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(2021). Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya Hittite Rock Sanctuary. Database of Religious History, Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia.","@language":"en"}],"Contributor":[{"@value":"Database of Religious History (DRH)","@language":"en"}],"Creator":[{"@value":"Bilgin, Tayfun","@language":"en"}],"DateAvailable":[{"@value":"2021-12-03T16:18:16Z","@language":"en"}],"DateIssued":[{"@value":"2021-10-09","@language":"en"}],"Description":[{"@value":"Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya is a open-air Hittite rock sanctuary located near the Hittite capital Hattusa in central Anatolia. It was one of the most important monumental remnants of the Hittite empire. The sanctuary was built between a group of rock outcroppings, some reaching 12 meters in height, where one large and one smaller opening (Chambers A and B) served as its open-air halls. Excavations of the site revealed the existence of a multi-room building complex that once stood in front of the sanctuary and controlled access to its chambers. The site was in use from at least 1500 BCE, but gained particular significance after the carving of the reliefs in the thirteenth century. The main group of reliefs in Chamber A portrays sixty-three deities. The male deities on the left wall and the female deities on the right wall are depicted in separate processions, which lead to a central scene on the wall across from the entrance, where the two processions meet, headed by the two supreme deities of the Hittite pantheon, the Storm god and the Sun goddess. Most of the deities are accompanied by hieroglyphic labels, although many of these are illegible because of erosion. The labels identify the deities with their Hurrian rather than their Hittite names, which demonstrates the strong influence of Hurrian cultic traditions on the Hittite court in the thirteenth century. Thus the Storm god is labeled as Te\u0161\u0161ub and the Sun goddes is Hebat. Chamber A also has a well preserved 2.60-meter-high relief of Great King Tudhaliya IV. The smaller Chamber B has fewer but better preserved reliefs, including another relief of King Tudhaliya IV, this time depicted in the embrace of his personal protective deity Sharruma. Both reliefs are accompanied by Tudhaliya's royal \u201ccartouches.\u201d Other reliefs of Chamber B are the 12 gods of the underworld shown in a procession and the 3.5-meter-high sword shaped relief of a somewhat mysterious Sword god, possibly representing Nergal or another underworld deity, The specific function of the sanctuary is not securely determined, but Chamber A was likely a ritual site during periodic cultic festivals, while Chamber B probably served as a memorial or mausoleum for king Tudhaliya IV upon his death.","@language":"en"}],"DigitalResourceOriginalRecord":[{"@value":"https:\/\/circle.library.ubc.ca\/rest\/handle\/2429\/80362?expand=metadata","@language":"en"}],"FullText":[{"@value":"Poll: Religious Place (v1.2) Published on: 09 October 2021Date Range: 1500 BCE - 1200 BCERegion: Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya Hittite Rock SanctuaryRegion tags: Middle East, Asia Minor, TurkeyLocated at the outskirts of the Hittite capital Hattu\u0161ain central Anatolia, about 150 km north of modernday Turkish capital Ankara. It consists of mainly twochambers situated within a rocky outcrop and abuilding complex that controlled the entry to thechambers.Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya Hittite Rock SanctuaryBy Tayfun Bilgin, NAEntry tags: Archaeological monument, Anatolian Religions, Open-Air Sanctuary, Religious Group, HittiteReligions, Religious PlaceYaz\u0131l\u0131kaya is a open-air Hittite rock sanctuary located near the Hittite capital Hattusa in central Anatolia. Itwas one of the most important monumental remnants of the Hittite empire. The sanctuary was builtbetween a group of rock outcroppings, some reaching 12 meters in height, where one large and onesmaller opening (Chambers A and B) served as its open-air halls. Excavations of the site revealed theexistence of a multi-room building complex that once stood in front of the sanctuary and controlled accessto its chambers. The site was in use from at least 1500 BCE, but gained particular significance after thecarving of the reliefs in the thirteenth century. The main group of reliefs in Chamber A portrays sixty-threedeities. The male deities on the left wall and the female deities on the right wall are depicted in separateprocessions, which lead to a central scene on the wall across from the entrance, where the two processionsmeet, headed by the two supreme deities of the Hittite pantheon, the Storm god and the Sun goddess.Most of the deities are accompanied by hieroglyphic labels, although many of these are illegible becauseof erosion. The labels identify the deities with their Hurrian rather than their Hittite names, whichdemonstrates the strong influence of Hurrian cultic traditions on the Hittite court in the thirteenth century.Thus the Storm god is labeled as Te\u0161\u0161ub and the Sun goddes is Hebat. Chamber A also has a wellpreserved 2.60-meter-high relief of Great King Tudhaliya IV. The smaller Chamber B has fewer but betterpreserved reliefs, including another relief of King Tudhaliya IV, this time depicted in the embrace of hispersonal protective deity Sharruma. Both reliefs are accompanied by Tudhaliya's royal \u201ccartouches.\u201d Otherreliefs of Chamber B are the 12 gods of the underworld shown in a procession and the 3.5-meter-highsword shaped relief of a somewhat mysterious Sword god, possibly representing Nergal or anotherunderworld deity, The specific function of the sanctuary is not securely determined, but Chamber A waslikely a ritual site during periodic cultic festivals, while Chamber B probably served as a memorial ormausoleum for king Tudhaliya IV upon his death.Status of Participants:\u2713 EliteGeneral VariablesSources and ExcavationsDOI: URL: https:\/\/religiondatabase.org\/browse\/1198This work is licensed under the Creative CommonsAttribution 4.0 International license.Please see our Terms of Use here:https:\/\/religiondatabase.org\/about\/creditsPage 1 of 24\u00a9 2021 Database of Religious History.The University of British Columbia.For any questions contactproject.manager@religiondatabase.orgPrint SourcesPrint sources used for understanding this subject:Notes: See also: Seeher, J. (2016) Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya. Reallexikon der Assyriologie 15 (1\/2): 149-155. G\u00fcterbock, H.G. (1982) Les Hi\u00e9roglyphes de Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya. A propos d'un Travail r\u00e9cent. Paris. Haas, V. and W\u00e4fler, M .(1974) \"Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya und der gro\u00dfe Tempel,\" Oriens Antiquus 13: 211-226. Neve, P. (1989) \"EinigeBemerkungen zu der Kammer B in Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya,\" Pages 345-355 in Anatolia and the Ancient Near East:Studies in Honor of Tahsin \u00d6zg\u00fc\u00e7, edited by K. Emre, B. Hrouda, M. J. Mellik, and N. \u00d6zg\u00fc\u00e7. Ankara: TTK.Online SourcesOnline sources used for understanding this subject:Has this place been the focus of excavation (pre-modern, illicit, or scientific):Answer 'Yes' for each period or type of excavation.Source 1: Bittel, K., Boessneck, J., Damm, B., G\u00fcterbock, H. G., Hauptmann, H., Naumann, R., andSchirmer, W. (1975) Das hethitische Felsheiligtum Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya. Berlin.\u2014Source 2: Seeher, J. (2011) Gods Carved in Stone: The Hittite Rock Sanctuary of Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya. Istanbul.\u2014Source 3: Alexander, R. L. (1986) The Sculpture and Sculptures of Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya. Newark.\u2014Source 1 URL: https:\/\/www.hittitemonuments.com\/yazilikaya\u2014Source 1 Description: A photographic guide\u2014Yes\u2014Type of excavation:Reference: Ernest Chantre. Recherches arch\u00e9ologiques dans l'Asie occidentale : mission enCappadoce, 1893-1894. Paris: E. Leroux.Scientific\u2014Years of excavation:Year range: 1893-1894\u2014Name of excavationOfficial or descriptive name: Mission en Cappadoce\u2014Yes\u2014Type of excavation:Scientific\u2014Years of excavation:Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 2 of 24Topographical ContextIs the place associated with a feature in the landscapeNotes: The main chambers of the open-air sanctuary are built within a limestone rock massif.Does the place involve human-made features besides structure:Other features might be ground clearing, terracing, other modifications of the local environment.Year range: 1907\u2014Name of excavationNotes: As part of the official excavation of the Hittite capital at Bo\u011fazk\u00f6y by Hugo Winckler(1906-1912), Theodor Makridi excavated at Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya in 1907.Official or descriptive name: Die Ausgrabungen in Boghaz-K\u00f6i Im Sommer 1907\u2014Yes\u2014Type of excavation:Scientific\u2014Years of excavation:Year range: 1938-1939, 1966-1967\u2014Name of excavationNotes: Excavated by Kurt Bittel of German Archaeological Institute as part of the Bo\u011fazk\u00f6yexcavations.Reference: Kurt Bittel , Joachim Boessneck , Bernhard Damm , Hans G\u00fcterbock H., HaraldHauptmann , Rudolf Naumann , Wulf Schirmer. Das hethitische Felsheiligtum Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya.Berlin: Gebr. Mann. isbn: 3786122121.Official or descriptive name: Bo\u011fazk\u00f6y Excavations\u2014Other [specify]: Rocky Outcrop\u2014Yes\u2014Type of featureLeveling of ground\u2014Clearing\u2014Other [specify]: Flattened rock walls, reliefs\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 3 of 24Is the place situated in an urban or significantly urbanized area:Is the place situated in a rural setting:Is the place situated far removed from non-religious places of habitation:Structures PresentAre there structures or features present:Instructions: Answer once for each structure\/feature or group that can be differentiated.Yes\u2014Is there a distinct boundary between the place and the urban fabric:Notes: The entrances of the unroofed main chambers of the sanctuary are shielded from view(and access) by a building complex built on its west side.Yes\u2014Is the place located significantly within the urban fabric:Is the place centrally located, or at the crossroads of significant pathways?Notes: Today the site is located about 1.5 km to the city walls of the ruins of Hattusa, but duringthe Hittite times the settlements outside the city walls reached all the way to the sanctuary(Seeher 2011:19).Yes\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014A single structureNo\u2014A group of structures:Yes\u2014Are they part of a single design\/construction stage:No\u2014A group of features:Yes\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 4 of 24Reasons for Creation\/Construction\/ConsecrationIs the place used for the worship of\/communication with non-human supernatural beings:Are they part of a single design\/construction stage:No\u2014Is it part of a larger place\/sanctuary:No\u2014What is the function of the structure\/feature or group:Answer \"Yes\" once for each distinct functionMemorial\u2014Worship\u2014Worship:Communal\u2014Is the structure\/feature finished:Yes\u2014Was the structure\/feature intended to last beyond a generation:Yes\u2014Was the structure\/feature modified through time:Yes\u2014Was the structure\/feature destroyed:No\u2014Has the structure\/feature been reconstructed:No\u2014Yes\u2014Dedicated to a supernatural being:Yes [specify]: Deities of the Hittite pantheon headed by the Storm-God and the Sun-Goddess.\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 5 of 24Is the place used for the worship of a semi-divine human being:Notes: It is quite likely that the Chamber B was a memorial (or mauseloum) built for the deceasedHittite king Tudhaliya IV, deified upon his death.Is the place used for the worship of non-divine ancestors:Notes: It is quite likely that the Chamber B was built by the Hittite king \u0160uppiluliuma II as a memorial(or mauseloum) for his father, Tudhaliya IV.Was the place commissioned\/built by an official political entity:A political entity is a local power structure that leverages a workforce.Were the Structures built by specific groups of people:Notes: There is no specific information, but it is quite likely that corvee labor and slaves were utilizedfor its construction, as well as the Hittite artisans and craftsmen that were in the employement of thestate cult.Was the place thought to have originated as the result of divine intervention:Was the place created to mark or commemorate the birthplace of a supernatural or humanbeing:Was the place created as the result of an event:Was the creation of the place sponsored by an external financial\/material donation:Dedicated to more than one supernatural being:Yes [specify]: Deities of the Hittite pantheon headed by the Storm-God and the Sun-Goddess.\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Yes\u2014SpecifyKing or emperor\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014No\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Yes\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 6 of 24Was the establishment of the place motivated by:Was the place built specifically for housing scriptures\/sacred texts:Design and Material RemainsOverall StructureIs the place made up of multiple built structures:Is monumental architecture present:Monumental architecture is defined here as a built structure that surpasses average human proportionsand in general is larger and more complex than is necessary to fulfill the structure's utilitarian function(s).Examples of monumental architecture include Mesopotamian Ziggurats, Egyptian Pyramids, Greek andRoman temples, Mesoamerican Pyramids, North American and Aegean burial mounds, etc.Is this sponsor of the same religious group\/tradition as the main usage of the place:Notes: The sanctuary was almost certainly commissioned and used by the Hittite state cult,headed by the royal family.Yes\u2014Other [specify]: There is no information regarding the reasons for the initial building process. ChamberA was likely a ritual site during periodical cultic festivals, while Chamber B probably served as amemorial or mausoleum for king Tudhaliya IV. Rituals and festivals were conducted to appease thedeities at the least, and thus to avoid their wrath.\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014Are any of the structures attached to or associated with a landscape feature:Notes: The chambers are built into a limestone rock massif.Yes\u2014Are any of the structures attached to other structures:Notes: The walls and buildings are attached to the rock massif that has the main chambers.Yes\u2014Is there a hierarchy among the structures:Notes: Northernmost building was likely a gateway that controlled access to the entirecomplex. The inner buildings also facilitated the access to the main rock chambers and housedthe cultic inventory.Yes\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 7 of 24Is the structure\/feature made out of natural materials:Answer [Yes] for each material typeNo\u2014Yes\u2014EarthYes\u2014Is this material sourced locally:Yes\u2014Is this material lacking in the local natural environment:No\u2014SandYes\u2014Is this material sourced locally:Yes\u2014Is this material lacking in the local natural environment:No\u2014ClayYes\u2014Is this material sourced locally:Yes\u2014Is this material lacking in the local natural environment:No\u2014PlasterYes\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 8 of 24Is this material sourced locally:Yes\u2014Is this material lacking in the local natural environment:No\u2014WoodYes\u2014Is this material sourced locally:Yes\u2014Is this material lacking in the local natural environment:No\u2014GrassYes\u2014Is this material sourced locally:Yes\u2014Is this material lacking in the local natural environment:No\u2014StoneYes\u2014Is this material sourced locally:Yes\u2014Is this material lacking in the local natural environment:No\u2014OtherOther [specify]: N\/A\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 9 of 24Is the structure\/feature made out of human-made materialsDecorationIs decoration present:Yes [specify]: Buildings were built of unfired mud-bricks, which were made by mixing loam (earthcontaining clay) with water and adding straw and sand for durability (Seeher 2011: 127f.).\u2014Yes\u2014Is decoration part of the building (permanent):Yes\u2014On the outside:No\u2014On the inside:Yes\u2014Is decoration attached to the building, i.e. movable reliefs or tapestriesField doesn't know\u2014Is the decoration figural:A figural representation is defined here as one that contains the depiction of discernible human,anthropomorphic, animal, or zoomorphic forms. In general, it differentiates between animateand inanimate beings, as well as between narrative compositions and still life, landscapes,abstraction, etc. Answer [Yes] for each type of figure depictedYes\u2014Are there gods depicted:Yes\u2014Are there other supernatural beings depicted:Yes\u2014Are there humans depicted:Yes\u2014Are there animals depicted:Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 10 of 24Notes: Only as divine beings.Yes\u2014Are there animal-human hybrids depicted:Yes\u2014Is the decoration non-figural:Notes: In terms of decorations only remnants are the reliefs of the deities, but plausibly thechambers had painted plasters too.Field doesn't know\u2014Is the decoration hidden or restricted from view:Notes: The reliefs are clearly visible on the inner walls of the chambers, but not visible fromoutside the sanctuary.No\u2014Are there statues present:Yes\u2014Cult statues:Notes: It is plausible that the Chamber A did contain cult statues prior to the 13thcentury when the reliefs were carved on its walls.Field doesn't know\u2014Statues of gods\/supernatural beings:Notes: It is plausible that the Chamber A did contain cult statues\/statues of gods, priorto the 13th century when the reliefs were carved on its walls.Field doesn't know\u2014Statues of humans:Notes: There is no definitive evidence, but it has been speculated that Chamber B mayhave had a statue of the King Tudhaliya IV (Seeher 2011: 160f.).Field doesn't know\u2014Other [Specify]Notes: Fragments of a couple of lions were found in the area of the building complex,which suggest portal\/gate lions, common in Hittite art, were used in decoration.Other [specify]: portal lions\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 11 of 24Are there reliefs present:A relief as opposed to sculpture carved on the round is a work of sculpture in which the figuresproject from a background support, generally a flat surface. Reliefs can be carved out of stone,clay, or a similar material.Yes\u2014Reliefs representing the god(s) worshipped at the place:Yes\u2014Reliefs representing mythological narratives:No\u2014Reliefs representing human\/historical narratives:No\u2014Other [Specify]Other [specify]: Reliefs of King Tudhaliya IV\u2014Are there paintings present:Notes: Pigments have not been detected but it is quite possible that colors were used.Field doesn't know\u2014Are there mosaics present:No\u2014Are there inscriptions as part of the decoration:Yes\u2014Are the inscriptions ornamental:No\u2014Are the inscriptions informative\/declarative[e.g. historical narratives, calendars, donor lists etc...Notes: Inscriptions are present only as labels that identify reliefs of numerous deities.Also, the reliefs of the Great King Tudhaliya is identified by his stylizedaedicula\/cartouche that incorporates his name.Yes\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 12 of 24IconographyAre there distinct features in the places iconography:Are the inscription a formal dedication:No\u2014Other [Specify]Other [specify]: N\/A\u2014Other type of decoration:Notes: It is likely that the buildings did have significant decoration but nothing remains.Field doesn't know\u2014Yes\u2014Eyes (stylized or not)No\u2014Supernatural beings (zoomorphic)Notes: Reliefs of a double headed eagle and animal-human hybrids (see images)Yes\u2014Supernatural beings (geomorphic)Notes: Relief of mountain deities with stylized skirts in the shape of mountains (see image).Yes\u2014Supernatural beings (anthropomorphic)Notes: Most of the deities are depicted in human forms.Yes\u2014Supernatural beings (abstract)No\u2014Portrayals of afterlifeNotes: In Chamber B, King Tudhaliya IV is shown in the embrace of his protective godSharruma (see image). The scene could be interpreted as the protection and guidance of thegod on the spirit of the deceased king. However, same scene is also encountered on the sealsField doesn't know\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 13 of 24Beliefs and PracticesFunerary AssociationsIs this place a tomb\/burial:Notes: There is no definitive evidence, but Chamber B of the sanctuary might be a mausoleum forKing Tudhaliya IV.Is this a place for the worship of the dead:that were used by Tudhaliya IV, where having been led by the god could be taken as beingrighteous and legitimate.Aspects of doctrine (e.g. cross, trinity, Mithraic symbols)No\u2014HumansNotes: Reliefs of King Tudhaliya IVYes\u2014Supernatural narrativesNotes: On the rock walls of Chamber A, the male deities on the left and the female deities onthe right are depicted in separate processions, which lead to a central scene on the wall acrossfrom the entrance, where the two processions meet, headed by the two supreme deities of theHittite pantheon, the Storm-God and the Sun-Goddess (However, such a procession of deities isnot a known narrative from Hittite textual sources).Yes\u2014Human narrativesNo\u2014Other [Specify]Other [specify]: N\/A\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Yes\u2014For the worship of a deceased person(s):Notes: Chamber B of the sanctuary was probably a memorial, if not a mausoleum, for KingTudhaliya IV.Yes\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 14 of 24Is this a place for treatment of the corpse:Notes: Hittite kings were cremated upon death. The chamber is too narrow of a space for a cremationceremony.Are co-sacrifices present in tomb\/burial:Co-sacrifices are animal\/human sacrifices prompted by the death of the primary occupant of thetomb\/burial.Are grave goods present:Notes: Even if the Chamber B was a mausoleum, there is not much space for the storage of largeamount of goods. There is no textual evidence for such goods.Are formal burials present:Supernatural BeingsIs a supreme high god is present:For the worship of a deified human:Notes: Chamber B of the sanctuary was probably a memorial, if not a mausoleum, for KingTudhaliya IV. The Hittite kings were deified upon death.Yes\u2014For the worship of a deceased hero:No\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014Are they anthropomorphic:Yes\u2014Are they sky deity:Yes\u2014Are they chthonic (underworld)Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 15 of 24Does the supreme high god communicate with the living at this place:Notes: Rituals did take place at the site, but their extent is unclear.. If there was any communicationwith the divine beings that was probably through divination.Are previously human spirits present:Do human spirits communicate with the living at this place:Are nonhuman supernatural beings present:No\u2014Are they fused with king\/kingship role (king = high god)No\u2014Are they the monarch is seen as a manifestation or emanation of the high god:No\u2014Are they kin relation to elites:No\u2014Are they other type of loyalty or connection to elites:No\u2014Are they unquestionably good:No\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Yes\u2014Human spirits can be seen:Notes: They are visible in the relief representationsYes\u2014Human spirits can be physically felt:Field doesn't know\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 16 of 24Do nonhuman spirits communicate with the living at this place:Notes: Rituals did take place at the site, but their extent is unclear.. If there was any communicationwith the divine beings that was probably be through divination.Are mixed human-divine beings present:Do mixed human-divine beings communicate with the living at this place:Notes: Rituals did take place at the site, but their extent is unclear. If there was any communicationthat was probably be through divination.Is the supernatural being\/high god present in the form of a cult statue(s):Notes: In the earlier phase of the sanctuary, prior to the commissioning of the reliefs (13th century BCE)there may have been cult statues in Chamber A. Also, Chamber B may have had a statue of a deifiedKing Tudhaliya IV.Supernatural InteractionsIs supernatural monitoring present:Do visitors communicate with the gods or supernatural beings:Notes: The extent of rituals that took place in the sanctuary is unclear, although it is possible thatofferings, sacrifices, libations did take place, all of which could be taken as a sort of \"communication\".Ritual and PerformanceField doesn't know\u2014Yes\u2014Mixed human-divine spirits can be seen:Notes: The Hittite kings were deified upon death. Thus the reliefs of King Tudhaliya IV, whichpresumably post date his death, can be taken as representations of human-divine spirits.Yes\u2014Mixed human-divine spirits can be physically felt:Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 17 of 24Sacrifices, Offerings, and MaintenanceAre sacrifices performed at this place:Are there self-sacrifices present:Are material offerings present:Notes: There is no archaeological evidence. However, offerings were likely a part of the ritualsperformed in the sanctuary.Is attendance to worship\/sacrifice mandatory:Notes: It is unknown which festivals\/rituals were performed in Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya. However, many Hittitefestivals were required to be performed periodically.Is maintenance of the place performed:Notes: Considering the lengthy use period, it would be unlikely to think otherwise. The buildings ofmud-brick construction did require periodical maintenance.Yes\u2014Are there animal sacrifices:Yes [specify]: There is archaeological evidence of the ritual sacrifice of a pig embryo, althoughthat was probably not as an offering to the deities, but rather for a substitution ritual (Bittelat al 1975: 64ff. and Seeher 2011: 87, 91). It is likely that animal sacrifices were part of therituals. performed at the sanctuary.\u2014Are there human sacrifices:No\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Yes\u2014Is it required:Notes: Although there is no definitive evidence for this location, this was highly likely. Thereare Hittite instruction texts that outline the duties of officials which include the maintenanceof buildings and temples.Yes\u2014Is there cleansing (for the maintenance):Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 18 of 24Pilgrimage and FestivalsAre pilgrimages present:Notes: The sanctuary was probably the location of periodical festivals\/rituals but there is no evidencethat it was a site of pilgrimage in the modern sense of the word.Is this place a venue for feasting:Notes: It is probable since Hittite festivals often include eating and drinking.Are festivals present:Notes: Although definitive evidence is lacking, it is highly likely that the sanctuary was a location offestivals.Field doesn't know\u2014Are there periodic repairs\/reconstructions:Notes: The sanctuary did go through phases of reconstruction, which is visible in the remainsof the building complex. While the sanctuary was in use at least since 1500 BCE, the reliefs inthe rock chambers were carved in the second half of the 13th century BCE. Whether theyreplaced earlier reliefs is unclear. Furthermore, the buildings themselves, made of mud-brick,did require periodical maintenance.Yes\u2014Is the maintenance performed by permanent staff:Notes: Temples did typically have permanent personnel. They may have been responsible forsmall scale upkeep, but for repairs like replastering of walls, painting etc. they may have usedexperienced craftsmen.Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Yes\u2014Frequency of festivalsspecify: It would depend on which festivals were celebrated at the site. If it was the location ofSpring Festival or KI.LAM Festival as was proposed by some scholars, the frequency would beonce a year.\u2014Do all members of the society participate in the festival(s):Elites\u2014Other [specify in comments]\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 19 of 24Divination and HealingIs divination present:Notes: Various forms of divination was a part of the Hittite culture, but there is no evidence about itspresense at Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya.Is healing present\/practiced at this place:Notes: There is a single find of a ritually deposited pig embryo in the rock chambers. It appears tohave been a substitution sacrifice used for a purification ritual. But it is difficult to determine howcommon such rituals were.Do rituals occur at this place:Rituals are visibly enacted behaviors by one or more people for the purposes of religious observance.Notes: Probably. It is likely that rituals took place as they were often part of the festivals. Also, there is asingle find of a ritually deposited pig embryo in the rock chambers. It appears to have been asubstitution sacrifice used for a purification ritual. But it is difficult to determine how common suchrituals were.Notes: Festivals, which serve the state cult, are attended by the royal family, high officials andnumerous professionals like priests, dances, singers, actors, soldiers, guards, servants etc.Attendance by commoners is unclear. Even if they attend, the parts of the festival that takeplace inside the sanctuary are unlikely to have involved them.Are festivals a defining element in the construction\/decoration of the place:Field doesn't know\u2014On average, how many participants gather at this place:number: Unknown. The festivals involve numerous people including royal family, highofficials, priests, various groups of performers, and numerous servants. The numbers shouldeasily reach hundreds. But how many are allowed inside the sanctuary is difficult to answer.\u2014Is feasting part of the festival(s):Notes: We do not have any particular information for the Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya sanctuary. Festivals ofteninvolve ritual eating and drinking. The is most typically the case for the royal participants, butother attendants such as priests\/priestesses, high officials, and even some performers.Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Yes\u2014Do large-scale rituals take place:Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 20 of 24Institutions and ScripturesReligious SpecialistsAre religious specialists present\/in charge of this place:Religious specialists are individuals who's primary duties within a population group are not concernedwith subsistence or craft production but the maintenance of the religious landscape and culture of thegroup.Notes: Although we lack definitive evidence for the location, generalizing from what is known aboutHittite priesthood, it is almost certain that there were cultic personnel in charge of the Yaz\u0131l\u0131kayatemple\/sanctuary.Notes: If rituals were conducted as part of a festival, they were probably a large scale rituals.Field doesn't know\u2014Do small-scale rituals take place:Field doesn't know\u2014On average how many participants are present in large-scale rituals:specify: Unknown. Probaby in double digits.\u2014How often do these rituals take place:specify: Unknown. Once a year, if the rituals are conducted as part of the yearly festivals. Butthere may have been other rituals too.\u2014Are there orthodoxy checks:Field doesn't know\u2014Are there orthopraxy checks:Field doesn't know\u2014Are there synchronic practices:Field doesn't know\u2014Are there intoxicants used during the ritual:Notes: It is probable as rituals often involve drinking various types of beer or wine.Field doesn't know\u2014Yes\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 21 of 24Does this place incorporate a living space for religious specialists:Present full timeField doesn't know\u2014Present part timeField doesn't know\u2014Are the religious specialists of specific sex\/gender:Notes: Both male and females were among the Hittite cultic personnel.No\u2014Are the religious specialists of specific ethnicity:Notes: Probably not. Names from different cult centers reflect a variety of ethnic origins.Reference: Ada Taggar-Cohen. Hittite Priesthood. Carl Winter. isbn: 978-3-8253-5262-5. p.170Field doesn't know\u2014Are the religious specialists of specific class\/cast:Notes: There are some indications that priesthood does continue within the same families, butthat is true for many professions\/trades in Hittite society. Yet, there are no indication ofrestrictions preventing other from being inducted into priesthood. (See Taggar-Cohen 2006:436).Field doesn't know\u2014Are religious specialists dedicated to the place for life:Notes: Probably not. Priests were appointed by the state administration and could betransferred to different locations.Reference: Ada Taggar-Cohen. Hittite Priesthood. Carl Winter. isbn: 978-3-8253-5262-5. p.442Field doesn't know\u2014Are the religious specialists stratified in a hierarchical system:Yes\u2014Is access within the space segregated by this hierarchy:Notes: To a certain degree this might be true as only the temple personnel did haveaccess to \"cross the treshhold\", but it is unclear whether the hierarchy within thetemple personnel did have further levels of segregation of access.Field doesn't know\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 22 of 24Notes: Probably not. The building complex by the rock sanctuary does not seem extensive enough toinclude living quarters. Also, it is generally known that Hittite priests did have their own recidencesand did not live in the temples.Reference: Ada Taggar-Cohen. Hittite Priesthood. Carl Winter. isbn: 978-3-8253-5262-5. p.442Is this place used for the training of religious specialists:Are there formal institutions for the maintenance of the place:Institutions that are authorized by the religious community or political leadersNotes: Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya was part of the state-run cultic administraion. Based on what is known about culticinstitutions and hittite administration in general, temple personnel were responsible for the dailyupkeep and cleaning, but administrative officials were also responsible for the large scale repairs andeven staffing of the temple.BureaucracyIs there a formal bureaucracy present at this place:A bureaucracy consists of a hierarchical system of accounting and rule maintenance primarily concernedwith material wealth.Notes: Again, we do not have specific information about the Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya sanctuary, but it is known ingeneral that the temples did have extensive inventory lists and detailed record keeping practices, andeven audits by the state officials.Does this place control economic resources (land, goods, tools):Notes: It is known that the state assigned resources (land, slaves, tools, etc) to the use of priests, but welack specific evidence for Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya.Public WorksField doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Yes\u2014Yes\u2014Is a bureaucracy present permanently:Yes\u2014Is a bureaucracy present on a temporary or seasonal basis:Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 23 of 24Does this place serve as a location for services to the community:Notes: Probably not. The sanctuary was part of the state cult and at the service of the royaladministration.Writing\/ScripturesIs non-religious writing stored at this place:Economic documents, records etc.Notes: It is known that Hittite temples did keep administrative records, such as inventory lists,although nothing of that sort were found in the achaeological layers of Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya.Are there scriptures associated with this place:Notes: There are some texts of festivals and rituals that were proposed to have taken place at theChamber A of Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya. Likewise some texts were suggested to be associated with Chamber B asKing Tudhaliya IV's memorial\/mausoleum. But we lack definitive evidence. For a summary of theseviews see Seeher (2011: 155-164).BibliographyEntry\/Answer ReferencesReference: Ernest Chantre. Recherches arch\u00e9ologiques dans l'Asie occidentale : mission en Cappadoce,1893-1894. Paris: E. Leroux.Reference: Kurt Bittel , Joachim Boessneck , Bernhard Damm , Hans G\u00fcterbock H., Harald Hauptmann ,Rudolf Naumann , Wulf Schirmer. Das hethitische Felsheiligtum Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya. Berlin: Gebr. Mann. isbn:3786122121.Reference: Ada Taggar-Cohen. Hittite Priesthood. Carl Winter. isbn: 978-3-8253-5262-5. p.170, p.442, p.442No\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014Bilgin, Database of Religious History, 2021 Page 24 of 24","@language":"en"}],"Genre":[{"@value":"Other","@language":"en"}],"IsShownAt":[{"@value":"10.14288\/1.0404460","@language":"en"}],"Language":[{"@value":"eng","@language":"en"}],"PeerReviewStatus":[{"@value":"Unreviewed","@language":"en"}],"Provider":[{"@value":"Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library","@language":"en"}],"Publisher":[{"@value":"Database of Religious History (DRH)","@language":"en"}],"Rights":[{"@value":"Attribution 4.0 International","@language":"en"}],"RightsURI":[{"@value":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/","@language":"en"}],"ScholarlyLevel":[{"@value":"Postdoctoral","@language":"en"}],"Subject":[{"@value":"Archaeological monument","@language":"en"},{"@value":"Anatolian Religions","@language":"en"},{"@value":"Open-Air Sanctuary","@language":"en"},{"@value":"Religious Group","@language":"en"},{"@value":"Hittite Religions","@language":"en"},{"@value":"Religious Place","@language":"en"}],"Title":[{"@value":"Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya Hittite Rock Sanctuary","@language":"en"}],"Type":[{"@value":"Text","@language":"en"}],"URI":[{"@value":"http:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/2429\/80362","@language":"en"}],"SortDate":[{"@value":"2021-10-09 AD","@language":"en"}],"@id":"doi:10.14288\/1.0404460"}