erect a building of any sort with assurance that in ten or twenty years the building would not be obsolete by reason of an unnecessary  and undesirable change in the character of the neighbourhood... It also became evident that improper uses caused injury to  homogeneous areas and were especially productive of premature depreciation of settled loca l i t i e s . One-family, detached -home d i s t r i c t s , possessing trees and lawns, were invaded by apartment houses occupying nearly their entire l o t s . . . Localities of one-family detached homes and apartment houses were invaded by sporadic stores that sought to short-circuit the neighbourhoods by u t i l i z ing e l ig ible corners among the residences.. . Stores were bui l t with windows on the property l ine , thus cutting  off the continuation of front yards on the remainder of the street.\" The established taste according to which the North American cit ies had been built was clearly threatened. \"The flood gates are open. The bars are down. The sally-ports are unguarded. The dam is washed away. The sewer is choked...The scum of immigration is viscerating upon our shores. The horde of $9.90 steerage slime is being siphoned upon us from Continental mud f 3) tanks.\" Awful tides of immigrants and uncontrollable speculation were creating upsetting and disappointing episodes at the same time that revivalism and the beautification societies were trying to bring the cit ies closer to the romantic ideals. 1 8 6 . High density at the heart of the city was creating a reaction. At the same time that the Woolworth Building was going up \"the safety and health of the community\" began being studied by a specially appointed Commission. \"The Commission recommended in its report that not only height should be regulated, but that area and use were also in need of regulation in the interest  of public health and safety. It was proposed that different regulations should be established for height, area, and use, according to the varying needs of the d i s tr i c t s .\" A b i l l which \"amended the city charter by introducing dis tr ic t ing provision, and gave the Board of Estimate and Apportionment the power to appoint a d i s tr ic t ing commission to f 7) prepare a resolution and a map\" v ' was passed. It is important to note that the principal concern expl ic i t ly expressed is only the interest of public health and safety. There was also a general complaint of chaotic conditions. But such an important step as that of dividing the city into d i s t r i c t s , with stringent regulations defining their plan and character, was taken without any explici t study and choice made regarding the cultural values, implicit in the plan that was going to be crystal l ized into law. One may well suspect that the law was prepared with the purpose of defending the.system of values embodied in the existing plan, and of making them even clearer. One may observe, also, that from the beginning the principal tool for \"districting\" (later called zoning) was immediately identified with \"the map\". 187 . It is hard to forget that during the same years that zoning spread across North America and was more and more perfected, a painter l ike Mondrian, as we noted in the f i r s t chapter, developed his taste for perfectly flat compositions of pure lines and colours. The clear separations imposed by the new zoning maps were not necessary. They were responding rather to the new rising attitude of regulating people's l ives , an attitude reflected in the laws curbing immigration and establishing the prohibition  era. It was also an attitude that reflected fear: the laws limiting immigration were openly designed to defend the Anglo-Saxon numerical superiority. \"The Commission that framed the New York city charter amendment and the building zone resolution made a careful study of building regulations in European countries, sending investigators abroad for this purpose... The result was that investigators expecting to find laws and maps controlling zoning in the cit ies vis i ted found instead that the building departments, under general authority to make regulations, had made different regulations for different areas. Much of this zoning work was excellently done, after systematic and broad-guage study. But i t was soon discovered that the European examples were not of material aid in this country, where courts could declare void the doings of state or municipal legislatures that imposed unreasonable regulations on private property.\"'-^ 1 8 8 . The preservations and imposition of romantic ideals through the law created complicated legal problems. Many lawyers could see an infringement on the rights of private property. In order to make the new legislation capable of standing a challenge in the courts, i t had to be done under the police power of the cit ies and to be made so general and uniform that no one could present an obviously legitimate complaint of being victim of injustice or discrimination. The European distribution of authority did not present the same problems, which were typically North American. In the European situations of f ic ia ls had greater discretion and their decisions could be made on the merits of different cases without being obliged to follow an absolutely uniform and egalitarian policy. In addition European cit ies in general had a rather different history and plan, and were not suitable for a s tr ic t subdivision into d i s tr i c t s . Their character and style of l i f e was more mixed, the ownership more irregular and fragmented, the interior of the fabric of the city in most cases radically different. In many European buildings the same undifferentiated facade conceals an expensive luxury dwelling, some middle income apartments, some offices, and maybe even some shops. 1 8 9 . Inside there may be a court or a garden, a landscaped penthouse on top, and outside a busy commercial street with pedestrians, cars, streetcars, perhaps a subway, or a wide and treed boulevard. Originally many light industries were concealed by neutral facades in many parts of European c i t i e s . This, in the North American mind even today tends to be considered disorderly and chaotic -just a mess, a bazaar. Fire dis tr icts in several c i t i es , a use regulation in Los Angeles, and a height regulation in Boston had preceded the division of New York into well defined d i s t r i c t s , but i t was only after the comprehensive laws prepared by New York that the other cit ies started adopting complete zoning ^regulations. ( 9 ) \"Noise, vehicles, f ire hazard, l i t t e r , and street congestion\", the \"canyons\" of the streets among skyscrapers, \"light and air\" among them, were aspects of the city that were subjected to regulations. Only a decade afterwards zoning by-laws reached Vancouver, through an American consultant from St. Louis (Missouri), Harland Bartholomew. It was a need for law and order in the urban confusion that was quickly spreading across the continent. \"Law and order\" had been established as the opposing ideal counter-balancing the romantic pioneer ideals of the frontier men, of the aggressive free entrepreneurs, of social darwinism and of those who wanted a state of nature in which the stronger and the best are supposed to win. 190 . In the f i r s t decades of the century the blacks had begun spreading into the northern and western cit ies of the continent, immigrants from non-Anglo-Saxon regions were flooding the cit ies and criminal organization were beginning to r ise . The vote to women granted in 1917 in New York state undoubtedly produced another conservative tide, in which \"manners\", romantic prejudices and law and order came a l l together. The desire to make people's lives better is manifested by the northern and Protestant law prohibiting alcoholic beverages in the United States. For the veterans of the World War a sober world had been prepared. Those who had succeded when freedom and abuse were not separated were obviously feeling that i t was not the case of running the risk of maintaining such an opportunity for abuse for the future generations, or for the newcomers. The fact that a moral attitude toward order was behind the new legislation toward zoning the c i t i es , would explain why the cultural and social implications of the new laws, defending an already rather old and established system, were not suff iciently debated. What kind of order to establish was not felt as an issue. The existing and established ideals were considered good enough. 1 9 1 . \"Safety and health\" were the concerns that would have been emphasized more and more as an excuse to regulate people's lives according to the accepted prejudices. The same streets of New York city that forty years later Jane Jacobs wi l l find to be the exciting part of the urban fabric, were branded \"canyons\" and seen as dangerous examples not be continued. \"Zoning began by applying regulations to a building on a. lot in ji block - the traditional pattern of urban development\" ^*^in North America. These regulations had to be stringent, uniform, and appealing to common values and prejudices in order to stand up as laws. Individuality had to be framed into a common, standard uniform pattern. This was a kind of sc ient i f ic and idea l i s t i c dream. The same romantics who enacted these laws went to live in residential suburban lots where man \"is not only master in his own house, but creator of his own world.\" Individualism there tried to make f u l l use of the liberty that seemed to be provided for i t . It is in the suburb that \"each man can see his own handiwork. It may be only a rockery he has built or a tree of his own planting which he can see overtopping the hedge as he turns the corner of the road on his return from the city in the evening, but to some extent he can feel responsible for his environment and thus get a sense of controlling his destiny. 192 . Here we have a clue to much that is puzzling in the suburban scene, and particularly to the origins of suburban f 12) architectural taste\". This expression of individualism in \"styles\" applied to the individual residential building on individual lots, however, had a paral le l in commercial buildings too. In the 1929 issue of A Plan For The City of Vancouver, Brit ish Columbia we read: \"Primarily the purpose of zoning is to give s tabi l i ty and character to property so as to encourage development consistent with the highest community service which such property can render. A zoning by-law provides three kinds of regulation swhich affect the uses of property and buildings, the height of buildings and the size and arrangements of buildings upon lots and of open spaces about such buildings. A zonong by-law wi l l encourage like types of structures within distr icts to be determined in accordance with their natural fitness.\" \"Safety and health\" required that zoning by-laws be accompanied by building by-laws. This sum total of laws became more and more detailed and stringent to the point where a reaction was bound to manifest i t se l f . This reaction was characterized by crit ic ism of the very existence of by-laws or the content or the effects of the by-laws. Those against by-laws were for the pure theories of \"laissez-faire\" and of freedom of enterprise, and those c r i t i c i s i n g the content or the effects of the by-laws were fighting for more 193. variety, a greater mix of act iv i t ies , a better role for imagination and art in the c i t i e s . The by-laws have not been analysed and discussed as being the codification of one cultural tradit ion. People became involved with the crit ic ism of details because they did not seem to be able to recognize that these were the symptoms of a cultural tradit ion. Perhaps the true question to ask is on what culture are these laws based? Is i t s t i l l important or good for us? The cri t ic ism was weak because no one recognized the essential question to be presented. The dream of the future city was not spelled out, confronted with alternatives, analysed and worked on in a c r i t i c a l and conscious manner. It is interesting to note the i l lus ion of those who see a form of progress through the existing legal system of by-laws. In 1954 Hugh Pomeroy stated optimistically that \"while zoning must s t i l l deal with the traditional lot , block,and street pattern, as i t finds i t , i t must be adapted to large-scale area design concepts in community development, with a different approach to the application of regulations. Considerable progress is being made in that direction. Building design also is under-going great change. It is departing from the meaningless tradit ional in architecture and is approaching a form that is appropriate to the culture and the technology of our own day.* *Pomeroy seems to be confusing facades with architecture. \/, 194. While there are persons whose culture is tied to the past and who are a bit uncomfortable in any move away from what was the honest expression of the technology and culture of several centuries ago, nevertheless we should not immure our zoning in that kind of anachronistic situation, but should adapt our zoning methods to f 1 31 the conditions of the day in which we l ive .\" 1 The fact is that in these twenty years the pattern established by the legal frame-work, on the contrary, has become more and more stringent. Zoning has not adapted. \"When f i r s t zoning laws were passed during World War 1, they were hailed as a way to assure orderly change in urban areas and safeguard property values. Today, cr i t i c s say the reverse is happening. Zoning catches much of the blame for suburban sprawl, ( 1 4 1 inflated housing costs and speculation in land.\" Sylvan Kamm, land use expert of the American Urban Land Institute, \"says the obstacles to better land use are zoning, subdivision rules, sanitary, health and building codes. This should be confronted with the statement contained in the Plan for Vancouver of 1929 in the chapter headed \"Zoning\". \"Vancouver!s experience in respect to the value of zoning is such that a reversion to the conditions obtaining before zoning restructions were imposed would be unthinkable. The good that came out of the interim zoning by-law only increased the desire to put into effect a comprehensive by-law\". 195 . The interim zoning by-law had been in force for only two years. When \"the good that came out\" of the by-laws began to be factually questioned by a large number of people (by 1925 i t had already been seriously questioned authoritatively in the eastern United States), planners discovered \"public participation\". \"Planning began with a civic motivation and found its way into givernment. Shall i t then be left entirely in the hands of bureaucrats -like me, for instance?\" - says Pomeroy - \"Not at a l l . I do not trust myself to make decisions for the community.\" The law and the grassroot movements are supposed to come together to produce something somehow better. And yet the existing by-laws are already in some ways an expression.of the wi l l of the people. This is why decades of public participation and of democratic planning are not changing them in any substantial manner. The people seem to be caught part ia l ly in the vicious circle \u2022 of the fact that by-laws must be stringent, uniform and general in order to be compatible with the equalitarian principles of democracy as i t is presently understood and established, and that stringent, uniform and general by-laws, s t r i c t l y enforced, have for the individual an effect that takes away much of the liberty for which democracy is established, loved and defended. Yet planning through a system of by-laws is felt as more democratic and flexible than planning through a complete master design produced by an aristocratic e l i te of experts. \"The fact is that planning as a separate governmental function adds nothing whatsoever to the powers of government. The regulation of individuals and their property rights results from policy decisions formulated 1 9 6 . and executed by those who exercise the p o l i t i c a l power. Planning, properly conceived, served only as an arm to these p o l i t i c a l representatives to aid them in gathering, evaluating, and interpreting essential data to serve as a basis for making intel l igent policy decisions. Under this concept, the planning function is compatible with the policy making responsibil it ies of either democratic or nondemocratic societies.\" The differences (17) \"arise in the aims, objectives and processes\". The problem is that when a plan is enforced through comprehensive by-laws the system becomes so complicated, crystal l ized and uniformly defined, that over as many as forty years only minor items are changed. The law is one of the slowest things to change. Mayors, aldermen, prejudices, even bureaucrats, in time, change, but laws do not. However, the fear of delegating excessive authority to human beings, even i f elected, and often called to public scrutiny, makes people more inclined to l ive under regulations issued in the form of laws and printed on an open book. What happens is that the prejudices of a generation are often written in such a book and transmitted in an inflexible manner over a number of generations unt i l when a formidable reaction develops and causes a radical and total change. Planning through legislation seems to become inhuman. Writing everything into law produces a manual attitude served by a large impersonal bureaucracy. One can reason and develop an understanding with a man, but not with a book of laws. 1 9 7 . When the zoning by-laws were f i r s t introduced, the need for \"light and air\", the \"safety\" of buildings, especially with consideration to the danger of f i re , and concern for \"health\", especially in relation to the dangers due to overcrowding, were emphasized. Even i f these concerns were sufficient to justify the kind of legislation that followed, i t is amazing to see that the tremendous sc ient i f ic and technological advancements of the last f i f ty years have not been given a chance to prove the v iab i l i ty of other urban arrangements, and that what technology has undoubtedly made possible with respect to l ight , a ir , safety and health (almost any arrangement of environmental conditions) is not recognized in any positive manner by the law, s t i l l today. Zones dedicated to \"comprehensive development\" are simply a space left blank on the planner's map, where a specific arrangement can be agreed with by the city. But a \"single family dwelling\" (an inst i tution in i t se l f , not less sacred than the Parliament) in the city of Vancouver has to be set back at least twenty-four feet, today as in the nineteen twenties, for example. In the suburban municipalities these limitations were increased. It is interesting to note that after almost a half century since the introduction of zoning by-laws in the City of Vancouver, and while yards are defended a l l around the buildings and high density is s t i l l considered as a dangerous disease, you can s t i l l read provisions for the keeping of \"horses, cows, goats, or sheep\" . The law has not bothered to recognize views such as those of Jane Jacobs: 1 9 8 . \"Things have changed since the days when Ebenezer Howard looked at the slums of London and concluded that to save the people, city l i f e must be abandoned. Advances in fields less moribund than city planning and housing reform, fields such as medicine, sanitation and epidemiology, nutrition and labor legis lat ion, have profoundly revolutionized dangerous and degrading conditions f 191 that were once inseparable from high-density city l i f e . \" v ' The principles and philosophy that must, today, inspire the by-laws are established in the Municipal Act of Brit ish Columbia, at section 702: Zoning. 702.(1) The Council may by by-law (hereinafter referred to as a \"zoning by-law\") (a) divide the whole or a portion of the area of the municipality into zones and define each zone either by map, plan, or description, or any combination thereof; Regulating(b) regulate the use of land, buildings, and structures, uses in zones including the surface of water, within such zones, and the regulations may be different for different zones and for different uses within a zone, and for the purposes of this clause the power to regulate includes the power to prohibit any particular use or uses in any specified zone or zones ; 199 . Cc) r e g u l a t e t h e s i z e , s h a p e , a n d s i t i n g o f b u i l d i n g s a n d s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n s u c h z o n e s , a n d t h e r e g u l a t i o n s may b e d i f f e r e n t f o r d i f f e r e n t z o n e s a n d w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i f f e r e n t u s e s w i t h i n a z o n e ; ( d ) r e q u i r e t h e o w n e r s o r o c c u p i e r s o f a n y b u i l d i n g i n a n y z o n e t o p r o v i d e o f f - s t r e e t p a r k i n g a n d l o a d i n g s p a c e f o r s u c h b u i l d i n g , a n d may c l a s s i f y b u i l d i n g s a n d d i f f e r e n t i a t e a n d d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n c l a s s e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a m o u n t o f s p a c e t o b e p r o v i d e d , a n d may e x e m p t a n y c l a s s o f b u i l d i n g o r a n y b u i l d i n g e x i s t i n g a t t h e t i m e o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e b y - l a w f r o m a n y o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h i s c l a u s e . Further (2) regulations concerning the public. (a) The promotion of health, safety, convenience, and In making regulations under this section, the Council shall have due regard to the following considerations welfare of the public; (b) The prevention of the overcrowding of land, and the preservation of the amenities peculiar to any zone; (c) The securing of adequate l ight , air and access: (d) The value of the land and the nature of its present and prospective use and occupancy; 2 0.0.. (e) The c h a r a c t e r o f e a c h z o n e , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e b u i l d i n g s a l r e a d y e r e c t e d , and t h e p e c u l i a r s u i t a b i l i t y o f t h e zone f o r p a r t i c u l a r u s e s ; ( f ) The c o n s e r v a t i o n o f p r o p e r t y v a l u e s . 1 9 5 7 , c . 4 2 , s . 6 9 9 ; 1 9 5 8 , c . 3 2 , s . 3 0 6 ; 1 9 6 1 , c . 4 3 , s . 4 1 . We n o t e h e r e t h a t a l l t h e r e g u l a t o r y power o f t h e c i t i e s has to be u s e d t h r o u g h w r i t t e n law and t h a t s u c h law must be c o m p r e -h e n s i v e enough t o \" r e g u l a t e t h e s i z e , s h a p e , and s i t i n g o f b u i l d i n g s \" and to \" r e g u l a t e t h e u s e o f l a n d , b u i l d i n g s , and s t r u c t u r e s \" , and t o e s t a b l i s h \" o f f - s t r e e t p a r k i n g and l o a d i n g s p a c e \" . T h i s amounts t o an a l m o s t c o m p l e t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f o r m o f t h e c i t y i n i t s e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s . The f r a m e w o r k i s e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h o u t i n d i v i d u a l c r e a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n , a l l a t o n c e , by l a w . I n a d d i t i o n what i s e s t a b l i s h e d i s n o t a f rame o f t h e u r b a n f o r m o n l y , b u t o f t h e u r b a n s t y l e o f l i f e as w e l l . T he t o o l t o b e u s e d i s d e f i n e d as a \"map, p l a n , o r d e s c r i p t i o n \" . S u c h a word as \" d e s i g n \" i s c a r e f u l l y a v o i d e d ; t h e t e r m s h a v e t o s o u n d c o o l l y t e c h n i c a l and l e g a l . The p h i l o s o p h y t h a t i s i m p o s e d i s e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t to be n o t e d . T h i n g s t o be c o n s i d e r e d a r e \" h e a l t h , s a f e t y , o v e r c r o w d i n g o f l a n d , l i g h t , a i r , c h a r a c t e r , c o n s e r v a t i o n o f p r o p e r t y v a l u e s . \" T h e y a r e t h e same t h i n g s t h a t c o n c e r n e d t h e p l a n n e r s i n New Y o r k C i t y a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c e n t u r y . 2 0 1. In addition to the municipal by-laws there are a number of other legal influences over the creation of the urban environment. First among them is the federal lending agency. The agency not only promotes home ownership, especially of single-family dwellings, but establishes the most detailed rules of design and construction, r ig id ly enforced by armies of inspectors and runs tests on materials and performance of components of buildings of a l l sorts. The agency prescribes specifications, contracts and even d e s i g n patterns. It also advises on design and i t publishes a large number of publications, including standard house plans to be chosen by the public, and i t promotes studies and design ideas that i t judges worthy of interest. Private lending authorities normally follow the same path as the federal agency in every respect, thus making universal any trend or decision established by federal authorities. Where there is any doubt that the social , economic, p o l i t i c a l and legal system would s t i l l leave openings to upsetting developments, covenants and deed restrictions regulate the use of the land. The principles followed by the federal and private authorities are normally identical with those stated by the Municipal Act mentioned, and in particular the \"conservation of property values, health, and safety\". How these judgements of values and conditions are reached is not, normally, a subject of concern or of debate. 2 0 2 . Professor Charles M. Haar, introducing the papers of a comparative study of the legal control of land use in England and the United States, noted: \"One of the seminar's functions was to delineate the s imilarit ies and differences between the Brit i sh and the American systems. When a l l the papers had been submitted, i t became clear (with some surprise) that a considerable area of s imilarity exists. True, as with a l l comparative law studies, there are dangers in glossing over differences and being trapped into thinking that use of the same terms - or as Whitehead put i t , use of a common language - means a s imilarity in approach. Yet there is an emergency of truly common principles , not only in respect to the two nations, but within the United States as well: despite the f i f ty state laboratories, there is a more or  less standardized product of american planning and zoning. That the legal resemblances are many seems even more remarkable  in view of the divergencies of physical conditions and experiences  of Great Britain and the United States .\" When cultural trends, especially i f tied with racial and religious phenomena, are absorbed without analysis and cri t ic ism, their effect can be sweeping and can manifest i t s e l f in a large number of areas and in the entire family of countries participating in the same movement of ideas. The Anglo-Saxon countries seem to hold the key to the origins of the English garden trend and of the -garden city movement, as part of a particular interest in nature. In the next chapters we wi l l explore aspects of the origins of these interests. 204. CHAPTER 7 (1) E.M. BASSET: Zoning, New York 1936, p. 11 (2) E.M. BASSET: Zoning, New York 1936, p. 25 (3) M. NOVAK: The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics, New York 1972, p. 117 (4) \"The Vancouver Sun\", Apri l 11, 1974, p.4 (5) E.M. BASSET: Zoning, New York 1936, p. 20 (6) E.M. BASSET: Zoning, New York 1936, p. 20 (7) E.M. BASSET: Zoning, New York 1936, p. 20 (8) E.M. BASSET: Zoning, New York 1936, p. 21 (9) E.M. BASSET: Zoning, New York 1936, p. 25 (10) H. POMEROY: in An Approach to Urban Planning By BREESE \u00a3 WHITEMAN, Princeton 1953, p. 24 (11) J .M. RICHARDS: The Castles on The Ground, London 1946, p. 27 (12) J.M. RICHARDS: The Castles on The Ground, London 1946, p. 28 (13) H. POMEROY: in An Approach to Urban Planning, by BREESE & WHITEMAN, Princeton 1953, p. 24 (14) \"U.S. News and World Report\", March 6, 1972: Fight Over Zoning Heats Up (15) \"U.S. News and World Report\", March 6, 1972: Fight Over Zoning Heats Up (16) H. POMEROY: In An Approach to Urban Planning, By BREEZE & WHITEMAN, Princeton 1953, p. 24 205 . (17) D.H. WEBSTER: Urban Planning and Municipal Public Policy, New York 1958, p. 8 (18) Vancouver Zoning and Development By-Law No. 3575, 1969, (22\/3\/66-*4234) (19) J . JACOBS: The Death and Life of Great American Ci t ies , New York 1961 (20) C M . HAAR: Law and Land, Harvard 1964, p. X (21) Tribune Tower Competition, Chicago 1923. 2 0 6 . 8 . HI S T O K I A L AND ETHNIC ORIGINS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN C I T I E S . T h i s c h a p t e r , g o i n g f r o m t h e r u r a l p l a n o f \" v o i d s \" made by W i l l i a m Penn t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e g a r d e n c i t y , i s d i v i d e d i n two p a r t s : t h e f i r s t e x a m i n e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a r u r a l and i d e a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n o f p l a n n i n g and o f t h i n k -i n g f r o m t h e e a r l y N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i v i l i z a t i o n . T h i s t r a d i t i o n i s p a r a l l e l e d by a r e l a t e d l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n . The s e c o n d p a r t e x a m i n e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f modern p l a n n i n g c o n c e p t s and t h e c o n s c i o u s N o r t h A m e r i c a n e f f o r t t o p r o m o t e a s u b u r b a n t y p e o f m e t r o p o l i s s i n c e t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I . I t w i l l be u s e f u l to b e g i n w i t h an o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t i s t y p i c a l among t h o s e who dream o f a b e t t e r and more a r t i s t i c c i t y , and who do n o t seem t o e x a m i n e t h e r e a s o n s why we c a n n o t h a v e s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t : \" A c i t y p l a n i s the e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e c o l l e c t i v e p u r p o s e o f t h e p e o p l e who l i v e i n i t , o r i t i s nothing\".'\"\"'''' F o r H e n r y C h u r c h i l l , t h e a u t h o r o f t h i s s t a t e m e n t , t h e p l a n o f most c o n t e m p o r a r y c i t i e s t e n d s t o be n o t h i n g , f o r he c o n t i n u e s t h a t \"The p r a c t i c e o f c i t y p l a n n i n g c o n s i s t s o f l i n e s on p a p e r and t a b l e s f r o m c a l c u l a t i n g m a c h i n e s . I t i s a d o p t e d i f i t i s m e d i o c r e e n o u g h . \" Y e t h i s 207. outcry for more \"art\" in the design of cit ies is contradictory: like many other similar pleas for a more beautiful c i ty , the practice that he condemns seems to be an actual part of the collective purpose of the poeple, and may be shown to have more profound roots and effects than he realizes. As a rather typical example of many similar superf ic ial i t ies one cannot f a i l to note the picture beside the t i t l e of Churchill 's book: a painting of Toledo, Spain, of dramatic and picturesque effect, but quite unrelated to the his tor ical real i ty of the North American city, and obviously insufficient to give an understanding of the true urban real ity of the town of Toledo. (Figure 1) (2). The tradition of \"lines on paper\" in North America has distant roots and may be seen at its origins in William Penn's gridiron plan for Philadelphia. (Figure 2)(3). It is a plan that seems to be in the Hippodamic tradit ion, but closer study would indicate that its inspiration comes more directly from the abstract, geometrical, neoplatonic and Cartesian mood of the Renais s ance. HENRY S. CHURCHILL T H E j C I T Y IS T H E P E O P L E R E Y N A L & H I T C H C O C K , N E W Y O R K F i g u r e 1 209 . 210. The f o r m e r c l a s s i c a l i n t e r e s t i n t h e . c o n c r e t e a r r a n g e m e n t o f a l a y o u t o f o b j e c t s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l b u i l d i n g s , i s v e r y r e m o t e , h e r e , e v e n more r e m o t e t h a n i n t h e I t a l i a n i d e a l c i t i e s o f t h e R e n a i -s s a n c e . In P e n n ' s scheme t h e l i n e s a r e an a b s t r a c t g e o m e t r i c scheme s u p e r i m p o s e d on an empty v i r g i n l a n d t o i n d i c a t e v o i d s : b o u n d a r i e s o f r e c t a n g u l a r f i e l d s s u b d i v i d e d i n a c e r t a i n number o f s m a l l e r r e c t a n g u l a r f i e l d s . T h e y a r e m e r e l y f i e l d s a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o an i d e a l o r d e r o f g e o m e t r y . In t h e c l a s s i c a l s y s t e m i t was t h e o p p o s i t e : t h e l i n e s meant t h e common s p a c e o f t h e s t r e e t s d i v i d i n g b l o c k s o f u r b a n d w e l l i n g s , w h e t h e r new o r p r e - e x i s t i n g . The p l a n was f u l l , a n d f u l l o f u r b a n o b j e c t s . P e n n ' s s y s t e m i s i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e same s y s t e m t h a t he f o l l o w e d was c o n t i n u e d and s u p e r i m p o s e d on most o f the e n t i r e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t t a k e n as v o i d . - I n s t e a d o f t a k i n g a l i m i t e d number o f o b j e c t s and o r g a n i z i n g them a c c o r d i n g t o an i d e a w i t h a d e f i n e d r e l a t i o n s h i p , a p u r e , p e r f e c t , a b s t r a c t i d e a l w i t h deep p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s c o n n o t a t i o n s was c a s t as an i n f i n i t e m o d e l t o an i n f i n i t e l a n d . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h i s r a t i o n a l and g e o m e t r i c i d e a l i s m r e m a i n e d s t r o n g and a l i v e d u r i n g t h e r o m a n t i c p e r i o d , and t h a t i t s i n f i n i t e and a l m o s t m y s t i c a l p e r f e c t i o n a p p e a l e d t o e n g i n e e r s and t o c i t y d e s i g n e r s ( s u c h as t h e f o u n d e r o f S a l t L a k e C i t y ) a l i k e i n l a t e r t i m e s . 211 . In P e n n ' s l a y o u t t h e r e i s a n o t h e r f a c t o r t h a t w i l l become o f p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e l a t e r r o m a n t i c p e r i o d . T h i s i s t h e r u r a l a s p e c t o f t h e p l a n . We h a v e s e e n t h a t h i s C i t y i s a p l a n  o f f i e l d s , on w h i c h a s p a r s e a r r a n g e m e n t o f b u i l d i n g s can be b u i l t , r a t h e r t h a n a p l a n o f a f a b r i c o f b u i l d i n g s , w h i c h m i g h t o r m i g h t n o t c o n t a i n g a r d e n s o r open s p a c e s . T h i s r u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s a l s o r e c o g n i z a b l e i n t h e e a r l y (4) p l a n o f New A m s t e r d a m , i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( f i g u r e 3) b u t i t c a n a l s o be t r a c e d b a c k t o E u r o p e a n e x a m p l e s s u c h as L o n d o n d e r r y , I r e l a n d , o f 1622 , ( f i g u r e 4 ) ^ ^ , o r D e l f t , H o l l a n d o f 1582 , ( f i g u r e 5) ' \" ^ . T h e s e a r e towns t h a t a r e a l m o s t a t i g h t and w a l l e d c o n g l o m e r a t e o f f a r m s , w i t h an u r b a n a s p e c t on t h e s i d e t h a t l o o k s o v e r t h e f i e l d . H o w e v e r , s t r e e t s , c h u r c h e s and c a s t l e s h e r e d e f i n e c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i a b l e b u i l t up u r b a n e n v i r o n -m e n t s . In P e n n ' s l a y o u t t h i s a s p e c t i s e l i m i n a t e d . I t seems t o be a t o t a l p u r i t a n n i c a l r e j e c t i o n o f t h e e v i l c i t y . The c h o s e n m o d e l i s a d e v e l o p m e n t o f s p a r e s e l y and e q u a l l y l a i d i s o l a t e d f a r m s , s u c h as t h e v i e w o f B e t h l e h e m ( P e n n s y l v a n i a ) o f 1798 (7) w o u l d s u g g e s t ( f i g u r e 6) . (One s h o u l d compare t h i s w i t h Le C o r b u s i e r ' s s k e t c h s e e n i n c h a p t e r t w o ) . We must c o n t r a s t t h i s U t o p i a n , r a t i o n a l i s t i c and r u r a l p l a n n i n g w i t h C h r i s t o p h e r W r e n ' s p l a n f o r R e b u i l d i n g L o n d o n a f t e r f 81 t h e F i r e o f 1666 ( F i g u r e 7) . t h i s i s a p r o d u c t o f E u r o p e a n b a r o q u e t h i n k i n g , u r b a n and c o n c r e t e . H e r e t h e c l o s e d l i n e o f t h e b u i l d i n g s d e f i n e t h e s t r e e t s and t h e r e f o r e t h e c i r c u l a t i o n Figure 3 2 1 6 . 217 . b e t w e e n t h e s o l i d b l o c k s o r t h e u r b a n f a b r i c . The same c o u l d be s a i d o f many o t h e r b a r o q u e p l a n s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h Rome, o f c i t i e s l e s s r e l a t e d t o t h e e a r l y b u l k o f t h e p u r i t a n N o r t h A m e r i c a n m i g r a t i o n . We may n o t e i n s t e a d , a s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r -e n ce f r o m t h e \" b a r o q u e \" p l a n b r o u g h t t o W a s h i n g t o n by L ' E n f a n t . A l t h o u g h t h e c i r c u l a t i o n and t h e a r t e r i a l l i n e s o f t h e g r a n d a v e n u e s c o n n e c t i n g t h e p r i n c i p a l u r b a n e p i s o d e s ( t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e c i v i l g o v e r n m e n t , i n t h e b a r o q u e t r a d i t i o n ) a r e a l l t h e r e , t h e v o i d s o f t h e r u r a l t y p e o f p l a n n i n g f o r a l o n g t i m e have masked and c o n f u s e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a t r u l y u r b a n b a r o q u e s i t u a t i o n ( s u c h as t h a t o f P a r i s , f o r i n s t a n c e ) , b e c a u s e t h e r e was no f e e l i n g f o r i t and i t was n o t r e a l l y b u i l t . P e o p l e r e m a i n e d c o n t e n t w i t h t h e v o i d s and even t h e r e t h e y i n t r o d u c e d t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n m e t r o p o l i t a n p a t t e r n t h a t we d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f i r s t two c h a p t e r s . The v i e w s o f S a n t e Fe (New M e x i c o ) i n 1848 ( F i g u r e 8) ^ and o f S a v a n n a h ( G e o r g i a ) i n 1955 ( f i g u r e 9 and f i g u r e 10) (' 1 0^ add t o t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e g e n e r a l r u r a l t r e n d i n t h e p l a n o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s . D e n s i t y i s what t r a n s f o r m s t h e f a r m s i n t o c ramped a r r a n g e m e n t s o f v i l l a s i n a g r o w i n g u r b a n s e t t l e m e n t . U l t i m a t e l y t h e s e v i l l a s may become h i g h r i s e b u i l d i n g s , w h i c h p r o b a b l y w i l l be t r e a t e d j u s t l i k e s m a l l b u i l d i n g s , t h a t i s u n i t s i n t h e m i d d l e o f a l a n d s c a p e d l o t . 220. 2 2 1 . We may relate the Utopian rural planning of the early North American colonization with a sort of pre-romantic tradition that saw nature as pure, clean and uncarrupt, and that saw man prone to corrupt himself and the environment. Man-made objects were considered in tr ins i ca l ly inferior to natural products. Some of Andrew Marvell's verses i l lus trate this attitude: \"What but a soul could have the wit To build me up for sin to f i t? So architects do square and hew Green trees that in the forest grew\". One can see here a distant source of the faith in organicism and of the disl ike for the machine that are so pervasive in Lewis Mumford. The rural character of the early North American c iv i l i za t ion was emphasized by the fact that the migrants not only attached a moral value to farming, but had come to North America to own land. A walled city with a house and no land would have been inconceivable for them as a new place in which to settle. .In fact the idea of settl ing in one place and of owning land were practical ly considered the same. This is why even today the man who owns a house and garden is generally considered more settled than the man who lives in an apartment, even i f the latter owns i t . The attitude of the free artisan in the medieval Italian \"compile'1 here was reversed: l iberty was now coming from the land 222. that one could own and farm, not from the p o l i t i c a l independence of the community of the c i ty . The security and pleasures of the walled cities were forgotten and damned with the memory of vice and tyranny. For the migrants who were leaving behind a condition not too different from that of slave labourers the abi l i ty to own land became identified with a sort of citizenship. And for the Calvinist immigrants the ownership of land was not only a proof of l iberty and equality of cit izens, but also of goodness. It was a source of happiness: \"The instant I enter my own land, the bright ideas of property, of exclusive right, of independence exalt my mind. Precious s o i l , I say to myself, by what singular custom of law is i t that thou wast made to constitute the riches of the freeholder? What should we American farmers be without the distinct possession of that soil? It feeds, i t clothes us, from i t we draw even a great exuberancy, our best meat, our richest drink, the very honey of our bees comes from this privileged spot. No wonder we should cherish its possession, no wonder that so many Europeans who have never been able to. say that such portion of land was theirs, cross the Atlantic to realize that happiness. This formerly rude soi l has been c converted by my father into a pleasant farm, and in return i t has established a l l our rights, on i t is founded our rank, our freedom, our power, as cit izens, our importance as inhabitants of- such a d i s t r i c t . These images I must confess I always behold with pleasure, and extend them as far as my imagination can reach.\"^ J The American Revolution was not only a logical conclusion; of this trend, but also an important strengthening factor of the rura l , equalitarian and Calvinist ic morality. George Washington and 223. Thomas J e f f e r s o n were f a r m e r s . C i n c i n n a t u s was h i g h i n t h e minds o f t h e c l a s s i c a l r e v i v a l i s t s . A t t h e t i m e o f t h e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n t h e R o m a n t i c Age, t h e age t h a t r e a l l y made N o r t h A m e r i c a , was a t i t s b i r t h . We have s e e n t h a t s i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n c o l o n -i z a t i o n a g e o m e t r i c and a b s t r a c t dream and a r u r a l and r e l i g i o u s dream were s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p r e s e n t and s t r o n g l y o p e r a t i v e . T h e r e was a r a t i o n a l i n t e l l e c t u a l i d e a l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h urb'an g e o m e t r y and t h e r e was an e m o t i o n a l ; n o n - g e o m e t r i c a t t a c h m e n t t o n a t u r e . R o m a n t i c i s m t r a n s f o r m e d t h e s e dreams i n t o o p p o s i n g e l e m e n t s o f a s t r u g g l e , s o m e t i m e s an i n t e r n a l s t r u g g l e  w i t h i n one's s o u l . I d e a l i s m o f t e n e m p h a s i z e d t h e r a t i o n a l and  s c i e n t i f i c a s p e c t s o f l i f e , w h i l e t h e t r e n d t o w a r d a r e t u r n t o N a t u r e t e n d e d t o condemn g e o m e t r i c o r d e r i n f a v o u r o f v a r i e t y  and s e n t i m e n t . The o p p o s i n g i d e a l s o f t h e r o m a n t i c s t r u g g l e , h o w e v e r , were c h o s e n d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m t i m e t o t i m e . What i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e r o m a n t i c f e e l i n g i s t h e s t r u g g l e o f  e m o t i o n s b e t w e e n o p p o s i n g m o t i f s . T h i s i s one o f t h e r e a s o n s why e c l e c t i c i s m became p a r t o f t h e r o m a n t i c t a s t e . I n t h e p l a n o f H y g e i a , a model town drawn by J.B. P a p w o r t h i n E n g l a n d i n 1827 - t o be b u i l t i n K e n t u c k y a c r o s s t h e O h i o r i v e r f r o m C i n c i n n a t i - we can s e e one o f t h e f i r s t e x a m p l e s o f an e c l e c t i c p l a n , where b o t h t h e i d e a l s o f g e o m e t r i c o r d e r and r i 31 o f n a t u r a l v a r i e t y w o u l d be s e r v e d . I n . t h i s p l a n ( f i g u r e 11) t h e r e a r e v e r y w e l l o r g a n i z e d g e o m e t r i c b l o c k s and p a t h s w i t h an a c c e n t u a t e d and a l m o s t c r a z y c u r v i l i n e a r p a t t e r n i n t h e a r e a o f t h e p a r k s . O r g a n i c n a t u r e and g e o m e t r i c o r d e r a r e somehow b o t h s e r v e d . F i g u r e 11 2 2 5 . B e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t s d u r i n g t h e R o m a n t i c a g e , l e t us go b a c k a g a i n t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l i n f l u e n c e o f p e o p l e and i d e a s t h a t i m m i g r a t e d t o N o r t h A m e r i c a - and c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f o u r c i t i e s , and t o t h e e a r l y f o u n d a t i o n s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y . D o m i n a t i n g E n g l i s h s p e a k i n g N o r t h A m e r i c a i s t h e W h i t e , A n g l o - S a x o n and P r o t e s t a n t e t h n i c g r o u p . I t b e g a n w i t h a g r o u p o f r e f u g e e s w i t h m i x e d f e e l i n g s a b o u t B r i t a i n ; t h e y had been o p p r e s s e d and e x p l o i t e d by c r u e l and f a l s e j u s t i c e , by h y p o c r i t i c a l r e l i g i o n , by e c o n o m i c d e s p a i r , by an a r i s t o c r a t i c c u l t u r e . Y e t t h e y s h a r e d e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t s o f j u s t i c e , r e l i g i o n and c u l t u r e w i t h t h e m o t h e r l a n d , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e s o u t h , where t h e r e was a c a s t e o f a r i s t o c r a t i c e m i g r a n t s e s t a b l i s h e d o v e r a mass o f s l a v e s . \"From t h e b e g i n n i n g \" - s a y s Van Wyck B r o o k s i n A m e r i c a 1 s  C o m i n g - o f - A g e - we f i n d two main c u r r e n t s i n t h e A m e r i c a n mind r u n n i n g s i d e by s i d e b u t r a r e l y m i n g l i n g - a c u r r e n t o f o v e r t o n e s and a c u r r e n t o f u n d e r t o n e s - and b o t h e q u a l l y u n s o c i a l : on t h e one h a n d , t h e c u r r e n t o f T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m , o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e p i e t y o f t h e P u r i t a n s , b e c o m i n g a p h i l o s o p h y i n J o n a t h a n E d w a r d s , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h E m e r s o n , p r o d u c i n g t h e f a s t i d i o u s r e f i n e m e n t and a l o o f n e s s o f t h e c h i e f A m e r i c a n w r i t e r s , a n d , as t h e c o h e r e n t i d e a l s and b e l i e f s o f T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m g r a d u a l l y f a d e d o u t , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e f i n a l u n r e a l i t y o f most c o n t e m p o r a r y A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e ; and on t h e o t h e r hand t h e c u r r e n t c a t c h p e n n y o p p o r t u n i s m , o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e p r a c t i c a l s h i f t s o f P u r i t a n l i f e , b e c o m i n g a 226. philosophy i n F r a n k l i n , p a s s i n g through the American humorists, f 14 and r e s u l t i n g i n the atmosphere of contemporary business l i f e . \" These two main cu r r e n t s represented the two most common poles of romantic c o n t r a s t i n the debates and i n the i n t e l l e c t u a l development that slowly formed the dream at the b a s i s of the contemporary North American m e t r o p o l i s . On the side of Transcendentalism and of i d e a l i s m there was an i n t e r e s t f o r i n f i n i t y that prepared a f e r t i l e ground f o r the romantic n o t i o n of the sublime: \"I know not how to express b e t t e r what my sin s appear to me to be, than by heaping i n f i n i t e upon i n f i n i t e , and m u l t i p l y i n g i n f i n i t e by i n f i n i t e . Very o f t e n , f o r these many years, these expressions are i n my mind and i n my mouth ' I n f i n i t e upon i n f i n i t e - I n f i n i t e upon i n f i n i t e I ' \" ^  ^ (Jonathan Edwards). We had noted an i n t e r e s t i n an i n f i n i t e system and i n open spaces i n W i l l i a m Penn's p l a n n i n g . With Jonathan Edwards our a t t e n t i o n may be drawn a l s o to aspects of northern, Anglo-Saxon, p u r i t a n i c a l anguish: \"The wrath of God i s l i k e waters f i ft \"\\ that are dammed f o r the present\". \"As Jean Paul S a r t r e d i d not f a i l to n o t i c e , the cowboy was the f i r s t e x i s t e n t i a l hero: the s t r a n g e r , the o u t s i d e r , l i v i n g by an a b s u r d i s t code that - though h i s f i a n c e e pleads with him - could only end i n death. For h i s ambition to master 227. the earth, his need to snap the promordial bonds of family and community, his identif ication of freedom with the restless itch to 'move on', spring from his secret love for the in f in i te , which f inite earth cannot contain. The lover of the Infinite must inevitably be k i l l e d . Implied in the American dream of mastery (17) is the ominous imagination of disaster\" . And disaster is associated with the growth of the c i ty , which is a non-infinite and confined space and a place of damnation. Wentworth Eldredge pointed out that \"we 'Anglo-Saxons' must 'love that c i t y ' . Morton and Lucia White have shown that American intellectuals don't, and a similar survey of Brit ish intellectuals makes clear that this antipathetic stream has a source higher in the h i l l s . Among American intel lectuals , Ralph Waldo Emerson, whose Essay on. Farming was in part reprinted by Frank Lloyd Wright as an appendix to his Broadacre City, described Thoreau in this manner: \"No truer American existed than Thoreau, his preference of his country and condition was genuine, and his aversation from Eng-l ish and European manners and tastes almost reached contempt... The men were a l l imitating each other, and on a small mold. Why  can they not l ive as far apart as possible, and, each be a man  by himself? What he sought was the most energetic nature; and he wished to go to Oregon, not to London...He interrogated every custom, and wished to settle a l l his practice on an ideal foun-dation. He was protestant 'a l'outrance*, and few lives contain f 19) so many renunciations. He was bred to no profession.. .\"^ J 228 . Benjamin Franklin was an intel lectual and a moralist too, but more inclined to sciences, economics and pol i t ics and to a settled, peaceful, sober urban existence; an insight into his attitude toward the city may come from reading his proposal to the Parisians in order that they stop wasting  money with candies by going to bed and ris ing late: \"I say it is impossible that so sensible a people, under such circum-stances, should have lived so long by smokey, unwholesome, and enormously expensive light of candles, i f they had really known, that they might have had as much pure light of the sun for nothing.\" One might wonder why at the beginning North American cit ies were bui l t at a l l , at least after the war of Independence. We have noticed that Mysticism, Solitude, the love of Nature, of Liberty,of Equality, of Idealism, ..most :of the components of the rise of the romantic movement, were already present since the origins of the development of North America and of its c i t i e s . We must also note that the original bulk of population of the United States and of Brit ish America was made up of a majority of Protestant puritanical farmers and of a minority of scientist-engineers with deep moral interests. There was a very limited l i terary production in the tradition of the Mathers or of a sentimental kind, with a distant memory of the Elizabethan period. It was a new world determined to be new, pure and pract ica l . The new North American cit ies did not gather craftsmen and artists and did 229 . n o t p r o m o t e i n t e l l e c t u a l p u r s u i t s . C u l t u r e was r e l i g i o n a n d s c i e n c e . A r t was a n e m b e l l i s h m e n t t h a t c o u l d b e i m p o r t e d b y t h e r i c h . T h e C i t y a t b e s t was a p l a c e o f b u s i n e s s t r a n s - a c t i o n s . T h i s i s why t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a a b o u t t h e c i t y a r e t h o s e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n o f e n g i n e e r s a n d o f t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e l o v e r s o f n a t u r e , a n d o f s e n t i m e n t a l a n d m o r a l v a l u e s . B e a u t y came a s a n o f f -s p r i n g o f s e n t i m e n t a l v a l u e s , a t a l a t e r t i m e . A d i f f e r e n t s o r t o f i n t e l l e c t u a l , n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h s c i e n c e o r w i t h m o r a l i t y , was c o n s i d e r e d m o r a l l y w r o n g , a n d c o u l d e x i s t o n l y i n E u r o p e . I n t h e E u r o p e a n w o r l d , a n d e v e n e a r l i e r i n G r e e c e a n d Rome, t h e c i t i e s w e r e t h e c e n t r e s o f p o l i t i c a l l i f e . T h e \" p o l i s \" was w h a t m a t t e r e d . On t h e c o n t r a r y i n N o r t h A m e r i c a t h e t r e n d was t o g a t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ( n o t o f c i t i e s , b u t o f s t a t e s o r o f r e g i o n s ) i n a s m a l l s p e c i a l i z e d c e n t r e a w a y f r o m t h e l a r g e r u r b a n c e n t r e s . T h e A m e r i c a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e was d e s i g n a t e d b y h i s l a n d o r s t a t e , r a t h e r t h a n b y h i s c i t y . T h i s i s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t new t r e n d o f u r b a n l i f e , b e c a u s e o n t h e o l d c o n t i n e n t , s i n c e l a t e m e d i e v a l t i m e s t h e c i t y h a d b e c o m e a m a g n e t o f e l e g a n t l e i s u r e , o f c r a f t s a n d a r t s , , o f t h e m o s t d i v e r s e i n t e l l e c t u a l e x c h a n g e s a n d p u r s u i t s - e v e n w a s t e f u l o r m o r a l l y n e u t r a l - o f p l e a s u r e s o f a l l k i n d s . E v e n t h e c o n c e p t o f l i b e r t y i n t h e l a t e m e d i e v a l c i t i e s was d i f f e r e n t . R a t h e r t h a n b e i n g r e l a t e d t o p r o p e r t y a n d l a n d , i t was r e l a t e d t o b e l o n g i n g t o a c o m m u n i t y c a p a b l e o f s h a p i n g i t s i n d e p e n d e n t d e s t i n y among t h e o t h e r c o m m u n i t i e s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , \" t h e h e a r t o f WASP c u l t u r e i s t h e p r o p e r t y r e l a t i o n . U p o n p r o p e r t y , t h e 2 3 0 . most e a s i l y r a t i o n a l i z e d o f r e l a t i o n s , WASP n o t i o n s o f f r e e d o m a r e f o u n d e d . E v e n when t h e E n g l i s h p i r a t e s a i l e d u n d e r t h e b a n n e r o f m y s t i c i s m , a d v e n t u r e , and s h e e r e x u b e r a n c e , t h e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n was r a t h e r p r a c t i c a l . The c e n t r a l WASP words a r e n o t b e i ng o r d o i n g . The c e n t r a l WASP words a r e h a v i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g . From L o c k e t h r o u g h Hume u n t i l t o d a y , the o u t l o o k i s f u n c t i o n a l . The d o m i n e n t WASP e t h i c i s b a s e d upon ' u t i l i t y ' . \" ! ' We may r e m e m b e r , h o w e v e r , t h a t c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e d i d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n \"WASP\" m e n t a l i t y . The r u r a l t r e n d was e n c o u r a g e d by no l e s s t h a n t h e F r e n c h K i n g s and an A u s t i a n e m p o r e r . L o u i s t h e X I V , as we h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , s t a r t e d a new t r a d i t i o n by m o v i n g o u t s i d e t h e w a l l s o f P a r i s t o V e r s a i l l e s , M a r i e A n t o i n e t t e was an a r c a d i a n , and E m p o r e r J o s e p h I I s e t t h e good e x a m p l e o f p u t t i n g h i s hands t o t h e p l o w . E i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y c l a s s i c a l r o m a n t i c i s m o c c u p i e d i t s e l f w i t h a l l s o r t s o f e x a m p l e s t o i d e a l i z e t h e n o b i l i t y o f r u r a l man. T h e r e were e v e n c l a s s i c a l r e m i n i s c e n c e s o f t h e good o l d Romans o f t h e r e p u b l i c s i m i l a r t o t h o s e t h a t J e f f e r s o n w o u l d h a v e h a d . L e t us now examine some a s p e c t s o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s , i n t h e l a s t c e n t u r y , when t h e t i d e o f r o m a n t i c i s m , o f i m m i g r a t i o n a n d o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n grew l a r g e r and l a r g e r . The g r i d s y s t e m was e x p a n d e d f r o m New Y o r k and P h i l a d e l p h i a t o San F r a n c i s c o , f r o m T o r o n t o t o V a n c o u v e r . The A m e r i c a n C i v i l War gave t h e f i n a l a b s o l u t e p r e d o m i n a n c e t o the g r o u p o f p u r i t a n i c a l and c a l v i n i s t i c f a r m e r s o f the n o r t h , t u r n e d i n t o i n d u s t r i a l i s t s , o v e r t h e more a r i s t o c r a t i c and n o s t a l g i c s e t t l e r s o f t h e s l a v i s t s t a t e s . I n d u s t r i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n , l a n d s p e c u l a t i o n and i m p r o -v i s e d d w e l l i n g s q u i c k l y t r a n s f o r m e d t h e p a n o r a m a o f t h e open f i e l d s o f t h e c i t i e s , j e o p a r d i z i n g the t r e a s u r e d r u r a l dream The l a n d o f i n f i n i t e r e s o u r c e s h a d t o be s o u g h t f u r t h e r and 232 . further west, while the eastern cit ies began experiencing the transformation of urban blocks into slums. \"In the middle of the 19th century Frederick Law Olmsted joined a p o l i t i c a l l y powerful group of eastern p h i l -anthropists, social reformers, writers and Protest ministers who set out to introduce the virtues of rural America among the huddled urban masses. Their thesis, common enough at the time, was that what the cit ies needed was big public parks. When Olmsted put the reformers' ideals into practice by planting a huge village green in the middle of Manhattan, he automatically became the cutting edge of the whole movement. Olmsted was more than equal to the task. Though he personally responded to landscapes with the eye of an ar t i s t , he was also an intensely practical man. He never failed to impress on city of f ic ia l s that his parks and parkways would (221 raise surrounding land values and tax revenues.\" \"While Olmsted accepted as inevitable the fact that the city grew at the expense of the countryside, he was pained (231 to see i t replacing the village as a dominant way of l i f e . \" \"Olmsted had no professional education to sustain his deep (241 attachment to nature\", and in fact he was rather anti-inte l lectual ; in his letters he seems to be even prone to misspell a large percentage of words including the names of his favourite 233. authors. However \"he had picked up a l l he knew from reading, from running the Staten Island farm his rich merchant father had given him, and from examining England's great parks during a (25) walking trip abroad\" . The tour extended also to France and Germany, and changed the focus of his interests from farming to urban l i f e , in part because of the impressive stat ist ics that he gathered on the growth of urban centers. \"Omsted found many ideas in his independent studies of English and American l i t e r -ature. From the work of such English landscape theorists as Uvedale Price (in An Essay on the Picturesque Price argued for a formal landscape art which was natural and picturesque, as opposed to the formal landscaping then in vogue) and William Gilpin (in Upon Prints - 1768 - Gilpin established the principle that a scene or picture has beauty i f i t conforms to the rules of painting) he drew both an esthetic theory and  a -set-of \u2022\u2022technique's- for-the - development of - a -natural, romantic  lands cape. He derived inspiration from the cultural. 'f lowering of New England', notably the essays and poetry of contemporaries such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, James Russel Lowell, and William Cullen Bryant. The theme of nature was the dominant synthe-sizing idea in the cultural and intel lectual l i f e of New England .s while he was maturing. Yet his closest identif ication with nature ( ? ft ^ derived from memories of childhood.\" Olmsted brought the romantic picturesque reaction against the prevailing ideal geometric grid to the North American c i t i e s . We see the outcry for nature and curves against the development 2 3 4 . of the original semirural grid of city blocks. We find the romantic struggle of sentiment against ideal reason, inter-preted as greenery and irregular curves, as organic growth and variety against building blocks and geometry, man made develop-ment and uniformity. The contrast is violent, abrupt and shocking: the perpendicular streets of Manhattan suddenly end, the buildings stop and one goes across meandering paths, trees and grass, lakes,and then again one is in the urban grid. It is not just picturesque, i t is sublime. And yet the same Olmsted who was fighting the growth of the industrial city by spreading parks, shrubs and serpen-tines across North America, had been a member of the Utopian community of Red Bank, New Jersey, the most famous town in North America modeled after the theories of Charles Fourier. . Fourier in France had been preaching a harmony of people, nature and industry in his communities for industrial labourers. Olmsted thought by separating the various act ivi t ies of the cit ies and by creating suburban residential vi l lages, he would achieve harmony of act ivit ies and would provide the advantages of the l i f e of the vil lage to future generations. Olmsted wished \"to contain the destructive influence of the commercial sections of the c i ty . This was feasible, he fe l t , since 'commerce does not require the same conditions to be maintained in a l l parts of a town'. It was undoubtedly Olmsted's rural background which led him to emphasize 235 . the introduction of 'natural'elements in reforming the urban environment. But i t would be inaccurate to characterize his point of view as either rural or antiurban. Rather, he hoped to fuse the best qualities of both country and city into a new physical and social unit: the suburb. As he expressed i t , 'No broad question of country l i f e in comparison with city l i f e is involved; i t is confessedly a question of delicate adjustment' The 'adjustment' could best be achieved in governmentally designed communities distinct from, but connected to, the older commercial c i ty , creating a new form for the metropolis. These suburbs were not intended to be (as are suburbs now in existence)far removed from the heart of the c i ty . The idea - recurrent in present day urban planning l iterature - was to develop communities within easy reach of the city center, inhabited by 'urban v i l lagers ' . Olmsted believed that the many varieties of the light carriage (which had come into use in the nineteenth century) and the steam railway would fac i l i tate rapid and easy transporation between home and work. The city he looked forward to was an organic one in which its many parts, like the various rooms (27 ) of a.ihouse, would have separate functions.\" As we see here, both the suburban style and zoning had been clearly conceptually developed in the middle of the nineteenth century, from romantic notions and as two necessary aspects of the same cultural and urban trend. 2 3 6 . Olmsted's view of means of transporation (light carriages and the steam railway) for suburban dwellers proves once again that the concepts of urban and c i v i l developments precede rahter than follow the technoligical advances that  make them possible and viable. While the concept of the modern suburban development was clearly advanced, the automobile was just as clearly outside the realm of Olmsted's imagination. We wi l l have to remark that Calvert Vaux (Olmsted's partner) \"like Olmsted, considered spaces to be more s ign i f i -cant than solids in planning cit ies\" and that he was brought from England to North America by Andrew Jackson Downing, the important American hort iculturist and propagandist for naturalism in architectural and landscape design. Vaux brought with him a romantic traditon with which Olmsted had only a superficial acquaintance. Olmsted and Vaux worked together for twenty-four years, trying to avoid \"an unhealthy density of population\" and propagandizing and developing \"suburban neighborhoods where each family abode stands f i f ty or a hundred feet or more apart from a l l others, and at ( 2 9 ) * some distance from the public road.\" J \"It is to Andrew Jackson Downing and his b r i l l i a n t associates, Clavert Vaux and Frederick Low Olmsted, J r . , that *We may recollect the earl ier quote about Thoreau's tastes. 237 . we owe the curvilinear street pattern and studied informality of the contemporary suburban development.\"'-*^'' For Olmsted the suburb could be described as \"the most attractive, the most refined and the most soundly wholesome forms of domestic l i f e , and the best application of the arts of c iv i l i za t ion ( 3D to which mankind has yet attained.\" From the f irs t opening of part of Central Park in New York in 1858 to the setting of the 1893 Chicago Exposition, Olmsted and Vaux showed the pattern of the North American romantic urban philosophy and development. Sinous roads among elegant s t r i c t l y residential suburbs (in Europe the suburbs were mostly a mixture of industries, commerce, and lower class apartments, close to the boulevards and the parks of the former city walls), an i n i t i a l form of zoning, metropolitan govern-ments, meandering paths through English gardens, beside lakes and through forests of huge parks, were among their legacy to our c i t i e s . They were contrasted by the perennial foe of the naturalist romantics: the ruthless \"catchpenny\" (to use again the expression of Van Wyck Brooks) developer, the successful supporter of Social Darwinism. This presented another side of romanticism, the romanticism of the industrial revolution, the practical and sc ient i f ic dream as opposed to the sentimental and natural ist ic dream. Developers and lovers of nature confronted each other with the dialect ic opposition 238 . and with the obstacle that is necessary to produce the romantic struggle and anguish of a true romantic. In this sense the love of nature and the industrial revolution have always been complementary. The developers were appealing to Nature too, but in another manner: the Social Darwinists \"glorified ruthless individual enterprise and disdained a l l forms of social planning. Public taste in urban beauty shifted from rustic scenery to impressive buildings (another form of the sublime) - a change brought on, i ron ica l ly , by the success of the Chicago Columbian Exposition whose setting Olmsted had (32) designed.\" The skyscraper had arrived as the aslternative and the opposite (in terms of density and size only) to the suburban dwelling. The new monumentalism that the forces of the industrial revolution brought forward had deep revival ist roots. The industr ia l i s t s , the developers, and the scientists sided in most cases with those who read the universe as written in geometric and mathematical language: for them Nature was revered and admired as a fascinating and beautiful machine. Their line of thought had i l lustr ious precedents going as far back as Leonardo (or even Pythagoras), through Descartes and Galileo. They were opposed by those who interpreted Nature rather as an animal or as a vegetal being, than as a machine: an organic nature that would abhor from geo-metric impositions. The natural forms in these cases would be 239 . mostly the irregular and round shapes of bodies and trees, rahter than those produced at the drafting table.Only a few eclectic \"geniuses\", such as Frank Lloyd Wright, would try to reconcile the two interpretations most of the time. While North America was developing under the influence of the Chicago Columbian Exposition, in the old continent Camillo Sitte and Ebenezer Howard were laying the foundations of modern city planning. And yet i t would seem that the substance of their thoughts was already present and partly theorized in the new continent at the turn of the century. Ebenezer Howard himself maintained that he drew his inspiration and formed the bulk of his ideas during his stay and thanks to the atmosphere of America. And a book such as Modern Civic Art or The City Made Beautiful by Charles Mulford Robinson, (33) of 1903, is very significant as an example of the ideas that had been circulating in North America. Robinson comes so close to Sitte's thinking or feeling in some of his pages that he would appear almost to be quoting him: \"vast areas of regularly plotted streets became dread-fully monotonous . . . Then arose the wish to beautify c i t i e s , to bring stateliness into the business d i s tr ic t (note the distinction of zones) and the soft touch of nature into the regions where the .homes were,. The opportunities of the square for this were perceived and sized . . . And the square afforded an excellent location for c ivic sculpture . . . The open spaces (34) of the city are, or should be, i ts ornaments.\" 240. At the same time Robinson endorsed the idea of suburban, housing with a lot of greenery and went at great length f 351 defending \"the well-proved charm of the curving street.\" (He even quoted Professor William James, the psychologist, as saying . . . \"that the daily sight of the curve of Scott Street added much to the pleasure of l iv ing in his house - -or, indeed, the neighbourhood.'!) He had l i t t l e to learn from Ebenezer Howard in terms of garden cit ies except from the p o l i t i c a l and administrative point of view which would . have not been easily applicable to North America. And he shared some of Howard's discontent with modern industrial c i t ies : \"As when heavens rolled away and St. John beheld the new Jerusalem, so a vision of a new London, a new Washington, Chicago or New York breaks with the morning's sunshine upon the degradation, discomfort, and baseness of modern city l i f e . \" ^ 6 ' ' The movement toward suburbia and the vision of a new and monumental city gained momentum at the same time; while the cities were more and more clearly divided into separate dis tr icts and the commercial centres increased in density, the suburbs grew. By 1925 a comprehensive social study and (371 crit ic ism of suburbia, The Suburban Trend had been published, and Le Corbusier by 1931 had commented on \"the vast, romantic amphitheater that is now the gateway to America's immensity: Manhattan,\" that \"the skyscraper has petrif ied the f 3 81 cities\" and that is was not \"Cartesian\", i t was i rra t iona l . 241 . But the forces behind zoning and the suburban trend were older than the American revolution and more rooted than the principles of American democracy. By 1929 a definitive zoning plan had reached even Vancouver, and in the thirt ies Clarence Stein and Henry Wright were developing garden cit ies in the English fashion, with federal aid. The 1929 \"Plan for Vancouver\" had i l lustrat ions with comments such as \"A store intrusion in the West End\" and \"There are Many Attractive Homes and Gardens in the South Vancouver Area.\" The term garden, and particularly \"garden city\" had had a magic spell in North America for quite some time. In the second half of the nineteenth century, Chicago, a city where Ebenezer Howard resided from 1971 to 1976, had adopted the name of Garden City and placed it on the coat of arms, as a sign of pride for its many gardens and parks. In 1869 Alexander T. Stewart described a model town for Long Island, New York, as a \"garden city\". In 1906, eight years after the appearance of Howard's book and the same years when the f irs t \"garden city\", Letchworth, was opened in England, the Garden City Association of America was founded. A former senator, the head of the Long Island Railroad, an Episcopal bishop, a university professor and a banker were among its officers and members (al l of the single Anglo-Saxon ethnic . group). The association published for more than fifteen years \"The Vil lage.\" 242 . In North America Howard's theories had a tremendous success, but i t was soon clear,that \"communal: ownership\" f 39\") of real estate cut against a very tough American grain\" and that the p o l i t i c a l schemes proposed by Howard could not be accepted as readily as his aesthetic urban views. The ideal was instead that \"millions of workers may own homes with gardens\". \"The American plan is to train and develop the individual in the capacity and ambition to own his own decent home.\"^^ President Hoover stated: \"To own one's own home is a physical expression of individualism, of enterprise, of f 41) independence, and of freedom of s p i r i t . \" Hoover even proposed the Home Loan Bank System to encourage universal single home ownership. The Depression came to cut into this dream and brought Radburn, the suburban jewel designed by Henry Wright and Clarence Stein, into bankruptcy. Radburn was already incorporating the latest thinking in terms of modern planning: everything was clean and separated as much as possible, \"the houses facing away from the street toward interior parks\", and \"al l pedestrian and vehicular traf f ic was separated - the walkways often running through the interior parks and crossing C42) roads through underpasses.\" It was up to the new president, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, to give a new interpretation to the tradit ional dreams. Roosevelt thought that the \"breaking down of a r t i f i c i a l and unnecessary barriers between the rural and urban communities\" 243. was important, and saw \"a definite place for an intermediate type between the urban and rura l , namely a rural- industr ia l (43) group\". ^ Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt had been a board member of the company that built Radburn, N . J . , and the president had other relatives that had been in contact with Garden City groups. It was his administration that founded the Resettlement Admin-istrat ion and permitted the successful construction of Greenbelt, Greenhills and Greendale, towns closer to the Brit ish theory in terms of financing and administration. These towns remained the most famous examples of socially and architecturally progressive suburbia; the most generous and planned attempt, probably, to bring everybody out in contact with redeeming nature in a semi-rural community. They died later, while the \"hardness and self-(44) ishness beyond belief\" of the other suburbs spread across the continent with the booming economy. In the context of the origins of North American cit ies outlined thus far nothing seems to me more in line with the North American tradition than Frank Lloyd Wright's Broadacre City. It is even amazing that actually John Lansi l l and the Resettlement Administration did not take seriously his proposal, even i f i t implied a budget three times larger than the one available. More tragic is the case of Edgar Chambless, who proposed Roadtown, \"a line of city through the country\", and who committed suicide after finding his proposal repeatedly refused. 244. The growth and development of the zoned c i t i e s , with a green belt of suburban residential housing, with suburban villages and a high density commercial core has become the sign of modern and contemporary times in North America. It has become so \"modern\" that i t is being exported and imitated as a symbol and as a system a l l over the world. The North American city is in fact that most overall total product of romanticism, and as such i t cannot f a i l to appear as a model to the rest of the world, during these last stages of romanticism. It has become a stereotype: in 1958 a volume such as \"Urbanistica, Storia e Tecnica\", could publish side by side the plans of suburban residential developments in Stockholm, Turin and Palermo. While Victor: Gruen dreams of his old native Vienna and plans a \"counterattack\" with beautifications and pedestrian malls in the heart o.f the c i t i es , proposing himself as a new Camillo Sitte , the entire world seems to be rushing to adopt the lethal pattern that is keeping North American urbanism buried. \"Are Cities Un-American?\" William White had to ask (45) himself. \"In a striking failure to apply marketing princ-iples and an even more striking failure of esthetics, the c it ies are freezing on a design for l iv ing ideally calculated to keep everybody in suburbia.\" The suburban trend continued across the continent at a phenomenal pace. At the same time, New York city opened again 245 . t h e t a l l e s t s k y s c r a p e r o f t h e w o r l d , i n t h e m i d d l e o f a r e c e s s i o n , a n d a l l t h e c o m m e r c i a l m e t r o p o l i t a n c e n t r e s saw t h e l a s t s u r g e o f h i g h - r i s e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s . U r b a n d i s c u s s i o n s s t i l l r e v o l v e a r o u n d m a t t e r s o f money a n d m a t t e r s o f s t y l e a s t h e y d i d f i f t y a n d a h u n d r e d y e a r s a g o ; o n l y now e v e n m o r e t h a n b e f o r e \" r o m a n t i c s \" a n d \" r a t i o n a l i s t s \" w o r k t o g e t h e r i n t h e same \" s e t o f s p e c i a l i z -a t i o n s w i t h a g e o g r a p h i c a l b a s i s . \" \u2022 ^ ^ 2 4 6 . C H A P T E R 8 ( 1 ) H . C H U R C H I L L , T h e C i t y i s t h e P e o p l e , N e w Y o r k . 1 9 4 5 , p , 1 8 6 ( 2 ) I b i d e m ( 3 ) J . W . R e p s , T h e M a k i n g o f U r b a n A m e r i c a , P r i n c e t o n 1 9 6 5 , f i g . 97 ~ \" ( 4 ) I b i d e m , f i g . 9 0 ( 5 ) I b i d e m , f i g . 7 ( 6 ) I b i d e m , f i g . 1 2 ( 7 ) I b i d e m , f i g . 2 6 2 ( 8 ) I b i d e m , f i g . 8 ( 9 ) I b i d e m , f i g . 2 5 ( 1 0 ) I b i d e m , f i g . 1 1 8 S 1 2 0 ( 1 1 ) A N D R E W M A R V E L L , A D i a l o g u e B e t w e e n t h e S o u l a n d t h e B o d y , q f r o m \" T h e G r e a t M a s t e r s \" b y M . C I A R A M E L L A , R o m e 1 9 5 8 , p . 1 9 8 . ( 1 2 ) J O H N H E C T O R S T . J O H N D E C R E V E C O E U R , L e t t e r s f r o m a n  A m e r i a n F a r m e r , f r o m M . P R A Z , A n t o l o g i a , M i l a n 1 9 5 9 , p . 5 2 8 ( 1 3 ) F . C H O A Y , T h e M o d e r n C i t y , N e w Y o r k 1 9 6 9 , f i g . 4 8 ( 1 4 ) V A N W Y C K B R O O K S , A m e r i c a ' s C o m i n g - o f - A g e , f r o m M . P R A Z , A n t o l o g i a , M i l a n 1 9 5 9 , p . 6 2 6 ( 1 5 ) J O N A T H A N E D W A R D S , P e r s o n a l N a r r a t i v e f r o m M . P R A Z , A n t o l o g i a , M i l a n 1 9 5 9 , p . 5 2 7 ( 1 6 ) J O N A T H A N E D W A R D S , S i n n e r s i n t h e H a n d s o f a n A n g r y G o d , f r o m M . C I A R A M E L L A , T h e G r e a t M a s t e r s , R o m e 1 9 5 8 , p . 5 7 0 ( 1 7 ) M . N O V A K : T h e R i s e o f t h e U n m e l t a b l e E t h n i c s , N e w Y o r k 1 9 7 2 , p . 9 5 ( 1 8 ) H . T . E L D R E D G E , T a m i n g M e g a l o p o l i s , N e w Y o r k 1 9 6 7 ( 1 9 ) R . W . E M E R S O N , L e c t u r e s a n d B i o g r a p h i c a l S k e t c h e s , f r o m M . P R A Z , A n t o l o g i a , M i l a n 1 9 5 9 , p . 5 3 0 ( 2 0 ) B E N J A M I N F R A N K L I N , T o t h e A u t h o r s o f t h e J o u r n a l o f P a r i s , f r o m M . P R A Z , A n t o l o g i a , M i l a n 1 9 5 9 , p . 5 3 2 247. (21) M. NOVAK, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics, New York 1972, p. 171 (22) \"Life\", December 8, 1972, p.87, art ic le by E. Kern. (23) A. FEIN: Landscape into Cityscape, Cornell 1968, p.3 (24) A. FEIN: Landscape into Cityscape, Cornell 1968, p.5 (25) \"Life\", December 8, 1972, p.84, art ic le by E. KERN (26) A. FEIN: Landscape into Cityscape, Cornell 1968, p.6 (27) Ibidem, p.37 (28) Ibidem, p.43 (29) Ibidem, p.38 (30) A. ARNOLD, The New Deal in the Suburbs, Ohio State University Press 1971, p.4 (31) A. FEIN: Landscape.into Cityscape, Cornell 1968, p.38 (32) \"Life\", December 8, 1972, p.84 (33) C M . ROBINSON, Modern Civic Art of The City Made Beautiful, New York 1903 (34) Ibidem, p.287 (35) Ibidem, p.196 (36) Ibidem, p.4 (37) H.P. DOUGLASS, The Suburban Trend, New York 1925 (38) LE CORBUSIER, The Radiant City, Paris 1933, p.127 (39) A. ARNOLD, The New Deal in the Suburbs, Ohio State University Press, 1971, p.8 (40) Ibidem, p.38, quoting Albert Shaw (41) Ibidem, p.38 (42) Ibidem, p.16 (43) Ibidem, p.41 (44) \"Atlantic Monthly\", January 1920, p.107, The Suburban  Delux, by EDWARD YEOMANS 248 . (45) W.H. WHITE J r . , Are Cities Un-American?, \"Fortune\", September 1957. (46) H.P. DOUGLASS, The Suburban Trend, New York 1925 249 . 9 . A R C H I T E C T U R A L T R E N D S A N D C R E E D S R E L A T E D W I T H R O M A N T I C I S M T h e r e t u r n t o N a t u r e a n d t h e r i s e o f n e w s c i e n c e s , a r e i n t e l l e c t u a l m o t i f s w h i c h a c q u i r e d a n e w l i g h t a n d e m p h a s i s w i t h t h e r o m a n t i c a g e . H o w e v e r , t h e y w e r e n o t e n t i r e l y n e w . T h e i n t e r e s t i n N a t u r e a n d t h e S c i e n c e s d a t e s f r o m t h e R e n a i s s a n c e a n d c a n b e t r a c e d b a c k t o A r a b s o u r c e s . I t t o o k o v e r t w o c e n t u r i e s f o r t h e r o m a n t i c n o t i o n s t o d e v e l o p f u l l y . I t i s i n t h e R e n a i s s a n c e t h a t N a t u r e i s p r e s e n t e d a s a c a t h a r t i c p h e n o m e n o n ; i t i s p u r e a n d i t i s t h e n e o p l a t o n i c l a d d e r t o o r f r o m G o d , w h e n i t i s n o t G o d i t s e l f . N a t u r e s h i n e s w i t h d i v i n i t y a n d g o o d n e s s ; t h e p r i n c e s o p e n t h e i r c o u r t s t o t h e c o n t a c t w i t h N a t u r e . S p i n o z a e l a b o r a t e s t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f \" D e u s s i v e N a t u r a \" ( G o d i s N a t u r e ) . A p a s t g o l d e n p r i m i t i v e c o n t a c t w i t h N a t u r e i s c h e r i s h e d . A r c a d i a i s f o r m e d a l i t t l e l a t e r . E v e n h o r s e r i d i n g i n t h e f o r e s t m a y a c q u i r e a m y s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Y e t t h e r e i s a g r e a t a n g u i s h o f s i n f u l n e s s ; h u m a n n a t u r e i s b a d a n d c o r r u p t a n d t h e e n t i r e n a t u r a l w o r l d c a n b e a v i o l e n t e n e m y , a s e x p l o r e r s a n d n e w s e t t l e r s d i s c o v e r . N a t u r e i s a l s o a p u n i s h i n g a g e n t , a w i l d b e a s t t h a t h a s t o b e t a m e d a n d c o n v e r t e d . H u m a n n a t u r e h a s t o b e t a m e d a n d c o n v e r t e d t o o . T h i s i s d o n e w i t h t h e e x e r c i s e o f v i r t u e , a n d p e a c e i s o b t a i n e d a s a p a i n s t a k i n g c r a f t . T h e f a r m e r i s s e e n a s a m a n i n a p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n : h e i s i n c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h N a t u r e , a n d g a i n s w i t h v i r t u o u s l a b o u r t h e f r u i t o f N a t u r e f o r m a n k i n d . T h e f a r m e r i s t h e o n e w h o b r i n g s N a t u r e t o M a n i n i t s m o s t b e n i g n 2 5 0 . f o r m ; h e i s f i n a l l y s e e n a s a k i n d o f N a t u r a l m i s s i o n a r y w h o i s a n d m u s t b e r e v e r e d b y t h e u r b a n m a n . A v i v i d e x a m p l e o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n o f t h o u g h t i n i t s f i n a l f r u i t i o n c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e \" E s s a y o n F a r m i n g \" b y R a l p h W a l d o E m e r s o n a d d e d b y F r a n k L l o y d W r i g h t a s a n a p p e n d i x t o h i s \" B r o a d a c r e C i t y . \" ^ ^ I t i s i n t h i s e s s a y t h a t E m e r s o n a s k s : \" W h o a r e t h e f a r m e r ' s s e r v a n t s ? N o t t h e I r i s h , n o t t h e c o o l i e s , b u t G e o l o g y a n d C h e m i s t r y . . . \" a n d i t i s i n t h i s s a m e p u b l i c a t i o n b y F r a n k L l o y d W r i g h t t h a t w e f i n d a p a s s a g e f r o m s u c h a n e o - p l a t o n i s t n a t u r a l s c i e n t i s t a s P a r a c e l s u s . S i n c e t h e r e n a i s s a n c e t h e e m o t i o n a l a n d m y s t i c a l a t t a c h -m e n t t o n a t u r e i s b a l a n c e d b y a n i d e a l i s t i c a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e s c i e n c e s . T h e r e i s a n e w e n t h u s i a s m f o r g e o m e t r y , f o r m a t h e -m a t i c s , f o r p h y s i c s , f o r c h e m i s t r y , f o r t h e p r e c i s i o n a n d p e r -f e c t i o n o f h u m a n e n d e a v o u r s i n t h e f i e l d o f s c i e n c e . T h e r e i s o n l y a h u n d r e d y e a r s b e t w e e n t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e i n t h e f i r s t E n c y c l o p a e d i a a n d t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f M e n d e l e j e f f i n 1 8 6 9 , a t t h e t i m e o f t h e o p e n d e v e l o p m e n t o f r o m a n t i c i s m a n d o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n . O n e m a y s e e a s s m y b o l i c t h e f a c t t h a t , a t t h e d a w n o f t h e R o m a n t i c a g e , L o u i s t h e X V I h a d m e c h a n i c a l l o c k i n g d e v i c e s a s a h o b b y a n d M a r i e A n t o i n e t t e t h a t o f p l a y i n g a s h e p h e r d e s s . I t w a s t h e t i m e o f s u c h a h e r o a s R o b i n s o n C r u s o e a n d o f t h e 2 5 1 . w r i t i n g s o f I s a a c N e w t o n , i n E n g l a n d , a n d o f t h e d e v o t i o n a n d p a s s i o n f o r N a t u r e o f R o u s s e a u a n d o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c e n t h u s i a s m o f t h e E n c y c l o p a e d i a i n F r a n c e . We s e e t h i s m i x e d t r e n d o f s e n t i m e n t a n d s c i e n c e , o f n a t u r e a n d i d e a l g e o m e t r y , o r , i n o n e r o m a n t i c e x p r e s s i o n , o f a s u b l i m e c o n t r a s t , i n t h e d a r i n g d e s i g n s o f B o u l l e e a n d L e d o u x . T h e r o m a n t i c f e e l i n g a n d a n g u i s h c o m e s f r o m t h e s e n t i m e n t o f a c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t w o o p p o s i n g t e n d e n c i e s , b e t w e e n t h e d e s i r e o f s o m e t h i n g a n d i t s d e n i a l ; t o d w e l l i n t h i s m o o d a n d t o e m p h a s i z e t h e s e n t i m e n t o f a n i m p o s s i b l e o r a n i n f i n i t e o r a d i v i d e d d e s i r e b e c a m e t h e f a s h i o n o f t h e n e w a g e . A f i r s t e x a m p l e o f t h e s u b l i m e a c h i e v e d a s a c o n t r a s t o f b u c o l i c r u r a l i s m a n d o f g e o m e t r i c i d e a l i s m m a y b e s e e n i n t h e p r o j e c t o f a s p h e r i c a l \" h o u s e f o r r u r a l g u a r d s \" b y L e d o u x . \u2022* ( f i g u r e 1 ) a p e r f e c t s p h e r e i s s h i n i n g i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t r e e s , o f t h e g r a s s a n d o f t h e c a t t l e o f a f a r m i n t h e c o u n t r y ; n o o t h e r b u i l d i n g i s i n s i g h t . T h e r e i s o n l y t h e m y s t e r y o f t h i s a b s o l u t e l y p e r f e c t m a n - m a d e o b j e c t , a l o n e a n d d e t a c h e d , i n t h e m i d d l e o f N a t u r e , i n s u b l i m e c o n t r a s t . T h e m o n u m e n t a l i t y o f i s o l a t e d , g r a n d i o s e a n d p u r e g e o m e t r i c a l f o r m s i s e v e n m o r e (31 e x p l o i t e d b y B o u l l e e i n h i s p r o j e c t f o r a c e n o t a p h t o N e w t o n , J ( f i g u r e 2 ) w h e r e a n i m m e n s e s p h e r e r i s e s t o t h e c l o u d s i n a s e t t i n g s u n , s u r r o u n d e d o n l y b y t h r e e p e r f e c t r i n g s o f s l e n d e r c y p r e s s e s . T h e r o m a n t i c a w a a n d i m m e n s e n e s s o f t h i s d e s i g n r e m i n d s o n e o f W a g n e r a n d o f t h e t a s t e o f t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t W o r l d . We m u s t n o t e t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s a r e l i k e a n t s i n t h e s c a l e o f B o u l l e e ' s d r a w i n g s . R o m a n t i c i d e a l i s m u n d o u b t e d l y p r e c e d e d t h e t e c h n i c a l a c h i e v e m e n t s t h a t l a t e r p e r m i t t e d m a n y 252 . JVfnison dcs Gardes Agricolos I.EDOIX} ism ittH Xlev&doa. I: Figure 253 . F i g u r e 2 2 5 4 . o f i t s d r e a m s o n p a p e r : f o r e x a m p l e , t h e s p h e r i c a l h o u s e b y L e d o u x i s t r u l y a d e s i g n f o r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e c o n s t r u c t i o n , o f w h i c h L e d o u x h a d n o k n o w l e d g e . T h e d r e a m s e e m s a l w a y s t o p r e c e d e t h e t e c h n o l o g y t h a t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a t t a i n i t . I n t h i s r e s p e c t . a r c h i t e c t s l i k e L e d o u x a n d B o u l l e e a r e f o r m o d e r n a r c h i t e c t u r e w h a t K a n t a n d H u m e a r e f o r . m o d e r n p h i l o s o p h y . T h e \" C o p e r n i c a n r e v o l u t i o n \" t h a t i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e m i n p h i l o s o p h y h a s a s o r t o f a p a r a l l e l i n a r c h i t e c t u r e . W h i l e i n p h i l o s o p h y e v e r y t h i n g b e g i n s t o b e s e e n a s a p r o j e c t i o n a n d a c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e h u m a n m i n d , i n a r c h i t e c t u r e t h e p r o j e c t i o n s o f m a n , g e o m e t r y a n d w o r s h i p p e d n a t u r e , m a k e m a n a l m o s t d i s a p p e a r . \" A r c i s s e d e G a u m o n t , u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f E n g l i s h a r c h e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s a n d o f L i n n e a u s ' s S p e c i e s P l a n t a r u m , d e c i d e d t o c l a s s i f y t h e m e d i e v a l b u i l d i n g s o f N o r m a n d y a s i f t h e y w e r e b o t a n i c a l s p e c i m e n s . . . . T h e c o p y b o o k s w e r e h a r m l e s s t o a n t i q u a r i e s w h o r e g a r d e d a r c h i t e c t u r e a s a n a s p e c t o f t h e s o c i a l l i f e o f t h e p a s t . B u t t o t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l p r o f e s s i o n , t h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s h a d t h e u n f o r t u n a t e e f f e c t s o f g i v i n g e x c e s s i v e i m p o r t a n c e t o s k i l l i n d r a f t s m a n s h i p , a n d o f p l a c i n g u n d u e e m p h a s i s o n t h e v a l u e o f c h r o n o l o g y . B e f o r e 1 7 5 0 , t h e c h r o n o l o g y o f a n t i q u e m o n u m e n t s w a s o f n o i n t e r e s t s t o a r c h i t e c t s , w h i l s t d e t a i l i n g h a d b e e n l a r g e l y l e f t t o c r a f t s m e n w h o , r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t t h e i r f i r s t o b l i g a t i o n w a s t o b e c o m e f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o u l d i n g s a n d o r n a m e n t s o f t h e F i v e O r d e r s , c o u l d b e r e l i e d u p o n t o e x e c u t e d e t a i l s w i t h o u t h a v i n g l a r g e s c a l e d r a w i n g s s u p p l i e d . 2 5 5 . B u t w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f t h e G o t h i c R e v i v a l , a l l t h i s c h a n g e d . N o w , u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e t e c t o n i c v o c a b u l a r y t h e y w e r e a s k e d t o e m p l o y , t h e c r a f t s m e n h a d t o b e s u p p l i e d w i t h e x a c t d e l i n e a t i o n s ( 41 o f e v e r y p r o f i l e a n d c r o c k e t . . . \" v ' T h i s i s o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s , i n c i d e n t a l l y , f o r w h i c h m o s t r e v i v a l i s t a r c h i t e c t u r e l o o k s s o c o l d i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l s i t t r i e d t o i m i t a t e : e v e r y d e t a i l h a d t o b e d r a w n i n a d v a n c e o n t h e d r a f t i n g t a b l e , a n d w a s r e p e a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o e x a c t g e o m e t r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s . I n o r d e r t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s o f t e n d e t a i l s h a d t o b e s i m p l i f i e d . O n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e c r a f t s m e n e x e c u t e d t h e d e t a i l s a s i f t h e y w e r e t h e h a n d s o f a m a c h i n e . F r o m t h i s t i m e t o o u r d a y , r e g a r d l e s s o f s t y l e o r o f o r n a m e n t a t i o n o r o f s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t , b a s i c s i m p l e g e o m e t r i c f o r m s a r e t h e e s s e n c e o f a r c h i t e c t u r e . D r a f t i n g t o o l s b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e p e r f e c t e d a n d t a k e a n i n c r e a s e d p a r t i n t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s . I t i s t h e a g e o f t h e E c o l e P o l y t e c h n i q u e , f o u n d e d b y N a p o l e o n , a n d o f a l l t h e o t h e r s c h o o l s o f t h e w o r l d p r o d u c i n g a r c h i t e c t s - e n g i n e e r s . T h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n p r o v i d e s b e t t e r a n d b e t t e r t o o l s t o c a p t u r e t h e d r e a m . F r o m t h e d e s i g n s b y L e d o u x a n d h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , t o P a x t o n ' s C r y s t a l P a l a c e , t o t h e R e l i a n c e B u i l d i n g i n C h i c a g o , t o t h e b u i l d i n g s d e s i g n e d b y L e C o r b u s i e r a n d M i e s V a n d e r R o h e ; a n d m o s t c o n t e m p o r a r y a r c h i t e c t u r e t h e r e i s a n u n d e n i a b l e c o n t i n u i t y , i n w h i c h w e s e e m o r e a n d m o r e i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s t h e d r e a m s o n t h e d r a f t i n g t a b l e s o f y e s t e r d a y . T h e s u c c e s s f u l i n d u s t r i a l m a e c e n a s e s t o o k 256. p r i d e i n f i n a n c i n g t h o s e a r c h i t e c t u r a l d r e a m s m a d e p o s s i b l e b y t h e a d v e n t o f n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s . I t m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t t h e r o m a n t i c n o s t a l g i a f o r o t h e r a g e s a n d p l a c e s t h a t s p r e a d r e p e a t e d l y d u r i n g t h e l a s t t w o c e n t u r i e s a l w a y s r e m a i n e d a v e r y s u p e r f i c i a l p h e n o m e n o n , a n d i t h a s b e e n h i g h l y o v e r r a t e d . O u r g r a n d f a t h e r s s t o l e a n e c l e c t i c m a s s o f d e c o r a t i v e s y m b o l s f r o m a g e s a n d p l a c e s i n w h i c h t h e y h a d a n e c e s s a r i l y s u p e r f i c i a l i n t e r e s t . T h e i r e n t i r e m o d e o f t h i n k i n g w a s c o m p l e t e l y f o r e i g n e v e n t o t h e s y m b o l s t h a t t h e y w e r e e m p l o y -i n g , f o r w h i c h t h e y h a d d e v e l o p e d n e w a n d t e m p o r a r y k e y s . T h e r e -f o r e , t h e f a c t t h a t A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t s a n d b a n k i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s s e e m e d t o b e m o r e i n c l i n e d t o w a r d n e o c l a s s i c i s m , w h e r e a s C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t s s e e m e d t o h a v e a s l i g h t p r e f e r e n c e f o r n e o g o t h i c , f o r e x a m p l e , i s o f m i n o r s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e r e v i v a l m o v e m e n t s w e r e n o t m u c h d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e l o v e f o r c e m e t e r i e s o f e a r l y r o m a n t i -c i s m a n d f r o m t h e r i s e o f a r c h a e l o g y a s a k i n d o f s c i e n c e . I t w a s a l o v e f o r b e a u t i f u l f o r m s o f c o r p s e s ; a l o v e n o t d i s j o i n e d f r o m t h e n o s t a l g i a o f s o m e t h i n g i r r e m e d i a b l y l o s t a n d f r o m t h e n e w s e n s e o f d e a t h a n d o f t h e p a s s i n g o f t h i n g s . T h e r o m a n t i c a g e w a s i n t r i n s i c a l l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y a n d d e s t r u c t i v e o f c o n t i n u i t y ; a l t h o u g h t h e r o m a n t i c s l o o k e d t o t h e p a s t w i t h n o s t a l g i a a n d w i t h t h e r e v e r i e o f i d e a l t i m e s , w i t h t h e a n g u i s h o f a p a s t g o l d e n a g e , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y t h e y h a d n o t h i n g t o s h a r e w i t h i t . T h e i n t e r e s t a n d t h e n o s t a l g i a w a s e x c l u s i v e l y f o r w h a t t h e f o r m s a p p e a r e d t o b e , n o t f o r t h e m o d e 2 5 7 . o f l i f e a n d o f t h i n k i n g a n d o f t h e t o t a l i t y o f a c t u a l h u m a n i n t e r e s t s a n d e f f o r t s t h a t h a d p r o d u c e d a n d h a d b e e n p a r t o f t h o s e f o r m s . T h i s d e t a c h e d c o n c e p t o f f o r m s , s o r e l a t e d t o t h e m o n u m e n t a l i s m o f t h e r o m a n t i c a g e a n d t o t h e c o n c e p t o f a r t f o r a r t ' s s a k e , l e d t o t h e l o v e n o t o n l y o f i s o l a t e d m a j e s t i c r u i n s , b u t , a l s o o f p e r f e c t , d e t a c h e d , f r e e s t a n d i n g f o r m s , a b s t r a c t e d e v e n f r o m m e a n i n g i f i t w e r e p o s s i b l e . T h e o b j e c t f l u n g c r a z i l y i n t o t h e m i d d l e o f t h e l a n d s c a p e s o m e w h e r e w i t h n o r e a s o n o r m e a n i n g , t o p r o d u c e a c e r t a i n a s t o n i s h i n g o r m o n u m e n t a l e f f e c t i s a r o m a n t i c i d e a l t h a t o n e c a n s e e a s v e r y s t r o n g s i n c e t h e e a r l y d r e a m s o f B o u l l e e a n d L e d o u x : \" A s t o n i s h m e n t i s t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s u b l i m e i n i t s h i g h e s t d e g r e e \" . R u i n s w e r e e v e n a r t i f i c i a l l y p r o d u c e d , s u c h a s t h o s e r e m a i n s t h a t w e s e e t o d a y o f t h e e x h i b i t i o n o f S a n F r a n c i s c o . T h e p r o p o s a l t o g r o u p t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f a c i t y i n t o a m i l e - h i g h s k y s c r a p e r i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e o p e n l a n d i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g a s s o m e t h i n g n e w o r e x t r a v a g a n t , i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e s e r o m a n t i c t r e n d s . I n f a c t a d r a w i n g o f a p r o j e c t o f a t o w e r b y B o u l l e e ( f i g u r e 3 ) ^ ^ s e e m s t o a n t i c i p a t e s u c h a n i d e a . A n o t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g c o m p a r i s o n c a n b e m a d e b e t w e e n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s s h o w n b y a d e s i g n b y L e d o u x ( f i g u r e 4 ) ^ J a n d t h e S e a r ' s P a c i f i c C o a s t H e a d q u a r t e r s ( f i g u r e 5 ) o f c o n t e m p o r a r y d e s i g n . T h e q u e s t i o n t h a t o n e h a s t o m a k e i s w h a t k i n d o f a c i t y i s e n v i s a g e d w h e n t h e s e d e s i g n s o f s u b l i m e i s o l a t e d m o n u m e n t s a r e m a d e . O n e s h o u l d t h i n k t h a t t h e d e s e r t s h o u l d b e t h e m o s t s u i t a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h i s b u i l d i n g i s a p e r f e c t a c c o m p l i s h m e n t i n t e r m s o f g e o m e t r i c f o r m : 258 . F i g u r e 3 259 . F i g u r e 4 2 6 1 . n o t o n l y i t i s a p e r f e c t c u b e , p e r f e c t l y f r e e , s t a n d i n g , b u t a l s o i t s u c c e e d s i n c o n c e a l i n g c o m p l e t e l y i t s c o n t e n t s , u s e a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a n k s t o a p e r f e c t r e f l e c t i o n t h a t t r a n s f o r m s i t i n t o a s h i n y m a g i c b o x , a s i f i t w e r e o n e s o l i d p i e c e d r o p p e d b y a g i a n t . We m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e t h a t t h e r o m a n t i c m o v e m e n t w a s i n t r i n s i c a l l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y a n d d e s t r u c t i v e o f c o n t i n u i t y . T h i s a l s o d e v e l o p e d a n a w e o f d e s t r u c t i o n , d e a t h a n d c a t a s t r o p h i e s . I n i t i a l l y , c e m e t e r i e s a n d d e a t h w e r e t h e s u b j e c t o f c o n s i d e r a b l e c u r i o s i t y a n d s p e c u l a t i o n b y l i t e r a r y w r i t e r s a s w e l l a s b y d e s i g n e r s . F r a i l t y a n d s i c k n e s s b e c a m e f a s h i o n a b l e a n d o f t e n f e i g n e d ; l a d i e s w o u l d m a k e t h e m s e l v e s l o o k p a l e . E v e n f o o d w a s a p r e o c c u p a t i o n f o r M a l t h u s . P o e m a d e t e r r o r a n d c a t a s t r o p h e a m a i n l i t e r a r y i n g r e d i e n t , a n d a s e n s e o f c a t a s t r o p h e t h a t m i g h t c o m e w a s i n t h e m o o d o f t h e a g e , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e e n t h u s i a s m f o r t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e b o u r g e o i s p r o g r e s s . T h e r e b e l l i o u s n e s s c o n n e c t e d w i t h r o m a n t i c i n d i v i d u a l -i s m a l s o l e d t o s e e i n g i n n o v a t i o n m o r e a n d m o r e i n a r e v o l u t i o n -a r y s e n s e , a s s u b s t i t u t i o n o f s o m e t h i n g w i t h s o m e t h i n g e l s e , r a t h e r t h a n a s a g r a d u a l i m p r o v e m e n t . F e a r a n d s u s p i c i o n b e c a m e a f a c t o f l i f e a m o n g t h e d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a t i o n s : i t h a d b e c o m e p a r t o f t h e m o d e o f t h i n k i n g t h a t e a c h g e n e r a t i o n h a d a s a k i n d o f n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t o r d u t y t o u n d o m o s t o f w h a t h a d b e e n d o n e t o s t a r t a n e w . F a s h i o n s c o n s e q u e n t l y s t a r t e d t o b e m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d t o c h a n g e m u c h m o r e r a p i d l y . T h e w o r d t r a d i t i o n a c q u i r e d a n e w m e a n i n g , s i g n i f y i n g m o s t l y j u s t t h e 2 6 2 . s t y l e o f t h e p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n a c e r t a i n p a t r i m o n y o f i d e a s a n d p r a c t i c e s g r o w i n g c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h a n u n i n t e r r u p t e d s e q u e n c e o f g e n e r a t i o n s . I n p a r t i c u l a r i t b e c a m e a c o m m o n n o t i o n a n d a t t i t u d e t h a t t h e n e w g e n e r a t i o n s h a d t o g r a b t h e p o s i t i o n s h e l d b y t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n s t o c h a n g e t h i n g s a n d t h a t t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n s h a d t o k e e p t h i n g s a s t h e y a r e , t o d e f e n d t h e i r p o s i t i o n s a n d t o i m p o s e c o n t i n u i t y t h r o u g h t h e e x e r c i s e o f p o w e r . F o r e x a m p l e a b o a r d o f d i r e c t o r s m a y d e c i d e t o b u i l d a s k y s c r a p e r a s a n e w h e a d q u a r t e r s o f a c o m p a n y t o l e a v e a m o n u m e n t o f t h e i r a g e a n d t o i m p o s e s u c h a m o n u m e n t o n n e w g e n e r a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e t h e m s e l v e s w i t h a f o r m o f i m m o r t a l i t y . T h e L a d n e r t o w e r r e c e n t l y d o n a t e d t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i s a s m a l l b u t o b v i o u s e x a m p l e o f t h i s k i n d o f p h i l o s o p h y . R o m a n t i c i s m m a d e i t a c u s t o m f o r . f a t h e r s a n d s o n s t o t a k e o p p o s i n g s i d e s , a c o m m o n t h e m e i n d r a m a s o f t h e p e r i o d . T h e r o m a n t i c i n d i v i d u a l i s s t i l l t h e s o n . o f t h e \" S t u r m a n d D r a n g \" : h e i s a l o n e i n s o l i t a r y s t r u g g l e , w a i t i n g t o b e c o m e f 91 \" h a n d s o m e w i t h f a m e a n d m i s f o r t u n e \" v ' a n d a n e w k i n d o f U l y s s e s . I n f a c t r o m a n t i c i s m i s d e s t r u c t i v e o f b o n d s o f c o n t i n u i t y n o t o n l y a m o n g t h e g e n e r a t i o n s , f r o m p a s t t o f u t u r e ( t h e r o m a n t i c m a n f e a r s a c a t a s t r o p h e f o r t h e f u t u r e a n d i s n o t e v e n i n t e r e s t e d i n p r o c r e a t i n g ) b u t a l s o a m o n g t h e p e o p l e o f t h e s a m e g e n e r a t i o n . \" D o y o u o w n t h i n g \" . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , t o o , r o m a n t i c c o n s e r v a t i v e s a n d r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s s h a r e t h e s a m e b a s i c i d e a s : e v e n i n t h e m o d e r n w o r l d o f a n t s t h a t t h e y s e e m i n v o l u n t a r i l y t o s h a p e , t h e y s e e t h e m s e l v e s a s i s o l a t e d m o n u m e n t s . T h e m o d e r n m a s s e s a r e m a d e o f p e o p l e w h o s e e t h e m s e l v e s a s 2 6 3 . i s o l a t e d a n d a l i e n a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e i n d i v i d u a l l o n g i n g f o r i n f i n i t y , p e r f e c t i o n a n d h a p p i n e s s i s b a l a n c e d b y a s e n s e o f c o l l e c t i v e d o o m . C a n O u r C i t i e s S u r v i v e ? , a s k s J . L . S e r t f r o m B o s t o n i n 1 9 4 7 . ^ \" ^ T h e q u e s t i o n i s a l r e a d y a c e n t u r y o l d b u t i t w i l l k e e p c o m i n g b a c k , w i t h a l w a y s s t r o n g e r a r g u m e n t s . T h e i s o l a t e d s o n s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n a n d o f \" c o n s u m i s m \" s e e m t o b e a f r a i d o f t h e F r a n k e n s t e i n t h a t t h e y h a v e i m a g i n e d t h e y h a v e c r e a t e d . T h e l o s t s e n s e o f c o n t i n u i t y c r e a t e s a d i s o r i e n t a t i o n . T h e n e w b o u r g e o i s c l a s s t h a t e m e r g e d t o d o m i n a n c e d u r i n g t h e r o m a n t i c a g e d e d i c a t e d i t s e l f t o a g r e a t e x t e n t t o t h e p u r s u i t o f i n d i v i d u a l e g o i s t i c d r e a m s , b u t i t a l w a y s l a c k e d t h e s e n s e o f s e c u r i t y o f t h e p r e v i o u s a r i s t o c r a t i c e s t a b l i s h m e n t t o f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e . T h e e c o n o m i c t h e o r i e s o f A d a m S m i t h , R i c a r d o a n d M a l t h u s d i d n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o a s e n s e o f e c o n o m i c s e c u r i t y , a n d i n g e n e r a l , c h a n g e w a s d e s i r e d b u t t e n s e l y f e a r e d a t t h e s a m e t i m e . We h a v e s p o k e n o f i n n o v a t i o n s e e n a s s u b s t i t u t i o n o f s o m e t h i n g w i t h s o m e t h i n g e l s e , o f t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f c o n t i n u i t y t h r o u g h t h e e x e r c i s e o f p o w e r , o f t h e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e m a n o f t h e r o m a n t i c a g e , o f h i s f e a r o f d e s t r u c t i o n a n d o f h i s d e s i r e o f i n f i n i t y . . . T h e s e a r e a l l a s p e c t s o f a p h i l o s o p h y a n d o f a p s y c h o l o g y o f r o m a n t i c i s m t h a t e x p l a i n s t h e d e e p r o o t s o f t h e t r e n d t o m o n u m e n t a l i s m i n r o m a n t i c a r c h i t e c t u r e . I t i s t h e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e r o m a n t i c i n d i v i d u a l , w h e t h e r f r e e e n t r e p r e n e u r o r r e v o l u t i o n a r y , t h a t o n e m a y s e e a t t h e r o o t s o f t h e m o n u m e n t a -l i s m o f t h e r o m a n t i c a g e , b o t h i n t h e s m a l l a n d t h e l a r g e s c a l e . 264 . It is a mistake to associate monumental ism with the styles of the  revival periods. The monumental trend was already strong at the  time of the designs for the cenotaph for Newton, and always  remained strong. In North America there was not even an alter-native to this trend, because i t developed contemporarily with i ts b ir th . But in Europe the trend developed slowly and deeply, showing even more the sources of i ts character. An interesting sketch by Le Corbusier (figure 6)^ '\"\"'\"\"^  shows how even buildings that were designed with a completely different concept, and which were old, were \"monumentalized\" by transforming them into isolated, free standing structures, to be seen from the outside rather than  fron inside (just as majestic ruins of the past age ought to be seen and cherished in an open f i e ld ) . The example is Notre Dame, in Paris. It is worth mentioning here that romanticism was a phenomenon which developed as a kind of northern version of the Renaissance and which always had very strong cultural ties with the northern European countries. This is an important fact in relation to the ethnic composition of the North American countries in their f i r s t two centuries. Camillo Sitte remarked that the placement of churches and of other buildings as detached structures in the middle of squares was a northern and a nineteenth century phenomenon, while in the Italian squares, and particularly in Rome, churches had never been free standing. It is also interest-ing to see that despite the acute observation that Le Corbusier made regarding the development of the square around Notre Dame, he turned out to propose for his visionary city a perfectly ( 1 2 ) monumental set of isolated geometric pieces (figure 7) that was in perfect accordance with Ledoux' dreams, and that he 2 6 5 . Figure 7 2 6 7 . f o l l o w e d t h e s a m e m o n u m e n t a l t r a d i t i o n i n m o s t o f h i s p r o j e c t s . I n t h i s l i g h t , L e C o r b u s i e r ' s p r o f e s s e d c a r t e s i a n i s m i s e v e n m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g ; i t w o u l d o n c e m o r e s h o w h o w s t r o n g l y m o n u m e n t a l i s m a n d t h e l o v e o f p u r e g e o m e t r y h a v e b e c o m e a t t a c h e d . T h e c i t y h a s b e c o m e a g r o u p o f g e o m e t r i c b l o c k s , a s i f t h e y w e r e p l a c e d b y g i g a n t i c c h i l d r e n p l a y i n g i n a m i n i a t u r e c o u n t r y s i d e . G u l l i v e r ' s e x p e r i e n c e i s b e c o m i n g t r u e . E v e n f o r t h e b o x h o u s i n g t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n N e w Y o r k C i t y t h e s i t e c h o s e n a l l o w e d a d r a m a t i c o p e n s p a c e a l l a r o u n d i t , t h a n k s t o t h e H u d s o n R i v e r . T h e g e o m e t r i c c h a r a c t e r o f t h e m o n u m e n t a l a r c h i t e c t u r e o f t h e r o m a n t i c a g e s h o u l d n o t b e m i s s e d e v e n i f r e v i v a l i s m o r o t h e r a r c h i t e c t u r a l i n t e r e s t s c o n f u s e d t h e s u r f a c e s o r i f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n i s n o t p u r e a n d s i m p l e . T h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f m o n u m e n t a l p i e c e s o f (13) a r c h i t e c t u r e , e x p l o i t i n g \" t h e s u b l i m e m e a n i n g o f c o r r e l a t i o n \" h a s b e c o m e t h e u r b a n g a m e , r e g a r d l e s s o f p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d , t r e n d , u s e . T h e l i t t l e d e t a c h e d h o u s e s h a v e b e c o m e l i t t l e m o n u m e n t s t o o , b e a u t i f u l a s l i t t l e t h i n g s c a n b e , n o t s u b l i m e , a s B u r k e a n d K a n t c o u l d e x p l a i n . \" T h e s u b l i m e m u s t a l w a y s b e g r e a t ; t h e b e a u t i f u l c a n a l s o b e s m a l l . T h e s u b l i m e m u s t b e s i m p l e ; t h e f 14) b e a u t i f u l c a n b e a d o r n e d a n d o r n a m e n t e d . \" ^ y B e a u t y h e r e c o m e s f r o m t h e s a m e s o u r c e s t h a t n o u r i s h e d t h e f a i r y t a l e s o f r o m a n t i -c i s m . T h e r o m a n t i c d e t a c h e d s i n g l e f a m i l y d w e l l i n g m u s t b e s e e n a l s o a s t h e b o u r g e o i s l i t t l e m o n u m e n t . T h e b o u r g e o i s r e m e m b e r s t h e c a s t l e o f t h e p r i n c e s b u t i s n o t a t e a s e t h e r e . H e w a n t s a l i t t l e l o v e n e s t f o r t h e f a m i l y , r e m i n i s c e n t o f s o m e r o m a n t i c 2 6 8 . tales. He is interested in history and \"periods\", and has a middle class informal formality. The precedent of Fonthil l Abbey is downgraded socially and economically, brought a l i t t l e closer to the town and to practical needs, and mass produced. The two by four in North America becomes the main component of the produc tion line of the l i t t l e , miniaturized beautiful castles. Romanti cism is balancing the love for the sublime with the daily use of l i t t l e beautiful things and down to earth bourgeois \".common sense\". The sublime and the beautiful are two simultaneous aspects of romanticism in the manner of two extremes, such as large and small, awesome and attractive, for example. The opposite extremes of the compositions of Richard Wagner and of the rise of caricature are contemporary in the development of romanticism. This is why monumental ism and the love for the isolated cottage, the pretty l i t t l e house of the fairy tales developed contemporarily. Nature and the agricultural man praised and admired by the romantics are at the origins of \"common sense\". And \"common sense\" is at the foundations of those sound prejudices that are transmitted from generation to generation and form the bulk of conservative knowledge, according to Burke. It is a non-rational bulk of knowledge that becomes like an instinct and should be respected as such. Reason cannot question i t , but can only respect i t and follow i t as a guide. This is an attitude that penetrated the romantic generations together with the romantic tenets, tastes, principles and ideas and made them even more 2 6 9 . pervasive and stubbornly strong, even after two centuries since their development. The perception of the sublime according to Burke is one of those non-rational sentiments that is carried almost as an instinct from generation to generation. The romantic generations at least proved him right. From the end of the eighteenth century the design of gardens was modified and nature was rearranged to produce the feeling of the natural sublimity. Instead of the clearly architectural design of the Italian and French gardens, where vegetal objects were arranged and tended as physical extensions of the buildings in the open a i r , with a sensuous relation with the colours, the smell, the shadows and lights of the garden, which was a clearly man-made object, the new gardens are \"natural\". They are designed to produce an i d y l l with nature, as i f i t had been found that way - untouched, pure, immaculate, not profaned by human hands. It is the new fashion: the English garden. It wi l l form nature across the continents for two centuries. The new English gardens wi l l allow Goethe and artists of a l l sorts and countries to find their sublime relationship and i d y l l with Nature, in a state of awe and wonder. These gardens are the next thing after Arcadia, and in their naturalness they would mate very well with a ruin or with another ideal sublime object, maybe a lone monument. They are built in gentle h i l l s with sparse trees and a carpet of grass, A stream and a l i t t l e lake bring variety and the l i f e of Nature, A few willow trees reflect 2 7 0 , in the clear waters, A casual meandering path leads through a small forest on the side of the lake. The whole scenery is designed to be as \"picturesque\" as a painter might wish i t to be for an inspiring natural scene of a sublime landscape. The dream of Nature endures the reorganizing of nature so that i t looks natural and or ig inal . Nature must be recreated, purif ied. This notion spread like a fever to North America, where huge areas were recreated or set aside for contemplating the picturesque and the sublime. The immaculate aspect of western North America fascinated as a dream the romantic travel lers , painters and writers; even that, however, was modified here and there into more natural, picturesque, tamed, i d y l l i c settings. \"Youth\" in \"The Voyage of Life\" by Thomas Cole is a painting that well synthesizes the favourite natural themes. It is believed that Olmsted won the assignment of the project of Central Park thanks to very picturesque watercolors of the natural scenes which he submitted. In the English garden Nature is brought back to man as an Eden, as a morally regenerating factor. The English garden satisfies the desire of perfect naturalness, of things unspoiled by the sinful human hand (as they must have been in a primeval state), of natural order and cleanliness (a shirt for-gotten there would be a crime), and of in f in i ty . While the perspective of a path of a baroque garden.would have a clear axial direction, would normally be stopped by a statue or a fountain at the focal point and the view would normally end against a hedge or a stone wall with a wrought iron fence behind i t , in the English garden wherever possible the path leads to points of inf ini te open vistas (which would not exist in Italy except over 2 7 1 . the sea) of serene and bucolic landscapes. When there is a statue or some building this is a true dramatic monument: i t is set in an inf ini te landscape, with nothing around or behind i t . It has to be sublime. Another important feature of an English garden is that i t cannot merge with a different fabric such as a building; in this respect the garden i t s e l f becomes a monument, in that i t sets i t s e l f in a world apart and i t is detached from the other objects, in the romantic fashion. It participates in the romantic destruction of continuity and love for isolat ion. It is also a place of noble melancholy and of quiet wonder: \"deep loneliness is sublime\"'-'\"^''. As such the romantic garden can be contrasted  only with something abruptly different and equally sublime, unless i t is set in an unlimited view of countryside. This is why the simple geometric forms that contrast i t in North American cit ies are so f i t t ing and participate so well of the romantic sublime atmosphere; a successful example is Central Park in New York City. This example shows quite clearly how r ig id the sublime formulas can be. We have opened this chapter by observing that the return to Nature and the rise of new sciences, technologies and industries are among the important themes of the romantic age. Their importance is even greater because the romantic creeds produced a kind of symbiotic necessity and growth of the two themes. The romantics loved the dialect ic struggle of opposing trends and forces, the opposite limitations of contrasting forces, 272 . and tended to believe that an overwhelming synthesis, sublime or picturesque or tragic, could or had to be achieved. Industry  and Nature, Science and Spontaneity, Law and Freedom, Technique  and Intuition, Reason and Sentiment, etc. provided some of the  dual motifs on which the romantics dwell to serve their creative  anguish or synthesis, even to our day. For two centuries we have had proposals of a l l sorts to bring together these themes perceived as opposing poles of human attitudes. At the origins of the architectural synthesis of these same centuries one may see particularly the concepts of the sublime and of the beautiful that were developed in the eighteenth century. These concepts were extremely well suited to provide the aesthetic key with which to solve the romantic  contrasts. In the description of the sublime written by Burke we can find most of the motives of the modern architectural blocks; for him \"visual objects of great dimensions are sublime\" , \"everything great by its quantity must necessarily be one, simple f 171 and entire\" , and \"a species of greatness arises from the a r t i f i c i a l inf inite\", which \"consists of a uniform succession of f 181 great parts\". J What must be obtained is \"not pleasure, but a sort of delightful horror, a sort of tranquil i ty tinged with terror; which as i t belongs to self-preservation, is one of the strongest of a l l the passions. Its object is the sublime. Its highest degree I ca l l astonishment; the subordinate degrees r 191 are awe, reverence, and r e s p e c t , . , . , \" v . \"Al l general priva-273. t i o n s a r e g r e a t , b e c a u s e t h e y a r e a l l t e r r i b l e ; V a c u i t y , D a r k n e s s , S o l i t u d e , a n d S i l e n c e . \" ^ 2 ( ^ \" A n o t h e r s o u r c e o f t h e s u b l i m e i s i n f i n i t y ; i f i t does n o t r a t h e r b e l o n g t o t h e l a s t . I n f i n i t y h a s a t e n d e n c y t o f i l l t h e m i n d w i t h t h a t s o r t o f d e l i g h t f u l h o r r o r , f 21 w h i c h i s t h e most g e n u i n e e f f e c t and t r u e r . t e s t o f t h e s u b l i m e . \" \" I N F I N I T Y , t h o u g h o f a n o t h e r k i n d , c a u s e s much o f o u r p l e a s u r e i n a g r e e a b l e , as w e l l as o f o u r d e l i g h t i n s u b l i m e , i m a g e s . The s p r i n g i s t h e p l e a s a n t e s t o f t h e s e a s o n s ; . . . I n u n f i n i s h e d s k e t c h e s o f d r a w i n g , I have o f t e n s e e n s o m e t h i n g w h i c h p l e a s e d me b e y o n d t h e b e s t f i n i s i n g h : . . . \" \" A n o t h e r s o u r c e o f g r e a t n e s s i s D i f f i c u l t y . When any work seems t o have r e q u i r e d immense f o r c e (22) and l a b o u r t o e f f e c t i t , t h e i d e a i s g r e a t \" \" M a g n i f i c e n c e \" i s l i k e w i s e a s o u r c e o f t h e s u b l i m e . \" \" . . . s u c h a l i g h t as t h a t o f t h e s u n , i m m e d i a t e l y e x e r t e d on t h e e y e , as i t o v e r p o w e r s t h e s e n s e , i s a v e r y g r e a t i d e a . \/ , A q u i c k t r a n s i t i o n f r o m l i g h t . t o d a r k n e s s , o r f r o m d a r k n e s s t o l i g h t , has y e t a g r e a t e r e f f e c t . But d a r k n e s s i s more p r o d u c t i v e o f s u b l i m e i d e a s t h a n l i g h t . \" B u r k e c o n t i n u e s w i t h a r e v e a l i n g comment t o a v e r s e w r i t t e n by M i l t o n , h i s f a v o u r i t e p o e t : \" ' D a r k w i t h e x c e s s i v e l i g h t t h y s k i r t s a p p e a r ' . H e r e i s an i d e a n o t o n l y p o e t i c a l i n a h i g h d e g r e e , b u t s t r i c t l y and p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y j u s t . E x t r e m e l i g h t , by o v e r c o m i n g t h e o r g a n s o f s i g h t , o b l i t e r a t e s a l l o b j e c t s , so as i n i t s e f f e c t e x a c t l y t o r e s e m b l e d a r k n e s s . A f t e r l o o k i n g f o r some t i m e a t t h e s u n , two b l a c k s p o t s , t h e i m p r e s s i o n w h i c h i t l e a v e s , seem t o d a n c e b e f o r e o u r e y e s . T h u s a r e two i d e a s as o p p o s i t e as c a n be  i m a g i n e d r e c o n c i l e d i n t h e e x t r e m e s o f b o t h ; and b o t h , i n s p i t e 274 . of their opposite nature, brought to concur in producing the sub 1ime. And this is not the only instance wherein the opposite extremes operate equally in favour of the sublime, which in a l l (231 things abhors mediocrity.\" v The sublime was proposed and loved before engineering  made i t possible in its most grandiose modern manifestations; undoubtedly a shiny white shell of concrete r is ing eight hundred feet above a deep alpine valley, or the view of the earth from a spaceship, or the skyscrapers facing the sea, would have impressed Edmund Burke as overwhelming examples of the sublime. The isolated skyscraper or other free-standing monumental building, especially when facing a park or other wide open space, is probably the most common example of the influence of the sublime in architec-ture. But engineers and architects alike have gone very far in the dream and in the exploitation of the sublime in many ways, particularly at the exhibitions, from Ei f f e l ' s tower in Paris to the Space Needle in Seattle. By distinguishing the sublime from the beautiful, Burke laid down also the foundations for the theory of the picturesque, which Knight and Price expanded from concepts mainly related to the beautiful. Beauty does not depend upon proportion and perfection, as i t used to in the Renaissance, but from pleasing qualit ies , mostly opposite to those of the sublime, such as smallness, smoothness, variety, lack of sharp angles, \"a delicate frame\", \"colors clear and bright, but not very strong and glaring\"'-2 7 5 . B e a u t y h a s f e m i n i n e q u a l i t i e s , a n d i t i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s m o r e (25) a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n a t u r e o f I t a l i a n s a n d F r e n c h m e n . T h i s i s a n i m p o r t a n t r a c i a l o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t i s r e p e a t e d a n d e x p l a i n e d a t g r e a t l e n g t h b y K a n t , a n d w h i c h w o u l d i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l r u l i n g c l a s s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a s a w i n t h e s u b l i m e a l s o a r e a s o n o f e t h n i c s u p e r i o r i t y . T h i s w o u l d a l s o g i v e a p a r t i a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e f a c t t h a t m o s t o f t h e p i c t u r e s q u e v i e w s o f v i l l a g e s a r e t a k e n f r o m m e d i t e r r a n e a n v i l l a g e s , a n d i n g e n e r a l , a p a r t f r o m p u r e v i e w s o f p i c t u r e s q u e r u r a l l a n d s c a p e s , t h e p i c t u r e s q u e , e s p e c i a l l y i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , h a s b e e n m o r e o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i m a g e s o f v i l l a g e s f r o m m e d i t e r r a n e a n o r l a t i n c u l t u r e s . \" T h e I t a l i a n a p p e a r s t o h a v e a f e e l i n g m i x e d f r o m t h a t o f a S p a n i a r d a n d t h a t o f a F r e n c h m a n , m o r e f e e l i n g f o r t h e b e a u t i f u l t h a n t h e f o r m e r a n d m o r e f o r t h e s u b l i m e t h a n t h e l a t t e r . I n t h i s w a y , a s I t h i n k , t h e r e m a i n i n g t r a i t s o f h i s m o r a l c h a r a c t e r c a n b e e x p l a i n e d . \" * D e s p i t e t h e r o m a n t i c c l a i m f o r a d i s i n t e r e s t e d a r t , a n a r t f o r a r t ' s s a k e , o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m K a n t h i m s e l f , t h e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e s u b l i m e , t h e b e a u t i f u l , t h e p i c t u r e s q u e a n d e v e n s u c h g e n e r a l n o t i o n s a s t a s t e w e r e c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d t o m o r a l , r e l i g i o u s a n d r a c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . \" T h e N e g r o e s o f A f r i c a h a v e b y n a t u r e n o f e e l i n g t h a t r i s e s a b o v e t h e t r i f l i n g . M r . H u m e c h a l l e n g e s a n y o n e t o c i t e a s i n g l e e x a m p l e i n w h i c h a N e g r o h a s * T h o m a s D e Q u i n c y t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h t h e s e c t i o n o n n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s f r o m K a n t ' s O b s e r v a t i o n s o n t h e F e e l i n g o f t h e B e a u t i f u l a n d S u b l i m e i n 1 8 2 4 . 276. shown t a l e n t s , and a s s e r t s t h a t among t h e h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f b l a c k s who a r e t r a n s p o r t e d e l s e w h e r e f r o m t h e i r c o u n t r i e s , a l t h o u g h many o f them have been s e t f r e e , s t i l l n o t a s i n g l e one was e v e r f o u n d who p r e s e n t e d a n y t h i n g g r e a t i n a r t o r s c i e n c e o r any o t h e r p r a i s e w o r t h y q u a l i t y , e v e n t h o u g h among t h e w h i t e s some c o n t i n u a l l y r i s e a l o f t f r o m t h e l o w e s t r a b b l e , and t h r o u g h s u p e r i o r g i f t s e a r n r e s p e c t i n t h e w o r l d . So f u n d a m e n t a l i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e two r a c e s o f man, and i t a p p e a r s t o be as g r e a t i n r e g a r d t o m e n t a l c a p a c i t i e s as i n c o l o r . The r e l i g i o n o f f e t i s h e s t h a t i s ;so w i d e s p r e a d among them i s p e r h a p s a s o r t o f i d o l a t r y t h a t s i n k s as d e e p l y :'. (271 i n t o t h e t r i f l i n g as a p p e a r s t o be p o s s i b l e t o human n a t u r e . \" I t w o u l d be a m i s t a k e t o b e l i e v e t h a t when K a n t a r o s e f r o m h i s \" d o g m a t i c s l e e p \" and w r o t e t h e t h r e e c r i t i q u e s he r e p u d i a t e d h i s f o r m e r t r e n d s . I t was r a t h e r an e x c e l l e n t e x e r c i s e o f r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h o s e same t r e n d s , and u n d o u b t e d l y Kant l a i d t h e most p r o f o u n d r a t i o n a l b a s i s n o t o n l y f o r r o m a n t i c i d e a l i s m , b u t a l s o f o r t h e s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t t h e r o m a n t i c s seemed t o f e e l b e t w e e n a e s t h e t i c and m o r a l , r e l i g i o u s and m e t a -p h y s i c a l a t t i t u d e s . The s u b l i m e was t h u s i n t r o d u c e d as t h e most s u p e r i o r a e s t h e t i c f e e l i n g , and t h e one i n w h i c h t h e A n g l o -S a xon r a c e and i t s m o r a l i t y e x c e l l e d . The a e s t h e t i c s o f t h e s u b l i m e became a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d o m i n a n c e , w i t h p r o g r e s s , and w i t h t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e s u p e r i o r 277 . p e o p l e and n a t i o n s . * \" I know o f n o t h i n g s u b l i m e , w h i c h i s n o t some m o d i f i c a t i o n o f p o w e r \" ' 2 8 - ' . R u s k i n p u t t h e Lamp o f Power among h i s S e v e n Lamps o f A r c h i t e c t u r e . The s u b l i m e was what b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r s e n t i m e n t , s c i e n c e , n a t u r e and s o m e t i m e s e v e n God i n one v i s i o n . T h i s i s t h e s y n t h e s i s i n w h i c h E m e r s o n , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e most t y p i c a l N o r t h A m e r i c a n t r a d i t i o n , s e e s N a t u r e and S c i e n c e c o m i n g t o g e t h e r , w i t h p o e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f t h e s u b l i m e was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an o b s c u r e , i n t u i t i v e and s k e t c h y f e e l i n g , e v e n i f o v e r w h e l m i n g , i n most c a s e s . \"A c l e a r i d e a i s f 2 9\") t h e r e f o r e a n o t h e r name f o r a l i t t l e i d e a . \" ^ J C l a r i t y b e l o n g s r a t h e r t o t h e s m a l l , t h e b e a u t i f u l , t h e w e l l - c r a f t e d t h i n g s . T h i s i s why i n t u i t i o n n o r m a l l y l e a d s r e a s o n i n t h e r o m a n t i c way t o t h e s u b l i m e . The s u b l i m e i s s u d d e n , o v e r w h e l m i n g , r e v e a l i n g . I t i s g e n i u s , t a l e n t o r i n s p i r a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h a t l e a d s t o t h e s u b l i m e . The a r t i s t t h e r e f o r e i s a \" g i f t e d \" man. He p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e s u b l i m e m y s t e r i e s . He i s t h e h i g h p r i e s t t h a t m i g h t a l s o d i s p e n s e t h e b e a u t i f u l , b u t who l e a d s t o t h e s u b l i m e i n t u i t i o n s . However t h e \" c l e a r i d e a s \" d e a r t o D e s c a r t e s a r e n o t e n t i r e l y f o r g o t t e n o r o p p o s e d . Nor o n l y i s a c l e a r i d e a \" a n o t h e r name f o r a l i t t l e i d e a \" , b u t i s i s a l s o t h e c o n t r a s t i n g e l e m e n t o r p a r t o f t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f t h e \" a r t i f i c i a l i n f i n i t e \" w h i c h a l l o w s t h e f e a r f u l c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s u b l i m e i n t u i t i o n o r v i s i o n . I n f a c t a g r o u p o f \" c l e a r i d e a s \" , s u c h as t h o s e o f t h e s c i e n c e s , c a n p r o d u c e an i d e a l i z e d , h i g h l y r o m a n t i c , s u b l i m e and f r i g h t e n i n g v i s i o n , and become a s k e t c h y , o b s c u r e and *The s k y s c r a p e r became a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p o w e r - a n d s u p e r i o r d e v e l o p -ment, i n a u n i q u e c o m b i n a t i o n . . 278. o v e r w h e l m i n g g r a n d i o s e i n t u i t i o n . L e C o r b u s i e r s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n o n e a m o n g s u c h r o m a n t i c C a r t e s i a n s . G i e d i o n m a k e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e t o w e r s o f A s i n e l l i a n d G a r i s e n d a ^ ^ a n d t h e R o c k e f e l l e r C e n t r e : a p a r t f r o m o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t w o u l d i n d i c a t e o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e i r r e m a r k a b l e d i f f e r e n c e , t h e \" l e a n i n g t o w e r s o f t w o n o b l e f a m i l i e s o f B o l o g n a a r e p r i v a t e p a t r i c i a n f o r t r e s s e s o f g r e a t h e i g h t w h i c h c a n y e t b e e m b r a c e d i n a s i n g l e v i e w \" ( T h e s e f o r t r e s s e s n o r m a l l y w e r e n o t d e s i g n e d t o b e f r e e s t a n d i n g e x c e p t f o r t h e i r u p p e r p a r t ) . I n s t e a d , \" e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e n e w u r b a n s c a l e l i k e R o c k e f e l l e r C e n t e r a r e f o r c e f u l l y c o n c e i v e d i n s p a c e - t i m e a n d c a n n o t b e e m b r a c e d i n a s i n g l e v i e w . \" T o o b t a i n a f e e l i n g f o r t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s t h e e y e m u s t f u n c t i o n a s i n t h e h i g h s p e e d p h o t o g r a p h s o f E d g e r t o n \" . T h e s u b l i m e h e r e c o m e s f r o m a s k e t c h y a n d o v e r w h e l m i n g i n t u i t i o n . T h e c o m p a r i s o n w i t h s p e e d p h o t o g r a p h y o f m o t i o n i s n o t v e r y s t r o n g a n d a c c u r a t e . I n s t e a d , t h e h a r m o n y , s m o o t h n e s s a n d e l e g a n c e o f t h e g o l f e r s h o w n i n t h e e x a m p l e w o u l d i n d u c e o n e t o b e l i e v e t h a t s p e e d p h o t o g r a p h y s i m p l y p r o d u c e s b e a u t i f u l i m a g e s , t h a t o n e m i g h t f o l l o w a s s u b l i m e a w e s o m e i n t u i t i o n s o n l y w h e n t h e y a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e c o s m i c s c a l e o f m o d e r n s c i e n c e . T h i s i n t u i t i o n , h o w e v e r , w o u l d b e a n a c t o f p e r s o n a l i m a g i n a t i o n a n d c o u l d n o t b e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e c o n f u s e d o v e r w h e l m i n g e f f e c t o f t h e s k y s c r a p e r , a s i n t h e c a s e s h o w n . K a n t m a k e s i m p o r t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t h e u s e o f f l o w e r s w i t h t h e \" m o r a l l y b e a u t i f u l \" : \" i f w e e x a m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n 279. o f t h e s e x e s i n t h e s e p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , we f i n d t h a t t h e E u r o p e a n a l o n e has f o u n d t h e s e c r e t o f d e c o r a t i n g w i t h so many f l o w e r s t h e s e n s u a l charm o f a m i g h t y i n c l i n a t i o n and o f i n t e r l a c i n g i t w i t h so much m o r a l i t y t h a t he h a s n o t o n l y e x t r e m e l y e l e v a t e d i t s f 3 1 * ) a g r e a b l e n e s s b u t a l s o made i t v e r y d e c o r o u s . \" I n t h e \" C r i t i q u e o f J u d g e m e n t \" K a n t n o t e s t h a t \" g a r d e n i n g m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d as ( 3 2 * 1 a k i n d o f p a i n t i n g \" . J I n t h e r o m a n t i c t r a d i t i o n t h e l o v e o f f l o w e r s and o f g a r d e n s became r e l a t e d n o t o n l y w i t h a e s t h e t i c b e a u t y , b u t a l s o w i t h t h e m o r a l l y b e a u t i f u l . The g e n t l e p e r s o n must l o v e f l o w e r s ; and t h e p e r s o n who l o v e s f l o w e r s i s g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d as a b e t t e r p e r s o n . I t became a f a s h i o n t o know t h e names, p r o p e r t i e s and f e a t u r e s o f t h e v a r i o u s t r e e s , s h r u b s and f l o w e r s . T hose who c u t t r e e s and w a l k on f l o w e r s a r e n o t o n l y P h i l i s t i n e s , b u t maybe e v e r f u t u r e c r i m i n a l s . S o u t h e r n E u r o p e a n s a r e condemned f o r t h e i r d i s r e g a r d o f g a r d e n s and o f f l o w e r s ; a s e n s e o f m o r a l d i r t i n e s s and c o u r s e n e s s i s c a s t upon them f o r t h i s . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t n o t a few among t h e s o u t h e r n E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a w i l l make a p o i n t o f s h o w i n g t h e i r g r o u n d s among t h e b e s t k e p t when t h e y r e a c h t h e w e a l t h y s u b u r b s . The g a r d e n became a n e c e s s a r y p a r t o f t h e l i t t l e c o t t a g e i d e a l . I t was t h e g e n t l e c r o w n o f t h e l i t t l e b o u r g e o i s l o v e - n e s t . I t was t h e s y m b o l o f t h e c l e a n and w e l l b r e d f a m i l y . I t was t h e p l a c e where t h e i n d i v i d u a l f e e l i n g f o r t h e p i c t u r e s q u e and f o r b e a u t y c o u l d be d e m o n s t r a t e d by a n y o n e . The g a r d e n became a n o t h e r l i t t l e compounded a r t i s t i c and m o r a l s t a t e m e n t . The c h a l e t w i t h g e r a n i u m p o t s , a l i t t l e b e a u t i f u l g a r d e n and maybe e v e n s h u t t e r s w i t h a s c u l p t u r e d h e a r t has become an a r t h i t e c t u r a l s y m b o l o f r e f i n e m e n t , g e n t l e n e s s , 2 8 0 . moral order and northern s i m p l i c i t y and c l e a n l i n e s s . It has become a s y n t h e s i s and an archetype of the b e a u t i f u l . 2 8 1 . A P P E N D I X NOTE : A s a c u r i o s i t y , w e m a y c o m p a r e t h i s d r a w i n g b y F r a n k f 33\") L l o y d W r i g h t \" - } w i t h t h e d r a w i n g o f f i g u r e 1 , b y L e d o u x : f-^-' . 1 \u201e..:, \/ i T h o s e w h o v i s i t e d t h e A m e r i c a n P a v i l l i o n a t E x p o ' 6 7 i n M o n t r e a l B u c k m i n s t e r F u l l e r ' s \" b a l l \" - * m a y c o m p a r e i t w i t h B o u l l e e ' s p r o j e c t s h o w n i n f i g u r e 2 o f t h i s c h a p t e r . 2 8 2 . C H A P T E R 9 ( 1 ) R . W . E M E R S O N , E s s a y o n F a r m i n g , f r o m A p p e n d i x t o B r o a d a c r e C i t y b y F . L , W R I G H T , C h i c a g o 1 9 4 5 ( 2 ) D . D E M E N I L , V i s i o n a r y A r c h i t e c t s , H o u s t o n 1 9 6 8 , p . 9 3 ( 3 ) I b i d e m p . 2 7 ( 4 ) P . C O L L I N S , C h a n g i n g I d e a l s i n M o d e r n A r c h i t e c t u r e , M o n t r e a l 1 9 6 7 , p . 1 0 3 ( 5 ) E . B U R K E , A P h i l o s o p h i c a l E n q u i r y i n t o t h e O r i g i n o f O u r  I d e a s o f t h e S u b l i m e a n d t h e B e a u t i f u l , L o n d o n 1 8 8 9 , p . 4 0 ( 6 ) D . D E M E N I L , V i s i o n a r y A r c h i t e c t s , H o u s t o n 1 9 6 8 , p . 3 7 ( 7 ) I b i d e m p . 1 4 7 ( 8 ) \" U . S . N e w s \u00a7 W o r l d R e p o r t \" , A p r i l 1 2 , 1 9 7 3 , a d v e r t i s e m e n t ( 9 ) U . F O S C O L O , A Z a c i n t o , m y t r a n s l a t i o n o f s o n n e t v e r s e ( 1 0 ) J . L . S E R T : C a n O u r C i t i e s S u r v i v e ? B o s t o n 1 9 4 7 ( 1 1 ) L E C O R B U S I E R : T h e R a d i a n t C i t y , P a r i s 1 9 3 3 ( 1 2 ) I b i d e m p . 2 3 2 ( 1 3 ) E . S A A R I N E N , T h e C i t y , I t s G r o w t h , I t s D e c a y , I t s F u t u r e , N e w Y o r k 1 9 4 3 , p . 1 2 2 ( 1 4 ) I . K A N T , O b s e r v a t i o n s o n t h e F e e l i n g o f t h e B e a u t i f u l a n d  S u b l i m e , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 6 5 , p . 4 8 ( 1 5 ) I b i d e m ( 1 6 ) E . B U R K E , A P h i l o s o p h i c a l E n q u i r y i n t o t h e O r i g i n o f o u r  I d e a s o f t h e S u b l i m e a n d t h e B e a u t i f u l , L o n d o n 1 8 8 9 , p . 1 0 1 ( 1 7 ) E . B U R K E , A P h i l o s o p h i c a l E n q u i r y i n t o t h e O r i g i n o f o u r  I d e a s o f t h e S u b l i m e a n d t h e B e a u t i f u l , L o n d o n 1 8 8 9 , p . 1 0 3 ( 1 8 ) I b i d e m ( 1 9 ) I b i d e m p . 1 0 1 2 8 3 . ( 2 0 ) I b i d e m p . 5 1 ( 2 1 ) I b i d e m p . 5 3 ( 2 2 ) I b i d e m p . 5 6 ( 2 3 ) I b i d e m p . 5 7 ( 2 4 ) I b i d e m p . 8 8 ( 2 5 ) I b i d e m p . 8 4 ( 2 6 ) I . K A N T : O b s e r v a t i o n s o n t h e F e e l i n g o f t h e B e a u t i f u l  a n d S u b l i m e , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 6 5 p . 1 0 1 ( 2 7 ) I b i d e m p . I l l ( 2 8 ) E . B U R K E , A P h i l o s o p h i c a l E n q u i r y i n t o t h e O r i g i n o f o u r  I d e a s o f t h e S u b l i m e a n d t h e B e a u t i f u l , L o n d o n 1 8 8 9 , p . 4 6 ( 2 9 ) I b i d e m p . 4 5 ( 3 0 S . G I E D I O N , S p a c e , T i m e a n d A r c h i t e c t u r e , C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . 1 9 6 5 , p . 7 5 3 ( 3 1 ) I . K A N T : O b s e r v a t i o n s o n t h e F e e l i n g o f t h e B e a u t i f u l  a n d S u b l i m e , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 6 5 , p . 1 1 2 ( 3 2 ) I . K A N T : C r i t i q u e o f J u d g e m e n t , P a r t I , S e c . 1 B o o k I I ( 3 3 ) F . L . W R I G H T : H u n t i n g t o n H a r t f o r d H o u s e , i n F r a n k L l o y d  W r i g h t : W r i t i n g s a n d B u i l d i n g s , b y K a u f m a n n a n d R a e b u r n , N e w Y o r k 1 9 6 0 , p . 3 2 0 284 . 1 0 . T H E O R I E S D E V E L O P E D B Y S O M E O F T H E R O M A N T I C S V o l t a i r e c o n c l u d e d \" C a n d i d e \" s a y i n g : \" W e m u s t c u l t i v a t e o u r g a r d e n \" , a n d a d v i s e d : \" L e t u s w o r k w i t h o u t r e a s o n i n g , i t i s t h e o n l y w a y t o m a k e l i f e t o l e r a b l e . \" ' ^ V o l t a i r e o f o l d w a s i n -d e e d n o t o n l y a s u b u r b a n i t e , b u t a n e a g e r g a r d e n e r h i m s e l f . A n d R o u s s e a u c o n c l u d e d h i s \" D i s c o u r s e O n T h e O r i g i n o f I n e q u a l i t y \" w i t h t h i s i n v i t a t i o n : \" 0 y o u , w h o h a v e n e v e r h e a r d t h e v o i c e o f h e a v e n , w h o t h i n k m a n d e s t i n e d o n l y t o l i v e t h i s l i t t l e l i f e a n d d i e i n p e a c e ; y o u , w h o c a n r e s i g n i n t h e m i d s t o f p o p u l o u s c i t i e s y o u r f a t a l a c q u i s i t i o n s , y o u r r e s t l e s s s p i r i t s , y o u r c o r r u p t h e a r t s a n d e n d l e s s d e s i r e s ; r e s u m e , s i n c e i t d e p e n d s e n t i r e l y o n o u r s e l v e s , y o u r a n c i e n t a n d p r i m i t i v e i n n o c e n c e : r e t i r e t o t h e w o o d s , t h e r e t o l o s e t h e s i g h t a n d r e m e m b r a n c e o f t h e c r i m e s o f y o u r c o n t e m -p o r a r i e s ; a n d b e n o t a p p r e h e n s i v e o f d e g r a d i n g y o u r s p e c i e s , b y f 21 r e n o u n c i n g i t s a d v a n c e s i n o r d e r t o r e n o u n c e i t s v i c e s . \" v ' A m a z a n , t h e h e r o o f \" L a P r i n c e s s e d e B a b y l o n e \" ( V o l t a i r e ) , i s a h e r o o f p r i m i t i v e i n n o c e n c e , w h o s e s t r e n g t h a n d g r e a t n e s s s p r i n g f r o m s i m i l a r c o n c e p t s . T h e d e b a t e s a b o u t t h e \" l a w o f n a t u r e \" a s s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t o r o p p o s e d t o t h e \" l a w o f m a n \" i n d u c e d m a n y t o w r i t e i n f a v o u r o f r u r a l l i f e . R o u s s e a u i n s p i r e d M i c h e l G u i l l a u m e J e a n d e C r e v e c o e u r , o n e a m o n g h i s m a n y f o l l o w e r s , t o w r i t e h i s f a m o u s \" L e t t e r s f r o m a n A m e r i c a n F a r m e r \" , i n p r a i s e o f r u r a l l i f e a n d e a r l y A m e r i c a n f a r m i n g i d e a l s , w h i c h p e n e t r a t e d d e e p l y i n t o t h e A m e r i c a n c o n -285 . s c i e n c e , a n d w e r e s h a r e d i n m a n y w a y s b y s u c h l a t e r t h i n k e r s a s E m e r s o n . L a t e r t h e R o s s e t t i s , w i t h s o m e h e l p f r o m W i l l i a m M o r r i s , i n E n g l a n d , p u b l i s h e d \" T h e G e r m \" , j o i n i n g t h e f i e l d o f t h o s e a d v o c a t i n g a r e t u r n t o n a t u r e , t o s i m p l e - h e a r t e d r e a l i s m a n d t o p r i m i t i v e f o r m s o f a r t . J o h n R u s k i n s a w i n d u s t r y a s e v i l , d e -p r i v i n g m a n o f b e a u t y . W h a t w e m a y n o w e x a m i n e i s h o w t h e n e w r o m a n t i c c o n -c e p t s o f n a t u r e a n d o f a e s t h e t i c s w e r e a r r i v e d a t , a n d w h a t i n -h e r e n t d u a l i s i t i c c o n f l i c t s t h e y i m p l i e d . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a s i s t h a t t h e y a r e o r i g i n a t e d b y s t r o n g p e r -s o n a l i t i e s w h o c a n g a i n l a r g e n u m b e r s o f c o n s c i o u s a n d u n c o n -s c i o u s f o l l o w e r s . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e o f r o m a n t i c i d e a s , w h i c h w e r e o r i g i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d b y a n u m b e r o f e x c e p t i o n a l t h i n k e r s . T h e s e i d e a s w e r e t h e n c a r r i e d f u r t h e r a n d f u r t h e r a c r o s s t h e w o r l d b y l a r g e n u m b e r s o f w h a t w e m a y c a l l b e l i e v e r s , g i v i n g r i s e t o t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f i n t e l l e c t u a l r e l i g i o u s s e c t s , w i t h a l a r g e n u m b e r o f a x i o m s a n d t e n e t s w h o s e o r i g i n s h a v e l o n g b e e n f o r g o t t e n , a n d w h o s e a c c e p t a b i l i t y h a s b e c o m e e v e n l e s s q u e s t i o n a b l e . I n f a c t t h e s e a x i o m s m a y h a v e b e c o m e s t r o n g e r t h a n r e l i g i o u s d o g m a s a n d m a y h a v e a m o r e p r o f o u n d e f f e c t o n o u r p r a c t i c a l l i f e t h a n w e r e a l i z e . We m a y f i n d h e r e f o r g o t t e n r e a s o n s f o r o u r u n c r i t i c a l a c c e p t a n c e o f w h a t m a y b e o u t w o r n i d e a l s ; r e a s o n s f o r w h i c h w e f o l l o w V o l t a i r e ' s a d v i c e a n d n o t o n l y c u l t i v a t e o u r g a r d e n , b u t a l s o w o r k w i t h o u t r e a s o n i n g i n o r d e r \" t o m a k e l i f e t o l e r a b l e \" . I n c i d e n t a l l y , V o l t a i r e w a s a m o n g t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n l i b e r a l s t o b e a d m i r e d i n t h e A n g l o - S a x o n w o r l d a n d , i n t u r n , t o c o n s i d e r s u p e r i o r t h e A n g l o - S a x o n w a y o f l i v i n g . 286 . I t w a s d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e t h a t t h e r o m a n t i c c o n c e p t s o f n a t u r e , o f r e a s o n , a n d o f b e a u t y w e r e e v o l v e d , a n d t h e c o n -f l i c t s b e t w e e n t h e s e c o n c e p t s w e r e f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d . T h a t l i f e h a d t o b e a s t r u g g l e o f i s o l a t e d m e n w a s s y m b o l i z e d b y s u c h h e r o s a s R o b i n s o n C r u s o e a n d t h o s e w h o d o m i n a t e t h e d r a m a s o f t h e \" S t u r m u n d D r a n g \" . B u t m o r e p r o f o u n d a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l r e a s o n s f o r a p e r m a n e n t s t r u g g l e w e r e l a i d b y t h e m a j o r p h i l o s o p h e r s . N a t u r e b e g a n t o b e c l a s s i f i e d s t r i c t l y a s w h a t i s n o t t h e h u m a n m i n d a n d n o t m o d i f i e d o r c r e a t e d b y t h e w o r k o f m a n . W i t h i n m a n t o o a c o n f l i c t w a s m o r e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d b e t w e e n n a t u r e a n d r e a s o n . S e n t i m e n t a n d r e a s o n w e r e f i n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d a s i n -d e p e n d e n t a n d o f t e n o p p o s i n g f o r c e s . B a u m g a r t e n c o i n e d t h e w o r d \" A e s t h e t i c s \" a n d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t i e d b e a u t y s t r i c t l y w i t h p e r -c e p t i o n a n d f e e l i n g r a t h e r t h a n w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g . H u m e d e -m o l i s h e d t h e k n o w l e d g e o f a n y t h i n g t h a t w a s n o t a t e m p o r a r y h y p o t h e s i s . N a t u r e w a s s e e n a s s o m e t h i n g n o t o n l y o u t s i d e o f m a n , b u t a l s o b e y o n d t h e p o w e r s o f k n o w l e d g e o f m a n . A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e m o r a l i t y o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m w a s e m p h a s i z i n g m a n a s c o r r u p t a n d n a t u r e a s a k i n d o f b i b l i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f G o d . F o r S p i n o z a i t w a s G o d h i m s e l f . I n f a c t n a t u r e a c q u i r e d t w o m e a n -i n g s : h u m a n n a t u r e , a c o r r u p t a n d d i v i d e d n a t u r e i n w h i c h t h e f o r c e s o f r e a s o n a n d o f s e n t i m e n t w e r e s t r u g g l i n g , a n d e x t e r i o r n a t u r e , p r o p e r n a t u r e , t h e i n c o r r u p t n e u t r a l , u n k n o w n o u t s i d e w o r l d . T h e o u t s i d e w o r l d t o o w a s s e e n i n t w o w a y s : a s a m y s t e r i o u s f o r c e , e v e n a p u n i s h i n g o n e , w h i c h c o u l d b e v i o l e n t a n d d a n g e r o u s a n d w h i c h h a d t o b e c o n t r o l l e d a n d s u b d u e d , a n d a s t h e i n c o r r u p t h a r m o n y t o w h i c h w e m u s t a d a p t a s t o t h e u l t i m a t e 2 8 7 . w i s d o m e v e n i f we c a n n o t r a t i o n a l l y w h o l l y c o m p r e h e n d i t , a n d w h i c h we m u s t o b e y . I t i s K a n t who f i r s t o r g a n i z e d t h e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n a c o m p l e t e a n d s u p p o s e d l y c o h e r e n t s y s t e m , o p e n i n g t h e way t o m o s t o f t h e r o m a n t i c p h i l o s o p h i e s . K a n t a n a l y z e d r e a s o n a n d e s t a b -l i s h e d t h e l a w s o f r e a s o n i n s u c h a way a s t o p r o v e t h a t i t c a n n o t k n o w t h e e x t e r i o r w o r l d ; t h e o n l y way r e a s o n s e e s t h e o u t -s i d e w o r l d i s b y a p r o j e c t i o n o f i t s e l f . T h e e x i s t e n c e i t s e l f o f n a t u r e a s o t h e r t h a n o u r s e l v e s c a n n o t be k n o w n ; i t h a s t o be p o s t u l a t e d . By d e f i n i t i o n n a t u r e , t h e \" n o u m e n o n \" i s a n u n k n o w n p o s t u l a t e d e n t i t y . F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e h uman r e a s o n i s c o m p l e t e l y i s o l a t e d a n d i t s l a w s a r e s e e n a s s o m e t h i n g c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m a n y t h i n g e l s e . T h e w o r l d , t h e u n i v e r s e i n i t s e n t i r e t y , i s com-p l e t e l y s p l i t i n t o t w o p a r t s : t h e w o r l d o f r e a s o n , w h i c h c a n know w i t h c e r t i t u d e a n d a c c u r a c y o n l y w h a t i s s u b j e c t t o \" a p r i o r i \" j u d g e m e n t s , i n t h e m a n n e r o f t h e s c i e n c e s , a n d t h e e x -t e r i o r w o r l d , w h i c h c a n o n l y b e k n o w n b y p o s t u l a t i n g i t s e x i s -t e n c e a n d i t s f e a t u r e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e x i g e n c e s o f o u r m o r a l a n d i n t u i t i v e f a c u l t i e s . S c i e n c e a n d n a t u r e , r e a s o n a n d i n t u i t i o n , a r e i n d e p e n -d e n t f i e l d s ; f o r many r o m a n t i c s t h e y b e c a m e o p p o s i n g f i e l d s . F u r t h e r m o r e , r e a s o n b e c o m e s a r a t h e r n e g a t i v e a n d d r y f a c u l t y : a t b e s t i t c a n f u r t h e r s t r i c t l y a b s t r a c t s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e , w h i l e t h e n o n - r a t i o n a l human f a c u l t i e s a c q u i r e n o b i l i t y , l e a d i n g 2 8 8 . man into the fields of morality and aesthetics. This is one of the reasons for which design later tended to become an occult science. It is Kant who gave origins to the romantic notions of a disinterested morality and of a disinterested art (\"art for art 1 s sake\"). In morality the power of the wi l l is emphasized. It becomes a driving and creative force, with no end or interest, obedient only to the \"categorical imperative\", an innate source of judgment, even i f man is recognized as having a \"propensity to e v i l . \" (- 3- 1 The power of the wi l l was later to create the myth of the romantic hero gifted with an \"iron wi l l\" . (Al f i er i ' s history * of his l i f e : \" v o l l i , sempre v o l l i , fortissimamente v o l l i \" ) . Great men were supposed to be men of strong w i l l . The motif of lack of self interest in virtuous persuits later seemed to in-fluence the professional associations and the codes of Prof-essional ethics. . Architects, for example, are not supposed to be contractors and businessmen and cannot c r i t i c i z e other architects. They are supposed to be purely disinterested pro-fessional consultants and designers acting for a client at a fixed and equal fee. In art, Kant's view that art should be created only for art.'.s sake, with pure intention and no other in-terest, led to the theory that art should have complete independ-ence from other fields of knowledge and of act iv i ty . Beauty, however, in Kant's view, ultimately leads to the morally good. \"I wil led, I always willed, I most strongly willed\" 2 8 9 . It is also in the Romantic period that the notion of genius is for the f i r s t time detached from any premise or inte l lectual i s t l imit . In opposition to philosophers such as Meier, Baumgarten and Lessing for whom genius is always somehow limited to rational capacities, J . C. Hamann is the f irs t to define genius as \"Urkraft\", that is as a natural and originary creativity , as a mysterious revelation of God. With Hamann the \"Sturm und Drang\" period is announced and his intuit ion wi l l be developed and cherished in the Romantic thought of the Genie-period. But already with Kant the romantic notion of genius finds its f i r s t definit ion: \"Genius is the talent (natural en-dowment) which gives the rule to art. Since talent, as an innate productive faculty of the ar t i s t , belongs i t s e l f to nature, we may put i t this way: Genius is the innate mental aptitude (in-genium) through which nature gives the rule to art . . . Genius may also be defined as the faculty of aesthetic ideas. This serves at the same time to point out the reason why i t is nature (the nature of the individual) and not a set purpose, that in the products of genius gives the rule to art (as the production of the beautiful) . \" (- 4- ) This means that its products do not derive from any sort of tradition or imitation but are the original models which have to be used as cr i t er ia of judgement. Therefore, the genius cannot know and does not know how to reach whence he took his intuit ions. Ultimately the romantics wi l l propose a genius who is beyond a l l laws and a l l possible cr i t ic i sm, and who creates his own laws each time that he acts. In p o l i t i c s , planning and architecture this is a d i f f i cu l ty . The genius can work be;S;t utlone. 290. Although he is necessarily bound to nature and to human events, yet the genius rises above daily vicissitudes and practical:, interests in a region out of time where there is no place for the becoming of history. Psychologically the genial art ist of romantic tradition is characterized by a deep melancholy which makes him unhappy and restless, by a desire for loneliness which isolates him from the la i ty (or from common people). and by a naive simplicity which makes him like a chi ld . We find many examples of this kind of man in Romantic l i terature, from A. DeVigny's Chatterton and Moise to Baudelaire's Albatros. The view that the universe is a projection of the mind soon led the genial romantic architects to feel the need of draw-* ing their designs to minute details: every design also had to be original and unique. There was no room left for the tradesman to interpret the more sketchy drawings used in earl ier centuries and to contribute craft and s k i l l developed on the construction site. While Kant goes to great length to establish such notions as \"The Dynamically Sublime in Nature\", he does not realize that he reinforced the trend established by Baumgarten, and followed later almost to our day, of trying to relate the notion of beauty with perception and intuit ion rather than with understanding. Thus we have;another romantic contradiction, that of reason which pro-jects i t s e l f over the entire universe and yet cannot be related We noted this attitude in the previous chapter for additional reasons. 2 9 1 . directly with the pleasure arising from the appreciation of aesthetic qualit ies . Reason and art enter into confl ict . In art individual expression is emphasized more than'communication. Ultimately such an impalpable quality as that of being a genius allows one to reach the perfect aesthetic expression. Design had to become an occult science, where a few high priests could decide who was inspired, and everybody else had to follow and understand. A rational enquiry into the f ie ld of design was supposed to be a contradiction of terms. Struggle was in the nature of romanticism, as we said before. It was in the recognition of opposing trends and forces that the romantic reached his dramatic tension, anguish and drama. It was Hegel who f inal ly gave a coherent shape to the ro-mantic dialect ic dualism and explained i t through a universal reason manifesting i t s e l f as a synthesis of opposing forces and thus creating the universe. In this view conflicts are nothing but the expression of this reason in its process of self-determination through opposing aspects. The power of the wi l l was emphasized by the romantics, part icularly beginning with Kant. It was to the wi l l that the power of overcoming d i f f i cu l t ies and opposing forces was attributed, and the strong wi l l was seen as an expression of the universal reason, in fact as allowing the universal reason to materialize i t s e l f in a human being, in a more perfect manner. The romantic man of ambition welcomed struggle and d i f f i cu l t ies to overcome; he actually needed those d i f f i cu l t i e s 292 . to overcome to realize his destiny. Success and true wi l l were identif ied. If something were not obtained, or achieved i t was only because i t had not been the object of enough true w i l l . From this emerged a new concept of fai lure; i t could no longer be a calamity that could oppress the f r a i l nature of a human being without a fault of his own and despite a l l his good w i l l . It no longer deserved a charitable understanding. Failure to the romantic eye was the proof of lack of strong w i l l , and as such i t deserved only moral condemnation and disgust. Not to succeed was in fact proof of i l l character and a social e v i l . Suicide was a part icularly romantic disease, and many artists and designers died of i t . True wi l l and race and nation began being identified too; beginning with Fichte destiny is attributed not only to  individuals but also to nations and races. The concept of a lead-ing race was thus prepared, and i t had a tremendous success with the Anglo-Saxons. The Anglo-Saxon taste began to be identified as the best and as c iv i l i za t ion i t se l f . Thus, what in the eighteenth century was only a romantic feeling in taste, par-t icu lar ly in England, later began to be identified with c i v i l i z a -tion i t s e l f by those who had inherited i t . We mentioned in the previous chapter that the romantic interest in nature is paralleled by an equal interest in sepulchres, in death, in dark and gloomy things and in mysteries. One of the many aspects of romantic dualism is that of wishing at the same time both death and immortality, annihilation and greatness. 293. R o m a n t i c i s m o r i g i n a l t e d b o t h t h e d e s i r e f o r c o l o s s a l s t r u c t u r e s , a n d f o r b u i l d i n g s t h a t w o u l d d i s a p p e a r i n t o t h e g r o u n d a n d t h e p a t t e r n o f n a t u r e . M e l t i n g a w a y i n t o n a t u r e w a s a l m o s t a s s t r o n g a d e s i r e a s t h a t o f r i s i n g t o i n f i n i t e g r e a t n e s s a r i d p e r f e c t i o n . O n o n e s i d e t h e r e w a s t h e m y s t e r i o u s u n k n o w n , t h e \" o t h e r \" ( t o u s e S a r t r e ' s e x p r e s s i o n ) f r o m o u r s e l v e s , a n d o n t h e o t h e r s i d e t h e i n f i n i t e p o w e r a n d e x t e n s i o n o f r e a s o n . A s w e m e n t i o n e d , t h e t w o w o r l d s h a d n o c o m p a t i b l e c o n -t a c t s a c c o r d i n g t o p o s t - K a n t i a n p h i l o s o p h y : t h e m i n d , a b s t r a c t r e a s o n , h a s c o m e o u t o f \" t h e d c c g m a t i c s l e e p \" a n d r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i t h a s n o t r u e k n o w l e d g e o f a n y t h i n g t h a t i s n o t a n a b s t r a c t p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e i n t e l l e c t i t s e l f . N a t u r e h a s t o b e p o s t u l a t e d b u t i t c a n n o t b e k n o w n i n i t s e l f : i t i s t h e \" n o u m e n o n \" , t h e u n k n o w n b y d e f i n i t i o n . D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t H e g e l t h o u g h t o f s o l v i n g t h e d i l e m m a b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e e n t i r e u n i v e r s e a n d n a t u r e a s a c r e a t i o n o f r e a s o n , t h r o u g h i t s d i a l e c t i c b e c o m i n g , m o s t o f t h e l e s s p r e p a r e d r o m a n t i c s a c t u a l l y f e l l i n t o a g r o s s m a t e r i a l -i s t i c d u a l i s m , d i v i d i n g t h e u n i v e r s e i n t w o p h y s i c a l p a r t s , s e l f a n d n a t u r e , e x c l u d i n g h u m a n n a t u r e f r o m n a t u r e p r o p e r , a n d c o n -s i d e r i n g t h e u n k n o w n , w i t h t y p i c a l h u m a n o p t i m i s m , a s t h e b e t t e r p a r t . T h u s w e f i n d p e o p l e w h o b e l i e v e t h e y b e c o m e p a r t o f a b e t t e r a n d m y s t e r i o u s c y c l e b y g a r d e n i n g , w a t c h i n g t h e s h r u b s a n d f l o w e r s g r o w a n d b l o s s o m , a n d w o r r y i n g a b o u t t h e w e a t h e r a n d t h e s e a s o n s . G a r d e n i n g a n d r e a d i n g h o r o s c o p e s m a y s o m e t i m e s b e p u r s u e d w i t h a s i m i l a r i n t e l l e c t u a l b a c k g r o u n d . I t i s t h e c o n c e p t 2 9 4 . of nature outside of you and mysteriously influencing you. Yet on examination pollution would be seen to be as natural as the stars, landslides, or influenza, while cutting the grass would be a less natural act, quite unecological. (In fact Le Corbusier avoided i t in his landscaping; instead of putting cultivated lawns around his buildings, he left the grass to grow naturally, so that i t only needs to be cut once a year, in the manner of a farmer cutting hay.) The old concept was that of nature as a planned creation of which man was an integral part. Mythology or rel igion would explain what was man's place on earth. In the romantic concept, with or without a religious context, man and nature are separate and watching each other as two entities without a common language, but with a great need to interact. A popular misconception about the nature of romanticism is that i t was opposed by classicism, or by rationalism. Peter Coll ins says: \"Romanticism was by no means universally accepted, and the words Romantic and Classical were s t i l l used to express the basic antithesis between two fundamentally antagonistic ideals. This was because they corresponded to two aspects of human nature from which a l l ^problems of morality ultimately spring, and thus they meant not only the difference between Greek and Gothic, but the difference between emotional and rat ional , between sensual and inte l lectual , between sentiment and judgement, and between freedom and the rule of the law. Most moderate architects of the time, l ike most moderate men, managed to achieve some harmony 2 9 5 . and balance, or at least a compromise; between these conflicting forces.\" The mistake here is to f a i l to see that the conflict was necessary and that i t was the persisting conflict betwen oppos-ing trends that was the nature of romanticism. Greek and Gothic, emotional and rat ional , sensual and inte l lectual , sentiment and judgement, freedom and legalism are the opposing poles of the  romantic dual representation of the world. The conflict between Romantic and Classical was a f ic t i t ious conflict of opposing styles within the one trend of revivalism. \"The Greek and the Gothic were both, in the minds of the serious aestheticians and art i s t s , the salvation from eighteenth century flippancy.\"'\"'^ The struggle \"to achieve some harmony and balance, or at least a compromise, between these con-f l i c t ing forces\" of sentiment and judgement is the nature of romanticism. The romantic anguish and sense of greatness thrives on these confl icts , which may be total ly imaginary. It is an introvert world which is ruled by the dialect ic of opposing trends in continuous need of a unifying solution. It is typical ly romantic to see a conflict between emo-tional and rat ional , for example, and to have to opt for one or the other. In fact the choice is made in order to foment a struggle that creates a feeling of greatness. In this respect romanticism is an intel lectual drug. The man who pretends to be only rational or the man who pretends to be only emotional in some ways is not 2 9 6 . different from the whole man who pretends to walk on one leg only. The l ibraries are fu l l of dubious problems created by the romantic age in its urge to debate great confl icts , mainly created by spl i t t ing observations and by taking sides. The romantic urge for contrasts had dawned in the drawings of  Piranesi, where, interestingly, the buildings grow out of pro-portion with respect to the scale of people. They become iso-lated and contoured by the odd shrub and tree. But i t is especially Boullee who reflects in his drawings what Kant called the \"Gopernican revolution of thought\". The perfect rational object drawn by Boullee contrasts with a  mysterious and desert nature. Men are like ants between reason and nature. The two worlds of the rational object and of nature are  designed in absolute contrast: i t is as i f the object drawn by Boullee had fallen from another world. This wi l l become a fea-ture of romantic aesthetics. It is in accord with the new view, introduced by Kant, of incommensurability between the world of pure reason and the world of nature, the \"noumenon\". The two cannot communicate. The man made object is made to drop from another world. \"The inventions of Lequeu show an unexpected facet of French architecture around 1800. They belong to another world, a world pervaded by dreams and eccentricit ies . Lequeu's universe is crowded with details! and marginalia, but it is nonetheless empty: alcoves are deserted; temples have no devotees; roads no t ra f f i c . The question becomes inevitable: Was Lequeu ever addressing anyone but himself?\" J 2 9 7 . T h e c o n c e p t o f h a v i n g t o t o u c h t h e f e e l i n g r a t h e r t h a n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m a n i s p a r t o f t h e n e w a e s t h e t i c s . I n s t e a d o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s y m b o l i s m t h e r e f o r e w e h a v e e m o t i o n a l l y i m p r e s s i v e  a n d m a s s i v e f o r m s . T h e o n l y s y m b o l i s m i n t e n d e d i s k e y e d t o t h e p a s t . R a t h e r t h a n a n e w s y m b o l i s m a c o d e o f s e n t i m e n t s a n d e m o t i o n s i s d e v e l o p e d , a n d m a n y s y s t e m s a r e p r o p o s e d t o s t i m u l a t e t h e s e f e e l i n g s . T h e s t i m u l i a r e m o s t l y c r e a t e d t h r o u g h c o n t r a s t s a n d t h e o b j e c t i v e i s t o p r o d u c e t h e f e e l i n g o f t h e b e a u t i f u l o r o f t h e s u b l i m e . We m a y r e c a l l t h a t J o h n R u s k i n m a d e a n i n t r i c a t e s t u d y o f t h e s t i m u l i i n h i s \" S e v e n L a m p s o f A r c h i t e c t u r e \" , a l t h o u g h i t w a s B u r k e w h o r e m a i n s t h e s p i r i t u a l f a t h e r o f m o s t o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e s u b j e c t . We m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r t h e d u a l i s t n a t u r e o f r o m a n t i c i s m , a n d s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f t h i s d u a l i s m . T w o o t h e r i m p o r t a n t s y s t e m s o f p o l a r i z a t i o n a r e w h a t w e m a y c a l l t h e i d e a l i s t m o v e m e n t a n d t h e p r a g m a t i s t m o v e m e n t . I t i s t o t h e i d e a l i s t m o v e m e n t t h a t w e m a y a t t r i b u t e m o s t o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y a e s t h e t i c n o t i o n s , t h e m o n u -m e n t a l i s m o f o u r b u i l d i n g s a n d t h e i r i s o l a t i o n . E a c h b u i l d i n g w a s t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f a n i d e a , a f o r m , a d e s i g n . T h i s i d e a w a s t o b e c o m m u n i c a t e d t h r o u g h t h e i m a g e , t h e i n t u i t i o n , a n d t h e f e e l -i n g s t i m u l a t e d b y t h e b u i l d i n g . \" A r t i s a n i n t u i t i o n o r a n i m a g e . \" f 8 ~) ( C r o c e ) . T h e a e s t h e t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n i d e a s a r i d f e e l i n g s *\u00bb-w a s t h e o b j e c t o f c o m p l i c a t e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d o f m a n y d e b a t e s , b u t i t o r i g i n a t e d a m y s t e r i o u s a n d m y s t i c a l a e s t h e t i c i s m w h i c h m o s t o f t h e t i m e s e n d e d o n m e t a p h y s i c a l g r o u n d s , a c c o r d i n g t o a p r o c e s s s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e f o l l o w e d b y K a n t i n i t s C r i t i q u e o f J u d g e m e n t , w h e r e f r o m a e s t h e t i c s h e f i n a l l y s t e p p e d i n t o t h e o l o g y , 298 . the theology which he had previously proven rationally impossible in 'his Critique of Pure Reason. So the arcane monumental object, prophesized by Boullee and made real by many isolated skyscrapers, among the others, is not only a sublime product of modern engineering and of the in-dustrial revolution, but i t is also the admired object of a kind of aesthetic cult. The government centre in Bras i l ia and the City Hall in Toronto seem to share in this aestheticism to a consider-able extent. These monumental buildings are the cathedrals, or dedicated buildings, of romanticism. And like a re l ig ion , romantic aestheticism tended to be an object of faith and rather esoteric. It used to be, and i t s t i l l is impossible to argue about aesthetic matters; such things as personal intuitions and feelings are hard to relate to more simple, common and communicable forms of under-standing. * On the other end of the spectrum there are the prag-matists, with whom.it would be equally hard to discuss aesthetic matters because they claim no specific interest in ideas and intuitions except as related to their usefulness for a certain per-iod of time. Pragmatists normally would give the greatest consid-eration to the economic aspect of the matter, and see the buildings as part of the play of the market. But \"the market\", as we noted in chapter 6, may be a very d i f f i cu l t entity to study. Ultimately, A spectrum somehow identified by Van Wyck Brooks, in the quote introduced in chapter 8, as ranging from \"overtones\" to \"undertones\". 299. i t may a p p e a r t o b e a n o t h e r e s o t e r i c n o t i o n , a m y s t e r i o u s a n d a l 1 - e n c o m p a s s i n g r e a s o n t h a t i s s u p p o s e d t o e x p l a i n human c h o i c e s . I t h a p p e n e d t h e r e f o r e t h a t d e s p i t e t h e g r e a t i d e a l i s m o f many r o m a n t i c s a n d t h e i r c l a i m e d i n t e r e s t i n i d e a s , i d e a s as a p p l i e d t o d e s i g n c o u l d n o t be d i s c u s s e d i n o n e way o r a n o t h e r . T h i s i s why t h e r o m a n t i c p r e j u d i c e s i n t e r m s o f d e s i g n c o u l d b e c o m e so s t r o n g a n d d e e p a n d go u n c h a l l e n g e d f o r a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e . I n f a c t t h e y w e r e p l a c e d b e y o n d t h e r e a l m o f a n y r e a s o n a b l e d e b a t e. 3 0 0 . C H A P T E R 1 0 ( 1 ) V O L T A I R E ( F R A N C O I S - M A R I E A R O U E T ) : C a n d i d e , o u 1 ' O p t i m i s m e , P a r i s 1 7 7 5 , l a s t p a g e . M y t r a n s l a t i o n . ( 2 ) J E A N J A C Q U E S R O U S S E A U : A D i s s e r t a t i o n o n t h e O r i g i n  a n d F o u n d a t i o n o f t h e I n e q u a l i t y o f M a n k i n d , e d i t e d b y E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , T o r o n t o 1 9 5 2 , t r a n s l a t e d b y G . D . H . C O L E , p . 3 6 6 . ( 3 ) T . K . A B B O T T : K a n t ' s C r i t i q u e o f P r a c t i c a l R e a s o n , L o n d o n 1 9 6 3 , p . 3 3 5 . ( 4 ) I . K A N T : C r i t i q u e o f J u d g e m e n t , p . 1 6 8 . ( 5 ) P . C O L L I N S : C h a n g i n g I d e a l s i n M o d e r n A r c h i t e c t u r e , M o n t r e a l 1 9 6 7 , p . 4 0 . ( 6 ) N . P E V S N E R : A n O u t l i n e o f E u r o p e a n A r c h i t e c t u r e , P e l i c a n B o o k s , 1 9 6 6 , p . 3 6 0 . (7\") D . D E M E N I L , V i s i o n a r y A r c h i t e c t s , H o u s t o n 1 9 6 8 , p . 1 1 . ( 8 ) B . C R O C E : B r e v i a r i o d i E s t e t i c a , B a r i 1 9 5 8 , p . 1 2 , m y t r a n s l a t i o n 301 11. CONTEMPORARY EFFECTS OF HISTORIC IDEAS A blind force seems to be driving North America in its attitude and philosophy of urbanization. Its nature has not been the subject of many analysis and discussions. And this force seems to be quite i rra t iona l . Its origins are rooted in the romantic sp ir i t of early generations of settlers which influenced an unquestioned pervasive background of our times. Speculations of what appear now as distant thinkers have penetrated the consciousness of generations of immigrants in the form of unquestionable axioms which seem to blindly lead the public system of values against the needs and the logic of our times and of our evolving culture. We have seen that the ideas and values of thinkers whose names our legislators may not even recollect have been transferred into the philosophy of the laws which rule the development of our c i t i e s . At a time when the \"American dream\" is rapidly fading and we are beginning to understand such a notion as that of a possible shortage of energy, the gigantic waste produced by our irrat ional c i t ies is becoming more and more apparent. We seem to be slowly approaching the f u l l c irc le of the tautologies of the romantic dreams; for example we are encouraged to lower the thermostats in our suburban homes or urban office towers and be uncomfortable so that enough o i l can be refined for our cars taking us to work to the city; we want power, the progress of sciences, and to live close to untouched, unpolluted nature, but we do not want to flood the valleys to 3 0 2.. o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y e n e r g y . We w a n t t o p r o d u c e c a r s t o f o s t e r t h e i n d u s t r i a l e c o n o m y , b u t w e d o n o t w a n t t o o r c a n n o t p a y t h e b i l l i n t e r m s o f e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n a n d p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l s . I n a t i m e o f r a p i d c h a n g e , c o n s e r v a t i o n h a s b e c o m e a n o d d l y m a g i c c o n c e p t : c o n s e r v a t i o n o f n a t u r e , c o n s e r v a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s , c o n s e r v a t i o n o f e n e r g y , c o n s e r v a t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s , c o n s e r v a t i o n o f l i f e - s t y l e s , c o n s e r v a t i o n o f t r e e s , o f l i t t l e o l d c h u r c h e s , o f r o w s o f s p e c i a l t y s h o p s , o f b e a c h e s o r o l d h o u s e s . T h e s a m e r o m a n t i c i m p u l s e t h a t d r i v e s p e o p l e t o c h e r i s h w h a t t h e y h a v e l e a d s t h e m a l s o t o r e b e l , t o c h a n g e , t o d e s t r o y a n d r e n e w . F r o z e n c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d d e s t r u c t i v e c h a n g e : i t i s a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f t h e e x t r e m e d u a l i s t i c , c o n t r a d i c t o r y i m p u l s e o f r o m a n t i c i s m t h a t m a y b e r e l a t e d , a s w e n o t e d e a r l i e r , t o a f e e l i n g o f a n g u i s h a n d i m p o r t a n c e . T h e p r o b l e m o f t h i s a g e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a i s t h a t i t i s s o b l i n d t o t r u e s e l f c r i t i c i s m ; i t i s a s i f t h e u r b a n \" s y s t e m \" w e r e t a k e n a s s o m e t h i n g i n w h i c h n o t h i n g c o u l d b e s e e n a s b a s i c a l l y w r o n g . O u r l i b r a r i e s a n d c i t i e s a r e g r o w i n g w i t h r e p e t i t i v e w o r k , j u s t l i k e t h e e v e r e x p a n d i n g s u b u r b a n s u b d i v i s i o n s a n d c o n d o m i n i u m s . A t t i t u d e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s i n h e r i t e d f r o m g e n e r a t i o n s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y r u l e o u r d a i l y u r b a n p u r s u i t s i n t h e f o r m o f w r i t t e n a n d u n w r i t t e n l a w s . O u r c i t i e s m a k e u s p a r t o f a n i r r a t i o n a l a r m y u n d e r t h e r u l e o f u n k n o w n g e n e r a l s w h o d i s a p p e a r e d a l o n g t i m e a g o . T h e s y s t e m h a s b e c o m e s o i n t r i c a t e a n d c o m p l i c a t e d t h a t we m a y f i n d t h a t w e h a v e n o t i m e a n d e n e r g y l e f t t o q u e s t i o n i t . M u c h t i m e i s l o s t l i n i n g u p f o r a r o m a n t i c p a r a d i s e w h i c h w e a r e s u p p o s e d t o d e s i r e a n d f r o m w h i c h t h e c r o w d a h e a d s e e m s 3 0 3 . always to separate us. We are rushing toward a nature which we wi l l never find and which we cannot define for ourselves. There has been a colossal amount of l i terature produced on the problems of c i t ies in recent years; a few years ago senator Abraham Ribicoff noted in Washington: \"Since we are dealing with people, since we must understand the forces at work in the city and our society, then we must look at the people, not the houses - at the individual, not the group - at what a man wants, not what someone else te l l s him he needs.. \" ^ ^ Yet in his speech as well as in the vast amount of l iterature available, the fundamental question about what kind of c i ty , what kind of  dreams, and what kind of cultural values we want to see reflected or admitted in our c i t i es , has been avoided, as i f i t could be taken for granted, or i t had been already ful ly answered. Instead the dreams that we have established and that we are following are no longer of true value to us. His tor ica l ly , this has developed as the contemporary trend in North America, and perhaps in the world; the cultural content of the architecture of our c i t ies is considered a solved problem, about which no debate is open. Unfortunately, from what we have seen i t would appear that this is not the result of a free and rational choice. And there is a certain degree of consensus regarding this . \"Suburban sprawl and urban decay have not come about solely because people have made a free choice in a free enterprise market. That choice has been influenced by federal housing subsidies, which, purporting to 3 0 4 . b e n e u t r a l , h a v e i n f a c t s u b s i d i z e d l o w - d e n s i t y m i d d l e - i n c o m e l i v i n g i n t h e s u b u r b s a n d h a v e t h e r e b y f i n a n c e d t h e f l i g h t o f w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n f r o m t h e c i t y . A n o t h e r f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g t h i s d i s p e r s a l h a s b e e n o u r s e g r e g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n t h e c i t y . T h e l a c k o f p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f h o u s i n g s e g r e g a t i o n a n d f e d e r a l h o u s i n g s u b s i d i e s u p o n u r b a n g r o w t h p a t t e r n s h a s b e e n a b a r r i e r t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s a n d h a s c r e a t e d a f e e l i n g o f h o p e l e s s n e s s (21 a b o u t t h e f u t u r e o f A m e r i c a ' s c i t i e s . ' . ' \" T h e i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f t h e s u b u r b a n c o t t a g e , n o w e x p r e s s i n g i t s e l f i n p a i n f u l e x c r e s c e n c e s o f ' o r i g i n a l ' o r n a m e n t , o r a g a i n i n n o l e s s p a i n f u l i m i t a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c s t y l e s - t h i s ' i n d i v i d u a l i t y ' w a s i n e f f e c t a c o n f e s s i o n t h a t t h e p r o u d P h i l i s t i n e s o f t h e p e r i o d h a d n e i t h e r t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l p e n e t r a t i o n t o a n a l y z e t h e i r c o n d i t i o n n o r t h e c o u r a g e a n d t h e i m a g i n a t i o n t o t r a n s f o r m i t . T h e s u b u r b w a s a p h a r i s a i c w a y o f p a s s i n g b y o n t h e o t h e r s i d e : l e a v i n g t h e c i v i c o r g a n i s m i t s e l f i n t h e g u t t e r . \" ' 3 ' ' Y e t \" a c c e p t a n c e o f l o w - d e n s i t y r e g i o n a l g r o w t h i m p l i e s , o f c o u r s e , a c u r t a i l m e n t o f m a s s t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , f o r m a s s t r a n s -p o r t a t i o n w o r k s w e l l o n l y i n h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d a r e a s w h e r e t r i p o r i g i n s a n d d e s t i n a t i o n s a r e c l u s t e r e d r a t h e r t h a n w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e a u t o m o b i l e , w h i c h f u n c t i o n s s o e f f i c i e n t l y f o r d e c e n t r a l i z e d t r a f f i c , b e c o m e s h i g h l y i n e f f i c i e n t u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f i n t e n s e d e m a n d . S u b u r b a n s p r a w l w i l l t h u s 3 0 5 . bring about a further decline in mass transportation, as increasing reliance on the automobile brings further congestion f 4\") to central business d i s tr i c t s .\" In fact the entire North American economy in the last half century has been geared to sustain the development of a suburban-designed world; the North American \"standard of l iving\" and the industry would face a period of painful transformation i f such suburban design had to be drastical ly and suddenly revised. It is amazing that a single-purpose industry, that of the production of chiefly suburban-designed motor cars, has become the most indicative and crucial industry. The time, the money and the energy that has been dedicated to create the suburban society is beyond rational understanding. Yet even now that the resources necessary to f u l f i l l the romantic dream on a national scale are beginning to dwindle, people are shutting their eyes and waiting for the p o l i t i c a l or technical miracle that wi l l allow the achievement of the romantic paradise on earth. Weissbburd said: \"If we know what kind of urban environ-ment we want, the power and the tools to create i t are at our d i s p o s a l . \" T h e problem is that we do not know and do not seem to want to know what kind of environment we want. The design was evolved a long time ago and we would rather not bother to discuss i t ; we prefer to follow blindly at an unknown cost a crystal l ized ideal that has been given to us. as the only possible ideal . The bourgeoisie has made up its mind a long time ago; now i t merely wants to defend its ideals. This seems to be the feature of a decaying, not of a growing culture. 3 0 6 . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s c e n t u r y , w i t h i n t h e m a i n r o m a n t i c t r e n d o f t h e a g e s o m e n e w i d e a s f o r a p o s s i b l e a l t e r -n a t i v e v i s i o n o f t h e c i t y s e e m e d t o b l o s s o m . S a n t ' E l i a , t o n o t e a f a m o u s e x a m p l e , d e s i g n e d i n a f e w b o l d d r a w i n g s a n u r b a n m o d e l w h i c h m i g h t h a v e b r o u g h t u s b e y o n d t h e m e r e c r y s t a l -l i z a t i o n o f t h e r o m a n t i c s c h e m e s . T h e i d e a l o f m e g a l o p o l i s f o r a w h i l e s e e m e d t o c o n t r a s t t h e i d e a l g a r d e n c i t y . B u t t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y s e e m s t o h a v e f a d e d a w a y . T h e d e s i r e t o e m p h a s i z e a n d a l l o w o n l y d i f f e r e n t v a r i a t i o n s a n d e x t r e m e e x a m p l e s o f t h e s a m e i d e a s a b o u t r o m a n t i c n a t u r e a n d t h e c i t y s e e m t o b e p r e v a i l i n g . S o e v e n a f t e r m a n h a s b e e n w a l k i n g o n t h e m o o n , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e w i l d d r e a m o f J u l e s V e r n e a c e n t r u y a g o , t h e i n d i v i d u a l s k y s c r a p e r a n d t h e c o l o n i a l o r T u d o r o r S p a n i s h c o t t a g e , s e p a r a t e d b y a h a n d f u l o f d e c a y i n g b u i l d i n g s a n d e m p t y l o t s , a r e t h e m a i n i t e m s o f o u r u r b a n l e x i c o n . T h e u r b a n t o w e r a n d t h e s u b u r b a n v i l l a a r e c r e a t u r e s e s t a b l i s h e d b y c u l t u r e a n d a r t s i n c e t h e m i d d l e a g e s a n d t h e r e n a i s s a n c e , r e s p e c t i v e l y . R o m a n t i c i s m t r a n s f o r m e d t h e m i n t o c o m p l e x a n d e l a b o r a t e s y m b o l s , b u t e v e n o l d a g e a l o n e s h o u l d t e n d t o i n d i c a t e t h a t w e a r e a p p r o a c h i n g t h e e n d o f t h e l i f e o f t h e s e a r c h i t e c -t u r a l t r e n d s . F r o m a c u l t u r a l v i e w p o i n t t h e i n d i c a t i o n w o u l d b e e v e n m o r e c l e a r : t h e s t u b b o r n i m p o s i t i o n o f t r i t e a n d i r r a t i o n a l i n t e l l e c t u a l f a s h i o n s m e e t s s o o n e r o r l a t e r w i t h a s u d d e n r e a c t i o n a n d v i o l e n t d e a t h , a s m a n y h i s t o r i c a l e x a m p l e s w o u l d i n d i c a t e . T h e r e a r e e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l t e n s i o n s w h i c h k e e p m a n i f e s t i n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h v e r y i n d i c a t i v e s i g n s , b e t h e y 3 0 7 . urban riots or gasoline rationing. It would be a terrible mistake to continue to approach these signs as practical problems to be pragmatically solved only with sk i l fu l day to day administrative decisions, buying a l i t t l e more o i l from the Arabs or increasing the efficiency of the police forces. In fact the 'problems' wi l l simply shift continuously from one area to another and compound themselves, unt i l they wi l l erupt with dramatic and conclusive force. C H A P T E R 1 1 ( 1 ) H A D D E N , M A S O T T I , L A R S O N : M e t r o p o l i s i n C r i s i s , I t a s c a , I l l i n o i s 1 9 6 7 , p . 1 6 . ( 2 ) B . W E I S S B O U R D : A r e C i t i e s O b s o l e t e ? f r o m M e t r o p o l i s i n C r i s i s , b y s a m e a s ( 1 ) P- 1 ? ( 3 ) L . M U M F O R D : T h e C u l t u r e o f C i t i e s , N e w Y o r k 1 9 3 8 , p . 2 1 6 . ( 4 ) B . W E I S S B O U R D : A r e C i t i e s O b s o l e t e ? f r o m M e t r o p o l i s i n C r i s i s , b y s a m e a s ( 1 ) p . 1 8 . 309 . 1 2 . VANCOUVER IN LIGHT OF THIS STUDY T h e r e a r e many s t r e e t s i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c h e a r t o f t h e c i t y w h i c h were l a i d o u t as i f t h e y were c o u n t r y r o a d s , w i t h t h e h o u s e s w e l l s e t b a c k as i f t h e y were i n d i v i d u a l f a r m s . We may n o t e t h e o p e n n e s s o f t h e a r e a and t h e rows o f t e l e p h o n e and e l e c t r i c p o l e s f o r t h e l i n e s above g r o u n d i n t h e f a s h i o n o f the open c o u n t r y . I t i s day t i m e and t h e r e i s no s i g n o f l i f e i n t h e s t r e e t s . One may wonder w h e t h e r t h e b u i l d i n g on t h e r i g h t i s a s t a b l e o r a g a r a g e . 310 . We may n o t e t h e r u r a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s h o u s e i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e i s a man a t t e n d i n g to h i s v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n and n o t t o o f a r away a g a r a g e t h a t l o o k s l i k e a s e p a r a t e f a r m b u i l d i n g . The suburban house in the c i ty . Note the setback and the lawn separating the house from the sidewalk, the shrubs and the vegetable garden in the back. The garage is also a free standing separate building, in the purest tradit ion. Note the proportion of the land taken up by the grass alone, in comparison with the buildings. Extending the eye further around one may see that the new residences, the apartments, follow the identical seheme. They are a l l detached buildings with grass and shrubs surrounding them as far as possible and made to look just like larger suburban houses. In fact they try to maintain a continuity of rural setting. T h i s i s a s u b u r b a n s t r e e t where we may n o t e t h e i n t e n t i o n a l l o s s o f o n e s e l f i n t h e l a n d s c a p e , t h e p e r v a s i v e n e s s o f n a t u r e , and t h e m e a n d e r i n g g a r d e n s . The d e l i b e r a t e c h o i c e o f a c u r v i l i n e a r p a t h , as a p u r e l y g e o m e t r i c a l n e g a t i o n o f t h e r e c t i l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s t r e e t . The w i s h t o l i v e i n a c a s t l e . A f o r m i d a b l e f e e l i n g . The e c l e c t i c i s m o f t h e r o m a n t i c c a s t l e The s o c i a l s t a t u s s y m b o l 317 . The c o t t a g e i n f u l l v i e w o f t h e s t r e e t . N o t e t h e e x h i b i t i o n o f r o c k e r y and s h r u b s i n f r o n t , w h i c h do not p r o v i d e any p r i v a c y t o t h e h o u s e . Even i f i t i s n o t a c a s t l e t h e i n d i v i d u a l h o u s e i s one o c c a s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s i o n . A n o t h e r a s p e c t o f r o m a n t i c t h o u g h t . The complement of suburbia The revolt against the car 321 . The a b u s e o f open s p a c e . L a n d b e t w e e n s u b u r b i a and t h e c i t y . The t e l e p h o n e p o l e s d o m i n a t e t h e l a n d s c a p e . C a r s s u r r o u n d t h e l i t t l e h o u s e s , i n an a r e a where p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a t i i s m i s s i n g . 322 . L a r g e r a p a r t m e n t b u i l d i n g s make a d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t t o m a i n t a i n t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e s i n g l e f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s , t h e s u b u r b a n c o t t a g e , i n t h e i r s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t . N o t e t h e b l e n d i n g o f b r i c k s , r o o f t i l e s , s t u c c o and e x p o s e d t i m b e r s , w i t h r e m i n -i s c e n c e s w h i c h i n c l u d e t h e c o l o n i a l M a n s a r d , t h e Spanish s u b u r b a n and t h e T u d o r . Note a l s o t h e s h r u b s and t h e g r a s s a l l a r o u n d where p o s s i b l e , and t h e a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e a g a r d e n on t h e s i d e o f t h e a l l e y . The f o r e s t i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d i s i n f a c t a f u l l y d e v e l -o p e d p o r t i o n o f N o r t h V a n c o u v e r . 323 . Compare the style of the suburban house and the apartment building. Note the oddity of the apartment building with the kind of false Tudor Mansard. It may remind one of those New York skyscrapers that had gothic or greek revival toppings. We can see here the struggle between romantic suburban styles and increasing urban necessities . 324 . N o t e t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s i d e w a l k i n two p a r t s ; one i s r u n n i n g b e t w e e n two s t r i p s o f w e l l m a i n t a i n e d g r a s s , t h e o t h e r , g i v i n g a c c e s s t o t h e s h o p s , i s o u t o f t h e way , s e p a r a t e d by s h r u b s , a f e n c e and o r n a m e n t a l l a m p - p o s t s , and has an a c c e s s a t r i g h t a n g l e f r o m t h e m a i n s i d e w a l k , on t h e s i d e o f an e n t r a n c e t o u n d e r g r o u n d p a r k i n g . ( T r a f f i c s e p a r a t i o n ? C a r s t o t h e r i g h t , p e d e s t r i a n s t o t h e l e f t ) . The shops a r e s e t w e l l b a c k f r o m t h e s t r e e t . We see a d e l i b e r -a t e a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e a g a r d e n e v e n a t the c o s t o f m a k i n g a d i v e r s i o n . 3 2 5 . Note h e r e n o t o n l y t h e s h r u b s b u t t h e p u r e l y d e c o r a t i v e a r c a d e w h i c h goes a r o u n d t h e i s o l a t e d t o w e r s b u t f a i l s t o meet t h e p e d e s t r i a n s on t h e s t r e e t and t o c o v e r them f r o m one b u i l d i n g t o t h e o t h e r . The i s o l a t i o n o f t h e b u i l d i n g s p r o d u c e s an i s o l a t i o n o f t h e a r c a d e s : t h e i r f u n c t i o n i s n e g a t e d and t h e y become a s i m p l y s t y l i s t i c m o t i f . The magic box emerging in isolation. An apartment t o w e r i n the m i d d l e o f u n d e v e l o p e d i d . V e r t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e p r e s t i g e the t o w e r i n i s o l a t i o n and o f m o n u m e n t a l i t y . 3 2 8 . UNIVERSITY O F BRITISH C O L U M B I A L A O N E R C L O C K T O W E R EDDY MATCH CO. LTD VANCOUVER R C Ultimate romantic monumentality: the geometric object standing alone in absolute contrast with nature. An expression of the sublime. We may note the perfectly sublime picture that has been chosen as a symbol of the University of British Columbia. 329 . same c o n c e p t i n a d e v e l o p e r ' s v e r s i o n . 3 3 0 . P e r f e c t g e o m e t r i c o b j e c t i n a p a r k s e t t i n g . S u b l i m e c o n t r a s t o f t h e i s o l a t e d v i ew o f t h e b u i l d i n g a g a i n s t t h e l a r g e t r e e s . Note how t i n y the two men a p p e a r a g a i n s t t h e f u l l v i e w o f t h e n a k e d mass o f t h e b u i l d i n g ; i t r e m i n d s one o f many r o m a n t i c r e n d e r i n g s o f b u i l d i n g s , s t a r t i n g w i t h P i r a n e s i . A crowd of isolated buildings. The paradox. The t y p i c a l r o m a n t i c s e t t i n g o f h i g h r i s e r e s i -d e n t i a l t o w e r s , n o t u n l i k e t h a t o f t h e s u b u r b a n h o u s e s l a i d out a c e n t u r y b e f o r e . I s o l a t i o n h e r e b r i n g s a more d r a m a t i c e f f e c t . The r o m a n t i c i d e a l a t i t s b e s t : t h e b l a c k box I n f a c t , t h e b u i l d i n g i s c o n c e i v e d as i f i t were f l o a t i n g i n s p a c e , a n c h o r e d t o t h e g r o u n d l i k e a b a l l o o n . I t i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o have any r e l a t i o n t o a c i t y a r o u n d i t ; i n f a c t , t h e o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s seem t o d i s a p p e a r i n r e l a t i o n t o i t . t h e s h i n y box s t r i v e s t o w a r d f o r m a l p e r f e c t i o n and p u r e g e o m e t r y ; t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n f l o o r s and windows i s c o n c e a l e d by r e f l e c t i o n , a n d t h e box i s made to a p p e a r as i f i t were f u l l y d e t a c h e d n o t o n l y f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d b u t even f r o m t h e g r o u n d . The e n t r a n c e i s so i n c o n s p i c u o u s t h a t someone may wonder how t o ge t up t h e r e . N o i s e and d i s o d e r may w e l l r e i g n b e l o w ; t h e u p p e r s p a c e i s p u r e and u n c o n t a m i n a t e d (and p r o t e c t e d by a s i n g l e e n t r y e n c a s e d i n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e . Y o u c o u l d n o t r e a c h i t w i t h a s t o n e . ) i s a w h o l e s e r i e s o f e x a m p l e s o f s u b l i m e t o w e r s . 336 T h i s s u g g e s t s an e t h e r e a l p a p e r box w i t h no c o n t e n t almost d o e s n ' t l o o k s t r u c t u r a l . T h e r e i s a s o r t o f j o y m e n t o r o f p r i d e i n p r o d u c i n g a box w h i c h d o e s n ' t show o p l e i n i t . One has t o n o t e t h e c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e o l d e r i l d i n g on t h e r i g h t w h i c h s t i l l shows e v e r y window. The f r e e s t a n d i n g r e v i v a l i s t monument o f e a r l y m a n t i c i s m . L a n d s c a p i n g i s p r o v i d e d i n f r o n t to f u r t h e r a l a t e t h e b u i l d i n g and make i t s t a n d o u t more s t r o n g l y The u l t i m a t e g e o m e t r i c monument t a k e s a d v a n t a g e e same i s o l a t i o n . I f t h e g l a s s were j u s t a l i t t l e more f l e c t i v e t h i s w o u l d be t h e p e r f e c t monument. Many p e o p l V a n c o u v e r were d i s a p p o i n t e d by t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e g l a s s p r o v i d e t o t a l r e f l e c t i o n , and t h u s c r e a t e a p e r f e c t l y ean s u r f a c e t o the a l m o s t p e r f e c t p a r a l l e l p i p e d . 339 . The two t o w e r s o f t h e T o r o n t o D o m i n i o n C e n t r e , s i t u a t e d t o a l l o w t h e maximum s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n them, and w i t h an open s p a c e i n t h e f a s h i o n o f a p e d e s t r i a n p l a z a i n f r o n t o f them. The p r o p o r t i o n s a r e s u c h t h a t one m i g h t t h i n k o f t h e t o w e r s o f La G a r i s e n d a and o f G l i A s i n e l l i , b u t t h e d r a m a t i c e f f e c t i s much g r e a t e r , a l s o b e c a u s e o f t h e d a r k r e f l e c t i v e m a t e r i a l , w h i c h makes t h e b u i l d i n g s s t a n d o u t more s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t t h e s k y . I t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e r e i s no o t h e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s t r e e t and t h e t o w e r s b u t two e n t r a n c e s . The i n s i d e and t h e o u t s i d e a r e v e r y s t r o n g l y s e p a r a t e d . The theme o f t h e box and o f t h e p e r f e c t s u r f a c e s i s c a r r i e d on by t h e l o w , w i d e r box u s e d f o r t h e E a t o n ' s s t o r e on t h e s i d e , s t r i k i n g l y w h i t e . H e r e a g a i n t h e i n s i d e i s S t r o n p l v s p n a r a t p H f - r n m +\u2022 Vi Q n n t < ; i H P The box i s a facade only. The monumentalism i s intended f o r outside,not i n s i d e . The s t y l e changes with the a c t i v i t y . 3 4 2 . The romantic c o n t r a s t . Low b u i l d i n g s and a p a r k i n g l o t enhance the s u b l i m i t y of the high r i s e b u i l d i n g . 3 4 3 As a f i n a l n o t e , we may o b s e r v e t h a t t h e campus o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n V a n c o u v e r i s an example o f r o m a n t i c s e t t i n g . I t i s a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d v i l l a g e , s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e c i t y b;.y a f o r e s t and s i t u a t e d on t h e w e s t e r n t i p o f a p e n i n s u l a . The b u i l d i n g s a r e d e t a c h e d i n t h e f a s h i o n o f i s o l a t e d monuments, and a r e s e p a r a t e d by l a n d s c a p i n g and p a r k s . A good d e a l o f money i s s p e n t on a l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f b e a u t i f u l f l o w e r s . W h i l e t h e theme o f n a t u r e d o m i n a t e s t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , where t h e b u i l d i n g s a r e s p r e a d o v e r a l a r g e e x p a n s e o f l a n d , t h e s h e e r m a s s i v e n e s s o f t h e s i n g l e m o numental c e n t r a l b u i l d i n g d o m i n a t e s Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y . T h i s u n i v e r -s i t y , i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c h e a r t o f m e t r o p o l i t a n V a n c o u v e r , s t a n d s i n s u b l i m e i s o l a t i o n a t t h e t o p o f a m o u n t a i n , p r o d u c i n g t h e e f f e c t o f an a c a d e m i c a c r o p o l i s i n b a r e c o n c r e t e . I t s i s o l a t i o n i s e m p h a s i z e d by t h e p a r k t h a t s u r r o u n d s i t . The c o n c r e t e mass o f t h e g i g a n t i c b u i l d i n g r i s e s i n d i r e c t c o n t r a s t a g a i n s t t h e g r e e n e r y o f t h e m o u n t a i n . 344 . 13. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION A general uniformity of pattern of developments exists in contemporary c i t i e s , particularly in the recent developments and subdivisions. It is a pattern of growth typical of North America, corresponding to moral and aesthetic ideals fostered by romantic trends. Love for separation and ideal order play a great part in the growth of this pattern. The pattern of the eighteenth century towns of Quebec and Nouvelle Orleans, compact, mixed, introvert and European, remained essentially foreign to this continent. The isolation of buildings and of uses, the exterior lawns and gardens, are among the essential traits of the North American system, where landscaped open spaces are emphasized and the buildings are free standing, i f density and cost allow i t . The suburban dwelling and the skyscraper are the most typical North American buildings. The f i r s t corresponds to the romantic notion of the beautiful, The Call of the Wild, the wor-ship of Nature, the morality of rural l i f e . The second corres-ponds to the romantic notion of the monument and of the sublime. As a summary of modern North American architecture The World Trade Centre ( f i g u r e 1) is most typical . Its sublime design is emphasized by the model shown, where no other complex of buildings is present,and where the composition stops with a few trees. The purity of the twin towers and the contrast with the low rise composition at their feet could not be greater. Comparing i t with the drawing of a tower by Boullee (p. 253 ~) we may note that the THE WORLD TRADE CENTER, scheduled for completion by 1972, will have the world's tallest buildings, two 110-story towers, surrounded by four low-lying Plaza buildings\u2014 a 16-acre complex. Owner, The Port of New York Authority; Architects, Minoru Yamasaki and Associates\u2014and Emery Roth and Sons; | Consulting Mechanical Engineer, Jaros, Baum & Bolles; General Contractor, Tishman Realty & Construction Co. Inc.; Electric Engineers, Joseph R. Loring & Associates; Mechanical Contractor, H. Sand & Co. Inc. 3 4 6 , s c a l e a n d t h e p r o p o r t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p e o p l e s h o w n a n d t h e t o w e r s i s a b o u t t h e s a m e . E v e n t h e b u i l d i n g a t t h e b a s e . i s a l m o s t i n t h e s a m e p r o p o r t i o n . D e s i g n h a s b e c o m e a r a t h e r o c c u l t s c i e n c e . T h e p u b l i c e x p e c t s m a g i c a l s h a p e s o f s t r i k i n g p u r i t y f r o m t h e a r c h i t e c t , a g e n i u s o f i n t u i t i v e a n d i n n a t e a b i l i t i e s . T h e l o v e f o r t h e s u b l i m e i s b a l a n c e d b y t h e l o v e f o r t h e b e a u t i f u l s u b u r b a n h o u s e a n d g a r -d e n , j u s t a s t h e l o v e f o r s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y i s b a l a n c e d b y a n e q u a l l o v e f o r N a t u r e . T h e s e t r e n d s m a y p r o d u c e s o m e o f t h e r o m a n t i c d i l e m m a s . T h e s u b u r b a n r o m a n t i c m a n d i s c o v e r s c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e s a n d s u c h a s e n t i m e n t a l v a l u e a s n a t u r e . T h e s u b u r b a n N o r t h A m e r i c a n l i k e s t o f o l l o w t h e d r e a m o f c a p t u r i n g t h e m o o n , b u t c a n n o t s t a n d t h e c i t y o f c o m m u t e r s , t h e p o l l u t i o n a n d i m p r a c t i c a l i t y o f t h e c a r a s a n u r b a n v e h i c l e . I n t u i t i v e v a l u e s a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t s a r e s e e n i n c o n f l i c t , o f t e n w i t h o u t a r e a s o n a b l e s o l u t i o n i n s i g h t , e x c e p t s u f f e r i n g a n d d r e a m i n g . A n e c o n o m i c r a t i o n a l i t y i s s u p p o s e d t o e x i s t b e h i n d t h e p r e s e n t N o r t h A m e r i c a n u r b a n s y s t e m , b e c a u s e i t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e m a r k e t h a s r e s p o n d e d t o i t w i t h e v i d e n t f a v o u r . H o w e v e r , w e n o t e d t h a t p e o p l e t e n d t o b u y h a p p i n e s s a n d t h a t r o m a n t i c v a l u e s i n f l u e n c e t h e d r e a m t h a t i s s u p p o s e d t o c o r r e s p o n d t o i t . We n o t e d t h a t \" t h e m a r k e t \" i s a v a g u e n o t i o n a n d t h a t i t i s n o t r e a l l y a s f r e e a s i t m a y b e t h o u g h t . I n f a c t , t h e m a r k e t a c t s i n s u c h a c o n f u s i n g a n d i r r a t i o n a l m a n n e r t h a t p e o p l e a r e a s k i n g f o r c o n t r o l s a n d h a v e a t t r i b u t e d t o i t a s o r t o f \" c a n n i b a l i s m \" . 347 , T h e m a r k e t i s a l r e a d y a c t i n g u n d e r a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t o f c o n t r o l s , p r o v i d e d b y o l d l e g a l c o n s t r a i n t s , s u c h a s c i t y b y -l a w s a n d p r o p e r t y l i n e s , i n w h i c h a r o m a n t i c v i e w o f t h e c i t y h a s a l r e a d y b e e n i m p o s e d . G e o m e t r y a c c o r d i n g t o a n i d e a l o r d e r , s e p a r a t i o n s o f b u i l d i n g s a n d o f u s e s , a n d a l m o s t c o m p u l s o r y l a n d -s c a p i n g p r o t e c t a p a t t e r n a n d a t a s t e w e l l d e f i n e d a t t h e b e g i n n -i n g o f t h e c e n t u r y . T h i s s i t u a t i o n h a s l e d u s t o f o r g e t t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l o r i g i n s o f t h e p r e s e n t s y s t e m . I t i s a s y s t e m w h i c h h a s b u i l t -i n c o n t r a s t s , b e c a u s e r o m a n t i c i s m i d e a l i z e d c o n t r a s t s i n a d i a l e c t i c v i s i o n o f t h e w o r l d , w h e r e a e s t h e t i c a n d s p i r i t u a l s a t i s f a c t i o n i s d e r i v e d b y a n i n t u i t i o n o f o p p o s i n g f a c t o r s , b y a s e n t i m e n t o f s t r u g g l e a n d a n u n e n d i n g l o v e f o r a n u n a t t a i n a b l e i n f i n i t e . T h o u g h t s d e v e l o p e d b y B u r k e a n d b y K a n t , a n d i n g e n e r a l t h e p r e - r o m a n t i c c u l t u r e , c a n e x p l a i n t o u s t h e d e e p o r i g i n a n d t h e e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f b a s i c r o m a n t i c t r e n d s , w h i c h m a y b e u n d e t e c t e d o r m i s u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e r a p i d t u r n o v e r o f m o r e s u p e r -f i c i a l f a s h i o n s . I t i s t o B u r k e t h a t w e o w e t h e d e f i n i t i o n a n d t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e c o n c e p t s o f t h e b e a u t i f u l a n d o f t h e s u b l i m e , t h e s u b l i m e d e r i v i n g f r o m g r e a t a n d o v e r w h e l m i n g c o n t r a s t s a n d t h e b e a u t i f u l f r o m s m a l l a n d p i c t u r e s q u e c o n t r a s t s . T o K a n t we o w e e s p e c i a l l y t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f p u r e r e a s o n a n d o f i t s r e a l m . I t i s t o h i m a n d t o H u m e t h a t w e o w e t h e n o t i o n t h a t we c a n n o t k n o w t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s a n d t h e e x t e r i o r w o r l d i n i t s r e a l i t y . K a n t i n v e s t i g a t e d a l s o t h e r e a l m o f i n t u i t i v e k n o w l e d g e a n d w e 348 . i n h e r i t e d a s d e v e l o p m e n t s o f h i s p h i l o s o p h y m o s t o f t h e r o m a n t i c n o t i o n s , f r o m t h a t o f a m y s t e r i o u s a n d d e s i r a b l e N a t u r e , e m b o d y i n g t h e l a w o f G o d b u t s e p a r a t e f r o m u s , t o t h a t o f t h e a r t i s t a s a n i n s p i r e d g e n i u s a n d o f a r t f o r a r t ' s s a k e . We n o t e d a s t h e m o s t c r u c i a l a s p e c t f o r u s i n h i s p h i l o s o p h y t h a t o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n n a t u r e a n d r e a s o n a n d b e t w e e n i n t u i t i o n a n d r e a s o n . T h e r o m a n t i c s m a d e t h i s s e p a r a t i o n t h e i r o w n , e v e n i f i n w a y s t h a t K a n t c o u l d n o t f o r e s e e . A n g l o - S a x o n s b e c a m e m o s t i n s p i r e d b y t h e r o m a n t i c t e n d e n c i e s a n d s o o n b e g a n s e e i n g t h e m s e l v e s a s c u s t o d i a n s o f t h e t r e a s u r e o f t h e r o m a n t i c t r a d i t i o n . T h e y s a w t h e m s e l v e s n o t o n l y a s t h e l e a d e r s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d o f t h e w o r l d , b u t a l s o a s e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e m i s s i o n o f a s u p e r i o r r a c e a s d e f e n d e r s o f N a t u r e , o f m o r a l i t y a n d o f \" s u b l i m e a n d b e a u t i f u l v a l u e s i n a c o r r u p t , d e c a y i n g a n d e v e n p e r v e r s e w o r l d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e c i t y b e c a m e a v i c t i m o f t h i s c r u s a d e , a n d w i t h o u t e v e n a c h a n c e f o r a f a i r t r i a l . T h e d i s c u s s i o n o f r o m a n t i c v a l u e s w a s m a d e i m p o s s i b l e b y t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f t h e s e  v a l u e s : t h e r e t u r n t o N a t u r e i s a n i n t u i t i v e , m y s t i c a l v a l u e , s u p e r i o r t o r e a s o n , f o r r o m a n t i c s . I n f a c t , f o r t h o s e r o m a n t i c s w h o l i k e t h e w o r d r e a s o n , N a t u r e a n d R e a s o n a r e t h e s a m e t h i n g . F o r t h o s e w h o d o n o t l i k e i t , r e a s o n i s r e l e g a t e d t o t h e w o r l d o f s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y , w h e r e i t c a n n o t d e b a t e v a l u e s - a s a c o n s e q u e n c e h e a l t h a n d s a f e t y b e c o m e t h e o n l y d o m a i n s o f r a t i o n a l d e b a t e r e g a r d i n g t h e c i t y . 3 4 9 , T h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s a r e b e c o m i n g m o r e a n d m o r e o b v i o u s , w h i l e t h e p r e s e n t p a t t e r n i s e x p a n d i n g a t a p h e n o m e n a l p a c e . T h e l i b r a r i e s a r e b e c o m i n g f i l l e d w i t h s t u d i e s s h o w i n g t h e s y m p t o m s o f t h e d i s e a s e , a n d o f t e n r e p e a t i n g p l a t i t u d e s . T h e c o n c e r n w i t h t h e c i t y i f w i d e s p r e a d a n d g r o w i n g . B u t t h e v a l u e s , t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t e n t o f t h e p r e s e n t N o r t h A m e r i c a n u r b a n f o r m , a f o r m t h a t i s d e f e n d e d b y t h e l a w a n d b y a n i n v i n c i b l e c o m p l e x o f p r a c t i c e s a n d p r e j u d i c e s , a r e t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d a n d n o t d e b a t e d . E m o t i o n a l i s m d o e s n o t e v e n a l l o w c l e a r a n d f r a n k e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e c u l t u r a l a n d r a c i a l o r i g i n o f t h e p r e s e n t t r e n t . T h e s p l i t b e t w e e n t h e e m o t i o n a l a n d t h e r a t i o n a l w o r l d d o e s n o t a l l o w r e a s o n t o w o r k o v e r e m o t i o n s o n e s s e n t i a l m a t t e r s . T h e r o m a n t i c c o n t r a s t s a r e b e c o m i n g a b s u r d a n d i m p o s s i b l e d i l e m m a s . N a t u r e a n d t h e c i t y , t h e s u b u r b a n s t y l e a n d t h e c a r , a r e p r o d u c i n g a c o n f l i c t t h a t c a n o n l y g r o w i n m a g n i t u d e . We n o t e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t h a t t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e f a c t t h a t a c i t y l i k e R o m e s e e m s t o b e a p a r a d i s e w h e n i t i s d e v o i d o f c a r s , w h i l e a c i t y l i k e W a s h i n g t o n w o u l d b e h e l l w i t h o u t e a r s , h a v e y e t t o b e f u l l y r e a l i z e d . W h a t i s h a p p e n i n g i n t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n s y s t e m i s t h a t w e a r e b o r r o w i n g f r o m f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s , u n t i l t h e c o s t s w i l l b e c o m e i m p o s s i b l e . T h e r e a r e m a n y w a y s i n w h i c h a r o m a n t i c u r b a n s y s t e m m a y b e s e e n a s b e i n g e x c e s s i v e l y i n d i v i -d u a l i s t i c a n d a n t i - s o c i a l . T h e d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e E u r o p e a n u r b a n s y s t e m i s q u i t e r e m a r k a b l e : t h e r e m i x e d a n d i n t e g r a t e d u s e s a n d i n t r o v e r t e d b u i l d i n g s a l l o w a g r e a t d e g r e e o f f l e x i b i l i t y a n d o f a d a p t a t i o n t o d i f f e r e n t n e e d s a n d s t y l e s , e v e n t o n e w o n e s , w h i l e h e r e t h e i n f l e x i b l e p a t t e r n o f z o n e d d i s t r i c t s a n d 350 . o f t h e s u b u r b a n s t y l e t r a n s f o r m i n t o a p r o b l e m e v e n t h e n e e d s c a u s e d b y a s m a l l c h a n g e o f s i t u a t i o n . I n c o n c l u s i o n , w e h a v e t r a c e d t h e s o u r c e s o f a s t y l e a n d o f a t t i t u d e s t h a t s e e m t o h a v e t h e f o r c e a n d t h e t o t a l c o n t r o l o f a n u n a l t e r a b l e d e s t i n y . I t w a s , h o w e v e r , a d e s t i n y w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y c o n s c i o u s l y c h o s e n , a n d a s s u c h i t s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e t o c h a n g e i t i n t i m e . I t i s o n l y b y u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e o r i g i n s o f s u c h a c h o i c e t h a t i t s t r u e n a t u r e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a n d  a p p r a i s e d , a n d a c o r r e c t i o n o r a c h a n g e c a n b e m a d e . T h i s s t u d y i s n o t a l t o g e t h e r n e w v T h e e l e m e n t s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g p r e s e n t e d a r e a l l a v a i l a b l e i n a n i m p r e s s i v e a m o u n t o f l i t e r a t u r e , a n d t h e s c a t t e r e d o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e b y m o s t o f t h e a u t h o r s w o u l d e v e n i n d i c a t e a s o r t o f g e n e r a l c o n s e n -s u s o n m o s t o f t h e p o i n t s r a i s e d . W h a t w e b e l i e v e i s n e w i s t h e c o n n e c t i o n m a d e b e t w e e n s o m a n y d i f f e r e n t w o r k s a v a i l a b l e i n o r d e r t o f o r m a f a i r l y c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e o f t h e e s s e n t i a l c u l t u r a l e l e m e n t s a t t h e r o o t s o f t h e l a r g e t r e e o f c o n f u s i n g a n d u p s e t t i n g c o n t e m p o r a r y u r b a n t r e n d s . T h e s e c u l t u r a l e l e m e n t s h a v e y e t t o b e o p e n l y d i s c u s s e d . O n c e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f c h o i c e i s g a i n e d o n e c o u l d s t a r t s p e c u l a t i n g a b o u t w h a t s h o u l d o r c o u l d b e d o n e i n o r d e r t o m a k e c h a n g e s i n t h e p r e s e n t u r b a n s y s t e m . A s t u d y o f a c o m p l e t e p r o p o s a l w o u l d b e i n i t s e l f a m a j o r n e w w o r k , b u t a f e w i d e a s m a y b e s k e t c h e d b r i e f l y . F o r 351 . e x a m p l e , a s e c t o r o f t h e c i t y c o u l d b e p l a c e d u n d e r a n e w a u t h o r i t y w i t h d i f f e r e n t i d e a s a n d s o m e d i s c r e t i o n a r y p o w e r s . A n i n t r o v e r t e d , m i x e d a n d l i n e a r u r b a n s y s t e m m a y t h e n b e i m p l e m e n t e d a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e f o r m o f l i f e i n t h e p r e s e n t N o r t h A m e r i c a n s y s t e m . I n t h i s w a y a t r u l y n e w u r b a n a r c h i t e c -t u r e m i g h t a r i s e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . A n o t h e r a r e a o f s p e c u l a t i o n : w h a t w o u l d t h e p e o p l e d o i f t h e y w e r e t o l d t h e w h o l e t r u t h a b o u t t h e p r e s e n t u r b a n s y s t e m , i t s i m p l i c i t v a l u e s a n d e s p e c i a l l y i t s u n c a l c u l a t e d c o s t s ? O n e m a y s p e c u l a t e t h a t i f c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s c o u l d b e m a d e t h e s u b u r b a n r o m a n t i c m e t r o p o l i s w o u l d b e s h o w n a s b y f a r t h e m o s t e x p e n s i v e a n d w a s t e f u l s y s t e m , p o s s i b l e o n l y i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , b e c a u s e o f i t s i m m e n s e o r i g i n a l n a t u r a l w e a l t h i n t e r m s o f l a n d a n d e n e r g y . T h i s w e a l t h n e e d n o t b e l o s t . T o p r o p o s e d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t b a s i c v a l u e s o f e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n s a n d e v e n m o r e a b o u t t h e i r p o s s i b l e c h a n g e s m a y t u r n o u t t o b e a l m o s t a s d i f f i c u l t i n a d e m o c r a c y a s u n d e r a d i c t a t o r -s h i p . P r o b l e m s o f a u t h o r i t y a n d o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b e c o m e i m m e d i a t e -l y a p p a r e n t . F i r s t o f a l l , w h o h a s t h e r i g h t t o m a n i p u l a t e v a l u e s i n a d e m o c r a c y ? A n d , s e c o n d l y , h o w i s i t p o s s i b l e t o p r o v i d e t h e p e o p l e t r u l y w i t h a l l t h e n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n ? Y e t p e o p l e d o d e c i d e w i t h t h e i r v o t e s a n d w i t h t h e i r p u r c h a s e s a c c o r d i n g t o a l r e a d y l i m i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n a n d g o v e r n m e n t s d o d e c i d e a b o u t m a t t e r s o f c u l t u r a l v a l u e s . E v e r y t h i n g h a p p e n s s l o w l y a n d t h r o u g h m a n y c o m p r o m i s e s a n d i m p e r f e c t i o n s ; h o w e v e r , i t m u s t b e p o s s i b l e t o d e b a t e a n d e v e n t o s t a r t c h a n g e s i n 3 5 2 , m a t t e r s w h i c h i n v o l v e v a l u e s . O t h e r w i s e , t h e e s s e n c e o f f r e e d o m c a n b e l o s t . T o p r e s e r v e a d e m o c r a c y g o v e r n m e n t s m u s t b e f l e x i b l e t o w a r d c h a n g e a n d t h e y h a v e a d u t y t o i n f o r m a n d t o e d u c a t e t h e p u b l i c . N o b o d y e v e r h a s a l l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d t h e g r o w t h o f i n f o r m a t i o n a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g a m o n g t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c i s a v e r y s l o w p r o c e s s . H o w e v e r s p e c u l a t i v e w o r k d o e s h a v e a n e d u c a t i o n a l i m p a c t a n d i n t i m e i t b e c o m e s s h a r e d i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e w o r k d o n e a t u n i v e r s i t i e s u l t i m a t e l y a f f e c t s t e a c h i n g , w h i c h i n t u r n p r o v i d e s n u m b e r s o f p e o p l e w i t h i d e a s a n d i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t a r e d i s c u s s e d a t h o m e , i n t h e o f f i c e , i n g o v e r n m e n t a n d i n t h e p u b l i c f o r u m . 3 5 3 . C H A P T E R 1 3 ( 1 ) \" A r c h i t e c t u r a l F o r u m \" , N o v e m b e r 1 9 6 8 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 3 5 4'. - A -N . ABBAGNANO, S t o r i a d e l l a f i l o s o f i a ; , ; , T u r i n , 1963 . B 2773 E5 A2 THOMAS K. A B B O T T , K a n t ' s C r i t i q u e o f P r a c t i c a l R e a s o n , L o n d o n 1 9 6 3 . E. ADAMS, The New Town o f H a r l o w , H a r l o w D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n 1954. A . I . R . E . A . , The A p p r a i s a l o f R e a l E s t a t e , C h i c a g o 1 9 6 7 . WILLIAM ALEXANDER and ARTHUR S T R E E T , M e t a l s i n t h e S e r v i c e  o f M a n , P e l i c a n Books 1964 . NA9053 C6 A884 A . A L L E N , The E v o l u t i o n and t h e R o l e o f H i s t o r i c and A r c h i t e c t u r a l  P r e s e r v a t i o n W i t h i n t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n C i t y . V a n c o u v e r , 1Q7 7 NA 9108 A5 AMERICAN I N S T I T U T E OF A R C H I T E C T S , C i t y P l a n n i n g P r o g r e s s , 1917 . AMERICAN I N S T I T U T E OF A R C H I T E C T S , A r c h i t e c t ' s H a n d b o o k o f P r o f e s s i o n a l P r a c t i c e . W a s h i n g t o n , 1970 . 2 V o l l . NA 9050 A5 GUSTAV AMMANN, L a n d s c a p e G a r d e n s , Z u r i c h 1 9 5 5 . HT 151 A6 N . ANDERSON AND E . C . L I N D E M A N , U r b a n S o c i o l o g y , New Y o r k 1930 . NA 9050 A53 ANDERSON and ROSWIG, U . S . P l a n n i n g , Z o n i n g and S u b d i v i s i o n , New Y o r k 1966 . ~~ : HT 151 A597 1971 N. ANDERSON, The I n d u s t r i a l U r b a n C o m m u n i t y , New Y o r k 1971, HT 164 U6 A8 1971 J O S E P H L . A R N O L D , The New D e a l i n t h e S u b u r b s , O h i o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s 1971 . R. A U Z E L L E , C o u r s d ' U r b a n i s m , P a r i s 1 9 6 7 . 355 . - B -BABCOCK, The Z o n i n g Game, New Y o r k B A I N , BURROUGHS, HANSON, G r a n v i l l e as a P e d e s t r i a n T r a n s i t o r y , V a n c o u v e r 1973 . N A 9 1 0 8 B 3 3 EDWARD M . B A S S E T T , Z o n i n g , New Y o r k 1936 . BH 81 B35 R. B A Y E R , H i s t o i r e de 1 ' e s t h e t i q u e , P a r i s 1 9 6 1 . HT 1 2 3 . 5 N5 B4 JONN E . BEBOUT and RONALD J . G R E L E , Where C i t i e s M e e t :  t h e U r b a n i z a t i o n o f New J e r s e y , P r i n c e t o n 1964 . L . B E N E V O L O , The O r i g i n s o f M o d e r n Town P l a n n i n g , L o n d o n 1967 . L . B E N E V O L O , S t o r i a d e 1 1 ' a r c h i t e t t u r a m o d e r n a , B a r i 1 9 7 1 . JEREMY BENTHAM, P r i n c i p l e s o f M o r e l and L e g i s l a t i o n , New Y o r k 1961 . HT 151 B42 EGON E . B E R G E L , U r b a n S o c i o l o g y , New Y o r k 1955 . HT 351 B4 BENNETT M . B E R G E R , W o r k i n g C l a s s S u b u r b , B e r k e l e y 1 9 6 0 . G . B E R K E L E Y , The P r i n c i p l e s o f Human K n o w l e d g e , p u b l i s h e d by E n c y c l o p e d i a B r i t a n n i c a . A . E . B E S T O R , Backwoods U t o p i a s , P h i l a d e l p h i a 1950 . J K 2261 B5 1962 WILFRED E . B I N K L E Y , A m e r i c a n P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s , T h e i r N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , New Y o r k 1962. HT 166 B54 1971 H . B L U E N F E L D , The M o d e r n M e t r o p o l i s , M . I . T . 1967 . B 819 B67 ORESTE B O R R E L L O , L ' e s t e t i c a d e 1 1 ' e s i s t e n z i a 1 i s m o , M e s s i n a 1956 . 3 56 . - B2 -M. BOYLAN, Economies of the Community, Minneapolis 1961. B 819 B65 NORBERTO BOBBIO, Philosophy of Decadentism, Oxford 1948. G. BORGESE, Romanticism, \"Encyclopeadia of the Social Sciences\", New York 1934, p. 433, Vol. XVII. NA 9040 B73 G. BRESSE and D.E. WHITEMAN, An Approach to Urban Planning, Princeton 1953. HT 133 B7 1968 A. BRIGGS, Victorian Ci t i e s , Penguin Books 1968. B. C. Municipal Act, Sections 700 to 723 OCTAVIUS BROOKS, Transcendentalism in New England, New York 1880. VAN WYCK BROOKS, The Flowering of New England, 1918-1865 New York 1936\"! ' ~ ' PS 3511 U6617 L5 1972 R. BUC KM INSTER FULLER, Intuition, New York 1970. J . BURCHARD and A. BUSH-BROWN, The Architecture of America, Social and Cultural History, Boston 1961. N62 B8 1889 EDMUND BURKE, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful, London 1889. H. BURTON, The City Fights Back, New York 1954. 357.. JOHN CANADAY, M a i n s t r e a m s o f M o d e r n A r t , New Y o r k 1 9 5 9 . HT 127 C2 C36 1966 CANADIAN F E D E R A T I O N OF MAYORS AND MUNICI P A L I T E S , F i n a n c i a l  R e q u i r e m e n t s to Meet U r b a n T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Needs i n  C a n a d i a n M e t r o p o l i t a n R e g i o n s , 1966 . SHERBAN C A N T A C U Z I N O , M o d e r n H o u s e s o f t h e W o r l d , L o n d o n 1964 . SHERBAN C A N T A C U Z I N O , G r e a t M o d e r n A r c h i t e c t u r e , L o n d o n 1 9 6 6 . J E A N C A N U , S t o r i a d e g l i S t a t i U n i t i , M i l a n o 1953 . C . C A P P U C C I O , S t o r i a d e l l a l e t t e r a t u r e , F l o r e n c e 1 9 5 3 . BH 81 C36 1970 A . C A R A C C I O L O , A r t e e l i n g u a g g i o , M i l a n o 1970 . NA 9035 C375 C . N . C A R N E S , C i t y A p p e a r a n c e and t h e Law, 1971 . GEORGE F . CHADWICK, The Works o f S i r J o s e p h . P a x t o n ( 1 8 0 3 - 1 8 6 5 ) , L o n d o n , 1961 . \u2014 \u2014 - _ F . S . CHAPIN J R . , U r b a n L a n d Use P l a n n i n g , C h i c a g o 1 9 6 5 . NA 9108 C53 1965 F . S . CHAPIN J R . , T o w a r d a T h e o r y o f U r b a n G r o w t h and  D e v e 1 o p m e n t , C h i c a g o 1965 . NA 9031 C5 1965 S. CHERMAYEFF and C . A L E X A N D E R , Communi ty and P r i v a c y , New Y o r k 1965 . TOWNSHIP OF CHINGUACOUSY, R e p o r t on E s t i m a t e d F i n a n c i a l Impact o f C o n s t r u c t i n g a F u r t h e r 5825 U n i t s i n t h e  B r e r u a l e a A r e a . 1968 . NA 9094 C4713 1969 F . CHOAY, The M o d e r n C i t y : P l a n n i n g i n t h e 1 9 t h C e n t u r y New Y o r k 1969 . ~ ~ M. CIARAME L L A , The G r e a t M a s t e r s , Rome 1958. HENRY S. C H U R C H I L L , The C i t y i s t h e P e o p l e , New Y o r k . 1945, 1962. 358 - C2 -HT 351 C5 S.D. CLARK, The Suburban Society, Toronto 1966. NA 9108 C6 M.L. COLEAN, Renewing Our Ci t i e s , New York 1953. NA 9030 S63 C6 1965 G. and C. COLLINS, Camillo Sitte and the Birth of Modern  City Planning, New York 1965. PETER COLLINS, Changing Ideals in Modern Architecture, Montreal 1967. NA 680 C6213 1970 U. CONRADS, Programs and Manifestoes on the 20th Century Architecture, M.I .T . 1970. ~~ ~~ F. C0PLEST0N: A History of Philosophy, New York,1967. W.L. CREES, The Legacy of Raymond Unwin, M.I .T. 1967 B. CR0CE, Storia d'Europa nel Jecolo XIX, 1932. B. CROCE, Breviario di Estetica, Bari 1958. NA 6233 C4 T7 Tribune Tower Competition, Chicago 1923. \/ - D -359 TH 57 D3 1964 NORMAN DAVEY, Building in Br i ta in , London 1964. BH 131 B72 E. DE BRUYNE, L'Esthetique du Moyen Age, Louvain 1947. R.L. DELEVOY, Adolf Loos in \"Encyclopaedia of Modern Architecture,\" London 1963, p. 178. J . DENTON, Apartheid American Style, Berkeley 1967. NA 1052 L4 1968 D. DE MENIL, Visionary Architects, Houston 1968. G. DE RUGGIERO, L'eta del Romanticismo, Bari 1974 (f irst published 1943J . '. '~ NA 9031 D4.86 1971 IVOR DE WOLFE, C i v i l i a , the End of Suburban Man, London 1971. HT 131 D5 R.E. DICKINSON, The West European City, London 1951. NA 9050 D66 1969 R.P. DOBER, Environmental Design, Toronto 1969. HT 351 D58 1962 SCOTT DONALDSON, The Suburban Myth, New York 1969. NA 9045 D6 C A . DOXIADIS, City of the Future, 1960. HT 351 D6 1970 H.P. DOUGLASS, The Suburban Trend, New York 1925. HT 123 D64 1973 -ANTHONY DOWNS, Opening Up the Suburbs, Yale University Press 1973. J . DUNNING, Economic Planning and Town Expansion, Southampton 1963. 360. - E -HT 1 2 3 . 5 A12 V6 ECKARDT and GOTTMAN, The C h a l l e n g e o f M e g a l o p o l i s , T o r o n t o 1964 . ~ NA 9050 E18 GARRETT E C K B O , The A r t o f Home L a n d s c a p i n g , New Y o r k 1956 . H . W . E L D R E D G E , T a m i n g M e g a l o p o l i s , New Y o r k 1967 . B1301 E5 J E A N EHRARD, L ' I d e e de N a t u r e en F r a n c e dans l a p r e m i e r e  m o i t i e du X V I I I e S i e c l a , P a r i s 1963 , 2 v o l l . 36 1. - F -NA 9053 L3 F3 1969 F. FARIELLO, Parchi e zone verdi nella struttura urbana, Roma 19 69. \u2014  NA 9127 N5 046 1968 ALBERT FEIN, Landscape into Cityscape, Frederick Law Olmsted's  Plans for a Greater New York City, Cornell 1968. HT 334 US F5 WEBB S. FISER, Mastery of the Metropolis, Prentice-Hall 1962. E. FISHER, Urban Real Estate Markets, New York 1951. ERNEST M. FISHER, A Study of Housing Programs and Pol ic ies , Washington 1960. NA 705 F5 J.M. FITCH, American Building, Boston 1948. BANISTER FLETCHER, A History of Architecture on the Comparative  Method, New York 1963. D. FOLEY, Controlling London's Growth, University of California Press 1963. BORIS FORD, The Modern Age, Penguin Books 1964. EDITORS OF FORTUNE, The Exploding Metropolis, 1958. PIERRE FRANCASTEL, Lo spazio figurativo dal Rinascimento  al Cubismo, Torino 1957. VITTORIO FRANCHETTI PARDO, Le Corb.usier , Firenze 1966. NA 9108 F8 R.A. FUTTERMAN, The Future of Our Ci t ies , New York 1961. 3 6 2 . - G -HERBERT J . GANS, The Urban Vil lages , New York 1962. B 776 18 G3 EUGENIO GARIN, La cultura f i losof ica del Rinascimento i ta l iano, Firenze 1961. EUGENIO GARIN, Scienza e v i ta c iv i l e nel Rinascimento i ta l iano, Bari 1965. NA 9050 W47 1970 , TONY GARNIER, La cite industrie11e, edited by Dora Wiebenson, New York 1969. ANTHONY GARVAN, Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial  Connecticut, New Haven 1951. B 783 Z7 G45 1940 G. GENTILE, II pensiero ital iano del Rinascimento, Firenze 1955. L. GEYMONAT, Storia del pensiero f i losof ico , Milan 1960 (3 v o l l . j DOROTHY GEORGE, England in Transit ion, Penguin Books 1953. NA 9030 G48 1970 F. GIBBARD, Town Design, London 1953. S. GIEDION, Space, Time and Architecture, Cambridge (Mass.) 1965. NA 710 95 1966 D. GIFFORD, The Literature of Architecture, New York 1966. HT 151 G5 A.B. GILBERT, American Cit ies: Their Method of Business, New York 1918. HT 123 95 R. GINGER, Modern American Ci t i e s , Chicago 1969. 36 3. - G2 -NA 9040 G55 A. GLIKSON, Regional Planning and Development, Leiden 1955. HT 351 G6 1970 ROBERT GOLDSTON, Suburbia: Civic Denial, New York 1970. E.H. GOMBRICH, The Story of Art , London 1972. PAUL and PERCIVAL GOODMAN, Communitas, New York 1947. NA 9108 G6 GOODMAN and ECKART, Life for Dead Spaces, New York 1963. M. GORDON, Sick Ci t ies , Baltimore 1965. A. GOSS, Brit ish Industry and Town Planning, London 1962. JEAN GOTTMAN, Megalopolis, New York 1961. A. GOWANS, Images of American Living: Four Centuries of Architecture and Furniture as Cultural Expression, Philadelphia 1964. HT 153 G73 1972 SCOTT GREER, The Urban View, New York 1972. NA 9045 G8 S. GRIMM, Physical Urban Planning, New York 1961. WALTER GROPIUS, The New Architecture and the Bauhaus, London 1935. NA 9108 G76 VICTOR GRUEN, The Heart of Our Ci t ies , New York 1964. E.A. GUTKIND, The Twilight of Ci t ies , New York 1962. 36 4; - H -NA 9050 H327 1964 C.M. HAAR, Law and Land, Anglo-American Planning Practise, Harvard 1964. HT 123 H27 1967 JEFFREY K. HADDEN, LOUIS H. MASOTTI, CALVIN J . LARSON, Metropolis in C r i s i s , Itasca, I l l ino i s 196-1. OSCAR HANDLIN, The Uprooted, Boston 1951. OSCAR HANDLIN, The Newcomers, Cambridge, Mass. 1959. CHAUNCY D. HARRIS and EDWARD L. ULLMAN,. The Nature of Ci t ies , from \"The Annals of the American Academy of Po l i t i ca l and Social Science\", Nov. 1945. GERD HATJE, Encyclopedia of Modern Architecture, London 1963. LAWRENCE HAWORTH, The Good City, Bloomington 1963. E. BARRINGTON HAYNES, Glass through the Ages, Pelican Books 1964. G.W.F. HEGEL, Introduction a' 1'Esthetique, Paris 1964. R.L. HERBERT, The Art Criticism of John Ruskin (selected, edited and with an Introduction by R.L. HERBERT), New York 1964. FREDERICK R. HIORNS, Town-Building in History, London 1956. NA 645 H4 1963 H.R. HITCHCOCK, Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth  Centuries, Baltimore 1958. H.R. HITCHCOCK, The Pelican History of Art , Penguin Books 1971. NA 9105 D4 1964 L.B. HOLLAND, Who Designs America? The American C i v i l i z a t i o n , New York 1966. 365 H2 E.H. HOOVER and R. VERNON, Anatomy of a Metropolis, New York 1962. H. HOYT, One Hundred Years of Land Value in Chicago, Chicago 1933. H. HOYT, Changing Patterns of Land Values, from \"Land Economics\", May 1960. NA 9105 H83 T. and H. HUBBARD, Our Cities To-day and To-morrow, Harvard 1929. ~ HT 165 R3 H8 ROBERT B. HUDSON, Radburn, a Plan of Living, New York 1934. D. HUME, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding, published by Encyclopedia Britannica, Chicago 1952. R. HURD, Principles of City Land Value, New York 1924. H. HUTH, Nature and the American: Three Centuries of Changing  Attitude, Berkeley 1957. ISENBERG, The Cities in C r i s i s , New York 1968. 3 6 7 JACKSON and NORTHEY, The Impact of Highway Development on  Land Use, University of Brit ish Columbia 1963. JANE JACOBS, The Death and Life of Great American Ci t i e s , New York 1961. JANE JACOBS, The Economy of Ci t i e s , New York 1969 GEOFFREY A. JELLICOE, Motopia, New York 1961. NA 680 J613 C2 J . JOEDICKE, A History of Modern Architecture, New York 1959. K. JOEL, Per Ursprung der Naturphilosophie aus dem Geiste  der Mystik, 1900 JOHNSON and BARLOW, Land Problems and Pol ic ies , New York 1954 368 . - K -FAZLUR B. KAHN, The Future of High Rise Structures, from \"Progressive Architecture\", October 1972. I. KANT, Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and  Sub lime, University of California 1965. R. KATZ, Design of the Housing Site, University of I l l ino i s 1966. JOHN KEATS, The Crack in the Picture Window, Boston 1957. S. KELLER, The Urban Neighbourhood, New York 1968. B. KELLY, Design and Production of Houses, New York 1959. JK 1726 W535 1970 KENDALL and CAREY, The Basic Symbols of the American Po l i t i ca l  Tradition, Louisiana State University Press 1970. T . J . KENT, JR. , The Urban General Plan, San Francisco 1964. HT 394 S25 K45 1970 T . J . KENT, Open Space for the San Francisco Bay Area: Organization to Guide Metropolitan Growth, Berkeley 1970. MICHAEL KIRBY, Futuristic Performance, New York 1971. RUSSEL KIRK, The Conservative Mind, Chicago 1953. V. JOSEPH KOSTKA, Neighbourhood Planning, Winnipeg 1957. B 693 Z7 K7 1929 E. KRAKOWSKI, L'Esthetique de Plotin et son influence, Paris 1929. 36 9. - K2 -HT 123 K73 1970 PAUL KRAMER and FREDERICK L. HOLBORN, The City in American  Life , New York 1971. MARTIN KUENZLEN, Plating Urban Games, New York 1972. 3 7 0 . - L -NA 9090 J4 LE CORBUSIER, Urbanisme, Paris 1925 NA 9050 J4213 1967 LE CORBUSIER, The Radiant City , Paris 1933. NA 1053 54 A43 1945 LE BORBUSIER and P. JEANNERET, Oeuvre Complete 1934-1938 Zurich, 1945. HT 151 L37 ROSE HUM LEE, The City, Chicago 1955. N. LICHFIELD, Economics of Planned Development, London 1956. N. LICHFIELD, Cost Benefit Analysis in Town Planning - A  Case Study of Cambridge, Ely 1966. JOHN LOCKE, A Letter Concerning Toleration, Concerning C i v i l  Government, an Essay Concerning Human Understanding, edited by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago 1952. LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL, Development P1 an-Statistics , 1960. NA 9030 T5 1923 F. LONGSTRETH THOMPSON, Site Planning in Practise, London 1923. KEVIN LYNCH and LLOYD RODWIN, A Theory of Urban Form, from \"Journal of the American Institute of Planners\", November 1958. KEVIN LYNCH, The Image of the City, Cambridge, Mass. 1960. 37 1. - M -S. MAKIELESKI, The Pol i t ics of Zoning, Columbia University Press 1966. HT 161 H7 M3 D. MACFADYEN, Siz Ebenezer Howard and the Town Planning  Movement, Manchester University Press 1933. HT 123 M23 B. McKELVEY, The Urbanization of America, Rutgers University Press, N .J . 1963. HT 123 M22 1968 B. McKELVEY, The Emergence of Metropolitan America, Rutgers University Press, N .J . 1968. HT 334 U5 T5 1971 J . E . McKEOWN and F . I . TIETZE, The Changing Metropolis, Boston 1964. MARSHALL McLUHAN, Understanding Media, New York 1966. KN 96 M353 1970 DANIEL R. MANDELKER, The Zoning Dilemma, New York 1971. HT 351 M3 WALTER T. MARTIN, The Rural-Urban Fringe, Eugene 1953. B 2783 E5 M5 J.M. MEREDITH, Kant's Critique of Aesthetic Judgement, Oxford 1911. NA 9060 P3 METROPOLITAN REGIONAL COUNCIL OF N.Y. , N .J . AND CONN., The Race for Open Space, 1960. J .S . MILL, On Liberty, Representative Government, Ut i l i tar i sm, a l l edited by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago 1952. J . MILTON, English Minor Poems, Paradise Lost, Samson Agonistes, Areopagitica, edited by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago 1952. 3 7 2 . - M2 -MINISTRY OF HOUSING, Central Lancashire, London 1967 MINISTRY OF HOUSING, Expansion in Northampton, London 1966. MINISTRY OF HOUSING, Expansion in Peterborough, London 1966. MINISTRY OF HOUSING, Expansion in Warrington, London 1966. C. MONTESQUIEU,The Spiri t of Laws, edited by Encyclopaedia BritannicFj Chicago 1952. NA 707 M63 C3 H. MORRISON, Early American Architecture, New York 1952. GEORGE MOWRY, The Progressive Era, Liberal Renaissance or Liberal Fai lure?, New York 1963. HT 151 M78 LEWIS MUMFORD, The Culture of Ci t i e s , New York 1938. HT 151 M77 LEWIS MUMFORD, City Development, New York 1945. LEWIS MUMFORD, The Brown Decades (A Study in the Arts in America, 1865-1895), New York 1955. LEWIS MUMFORD, Art and Technics, New York 1960. LEWIS MUMFORD, The City in History, New York 1961. JOHN H. MUNDY and PETER RIESENBERG, The Medieval Town, Princeton 1958. \u2014 R. MURPHY, The American City, New York 1966. 3 73 - N N A 9 1 0 8 N 4 N E L S O N a n d A S C H M A N , R e a l E s t a t e a n d C i t y P l a n n i n g , N e w Y o r k 1 9 5 7 . H T 1 5 1 N 6 6 1 9 7 2 H . E . N O T T R I D G E , T h e S o c i o l o g y o f U r b a n L i v i n g , B o s t o n 1 9 7 2 . E 1 8 4 A l N 6 1 9 7 2 M I C H A E L N O V A K . T h e R i s e o f t h e U n m e l t a b l e E t h n i c s , N e w Y o r k 1 9 7 2 . N A 9 0 3 1 N 8 8 1 9 7 2 P . N U T T G E N S , T h e L a n d s c a p e o f I d e a s , L o n d o n 1 9 7 2 . 3 74 . 0 FREDERICK LAW OLMSTED, Walks and Talks of an American Farmer  in England, New York 1852. FREDERICK L. OLMSTED, A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States,  with Remarks on Their Economy, New York 1856. FREDERICK L. OLMSTED, A Few Things To Be Thought of Before  Proceeding To Plan Buildings for the Agricultural  Colleges, New York 1866. OLMSTED and VAUX, Preliminary Report to the Commissioners  for Laying out a Park in Brooklyn, Brooklyn 1866. OLMSTED and VAUX, Preliminary Report upon the Proposed Suburban  Village at Riverside, Near Chicago, New York 1868. FREDERICK L. OLMSTED, Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns, Cambridge 1870. FREDERICK L. OLMSTED, A Journey in the Back Country in the  Winter of 1953-54, New York 1907. FREDERICK L. OLMSTED, The Beginning of Central Park: A  Fragment of Autobiography, American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society, Nineteenth Annual Report 1914. FREDERICK L. OLMSTED, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture, New York 1922. NA 9045 05 1970 FREDERICK L. OLMSTED, Public Parks and the Enlargement of C i t i e s , New York 1970. ONTARIO ASSOCIATION OF ARCHITECTS, Legal Aspects of Architectural  Practice, Toronto 1969. F. OSBORN, Green City Belts, London 1969. HT 123 09 WILFRED OWEN, Cities in the Motor Age, New York 1959. 375, - P -HT 151 C58 1971 A. PALAZZO, Cit ta ' e ant ic i t ta ' , Bologna 1971. N 6370 P3 1962 ERWIN PANOFSKY, Studies in Iconology, New York 1939. NC 760 P36 1940 ERWIN PANOFSKY, The Codex Huygens and Leonardo da Vinci 's  Art Theory, London 1940. NA 2563 P3 ERWIN PANOFSKY, Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism, Latrobe (Pennsylvania) 1951. ERWIN PANOFSKY, Meaning in the Visual Arts, New York 1955. N 6370 P28 1960 ERWIN PANOFSKY, Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art, Stockholm 1960. ND 623 C7 P3 ERWIN PANOFSKY, The Iconography of Correggio's Camera di San Paolo, London 1961. ERWIN PANOFSKY, La prospettiva come forma simbolica, Milano 1966. N 68 P2.13 1968 ERWIN PANOFSKY, Ideas, University of Southern Carolina 1968. HT 151 P33 R.E. PARK, Human Communities, New York 1952. PENSON, NORTH and RING, Real Estate, 1954. N. PEVSNER, Pioneers of Modern Design, Penguin Books 1960. P2 3 76 , N . P E V N S E R , An O u t l i n e o f E u r o p e a n A r c h i t e c t u r e ) P e n g u i n Books 1966 . NA 25 P48 1972 N . P E V S N E R , Some A r c h i t e c t u r a l W r i t e r s o f t h e N i n e t e e n t h  C e n t u r y , O x f o r d 1972 . PQ 287 P54 1971 HENRY P E Y R E , Q u ' e s t - c e que l e R o m a n t i c i s m e ? , P a r i s 1971 . E 16 9 1 P 5 HENRY P E Y R E , O b s e r v a t i o n s on L i f e , L i t e r a t u r e , a n d L e a r n i n g i n  A m e r i c a , S o u t h e r n I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s 1 9 6 1 . PN 56 C6 P42 1965 HENRY P E Y R E : Q u ' e s t - c e que l e C1 a s s i c i s m e ? , P a r i s 1965 . F . MURRAY P O L S O N , An O u t l i n e o f A r c h i t e c t u r a l P r a c t i c e i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and Some N o t e s on A r c h i t e c t u r a l A s s o c i a t i o n , V a n c o u v e r 1967 . ALAN. POWELL, The C i t y : A t t a c k i n g M o d e r n M y t h s , T o r o n t o 1972 . M P R A Z , A n t o l o g i a , M i l a n 1959 . HT 165 L5 P8 C B . PURDOM, The G a r d e n C i t y , New Y o r k 1913 . 3 7 7.. - R -HT 196.5 N42 R3 1969 FRANCINE F. RABINOVITZ, City Pol i t ics and Planning, New York 1969. C. RAPKIN, Real Estate Market in an Urban Renewal Area, New York 1959. U. RATCLIFF, Real Estate Analysis, 1961. HT 123.5 N5 B4 REBOUT and GRELE, Where Citizens Meet: The Urbanization of  New Jersey, New York 1964. HT 151 R38 L. REISSMAN, The Urban Process, New York 1964. R. RENNE, Land Economics, New York 1958. Report of Heights of Buildings Commission, New York City, December 23, 1913. Final Report 'of Commission on Building Districts and Restrictions, New York City, June 2, 1916. NA 9105 R4 J.W. REPS, The Making of Urban America, Princeton 1965. HT 351 R5 J.M. RICHARDS, The Castles on the Ground, London 1946. NA 9030 R69 CHARLES M. ROBINSON, Modern Civic Art or the City Made  Beautiful, New York 1903. CHARLES M. ROBINSON, The Improvement of Towns and Cit ies , or the Practical Basis of Civic Aesthetics, New York 1903. 3 78 . - R2 -NA 9030 R75 CHARLES M. ROBINSON, City Planning, New York 1916. LLOYD RODWIN, The Brit ish New Town Policy, Harvard University Press 1956. FRANK J . ROOS, JR. , An Illustrated Handbook of Art History, New York 1967. NA 9090 R6 HELEN ROSENAN, The Ideal City, London 1959. J . J . ROUSSEAU, The Social Contract, A Discourse on Po l i t i ca l  Economy, A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, a l l published by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago 1952. LB 512 E5 F6 1957 J . J . ROUSSEAU, Emile, Chicago 1952. BERNARD RUDOFSKY, Streets for People, New York 1969. NA 2550 R85 1890 JOHN RUSKIN, The Seven Lamps of Architecture, London 1890. B. RUSSELL, A History of Western Philosophy, New York 1945. 3 79*. - S -NA 9030 S2 ELIEL SAARINEN, The City, Its Growth, Its Decay, Its Future, New York 1943. A. SAKOLOSKI, The Great American Land Bubble, New York 1932. J .P . SARTRE, Essays in Aesthetics, New York 1963. JK 1726 S33 JOHN H. SCHAAR, Loyalty in America, Berkeley 1957. WOLF SCHNEIDER, Babylon is Everywhere, New York 1963. NA 737 K32 S38 V. SCULLY, JR. , Louis I. Kahn, New York 1962. HT 351 S3 1956 SEELEY, SIM and LOOSLEY, Crestwood Heights, New York 1956. NA 9030 S45 1944 JOSE SERT, Can Our Cities Survive?, Cambridge, Mass. 1947. NA 9050 S4 J.O. SIMONDS, Landscape Architecture, New York 1961. NA 9030 S6 CAMILIO SITTE, The Art of Building Cit ies , New York 1945. A. SMITH, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, edite  by Encyclopa dia Britannica, Chicago 1952. GUY E. SMITH, English Literature after Neo-Classicism, Paterson New Jersey 1965. 3 3 0, - S2 -NA 9050 S6 1970 A. and P. SMITHSON, Ordinariness and Light, London 1970. HT 123 S62 1971 D.P. SOBIN, The Future of the American Suburbs, Port Washington N.Y. 1971. HT 168 N5 S6 1971 BEVERLY MOSS SPATT, A Proposal to Change the Structure of  City Planning, New York 1971. CB 83 S653 1962 OSWALD SPENGLER, The Decline of the West, New York 1962. E. SPIEGEL, New Towns in Israel , New York 1967. NA 9050 S693 1971 G. SPYER, Architecture and Community, London 1971. NA 9108 S8 1957 CLARENCE S. STEIN, Towards New Towns for America, New York 1957. HT 123 S783 OSCAR H. STEINER, Downtown USA, Dobbs Ferry, N.Y. 1964. NA 9045 S9 0. ST0N0R0V and L. KAHN, You and Your Niehgbourhood, New York 1944. JOSEPH R. STRAYER, HANS W. GATZKE and E. HARRIS HARBISON, The Course of C i v i l i z a t i o n , 2 V o l l . , New York 1961. HT 123 S8 T. EARL SULLENGER, Sociology of Urbanization: a Study in  Rurban Society, Ann Arbor, Mich. 1956. H. SYM0NDS, The Question of Housing, Vancouver 1967. NA 2560 C6 1968 J . SUMMERSON, Concerning Architecture, London 1967.. - T - 3 81 , H.C. TATE, Building a Better Home Town, New York 1954. NA 735 P5 T3 G.B. TATUM, Penn's Great Town, Philadelphia, 1961. JOHN TAYLOR, An Inquiry into the Principles and Policy of the  Government of the United States, New Haven 1950. DAVID THOMPSON, England in the Nineteenth Century (1815-1914), Penguin Books 1950. HT 123 T48 WILBURN R. THOMSON, A Preface to Urban Economics, Baltimore 1965. HT 351 T47 1972 DAVID C. THORNS, Suburbia, London 1972. NA 9030 T62 GIUSEPPE TOMBOLA, Urbanistica, Storia e Tecnica, Padova 1958. HT 167 T64 1969 SEYMOUR I. TOOL, Zoned American, New York 1969. STEPHEN TOULMIN and JUNE GOODFIELD, The Discovery of Time, Penguin Books 1965. G.M. TREVELYAN, Brit ish History in the Nineteenth Century and  after: 1782-1919, Penguin Books 1965. NA 9105 T85 CHRISTOPHER TUNNARD, The City of Man, New York 1953. C. TUNNARD and B. PUSHKAREV, Man-Made America: Chaos or  Controls ?, New Haven 1963. P. TYLOR, City and Suburban Housing, New York 1957. J . TYRWHITT, J . L . SERT, E.N. ROGERS, The Heart of the City:  towards the Humanization of Urban Life , New York 1952. 3 82 NA 9030 U6 1932 R. UNWIN, Town Planning in Practice, London 1909. NA 9030 U8 1954 URBAN LAND INSTITUTE, The Community Builders Handbook, 1954 Members Edition. 3 83' . - V -NA 9130 V2 B2 A Plan for the City of Vancouver, B . C . , 1928, edited by the Vancouver Town Planning Commission. A Plan for the City of Vancouver, B . C . , 1929, edited by the ' Vancouver Town Planning Commission. NA 9130 V2 B22 N06 Set 2 Parks, Recreation, Schools, edited by the Vancouver Town Planning Commission, Vancouver, November 1946. NA 9130 V2 B21 Proposed Zoning and Development By-Law for Vancouver, 1955. NA 9130 V2 B212 1956 Vancouver Zoning and Development By-Law No. 3575, Vancouver 1956. NA 9130 V2 B212 1969 Vancouver Zoning and Development By-Law No. 3575, Vancouver 1969. HT 123 V43 1971 VENETOULIS and EISENHAUER, Up against the Urban Wall, Prentice-Hall 1971. NA 9030 V45 1960 E. VENTURELLI, Urbanistica Spaziale, Integrazione dello spazio  nella c i t t a ' , Torino 1960. LIONELLO VENTURI, Storia della c r i t i c a d'arte, Torino 1964. M. VINCIGUERRA, Romanticismo, Bari 1931. FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET VOLTAIRE, Candide, ou l'optimisme, Paris 1775. HT 123.5 A12 V6 WOLF VON ECKARDT, The Challenge of Megalopolis, New York 1964. NA 1052 L4 1968 Visionary Architects: Boullee, Ledoux, Lequeu, Houston 1968. - W - 38 4. MABEL L. WALKER, Urban Blight and Slums, from \"Harvard Planning Studies\", vol . 12, Cambridge, Mass. 1938. HT 123 W23 . . SAM BASS WARNER, JR. , Planning for a Nation of Ci t i e s , Cambridge Mass. 1966. A. WEBER, The Growth of Ci t ies , Cornell 1965. NA 9108 W37 D.H. WEBSTER, Urban Planning and Municipal Public Policy, New York 1958. HT 123 W4 1962 DAVID R. WEIMER, City and Country in America, New York 1962. WEIMER and HOYT, Real Estate, New York 1966. M. WEITZ, Problems in Aesthetics, New York 1959. B 2779 W35 1958 T.D. WELDON, Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, Oxford 1958. MORTON and LUCIA WHITE, The Intellectual versus the City , from Thomas Jefferson to Frank Lloyd Wright, Harvard 1962 PN 86 W4 \u2014- \u2014 W. WELLEK, A History of Modern Crit ic ism: 1750-1950, New Haven 1955, 4 V o l l , B 2789 W5 R. WELLEK, Kant in England, Princeton 1931. NA 2560 M. WHIFFEN, The History, Theory and Criticism of Architecture, M.I .T. 1965 . ~ :  HT 167 W48 1969 WILLIAM H. WHYTE, The Last Landscape, New York 1968. WILLIAM H. WHITE, Are Cit ies Un-American?, from \"Fortune\", Sept. 1957. HT 123 W48 Y. WILLBERN, The Withering away of the City, University of Alabama 1964. JA 84 U5 W5 F.G. WILSON. Thp A m ^ T - i ^ o r , D \u201e v.; + ,-_ _ i w.= _- n 3 8 5:. - W2 -JA 84 U5 W67 1962 B.F. WRIGHT, American Interpretation of Natural Law, New York 1962. F . L . WRIGHT, Broadacre City, the University of Chicago Press 1945. NA 9630 W72 F . L . WRIGHT, The Living City, New York 1958. F . L . WRIGHT, The Future of Architecture, New York 1963. F . L . WRIGHT, Writings and Buildings, Cleveland 1965. HT 351 W6 ROBERT C. WOOD, Suburbia, Boston 1958. ROBERT C. WOOD, Metropolis against Itself , New York 1959. HT 123 W56 1972 ROBERT C. WOOD, The Necessary Majority: Middle America and  the Urban Cr i s i s , New York 1972. WEST VANCOUVER DISTRICT, Zoning By-Laws. WEST VANCOUVER DISTRICT, Building By-Laws. 3 86: Y HT 123 Y45 1972 ROBERT K. YIN, The City in the Seventies, Itasca, I l l ino i s 1972. 387. - Z -o HT 123 Z47 1969 WILLIAM E. ZISCH, PAUL H. DOUGLAS, ROBERT C. WEAVER, The Urban Environment: How i t Can Be Improved, New York 1969. BRUNO ZEVI, Saper vedere 1'architettura, Torino 1948. NA 9070 Z8 PAUL ZUCKER, Town and Square (from the Agora to the Village  Green), New York 1959. 3 8 8 . A R T I C L E S T H E U B T S S n y \" A l l b o x e d i n \" , O c t o b e r 2 7 , 1 9 6 7 , p . 7 T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , \" T e n a n t s a n g e r e d b y s w i t c h i n g s u i t e s t o c o n d o m i n i u m s \" , N o v e m b e r 1 8 , 1 9 7 2 , p . 1 1 T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , N o v e m b e r 3 0 , 1 9 7 2 , p . l : \" G o v ' t t o b a n f a r m r e z o n i n g f o r u r b a n u s e \" . T H E T I M E S O F N O R T H A N D W E S T V A N C O U V E R , J a n . 1 1 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 6 : \" L u x u r y h o m e i n c o n d o m i n i u m c o n c e p t \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J a n . 2 0 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 5 : \" D e s t r o y i n g o u r v i s u a l h e r i t a g e \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J a n . 2 0 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 5 : \" R e l a x - t h e r e i s n o u r b a n c r i s i s \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , M a r c h 7 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 3 : \" H e a t e d d e b a t e a s c o u n c i l a p p r o v e s B i r k s s i t e p r o j e c t \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , M a r c h 7 , 1 9 7 3 : $ 3 0 m i l l i o n B i r k s p r o j e c t O K ' d a f t e r c o u n c i l b a t t l e \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , M a r c h 1 3 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 3 0 : \" R e f o r m e r l a b e l d i s l i k e d \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , M a r c h 1 5 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 8 : \" U r b a n g e o g r a p h e r c l a i m s l a n d b i l l n o t s t r o n g e n o u g h \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , M a r c h 3 1 , 1 9 7 3 : s e e A n n L a n d e r s c o l u m n . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , M a r c h 3 1 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 8 9 : \" T h e h i g h e r y o u g o , t h e m a d d e r y o u g e t \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , A p r . 7 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 6 : \" D e m o c r a c y b e c o m i n g u n w o r k a b l e \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , M a y 2 4 , 1 9 7 3 ; p . l : \" C i t y s u b w a y p r o p o s e d \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , M a y 2 6 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 2 0 : \" D i g g i n g u p g h o s t s e n d s e x c a v a t i o n \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , M a y 3 0 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 2 0 : \" W e s t V a n h o m e o w n e r s h a l t w i d e n i n g o f 1 5 t h S t . \" T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 9 , 1 9 7 3 , p . l : \" S e c r e t s u m b u y s r e s o r t f o r s h y r e c o r d i n g f i r m \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 9 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 4 6 : \" P a c i f i c C e n t r e ' s 3 r d t o w e r i n d o u b t \" . 3 8 9 T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 1 1 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 2 : \" D e f i n i t i o n o f ' J e w ' d e f e n d e d b y e d i t o r \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 1 2 , 1 9 7 3 : \" L i n d s a y ' s p l a n a i m s a t c a r c o n g e s t i o n \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 1 2 , 1 9 7 3 : \" ' H i s t o r i c a l e y e s o r e ' r e n e w a l s e t \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 1 3 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 2 8 : \" V a n c o u v e r ' s n e w p l a n n i n g d i r e c t o r l o o k s o n c i t y a s ' u n i q u e c h a l l e n g e ' \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 1 3 , 1 9 7 3 , p . l : \" C o u n c i l k i l l s p l a n t o j o i n C h i n a t o w n , K i n g s w a y a r e a s \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 1 4 , 1 9 7 3 : \" B u s s y s t e m e x p a n s i o n ' f i r s t s t e p ' \" . ' T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 1 5 , 1 9 7 3 , p . l : \" B a r r e t t t o r e l a x l i q u o r l a w s \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 1 8 , 1 9 7 3 : W e s t E n d r e z o n i n g \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 2 3 , 1 9 7 3 , m o r e h o u s i n g \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 2 5 , 1 9 7 3 , s e n s e \" . \" C o u n c i l f a c e s d i l e m m a o n p . 3 5 : \" A n d i t s h o u l d a d d u p t o p . 5 : \" O n c e t h e r e w a s c o m m o n T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 2 6 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 6 : \" W h a t d o y o u t h i n k y o u a r e b u y i n g ? \" T H E P R O V I N C E , J u n e 2 7 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 7 : \" S i d e w a l k c a f e s s e r v i n g l i q u o r a r e f a v o u r e d b y b o a r d \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u n e 2 8 , 1 9 7 3 : \" N e w F a l s e C r e e k p a r k h i n t s a t a r e a ' s p r o m i s i n g f u t u r e \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u l y 2 7 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 2 7 : \" D e v e l o p e r s , s t u d e n t s s w a p o p i n i o n s \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u l y 1 3 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 2 8 : \" C o n d o m i n i u m g r o w s i n a c c e p t a b i l i t y \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 2 7 : \" B o w e n r e s i d e n t s e x p r e s s c o n c e r n \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J u l y 3 0 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 0 : \" R o a m i n g d o g s n o w v i e w e d a s a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , A u g . 1 0 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 5 : \" Y e s , t h e E u r o p e a n s DO l i v e b e t t e r \" . 390 T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , S e p t . 1 2 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 5 : \" S u b u r b s w i l l b e 2 1 s t -c e n t u r y s l u m s \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , N o v . 2 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 2 9 : \" D w e l l e r s s a t i s f i e d w i t h c o n d o m i n i u m s \" . T H E P R O V I N C E , D e c . 4 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 5 : \" U . S . l i f e s t y l e v s . g a s l e s s S u n d a y \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , D e c . 1 2 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 4 9 : \" T h e y o u n g a r c h i t e c t a s a n a r t i s a n - a n e x h i b i t o r \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , D e c . 1 9 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 3 : \" F e b r u a r y n a t i o n a l h o l i d a y w o u l d b e ' H e r i t a g e D a y ' \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J a n . 8 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 2 : \" G a r d e n s u r g e d f o r d o w n t o w n \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J a n . 1 2 , 1 9 7 4 , W e e k e n d M a g a z i n e , \" O u r A r c t i c w i l d l i f e n e e d s a p e r m a n e n t h o m e s a f e f r o m m a n a n d m a c h i n e \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J a n . 1 4 , 1 9 7 4 , p . l : \" C a r s , b u s e s b a n n e d n e x t w e e k \" . T H E P R O V I N C E , J a n . 1 4 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 1 : \" S h o w s t o p s c l o c k o n V a n c o u v e r l a n d s c a p e \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , J a n . 2 6 , 1 9 7 4 , W e e k e n d M a g a z i n e : \" F a r f r o m t h e s k i i n g c r o w d \" T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , F e b . 1 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 2 9 : \" K i t s i l a n o h i g h - r i s e s b a n n e d \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , F E b . 1 1 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 2 7 : \" G r a n v i l l e s t o r e s a l e s d r o p , b u t r e n t s s k y r o c k e t \" . T I M E S O F N O R T H A N D W E S T V A N C O U V E R , F e b . 2 0 , 1 9 7 4 , p . l : \" H o r s e -s h o e B a y r e s i d e n t s d i v i d e d o n t h e i r f u t u r e \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , F e b . 2 2 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 3 7 : \" W e s t E n d c o u l d b e a j e t - s e t g h e t t o \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , F e b . 2 2 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 8 : \" A l t e r n a t i v e w a t e r f r o n t p l a n s r e v e a l e d . \" T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , F e b . 2 7 , 1 9 7 4 : \" C l o s u r e l o o m s f o r B A R T \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , M a r c h 9 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 4 7 : \" G e t t i n g p e o p l e b a c k t o t h e w a t e r f r o n t \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , M a r c h 2 6 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 4 : \" G r e e n b e l t s h e l p s p e c u l a t o r s \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , A p r i l 1 8 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 5 0 3 9 1 . I N T E R N A T I O N A L H E R A L D T R I B U N E , J u n e 2 6 , 1 9 7 4 , p . l : \" C o n g r e s s m a n s e e k s t o p l o w f u n d s i n t o b a c k y a r d g a r d e n s \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , A u g . 1 6 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 4 : \" P e d e s t r i a n m a l l w o r k s e t \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , A u g . 2 7 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 2 6 : \" D e m o l i t i o n o r d e r p l e a s e s \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , A u g . 2 8 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 3 5 : s e e p i c t u r e . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , A u g . 2 9 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 8 6 : \" W a t e r f r o n t p r o j e c t c o s t s l i s t e d \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , A u g . 3 0 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 8 4 : \" W o r k t o s t a r t o n V i c t o r i a M a l l \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , A u g . 3 0 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 4 : \" S t r e e t v e n d o r s , m e r c h a n t s s t i r G r a n v i l l e m a l l r o w \" . T H E V A N C O U V E R S U N , A u g . 3 1 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 5 : \" M a l l d r a w s o f f i c a l s ' f r o w n s \" . U . S . N E W S A N D W O R L D R E P O R T , A u g u s t 7 , 1 9 7 2 , p . 5 2 : \" N e w r o l e o f t h e s u b u r b s \" . U . S . N E W S A N D W O R L D R E P O R T , J u n e 1 8 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 4 3 : \" H o w s h o p p i n g m a l l s a r e c h a n g i n g l i f e i n U . S . \" U . S . N E W S A N D W O R L D R E P O R T , N o v e m b e r 2 0 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 1 2 : \" T h e u n c e r t a i n f u t u r e o f t h e A m e r i c a n s k y s c r a p e r \" . U . S . N E W S A N D W O R L D R E P O R T , D e c e m b e r 2 4 , 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 4 : \" H o l i d a y s c r a m b l e : w o r s e t h i s y e a r \" . U . S . N E W S A N D W O R L D R E P O R T , A u g u s t 1 2 , 1 9 7 4 , p . 4 3 : \" L i f e i n t h e b i g c i t y - S o m e l i k e i t , s o m e h a t e i t \" . T H E NEW Y O R K T I M E S , O c t . 1 , 1 9 7 2 , p . 2 5 : \" T o g a s a n d C h i t o n s a s R o m a n t i c D i s g u i s e s : b y J o h n C a n a d a y . F O R T U N E , S e p t . 1 9 5 7 : \" A r e C i t i e s U n - A m e r i c a n ? \" b y W. W h i t e J r . F O R T U N E , J u l y 1 9 6 8 , p . 7 3 : \" T h e H i g h - R i s i n g M o n o t o n y o f W o r l d H o u s i n g \" b y W a l t e r M c Q u a d e . F O R T U N E , A u g u s t 1 9 6 8 , p . 8 0 : \" T h e S o u t h e r n R o o t s o f U r b a n C r i s i s \" b y R o g e r B e a r d w o o d . F O R T U N E , M a r c h 1 9 6 9 , p . 9 4 : \" A N i g h t m a r e f o r U r b a n . M a n a g e m e n t \" b y A . J a m e s R e i c h l e y . U B C A L U M N I C H R O N I C L E , v o l . 2 8 , N o . 2 , S u m m e r 1 9 7 4 , p . 2 1 : \" H e n r y E l d e r . T h e A r t o f L i v i n g a n d t h e J o y o f E x p e r i e n c e \" b y G e o f f H a n c o c k . 3 9 2 . G A S T O W N R E V I S E D , V a n c o u v e r 1 9 7 0 , T h e C o m m u n i t y A r t s C o u n c i l o f V a n c o u v e r . B A R R O N ' S M A G A Z I N E , A u g . 5 , 1 9 7 4 : \" S h a k y S k y s c r a p e r s . A N a t i o n -w i d e G l u t i n O f f i c e S p a c e H a s H i t \" b y D . L . T h o m a s . ","@language":"en"}],"Genre":[{"@value":"Thesis\/Dissertation","@language":"en"}],"GeographicLocation":[{"@value":"North America","@language":"en"}],"IsShownAt":[{"@value":"10.14288\/1.0093048","@language":"en"}],"Language":[{"@value":"eng","@language":"en"}],"Program":[{"@value":"Architecture","@language":"en"}],"Provider":[{"@value":"Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library","@language":"en"}],"Publisher":[{"@value":"University of British Columbia","@language":"en"}],"Rights":[{"@value":"For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms_of_use.","@language":"en"}],"ScholarlyLevel":[{"@value":"Graduate","@language":"en"}],"Title":[{"@value":"Romantic motivation and North American urban design","@language":"en"}],"Type":[{"@value":"Text","@language":"en"}],"URI":[{"@value":"http:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/2429\/18850","@language":"en"}],"SortDate":[{"@value":"1974-12-31 AD","@language":"en"}],"@id":"doi:10.14288\/1.0093048"}