{"@context":{"@language":"en","Affiliation":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#departmentOrSchool","AggregatedSourceRepository":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/dataProvider","Campus":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeCampus","Creator":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","DateAvailable":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","DateIssued":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","Degree":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#relatedDegree","DegreeGrantor":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeGrantor","Description":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/description","DigitalResourceOriginalRecord":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/aggregatedCHO","FullText":"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2009\/08\/skos-reference\/skos.html#note","Genre":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/hasType","GraduationDate":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#dateIssued","IsShownAt":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/isShownAt","Language":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/language","Program":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeDiscipline","Provider":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/provider","Publisher":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/publisher","Rights":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/rights","RightsURI":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#rightsURI","ScholarlyLevel":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#scholarLevel","Title":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/title","Type":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/type","URI":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#identifierURI","SortDate":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/date"},"Affiliation":[{"@value":"Arts, Faculty of","@language":"en"},{"@value":"Asian Studies, Department of","@language":"en"}],"AggregatedSourceRepository":[{"@value":"DSpace","@language":"en"}],"Campus":[{"@value":"UBCV","@language":"en"}],"Creator":[{"@value":"Toleno, Robban Anthony John","@language":"en"}],"DateAvailable":[{"@value":"2015-04-20T18:15:44Z","@language":"en"}],"DateIssued":[{"@value":"2015","@language":"en"}],"Degree":[{"@value":"Doctor of Philosophy - PhD","@language":"en"}],"DegreeGrantor":[{"@value":"University of British Columbia","@language":"en"}],"Description":[{"@value":"A common approach in studies of food and religion is to understand food taboos as emerging out of a symbolic system based on notions of the sacred. Religion is understood in this view to construct meaning on the basis of symbolism, which is grounded in sacred authority. In Chinese Buddhist discourse on eating contained in a tenth-century Buddhist encyclopedia, however, in place of food taboos one finds a doctrine of equanimity and moderation in eating. Using the Chinese Buddhist encyclopedia Shishi liutie as source, I argue that Chinese Buddhists framed the morality of eating not by sacral authority but by a notion of skill. This theoretical frame describes Buddhist ethics generally: ku\u015bala (Ch. shan \u5584) is that which is skillful because it is wholesome, good, virtuous, or meritorious; and aku\u015bala (Ch. bushan \u4e0d\u5584) is that which is unskillful, because it is unwholesome or lacking in virtue. Viewing morality as a problem of skill helps explain the variation of interpretations on how to best eat as a Buddhist, which are found in different Buddhist writings. Buddhist teachings on food are provisional forms of knowledge rather than authoritative pronouncements. Most central to Buddhist attitudes on food in the Shishi liutie are proper knowledge and proper attitude\u2013\u2013both of which allow individuals to skillfully obtain the benefits of eating while avoiding pitfalls such as gluttony and illness. By highlighting skill over sacral authority, I question the commonly held notion that religious knowledge is by definition fundamentally symbolic. In medieval China, Buddhist knowledge of eating was practical and provisional, evolving with society to meet contemporary needs.","@language":"en"}],"DigitalResourceOriginalRecord":[{"@value":"https:\/\/circle.library.ubc.ca\/rest\/handle\/2429\/52875?expand=metadata","@language":"en"}],"FullText":[{"@value":"  SKILLED EATING: KNOWLEDGE OF FOOD IN YICHU\u2019S SHISHI LIUTIE, A BUDDHIST ENCYCLOPEDIA FROM TENTH-CENTURY CHINA  by  ROBBAN ANTHONY JOHN TOLENO  B.A. Lewis and Clark College, 1995 M.A. University of Hawai\u2019i, Manoa, 2005  A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF  DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in  THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Asian Studies)  THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver)   April 2015  \u00a9 Robban Anthony John Toleno, 2015       ii\t \u00a0Abstract  A common approach in studies of food and religion is to understand food taboos as emerging out of a symbolic system based on notions of the sacred. Religion is understood in this view to construct meaning on the basis of symbolism, which is grounded in sacred authority. In Chinese Buddhist discourse on eating contained in a tenth-century Buddhist encyclopedia, however, in place of food taboos one finds a doctrine of equanimity and moderation in eating. Using the Chinese Buddhist encyclopedia Shishi liutie as source, I argue that Chinese Buddhists framed the morality of eating not by sacral authority but by a notion of skill. This theoretical frame describes Buddhist ethics generally: ku\u015bala (Ch. shan \u5584) is that which is skillful because it is wholesome, good, virtuous, or meritorious; and aku\u015bala (Ch. bushan \u4e0d\u5584) is that which is unskillful, because it is unwholesome or lacking in virtue. Viewing morality as a problem of skill helps explain the variation of interpretations on how to best eat as a Buddhist, which are found in different Buddhist writings. Buddhist teachings on food are provisional forms of knowledge rather than authoritative pronouncements. Most central to Buddhist attitudes on food in the Shishi liutie are proper knowledge and proper attitude\u2013\u2013both of which allow individuals to skillfully obtain the benefits of eating while avoiding pitfalls such as gluttony and illness. By highlighting skill over sacral authority, I question the commonly held notion that religious knowledge is by definition fundamentally symbolic. In medieval China, Buddhist knowledge of eating was practical and provisional, evolving with society to meet contemporary needs.    iii\t \u00a0Preface  This dissertation is original, unpublished, independent work by the author, Robban A. J. Toleno. The project evolved out of an earlier investigation of taste \u5473 in Buddhist literature. I conceived of the project in its present form after coming across the Shishi liutie in a collection of Buddhist lexical works (Fanchi Jushi et al., Foxue cishu jicheng). I realized that working with a Buddhist encyclopedia could solve my methodological conundrum of having too many scattered sources. While in Tokyo on a BDK fellowship, I worked from a facsimile of the oldest woodblock print edition, using trackpad writing on my computer to manually input the source text. The Shishi liutie is not contained in digitized Buddhist canons (CBETA and SAT). All translations are mine unless otherwise indicated.                               iv\t \u00a0Table of Contents  Abstract.................................................................................................................................... ii Preface...................................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents.................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables........................................................................................................................... vi Notes on Usage....................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................viii Dedication............................................................................................................................... ix  Introduction: Chinese Buddhist Perspectives on Food and Morality.................................. 1  Opening.......................................................................................................................... 1  Food in Durkheim\u2019s social thesis on religion and the case of Buddhism.................... 3  Meat-eating in Buddhism.............................................................................................. 5  From social symbolism to the efficacy of normative attitudes..................................... 7  Plural Buddhisms and religious repertoires................................................................. 11  Eating as an attitudinal problem in Buddhism............................................................ 13  Sources and methods..................................................................................................... 15  Buddhist rejection of ritual purity and social construction of in-groups.................... 16  Skillful attitude as a Buddhist solution........................................................................ 18  Morality as a problem of skill....................................................................................... 19  Meat-eating monks....................................................................................................... 21  Vegetarianism revisited................................................................................................ 23  Overview of chapters................................................................................................... 24  Part I. Eating in Medieval Chinese Buddhism and Yichu's Shishi liutie.............................. 29  1. Historicizing Chinese Buddhist Attitudes Toward Food................................................. 30  1.1 Opening a vegetarian can of worms...................................................................... 30  1.2 Vegetarianism as a red herring in Buddhist food history..................................... 33  1.3 Questioning the thesis of straightforward diffusion between India and China... 35  1.4 Mah\u0101y\u0101na vegetarianism........................................................................................ 39  1.5 Cultural resonance in China................................................................................... 46  1.6 Daoists and experimental diets.............................................................................. 50  1.7 Moral vegetarianism in Song recipe collections.................................................... 54  1.8 Daoist medicine and the nourishing of life............................................................ 65  1.9 Chapter conclusions............................................................................................... 67  2. Lexicon or Encyclopedia? Assessing Genre for Yichu\u2019s Extra-Canonical Shishi liutie... 70  2.1 Origins.................................................................................................................... 70  2.2 Buddhist leishu? A problem of genre...................................................................... 75  2.3 The Shishi liutie as a Buddhist leishu....................................................................... 95  2.4 Implications of a conceptual orientation............................................................... 99  2.5 Chapter conclusions...............................................................................................101  3. Food Themes: The Topic of Shi \u98df in the Shishi liutie................................................... 104   v\t \u00a0 3.1 Opening................................................................................................................ 104  3.2 Method...................................................................................................................112  3.3 Themes................................................................................................................... 117  3.4 Chapter conclusions.............................................................................................. 142  Part II. Case Studies..............................................................................................................145  4. Transcendent Eating: Doctrine of Four Foods in Chinese Buddhism........................... 146  4.1 Chapter introduction............................................................................................. 146   4.2 Interpreting the doctrine of Four Foods.............................................................. 149  4.3 Four Foods in Chinese Buddhist leishu................................................................ 165  4.4 Chapter conclusions............................................................................................. 183  5. The Celebration of Porridge in East Asian Buddhism.................................................... 188  5.1 Chapter introduction............................................................................................. 188  5.2 Porridge in Buddhist mealtime liturgy................................................................. 191  5.3 The ten benefits of porridge in the Shishi Liutie................................................... 192  5.4 Commemorative porridge..................................................................................... 203  5.5 Chapter conclusions.............................................................................................. 216  Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 219 References............................................................................................................................. 227 Appendix 1. Biography of Yichu from the Song gaoseng zhuan........................................... 257 Appendix 2. Preface by Wang Pu........................................................................................ 260 Appendix 3. Yichu's Preface................................................................................................ 263 Appendix 4. Table of Contents for the Shishi liutie.............................................................. 265 Appendix 5. Translation of all entries under the topic of shi \u98df in Yichu's Shishi liutie... 303 Appendix 6: Appended Material for Chapter Five (Porridge).......................................... 340 \t \u00a0                 vi\t \u00a0List of Tables    Table 1. Comparison of food topics in the Shishi liutie and Baishi liutie.................... 93 Table 2. Number of entries per topic in Yichu's section on food........................... 115    vii\t \u00a0Notes on Usage  This dissertation uses Pinyin for all Chinese, except in cases where published material uses another Romanization scheme. Although \u201cTao\u201d and its cognates have entered English dictionaries, these early adoptions from Chinese are based on a phonetic system that has harmed the general ability of English speakers to pronounce these terms in close approximation with Mandarin sounds. \u201cDao\u201d and its derivatives help correct this, so I adopt them in my writing.  Japanese and Chinese names are given with the surname first, according to the practice of these cultures, unless the order has been reversed in English publications. I use caps to indicate the surname in cases where there could be confusion. Spacing of words in Chinese titles is sometimes arbitrary, or nearly so. I have tried to be consistent with the educated opinions behind DDB entries, but have sometimes made my own decisions. I have not adopted Library of Congress standards, because adding spaces between every syllable makes for onerous reading\u2013\u2013it is simply too messy, and it does not allow recognition of important instances of cognates.                        viii\t \u00a0Acknowledgements  Thanks are due to many people and institutions that helped to make this study possible. Over the course of my program leading to this dissertation, I received funding from the following generous benefactors: Sun Life, the Choi family, the Canadian Chinese Help Care Society, the Killam family (Killam Trusts), the Okamatsu family, the International Buddhist Society, the Tso family, the Universal Buddhist Temple of Vancouver, and the Khyentse Foundation. I am grateful to the Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies for supporting my year of research at Academia Sinica in Taiwan, and to the Bukky\u014d Dend\u014d Ky\u014dkai (BDK Canada) for funding a year of research at T\u014dy\u014d University in Japan. I could not have gotten through these many years of scholarly training without the financial support from these kind donors.    For patiently supporting my career and cultivating my academic abilities, I offer heartfelt thanks to Ted Slingerland, Jinhua Chen, and Carla Nappi. James Benn read and commented on parts of this study from its inception; I am extremely grateful for his help on many levels. In an early stage of this project, LIU Shufen offered helpful advice and warm hospitality during my stay at Academia Sinica. A visiting scholar at Academia Sinica, LI Liang, helped to set me in the direction that produced the current study. In Tokyo I benefited from the feedback of members of the Buddhism Discussion Group who attended my presentation: Charles Muller, KANNO Hiroshi, Ken Tanaka, Bruce Stewart, Matthew McMullen, ZHANG Yao, Michaela Mross, and Andrew Oberg. My Japanese mentor IBUKI Atsushi served as a warm and cheerful host, helping make my year in Japan fruitful. Several friends read pieces of translation and offered suggestions for improvement: LIN Peiying, WU Juan, ZHANG Dewei, and YANG Zeng. Adam Barnett generously lent me a monitor and thereby saved me countless hours of squinting at my 11\" MacBook Air. Several officemates shared ideas and offered moral support: Brenton Sullivan, Carson Logan, Ben Purzycki, and Jessica McCutcheon. Many thanks to these and many others who remain unnamed. Of course, I am solely responsible for the many shortcomings of this study.  Thanks to my father, Thomas Toleno, and my mother, Mary Toleno, for serving as the core of my support team. Friends Kathy Simas and Rosalie Walls also deserve mention for sharing an abundance of wisdom and generosity. Thanks also to my wife for persevering in the face of academia's many unreasonable expectations for graduate-student households, for keeping me fed, and for sticking me full of needles when my body complained about the many relentless periods of writing. To my daughter go special thanks, festooned with dandelion blossoms and honey balls: you, more than anyone, propelled me to the finish line.   ix\t \u00a0          For Bill Holiday of BUHS   1\t \u00a0Introduction: Chinese Buddhist Perspectives on Food and Morality  Opening  How to eat well is a perennial problem. Even people who profess disinterest in this problem make daily choices regarding what to eat and what not to eat. We make decisions for reasons that are sometimes straightforward and sometimes complex. Those who think that eating is a non-issue in human experience are deluded by the false assurances of habit or by hidden social ideologies. What and how to eat has always been an open question for humans; there is no natural human diet, in history or now. In step with ecological, social, and technological change, the human diet is constantly evolving, as are theories of how to eat well.  This dissertation looks at a particular articulation of how to eat well, found in a tenth-century encyclopedia of Buddhist teachings in China. The views therein are decidedly colored by Buddhist notions such as karma and rebirth, but also by concerns for bodily health. Collectively they offer vivid illustration of how different thinkers approached this perennial problem of how to eat, which is inextricably bound up with notions of morality\u2013\u2013the good, as a quality of self or in regard to the suffering of others.  A key assertion of this study is that morality and skill are integral concepts in Buddhist discourse on the efficacies of eating. Eating is presented as a skilled act, not an act made moral by adherence to arbitrary prescriptions and proscriptions. As a skilled act, we can eat with little skill (paying consequences in health or moral status) or with great skill, reaping benefits in health and moral status. My main source celebrates approaches to eating that contribute to efficacy on a number of fronts, especially those we might label as nutritional, medical, moral, and spiritual.  The presentation in my Buddhist source of exemplary models for how to eat is more akin to virtue ethics than to deontology or consequentialist ethics. The compiler, Yichu, chose to emphasize the logic of Buddhist attitudes toward eating, rather than highlighting food rules used in Chinese monastic contexts. Knowledge, as a universal human pursuit, takes precedence here over insular religious authority, suggesting that   2\t \u00a0Yichu viewed Buddhist food rules as interpretations from accumulated Buddhist knowledge on eating.  In discussing Buddhist morality of eating in terms of skill, I intend to draw attention to the engagement of Buddhism with a larger context of knowledge building in premodern Asia. 1  Authors posit different ends coming from the act of eating: nutritional, moral, spiritual, medical, hedonic, or social gains, for example. Knowledge of eating is central to building efficacy toward any of its aims. In practice, however, knowledge is empty of inherent value; skill is what propels efficacy, even if it is built upon the foundation laid by knowledge. The end results of a particular approach to eating validate (or invalidate) the means, giving rise to discourses on the efficacy of different eating practices.  It was not just the means\u2013\u2013such as vegetarian diet\u2013\u2013that was debated in China, but also the ends. For early Chinese prior to Buddhism\u2019s arrival, food was already implicated in notions of sagehood that linked the sensory world with the transcendent spirit realm.2 In the centuries before and after Buddhism\u2019s arrival in China, diet was subjected to experimental manipulation in the belief that the right kind of diet could even transform people into spirit-like beings.3  Debates in Buddhism over what and how to eat should not be viewed in isolation from the larger context of knowledge building. In tenth-century China, religious knowledge is not limited to the knowledge of a symbolic system constructed through a set of sacred rites. Chinese Buddhism participated in provisional knowledge building, proposing exemplary models for testing in human experience. To pigeonhole Chinese Buddhist ideas about food as primarily a matter of vegetarianism is to vastly oversimplify a long evolution of provisional knowledge, which formed in interaction with many societies and thinkers. These premodern thinkers linked food, medicine, and soteriology in ways that can only be appreciated against the backdrop of history. Chinese Buddhist ideas about eating were not simply Indian Buddhist ideas in \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a01 Responses to seemingly irrational practices in religion or in dietary practice vary widely. Many scholars dismiss such cases as evidence of arbitrary social construction. Another possible reaction is to see these as attempts to achieve true knowledge, even if their authors failed to achieve good information from the perspective of modern knowledge. I take the latter view.\t \u00a02 Sterckx, Food, Sacrifice, and Sagehood in Early China, 1-3.\t \u00a03 Campany, \u201cMeanings of Cuisines of Transcendence in Late Classical and Early Medieval China.\u201d\t \u00a0  3\t \u00a0translation, but multiple layers of Indian ideas reinterpreted in China through a drawn-out process of interaction with Chinese contexts.  Food, by nature, is interdisciplinary. I have chosen here to frame my thesis on Chinese Buddhist attitudes toward food as primarily a topic in Buddhist studies with implications for religious studies and food history. Inevitably, other aspects of history are drawn into the discussion, such as social history, cultural history, and the history of medicine in China. Below I outline my general thesis, justifying my proposal that Buddhist eating be understood as a skilled act, and setting the stage for the more in-depth analyses of the proceeding chapters.   Food, Durkheim\u2019s social thesis on religion, and the case of Buddhism  A common approach in studies of food and religion is to understand food taboos as emerging out of a symbolic system based on notions of the sacred.4 \u00c9mile Durkheim and Mary Douglas championed this approach in seminal works 5  that shaped subsequent studies of food and religion.6 In Chinese Buddhist discourse on eating, however, it is difficult to see how the notion of sacred and profane construct a symbolic system of food rules, because in place of food taboos early Buddhists set out a doctrine of equanimity and moderation in eating. The scholarly approach of using evidence of sacral authority to understand patterns of food practice is not fruitful in Buddhism, where food rules take shape in interpretive texts, rather than in authoritative texts such as the Book of Leviticus. The literature of Buddhism forms a vast, cumulative tradition lacking a central authority on eating. To see Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism as analogous with Muslim halal and Jewish kosher food rules (kashrut) is to misunderstand the structure and history of Buddhist teachings. We must distinguish between religion as ethnic identity and religion as creed, between cases where religion \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a04 See Norman, \u201cFood and Religion.\u201d\t \u00a05 Durkheim, Elementary Forms of Religious Life; Douglas, Purity and Danger.\t \u00a06 See for example Freidenreich, Foreigners and Their Food; Gillette, Between Mecca and Beijing, 114-144; Fabre-Vassas, Singular Beast, see esp. 5-6; Elverskog, Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road, 227-260.\t \u00a0  4\t \u00a0interacts with (or even constructs) insular communities and where it modifies thought and behavior while leaving ethnic identifications largely intact.  \u201cChinese\u201d and \u201cBuddhist\u201d are two bases of identification, interacting but distinct. It seems that Western scholars are prone to excitement over opportunities to analyze and divide, applying theories of boundary maintenance even in social contexts where identities were hybrid, complex, and relative\u2013\u2013where, for example, Sogdians participated in Chinese government and Xianbei-Chinese aristocrats competed for the imperial throne. Buddhism\u2019s success in China (and in Asia generally) may be attributed, in part, to its cross-cultural adaptability and its relative lack of alterity-producing food rules. At the very least, Buddhist teachings could be\u2013\u2013and were\u2013\u2013pitched with the intention of bridging differences. This dissertation looks at such a case.  The ability to speak generally about Buddhist food practices is limited by their diversity across time and place, but there is still some coherence in Buddhist attitudes toward eating. Using a tenth-century Chinese Buddhist encyclopedia (the Shishi liutie)7 as my main source, I argue that Chinese Buddhists framed the morality of eating not by sacrality but by a notion of skill. This notion of skill necessarily shifts our attention away from the collective to focus on the individual.  Another way to articulate this position is to make use of Robert Ford Campany\u2019s distinction between \u201cinternalist\u201d and \u201cexternalist\u201d culinary choices in Chinese history: internalist choices are those justified as having intrinsic effects, whereas externalist choices are those which associate or disassociate eaters from some cluster of values (or a social group representing these).8  Internalist positions make claims about intrinsic efficacy, while externalist positions are relational.  My source weighs heavy on internalist food practices and even pokes fun at externalist positions. Buddhists in Chinese history did use externalist food choices to shape their identity vis-\u00e0-vis other groups, but Yichu's tenth-century Buddhist encyclopedia privileges explanations for Buddhist dietary practice that posit human universals as their basis. The de-emphasis of externalist positions is likely connected with Yichu\u2019s intention to pitch the knowledge of his encyclopedia to a general readership in \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a07 Yanagida and Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan, v.6 (shimo). I provide a detailed introduction to this text in Chapter Two.\t \u00a08 Campany, \u201cMeanings of Cuisines of Transcendence,\u201d 2.\t \u00a0  5\t \u00a0China (as I discuss in Chapter Two). I have chosen to scrutinize the internalist perspectives, since these are dominant here and because the existing modern scholarship on Buddhism and food places emphasis on externalist views, distorting our understanding of the internalist logic. Both are necessary perspectives, as Campany suggests. According to my source text, Chinese Buddhists understood moral eating to be supported by proper knowledge and proper attitude\u2013\u2013\u201cproper\u201d in that they were held to be efficacious models. These were informed by the Buddhadharma (the moral law taught by the Buddha) but nonetheless needed interpretation in practice. Buddhist teachings on food support the ability of individuals to skillfully obtain the benefits of eating while avoiding pitfalls such as greed and physical illness.   Meat-eating in Buddhism  The case of meat eating in Buddhism is a prime example of how attempts to delineate a collective morality from Buddhist food practices can give misleading results. Meat, now popularly considered a taboo food in Buddhism, was not originally taboo but became so in China through a complicated history of negotiation that included the efforts of sixth-century Chinese emperor Wu of Liang (Liang Wu Di) and many lay Buddhists, in addition to the voices of eminent tonsured Buddhists eager to promote Mah\u0101y\u0101na Buddhist ideals of compassionate action toward food animals.9  Scholars of Chinese food history are prone to invoking a false dichotomy between the supposed universality of meat eating among Chinese and a stereotyped image of the vegetarian Indian Buddhist: \u201cThe first Indian Buddhist monks to arrive in China (around the beginning of the first century A.D.) were pious men who brought with them a commitment to vegetarianism, but who found widespread meat eating and animal sacrifice. \u2026it was only with the introduction of Buddhism that vegetarianism became commonplace.\u201d10 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a09 Mather, \u201cBonze\u2019s Begging Bowl;\u201d Kieschnick, \u201cBuddhist Vegetarianism in China;\u201d Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 273-274.\t \u00a010 Simoons, Food in China, 31. Simoons expressed some hesitation about the origins of vegetarian practice in China despite presenting this simplistic historical model. He later conducted a detailed study of flesh   6\t \u00a0There is a popular conception\u2013\u2013in the Anglophone world, at least\u2013\u2013that Buddhists are, as a rule, vegetarians. Bernard Faure, a scholar of Chinese and Japanese Buddhism, includes this topic in his book Unmasking Buddhism,11 which aims to debunk popular myths about Buddhism. Noting widespread belief that Buddhism advocates a strict vegetarianism, he outlines how this is not true for many Buddhists today and is not a consistent aspect of Buddhist history and doctrine. As Faure observes, vegetarianism is a more complex issue than it at first appears.12  In early Buddhist writings that arrived in China in the first centuries of the Common Ere, there was no clear authority on whether or not the eating of meat was acceptable for Buddhists, only a set of differing positions from different schools and periods of Buddhism\u2019s history. Today, scholars often point to the precept against killing and to the associated virtue of ahi\u1e43s\u0101, non-harm, to explain the practice of vegetarianism in Buddhism\u2019s history,13 but this view posits a coherent ethical practice where there is none.14  In his widely-read introduction to Buddhism, Peter Harvey gives a concise overview of ethical vegetarianism in Buddhism, discussing the early practice of monastic Buddhists accepting donations of foods containing meat, so long as these meat-foods met several criteria that helped distance the Buddhist from the slaughter of the animal\u2013\u2013not having seen the killing or suspected that the animal was killed specifically for the purpose of the donation.15 In written lore on the Buddha\u2019s community, we read of the Buddha accepting food donations that include meat. Devadatta, cousin of the Buddha and erstwhile member of the Buddha\u2019s sa\u1e43gha, is infamous among Buddhists for creating frictions in the community when he proposed greater austerities, among which was a call for strict vegetarianism. The Indian Buddhist sa\u1e43gha rejected Devadatta\u2019s position as a form of extremism, deemed incompatible with the Middle-Way philosophy \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0avoidance around the world, Eat Not This Flesh, where he concludes that a great number of factors are involved in flesh avoidance, with religious identity only one piece of a larger picture that includes ethnic identities, socioeconomics, and human psychology. Nonetheless, he reiterates his original model for the introduction of vegetarianism to China. See 292-293.\t \u00a011 Pp.118-122.\t \u00a012 p.120.\t \u00a013 E.g., Walters and Portmess, Religious Vegetarianism, 6, 61.\t \u00a014 The ethics of ahi\u1e43s\u0101 are integral to Buddhist teachings, but they did not result in consistent food practices across Buddhist communities.\t \u00a015 Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 273-274.\t \u00a0  7\t \u00a0of the Buddha.16 For most of Buddhist history, meat eating was accepted under certain conditions. Today, many forms of Buddhism\u2013\u2013especially in Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Japan\u2013\u2013continue to permit the eating of animal flesh.17  The supposed taboo on the eating of meat in Buddhism proves a poor basis for understanding the construction of group solidarity for Buddhists when considered cross culturally and over broad time spans. In micro-histories of social interactions between individuals or local groups in China, vegetarianism may still be a valid tool for understanding the dynamics of group identity, but the assumption that it was the definitive issue when speaking of food and Buddhism is false. We appear to be projecting our own preoccupations with the ethics of meat eating onto the history of Buddhism. If the fixation on vegetarianism has distorted our understanding of food and Buddhism, then how can this be corrected? Below I will demonstrate that Buddhism has something more to teach its practitioners about food and eating, which has been overlooked. But first I want to consider how the conventional theoretical approach to food and religion is a poor match for the case of Buddhism.   From social symbolism to the efficacy of normative attitudes  The details of Buddhism's doctrinal approach to food need to be understood better if we wish to compare notions of food and religion cross-culturally. In studying food and Buddhism, if we focus on Buddhist vegetarianism or fasting practices, as is often the case, we risk misunderstanding the nature of Buddhism as a religion, seeing only the familiar patterns of taboo and construction of social identity.18 In the interest of refining general theory on food and religion, we cannot afford to be complacent regarding potential problems raised by the case of Buddhist discourse on food and eating.  I am not arguing against Durkheim's thesis that religion reflects social values. I also accept that Chinese Buddhists did engage in the construction of group solidarity \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a016 Kieschnick, \u201cBuddhist Vegetarianism in China,\u201d 189.\t \u00a017 E.g., Xu, Zhongguo yinshi shi, v.3, 195: Buddhists in Tibet and Mongolia do not have a taboo on eating meat.\t \u00a018 See Ulrich, \u201cFood Fights,\u201d as an example of how this approach can work for understanding historically situated interactions between different social groups that are defined by religion. What this approach does not readily provide is an ability to reconcile the diversity of Buddhist food practices across time and place.\t \u00a0  8\t \u00a0through establishment of normative teachings on food. This social approach does have validity for understanding particular moments in the history of Chinese Buddhism, such as in the critical attitude of a Chinese Buddhist author toward certain Daoist food practices that permitted the eating of meat, the drinking of alcohol, and extended fasting (see entry #44 in Appendix 5). My point, rather, is that because Buddhist attitudes toward eating do not easily bifurcate along a fault line of sacred and profane, this is a poor starting point for understanding the logic of Buddhist teachings on food.  I am arguing here against a strong social-constructivist understanding of Buddhism and food, because this theoretical frame marginalizes practical forms of knowledge that are integral to Buddhist discourse. Buddhist knowledge of food is misunderstood if approached through a social-constructivist lens that highlights taboo and permitted foods within a symbolic system of sacred and profane. The pioneering work on food and religion by \u00c9mile Durkheim19 and the social approach to understanding taboo championed by Mary Douglas20 have steered scholars away from natural explanation of food rules\u2013\u2013explanation that establishes coherence in religious knowledge of food outside of socially-generated symbolic systems. For Durkheim, religion is a manifestation of society and its moral ideals; food serves as an opportunity for constructing fictional kinship around dietary communion, especially when a sacred food is involved. He was skeptical that natural or ecological explanation had a legitimate role in understanding religious phenomena.21 Douglas\u2019s study of taboo shares this basic view of the socially unifying power of ritualized taboos, even though she disagreed with Durkheim\u2019s distinction between sacred and profane, between religion proper and magic as primitive hygiene\u2013\u2013for Douglas, both sets of rites (religious and magic) are based in socially generated symbolic systems.22  Durkheim and Douglas\u2019s position that food choices are patterned in socially generated symbolic systems found further expression in Pierre Bourdieu\u2019s sociological study of taste in French society, Distinction. Rather than drawing attention to religion, however, Bourdieu\u2019s work on the social construction of food preferences focuses on \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a019 Elementary Forms of Religious Life.\t \u00a020 Purity and Danger.\t \u00a021 Durkheim, Elementary Forms of Religious Life, 70 (note).\t \u00a022 Douglas, Purity and Danger, 21-28.\t \u00a0  9\t \u00a0class ideologies. In Bourdieu\u2019s influential study, class forms the basis for shared social identification. Groups eat according to different class ideologies. Class shapes food choices, which function actively to socially differentiate groups.23 Along with Douglas, Bourdieu has played a key role in making social relativity the default theoretical frame for analyzing differences of food practice.  Bourdieu makes a methodological claim that I wish to challenge here. He held that by analyzing the choices actually made by social actors from different groups, and by not judging their knowledge claims he could achieve a science of taste, an empirical study of preference. He saw forms of knowledge\u2013\u2013such as nutritional knowledge that led particular groups to favor the eating of salads and other light foods\u2013\u2013as socially relative ideologies. He refused to consider whether certain ideologies might be more apt to circumstances than others, more knowledgeable about the human condition and its needs. Using Campany\u2019s wording, we might say that Bourdieu only analyzed externalist (relational) food choices and refused comment on internalist positions. Bourdieu\u2019s study is masterful and full of penetrating insights, but because his theoretical lens ignores internalist positions he can only represent social difference and not the catalytic action of knowledge flowing between individuals and transforming them in meaningful ways. He stopped his analysis at the level of class distinctions\u2013\u2013at a social scale of analysis, above the level of analysis that looks at the impact of ideas in personal experience. His approach exemplifies the strengths of sociology, but lacks insights on religion that emerge only at a finer scale of analysis, such as that used by William James in analyzing the psychology of religious experience.24 The sociological approaches championed by Durkheim, Douglas, and Bourdieu can easily miss how doctrinal attitudes on food in Buddhism offer the practitioner more than just an opportunity to express social solidarity with the religious group and its idealized system of symbols. There is still value, I wish to suggest, in trying to understand the internalist positions claimed by Buddhist authors. Observing that food is central in constructing social solidarity (including religious solidarity) is no longer a novel observation, but it is also potentially misleading in the case of China, where ideas that \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a023 Bourdieu, Distinction, 177-200.\t \u00a024 James, Varieties of Religious Experience.\t \u00a0  10\t \u00a0we tend to label as \u201cConfucian,\u201d \u201cDaoist,\u201d or \u201cBuddhist\u201d could sometimes occupy a highly permeable cultural space. We need to understand internalist positions in order to analyze the relational politics between groups that were sometimes antagonistic, sometimes sympathetic, and always conversant with each other's positions.  Some scholars have sought to move beyond the narrowness of explanations of food and religion that treat cultural patterns as arbitrary social constructions. For example, the anthropologist Marvin Harris made contributions 25  that stimulated a set of theoretical debates over how to best understand food rules. Harris has been criticized for relying too strongly on a pet theory, \u2018materialism\u2019 or \u2018environmental determinism\u2019, to explain a broad set of taboos cross-culturally.26 While his ideas about protein hunger and some technical aspects of nutritional science may be controversial, his contributions added nuance to the social approach to food and religion by proposing that ecological, nutritional, and economic information was part of the calculus, whether conscious or not, by which religious groups patterned their eating. 27  Harris, by considering ecological constraints, extended the thesis that religion manifests the ideals of the collective, giving these ideals not a symbolic but a practical basis (i.e., in knowledge about the functioning of material life). I think this remains an important contribution to our thinking about patterns of eating associated with religion. The controversy surrounding some of his views is connected with an ideological current in modern academia that militates against the idea that religious ideas and other cultural patterns can be explained as rational and pragmatic, rather than as arbitrary cultural constructions.  Harris is well known for his \u201cetic\u201d explanations of food and religion, which rely on explanations outside of the \u201cemic,\u201d or internal cultural logic.28 While I focus mostly on emic explanations in this dissertation, I do use perspectives from modern science in parts of this dissertation. Used appropriately, etic perspectives\u2013\u2013drawn from such fields as psychology and cognitive science\u2013\u2013can elucidate our understanding of the history of \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a025 E.g., Harris, Good to Eat; \"Foodways: Historical Overview and Theoretical Prolegomenon.\"\t \u00a026 Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh, 320.\t \u00a027 Against the critique that ecological explanation projects modern scientific meanings onto actors who are entirely unaware of these, Harris proposed an emic\u2013\u2013or insider\u2013\u2013form of knowledge, and one that is etic, belonging to outside observers.\t \u00a028 E.g. Harris, \"Foodways,\" 68-72.\t \u00a0  11\t \u00a0Buddhist ideas about food. Where reasonable to do so, I have diversified the tools available for analysis by bringing in modern perspectives. I would argue that this enriches rather than harms my reading of the material, situating it in the present intellectual environment. Of course I cannot claim to offer an orthodox reading of my complex historical materials (if there could be such a thing). I see my work as historian one of uncovering\u2013\u2013to the best of my ability\u2013\u2013the internal logic of my material, of seeking coherence in the complex palimpsest of accumulated statements on Buddhist attitudes toward food and eating. My reading is shaped by my methodological decisions. It is necessary to address the features of Buddhist teachings as they manifest in my source text from China. Given the stochastic format of the encyclopedia\u2019s entries under the topic of food, and the complexity of these materials, I have chosen to interpret them as exemplary models associated with the complex body of thought and practice that constitutes what we collectively refer to as Chinese Buddhism. These models are presented in a manner conducive to the reflection and potential adoption of individuals, so I have oriented my scholarly apparatus in the direction of the individual.   Plural Buddhisms and religious repertoires  In Elementary Forms of Religious Life, Durkheim raises questions about the different orientation of Buddhist teachings in comparison with other religions and he uses this divergence to support his thesis that the basis of religion is in the social collective and not in a belief in gods and spirits.29 While his thesis of the social basis of religion remains an important contribution with profound implications for the study of religion, his understanding of Buddhism appears rudimentary and incomplete\u2013\u2013belief in the presence of gods and spirits does come to play a role in many schools of Buddhism, so lack of these in some philosophical forms of Buddhism cannot be generalized to the religion as a whole. Some scholars of Buddhism now get around these difficulties by proposing that there are \u201cBuddhisms\u201d rather than a singular religion.30  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a029 See pp. 32-35.\t \u00a030 E.g., Robinson et al., Buddhist Religions.\t \u00a0  12\t \u00a0Another approach is to view religion in Chinese history not as comprised of doctrinally discrete teachings practiced by mutually antagonistic social groups, but as repertoires offering people an assortment of teachings and practices that were amenable to selective exploration.31 This view of Chinese religion helps clarify the inclusion in a tenth-century Chinese Buddhist encyclopedia of material from a wide variety of schools of Buddhism, and even from Confucian learning. The present study takes this approach, on the basis of evidence from Chinese history (outlined in Chapter One). Buddhist doctrine on food contains ideas on how selfhood is patterned and salvation obtained. Buddhists have sophisticated ideas about food, holding that food is not a singular but a multiple category, nourishing at multiple levels (as discussed in Chapter Four). In Buddhist teachings, morality is not merely an expression of adherence to social ideals, but a skill to be learned and practiced as part of a normative path toward ultimate awakening.32 Lack of adherence to a moral precept such as the avoidance of meat is not viewed as a problem of transgressing against a high god or of going against the social order; rather, it is problematic for being a clumsy and ignorant action that does not nourish the individual in ways conducive to the soteriological goal of achieving liberation from suffering through an ultimate awakening to truth.  Following clues from my tenth-century Buddhist encyclopedia, I propose that we gain an improvement of understanding by shifting our gaze from the collective to the personal level, investigating the psychology of eating as a Buddhist. In other words, in the fashion of William James,33 we must consider the inner world of the Buddhist in order to find coherence in the multitude of food practices evident in different schools of Buddhism spread throughout Asia. By shifting attention to psychology, we can approach Buddhist teachings on food and eating as attempts to construct exemplary models on the basis of knowledge about individual experience. This approach can be shown compatible with social approaches such as Bourdieu\u2019s class-based analysis if we understand that the scale of analysis is different. Class-based foodways develop as strategies, which are viewed by each group \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a031 Campany, \u201cOn the Very Idea of Religions.\u201d\t \u00a032 Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 264-265; Prasad, \u201cEthics in Buddhist Philosophical Literature,\u201d 219-220.\t \u00a033 Varieties of Religious Experience.\t \u00a0  13\t \u00a0as exemplary for the concerns and ideals of the group. Each group has narratives of eating that form a base of knowledge and shape eating practices. In Chinese society, literate individuals participated in an exchange of ideas that allowed repertoires of one group to be shared beyond the confines of an adhering community of individuals. This dynamic in medieval Chinese society demonstrates fluidity of religious identities to some extent, but it also suggests that competition among groups was sufficient to require written expositions of group narratives. Writings such as Yichu's Shishi liutie suggest that medieval Chinese intellectuals (including learned Buddhists) scrutinized for coherence the content of group narratives on eating, with coherence measured on the basis of efficacy in experience. And now I, the modern critic, likewise scrutinize these models for coherence\u2013\u2013in theory if not in practice.  Eating as an attitudinal problem in Buddhism  Let us step back for a moment and consider the context in which Buddhism emerged in India. Prior to (and coinciding with) the teachings of the Buddha, elite Indo-Aryan society widely practiced a Vedic religion of sacrifice, often called Brahmanism, which through rites aimed at caring for ancestors perpetuated the Vedic family structure and a male-dominant, caste-stratified social order.34 When the Buddha appeared in the sixth century BCE, he rejected the Vedic religion of sacrifice and its idealized social relationships, framing its status quo of rebirth into the World of the Fathers as a form of suffering.35 As an anti-Vedic religion of renunciation, Buddhism teaches release from suffering as the goal of practice, offering a Path (Skt. m\u0101rga) for achieving this end.36  The basis for this Path is in moral law (Skt. dharma), a concept shared across Indian religious thought in the Buddha\u2019s time: \u201cDharma refers to the idea of a moral law that is eternal, unchanging, and universal, being limited in neither time nor space. Unlike the religions of the Bible, the moral law is not thought of as the will of a personal deity, but as uncreated and changeless. It is part of the immutable order of the universe.\u201d37 The \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a034 Trautmann, India, 42-47, 103.\t \u00a035 Ibid., 48-54.\t \u00a036 Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 8-31.\t \u00a037 Trautmann, India, p.115.\t \u00a0  14\t \u00a0positing of a universal and immutable moral law places authority outside of the Buddha\u2019s spoken word, into the arena of direct experience.  The Buddha spoke out against religion based on authority, such as the Vedic religion of the priestly brahmin class, and instead emphasized self-reliance and experiential testing of teachings. The following translation by Peter Harvey of a quote from the Buddha is worth representing here, because it is directly relevant to understanding how Buddhist teachings developed into a flexible and interpretive religion, rather than one based on authority:  \u201c\u2026you should not go along with something because of what you have been told, because of authority, because of tradition, because of accordance with a transmitted text, on the grounds of reason, on the grounds of logic, because of analytic thought, because of abstract theoretic pondering, because of the appearance of the speaker, or because some ascetic is your teacher. When you know for yourselves that particular qualities are unwholesome, blameworthy, censured by the wise, and lead to harm and suffering when taken on and pursued, then you should give them up.\u201d (An Introduction to Buddhism, 30-31) With this emphasis on the testability of the truth of teachings in human experience, the Buddha likened his (and all) teachings to a raft, giving us the now famous analogy of using the teachings as an expedient for reaching the other shore, upon which the raft is discarded. If this quote can indeed be traced back to the Buddha, then the Buddhist teachings have from their inception contained an anti-authoritative element that works against declarations of strict orthodoxy. The Buddhist teachings did develop a large body of monastic codes (Skt. vinaya), which prescribe normative behaviors for the Buddhist community of monks and nuns (Skt. sa\u1e43gha). Nonetheless, this body of codes has no single text that can be considered more authoritative than others, since competing schools in Indian Buddhism each devised their own codes, based on an interpretation of the core Buddhist teachings and the moral precepts left by the Buddha.38 Even in these written monastic codes, there is a tendency for rules to show more concern for the contexts and conditions in which eating \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a038 Heirman, \u201cVinaya from India to China,\u201d 167.\t \u00a0  15\t \u00a0is permitted, rather than stipulating precisely which foods may or may not be eaten.39 To some extent, Buddhist communities have always recognized the need to adapt behavioral codes to local circumstances.  In the course of its long history of development and spread, Buddhism acquired devotional aspects, magical practices, belief in deities, and other features that confound attempts to characterize it as a singular religion with a definitive corpus of sacred texts. Buddhist texts are many and varied, not easily conforming to normative ideas on what is more or less important. Rather than being authoritative, a large portion of Buddhist texts must be considered interpretive in nature, since they are redactions and commentary on previous works. The varied structure of written Buddhist teachings has resulted in Buddhist practice resting less on definitive textual authority than on interpreting communities\u2013\u2013communities that chose to emphasize and implement a particular interpretation. For this reason, discussions of Buddhism morality need to be situated in particular historical contexts.  It is possible, still, to apply a retrospective gaze from a particular point in history, as I do in this study. Here, that retrospective perspective comes from tenth-century medieval China and looks back at the Indian and early Chinese sources.  Sources and methods  My research here takes as a point of departure the Shishi liutie \u91cb\u6c0f\u516d\u5e16, a Buddhist encyclopedia compiled by the monk Yichu in tenth-century China during a time of warfare and political disunity (see Chapter Two for details on Yichu and his work). Modeled on Chinese encyclopedias that sought to bring together citations from classical literature on all aspects of human knowledge, this encyclopedia includes an entire chapter on food-related themes, citing the Chinese Buddhist literature of the time, which included many works of Indian Buddhism translated into Chinese, in addition to works composed in China. The result is a kind of literature review, frozen in time, on what an \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a039 See, for example, Ulrich, \u201cFood Fights,\u201d 242.\t \u00a0  16\t \u00a0educated tenth-century Chinese Buddhist viewed as significant statements on Buddhist attitudes toward food.  Translating and analyzing a set of fifty-seven topics on food (shi), I found that Yichu did not highlight Buddhist strictures on meat-eating, but instead hovered around a number of other themes, especially the role of karma (moral causation) in eating and the importance of cultivating equanimity, moderation, and generosity. For Yichu, who lived during a time of political volatility and the tragedies of warfare, the question of whether or not one subscribed to the Chinese Buddhist practice of vegetarianism was not a central issue. He emphasized not what a Buddhist may or may not eat, but rather how a Buddhist should eat. More central than vegetarianism is the problem of attitude.   Buddhist rejection of ritual purity and social construction of in-groups  One entry on food in the Shishi liutie underlines the Buddhist rejection of Brahmanism\u2019s categories of ritual cleanliness and pollution, casting the attempt to ascribe purity and impurity to foods in the world as a futile project destined for eventual failure:  Foods are unclean. The [Dazhidu] lun40 says, There was a brahmin who cultivated the dharma of joy and purity. Something came up and he had to go to an unclean country. While thinking about pure food, he saw an old woman come along, selling marrow breads. She came day after day to sell them. After eating some, the brahmin suddenly found them flavorless, so he asked the woman, saying, \u201cWhy haven\u2019t they any flavor?\u201d The woman replied, \u201cMy lord suffers ulcers on her genitals, so I regularly take buttered flour to stick together medicine and cover [the ulcers]. Taking it off, I mix it with strong-flavored wine and sell it as marrow breads. Now the ulcers have healed and I haven\u2019t the ulcer-soaked flour. These have only oil.\u201d The brahmin upon hearing this was retching without end and very nearly wishing he would die (#35).41  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a040 T25 n1509, 231c09-22. For the Chinese text and for notes on passages from Yichu's presentation on the topic of shi, see the full set of translations in Appendix 5. I have numbered the entries for ease in locating them.\t \u00a041 E.g., this is Appendix 5, entry number 35. \t \u00a0  17\t \u00a0While some foods\u2013\u2013as this hapless brahmin discovered\u2013\u2013are very unclean, Chinese Buddhists held that all foods are intrinsically unclean to some degree. Yichu cites an \"Essential Collection\" (Yaoji) holding this view: \u201c\u2026in the place from which the food comes, there is much filth and little food, so it inherently becomes unclean (#15). Another source helps clarify the position:  Reckoning for [just] one begging bowl of rice, if we collect together and measure the sweat of the farmer who made [it], [we would find that] the food is less than the sweat. This food\u2019s measure of exertion and its toil being like this, it becomes impure as soon as it enters the mouth and reaches the belly\u201d (#26).  Yichu comments, \u201cTo not arrive at gluttony, it is necessary to hold this view.\u201d The Buddhist emphasis on attitude also comes through in a humorous anecdote that pokes fun at overly literal Buddhists, whose rule following and social construction of in-groups and out-groups is taken too far: A bhik\u1e63u was walking with a non-Buddhist and noticed his fruit tree. The non-Buddhist invited him to climb up and take some fruit. The bhik\u1e63u replied, \u201cThe Buddhist teachings do not permit climbing of trees.\u201d The non-Buddhist climbed up and brought [some fruit down] to the ground, but the bhik\u1e63u would not take it. The non-Buddhist asked why. The bhik\u1e63u said, \u201cThe Buddha directed that, should we receive too much from outside Buddhism, we will give rise to belief and submit.\u201d (#17). The monk here is overly anxious about his interactions with the non-Buddhist layperson and is unable to enjoy some sincerely offered fruit. Yichu clarifies his interpretation of the passage by titling it, \u201cTo eat fruits, you must receive them,\u201d and by stating \u201ca Buddhist monk receives fruit but distances himself from his denigrators.\u201d Here, the non-Buddhist is not threatening or denigrating the Buddhist, so his designation as a non-Buddhist (waidao \u5916\u9053, \u201coutside the Path\u201d) merely denotes that he has not joined the Buddhist Path\u2013\u2013he has not taken refuge (guiyi \u6b78\u4f9d) in the Buddhist teachings.  These few examples help demonstrate the reluctance of Buddhists to view themselves as hermetically distinct from other groups, as morally superior due to   18\t \u00a0adherence to norms of ritual purity. Instead of apologetics in defense of Buddhist vegetarianism, we find in the Shishi liutie a practical humility: foods are by nature impure, so we are all alike in our need to cope with the problem of how to eat wisely.  Skillful attitude as a Buddhist solution  Citations on food in the Shishi liutie suggest that Buddhists recognized ethical dilemmas associated with eating, but did not call for a strict set of proscriptions.42 Rejecting the view that Buddhists should refuse food from non-Buddhists or arbitrarily divide the edible world into ritually pure and polluting foods (as the above brahmin did), the citations instead point in the direction of exploring the nature of eating, understanding its benefits and dangers, and identifying some of the better practices of eating. They suggest that Buddhists saw eating as an activity fraught with the dangers of excessive desire but navigable with the proper tools. Here, ignorance in practice results in clumsiness and wisdom in practice results in skill. Through Buddhist wisdom, one can learn to eat with skill.  I am arguing here that the Buddhist moral frame for eating is one of skill, which warrants some clarification. This notion of skill is both embodied in the practice of eating and also attitudinal. One could argue, as some have done for Buddhist ethics generally, that its features constitute a form of virtue ethics due to celebration of a set of virtues and the suggestion that high levels of skill in eating align with high levels of spiritual accomplishment displayed in the lives of Buddhist exemplars: buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other adepts. Another influential interpretation holds that Buddhist ethics combine elements that compare well with not only virtue ethics, but also Kantian ethics (deontology) and Utilitarianism.43 Rather than belaboring these comparisons, however, I will use the space here to substantiate the claim that Buddhists framed the morality of eating as a matter of skill.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a042 Monastic codes did set many proscriptions for communities of tonsured Buddhists, but these were based on interpretation of core teachings, and were adapted to different social contexts. There was no absolute authority on the specifics of what could or could not be eaten.\t \u00a043 Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 265. See also Keown, Nature of Buddhist Ethics, 119-128.\t \u00a0  19\t \u00a0Morality as a problem of skill  That Buddhist morality as a whole entails a notion of skill is well attested in the literature on Buddhism,44  albeit with some scholars quibbling over the choice of wording.45 This notion of skill derives from the structure of Buddhist teachings on moral action. Acting out of a blameless and morally healthy state of mind, or acting in a way that uplifts one toward such a mental state, is described as ku\u015bala (Ch. shan \u5584): wholesome, good, virtuous, or meritorious. Such an action is skillful in the sense that it is informed by wisdom and leads to karmic benefits, sending the actor along a path toward a brighter future. Actions that do the opposite are aku\u015bala (Ch. bushan \u4e0d\u5584): unwholesome or lacking in virtue.46  In Yichu's Buddhist encyclopedia, this topic appears in the table of contents (see Appendix 4): (3.10) Conditioned phenomena and the Dharma of mind. Skillful [behaviors] have four [types]: belief, delight, affection, and mindfulness. Unskillful [behaviors] have seven [types]: wickedness, poison (i.e., hindrances), anger, delusion, pride, perverse views, and the five heinous crimes [plus stinginess, greed, and jealousy]. \u8af8\u2f8f\u884c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u6cd5\u2f17\u5341 \u5584\u6709\u56db\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u4fe1\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u6a02\uff0c\u4e09\u611b\uff0c\u56db\u5ff5\u3002\ufe12\u60aa\u6709\u4e03\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u60aa\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u6bd2\uff0c\u4e09\u55d4\uff0c\u56db\u7661\uff0c\u4e94\u6162\uff0c\u516d\u90aa\u2f92\u898b\uff0c\u4e03\u4e94\u9006\u3002\ufe12[\u516b\u6173\uff0c\u4e5d\u8caa\uff0c\u2f17\u5341\u5ac9\u5992\u3002\ufe12]47 Buddhist morality emphasizes the state of mind producing an action, rather than focusing on the action itself. Buddhists treat intentions and attitudes as actions of moral significance because they reflect the moral status of the individual, even before they lead to physical acts. The skill of enacting moral behaviors has levels, with those less capable of applying to individual circumstances a complex moral calculus following, instead, sets of rules (precepts and monastic codes) established on the basis of the main teachings.48  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a044 Cousins, \u201cGood or Skilful? Kusala in Canon and Commentary;\u201d Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 265; Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics, 42-43; Clayton, Moral theory in \u015aantideva's \u015aik\u1e63\u0101samuccaya, 67-69.\t \u00a045 Keown, Nature of Buddhist Ethics, 119-120. Cf., Buswell and Lopez, Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, 456-457.\t \u00a046 Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 265; Keown, Nature of Buddhist Ethics, 119-120.\t \u00a047 Yanagida and Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan 6:2, 7, 54.\t \u00a048 Prasad, \u201cEthics in Buddhist Philosophical Literature,\u201d 227-228.\t \u00a0  20\t \u00a0As Susanne Mrozik has argued, 49  Buddhist ethics also contains a physical dimension that leaves marks of virtue in the bodies of practitioners. Though many studies of Buddhist morality emphasize cognitive elements, the focus on mental categories does not exclude consideration of physiological outcomes. To apply a Cartesian separation of body and mind to Buddhist ethics would greatly distort what is in fact a nuanced and holistic treatment of morality in human experience.  It is to these moral frames of reference\u2013\u2013and not to a concern with moral vegetarianism\u2013\u2013that Yichu draws attention in his Buddhist encyclopedia. The view of eating as a skilled activity becomes apparent when comparing lists of benefits coming from good practices with statements pointing to the harms of bad practices. For example, we read in Yichu's presentation on the topic of food how \u201cfood is fundamentally to sustain the body\u201d (#13) and how the Buddhist practice of fasting after the midday meal is for both psychological and physiological wellbeing, having benefits that include improving sleep, concentrating the mind, reducing flatulence, and maintaining a body that is at ease and free of illness (#14). Documenting deleterious practices, Chinese Buddhists enumerated the harms of overeating: much stool, much urine, troubled sleep, a heavy body, and many ailments and indigestion (#43). Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie is not unique in framing the morality of Buddhist approaches toward eating as a matter of skill (or an activity divisible into \u2018wholesome\u2019 and \u2018unwholesome\u2019 approaches). Later Buddhist encyclopedias from the Song and Ming dynasties also suggest that medieval Chinese Buddhists applied this moral frame to the problem of eating. For example, two such encyclopedias list reasons why Buddhists accept the need to eat\u2013\u2013and not engage in extended fasts, in the manner of some Daoist groups. The reasons are these: 1) Benefiting the body is the Path; 2) Nourishing the worms of the body [is necessary for health]; 3) [Accepting food offerings helps] almsgivers give rise to merit; and 4) [Buddhist acceptance of the need to eat] destroys the fasting practices of non-Buddhists.50  Here the distinction made between Buddhist and non-Buddhist eating practices suggests apologetics relative to Daoists\u2013\u2013i.e., the construction of Buddhist identity \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a049 Mrozik, Virtuous Bodies, 3-6, 114-117.\t \u00a0  21\t \u00a0vis-\u00e0-vis an \u2018other\u2019\u2013\u2013but the objection made is that Daoists misuse the opportunities present in eating and adopt practices that are morally and physically harmful. This example shows how Buddhist approaches to eating carried forward a coherent moral logic even when Chinese Buddhists were adapting to new social contexts and responding to the practices of other groups.   Meat-eating monks  Even after the Chinese Buddhist community had widely adopted vegetarianism as a standard component of monastic discipline, accounts of meat-eating monks persist in Buddhist records. These narratives can be read as an antinomian element in the history of Chinese Buddhism, but they also serve as potent statements in the politics of public relations. Not all monks saw vegetarianism as a necessary Buddhist practice, so Buddhists needed to frame the narratives in a way that defended their religion from the critique of hypocrisy. The way that Buddhists did so is by highlighting attitudinal skill. This produces an explanation that is defensible in light of scriptural sources and effective in clearing social blame from these non-conformers. John Kieschnick, who documented and analyzed many such cases appearing in biographies of eminent monks, invokes the cross-cultural archetype of the \u2018trickster\u2019 to explain the tension in Buddhist literature between celebrating monks who strictly adhere to monastic disciplines and celebrating those who openly transgress the same rules by eating meat and sometimes even drinking wine (which is subject to a more explicit prohibition in Buddhism).51 In one vivid example, we read of a well-respected monk who regularly partook of wine and meat, inadvertently influencing a group of monks to model their own behavior on his. After warning them against adopting unorthodox practices before abiding in a state of pure mind (attained through Buddhist discipline and learning), he prepared some bread and took this group of monks to a graveyard. He filled his bread with rotten meat from an abandoned corpse and \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a050 Under Sili xushi \u56db\u5229\u9808\u98df in the Shishi yaolan and Daming sanzang fashu. See Yiru, Daming sanzang fashu, 216-217.\t \u00a051 Eminent Monk, 51-66.\t \u00a0  22\t \u00a0swallowed it with an expression of pleasure, warning his retching companions that they should avoid meat until they are able to digest even such meat from a rotting corpse. The biographer, Zanning \u8d0a\u5be7 (919-1001), explains this case by acknowledging that those with high spiritual attainment may resort to unorthodox means of teaching, as this monk did, but that this should not be imitated by those who have not yet attained fruition on the Path.52 Chinese Buddhists tolerated the image of transgressing monks in order to focus attention on the transcendence of dualistic ideas about pleasure and pain, gain and loss\u2013\u2013and to defend their monastic communities against critiques on their moral character.53 In Chinese society, depictions of meat-eating monks were tolerable only to the extent that apparent shortcomings in the virtue of compassion could be counterbalanced with a demonstration of wisdom capable of framing the (now) unorthodox behavior of meat-eating as an example of skillful means (Skt. up\u0101yakau\u015balya, Ch. fangbian shanqiao \u2f45\u65b9\u4fbf\u5584\u5de7), an extraordinarily skillful method used by the enlightened to teach Buddhist wisdom.  Meat foods are a locus of heightened moral concern in the history of Buddhist thought, despite the unevenness of rules about meat-eating in the various monastic codes.54 But to weigh too heavily on meat as a taboo food is to miss the distinction between interpretive struggles over meat eating in the social history of Chinese Buddhism and general moral frames for eating in Buddhist teachings. It is to the latter that Yichu draws attention under the topic of food in his Buddhist encyclopedia.  For example, the Shishi liutie presents eating of any food as a grave matter on par with not just meat-eating, but even cannibalism: \u201cThink of the provenance of food. \u2026As if eating the flesh of your son, think of the almsgivers\u2019 great hardships, accumulating and collecting property. As if slicing off skin and flesh, he gives it to me as alms\u201d (#28). The trope of cannibalism draws attention to the general suffering of householders who work hard to accumulate wealth. The Buddhist recipient of alms must not take for granted the gifts that sustain them. The trope of cannibalizing one\u2019s own child, which invokes an extreme situation about which no one can feel unmoved, appears also in a \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a052 Kieschnick, Eminent Monk, 57-58.\t \u00a053 Kieschnick, Eminent Monk, 62-63.\t \u00a0  23\t \u00a0citation calling for a balanced attitude in eating: \u201cWhen practitioners eat, they should not be greedy about amounts, should not fuss over much or little, should not be fond of flavors\u2013\u2013as if eating the meat of one\u2019s child\u2026they should give rise to remorse\u201d (#8). As we saw earlier, Yichu suggests that eating is fundamentally to sustain the body and is not to be engaged as a hedonistic pursuit.  In light of these citations from the Buddhist literature, even the corpse-eating monk shows some consistency with core teachings on maintaining an attitude of equanimity and humble appreciation for food offerings. What seem like moral aberrations in the Chinese Buddhist records can be explained on the basis of moral frames that emphasize attitudinal skill.  Buddhist antinomianism can be read as a defense of flexibility in eating, connected with the Indian Buddhist idea that monks and nuns should beg for their food. In China, however, begging practices never gained widespread acceptance and in place of begging rounds Chinese monastics came to rely on food donations made directly to monasteries, where food was prepared and consumed by the cloistered community. This shift in food practice also entailed a shift of emphasis in the virtues associated with proper attitude in eating. In short, social history is important for understanding how Buddhist values evolved in China. We cannot easily identify core Buddhist teachings on food unless we understand their history of change (my topic in Chapter One).   Vegetarianism revisited  The doctrine of non-harm (ahi\u1e43s\u0101) toward food animals, often cited as the basis for Buddhist vegetarianism, fits within a larger moral framework for eating that called for a skillful moral attitude grounded in generosity and compassion. Buddhist vegetarianism was not based on an authoritative pronouncement or even on the example of the Buddha himself, but was based on interpretation of the requirement to skillfully apply Buddhist wisdom in choosing what and how to eat.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a054 Kieschnick, Eminent Monk, 23-24.\t \u00a0  24\t \u00a0For lay Buddhists in China, who were not formally required to give up the eating of meat (though many did), the beginning of a meal was a time to orient attitude toward values held dear to Buddhists: \u201cWhen first wanting to eat, one should recite some thoughts. The first spoonful must cut off all evils, the second must cultivate all good, and the good roots cultivated by a third spoonful must be turned around and given to all sentient beings as a universal offering for achieving buddhahood\u201d (#55). This mental orientation toward the cultivation of goodness is the enduring flavor of a Buddhist morality of eating. Attitudinal skill is the very basis of nourishment, which Buddhist teachings depict in somatic terms that are inclusive of mind and body as a non-Cartesian, integrated whole. I turn now to brief discussion of the component chapters that elaborate on the ideas set out in this introduction.  Overview of chapters  This study is divided into two parts. Part I contains three chapters that discuss the historical context and substance of Yichu\u2019s statements on food. Part II consists of two case studies selected from amongst the themes from the analysis in Part I, developed in greater detail with the help of additional sources. These five chapters are on social history, textual genre, analysis of themes, Buddhist theories of nourishment, and the Buddhist celebration of a particular food\u2013\u2013in that order.  Chapter One is a meta-historical analysis of the shifting social environment of Chinese (and Indian) Buddism, showing how this social environment created a discourse on vegetarian diet that transcended Buddhism. I challenge the conventional narrative that Indian Buddhists were the main agents promoting a vegetarian diet in China. Building on previous research,55 I discuss how Chinese monastics came under increasing pressure from lay Buddhists and non-Buddhists to give up meat eating. This development can be traced back to a chain of events in Indian society: the promotion of a meatless diet by brahmins as devotional Hinduism emerged from Vedic roots, a reconfiguration of Buddhist teachings in new Mah\u0101y\u0101na scriptures, and a repositioning \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a055 E.g., Mather, \u201cBonze\u2019s Begging Bowl;\u201d Kieschnick, \u201cBuddhist Vegetarianism in China;\u201d Kieschnick, Eminent Monk, 22-28, 61-62.\t \u00a0  25\t \u00a0by Mah\u0101y\u0101na proponents in India regarding the meat issue (apparently in response to brahmin ideas about ritual purity). In China, Mah\u0101y\u0101na teachings, which portray meat-eating as inconsistent with the ideal of a compassionate bodhisattva, resonated with other intellectual elements of Chinese thought. Buddhists did come to embrace Mah\u0101y\u0101na teachings, widely adopting and promoting a vegetarian diet, but lack of a clear historical basis in many earlier Indian Buddhist writings meant that the corpus of Chinese translations of Indian Buddhist scriptures was inconsistent on this point. The issue remained open to interpretation for much of the history of Chinese Buddhism leading up to Yichu\u2019s scholarly Buddhism of the tenth century. In the Song period, when Yichu\u2019s encyclopedia of Buddhist knowledge was in circulation, extant recipe collections show that the vegetarian ideal in Buddhism was just one of several moral discourses promoting the virtues of a plant-based diet. Daoist and Confucian influences had a larger role than is often admitted.  Chapter Two deals with the genre to which Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie might belong. As an extra-canonical work, it is not currently classified under a heading in the commonly circulating Buddhist canons, though at least one editor included it in a collection of lexical works. Several features of the Shishi liutie suggest that it was modeled on the non-Buddhist genre of encyclopedic compilations, leishu. I argue that it is in fact meant to serve as an encyclopedia of Buddhist knowledge, and that Yichu meant to pitch it to an audience of non-specialists outside of cloistered Buddhist circles. This approach has implications for how we read the entries in his compilation, which I explain in detail.  Chapter Three provides a thorough analysis of the material that Yichu presents under the topic of food \u98df in his Shishi liutie. I organize the material according to emergent themes: kinds of food, intrinsic properties of food, ritualized eating, the Middle Way of eating, karma and merit, and food narratives. Although placed in the middle of my study, this analysis informs the entire study. Expecting to read about vegetarianism, I was surprised to find that Yichu did not cite this as a major theme. The discovery that vegetarianism was conspicuously underrepresented led me to question whether the conventional approach to food and religion\u2013\u2013a sociological method that views food strictures as a tool of identity construction\u2013\u2013might be leading to a distortion of our understanding of the centrality of vegetarianism in Chinese Buddhist food   26\t \u00a0history. The themes developed in this chapter pointed me toward a different interpretation of how Chinese Buddhists may have understood their creed\u2019s teachings on food.  Chapter Four outlines a Buddhist theory of nourishment, the doctrine of Four Foods. Buddhism posits four main types of food. According to a Buddhist origin story, heavenly beings sustained by joy-in-meditation learned to partake of food from the newly formed earth, and gradually transformed from subtle beings to coarse-bodied beings reliant on material food for life. This material food is called \u201cmorsel food,\u201d because it is material and divisible into lumped portions. The human world exists in the desire realm (Skt. k\u0101ma-dhatu, Ch. yujie \u6b32\u754c), where three other foods provide nourishment: sensory food, thought food, and consciousness food. Sensory food refers to the nourishing aspect of positive sensation, registered through the sense faculties when one enjoys such things as soft clothing, fragrant flowers, and parasols to block the harsh sun. Thought food refers to all cognitive activity, whether in response to external stimuli or imagined internally; it nourishes on the basis of the intentions behind the thoughts, through the action of moral causality (karma). Lastly, consciousness food is understood as perceptual awareness\u2013\u2013all things known to the mind, coming from the sense faculties and bound together by a sense of unified consciousness. This last forms the basis for a self-concept, albeit with Buddhists understanding that this self-concept is an aggregate of sensation and thought and lacks a permanent basis. All of the Four Foods have a role in nourishing humans at different levels, but because they are ultimately grounded in craving (Skt. t\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e47\u0101, \u201cthirst\u201d), each must be managed with care to achieve balance between extremes: fasting\u2013gluttony, asceticism\u2013hedonism, scruples\u2013recklessness, and poor self esteem\u2013bold arrogance. The skill of morality is thus in achieving the balanced mean.  The doctrine of Four Foods illustrates why a Buddhist morality of eating does not center on the question of what to eat, but also entails a careful consideration of how to eat. Attitude, understood as mental states derived from intentionality, is morally active. The eating of morsel food, whether of plant or animal origin, only nourishes the body. How and with what intentions one eats has a direct impact on one\u2019s moral status in Yichu\u2019s Buddhism, so meat-eating needs a larger context before it becomes problematic.    27\t \u00a0Chapter Five, the final chapter, returns attention to \u2018morsel\u2019 food and explores a food raised up to special status in Buddhism: rice porridge. The special status of porridge originates with the story of Buddha\u2019s full awakening under the bodhi tree, in which he is said to have regained his strength after accepting gifts of rice cooked in milk from a young woman of the nearby village. His body revitalized, he regained his resolve to achieve awakening and meditated under the tree until he became a buddha, a fully awakened being. I argue that although historical narratives have a central role in raising porridge to special status, the choice of porridge is not arbitrary, having a basis in observations made about the physiological benefits of this water-rich, easily digested food. It is the qualities of the food itself that justify for Buddhists the ongoing celebration of porridge. Porridge came to epitomize, in Buddhism, a skillful approach to the eating of morsel food. It came to symbolize the Middle Way between asceticism and hedonism in eating, and serves as an ideal food for the Buddhist laity to offer tonsured monks and nuns. The longstanding Buddhist celebration of porridge is closely associated with a set of ten purported benefits from porridge. I show how the list of ten benefits combines two lists of five: a set of karmic benefits gained from presenting food offerings to the Buddhist community of monks and nuns (moral causality), and a traditional list from the Pali Buddhist literature enumerating physiological benefits associated with the direct eating of porridge. As a beneficial food, porridge mirrored its virtues through moral causation when gifted, giving both sets of benefits to monastics and laity. The image of porridge as a simple yet beneficial food gave Buddhists a model for how even morsel food can be used with skill, serving cloistered Buddhists and laity alike. It is no accident that the offering of food figures so prominently in the Buddhist celebration of porridge, because skillful use of food, for Buddhists, should involve a generous and compassionate attitude of helping others to thrive\u2013\u2013the function of moral causation is linked with any physiological benefits that might derive from the food itself.  The Buddhist approach to eating suggested by Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie is thus skillful in an integral way, combining the attitudinal skill of morality with the enactment of good body practices. This approach to eating is not just an arbitrary set of relations\u2013\u2013a culturally constructed symbolic system\u2013\u2013but rather constitutes a body of knowledge. It references not just Buddhist doctrine, but also understandings of how the world and our   28\t \u00a0human physiology (including mental phenomena) function. In Yichu\u2019s Buddhism, we can glimpse an aspiration for Buddhist knowledge to encompass the totality of what it means to be human and to thrive. This body of knowledge incorporates elements that we might today divide between religion and science as separate spheres of knowledge with distinct epistemologies, but here mind and body are not strictly dualistic. To what degree Yichu\u2019s Buddhist peers shared this understanding of Buddhist teachings on food is open for debate.    29\t \u00a0           Part I  Eating in Medieval Chinese Buddhism and Yichu's Shishi liutie                30\t \u00a01. Historicizing Chinese Buddhist Attitudes Toward Food  1.1 Opening a vegetarian can of worms  How did historical processes shape Chinese Buddhist ideas about food? This chapter will revisit what we know about the origins of Buddhist vegetarianism and then apply this to food writings from the Song-dynasty, when Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie was in print. A diachronic view provides a corrective lens for the synchronic view that posits Buddhism as a symbolic system using vegetarianism as a marker of identity. Social distinction is not, on its own, sufficient explanation for Buddhist ideas about food, but in a macro-history of vegetarianism, social factors are centrally important. Other relevant factors include the diffusion of ideas cross-culturally, ecological and economic concerns, and a widening interest in documenting knowledge on the practical efficacies of foodstuffs. This chapter challenges the view that vegetarianism was a natural feature of Buddhism. I argue that Buddhist vegetarianism is best understood as a cultural innovation with Buddhist and non-Buddhist influences. It was a supplement to Buddhist teachings that was appended under social pressures from outside the sa\u1e43gha in both India and China, and was not native to pre-Mah\u0101y\u0101na Buddhist teachings. It was contrived as an ingenious patch to meet changing social needs in India.  Vegetarianism is represented irregularly in the extant Chinese Buddhist canon. Examining early Chinese Buddhist sources points toward meaningful links between Daoist, Confucian, and Buddhist ideas. Daoist writings on the efficacies of food materials stimulated formation of a broad knowledge base on eating in China that did not differentiate physiological and moral causality (i.e., science and religion), promoting the idea that experimental diets could potentially lead to moral transformation, with the associated benefits of long life or immortality. Mah\u0101y\u0101na calls for Buddhists to adopt a full vegetarian diet resonated with existing Chinese ideas, stimulating both harmony and   31\t \u00a0dissonance.56 Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism is misunderstood when not viewed in the context of a broader cultural phenomenon. My approach here holds several implications. Methodologically, a focus on vegetarianism in Chinese Buddhist attitudes toward diet can probe the strengths and limitations of a relational approach for understanding the place of food in religion. Understanding how ideas about food took shape in Buddhism through a process of interaction with particular social circumstances can actually lead us back to my main thesis that Buddhist ideas about food fit under a rubric of skill. We can affirm that vegetarianism came to be associated with Buddhist identity in China while avoiding the view that vegetarianism was from the time of its introduction a natural feature of Chinese Buddhist identity. Because vegetarianism is a product, initially, of social negotiation between lay sponsors and the sa\u1e43gha, it is best understood from the lens of social relationships. In support of my introductory remarks, where I argued in favor of a skill-based model for understanding Chinese Buddhist attitudes toward food, here I want to show how an investigation of vegetarianism does indeed entail analysis of social relations, and even reveals beliefs in ritual purity that map onto a model of sacred and profane foods. The historical record does contain evidence of such views in association with vegetarianism. But in providing this historical overview, I can also suggest why Yichu, a tonsured Buddhist, did not highlight vegetarianism when compiling a set of Buddhist teachings on the topic of food \u98df.  The commonly held view that vegetarianism diffused into China as a package along with Indian Buddhism is only partly true and needs qualification. Vegetarianism is not doctrinally intrinsic to Buddhism, as often assumed, but is a cultural innovation with Buddhist and non-Buddhist components. Yichu reveals this discrepancy in the way he frames the topic of food in the Shishi liutie. In the macro-historical view of this chapter, Buddhists found doctrinal justifications for vegetarianism after recognizing the need to cater to new social discourses that vilified the moral status of meat-eating. In India and in China, vegetarianism took shape through a process of social negotiation involving problems of class.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a056 Buddhist rejection of Daoist grain avoidance is an example of the latter.\t \u00a0  32\t \u00a0Recognizing that relational concerns were imposing pressures from outside the Buddhist community, we can better appreciate how Buddhist teachings on food represent different responses to social contest. Buddhist vegetarianism emerged as a provisional innovation, a solution to social critiques. The case of vegetarianism illustrates how Buddhists took an active role in interpreting for local circumstances what amounts to a provisional body of knowledge. For an innovation like vegetarianism to succeed in the body of Buddhist teachings, its coherence had to be supported with ample justifications. Even when grafted onto other compelling teachings, the Chinese sa\u1e43gha still needed pressure from secular society before accepting vegetarianism as a norm. Proponents of vegetarianism needed to demonstrate that it was more skillful than alternatives, which required both doctrinal justifications and practical considerations regarding the close relationship between the sa\u1e43gha and the laity. Because the sa\u1e43gha relies on the laity for its material needs, it could not determine monastic food practices without considering social demands coming from lay society.  In the course of translating Indian Buddhist scriptures and negotiating which views to celebrate above others, Chinese Buddhists found ambiguity in the available approaches to food. The ambiguity led to formation of a longstanding tension between moderate antinomianism and strict food rules. Both approaches have textual support. I will revisit aspects of the history of Buddhist vegetarianism in order to lay bare the processes of social negotiation, transmission, and acculturation that led to this ambiguity. Ambiguity in regard to food helped Buddhist actors in Chinese history to play their teachings in the direction of social distinction or commonality based on need. The alterity of in-group, out-group politics is a two-edged sword that was contrary to the inclusive spirit of Buddhist teachings and could alienate Buddhists from secular allies. We should not assume that social distinction through diet was always desirable or necessary.  Buddhist teachings served as a variable base of identity in Chinese society of different periods, and action on whether or not to strengthen this identity through food strictures has not been uniform. Vegetarianism should not be seen as a discourse native to Buddhism, but as a discourse that resonated with ideas about food already present in Chinese society. Cross-culturally, Buddhism has generally followed local food practices.   33\t \u00a0The case of Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism is cited as differing from this pattern: Indian Buddhist vegetarianism went against the grain of meat-loving society in China but nonetheless triumphed as an ethical ideal. That this model departs from the general pattern of accommodation to local practices should be cause enough to question its accuracy.  1.2 Vegetarianism as a red herring in Buddhist food history  It is not true, Mah\u0101mati, that meat is proper food and permissible for the \u015ar\u0101vaka when [the victim] was not killed by himself, when he did not order others to kill it, when it was not specially meant for him. \u2026Thus, Mah\u0101mati, meat-eating I have not permitted to anyone, I do not permit, I will not permit. Meat-eating, I tell you, Mah\u0101mati, is not proper for homeless monks.   \u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra s\u016btra57 (translated to Chinese in 443)  The five pure [conditions] for meat eating. The Shoulengyan jing says that the Buddha told \u0100nanda, \u201cI permitted eating of five kinds of pure meat due to the land of the brahmins being mostly low in moisture and having a scarcity of the various vegetables.\u201d The Buddha made open to bhik\u1e63us five kinds of pure meat, birds that had died on their own, and lowly [critters]. \u2f81\u8089\u98df\u4e94\u6de8 \u695e\u56b4\u7d93\u4e91: \u4f5b\u544a\u963f\u96e3: \u300c\u6211\u8a31\u98df\u4e94\u7a2e\u6de8\u2f81\u8089\uff0c\u4ee5\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u5730\u591a\u5351\u6fd5\uff0c\u5c11\u8af8\u83dc\u852c\u3002\ufe12\u300d \u4f5b\u70ba\u6bd4\u4e18\u958b\u4e94\u7a2e\u6de8\u2f81\u8089\u3001\ufe11\u2f83\u81ea\u6b7b\u2fc3\u9ce5\u3001\ufe11\u8ce4\u7b49\u3002\ufe12 ... Permitted to eat downed meat. The Wenshu wen jing58 [says,] If you see it killed, you may not eat it, but if it is already downed [and] like wood (i.e., rigor mortis has already set in), then you may eat it, though you must recite a mantra. \u2f81\u8089\u6557\u8a31\u98df \u2f42\u6587\u6b8a\u554f\u7d93: \u2f92\u898b\u6bba\u4e0d\u98df\uff0c\u5df2\u6557\u5982\u2f4a\u6728\uff0c\u8a31\u98df\uff0c\u4ea6\u9808\u8aa6\u5492\u3002\ufe12    \u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013Yichu, Shishi liutie (10th century)59 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a057 Suzuki, trans., Lankavatara Sutra, 217, 219.\t \u00a058 Sutra of the Questions of Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b (Skt. Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b-parip\u1e5bcch\u0101), trans. to Chinese in 518. T14 n468.\t \u00a059 Yanagida and Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan, v.6:2, 336-337. These entries are found under the topic of meat \u2f81\u8089 in Yichu's food section.\t \u00a0  34\t \u00a0 A vegetarian diet is often seen as Buddhism\u2019s primary contribution to Chinese food history. The history of Buddhist attitudes toward the eating of meat is, however, no simple matter and has caused much confusion, as I discussed in my introduction. It was a point of contention among Chinese Buddhists, taking centuries to reach some consistency.  The question of vegetarianism becomes a red herring, suggesting a model of straightforward cultural diffusion that is inaccurate and which distracts attention from more central Buddhist teachings on food. How did this happen? Vegetarianism represents an ideological interpretation not just of Buddhist teachings, but also of general Chinese ideas about the power of diet to transform the whole individual, physically and morally. Buddhists became involved in contests over ritual purity, perceived in tangible terms (diet) and enacted as knowledge-building projects on the efficacy of foods in self-cultivation practices. Chinese Buddhism was not a passive recipient of Indian ideas about vegetarianism, but adopted vegetarian practices in spite of early Indian Buddhist ideas about food. In interpreting Chinese Buddhist attitudes toward food and influences on Chinese food history, it is important to first clarify several points regarding how scholars have understood Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism. Many scholars of Chinese food history tend to uncritically associate Chinese vegetarianism with Buddhism, but the Chinese historical record contains a welter of ambiguity on the issue.  John Kieschnick has elegantly summarized the history of vegetarianism\u2019s eventual adoption by Chinese Buddhist clergy, documenting how the practice became increasingly institutionalized in the centuries leading up to Song China (when the Shishi liutie was published). Lay Buddhists played a major role in this historical development. His paper makes the important point that Buddhist vegetarianism in China is not easily distinguished from a more general interest in vegetarianism in Chinese society.60 This point about the indeterminate nature of Chinese vegetarianism warrants further development, because it calls into question whether Chinese vegetarianism should be associated so strongly with Buddhism.    35\t \u00a0Directly linking Chinese vegetarianism to Buddhist morality amounts to uncritically accepting the machinations of Buddhist-vegetarian ideologues in history. Yes, vegetarian ideologues eventually won their case in Chinese Buddhism, but they did so on the basis of social discourses that transcended Buddhist justifications for vegetarian practice. Vegetarianism can be understood in the context of social history as a form of cultural knowledge\u2013\u2013a technology of eating.  The case of vegetarianism illustrates how religion in China was constituted by repertoires61 of knowledge that did not necessarily carry the marks of group identification that modern scholars often assume to be present. Ideas about eating in Chinese society acted as provisional forms of knowledge and constituted a broad discourse on how to eat to good effect.   1.3 Questioning the thesis of straightforward diffusion between India and China  In my introduction I noted that the food historian Frederick Simoons, in his well-researched study Food in China, presented vegetarianism in China as a case of cultural diffusion from India. In his later (important) study of flesh avoidance worldwide, he reiterates the same diffusion model: The first Indian Buddhist monks to arrive in China (around the beginning of the first century A.D.) were committed to ahimsa and vegetarianism. Since that time, Confucianist and Taoist views of vegetarianism have been influenced by Buddhism. The Buddhist religion, however, has remained the nation\u2019s most vigorous advocate of those practices, whether through direct action by laymen and clergy or by royal decrees.62 Simoons is not alone in suggesting the model of diffusion. The new food history of China by E. N. Anderson (an update of his earlier study) is more careful in its wording, \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a060 Kieschnick, \u201cBuddhist Vegetarianism in China,\u201d 208.\t \u00a061 Campany, \u201cOn the Very Idea of Religions,\u201d 317-318. He references the ideas of Ann Swidler.\t \u00a062 Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh, 292-293.\t \u00a0  36\t \u00a0but also intimates that vegetarianism in China can be attributed to the arrival of Buddhist teachings.63  The diffusion thesis entices with straightforward logic: Confucianism did not have a strong discourse of vegetarianism and Daoism also lacked such a discourse as a defining element, so vegetarianism must have come from the introduction of Indian Buddhism.64 This line of reasoning has some general merits, but also multiple problems. While there is no doubt that Buddhist ideas contributed a strong impetus for Chinese thinkers to explore the idea of an exclusive vegetarian diet, moral ideas about simple vegetable foods predate Buddhism\u2019s arrival. Confucian-trained scholars did discuss the moral implications of eating meat, celebrating meat-forgoing frugality as a virtuous form of modesty. And so-called Daoism was in fact multiple schools of thought with different approaches, some of which adopted vegetarian dieting.  In the epigraph at the start of this chapter are two conflicting positions on meat eating. Yichu highlighted in his tenth-century encyclopedia that the eating of meat was permitted for the sa\u1e43gha under certain conditions, despite the influential position of the La\u1e45k\u00e2vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra, translated to Chinese in the fifth-century, which forbade all meat-eating by the sa\u1e43gha.  The simultaneous co-occurrence of different positions on the issue of vegetarianism suggest that straightforward cultural diffusion from India should be rejected\u2013\u2013and indeed it has been by several scholars who have researched the history of Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism.65 Kieschnick and others have shown that Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism was negotiated over the course of centuries and was not a straightforward introduction from Indian Buddhism.66 There is no need to repeat all the arguments here, but I will run through some key points to substitute the diffusion thesis with a better model.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a063 Anderson, Food and Environment in Early and Medieval China, 135, 170, 177. His hesitancy in drawing a direct causal relationship suggests that he was aware of problems with the diffusion model.\t \u00a064 See Simoons, Food in China, 31-34.\t \u00a065 E.g., Michihata, Ch\u016bgoku bukky\u014d shis\u014dshi no kenky\u016b, 458-480; Mather, \u201cBonze\u2019s Begging Bowl\u201d; Suwa, Ch\u016bgoku ch\u016bsei bukky\u014dshi kenky\u016b; Kieschnick, \u201cBuddhist Vegetarianism in China\u201d; and Faure, Unmasking Buddhism, 118-122.\t \u00a066 Kieschnick, \u201cBuddhist Vegetarianism in China,\u201d 187-193.\t \u00a0  37\t \u00a0Let us test the assertion that Indian Buddhists entered China as committed vegetarians. Buddhist teachings entered China around the start of the Common Era.67 In 65 CE, an aristocratic ruler named Liu Ying \u5289\u82f1 who had an interest in the teachings of Huang-Lao \u2fc8\u9ec3\u2f7c\u8001 and the Buddha (futu \u6d6e\u5c60) is said to have treated a community of Buddhist monks and pious laymen to a feast.68 Buddhist historian Kenneth Ch\u2019en writes that this was a sumptuous vegetarian feast,69 but the source only tells us that the monks and laymen were treated to a sumptuous meal (shengzhuan \u76db\u994c)\u2013\u2013it may have been a vegetarian feast, but we cannot know for sure.70  Richard B. Mather observes that the institution of holding \u201cmaigre feasts\u201d (zhai \u9f4b or hui \u6703) for Buddhist communities arose gradually in China, not all at once with Buddhism\u2019s arrival. Such feasts were at first an extension of the periodic communal feasts held in the countryside to honor the earth gods.71 The institution of these communal feasts, Mather says, had been co-opted by Daoists even earlier than their adaptation by Buddhists.72 One example of such a feast associated with Buddhism occurs in the Sanguo zhi \u4e09\u570b\u5fd7, clearly indicating that animals were slaughtered and much meat and alcohol was placed out on cloth settings laid out along an avenue.73 In the historical Buddha\u2019s time, donations of food for feasting the sa\u1e43gha were not necessarily vegetarian. The early Buddhist community in China likewise appears to have \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a067 Kamata, Ch\u016bgoku bukky\u014d shi, 18-19; Z\u00fcrcher, Buddhist Conquest of China, 22-23.\t \u00a068 This is in the biography for Chu Wang Ying \u695a\u738b\u82f1, in the 42nd fascicle of the Houhan shu \u5f8c\u6f22\u66f8, pp. 1428-1429. Accessed via SS.\t \u00a069 Ch\u2019en, Buddhism in China, 33.\t \u00a070 Cf. Z\u00fcrcher, Buddhist Conquest, 27: \u201clavish entertainment.\u201d\t \u00a071 Mather, \u201cBonze\u2019s Begging Bowl,\u201d 419.\t \u00a072 Ibid.\t \u00a073 Xu, Zhongguo yinshi shi, v.3, 194. This is in fascicle 49 of the Sanguo zhi, under the biography of Liu Yao \u5289\u7e47 (156-197 CE), p. 1185 in SS: \u7b2e\u878d\u8005\uff0c\u4e39\u694a\u4eba\uff0c\u521d\u805a\u773e\u6578\u767e\uff0c\u5f80\u4f9d\u5f90\u5dde\u7267\u9676\u8b19\u3002\u8b19\u4f7f\u7763\u5ee3\u9675\u3001\u5f6d\u57ce\u904b\u6f15\uff0c\u9042\u653e\u7e31\u64c5\u6bba\uff0c \u5750\u65b7\u4e09\u90e1\u59d4\u8f38\u4ee5\u81ea\u5165\u3002\u4e43\u5927\u8d77\u6d6e\u5716\u7960\uff0c\u4ee5\u9285\u70ba\u4eba\uff0c\u9ec3\u91d1\u5857\u8eab\uff0c\u8863\u4ee5\u9326\u91c7\uff0c\u5782\u9285\u69c3\u4e5d\u91cd\uff0c\u4e0b\u70ba\u91cd\u6a13\u95a3\u9053\uff0c\u53ef\u5bb9\u4e09\u5343\u9918\u4eba\uff0c\u6089\u8ab2\u8b80\u4f5b\u7d93\uff0c\u4ee4\u754c\u5167\u53ca\u65c1\u90e1\u4eba\u6709\u597d\u4f5b\u8005\u807d\u53d7\u9053\uff0c\u5fa9\u5176\u4ed6\u5f79\u4ee5\u62db\u81f4\u4e4b\uff0c\u7531\u6b64\u9060\u8fd1\u524d\u5f8c\u81f3\u8005\u4e94\u5343\u9918\u4eba\u6236\u3002\u6bcf\u6d74\u4f5b\uff0c\u591a\u8a2d\u9152\u98ef\uff0c\u5e03\u5e2d\u65bc\u8def\uff0c\u7d93\u6578\u5341\u91cc\uff0c\u6c11\u4eba\u4f86\u89c0\u53ca\uff0c\u5c31\u98df\u4e14\u842c\u4eba\uff0c\u8cbb\u4ee5\u5de8\u5104\u8a08\u3002 \t \u00a0  38\t \u00a0conformed at first to existing practices, without insisting on vegetarian fare or abstention from alcohol.  The only other suggestion that Liu Ying may have been influenced by Buddhist ideas to modify his diet is the statement that he underwent a fast of purification (jiezhai \u6f54\u9f4b) for three months at some point, but this too gives no conclusive evidence of Buddhist vegetarian ideals. No details of the fast are provided. Purification fasts were not a new concept at the time\u2013\u2013fasting of the senses was a concept important to notions of sagehood in the Confucian tradition,74 and was likewise celebrated in the Zhuangzi and other works associated with Daoism. A search for the term jiezhai in historical texts shows that it was used in Confucian writings during the Han period.75 The term is extremely rare in Buddhist writings. The purification fast may have been an avoidance of meat, but this would have been consistent with a Confucian practice that served to demonstrate Liu Ying\u2019s humble frugality and moral worth. The view proposed by Eric Z\u00fcrcher is that Liu Ying\u2019s fasting and sacrifice are expressions of Daoist practices in vogue at the time, perhaps with Buddhist modifications.76 In any case, we have no evidence here of a foreign creed or foreign monks stimulating a new vegetarian practice. A more direct way to test the question of vegetarianism among the early Buddhists in China is to look at biographies of eminent monks. The Japanese scholar Suwa Gijun has done just this. He analyzed the Gaoseng zhuan \u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u50b3 for evidence of vegetarianism and found that after the start of the Eastern Jin in 317, a portion of biographies explicitly mention adherence to a diet of vegetable foods (shushi \u852c\u98df). For the earliest period of Buddhism\u2019s development in China, before the Eastern Jin, we lack good sources to tell us whether or not some monks opted for a vegetable-based diet.77 Nonetheless, in the period for which we have this data, we can see that excluding meat from one\u2019s diet was an act of renunciation worthy of mention in biographies, because it was not yet the norm for Chinese Buddhists.78 Terms such as shushi that appear in the \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a074 Sterckx, Food, Sacrifice, and Sagehood, 185.\t \u00a075 For example, SS shows it appearing in the Han shu.\t \u00a076 Z\u00fcrcher, Buddhist Conquest, 26-27.\t \u00a077 Suwa, Ch\u016bgoku ch\u016bsei bukky\u014dshi kenky\u016b, 46-50.\t \u00a078 See Kieschnick, Eminent Monk, 22-25.\t \u00a0  39\t \u00a0early biographies are not yet specific to a Buddhist institution of vegetarianism, but borrow Confucian and Daoist terminology to suggest avoidance of meat as a voluntary precept.  If lack of mention can be taken as evidence of a non-restricted diet, the ratio of vegetarians to meat-accepting monks is weighted heavily on the side of meat acceptance. The data for Indian monks is the same. Judging from Suwa\u2019s data from the biographies, some Indian Buddhist monks such as Gu\u1e47abhadra (394-468) did practice a vegetable-based diet, but this was an exception from the general trend. Of sixty three biographies of translator monks, only two were noted for eating a vegetable diet.79  Moreover, that Gu\u1e47abhadra\u2019s name should appear in the context of a vegetable-based diet may be more than an indication of personal initiative, for reasons that I will discuss next.  1.4 Mah\u0101y\u0101na vegetarianism   Gu\u1e47abhadra is remembered for his mastery of Mah\u0101y\u0101na teachings and produced in 443 a translation of the La\u1e45k\u00e2vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra (Ch. Lengqie abaduoluo bao jing \u695e\u4f3d\u963f\u8dcb\u591a\u7f85\u5bf6\u7d93), one of the Mah\u0101y\u0101na scriptures associated with a new Buddhist discourse calling for complete vegetarian practice among all Buddhists. Whereas early monastic codes and teachings from Indian Buddhism had permitted the eating of meat under certain conditions, several Mah\u0101y\u0101na texts translated to Chinese in the fifth century contradict the earlier works by holding an uncompromising stance on meat-eating. In addition to the La\u1e45k\u00e2vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra, other texts that espoused the new position include the Mah\u0101parinirv\u0101\u1e47a-s\u016btra (Ch. Niepan jing \u6d85\u69c3\u7d93), the A\u1e47gulim\u0101l\u012bya-s\u016btra (Ch. Yangjuemoluo jing \u592e\u6398\u6469\u7f85\u7d93), and the Scripture of Brahma\u2019s Net (Ch. Fanwang jing \u68b5\u7db2\u7d93).80 Gu\u1e47abhadra was an agent in the spread of a new ideological vegetarianism. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a079 Suwa, Ch\u016bgoku ch\u016bsei bukky\u014dshi kenky\u016b, 53.\t \u00a080 Ibid., 51.\t \u00a0  40\t \u00a0Suwa gives the date 418 as the starting point for this new discourse on Buddhist vegetarianism in China, based on its first appearance in a Chinese translated text, the Mah\u0101parinirv\u0101\u1e47a-s\u016btra. The arrival of Mah\u0101y\u0101na teachings in China was enormously important to the development of Chinese Buddhism, and by extension East Asian Buddhism as a whole. This branch of Buddhism eventually became mainstream in China, but it was a marginal movement in India.81  Both the La\u1e45k\u00e2vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra and Mah\u0101parinirv\u0101\u1e47a-s\u016btra are noted for being especially influential in espousing Buddhist vegetarianism (in this context a taboo on the eating of meat), but the way in which each of these texts does so is also noteworthy. In the case of the La\u1e45k\u00e2vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra, an eighth chapter devoted to the topic of meat-eating was appended to what the Japanese scholar Suzuki Daisetsu (\u201cDaisetz\u201d) characterizes as a text with many layers of added passages.82 The chapter aims to overrule the Buddha\u2019s previous permission regarding meat-eating.  From a modern perspective, the eighth chapter is clearly the work of a revisionist movement, using the authority of this text to put words in the mouth of the Buddha and establish an all-out ban on meat-eating among the sa\u1e43gha. According to Suzuki, the chapter \u201chas no organic connection with the text proper,\u201d though other parts of the La\u1e45k\u00e2vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra do corroborate the position against meat-eating.83 The scholar Takasaki Jikido agrees: the chapter is out of context with the sutra as a whole and is regarded as having been appended at a relatively late date in the compilation of the sutra. Even the earliest Chinese translation contains the meat taboo, however, so it is likely that the chapter is connected with the emergence of a doctrine of vegetarianism in Mah\u0101y\u0101na Buddhism.84 In explaining the presence of this material, Suzuki suggests a thesis of social distinction: there is evidence in the body of the text that other religious groups such as the Lok\u0101yatas (aka C\u0101rv\u0101kas, philosophical materialists) were commenting unfavorably on the meat-eating of the Buddhist community, leading the community of monks involved in compiling the La\u1e45k\u00e2vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra to reposition itself as adhering to a meat-avoiding creed.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a081 Schopen, Figments and Fragments, 3-24.\t \u00a082 Suzuki, Lankavatara Sutra, xlii-xlvi. Suzuki\u2019s English translation of the eighth chapter is pp. 211-222.\t \u00a083 Suzuki, Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra, 368.\t \u00a084 Takasaki, \u201cSources of the La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra and Its Position in Mah\u0101y\u0101na Buddhism,\u201d 547-548.\t \u00a0  41\t \u00a0The revisionist community mustered a number of justifications for the shift in thinking, which I will briefly recount based on Suzuki\u2019s analysis: 1) Transmigration places us in close relationship to all creatures, making meat-eating akin to eating our own children; 2) meat eating is incompatible with the great compassion of the bodhisattva; 3) meat-eating causes a stench in the body of a bodhisattva, causing fear in animals; 4) the bad example of meat-eating bodhisattvas cause people to lose faith in the Buddhist teachings; 5) meat-eating alienates a bodhisattva from the devas (deities), interfering with efforts in self-cultivation; 6) animal food is filthy; 7) meat-eaters pollute themselves spiritually, and even pollute their descendants by eating animal food; and 8), the proper food of a bodhisattva is \u201crice, barley, wheat, all kinds of beans, clarified butter, oil, honey, molasses, and sugar\u2026\u201d85  These justifications for meat-avoidance include both relational concerns and intrinsic rationale (Campany\u2019s externalist and internalist positions). We see here a belief in ritual purity and the apotropaic possibilities of a restricted diet. Somatic aspects of eating, such as bodily smells, are understood here to be morally compromising and meat-avoidance becomes not just desirable but a necessary requirement of successful spiritual cultivation. Finally, all of these justifications center on the Mah\u0101y\u0101na ideal of the bodhisattva, the Buddhist sage who delays entering nirvana in order to save other sentient beings. In short, the eighth chapter of the La\u1e45k\u00e2vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra is as much about constructing the model image of a bodhisattva as it is about setting a new standard of dietary practice for the Buddhist community. Because the bodhisattva ideal is meant to serve as an exemplary model for practitioners, the two purposes are interrelated.  The Mah\u0101parinirv\u0101\u1e47a-s\u016btra likewise has a complex textual history. Conflicting versions are extant in several languages. Scholars working on this important scripture have had difficulty dating the scripture\u2019s appearance in India, because the text is layered with older and newer portions. Shimoda Masahiro has argued that the Chinese edition can be divided into primarily three layers: one that forms a body of older, pre-Mah\u0101y\u0101na content, a second from a transitional phase, and a third that boldly states a new orientation which had begun to appear in the transitional layer of text.86 A shift in \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a085 Suzuki, Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra, 369-371.\t \u00a086 Shimoda, Nehangy\u014d no kenky\u016b, 160-162, 298-304.\t \u00a0  42\t \u00a0thinking about meat-eating is one of the features marking a transformation in the Indian social background, which resulted in the Mah\u0101parinirv\u0101\u1e47a-s\u016btra having distinct and sometimes conflicting layers.  Shimoda shows that the question of meat-eating tells us much about the social context in which the Mah\u0101y\u0101na scriptures were compiled. They demonstrate how strictures on meat eating are not integral to the early Buddhist teachings, but developed in Indian society under new social pressures regarding diet. There is not space to run through all the evidence that Shimoda discusses, but because his findings make a number of important points regarding the emergence of new attitudes toward meat eating in Indian Buddhism, I provide here, at length, a roughly paraphrased translation of his conclusions:87  The original Buddhist society accepted meat-eating. When the Buddhist community began to split into factions, some of these treated meat as a delicacy and issued apologetic statements explaining to secular society why they continued to accept it. Little by little, the number of permitted meats was restricted. Several reasons for this may be noted, but social relations pertaining to the varna caste system appears to be an important factor, especially in relation to the chandala untouchable caste. The different factions of Indian Buddhism are inconsistent in their stance on certain meats, such as dog meat and hunted meats, suggesting that the relevant materials are from a period of Buddhism\u2019s development coming somewhat later than the time of division into factions.  The notion of three types of pure meat is a related development. This notion is not simply an ethical position based on compassion, but it is, rather, closely connected with the idea that meat is unclean. Furthermore, the idea of impurity comes not from within the Buddhist teachings, but from the demands of the surrounding social environment. The idea of purity and impurity functions to establish and maintain the varna caste system and can be treated as two sides of the same coin. Buddhists were compelled to respond to the strengthening of the varna system by setting down rules on \u2018pure\u2019 meats and by prohibiting certain meat varieties.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a087 For the details of his analysis of meat eating in Mah\u0101y\u0101na scriptures, see Shimoda, Nehangy\u014d no kenky\u016b, 388-419.\t \u00a0  43\t \u00a0 The different ways in which Buddhist factions responded to the challenge presented by Devadatta\u2019s proposal that the community adopt five ascetic practices (including foregoing flesh food) illustrates how divisive and important the meat question had become in Indian society as these Mah\u0101y\u0101na works were compiled. In the midst of a society-wide shift toward stigmatizing the eating of meat, the Buddhist sa\u1e43gha may even have split over the issue of how restrictive to make the food rules in monastic codes that were being compiled around this time.   The attitude toward meat eating varies across the different monastic codes. Variance in the monastic codes upheld by different Buddhist factions also reflects the social contexts of each group. Roughly stated, the Pali vinaya, Sifenl\u00fc, Wufenl\u00fc, and Shisongl\u00fc hold almost the same attitude toward meat eating, while the Mohesengqil\u00fc and Genbenyoubul\u00fc have opposing characteristics. The Mohesengqil\u00fc discusses a prohibition on raw meat not seen in the other codes, and the stipulation on the \u2018three kinds of pure meat\u2019 is reframed as a requirement coming from within the Buddhist community rather than as a response to criticism outside the Buddhist community. The five customs proposed by Devadatta and said to have split the Buddhist community are not touched on at all. The Mohesengqil\u00fc can be understood as taking a proactive stance of the proscription of meat. One the other hand, the Genbenyoubul\u00fc permits even raw meat as medicine, does not prohibit dog meat, which the other codes treat as unclean, and in the restrictions on the types of meat suitable for eating does not look at the meats on the basis of purity and impurity. Nor does it raise as a concern the problems with the varna caste system that the other monastic codes bring up. It seems probable that the period of compilation and geographical factors must be closely interacting in the formation of the extant monastic codes, but it is not possible with the available materials to confirm this thesis.  With the appearance of Mah\u0101y\u0101na Buddhism came scriptures calling for a complete prohibition on meat eating. In terms of later influence, the Nirvana Sutra played a large role in this move toward complete prohibition. Nonetheless, that each faction had to move in the direction of proscribing meat suggests that this was indicative of the increasing impact of brahminism (Hinduism) in the society which forms the background of Buddhism\u2019s   44\t \u00a0development at this time. The Nirvana Sutra bears a close relationship to the Mohesengqil\u00fc, which actively prohibited meat. The primary function of the prohibition of meat is to respond to the social circumstances, and is not in itself the tath\u0101gatagarbha thought that is born out of the Nirvana Sutra.   Nonetheless, what is discussed in the Nirvana Sutra seems to have exerted an influence, providing a doctrinal justification for the prohibition on meat based on the notion that all sentient beings have the capacity for buddhahood (tath\u0101gatagarbha or j\u012bva, \u0101tman). As we see in the positions taken in the La\u1e45k\u00e2vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra or the Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b-parip\u1e5bcch\u0101,88 from this time on the presence of \u0101tman in bodies has a role in the reasoning behind avoidance of meat eating.89 Shimoda\u2019s analysis reveals how the simple diffusion model with which we began this discussion is quite off mark. In light of the historical record, it would be inaccurate to treat vegetarianism as a natural feature of Buddhism that was diffused to China along with the other teachings. On the contrary, what came to China was a complex set of conflicting teachings grounded in the varying interpretations of different factions that were responding to changes in Indian society. In Shimoda\u2019s view, Mah\u0101y\u0101na vegetarianism arose primarily as a response to social tensions brought by the varna caste system and its basis in ideas about purity and impurity. This bears some explanation. Brahmins, the caste of priests and scholars in Vedic society, used a doctrine of ritual purity to maintain their position at the top of a ritually stratified society. They used sacrificial rites to maintain the structural order of the family, of society, and (purportedly) of the cosmos. Buddhism emerged as an anti-Vedic teaching that rejected not just worldly relationships in the abstract, but this whole ritual order of the brahmins, with its emphasis on wedlock for reproducing patrilineal lines of descent and sacrificial rites for perpetuating social inequalities. Whereas the Vedic society of Indo-Aryan invention made sacrifice, including animal sacrifice, the primary mode of communication with a spiritual order, Buddhist teachings taught a doctrine of moral causation (karma) and release from suffering (nirv\u0101\u1e47a, mok\u1e63a)\u2013\u2013a soteriology based on disciplined moral \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a088 Sutra of the Questions of Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b, Wenshushili wen jing \u2f42\u6587\u6b8a\u5e2b\u5229\u554f\u7d93. T14 n468.\t \u00a089 Shimoda, Nehangy\u014d no kenky\u016b, 416-419. Note that this is not a word for word translation; I have elided phrasing that seemed overly verbose in order to make the ideas more accessible in English.\t \u00a0  45\t \u00a0training. Jainism emerged around the same time as Buddhism and shared with the latter the doctrine of non-harm toward sentient beings (ahi\u1e43s\u0101). In the wake of Jain and Buddhist critiques of Vedic society, the upper strata of Indian society adopted a vegetarian diet and raised up cattle (previously used in sacrifices) to protected status. Several centuries after Buddhism appeared, Vedic brahminism experienced revival in a devotional form: Hinduism. The belief that devotion to a high deity could circumvent the need for austere disciplines presented Buddhists with a new challenge. It is in this third phase of Indian religion (following the order sacrifice\u2013\u2013> renunciation\u2013\u2013> devotion), that Mah\u0101y\u0101na writings appear, containing a new emphasis on devotion to bodhisattvas and multiple buddhas.90 Religious ideas were thus shared around Indian society in a dialogical fashion, changing the structure of society as new ideas were implemented by different groups. Just as the concept of a keystone at the top of an arch could be put to use in different architectural styles, ideas such as vegetarianism or devotion produced different results in brahmin and Buddhist intellectual frameworks. To brahmins, vegetarian diet became a tool for claiming moral superiority over meat-eating groups, based on a complex set of rules regulating ritual purity in Indian society. For the early Buddhists who begged their food from all levels of society, vegetarianism was an ideal that could not be imposed on their patrons; beggars could not be choosers. With the Mah\u0101y\u0101na teachings, this began to change. As increasingly large numbers of Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese, Chinese Buddhism came to be an accumulation of teachings representing different factional positions.91 It is often commented that Chinese adopted Mah\u0101y\u0101na Buddhism, but it is more accurate to say that Chinese Buddhists came to champion Mah\u0101y\u0101na teachings above those of other schools. Gregory Schopen has argued that although Mah\u0101y\u0101na Buddhism rapidly gained popularity in China from the third century, it was at the outset a marginal voice in Buddhism and remained so in India.92 We already saw that the influential Mah\u0101y\u0101na scriptures arguing for a complete taboo on meat arrived in the fifth century\u2013\u2013several centuries after other Buddhist teachings had arrived. These \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a090 Trautmann, India, 50-54, 62, 70-72, 102-111, 118.\t \u00a091 For example, Z\u00fcrcher, Buddhist Conquest of China, 34.\t \u00a092 Schopen, Figments and Fragments, 4-5, 11, 17.\t \u00a0  46\t \u00a0joined rather than displaced the teachings of other schools. Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie of the tenth-century reflects the coexistence of these multiple layers.  Because different interpretations of the Buddhist teachings commingled in China, Chinese Buddhism remained a provisional body of knowledge. There could be no clear claim to orthodoxy, only a complex ecology of ideas with many shared doctrines. Even with the emergence of a new Mah\u0101y\u0101na discourse of uncompromising vegetarianism, the Buddhist community in China was slow to shift over to vegetarian practice.93 For Mah\u0101y\u0101na vegetarianism to gain acceptance as the norm, proponents needed to argue against the precedent set by other schools. The prohibition on meat in Mah\u0101y\u0101na is not just a response to social pressures, but also represents an effort to bring greater moral consistency and virtuous conduct to the community. A well-known effort to achieve this aim occurred in the sixth century in China. Records from the Liang dynasty (502-557) suggest that when Liang Wu Di \u6881\u6b66\u5e1d (aka Xiao Yan \u7c2b\u884d, 464-549) inquired about vegetarian practice for temples in Jiankang \u5efa\u5eb7, he was told that only two temples practiced a strict vegetarianism\u2013\u2013and one of these was Guangzhai si \u5149\u5b85\u5bfa, a temple he himself had established.94  The strong push for the adoption of vegetarianism as a norm for tonsured Buddhists really begins around this time, under the policies of Liang Wu Di and pressures from lay Buddhists.95 These aspects of the emergence of Buddhist vegetarianism in China are adequately discussed elsewhere, so I will not repeat them here. Instead, I turn back now to the Chinese cultural context that helped make sense of the idea of vegetarianism.  1.5 Cultural resonance in China  There is ample evidence for reading the early history of Buddhist vegetarianism in China as a case of a minority practice getting amplified through cultural resonance. In \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a093 Suwa, Ch\u016bgoku ch\u016bsei bukky\u014dshi kenky\u016b, 53-54.\t \u00a094 Ibid., 54.\t \u00a095 Xu, Zhongguo yinshi shi, v.3, 194-195; Michihata, Ch\u016bgoku bukky\u014d shis\u014dshi no kenky\u016b, 474-480; Suwa, Ch\u016bgoku ch\u016bsei bukky\u014d shi kenky\u016b, 64-91; Mather, \u201cBonze\u2019s Begging Bowl\u201d; Kieschnick, \u201cBuddhist Vegetarianism in China.\u201d\t \u00a0  47\t \u00a0the first centuries after its arrival to China, Buddhism appears to have been closely associated with fangshi \u2f45\u65b9\u2f20\u58eb, hermits \u96b1\u2f20\u58eb, and Daoists \u9053\u2f20\u58eb. These groups practiced experimental dieting and alchemical practices aimed at immortality, long life, or good health. Notable diets included the eating of (only) foods from trees \u2f4a\u6728\u98df and abstention from eating grain (pigu \u8f9f\u7a40). Suwa Gijun suggests that the wording used to indicate cases of vegetarian diet in the early Gaoseng zhuan biographies connects Buddhists with these groups and may have indicated that they found the dietetics of such groups a convenient way to justify practicing a vegetarian diet (ostensibly to act on the precepts of not killing other sentient beings). On the basis of Buddhist teachings on karma, a vegetarian diet also allayed fears about karmic retribution from eating meat.96  Even before the arrival of Buddhist ideas such as karma, Chinese literature shows glimpses of hesitation regarding animal slaughter. The Zhuangzi, for example, contains a passage about the relativity of perspective that has a ritual specialist looking at things from the perspective of the pig that he is preparing to sacrifice: The Invocator of the Ancestors, dressed in his black, square-cut robes, peered into the pigpen and said, \"Why should you object to dying? I'm going to fatten you for three months, practice austerities for ten days, fast for three days, spread the white rushes, and lay your shoulders and rump on the carved sacrificial stand\u2013\u2013you'll go along with that, won't you? True, if I were planning things from the point of view of a pig, I'd say it would be better to eat chaff and bran and stay right there in the pen. \u2026\u201d97  Confucian teachings likewise exhibit some ambivalence toward meat eating, even if they do not advocate a vegetarian diet. In one passage of the Analects, the disciple Zigong wants to do away with the sacrifice of a lamb to mark the beginning of each lunar month. Traditional commentary interprets this in economic terms, suggesting that Zigong saw the loss of a lamb each month as wasteful and unnecessary,98 but we might also ask if he was motivated by compassion. Confucius valued the continuation of this \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a096 Suwa, Ch\u016bgoku ch\u016bsei bukky\u014dshi kenky\u016b, 58-63.\t \u00a097 Watson, trans., Complete Works of Chuang Tzu, 202.\t \u00a098 Ibid., 24 (3.17).\t \u00a0  48\t \u00a0old rite more than he valued the lamb, so the teaching does not lead Ru \u5112 scholars toward scorn for animal sacrifice.  Nonetheless, awareness of the suffering of these sacrificial animals is evident in Ru writings. In the Mengzi we encounter the famous passage of King Xuan of Qi taking pity on an ox that he saw shuddering as it was led to slaughter for the consecration of a new bell. Mencius (Mengzi) uses this case to reveal to the king his innate virtue in taking pity on the ox, remarking, \u201cThe attitude of a gentleman toward animals is this: once having seen them alive, he cannot bear to see them die, and once having heard their cry, he cannot bear to eat their flesh. That is why the gentleman keeps his distance from the kitchen.\u201d99 This bears some similarity with the early Buddhist practice of eating only meats that one did not see killed or suspect to have been killed specifically for oneself. Both positions accept the social context of meat eating while shrinking from the realities of animal slaughter. On Confucian grounds, vegetarianism could evoke images of the filial son mourning for a lost parent through a simple diet, a form of renunciation. In the logic of Confucian teachings, meat aligned with luxury, and pleasure and was appropriate as a celebratory food for happy occasions; sad occasions such as mourning the death of a parent called for austerities including a simple diet of coarse grain and vegetables\u2013\u2013the shushi mentioned earlier.100 In another passage of the Analects, Confucius praises his beloved disciple Yan Hui, who, out of poverty, subsisted on only grain and water and yet retained his joy in life.101 This theme of joy in poverty is similar to the spirit of voluntary poverty in Buddhism. Although early Confucians did not create an explicit discourse on avoiding meat (an integral component of the rites they defended), their celebration of frugality as a form of moral discipline had longstanding impacts on the food practices of educated elite in China. It is tempting to draw a structural parallel between Chinese and Indian society, due to brahmins and Confucian scholars both treating a simple vegetable-food diet as \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a099 Lau, trans., Mencius, 9-10.\t \u00a0100 See Slingerland trans., Confucius Analects, 209-210 (17.21); Li Zehou, Chinese Aesthetic Tradition, 10-29.\t \u00a0101 Slingerland, trans., Confucius Analects, 56 (6.11).\t \u00a0  49\t \u00a0morally superior to the meat-eating of the ruling class,102 but the parallels break down on close inspection. Brahmins in India integrated meat-avoidance into a doctrine of ritual purity that maintained the structure of the caste system. Early Confucian thinkers, on the other hand, treated meat as a luxury food to which commoners often had little access; the Confucian concern was not ritual purity of social actors through their abstinence from meat, but the immorality of extravagance. We might say that social ethics were to Confucianism what ritual purity was to Hindu thought: a central tool for organizing social relationships. Before and after the arrival of Buddhism, meat served as a symbolic locus of moral distinction in Chinese society.103 Eventually, however, Chinese thinkers also came to utilize ideas about ritual purity in association with diet. Confucian ideals were just part of the intellectual heritage that came to interact in complex patterns in ancient and early-medieval Chinese society. There is not space here to go into detail regarding the intellectual history of apologetic discourse between, say, Mohists \u58a8\u5bb6 and Confucians \u5112\u5bb6, between Daoists \u9053\u5bb6 and Confucians, between Buddhists \u91cb\u6559 and Daoists \u9053\u6559, and between Buddhists and Confucians\u2013\u2013to name only some of the more salient episodes of intellectual contest. Proponents of these forms of knowledge distinguished themselves by putting out creeds with definite dimensions, in contradistinction with the ideas of other groups, but they also borrowed from one another and evolved in dialectical relationship. In the wake of the Later Han, as the Confucian government of the Han dynasty unraveled and ushered in a period of political turmoil and disunity, we can observe a period of eclectic intellectual activity: the rise of new Daoist schools of thought, of Xuanxue \u7384\u5b78, and of Chinese Buddhism. Xuanxue might be characterized as a blend of Confucian and (older) Daoist ideas, while Daoism of this time (especially Lingbao in the early fifth century) borrowed heavily from Buddhist ideas.104  One might observe that these Chinese knowledge-building activities were less focused on divinities than what we find in Vedic India, and much more concerned with \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0102 Roushizhe \u2f81\u8089\u98df\u8005. See Kieschnick, \u201cBuddhist Vegetarianism in China,\u201d 193-194.\t \u00a0103 See ibid. Also Kieschnick, Eminent Monk, 22-23.\t \u00a0  50\t \u00a0practical efficacy\u2013\u2013in moral self-cultivation, in social harmony, and in health. A focus on practical efficacy was more amenable to the sharing of ideas than a focus on divine authority.   1.6 Daoists and experimental diets  Ideas about restrictive diets and ritual purity spread through a process of cross-fertilization among different groups in China. We already saw in early biographies of eminent Buddhist monks that a restrictive vegetable-based diet was indicated by shushi, the term used by Confucians for a diet of grievance in mourning. Buddhists (and perhaps non-Buddhist observers) eventually switched over to the term sushi \u7d20\u98df (plain food), which can also be connected with Confucian mourning,105 and which has continued up to the present day to mean Buddhist vegetarian food.106 What about food that is not \u2018plain\u2019, i.e., that is tainted by proscribed ingredients? These foods came to be described as hun \u8477, or hunxin \u8477\u2f9f\u8f9b.107  Hun and hunxin did not originally have any association with meat, but denoted strong-tasting vegetables such as alliums (onion-family plants). Mah\u0101y\u0101na texts prohibited alliums along with meat and alcohol.108 Suwa Gijun studied the history of the taboo on these pungent vegetables and concluded that aspects of the taboo are of Chinese origin. In Indian sources, some alliums (green onion, garlic, and Asian leek) are named individually, but in Chinese Buddhism these are bundled together into a formula of \u201cfive pungent [vegetables]\u201d (wuxin \u4e94\u2f9f\u8f9b). Starting with Buddhist texts from the \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0104  Z\u00fcrcher, Buddhist Conquest of China, 45-46; Bokenkamp, Ancestors and Anxiety, 12-13.\t \u00a0105 For a Han-dynasty example, see the biography of Huo Guang \u970d\u5149 in fascicle 68 of the Hanshu \u6f22\u66f8. Accessed through SS.\t \u00a0106 The Buddhist use of sushi goes back at least to the sixth century, where it appears in the Dasheng baoyun jing \u2f24\u5927\u4e58\u5bf6\u96f2\u7d93 (Mah\u0101y\u0101na-ratnameghas\u016btra): T16 n659, 269a04.\t \u00a0107 The Song-dynasty Fanyi mingyi ji \u7ffb\u8b6f\u540d\u7fa9\u96c6 differentiates the two, saying that asafoetida (Ferula resin) is hun but not xin, while ginger and mustard are xin but not hun; those plants that are both hun and xin comprise the five pungent vegetables. T54 n2131, 1108b19-20.\t \u00a0108 See Kieschnick, \u201cBuddhist Vegetarianism in China,\u201d 192.\t \u00a0  51\t \u00a0Eastern Jin \u6771\u6649 (317-420) we find proscriptions of \u201cthe five pungent vegetables, alcohol, and meat\u201d (wuxin jiurou \u4e94\u2f9f\u8f9b\u9152\u2f81\u8089) in Buddhist literature. In Indian Vinaya, the primary concern with alliums was that they were associated with greedy thoughts (\u2013\u2013for delicious flavors?), and that their socially embarrassing smell could lose monks opportunities to benefit from the dharma or from meetings with elite members of society (guiren \u8cb4\u2f08\u4eba). Suwa speculates that the wuxin vegetable taboo was connected in China with the meat taboo in order to keep practitioners from stimulating an appetite for meat dishes and also to curb sexual lust.109 Some of the later-appearing Buddhist literature presents such arguments,110 but Suwa provides little explanation that would justify accepting these interpretations.  I suggest that we think of the allium taboo as originating in Indian society on the basis of brahmin ideas about ritually pure foods. Alliums are pungent vegetables that have long been used to mask the strong smells of meat (xingwei \u8165\u5473), making meat more palatable. In India and in China they were associated with meat-eating, substantially if not exclusively. Mah\u0101y\u0101na authors in India bundled them into the prohibitions on meat and alcohol, probably because elite members of Indian society had come to scorn them as ritually impure foods due to their lingering smell, their association with meat foods, and perhaps their popularity among commoner classes. In Chinese society, before the influence of Indian Buddhism, meat and alliums seem not to have been subject to any outright taboo, though meat was in scarce supply for the poor and some rich people seem to have scorned alliums as a food of commoners.111   The formula of wuxin may be connected with the Chinese cultural practice of eating a dish of five pungent vegetables, wuxinpan \u4e94\u2f9f\u8f9b\u76e4, on the first day of the New Year, ostensibly to benefit the five viscera. This practice is recorded in Zhou Chu\u2019s \u5468\u8655 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0109 Suwa, Ch\u016bgoku ch\u016bsei bukky\u014dshi kenky\u016b, 183-198.\t \u00a0110 Most famously the Shoulengyan jing \u2fb8\u9996\u695e\u56b4\u7d93, a work that many scholars suspect to be an apocryphal scripture compiled in China: T19 n945, 141c04-13.\t \u00a0111 Y\u00fc, \u201cHan China,\u201d 53-83 (esp. 76).\t \u00a0  52\t \u00a0Fengtu ji \u98a8\u2f1f\u571f\u8a18112 from the Western Jin (265-316). The three major alliums (green onion, garlic, and Asian leek) are here joined by knotweed (Polygonum) and an Artemisia species to constitute the five113. The identities of the five plants in wuxin formulae differ over time and from source to source, so the number five is probably more important to the formula than the precise identities of the plants. Due to the influence of Five Phases thought, many things come in clusters of five: the five flavors \u4e94\u5473, the five viscera \u4e94\u81df, the five grains \u4e94\u7a40, etc. The number five can be understood in the sense of \u201cseveral,\u201d with alliums most consistently indicated. Centuries after its appearance in the Fengtu ji, Han E \u97d3\u9102 of the late Tang and Five-Dynasties period mentions the dish in his Suihua jili \u6b72\u83ef\u7d00\u9e97 as a tool for promoting longevity.114 In the context of the New Year\u2019s dish wuxinpan, the five pungent vegetables are presented in a favorable light.  There is some evidence that Daoists were the first to use the wuxin formula in a proscription. Ge Hong\u2019s \u845b\u6d2a (283-363)115 Baopuzi \u62b1\u6734\u2f26\u5b50, published in 317 in the Eastern Jin, describes the process for cultivating jindan \u2fa6\u91d1\u4e39, the Golden Elixir: \u201cOne must enter into the famous mountains and perform a fast for one hundred days, not eating the five pungent vegetables (wuxin) or raw fish. One must not see ordinary people. One can then make great medicine. \u5fc5\u5165\u540d\u5c71\u4e4b\u4e2d, \u9f4b\u6212\u767e\u2f47\u65e5, \u4e0d\u98df\u4e94\u2f9f\u8f9b\u2f63\u751f\u2fc2\u9b5a. \u4e0d\u8207\u4fd7\u2f08\u4eba\u76f8\u2f92\u898b. \u723e\u4e43\u53ef\u4f5c\u2f24\u5927\u85e5.\u201d Wuxin is here made taboo for the duration of the fast out of a concern for ritual purity.116  Suwa is quick to dismiss this appearance of wuxin as a Chinese construct that is likely different from the one that appears later on in Buddhist contexts, but I think this is misinterpreting the evidence. We do not need to show here that Ge Hong borrowed \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0112 Also titled Yangxian fengtu ji \u967d\u7fa8\u98a8\u2f1f\u571f\u8a18.\t \u00a0113 Suwa, Ch\u016bgoku ch\u016bsei bukky\u014dshi kenky\u016b, 185-186.\t \u00a0114 Ibid.\t \u00a0115 Mou and Zhang, Zhongguo zongjiao tongshi, 344. Komjathy, Daoist Tradition, 25, gives Ge Hong\u2019s dates as 283-343.\t \u00a0  53\t \u00a0the phrase wuxin from Buddhists; it is likely the other way around. Furthermore, identifying this use of wuxin with the others seems justifiable. Raw fish was (and is) a dangerous food due to parasites. Its proscription may have been a practical way to avoid falling ill during such retreats in the mountains. In the populous lowlands, alliums may have been used to improve the flavor of raw fish, with the added benefit (whether understood or not) of lessening the risk of illness through their natural antiseptic properties. Even if they are meant as discrete items in this context, the co-occurrence of wuxin and raw fish is suggestive of a more fundamental relationship: both have strong, lingering smells (xingwei). I think the real issue for Ge Hong is ritual purity, based on a rejection of lowland stenches that would pollute the pure experience of residing in the mountains. Ge Hong\u2019s ideas belong to an alchemical strain of Daoist thought. Theorizing about the interface of materials and spiritual efficacy, this strain of Daoism holds that materials can be morally and spiritually transformative.117 This is similar to the way brahmin\u2019s approached the material world; in both cases, diet becomes bifurcated into ritually pure and impure foods. From inchoate ideas about transcendence in the Zhuangzi and other early Daoist literature, Daoist thought develops greater sophistication and complexity in the first several centuries of the Common Era. As Robert Campany observes, the Daoist tradition develops \u201cesoteric biospiritual practices\u201d for becoming a transcendent immortal, xian \u4ed9.118 Daoist beliefs about the efficacy of restrictive diets in spiritual transcendence are grounded in ancient Chinese theories regarding the action of qi \u6c23 in the human body, and the potential for its refinement into jing \u7cbe.119 This explains attitudes about ritual purity: polluting materials can interfere with qi and prevent the refinement of jing. Because materials are not neutral in Daoist spiritual self-cultivation, they must be carefully controlled. Ge Hong thus singles out wuxin as materials that must be avoided during the hundred-day fast in the mountains. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0116 Suwa, Ch\u016bgoku ch\u016bsei bukky\u014dshi kenky\u016b, 195.\t \u00a0117 Unschuld, Medicine in China, 111-116; Campany, Making Transcendents, xvi.\t \u00a0118 Campany, Making Transcendents, xiii. Also Campany, \u201cMeanings of Cuisines of Transcendence.\u201d\t \u00a0  54\t \u00a0The earliest instances of wuxin that Suwa points to in Buddhist literature appear in texts from the Eastern Jin: The Qifo bapusa suoshuo da tuoluoni shenzhou jing \u4e03\u4f5b\u516b\u83e9\u85a9\u6240\u8aaa\u2f24\u5927\u9640\u7f85\u5c3c\u795e\u5492\u7d93, and the Jin\u2019gang mimi shanmen tuoluoni jing \u2fa6\u91d1\u525b\u79d8\u5bc6\u5c71\u2fa8\u9580\u9640\u7f85\u5c3c\u7d93. The titles of both these works suggest that they are Mah\u0101y\u0101na scriptures of a devotional, esoteric nature. We know that Buddhism and Daoism interacted closely in the first centuries of the Common Era before becoming more clearly differentiated through apologetic positions (as I stated earlier). And there seems to be a tendency in esoteric Buddhism to treat materials in ritually distinct ways that are reminiscent of Daoist beliefs in the \u201cbiospiritual\u201d unity of material interactions. Could there be a connection between Daoism and Chinese esoteric Buddhism, through a shared belief in the efficacy of materials in spiritual practice? There is not space to develop this further, so I will leave this as an open-ended question, only commenting that the Daoist Tao Hongjing \u9676\u5f18\u666f (452-536) acknowledges Buddhist influences on his medical knowledge, in his preface (dated 500 CE) to an enlargement of Ge Hong\u2019s collection of prescriptions.120 In this we can observe an intersection between medical, Daoist, and Buddhist bodies of knowledge. It is not unreasonable to conjecture that Buddhist translators of Mah\u0101y\u0101na texts could have picked up the term wuxin from Daoists\u2013\u2013even from the Baopuzi\u2013\u2013upon recognizing in it a similar attitude regarding alliums.    1.7 Moral vegetarianism in Song recipe collections  I am going to jump now to the Song dynasty, when the Shishi liutie had been published and was in circulation. Song thinkers still viewed ideas about food, medicine, and nutrition as intersecting with moral and religious concerns. Ideas about eating in Song society form a porous milieu of clustered knowledge, where strains of thought from the major traditions are only vaguely recognizable when they appear in literati \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0119 Campany, Making Transcendents, xvi; Campany, \u201cMeanings of Cuisines of Transcendence,\u201d 17-18.\t \u00a0120 Unschuld, Medicine in China, 149.\t \u00a0  55\t \u00a0writings. Song intellectuals do not seem to have yet differentiated knowledge-building on the topic of food into secular and religious modes, but often point to different ideas about eating as general forms of knowledge. The question of vegetarian diet appears in some contexts as a Buddhist influence, but in others it is unmarked. Evidence from two Song-dynasty recipe collections, the Benxin zhai shushi pu and the Shanjia qinggong, calls into question the reliability of the strong association between Buddhist thought and vegetarian practice in the Song. Here, a vegetable-based diet is a default diet of the less affluent members of society and is associated as much with Confucian or Daoist ideals as with those of Buddhism.  Food in the Song was an especially strained site of moral contest, due to changing historical circumstances following the demise of the Tang dynasty. With the rise of an increasingly meritocratic government system, the families of the Tang-period aristocracy were increasingly outcompeted for positions in government by scholars of humble origin. The aristocracy had fallen, and in the Song period they were not able to regain their hold on political power. The Song government played an active role in wining and dining generals and government officials in an effort to soften potential challengers to the new dynasty, which helped stimulate the rise of urban food cultures. Food historians observe that the Song is when haute Chinese cuisine, as we know it today, emerges. The question of vegetarianism in the Song must be understood against the backdrop of a highly stratified society, where the wealthy had not only meat, but meat dishes prepared in elaborate ways, while the common people were restricted to eating a plant-based diet. In the Northern Song, some of the most prominent scholar officials took positions on the new food culture that was developing, often to criticize what they viewed as a decline in morality in eating. Su Shi \u8607\u8efe (1037-1101) left scattered food writings that greatly influenced subsequent intellectuals. His prot\u00e9g\u00e9 Huang Tingjian \u2fc8\u9ec3\u5ead\u5805 (1045-1105) adopted a vegetarian diet and left statements on his moral convictions regarding eating.121   The two above-mentioned recipe collections illustrate how the concept of plant-based diet (i.e., vegetarianism) was, in the Song, caught up in a set of intellectual   56\t \u00a0frameworks that transcended direct association with Buddhist teachings. These collections show influences from primarily Confucian and Daoist teachings, with only a hint of Buddhism. There may even be a trace of influence from Chinese Judaism. The Benxin zhai shushi pu \u672c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u9f4b\u852c\u98df\u8b5c122 was compiled by Chen Dasou \u9673\u9054\u53df, disciple to a learned hermit called Old Man Benxin \u672c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u7fc1.123 Chen Dasou recites a set of twenty recipes for the guests. These recipes are strictly vegetarian. The collection begins with Chen Dasou\u2019s introduction: Old Man Benxin idly sat in hermitage, taking enjoyment in the Book of Changes,124 facing a Boshanlu incense burner,125 [surrounding himself in] paper curtains [with painted] plum flowers, tea leaves in a stoneware pot, providing his own necessities in austere simplicity. Guests came from outside, conversing elegantly all day, each having the appearance of hunger. [I] called to a mountain youth to provide some vegetable dishes. The guests, tasting these and commenting that they were free of tainting by the smoke and fire of the human realm, asked for the recipes. I dictated twenty items, eulogizing each in sixteen characters, providing them with rich meanings. \u672c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u7fc1\u9f4b\u5c45\u5bb4\u5750\uff0c\u73a9\u5148\u5929\u6613\uff0c\u5c0d\u535a\u5c71\u7210\uff0c\u7d19\u5e33\u6885\u82b1\uff0c\u2f6f\u77f3\u9f0e\u8336\u8449\uff0c\u2f83\u81ea\u5949\u6cca\u5982\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u5ba2\u5f9e\u2f45\u65b9\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0121 Chen, Beisong wenren de yinshi shuxie.\t \u00a0122 Wang, ed. in chief., Congshu jicheng chubian, v. 1473.\t \u00a0123 Chen Dasou is identified in association with Youshan Academy in Qingzhang. Qingzhang zhen \u6e05\u6f33\u93ae was a town during the Northern Song (960-1127 C.E.), lying just north of the Northern Capital of Daming Fu \u5317\u4eac\u2f24\u5927\u540d\u5e9c, on the Hebei Western Road \u6cb3\u5317\u897f\u8def. By the Southern Song (1127-1279 C.E.) this town was deep within territory concquered by Jurchen \u2fa6\u91d1 armies, and is no longer attested in maps for this period in Tan, ed., Zhongguo lishi ditu ji. This suggests that the collection can be dated to the Northern Song.\t \u00a0124 Xiantian yi \u5148\u5929\u6613 refers to the Yi \u6613 (a version of the Book of Changes) ascribed to F\u00fa X\u012b \u4f0f\u7fb2, a legendary sovereign purported to have lived around the 29th century, B.C.E.\t \u00a0125 A bowl-shaped censer with a domed lid decorated as a small hill (Bo Mountain) with various creatures.\t \u00a0  57\t \u00a0\u5916\u4f86\uff0c\u7adf\u2f47\u65e5\u6e05\u2f94\u8a00\uff0c\u5404\u6709\u9951\u2f8a\u8272\u3002\ufe12\u547c\u5c71\u7ae5\u4f9b\u852c\u994c\u3002\ufe12\u5ba2\u5617\u4e4b\uff0c\u8b02\u7121\u2f08\u4eba\u9593\u7159\u2f55\u706b\u6c23\uff0c\u554f\u98df\u8b5c\u3002\ufe12\u4e88\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u6388\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u54c1\uff0c\u6bcf\u54c1\u8d0a\u2f17\u5341\u516d\u5b57\uff0c\u8207\u5473\u9053\u8174126\u8005\u5171\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12 The lifestyle of Old Man Benxin has elements that are suggestive of Daoist interests. The comment of a guest that the food is free of tainting by the smoke and fire of the human realm \u7121\u2f08\u4eba\u9593\u7159\u2f55\u706b\u6c23 hints at a Daoist ideal of eremitic living, removed from the hustle and bustle of human society. Despite hints of a potential Buddhist allusion in the old man\u2019s pseudonym, benzhai (\u201coriginal mind\u201d), and in the reference to vegetarian fare in the title, the literary allusions which embellish each recipe reveal the hermit (or Chen Dasou) to be steeped in Confucian and Daoist learning. For example, the first recipe references Confucian literature:  Chu\u00f2sh\u00fa (sipped bean). Sh\u00fa [means] bean. Tofu is sliced into strips, boiled in water, and dipped into a broth of five flavors.127 Does the [Book of] Rites not say [it]? How sipping beans and drinking water128 [can be sufficiently filial]. How brilliance is set off by plainness129 . How they made clear their purity.130 \u555c\u83fd\u83fd\u2f96\u8c46\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u4eca\u2f96\u8c46\u8150\u689d\u5207\u6de1\u716e\uff0c\u8638\u4ee5\u4e94\u5473\u3002\ufe12 \u79ae\u4e0d\u4e91\u4e4e\uff0c\u555c\u83fd\u98f2\u2f54\u6c34\uff0c\u7d20\u4ee5\u7d62\u516e\uff0c\u700f\u5176\u6e05\u77e3\u3002\ufe12 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0126 Y\u00fa \u8174 is the fat belly meat of a pig. Here I understand weidao \u5473\u9053 to be used in the metaphorical sense as interest, meaning, or significance.\t \u00a0127 The tofu is to be dipped in a liquid flavored with any (or all?) of the five flavors: sour \u9178, bitter \u82e6, pungent \u2f9f\u8f9b, salty \u54b8, and sweet \u2f62\u7518.\t \u00a0128 From the Liji \u79ae\u8a18 (Tan Gong II \u6a80\u5f13\u4e0b):  \u2f26\u5b50\u8def\u66f0\uff1a\u201c\u50b7\u54c9\u8ca7\u4e5f\uff01\u2f63\u751f\u7121\u4ee5\u70ba\u990a\uff0c\u6b7b\u7121\u4ee5\u70ba\u79ae\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u201d\u5b54\u2f26\u5b50\u66f0\uff1a\u201c\u555c\u83fd\u98f2\u2f54\u6c34\u76e1\u5176\u6b61\uff0c\u65af\u4e4b\u8b02\u5b5d\ufe14\uff1b\u6582\u2fb8\u9996\u2f9c\u8db3\u5f62\uff0c\u9084\u846c\u2f7d\u800c\u7121\u69e8\uff0c\u7a31\u5176\u8ca1\uff0c\u65af\u4e4b\u8b02\u79ae\u3002\ufe12\u201d\t \u00a0129 From the Analects (Ba Yi \u516b\u4f7e):  \u2f26\u5b50\u590f\u554f\u66f0\uff1a\u201c\u2018\u5de7\u7b11\u5029\u516e\uff0c\u7f8e\u2f6c\u76ee\u76fc\u516e\uff0c\u7d20\u4ee5\u70ba\u7d62\u516e\u3002\ufe12\u2019\u4f55\u8b02\u4e5f\ufe16\uff1f\u201d\u2f26\u5b50\u66f0\uff1a\u201c\u7e6a\u4e8b\u5f8c\u7d20\u3002\ufe12\u201d\u66f0\uff1a\u201c\u79ae\u5f8c\u4e4e\ufe16\uff1f\u201d\u2f26\u5b50\u66f0\uff1a\u201c\u8d77\u4e88\u8005\u5546\u4e5f\uff01\u59cb\u53ef\u8207\u2f94\u8a00\u8a69\u5df2\u77e3\u3002\ufe12\u201d\t \u00a0130 From the Book of Poetry (Zhen Wei \u6eb1\u6d27):  \u6eb1\u8207\u6d27\u3001\ufe11\u700f\u5176\u6e05\u77e3\u3002\ufe12\u2f20\u58eb\u8207\u5973\u3001\ufe11\u6bb7\u5176\u76c8\u516e\u3002\ufe12\u5973\u66f0\u89c0\u4e4e\u3002\ufe12\u2f20\u58eb\u66f0\u65e2\u4e14\u3002\ufe12\u4e14\u5f80\u89c0\u4e4e\u3002\ufe12\u6d27\u4e4b\u5916\u3001\ufe11\u6d35\u8a0f\u4e14\u6a02\u3002\ufe12\u7dad\u2f20\u58eb\u8207\u5973\u3001\ufe11\u4f0a\u5176\u5c07\u8b14\u3001\ufe11\u8d08\u4e4b\u4ee5\u52fa\u85e5\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0  58\t \u00a0Each recipe follows this pattern. Description of a simple food is followed by, mostly, an erudite Confucian allusion. There is also a reference from the Zhuangzi (chaosan musi \u671d\u4e09\u66ae\u56db), as well as a recipe that refers to the Daoist aim of becoming a transcendent immortal: Y\u00f9y\u00e1n (pulled jade). Mountain medicine (i.e., Dioscorea)131. Cook and slice; purify with raw honey. The mountains have an efficacious medicine, recorded in Daoist medical prescriptions. Break off several pieces of jade, [purify with] the fragrance of a hundred flowers.  \u2f5f\u7389\u5ef6\u5c71\u85e5\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u708a\u719f\u2f5a\u7247\u5207\uff0c\u6e05\u4ee5\u2f63\u751f\u871c\u3002\ufe12 \u5c71\u6709\u9748\u85e5\uff0c\u9304\u4e8e\u4ed9\u2f45\u65b9\u3002\ufe12\u5c51\u6578\u2f5a\u7247\u2f5f\u7389\uff0c\u6e05\u767e\u82b1\u2fb9\u9999\u3002\ufe12 This collection of exclusively vegetarian foods has no obvious relationship to Buddhist teachings. In the concluding commentary, which gives advice on how to serve these dishes, there is a statement about the social practice of toasting with an alcoholic beverage that suggests a Confucian virtue of moderation: \u201cIf mutually offering toasts with wine in goblets, gratifyingly share deeply felt emotions, but do not get drunk. \u6216\u6a3d\u9152\u91bb\u9162\uff0c\u66a2\u654d\u5e7d\u60c5\uff0c\u4f46\u52ff\u91ba\u9163\u3002\ufe12\u201d Buddhism, with its strong arguments against alcohol, seems to be absent from this intellectual mix of Daoist and Confucian ideas.  Lin Hong\u2019s \u6797\u6d2a Shanjia qinggong \u5c71\u5bb6\u6e05\u4f9b from the Southern Song (1127-1279) is likewise more than just a collection of recipes.132 It contains anecdotal information on the moral dimensions of eating in Song society. Lin Hong was an intellectual from a moderately wealthy family in Quanzhou \u6cc9\u5dde (coastal Fujian) who travelled around to visit with many scholars of his day. He lived in Lin\u2019an \u81e8\u5b89, capital of the Southern \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0131 Dioscorea opposita, an East Asian root vegetable. The text also supplies the name now commonly used in Mandarin, shanyao \u5c71\u85e5. Another name is shuyu \u85af\u8577. The flesh of the raw tuber has a white, jade-like translucence.\t \u00a0132 The edition of the Shanjia qinggong that is based on Song-dynasty manuscripts of the Baichuan xuehai \u767e\u5ddd\u5b78\u6d77 collection and reprinted in Wang, Congshu jicheng chubian, v. 1473 has considerable differences with that of the Wenjin ge siku quanshu. I use the Congshu jicheng edition for my translation.\t \u00a0  59\t \u00a0Song, for many years. Skilled in poetry, he was able to make many contacts, visiting Confucian scholars in their academies or homes.133 At least one recipe has him eating a meal with monks in a Buddhist monastery. He also seems to have associated with Daoists, or at least to have had a keen interest in Daoist ideas. He recorded not only the foods that he encountered, but also the context, or literary allusions associated with the food.  Lin Hong\u2019s collection contains just over one hundred recipes, the majority of which are plant-based foods. The title of his collection, \u201cPure Offerings of Rural Households,\u201d is suggestive of the rustic fare that it represents. A few recipes do contain fish (e.g., \u201cMuyuzi \u2f4a\u6728\u2fc2\u9b5a\u2f26\u5b50\u201d), crab (e.g., \u201cChiao gong \u6301\u87af\u4f9b\u201d), and hunted meats such as rabbit (e.g., \u201cBoxia gong \u64a5\u971e\u4f9b\u201d) or muntjac venison (e.g., \u201cZhizhang \u7099\u7350\u201d)\u2013\u2013this is not an exclusively vegetarian collection of recipes. There is, however, a conspicuous celebration of plant-based foods running through many of the recipes. Consider the recipe for \u201cjade-filled lung\u201d (\u201cYuguan fei \u2f5f\u7389\u704c\u80ba\u201d): [Collect together] bean starch, deep-fried dough, sesame, pine nut, walnut. Remove skins. Add a little dill, white sugar, a little 'red ferment\u2019134 ground into powder. Mix it together, put it in a rice pot, and steam until cooked. Cut it to appear like pieces of lung and serve it with a spicy sauce. Now, as in the past, the imperial name [for this dish] is \"court-favored jade-filled lung.\" You want it to be served as no more than a vegetarian dish. From this [dish], we [can] see the intention of the imperial court to celebrate frugality and dislike killing. How, then, could it be appropriate for rural dwellers to be extravagant [by eating meat]? \u771e\u7c89\u3001\ufe11\u6cb9\u9905\u3001\ufe11\u829d\u8534\u3001\ufe11\u677e\u2f26\u5b50\u3001\ufe11\u6838\u6843\uff0c\u53bb\u2f6a\u76ae\uff0c\u52a0\u8494\u863f\u5c11\u8a31\uff0c\u2f69\u767d\u7cd6\u3001\ufe11\u7d05\u66f2\u5c11\u8a31\u70ba\u672b\uff0c\u62cc\u548c\uff0c\u5165\u7511\uff0c\u84b8\u719f\uff0c\u5207\u4f5c\u80ba\u69d8\u584a\u2f26\u5b50\uff0c\u2f64\u7528\u8fa3\u6c41\u4f9b\u3002\ufe12\u4eca\u5f8c\u82d1\u540d\u66f0\u300c\u5fa1\u611b\u2f5f\u7389\u704c\u80ba\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u8981\u4e4b\u4e0d\u904e\u2f00\u4e00\u7d20\u4f9b\u2f7f\u8033\u3002\ufe12\u7136\uff0c\u4ee5\u6b64\u2f92\u898b\u4e5d\u91cd\u5d07\u5109\uff0c\u4e0d\u55dc\u6bba\u4e4b\u610f\u3002\ufe12\u5c45\u5c71\u8005\u8c48\u5b9c\u4f88\u4e4e\ufe16\uff1f \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0133 For basic biographical information, see Chang, Songren zhuanji ziliao suoyin, v.2, 1343.\t \u00a0134 For more information on red ferment, see my chapter on porridge.\t \u00a0  60\t \u00a0In the portion of text that I have italicized, Lin Hong emphasizes that this is a vegetarian recipe from the kitchens of the imperial court. Is this an instance of Buddhist influence? Perhaps, since there is mention of the imperial court looking unfavorably on the slaughter of animals. As we saw earlier, however, the pre-Buddhist Mengzi also suggests that compassion toward animals is a virtue, especially for rulers. If we take this to represent a Buddhist-influenced vegetarianism in the imperial court, it would have to be a diffuse influence. More likely is that this reflects Confucian values, since the court is celebrating frugality and not wanting to be extravagant by eating lots of meat while the common people eat only plant-based foods.  Lin Hong did engage with monks and record some of their recipes. In at least one case, the monk is famous enough to be named:  T\u00fam\u00ed zho\u016b (Roseleaf bramble porridge)  \u2026One day I went to Lingjiu to visit the monk Pinzhou Dexiu and stayed for the mid-day [meal]. The porridge was extremely fragrant and delicious. Inquiring about it, [he said] it was roseleaf bramble flower. \u2026 \u837c\u4577\u7ca5 \u2026\u2f00\u4e00\u2f47\u65e5\uff0c\u904e\u9748\u9df2\u8a2a\u50e7\u860b\u6d32\u5fb7\u4fee\uff0c\u5348\u7571\uff0c\u7ca5\u751a\u2fb9\u9999\u7f8e\u3002\ufe12\u8a62\u4e4b\uff0c\u5efc\u837c\u4577\u82b1\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u2026 This porridge made with the flowers of a small bush is a concrete example of a meatless dish enjoyed by tonsured Buddhists of this time. But it is just that: a meatless dish. There is in this recipe no discussion of the need to be compassion toward animals, or any other motive given for excluding meat. Other recipes are more overt in setting out reasons for excluding meat. For example, a recipe for noodles, Zhen tangbing \u771f\u6e6f\u9905, shows a jushi \u5c45\u2f20\u58eb appreciating meatless food for its \u201ctrue\u201d flavor: An old man [came] to a garden of gourds to see the jushi Ningyuan, who in the course of their conversation ordered a servant to make up some \u201ctrue noodles.\u201d The old man remarked, \u201cIn the world, is there such a thing as fake noodles?\u201d Then he saw that it was just boiled broth stirred together with deep-fried dough, one cup per person. The old man said, \u201cSo in this case, if broth and cooked rice are stirred together, it can likewise be called \u2018true simmered rice\u2019?\u201d The jushi explained, \u201cWith the products of sowing and   61\t \u00a0reaping (i.e., plant agriculture), if there is nothing to overwhelm the qi of the food, then it is \u2018true\u2019.\u201d \u7fc1\u74dc\u5703\u8a2a\u51dd\u9060\u5c45\u2f20\u58eb\uff0c\u8a71\u9593\u547d\u50d5\u4f5c\u771f\u6e6f\u9905\u4f86\u3002\u7fc1\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u5929\u4e0b\u5b89\u6709\u5047\u6e6f\u9905\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u53ca\u2f92\u898b\uff0c\u4e43\u6cb8\u6e6f\u70ae\u6cb9\u9905\uff0c\u2f00\u4e00\u2f08\u4eba\u2f00\u4e00\u676f\u2f7f\u8033\u3002\u7fc1\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u5982\u6b64\uff0c\u5247\u6e6f\u70ae\u98ef\u4ea6\u5f97\u540d[\u771f]\u70ae135\u98ef\u4e4e\ufe16\uff1f\u300d\u5c45\u2f20\u58eb\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u7a3c\u7a61\u4f5c, \u82df\u7121\u52dd\u98df\u6c23\u8005, \u5247\u771f\u77e3\u3002\u300d The term jushi is ambiguous in the Song period. It could indicate a lay Buddhist (according to the more traditional usage), a Daoist, or a literatus fashioning himself as a man in search of the Way. Here Ningyuan is apparently suggesting that meat overwhelms the natural qi of plant-based foods, an attitude that is suggestive of the dietetics of Daoist thought. Since several people styled themselves \u201cNingyuan\u201d in the Song dynasty, Ningyuan\u2019s religious identity is not clear, but the evidence leans in the direction of Daoism. This is perhaps Fu Zhu \u5085\u4f47 (1084-1151), a scholar remembered as a seeker of Daoist truth \u4ed9\u904a\u2f08\u4eba.  Another recipe tells a story from early medieval China, many centuries before Lin Hong\u2019s time. The whole story is needed to appreciate the position that it takes on how to achieve longevity, so I give here the full recipe: L\u00e1nti\u00e1n y\u00f9 (Lantian jade)  The Han [dynasty] Dili zhi [records that] Lantian [in Shaanxi] produces good jade. Li Yu of the [Northern] Wei [dynasty] (386-535 CE) often envied the ancients for their method of eating jade [to achieve longevity], so he went to Lantian and did indeed obtain seventy pieces of good jade. He [ground them to] powder and swallowed [it as a tonic], but did not abstain from alcohol and sex. He happened to get seriously ill and said to his wife, \"In taking jade [as a health tonic], one must live in seclusion in the mountains and rid oneself of lust, in which case it would greatly [manifest] a divine efficacy. But I did not stop alcohol or sex, and have brought myself even unto death. It is not a fault of the medicine.\" One should know that, as regards the method for achieving longevity, one can cultivate one's mind and abstain from desires, and although one does not take jade, it will also work. Now, the method \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0135 The Congzhu jicheng edition omits this character, which some later editions provide. The context suggests that it should be included. Here I have consulted Wu, trans., Shanjia qinggong, 50-51.\t \u00a0  62\t \u00a0is to use one or two [fresh] bottle gourds, remove the skin, cut into pieces two-cun square, steam until soft and eat with soy sauce. One does not need skill in Daoist alchemy, but only needs to remove all worries and deluded thoughts. If for a long time [one maintains a state of] natural ease, pure spirits, and bright qi, it is relatively more effective than the previous method. Therefore I call this \"[using] dharma to make Lantian jade.\u201d  \u85cd\u2f65\u7530\u2f5f\u7389 \u6f22\u300a\u5730\u7406\u5fd7\u300b\uff1a\u300c\u85cd\u2f65\u7530\u51fa\u7f8e\u2f5f\u7389\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u9b4f\u674e\u9810\u6bcf\u7fa1\u53e4\u2f08\u4eba\u9910\u2f5f\u7389\u4e4b\u6cd5\uff0c\u4e43\u5f80\u85cd\u2f65\u7530\uff0c\u679c\u5f97\u7f8e\u2f5f\u7389\u7a2e\u4e03\u2f17\u5341\u679a\uff0c\u70ba\u5c51\u670d\u990c\uff0c\u2f7d\u800c\u4e0d\u6212\u9152\u2f8a\u8272\u3002\ufe12\u5076\u75be\u7be4\uff0c\u8b02\u59bb\u2f26\u5b50\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u670d\u2f5f\u7389\u5fc5\u5c4f\u5c45\u5c71\u6797\uff0c\u6392\u68c4\u55dc\u617e\uff0c\u7576\u2f24\u5927\u6709\u795e\u52b9\u3002\ufe12\u2f7d\u800c\u6211\u9152\u2f8a\u8272\u4e0d\u7d76\uff0c\u2f83\u81ea\u81f4\u65bc\u6b7b\uff0c\u975e\u85e5\u904e\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u300d  \u8981\u77e5\u9577\u2f63\u751f\u4e4b\u6cd5\uff0c\u7576\u80fd\u990a\u2f3c\u5fc3\u6212\u617e\uff0c\u96d6\u4e0d\u670d\u2f5f\u7389\uff0c\u4ea6\u53ef\u77e3\u3002\ufe12\u4eca\u6cd5\uff1a\u2f64\u7528\u74e2\u2f00\u4e00\u3001\ufe11\u2f06\u4e8c\u679a\uff0c\u53bb\u2f6a\u76ae\u2f51\u6bdb\uff0c\u622a\u4f5c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f28\u5bf8\u2f45\u65b9\u2f5a\u7247\uff0c\u721b\u84b8\uff0c\u4ee5\u91ac\u98df\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u9808\u71d2\u7149\u4e4b\u529f\uff0c\u4f46\u9664\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u7169\u60f1\u3001\ufe11\u5984\u60f3\u3002\ufe12\u4e45\u2f7d\u800c\u2f83\u81ea\u7136\u795e\u6df8\u6c23\u723d\u3002\ufe12 \u8f03\u4e4b\u524d\u6cd5\uff0c\u5dee\u52dd\u77e3\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u540d\u300c\u6cd5\u88fd\u85cd\u2f65\u7530\u2f5f\u7389\u300d\u3002\ufe12 Lin Hong\u2019s own comments are instructive here. To achieve longevity, one need not pursue Daoist alchemy \u71d2\u7149\u4e4b\u529f by eating jade as the ancients did. One can instead remove all worries and deluded thoughts \u9664\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u7169\u60f1\u3001\ufe11\u5984\u60f3. This is Buddhist language, as is his suggestion that this be called Lantian jade made by dharma \u6cd5\u88fd\u85cd\u2f65\u7530\u2f5f\u7389. This attitudinal approach to eating is the strongest evidence yet discussed here for an intellectual influence coming from Buddhist teachings. But as with the other material, it is not clearly marked as Buddhist and may merely demonstrate how Buddhist ideas had thoroughly interpenetrated Daoist theorizing on methods for health and longevity. Or perhaps it would be more accurate to say that the intellectual culture of the Song dynasty was more inquisitive than sectarian in its appropriation of ideas regarding how to eat and thrive. Again, we have a recipe with traces of Buddhist thought, without any overt concern with vegetarian diet.    63\t \u00a0The Taiwanese scholar Chen Suzhen has produced a detailed study of the food writings of Northern Song intellectuals who influenced the food trend to which the Benxin zhai shushi pu and Shanjia qinggong are connected. She suggests that vegetarian cookery took shape as a distinct branch of cooking only in the Song period, even though it had deep roots in earlier Chinese history. She points to the Buddhist precept of not killing (jiesha \u6212\u6bba) as a motivating factor in the writings of such influential figures in the simple-eating discourse as the eminent statesman and scholar Su Shi \u8607\u8efe (1037-1101) and his prot\u00e9g\u00e9 Huang Tingjian \u2fc8\u9ec3\u5ead\u5805 (1045-1105). Su Shi was in his youth a gourmand who loved to eat meat, but after being jailed during a political crisis and facing the realities of suffering and death, he turned away from meat. Huang Tingjian became a more committed vegetarian, penning Buddhist-inspired statements on adopting a vegetarian diet: his Fayuan wen \u767c\u9858\u2f42\u6587 (\u201cVow\u201d) and Jiesha shi \u6212\u6bba\u8a69 (\u201cPoem on Giving Up Killing\u201d). Nonetheless, Chen Suzhen also concludes\u2013\u2013as I have on the basis of these two recipe collections\u2013\u2013that for these educated elite, the intellectual origins of the precept of not killing is not so clearly Buddhist as it might seem at first. Ru (Confucian) discourse has a corresponding idea in the natural capacity for benevolent sympathy \u4ec1\u6055\u60b2\u61ab\u7684\u5929\u6027. An ethics of compassion toward animals in the writings of Song intellectuals can be attributed to several interacting factors. On one level it is a kind of spiritual consolation for the hardships experienced in exile, and for the necessity of getting by on vegetable foods. It is also a critical reaction to the vogue of extravagant eating among affluent urbanites in the capital.136  There is a class struggle in the background of the celebration of vegetable foods. Yi Yongwen\u2019s study of urban life in the Song shows how the affluence of this period gave rise to a highly commodified urban culture. Brothels were plentiful and prostitutes were divided into different grades. Towering brewpubs \u9152\u6a13 lined the main boulevards, rubbing shoulders with equally numerous tea houses \u8336\u8086. Both of these institutions \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0136 Chen, Beisong wenren de yinshi shuxie, 586-595.\t \u00a0  64\t \u00a0provided food, some of which could be lavishly prepared. Female acrobats \u5973\u4f0e and male wrestlers \u76f8\u64b2 provided entertainment.137  Life in the countryside contrasted with this urban affluence, hence Lin Hong\u2019s reference to the food of rural people in the title of his collection of recipes. Due to the Song government extending the imperial exam system to non-aristocratic members of society, people of humble background could enjoy upward social mobility, but even high ranking scholar-officials were sometimes exiled to miserably rural posts if they got caught in political intrigues. Faced with the inevitability of getting by on mostly vegetable foods, some members of Song society looked for ways to make the most of this situation. Celebrating the virtues of simple foods allowed the scholar class to claim moral high ground in the face of urban inequalities and excess. Social inequalities fueled critiques of Buddhists and Daoists that framed them as gluttons with no moral scruples, such as this statement from the Qingyi lu \u6e05\u7570\u9304:138 \u201cIn recent generations, those who work as Daoists do not endeavor to limit their desires, but often seek out yellow and white zhu (a digestive aid); they are avaricious and insatiable and it is fitting to call them taotie transcendents (i.e., voracious and wicked Daoists) \u8fd1\u4e16\u4e8b\u4ed9\u9053\u8005\uff0c\u4e0d\u52d9\u5be1\u6b32\uff0c\u591a\u641c\u2fc8\u9ec3\u2f69\u767d\u672e\uff0c\u8caa\u5a6a\u7121\u53ad\uff0c \u5b9c\u8b02\u4e4b\u300c\u9955\u992e\u4ed9\u300d.\u201d139 Such depictions are probably best read as defamatory statements that show the intensity of social contest for resources in the Song. They also reveal a disdain for what was perceived as hypocrisy amongst people who ostensibly had renounced the pleasures of secular living. Through such attitudes, Song scholars policed the borders of acceptable moral rectitude and created a kind of vegetarian subculture. Some of Lin Hong\u2019s recipes are for faux meat. We saw this in the recipe for \u2018jade-filled lung\u2019 from the imperial kitchen. Modern observers are prone to associate faux meats with Buddhist vegetarianism: \u201cWheat gluten has long been separated from \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0137 Yi, Songdai shimin shenghuo, esp. 23, 163-204.\t \u00a0138 Composed by Tao Gu \u9676\u6996 (903-970), a contemporary of Yichu.\t \u00a0139 Xu, ed. in chief, Zhongguo yinshi shi, v.4, 308. Taotie is mythical, ferocious animal that serves as a metaphor for the human failings of cruelty and gluttony.\t \u00a0  65\t \u00a0the starch and made into imitation meats for vegetarian cookery (Buddhist-inspired).\u201d140 In this recipe collection, that view does not hold up well. There is another explanation. Most of Song society ate a largely vegetarian diet by default, and meat, as discussed earlier, was associated with the most affluent members of society. The cultural historian Yi Yongwen suggests that the appearance in Song texts of all manner of faux \u5047 meats is a reflection of the increasingly artful sophistication of cooking techniques in urban settings, where the mainstay of most peoples diets remained plant-based. The increasing mention of faux meats around this time was driven by culinary artistry for the meat-desiring masses who could not afford to eat meat on a regular basis\u2013\u2013if at all. Fake meat dishes \u5047\u8477\u83dc could serve as a treat for urbanites with only moderate income.141 Turning mushrooms and wheat gluten into meat-like foods may have had little to do with Buddhist proscriptions on meat, and more to do with the economics of meat versus plant-sourced foods. This brief foray into Chen Dasou\u2019s Benxin zhai shushi pu and Lin Hong\u2019s Shanjia qinggong shows that in the Southern Song a plant-based diet was seen as morally respectable for any number of reasons. Buddhist vegetarianism\u2013\u2013the influence of Mah\u0101y\u0101na teachings\u2013\u2013was just one part of a broader intellectual discourse on the virtues of vegetables. Confucian-trained intellectuals could readily cite Confucian virtues of frugality and sympathy as motives in promoting vegetarian diet, and in both these collections we see how Daoist\u2013\u2013not Buddhist\u2013\u2013ideas are more thoroughly integrated with the Confucian learning in the allusions embellishing each food.    1.8 Daoist medicine and the nourishing of life  The \u2018Daoist\u2019 elements apparent in much of this Song-dynasty discourse on the virtues of simple eating warrant further comment. For lack of space in this meta-historical overview of vegetarian diet in China, I have followed convention in \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0140 Anderson, Food of China, 144.\t \u00a0141 Yi, Songdai shimin shenghuo, 192-193.\t \u00a0  66\t \u00a0pointing to Daoism to explain a concern over the health-promoting qualities of certain foods and the idea that foods provide a vital force, qi, which can nourish if it is pure or interfere with the refining of qi into jing when it is impure. But there is ambiguity in whether such ideas belong to some amorphous body of thought that we designate as \u2018Daoist\u2019, or whether this interest in the efficacies of food materials should be classed as medical (yi \u91ab or yijia \u91ab\u5bb6).  The Song celebration of a simple vegetarian diet is also connected with medical thought generally and yangsheng \u990a\u2f63\u751f discourse specifically. Yangsheng, the \u201cnourishing of life,\u201d can be traced back at least to the Warring States period (403-221 BCE), when ideas about cultivating moral potency (de \u5fb7) were integrated with new qi practices that treated foods as having a prominent role in healing and longevity.142 Daoists such as Ge Hong and Tao Hongjing were participants in a long line of developing Chinese medical literature, where food therapy \u98df\u7642 and the quest for prolonged life \u5ef6\u58fd went hand in hand. The medical genre of literature was more than just a branch of \u2018Daoist\u2019 learning; it was a provisional and growing body of knowledge on the therapeutic potentials of materials, including foods.143  There should be no surprise that Confucian-trained scholars in the Song dynasty engaged with Daoist-influenced medical literature, leaving traces of enthusiasm for the virtues of vegetable foods such as we see in the Benxin zhai shushi pu and Shanjia qinggong. One way to understand the intellectual eclecticism of Confucian intellectuals is to frame it as a process leading to the emergence of Neo-Confucianism: scholars and scholar-officials sought to salvage Confucianism by integrating ideas from Buddhism and Daoism. In the Northern Song, scholar-officials took an increasing interest in all things medical, reading the medical literature, editing old medical works, compiling new ones, and implementing public policies related to medicine.144   \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0142 Cook, \u201cPre-Han Period,\u201d 14.\t \u00a0143 E.g., Chen, Beisong wenren de yinshi shuxie, 581-586.\t \u00a0144 Goldschmidt, Evolution of Chinese Medicine, 44-45.\t \u00a0  67\t \u00a0 1.9 Chapter conclusions  Other scholars have already demonstrated that Buddhist vegetarianism in China was adopted into monastic practice only through a complex set of forces, including the arrival of Mah\u0101y\u0101na texts and pressures from lay Buddhists. Some aspects of my analysis here merely amplify these views. Beyond this, what I have tried to do is bring more attention to the larger cultural and intellectual milieu in China that was already amenable toward ideas about the moral implications of restrictive dieting. Vegetarianism in China does not have a taproot running straight down into Indian Buddhist bedrock. Its root system is more complicated than that. Historical analysis shows the full prohibition on meat foods to be a development in Indian Buddhism that only appears with Mah\u0101y\u0101na thought. Despite this, Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism need not be seen as a corruption; it is rather an innovation of significance in the global history of Buddhism and has become a key feature of Chinese Buddhism.145 What started as a response to social pressures in caste-stratified Indian society found a new social environment in China that welcomed the idea of vegetarianism for different reasons. (Indian) Buddhist authors initially resisted the pure\/impure dichotomy of ritual purity that brahmins espoused in India, but with the development of Mah\u0101y\u0101na, some Buddhists integrated aspects of the brahmin worldview into Buddhist thought, creating dissonance between older and newer teachings on food practice. Chinese Buddhists leading up to the sixth century seem to have treated vegetarianism as a noble yet optional discipline, until social pressures began to demand that it be made a requirement for tonsured Buddhists.  Previous research has pointed to the discrepancy between lay Buddhists who voluntarily adopted vegetarianism and tonsured Buddhists who cited Buddhist teachings allowing meat to be eaten under certain conditions; the lay Buddhists \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0145 It shows, arguably, more consistency between moral theory and practice than forms of Buddhism that have justified keeping meat in monastic diets. We should not assume that in places like Tibet where Buddhists eat meat, all Buddhists have remained silent and complacent\u2013\u2013the case of Shabkar arguing for vegetarianism in the nineteenth century suggests that meat-eating can be in uneasy tension with ideals even where a meatless diet is impractical due to environmental limitations. See Shabkar, Food of Bodhisattvas.\t \u00a0  68\t \u00a0appeared more morally rigorous in the comparison. I want to go further, suggesting that the comparison was also with Daoists, who were becoming increasing adept at the social game of claimed ritual purity. Fasting retreats and other disciplines described by Ge Hong (among others) captured the attention of secular society, and cloistered Buddhists had to compete for this attention. As in Indian society during the rise of devotional Hinduism, another group claiming superior moral status through a restrictive dietary practice put pressure on Buddhists to keep up appearances. Not just group identity but also the purported efficacy of the group\u2019s path was at stake in the struggle to establish new food strictures in China. Chinese Buddhists had to cater to patrons who had expectations about the moral standards of renunciants that were shaped in the broader intellectual environment of Chinese society. Could it be that Mah\u0101y\u0101na Buddhism ascended to such heights in China (and not in India, where it was marginal) in part due to the cultural resonance of its approach to moral discipline? The compelling ideal image of the bodhisattva from the Mah\u0101y\u0101na literature resonated with Confucian virtues of frugality and sympathy. The bold prescription of a vegetarian diet resonated with Daoist interest in building knowledge of the efficacies of materials in self-cultivation. Daoist alchemy, Confucian frugality, and Buddhist compassion all suggested that how one eats can make a profound difference in one\u2019s moral cultivation.  No clear boundaries were set between what was religious, moral, or physiological. Plants (such as tea) could have apotropaic powers and deities could influence the course of an illness. Premodern Chinese did not live in a world with strong mind-body dualism, but rather experimented eclectically with ideas of efficacy in experience, integrating what in the modern day appear to be discrete knowledge spheres: science, religion, and morality. In Song China, while Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie circulated, these spheres were not yet differentiated. Nonetheless, there are indications that this may be a turning point. The secularization of medicine at the end of the Tang and into the Song is one indication that some intellectuals were interested in stripping from Buddhism its status as a global system of knowledge, such as was represented in Yichu\u2019s encyclopedia.    69\t \u00a0Vegetarianism in China, then, was tied to tricky questions of moral status and the politics of resource distribution between groups. It was not one thing, \u201cvegetarianism,\u201d but several interrelated and interacting cultural phenomena. For scholar monks like Yichu, vegetarianism may have seemed like something running against the grain of the early Buddhist teachings. Or perhaps he chose not to emphasize vegetarianism because it was not very distinctive of Buddhist thought in the larger context of Chinese society. Whatever his reasons, it did not figure much in the citations on food that form the basis for the chapters that follow. My hope is that by dealing first with the problem of vegetarianism, we are now in a position to discuss what Buddhist teachings on food were about. We can now pose the question, \u201cIf not vegetarianism, then what?\u201d  70\t \u00a02. Lexicon or Encyclopedia? Assessing Genre for Yichu\u2019s Extra-Canonical Shishi liutie  2.1 Origins  Toward the end of summer in 954, Emperor Shizong \u4e16\u5b97  of the Later Zhou Dynasty (951-960) received at court in the Eastern Capital \u6771\u4eac146 a Buddhist monk who had just finished compiling a sizable text. At the time, China was splintered into independent kingdoms in the south and short-lived dynasties in the north; a climate of war and political instability pervaded. In the Cefu yuangui \u518a\u5e9c\u5143\u9f9c (Oracle of the Literary Storehouse) we read,  This [ninth] month [of the first year of Shizong\u2019s Xiande reign], \u015brama\u1e47a Yichu of Qizhou presented at court the Shishi liutie in thirty fascicles.147 Yichu, who enjoyed a reputation for integrity from his early years and was well versed in Confucian learning, organized eloquently worded matters from Buddhist literature into categories, collating [these] in the manner of Bai Juyi\u2019s Confucian work. The Emperor looked over [Yichu\u2019s compilation], praised it, conferred [on him] purple (honorary) robes, and handed over his books to the Bureau of Historiography. \u662f\u2f49\u6708 [\u4e16\u5b97\u986f\u5fb7\u5143\u5e74\u4e5d\u2f49\u6708 ]\uff0c\u9f4a\u5dde\u6c99\u2fa8\u9580\u7fa9\u695a\u9032\u91cb\u6c0f\u516d\u5e16\u4e09\u2f17\u5341\u5377\u3002\ufe12\u7fa9\u695a\u5c11\u8ca0\u540d\u64cd ,  \u4ea6\u901a\u5112\u5b78 ,  \u5c07\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0146 Kaifeng, presently in Henan Prefecture.\t \u00a0147 The oldest extant manuscript is divided into six books \u5e16, containing in total fifty sections \u90e8. Fascicles \u5377 are used as the measure word for the six \u201cbooks,\u201d so the record here of thirty fascicles may be in error, or may refer to an earlier organizational scheme that was later replaced.\t \u00a0  71\t \u00a0\u4f5b\u66f8\u9e97\u4e8b\uff0c\u4ee5 [\u985e ]148\u76f8\u5f9e ,  \u64ec\u2f69\u767d\u6c0f\u5112\u66f8\u6240\u96c6 .  \u5e1d\u89bd\u2f7d\u800c\u5609\u4e4b ,  \u8cdc\u4ee5\u7d2b\u8863 ,  \u5176\u66f8\u4ed8\u53f2\u8218 149. This monk was Yichu \u7fa9\u695a (fl. 945-954) , whose dharma name means \u201cclear in meaning.\u201d Yichu, a scholar-monk specializing in the Abhidharma Storehouse Treatise (Ch. Apidamo jushe lun \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u5036\u820d\u8ad6, Skt. Abhidharmako\u015ba-bh\u0101\u1e63ya), had labored for nearly a decade to produce a massive text on all aspects of Buddhism as he understood it, filled richly with citations from a wide range of sources. He began compiling it in 945 during the Later Jin Dynasty, finishing the work in 954, the year that Shizong ascended the throne of a new dynasty that had only begun in 951. In the course of his work, Yichu had nearly lost his vision. Frustrated and doubting the value of his work, Yichu had nearly abandoned the project, but a period of self-reflection set him back on track.  Having handed over his scholarship to Shizong\u2019s court, the fate of Yichu\u2019s compilation now rested with scholars and officials connected with the Bureau of Historiography (shiguan \u53f2\u9928). In tenth-century China, scholars and craftspeople continued to raise woodblock-printing techniques to new levels of sophistication, printing a wide range of subject-matter and taking on increasingly ambitious projects such as anthologies and canonical collections.150 The technology was ripe for such projects as Yichu presented, but the age was in political turmoil.  Shizong may have shown interest in Yichu\u2019s text more out of deference to the scholar-official Wang Pu\u2019s \u738b\u6734 (?-959) endorsement than out of intrinsic interest in Buddhism. Ouyang Xiu \u6b50\u967d\u4fee (1007-1072) records in his history of the Five Dynasties that in summer of 955\u2013\u2013less than a year from Yichu\u2019s court \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0148 Scripta Sinica\u2019s digitized text gives \u4aeb, a variant of \u9acf, skull, but this appears to be an error, since \u4ee5\u985e\u76f8\u5f9e is a common phrase, while \u4ee5\u9acf\u76f8\u5f9e is unheard of.\t \u00a0149 In the section Chong shishi di\u2019er \u5d07\u91cb\u6c0f\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c, fascicle 52 of Diwang bu \u5e1d\u738b\u90e8. Also cited in Makita, Giso rokuj\u014d ni tsuite, 3.\t \u00a0150 Tsien, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, 154. Discussion of the origins of woodblock printing span 146-159. See also Mote, Imperial China, 21.\t \u00a0  72\t \u00a0appearance\u2013\u2013Shizong\u2019s court struck a firm blow to Buddhist institutions and their activities: \u201cOn the seventh day [of the fifth month], Buddhist temples were widely destroyed; the court also prohibited commoners with parents lacking caregivers from becoming Buddhist clerics and proscribed private conversions to the clergy.\u201d151   Social instability and warfare continued for the next several years. Shizong died during a military campaign in 959 and the Later Zhou Dynasty was soon eclipsed by the rise of a new dynasty, the Song (960-1279), which not only succeeded in reunifying China, but which also led to a great cultural and economic flourishing. Work on Yichu\u2019s manuscript continued under the new government and in the sixth year of Kaibao (973), almost two decades since Yichu presented his work to Shizong, printing blocks were completed and the Shishi liutie \u91cb\u6c0f\u516d\u5e16, the \u201cSix Books of the \u015a\u0101kya Clan,\u201d152 was published.  Requiring three decades from conception to publication, the Shishi liutie is a magnificent achievement. That the project was finally published is testament to the high levels of support that sustained it even under the Northern Song government. Yet despite its initial praise and support, the Shishi liutie gradually faded into obscurity in China, not to reappear there until the mid-twentieth century, when Chinese scholars rediscovered it in Japan. Based on the woodblock-print edition preserved in Japan, a typeface edition now circulates in China, but the Shishi liutie is still poorly understood and little researched. Never having entered the Buddhist canon, it lacks a digital presence in online databases and remains an obscure text. Because it is an extra-canonical work, we are well served by asking a most basic question: To what Buddhist genre of writing does the Shishi liutie belong? The answer requires some explanation. Glancing over the Shishi liutie, one sees that an entry consists of a four-character phrase, followed by the name of a text and a citation that draws content from the text. This is the presentation format for leishu, but there appears to be little historical \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0151 Davis, Historical Records of the Five Dynasties, 109-110. Ouyang Xiu\u2019s records of Shizong\u2019s reign say nothing of Yichu\u2019s presenting a text to the court. We might ask if Ouyang Xiu was cherry picking events to serve an anti-Buddhist agenda, for which he is remembered.\t \u00a0152 Or perhaps even \"Mr. \u015a\u0101kya's Six Books,\" i.e., a primer of the Buddha's teachings.\t \u00a0  73\t \u00a0precedent for recognizing leishu as a genre of Buddhist writings.153 In the late twentieth century, the Shishi liutie was included in a set of Buddhist lexica (cishu \u8fad\u66f8) called the Foxue cishu jicheng \u4f5b\u5b78\u8fad\u66f8\u96c6\u6210, suggesting that to Chinese Buddhists it is a lexicon\u2013\u2013that it is concerned primarily with the language of Buddhism, providing citations for key phrases.  Stephen F. Teiser, who supplies a brief English-language introduction to this work in Scripture of the Ten Kings, describes it as \u201c\u2026a tenth-century encyclopedia designed as a Buddhist version of the lists of flowery vocabulary available to men of letters\u201d (49). This characterization is in reference to Yichu\u2019s overt modeling of the Shishi liutie on Bai Juyi\u2019s similarly titled Baishi liutie, which is incontrovertible. But while he calls the Shishi liutie an encyclopedia, his wording suggests that 1) the value of the work (and that of Bai Juyi) is primarily lexical in nature, with emphasis on the four-character headings (\u201cflowery vocabulary\u201d) with which entries begin, and 2) that the work is primarily an advanced lexical tool for intellectuals (\u201cmen of letters\u201d).154 Teiser appears to be echoing MAKITA Tairy\u014d, the scholar who initiated research on the Shishi liutie in Japan and whom he cites. Makita writes that Yichu compiled the work in the manner of Bai Juyi, \u201c\u2026collating Buddhist terminology for use as flowery language [in poetry, etc.] \u4f5b\u6559\u2f64\u7528\u8a9e\u3092\u6536\u63a1\u3057\u3066\u8a5e\u85fb\u306e\u2f64\u7528\u306b\u4f9b\u3057\u3066\u2026\u201d155  I will argue that treating the Shishi liutie as a lexicon is an error, and understanding it as a merely lexical tool for use in literary embellishment is misleading.156 The confusion may derive from overly hasty assumptions of parallelism with the Baishi liutie or from the \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0153 Miyai Rika, in \u201cD\u014dki den ni tsuite,\u201d 2003, raises the issue of whether we are justified to recognize the notion of Buddhist leishu. Scholars who have studied the Shishi liutie generally agree that it is a Buddhist leishu, though giving little space to discussion of the implications for such a view. While the argument for viewing the Shishi liutie as a leishu is strong from the literary perspective, such a designation appears to be anachronistic in terms of historical genre categories, and we have the problem, also raised by Miyai, of what to include or exclude from the notion of Buddhist leishu. My analysis in the following pages will address these issues.\t \u00a0154 Teiser\u2019s and Makita\u2019s phrasing reflects longstanding characterizations of Bai Juyi\u2019s work and also Wang Pu\u2019s mention of aesthetics in a statement from his preface to the Shishi liutie, so they are not unjustified to so write. Nonetheless, the emphasis appears to miss the mark in some important regards, explained below.\t \u00a0155 \u201cGiso rokuj\u014d ni tsuite,\u201d 1.\t \u00a0156 Though on my observation, it may be accurate for Bai Juyi\u2019s work.\t \u00a0  74\t \u00a0tendency for scholars to focus their knowledge on either Buddhist or secular writings, whose genres tend to be dealt with separately.157 I suggest that the Shishi liutie is best understood as a leishu, akin to our notion of encyclopedia, and that it is more concerned with knowledge and its organization than with terminology per se.158 Using examples from my research on representation of food and eating in the Shishi liutie, I will illustrate that it has features of the leishu genre, emphasizing categories and concepts rather than the language used for these. This would make the Shishi liutie more philosophical and less philological in purpose, but the nuances of its genre bear explaining. To understand Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie, we need to better understand how it relates to its non-Buddhist models and the types of knowledge that those texts preserved. In the intellectual exchange that took place through reading and appropriating a leishu style of presentation, we find evidence of a negotiation of norms, a push and pull between categories for (in this case) food or eating that were sometimes celebrated and sometimes vilified. This kind of negotiation of norms constitutes the evolutionary trajectory of culture and of the themes and categories that feed notions of civilization.  In what follows, then, I address several questions: To what genre does this work belong? For whom was it written and how was it used? Lastly, what value does it hold for present-day scholars of Chinese Buddhism? Each of these questions hinges on the others, with genre serving as a pivotal issue in how to use Yichu\u2019s compilation. At stake in each of these questions is the problem of what knowledge Yichu recorded in the Shishi liutie and how to read this knowledge today. This encyclopedic work that nearly disappeared into the cracks of history becomes more intriguing if we can clarify what it is and how to use it.    \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0157 Appropriation of secular genres for non-Buddhist forms of knowledge is also seen in two Northern-Song texts, the Chan bencao \u79aa\u672c\u8349 and Paozhi lun \u70ae\u7099\u8ad6, where medical metaphor suggests that Buddhist knowledge has efficacy comparable to that found in the practice and transmission of medical knowledge. See Toleno, \"Zen honz\u014d to En Ch\u016bd\u014d no Zenmon honz\u014d ho.\" \t \u00a0158 One additional reason to emphasize leishu as the relevant genre is that our English terms \u201clexicon,\u201d \u201cencyclopedia,\u201d and \u201cdictionary\u201d can also be misleading if not specifically defined. For example, The Brill Dictionary of Religion is what I would call an encyclopedia.\t \u00a0  75\t \u00a02.2 Buddhist leishu? A problem of genre  To locate the Shishi liutie in relationship to both Buddhist and secular genres we can consider a broad set of literary elements\u2013\u2013such as title, organization, content, prefaces, and colophons\u2013\u2013as well as historical information drawn from Yichu\u2019s biography. I have already stated the importance of understanding the Shishi liutie as an example of leishu, but before we look at this secular genre I want to clarify why it is not easily adopted into the ranks of Buddhist lexicons.   2.2.1 Organization of the Shishi liutie  I first became interested in the Shishi liutie when I found it in the above-mentioned Foxue cishu jicheng and recognized its usefulness for my study of moral attitudes toward food and eating in Chinese Buddhist thought. I then learned that a superior edition preserved in manuscript form at T\u014dfukuji in Japan had been published.159 Using this earliest edition, I observed that the overall layout of the work is thematic in organization and logically hierarchical.  The entire work is divided into six tie \u5e16, or books, each of which contains topically coherent sections \u90e8, fifty in total. These sections bring together a cluster of topics (or \u201csubsections\u201d) that are listed in the table of contents simply by number. For example, my research has focused on the topic of food and eating (shi) \u98df, coming second in the 37th section, which is devoted to various topics associated with human eating and drinking: alcoholic beverages \u9152, eating \u98df, porridge \u7ca5, cooked rice \u98f0(\u98ef), soup \u7fb9, and so forth. Twenty-five such topics are listed in this 37th section, though other sections may have fewer or more. Topics such as shi \u98df are the smallest organizational unit to be \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0159 Yichu, \u7fa9\u695a (fl. 945-954). \u201cGiso Rokuj\u014d \u7fa9\u695a\u516d\u5e16.\u201d In Zengaku Tenseki S\u014dkan. 006 (1). \u7985\u5b66\u5178\u7c4d\u53e2\u520a \u7b2c\u516d\u5dfb\u4e0b, edited by Seizan Yanagida, and K\u014dy\u016b Shiina, 1-438. Kyoto: Rinsen shoten \u81e8\u5ddd\u66f8\u5e97, 2001.\t \u00a0  76\t \u00a0listed in the table of contents, but in the body of the manuscript each topic is populated with individual entries headed by a four-character phrase.  Proceeding with translation of material from the Shishi liutie, I began to sense that the four-character phrases with which Yichu begins an entry are typically key concepts rather than conventional Buddhist formulae. For example, Yichu begins his subsection on eating \u98df with this entry: [When] morsel food160 was first received [by humans]. The Jushe lun161 says: At the beginning of the kalpa of formation (i.e., formation of the present universe), the flavor of joy-in-meditation gradually gave rise to the flavor of earth, its scent deeply fragrant, its taste sweet and delicious. At that time there was someone habituated from a prior lifetime to indulge in flavors, to smell fragrances, to take food. That time is known as the first receipt of morsel food, after which arose forests, vines, and scented paddy rice. Of old, it was called tuanshi (lumped food); now it is newly [referred to] as duanshi (piecemeal food). \u6bb5\u98df\u521d\u53d7\u300e\u4ff1\u820d\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6210\u52ab\u4e4b\u521d\uff0c\u79aa\u6085\u70ba\u5473\uff0c\u6f38\u2f63\u751f\u5730\u5473\uff0c\u5176\u2fb9\u9999\u9b31\u99a5\uff0c\u5176\u5473\u2f62\u7518\u7f8e\u3002\ufe12\u6642\u6709\u2f00\u4e00\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u5bbf\u7fd2\u8ead\u5473\uff0c\u81ed\u2fb9\u9999\u53d6\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5c12\u6642\u540d\u70ba\u300c\u521d\u53d7\u6bb5\u98df\u300d\uff0c\u6b21\u2f63\u751f\u6797\u85e4\u2fb9\u9999\u7a3b\u3002\ufe12\u820a\u4e91\u300c\u5718\u98df\u300d\uff0c\u4eca\u65b0\u70ba\u300c\u6bb5\u98df\u300d\u3002\ufe12  The phrase duanshi chushou \u6bb5\u98df\u521d\u53d7 is what I am calling an entry heading. These are represented in large characters that fill the entire width of a single line, followed by a citation in half-size characters that fit as two columns within a single line. This size difference visually emphasizes the entry headings, suggesting their importance in the organizational scheme. Citations begin with the name of a text and \u201cyun \u4e91\u201d to indicate that Yichu is either directly citing or paraphrasing content from the text. I have added punctuation to the entry to show how I read the Chinese, but the original manuscript has neither punctuation nor any indication of how to distinguish Yichu\u2019s voice from \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0160 This is one of four types of food \u56db\u98df identified in Buddhist doctrine, referred to in this way because it is eaten piece by piece, sequentially and periodically. The other three foods are sensory food connecting with emotion, thought-food, and nourishment connected with the six consciousnesses. See Chapter Four for my analysis of this doctrine.\t \u00a0161 Abbr. of Apidamo jushe lun \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u5036\u820d\u8ad6, the Abhidharma Storehouse Treatise, Skt. Abhidharmako\u015ba-bh\u0101\u1e63ya, T29 n1558 and n1559. The cited material is an origin myth that occurs in T29 n1558, 65b15-c20. For an English translation of this passage, see Vasubandhu\u2019s Abhidharmako\u015babh\u0101\u1e63yam,   77\t \u00a0cited material. As this example illustrates, the entry heading is not defined so much as explained via citation. This basic anatomy of an entry is consistent in all parts of the Shishi liutie through which I have read.  In the above example, the entry heading elements are inverted in the explanatory text, suggesting that the order of this four-character phrase, duanshi chushou, is not fixed. If Yichu\u2019s purpose were primarily lexical, he would have focused on the fixed compound duanshi, which warrants explanation since it is a technical term in Buddhist doctrine. But rather than isolating and defining it, Yichu has his Shishi liutie accomplish clarification of this lexical item by identifying its larger context in a Buddhist scripture.  The issue of whether entry headings are conventional formulae or Yichu\u2019s original phrasing cannot be decided by this single example, but needs to be tested with a larger set of data, and I aim to do this in the next section.   2.2.2 Analysis of Entry headings  One way to test my thesis\u2013\u2013that Yichu\u2019s four-character headings are not primarily chosen as lexical terms but are his own phrasing\u2013\u2013is to trace them in historical literature, both in works preceding his (to see if he borrowed them from other texts) and in subsequent writings (to see if they attained status as idiom at any point in time).  Of fifty-seven headings in the shi \u98df subsection, twelve\u2013\u2013or about 20%\u2013\u2013occur in texts found in the two major databases of Chinese Buddhism (SAT and CBETA) or in Scripta Sinica, a database containing a broad set of Chinese writings not limited to those associated with Buddhism. Close examination, however, suggests that these twelve headings occur in contexts of straightforward wording and in most cases do not appear to have been used as set-phrases representing key concepts.   For example, \u201cfoods are of ten varieties \u98df\u6709\u2f17\u5341\u7a2e\u201d appears in contexts that do not match Yichu\u2019s citation, but rather enumerate the ten benefits of eating (\u98df\u6709\u2f17\u5341\u7a2e\u5229), \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0v.2, pp.487-489. See also Benavides, \u201cEconomy,\u201d in Lopez, Critical Terms, for a discussion of the origin   78\t \u00a0the ten merits associated with eating (\u98df\u6709\u2f17\u5341\u7a2e\u529f\u5fb3), and the ten types of leftover food (\u98df\u6709\u2f17\u5341\u7a2e\u6b98\u98df)\u2013\u2013Yichu\u2019s entry under this phrase enumerates actual foodstuffs. Another heading, \u201ctheir colors each differ \u5176\u2f8a\u8272\u5404\u7570\u201d is a statement so general that it has many occurrences even outside the Buddhist literature. Other phrases refer to events that were widely discussed by Buddhist authors: \u201c\u0100nanda begs for food \u963f\u96e3\u4e5e\u98df,\u201d and \u201cthe Buddha eats milk porridge \u4f5b\u98df\u4e73\u7cdc.\u201d  The phrase with the greatest number of occurrences is \u201ctake a[long] a bhik\u1e63u \u5c07\u2f00\u4e00\u6bd4\u4e18,\u201d appearing over twenty times in the SAT collection and having nearly 150 total hits in the CBETA database. Tracing back even to the Longer \u0100gama s\u016btra, this phrase was not coined by Yichu, but nor does it seem to have represented a key concept with status as idiom. The only modern dictionary where I find this phrase listed is Hirakawa\u2019s Buddhist Chinese-Sanskrit Dictionary, 392, which supplies the Sanskrit phrase, \u201cdvit\u012bya\u1e43 bhik\u1e63u m\u0101rgeta.\u201d As a phrase from the classic literature, it stands testimony to the longstanding practice of tonsured Buddhists avoiding solitary excursions.  At least one of the twelve phrases with occurrences outside of Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie does represent a key concept that could have become a common formula: \u201cbegging for alms food \u4e5e\u98df\u5206\u885e.\u201d But this formula has only one occurrence outside of Yichu\u2019s use, suggesting that placing together the two terms for begging, qishi and fenwei, was not a common phrasing used to represent begging practice.  While this subsection cannot be used as representative of the overall reception of the Shishi liutie, parts of which were probably more read and used than others, it can at least help us gauge the basic status of his entry headings. The overall picture gained from an analysis of the previous and subsequent occurrences of Yichu\u2019s four-character headings from the subsection tested here\u2013\u2013which is still a limited sample\u2013\u2013suggests that these phrases are largely his original work, that they frame key ideas in his citations rather \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0myth from the perspective of Pali literature.\t \u00a0  79\t \u00a0than serving as established linguistic formulae, and that they do not appear to have influenced subsequent monastic or secular writings to any significant degree. They most likely are meant to anchor each item with a simple linguistic formula\u2013\u2013that is, with a mnemonic. These conclusions strengthen my position that Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie is not a lexicon, but we have yet to look at concrete examples that would illustrate what this means. We will now look at several types of Buddhist lexicons and discuss how Yichu\u2019s work differs. There are no clear boundaries between Buddhist lexicons and encyclopedias, which often serve similar purposes, but through a comparative analysis I believe we can identify enough criteria for recognizing family resemblances and sketching out simple genealogies of related texts. These understandings can then help us locate the Shishi liutie in the larger landscape of literary genres.    2.2.3 Buddhist lexicons, reading aids, and character dictionaries  Chinese Buddhists had to grapple with difficult concepts from Sanskrit, Pali, and other Indic languages, so they had a need for lexical guides. Some of these guides are still extant and can be viewed in volume 54162 of the Taish\u014d Daiz\u014dky\u014d Buddhist canon (hereafter \u201cTaish\u014d,\u201d abbreviated as T in notes).  Cross-language lexicons likely supported translation work into Chinese by establishing normative equivalents for basic words.  Sanskrit lexicons Chinese-Sanskrit lexicons include texts such as the Fanyu qianzi wen \u68b5\u8a9e\u5343\u5b57\u2f42\u6587,163 collated by Yijing \u7fa9\u6de8 (635-713) of the Tang Dynasty, the Tangfan wenzi \u5510\u68b5\u2f42\u6587\u5b57164 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0162 This Taish\u014d volume constitutes a section on Affairs and Lexicons, Shihui bu \u4e8b\u5f59\u90e8.\t \u00a0163 T54 n2133. This is a single-fascicle lexicon providing Sanskrit equivalents for one thousand commonly-appearing Chinese characters, designed as a convenient study aid for Chinese who were just getting started with Sanskrit. Ono, Bussho kaisestu daijiten v.10 p.218.\t \u00a0164 T54 n2134. A single-fascicle lexicon with Chinese terms and Sanskrit equivalents. The order of words is similar to that of the Fanyu qianzi wen by Yijing, so Quanzhen\u2019s work appears to be based on this other, but aspects of this assumption are still under debate. Ono, Bussho kaisestu daijiten v.8 p.227.\t \u00a0  80\t \u00a0by Quanzhen \u5168\u771f (fl. 839), the Fanyu zaming \u68b5\u8a9e\u96dc\u540d165 compiled by Liyan \u79ae\u2f94\u8a00 (fl. 839) and edited by Zhenyuan \u771f\u6e90, and the Tangfan liangyu shuangdui ji \u5510\u68b5\u5169\u8a9e\u96d9\u5c0d\u96c6166. This last is a Chinese to Sanskrit lexicon that groups loosely associated Chinese terms from everyday use and supplies transliterated Sanskrit equivalent terms using Chinese characters. For example, under wei \u5473 is luosuo \u56c9\u5a11, which transliterates the Sanskrit term rasa. The thematic clustering of terms bears some resemblance to how the Shishi liutie is structured, but the content is purely lexical.  Yinyi reading aids Another kind of lexicon, yinyi \u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9, served Buddhists who encountered technical terms while reading Chinese translations of Buddhist texts, providing information on pronunciation (yin) and meaning (yi). Yinyi are reading aids prepared by well-read scholar monks. The most representative yinyi are Xuanying\u2019s \u7384\u61c9 (d.u.) Yiqie jing yinyi \u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u7d93\u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9 (A Lexicon of the Entire Buddhist Canon), the first major yinyi, Huilin\u2019s \u6167\u7433 (737-820) expansion of Xuanying\u2019s project (also called Yiqie jing yinyi \u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u7d93\u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9 ), and Kehong\u2019s \u53ef\u6d2a (d.u.) Xinji zangjing yinyi suihan lu \u65b0\u96c6\u85cf\u7d93\u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9\u96a8\u51fd\u9304 from the Five-Dynasties period, a massive culmination of the work started by Xuanying.  Yinyi developed as a genre to cover not just translated works, but to provide reading aid even for works authored in China. Notable examples are the Zuting shiyuan \u7956\u5ead\u4e8b\u82d1, compiled in 1108 by Lu\u2019an Shanqing \u9678\u83f4\u5584\u537f of the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127), and Dajian\u2019s \u2f24\u5927\u5efa (fl. 1635) Chanlin baoxun yinyi \u79aa\u6797\u5bf6\u8a13\u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9, both of \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0165 T54 n2135. A single-fascicle lexicon providing Sanskrit for essential nouns from everyday use. A convenient aid for beginners of Sanskrit, resembling the Fanyu qianzi wen and the Tangfan wenzi. Ono, Bussho kaisestu daijiten v.10 p.218.\t \u00a0  81\t \u00a0which give pronunciation and definitions for terms appearing in well-read texts of the Chan Buddhist corpus. Yinyi are arranged by the text that they cover in each section; they are reading aids and not dictionaries. An example of the latter, for looking up difficult characters used in Buddhist writings, is Xingjun\u2019s \u2f8f\u884c\u5747 (d.u.) Longkan shoujian \u9f8d\u9f95\u2f3f\u624b\u9451. Its organization is based on tones (ping \u5e73, shang \u4e0a, qu \u53bb, ru \u5165) and radicals, such that specific characters (though not compound terms) can be searched.  Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie bears little resemblance to these Buddhist reference tools, as it is not an yinyi or a dictionary. Like the Sanskrit-Chinese lexicon Tangfan liangyu shuangdui ji, it organizes things and ideas in a logically connected structure that permits efficient searching, but it supplies complex citations and not just simple definitions. There are other Buddhist writings that do similarly, so it is to these that we now turn our attention.    2.2.4 Buddhist encyclopedias  More than the lexicons already discussed, the Shishi liutie resembles a set of texts that are encyclopedic in scope and rich in content. In my understanding, encyclopedias organize human knowledge using organizational schemes that reflect semantic structuring\u2013\u2013categories with similar meaning are clustered together\u2013\u2013rather than using text-based structuring (yinyi) or arranging only simple lexical data (cross-language lexicons). Encyclopedias differ from lexicons especially in the richness of the data presented, which reflect an interest in the ideas of human knowledge that extends beyond defining simple lexical units. I make this distinction not as an argument about how Chinese understood their own literary genres, but as a tool for refining understanding of how the notion of leishu might apply to the case of the Shishi liutie.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0166 T54 n2136. One fascicle, compiled in the Tang Dynasty by \u50e7\u601b\u591a\u8616\u591a Tath\u0101gatap\u0101la and \u6ce2\u7f85\u77bf\u90a3\u5f4c\u6368\u6c99 Gu\u1e47avi\u015be\u1e63a (the identities of these monks is tentative). See Ono, Bussho kaisestu daijiten v.8, p.227.\t \u00a0  82\t \u00a0Japanese scholar MIYAI Rika explicitly raises the question of whether or not we are justified to identify certain encyclopedic Buddhist works as Buddhist leishu. Working on an extra-canonical Buddhist encyclopedia called the Jinzang lun \u2fa6\u91d1\u85cf\u8ad6 by Daoji \u9053\u7d00 (late 6th c.), she aligns her text with some of the Buddhist works that I will discuss in this section, and suggests that these could be considered Buddhist leishu.167 While I am sympathetic to her position, which parallels my basic argument for the Shishi liutie in this chapter, one reason to hesitate in using the secular genre of leishu for Buddhist works is that secular catalogues and collections, and even contemporary discussions, seem to stay silent on the matter, failing to mention Buddhist examples.  We need to critically assess these issues before accepting the notion of Buddhist leishu. How to clearly organize Buddhist knowledge is a perennial problem for Buddhist authors going back to the Buddha himself,168 so it is unwise to assume a pathway of influence from secular to Buddhist literature even though some Buddhist writings do conform closely to the style of secular leishu. Buddhist encyclopedias may have developed under the influence of Buddhist precedents before they adopted features of secular leishu, so here I will first discuss the logic of this view before looking into the details of leishu as a secular genre, the topic of the next section.   Jingl\u00fc yixiang  Perhaps the earliest extant Buddhist encyclopedia is the Jingl\u00fc yixiang \u7d93\u5f8b\u7570\u76f8, a text that was commissioned by Emperor Wu \u6881\u6b66\u5e1d (464-549) of the Liang Dynasty (502-557), a famous patron of Buddhism. Emperor Wu had Baochang \u5bf6\u5531 (5th-6th c.), Senghao \u50e7\u660a (d.u.), and others compile this fifty-fascicle collection of stories and anecdotes, correcting and improving upon a work that had been completed by Sengmin \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0167 Miyai, \u201cD\u014dki den ni tsuite.\u201d\t \u00a0168 Pereira and Tiso, \u201cEvolution of Buddhist Systematics.\u201d\t \u00a0  83\t \u00a0\u50e7\u65fb (467-527) in 508.169 Organized according to Buddhist cosmology, the Jingl\u00fc yixiang begins with heavens \u5929 and ends with hells \u5730\u7344, covering the different realms and their beings in the course of thirty-nine sections. This organizing principle is closely associated with Buddhist doctrine, and the early date further weighs against the view that the Buddhist collators had secular models in mind while they worked. Nonetheless, Miyai sees this work as the first example of a Buddhist leishu. Ono Genmy\u014d, on the other hand, refers to this work as a soulu \u8490\u9304 (Jp. sh\u016broku), \u201cassembled record,\u201d though we should note that his citation of a preface170 includes the phrase yilei xiangcong \u4ee5\u985e\u76f8\u5f9e, \u201cto order by categories,\u201d which gets picked up as a descriptor of the organizational style of leishu.   Jinzang lun  Although scattered in the course of history and nearly lost,171 Daoji\u2019s Jinzang lun from the late 6th century, mentioned above, is a Buddhist encyclopedia that presents teachings from Buddhist literature on such themes as temples and towers \u5bfa\u5854, banners and lamps \u5e61\u71c8, scriptures and statues \u7d93\u50cf, and taking refuge and precepts \u6b78\u6212. 172 The thematic organization leads Miyai to propose that it be considered a Buddhist leishu, though she does not say that it bears stylistic influences from secular leishu\u2013\u2013just a similarity in style and purpose. She suggests, rather, that Daoji may have taken stylistic hints from the zhang \u7ae0 mode of presentation found in the Chengshi lun \u6210\u5be6\u8ad6, which he studied closely.173 Hers is thus not a very strong argument for connecting Buddhist \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0169 Muller, \u201c\u7d93\u5f8b\u7570\u76f8,\u201d DDB.\t \u00a0170 Ono, Bussho kaisestu daijiten v. 2, p.289b.\t \u00a0171 Like the Shishi liutie, it was never entered into the Buddhist canon, a fate that has often harmed the longevity of Buddhist works.\t \u00a0172 Miyai, \u201cD\u014dki den ni tsuite,\u201d 7.\t \u00a0173 Ibid., 7-8.\t \u00a0  84\t \u00a0encyclopedias with the genre of leishu, but there are reasons, yet to be discussed, why the notion of genre interaction or overlap may yet be justified.  Yog\u0101c\u0101rabh\u016bmi-\u015b\u0101stra  Another potential ancestor of Buddhist encyclopedias is the Yog\u0101c\u0101rabh\u016bmi-\u015b\u0101stra (Ch. Yuqie shidi lun \u745c\u4f3d\u5e2b\u5730\u8ad6),174 composed in India between 300-350 CE. It provides encyclopedic treatment of key facets of Yog\u0101c\u0101ra thought and practice and is the definitive text for this school of Buddhism. Xuanzang \u7384\u5958 (ca. 602-664) made a translation of the entire work between 646-648, resulting in a Chinese text of 100 fascicles. Its organization follows seventeen stages of Buddhist practice leading up to buddhahood.175 While this organizing principle derives directly from Buddhist doctrine and is still far from the broadly encompassing organization of the Shishi liutie, it may have informed later leishu-style Buddhist compilations by setting a standard of comprehensive doctrinal treatment and clarity of organization.  Fashu  For clarity and easy referencing, one of the more effective tools for organizing doctrinal concepts is numerical ordering. An early extant example of a Buddhist lexicon or encyclopedia176 using this method is Li Shizheng\u2019s \u674e\u5e2b\u653f (fl. 618-626) Famen mingyi ji \u6cd5\u2fa8\u9580\u540d\u7fa9\u96c6, \u201cCollection on the Meanings of Well-Known Buddhist Doctrine,\u201d produced in the Tang dynasty. It gives a concise overview of essential Buddhist concepts, taking advantage of the fact that these are often associated with numbers. For example, the Six Roots \u516d\u6839 [of sensory experience] are enumerated as eyes \u773c, ears \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0174 T30 n1579. See Ono, Bussho kaisestu daijiten v.11, p.74-75.\t \u00a0175 Dan Lusthaus and Charles Muller, \u201c\u745c\u4f3d\u5e2b\u5730\u8ad6 \u2060,\u201d DDB.\t \u00a0176 One could argue that it serves primarily as a lexical guide and should not be considered an encyclopedia, but it is a borderline case and worth bringing to the discussion.\t \u00a0  85\t \u00a0\u2f7f\u8033, nose \u2fd0\u9f3b, tongue \u2f86\u820c, body \u8eab, and mind \u610f. This concise text of a single fascicle clusters such numerical concepts in themed chapters \u54c1 and does not strictly follow numerical ordering. Nonetheless, it may have influenced the development of a more strictly numerical genre of texts that came to be known as fashu \u6cd5\u6578.  Buddhist authors after the Tang period continued to utilize numerical ordering in similar reference works. The Indian scholar monk Shihu \u65bd\u8b77 (Skt. D\u0101nap\u0101la, fl. 982), who was active in translation work at the beginning of the Northern Song and thus a contemporary of Yichu, produced the Foshuo faji mingshu jing \u4f5b\u8aaa\u6cd5\u96c6\u540d\u6578\u7d93, a relatively short text with a narrative exposition of Buddhist terminology. The organization uses numerical concepts, but these are approached discursively: \u201cWhat are the eight things with form? They are earth, water, fire, wind, smell, flavor, touch, and dharma.\u201d177  In the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), this notion of organizing doctrinal concepts according to their numerical values culminated in two encyclopedic works: the Daming sanzang fashu \u2f24\u5927\u660e\u4e09\u85cf\u6cd5\u6578, compiled by Yiru \u2f00\u4e00\u5982 (1352-1425) and others, and the Chongding jiaosheng fashu \u91cd\u5b9a\u6559\u4e58\u6cd5\u6578 by Chaohai \u8d85\u6d77 (d.u.). Yichu may have been aware of the earlier examples of this developing genre, but he did not choose for his own work a numerically-based organizing principle.  Fayuan zhulin  Several decades after Xuanzang\u2019s translation the Yog\u0101c\u0101rabh\u016bmi-\u015b\u0101stra and compilation of Li Shizheng\u2019s Famen mingyi ji, a Chang\u2019an-based scholar monk involved in translation work, Daoshi \u9053\u4e16 (?-683), produced a magnificent collection called Fayuan zhulin \u6cd5\u82d1\u73e0\u6797, publishing it in 688. The Fayuan zhulin is a Buddhist   86\t \u00a0encyclopedia in 100 fascicles that has been much celebrated for its literary value. Ono Genmy\u014d characterizes it as a Buddhist leishu, saying, \u201cAs this book collates by category and collects together a multitude of items from the various sutras and \u015bastras, we can say that this is in fact a large Buddhist leishu.\u201d178   Organization of the Fayuan zhulin fits sixty-eight themes (marked as chapters \u7bc7 and comprised of smaller sections \u90e8) into the one-hundred fascicles. These themes begin with the calculation of time in Buddhism \u52ab\u91cf, theory of the three realms \u4e09\u754c, topics related to sun and moon \u2f47\u65e5\u2f49\u6708, and so forth, ranging quite broadly through topics in Buddhist doctrine. While grandly comprehensive, organization in the Fayuan zhulin is less hierarchically structured in comparison with Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie. We might say that the Fayuan zhulin uses a chain of linked associations, where themes in succession can be understood as more similar than themes in other parts of the text.  This could perhaps also be said of the Shishi liutie, but there are subtle differences. The hierarchical groupings of the Shishi liutie are more obvious. My search for discussions on moral aspects of food and eating yielded a whole section179 populated with food-related topics in the Shishi liutie, as discussed above, but in the Fayuan zhulin passages of interest were scattered in chapters devoted to disparate themes such as Alcohol and Meat \u9152\u2f81\u8089 and Filth and Purity \u7a62\u6fc1. The most relevant set of passages was in a subsection titled Eating Porridge \u98df\u7cdc(\u90e8), nested within another section on Completing the Path \u6210\u9053(\u90e8), and falling within the chapter Thousand Buddhas \u5343\u4f5b(\u7bc7). Such organization follows a doctrinal logic that differs greatly from the pattern of \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0177 T17 n764, p.661a02. \u4e91\u4f55\u516b\u6709\u2f8a\u8272\u3002\ufe12\u6240\u8b02\u5730\u2f54\u6c34\u2f55\u706b\u98a8\u2fb9\u9999\u5473\u89f8\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0178 Ono, Bussho kaisestu daijiten v.10, p.5b: \u201c\u672c\u66f8\u306f\u8af8\u7d4c\u8ad6\u306b\u65bc\u3051\u308b\u767e\u822c\u306e\u4e8b\u9805\u3092\u985e\u5225\u96c6\u6210\u305b\u308b\u3082\u306e\u3001\ufe11\u3053\u306e\u610f\u5473\u306b\u65bc\u3066\u672c\u66f8\u306f\u5b9f\u306b\u4ecf\u6559\u306e\u2f00\u4e00\u2f24\u5927\u985e\u66f8\u3067\u3042\u308b\u3068\u79f0\u3057\u3066\u3088\u3044\u3002\ufe12\u201d There seems little justification from his description for calling the Fayuan zhulin a Buddhist leishu while not doing the same for the Jingl\u00fc yixiang, but he is stating an analogy rather than arguing a case for direct influence from the secular leishu genre.\t \u00a0  87\t \u00a0organization found in non-Buddhist leishu, and likely made the Fayuan zhulin less accessible to a readership outside of Buddhist circles. At the very least, it makes the Fayuan zhulin more of a spiritual masterpiece for browsing on its own terms than a reference work for looking up citations.  The Shishi liutie as an accessible Buddhist encyclopedia  The handful of works brought into discussion here could be supplemented with many more, especially if we look beyond Yichu\u2019s time to the Song period and later. For instance, the genealogy outlined here produced the Shishi yaolan \u91cb\u6c0f\u8981\u89bd by Daocheng \u9053\u8aa0 (fl. 1019) during the Northern Song and Fayun\u2019s \u6cd5\u96f2 (1088-1158) Fanyi mingyi ji \u7ffb\u8b6f\u540d\u7fa9\u96c6 in 1143 of the Southern Song, two topically organized reference works that blur the boundaries between lexicon and encyclopedia. While I draw a distinction between lexicons and encyclopedias for the purpose of refining our understanding of the Shishi liutie, we must bear in mind that historical authors and readers may have understood genre without resorting to such overarching categories. A plurality of genres was recognized for Buddhist works, as we see from Wang Pu\u2019s preface: \u201cThere are [explications]180 in scriptures, monastic codes, treatises, collections, records, eulogies, chronicles, paeans, and accounts. \u6709\u7d93\u3001\ufe11\u5f8b\u3001\ufe11\u8ad6\u3001\ufe11\u96c6\u3001\ufe11\u8a18\u3001\ufe11\u8b9a\u3001\ufe11\u8a8c\u3001\ufe11\u980c\u3001\ufe11\u9304\u4e4b[\u8aaa].\u201d Wang Pu makes the point that the original teaching of Buddhism was singular, but by the tenth-century in China it had given rise to such a plethora of writings that those trying to extract the essential meanings become lost. He says, \u201c[Though] seeking and desiring broad knowledge, it cannot be obtained. \u6c42\u6b32\u65c1\u901a\u535a\u9054, \u4e0d\u53ef\u5f97\u4e5f.\u201d Yichu\u2019s compilation serves the purpose, then, of allowing easy navigation of these abundant teachings: \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0179 As above, I refer to Section 37 Food, Drink, and Assisting Flavors \u9152\u98df\u52a9\u5473\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09\u2f17\u5341\u4e03\t \u00a0180 The manuscript is damaged and we have only a piece of this character, so this reading is tentative.\t \u00a0  88\t \u00a0Master Yichu is a scholar of wisdom and abundant learning. Apart from his lecturing as a teacher, he is industrious with written commentary. He has selected from among the myriad sayings of the Great Teaching complete passages of essential meaning, ordering them by their characteristics into a total of fifty sections and 440 categories, comprising six books. This allows scholars, every time they discuss a particular thesis, to then, in accordance with [Yichu\u2019s] sections, peek through the door of classical passages from five thousand scrolls, unimpeded. \u7fa9\u695a\u4e0a\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u667a\u6167\u591a\u805e\u4e4b\u2f20\u58eb\u3002\ufe12\u8b1b\u6388\u4e4b\u5916\uff0c\u4ee5\u8ff0\u4f5c\u7232\u696d\u3002\ufe12\u65bc\u2f24\u5927\u6559\u7fa4181\u2f94\u8a00\u4e4b\u5167\uff0c\u53d6\u5176\u5168\u2f42\u6587\u7cbe\u7fa9\uff0c\u4ee5\u985e\u76f8\u5f9e\uff0c\u51e1\u4e94\u2f17\u5341\u90e8\uff0c\u56db\u767e\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u2fa8\u9580\uff0c\u7232\u516d\u5e16\u7109\u3002\ufe12\u5c07\u4ee4\u5b78\u8005\u6bcf\u8a0e\u8ad6\u2f00\u4e00\u8aac\uff0c\u5247\u6309\u90e8\u95da\u2fa8\u9580\u4e94\u5343\u5377\u4e4b\u5178\u7ae0\uff0c\u7121\u4e0d\u6d89\u77e3\u3002\ufe12 In the course of this endorsement Wang Pu uses the phrase yilei xiangcong \u4ee5\u985e\u76f8\u5f9e, \u201cto place in order according to kind.\u201d This is a key notion underlying the identification of leishu as a literary genre. We also read that Yichu has selected essential meanings \u7cbe\u7fa9 from amongst the many sayings \u7fa4\u2f94\u8a00 of the great teaching \u2f24\u5927\u6559 (i.e., Buddhism), suggesting that Wang Pu viewed this work as a guide to ideas rather than terminology. Scholars of the Shishi liutie are justified, then, in seeing it as a Buddhist encyclopedia, and also warranted, it seems, to think of this work as a leishu. But what exactly are leishu? We turn now to the origins and characteristics of the leishu genre.   2.2.5 What are leishu?  Historians of leishu tend to ignore the existence of the Shishi liutie and other Buddhist candidates for the genre. For example, an index of 824 leishu by Taiwanese scholar \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0181 Variant vertically arranged.\t \u00a0  89\t \u00a0Zhuang Fangrong does not list Yichu, his work, or even the Fayuan zhulin182. Again, HU Daojing, the leading expert on the history of leishu as a genre, makes no mention of the Shishi liutie or other Buddhist works in his survey, Zhongguo gudai de leishu.183  A purpose in this section is to show that the history of cataloging and classifying literature in China gave rise to a bias against including Buddhist texts, which perpetuates an unnatural rift between secular (non-Buddhist) and Buddhist \u91cb\u5bb6 writings. While I, too, have employed this dichotomy as an expedient in the writing above, in this section I want to deconstruct it and suggest that we replace it with a more nuanced understanding of leishu as a loose genre category that broadly encompasses different approaches to human knowledge, whether Buddhist, Confucian, or otherwise.   Leishu origins  Several competing theories exist for the origins of the leishu genre, but the oldest example of a text that has the two definitive characteristics of a typical leishu\u2013\u2013encyclopedic organization and assembly from various written materials\u2013184\u2013is the Huanglan \u7687\u89bd, compiled at the start of the Cao Wei Dynasty185 between 220-222 CE.186 This work had over forty sections \u90e8, each containing twenty or more chapters \u6578\u2f17\u5341\u7bc7, and is said to have been over eight-million characters in length.187  By the time of the Sui Dynasty it had been lost, so we do not know exactly what themes it covered, but we do know that it was commissioned of scholars in imperial employ by Cao Pi (187-226), ruler of the Wei empire newly established by his father, and that it appears to \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0182 Zhuang Fangrong \u838a\u82b3\u69ae. Zhongguo leishu zongmu chugao: shuming, zhuzhe suoyin pian \u4e2d\u570b\u985e\u66f8\u7e3d\u2f6c\u76ee\u521d\u7a3f\uff1a \u66f8\u540d\u2022\u8457\u8005\u7d22\u5f15\u7bc7. Wenshi gongju shu. Taibei: Taiwan xuesheng shuju, 1983.\t \u00a0183 But its present obscurity should be considered. Although the Shishi liutie was printed at the start of the Northern Song Dynasty, it is even not included in Li Guoling\u2019s catalog of Buddhist works from that period, Songseng zhushu kao.\t \u00a0184 Hu, Zhongguo gudai de leishu, 1.\t \u00a0185 220-265 CE.\t \u00a0186 Hu, Zhongguo gudai de leishu, 7.\t \u00a0187 Ibid., 53.\t \u00a0  90\t \u00a0have been a hitherto unprecedented effort to collect together different aspects of human knowledge.188 Cao Pi\u2019s government commissioning of an ambitious collection of human knowledge set a precedent that was repeated by Emperor Wu \u6881\u6b66\u5e1d (464-549) of the Liang dynasty (502-557), who set scholars to work compiling at least three works that are now identified as early examples of leishu: Shouguang shuyuan \u58fd\u5149\u66f8\u82d1, Leiyuan \u985e\u82d1, and Hualin bianl\u00fce \u83ef\u6797\u904d\u7565.189 While there is not space here to discuss these works, we should note that this literary activity under Emperor Wu, accomplished with the help of his noted statesman Shen Yue \u6c88\u7d04 (441-513), prompted later scholars who had never seen or heard of the Huanglan to develop a misleading theory that leishu originated in the Liang Dynasty.  Many impressive leishu projects in Chinese history conform to this model of court commissioning at the start of a new dynasty or with a new emperor. The Yiwen leiju \u85dd\u2f42\u6587\u985e\u805a in the Tang, the Taiping yulan \u592a\u5e73\u5fa1\u89bd in the Northern Song, and the Yongle dadian \u6c38\u6a02\u2f24\u5927\u5178 in the Ming exemplify this genealogy of imperial ambitions to gather all human knowledge into massive tomes. But smaller projects by independent scholars also arose and entered the genre of leishu, such as the celebrated Chuxue ji \u521d\u5b78\u8a18 by Xu Jian \u5f90\u5805 (659-729) and others.190  While organizational aspects of the leishu genre have been proposed to trace back to sources as early as the L\u00fcshi chunqiu \u5442\u6c0f\u6625\u79cb and the Erya \u723e\u96c5, the true origins of the genre are to be found in the genealogy outlined above, beginning with the Huanglan in the 3rd century.191 Catalogers from the Jin (265-420) and Sui dynasties (581-618), \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0188 Ibid., 7-8, 52-56.\t \u00a0189 Ibid., 57-62.\t \u00a0190 Sakai, Ch\u016bgoku nichiy\u014d ruishoshi no kenky\u016b, 22.\t \u00a0191 Hu, Zhongguo gudai de leishu, 7-11.\t \u00a0  91\t \u00a0traditionally divided works into classics \u7d93, histories \u53f2, works of philosophers \u2f26\u5b50, and collections \u96c6. Within this scheme, leishu have traditionally been placed alongside the works of philosophers, in or next to the miscellany category \u96dc\u5bb6.192  Eventually, catalogers came to see this genealogy as representing a distinct genre, separating it out as leishi jia \u985e\u4e8b\u5bb6 perhaps as early as the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, when the no longer extant catalog Gujin shulu \u53e4\u4eca\u66f8\u9304 was compiled. The earliest extant evidence for this reassignment is in the Jingji zhi \u7d93\u7c4d\u5fd7 chapter of the [Jiu] Tang shu [\u820a] \u5510\u66f8 by Liu Xu \u5289\u662b of the Five-Dynasties period.193 Since that time, different genre names have been applied: leishu lei \u985e\u66f8\u985e, leishi lei \u985e\u4e8b\u985e, leijia \u985e\u5bb6, dian\u2019gu lei \u5178\u6545\u985e. Leishu lei was used in the Xin Tang zhi \u65b0\u5510\u5fd7 and has become the most common name for the genre.194   Designed for reference  The simple genealogy outlined above illustrates that some leishu arose as literary projects designed to put broad swaths of human knowledge at a ruler\u2019s fingertips. Leishu are designed for reference.195 This is a basic feature of the genre; some leishu became so massive that they are impractical for anything but reference. The ideal-type leishu matching our genealogy collects and collates different areas of human knowledge into a searchable structure.  But as precedent invites imitation and innovation, many borderline cases also came into existence, collecting surnames, information on governance, official posts, records of \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0192 Ibid., 2.\t \u00a0193 ibid., 3.\t \u00a0194 Ibid., 4.\t \u00a0195 Ibid., 7. Also Shiina, \u201cKaidai,\u201d 529.\t \u00a0  92\t \u00a0historical events, classical essays, and so forth.196 The content of leishu is thus not determined by the genre category, but can encompass different aspects of human knowledge. This content does, though, tend to serve one or more of a limited set of goals, including providing evidence of certain matters \u5fb5\u4e8b\u7684, corroborating evidence of matters while also collecting relevant verse \u5fb5\u4e8b\u517c\u91c7\u8a69\u2f42\u6587\u7684, serving as reference for literary embellishment \u8a5e\u85fb\u7684, helping with rhyming \u7de8\u6210\u97fb\u8a9e\u7684, and emphasizing images \u91cd\u8996\u5716\u8868\u7684. Some works bring together combinations of these different aims.197  These different aims are also reflected in how leishu were used in practice. They were used for general reference, for looking up literary allusions, to aid study for imperial exams, for elementary education, and for daily use to keep a household functioning.198  Bai Juyi\u2019s Baishi liutie is of the type that was used to look up literary allusions and support achievements in the flowery language of poetry.199 This is significant, because much confusion over the nature of the Shishi liutie as a Buddhist leishu stems from the comparison made with Bai Juyi\u2019s work. Differences between the two works turn out to be as important as the similarities. Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie aims to provide evidence of certain matters in Buddhist thought and to supply citations for finding these matters in Buddhist literature. It is not, however, much concerned with literary embellishment, if I can so judge based on my limited investigation of Yichu\u2019s entry headings.  Similarly, if Yichu was influenced by Bai Juyi\u2019s organizational scheme, he nonetheless did not slavishly imitate it. Despite superficial resemblances, close examination suggests that Yichu was highly selective of his categories, excluding topics that did not fit his Buddhist project (and including ones that did). This is evident when we compare, for example, Yichu\u2019s Section 37 (\u9152\u98df\u52a9\u5473\u90e8) on food-related themes with Bai Juyi\u2019s similarly themed section. Points of overlap are indicated below (Table 1) by a translation into English.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0196 Hu, Zhongguo gudai de leishu, 11-13.\t \u00a0197 Ibid., 14.\t \u00a0198 Ibid., 15.\t \u00a0199 Ibid.\t \u00a0  93\t \u00a0 Table 1. Comparison of food topics in the Shishi liutie and Baishi liutie Yichu\u2019s section on food and drink in the Shishi liutie \u91cb\u6c0f\u516d\u5e16 Bai Juyi\u2019s section on food and drink in the Baishi liutie \u767d\u6c0f\u516d\u5e16 \u9152\u98df\u52a9\u5473\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09\u5341\u4e03 37. Food, drink, and assisting flavors (i.e., salt and sauce)  \u5377\u7b2c\u4e94\u51e1\u4e94\u5341\u56db\u9580\u5167\u5341\u4e5d\u9580 Fifth Fascicle. No.19 of 54 categories  \u9152\u4e00\u5f97\u4e8c\u5931 37.1 Alcoholic beverages, benefit and harm \u98df\u4e8c 37.2 Food and eating \u7ca5\u4e09 37.3 Porridge \u98f0(\u98ef)\u56db 37.4 Cooked rice \u7fb9\u4e94 37.5 Soup \u9905\u516d 37.6 Flour products \u9ea8\u4e03 37.7 Dry-roasted and milled grain \u9e7d\u516b 37.8 Salt \u8607\u4e5d 37.9 Butter (\u9165200) \u4e73\u5341 37.10 Milk \u916a\u5341\u4e00 37.11 Yogurt \u7518\u9732\u5341\u4e8c 37.12 Ambrosia \u871c\u5341\u4e09 37.13 Honey \u8089\u5341\u56db 37.14 Meat \u9eb5\u5341\u4e94\u9ea6\u9644 37.15 Flour, appended with wheat \u6cb9\u5341\u516d 37.16 Oil \u9152\u7b2c\u4e00\u9152\u5fb7 \u6212\u9152 -?-\u6e4e -?-\u9152 \u79ae\u98f2 \u8ecd\u4e2d\u98f2 \u6a02\u98f2 \u591c\u98f2 \u8cdc\u9152 \u5fa1\u9152 \u4ee4\u7f70\u9644 1. Alcoholic beverages \u9164\u69b7\u7b2c\u4e8c \u9020\u9152\u7b2c\u4e09 \u9163\u9189\u7b2c\u56db \u6f3f\u7b2c\u4e94 5. Beverages \u8336\u7b2c\u516d \u98df\u7b2c\u4e03\u52a0\u81b3\u5962\u76db\u5109\u8584\u5ec9\u98df\u8caa\u98df\u9644 7. Food and eating, appending sumptuous meals, frugality, honest eating, and greed for food   \u714e\u548c\u7b2c\u516b \u7c73\u9eb4\u4e5d\u7c9f\u9644 \u98ef\u98e7\u7b2c\u5341 10. Cooked rice \u7ca5\u7b2c\u5341\u4e00 11. Porridge \u7fb9\u7b2c\u5341\u4e8c 12. Soup \u8089\u7b2c\u5341\u4e09 13. Meat \u7099\u7b2c\u5341\u56db \u81be\u7b2c\u5341\u4e94 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0200 Terminology for dairy products in both Sanskrit and Chinese is complex, due to instances of overlapping usage, such as Sk. gh\u1e5bta being rendered in English as ghee, fat, or cream. The associated Chinese terms and attempts to translate them into English have perpetuated this lack of clarity. Thus, I have translated the three dairy terms with what I identify as their most basic meanings in the Buddhist literature, with archaic lexical descriptions stripped away.\t \u00a0  94\t \u00a0\u6f3f\u5341\u4e03 37.17 Beverages \u7a3b\u5341\u516b 37.18 Rice \u7cb3201\u7c73\u5341\u4e5d 37.19 Millet \u6996\u4e8c\u5341 37.20 Grain \u7ce0\u4e8c\u5341\u4e00 37.21 Sugar \u5c0f\u8c46\u4e8c\u5341\u4e8c 37.22 Small [mung?] beans \u7a2e\u690d\u4e8c\u5341\u4e09 37.23 Planting \u98e2\u6e34\u4e8c\u5341\u56db 37.24 Hunger and thirst \u98fd\u4e8c\u5341\u4e94 37.25 Satiation  \u812f\u8129\u7b2c\u5341\u516d \u9b93\u7b2c\u5341\u4e03 \u91a2\u7b2c\u5341\u516b \u91af\u7b2c\u5341\u4e5d \u9e7d\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5341 20. Salt \u916a\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5341\u4e00 21. Yogurt \u871c\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5341\u4e8c 22. Honey \u9905\u990c\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5341\u4e09 23. Flour products \u55dc\u597d\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5341\u56db \u98df\u5668\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5341\u4e94 \u8cdc\u98df\u4e8c\u5341\u516d202 \u8207\u98df\u4e8c\u5341\u4e03\u4e5e\u98df\u9644 \u994b\u98df\u4e8c\u5341\u516b \u7570\u5473\u4e8c\u5341\u4e5d \u5929\u5b50\u98df\u4e09\u5341 \u67f4\u85aa\u4e09\u5341\u4e00 \u82bb\u8349\u4e09\u5341\u4e8c \u83dc\u4e09\u5341\u4e09 \u70ad\u4e09\u5341\u56db \u53a8\u4e09\u5341\u4e94\u7228\u9644   Yichu has only twenty-five categories, to Bai Juyi\u2019s thirty-five. Both compilers begin with alcoholic beverages, suggesting that this category may have seemed especially important to both, albeit for different reasons, perhaps. About twelve categories overlap, meaning that the Shishi liutie has less than half of its categories in common with those of \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0201 The body text lists \u79d4 and gives \u2f76\u7c73 as appended.\t \u00a0202 No \u7b2c for last ten items. In the Ky\u016bko edition, di is dropped from 23 on. This appears to be merely a space-saving practice.\t \u00a0  95\t \u00a0the Baishi liutie. Most of these that overlap are such basic categories that Yichu may have been unable to exclude them even if he wished to distinguish his set from those of his professed model. In other words, a comparison of the two sets seems to weigh against the thesis that the Baishi liutie influenced Yichu\u2019s choice of categories, suggesting, rather, that Yichu exercised a fair level of independent thinking, choosing categories more for their connection with Buddhist contexts of meaning than for their presence in his model text.  Yichu may have taken certain stylistic hints from Bai Juyi\u2019s work, but any parallels appear to have been overemphasized by later commenters. Yichu\u2019s own statements about his work tell a slightly different story of his motivations. We turn now to prefaces and histories that can help us clarify how Yichu intended his work to be used.    2.3 The Shishi liutie as a Buddhist leishu: For whom was it written and how was it used?  The leishu genre, we have seen, is broad enough to include works of Buddhist knowledge, even if catalogers have traditionally excluded these on the assumption that they belong to the category of Buddhist works (shijia \u91cb\u5bb6). Despite the breadth of the leishu genre, Buddhist authors in imperial China do not appear to have applied the term to any Buddhist works.203 Still, Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie is, de facto, a Buddhist leishu. It organizes a broad set of human knowledge into an encyclopedic, searchable work. One can use it to look up various themes pertaining to life generally or to Chinese Buddhism\u2013\u2013its history and ideas\u2013\u2013and then read what topics Buddhist sources raised on these matters. Thinking of it as a Buddhist leishu helps us address the problem of whether Yichu had a particular audience in mind. For whom did Yichu compile this work? Prefaces and other historical statements can help us test the thesis that Yichu was trying to reach a general audience and especially officials and intellectuals who would   96\t \u00a0otherwise not be motivated to seek an understanding of Buddhism by wading through its voluminous literature. By implication, he appears to be aiming this work at a non-tonsured, secular readership.   An overstated comparison   Yichu cites widely from the Jinglu yixiang and the Fayuan zhulin, so we know that he was familiar with these earlier models, but these influences are overshadowed by comparisons with Bai Juyi\u2019s work of a similar title, the Baishi liutie. The overzealous comparison may stem from a statement by the scholar-official Wang Pu in his preface to the Shishi liutie:  Is the rarity of that which is called marvelous in transmitting the dharma [an indication of] holiness? From this we know that Bai Juyi could not naturalize beauty to the Confucian Way (i.e., Confucian learning cannot claim a monopoly on beauty). \u6240\u8b02\u5999\u65bc\u50b3\u6cd5\uff0c\u5176\u5e0c\u8056\u8005\u6b5f? \u6240\u4ee5\u77e5\u2f69\u767d\u6c0f\u4e0d\u80fd\u5c08\u7f8e\u65bc\u5112\u9053\u77e3\u3002\ufe12 Wang Pu is praising Yichu for his literary accomplishment, but the suggestion that Yichu was doing for Buddhist aesthetics what Bai Juyi had done for those of Confucian learning is perhaps hyperbole, since Yichu\u2019s work is not lexically oriented. Perhaps Wang Pu (and even Yichu himself) hoped that one day the four-character headings would, through popular use of the Shishi liutie, attain status as idiom in poetry and other forms of formal writing. More likely, this praise was calculated to draw attention to the structural similarities with Bai Juyi\u2019s work and suggest to non-Buddhist scholars that they would be able to use it in similar fashion, as a reference tool.  Zanning \u8d0a\u5be7 (919-1001), author of the Northern Song update to the biographies of eminent monks, also picked up the comparison for his biography of Yichu: Modeling his work on Bai Letian\u2019s (Bai Juyi\u2019s) Liutie, he compiled doctrine, passages, various matters, and assortments of things, arranging them by type, \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0203 Based on searches in the SAT database. In the entire canon, only two occurrences seem to refer to leishu as a genre, but these are in relatively late texts.\t \u00a0  97\t \u00a0establishing their categories, which in entirety encompass fifty sections. \u64ec\u2f69\u767d\u6a02\u5929\u516d\u5e16, \u7e82\u91cb\u6c0f\u7fa9\u7406\u3001\ufe11\u2f42\u6587\u7ae0\u3001\ufe11\u5eb6\u4e8b\u3001\ufe11\u7fa4\u54c1, \u4ee5\u985e\u76f8\u5f9e, \u5efa\u5176\u2fa8\u9580\u2f6c\u76ee, \u7e3d\u62ec\u2f24\u5927\u7db1, \u8a08\u4e94\u2f17\u5341\u90e8\u3002\ufe12 In this biography, the comparison helps clarify the structural arrangement of Yichu\u2019s text, saying nothing about flowery vocabulary for use in literary allusions. Zanning\u2019s emphasis is on doctrine \u7fa9\u7406, passages \u2f42\u6587\u7ae0, and various matters \u5eb6\u4e8b. Yichu\u2019s own preface to the Shishi liutie makes no mention of the comparison with Bai Juyi\u2019s work, but only expresses how voluminous and difficult to navigate is the Buddhist literature. He then goes on to say how he was motivated by a desire to make these teachings more accessible:  \u2026 Therefore [we] know [how it is that people pursuing] the ten ranks [of bodhisattva-hood] are still confused by the teachings of the two vehicles.204 How is one to fathom that Buddhist priests seldom exhaust the foundational [teachings], while erudite Confucian scholars rarely investigate [even] the great waves? If we do not collect the names of categories, arranging them by type, it will be difficult to gather together essentials, and not easy to seek them. Thus, I, Yichu, having served from a young age the King of Emptiness (i.e., the Buddha), grew up investigating the Great Teaching and from its views have collected together these passages, inclusive of all the main principles, comprising fifty sections, allowing matters to be separately listed in 440 categories. I hope that curious and knowledgeable people studying diligently in the future can consult [my compilation] when writing commentary [on Buddhist ideas]. They will then know that the \u015a\u0101kya clan (i.e., the sa\u1e43gha) is good and long lasting, and believe that the teachings of the dharma are profound.  I began the draft in the forty-second year (945)\u2026 \u662f\u77e5\u2f17\u5341\u5730, \u7336\u8ff7\u2f06\u4e8c\u4e57, \u8c48\u6e2c\u7dc7\u4fa3\u7f55\u7aae\u6839\u8515, \u9d3b\u5112\u5c1f\u7a76\u6ce2\u703e\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u975e\u6522\u851f\u2fa8\u9580\u540d, \u4ee5\u985e\u7f85\u5217\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u96e3\u5099\u8981, \u4e0d\u6613\u5c0b\u6c42\u3002\ufe12\u7136\u7fa9\u695a\u5e7c\u4e8b\u7a7a\u738b, \u9577\u7aae\u2f24\u5927\u6559, \u8f12\u65bc\u6240\u2f92\u898b, \u96c6\u6210\u6b64\u2f42\u6587, \u7e3d\u62ec\u2f24\u5927\u7db1, \u8a08\u4e94\u2f17\u5341\u90e8; \u96a8\u4e8b\u5225\u5217, \u56db\u767e\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u2fa8\u9580\u3002\ufe12\u5180\u597d\u4e8b\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0204 The Hinay\u0101na (Therav\u0101da) and Mah\u0101y\u0101na.\t \u00a0  98\t \u00a0\u901a\u2f08\u4eba, \u5c07\u4f86\u52e4\u5b78, \u8ff0\u4f5c\u4e4b\u6b21, \u804a\u53ef\u6aa2\u5c0b\u3002\ufe12\u77e5\u91cb\u6c0f\u512a\u9577, \u4fe1\u6cd5\u2fa8\u9580\u6df1\u9083\u3002\ufe12\u8d77[\u8349]\u2f04\u4e59\u5df3... As with all analogies, the comparison with Bai Juyi\u2019s compilation has explanatory potential only to a point. Yichu is not offering a tool for referencing flowery vocabulary, but is rather trying to promote appreciation and understanding of Buddhist teachings. We learn in his biography by Zanning that the title of the work may not have come as an influence from the Baishi liutie, which further undermines the overstated parallel:  He had [experienced] a sudden [insight when he noticed that] an old stone by the gate of his monastery had the two characters \u201cliu tie\u201d (six books, i.e., primers for study) naturally appearing on it. Seeing this divine sign, he then knew [that his work was] predestined, so he searched through [writings of] the present and went through [those of] the past, his brush never stopping its compiling. \u5ffd\u56e0\u672c\u9662\u2fa8\u9580\u53e4\u2f6f\u77f3\u4e0a\u6709\u300c\u516d\u5e16\u300d\u2f06\u4e8c\u5b57, \u5929\u7136\u5206\u660e\u3002\ufe12\u7779\u6b64\u9748\u7b26, \u4e43\u77e5\u5bbf\u5b9a, \u641c\u4eca\u65a1\u53e4, \u7b46\u4e0d\u505c\u7db4\u3002\ufe12  A reference on Buddhism for a lay audience  The above evidence suggests that a leishu model best served Yichu\u2019s motivation to make the complexity and vast size of Buddhist writings accessible to a general audience. But his choice of the leishu model also caused problems for his project. Apart from Yichu\u2019s four-character headings, there is little original phrasing in the Shishi liutie. Yichu sacrificed originality and clarity of presentation in order to maximize comprehensiveness of coverage. His paraphrasing of cited content is frequently condensed to the point of being stilted\u2013\u2013sometimes a mere suggestion of an idea explicated elsewhere and needing to be looked up. The lack of fullness in his treatment appears to have greatly troubled Yichu, whose biography says he came close to abandoning his project, fearing that he might be destroying the value of the Buddhist literature he was citing: \u201c\u2026worrying lest he abridge and destroy the text of the Teachings\u2026\u616e\u522a\u788e\u6559\u2f42\u6587\u2026\u201d    99\t \u00a0In comparison with the sophisticated literary value of the Fayuan zhulin, content in the Shishi liutie is truncated and plain, but paraphrasing the content of citations was necessary in order to achieve the structure of a searchable encyclopedia with comprehensive coverage of Buddhist ideas about our world. Given the Shishi liutie\u2019s scope of coverage, full citations would have resulted in a project of immense proportion, difficult to finish and expensive to publish.  Yichu\u2019s compilation achieved a new level of structural clarity for such Buddhist works by borrowing its organizational scheme from the leishu of \"Confucian\" scholars\u2013\u2013and specifically from Bai Juyi\u2019s Baishi liutie. Nonetheless, it remains in content and intention a Buddhist work, spreading the dharma by offering non-specialists a handy reference on the essential features of Buddhism as Yichu understood it in tenth-century China.   2.4 Implications of a conceptual orientation  In the introduction to this chapter I suggested that understanding the genre, the intended audience, and the practical value of the Shishi liutie would have implications for how we understand the value of this work in contemporary studies of Chinese Buddhism. At this point we can make several comments on this point.  As a general reference on the essential teachings of Buddhism in tenth-century China, this text lends itself to exploration of Chinese Buddhist attitudes toward a broad range of topics. Knowing that entry headings are not necessarily lexical formulae helps us get past the fixation with terminology that fills dictionaries and glossaries, so that we can consider Buddhist teachings on basic ideas.205 For example, Yichu has included topics from everyday life: wives \u59bb\u5ba4, battle \u9b2a\u6230, friends \u670b\u53cb, father and mother \u2f57\u7236\u6bcd, grapes \u8461\u8404, dancing \u821e, and dragons \u9f8d, to name just a few of the hundreds of topics.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0205 Such as we find in Lopez, Critical Terms for the Study of Buddism.\t \u00a0  100\t \u00a0The early timing of Yichu's compilation (mid-tenth century) allows scholars interested in specific historical or doctrinal developments, or in biographies of individuals, to obtain references and biographical information that may otherwise be rare or lost. We can read, for example, tenth-century perspectives on the destruction of Buddhist institutions in the Huichang \u6703\u660c era (841-846), or see if Yichu\u2019s statements on meditative concentration \u79aa\u5b9a were, in the tenth century, showing an influence from the developing school of Chan Buddhism, which was soon to make a sectarian fuss in the Song Dynasty.  Only a handful of Japanese, Chinese, and Western scholars have studied or utilized the Shishi liutie in their research,206 though it is a rich source for explorations of Chinese Buddhism.   Rising print culture and visions of holistic knowledge  That the Shishi liutie was never entered into the Buddhist canon raises a set of interesting problems that deserve more attention elsewhere. In particular, the issue touches on the political context of knowledge-building activities in the Northern Song, when the Shishi liutie was published. The rise in print culture during Yichu\u2019s lifetime coincided with questions about what knowledge was worthy of printing and what forms of knowledge were ethical. In a society shaken by war and rising use of new technologies, people asked not just if knowledge was true, but if it was efficacious, and if so, whether it was moral. Ronald Egan has written eloquently on these issues in regards to the Northern Song,207 so I will not elaborate here, but I want to frame our understanding of the Shishi liutie within this view of a transitioning society very much concerned with the task of finding a place for Buddhist knowledge within a complex and uncertain intellectual environment.    \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0206 The most notable Western examples are Stephen F. Teiser, Scripture on the Ten Kings, and James Benn, Burning for the Buddha.\t \u00a0  101\t \u00a02.5 Concluding thoughts  In this chapter I have argued that the Shishi liutie is written as a Buddhist leishu and is best understood for an English-language readership as an encyclopedia, rather than as a cishu, or lexicon. The searchable table of contents, its broad inclusiveness, the hierarchical ordering of topics, the four-character key phrases (entry headings), and certain parallels with Bai Juyi\u2019s Baishi liutie all support this view.  But I have also shown that the same fuzzy borders of the leishu genre that allow us to claim the Shishi liutie as a de facto Buddhist leishu also require us to clarify what kind of a leishu it aims to model. Parallels between Yichu\u2019s and Bai Juyi\u2019s leishu break down on close inspection. Evidence from prefaces and from Yichu\u2019s biography in the Song gaoseng zhuan suggests that Yichu aimed to produce an encyclopedia of Buddhist ideas, information, and passages, without sharing Bai Juyi\u2019s interest in literary technique. Yichu\u2019s work is designed to make accessible to a lay audience the complex corpus of Chinese Buddhism, by offering a thematically organized text that is both comprehensive and concise, facilitating improved knowledge of basic teachings.   Whether the Shishi liutie is a lexicon or an encyclopedia matters for several reasons. Here are some that I wish to highlight. If the Shishi liutie were to be digitized and included in online collections such as CBETA or SAT Daiz\u014dky\u014d Text Database, we would want to know what texts it resembles and where it might fit in different schemes organizing Buddhist texts.   Other Buddhist writings that resemble encyclopedias in their topical organization and emphasis on concepts rather than terminology include the Jingl\u00fc yixiang and the Fayuan zhulin. The SAT database lists these two texts under Taish\u014d volume 53, the first volume in a set of three Taish\u014d volumes collectively encompassing a section on matters and lexicon (shihui bu \u4e8b\u5f59\u90e8), on external teachings (waijiao bu \u5916\u6559\u90e8), and on catalogues (mulu bu \u2f6c\u76ee\u9304\u90e8). Were the Shishi liutie to one day find a home among the \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0207 The Problem of Beauty.\t \u00a0  102\t \u00a0canonized Buddhist texts, we might guess that it would be here, under the shihui bu, and following the Fayuan zhulin.   Genre and Lack of Canonization  A second reason to care about genre is because it may help us understand the puzzle of why the Shishi liutie was never canonized, despite representing a magnificent accomplishment of compilation and printing that could not have succeeded without imperial sanction and support from high-level officials. Genre may have played a role, especially a negative role, in the reception history of the Shishi liutie.  We might look into the question of whether the secular orientation of Yichu\u2019s compiled reference interfered with its potential bid for canonization. There could, for example, have been a perception among tonsured Buddhists and officials who oversaw the work of adding to the Buddhist canon that it was not of sufficient value as reading for tonsured Buddhists, due to its truncated and paraphrastic style. Having a secular audience may have hurt any hypothetical bids during the Song period to have it canonized, as it may have caused other Buddhists to view Yichu\u2019s work as merely derivative and lacking original contribution. More research is needed to see if lack of canonization was an accident of history or an artifact of political interference from parties with an agenda to block the kind of knowledge that the Shishi liutie represented at the time. Similarly, it may have been the target of Chan Buddhist polemics against wenzi shengren\u2013\u2013\u2018saints of words and letters\u2019 who labored to understand the textual history of Buddhism while neglecting the call to achieve full awakening.208 Although first printed through state-of-the-art printing technology and with official endorsement, the Shishi liutie represented what may have been seen as old-fashioned \u2018teachings\u2019 that just muddied the waters with a confusion of cultural details and convoluted cosmology. The rise of Chan, its vogue among intellectuals, and the developing intellectual strain that would come to be called Neo-Confucianism are all elements of Yichu\u2019s time that could \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0208 Welter, Yongming Yanshou, 75. Also see Kieschnick\u2019s discussion in Eminent Monk of changing ideal images of monks in the transition from Tang to Song.\t \u00a0  103\t \u00a0have overshadowed or otherwise constrained the popularity of the Shishi liutie. The fierce intellectual revisionism of the Song period may have created a hostile environment for a text so inclusive of broad swaths of Chinese Buddhism and so focused on the nitty-gritty details of the cultural and intellectual legacy of Buddhism in China.  Nonetheless, from our current perspective, a text from the tenth century that purports to represent a holistic reference to Buddhism is a fascinating find. Though Western scholars have come to speak of Buddhisms and to acknowledge that the monolithic unity of teachings suggested by the term \u2018Buddhism\u2019 is difficult to defend, we nonetheless continue to explore these teachings in grand encyclopedic volumes attempting, like Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie, to bring associated forms of knowledge into a unified textual body. Here, we have a historical example of Buddhist teachings as a unified body of human knowledge.   104\t \u00a03. Food Themes: The Topic of Shi \u98df in the Shishi liutie   3.1 Opening  In this chapter I argue that a customary focus on identity construction in research on food and religion has limited explanatory power and needs to be augmented with a broader theoretical frame.  Socio-cultural explanation that treats food as a tool for cohering religious identities operates with a narrow definition of religion that rejects efforts by religious authors to provide pragmatic solutions to worldly problems. Instead, food rules are understood as arbitrary symbolic systems driven by belief in the sacred and profane, which in ritualized interaction help to structure relationships among religious adherents and any sacred beings of the system. While such a view provides important insights into food and religion, it suffers from an implicit assumption that \u201creligion\u201d is one thing and not another, hiding from view phenomena that might be considered religious despite a lack of emphasis on group cohesion. This chapter investigates such a case, which reveals aspirations for Buddhism to be a universal system of knowledge, with religious discourse serving the psychological and physical needs of the individual. Discourse on food in Buddhism is not just socially but also personally relevant, so we need to apply a theoretical frame that does not restrict our understanding of \u201creligion\u201d to problems of social identity. The case study of this chapter addresses the problem of how to read discourse on eating in religious history without gerrymandering the findings through premature assumptions regarding the work of religious knowledge. If we accept that Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie is a reference work of Buddhist knowledge, as I argued in Chapter Two, we might then ask what purpose is served by having a section devoted to food themes (Jiushi zhuwei \u9152\u98df\u52a9\u5473, the 37th section). Deducing an answer to this question based on the dominant theoretical approach to food and religion in   105\t \u00a0modern scholarship,209 we could surmise that an investigation of this section will reveal statements showing food\u2019s role in the maintenance of religious identity, emphasizing, especially, fasting and food taboos that help distinguish Buddhists from other members of medieval Chinese society. This theoretical approach to the interplay of food and religion has roots in \u00c9mile Durkheim\u2019s Elementary Forms of Religious Life, where he describes foods as subject to differentiation into sacred and profane, a bifurcation of valence associated with the ritual operation of food taboos. Taboo foods become powerful tools in ritual conduct, helping to socially construct aspects of religion.210 Durkheim\u2019s general thesis that society generates religion211 has greatly influenced subsequent scholarly approaches to food and religion, such as Mary Douglas\u2019s seminal study of taboo, Purity and Danger. Douglas endeavors to illustrate that \u201crituals of purity and impurity create unity in experience,\u201d echoing Durkheim\u2019s social thesis.212  Like Durkheim,213 Douglas rejects the view that religious forms of knowledge are grounded in pragmatic concerns such as hygiene, insisting that rituals of purity and impurity are symbolic patterns or systems.214 And she furthermore proposes that the body can be understood as a symbolic microcosm of society: \u201cWe cannot possibly interpret rituals concerning excreta, breast milk, saliva and the rest unless we are prepared to see in the body a symbol of society, and to see the powers and dangers credited to social structure reproduced in small on the human body.\u201d215 Because eating entails embodiment and is central in many religious rites, this social approach has proved useful in analyzing the relationship of food and religion. For example, it helps to \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0209 Norman, \u201cFood and Religion,\u201d 409-410.\t \u00a0210 Durkheim, Elementary Forms of Religious Life, esp. 225, 248.\t \u00a0211 Elementary Forms of Religious Life, 313: \u201c\u2026we have seen that this reality\u2013\u2013which mythologies have represented in so many different forms but which is the objective, universal, and eternal cause of those sui generis sensations that make up the religous experience\u2013\u2013is society.\u201d\t \u00a0212 Purity and Danger, 2.\t \u00a0213 Elementary Forms of Religious Life, 70 n1. Durkheim\u2019s polemical note is worth quoting: \"This argument does not convince those who see religion as a technique (notably a hygienic technique), whose rules, while sanctioned by imaginary beings, are none the less well founded. But we will not linger to discuss an idea that is so untenable and that has never really been argued in a systematic way by anyone even remotely familiar with the history of religions. It is difficult to see how terrible initiation practices can enhance the health they put at risk; how dietary prohibitions against perfectly healthy animals are hygienic; how sacrifices that took place during the building of a house could make it more solid, etc. No doubt there are religious precepts that do serve some practical purpose; but these are lost amidst the others, and very often this purpose has its price. If there is religious prophylaxis, there is religious filth that derives from the same principles. [\u2026] In technical matters, magic is often more useful than religion.\"\t \u00a0214 Douglas, Purity and Danger, 2-3; 29-34.\t \u00a0  106\t \u00a0explain \u201cdietary polemics\u201d of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain authors in South India,216 where different food practices became topics of group identity politics. A social approach is now common in scholarship on religion and food history for various parts of the world217  Reading Yichu\u2019s section on food themes as a statement on Buddhist identity in contradistinction with other social groups is possible. China is no exception to the general pattern that food has served often as an important marker of identification for particular groups, and, conversely, as a way to disassociate from rival groups. We see this in Yichu\u2019s observation (#44) that approaches to food differ, the citation for which states that Daoist dietary practices (grain fasts and use of meat and alcohol) are at odds with Buddhist food practice. Furthermore, Yichu suggests in his preface that he compiled his work for an audience of non-specialists with little access to the sea of Buddhist writings\u2013\u2013he appears motivated to clarify notions of Buddhist identity in greater Chinese society. Notwithstanding the validity of identity-construction as a theoretical approach to food and religion, in the present context it may hinder our reading as much as facilitate explanation, because it tells us little beyond what we already know. That Buddhists used food in ways that distinguished them from other religious groups should be expected, given what we know about identity politics. As a compendium of Buddhist knowledge (a reference tool for knowledge of the \u201c\u015a\u0101kya clan\u201d) the entirety of Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie can be understood as serving the purpose of establishing basic parameters of Buddhist identity in Chinese society, utilizing doctrine, narratives of the Buddha, cosmology, views on self cultivation, and so on. Food was used as a tool for constructing aspects of Buddhist identity. We are better served by asking specifically how Buddhist modes of eating were distinct in Chinese society, and how a focus on food practices is helpful for understanding the place of religious traditions in greater society. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0215 Douglas, Purity and Danger, 115.\t \u00a0216 Ulrich, \u201cFood Fights.\u201d\t \u00a0217 Examples include Anderson, Everyone Eats, 154-161; Wilkins and Hill, Food in the Ancient World, 79; Montanari, \u201cPeasants, Warriors, Priests,\u201d 178-185; Montanari, \u201cFood Models and Cultural Identity,\u201d 189-193. There are of course also examples of writing on food and religion that approach the topic with greater nuance, such as Soler, \u201cSemiotics of Food in the Bible;\u201d Etkin, Foods of Association, and papers in Korsmeyer, ed., Taste Culture Reader, section IV \u201cBody and Soul.\u201d\t \u00a0  107\t \u00a0One justification for highlighting food as having a special role in the construction of group identity is to observe that in India and China, religion has tended to emphasize orthopraxy rather than orthodoxy, prioritizing behavior over belief. Citing the anthropologist Mary Douglas\u2019s analogy between bodily and social boundaries,218 one study of food and religion in South India reaches the following conclusions on why food became a topic of religious polemic: In contrast to other activities\u2013\u2013studying religious texts, speaking Tamil, or engaging in ritual activities\u2013\u2013food consumption is an unavoidable and very tangible requirement for human life. Thus the food polemics exist not simply because in India food is important; they exist because of all the bodily practices, eating involves concrete substances that are necessary to life, are other than us, and are intimately connected. And so policing food practices became a key part of constructing community solidarity and insularity in a social and religious context of fluid hierarchies and boundaries, where food rituals, regulations, and literature abounded and donors were funding a wide range of institutions.219 From this view, food plays a special role in religion due to its providing necessary sustenance, the materiality of which affords unique opportunities for ideologues and patrons to shape community-defining institutions. That food is a key leitmotif in religious orthopraxy is no accident.  A focus on identity construction vis-\u00e0-vis non-Buddhist groups (Jains, Daoists, Confucians, etc.) is useful insomuch as it illuminates the historical process of negotiating the relative status of Buddhist food practices in society for purposes of patronage and group cohesion. Nonetheless, such an approach does not easily reveal the history of debates among different Buddhist authors, who over the centuries reinterpreted Buddhist food practices as teachings evolved and society changed. Buddhist teachings are a plurality, despite the singular label that we tend to use today, so to understand Chinese Buddhist discourse on food, we need to see it as a set of historical narratives that may or may not show coherent elements. Different food practices between Therav\u0101da and Mah\u0101y\u0101na Buddhists illustrate this point: Mah\u0101y\u0101na developed a \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0218 Ulrich also refers to observations by Jain scholar James Laidlaw.\t \u00a0219 Ulrich, \u201cFood Fights,\u201d 261.\t \u00a0  108\t \u00a0discourse of vegetarianism, while Therav\u0101da maintained an acceptance of meat in begged foods.220 Divergences between Buddhist groups can be as important as those with non-Buddhist groups, and internal debates do not necessarily define in-group and out-group relations, but may be more akin to family bickering.  The notion that religions\u2019 contributions to food history are primarily negative\u2013\u2013arbitrary restrictions that help construct group identity\u2013\u2013becomes an impediment to understanding Buddhist teachings on food. For example, Westerners often associate vegetarianism with Buddhism and assume it to be a major feature of Buddhist attitudes toward eating.221 But historical research on Buddhist vegetarianism shows it to have developed relatively late in the history of Buddhism in China, stimulated most notably around the first half of the fifth century by a set of Mah\u0101y\u0101na texts that constitute a form of revisionism of earlier doctrinal precedents. Buddhist vegetarianism built significant momentum only after the sixth century, following popularization efforts spearheaded by Emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty \u6881\u6b66\u5e1d (464\u2013549; reigned 502-549), when a subsequent shift in expectations of the laity put pressure on monastics to adopt a vegetarian diet.222  Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism was not as doctrinally central in Buddhist discourse on food as popular conceptions sometimes lead people to think. In Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie, vegetarianism appears as just one issue among many. Yichu left the view of Buddhist vegetarianism doctrinally inconsistent, as if to historicize its development, bracket it, and thereby have space to present other Buddhist topics on eating. So this chapter helps to clarify the relative weight of vegetarianism in Chinese Buddhist discourse on eating, and it provides answers to a resulting question: If not vegetarianism, then what?  Buddhist authors had much to say about food and eating, and under close scrutiny we find a set of coherent themes that help make sense of the seeming contradiction between Buddhisms that do not practice monastic vegetarianism and those that do. Furthermore, Yichu\u2019s inclusion of even \u201cConfucian\u201d material serves to remind scholars \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0220 Kieschnick, \u201cBuddhist Vegetarianism in China,\u201d 186-187, gives a brief illustration of regional differences among Asian Buddhists on the question of vegetarian diet.\t \u00a0221 E.g., Faure, Unmasking Buddhism, 118-122.\t \u00a0222 Suwa, Ch\u016bgoku ch\u016bsei bukky\u014dshi kenky\u016b, esp. 90-91; Kieschnick, \u201cBuddhist Vegetarianism in China\u201d esp. 201, and Mather, \u201cThe Bonze\u2019s Begging Bowl\u201d esp. 421-422.\t \u00a0  109\t \u00a0of Chinese religion that religious entities in China are, as Robert Campany has helpfully illustrated,223 not so much belief systems as \u201crepertoires\u201d that historical actors engaged selectively and creatively. Borrowed discourses, points of contrast, and internal coherence all need to be delineated before we can understand what might be considered core aspects of Chinese Buddhist discourse on food. There may be no general Buddhist teachings on food to which all schools would concur, but this is a problem for analysis and should not be taken as axiomatic. Lurking behind the common theoretical emphasis on fasting and taboo as markers of group identity is the assumption that such food rules are arbitrary cultural constructions.224 Buddhist statements on food,225 however, suggest that Buddhist authors took interest in general effects226 of different eating practices, constructing a discourse with non-arbitrary dimensions. In modern theoretical analysis, we might say that Buddhist discourse on eating contains elements that serve as markers of Buddhist identity, and other elements that represent generalized statements on the experience of being human. These latter elements reveal in Buddhist knowledge production an aspiration to achieve general explanations that are applicable whether one does or does not follow a Buddhist path.  For example, Buddhist justifications for fasting after the midday meal include physiological effects such as needing less sleep, having less flatulence, and enjoying greater bodily health.227 These claims can be tested in human experience, using empirically measurable indicators. We should not dismiss claims of a universal human discourse in Buddhist thought, since universal truth-claims reveal Buddhism\u2019s bid for acceptance as general theory in Chinese society. This aspect of Buddhism is often overlooked when we think of it as a \u201creligion\u201d in contradistinction with \u201cscience,\u201d but \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0223 Campany, \u201cOn the Very Idea of Religions.\u201d\t \u00a0224 E.g.,Tannahill, Food in History, 59. Consider also the emphasis on religious and social causality in this statement by Latham and Gardella, \u201cFood,\u201d 3167: \u201cHistorians of religion and cultural anthropologists face an extraordinarily difficult task when they attempt to analyze food customs on a worldwide basis. Dietary laws, food taboos, and the religious and social environments that have molded them are as varied as humanity itself.\u201d\t \u00a0225 My scope of analysis here is necessarily limited to Yichu\u2019s compilation of Chinese Buddhist statements on eating.\t \u00a0226 These are often phrased as \u201cbenefits\u201d \u5229, but also including negative effects\u2013\u2013cf. James Gibson\u2019s notion of affordances in \"Theory of Affordances\" and the reworking of this theory in Ecological Approach to Visual Perception, 127-143.\t \u00a0  110\t \u00a0the distinction is an anachronism in the production of knowledge taking place in the period leading up to Yichu\u2019s compilation. Buddhist knowledge aspires, in works such as Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie, to be more than a guide for believers; it represents an effort to penetrate the deeper meanings of being human in an interactive universe where meanings are grounded in intellectual arguments about universal categories of human psychology and philosophy in relation to a knowable earthly environment.  Before concepts homologous with science and religion differentiated knowledge-building activities, authors often integrated a broad set of intellectual resources in order to synthesize a coherent statement on religious practice (conceived in China as a Way \u9053, even in Buddhist writings). This integral view is how I understand Buddhist knowledge of eating in Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie, which shows a tendency to analyze and test knowledge of human experience, producing only tentative conclusions about how to best eat (and sometimes how to best eat as a Buddhist in Chinese society). Yichu\u2019s general guide to Buddhist knowledge, aimed at a general readership, carries undertones of this aspiration for Buddhist thought to be a total system of knowledge, rather than that of a minority cult aiming to distinguish and elevate its members through association with an unseen deity.  In light of its aspiration to universal truth, some scholars have argued that Buddhism is more philosophical than religious.228 In practice, Buddhism can be characterized as a set of teachings sharing transformation of the individual as a common goal: \u201cIn its long history, Buddhism has used a variety of teachings and means to help people first develop a calmer, more integrated and compassionate personality, and then \u2018wake up\u2019 from restricting delusions: delusions which cause attachment and thus suffering for an individual and those he or she interacts with. \u2026Buddhism thus essentially consists of understanding, practicing and realizing Dhamma.\u201d229 Such a characterization highlights Buddhism\u2019s commitment to orienting individuals toward truth, but there is no pure philosophical Buddhism, which remains an ideal construct in the minds of scholars. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0227 See Yichu\u2019s entry #14 in the Appendix.\t \u00a0228 Even Durkheim concedes that Buddhism has features which set it apart from other religions. See Elementary Forms, 32-33: \"..there are great religions in which the idea of gods and spirits is absent, or plays only a secondary and unobtrusive role. This is the case with Buddhism... \u2026Buddhism consists above all of the notion of salvation, and salvation merely requires one to know and practice the good doctrine.\"\t \u00a0  111\t \u00a0Chinese Buddhist thought incorporated customary narratives, belief in folk deities, rigid formalism, and other elements that are not easily viewed as philosophical in nature.  Rather than argue for a particular philosophical or religious identity for Buddhism, my approach here is historical. The Buddhism with which I am concerned is Yichu\u2019s Buddhism, of tenth-century China. Or even more precisely, I am concerned with Yichu\u2019s collated teachings on eating, presented within a collection of knowledge associated with Buddhists (the \u015a\u0101kya clan) in China. Knowledge producers around or just after Yichu\u2019s time were beginning to discuss knowledge production in ways that helped precipitate a bifurcated understanding of Buddhist and secular knowledge, manifesting in the Song period through the rise of secular print culture and through institutionalization of an idealist Chan Buddhism stripped of general speculation on problems other than awakening. I view Yichu as a disapproving witness to these intellectual transitions, presenting to his society an integrated body of Buddhist knowledge informed by the Abhidharma-ko\u015ba tradition in China.  My findings suggest that Yichu was aware of the role of food in the construction of Buddhist identity in China, but that he downplayed this role and instead highlighted doctrinal tools which pertain to the psychology of individual eaters, with some discussion of physiological effects. For Yichu, these functions are all relevant inclusions in his body of Buddhist knowledge, so I see no justification for rejecting any of them as falling outside of the analytical frame of religious phenomena. In short, this case study suggests that theorists of food and religion would do well to attend to both the social functions characterized by \u00c9mile Durkheim\u2019s approach to religion and the psychology of the self discussed by William James. Furthermore, we need to recognize that knowledge production in the history of religion did sometimes inform practical understandings of human physiological processes and that whether or not these were based on arbitrary doctrinal notions is a historical problem, not a purely theoretical problem. My historical approach thus leaves open the definition of religion, so that it may include at very least the material that Yichu has in his set of teachings on food. In what follows, I discuss my methodology more concretely, then introduce in turn major themes that emerge from my reading of Yichu\u2019s citations. For each theme, I have \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0229 Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, Second Edition, 2.\t \u00a0  112\t \u00a0tried to assess the degree to which the materials engage the construction of religious identity. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the larger interpretive frameworks used by scholars of food and religion. I reassess the utility of the identity-construction approach for the Chinese Buddhist context, asking whether Yichu\u2019s presentation of food themes can point us toward hitherto hidden harvests in the investigation of Chinese Buddhist food history, if not in investigation of food and religion more generally.    3.2 Method  The Shishi liutie stands out among Chinese Buddhist texts for its vision of creating an ordered set of categories covering all key aspects of Buddhist knowledge. Yichu seems to have wanted not just a testament to the broad wisdom and profundity of Buddhist knowledge, such as we find in the Fayuan zhulin, but, as he states in his preface, a clearly-structured text that would facilitate its use as a reference for Buddhist ideas. Thus, a focused look at a particular topic falling anywhere in the text is entirely in keeping with the way Yichu intended the text to be used.  In the previous chapter I argued that Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie is best understood as an encyclopedia of ideas, a compendium of Buddhist knowledge rather than terminology. This suggests that citations in the 37th section of the Shishi liutie illustrate ideas about food and are not definitions of terms. The Shishi liutie thus serves a purpose similar to that of Donald Lopez\u2019s edited volume of topical studies, Critical Terms for the Study of Buddhism. Contributors to Lopez\u2019s volume take general topics (\u201cBuddha,\u201d \u201cArt,\u201d \u201cDeath,\u201d etc.) and investigate how Buddhist authors have treated them. Yichu, a tenth-century Buddhist monk, has done similarly in the Shishi liutie, but, unlike Lopez\u2019s contributors, he has not strung together his findings into a consistent narrative. This means that Yichu\u2019s interpretations are less readily apparent and his cited materials are more or less equally weighted. These features of Yichu\u2019s work have influenced my choice of method. Yichu\u2019s headings act as mnemonics or simple formulae for ideas associated with a Buddhist body of knowledge (knowledge of the \u015a\u0101kya clan), providing his reader   113\t \u00a0semantic anchors for interpreting the content of his citations. The relationship between the headings and the citations thus constitutes an important interpretive space wherein we can glimpse Yichu\u2019s understanding of cited material, even if we cannot know his full intentions. For example, one entry (briefly alluded to above) states in the heading that \u201c[Approaches to] food differ \u98df\u6709\u4e0d\u540c,\u201d and then it cites polemics in the Hongming ji on how Daoist grain fasts (pigu \u8f9f\u7a40), use of alcohol, and eating of meat are contrary to Buddhist teachings. Yichu\u2019s heading helps us read the body of the statement as evidence that food practices are, in Buddhist thought, significant and not arbitrary:  [Approaches to] food differ. The Hongming says, Daoists do not eat (i.e., they fast) and [they] permit the partaking of alcohol and meat. Why is it that the Buddhist teachings are opposite to this? The answer is that the \"Five Thousand [Words]\" (i.e., the Laozi) has no discussion of fasting from grain, and the Seven Confucian Classics230 lack techniques for omitting grain [from one's diet]. [The Hongming ji touches on] four foods231 and that is all. (#44) This particular example conforms to much modern scholarship on food and religion, portraying food as deeply involved in the construction of group identity. In present-day research on Chinese Buddhism, this theoretical tendency is expressed as a preoccupation with the development of Buddhist vegetarianism,232 restrictions on eating alliums,233 and the taboo on drinking alcoholic beverages.234 Though these topics are important, I have chosen not to cherry pick my citations based on modern-day assumptions of relevance, but instead ask what frames Yichu chose to supply for shi \u98df in tenth-century China. I survey several major themes before offering an inductively reasoned conclusion.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0230 The Lunyu (Analects), Xiaojing (Classic of Filial Piety), Shijing (Book of Songs), Shujing (Book of Documents), Liji (Book of Rites), Yijing (Book of Changes), and the Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals).\t \u00a0231 The four foods mentioned here may refer to grains, greens, meat, and qi. See Appendix 6, entry #19.\t \u00a0232 Mather, \u201cBonze\u2019s Begging Bowl;\u201d Kieschnick, \u201cBuddhist Vegetarianism in China;\u201d Michihata, Ch\u016bgoku bukky\u014dshi zensh\u016b, vol. 3, 458-516; Suwa, Ch\u016bgoku ch\u016bsei bukky\u014dshi kenky\u016b, 39-91.\t \u00a0233 Suwa, Ch\u016bgoku ch\u016bsei bukky\u014dshi kenky\u016b, 183-201.\t \u00a0234 Benn, \u201cBuddhism, Alcohol, and Tea in Medieval China;\u201d Michihata, Ch\u016bgoku bukky\u014dshi zensh\u016b, vol. 7, 379-542.\t \u00a0  114\t \u00a0Different analyses are possible for this material. I could have chosen to divide Yichu\u2019s citations into categories based on the schools and periods to which the cited works belong, separating, for example, sutras, commentaries, and works written in China. There are some merits to this approach, and I do consider the dating of texts, but it is not the method that I use to organize my analysis in this chapter. For Yichu, all of the works he cites represent the teachings of the \u015a\u0101kya clan\u2013\u2013of Buddhism. I have avoided too much deductive thinking so that I can first link Yichu\u2019s entries inductively, according to themes that probably would have been coherent in tenth-century China.  A clarification is warranted for how I am reading these themes, and from where. As discussed in the previous chapter, the 37th section of the Shishi liutie includes twenty-five topics associated with food. Among these are the topics of alcoholic beverages \u9152, of meat \u2f81\u8089, etcetera\u2013\u2013twenty-four topics that I do not include in the analysis of this chapter. My focus here is on the single topic of shi \u98df, which translates as a verb or a noun depending on its context. In classical Chinese usage, this character can be \u2018food\u2019 or \u2018eating\u2019. Yichu\u2019s citations sometimes concern food and sometimes eating.  My readers are justified in asking why I have not performed an analytical reading for the entire 37th section, all of which relates to food and Buddhism. The answer is that although this might be desirable, it is arguably not necessary for reaching an understanding of major themes. The choice to focus on shi \u98df for the present analysis, rather than one of the other twenty-four topics, is justified by signs of its relative importance. While other categories cover more narrow food topics, this category provides a general frame. Shi forms part of the title to the 37th section (\u9152\u98df\u52a9\u5473), which refers to alcoholic beverages, food, and \u201cassisting flavors\u201d (\u2018flavors\u2019 here serving as a metonym for foods). The section begins with alcoholic beverages and then food, in the order given in the title, suggesting that Yichu wished to highlight these two topics. Shi is further marked as a category of special interest by the volume of its citations relative to all other topics: four and a half woodblock print pages. The second most voluminous topic is alcoholic   115\t \u00a0beverages, with two and a half pages. None of the remaining topics gets more than a page and a half, and most are less than a page. The following table lists topics by the number of entries they contain, marked by Yichu\u2019s headings (in one case he uses the topic as a heading for a citation, so I have included this as an entry):   Table 2. Number of entries per topic in Yichu's section on food  \u9152\u2f00\u4e00\u5f97\u2f06\u4e8c\u5931 37.1 Alcoholic beverages, benefits and costs\u2026\u2026\u2026.. 35 entries  \u98df\u2f06\u4e8c 37.2 Food and eating\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.... 57 \"  \u7ca5\u4e09 37.3 Porridge\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026...... 5 \"  \u98f0(\u98ef)\u56db 37.4 Cooked rice\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026......... 5 \"  \u7fb9\u4e94 37.5 Soup\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026 4 \"  \u9905\u516d 37.6 Flour products\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.... 7 \"  \u9ea8\u4e03 37.7 Dry-roasted and milled grain\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.... 7 \"  \u9e7d\u516b 37.8 Salt\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.. 5 \"  \u8607\u4e5d 37.9 Butter (\u9165235)\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026. 12 \"  \u4e73\u2f17\u5341 37.10 Milk\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026..18 \"  \u916a\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 37.11 Yogurt\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026... 5 \"  \u2f62\u7518\u9732\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 37.12 Ambrosia\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026... 7 \"  \u871c\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 37.13 Honey\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026 9 \"  \u2f81\u8089\u2f17\u5341\u56db 37.14 Meat\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026. 21 \"  \u9eb5\u2f17\u5341\u4e94\u9ea6\u9644 37.15 Flour, appended with wheat\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026........ 6 \"  \u6cb9\u2f17\u5341\u516d 37.16 Oil\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026..... 6 \"  \u6f3f\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 37.17 Beverages\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026...... 5 \"  \u7a3b\u2f17\u5341\u516b 37.18 Rice\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026... 6 \"  \u7cb3236\u2f76\u7c73\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d 37.19 Millet\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.... 18 \" \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0235 Terminology for dairy products in both Sanskrit and Chinese is complex, due to instances of overlapping usage, such as Sk. gh\u1e5bta being rendered in English as ghee, fat, or cream. The associated Chinese terms and attempts to translate them into English have perpetuated this lack of clarity. Thus, I have translated the three dairy terms with what I identify as their most basic meanings in the Buddhist literature, with archaic lexical descriptions stripped away.\t \u00a0236 The body text lists \u79d4 and gives \u2f76\u7c73 as appended.\t \u00a0  116\t \u00a0 \u6996\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341 37.20 Grain\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.... [6] \"  \u7ce0\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 37.21 Sugar\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026....... 3 \"  \u2f29\u5c0f\u2f96\u8c46\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 37.22 Small beans\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026......... 3 \"  \u7a2e\u690d\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 37.23 Planting\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026...... 10 \"  \u98e2\u6e34\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u56db 37.24 Hunger and thirst\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026...... 15 \"  \u98fd\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 37.25 Satiation\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.......... 8 \"   From this table showing number of entries, one can see that analysis of all topics in the section would be an arduous task. Under just the topic of shi, Yichu provides fifty-seven entries, each of which had to be read from an ancient woodblock print, punctuated, translated, and connected (where possible) with source materials still extant in the Chinese Buddhist canon that has survived to the present day. For a full analysis of the section, an additional 226 entries would need to be handled in like manner, for a total of 283 entries. This is a long-term goal of the present research, but is not feasible for this study. I justify my focus on shi by showing that it is the most highly weighted in terms of number of entries and that it is a more general category than others in the list. I do not, however, ignore the presence of the additional material. In subsequent chapters, I will supplement with materials from the other twenty-four sections, where doing so facilitates deeper investigation of individual themes.  To save my readers from tedium, I will not list the full entries from which I draw my reading of themes, but provide instead a synthesis of my reading of the material. For convenience, I have numbered Yichu\u2019s fifty-seven entries in the shi section, so that readers can easily refer to them in the Appendix. Since these fifty-seven entries form the primary body of evidence for this chapter, I invite interested readers to examine the entries, my translations, and notes in the Appendix.         117\t \u00a03.3 Themes  In my reading of shi \u98df in the Shishi liutie, vegetarianism and the alcohol taboo do not appear as central concerns; Yichu hardly mentions them here. This can be partially explained by coverage elsewhere in the 37th section, under separate topics for meat \u2f81\u8089 and for alcoholic beverages \u9152. Yichu used the topic of shi, rather, for a set of more general doctrinal themes on eating as a Buddhist. From a modern perspective, we might recognize functions such as the moral transformation of the individual (the psychology of eating as a Buddhist), health objectives (Buddhist dietetics), and metaphorical representation of subtle doctrinal teachings (doctrinal elaboration and embodiment).237 These are useful perspectives, and they will inform my reading to some extent. They are, however, somewhat too far removed from the language and concepts that Yichu supplies to serve as a frame for the present analysis. A close reading of the material aimed at identifying more specific categories yielded the following set: \u2022 Kinds of food \u2022 Intrinsic properties of material food (including its intrinsic impurity) \u2022 Ritualized eating \u2022 A Middle-Way approach to eating: balance, moderation, equanimity  \u2022 Merit and karma  \u2022 Food narratives as a teaching device The first two themes address the question of what to eat, the next three the problem of how to eat, and the last shows the utility of narratives about food for conveying Buddhist ideas. These categories result from of a particular reading of Yichu\u2019s cited materials (which is initially colored by his reading) and thus cannot be considered definitive for Chinese-Buddhist discourse on food, but I believe that organization into these six themes provides a useful heuristic for understanding Yichu\u2019s presentation of the topic. All fifty-seven entries can be read as falling within one of these six thematic   118\t \u00a0categories, with some entries spanning more than one. Below, I discuss each theme in turn.   3.3.1 Kinds of food  Underlying the problem of what to eat is a basic question: what is food? Yichu begins coverage of his topic with a citation (#1) that ascribes a primordial origin to food, entailing a shift from joy-in-meditation at the beginning of the formative kalpa (i.e., the origins of the present universe) to a learned taste for the fruits of the soil. Material food is thus not taken for granted as definitive of the category of food, but has terminology to distinguish it from other \u2018foods\u2019. Material food is referred to as tuanshi \u5718\u98df, lumped food, or duanshi \u6bb5\u98df, piecemeal food.  The concept of multiple \u2018foods\u2019 reappears in another entry (#11) that sets out a doctrine of multiple foods for the different realms inhabited by sentient beings. Yichu heads the entry, \u201cThe nourishment of sentient beings.\u201d This includes Four Foods \u56db\u98df associated with the human realm \u2f08\u4eba\u9593: morsel \u6bb5 food, thought \u601d food, sensory \u89f8 food, and the food of consciousness \u8b58. Buddhist cosmology posits a desire realm \u6b32\u754c that also has four foods, and form realms \u2f8a\u8272\u754c, some of which lack material food. In the hell realms, iron pills temporarily extinguish the pangs of starvation. Finally, the citation concludes by stating that food in the form realms is joy in meditation \u79aa\u6085. These doctrinal and cosmological teachings frame nourishment as a much broader function than our narrow concept of nutritional sufficiency.238  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0237 Due to the complexity of the material, I cannot claim an objective assessment of Yichu\u2019s headings and citations, but only a reading. I encourage my readers to refer to the Appendix for the full translation and to independently assess this material.\t \u00a0238 See Chapter Four for a discussion of this broad schema for nourishment.\t \u00a0  119\t \u00a0A later entry (#33) also places material food in a larger context of nourishment: \u201cFoods give benefit according to their root.\u201d In Buddhist theories of perception, the objects of perception are received by the six roots \u516d\u6839 of consciousness, and each has at least one \u2018food\u2019 that nourishes it. The citation says, \u201cThe resource, benefit, and meaning of foods each follow their root.\u201d Thus sleep is food for eyes, sound for ears, aromas for noses, flavors for tongues, touch for bodies, and the modes of dharma, nirvana, and asceticism for cognition. Because there are entailments to these theoretical notions that are worth further discussion, Chapter Four will develop the theme of broad conceptions of food in more detail.  Despite the intriguing notion of multiple sources of nourishment, material food of the human realm figures in the majority of citations. Yichu\u2019s second entry (#2) deals with kinds of material food, stating in the heading that \u201cFoods have ten types.\u201d Yichu enumerates these based on Tang-dynasty monk Yijing\u2019s account of his travels to India: 1) rice, 2) wheat kernel, 3) pan-roasted rice or wheat flour, 4) meat, 5) cakes, 6) roots, 7) stems, 8) leaves, 9) flowers, and 10) fruits.  Such a list may seem uninteresting in a modern context, but for many centuries Buddhists participated in group polemics over what foods are suitable for human consumption. We can read from this list an affirmation of foods forbidden or restricted by Jain food rules: meat and roots.239 Chinese Buddhists had to interpret Indian Buddhist practices for use in domestic contexts, and the question of meat was long debated. That Yichu includes meat in this list may seem like an endorsement and a confirmation that food choices in religious groups are primarily markers of group identity: Buddhists eat meat while Jains do not. But such an interpretation may be hasty. Out of context, this citation does not condone or condemn use of these food types by Buddhists; it merely lists them. The last sentence supports that this is an observation of Indic practices, and no more: \u201cIf the number of types is humble there are thirty or twenty; if lavish there are a hundred or more varieties fit for a king.\u201d References to secular eating and to numbers of dishes produced for a meal suggest that Yichu is using this citation to observe that Indians ate a variety of foods. Elsewhere (#13) we see \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0239 Sen, \u201cJainism,\u201d 234-235.\t \u00a0  120\t \u00a0suggestion that even Buddhist practitioners need variety for health\u2013\u2013Yichu may have been arguing against a purist tendency among some tonsured Chinese Buddhists to eat a monotonous diet that poorly supported health (consider the celebrated image of the Buddhist recluse eating sweet potatoes in the cold while turning away offers of official patronage), but more likely this was directed at secular society, which tends to project unrealistic expectations of asceticism onto members of monastic religion.  Some entries do subtly suggest which foods are appropriate for Buddhists. For example, Yichu\u2019s citation (#23) of the Chinese legendary figures of Shennong, said to have invented agriculture, and Suiren, credited with teaching the use of fire, shows that some Chinese Buddhists adopted a belief in these figures and held that human society improved through their technological innovations. Integration of this Chinese lore on the civilizing function of agriculture gives evidence that Chinese Buddhists allied with agrarian society\u2013\u2013in subtle opposition to herding or hunting and gathering modes of human ecology (the allies of Daoists?). This Buddhist celebration of agriculture appears in some themes explored below, but I also investigate it in more detail in Chapter Six. What these discussions help show is that shi was a contested category. From the nourishment of states of consciousness to recognition of the edibility of meats, Chinese Buddhists recognized a broad range of sources of nourishment and various approaches to labeling these as acceptable for consumption by Buddhists. Next I will discuss some of the reasoning used to understand how some foods might be more appropriate than others.   3.3.2 Intrinsic properties of material food (including its intrinsic impurity)  This theme reflects responses to the question of what to eat as a Buddhist and reveals further aligning of Chinese Buddhist food choice with the products of agriculture. Whereas the last theme was on kinds of food\u2013\u2013definitional concerns\u2013\u2013this theme is on the properties of foods in human consumption. As if in response to the position that a choice of which edible materials to eat is largely arbitrary and morally irrelevant\u2013\u2013an antinomian position\u2013\u2013some cited materials reveal a belief that different   121\t \u00a0foods have natural properties and that these foods produce non-arbitrary effects in eaters. There is tension between these positions that is not fully resolved here. Yichu\u2019s citations sometimes suggest that what Buddhists eat matters greatly, and sometimes that what is eaten is less important than how one eats\u2013\u2013the topic of the remaining themes (3.3.3 \u2212 3.3.6).  An historical view may offer a potential solution to the tension. The antinomian position seems to be consistent with Indic sources on Buddhist teachings, while the view calling for disciplined adherence to food rules appears to be a later Chinese discourse. I will weight the veracity of this thesis as I develop the contours of this present theme. As reflected in the title, the theme has two components: belief in the intrinsic properties of foods and a sub-theme holding that foods are inherently impure.  The sub-theme is connected conceptually with the antinomian position. Several entries (#s 5, 15, 26, and 35) suggest that attitude and intention are the true source of ritual purity, not strict adherence to a diet of specific foods deemed ritually pure. One entry (#35) vividly portrays the futility of attempts to restrict consumption of foods deemed impure by making fun of a brahmin who unwittingly consumes food tainted by the effluents of ulcerous genitals while traveling in a foreign kingdom. Yichu heads this narrative, cited from the Dazhidu lun, with a straightforward conclusion: \u201cFoods are unclean.\u201d Other entries (#15 and #26) locate the source of foods\u2019 impurity at their origin, discussing the toil and sweat of peasants who produce food. These entries urge an awareness that eating is inherently connected with the impurity of this material realm, in order to foster humility and guard against greed. By branding all foods as intrinsically impure, this discourse aims to undermine the polemical bickering over foodstuffs that attends much of the history of group identity formation between such groups as Buddhists and Jains, and which constitutes the customary interest in taboo foods among scholars of food and religion. In other words, these Buddhist statements recognize that diet has often been used as a tool for claiming moral superiority, but they ridicule rather than condone this social function, turning the emphasis toward attitudinal purity: humility, gratitude, and the absence of greed.  But moral antinomianism has its limits among these entries, because foods and how they are eaten have physiological effects with non-arbitrary entailments. For example, a   122\t \u00a0citation from the Dharmap\u0101da, an Indian Buddhist work, holds that excessive eating and drinking leads to five harms: much stool, much urine, troubled sleep, a heavy body, and ailments and indigestion (#43). This points to the general wisdom that less is more, when eating. Buddhists institutionalized this approach to eating in monastic codes, requiring tonsured Buddhists to not eat solid food after midday. Another entry (#14) lists five benefits for this half-day fasting: sleeping less, having fewer misbehaviors, obtaining a concentrated mind free of disorder, having less flatulence, and having a body at ease and free of illness. Skilled eating has three basic benefits for Buddhists: lightness and suppleness of the body, purity, and accordance with the Dharma (#57 \u201cEating has three virtues\u201d). Here we see how Buddhist knowledge blurs boundaries between physiology, cognition, and moral behavior\u2013\u2013or perhaps it is our concepts that assign awkward borders to areas of human experience that are highly interactive.240 Yichu highlights an aspect of this fluid interaction between physiology and mental categories in an entry (#3) with the heading, \u201cHelp from flavors to change one\u2019s mood.\u201d A celebration of sweet breads from an esoteric Buddhist dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b collection, the citation stands as evidence that Chinese Buddhists did not hold a strictly ascetic attitude toward eating, but openly appreciated that tasty foods can shift our mood.  Chinese Buddhists did not share Daoist concerns that grain products could lead to ill health. On the contrary, Yichu\u2019s citations suggest that Chinese Buddhists looked very favorably on a grain-based diet, viewing these products of agriculture as appropriate food for Buddhists. Yichu points us to an old narrative (#19) of King Agnidatta giving the Buddha and his retinue a gift of inferior grain for horses. Rather than acting insulted, the Buddha accepted the gift, which nonetheless became good food.  A second citation in this entry comes from the Hongming ji, a Chinese text noted for an apologetic stance in relation to Daoism.241 It holds that certain food categories are associated with specific qualities in the eaters: \u201cThose who eat grain are wise, those who eat weeds are foolish, those who eat meat are brave, and those who eat qi are long-lived.\u201d This can be read as a gross generalization of social trends, such as meat eating amongst the military and subsistence on crude plant foods among the poorest \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0240 E.g., Damasio, Descartes' Error.\t \u00a0241 Z\u00fcrcher, Buddhist Conquest, 13; Keenan, How Master Mou Removes Our Doubts.\t \u00a0  123\t \u00a0peasants, but it could also be a reflection of observations made of non-human eaters, later recast as a statement about humans. In this latter view, ruminants might be seen as unintelligent animals relative to pigs and humans (fed by agriculture); tigers and other carnivorous animals display ferocity; and mythical beings associated with longevity or immortality are said to live on qi. The view that observations about animals stands behind these generalizations is more apparent in another entry (#54), where Yichu\u2019s heading reads, \u201cThat which we eat has differences\u201d\u2013\u2013in other words, all foods are not created equal. Citing the Fayuan zhulin, a Tang-dynasty Buddhist encyclopedia, Yichu highlights a set of correspondences between a food and a quality: clay with mental extinction; grain with wisdom; meat with anger; grass with strength; mulberry with production of silk; qi with long life; and complete fasting with immortality. Because humans do not become strong by eating grass or spin silk after eating mulberry leaves, we know that these generalizations were derived in part from observation of non-human animals.  This list also shows that Daoist ideas about achieving longevity and immortality were gaining acceptance with some Chinese Buddhists, leading to ambivalent doctrinal positioning on the qualities of foods and the prospects that their consumption or avoidance might achieve. This emphasis on the intrinsic properties of foods and the potential to use modes of eating as a technology for achieving longevity or immortality is a distinctly Chinese departure from the antinomian view with which we began this theme. How to read the Daoist-Buddhist relationship reflected through this material is not straightforward, because on the one hand the Buddhists seem to adopt Daoist goals and the techniques for achieving these, while on the other they ridicule Daoists for fasting and for consuming alcohol and meat (#44).  In summary, the picture that emerges is that Chinese Buddhists, faced with a strong discourse in China on the intrinsic properties of different foods, had to reconcile Buddhist teachings on food with an interest in dietetics that enjoyed a broad base of support in Chinese society. With Mah\u0101y\u0101na texts and indigenous discourses shifting Chinese Buddhists toward greater expression of compassion toward food animals, multiple positions arose to challenge antinomian arguments for emphasizing the inherent impurity of food, for prioritizing attitudinal purity, and for accepting that meat forms   124\t \u00a0part of the human diet. In Yichu\u2019s tenth-century survey, these positions\u2013\u2013antinomian and prescriptive\u2013\u2013retain an element of tension. But as we will see in the following themes, believe in the efficacy of attitude is firmly established in Buddhist discourse on eating. Whereas prescriptive rules for what to eat changed in the course of Buddhist history, doctrine associated with attitude remained fairly consistent. This challenges, again, the notion that Buddhists used food practices as a central tool for constructing identity. It would be more accurate to say that Buddhist precepts on eating are operative at the level of attitude\u2013\u2013how one eats trumps what one eats.    3.3.3 Ritualized eating  Buddhist teachings have much to say on the problem of how to eat as a Buddhist. In many of Yichu\u2019s citations, eating is highly structured by ritual and etiquette. \u201cFood divided in fifths\u201d(#24), for example, describes five ritual acts of regifting that a bhik\u1e63u performs before eating begged food. Dividing the food into five parts, \u201cthe first is offered to passersby on the road, the second to people on waterways, the third to people on land, the fourth to those who have passed away before him, and the fifth to hungry ghosts.\u201d What remains, the bhik\u1e63u then eats.  Some teachings required tonsured Buddhists to beg for their livelihoods rather than engage in self-sustaining economic activities. An anecdote of the disciple \u015a\u0101riputra (#25) vilifies four categories of economic activity: \u201cA bhik\u1e63u should not feed himself by engaging in astrology, by planting, by being a servant of the wealthy, or by netting profits through medicine mixing, sacrifices, and spells.\u201d Yichu may have intended to show Chinese society, both secular and monastic, that Buddhist teachings clearly call for tonsured Buddhists to beg their food, because of a perceived lack of adherence to this practice in China. One entry (#46) even points out that begging is one of \u201cthe seven kinds of conditions\u201d for retaining the dharma as a tonsured Buddhist. Three consecutive entries (#36, #37, #38) discuss begging. Perhaps because begging was more heavily stigmatized in Chinese than Indian society, Buddhist scholar-monks debated the terminology for Buddhist begging: qishi \u4e5e\u98df and fenwei \u5206\u885e (#36). At   125\t \u00a0issue was not just the translation of Pali or Sanskrit into Chinese terms that were intelligible in Chinese society, but also the accuracy of the interpretation of cultural practices that helped Buddhism function in society. Yichu\u2019s citations on the etiquette used in begging supports the notion that Buddhist begging was not a clumsy plea for scraps, but a structured technique with codes of conduct: taking along another bhik\u1e63u as a companion, proceeding slowly, covering one\u2019s chest under robes, and not showing teeth (#37, #38). These are not merely forms that help signify Buddhist identity; these are behaviors geared toward successful begging. Despite the presence of teachings on begging in Chinese Buddhist literature, mendicant begging did not become widely practiced in Chinese Buddhism, which developed monastic institutions that allowed tonsured Buddhists to dine collectively on donated foods, circumventing the need for daily begging rounds.242  Images of strict etiquette display the discipline of the sa\u1e43gha and its respectfulness regarding the giving of food. \u201cEating has strict rules,\u201d declares Yichu, citing a record (#18) of Khotanese Buddhists eating donated food in great halls with hierarchical seating, using hand gestures to quietly receive what they need (much as Chinese monastics eat in the present day). Etiquette and orderliness convey the worth of Buddhist practice to potential patrons, and steer practitioners toward appropriate attitudes of respectfulness. The stakes were high, as history has shown; Buddhists accused of being freeloaders suffered greatly in persecutions such as that of the Huichang era toward the end of the Tang dynasty, but also on a smaller scale when social stigma entailed hunger. Much in Yichu\u2019s material on food ritual can be read as constructing and reinforcing Buddhist group identity, but it is doing more than this. Buddhist rituals for mealtime also shape attitude, a component of psychology that reflects character, or notions of self identity. Stating that \u201ceating requires thoughtfulness,\u201d Yichu cites (#55) a form of mental preparation for lay Buddhists to practice before a meal, which, like Christian \u201cgrace,\u201d may be thought internally if oral recitation is not possible: \u201cThe first spoonful must cut off all evils, the second must cultivate all good, and the good roots cultivated by \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0242 See Richard Mather, \u201cBonze\u2019s Begging Bowl;\u201d Buswell and Lopez, Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, \u201cpi\u1e47\u1e0dap\u0101ta,\u201d 645.\t \u00a0  126\t \u00a0the third spoonful must be turned around and given to all sentient beings as a universal offering for their achieving buddhahood.\u201d The Buddha himself is said to have passed on any surplus food to others, rather than hoarding it (#56). Any natural tendencies toward greed or gluttony are offset by ritualized giving and receiving, promoting a psychology of generosity and mutual interconnection.  In summary, these entries do not reveal a clear line between ritualized behaviors (i.e., begging) and proper attitudes (e.g., generosity, gratitude, and thoughtfulness). Prescribed attitudes are as important to the orthopraxy of eating as a Buddhist as forms of etiquette and other bodily practices. This mental and physical comportment, furthermore, was not just about making a show of Buddhist identity, but was geared toward successful begging and success in spiritual cultivation. This suggests that the question of how to eat as a Buddhist was an important question to Chinese Buddhists, approached from multiple angles. It cannot be reduced to mere formalism, to an orthopraxy with arbitrary signifiers of Buddhist identity.    3.3.4 A Middle-Way approach to eating:  Balance, moderation, and equanimity  The notion that full awakening can be achieved without ascetic eating practices is a central theme in the narrative of the Buddha\u2019s awakening. Siddhartha is said to have tried extreme ascetic practices, including fasting, but eventually abandoned these in favor of meditation under a tree, his stamina reinvigorated by a milk porridge that the second daughter of the village head was bringing to him as an offering. Having turned from extreme fasting to a more nutritionally sustaining diet, Siddhartha achieved final awakening and became known as the Buddha. Yichu presents this narrative in an entry (#53) worth presenting here in entirety: The Buddha eats milk porridge. The Benxing jing243 says, When the Buddha finished six years [of ascetic practices] and by the sixteenth day of the second month spring had fully arrived, he thought to himself, \u201cI need good food. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0243 For this episode see the Fo benxingji jing T3 n190 771b02-772b16.\t \u00a0  127\t \u00a0After eating I will attain the fruit of awakening.\u201d At the time a low-level god informed the favorably-born second daughter of the village head, ordering her to make delicious food. The girl then took milk from a thousand cows, mixing it together. When she took milk and simmered porridge, the milk porridge manifested a sign, leaping out of the pot by several chi, giving the appearance of ten thousand words\u2013\u2013virtuous words. She offered it to him in a golden alms bowl; the Buddha ate and attained completion of the Way. In what is regarded as his first sermon after his awakening (Ch. Zhuan falun jing \u8f49\u6cd5\u8f2a\u7d93; Skt. Dharmacakrapravartana-s\u016btra), the Buddha teaches a Middle Way (Ch. zhongdao \u4e2d\u9053; Skt. madhyamapratipad) between the extremes of hedonistic indulgence and self-mortifying asceticism.244  The theme of moderation, which manifests prominently in Yichu\u2019s entries on eating, is thus an aspect of Buddhist doctrine more fundamental than vegetarianism (which was considered too extreme by early Buddhists). We can certainly say that the theme of moderation has a role in constructing Buddhist identity, but not in the traditional sense understood through general theory on food and religion. Moderation, on the contrary, tends to work against the grain of polemics of group identity formation vis-\u00e0-vis group rules for fasting and for avoiding taboo foods. It undermines extreme positions that would separate people on the grounds of what early Buddhists might say is an arbitrary social basis. The error is illustrated in the narrative of Siddhartha\u2019s ascetic companions shunning him when he chose to accept the offerings of milk porridge, only to later discover that his choice had some role in his achieving the fruit of awakening.  While \u201cBuddhism\u201d is the name we now use for multiple traditions developing out of the teachings of the Buddha, a general claim underlying these teachings is that they are a reflection of universal truth, rather than an idiosyncratic fabrication of a creative (even brilliant) individual. Other religions also make claims to universal truth (such as pointing toward a divine revelation of the Ten Commandments), and modern scholars tend to bracket such claims as tools for establishing authority. Early Buddhist teachings, \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0244 Buswell and Lopez, Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism), 239, 489. On this scripture, see Nattier, Guide to Early Chinese Translations, 46, 51-52.\t \u00a0  128\t \u00a0however, do not claim a divine origin through revelation, but instead posit the existence of a normative soteriological method that can be discovered by any individual supported with the right causes and conditions. This doctrine of pre-existing soteriology has implications for understanding Buddhist epistemology, including doctrine of the Middle Way, so it is worthwhile to provide a brief overview here. In his first sermon, the Buddha describes a path (Ch. dao \u9053; Skt. m\u0101rga) leading from the suffering of sa\u1e43s\u0101ra to the liberation of nirv\u0101\u1e47a, a noble eightfold path that constitutes the fourth teaching of the four noble truths (Ch. sidi \u56db\u8ae6). The eight aspects of this path are right or correct views, intentions, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. Over the centuries these eight aspects have been variously interpreted, sometimes through distillation into a threefold scheme that subsumes them into aspects of the practice of morality, concentration, and wisdom.245 Such normative schemes constitute the Middle Way of Buddhist teachings, setting boundaries of a Buddhist orthopraxy that is neither lax nor extreme for practitioners.246 Elaborations of right effort, for example, suggest that too much effort is undesirable, because it can cause a collapse of effort through bodily harm\u2013\u2013steady effort is more sustainable.  In Yichu\u2019s entries on food, we find similar logic expressed as a celebration of balance, moderation, and equanimity in the face of imbalance. One entry (#16) warns in the heading that \u201cOne must be measured in eating,\u201d and gives a citation from the Zengyi ahan jing stating that overeating and under-eating both lead to trouble, illustrated with an object lesson of a young bhik\u1e63u collapsing in the midst of an assembly due to undernourishment. The entry further reports that the Buddha said not to go to extremes and advocates being like a centered steelyard (Ch. cheng \u79e4)\u2013\u2013a hanging balance with a long arm that sways up and down. The balance metaphor appears also in an entry (#8) urging proper attitude, which forms part of the orthopraxy of the noble eightfold path \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0245 Buswell and Lopez, Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, \u201c\u0101ry\u0101\u1e63\u1e6d\u0101\u1e45gam\u0101rga,\u201d 66\t \u00a0246 Ch. xingzhe \u2f8f\u884c\u8005\u2013\u2013literally, one who walks [the Buddhist path], an itinerant monk or a lay person following the Buddhist way. The metaphor of walking a path is central in Buddhist identity, where practitioners are people who \u2018learn and walk the Buddhist path\u2019 \u4fee\u2f8f\u884c\u4f5b\u9053\u4e4b\u2f08\u4eba.\t \u00a0  129\t \u00a0discussed above\u2013\u2013proper attitude is an outcome of holding right views, right intentions, and right mindfulness. The citation, from the Supohu tongzi qingwen jing, employs the trope of cannibalizing one\u2019s own child to underline the grave importance of practitioners avoiding greed and fondness for flavors when eating. Elsewhere (#15), Yichu cites instructions for manipulating one\u2019s attitude before a meal: \u201cWhen you wish to eat, think of yourself carrying out virtuous acts and planning meritorious achievements, give some thought to the provenance of the food, and think of giving offerings to the wise and relief to the many starved and exhausted people.\u201d Danger lies not so much in the food as in the attitude that we bring to eating, so a bhik\u1e63u is to \u201cmake his attitude free of desire for flavors\u201d when he eats.  The prescribed attitude toward food is one of equanimity, a practical awareness of the necessity of food, along with a refusal to make much ado about its lesser or greater quality. \u201cFood is without coarse and fine\u201d\u2013\u2013so reads the heading for one entry (#4), which entreats people to not seek splendor, but to see eating as a way to benefit the body. Yichu makes a similar point in another heading (#13): \u201cFood is fundamentally to sustain the body.\u201d This entry cites the analogy of medicine used in the healing of battle wounds, suggesting that fine foods of many flavors are needed by religious practitioners to sustain bodily health and practice the Way: \u201cJust as the King once had arrow wounds on his body after a battle, and, spreading medicine on bandages, was not covetous of the medicine in using it to heal wounds, so it is with a religious practitioner eating fine foods of many flavors.\u201d This could be read, cynically, as a justification for indulgence, but it likely has some basis in the observation that a monotonous diet more readily leads to malnourishment and illness. There is something in human psychology that gravitates toward extreme displays of self-mortification, with an external social component projecting the expectation onto renunciants, and an internal mental component driving renunciants toward asceticism. Even with the Buddha having taught his community that this is a mistaken approach to spiritual development, the Middle Way of eating appears easier to locate in theory than in practice, resulting in a need for clarifying statements such as these. The parable (#35) of a traveling brahmin who inadvertently eats unclean food warns Buddhists not to externalize their search for purity, as discussed above. Foods are either   130\t \u00a0slightly tainted or very tainted, so elaborate control of eating is a futile approach to purity. The parable comes from a passage in the Dazhidu lun establishing justifications for an attitude of despising foods \u98df\u53ad\u60f3, a mental exercise for overcoming strong desire for delicious foods. The message has a general component: do not base your status on what you eat, thinking that you eat in a way that is superior to others. Whether in sumptuous feasting or selective fasting, the food matters less than the attitude with which one eats. Narratives where Buddhists do not eat celebrate the attitude of equanimity, rather than the fast itself. Even when faced with situations that are far from moderate, an attitude free of fear is the appropriate response. For example, in an entry (#39) where \u0100nanda begs for food, he exemplifies an attitude free of grievances: \u201cWhen \u0100nanda departed, no meal was provided by donors. He held his alms bowl, his mind dwelt in equality, and he did not discriminate differences between noble and humble.\u201d One can imagine how a great disciple like \u0100nanda might be tempted to feel snubbed by the lack of a donated meal, but he chose a different attitudinal response to the situation. Another great disciple, Subh\u016bti, sought wealth but dwelt in an attitude free of grievances (#39), so he becomes an object of Vimalak\u012brti\u2019s jests (#40). Rebuked upon arriving to Vimalak\u012brti\u2019s house to beg for food, Subh\u016bti wants to take his alms bowl back and leave, prompting Vimalak\u012brti to tease him: \u201cIf a manifestation of the Tath\u0101gata is questioned like this, will he or will he not be frightened?\u201d In other words, any fearful attitude is a departure from the normative ideal of the Buddhist path: equanimity.   Doctrinally, then, eating entails a prescription of attitude, but not rigid prescription of what to eat or of fasting. Citing the Benxing jing, Yichu tells us (#51) that it was not due to the Buddha\u2019s making himself hungry that he completed the path to awakening. While monastic codes do call for Buddhists to adhere to fasting after the midday meal (#14), this practice was justified with reference to the attending benefits (as discussed above), rather than with calls to penitence and self-mortification. While Yichu may well have cherry-picked his citations, the theme that eating should align with doctrine of the Middle Way is vivid in his entries.      131\t \u00a03.3.5 Karma and Merit  The theme of the interaction of karma \u696d and merit \u798f, also prominent in Yichu\u2019s entries on eating, helps explain the emphasis on equanimity in attitude discussed above, which is a wise response to ebbs and flows of fortune that are the natural outcome of previous actions (including mental activity). Quite a number of entries suggest that feast or famine in this life is ultimately determined by karma, actions influenced by intentionality. Eating is an important site where the inevitabilities of karma and the possibilities of merit play out in vivid, tangible patterns. Holding a proper attitude and accruing merit is more advantageous than direct pursuit of worldly goods, because even the latter will be thwarted if one has insufficient merit.  One of the best ways to gain merit, unsurprisingly, is to make offerings of food to the Buddhist sa\u1e43gha, earning future benefits of good appearance, strength, long life, joy, and discernment of purity and ease (#31, #54). Giving of food for gaining merit is not, however, just a doctrinal tool for encouraging societies to feed Buddhist renunciants, but is a general concern for all people. Numerous entries repeatedly emphasize the importance of giving food, the consequences of not being virtuous (or generous), and the benefits of generous actions. Yichu advises to \u201cPlan meritorious acts and guard against greed\u201d in the heading to an entry discussing the origins of food in the sweat and toil of peasants (#26). We cannot avoid the intrinsic impurity of food, as discussed above, but we can guard against improper desires by holding food\u2019s origins in our awareness when we eat. And we can defend against karmic entailments by planning meritorious acts that will prepare us for a brighter future.  \u201cThink of the provenance of food,\u201d entreats another entry (#28), which offers ways to shape proper attitude for receiving food. The gravity of the sacrifice made by almsgivers is expressed through the analogies of cannibalizing \u201cthe flesh of your son\u201d and of the almsgiver \u201cslicing off skin and flesh and giving it as alms.\u201d Thus, gifts of food are not windfalls, not resources that can be taken for granted. Reciprocity of offering is required, in spirit if not in kind: \u201cTo faultlessly receive and use it, I must return the almsgiver\u2019s kindness, causing him to reap the excellent realization [of full awakening];   132\t \u00a0he [too] will benefit.\u201d In what specific form this kindness is to be paid is not specified in Yichu\u2019s citation, though the suggestion here is that the giving itself constitutes a reciprocal relationship of merit-building that can help propel the almsgiver toward eventual release from the sufferings of sa\u1e43s\u0101ra .  A view of the workings of karma and merit places the vagaries of human life on transcendent scales. In the example of Gav\u0101\u1e43pati vomiting, picking up the food, and eating it again, we learn that karma does not correspond with wisdom (#43), that karma is not a reflection of proximate manifestations of character. In an entry (#45) headed, \u201cNirvana of not attaining,\u201d the ability to receive food is linked to a non-random order, expressed in the story of Bhik\u1e63u Losakati\u1e63ya, who had little merit and had exhausted his conditions for obtaining food: \u201c\u2026he begged food for seven days without obtaining any, looked upon the Unconditioned, and entered nirvana.\u201d Here Losakati\u1e63ya\u2019s fruitless begging rounds are understood as an outcome of karma, rather than a failing of proximate conditions. Proximate circumstances are the conditions for failed begging, while karma is the ultimate cause. Another entry (#49) provides additional details on the story of Losakati\u1e63ya\u2019s hunger, illustrating how karma is inexorable. His life in danger, friends tried to get food to him: \u201cFood given by fellows on the path was stolen by crows. Food given through supernormal powers by Maudgaly\u0101yana transformed into mud. When \u015a\u0101riputra gave him food, his mouth closed on its own. Only when the Buddha gave him food did he arouse the [necessary] resolve and obtain the fruits of awakening.\u201d The Buddha\u2019s giving of food as in intervention in the starvation of a truth-seeker echoes the story of his own final awakening and reinforces the centrality of giving of food in the structure of the path to awakening.  In Losakati\u1e63ya\u2019s case, the causes of his hunger are not revealed, but in another entry (#50), a bhik\u1e63u named Leku\u00f1cika suffers chronic shortages of food his entire life before finally eating clay for seven days and dying. Yichu\u2019s citation only says that among the causes was that he had once denied his mother food, but the fuller account in the Baiyuan jing (Avad\u0101na\u015bataka) relates that the causes were from a past life. The individual had participated in making offerings to a buddha and sa\u1e43gha until his father died. When his mother chose to distribute still more of their food, in anger he locked her up and caused her to die of starvation. His life as a hungry bhik\u1e63u who eventually   133\t \u00a0starved to death reflects his merit in having participated in food offerings to a past buddha and sa\u1e43gha, while also mirroring the pattern of suffering that he inflicted on his mother.  The story of A\u1e45kura obtaining food (#42) further develops this doctrine of karma transcending life boundaries of death and rebirth. Again, Yichu has abbreviated the narrative, so we must go to a short sutra called the Foshuo ajiuliu jing (T14 n529) to make sense of the context. The sutra narrates a story told by the historical Buddha of a merchant who learns to donate food and is eventually reborn in a heaven. In the past, there was a rich merchant named A\u1e45kura (Ch. Ajiuliu \u963f\u9ce9\u7559) who did not believe in rebirth or karma. He and a retinue of merchants were making their way to the sea to search for precious items, but they entered a barren area with neither food nor water and after three or four days were in danger of death. A\u1e45kura searched the area while his retinue despaired, and eventually he sighted a green tree with a man sitting beneath it. Thinking that there must be water beneath the tree, he went over to investigate. Explaining his needs to the seated man, A\u1e45kura obtained water and food through the man\u2019s miraculous powers, then brought the retinue over and helped them obtain water and food as well. Questioning this miracle-worker, who also conjured up treasure for them to take back to their villages and use to care for those in need, they learned that he was a great spirit \u8c6a\u859c\u8318, the ghost of a deceased man. This ghost tells of his past life as a poor but pure-hearted man in the time that K\u0101\u015byapa Buddha entered parinirv\u0101\u1e47a. For his acts of goodness and of piety toward K\u0101\u015byapa, he obtained an ability to conjure up things from his fingertips, but was reborn as a ghost for drinking alcohol \u98ee\u9152 and not having practiced abstinence \u672a\u66fe\u9f4b. A\u1e45kura takes the treasure given by this ghost back to his country and provides for the needs of all people who come to him, turning away no one. He is reborn in the heaven of the thirty-three celestials \u5fc9\u5229\u5929 living at the top of Mt. Sumeru, but is far from the seats of honor surrounding the king of heaven, \u015aakra Dev\u0101n\u0101m-Indra \u5929\u5e1d\u91cb. Kowtowing to Buddha, he comments that although as a rich man he spent the latter half of his life providing offerings to thousands of people who   134\t \u00a0were in need, his rebirth into heaven was far outmatched by a woman who as a poor beggar had given a mere bowl of rice porridge to the Buddha\u2019s disciple Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa. The narrative of A\u1e45kura illustrates not only how merit influences rebirth, but it vividly demonstrates the power of sincere giving, which is measured not by quantities but by context. Intentionality, it seems, colors merit in ways that transcend the physicality of giving.  This potential for merit to magnify according to circumstance is evident also an entry (#48) headed \u201cMerit for seven lifetimes,\u201d in which Yichu cites the case of Aniruddha, who became aware of his past lives and recalls a decisive act of generosity that propelled him through a series of favorable rebirths: \u201cWhen in a previous life I was in a society suffering starvation, locust [infestations], drought, and failing crops, a pratyekabuddha entered the walled city to beg food and came out with an empty alms bowl. I, as a fuelwood carrier, saw him and invited him to follow me back home, [where I] divided my own food and gave it to him. [This act] aroused the sympathy of the heavenly realm and I returned to the human realm seven times, receiving rich [karmic] results, even to the extent that I obtained the Way.\u201d Here, the context of famine, the worthiness of the pratyekabuddha, and Aniruddha\u2019s sincere generosity, despite his humble means, created conditions for profoundly lasting merit.  An entry (#29) concerning the heavens inhabited by gods presents merit, and even its variability, as perceptually tangible. In certain heavens, the beverages and other items of gods exhibit a hierarchical ordering of merit via a color scheme: \u201cSuperior merit is of a white color, middle [merit] is blue-green, and lesser [merit] is yellow.\u201d Clothing, palaces, and even musical pieces are in this way colored by a manifestation of their merit. This substantiation of merit probes into areas of human knowledge that are ultimately untestable, but at the very least we can appreciate how such discourse on merit serves to reify and draw attention to the concept. That merit literally colors the gods\u2019 beverages, garments, and palaces highlights the long-term work that merit exercises in the karmic careers of sentient beings. Great acts of merit-building are not limited to the deeds of social elite\u2013\u2013the building of stupas, bridges, temples, and wells, for example\u2013\u2013but can be as simple as a generous offering food. In this way, Buddhist   135\t \u00a0discourse highlights the utility of food as a tool for even those of humble means to rise to better circumstances.   Sub-theme: Transcendent Powers  Related to merit is the theme of transcendent power, an expression of the accumulation of merit. Transcendent powers are evident in depictions of the heavens inhabited by gods, discussed above, but even ordinary humans can obtain access to the beings or realms that exhibit supramundane powers. One entry (#52) relates the story of N\u0101gakany\u0101, daughter of the dragon king, being saved by an ordinary human when she was walking in the wilds and encountered people who wanted to kill her. She took her savior home and offered him (or her?) a meal containing, as she explained, \u201citems that digest in seven days and those that digest for an entire lifetime.\u201d In the context of Yichu\u2019s other citations on food, this one is not so much highlighting the sluggishness of reptilian digestion as demonstrating that the merit brought by generous acts can equip us with resources transcending the usual worldly limits. N\u0101gakany\u0101 continues, \u201cI also present you with a continually renewed segment of gold, which upon selling persists as of old.\u201d Generous actions reap rich rewards. The Buddhist path is efficacious in generating merit and producing transcendent power because, it seems, the universe is structured to reward generosity, a central virtue in Buddhist teachings. Ritual offerings to hungry ghosts (#34) are another example of the theme of transcendence, but this time oriented toward beings with very little merit and with great suffering. By saying incantations over food and offering it at the right time, the food transforms into a liquid that can satiate the voracious hunger of hungry ghosts, passing down their needle-thin throats. Furthermore, when hungry ghosts receive just a little food, it increases and becomes much more. These rituals are thus a kind of technology built on understandings of the operation of meritorious acts achieving transcendent efficacy.  Yichu cites not just Indian sources on the belief that practicing the Buddhist path leads to accumulation of merit and acquisition of transcendent powers. The entry \u201cPersonally unaffected by accidental poisoning\u201d (#6) relates the story of Dhy\u0101na Master   136\t \u00a0Zao stopping in his travels to have a meal with a rural host. The host boils up some berries, they eat, and Zao continues on his way. When his host later throws up and becomes almost deathly ill, he realizes that he had mistakenly collected poisonous berries and sends a neighbor to chase after Zao with some counteracting medicine. Catching up with him, the man tells Zao that he had eaten poison, but Zao merely thanks him for troubling to come to his aid, explaining that he personally was not poisoned. The last sentence concisely sums up the transcendent power of merit-building on the Buddhist path: \u201cThe powers of the Way are beyond understanding \u9053\u2f12\u529b\u4e0d\u601d\u8b70\u4e5f.\u201d The Buddha himself is an embodiment of the power of accumulated merit, and the golden standard in that regard. As a citation (#27) from the Dazhidu lun puts it, \u201cthe merit of the Buddha is greatest \u4f5b\u798f\u6700\u52dd.\u201d The great merit of the Buddha causes a miracle to occur when he once begged for food. Another entry (#32) further illustrates the Buddha\u2019s exceptional merit by citing the twenty-sixth sign, obtaining supreme flavors, from a list of the thirty-two signs of a great being. Buddhas are said to have in their throats two springs of milk that transform to delicious flavors all foods that they eat, regardless of their quality. The entry concludes that meritorious karma leads to such different outcomes among sentient beings. Why does merit lead beings to such different outcomes, such as to great suffering or to transcendent powers that allay suffering? The doctrinal themes that I discuss here point toward a coherent vision of the Dharma as favoring\u2013\u2013in terms of merit\u2013\u2013a spirit of generosity. Perhaps it is not that Dharma is personified and \u2018cares\u2019 what sentient beings suffer, but rather that, from the perspective of sentience, the suffering brought on by negative acts is ultimately an unskillful and undesirable way to be, while embodying such virtues as generosity, compassion, wisdom, and so forth, is intrinsically more desirable. Yichu seems to be gesturing us in this direction with an entry (#41) headed, \u201cExtraordinary compassion.\u201d Citing what may be different editions of the Vimalak\u012brti-nirde\u015ba-s\u016btra, the entry suggests that the great disciple K\u0101\u015byapa received begged food according to his practice of renouncing wealth and dwelling in equality: the   137\t \u00a0Dharma responded by having him arrive at neither great or little fortune. A second citation relates how Vimalak\u012brti recognized the hunger of the beings in his gathering who had passed the night in talk; he transformed himself into a bodhisattva in the realm of the Buddha of Accumulated Fragrance (Gand\u0101laya) and returned with an alms bowl filled with fragrant rice, \u201cthe aroma permeating all Vai\u015b\u0101li and fully satiating the assembly.\u201d He then took the bowl of rice to humans and \u201cthe humans all ate, collecting as much as Mt. Sumeru.\u201d For those above to compassionately feed the less advantaged below is, apparently, built into the fabric of the cosmos.  Returning to the question of how Yichu\u2019s entries on food reflect the conventional approach in food and religion of highlighting identity construction via fasting and taboos, or other group-based food rules, I would like to suggest that the interacting themes of karma, merit, and transcendent powers frame food as part of a universal order that holds true for Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike. From these doctrinal perspectives, adherence to specific food rules is far less important than cultivating a spirit of generosity, since it is acts performed with great compassion that build merit and propel sentient beings toward a higher rebirth.  One can find identity construction in this theme if one looks for it; acceptance of this doctrine of karma could be understood as one form of identification. But because many of the narratives involve individuals who are not identified as Buddhist, I would emphasize that faith and social identification with a \u201cBuddhist\u201d group are not the operative categories in this doctrinal milieu. Buddhists, rather, are those who follow the path established by the teachings of the Buddha, conforming to the truth of the universal order so as to gain merit and evolve toward transcendent powers, and even full awakening. The Buddha did not establish strict rules for food consumption, instead advocating moderation, as we saw earlier. Yichu\u2019s inclusion of so many citations dealing with karma and merit\u2013\u2013rather than the monastic rules that Buddhist teachers gradually developed for governing their communities\u2013\u2013suggests that he saw karma and merit as the more relevant topic in Buddhist teachings on food. I would also argue that Yichu\u2019s choice to downplay monastic codes and highlight the universal functioning of karma reveals his intention to pitch his work toward a non-Buddhist readership. So on two levels, doctrinal and interpretive, we have here a strong orientation toward the position   138\t \u00a0that what Buddhism has to say about eating is not a partisan discourse. If this reasoning is correct, then themes discussed here constitute a potential contribution to prevailing theory on food and religion.  3.3.6 Food narratives as a teaching device  The final theme I will discuss is the use of narratives on food as a vehicle for expressing various Buddhist teachings. We have seen already examples of narratives in the form of parables or containing analogy, so much of what I covered above could be included here. But rather than revisit previously presented material, this discussion will include only those entries not yet covered. In so doing, this final theme is at risk of becoming a mixed bag of entries not included in the above themes, yet I see here the potential for a coherent theme\u2013\u2013I just choose to leave it less developed by excluding repetitious material. At the end of this section, the discussion will have touched on all fifty-seven entries on the topic of shi at least once. Food serves as a useful topic in religion in part due to its centrality in human experience. Everyone knows food. Being so concretely familiar allows food to more readily convey subtle teachings. An entry titled \u201cLike a starving person being told to eat\u201d cites the analogy of a person encountering an abundant meal after suffering starvation and hesitating to dig in. Only with repeated reassurances from the king does the person dare to eat. The analogy illuminates the psychology of privation, which leaves a person timid in the face of abundant resources; too great a contrast of fortune engenders fear, because the person has learned all too intimately the unpredictability of life\u2019s hidden pitfalls. But for what is this an analogy? Yichu does not say, but this appears in the sixth chapter of the Lotus Sutra, in which the Buddha makes predictions about his disciples\u2019 future attainment. In response to the Buddha\u2019s prophesy of Ka\u015byapa achieving buddhahood in the distant future, several disciples speak this analogy in their display of gratitude. The Buddha is the king in the analogy, offering up a feast of hope and assurance to his timid disciples.  This metaphorical feasting on the words of the Buddha is a general analogy that appears in other contexts. Under the heading, \u201cDharma study is food, differentiating   139\t \u00a0meaning is the sauce,\u201d Yichu uses an entry (#20) to cite two versions of this idea: \u201cReciting and studying the scriptures is to be taken as food, differentiating the meaning of the scriptures is to be considered the sauce\u2026\u201d and \u201cThe bliss of dharma and the joy of meditation is the food, the taste of liberation the sauce.\u201d The analogy depends on the positive valence of food and sauce, understood here as desirable goods. The transfer of positive valence, and not just the idea of consumption, is what makes food metaphors apt for the teachings that sustain Buddhists.  Another form of the \u2018good food\u2019 metaphor is found in an entry (#12) headed, \u201cEven clothing is not coveted.\u201d The analogy is of a small child that hardly notices its clothing being removed if it is distracted by some good food. This serves as a guide for practitioners to envision the equanimity that they aim to cultivate: \u201cIn this manner, a bhik\u1e63u obtains benefit, loss, precepts, mental concentration, wisdom, and so forth.\u201d What is not made explicit is the identity of \u2018food\u2019 in the case of the bhik\u1e63u\u2013\u2013we might guess that this is having access to the Dharma, this opportunity itself being that which sustains the bhik\u1e63u through fluctuations of loss and gain toward the goal of awakening.  The flip side of the \u2018good food\u2019 metaphor also appears. Yichu presents the analogy (#10) of a clumsy almsgiver who provides people with food and drink, but mistakenly uses poisoned water and causes the people to die. This analogy appears to stand for ill-informed teachers who unwittingly lead people astray. Thus, to have good teachings is to feast, to have misinformed teachings is to be poisoned, and to lack teachings is to starve. There is some tension, still, between the positive valence of material food and the earnestness with which Buddhist authors suggest its substitution by alternatives such as joy in meditation \u79aa\u6085. I will address this tension in Chapter Four.  Other uses of food in Buddhist discourse include a parable (#30) warning against deception and a vengeful attitude. The parable relates how two people were preparing to eat together when one stole a bite. The other felt cheated and slipped medicine into some food, poisoning his companion. With his companion in agony, the poisoner declared, \u201cYou took food and deceived me; I grabbed medicine and deceived you!\u201d One could argue that this is the flip side of the spirit of generosity infusing Buddhist teachings on eating.    140\t \u00a0A milder form of distrust is evident in an entry (#17) colored by humor, which seems to poke fun at Buddhists who make too much of the distinction between Buddhists and non-Buddhists:  A bhik\u1e63u receives fruit [but] distances [himself] from his denigrators. A bhik\u1e63u was practicing with a non-Buddhist and noticed his fruit tree. The non-Buddhist invited him to climb up and take some fruit. The bhik\u1e63u replied, \u201cThe Buddhist teachings do not permit climbing of trees.\u201d The non-Buddhist climbed up to take [some fruit, but] the bhik\u1e63u on the ground would not take it. The non-Buddhist asked why. The bhik\u1e63u said, \u201cThe Buddha directed that, should we receive too much from outside Buddhism, we will give rise to belief and submit.\u201d Yichu heads the entry, \u201cTo eat fruits, one must receive them.\u201d This heading helps us read the passage as ironic, rather than taking it at face value as an instance of Buddhist authors drawing rigid boundaries around their group identity and warning other Buddhists to refuse contact with non-Buddhists. While Yichu cites the Zengyi ahan jing for this passage, I do not find it there. I do, however, find it in the Sifenl\u00fc xingshi chao zichi ji \u56db\u5206\u5f8b\u2f8f\u884c\u4e8b\u9214\u8cc7\u6301\u8a18 (T40 n1805, 319b19-29), a work by Yuanzhao \u5143\u7167 (1048-1116). Yuanzhao\u2019s account is slightly longer and more specific in its wording, but does not cite a source. Yichu\u2019s citation predates that of Yuanzhao, but the proximity of their accounts, in terms of time of appearance and wording, suggests that this may have been a Chinese Buddhist response to social pressures that emerged in China around Yichu\u2019s time. I am tempted to read it as an ironic portrayal of Confucian attitudes toward Buddhists, since Han Yu and other Confucians leading into the Song period left similar statements.247 In any case, taken with Yichu\u2019s heading, the passage suggests that Buddhists are not to be so insular and rigid. If my reading is correct, then this attitude pushes Buddhist doctrine away from the conventional emphasis on the role of food restrictions in constructing Buddhist identity. This passage simultaneously acknowledges the social tendency toward group insularism and undermines it in favor of reciprocity.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0247 E.g., Han Yu\u2019s argument that \u201c\u2026gradually, and before anyone was aware, it beguiled and confounded men\u2019s minds so that the multitude have been increasingly led astray,\u201d in his \u201cEdict of the Eighth Month,\u201d translated by Burton Watson, p.585 of De Bary and Bloom, Sources of Chinese Tradition.\t \u00a0  141\t \u00a0A parable (#7) taken from the Sutra of One Hundred Parables (Baiyu jing) also develops its narrative around the theme of whether or not one can trust that provided food is safe for eating. A woman tries to poison her husband when he goes to a neighboring country on business, but when the husband encounters a brigand on the road, he surrenders his food to the brigand, who eats it and dies. The brigand had stolen the king\u2019s horse, so the husband takes this back to the king and is rewarded greatly for his courage in killing the brigand\u2013\u2013even though is was the poisoned food that did it, and not his own calculations. With the badge of courage projected onto him, he gets wrapped up in a hunt for a menacing lion, climbs a tree when the lion chases him, and out of fear drops his sword onto the lion, killing it. The accolades flow to him again, and eventually his wife is brought to join him, but he nervously swallows the food she makes, knowing that she had a role in the poisoning of the brigand. What this parable is trying to say at a deeper level would require a careful consideration of the full version, since it is long and filled with subtleties needing clarification. Yichu\u2019s heading reads, \u201cDue to food, feigned courage.\u201d This suggests that he read it as a case of false appearances caused by the poisoned food.  The last entry (#47) reveals something of the humility and fear that accompany begging for food. Terrified of dogs, a begging practitioner comes to hold an angry and violent attitude toward them, beating them with a stick and scolding them: \u201cI do not obtain food even though I multiply my skillful means. How can you merely lie there, lethargic in your guarding?\u201d Begging for food as a Buddhist cannot have been easy, even when lay devotees were relatively forthcoming. This anecdote reminds that the struggle to survive on begged food was a burden difficult to bear for centuries of Buddhist practitioners. While fairly old (coming from the Dazhidu lun), it illustrates a tension in the mendicant tradition that may have helped Buddhists in China justify alternative sources of livelihood and to eventually abandon begging in favor of other institutions for food donation\u2013\u2013donation to monastic communities eating in mess halls.        142\t \u00a03.4 Chapter conclusions  The above analysis of Yichu\u2019s selections from Buddhist sources on the topic of shi \u98df in his encyclopedic Shishi liutie give a rudimentary intellectual history of food in Chinese Buddhist writings of the tenth century and earlier. My reading here provides an overview organized according to six major themes: kinds of food, intrinsic properties of foods, ritualized forms of eating, middle-way eating, karma and merit, and narratives using food as a teaching device. These themes are the product of a close reading of all fifty-seven entries, taking into consideration both Yichu\u2019s headings and cited materials. My findings suggest that we would misread Chinese Buddhist discourse on food if we fail to recognize that the emphasis in these entries is not on the problem of prescribed and taboo foods, nor on fasting practices, but on the attitude with which practitioners especially, and humans generally, should approach the problem of needing nourishment. Some of Yichu\u2019s material aligns well with the conventional theoretical emphasis on the role of fasting and taboo foods in the construction of religious identity, but I have tried to show that such an approach is insufficient here. If we look for Buddhist identity construction, we can find it, but we should also note entries such as the one mocking the overly literal Buddhist who would not receive fruit from the non-Buddhist. Yichu plays down group identity and presents much of the material as general knowledge. The material here departs somewhat from \u00c9mile Durkheim\u2019s social approach and shows more affinity with the psychology of the self discussed by William James\u2013\u2013Yichu\u2019s presentation suggests a concern with providing intellectual tools to help readers hold a proper attitude toward eating, thereby promoting more skillful practice among his readership. My point is not to say that James is right and Durkheim wrong, but to show that the practice of Chinese Buddhism incorporated elements of religion described by both theorists. That Buddhist modes of eating reflect social concerns affirms aspects of Durkheim\u2019s thesis, while at the same time James\u2019s approach is reflected in the notion that attitudinal performance is a skill that individuals can improve through contact with the teachings and practices of Buddhism, even though karmic outcomes are not dependent on religious affiliation. The relatively poor fit with Durkheim\u2019s approach may   143\t \u00a0derive partly from differences in the materials under study: here we are dealing with short citations reflecting doctrinal beliefs in Buddhism, whereas Durkheim based his seminal study on ethnographic descriptions of rites. Analysis of a monastic mealtime ritual might yield a different result. The Shishi liutie is not a liturgical guide for tonsured Buddhists, but a topically organized overview of teachings aimed at a general readership. Yichu\u2019s entries help readers understand aspects of both what and how those who follow the teachings of the \u015a\u0101kya clan are to eat. Nonetheless, rather than merely reflecting monastic rules on eating in the Vinaya literature, Yichu draws from a wide range of sources for a smorgasbord of ideas on eating. In the fifty-seven entries, vegetarianism is not a prominent theme. Yichu has elsewhere (especially in the rou \u2f81\u8089 topic) addressed the question of whether Buddhists may eat meat (generally supporting the vegetarianism encouraged by several Mah\u0101y\u0101na texts and by historical developments in Chinese society), but here, in his general treatment of the topic of eating, he has other priorities. He presents a general theory on human eating that is colored by Buddhist doctrinal concepts such as karma, merit, and rebirth. Cited materials point overwhelmingly toward the need to conform to normative attitudes in eating. One should be deeply grateful to have food and should exercise generosity to the largest extent possible, in order to build the kind of merit that propels us toward improved opportunities for practicing the path (Ch. dao; Skt. m\u0101rga) out of suffering. Several narratives illustrate how even simple acts of giving food to those who are sincerely engaged with this path to awakening can lead to favorable rebirth and acquisition of even worldly goods such as handsome features and physical health. Furthermore, the theme of moderation or middle-way eating serves to critique the tendency for groups to overzealously establish food rules as markers of group identity.  Rather than reinforcing the distinctiveness of Buddhist identity, Yichu appears eager to show how Buddhist knowledge of eating forms a coherent system that is generally applicable, whether one is Buddhist or not. At a theoretical level, we might observe from this brief survey that Yichu\u2019s emphasis on the importance of attitude in eating highlights Buddhism\u2019s rich discourse on the relationship of moral attitudes with sensory aesthetics. The aesthetics of eating, it would seem, is not neutral in itself, but dangerous and reliant   144\t \u00a0on attitude for mitigation. This is true for anyone, because greedy or generous intentionality has implications that play out in human lives irrespective of whether one follows a Buddhist path. In Yichu\u2019s Buddhism, one is not saved by faith.  Yichu suggests in his preface that he tailored his work for a general readership that would have included lay Buddhists and even non-Buddhists interested in learning about Buddhism, so his emphasis on doctrinal theories of eating (rather than monastic rules) may be a frame deliberately employed for the purpose of achieving relevance for a broader audience. Whether his presentation here can be considered representative of general Chinese Buddhist discourse on eating is a problem for further investigation. The chapters of the second section will pick up themes from this analysis as case studies for deeper investigation. In the next chapter, Chapter Four, I return to the doctrine of Four Foods with which Yichu begins coverage of his topic and to which he returns several times. This notion of Four Foods raises the basic question of what nourishes us: What, fundamentally, can be considered food? We cannot understand Buddhist discourse on eating until we probe deeper into the notion that material food is but one of four sources of nourishment.    145\t \u00a0        Part II  Case Studies                146\t \u00a04. Transcendent Eating: Doctrine of Four Foods in Chinese Buddhism   4.1 Chapter Introduction  How are we to understand 'food' in Buddhist thought? It would be easy to assume that such a basic category has cross-cultural coherence, but Buddhist thinkers developed this category in significantly distinctive ways that require explanation. Yichu, in his first entry on food, cites a Buddhist origin story describing sentient beings undergoing a primordial transition from sustenance through the joy of meditation to a learned indulgence in the material foods of the earth: At the beginning of the kalpa of formation (i.e., formation of the present universe), the flavor of joy-in-meditation gradually gave rise to the flavor of earth, its scent deeply fragrant, its taste sweet and delicious. At that time there was someone habituated from a prior lifetime to indulge in flavors, to smell fragrances, to take food. That time is known as the first receipt of morsel food, after which arose forests, vines, and scented paddy rice.248 This passage illustrates the notion that beings can obtain sustenance from different sources and that material food (\u201cmorsel food\u201d) is but one of these. The eating of material food is, furthermore, a learned behavior associated with a transformation from subtle to coarse embodiment, as we read in the origin story alluded to here. In this story, told by the Buddha in the Agga\u00f1\u00f1a Sutta, the \"Discourse on What is Primary,\" self-luminescent celestial beings who are born into a newly evolving world gradually acquire a fully material embodiment in our world as they learn to participate in sensory indulgences, especially those involving flavors, smells, and sexual contact.249 Because Buddhist thinkers recognized more than just material foods as sources of nourishment, in this chapter the category of \u201cfood\u201d is treated as an indeterminate variable awaiting explanation. A working definition of food might be this: anything that \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0248 Yanagida & Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan 6:2, 330. Yichu cites here the Jushe lun, a Chinese translation of Vasubandhu\u2019s Abhidharmako\u015ba bh\u0101\u1e63yam.\t \u00a0  147\t \u00a0provides nourishment, broadly conceived, to sentient beings. This may include joy in meditation and morsel (material) food, as the passage above suggests. Another passage in Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie (entry #11)250 presents a doctrine of Four Foods \u56db\u98df. The Buddha is said to have taught that all sentient beings abide through reliance on food \u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u6709\u60c5\u7686\u4f9d\u98df\u4f4f, and that these foods are of four kinds. In straightforward language, these Four Foods can be understood as providing nourishment at four levels: matter, sensation, cognition, and consciousness (I will return to questions about the accuracy of this interpretation).  A third passage (#33) treats food as connected with appetite and satiation of the faculties of perception: The Zengyi [ahan] jing251 says, The resource, benefit, and meaning of foods each follow their faculties. Eyes take sleep to be their food, ears take sounds, noses take aromas, tongues take flavors, bodies (skin) takes touch, and cognition takes dharma, nirvana, asceticism252, and so forth.253 Collectively, these citations point toward a dialogue in Buddhism regarding the problem of what most deeply nourishes us. Physical food is but one aspect of a complex Buddhist psychology of eating, which encompasses the senses and emotion, cognition, and states of consciousness as additional sources of nourishment. Our perceptual faculties all have appetites, in the sense that certain things nourish (refresh) these \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0249 See Collins, Agga\u00f1\u00f1a Sutta, 42-45.\t \u00a0250 Yanagida & Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan 6:2, 330-331.\t \u00a0251 This citation frames \u2018food\u2019 as objects of desire for the senses and cognition, and not just as material sustenance for the body. The cited passage is T2 n125, 656c09-25:  (\u56db)\u805e\u5982\u662f\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u6642\u4f5b\u5728\u820d\u885e\u570b\u7947\u6a39\u7d66\u5b64\u7368\u5712\u3002\ufe12\u723e\u6642\u4e16\u5c0a\u544a\u8af8\u6bd4\u4e18\uff0c\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u4e4b\u985e\uff0c\u6709\u56db\u7a2e\u98df\uff0c\u9577\u990a\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u7b49\u7232\u56db\ufe16\uff1f\u6240\u8b02\u6476\u98df\uff08\u6216\u2f24\u5927\u6216\u2f29\u5c0f\uff09\uff0c\u66f4\u6a02\u98df\uff0c\u5ff5\u98df\uff0c\u8b58\u98df\uff0c\u662f\u8b02\u56db\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u4e91\u4f55\u540d\u7232\u6476\u98df\ufe16\uff1f\u5f7c\u6476\u98df\u8005\uff0c\u5982\u4eca\u2f08\u4eba\u4e2d\u6240\u98df\u8af8\u5165\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u4e4b\u7269\u53ef\u98df\u5649\u8005\uff0c\u662f\u8b02\u540d\u7232\u6476\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4e91\u4f55\u540d\u66f4\u6a02\u98df\ufe16\uff1f\u6240\u8b02\u66f4\u6a02\u98df\u8005\uff0c\u8863\u88f3\u7e56\u84cb\u96dc\u2fb9\u9999\u83ef\u718f\u2f55\u706b\uff0c\u53ca\u2fb9\u9999\u6cb9\u8207\u5a66\u2f08\u4eba\u96c6\u805a\uff0c\u8af8\u9918\u8eab\u9ad4\u6240\u66f4\u6a02\u8005\uff0c\u662f\u8b02\u540d\u7232\u66f4\u6a02\u4e4b\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u4e91\u4f55\u540d\u7232\u5ff5\u98df\ufe16\uff1f\u8af8\u610f\u4e2d\u6240\u5ff5\u60f3\u6240\u601d\u60df\u8005\uff0c\u6216\u4ee5\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u8aac\uff0c\u6216\u4ee5\u9ad4\u89f8\uff0c\u53ca\u8af8\u6240\u6301\u4e4b\u6cd5\uff0c\u662f\u8b02\u540d\u7232\u5ff5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u4e91\u4f55\u7232\u8b58\u98df\ufe16\uff1f\u6240\u5ff5\u8b58\u8005\uff0c\u610f\u4e4b\u6240\u77e5\uff0c\u68b5\u5929\u7232\u2fb8\u9996\uff0c\u4e43\u81f3\u6709\u60f3\u7121\u60f3\u5929\uff0c\u4ee5\u8b58\u7232\u98df\uff0c\u662f\u8b02\u540d\u7232\u8b58\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u8b02\u6bd4\u4e18\u6709\u6b64\u56db\u98df\uff0c\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u4e4b\u985e\uff0c\u4ee5\u6b64\u56db\u98df\uff0c\u6d41\u8f49\u2f63\u751f\u6b7b\uff0c\u5f9e\u4eca\u4e16\u81f3\u5f8c\u4e16\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u6545\uff0c\u8af8\u6bd4\u4e18\u7576\u5171\u6368\u96e2\u6b64\u56db\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u662f\u8af8\u6bd4\u4e18\u7576\u4f5c\u662f\u5b78\uff0c\u723e\u6642\u8af8\u6bd4\u4e18\u805e\u4f5b\u6240\u8aac\uff0c\u6b61\u559c\u5949\u2f8f\u884c\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0252 [An attitude of] not seeking comfort.\t \u00a0253 Yanagida & Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan 6:2, 331.\t \u00a0  148\t \u00a0faculties, while, by implication, other things may be deleterious. Indeed, from the perspective of this Buddhist theory of nourishment, all forms of nourishment are connected with potential for moral pollution, because they all entail appetite (i.e., a craving for that which nourishes).  This chapter will thus address this basic question of what constitutes a notion of food \u98df in Chinese Buddhism and will outline a Buddhist theory of nourishment. I will focus on the four posited \u2018foods\u2019 and their interpretation in Chinese Buddhist sources. I will also, by necessity, attempt to clarify some related problems:  First, did Chinese Buddhists interpret the doctrine of Four Foods in a manner similar to earlier Indic sources, or diverge from these? I provide a brief review of the general Buddhist literature on Four Foods to examine this issue as a problem in translation and interpretation. The second related problem is whether the doctrine of Four Foods is best understood as metaphor or to be taken literally. The issue is whether sensation, for example, really nourishes us at some level, or if the notion of sensory food is just an analogy based on material food. I will suggest that for at least some Buddhist authors, Four Foods doctrine is to be taken at face value, because each food can be located within a rubric of appetite and fulfillment that is not limited to material food. The third related problem is the question of whether nourishment from the joy of meditation is to be understood as a fifth \u2018food\u2019 independent of the Four Foods, or is connected with the fourth: nourishment from consciousness. Commentarial literature suggests that Buddhist thinkers took different approaches on this issue and that it was identified as a problem for discussion. Finally, the fourth and last related problem is the question of valence: Did Buddhist authors regard the Four Foods positively, neutrally, or negatively? My findings suggest that only joy in meditation garners unreserved celebration, while the Four Foods are generally treated as potentially polluting, morally speaking (moral pollution is understood here as an increase in cyclic existence,254 sa\u1e43s\u0101ra, which constitutes a hindrance on the path to favorable rebirth and awakening). Some thinkers, however, \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0254 E.g., Hopkins, Absorption in No External World, p.36.\t \u00a0  149\t \u00a0appear to exonerate the nourishment of consciousness based on its ubiquity in all the realms, its fundamental role of cohering consciousness derived from different sense faculties, and its association with the uncontaminated food of joy in meditation. These four problems\u2013\u2013connected with the question of how Buddhists understood food\u2013\u2013are interrelated. The next section (4.1) will look first at Indic interpretations and will be followed by a comparative discussion (4.2) of Four Foods doctrine as represented in Chinese Buddhist encyclopedias.    4.2 Interpreting the doctrine of Four Foods  Above I proposed that we understand Yichu\u2019s list (in entry #11) of four types of food found in the human realm as nourishment occurring at the levels of matter, sensation, cognition, and consciousness. Some discussion is warranted on whether this list accurately represents the doctrine of Four Foods. For example, a tighter translation of Yichu\u2019s list of Chinese terms might give the four types as segmented \u6bb5 food, thought \u601d food, contact \u89f8 food, and consciousness \u8b58 food. Even after Yichu\u2019s second and third terms are swapped to match the more traditional ordering of these four, translations of the terms can vary widely. For example, a bilingual dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms provides the following explanation:  \u56db\u98df The four kinds of food. \u5373(1)\u6bb5\u98df food for the body and its senses; (2)\u89f8\u98df food for the emotions; (3)\u601d\u98df food for thought; (4)\u8b58\u98df food for wisdom i.e. for alayavijnana [sic.] (\u516b\u8b58\u4e2d\u7684\u7b2c\u516b\u8b58\u963f\u8cf4\u8036\u8b58).255  Here the same Chinese term that I translated above as \u201ccontact food\u201d is called \u201cfood for the emotions,\u201d while \u201cconsciousness food\u201d is rendered \u201cfood for wisdom.\u201d Focusing in on the (traditional) second of the four terms, \u89f8 of \u89f8\u98df, interpretations that I have \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0255 Chen and Li, A Chinese-English Dictionary of Buddhist Terms, 316.\t \u00a0  150\t \u00a0presented so far span from \u201ccontact\u201d to \u201csensation\u201d to \u201cemotion,\u201d a considerable interpretive discrepancy. Am I justified, then, to interpret Yichu\u2019s list as a reference to nourishment coming through matter, sensation, cognition, and consciousness?  Because Yichu\u2019s list consists of Chinese translations of Indic Buddhist terminology, seeing how scholars of Indian Buddhism have discussed the doctrine of Four Foods is informative. Yichu was himself a scholar of Abhidharma teachings, so his Buddhism is closely informed by this Indian commentarial tradition, which was translated into Chinese. A doctrinal foray can provide a kind of triangulation of interpretation, helping to clarify the intellectual background of the doctrine and its significance in Buddhist thought. Furthermore, we can explore through scholarly interpretation the problem of whether the Four Foods are to be understood literally or as analogy. I want to first look at statements on the four taken as a whole, and then focus in on each one in turn. A useful point of entry from the literature on Indian Buddhism is a concise statement by Richard F. Gombrich, who mentions the Four Foods in passing:  A little later in the same text the Buddha says that there are four foods which keep living beings in the cycle of rebirth: food in the literal sense, contact, intention and consciousness. All four arise from craving, this in turn from feeling\u2013\u2013and he traces dependent origination in the standard way back to ignorance. So here the dependence refers to a different process, or at least to a different part of the all-important process of our entanglement in the world, the process we have to reverse.256 Gombrich suggests that only the first term in the list is \u2018food\u2019 in the literal sense, and that the others (by default) are analogy. But he also says that all four arise from craving, that they all share an origin in desire and have a role in worldly entanglement. This common origin and function means that Buddhist thinkers may have understood the category of food (Skt.\/P. \u0101h\u0101ra, Ch. \u98df) in a broader since than our own, treating these as actual\u2013\u2013not metaphorical\u2013\u2013sources of nourishment. Gombrich\u2019s statement, \u201cfood in the literal sense,\u201d is a reference, perhaps, to English-language convention.  But other scholars explicitly mention metaphor or analogy in referring to the Four Foods. Joanna Macy, for example, describes how \u201c\u2026sensory perception is seen as \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0256 How Buddhism Began, p.48\t \u00a0  151\t \u00a0formative of the sense of self, along with physical sustenance, volitions, and mental constructs. This teaching is made vivid by the metaphor of food (\u0101h\u0101ra).257\u201d Her explanation is that the metaphor of food suggests that the reality with which we contend is not merely external, but something that we must process in the manner of ingestion. In other words, she sees the metaphor as helping to overcome the error of dualistic thinking; our perceptions and consciousness are shaped by a reality that is neither external nor internal, but integral to both.  This explanation has merits, but the three foods other than morsel food need not be considered metaphor for the point on non-dualistic process to hold. Another view maintains that \u0101h\u0101ra is \u201c\u2026 \u2018food,\u2019 i.e., \u2018nutriment\u2019 in the broadest sense, which nourishes everything associated with the body and mind.\u201d258 This is the view that I adopt here, because it holds up best in light of the evidence in Buddhist sources. While we must in English simplify the issue by using \u201cfood\u201d in translations, readers should keep in mind that Buddhist thinkers likely had something closer to \u201cnutriment\u201d in mind, as we will see in discussions of specific foods, below.  So far we have considered the larger context of the Four Foods in Indian Buddhism, while skipping over discussion of the foods themselves. Now I want to focus in on how the individual types of food are interpreted in studies of Indian Buddhism.  Arguably the most detailed statement on Four Foods in English is Alex Wayman\u2019s translation and analysis of Asa\u1e45ga\u2019s views on food. Asa\u1e45ga (Ch. \u7121\u8457) lived in the 4th c. CE, and together with his half-brother Vasubandhu was a co-founder of Yog\u0101c\u0101ra Buddhism. Asa\u1e45ga and Vasubandhu were prolific scholars of Buddhist thought, both drawing upon the commentarial Abhidharma literature, which Yichu also made the focus of his scholarship. We know from Yichu\u2019s biography that he lectured on Yuanhui\u2019s commentary (\u5036\u820d\u8ad6\u980c\u758f\u8ad6\u672c) on Vasubandhu\u2019s treatise on the Abhidharma literature, the Abhidharma Storehouse Treatise (Skt. Abhidharmako\u015babh\u0101\u1e63ya, Ch. \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u5036\u820d\u8ad6). The connections between Yichu\u2019s scholarly approach to Buddhism and the \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0257 Mutual Causality in Buddhism and General Systems Theory, p.58\t \u00a0258 Buswell and Lopez, PDB, 21: \u201c\u0101h\u0101ra\u201d\t \u00a0  152\t \u00a0Yog\u0101c\u0101ra Buddhism of Asa\u1e45ga and Vasubandhu is very close, so Asa\u1e45ga\u2019s views on food are relevant to how Yichu presents food in his Shishi liutie. Wayman\u2019s discussion of food is based on statements by Asa\u1e45ga in his Yog\u0101c\u0101rabh\u016bmi and \u015ar\u0101vakabh\u016bmi, especially a section of the latter treating the topic of \u201cbhojane m\u0101traj\u00f1at\u0101 (\u2018knowing the required amount of food\u2019)\u201d.259 Wayman observes that the importance of attitude is a key feature of Asa\u1e45ga\u2019s views on food. He translates the Four Foods as \u201c\u2026morsel food (kava\u1e0da\u1e43k\u0101ra-\u0101h\u0101ra), contactual food (spar\u015ba-\u0101h\u0101ra), volitional food (mana\u1e25sa\u00f1cetan\u0101-\u0101h\u0101ra), and perceptual food (vij\u00f1\u0101na-\u0101h\u0101ra)\u2026\u201d260 Even if \u201cmorsel food\u201d is fairly intuitive in English, food of contact or volition is not, and we have seen the fourth term interpreted variously as food of consciousness, mental constructs, or perception. Wayman explains that the standard order of the four is connected with the notion that the first two, morsel and contactual food, nurture the being that is already born, while the latter two, volitional and perceptual food, play a role in enabling future rebirth. Using a Tibetan sub-commentary on Asa\u1e45ga\u2019s Abhidharma-samuccaya, he elaborates on the interpretation of these Four Foods:  \u2026the first or morsel food involves the three \u2018sense bases\u2019 (\u0101yatana) of smell, taste, and the tangible. The second or contactual food is the contact attended with \u2018flux\u2019 (s\u0101srava) that enhances the \u2018senses\u2019 (indriya) and the \u2018great factor elements\u2019 (mah\u0101bh\u016bta). The third, or volitional, food is the \u2018volition\u2019 (cetan\u0101) possessed of \u2018intention\u2019 (\u0101\u015baya) toward desired things. The fourth or perceptual food implies the set of six \u2018perceptions\u2019 (vij\u00f1\u0101na), because the text says \u2018of eleven realms\u2019 (ek\u0101da\u015b\u0101n\u0101\u1e43 dh\u0101tun\u0101\u1e43), as well as the chief perception, the \u2019store-consciousness\u2019 (\u0101layavij\u00f1\u0101na).261 Here we see that from a Buddhist theoretical standpoint, perception and consciousness are closely related, which explains the discrepancy that occurs in translation of the fourth type of food. Jeffrey Hopkins, outlining the Four Foods based on the same Tibetan sub-commentary by Gyel-tsap (a.k.a. Rgyal tshab rje), opts to translate the last food as \u2018consciousness\u2019 rather than \u2018perception\u2019. Hopkins\u2019s interpretation of the sub-commentary differs from that of Wayman, so it is worth considering here: \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0259 Untying the Knots in Buddhism, 337.\t \u00a0260 Wayman, Untying the Knots in Buddhism (\u201cAsa\u1e45ga on Food\u201d), 337\t \u00a0  153\t \u00a01. morsel food, which has a nature of odor, taste, and tangibility (visible form being excluded because it does not function in nutrition) 2. contact food, which is contaminated touch increasing the great elements associated with the sense powers 3. intention food, which is intention (or attention) that involves hope for a desired object 4. consciousness food, which is the six collections of consciousness and mainly the mind-basis-of-all.262 These definitions, especially the latter three, remain highly technical and contingent for clarity on doctrinal explanations. This was apparently as true in the past as it is now. Hopkins observes that Tibetan Buddhists discussed the above list associated with Asa\u1e45ga and Vasubandhu along with an alternative (and less traditional) list from Tibetan commentary that interprets the food types as morsel, contact, mind, and meditative stabilization.263 At issue is whether the third term should be understood as mental activity or as, specifically, intention. And replacing the fourth terms interpretation as \u2018perception\u2019 or \u2018consciousness\u2019 with \u2018meditative stabilization\u2019 entails a large conceptual shift.  Looking at interpretations of these terms in the scholarship on Indian (and Tibetan) Buddhism does not greatly clarify what each is meant to signify, so we need to look at each type of food individually and also place them in a larger analytical framework. My effort to do so in the pages that follow has benefited greatly from the scholarship of FUKUNAGA Katsumi, who in his detailed study of Buddhist medicine and nutrition, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, provides a systematic overview of Four Foods doctrine based on texts in the Chinese corpus. He also considers how terms have been translated between languages (i.e., Pali or Sanskrit to English and German). Fukunaga\u2019s explanations thus retain links to Indic Buddhism while taking us closer to an understanding of Chinese interpretations of the doctrine of Four Foods. My aim in the following sections is to clarify each term, not to represent the full breadth of Fukunaga\u2019s discussion. I \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0261 Ibid., 337-338.\t \u00a0262 Hopkins, Absorption in No External World, 35.\t \u00a0263 Ibid.\t \u00a0  154\t \u00a0encourage interested readers to consult his study for further details on food and nutrition in Buddhism.    4.2.1 Morsel food  Morsel food (P. kava\u1e0da\u1e43k\u0101ra-\u0101h\u0101ra\/kava\u1e0di\u1e43-k\u0101ra-\u0101h\u0101ra) has various translations in Chinese scriptures,264 but is most often represented as tuanshi \u6476\u98df\/\u63e3\u98df or duanshi \u6bb5\u98df. This is food with material form, but we have to be careful here not to assume that this is \u201cordinary food,\u201d265 \u201cfood in the literal sense,\u201d266 or \u201csolid (bodily) food,\u201d267 since the Buddhist category includes more than just solid food (i.e., such things as butter and honey). It can even include things that we would not usually consider food, such as wind that blows on the insides of hell beings.268 In the twentieth fascicle of the Chang\u2019ahan jing, this first category is given as \u2018lumping, fine, and smooth nutriments\u2019 \u6476\u7d30\u6ed1\u98df, which includes comestibles that we would recognize as such, but also clothing and bathing. The Qishi jing \u8d77\u4e16\u7d93 (\u201cScripture on the Origin of the World,\u201d P. Agga\u00f1\u00f1a sutta269) refers to a \u2018coarse segmented food\u2019 \u9ea4\u6bb5\u98df and to a \u2018nutriment of subtle form\u2019 \u5fae\u7d30\u2f8a\u8272\u98df, which may include bathing, wiping [the body] clean, and applying ointment.270 Fukunaga suggests that we understand this category as encompassing all forms of physical nutriment.271 We might rather interpret it as physical nourishment, in recognition that it can include care for the body that is not ingested. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0264 See Fukunaga, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, 104-106 and 110 for charts showing the different translations of all four types of food and where they occur in scriptural sources.\t \u00a0265 Bruce Matthews, Craving and Salvation, p.28\t \u00a0266 Warder, Indian Buddhism, 115; Gombrich, How Buddhism Began, p.48\t \u00a0267 Fukunaga, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, 106, citing W.T. Rhys Davids\u2019s translation from Pali.\t \u00a0268 Wayman, Untying the Knots in Buddhism, 338, citing Asa\u1e45ga\u2019s Yog\u0101c\u0101rabh\u016bmi.\t \u00a0269 As above, see Collins, Agga\u00f1\u00f1a Sutta, for an English translation of the Pali edition.\t \u00a0270 Fukunaga, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, 106.\t \u00a0271 Ibid.\t \u00a0  155\t \u00a0The distinction, alluded to above, between coarse \u9ea4 and fine \u7d30 is a characterizing feature of discourse on morsel food, that warrants more comment. It may distinguish between the size of morsels eaten by small or large water creatures, refer to differences of refinement among foodstuffs, some requiring extensive chewing and others not, or it may characterize the difference between foods that produce waste (stool and urine) versus those such as the ambrosia of heavenly beings, which is fully absorbed and produces no waste.272    4.2.2 Sensory food  What I interpret here as sensory food is often translated from Indic contexts as \u201ccontact\u201d food (Sk. spar\u015ba-\u0101h\u0101ra), in that it refers to nourishment coming from a sensory stimulus or impression (Skt. spar\u015ba, P. phassa). The most common translation into Chinese appears to be chushi \u89f8\u98df, which uses the contact of touch synecdochically to refer to all sensory impression. Another common Chinese translation is gengleshi \u66f4\u6a02\u98df, which perhaps273 conveys the sense that it is nourishment in the form of fleeting pleasures\u2013\u2013the basic creature comforts of human life. The tenth fascicle of the Apidamo jushe lun (Abhidharma Storehouse Treatise) explains that this food is a function of the mind responding to the interaction of the objective sensory faculties \u6839, subjective states \u5883, and the conscious awareness \u8b58 appearing out of the interaction of these two. It is not limited to tactile sensation, but encompasses sensation and perception more generally. Examples include coolness, warmth, and wind.274  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0272 Fukunaga, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, 106-107.\t \u00a0273 Gengle (other readings are also possible) is not a compound common to other Chinese usage, so it appears to be a neologism devised specifically to translate this doctrinal concept in Buddhism. The basic meaning of geng is to change, transitively or intransitively.\t \u00a0274 Fukunaga, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, 107.\t \u00a0  156\t \u00a0Fukunaga suggests that there are three different approaches in the Chinese Buddhist literature regarding understanding of the second of the Four Foods. The first approach is to connect the notion with the nourishing touch of a parent bird for its egg and newborn chicks.275 The second is to raise as example various items used by women in the care of the body for its protection and enjoyment: clothing, parasols, fragrant flowers, scented smoke, scented oils, and so forth.276 The third and last approach is to observe that sensory contact has a role in nourishing growth of the mind277.  Fukunaga does not make explicit what is meant here by the \u2018mind\u2019, though by supplying xinfa \u2f3c\u5fc3\u6cd5 in addition to xin \u2f3c\u5fc3 he suggests that what is nurtured are the eight bases of conscious awareness discussed in Yog\u0101c\u0101ra thought: visual consciousness \u773c\u8b58, aural consciousness \u2f7f\u8033\u8b58, olfactory consciousness \u2fd0\u9f3b\u8b58, taste consciousness \u2f86\u820c\u8b58, tactile consciousness \u8eab\u8b58, thinking consciousness (manovij\u00f1\u0101na) \u610f\u8b58, self-aware consciousness (kli\u1e63\u1e6damanas) \u672b\u90a3\u8b58, and store consciousness (\u0101layavij\u00f1\u0101na) \u963f\u8cf4\u8036\u8b58\/\u85cf\u8b58. The first five are sense consciousness\u2013\u2013awareness coming from sensory perception. \u2018Contact\u2019 or \u2018sensory\u2019 nourishment, then, is sensation coming through the five sense faculties and nourishing the mind\u2019s conscious awareness. This \u2018food\u2019 is not perception but sensation, prior to overt cognition.278 Understanding the second food as sensation helps clarify the alternative translation, gengleshi \u66f4\u6a02\u98df, which suggests that Buddhist thinkers had in mind conceptual links between sensation, pleasure, and emotion, given that le \u6a02 refers to a state of joyfulness or happiness. Sensation and emotion are processed by parts of the brain that are \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0275 An example is in the twentieth fascicle of the Chang ahan jing. Fukunaga, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, 107-108.\t \u00a0276 An example is in the twenty-first fascicle of the Zengyi ahan jing. Fukunaga, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, 108.\t \u00a0277 An example is in the tenth fascicle of the Zaxin lun. Fukunaga, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, 108.\t \u00a0278 Note that in Buswell and Lopez, PDB, 194, 828, and elsewhere, these terms are clearly denoted by separate terms. Sensation or feeling (vadan\u0101, Ch. \u53d7) and perception or discrimination (sa\u1e43j\u00f1\u0101, Ch. \u60f3) each count as one of the five aggregates (skandha, Ch. \u860a), along with materiality (r\u016bpa, Ch. \u2f8a\u8272), conditioning factors (sa\u1e43sk\u0101ra, Ch. \u2f8f\u884c), and consciousness (vij\u00f1\u0101na, Ch. \u8b58).\t \u00a0  157\t \u00a0precognitive, that is, not overtly involved in self-aware thought processes.279 Thus, it is no accident that Buddhist thinkers following Yog\u0101c\u0101ra teachings understood sensation as feeding or nourishing those aspects of mind that give rise to conscious awareness and narrative thought. Above, we saw that even translated as chushi this second food is sometimes interpreted as nourishing the emotions. All of the Four Foods have their origin in desire, but the second food is particularly associated with emotion. If we read the geng \u66f4 in gengleshi as g\u0113ng, the phrase could mean \u2018nourishment that changes (i.e., impacts) joyfulness\u2019. Reading g\u00e8ng, it might be \u2018nourishment that increases joyfulness\u2019. Either way, it suggests that the simple pleasures and comforts of sensory experience settle the stronger emotions and promote joyfulness. Of course sensation has the opposite effect when it is uncomfortable, destabilizing the emotions, but here we are dealing with those things that have a positive, nourishing effect on the body and mind.    4.2.3 Thought food  For the sake of simplicity, I have rendered this third term as \u2018thought food\u2019, but it is more properly interpreted as \u201cvolitional food\u201d280 or nourishment by intention (Sk. cetan\u0101-\u0101h\u0101ra, P. manosa\u00f1cetana-\u0101h\u0101ra)281. I believe that \u2018thought food\u2019 is defensible, especially in the Chinese context, where this third of the Four Foods is most often translated by words suggestive of the mental activity of thought and memory: yisishi \u610f\u601d\u98df, sishi \u601d\u98df, yinianshi \u610f\u5ff5\u98df, and nianshi \u5ff5\u98df. Regardless of which English translation is used, however, this term requires doctrinal context for clarification.  Rhys Davids interpreted the concept as \u201cFood of motive or purpose,\u201d282 which can help us steer clear of a potential misinterpretation that the term simply refers to the consumption of intellectual ideas. Chinese scriptures also contain hints that although \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0279 E.g. Damasio, Descartes' Error, 89-90.\t \u00a0280 Wayman, Untying the Knots in Buddhism, 337.\t \u00a0281 Fukunaga, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, 108, gives mana\u1e25-sa\u1e43cetana-\u0101h\u0101ra.\t \u00a0282 Ibid.\t \u00a0  158\t \u00a0\u2018thought\u2019 characterizes the third food, emphasis is on the moral significance of thought as action\u2013\u2013that is, on volition or intention. This point is made clear in a threefold division of foods that serves as a complimentary explanation of the doctrine of Four Foods, found in the Apidamo da piposha lun \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u2f24\u5927\u6bd8\u5a46\u6c99\u8ad6283, translated by Xuanzang \u7384\u5958 (602\u2013664). This list of three types of food refers to yeshi \u696d\u98df, \u2018karmic food,\u2019 which is equated with thought [food]:  Several teachers explain that foods are of three types. The first is karmic food. The second is generative food.284 The third is nourishing food. Karmic food refers to thought [food]. Generative food refers to consciousness [food]. Nourishing food refers to morsel and sensory [food].285  \u6709\u9918\u5e2b\u8aac\u98df\u6709\u4e09\u7a2e. \u2f00\u4e00\u8005\u696d\u98df, \u2f06\u4e8c\u8005\u2f63\u751f\u98df, \u4e09\u8005\u9577\u990a\u98df. \u696d\u98df\u8b02\u601d, \u2f63\u751f\u98df\u8b02\u8b58, \u9577\u990a\u98df\u8005\u8b02\u6bb5\u8207\u89f8. In the same text we find a further explanation of this notion of three types of food that include karmic nourishment. Raising the problem of how heaven-dwelling beings without conceptual thought or morsel food can still be said to have food and live, the author (K\u0101ty\u0101yan\u012bputra) invokes a twofold and then a threefold division of nourishment, discussing again the notion of karmic food. Because the explanation of karmic food is couched in a larger context, I provide some of the prior text that helps clarify how the concept of karmic food is being used here: [Question:] As the World-Honored One said, all sentient beings reside by way of food. By what foods do sentient beings without conceptualization286 reside? Answer: Sensation \u89f8 , thought \u610f\u601d , and consciousness \u8b58 . Question: For what reason do we make up this theory? Answer: We want to make doubters obtain certitude. Someone may say that the Heaven-of-No-Thought must lack morsel food [and that] sensation, thought, \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0283 A Chinese translation of K\u0101ty\u0101yan\u012bputra\u2019s Treatise of the Great Commentary on the Abhidharma, Skt. Abhidharma-mah\u0101-vibh\u0101\u1e63\u0101-\u015b\u0101stra. T27 n1545.\t \u00a0284 Generative in the sense of giving rise to self-aware existence. This translation is tentative.\t \u00a0285 T27 n1545, 674c15-17.\t \u00a0286 This is in reference to sentient beings living in heavens where mental processes lack conceptualization.\t \u00a0  159\t \u00a0and consciousness also extinguish, with nothing remaining. Do not harbor any doubts about it. If [sentient beings of the Heaven-of-No-Thought] reside without food, then this is not in accord with the World-Honored One saying that all sentient beings reside by way of food. In order to remove those doubts we must clarify that the place of no-thought, while lacking morsel food, has the other three. Because it accords with the scriptures, we set up this theory. Question: If in this place of no thought the [other] three foods also extinguish, how can we say they exist [there]? Answer: Foods have two varieties: 1) those which [eaten] at an earlier time can project [karmic influence] and 2) those which are manifest and incidental to the present moment. Although this state [of being sentient in a Heaven-of-No-Thought] is without manifest and incidental foods that are held (i.e., tangible), it does have food from previous times that can project [karmic influence]. Therefore we call this having food. There is an explanation that posits three types of food in their midst: 1) karmic food, 2) generative food, and 3) food of similar and immediately antecedent conditions. 287  \u2018Karmic food\u2019 refers to their previously created karma base enabling them to live. \u2018Generative food\u2019 refers to the incarnated mind having existence, which leads them for a period to have continuity. \u2018Food of similar and immediate antecedent conditions\u2019 refers to entering into ideation-free sensation, volition,288 and consciousness as similar and immediately antecedent conditions. This can lead to an ideation-free awakening of mind289 and makes them establish a cause for not [achieving] permanent elimination [of afflictions]. It is because of this that [the World-honored One] explained that all sentient beings reside on the basis of food.290 \u5982\u4e16\u5c0a\u8aac\uff1a\u300c\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u6709\u60c5\uff0c\u7686\u7531\u98df\u4f4f\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u7121\u60f3\u6709\u60c5\uff0c\u7531\u4f55\u98df\u4f4f\ufe16\uff1f\u7b54\uff1a\u89f8\u3001\u610f\u601d\u3001\u8b58\u3002\ufe12\u554f\uff1a\u4f55\u6545\u4f5c\u6b64\u8ad6\ufe16\uff1f\u7b54\uff1a\u6b32\u4ee4\u7591\u8005\uff0c\u5f97\u6c7a\u5b9a\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u8b02\u7121\u60f3\u5929\uff0c\u5fc5\u7121\u6bb5\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0287 The Chinese term here is Xuanzang\u2019s translation of a technical term from Yog\u0101c\u0101ra theory, in Sanskrit samanantara-pratyaya-bh\u0101va. One of the Four Causes and Three Supports, the term signifies a flow of conditioned existence in which one moment leads directly into the next without interruption from extraneous thoughts. See Muller \u201c\u7b49\u7121\u9593\u7e01,\u201d \u201c\u56db\u7de3,\u201d and \u201c\u4e09\u6240\u4f9d,\u201d in DDB.\t \u00a0288 Note that \u2018thought\u2019 does not work well here.\t \u00a0289 Skt. vyutt\u0101na-citta, a rising up or awakening of mind. A synonym is chuguanxin \u51fa\u89b3\u2f3c\u5fc3, Skt. ni\u1e63krama\u1e47a-citta.\t \u00a0  160\t \u00a0\u98df\uff0c\u89f8\u3001\u610f\u601d\u3001\u8b58\uff0c\u4ea6\u6ec5\u7121\u9918\u3002\ufe12\u52ff\u6709\u7591\u5f7c\u3002\ufe12\u7121\u98df\u2f7d\u800c\u4f4f\uff0c\u5247\u4e0d\u53ef\u901a\u4e16\u5c0a\u6240\u8aac\u300c\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u6709\u60c5\uff0c\u7686\u7531\u98df\u4f4f\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u7232\u9664\u5f7c\u7591\uff0c\u986f\u7121\u60f3\u8655\uff0c\u96d6\u7121\u6bb5\u98df\uff0c\u2f7d\u800c\u6709\u9918\u4e09\u3002\ufe12\u8207\u7d93\u76f8\u61c9\uff0c\u6545\u4f5c\u65af\u8ad6\u3002\ufe12\u554f\uff1a\u5f7c\u7121\u60f3\u4f4d\uff0c\u4e09\u98df\u4ea6\u6ec5\u3002\ufe12\u4e91\u4f55\u8aac\u6709\ufe16\uff1f\u7b54\uff1a\u98df\u6709\u2f06\u4e8c\u7a2e\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u5148\u6642\u80fd\u5f15\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u73fe\u5728\u4efb\u6642\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u4f4d\u96d6\u7121\u73fe\u4efb\u6301\u98df, \u2f7d\u800c\u6709\u5148\u6642\u80fd\u5f15\u4e4b\u98df, \u6545\u540d\u6709\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u8aac\uff1a\u5f7c\u4e2d\u6709\u4e09\u7a2e\u98df\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u696d\u98df\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f63\u751f\u98df\uff0c\u4e09\u7b49\u7121\u9593\u7e01\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u696d\u98df\u8005\uff0c\u8b02\u5148\u6240\u9020\u5f7c\u5730\u696d\uff0c\u80fd\u5f15\u5f7c\u2f63\u751f\u6545\ufe14\uff1b\u2f63\u751f\u98df\u8005\uff0c\u8b02\u7d50\u2f63\u751f\u2f3c\u5fc3\uff0c\u53ca\u5036\u6709\u6cd5\uff0c\u5f15\u5f7c\u2f00\u4e00\u671f\uff0c\u4ee4\u76f8\u7e8c\u6545\ufe14\uff1b\u7b49\u7121\u9593\u7e01\u98df\u8005\uff0c\u8b02\u5165\u7121\u60f3\u89f8\u610f\u601d\u8b58\u7232\u7b49\u7121\u9593\u7e01\u3002\ufe12\u80fd\u5f15\u7121\u60f3\uff0c\u51fa\u2f3c\u5fc3\u2f3c\u5fc3\u6240\uff0c\u4ee4\u5fc5\u7576\u8d77\uff0c\u4e0d\u6c38\u65b7\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u7531\u6b64\u6545\u8aac\u300c\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u6709\u60c5\uff0c\u7686\u7531\u98df\u4f4f\u3002\ufe12\u300d This equation of thought food, from Four-Food doctrine, with karmic food in a threefold division of food types also appears in commentary on the Nirvana Sutra by Guanding \u704c\u9802 (561\u2013632), fourth patriarch of the Tiantai school of Chinese Buddhism. In his Daban niepan jing shu \u2f24\u5927\u822c\u6d85\u69c3\u7d93\u758f, he says, \u201cThought food is karmic food. \u601d\u98df\u662f\u696d\u98df.\u201d291 \u2018Thought food\u2019, then, is to be understood as full-fledged action with moral status\u2013\u2013it is volition or intention with power to nurture (or poison) sentient beings. Depending on the source text, Buddhist authors have posited different types of mental activities as having a nourishing role. The main ones are hope, memory, faith, and discerning thought.292  The twentieth fascicle of the Chang ahan jing suggests that this food encompasses hopes for the future and memories of the past. Examples illustrating the concept include narratives of hope: a starving boy during a time of famine extends his life by the hope engendered when his father passes off a bag of ashes as a bag of grain. Passengers of a \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0290 T27 n1545, 785a14-b01.\t \u00a0291 T38 n1767, 218c20.\t \u00a0292 Fascicle eight of the Jiyi menzu lun. Fukunaga, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, 108-109.\t \u00a0  161\t \u00a0sinking ship renew the vigor of their struggle when they mistake for land the white breaking waves on the horizon.293  The nourishing role of memory is illustrated by the example of turtle eggs buried in sand hatching despite the absence of the parent. In one case,294 the explanation is that the eggs continue to think of the parent, but other sources295 flip this around and say it is because the parents continue to think of the eggs. From the perspective of modern biology, this ambivalence about the mechanism for nourishment in the case of turtle eggs underlines a failure of understanding regarding eggs amongst early Buddhist thinkers, but it does not necessarily undermine the Buddhist notion that mental activities involving intention can create powerful causal conditions leading to future outcomes.  In the human context, intention connects with Buddhist doctrine on karma: \u201cintention projects future lifetimes (in that it is the main feature of karma).\u201d296 As discussed earlier in this dissertation, karma, as \u2018action\u2019, includes mental activities. This results in Buddhists sometimes emphasizing how one eats more than what one eats\u2013\u2013one\u2019s mental state is an arena of action, not a private arena of pre-embodied thoughts beyond the reach of moral judgment. In Buddhism, the mental activity of intention is highly significant to moral status. Physical actions flow from intention as derivative products of mental activity. Thus we saw earlier in Chapter Three that Yichu\u2019s citations on eating place great emphasis on cultivating such qualities as generosity, equanimity, and moderation.  Such attitudes, along with hope, memory, and faith constitute a form of nourishment. What is being nourished? Buddhist thinkers appear to have understood this \u2018nourishment by intention\u2019 to be the basis for future embodiment and eventual nirvana. Crudely stated, this teaching suggests that our future is formed by our present thoughts.   \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0293 Ibid., 108.\t \u00a0294 Ibid.\t \u00a0295 Tenth fascicle of the Apidamo jushe lun, and eighteenth fascicle of the Zhengfanian jing \u6b63\u6cd5\u5ff5\u7d93. Ibid.\t \u00a0296 Jeffrey Hopkins, Absorption in No External World, 35.\t \u00a0  162\t \u00a04.2.4 Consciousness food  The last of the Four Foods is usually interpreted in English as consciousness food, but we saw it earlier also as perceptual food.297 Vij\u00f1\u0101na-\u0101h\u0101ra in Sanskrit, the term is suggestive of a food of discerning knowledge.298 Most Chinese texts translate the term as shishi \u8b58\u98df, literally \u2018food of knowledge\u2019 or of conscious awareness. A notable exception is the Zhengfa nianchu jing,299 which provides three different translations of the term in different fascicles. These are shishi, as above, chanshi \u79aa\u98df, \u2018food of meditation\u2019, and shi\u2019aishi \u8b58\u611b\u98df, \u2018food of knowledge and fondness.\u2019300 Putting aside for now the inclusion of chanshi in this list, Chinese interpretations of the term emphasize conscious awareness and the role of discerning mental activities in the formation of that awareness. In the system of Yog\u0101c\u0101ra thought, food of consciousness is understood as connected with the six consciousnesses, which are perceptions originating from the eyes, nose, ears, tongue, tactile faculties, and mind. Covering all phenomena of an aware mind, food of consciousness includes feelings and spiritual activity.  One might raise here the question of how consciousness food, connected as it is with sensory awareness, is different from sensory (\u2018contact\u2019 or \u2018stimulus\u2019) food. I have chosen to refer to the six consciousnesses as perceptions in order to draw a distinction between these two. In other words, the interpretation that I adopt here is that Buddhist thinkers had in mind a distinction between sensation, understood as direct sensory experience, and perception, understood as conscious awareness of stimulation or of a mental state. Early Buddhist thinkers did make this differentiation, calling sensation vedan\u0101 (Ch. shou \u53d7) and perception sa\u1e43j\u00f1\u0101 (P. sa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101, Ch. xiang \u60f3).301 This long-standing recognition for different levels of neural activity regarding sensory stimulation demonstrates that \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0297 This latter in Wayman, Untying the Knots in Buddhism, 337.\t \u00a0298 See Monier-Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, 961.\t \u00a0299 \u6b63\u6cd5\u5ff5\u8655\u7d93 T17 n721. Chinese translation of the Saddharma-sm\u1e5bty-upasth\u0101na-s\u016btra.\t \u00a0300 Fukunaga, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, 105.\t \u00a0301 Buswell and Lopez, Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, 161, 754, 964. Note that Buddhist schemata of mental factors (they are plural) are more complex than my straightforward distinction here. \t \u00a0  163\t \u00a0Buddhist thinkers held a sophisticated model of the human mind. Subtle sensations do often escape conscious awareness until reaching a threshold (or some other trigger) suddenly alerts the conscious mind that it should pay attention. For example, a light headache may slip in and out of perceptual awareness, even though the sensation is constant. The implication of the Buddhist doctrinal position is this: while both sensation and perception can nourish, they do so at different levels of experience, nourishing different aspects of our human embodiment.  Buddhist thinkers connect sensation, as we saw earlier, with stimulation from the senses and with emotion. This understanding aligns fairly well with notions from modern cognitive science of the simultaneous presence of conscious and pre-conscious cognitive functions.302 What is meant, then, by \u2018consciousness food\u2019 is the dancing of sensory perceptions as they arise in the mind, lit by the spotlight of conscious awareness.  Fukunaga and other secondary literature provides no clear illustrations of this last term of the Four Foods, perhaps because it has always been subject to some conjecture. One useful interpretation from the Tibetan sub-commentary holds that \u2018thought food\u2019 and \u2018consciousness food\u2019 are placed together because they both pertain to karma. The volitional aspect of \u2018thought food\u2019 projects future outcomes, while the experiential aspect of \u2018consciousness food\u2019 actualizes these.303 How different Buddhist thinkers in South Asia, Tibet, China and elsewhere interpreted the food of consciousness is an historical problem that is beyond the scope of this present discussion. I must, however, return briefly to the Zhengfa nianchu jing including chanshi, \u2018meditation food\u2019, in Chinese translations of the term, since this interpretation is also found in Tibetan commentaries as an alternative to \u2018consciousness food\u2019 as fourth term.304 In the Zhengfa nianchu jing, the term appears in the context of a discussion305 of the ways that sentient beings are bound to the world in cyclical rebirth. Two ways are posited: bondage by food \u98df\u7e1b and bondage by sensory desires \u89f8\u7e1b. The foods causing this bondage are then enumerated as four, following the pattern of the doctrine of Four Foods, but chanshi is given in place of consciousness. The \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0302 E.g., Damasio, Feeling of What Happens, 42-43, 47-49.\t \u00a0303 Hopkins, Absorption in No External World, 35-36.\t \u00a0304 Hopkins, Absorption in No External World, 35.\t \u00a0  164\t \u00a0subsequent explanation of the Four Foods gives not examples of these foods but patterns of rebirth. The \u2018food of meditation\u2019 is associated with devas of the form realm who practice meditation as their sustenance, and in the context it is supplied matter-of-factly as an enfettered rebirth alongside piscine, avian, and hellish destinies. The fact that it is not singled out for celebration here seems significant, because it tells us that early Buddhist doctrine held even nourishment by conscious awareness or meditation to be a form of bondage to cyclical rebirth\u2013\u2013this fourth food is not intrinsically superior to other forms, just different in its karmic entailments. All Four Foods, then, carry a negative valence in Buddhist thought.  This negative valence in the Four Foods raises the question of whether there is not also a form of nourishment with emancipatory rather than enfettering karmic entailments. Buddhist thinkers were in fact interested in this problem and provided doctrinal explanations for how a negative valence in eating could be turned toward the positive end of eventual awakening. The solution involves an additional set of world-transcending \u2018foods\u2019, hinted at in allusions to nourishment through joy in meditation \u79aa\u6085 and other similar phrasing. Through the action of moral causality in each of the Four Foods, beings transmigrate from one life to the next, through the Three Realms of Buddhist cosmology: the desire realm, the realm of form (Skt. r\u016bpa-dhatu, Ch. sejie \u2f8a\u8272\u754c), and the formless realm (Skt. \u0101r\u016bpa-dhatu, Ch. wusejie \u7121\u2f8a\u8272\u754c). In the realms of form and formlessness, there is no morsel food; beings in these realms have more subtle bodies that do not require material nourishment. In recognition of a plurality of forms of nourishment, Chinese Buddhist texts also speak of five world-transcending foods (Ch. churenjianshi \u51fa\u2f08\u4eba\u9593\u98df). These are meditation food, vow food, thought food (overlapping with the previous set), food of the eight liberations, and food of joy.306 Because the five world-transcending foods are more spiritual than corporeal in their ability to nourish, Buddhist authors sometimes promote them as ideal foods that should gradually replace reliance on the Four Foods. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0305 T17 n721, 26a17-b01.\t \u00a0306 Ch. chanshi \u79aa\u98df, yuanshi \u9858\u98df, nianshi \u5ff5\u98df, bajietuoshi \u516b\u89e3\u812b\u98df, and xishi \u559c\u98df.\t \u00a0  165\t \u00a0I discuss this alternative set of foods in the following section, which provides a survey of Four Foods doctrine in Chinese Buddhist encyclopedias.307    4.3 Four Foods in Chinese Buddhist leishu   In the previous section I used a variety of sources, secondary and primary, to achieve some coherence regarding Four Foods doctrine. In the history of Chinese Buddhism, however, this doctrine was subject to interpretation at multiple junctures, such as in translation of terms, given an ahistorical treatment above. In this section, I want to return to an historical mode by looking at a particular set of occurrences of the doctrine that were likely influential in Buddhist intellectual history.  In order to better assess how Chinese Buddhists understood this doctrine, I briefly consider here the concept of Four Foods as it appears in several topically organized overviews of Buddhist knowledge: leishu\u2013\u2013texts that may be considered Chinese Buddhist encyclopedias (or terminological study aids, in at least one case). For this section, in addition to the tenth-century material from Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie, I also searched the sixth-century Jingl\u00fc yixiang \u7d93\u5f8b\u7570\u76f8, the seventh-century Fayuan zhulin \u6cd5\u82d1\u73e0\u6797, the eleventh-century Shishi yaolan \u91cb\u6c0f\u8981\u89bd, the twelvth-century Fanyi mingyi ji \u7ffb\u8b6f\u540d\u7fa9\u96c6, and the fifteenth-century Daming sanzang fashu \u2f24\u5927\u660e\u4e09\u85cf\u6cd5\u6578.  The sample here is not meant to be exhaustive, but merely sufficient for better understanding what sources medieval Chinese Buddhists used to represent Four Foods doctrine and the general orientation of doctrinal explanations. Because these texts that I refer to here as Buddhist encyclopedias are, as I argued in Chapter Two, general overviews of Buddhist knowledge organized in a fashion that allows relative ease in searching for ideas by topic, they played a role in disseminating basic Buddhist ideas to \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0307 See my subsection, below, on the Four Foods in the Fayuan zhulin, where the Zengyi ahan jing is cited as positing an additional set of world-transcending foods (churenjianshi \u51fa\u4e16\u9593\u98df), bringing the number of types to nine.\t \u00a0  166\t \u00a0individuals lacking scholarly expertise. As reference guides and primers, then, these works constitute authoritative statements in the unfolding of Chinese Buddhist intellectual history. Used together, they provide a chronological glimpse of the reception history of the doctrine of Four Foods.  4.3.1 Jingl\u00fc yixiang  The sixth-century Jingl\u00fc yixiang, commissioned by emperor Wu of Liang and introduced in Chapter Two above, does not mention the doctrine of Four Foods as outlined above. It does, however, present a legendary account enumerating \u201cfour foods,\u201d which in this context are modes of food procurement cast in an unfavorable light. This appears in a narrative coming from the Hailongwang jing308 on dragons, in a section titled \u201cFour Great Dragon Kings Troubled by Garu\u1e0da call on the Buddha.\u201d309 The dragon kings entreat the Buddha to protect them from four types of gold-winged birds (garu\u1e0da) that are regularly coming to eat various dragons living in the sea. The Buddha gives S\u0101gara, the Ocean Dragon King, one of his robes, which expands across the sea and protects the dragons from their aviary predators. Hearing of this and growing fearful, the Garu\u1e0da King (king of the birds) immediately seeks audience with the Buddha and asks, \u201cFor what reason does the World-Honored One take away our food?\u201d The Buddha replies,  \u201cAll have four foods, creating interest in the three realms. What are these four? The first is ensnaring birds and beasts, cruelly harming herds of animals, murdering life for a twisted livelihood in order to have food and drink. The second is to carry weapons, staves, knives, and halberds to cut and stab, to constrain, hinder, and shoot, and to steal the belongings of others to use as food and drink. The third is to covet and flatter, and in disordered \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0308 T15 n598. \u4f5b\u8aaa\u6d77\u9f8d\u738b\u7d93, Scripture on the Dragon King of the Ocean Spoken by the Buddha, Skt. S\u0101garan\u0101gar\u0101ja parip\u1e5bcch\u0101 s\u016btra. Translated to Chinese in the Western Jin (roughly around the turn of the fourth century) by Dharmarak\u1e63a \u7afa\u6cd5\u8b77. Another translation, by Dharmak\u1e63ema and completed in 418, is no longer extant\u2013\u2013see Chen, \u201cIndian Buddhist Missionary Dharmak\u1e63ema,\u201d 225. This scripture came to be used in China for rainmaking rites. The story cited in the Jingl\u00fc yixiang can be found at 151a05-c02.\t \u00a0309 Dong, ed., Jingl\u00fc yixiang zhengli yu yanjiu p.730. T53 n2121, 256b07-c05.\t \u00a0  167\t \u00a0befuddlement 310  break prohibitions, using evil views and deceptive cleverness to obtain food. The fourth is to call oneself a teacher when not a teacher, to call oneself a World-Honored One when not a World-Honored One, to follow evil and call it correct, to call oneself tranquil-minded (i.e., a \u015bramana) when one is not tranquil-minded, to call oneself pure when one is not pure, to call holy practices what are not holy practices, to speak of oneself deceitfully, making requests and thereby obtaining food. These are the four foods. [They] create interest in the three evil destinies of hells, hungry ghosts, and animals. The Dharma that I speak eliminates these Four Foods, not permitting the harming of sentient beings for the cultivation of one\u2019s body. If you wish to protect your body you must protect other people. What is not right to do, you should be careful not to do.\u201d \u90fd\u6709\u56db\u98df\uff0c\u5750\u8da3\u4e09\u8655\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u7b49\u56db\ufe16\uff1f\u2f00\u4e00\u66f0\uff1a\u7db2\u7375\u79bd\u7378\uff0c\u6b98\u5bb3\u7fa4\u755c\uff0c\u6bba\u2f63\u751f\u6789\u547d\uff0c\u4ee5\u7232\u98ee\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f06\u4e8c\u66f0\uff1a\u57f7\u5e36\u5175\u4ed7\u2f11\u5200\u2f6d\u77db\u65ab\u523a\uff0c\u903c\u8feb\u683c\u5c04\uff0c\u52ab\u596a\u4ed6\u8ca1\uff0c\u4ee5\u2f64\u7528\u98ee\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4e09\u66f0\uff1a\u6173\u8caa\u8adb\u8ac2\uff0c[\u6192]\u4e82\u72af\u7981\uff0c\u90aa\u2f92\u898b\u6b3a\u5de7\uff0c\u2f7d\u800c\u4ee5\u5f97\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u56db\u66f0\uff1a\u975e\u5e2b\u7a31\u5e2b\uff0c\u975e\u4e16\u5c0a\u7a31\u4e16\u5c0a\uff0c\u96a8\u90aa\u7a31\u6b63\uff0c\u975e\u5bc2\u5fd7\u7a31\u5bc2\u5fd7\uff0c\u975e\u6e05\u6de8\u7a31\u6e05\u6de8\uff0c\u975e\u68b5\u2f8f\u884c\u7a31\u68b5\u2f8f\u884c\uff0c\u2f83\u81ea\u7a31\u8a50\u6c42\uff0c\u2f7d\u800c\u4ee5\u5f97\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u7232\u56db\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5750\u8da3\u5730\u7344\u3001\ufe11\u9913\u9b3c\u3001\ufe11\u755c\u2f63\u751f\uff0c\u4e09\u60e1\u4e4b\u8655\u3002\ufe12\u543e\u6240\u8aac\u6cd5\uff0c\u9664\u6b64\u56db\u98df\uff0c\u4e0d\u7576\u4ee5\u990a\u8eab\u5bb3\u65bc\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u3002\ufe12\u6b32\u2f83\u81ea\u8b77\u8eab\uff0c\u7576\u8b77\u4ed6\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u6240\u4e0d\u7576\u4f5c\uff0c\u613c\u52ff\u7232\u4e5f.311 The avian host then consents, proclaiming that they will uphold the precepts, protect the Buddha\u2019s teachings, and stop terrorizing the dragon kings. This narrative nowhere suggests that the four foods mentioned here should be connected at some level to the doctrine of Four Foods found elsewhere.  One might ask whether enumeration of evil modes of food procurement into four categories was not meant to resonate with the doctrine of Four Foods, which has deep roots in the Buddhist literature. The pro-vegetarian ideology contained in the message here suggests that this text belongs to a corpus of Mah\u0101y\u0101na texts that explicitly condemn the eating of animal flesh and which began to sway sentiment in Chinese \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0310 Other editions give kuiluan \u6192\u4e82.\t \u00a0  168\t \u00a0Buddhist circles upon their arrival into the Chinese Buddhist intellectual milieu. There is also a possibility of interpolation around the time that Emperor Wu of Liang was pushing for wider adoption of vegetarianism\u2013\u2013if these lines are apocryphal, the reference to \u201cfour foods\u201d would have helped add an aura of authenticity to the fabrication. But I have no further evidence for this conjecture, so the problem must await further research. In any case, the Jingl\u00fc yixiang does not otherwise engage the doctrine of Four Foods.  4.3.2 Fayuan zhulin \u6cd5\u82d1\u73e0\u6797  The seventh-century Fayuan zhulin contains three discussions of the doctrine of Four Foods, covering a wide set of doctrinal notions associated with this doctrine. The notion of four foods taken from the Hailongwang jing is not among them, suggesting that Daoshi, compiler of the Fayuan zhulin, did not view that discourse as representative of orthodox Buddhist teachings on the Four Foods. He would have been aware of the material in the Jingl\u00fc yixiang, so the omission is deliberate. Because his statements chosen to represent Four Foods doctrine draw upon multiple discourses, it is useful to outline these in detail here, in preparation for comparison with later compilations. The first discussion cites the Qishi jing (Sutra on the Arising of Worlds)312, but the passage appears to be pieced together from a number of sources, each presenting different ideas. The narrative sets out the four kinds of food and then discusses them as falling into categories of coarse and refined, a feature of the doctrine that we noted earlier. A question is posed, \u201cWhat class of sentient beings should eat coarse morsel and delicate (refined) foods \u4f55\u7b49\u8846\u2f63\u751f\uff0c\u61c9\u98df\u9e81\u6bb5\uff0c\u53ca\u5fae\u7d30\u98df?\u201d The answer is \u201cSuch as the people of Jambudv\u012bpa (the great continent to the south of Mt. Sumeru, serving as the locus of human existence).\u201d Coarse morsel foods are illustrated with the examples of rice, provisions, beans, and meat; delicate foods include massage, bathing, and anointment. Humans and other inhabitants of the desire realm make these their food, \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0311 T53 n2121, 256b20-c01.\t \u00a0  169\t \u00a0while those beings of the form realm and formless heavens make joy in meditation \u79aa\u60a6 and delight in the Dharma \u6cd5\u559c their food. They do not return to coarse morsel and delicate foods.313 This positing of a contrasting binary of coarse and delicate foods is for foods of a material nature and does not form a natural hierarchy in Buddhist thought\u2013\u2013both are creature comforts. Rather, it is the transcendent foods of the heavenly deities that Daoshi celebrates. What follows is a discussion of karmic outcomes associated with the Four Foods, similar in wording to an account of Four Foods appearing in the Zhengfa nianchu jing \u6b63\u6cd5\u5ff5\u8655\u7d93 (Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness of the True Dharma).314 This interpretation of Four Foods is closely connected with the doctrine of Four Births \u56db\u2f63\u751f, which enumerates four differing destinies in the transmigration caused by rebirth, each characterized by a mode of embodiment: egg-birth, womb-birth, birth from moisture, and spontaneous transformation (as with celestial deities who manifest based on prior karma). The passage relates that in the case of contact (sensory) food, those beings whose bodies are born from eggs make sensation their food. Those that make thinking their food are fish, turtles, snakes and such, since for such creatures the act of thinking moistens and allows various roots to increase (these animals are thus understood to be sustained by moisture\u2013\u2013like plants\u2013\u2013and to be gradual in their growth). Hell dwellers and denizens of certain unlimited heavens of consciousness and touch take \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0312 T1 n24. This is a Chinese translation of the Agga\u00f1\u00f1a Sutta, D\u012bgha Nik\u0101ya 27. Benavides, \u201cEconomy,\u201d 78 notes that a Pali edition has been translated by Maurice Walshe, Long Discourses of the Buddha, 407-415.\t \u00a0313 Zhou and Su, Fayuan zhulin jiaozhu, 88-90 (v1). T53 n2122, 291c10-17. Where there are discrepancies in the text, I follow what is given in Taish\u014d, according to the SAT Daiz\u014dky\u014d Text Database. \u5982\u8d77\u4e16\u7d93\u4e91\uff1a\u300c\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u6709\u56db\u7a2e\u98df\uff0c\u4ee5\u8cc7\u8af8\u2f24\u5927\uff0c\u5f97\u2f83\u81ea\u4f4f\u6301\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u7b49\u7232\u56db\ufe16\uff1f\u2f00\u4e00\u9e81\u6bb5\u53ca\u5fae\u7d30\u98df\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u89f8\u98df\uff0c\u4e09\u610f\u601d\u98df\uff0c\u56db\u8b58\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u7b49\u8846\u2f63\u751f\uff0c\u61c9\u98df\u9e81\u6bb5\uff0c\u53ca\u5fae\u7d30\u98df\ufe16\uff1f\u5982\u95bb\u6d6e\u63d0\u2f08\u4eba\u7b49\uff0c\u98ef\u7cd7\u2f96\u8c46\u2f81\u8089\u7b49\uff0c\u540d\u7232\u9e81\u6bb5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u6309\u6469\u6fa1\u6d74\u62ed\u818f\u7b49\uff0c\u540d\u7232\u5fae\u7d30\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f83\u81ea\u5916\u4e09\u6d32\u4e0b\u2f08\u4eba\u53ca\u516d\u6b32\u8af8\u5929\u7b49\uff0c\u4e26\u4ee5\u9e81\u6bb5\u5fae\u7d30\u7232\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f83\u81ea\u6b64\u5df2\u4e0a\uff0c\u2f8a\u8272\u754c\u7121\u2f8a\u8272\u5929\uff0c\u4e26\u4ee5\u79aa\u60a6\u6cd5\u559c\u7232\u98df\uff0c\u7121\u5fa9\u9e81\u6bb5\u5fae\u7d30\u98df\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u300d\t \u00a0314 Skt. [Saddharma-]sm\u1e5btyupasth\u0101na s\u016btra, T17 n721, translated by Gautama-praj\u00f1\u0101ruci \u77bf\u66c7\u822c\u82e5\u6d41\u2f40\u652f (fl.516-543) between 538-541.\t \u00a0  170\t \u00a0consciousness as their food.315 The topic then turns to the eating of nectar (ambrosia) by heavenly beings:316  \u201cThose in the heavens of the four Heavenly Kings partake of nectar (sudh\u0101), eating a small handful in the morning and a small handful in the evening, the food transforming into bodily matter immediately upon ingestion. This nectar arises spontaneously from both garden pools and groves of trees and it can transform into any of eight forms of food and drink, such as [one called] qutuoni \u4f49\u9640\u5c3c (Skt. kh\u0101dan\u012bya). The eating of all heavenly beings of the desire realm is also like this. Heavenly beings in the form realms take as their food [all encompassed between] the first state of meditative concentration and pervasive purity in joyfulness. Heavenly beings of the formless realm and above take mental activity as their food.\u201d \u56db\u5929\u738b\u5929\u4e26\u98df\u9808\u9640\u5473\uff0c\u671d\u98df\u2f00\u4e00\u64ae\uff0c\u66ae\u98df\u2f00\u4e00\u64ae\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u5165\u9ad4\u5df2\uff0c\u8f49\u6210\u8eab\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u9808\u9640\u5473\u5712\u6797\u6c60\u82d1\u4e26\u2f83\u81ea\u7136\u2f63\u751f\uff0c\u662f\u9808\u9640\u5473\u4ea6\u80fd\u5316\u4f5c\u4f49\u9640\u5c3c\u7b49\u516b\u7a2e\u98ee\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u6b32\u754c\u8af8\u5929\u98df\uff0c\u4ea6\u7686\u5982\u662f\u3002\ufe12\u2f8a\u8272\u754c\u8af8\u5929\uff0c\u5f9e\u521d\u79aa\u4e43\u81f3\u904d\u6de8\uff0c\u4ee5\u559c\u7232\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u7121\u2f8a\u8272\u754c\u5df2\u4e0a\u8af8\u5929\uff0c\u4ee5\u610f\u696d\u7232\u98df\u3002\ufe12317 \u201cA question is posed: What is eating and drinking like in the various heavens? The answer is that it is like the scriptures describe: The various heavenly [beings] of the desire realm are differentiated according to noble and base, good and bad. Those whose merit is thick are, in accordance with their intentions, not lacking. Should they wish to drink, sweet dew fills their glasses. Should they wish to eat, a hundred flavored [dishes] arrive. For those whose merit is thin, although they have food and drink, they always feel dissatisfied. Because there is not enough, it is as if inferior food has come. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0315 Zhou and Su, Fayuan zhulin jiaozhu, 89 (v1). T53 n2122, 291c17-23. This passage and the one above are from the seventh fascicle of the Qishi jing, according to Zhou and Su, editors of the Fayuan zhulin jiaozhu. \u554f\u66f0\uff1a\u4f55\u7b49\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u4ee5\u89f8\u7232\u98df\ufe16\uff1f\u7b54\u66f0\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u5375\u2f63\u751f\u5f97\u8eab\u6545\uff0c\u4ee5\u89f8\u7232\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u7b49\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u4ee5\u601d\u7232\u98df\ufe16\uff1f\u82e5\u6709\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u610f\u601d\u8cc7\u6f64\uff0c\u8af8\u6839\u5897\u9577\uff0c\u5982\u2fc2\u9b5a\u3001\ufe11\u9f08\u3001\ufe11\u86c7\u3001\ufe11\u8766\u87c6\u3001\ufe11\u4f3d\u7f85\u77bf\u9640\u7b49\uff0c\u53ca\u9918\u8846\u2f63\u751f\uff0c\u4ee5\u610f\u601d\u6f64\u76ca\u8af8\u6839\u58fd\u547d\u8005\uff0c\u6b64\u7b49\u7686\u2f64\u7528\u601d\u7232\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u7b49\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u4ee5\u8b58\u7232\u98df\ufe16\uff1f\u6240\u8b02\u5730\u7344\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u53ca\u7121\u908a\u8b58\u8655\u5929\u7b49\uff0c\u7686\u2f64\u7528\u8b58\u6301\u4ee5\u7232\u5176\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u300d\t \u00a0316 The next several lines are also in Foshuo lishi apitan lun \u4f5b\u8aac\u2f74\u7acb\u4e16\u963f\u6bd8\u66c7\u8ad6 T32 n1644, 200c17-c22, a scripture translated by Param\u00e2rtha \u771e\u8ae6 in the sixth century.\t \u00a0  171\t \u00a0Therefore the scriptures318 record the example of various heavenly beings sharing a meal in jeweled vessels. The color of the rice differs according to their merit: for superior ones it is white, for middling ones it is yellow, and for inferior ones it is red. The heavenly beings of the form realm take joy in meditation as their flavor (i.e., food). If stating this in terms of Four Foods [doctrine], they have only the concept of sensory food.\u201d \u554f\u66f0\uff1a\u8af8\u5929\u98ee\u98df\u4e91\u4f55\ufe16\uff1f\u7b54\u66f0\uff1a\u5982\u7d93\u8aac\u4e91\uff1a\u6b32\u754c\u8af8\u5929\uff0c\u96a8\u5176\u8cb4\u8ce4\uff0c\u597d\u60e1\u4e0d\u540c\u3002\ufe12\u5176\u798f\u539a\u8005\uff0c\u96a8\u5176\u6240\u601d\uff0c\u7121\u4e0d\u5177\u2f9c\u8db3\u3002\ufe12\u98ee\u5247\u2f62\u7518\u9732\u76c8\u676f\uff0c\u98df\u5247\u767e\u5473\u5036\u81f3\u3002\ufe12\u5176\u798f\u8584\u8005\uff0c\u96d6\u6709\u98ee\u98df\uff0c\u6052\u4e0d\u7a31\u2f3c\u5fc3\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u4e0d\u2f9c\u8db3\u6545\uff0c\u7336\u4e0b\u98df\u4f86\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u7d93\u4e91\uff1a\u300c\u8b6c\u5982\u8af8\u5929\u5171\u5bf6\u5668\u98df\uff0c\u96a8\u5176\u798f\u5fb3\uff0c\u98ef\u2f8a\u8272\u6709\u7570\u3002\ufe12\u4e0a\u8005\u2f92\u898b\u2f69\u767d\uff0c\u4e2d\u8005\u2f92\u898b\u9ec4\uff0c\u4e0b\u8005\u2f92\u898b\u2f9a\u8d64\u3002\ufe12\u2f8a\u8272\u754c\u8af8\u5929\uff0c\u4ee5\u79aa\u60a6\u7232\u5473\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u82e5\u4ee5\u56db\u98df\u2f94\u8a00\u4e4b\uff0c\u552f\u6709\u89f8\u98df\u6cd5\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12319  The leitmotif of these passages is that sentient beings eat according to their merit\u2013\u2013we reap what we sow. Karma is central to eating, which in this view is any activity bringing nourishment to a sentient being. Food is illustrated vividly as coming in many forms appropriate to a being\u2019s status and place in the cosmological order and eating is not only ingestion of material foodstuffs but may include even activities such as meditation. In just one short passage Daoshi has compiled together an illustration not only of the doctrine of Four Foods, but also a justification for viewing meditation as a practice associated with a superior form of nourishment. It is superior because of the moral (i.e., karmic) status of the beings who use it for nourishment.  The second passage of the Fayuan zhulin that mentions Four Foods doctrine also develops the theme of multivalent modes of eating that match the moral status of sentient beings. Daoshi cites from the Abhidharma literature a passage discussing absorption of the four foods and how the different realms have broader or narrower sets of these. An example illustrates how, in the hells, iron pills and molten bronze serve as food. Though taking them increases suffering, they are named morsel foods because \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0317 Zhou and Su, Fayuan zhulin jiaozhu, 89 (v1). T53 n2122, 291c23-28.\t \u00a0318 Zhou and Su, Fayuan zhulin jiaozhu, 89-90 (v1), give this following passage as coming from the thirteenth fascicle of the Chang ahan jing.\t \u00a0319 Zhou and Su, Fayuan zhulin jiaozhu, 89-90 (v1). T53 n2122, 291c29-292a07.\t \u00a0  172\t \u00a0they assuage hunger and thirst. Even cold and warm winds, in hells with light afflictions, are considered morsel food, due to their alternating bodily contact. Only the two upper realms (form and formless) have no morsel food, because the bodies of beings there are light and marvelous. Daoshi then offers a short verse to summarize the main points: \u201cFour Foods in the desire realm; same for the four birthed destinies. Three Foods in the upper two realms, where they lack morsel food.\u201d320  The third and final passage321 is in a section devoted specifically to the doctrine of Four Foods. Citing the Zengyi ahan jing \u5897\u2f00\u4e00\u963f\u542b\u7d93, it first explains the Four Foods322 in straightforward language, giving concrete examples:  At that time the World-Honored One said to the multitude of bhik\u1e63us, \u201cAmong the class of sentient beings there are four kinds of food that nourish these sentient beings. What are these four? The so-called morsel food, whether large or small, food that increases pleasure, thought food, and food of consciousness. These are called the Four Foods. You say, what is morsel food? This in reference to all those things eaten amongst the people of today that enter the mouth and can be ingested. These are called morsel foods. What is food that increases pleasure? This is in reference to clothing, parasols, various fragrant flowers, incense, fragrant oils, and all the accessories collected by women that increase pleasure for the body. These are called foods that increase pleasure. What is thought food? This is in reference to that which is recollected, conceptualized, or pondered in the mind, whether spoken by mouth, or making bodily contact, or the many upheld dharmas (i.e., true knowledge). This is called thought food. What is food of \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0320 Fayuan zhulin jiaozhu pp.2130-2131 (v5). T53 n2122, 831b12-19. \u554f: \u56db\u98df\u76f8\u651d\u4e91\u4f55? \u7b54: \u5982\u6bd8\u66c7\u4e2d\u8aac:\u300c\u7e3d\u2f7d\u800c\u2f94\u8a00\u4e4b\uff0c\u516d\u8da3\u4e4b\u4e2d\uff0c\u7686\u5177\u56db\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u7136\u6709\u5bdb\u965c\u4e0d\u540c\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u5730\u7344\u4e2d\u5f97\u6709\u6bb5\u98df\u8005\uff0c\u5982\u6709\u9435\u4e38\u53ca\u6d0b\u9285\u6c41\uff0c\u96d6\u5fa9\u5897\u82e6\uff0c\u4ee5\u58de\u98e2\u6e07\uff0c\u6545\u540d\u6bb5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u5982\u8f15\u7e4b\u7344\u4e2d\uff0c\u5f97\u5177\u51b7\u7156\u2f06\u4e8c\u98a8\uff0c\u66f4\u4e92\u89f8\u8eab\uff0c\u4ea6\u540d\u6bb5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u552f\u4e0a\u2f06\u4e8c\u754c\u7121\u6709\u6bb5\u98df\uff0c\u4ee5\u5f7c\u8eab\u8f15\u5999\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u8ad6\u5048\u4e91:      \u56db\u98df\u5728\u6b32\u754c \u56db\u2f63\u751f\u8da3\u4ea6\u7136          \u4e09\u98df\u4e0a\u2f06\u4e8c\u754c \u6bb5\u98df\u5f7c\u5247\u7121\t \u00a0321 Zhou and Su, Fayuan zhulin jiaozhu, 2849-2851 (v6).\t \u00a0322 The Chinese terms depart slightly from other lists, giving duanshi (\u6bb5\u98df), gengleshi (\u66f4\u6a02\u98df), and nianshi (\u5ff5\u98df) for the first three (instead of tuanshi, sishi, and chushi). The last, shishi or nourishment through consciousness, remains consistent with other lists.\t \u00a0  173\t \u00a0consciousness? This is in reference to that which is known to the mind. It is the taking of consciousness for food in primarily the Brahma heaven, but also the heavens with thought and without thought. This is called food of consciousness. With these Four Foods [sentient beings] transmigrate through life and death. \u723e\u6642\u4e16\u5c0a\uff0c\u544a\u8af8\u6bd4\u4e18\uff1a\u300c\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u4e4b\u985e\uff0c\u6709\u56db\u7a2e\u98df\uff0c\u9577\u990a\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u7b49\u7232\u56db\ufe16\uff1f\u6240\u8b02\u6bb5\u98df\uff0c\u6216\u2f24\u5927\u6216\u2f29\u5c0f\u3001\ufe11\u66f4\u6a02\u98df\u3001\ufe11\u5ff5\u98df\u3001\ufe11\u8b58\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u8b02\u56db\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u4e91\u4f55\u6bb5\u98df\ufe16\uff1f\u8b02\u4eca\u2f08\u4eba\u4e2d\u6240\u98df\u8af8\u5165\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u4e4b\u7269\uff0c\u53ef\u98df\u5649\u8005\uff0c\u662f\u8b02\u6bb5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4e91\u4f55\u66f4\u6a02\u98df\ufe16\uff1f\u8b02\u8863\u88f3\u3001\ufe11\u7e56\u84cb\u3001\ufe11\u96dc\u2fb9\u9999\u83ef\u3001\ufe11\u718f\u2f55\u706b\uff0c\u53ca\u2fb9\u9999\u6cb9\uff0c\u8207\u5a66\u2f08\u4eba\u96c6\u805a\uff0c\u8af8\u9918\u8eab\u9ad4\u6240\u66f4\u6a02\u8005\uff0c\u662f\u8b02\u66f4\u6a02\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4e91\u4f55\u5ff5\u98df\ufe16\uff1f\u8b02\u610f\u4e2d\u6240\u5ff5\u3001\ufe11\u6240\u60f3\u3001\ufe11\u6240\u601d\u60df\u8005\uff0c\u6216\u4ee5\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u8aac\uff0c\u6216\u4ee5\u9ad4\u89f8\u53ca\u8af8\u6240\u6301\u4e4b\u6cd5\uff0c\u662f\u8b02\u5ff5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4e91\u4f55\u8b58\u98df\ufe16\uff1f\u8b02\u610f\u4e4b\u6240\u77e5\uff0c\u68b5\u5929\u7232\u2fb8\u9996\uff0c\u4e43\u81f3\u6709\u60f3\u7121\u60f3\u5929\u4ee5\u8b58\u7232\u98df\uff0c\u662f\u8b02\u8b58\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u6b64\u56db\u98df\uff0c\u6d41\u8f49\u2f63\u751f\u6b7b\u3002\ufe12\u300d(T53 n2122, 1015c25-1016a06)  The passage then turns to the Buddha\u2019s teaching to Aniruddha that the organs of perception are nurtured by their objects: \u201cAll of the many dharmas are sustained by food. The eyes take sleep as food; the ears take sound as food; the nose takes fragrance as food; the tongue takes flavor as food; the body takes smoothness as food; the mind takes dharma (i.e., truth) as food; and nirvana takes lack of self-indulgence \u7121\u653e\u9038 as food.\u201d323 That nirvana is included here as dependent on nurturing is significant, in light of Western popular interpretations that the Buddhist path is one of letting go. The view here suggests that careless or frivolous indulgences work against progress on the path to nirvana; something akin to self-discipline is that which nourishes nirvana. The implication of this teaching is that all states, even nirvana, are contingent. One cannot merely stumble through life and hope that acceptance of one\u2019s lot will lead to an awakening of sorts; some discipline is necessary in order to skillfully nourish the more \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0323 T53 n2122, 1016a07-10. \u53c8\u5897\u2f00\u4e00\u7d93\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u300c\u4e16\u5c0a\u544a\u963f\u90a3\u5f8b\u66f0\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u8af8\u6cd5\u7531\u98df\u2f7d\u800c\u5b58\u3002\ufe12\u773c\u4ee5\u7720\u7232\u98df\uff0c\u2f7f\u8033\u4ee5\u8072\u7232\u98df\uff0c\u2fd0\u9f3b\u4ee5\u2fb9\u9999\u7232\u98df\uff0c\u2f86\u820c\u4ee5\u5473\u7232\u98df\uff0c\u8eab\u4ee5\u7d30\u6ed1\u7232\u98df\uff0c\u610f\u4ee5\u6cd5\u7232\u98df\uff0c\u6d85\u69c3\u4ee5\u7121\u653e\u9038\u7232\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u300d\t \u00a0  174\t \u00a0desirable states. These issues are further addressed in the passage directly following, which places Four Foods doctrine into a larger schema:  At that time the Buddha told the multitude of bhik\u1e63us, \u201cThe wonderful truth is like this. Look upon eating as having nine matters \u98df\u6709\u4e5d\u4e8b. In the human realm there are Four Foods: 1) morsel food, 2) food that increases pleasure, 3) thought food, and 4) food of consciousness. There are a further five kinds. These are foods for transcending (\u201cexiting\u201d) the world \u51fa\u4e16\u9593\u98df : 1) meditation food, 2) vow food, 3) thought food, 4) food of the eight emancipations, and 5) food of joy. These are the [foods] for transcending the world.324 You should all concentrate your thoughts, abandoning the four kinds of food and seeking to practice the Foods for Transcending the World. \u723e\u6642\u4f5b\u544a\u8af8\u6bd4\u4e18\uff1a\u5982\u6b64\u5999\u6cd5\uff0c\u592b\u89c0\u98df\u6709\u4e5d\u4e8b\uff0c\u2f08\u4eba\u9593\u6709\u56db\u98df\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u3001\ufe11\u6bb5\u98df\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u3001\ufe11\u66f4\u6a02\u98df\uff0c\u4e09\u3001\ufe11\u5ff5\u98df\uff0c\u56db\u3001\ufe11\u8b58\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5fa9\u6709\u4e94\u7a2e\uff0c\u662f\u51fa\u4e16\u9593\u98df\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u3001\ufe11\u79aa\u98df\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u3001\ufe11\u9858\u98df\uff0c\u4e09\u3001\ufe11\u5ff5\u98df\uff0c\u56db\u3001\ufe11\u516b\u89e3\u8131\u98df\uff0c\u4e94\u3001\ufe11\u559c\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u51fa\u4e16\u9593\u4e4b\u8868(\u98df)\u3002\ufe12\u7576\u5171\u5c08\u5ff5\uff0c\u6368\u9664\u56db\u7a2e\u4e4b\u98df\uff0c\u6c42\u8fa6\u51fa\u4e16\u4e4b\u98df\u3002\ufe12325 Daoshi lists three other citations under the topic of Four Foods, but these make no mention of the doctrine itself. Still, the fact that these are included in a section devoted to doctrine of Four Foods implies a deliberate attempt to associate the ideas with this doctrine, so they warrant attention. The first of these last three passages is a citation from the Zhengfa nianchu jing explaining that if sentient beings hold an attitude of faith and compassion, taking various foods to give to people, then upon completion of their lives those sentient beings will be reborn into favorable conditions in their next lives\u2013\u2013either into heavens where they will experience all kinds of joyfulness, or into a human life with rich endowments and the ability to practice the true dharma. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0324 The Zengyi ahan jing (T2 n125, 772b18) refers to this set as a biao \u8868, an outward appearance or representation, but there seems to be some question as to whether this should have been simply a repetition of shi \u98df, food. The latter interpretation is more logical, so I adopt it here.\t \u00a0325 T53 n2122, 1016a11-16.\t \u00a0  175\t \u00a0The second of the three passages, also coming from the Zhengfa nianchu jing, states that if there are sentient beings who see the many ill people and give them medicinal broths to ease their suffering, upon their lives ending they will be born into various favorable circumstances. Similarly, those who provide sweet drinks for people who are thirsting on their deathbeds will likewise be reborn into favorable circumstances that reflect the merit of their actions.  The very last passage in the section on Four Foods is of a very different nature. A citation from the Wufenl\u00fc \u4e94\u5206\u5f8b (Five-Part Vinaya), the passage states that the monk in charge of food for the month may taste the food\u2013\u2013for whether it is raw or cooked or needing salt or vinegar\u2013\u2013by placing it in the palm of his hand and sticking his tongue down to taste it. Annotation preserved in the text of the Fayuan zhulin explains that to taste with the mouth is a greedy way of tasting that is frowned upon, and is therefore an offense (in the monastic codes). Perhaps Daoshi included this issue because it was a topic of debate in his day, coming up whenever food was discussed. Or could he have wished to say, This is the gravity with which Buddhists are to treat the dangers associated with appetites for the Four Foods? In any case, Daoshi was thorough in his overview of Four Foods doctrine, illustrating that the doctrine was significant in the seventh century when he compiled his magnificent overview of Buddhist ideas. His Fayuan zhulin, then, provides a benchmark by which to measure attention to the doctrine of Four Foods in subsequent Buddhist encyclopedias.  4.3.3 Shishi liutie  I began this chapter by looking at Yichu\u2019s entries that touch on the doctrine of Four Foods, so I will not repeat that material here. Instead, it is worthwhile to consider his sources and themes in light of the previous presentation on material in the Fayuan zhulin.  Yichu alludes to the Four Foods through a citation (#1) from the Apidamo jushe lun, which relates the myth on the origins of the present world (i.e., the desire realm where sentient beings eat material food). Above, we saw this origin myth and discussion of the Four Foods cited from the Qishi jing (P. Agga\u00f1\u00f1a sutta). The point seems to be that   176\t \u00a0indulgence in the flavors of material food has an origin in the fall from grace experienced by sentient beings who had previously nourished more subtle bodies on more transcendent foods. The eating of material food should thus not be seen as the only source of nourishment.  Yichu, like Daoshi above, also uses the Zengyi ahan jing to make the point that foods are directly associated with the various sense faculties and the mind, nourishing these as objects (see #33). This is the conceptual basis upon which the doctrine of Four Foods is based. Yichu does not here mention the doctrine itself, though we know from Daoshi\u2019s citation that the Zengyi ahan jing does develop the doctrine of Four Foods in much detail. Yichu\u2019s citation merely hints at it. Where Yichu does spell out the doctrine of Four Foods is in a citation (#11) from the Daweide tuoluoni jing, a text that Daoshi did not utilize to represent the doctrine. Translated to Chinese around the end of the sixth century, this text, as Yichu presents it, gives a basic summary of the cosmological aspect of Four Foods\u2013\u2013they are associated with the desire realm, while the other realms have only three of the four\u2026and so forth. Daoshi has presented such views based on the Qishi jing. The concept that foods differ depending on the realm in question helps underline the point that the Four Foods are not an inevitable feature in all sentient life. Ultimately, our moral status, defined by karma, determines what we will eat in our future lives.     4.3.4 Shishi yaolan  Compiled subsequently to Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie, the Shishi yaolan from the Northern Song dynasty seems like a likely place to encounter the doctrine of Four Foods, but it is noticeably absent. The food-related section has only a coincidental overlap in wording, which points to a discussion of the times of day when mealtimes are permitted for tonsured Buddhists.326   \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0326 T54 n2127, 274a20-23.\t \u00a0  177\t \u00a04.3.5 Fanyi mingyi ji  The Fanyi mingyi ji, from the Southern Song dynasty, is arguably more of a lexical aid than an encyclopedia, but because its organization is topical, it too can serve as a useful window onto the reception history of the doctrine of Four Foods in Chinese history. Fayun \u6cd5\u96f2 aka Purun dashi \u666e\u6f64\u2f24\u5927\u5e2b (1088-1158), who studied Tiantai Buddhism, completed this work in 1143.327 Here we do find the doctrine covered in a section that mentions it by name in the title,328 attesting to its continued importance. The section begins with an introduction, heavily annotated, and is then followed by subsections headed by individual terms associated with food in Buddhist literature. The entire section is worthy of study, but here I will focus on the doctrine of Four Foods as represented by the introductory material.  This introduction first sets up a basic understanding of food, using the Fodi lun \u4f5b\u5730\u8ad6: \u201cMaintenance \u4efb\u6301 is named food \u98df. This is to say that [food] is able to maintain the body of form, keeping it from breakage and rot and allowing the nurturing of skillful ways. The body resides on the basis of food; one\u2019s life depends upon food for its preservation. [Food] flows into the five viscera, saturating the four limbs, augmenting vital energy, benefiting the skin, and [allowing] satisfaction of body and mind. \u4efb\u6301\u540d\u98df\uff0c\u8b02\u80fd\u4efb\u6301\u2f8a\u8272\u8eab\uff0c\u4ee4\u4e0d\u65b7\u58de\uff0c\u9577\u990a\u5584\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u8eab\u4f9d\u98df\u4f4f\uff0c\u547d\u8a17\u98df\u5b58\u3002\ufe12\u6d41\u5165\u4e94\u81df\uff0c\u5145\u6d79\u56db\u80a2\uff0c\u88dc\u6c23\u76ca\u808c\uff0c\u8eab\u2f3c\u5fc3\u9069\u60a6).\u201d329  This recognition of the need for food places body and mind \u8eab\u2f3c\u5fc3 together and suggests that the satisfaction gained from physical nourishment is not an end in itself, but a means for cultivating good dharmas (\"dharma\" here meaning a custom or practice). Good dharmas may includes such things as good actions, thoughts, and \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0327 Li, Songseng zhushu kao, 413-415.\t \u00a0328 T54 n2131, 1172b17; FAYUN, Fanyi mingyi ji (Shihua ed. of 2008), 356-362. Chapter 62: Rules on [the post-noon] fast and the Four Foods \u9f4b\u6cd5\u56db\u98df\u7bc7\u7b2c\u516d\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c.\t \u00a0329 T54 n2131, 1172b18-20.\t \u00a0  178\t \u00a0attitudes\u2013\u2013the better, more skillful ways of being. This position should be distinguished from a dualistic treatment of mind and body that raises up the mind as a disembodied locus of holiness, denigrating the body and leading to ascetic fasting. It also does not accord with a physicalist attitude toward eating that privileges enjoyment of the body and leads to food connoisseurship or other forms of gustatory indulgence.   Directly following this frame for understanding food is a citation from the Shoulengyan jing stating that \u201cthe twelve kinds of life in our world cannot be complete of themselves, but rely on the Four Foods for their existence: the so-called morsel, contact, thought, and consciousness foods. Therefore the Buddha said that all sentient beings depend on food for their residing.\u201d330 In the Shoulengyan jing, the narrative launches from this point into a polemic331 on the five kinds of pungent herbs \u4e94\u7a2e\u2f9f\u8f9b\u83dc (mostly alliums, taboo in the diet of tonsured Buddhists), but here Fayun chooses to stay on topic, turning next to an explanation of the Four Foods in the Zuili, a text of uncertain identity.332 The explanations of each food type contain annotation from other sources\u2013\u2013especially from the Qishi jing, which we encountered already as an important source for Four Foods doctrine. The body text from the Zuili, minus the annotation, interprets the Four Foods with a negative valence that reveals their association with the potential moral contamination involved in the satiation of appetites: The Zuili explains: In speaking of \u2018duanshi\u2019 (morsel food), the \u2018duan\u2019 refers to its form being in segments. Its substance is formed by the three dusts (contaminants of spiritual practice) of fragrance, flavor, and texture. Entering the belly it spoils and benefits the several [sense] faculties. It is thus referred to as morsel food.  In speaking of \u2018chushi\u2019 (sensory food), the \u2018chu\u2019 refers to [sensory] contact. Because it [involves] association among the six consciousnesses (the function of the five sense organs plus reasoning \u610f) with a manifest object, giving rise to joy and pleasure, it is called sensory food.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0330 T54 n2131, 1172b21-23.\t \u00a0331 T19 n945,141c03-13.\t \u00a0332 Zuili \u6a87\u674e is an old place name. This may be a lost text titled Jiezuili \u89e3\u6a87\u674e.\t \u00a0  179\t \u00a0In speaking of \u2018sishi\u2019 (thought food), the \u2018si\u2019 refers to thought. Because it [involves] the sixth consciousness (i.e., reason) associating thought with a pleasing condition and giving rise to yearning, it is called thought food.  In speaking of \u2018shishi\u2019 (consciousness food), the \u2018shi\u2019 is expression of the eighth clinging [consciousness] (\u0101d\u0101na-vij\u00f1\u0101na). It profits from a portion of the force of the preceding three foods, making this consciousness grow. This is because it is able to appropriate (i.e., bind together) the several [sense] faculties and the \u2018great seeds\u2019 (the four great elements: earth, water, fire, and wind).  If differentiating these [Four Foods] according to the three realms, morsel food is only in the desire realm. Having form and formlessness, and lacking the two \u2018dusts\u2019 of fragrance and flavor, the remaining three foods are found throughout the three realms. This, then, is an overview of the Four Foods. \u300e\u6a87\u674e\u300f\u91cb\u66f0\uff1a\u2f94\u8a00\u6bb5\u98df\u8005\uff0c\u6bb5\u8b02\u5f62\u6bb5\uff0c\u4ee5\u2fb9\u9999\u3001\ufe11\u5473\u3001\ufe11\u89f8\u4e09\u5875\u7232\u9ad4\uff0c\u5165\u8179\u8b8a\u58de\uff0c\u8cc7\u76ca\u8af8\u6839\uff0c\u6545\u2f94\u8a00\u6bb5\u98df\ufe14\uff1b\u2f94\u8a00\u89f8\u98df\u8005\uff0c\u89f8\u8b02\u89f8\u5c0d\uff0c\u53d6\u516d\u8b58\u4e2d\u76f8\u61c9\u89f8\u5c0d\u524d\u5883\u2f7d\u800c\u2f63\u751f\u559c\u6a02\uff0c\u6545\u540d\u89f8\u98df\ufe14\uff1b\u2f94\u8a00\u601d\u98df\u8005\uff0c\u601d\u8b02\u610f\u601d\uff0c\u53d6\u7b2c\u516d\u8b58\u76f8\u61c9\u601d\uff0c\u65bc\u53ef\u610f\u5883\u2f63\u751f\u5e0c\u671b\u6545\ufe14\uff1b\u2f94\u8a00\u8b58\u98df\u8005\uff0c\u8b58\u5373\u7b2c\u516b\u57f7\u6301\u4e4b\u76f8\uff0c\u7531\u524d\u4e09\u98df\u52e2\u5206\u6240\u8cc7\uff0c\u4ee4\u6b64\u8b58\u5897\u52dd\uff0c\u80fd\u57f7\u6301\u8af8\u6839\u2f24\u5927\u7a2e\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u7d04\u4e09\u754c\u8fa8\u4e4b\uff0c\u6bb5\u98df\u552f\u5728\u6b32\u754c\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u2f8a\u8272\u3001\ufe11\u7121\u2f8a\u8272\uff0c\u7121\u2fb9\u9999\u5473\u2f06\u4e8c\u5875\uff0c\u9918\u4e4b\u4e09\u98df\uff0c\u904d\u901a\u4e09\u754c\u3002\ufe12\u6b64\u4e43\u7e3d\u53d9\u56db\u98df\u4e5f333\u3002\ufe12 Even without examining the annotation woven into the above account, we can conclude that the Fanyi mingyi ji contains a rich presentation of the doctrine of Four Foods, employing some sources not used in the Fayuan zhulin and Shishi liutie. While food is initially cast as a pragmatic necessity for supporting the bodily health needed to cultivate good attitudes and behaviors, the doctrine of Four Foods presented here displays a palpable wariness regarding the dangers of appetite associated with these foods.   4.3.6 Daming sanzang fashu \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0333 T54, n2131, 1172b23-c10.\t \u00a0  180\t \u00a0 The latest-appearing encyclopedic work that I consult is the Daming sanzang fashu (hereafter Fashu) compiled by a monk named Yiru \u2f00\u4e00\u5982 under imperial commission in the Ming-dynasty. The doctrine of Four Foods appears in the nineteenth fascicle, in a citation taken from the Huayan jing suishu yanyi chao \u83ef\u56b4\u7d93\u96a8\u758f\u6f14\u7fa9\u9214334, a work of subcommentary on the Flower Garland Sutra by the Tang-dynasty monk Chengguan335 \u6f84\u89c0 (738-839). Three annotated notes further develop or clarify the ideas presented in the subcommentary.  Yiru\u2019s use of this source is significant in that it is a Chinese work and not an older translation from an Indic source text. The choice is also somewhat surprising in that other commentaries on the Flower Garland Sutra do not appear to have any mention of Four Foods doctrine\u2013\u2013Chengguan\u2019s use of Four Foods doctrine appears anomalous in the body of texts associated with Huayan thought.336 In the Chinese commentarial literature, discussions of Four Foods doctrine appears more consistently in subcommentaries on the Cheng weishi lun337 (Skt. Vij\u00f1aptim\u0101trat\u0101siddhi-\u015b\u0101stra), a key text of Yog\u0101c\u0101ra thought in China, and in commentaries on the Shou lengyan jing (Skt. \u015a\u016bra\u1e43gama-s\u016btra)338. Yiru\u2019s choice to use Chengguan\u2019s presentation of Four Foods is more understandable, however, when we compare it with previous rather complex \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0334 Full title Dafang guangfo huayan jing suishu yanyi chao \u2f24\u5927\u2f45\u65b9\u5ee3\u4f5b\u83ef\u56b4\u7d93\u96a8\u758f\u6f14\u7fa9\u9214. The discussion of Four Foods is at T36 n1736, 379a02-b12.\t \u00a0335 Tang-dynasty \u015arama\u1e47a Chengguan of the Great Huayan Temple in Qingliangshan \u5510\u6e05\u6dbc\u5c71\u2f24\u5927\u83ef\u56b4\u5bfa\u6c99\u2fa8\u9580\u6f84\u89c0. The Huayan jing suishu yanyi chao serves as a continuation of his earlier commentary\u2013\u2013the Dafang guangfo huayan jing shu \u2f24\u5927\u2f45\u65b9\u5ee3\u4f5b\u83ef\u56b4\u7d93\u758f, T35 n1735\u2013\u2013on the Huayan jing (Skt. Avata\u1e43saka s\u016btra), the Flower Garland Scripture.\t \u00a0336 I do not find discussion of Four Foods doctrine in any of the commentaries on the Huayan jing found in volume 35 of Taish\u014d, which includes famous commentaries by Fazang. Nor does such a discussion appear in volume 9 or 10, which contain texts associated with Fahua and Huayan thought.\t \u00a0337 T31 n1585.\t \u00a0338 T19 n945. Although this work is traditionally held to be a sutra translated in 705 by Pramiti \u822c\u524c\u871c\u5e1d, a central Indian monk, the account of his translation work and the authenticity of the sutra are contested by most modern scholars. The issue of authenticity aside, the Shoulengyan jing stimulated discussions of Four Foods doctrine that would be worthy of further research, but for which there is not space here.\t \u00a0  181\t \u00a0presentations such as that of the Fayuan zhulin. Chengguan has placed the doctrine in a straightforward narrative with useful glosses of terminology, making it more accessible: 1. Duanshi (morsel food). \u2018Duan\u2019 is segmentation. \u2018Food\u2019 has the meaning of nourishment. It is said to have the \u2018three dusts\u2019 of fragrance, flavor, and tactile qualities as its substance. Upon entering the belly it spoils and nourishes the several [sense] faculties. Thus it is called morsel food. Old translations of scriptures and monastic codes all had it as \u2018tuanshi\u2019\u2013\u2013using the hands to form a ball was called \u2018tuan\u2019. Later translations further say that things like beverages, which cannot be formed into a ball, are likewise to be interpreted as morsel food. \u300c\u2f00\u4e00\u6bb5\u98df\u300d\uff0c\u6bb5\u5373\u5206\u6bb5\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u6709\u8cc7\u76ca\u4e4b\u7fa9\uff0c\u8b02\u4ee5\u2fb9\u9999\u3001\ufe11\u5473\u3001\ufe11\u89f8\u4e09\u5875\u70ba\u9ad4\uff0c\u5165\u8179\u8b8a\u58de\uff0c\u8cc7\u76ca\u8af8\u6839\uff0c\u6545\u2f94\u8a00\u6bb5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u53e4\u8b6f\u7d93\u5f8b\u7686\u70ba\u6476\u98df\uff0c\u4ee5\u2f3f\u624b\u5718\u66f0\u6476\uff0c\u5f8c\u8b6f\u5fa9\u2f94\u8a00\u6f3f\u98f2\u7b49\u4e0d\u53ef\u6476\uff0c\u9042\u8b6f\u70ba\u6bb5\u98df\u3002\ufe12 2. Chushi (sensory food). \u2018Chu\u2019 is response [between facing entities], which refers to the several \u2018dusts\u2019 (sensory stimuli) such as form that correspond with the six consciousnesses. Softness, smoothness, coolness, warmth, etc., make contact [with the consciousnesses, i.e., senses and intellect], giving rise to joy and pleasure, which have the ability to nourish the several [sense] faculties. Thus it is called sensory food. [Annotation:] The six consciousnesses are that of the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind (Skt. cak\u1e63urvij\u00f1\u0101na, \u015brotravij\u00f1\u0101na, ghr\u0101\u1e47avij\u00f1\u0101na, jihv\u0101vij\u00f1\u0101na, k\u0101yavij\u00f1\u0101na, and manovij\u00f1\u0101na). The Fanyi mingyi ji explains [this]: To be attached to form is called \u2018food\u2019. How could this not be the meaning of sensory food? If we suppose that it is not sensory food, what [can we make of those who] watch plays and such all day long without eating and do not starve? \u300c\u2f06\u4e8c\u89f8\u98df\u300d\uff0c\u89f8\u5373\u5c0d\u4e5f\uff0c\u8b02\u516d\u8b58\u6240\u5c0d\u2f8a\u8272\u7b49\u8af8\u5875\u3002\ufe12\u67d4\u8f2d\u3001\ufe11\u7d30\u6ed1\u3001\ufe11\u51b7\u7156\u7b49\u89f8\uff0c\u2f7d\u800c\u2f63\u751f\u559c\u6a02\uff0c\u4ff1\u80fd\u8cc7\u76ca\u8af8\u6839\uff0c\u6545\u540d\u89f8\u98df\u3002\ufe12(\u516d\u8b58\u8005\uff0c\u773c\u8b58\u3001\ufe11\u2f7f\u8033\u8b58\u3001\ufe11\u2fd0\u9f3b\u8b58\u3001\ufe11\u2f86\u820c\u8b58\u3001\ufe11\u8eab\u8b58\u3001\ufe11\u610f\u8b58\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u6309\u7ffb\u8b6f\u540d\u7fa9\u8a3b\u91cb\u4e91\uff1a\u300c\u2f92\u898b\u2f8a\u8272\u611b\u8457\u540d\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u8c48\u975e\u89f8\u98df\u7fa9\u8036\ufe16\uff1f\u8a2d\u975e\u89f8\u98df\uff0c\u4f55\u4ee5\u89c0\u6232\u5287\u7b49\u7d42\u2f47\u65e5\u4e0d\u98df\u2f7d\u800c\u4e0d\u98e2\u4e5f\ufe16\uff1f\u300d)   182\t \u00a03. Sishi (thought food). \u2018Si\u2019 is thought, which refers to the sixth consciousness thinking of desirable circumstances, giving rise to thoughts of yearning and nourishing the several [sense] faculties. For example, when a starving and thirsting person arrives at a place with food and drink, has hope of attaining food and drink, and does not [suffer] death of the body. Thus it is called thought food. [Annotation:] The sixth consciousness is mental consciousness (Skt. manovij\u00f1\u0101na). \u300c\u4e09\u601d\u98df\u300d\uff0c\u601d\u5373\u610f\u601d\uff0c\u8b02\u7b2c\u516d\u8b58\u601d\u65bc\u53ef\u611b\u4e4b\u5883\uff0c\u2f63\u751f\u5e0c\u671b\u610f\uff0c\u2f7d\u800c\u80fd\u6f64\u76ca\u8af8\u6839\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u2f08\u4eba\u98e2\u6e34\uff0c\u81f3\u98f2\u98df\u8655\uff0c\u671b\u5f97\u98f2\u98df\u2f7d\u800c\u8eab\u4e0d\u6b7b\uff0c\u6545\u540d\u601d\u98df(\u7b2c\u516d\u8b58\u5373\u610f\u8b58\u4e5f)\u3002\ufe12 4. Shishi (consciousness food). \u2018Shi\u2019 takes \u2018appropriation\u2019 as its meaning and is the eighth consciousness. A portion of the force of the preceding three foods nourishes it, making this consciousness grow and appropriate (i.e., bind together) the several sense faculties. Thus it is called consciousness food. [Annotation:] The eighth consciousness is store consciousness (Skt. \u0101layavij\u00f1\u0101na, also rendered \u201cstore-house consciousness\u201d). The Fanyi mingyi ji explains: Regarding consciousness food, from the sentient beings of hell to the heaven of infinite consciousness in the formless realm, all [beings] use grasping to consciousness as their food. \u300c\u56db\u8b58\u98df\u300d\uff0c\u8b58\u4ee5\u57f7\u6301\u70ba\u7fa9\uff0c\u5373\u7b2c\u516b\u8b58\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u7531\u524d\u4e09\u98df\u52e2\u5206\u6240\u8cc7\uff0c\u80fd\u4ee4\u6b64\u8b58\u589e\u52dd\u57f7\u6301\u8af8\u6839\uff0c\u6545\u540d\u8b58\u98df(\u7b2c\u516b\u8b58\u5373\u85cf\u8b58\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u6309\u300e\u7ffb\u8b6f\u540d\u7fa9\u300f\u8a3b\u91cb\u4e91\uff1a\u300c\u8b58\u98df\uff0c\u5730\u7344\u773e\u2f63\u751f\u53ca\u7121\u2f8a\u8272\u754c\u4e2d\u7121\u908a\u8b58\u8655\u5929\u7b49\uff0c\u7686\u2f64\u7528\u8b58\u6301\u4ee5\u70ba\u5176\u98df)\u3002\ufe12339 This brief survey of Chinese Buddhist encyclopedias regarding the reception in Chinese Buddhist thought of Four Foods doctrine has shown a trend of adoption and dissemination. The doctrine remained of interest to Chinese Buddhist thinkers for the periods covered, sixth through fifteenth centuries.  While old sources of Four Foods doctrine translated from Indic texts would have remained available, newer Chinese sources such as Chengguan\u2019s subcommentary also \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0339 CBETA gives the Daming sanzang fashu discussion of Four Foods in the Northern Yongle Edition of the Canon, P181 n1615, juan 13, 872b02-873a03.\t \u00a0  183\t \u00a0served to spread the doctrine. The doctrine remains fairly consistent across these sources, though later sources de-emphasize the view, detailed in the Zhengfa nianchu jing, that each category of food can be associated with a particular type of rebirth, such as sensory or \u201ccontact\u201d food being associated with rebirth as an egg-born animal. Over time, Chinese appear to pay more attention to the notions couched in Yog\u0101c\u0101ra theory, which offer more constructive perspectives on the nature of human desires. It is often commented that the Chinese tend to be more pragmatic in their religious engagements, in contrast with the theoretical musings of Indian religion. The case of Four Foods doctrine appears to illustrate a case of gradual evolution of doctrine toward more practical ends.   4.4 Chapter conclusions   I began this chapter by posing the question of what \"food\" is in Chinese Buddhist thought and practice. If seeking to understand food and Buddhism, we must clarify how Buddhist authors define and discuss food.   In the Chinese Buddhist sources surveyed in this chapter\u2013\u2013a set of Buddhist encyclopedias spanning the sixth through fifteenth centuries\u2013\u2013\u2018food' is not only material foodstuffs (duanshi \u6bb5\u98df), but also several additional categories of things that nourish sentient beings. Buddhist doctrine posits Four Foods, which include (also) nourishment gained from sensation (chushi \u89f8\u98df), cognition (sishi \u601d\u98df), and consciousness (shishi \u8b58\u98df). Each of these four is connected with a notion of yearning or appetite, which can become deleterious if not properly managed.   This doctrinal position on food has profound implications for how Buddhists understand the nourishment and soteriology of the individual. For example, arguments for avoiding meat-eating do not emphasize sacred status for animal foods, but rather point to the attitudinal risks of eating meat\u2013\u2013it is likely to interfere with development of a compassionate attitude, the cornerstone of Buddhist notions of soteriology. Attitude and other intentional thought activities are considered moral actions with karmic   184\t \u00a0consequences and are thus a \u2018food\u2019 in their own right. Buddhist doctrine places greater emphasis on attitude than on specific acts, and cares less about the objects of consumption than the intentions behind their use. The doctrine of Four Foods helps justify this position by showing that individuals are also stimulated toward growth (or degeneration) through sensory and cognitive interaction with the world, and not just through the status of consumed material foods. Consciousness, the fourth food, serves to bind together perceptual awareness (i.e., awareness of smells, sights, sounds, etc.) into a unified mental state that also entails a yearning appetite and counts among the Four Foods.   My introduction to this chapter posed several questions associated with the doctrine of Four Foods in Chinese Buddhism. I will now return to each one for some brief discussion. One of these questions was whether the doctrine of Four Foods is to be understood as a metaphor or is to be taken literally. I think the most sensible way to answer this question is to affirm that the latter three foods of the set are metaphorical extensions based on the most familiar notion of food: material food. Nonetheless, Buddhist proponents of Four Foods doctrine do appear to convey that nourishment of sentient beings takes place on all four of these levels\u2013\u2013the factuality of an appetite and potential for nourishment is common to each of the four. Whether we see all four as true forms of nourishment or as analogies depends on one's linguistic and cultural perspective and is perhaps a moot point.  A second question is whether there is evidence that Chinese Buddhists interpreted the doctrine differently from what we read in early Indian sources. Based on a literature review of scholarship making use of Indian and Tibetan sources, as well as a survey of Chinese statements on Four Foods doctrine in Chinese Buddhist encyclopedias, I found that the doctrine has always been difficult enough to inspire creative interpretation throughout its history, but that Chinese interpretations of the doctrine do not appear to significantly change its nature. If any difference can be discerned, that would be a possible increase in the emphasis on the negative valence of the Four Foods, which because they are grounded in the appetites of worldly yearning hold potential for moral corruption. If not approached skillfully, each of these foods can   185\t \u00a0ensnare sentient beings in ignorance and greed, perpetuating cyclical rebirth and suffering.   The problem of valence was itself one of our questions. Some statements on the Four Foods sound matter-of-fact in tone: these are the things that sustain sentient beings in the human realm, the realm of desire. Numerous sources hint at the negative valence of the Four Foods by noting that only the realm of desire has material (\u201cmorsel\u201d) food, while the form and formless realms have only the other three. A vertical hierarchy is implied in the ordering of these three realms and in the heavens associated with the upper two realms, where (we are told) beings often take joy in meditation as their food.   At this point we might conclude that we are born into the circumstances, such as being human, that will determine how we eat. Still, not just the kind of being\u2013\u2013whether hell dweller, animal, human, or heavenly deva\u2013\u2013but also the actions and intentions (karma) of our previous lives determine to a large extent how we will eat. In the overview of food themes in Chapter Three, we saw already this emphasis on the role of karma in eating. This, then, is the basis for the hierarchy of foods. Karma is at play, especially, in thought food, the cognitive activity that shapes our intentions and projects our moral status into the future. And the clustering of our perceptual awareness into a unified sense of self is a realization of our past actions, the moment that our karmic careers break as waves on the shore of our awareness.   The negative valence of the Four Foods does suggest a potential bifurcation of eating into a symbolic system with a vertical hierarchy akin to the notion of the sacred and profane, but the Buddhist system is focused on the moral status of the beings in question, and not on dividing foods into those that are sacred or profane. Taboo, the pet concept of scholars of food and religion, has almost no role in the doctrine of Four Foods.340   The shift between profane and sacred, if there is one, is not made through treating something in the world as sacred, but rather by applying skill in neutralizing the \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0340 Except in the Shoulengyan jing, where a discussion of Four Foods doctrine very suddenly swings into a polemic against the eating of the five pungent vegetables, telling us that people who eat such stinky foods will lose the patronage of guiding deities, attract hungry ghosts, and perhaps even fall into hell. This   186\t \u00a0dangers inherent in the appetites associated with the Four Foods. Each of the Four Foods has positive potential to nourish something. Material food nourishes the body (and the brain contained therein). Sensory food nourishes the emotional mind, our sometimes-subconscious reactions to environmental stimulation. Cognitive food nourishes our attitudes and constitutes, as actions, our moral status (projecting our karmic careers). Consciousness food nourishes our perceptual awareness into patterns that coalesce into a sense of self. Though the materials surveyed in this chapter have not made explicit the dark side of the Four Foods, we can easily see how these appetites can swing out of balance and produce common vices: gluttony, hedonism, maleficence, and egoism. Skillfully engaged, the body and mind are nourished appropriately, giving expression to Buddhist virtues: equanimity, moderation, generosity, and humility in the awareness that the self is an aggregate of different perceptions. This view derived from Four Foods doctrine shows remarkable agreement with the major themes culled, in Chapter Three, from Yichu\u2019s section on the topic of food.   This brings us to the final question that I posed at the beginning: whether nourishment from the joy in meditation is to be understood as part of the food of consciousness or as a separate kind of nourishment. The answer is that traditionally it is separate. From the overview of Four Foods doctrine in the Fayuan zhulin, we read that the Zengyi ahan jing proposes to place the Four Foods, which are foods of the human realm (renjianshi \u2f08\u4eba\u9593\u98df), alongside and in opposition to another set of foods: foods for exiting the human realm (churenjianshi \u51fa\u2f08\u4eba\u9593\u98df). This set of five foods has one term in common (thought food), but the others are distinct: foods of meditation, vows, joy, and of the eight emancipations. Buddhist practitioners are entreated to shift increasingly toward nourishment gained from this latter world-transcending set.   In conclusion, the doctrine of Four Foods in the Buddhist teachings encountered in this chapter have no immediate relevance to devotion to a deity, so sacrality and profanity have no basis here for associative mapping onto foods and into patterns of taboo. This is not to say that Chinese Buddhists did not adopt or invent taboos\u2013\u2013they \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0polemic feels out of place with other discussions of Four Foods doctrine, supporting the notion that the Shoulengyan jing departs from the traditional literature and is likely apocryphal.\t \u00a0  187\t \u00a0did. What I mean here is that the interest Chinese Buddhist authors showed for the Yog\u0101c\u0101ra doctrine of Four Foods allowed them to place notions of food and eating into a psychological frame, rather than into an arbitrary symbolic system.341 The emphasis then falls on food as a mode of nourishment, rather than a source of pollution. Like other religions, eating is viewed as a potential source of moral pollution, but the solution is not ritual management (in this doctrinal view). At least at a theoretical level, this Buddhist doctrine espouses an engagement with food that neutralizes the dangers of appetite by offering skillful responses to their push and pull. These skillful responses include a set of alternative \u2018foods\u2019 posited as superior, in that through their consumption world-transcendence is more readily achieved. Does this not sound like bifurcation into sacred and profane? It is not, because in the Buddhist metaphor is not one of separation (in profanity) and return (to sacrality), but rather of gradual perfection of being through skilled cultivation of good dharmas over many lifetimes, until one finally achieves full awakening. This is a significant difference.   \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0341 This psychological frame is, of course, a particular understanding of human psychology that is colored by Buddhist doctrinal understandings. I do not mean to say that Buddhist and modern-day psychology should be equated, but only wish to point to some points of affinity.\t \u00a0  188\t \u00a05. The Celebration of Porridge \u7ca5 in East Asian Buddhism  5.1 Chapter introduction  In the last chapter, I discussed how Buddhist teachings suggest a negative valence for the Four Foods of the k\u0101ma-dhatu, the realm of desire, because these four types of food all have a basis in desirous appetites.342 To mitigate the inherent troubles associated with desire for these four foods, each must be skillfully managed. Bringing the focus back to tangible material food (tuanshi\/duanshi), I ask in this chapter whether Chinese Buddhist sources make any positive statements about this category of food. They do. I investigate below an instance of celebration for a particular food (porridge), and discuss its implications for how we understand Chinese Buddhist attitudes toward food and eating.   Defining porridge and framing the problem  In Chinese Buddhism, no food other than porridge \u7ca5 has the same historical depth and centrality in Buddhist literature. Porridge is the poster child of Buddhist discourse on food. By \u201cporridge\u201d I mean here the broader sense of the word, derived from \u201cpottage:\u201d a semi-liquid mush obtained by boiling grain (and sometimes legumes or other additions) in water or another liquid. \u201cCongee\u201d might also be an appropriate rendering in English, albeit less familiar to a general readership.343 In its basic form, porridge is just a common food, a starchy staple without much distinction, though it can \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0342 This negative view of food was appended in one source with a supposedly untainted set of five additional \u2018world-transcending\u2019 foods, which include meditation and joyfulness.\t \u00a0343 Several terms are used for similar foods in Chinese, but the most common is zhou \u7ca5. All these terms, Chinese and English, are loosely applied to what amounts to a fuzzy category lacking clear definition. Porridge, as I understand it here, is a soupy liquid thickened by the starches of a grain (cereal). It may be thick or thin, may have other ingredients added or be plain, and may or may not contain salt. In contemporary China, it is usually prepared plain and unsalted from rice, millet, or other grain and served with various flavorful condiments. For related English terms, see Davidson and Jaine, Oxford Companion to Food, 210, 625, 630.\t \u00a0  189\t \u00a0be made fancy with the addition of savory or sweet ingredients. Easy to make, easy to digest, it is a food of the poor and the sick\u2013\u2013and a favored food of Buddhists.  The Buddhist celebration of porridge is connected to the narrative of the Buddha\u2019s final awakening under a pipal tree at Bodhgaya, where he is said to have accepted an offering of milk porridge from a young female villager named Suj\u0101t\u0101. Yichu cites the story of Suj\u0101t\u0101\u2019s gift under the topic of food \u98df in his Shishi liutie, where it appears embellished with auspicious signs:  [53] The Buddha eats milk porridge. The Benxing jing344 says, The Buddha's six years [of ascetic practices] completed, upon the arrival of spring in the second month and on the sixteenth day he thought to himself, \u201cI need good food. After eating345 I will attain the fruit of awakening.\u201d At the time there was a low-level god who informed the favorably-born second daughter of the village head, ordering her to make delicious food. The girl then took milk from a thousand cows, mixing it together. When she took milk and simmered porridge, the milk porridge manifested a sign, leaping out of the pot by several chi, giving the appearance of ten thousand words\u2013\u2013virtuous words. She offered it to him in a golden alms bowl; the Buddha ate and attained completion of the Way. \u4f5b\u98df\u4e73\u7cdc\u300e\u672c\u2f8f\u884c\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u4f5b\u516d\u5e74\u65e2\u6eff\uff0c\u81f3\u6625\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f49\u6708\u2f17\u5341\u516d\u2f47\u65e5\u6642\uff0c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u2f83\u81ea\u601d\u60df\u300c\u6211\u9808\u597d\u98df\uff0c\u98df\u5df3\u2f7d\u800c\u8b49\u4f5b\u679c\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u6642\u6709\u5929\u2f26\u5b50\uff0c\u544a\u5584\u2f63\u751f\u6751\u4e3b\u2f06\u4e8c\u5973\uff0c\u4ee4\u4f5c\u7f8e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5973\u4e43\u53d6\u5343\u2f5c\u725b\u4e73\uff0c\u4e92\u98f2\u3002\ufe12\u53d6\u4e73\u716e\u7cdc\u6642\uff0c\u4e73\u7cdc\u73fe\u76f8\uff0c\u8e0a\u51fa\u2fbc\u9ad8\u6578\u5c3a\uff0c\u73fe\u842c\u5b57\u5fb7\u5b57\u76f8\u3002\ufe12\u2fa6\u91d1\u9262\u737b\u4e4b\uff0c\u4f5b\u98df\u6210\u9053\u77e3\u3002\ufe12 Often embellished with other miraculous occurrences, this story has multiple versions,346 some ascribing the gift of porridge not to Suj\u0101t\u0101 but to two sisters, Nand\u0101 and Nandabal\u0101. Setting aside questions about the historicity of the story or its miracles, we can understand the tellers of these tales to be using miraculous signs to mark these events as having profound importance. As John Strong observes, the offering of milk porridge marks the beginning of the process by which the Buddha achieves his \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0344 For this episode see the Fo benxingji jing T3 n190 771b02-772b16.\t \u00a0345 Reading \u5df3 as \u5df2.\t \u00a0346 Compare, for example, Mitchell, Buddha, 39-40, and Strong, Experience of Buddhism, 20-21.\t \u00a0  190\t \u00a0awakening. The richly condensed milk porridge is supposed to be an especially nutritious meal that will sustain him for the following forty-nine days, a liminal period in which he takes no more food as he transitions from a truth-seeker to a buddha, one who is fully awakened.347 Having abandoned aristocratic luxury to practice austerities as a mendicant, the Buddha-to-be takes this meal in abandonment, in turn, of asceticism, which he recognizes as a failed approach to the release of suffering. The meal of milk porridge thus represents the beginnings of the Buddha\u2019s Middle Way, a moderate discipline that rejects the extremities of hedonism and asceticism.348  This narrative of the Buddha\u2019s awakening frames the specialness of porridge in the context of history. Buddhists in different parts of the world continue to make a special meal of porridge to commemorate the Buddha\u2019s final awakening.349 This suggests some parallels between Buddhist porridge and the bread of the Christian Eucharist, but porridge is not as clearly demarcated by sacred status350. Buddhist discourse on porridge does not declare it to be the body of the Buddha and its commonality did not allow Buddhists to readily construct a cultural identity around the eating of porridge; they could have no monopoly on this ancient and ubiquitous food. History\u2013\u2013or legend\u2013\u2013clearly contributes much to the Buddhist celebration of porridge, but Chinese Buddhists appear to have adopted it also on the basis of its own virtues.  We cannot draw a clean line here between a doctrinal religious knowledge and empirical forms of knowledge. This is exactly what a social constructivist framing of the specialness of food in religion tends to do: it shows how food in religion becomes a tool for constructing social identities by coordinating points in a symbolic system,351 but it stops short of accepting religious knowledge as encompassing empirical knowledge of the world. If Buddhists treat porridge as special merely for its historical role in the \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0347 Strong, Buddha, 69.\t \u00a0348 Mitchell (Donald), Buddhism, 17.\t \u00a0349 For one example, see Strong, Buddha, 69. Later in the chapter I will discuss Chinese and Japanese examples.\t \u00a0350 In drawing a comparison between the bread of the Christian Eucharist and Buddhist porridge, we have to differentiate between a ritual or symbolic context and an ordinary context. Bread was a common food in Biblical times, just as porridge was a common food in India and China. Nonetheless, parallels between the two break down on close scrutiny, because Buddhist statements on porridge show more interest in its inherent qualities and only some interest in its symbolic meaning within Buddhist lore. I do not intend to work out details of the comparison here, but merely provide it as a conceptual point of reference for understanding the significance of porridge in the Buddhist context.\t \u00a0351 Cf. Durkheim, Elementary Forms of Religious Life, 36, 40, 46; Douglas, Purity and Danger, 2-3.\t \u00a0  191\t \u00a0narrative of the Buddha\u2019s awakening, then the choice of porridge is indeed arbitrary and is little more than a cultural detail. This is the view that appears to hold sway in academia today. I find reason to question this view. I will argue that Buddhists thinkers grounded their celebration of porridge not just in the historical narrative, but in a working knowledge of porridge as food. The Buddhist celebration of porridge is no accident of religious history. I would like to suggest that the nature of discussions of porridge in Buddhist contexts provides evidence that Buddhist knowledge encompasses forms of knowledge associated with empirical observation of physiological, medical, and nutritional concerns. There is no clear line drawn in Buddhism between properly religious and non-religious knowledge.    5.2 Porridge in Buddhist mealtime liturgy  There is no shortage of evidence that porridge was and is important in the history of Buddhism. In August of 2013 I had the opportunity to share meals with the monastic community at Lingyin si \u7075\u9690\u5bfa (\u9748\u96b1\u5bfa) in Hangzhou, a well-known Chan Buddhist monastery. The mealtime liturgy that the community chanted on mornings when porridge was served (which was frequent) included a special line for the occasion: \u201cPorridge has ten benefits. It profits those on the path (i.e., Buddhist practitioners). Its fruits of karmic return352 are without limit, [leading] ultimately to permanent bliss. \u7ca5\u6709\u2f17\u5341\u5229\uff0c\u9952\u76ca\u2f8f\u884c\u2f08\u4eba\u3002\ufe12\u679c\u5831\u7121\u908a\uff0c\u7a76\u7adf\u5e38\u6a02\u3002\ufe12\u201d353  This strong praise for porridge is not raising up porridge as sacred, saying that it is a holy food only permitted in such and such an occasion. Rather, the praise posits benefits from porridge and suggests that it is especially good for practitioners of the Buddhist path, helping to lead them to better karmic returns and finally to the bliss of nirvana. The ten benefits are not here spelled out, but I will show in a moment that at least a \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0352 \u201cRetribution\u201d has a negative connotation\u2013\u2013the nuance here should be neutral.\t \u00a0353 Lingyin si, Fojiao niansong ji, 114.\t \u00a0  192\t \u00a0portion of them reference physiological processes. The praise for porridge, then, contains both doctrinal and practical elements.  The doctrinal elements suggest that porridge is a good tool for practitioners to orient themselves toward Buddhism\u2019s ultimate aim, which is awakening to the bliss of nirvana. Porridge helps practitioners skillfully walk the Buddhist path, the law of moral causation leading them out of unfavorable circumstances. As we shall see, porridge came to be associated in Chinese Buddhism with positive moral activities: cultivating greater and greater levels of compassion, wisdom, and other Buddhist virtues, while helping other sentient beings to do similarly.  What, then, are the benefits of porridge? The \u2018ten benefits of porridge\u2019 \u7ca5\u6709\u2f17\u5341\u5229 is a common formula in Chinese Buddhism and in the Buddhism from other East Asian regions that borrowed from Chinese models. This customary formula appears in Yichu\u2019s Buddhist encyclopedia, so let us next look at it there.    5.3 The ten benefits of porridge in the Shishi liutie  In Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie porridge is the third topic of his section on food, coming after alcohol \u9152 and food \u98df, but before rice \u98f0, soup \u7fb9, and wheat-flour products \u9905, among others. This prominent position is likely significant, showing a heightened status for porridge. Yichu\u2019s citations on porridge exhibit at least three major themes: an emphasis on the practical benefits of porridge, a tradition of giving porridge to the sa\u1e43gha, and the notion that porridge is an ancient and respectable food.  I will take up first the practical benefits of porridge, which Yichu presents through the formula just mentioned: Porridge has ten benefits. The Sifenl\u00fc says, Giving porridge to the sa\u1e43gha secures ten beneficial merits: (1) [healthful] appearance, (2) strength, (3) longevity, (4) joy, (5) eloquence, (6) removal of indigested foods and (7) of wind [pathologies], (8) [elimination of] hunger and (9) of thirst, and (10)   193\t \u00a0[benefits to] digestion.354 \u7ca5\u6709\u2f17\u5341\u5229\u300e\u56db\u5206\u5f8b\u300f\u4e91: \u65bd\u7ca5\u8207\u50e7, \u4ff1\u5f97\u2f17\u5341\u5229\u529f\u5fb3: \u2f8a\u8272\u3001\ufe11\u2f12\u529b\u3001\ufe11\u58fd\u3001\ufe11\u6a02\u3001\ufe11\u8fad355\u6e05\u8faf\u3001\ufe11\u5bbf\u98df\u98a8\u9664\u3001\ufe11[\u9664]\u98e2\u6e07\u3001\ufe11\u6d88. According to Yichu\u2019s citation, the benefits are obtained through karmic recompense, rather than directly through physiological action, yet the benefits appear to have been conceived as a listing of positive health outcomes noted by those with experience in eating porridge. His next entry on porridge suggests that vinaya literature recognized physiological benefits as directly associated with the eating of porridge:  There are eight types of porridge. The Shisong lists [these]: 1) butter, 2) oil, 3) sesame, 4) milk, 5) small bean, 6) ground [bean] powder, 7) hemp seed, and 8) plain porridge. [These] can have five benefits: Elimination of hunger and thirst, calming (of temper or excitement), removal of chill, and [good] digestion of food. \u7ca5\u6709\u516b\u7a2e\u300e\u2f17\u5341\u8aa6\u300f\u4e91: \u2f00\u4e00\u8607\u3001\ufe11\u2f06\u4e8c\u6cb9\u3001\ufe11\u4e09\u80e1\u9ebb\u3001\ufe11\u56db\u4e73\u3001\ufe11\u4e94\u2f29\u5c0f\u2f96\u8c46\u3001\ufe11\u516d\u78e8\u6c99\u3001\ufe11\u4e03\u9ebb\u2f26\u5b50\u3001\ufe11\u516b\u6e05\u7ca5. \u80fd\u6709\u4e94\u76ca: \u9664\u98e2\u6e07, \u4e0b\u6c23, \u5374\u51b7, \u6d88\u98df.356   5.3.1 Benefits of porridge and the question of causation  The ten benefits of porridge may have begun as a list of five. The Pali canon contains a short statement on the benefits of porridge, the Y\u0101gu-sutta, in the Anguttara-Nik\u0101ya. As translated for the Pali Text Society by E. M. Hare, the statement reads, \u2018Monks, there are these five advantages from gruel. What five?  It checks hunger, keeps off thirst, regulates wind, cleanses the bladder, and digests raw remnants of food. Verily, monks, these are the five advantages of gruel.\u2019357 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0354 See Furuyama, \u201c\u2018Shukuy\u016bj\u016bri\u2019k\u014d,\u201d for a strong case in favor of the reading given here. A more logical placement of breaks, suggested in the Shishi yaolan, would divide ciqingbian into two terms and place xiao as part of jike, but Furuyama shows that such a reading is not in accord with Pali  sources. Nonetheless, we might ask whether the \u2018correct\u2019 reading is the one that accords best with early sources, or the one that most Chinese adopted as standard. Since Yichu did not supply punctuation or otherwise comment, we cannot know his preference for where to place the breaks.\t \u00a0355 Variant \u53f0+\u2f9f\u8f9b.\t \u00a0356 This content cited by Yichu can be found in the Shisong l\u00fc: T23 n1435, 188c14-21.\t \u00a0357 Hare, Book of the Gradual Sayings, p.183. Translation of the Y\u0101gu sutta is in v.3 of the Pali Text Society\u2019s complete translation of the A\u1e45guttara Nik\u0101ya. It is contained in the Book of Fives, chapter 21 \"Kimbila,\u201d topic #7 (#207 in the cumulative count for the Book of Fives).\t \u00a0  194\t \u00a0This list of advantages has close parallels with Yichu\u2019s list from the Shisong l\u00fc of five benefits, above, suggesting that Chinese Buddhist literature absorbed from Indic sources the notion of five physiological benefits, even if no \u2018porridge s\u016btra\u2019 (\u7ca5\u7d93) can be found translating the Pali statement word for word. The third and fourth terms from Hare\u2019s translation do not closely match the Chinese in Yichu\u2019s list, producing a discrepancy of interpretation. I will not take time here to investigate this discrepancy, but we should note that the notion of five benefits from eating porridge likely fed into the historical development of the formula of ten benefits. My immediate concern here is understanding why the benefits are sometimes associated with the giving of porridge and sometimes with its consumption. Both the Shisongl\u00fc and the Y\u0101gu-sutta list material (physiological) benefits, which is significant. If only karmic benefits were recognized, then the specialness of porridge would have to rest on a purely symbolic (doctrinal) foundation. FURUYAMA Ken\u2019itsu has published a detailed study on the \u2018ten benefits of porridge\u2019, taking as his point of departure S\u014dt\u014d-school founder D\u014dgen\u2019s (1200-1253) interpretation of the list, which, due to the lack of punctuation in literary-Chinese texts, retained an element of ambiguity regarding how to divide the ten terms. Furuyama\u2019s purpose is to clarify the parsing issue, but in the course of his study he cites passages in which porridge is understood as benefiting the eater, rather than the donor. While my purpose here diverges from his, his literature review can help us gauge the prevalence of karmic and physiological interpretations. For example, he cites Changlu Zongze\u2019s \u9577\u8606\u5b97\u8cfe (d. ca. 1107) influential set of monastic codes, the Chanyuan qinggui, which adds to the mealtime liturgy for porridge (cited above) another phrase: \u201cPorridge is great medicine, capable of removing hunger and thirst, causing [people] to reap morality (Skt. \u015b\u012bla) and together obtain the highest path\u2026\u7ca5\u662f\u2f24\u5927\u826f\u85e5, \u80fd\u6d88\u98e2\u6e34, \u65bd\u53d7\u7372\u6e05\u51c9, \u5171\u6210\u7121\u4e0a\u9053.\u201d358 Zongze thus gives porridge status as medicine, with benefits going to its eaters (understood here as members of the sa\u1e43gha).  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0358 Furuyama, \u201c\u2018Shukuy\u016b j\u016bri\u2019 k\u014d.\u201d 167.\t \u00a0  195\t \u00a0Zongze\u2019s monastic codes represent one of the earlier adaptations of the vinaya teachings to local Chinese conditions, yet in these Northern-Song codes arrive on the scene only after many centuries of Chinese Buddhism. We have to look earlier if we hope to understand what sources may have influenced Chinese Buddhist statements on porridge. A useful early source is the Mohe sengqi l\u00fc \u6469\u8a36\u50e7\u7947\u5f8b (Skt. Mah\u0101s\u0101\u1e43ghika vinaya, monastic codes of the Mah\u0101s\u0101\u1e43ghika school of Buddhism), translated to Chinese during the Eastern Jin dynasty (317-420): \u2026At that time the World-Honored One spoke a verse of invocation: \u201cReceived in two hands by pure people upholding the precepts, respectfully according with the time for porridge to be given; ten benefits profit those on the path: [healthful] appearance, strength, longevity, joy, eloquence, removal of indigested foods and of wind [pathologies], [elimination of] hunger and of thirst, and [benefits to] digestion359. These names are what was spoken by the Medicine Buddha (Skt. Bhai\u1e63ajyaguru). If wanting to be born in the human heavens and obtain everlasting joy, then one should give porridge to the sa\u1e43gha. \u2026\u723e\u6642\u4e16\u5c0a\u8aaa\u5048\u546a\u9858 \u201c\u6301\u6212\u6e05\u6de8\u2f08\u4eba\u6240\u5949, \u606d\u656c\u96a8\u6642\u4ee5\u7ca5\u65bd, \u2f17\u5341\u5229\u9952\u76ca\u65bc\u2f8f\u884c\u8005: \u2f8a\u8272\u2f12\u529b\u58fd\u6a02\u8fad\u6e05\u8faf, \u5bbf\u98df\u98a8\u9664\u98e2\u6e34\u6d88, \u662f\u540d\u7232\u85e5\u4f5b\u6240\u8aaa, \u6b32\u2f63\u751f\u2f08\u4eba\u5929\u5e38\u53d7\u6a02, \u61c9\u7576\u4ee5\u7ca5\u65bd\u8846\u50e7.\u201d360  This passage states that the ten benefits profit practitioners who receive porridge.  Nonetheless, to say that Yichu\u2019s citation on the ten benefits of porridge mistakes karmic and physiological causality would be overly hasty, since the passage from the Mah\u0101s\u0101\u1e43ghika vinaya also indicates a reciprocity of benefit associated with the gift of porridge: the donor gains merit from the gift and may be born in heavens of everlasting joy. Two forms of causality are at play here: material and karmic. Yichu\u2019s conflation of the two seems like a corruption, but there is still another explanation.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0359 Following Furuyama, \u201c\u2018Shukuy\u016bj\u016bri\u2019k\u014d.\u201d I have chosen not to add full punctuation to the verse, because the breaks remain an issue worthy of debate. I do not want to distract from my purpose here, which is to investigate whether sources connect physiological benefit with the eating of porridge.\t \u00a0360 T22 n1425, 462c19-24.\t \u00a0  196\t \u00a0Let\u2019s return to Furuyama, who in order to investigate the problem of how to parse porridge\u2019s ten benefits consults a Pali edition of monastic codes, Mah\u0101vagga-p\u0101\u1e37i, and provides a translation into Japanese, which I render here in English:361 \u201c\u2026Oh, Brahmans, these ten are the benefits of porridge. What are the ten? One who gives porridge gives long life; gives [good] appearance; gives ease; gives strength; and gives eloquence. One who drinks porridge avoids starvation, removes thirst, adjusts the bodily winds, purifies the lower gut, and ripens (i.e., digests) any raw remaining [foods that sit undigested in the gut]. One who respectfully gives porridge according to the [proper] time to those who out of self-control eat what is given by others (i.e., one who feeds porridge to worldly renunciants) gives the basis for [all] ten. Long life, [good] appearance, ease, and strength\u2013\u2013from these, to this person eloquence arises, hunger and thirst are removed, bodily winds [are adjusted], the lower gut is purified, and food is ripened (digested). This is the medicine praised by Sugata (the Buddha). Accordingly, if people seek ease, they should regularly give gifts of porridge\u2026\u201d362  If Furuyama\u2019s Japanese translation from Pali is accurate, the source represents the causality of the ten benefits as simultaneously material and karmic. An initial set of five benefits is associated with giving\u2013\u2013this is karmic causality. Then a second set of five benefits is associated with the drinking of porridge\u2013\u2013this is physiological causality. But then the two lists of five are brought together into a list of ten based on the logic of moral causation. Doctrinally, to give a material benefit is to set up oneself for a karmic return in kind, thus the person who gives porridge \u201cgives the basis for all ten.\u201d To give porridge to others is to obtain physiological benefits through the action of karma, the law of moral causation. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0361 I am not qualified to translate from the Pali , but those who are may see the next note.\t \u00a0362 I provide here the relevant Pali  text, as cited by Furuyama (172), in case a reader wishes to check my English translation against the original: \u201c\u2026dasayime, br\u0101hma\u1e47a, \u0101nisa\u1e43s\u0101 yaguy\u0101. katame dasa, y\u0101gu\u1e43 dento \u0101yu\u1e43 deti, va\u1e47\u1e47a\u1e43 deti, sukha\u1e43 deti, bala\u1e43 deti, pa\u1e6dibh\u0101na\u1e43 deti, y\u0101gu p\u012bt\u0101 khudda\u1e43 pa\u1e6dihanati, pip\u0101sa\u1e43 vineti, v\u0101ta\u1e43 anulometi, vatthi\u1e43 sodheti, \u0101m\u0101vasesa\u1e43 p\u0101ceti. ime kho, br\u0101hma\u1e47a, das\u0101nisa\u1e43s\u0101 y\u0101guy\u0101ti. \/ yo sa\u00f1\u00f1at\u0101na\u1e43 paradattabhojina\u1e43, k\u0101lena sakkacca dad\u0101ti y\u0101gu\u1e43. \/ dasassa \u1e6dh\u0101n\u0101ni anuppavecchati, \u0101yu\u00f1ca va\u1e47\u1e47a\u00f1ca sukha\u1e43 bala\u00f1ca. \/ pa\u1e6dibh\u0101namassa upaj\u0101yate tato, khudda\u1e43 pip\u0101sa\u00f1ca byapaneti v\u0101ta\u1e43. \/ sodheti vatthi\u1e43 pari\u1e47\u0101meti bhatta\u1e43, bhesajjameta\u1e43 sugatena va\u1e47\u1e47ita\u1e43. \/ tasm\u0101 y\u0101gu\u1e43 alameva d\u0101tu\u1e43, nicca\u1e43 manussena sukhatthikena. \u2026\u201d Furuyama cites as source the Mah\u0101vagga-p\u0101\u1e37i, 6th collected edition from Myanmar, pp.315-316.\t \u00a0  197\t \u00a0That porridge is here invested with physiological benefits is further emphasized by its status as medicine. To call porridge a medicine raises it above the status of basic food, tainted by the desires of appetite, to a special level of efficacy. Medicinal food not only satisfies appetites, but it heals problems in the body. Medicine is a necessity, in contrast with food\u2019s potential of indulgent use\u2013\u2013the two are distinguished by need versus want. The trope of medicine is widespread in Buddhist writings363 and serves here to confer a positive valence to porridge.  A last observation on this Pali passage is that the intended audience appears to be the elite members of society who were in a position to patronize Buddhist renunciants. The passage addresses the brahmin (\u201cbr\u0101hma\u1e47a\u201d) varna, the priestly class of Indian society. This is significant for understanding the use of the doctrine of karma as a way to extend the benefits of porridge from the eaters to the donors. Rather than simply asking donors to give porridge to the sa\u1e43gha, Buddhist authors sent out a doctrinally reasoned statement: \u201cBy benefiting us with porridge, you are benefitting yourselves.\u201d This is a much more sophisticated way to encourage the giving of porridge. Because Indian Buddhism was a religion of renunciation that relied on elite patrons for the feeding of the sa\u1e43gha, the Buddhist community could not directly act on food preferences. I believe that this social dynamic explains why some Buddhist authors do not directly list the benefits of porridge in strictly material terms.   5.3.2 The Wufubao jing and moral causation  This strategy of encouraging the giving of food to the sa\u1e43gha by emphasizing karmic returns for donors is not limited to porridge. In the Chinese Buddhist canon, the logic of this position is detailed in a short sutra called the Foshuo shishi huo wufubao jing \u4f5b\u8aaa\u98df\u65bd\u7372\u4e94\u798f\u5831\u7d93 (Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on the Five Blessings Reaped \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0363 Salguero, Translating Buddhist Medicine in Medieval China, 1-2, 12, 67-95.\t \u00a0  198\t \u00a0from the Bestowal of Food, hereafter \u201cWufubao jing\u201d)364. Under the topic of food \u98df, Yichu cites this sutra (and the Abhidharma Storehouse Treatise) as sources for the notion that five blessings are associated with food: [31] Food furnishes the five blessings. The Wufu jing records [the following]: Obtain a marvelous and strong appearance, prosperity, joy, long life, [and] eloquence. The Jushe [lun 365] also says, Obtain a marvelous appearance, reputation, people\u2019s admiration, a soft and flexible body, and be at all times in comfort (sukha-sa\u1e43spar\u015ba). \u98df\u65bd\u4e94\u798f\u300e\u4e94\u798f\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u5f97\u5999\u5f37\u2f8a\u8272\u3001\ufe11\u51a8\u3001\ufe11\u6a02\u3001\ufe11\u58fd\u547d\u3001\ufe11\u8a5e\u8faf\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u300e\u4ff1\u820e\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u5f97\u5999\u2f8a\u8272\u3001\ufe11\u597d\u540d\u3001\ufe11\u8846\u611b\u3001\ufe11\u67d4\u8edf\u8eab\u3001\ufe11\u6709\u96a8366\u6642\u6a02\u89f8\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12  The five blessings from the Wufubao jing match five of the ten benefits of porridge, suggesting doctrinal overlap.  Yichu does not clarify whether these blessings are obtained physiologically or through karmic causation, but the Wufubao jing speaks of these two modes of causation as intimately connected and places greater emphasis on moral causation. This relationship becomes clear only when the opening to the sutra and the discussion of individual blessings are considered together\u2013\u2013below I include up to discussion of the first blessing367, to illustrate integration of the two modes of moral causality in the giving of food: Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was at [the park] Jetavana An\u0101thapi\u1e47\u1e0dada-\u0101r\u0101ma in \u015ar\u0101vast\u012b. The Buddha addressed the monks, \u201cWhen \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0364 This is T2 n132, 854c05-855a11. Two editions have been entered into the Chinese canon, both coming from the Records of the Eastern Jin \u6771\u6649\u9304. I am using the first: 132A. The name of the translator has been lost. See my appendix for a full translation of 132A.\t \u00a0365 From verse in the Apidamo jushelun T29 n1558, 96b01-2:    \u8ca1\u7570\u7531\u2f8a\u8272\u7b49 \u5f97\u5999\u2f8a\u8272\u597d\u540d         \u8846\u611b\u67d4\u8edf\u8eab \u6709\u96a8\u6642\u6a02\u89f8 (This is in a discussion that appears to use theory of karma to address how differences in wealth and whatnot arise. I cannot yet tell if Yichu was justified in interpreting these as benefits accruing to people who give food offerings to the sa\u1e43gha. See Cited by Yichu folder.)\t \u00a0366 The character is cramped down against bottom border line and unclear. FCJ edition gives \u96a8, which seems probable.\t \u00a0367 See Appendix 6 for my full translation of the Wufubao jing.\t \u00a0  199\t \u00a0you know to eat in moderation, you can receive [food] without harm.\u201d The Buddha said, \u201cWhen people take rice food and offer it to [other] people, there are five advantageous virtues that make (help) people attain the Way. If the wise settle into a broadminded view, then they will reap the five blessings. What are the five? One is the bestowal of life; two is the bestowal of [good] appearance; three is the bestowal of strength; four is the bestowal of ease; and five is the bestowal of wit.\u201d \u805e\u5982\u662f\uff1a \u2f00\u4e00\u6642\uff0c\u4f5b\u5728\u820d\u885b\u570b\u7947\u6a39\u7d66\u5b64\u7368\u5712\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u544a\u8af8\u6bd4\u4e18\uff1a\u300c\u7576\u77e5\u98df\u4ee5\u7bc0\u5ea6\uff0c\u53d7\u2f7d\u800c\u4e0d\u640d\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u4f5b\u2f94\u8a00\uff1a\u300c\u2f08\u4eba\u6301\u98ef\u98df\u65bd\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u6709\u4e94\u798f\u5fb7\uff0c\u4ee4\u2f08\u4eba\u5f97\u9053\uff0c\u667a\u8005\u6d88\u606f\uff0c\u610f\u5ea6\u5f18\u5ed3\uff0c\u5247\u7372\u4e94\u798f\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u7b49\u70ba\u4e94\ufe16\uff1f\u2f00\u4e00\u66f0\u65bd\u547d\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u66f0\u65bd\u2f8a\u8272\uff0c\u4e09\u66f0\u65bd\u2f12\u529b\uff0c\u56db\u66f0\u65bd\u5b89\uff0c\u4e94\u66f0\u65bd\u8faf\u3002\ufe12  \u201cWhat is meant by the bestowal of life? When people do not obtain food, their facial complexion is wan and sallow and [their vitality] cannot be vividly manifested. Before the passage of seven days their lives abruptly end. Because of this, the wise do a bestowal of food, this bestowal of food in turn bestowing life. This bestowal of life [allows them], in life after life, good longevity and birth into heavens or human society (i.e., favorable birth); their lifespan extends, they do not suffer early death, they naturally receive advantageous rewards, and their riches are without measure. This is the \u2018bestowal of life.\u2019\u201d \u300c\u4f55\u8b02\u65bd\u547d\ufe16\uff1f\u2f08\u4eba\u4e0d\u5f97\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u984f\u2f8a\u8272\u71cb\u60b4\uff0c\u4e0d\u53ef\u986f\u2f70\u793a\uff0c\u4e0d\u904e\u4e03\u2f47\u65e5\uff0c\u5944\u5ffd\u58fd\u7d42\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u6545\uff0c\u667a\u8005\u5247\u70ba\u65bd\u98df\uff0c\u5176\u65bd\u98df\u8005\u5247\u70ba\u65bd\u547d\ufe14\uff1b\u5176\u65bd\u547d\u8005\uff0c\u4e16\u4e16\u9577\u58fd\uff0c\u2f63\u751f\u5929\u4e16\u9593\ufe14\uff1b\u58fd\u547d\u5ef6\u9577\uff0c\u2f7d\u800c\u4e0d\u592d\u50b7\uff0c\u2f83\u81ea\u7136\u798f\u5831\uff0c\u8ca1\u5bcc\u7121\u91cf\uff0c\u662f\u70ba\u65bd\u547d\u3002\ufe12 Discussion of the latter four blessings follows a similar pattern, wherein the physiological benefits of food are recognized, but moral causation is proposed as the more desirable point of intervention. The wise bestow food to others in order to bestow the five blessings, that they may experience a benefit in kind, if not in this life, at least in lives to come. This long view of the transmigration of beings from life to life is the greater concern in Buddhism, so there should be no surprise that moral causation   200\t \u00a0receives here greater emphasis than physiological benefit. Nonetheless, we must note that without the observation of physiological benefit, all discussion of the blessings obtained from giving food would be illogical. Belief in the physiological benefits of food is a necessary condition for the doctrine of the five blessings obtained from food donations. To summarize, it seems the list of ten benefits from porridge resulted from the amalgamation of two traditions. The list of five blessings such as we see in the Wufubao jing was understood as karmic recompense for food donations to the sa\u1e43gha, in contrast with the list of direct physiological benefits contained in the Y\u0101gu-sutta. Because porridge was closely associated with food donation, the two lists were brought together to form a list of ten benefits, creating ambiguity on the question of causality.  5.3.3 Chinese Buddhist institutions and food donations  Returning to Yichu\u2019s Chinese context, we should note that Buddhists came to rely on communal meals in monastic mess halls, and that the begging practices of Indian Buddhism (as a religion of renunciation) never took hold.368 Because donated foods could be stored in monastic kitchens until needed, Chinese Buddhists had more control over their diet and had less need to appeal to their patrons for gifts of preferred foods, such as porridge. They could make their own porridge from the grain they received. They had less reason to persuade donors that gifts of porridge\u2013\u2013rather than uncooked rice\u2013\u2013would benefit them through moral causation.  Nonetheless, the same doctrinal logic of the moral causality of food gifts remained relevant in Chinese Buddhism. Yichu\u2019s overview of porridge includes the following: First with Vi\u015b\u0101kh\u0101. The Sengqil\u00fc (Mah\u0101s\u0101\u1e43ghika-vinaya) says, when Mother Vi\u015b\u0101kh\u0101 had attained sagehood, she was replete with meritorious virtues and was first to provide breakfast porridge for the sa\u1e43gha. \u521d\u6bd7\u820e\u4f3d\u300e\u50e7\u7947\u5f8b\u300f\u4e91: \u6bd7\u820e\u4f3d\u6bcd\u5df3\u5f97\u8056\u679c, \u5177\u2f24\u5927\u798f\u5fb3, \u59cb\u7232\u50e7\u7f6e\u958b\u9f4b\u7ca5. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0368 Mather, \u201cBonze\u2019s Begging Bowl,\u201d 418.\t \u00a0  201\t \u00a0This citation suggests that the giving of porridge to the sa\u1e43gha is a tradition founded on virtue and superior merit\u2013\u2013a position that surely helped donors to feel even better about the generous act. The message that faithful lay Buddhists, too, could attain great merit helps frame porridge as a food of mutual benefit. Yichu thus perpetuated through his Buddhist encyclopedia the call for donations of porridge (or rice for porridge) to the sa\u1e43gha. Institutional changes in eating practice did not change the role of porridge as an ideal form of gifted food. Another of Yichu\u2019s citations on porridge also frames it as a food to offer the sa\u1e43gha:  Six kinds [of ingredient] made into porridge. The Wufen [l\u00fc] says, There was a brahmin whose cart was loaded with offerings. Following the Buddha, he wanted to make offerings to the Buddha and sa\u1e43gha, but because of the prior invitations of various kings, great ministers, and elders, he was unable to obtain precedence. \u2026The Buddha \u2026 had them cook porridge and give it to the sa\u1e43gha as a donated breakfast and lunch. The elder took butter, milk, oil, cheese, fish, and meat and cooked them at one time into porridge, presented it to the Buddha and returned home. \u516d\u7a2e\u7232\u7ca5\u300e\u4e94\u5206\u300f\u4e91: \u6709\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u2f9e\u8eca\u8f09\u4f9b\u7269, \u96a8\u4f5b, \u6b32\u4f9b\u990a\u4f5b\u53ca\u50e7\u8846, \u88ab\u8af8\u738b\u3001\ufe11\u2f24\u5927\u81e3\u3001\ufe11\u9577\u8005\u5148\u8acb, \u4e0d\u5f97\u6b21\u7b2c. \u2026\u4f5b\u2026\u4ee4\u5c07\u716e\u7ca5\u8207\u50e7, \u958b\u9f4b\u798f\u8207\u9f4b\u7b49. \u9577\u8005\u5c07\u8607\u3001\ufe11\u4e73\u3001\ufe11\u6cb9\u3001\ufe11\u916a\u3001\ufe11\u2fc2\u9b5a\u3001\ufe11\u2f81\u8089\u2f00\u4e00\u6642\u716e\u7ca5, \u65bd\u4f5b\u2f7d\u800c\u6b78. This narrative shows people on different tiers of elite society taking turns to present their food offerings to the sa\u1e43gha. Viewed this way, the giving of porridge is hardly about filling basic needs but is more centrally focused on merit building. If the porridge provided by even this socially outcompeted brahmin was so richly composed of dairy, fish, and meat, then what of the meals offered by kings? By Yichu\u2019s time, the tenth-century, Chinese Buddhists had largely adopted vegetarianism as a monastic norm, so this narrative must have struck Yichu\u2019s contemporary readers as luxurious feasting.  Even if ideas such as attitudes toward eating meat were revised by Chinese Buddhist authors, the accretionary nature of Buddhist teachings has meant that old ideas remained part of the intellectual milieu, even as new ideas emerged on the scene. In   202\t \u00a0Chinese Buddhism, porridge has remained a trope for prosocial caring grounded in the longstanding relationship between lay supporters and a dependent sa\u1e43gha. The ambiguity over whether porridge (or other foods) held benefits for donors or for eaters among the sa\u1e43gha may have been, for scholars such as Yichu, a moot point. Due to karma, both parties benefit from gifted food. The claim that porridge is good food with physiological benefits appears to be accepted in either case, and we can see that this claim is intimately connected with the longstanding practice of giving porridge to the sa\u1e43gha.   5.3.4 Porridge as an ancient Chinese food  Finally it is time to turn to the last major theme of Yichu\u2019s citations on porridge: the idea that porridge is a time-honored food. Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie is, as I argued in Chapter Two, properly understood as Buddhist, in that it is a presentation of teachings of the \u201c\u015a\u0101kya clan.\u201d The title references the Buddhist community of monks and nuns, the sa\u1e43gha. Those who in China leave home for the Buddhist path adopt the surname Shi \u91cb, abbreviated from Shijia \u91cb\u8fe6 (\u015a\u0101kya), and are thus considered members of the clan of the Buddha \u91cb\u6c0f. Yichu\u2019s choice, then, to cite a statement on porridge from the Book of Zhou (Zhoushu ) stands out as a departure from the Buddhist literature: Zhanzhou miyu (porridge). The Zhoushu says, The Yellow Emperor first cooked grain to make zhoumi, which is porridge. [He] also exchanged (traded) zhan, which is thick porridge. Adding \u201cmi\u201d to [the term zhoumi] is redundant. \u9958\u7ca5\u9e8b\u9b3b\u300e\u5468\u66f8\u300f\u66f0: \u2fc8\u9ec3\u5e1d\u59cb\u70f9369\u7a40\u7232\u7ca5\u9e8b, \u5373\u7ca5\u4e5f. \u53c8\u8ca8\u6613\u9958, \u5373\u539a\u7ca5\u4e5f. \u9e8b\u52a0\u4e4b\u9918\u4e5f.  The passage acknowledges a Chinese mythological belief that the Yellow Emperor originated the practice of making porridge. Yichu\u2019s inclusion of this passage in his brief overview of Buddhist ideas about porridge seems calculated, but toward what end? \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0369 Variant or damaged character. I do not find an exact match in DCCV, but the extant form of the character and the context point toward peng \u70f9.\t \u00a0  203\t \u00a0Perhaps the assumption that porridge is a Chinese food was so strong in his day that he felt compelled to forestall potential objections from his Chinese readers encountering the notion that porridge is native to the Indian Buddhist context. I think it is more likely, however, that this recognition was meant to help the status of Buddhism in Chinese society by showing that a preferred food of Buddhists is none other than the familiar porridge known in China since prehistory. The sameness is emphasized by saying that the mi in zhoumi is redundant: zhoumi is just zhou, porridge. Yichu makes no effort to say that Buddhist porridge is special, that it is made differently, that it distinguishes Buddhists from non-Buddhists in China. Quite to the contrary, Yichu seems to be saying that Buddhist porridge is just porridge (zhou), a food with a parallel celebration in China.  By this logic, porridge is not culturally special to Chinese Buddhists as an exotic cultural object imported with Indian Buddhism. It garners celebration through historical, doctrinal, and ritual contexts\u2013\u2013that is, through its modes of use in Buddhism\u2013\u2013but it is recognized as having intrinsic, tangible benefits. Buddhist notions of the specialness of porridge are grounded in a belief in its inherent worth.   5.4 Commemorative porridge   Belief in the intrinsic worth of porridge has helped keep it in monastic meals for centuries. And porridge is by no means only a monastic food in China\u2013\u2013Taiwanese scholar CHEN Yuanpeng published a history of porridge in China that says nothing of Buddhist porridge.370 Porridge figures prominently in the history of medicine in China, and in cultural history, becoming especially popular as a healthful food from the Song dynasty (960-1279) onward.371 Chen observes that porridge was celebrated in medical literature before the Song, but because of the relatively late rise in its widespread popularity, it seems probable that Buddhists could have had a role in boosting \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0370 Chen, Zhou de lishi.\t \u00a0371 Ibid., 93.\t \u00a0  204\t \u00a0awareness of porridge, much as they did with tea.372 In any case, both Buddhist and Chinese medical sources are in agreement that porridge has inherent merits. At the time that Yichu wrote his Buddhist encyclopedia, porridge would have been just on the cusp of a broad popularization, if Chen\u2019s assessment is correct.373 How did the Buddhist celebration of porridge influence East Asian Buddhist practice? Yichu\u2019s citations help us understand that Chinese Buddhist teachings perpetuated a celebration of porridge in Chinese society, but there is evidence that this celebration also entered other parts of East Asia. For example, Chinese Buddhist models led to the introduction to Japan of practices and beliefs regarding porridge. My\u014dan Eisai (1141-1215), a Japanese Tendai (Ch. Tiantai) monk who is credited with introducing Rinzai (Ch. Linji) Zen Buddhism to Japan, wrote in praise of mulberry porridge in his treatise on the medical benefits of tea and mulberry, the Kissa y\u014dj\u014dki \u55ab\u8336\u990a\u2f63\u751f\u8a18. And his contemporary, D\u014dgen (1200-1253), who established S\u014dt\u014d (Ch. Caodong \u66f9\u6d1e) Zen practices in Japan after visiting China, included in his monastic codes, the Eihei shingi \u6c38\u5e73\u6e05\u898f, a chapter titled \u201cThe method for attending breakfast and lunch\u201d (fu shuku han p\u014d \u8d74\u7ca5\u98ef\u6cd5), which uses \u201cporridge\u201d as a metonym for breakfast and \u201crice\u201d as a metonym for lunch. Such was the basic pattern of meals in East Asian monasteries following the Chinese model, a pattern that remains relevant today. Porridge is not required for breakfast, but it is common enough to warrant a special verse in the mealtime liturgy, as we saw earlier. Though Buddhists have made porridge a regular part of monastic life, there is also a special porridge served\u2013\u2013for the Buddhist holiday now called fabaojie \u6cd5\u5bf6\u7bc0\u2013\u2013in the \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0372 Kieschnick, Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture, 262-275.\t \u00a0373 If Chen is judging popularity on the basis of porridge appearing in literati writings, we should question whether earlier use may have been widespread but not discussed. The transition from Tang to Song ushered in new standards for what literati could write. Improvements in woodblock print technology at the time of this transition also helped broaden the scope of what could be published, leading to a proliferation of recorded knowledge on many aspects of life, including food. The proliferation of texts in the Song gives the impression that many things did not become popular until this time, but it may just be that literati were not writing about them until the Song. Chen\u2019s slim history of porridge provides a useful outline, but lacunae such as Buddhist porridge suggest that it is not an authoritative history.\t \u00a0  205\t \u00a0twelfth lunar month to commemorate the meal eaten by the Buddha just before his awakening under the pipal tree at Bodhgaya. In the cultural translations of this commemorative porridge, we can glimpse yet another example of how the specialness of Buddhist porridge remains grounded in practical knowledge rather than a dogmatism based on doctrinal precedent. In the Indian context this porridge begins as a milk porridge: rice and milk boiled down together into a richly nutritious food. In the legend of the Buddha\u2019s awakening, the milk porridge is described as being especially concentrated\u2013\u2013sixteen times reduced, according to some accounts.374 Having weakened his body through self-inflicted austerities, Gautama recognized the need to rebuild his strength, so he accepted the offering of this rich food. The specialness of this particular porridge, then, is not just that it was made with milk rather than water, and not just that it was eaten by Gautama just before his final awakening. This porridge is special because it is highly nutritious. I do not intend to argue anachronistically that ancient Indian and Chinese Buddhists had a nutritional science akin to that of our modern day,375 but I do wish to suggest that Buddhists have placed emphasis on the nourishing aspect of this particular porridge.   5.4.1 Milk, mold, and beans: making porridge special in the right way  In parts of China, milk products have not always been available\u2013\u2013or even desirable\u2013\u2013to members of the sa\u1e43gha. The commemorative porridge was given a new form in China and then further reinterpreted in Japan. This process of cultural reinterpretation led to some confusion regarding the ingredients in the commemorative porridge.  For example, an English translation of the Chixiu Baizhang qinggui \u52c5\u4fee\u767e\u4e08\u6e05\u898f, monastic regulations for the Chan school of Buddhism compiled shortly after 1333 during the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368), lists under the twelfth lunar month the following event: \u201cEighth Day: The Commemorative Day of the Buddha\u2019s Enlightenment. The \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0374 Strong, Experience of Buddhism, 20.\t \u00a0  206\t \u00a0administrative office beforehand prepares special rice gruel cooked with red beans.376\u201d The Taish\u014d edition of the monastic codes used for this translation are in fact much more terse: \u201cTwelfth month. Eighth day. Buddha obtained the Way. The administrative office beforehand prepares hongzao. \u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f49\u6708 \u521d\u516b\u2f47\u65e5 \u4f5b\u6210\u9053. \u5eab\u53f8\u9810\u9020\u7d05\u7cdf.\u201d377  The term in question is hongzao, literally \u201cred lees.\u201d In modern usage this is rice fermented by addition of a starter culture known in English by the misinformed translation \u201cred yeast rice,\u201d an attempt to directly translate the name of its dried form, hongqumi \u7d05\u66f2\u2f76\u7c73 (\u7d05\u9eb4\u2f76\u7c73\/\u7d05\u9eaf\u2f76\u7c73). Qu \u66f2\/\u9eb4\/\u9eaf should be understood as a mold-based fermenting agent, not as yeast (jiao \u9175), though in practice it was often contaminated with yeast.378 Hongzao is the wet ferment made by cultivating a red mold called Monascus purpureus379 on cooked rice, using a starter culture (the just-mentioned hongqumi). The mold breaks down the starches of the rice into simple sugars, which can be retained for sweetness or can be further fermented by yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae or a similar yeast) to create an alcoholic beverage. The process of using a mold to convert grain starches to simple sugars is the basis for much of the production of alcoholic beverages in Chinese history (and today), but Monascus purpureus is not the only mold for the task and does not seem to be preferred for alcohol production.380  Hongzao was used historically as a food additive for preserving meats and, at least since the Qing dynasty, has been used as a base to age fermented soy products.381 For example, a deep-red, savory condiment called [nan]furu [\u5357]\u8150\u4e73 is obtained by combining hongzao with fermented bean curd. Furu can translate as \u201cfermented milk,\u201d or \u201cmilk obtained from fermentation,\u201d although the term could also have formed in \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0375 If indeed modern nutritional knowledge can be counted among the sciences. Some observers, such as Pollan, In Defense of Food, are critical of the contributions of modern nutritional knowledge, saying these have done little to deliver the promise of a healthful approach to food. \t \u00a0376 Ichimura trans., Baizhang Zen Monastic Regulations, 407.\t \u00a0377 Chixiu Baizhang qinggui, T48 n2025, 1155a24. The English translation is mine.\t \u00a0378 Huang and Needham, Science and Civilization in China, v.6 p.5, 154.\t \u00a0379 Ibid., 280.\t \u00a0380 Aspergillus and Rhizopus species are more commonly employed in wine-making. See Huang and Needham, Science and Civilization in China, v.6 p.5, 167.\t \u00a0381 Ibid., 202, 326-327.\t \u00a0  207\t \u00a0association with Chinese cheese, rufu \u4e73\u8150 or rubing \u4e73\u9905. Either way, furu was viewed as an analog for milk or its derivatives. There are regional variations and different names for similar products, one of which is zaodoufu \u7cdf\u2f96\u8c46\u8150, or bean curd combined with zao \u7cdf, lees from the fermenting process. I suspect that the appearance of hongzao in the Yuan monastic codes may have been for making furu or a similar condiment for porridge, but the case is hard to support with evidence. It is clear that we are dealing here with a class of fermented products, which could be used to impart a rich, savory flavor to bland dishes such as porridge.  How then did Ichimura, translator of the monastic codes just cited, interpret this as a special porridge (\u201cgruel\u201d) cooked with red beans? To answer this question, it is useful to consult the Japanese Zen monk Mujaku D\u014dch\u016b (1653-1744382), who was a great scholar of Chan (Zen) Buddhism. In his encyclopedic Zenrin sh\u014dkisen \u79aa\u6797\u8c61\u5668\u6214 he takes up hongzao as a topic, citing the passage from the Yuan-dynasty Baizhang monastic codes that we just encountered, above, and discussing commentary on its interpretation:  A commentator says that long ago, when the Buddha attained the Way, he followed a female herder, begging cow\u2019s milk from her to drink. The hongzao of today is [used] to mimic the cow\u2019s milk. It is not known what red product is added. Hongzao is also called wenzao (\u201cwarm ferment\u201d). \u89e3\u8005\u66f0:\u300c\u6614\u4f5b\u6210\u9053, \u96a8\u7267\u2f5c\u725b\u5973\u4e5e\u2f5c\u725b\u4e73\u55ab, \u4eca\u7d05\u7cdf\u5b78\u2f5c\u725b\u4e73\u8005\u4e5f, \u672a\u77e5\u52a0\u4f55\u7d05\u7269\u77e3. \u7d05\u7cdf\u6216\u4f5c\u6e29\u7cdf. D\u014dch\u016b says: Given that the Tang pronunciation for \u7d05  was [defined by the initial phoneme of] \u5036 and [the vowel of] \u725f, and the Japanese character \u5036 was similar to \u5b87 [in form], it was mistakenly defined as [a combination of] \u5b87 and \u725f, hence the \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0382 Some sources give 1745 as his year of death.\t \u00a0  208\t \u00a0mispronunciation [of \u7d05\u7cdf] as wenzao \u6e29\u7cdf.383 Wenzao \u6e29\u7cdf is a case of erroneous characters [produced on the basis of] erroneous pronunciation. \u5fe0\u66f0: \u6309\u7d05, \u5510\u2fb3\u97f3\u5036\u725f, \u2f7d\u800c\u548c\u5b57\u5036\u4f3c\u5b87, \u6545\u932f\u7232\u5b87\u725f, \u4ecd(\u4e43)\u4f5c\u6e29\u7cdf. \u6e29\u7cdf, \u8a1b\u2fb3\u97f3\u2f7d\u800c\u8a1b\u5b57\u8005.\u300d Gid\u014d [Sh\u016bshin \u5468\u4fe1 384 ] (1325-1388) writes in his [K\u016bge] nikkush\u016b, \u201cRegarding the eating of hongzao on the eighth day of the twelfth month, people ask about the originating circumstances of hongzao. I reply that the female herder offered milk porridge to the World-Honored One and the hongzao of today is its legacy.\u201d \u7fa9\u5802 \u300e\u2f47\u65e5\u2f2f\u5de5\u96c6\u300f\u4e91: \u300c\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f49\u6708\u516b\u2f47\u65e5\u55ab\u7d05\u7cdf, \u6709\u2f08\u4eba\u554f\u7d05\u7cdf\u7de3\u8d77, \u4f59\u66f0: \u7267\u2f5c\u725b\u5973\u737b\u4e73\u7cdc\u65bc\u4e16\u5c0a, \u4eca\u7d05\u7cdf\u5176\u907a\u610f\u4e5f.\u300d D\u014dch\u016b says: Hongzao is none other than Five Flavor Porridge, eaten on the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month. The Kagakush\u016b (a dictionary published 1444) says, \u201cHongtiao porridge is the adzuki bean porridge eaten on the fifteenth day of the first lunar month,\u201d in which case the red [in hongzao] is the color of red [adzuki] beans, but the Kagakush\u016b\u2019s giving tiao \u8abf  for zao \u7cdf  is an error. I furthermore maintain that when fruit products and different grains are mixed together to make porridge, the white color of the rice is changed by these and is therefore called \u2018red\u2019. It is called zao (grain ferment) only because several flavors are combined. \u5fe0\u66f0: \u300c\u7d05\u7cdf\u537d\u4e94\u5473\u7ca5\u4e5f, \u81d8\u516b\u5649\u4e4b.\u300e\u4e0b\u5b78\u96c6\u300f\u4e91: \u300c\u7d05\u8abf\u7ca5, \u6b63\u2f49\u6708\u2f17\u5341\u4e94\u2f47\u65e5\u6240\u98df\u2f9a\u8d64\u2f96\u8c46\u7ca5\u4e5f.\u300d\u7136\u5247\u7d05\u662f\u2f9a\u8d64\u2f96\u8c46\u2f8a\u8272, \u300e\u4e0b\u5b78\u300f\u7cdf\u4f5c\u8abf, \u8a1b\u77e3. \u4f59\u53c8\u8b02: \u679c\u54c1, \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0383 D\u014dch\u016b\u2019s understanding of historical pronunciation does not appear to be supported by modern-day scholarship such as Pulleyblank, Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation, 125, 162, 219, 323, and 382. Nonetheless, Ding Fubao\u2019s dictionary also says that wenzao is an erroneous rendering of hongzao: \u8aa4\u7d05\u7cdf\u70ba\u6eab\u7cdf.\t \u00a0384 See Mochizuki, Bukky\u014d daijiten, v.3, 2261.\t \u00a0  209\t \u00a0\u4e94\u7a40\u96dc\u548c\u9020\u7ca5, \u2f76\u7c73\u2f69\u767d\u2f8a\u8272\u7232\u4e4b\u8b8a, \u6545\u2f94\u8a00\u7d05. \u6578\u5473\u76f8\u5408, \u6545\u2f94\u8a00\u7cdf\u2f7d\u800c\u5df2.\u300d\u2026385 D\u014dch\u016b comes to the conclusion that hongzao is a special porridge cooked with adzuki beans, mixed grains, and fruit products (i.e., dried fruit). It seems that in Japan this interpretation held sway, as the technique of fermenting rice with Monascus purpureus does not appear to have been transmitted along with the terminology from China. D\u014dch\u016b\u2019s conclusion on the identity of hongzao is not simply cultural ignorance. His Chinese sources discuss a porridge popularly called \u201clabazhou \u81d8\u516b\u7ca5,\u201d named after the Buddhist holiday on the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month (\u81d8\u2f49\u6708), and cooked from \u201cbeans, fruit, and mixed grains \u2f96\u8c46\u679c\u96dc\u2f76\u7c73.\u201d386 D\u014dch\u016b was deeply interested in Buddhist porridge, beginning his chapter on eating and drinking with first a general discussion of porridge, then six other porridge-related topics, before turning to other topics not directly associated with porridge. In his survey of statements on Buddhist porridge, he cites sources such as the Shiwen leiju \u4e8b\u2f42\u6587\u985e\u805a387 that equate labazhou with a \u2018seven-treasure, five-flavor porridge\u2019 (Ch. qibao wuweizhou \u4e03\u5bf3\u4e94\u5473\u7ca5):  Those in the south dedicate the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month for Buddha-washing [ceremonies]. In the Eastern Capital of the imperial court, on the eighth day of the twelfth month, all the great temples of the city hold gatherings for washing the Buddha and give out a porridge of seven treasures and five flavors, calling it labazhou. \u5357\u2f45\u65b9\u5c08\u2f64\u7528\u81d8\u2f49\u6708\u516b\u2f47\u65e5\u704c\u4f5b\u3002\ufe12\u7687\u671d\u6771\u4eac\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f49\u6708\u521d\u516b\u2f47\u65e5\uff0c\u90fd\u57ce\u8af8\u2f24\u5927\u5bfa\u4f5c\u6d74\u4f5b\u3479\u3002\ufe12\u5e76\u9001\u4e03\u5bf3\u4e94\u5473\u7ca5\uff0c\u8b02\u4e4b\u300c\u81d8\u516b\u7ca5\u300d\u3002\ufe12388 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0385 This can be found in Foguang dazang jing: Chan zang \u79aa\u85cf: zaji bu \u96dc\u96c6\u90e8; series 4, v.7, 1259-1260. If using another edition, go to the first chapter on eating and drinking, (Ch. yindanlei shang) \u98f2\u5556\u985e\u4e0a.\t \u00a0386 D\u014dch\u016b cites Liu Tong\u2019s \u5289\u4f97 (scholar status in 1634) Dijing jingwu lue \u5e1d\u4eac\u666f\u7269\u7565, a description of Ming-period Beijing. This citation comes right after the passages translated above: Foguang dazang jing: Chan zang: zaji bu; series 4, v.7, 1260.\t \u00a0387 A thirteenth-century Chinese encyclopedia. See Sakai, Ch\u016bgoku nichiy\u014d ruishoshi no kenky\u016b, 61-62.\t \u00a0388 Foguang dazang jing: Chan zang: zaji bu; series 4, v.7, 1258.\t \u00a0  210\t \u00a0The porridge described in the thirteenth-century Shiwen leiju is made from a variety of ingredients (\u201cseven treasures \u4e03\u5bf3\u201d) and is not specified as hongzao. A tradition of eating a \u2018seven-treasure porridge\u2019 (qibaozhou \u4e03\u5bf3\u7ca5) is attested in various sources in late imperial China, such as Chen Jie\u2019s \u9673\u5826  Rishe pian \u2f47\u65e5\u6d89\u7bc7  from 1611, where it is described as containing milk, mushrooms, walnuts, and lily\u2013\u2013and to alternatively be called salted porridge, xianzhou \u9e79\u7ca5 .389 While not well attested in formal Buddhist writings, qibaozhou does have some scattered mentions in the recorded-sayings (yulu \u8a9e\u9304) literature of Chan and Zen Buddhism. The various porridges encountered in these sources\u2013\u2013labazhou, wuweizhou, qibaozhou, and xianzhou\u2013\u2013appear to be synonyms for a celebratory porridge eaten on the eighth day of the twelfth month. In China, different terms came to be used for a general practice that had no doctrinally specified name or recipe.  The Japanese interpretation of this celebratory porridge is consistent with a body of practice. Based on a broad survey of literary sources, D\u014dch\u016b made a logical assessment on hongzao, returning attention to a vague but enduring Chinese Buddhist tradition. Nonetheless, D\u014dch\u016b is still wrong to equate hongzao with this \u2018five-flavor porridge\u2019, for at least two reasons. First, the statement in the Chixiu Baizhang qinggui says that the administrative office is to make the hongzao beforehand (\u9810\u9020\u7d05\u7cdf). This indicates a fermented product that needs time to culture, not a motley mix of beans, grains, mushrooms, walnuts, and such\u2013\u2013ingredients that could be made in several hours into a large vat of porridge and distributed to a public crowd. Second, hongzao has a distinct cultural identity in China that is unambiguous. It was associated early on with the south of China, where rice was the staple food and basic material for fermenting alcohol, but it came to be widely known in China (even in the north) between the Song and the Yuan \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0389 Accessed through SS, the citation is on p.1406 of Yiwen yinshuguan, Suishi xisu ziliao huibian. Or if using another edition of the Rishe pian, see fascicle 12, shieryue er \u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f49\u6708\u2f06\u4e8c, bari \u516b\u2f47\u65e5.\t \u00a0  211\t \u00a0dynasties390, when the monastic codes encountered above (Chixiu Baizhang qinggui) were compiled.   5.4.2 Interpreting the presence of hongzao in the Chixiu Baizhang qinggui  Mention of hongzao in the Chixiu Baizhang qinggui is a rarity in Chinese Buddhist literature. A search of the Taish\u014d canon of Buddhist texts, using the SAT Daiz\u014dky\u014d Text Database, reveals only the one instance from the Yuan-period monastic codes. A more comprehensive search using the CBETA collection shows only a modest number of hits, all occurring in recorded-sayings (yulu \u8a9e\u9304) literature of late imperial China (and in Japanese Zen). This presents us with an interpretive dilemma. Was hongzao rarely discussed because no one had any issues with its mention in the codes, or perhaps because it was hardly known in practice outside of the south of China? That earlier monastic codes and other sources are silent on hongzao is actually no surprise, because prior to the Yuan dynasty there was little knowledge and interest in the red ferment using Monascus purpureus, which was still relatively new. Various Chinese Buddhist sources do, on the other hand, mention lees (zao or jiuzao \u9152\u7cdf ) more generally. There has long been a practice of using fermented grain, the byproduct of alcohol production, as a food ingredient391, but this food was generally forbidden to tonsured Buddhists in monastic codes and associated commentaries. Daoxuan \u9053\u5ba3 (596-667), the influential Vinaya scholar-monk, wrote that \u201csweet-vinegar wines (i.e., crudely fermented alcoholic beverages) and the eating of the ferment culture or lees is to be considered jiluo \u5409\u7f85 (Skt. k\u1e5bta),\u201d a misdemeanor.392 Even drained of wine, the lees would have contained some alcohol (jiuqi \u9152\u6c23), and for some food preparations the wine might be left in the lees. Because the products of fermentation (qu and zao) have \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0390 Huang and Needham, Science and Civilization in China, v.6 p.5, 194.\t \u00a0391 Its use as a preservative and flavoring for meat is attested from as early as the 3rd and 4th centuries in China. Huang and Needham, Science and Civilization in China, v.6 p.5, 408.\t \u00a0  212\t \u00a0the potential to inebriate people, they are generally considered off limits to Buddhists, so we have reason to wonder by what logic the Yuan-period monastic codes justified the making of hongzao in a monastic context. As we saw, the Yuan statement on hongzao leaves much unsaid, but being made in preparation for the day commemorating the Buddha\u2019s awakening suggests that it was intended for use in a porridge, or even as a porridge.  A clue can be found in the circumstances surrounding the compiling of the Chixiu Baizhang qinggui, properly titled the \u2018Imperially-Commissioned Baizhang Pure Rules\u2019. The Yuan imperial court commissioned this new edition of Chan Buddhist monastic codes in 1335, appointing Dongyang Dehui \u6771\u967d\u5fb7\u8f1d (fl. 1329-1335), who was then abbot of Baizhang si \u767e\u4e08\u5bfa, a temple established by Baizhang Huaihai \u767e\u4e08\u61f7\u6d77 (720-814). Baizhang Huaihai is traditionally credited with having compiled an initial set of monastic codes393 for Chinese Chan monasteries, but his set of codes was lost by as early as the twelfth century394. A number of other codes were in use, but Dehui had aspirations to settle discrepancies between them by compiling a new set and having them circulated throughout the Yuan empire.395 The Yuan court supported Dehui\u2019s project and promulgated the new codes in 1336. What is important for the present topic is that Baizhang si is situated in the south of China, in what is now Fengxin County in Jiangxi Province. This southern location is close to the Min region, where production of hongzao and the alcoholic beverage produced from it, hongjiu \u7d05\u9152, were well attested from earlier times. Dehui denied in his postscript to the codes that he made any modifications based on personal interpretation,396 so it seems probable that hongzao entered the codes as a straightforward reflection of common practice in his area.  But how could Buddhists of southern China justify the use of lees, when the Chinese Buddhist literature generally proscribes its use by tonsured Buddhists? One explanation \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0392 In Daoxuan\u2019s commentary on the Sifenl\u00fc: Sifenl\u00fc shanfan buque xingshi chao \u56db\u5206\u5f8b\u522a\u7e41\u88dc\u95d5\u2f8f\u884c\u4e8b\u9214, T40 n1804, 85b10-13.\t \u00a0393 Referred to as the Baizhang gu qinggui \u767e\u4e08\u53e4\u6e05\u898f.\t \u00a0394 Ichimura, Baizhang Zen Monastic Regulations, xv.\t \u00a0395 Ibid., xvi.\t \u00a0  213\t \u00a0is that in the south of China, hongzao was widely recognized as a foodstuff outside of the context of alcohol production. For example, the scholar of medicine Zhuang Chuo \u838a\u7dbd, active around the end of the Northern Song (roughly twelfth century), noted the culinary use of hongzao in the south when commenting on regional customs: In Jiangnan and throughout the Min [region], publicly and privately people practice fermentation, always [for] a wine made with red ferment. In the autumn they eat their fill of hongzao. Vegetables, fish, and meat are harmoniously mixed in proportion and they then do not eat vinegar. In Xinzhou during the winter months, again, [the locals] sell the flesh of carp stewed in hongzao.  \u6c5f\u5357\u3001\ufe11\u95a9\u4e2d\uff0c\u516c\u79c1\u919e\u91c0\uff0c\u7686\u7d05\u9eb4\u9152\u3002\ufe12\u81f3\u79cb\uff0c\u76e1\u98df\u7d05\u7cdf\u3002\ufe12\u852c\u83dc\u3001\ufe11\u2fc2\u9b5a\u2f81\u8089\uff0c\u7387\u4ee5\u62cc\u548c\uff0c\u66f4\u4e0d\u98df\u918b\u3002\ufe12\u4fe1\u5dde\u51ac\u2f49\u6708\uff0c\u53c8\u4ee5\u7d05\u7cdf\uff0c\u716e\u9bea\u9bc9\u2f81\u8089\u8ce3 .397 The popular use in the south of hongzao as a base for preserving other foods during the colder months could have helped to override any Buddhist conservativeness on the question of whether or not the ferment was inebriating. In this form it was likely not inebriating, especially if the food thus preserved had to be cooked before serving. Used as a base for pickling vegetables, as we see in a collection of recipes from a Yuan-period householders\u2019 manual, the Jujia biyong shilei quanji \u5c45\u5bb6\u5fc5\u2f64\u7528\u4e8b\u985e\u5168\u96c6,398 souring lees could hardly have called up images of drunkenness.  5.4.3 Lees as medicinal food  In addition to Buddhists justifying its use based on local practice and experience with hongzao, they may have viewed it as medically efficacious, having a status somewhere between food and medicine. It is often commented that in China the \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0396 Ibid., xvii.\t \u00a0397 From the Jilei pian \u96de\u808b\u7de8, second fascicle, \u201cN\u00fcjiulangyi deng shusu \u5973\u9152\u90ce\u8863\u7b49\u6b8a\u4fd7,\u201d p.118, accessed via SS. Zhuang Chuo\u2019s exact dates are not certain.\t \u00a0398 Nakamura trans., Ch\u016bgoku no shokufu, 9, 176-179.\t \u00a0  214\t \u00a0boundaries between food and medicine were (and are) blurry. We see this in Li Shizhen\u2019s \u674e\u6642\u73cd (1518-1593) influential medical compendium from the Ming dynasty, Bencao gangmu \u672c\u8349\u7db1\u2f6c\u76ee, which regards lees favorably: Wine-making lees are sweet, spicy, and without toxin. They heat the [body\u2019s] core and digest food, remove cold qi, rid [food of] animal stench, detoxify herbs and vegetables, moisturize the skin, and regulate the organs. \u9152\u7cdf \u2f62\u7518\u3001\ufe11\u2f9f\u8f9b\uff0c\u7121\u6bd2 .  \u6eab\u4e2d\u6d88\u98df\uff0c\u9664\u51b7\u6c23\uff0c\u6bba\u8165\uff0c\u53bb\u8349\u83dc\u6bd2\uff0c\u6f64\u2f6a\u76ae\u819a\uff0c\u8abf\u81df\u8151 . 399 The entry on lees400 suggests that at least by the Ming dynasty, people had enough experience eating lees to be aware of their medical benefits\u2013\u2013or what we might consider their nutritional benefits.  We have seen earlier how Buddhist attitudes toward food have long favored a medical mode of eating, spurning eating that is indulgent. Even in the earlier Indian monastic codes, proscribed substances such as lees were allowed in true cases of medical need. In China, with its engrained culture of fermentation (please excuse the punning), we can see a fairly relaxed attitude among some Buddhists regarding the major precept of avoiding inebriating substances. Even Daoxuan, writing in the seventh century, had commented401 that alcohol was sometimes permitted, given certain conditions:  If an illness is not cured by other medicine, one may use alcohol as medicine. If one uses it externally to rub onto a wound, in all such cases there is no infraction. \u82e5\u75c5\u9918\u85e5\u6cbb\u4e0d\u5dee\uff0c\u4ee5\u9152\u7232\u85e5\ufe14\uff1b\u82e5\u2f64\u7528\u8eab\u5916\u5857\u5275, \u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u7121\u72af.402 In the centuries intervening between Daoxuan\u2019s studious comments and the Yuan codes under discussion, Chan Buddhist revisionists reworked monastic codes to better adapt both teachings and practices to the times and local cultural conditions. If \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0399 Accessed via SS: P.1569; gu bu \u7a40\u90e8(grains), fascicle 25, gu zhi si \u7a40\u4e4b\u56db \u201czaonianglei ershijiuzhong \u9020\u91c0\u985e\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d\u7a2e,\u201d zao \u7cdf.\t \u00a0400 Hongzao is an ingredient in one of the prescriptions that follows Li Shizhen\u2019s entry on wine-making lees, but I do not see it assessed independently of other lees.\t \u00a0401 This is in the same discussion where he proscribed the eating of lees.\t \u00a0402 T40 n1804, 85b16-18.\t \u00a0  215\t \u00a0conservatives launched a protest on seeing hongzao used in the commemorative porridge, this is not easy to see in extant records.  Records do indicate that Chan monasteries of late imperial China adopted the practice of making hongzao on the eighth day of the fifteenth month, and in some cases it may have been an inebriating drink. If no outright debate is extant, we do at least have cryptic sarcasm, or perhaps a metaphor with didactic intent. The Qing-dynasty Tianan sheng chanshi yulu \u5929\u5cb8\u6607\u79aa\u5e2b\u8a9e\u9304 (Recorded Sayings of Chan Master Tianan Sheng) records the monk Bensheng \u672c\u6607 (1620-1673) alluding to the practice in verse:  Eating hongzao on the eighth of the twelfth month \u81d8\u516b\u55ab\u7d05\u7cdf,  How grand is the mood of the monastery \u53e2\u6797\u610f\u6c23\u8c6a! Merrily stumbling in deep drunkenness \u9163\u9163\u6c89\u9189\u5012, Even more so keeping away from worldly temptations \u66f4\u4e0d\u60f9\u98a8\u9a37. 403 These verses seem to have been of interest to others in the Chan Buddhist community, since they recur in a number of places.404 There is not space here to try to determine what the verses say of Tianan Bensheng\u2019s attitude toward the practice of eating hongzao on the day commemorating the Buddha\u2019s awakening, but we at least have evidence that the practice persisted at some level into the Qing dynasty. If the Yuan codes did give official sanction to consumption of an alcoholic mash on this Buddhist holiday, we might also ask whether the festivities ever became a euphoric ritual, a Dionysian405 celebration (like, say, Purim in Judaism) that permitted transgression of the precept against consuming alcohol for just one day each year.  This discussion has raised as many questions as it has answered. The recorded-sayings literature of Chan Buddhism is filled with metaphor, exaggeration, and didactic phrasing that cannot be taken at face value, so we should hesitate before accepting Tianan Bensheng\u2019s verse as factual representation of monastic practices. We \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0403 Accessed via CBETA: J26 nB187, fascicle 10, in the paragraph between 703c14-704a05. A similar sentiment also appears in the second fascicle: J26 nB187, fascicle 2, 667a19-30.\t \u00a0404 They may, in fact, not be original to Bensheng, but I will not pursue the issue here.\t \u00a0405 In the sense discussed by Benedict, Patterns of Culture, 78-79.\t \u00a0  216\t \u00a0still have little concrete information on how Buddhist monastics were actually using the hongzao, whether as an alcoholic mash, as a savory condiment made with fermented bean curd and stirred into porridge, or as something else. Furthermore, we still have questions regarding how the Chinese Buddhist community\u2013\u2013within or without Chan sectarian identity\u2013\u2013responded to the appearance of wine-making lees in a set of monastic codes. Did northern Buddhists ignore hongzao and continue eating \u2018seven treasure, five flavor porridge\u2019 based on such foods as beans, grains, nuts, and dried fruits, or did hongzao spread northward after promulgation of the Yuan codes? We also might ask whether these ingredients represent discrete versions of the celebratory porridge, or were mutually compatible.  Despite these and other remaining questions, I think we can at least conclude that we are dealing here with distinct examples for how to recreate the specialness of the original pre-enlightenment milk-porridge: one the one hand, a nutritious ferment (hongzao), and on the other a porridge enriched with ingredients that could raise the nourishing quality of the porridge well above that of plain rice (or millet) porridge. For locales lacking access to fresh cow\u2019s milk, the nourishing quality of the porridge had to be constructed by other means and East Asian Buddhists found creative ways of doing so. Fermented rice, nuts and fruits, and adzuki beans were some of the creative ways that Buddhists enriched their porridge to align it with the meanings of the Buddhist holiday.    5.5 Chapter conclusions  In this chapter I have endeavored to argue that the Chinese Buddhist celebration of porridge is grounded not just in symbolism, but also in knowledge of physiological responses to food. Through numerous examples, I have shown that Buddhist authors have long been interested in the intrinsic properties of porridge as a food, in addition to any symbolic meanings of porridge derived from historical narratives of the Buddha. This interest in physiological outcomes on the part of Chinese Buddhists calls into question a common distinction in Western academic research of religion between   217\t \u00a0knowledge based on socially-constructed symbolic patterns and knowledge that pertains to natural phenomena of our world. In a nutshell, this distinction reflects the enduring belief in an epistemological divide between \u2018science\u2019 and \u2018religion\u2019. My contention here is that, when analyzing the cultural and intellectual history of food in Chinese Buddhism, we must be careful to avoid projecting this cherished distinction into an historical context where symbolic and empirical forms of knowledge intertwined.  Indic Buddhist sources very early secured a celebrated place for porridge in the Buddhist community. Apart from the narrative of the Buddha\u2019s having eaten a milk porridge just before attaining awakening while seated under the Bodhi tree, we have sources that proclaim porridge to be beneficial on its own terms. The Y\u0101gu Sutta in the Pali canon posits a set of five physiological benefits from eating porridge. A list of ten benefits from porridge becomes a common formula in Chinese Buddhism, combining five benefits from the Y\u0101gu Sutta with another set of five benefits discussed in the Buddha\u2019s exhortation to charitable giving, the Wufubao jing in the Chinese canon. The amalgamation of these two lists of five into a larger list of ten benefits creates ambiguity on the question of the causality behind each benefit, but this process is readily explained as an outcome of the strong association of porridge with food offerings to the sa\u1e43gha. The law of moral causality, karma, blurs the distinction between direct physiological benefit and benefits gained as a return on charitable action, but in either case porridge is associated with benefits that highlight desirable physiological states. Investigating the celebration of porridge in Chinese Buddhism affords an opportunity for better understanding how Buddhist authors treated aspects of their inherited body of teachings as provisional knowledge. Seeking a place for porridge in practice, Buddhists interpreted and adapted knowledge of porridge to local conditions, shaping the celebration of porridge in interaction with Indian, Chinese, and Japanese knowledge of food.  The conspicuous absence of doctrinal specificity on how to make an orthodox Buddhist porridge suggests that there was no such orthodoxy. Yichu cites records of porridge eaten by the Buddha\u2019s direct community of followers that contained such ingredients as milk, butter, meat, and fish. In China, where Mah\u0101y\u0101na teachings and local pressures shifted monastic diets toward vegetarianism, porridges were enriched   218\t \u00a0sometimes with milk products (milk and butter), but especially with plant products such as sesame, beans, mushrooms, walnuts, dried fruits, and lily\u2013\u2013and, it would seem, the mold-cultured ferment hongzao.  Although Chinese Buddhists revere porridge as the food eaten by the Buddha just before his full awakening, plain porridge was in itself not special enough to serve as the commemorative porridge. The Buddhist commemorative porridge, while differently interpreted across time and cultural geography and lacking a singular appellation, has maintained a thread of coherence around the notion that it represents a modestly rich food with good ability to nourish. A plain rice porridge was not sufficient for the purpose. Buddhist commemorative porridge cannot be viewed, at least in the context researched here, as an analog of the bread of the Christian Eucharist, which is made special purely by its ritual context.  Several centuries after hongzao, a deep-red ferment, entered Yuan-period monastic codes in China, the Japanese-Buddhist encyclopedist Mujaku D\u014dch\u016b interpreted the commemorative porridge as taking on a red color from the addition of adzuki beans combined with other grains, revealing a point of confusion over the plurality of solutions for making this holiday porridge special. Buddhist commemorative porridge is, in the traditions outlined here, not made special in an arbitrary, symbolic way, but rather in a provisional way grounded in knowledge of physiological outcomes.    219\t \u00a0Conclusion   Has Western scholarship of food and religion distorted our understanding of Chinese Buddhist attitudes toward eating, by focusing too much on the role of vegetarianism in the construction of relational religious identities? I argue that it has. We have tended to view the relationship of Buddhists and food in terms that are too narrow: as fundamentally a problem of social identity based on a socially constructed morality. Such morality is posited as arbitrary\u2013\u2013an abhorrence of pigs in one religion or a protective worship of bovines in another, for example. From this limited perspective, vegetarianism appears in the history of Chinese Buddhism as a cultural trait that shapes Buddhist identity and distinguishes Buddhists from others, but which ultimately is irrelevant to non-Buddhists.  History permits another view. Buddhist statements on food in Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie suggest an alternative approach: these statements can be understood to represent provisional models of exemplary practices, sample repertoires for dealing with a set of food-related problems posited as universal to the human condition. Taken together, these models point toward a notion of skilled eating that is both practical and attitudinal. Both the practice of eating and the skill of attitude described in Yichu\u2019s Buddhist citations are grounded in a non-Cartesian embodiment. In the context of this study, religious knowledge of food is found to be not just social but also psychological. Is religion, then, to be considered solidly in the domain of culture\u2013\u2013to be understood as an arbitrarily constructed symbolic system? In this study I have shown how forms of knowledge now bifurcated into religion and science were intertwined in the evolution of Buddhist ideas about food. This warrants a pause for reflection on how we understand the category of religion today. Here, I suggest that Chinese Buddhism has elements of provisional knowledge-building that evolved in social contexts on the basis of non-arbitrary ideas about nourishment and the workings of the human mind.  Based on the Shishi liutie\u2019s citations from Buddhist sources available in tenth-century China, Chinese Buddhist discourse on eating focused on the primal importance of proper attitude, but with entailments that included physiological outcomes such as a   220\t \u00a0healthy body. Vegetarianism was practiced widely by this time, but Yichu\u2019s presentation under the topic of food (shi) in his Buddhist encyclopedia does not highlight it. This is not because Buddhist institutions in Yichu\u2019s time did not hold to a vegetarian diet\u2013\u2013we know from other sources and from Yichu\u2019s citations under other topics in the food-related chapter that Chinese Buddhists had by the tenth century largely accepted the Mah\u0101y\u0101na position that Buddhists should avoid meat. Nonetheless, Yichu demonstrates and awareness that strict vegetarian practice was largely the outcome of an interpretive shift in Chinese Buddhism, connected to the discrepancy between the begging practice of India and the donor-supplied monastic meals of China. Why Yichu downplayed vegetarianism under the topic of shi is not clear, but recipe collections from the first couple centuries after he completed his encyclopedia show that other groups in medieval Chinese society also ate a simple, plant-based diet. Vegetarianism was not then as distinctive a marker of Buddhist identity as it is in today\u2019s Chinese society.  For Yichu, the key issue is how to hold a proper attitude toward eating, and how to use this attitude to nourish the full person in beneficial ways. Eating as a Buddhist involved adopting ideal models of practice that were primarily attitudinal, but also involved knowledge of food and physiology. Careful consideration of experiential categories of nourishment allows practitioners to ground Buddhist morality in their individual experience of eating, rather than in a moral authority.  The doctrine of Four Foods delineates the psycho-physical model by which educated Buddhists like Yichu understood nourishment. The Four Foods originate in yearning. Nourishment, in this view, is a form of satiation of appetite. Our appetites bind us to cyclical embodiment (sa\u1e43s\u0101ra ) through action (karma), which is primarily driven by our mental life and specifically our intention. The outward, physical expression of intention is not treated in this doctrine as a separate, real arena of moral activity, distinct from a private arena of imagination. Our intentions determine our future unfolding, whether we give them physical expression or not, because our minds, bodies, and outer world are interactive and interpenetrating\u2013\u2013sensation, perception, and cognition interact as an arena of desire for life and its forms of nourishment. Morality is not simply about following rules or about orienting action to achieve the greatest good; morality is also about gaining skillful control over our destinies by cultivating the right kind of   221\t \u00a0mental activity. We self-incriminate when we give free reign to desirous thoughts that we know to be hurtful to others or unwholesome, because our intentions are the seeds of actions that will cause us to reap negative outcomes. Our desire for the Four Foods sets up the causes and conditions by which our lives unfold. Nourishment, then, can be engaged skillfully or clumsily, because all desires are not equal. The food of joy in meditation (chanyue) is a kind of intervention into the gravity field of the Four Foods, offering a wholesome alternative to the less wholesome objects of desire in the perceptual arena of ordinary consciousness. Meditation rests the perceiving mind beset with a welter of appetites and schemes for satiating these. In the quiet space of meditation, the mind gains skill in setting priorities and making attitudinal choices with more favorable outcomes. These choices are, for example, equanimity over anxiety, moderation over excess, and generosity over covetousness\u2013\u2013the themes that Yichu\u2019s presentation of food suggests as Buddhist virtues associated with eating. The doctrine of Four Foods makes explicit the non-dual nature of embodied consciousness and points Buddhist practitioners toward a skillful approach to nourishment. Buddhist teachings do provide normative moral structures\u2013\u2013rules\u2013\u2013on eating. Nonetheless, a precept is not a commandment and the Buddhist morality of eating has proved malleable within even the Chinese tradition. In practice, most Chinese Buddhists seem to have followed normative monastic codes once these became institutionalized. The various codes of behavior (whether translated from Indian Vinaya or written in China) can be understood as skillful in the sense that we now speak of a best practice\u2013\u2013they provided monks and nuns with exemplary models for behavior.  Despite the implementation of monastic codes in China, the attitudinal emphasis of many Buddhist teachings on eating helped to justify antinomian aberrations such as meat-eating, alcohol-drinking monks. While Buddhist narratives of corpse-eating monks may be a rhetorical fabrication, they remind us of the Buddhist commitment to attitudinal management as a skilled activity, which trumps rigid adherence to moral codes. Narratives depicting antinomian attitudes in regard to foodstuffs suggest to practitioners that moral agency is located in the intentions of the eater.  I do not mean to suggest that medieval Chinese Buddhism was characterized by an antinomian sentiment regarding the eating of meat, or that Chinese Buddhists ignored   222\t \u00a0the doctrine of non-harm and the precept of not killing. This would be a ludicrous, misguided reading of Chinese Buddhist morality. What I have endeavored to show is that because Chinese Buddhism is a cumulative, conflicting set of teachings, formed of different layers, the problem of how to eat as a Buddhist could not be easily settled on the basis of any single textual authority. The story does not begin and end with Indian Buddhists teaching Chinese Buddhists to be vegetarian. Lack of a clear textual authority meant that Buddhists in China had to argue for particular interpretations of how to eat, and meat was just one of the issues. This resulted in a drawn-out negotiation over the morality of Buddhist foodways that came to involve the larger cultural discourse on food and morality in Chinese society. Non-Buddhists also had a role in shaping Chinese Buddhist food practices, because all the major intellectual groupings of Chinese society had stakes in the question of how diet connects with moral status. Because Yichu selected viewpoints from Chinese Buddhist texts available in the tenth century, his presentation represents his personal reading of the evidence, and is perhaps a calculated intervention in the moral discourse on eating that colored his own society.  In interpreting Yichu\u2019s position, we must consider both Yichu\u2019s intellectual orientation and his intended audience. Yichu\u2019s biography remembers him as a scholar of Vasubandhu\u2019s Abhidarma Storehouse Treatise, suggesting that his approach to Buddhism was learned, systematic, and conceptual. His compilation of a Buddhist encyclopedia to represent the good teachings of the \u015a\u0101kya clan fits a conservative mould, one that places value in understanding the breadth and depth of Buddhist teachings. He points his readers to early Indian Buddhist approaches to eating, suggesting that he believed in the possibility of finding coherence among the cacophony of viewpoints. Yichu was a traditionalist at a time when Chan revisionist tendencies were beginning to assert greater influence in Buddhist circles, but he succeeded in finding compatibility. The emphasis on attitudinal skill shows remarkable consistency across this potential sectarian divide.  In his preface, Yichu pitches his Buddhist encyclopedia to a general readership, expressing frustration that the Buddhist teachings are often misunderstood. Could he have meant to correct the viewpoints of anti-scholastic proponents of Chan? Perhaps, but his inclusion of Chan literature in the Shishi liutie suggests that he was more likely   223\t \u00a0responding to anti-Buddhist sentiments in society at large and did not see Chan as the problem, per se. More likely to have troubled him are the critiques of Buddhism voiced by elite intellectuals and rulers toward the end of the Tang dynasty, and the political instability that came in the wake of the Tang\u2019s fall. Contextual evidence suggests that Yichu aimed his project at re-instilling confidence in the goodness of Buddhist teachings for implementation and patronage in Chinese society. Themes such as equanimity and moderation in eating would have resonated with Confucian values. Yichu\u2019s materials on the topic of food evince some friction with Daoists, who were playing a different game: extreme dieting as a way to claim superior ritual purity and transcendence. Though some Buddhist authors became involved in the social contest for ritual purity, Yichu mounts a case for viewing this contest as a dead-end that was rejected by the early Buddhist community.  Several questions regarding the historical context of Yichu\u2019s work remain under-explored in this study: How significant to understanding Yichu\u2019s particular approach to food is his association with the teachings of the Abhidarma Storehouse Treatise? How does Yichu\u2019s approach compare with that of Chinese monastic codes compiled in the centuries after the Shishi liutie was published? What evidence exists for piecing together a reception history for his ideas about food? Did anyone pay attention to this section of his encyclopedia? A short answer to the last question is available, though not satisfying. There seems to be little in the way of a reception history for the Shishi liutie as a whole, let alone the material that I consider in this study. I suspect that his work was largely overshadowed by the Song-dynasty vogue for Chan ideas and Chan methods for achieving awakening. Yichu's scholarly approach to Buddhist learning must have seemed cumbersome and overly complicated to new generations wooed by the soteriological potentials of dharma talks given by charismatic Chan masters who spoke in riddles and whooped dramatically. Still, there are further stories to be told about Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie, which was cherished enough to be preserved until the present. Forgotten in China but preserved in Japan, the Japanese reception history is especially worthy of more attention.  The most obvious shortcoming of this study has to do with its scope, which was constricted due to limitations of time and space. I based my analysis primarily on a   224\t \u00a0translation of the topic of food\/eating \u98df in Yichu\u2019s section devoted to food-related themes, but as we saw in Chapter Two, Yichu\u2019s coverage of food contains quite a lot more material than what I have translated. I have read the entire section on food topics and incorporated material from other topics (such as statements under porridge \u7ca5 for use in Chapter Five and statements on meat \u2f81\u8089 for Chapter One), but translation of the entire set of food topics was not feasible under the time constraints of the present study. A colophon and some prefatory materials also remain untranslated. I look forward to translating the remaining material as a future evolution of the current project. This future project would also benefit from further comparisons with food \u98df in other Buddhist leishu, such as the Jingl\u00fc yixiang, Fayuan zhulin, and the Shishi yaolan. A comparison with the topic of food in Bai Juyi's Baishi liutie is also warranted. Looking at secular leishu can help us gauge the mutual interaction of Buddhist ideas with the intellectual culture of different periods.  Because leishu are compilations of citations, more work could also be done to analyze the sources from which Yichu drew. His sources on food include many layers of Buddhist teachings from different periods of the development of Chinese Buddhism, but I have not yet endeavored to organize these sources chronologically or by school. For Yichu, these sources, and even some from Confucian learning, seem to be equally relevant to the intellectual legacy of Chinese Buddhist thought, so an attempt to sort these based on the philological work of modern scholars would yield a decidedly anachronistic lens, but might help us differentiate sectarian voices from the mix. Analytical differentiation could help us better understand the components that Yichu tolerated in his synthesis of \u015a\u0101kya clan teachings. Bringing in modern forms of knowledge can potentially help us find logical coherence in both past and present societies. A future extension of this project might analyze the alignment of the Chinese Buddhist diet with settled agrarian society, utilizing frames from human ecology. Buddhist diet emphasizes the products of agriculture: grains, cane sugar, and vegetables. The Daoist practice of avoiding grains,   225\t \u00a0pigu \u8f9f\u7a40, suggests just the opposite: a distancing from the products of organized agricultural society. From a dietary (nutritional) perspective, this discrepancy produces a tension very similar to what we see today between vegetarians and practitioners of a \"paleo\" diet. But the cultural implications are more to the point here: Buddhist teachings suggest an approval of and reliance on agrarian civilization, whereas the Daoist transcendents adhering to a grainless diet could be said to practice a pre-agrarian form of human ecology. This would align Buddhists with Confucians in affirming the social (and human-ecological) order of mainstream Chinese society, and mark these grain-avoiding Daoists as counter-culture. Yet we saw in Chapter One how Daoist themes are present in Song-dynasty recipe collections celebrating simple vegetarian foods\u2013\u2013how did this Confucian-Daoist diet take shape? Does it reflect rural patterns of human ecology where scholar officials made their living\u2013\u2013a provincial subculture? The interaction of diet, human ecology, and intellectual history in China is a topic deserving of more attention.  Methodologically, I hope to have demonstrated that the Shishi liutie and other Buddhist encyclopedias have merit for studying Buddhist frames used for key aspects of human life. In conducting this research, I had in mind the studies collected together by Donald Lopez for his edited volume Critical Terms for the Study of Buddhism. Each chapter in that volume focuses not on a point of Buddhist doctrine, but on a general category from everyday life. In Lopez\u2019s introduction to that volume, he raises the question of how Buddhism has been understood in different periods and in different societies, critiquing the narrowness of a particular image of Buddhism that has taken form in the last century: This Buddhism has been regarded above all as a religion of reason, dedicated to bringing an end to suffering. It is strongly ethical and is devoted to nonviolence, and as such is a vehicle for social reform. The Buddha himself is represented as the exemplar of these virtues, speaking out against the caste system and the practice of animal sacrifice. It is, however, an atheistic religion because it denies the existence of an omnipotent deity. And because it places a strong emphasis on rational analysis, it is, more than any other religion, compatible with modern science. The essential practice of Buddhism   226\t \u00a0is meditation, with the rituals of consecration, purification, and exorcism so common throughout Asia largely dismissed as late accretions of popular superstition. This Buddhism has been embraced in the West as both an alternative religion and an alternative to religion.406 My aim is not to be an apologist for any particular image of Buddhism, especially an idealized one such as this, or one assuming that there is only one correct interpretation of Buddhism. I believe, rather, that engaging different images of Buddhism helps us to identify those aspects of Buddhist teachings that are most coherent or in some way relevant to present-day concerns, while also revealing heterogeneity in Buddhist ideas and practices. An ideal image is a model, an interpretation based on criteria set by the authors of the model. As Lopez suggests, the terms of the above model are still in need of much debate and can benefit from further historical analyses. For this purpose, Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie is a useful tool, because it represents a tenth-century position on how Buddhist teachings treat everyday themes, serving a purpose similar to Lopez\u2019s volume. The global identity of Buddhism and appreciation (or critical reception) of its teachings remains an ongoing project in today\u2019s world. It is my hope that this dissertation will have contributed something useful, however small, to this continuing effort to understand the history of Buddhist teachings.           \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0406 Lopez ed., Critical Terms, 2.\t \u00a0  227\t \u00a0REFERENCES  Abbreviations (Collections and Online Resources)  CBETA Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association \u6f22\u2f42\u6587\u2f24\u5927\u85cf\u7d93, http:\/\/www.cbeta.org\/index.htm; accessed January 2013-July 2014. DCCV  Ministry of Education, R.O.C. Dictionary of Chinese Character Variants \u7570\u9ad4\u5b57\u5b57\u5178. <http:\/\/140.111.1.40\/main.htm>. Accessed September 2012 (5th edition, copyright 2000). DDB  MULLER, A. Charles, ed. Digital Dictionary of Buddhism. <http:\/\/buddhism-dict.net\/ddb>. Edition of 2013\/2\/15. Ding Fubao DING Fubao \u4e01\u798f\u4fdd. Foxue dacidian \u4f5b\u5b78\u2f24\u5927\u8fad\u5178. <http:\/\/cbs.ntu.edu.tw\/dict\/dfb\/data\/>. Accessed July 2014. FCJ  Foxue cishu jicheng. \u2014> FANCHI JUSHI, et al., Foxue cishu jicheng. Hirakawa \u2014> HIRAKAWA Akira. Bukky\u014d kan-bon daijiten. J  Jiaxing dazang jing \u5609\u8208\u2f24\u5927\u85cf\u7d93. CBETA (Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association), http:\/\/www.cbeta.org\/index.htm; accessed July 2014; in notes as (J [volume #] n [text #], [page-column-line]). K  Korean Canon \u2fbc\u9ad8\u9e97\u2f24\u5927\u85cf\u7d93. CBETA (Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association), http:\/\/www.cbeta.org\/index.htm; accessed July 2014; in notes as (K [volume #] n [text #], [page-column-line]). L  Qianlong dazang jing \u4e7e\u9686\u2f24\u5927\u85cf\u7d93. CBETA (Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association), http:\/\/www.cbeta.org\/index.htm; accessed July 2014; in notes as (L [volume #] n [text #], [page-column-line]). Mochizuki \u2014> MOCHIZUKI Shink\u014d, Bukky\u014d daijiten P  Yongle beizang \u6c38\u6a02\u5317\u85cf. CBETA (Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association), http:\/\/www.cbeta.org\/index.htm; accessed January 2015; in notes as (P [volume #] n [text #], [page-column-line]). SAT  SAT Daiz\u014dky\u014d Text Database \u2f24\u5927\u6b63\u65b0\u8129\u2f24\u5927\u85cf\u7d93\u30c6\u30ad\u30b9\u30c8\u30c7\u30fc\u30bf\u30d9\u30fc\u30b9. <http:\/\/21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp\/SAT\/ddb-bdk-sat2.php>. Accessed January 2013-July 2014.   228\t \u00a0SS  Scripta Sinica. Hanji quanwen ziliao ku \u6f22\u7c4d\u5168\u2f42\u6587\u8cc7\u6599\u5eab. Institute of History and Philology \u6b77\u53f2\u8a9e\u2f94\u8a00\u7814\u7a76\u6240, Academia Sinica \u4e2d\u592e\u7814\u7a76\u9662, Taiwan. <http:\/\/hanchi.ihp.sinica.edu.tw\/ihpc\/hanji?@10^1180600153^90^^^..\/hanjimg\/hanji.htm>. Accessed January 2013-December 2014. T  Taish\u014d shinsh\u016b daiz\u014dky\u014d \u2f24\u5927\u6b63\u65b0\u8129\u2f24\u5927\u85cf\u7d93. CBETA or SAT; in notes as (T [volume #] n [text #], [page-column-line]). X  Xu zang jing (Zokuz\u014dky\u014d) \u7e8c\u85cf\u7d93. CBETA; in notes as (X [volume #] n [text #], [page-column-line]).   Primary Sources (by title)407  Agga\u00f1\u00f1a Sutta. D\u012bgha Nik\u0101ya 27 (Pali Canon).   Apidamo da piposha lun \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u2f24\u5927\u6bd8\u5a46\u6c99\u8ad6 (Treatise of the Great Commentary on the Abhidharma; Skt. Abhidharma-maha\u0304-vibha\u0304s\u0323a\u0304-\u015ba\u0304stra). K\u0101ty\u0101yan\u012bputra \u8fe6\u591a\u884d\u5c3c\u5b50 of Kashmir (2nd c. BCE). Trans. 656-659 by Xuanzang \u7384\u5958 (602-664). T27 n1545.  Apidamo jiyi menzu lun \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u96c6\u7570\u2fa8\u9580\u2f9c\u8db3\u8ad6 (Collection of Different Aspects of the Abhidharma Path Treatise). Trans. by Xuanzang \u7384\u5958 (602-664) between 660-664. T26 n1536.  Apidamo jushe lun \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u5036\u820d\u8ad6, (Skt. Abhidharmako\u015ba-bh\u0101\u1e63ya, Abhidharma Storehouse Treatise). Vasubandhu \u4e16\u89aa (ca. 5th c.). Trans. ca. 563-7 by Param\u00e2rtha (499-569) and ca. 651-654 by Xuanzang \u7384\u5958 (602-664). T29 n1559 and n1558, respectively.  Apidamo shun zhengli lun \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u9806\u6b63\u7406\u8ad6 (Skt. Abhidharma-ny\u0101y\u00e2nus\u0101ra \u015b\u0101stra; Abhidharma Treatise Following Correct Reasoning). Attr. to Sa\u1e43ghabhadra \u8846\u8ce2 (5th c.); trans. by Xuanzang \u7384\u5958 (602-664) between 653-654. T29 n1562. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0407 For English translations of titles, I follow those given in Muller, Digital Dictionary of Buddhism, unless there is a no title given or I have a difference of opinion. For the sake of improving consistency across Buddhist Studies, I have chosen not to treat titles as subject to intellectual property rights.\t \u00a0  229\t \u00a0 Baishi liutie \u2f69\u767d\u6c0f\u516d\u5e16 (Mr. Bai\u2019s Six Books). Bai Juyi \u2f69\u767d\u5c45\u6613 (772-846 CE).   Baiyu jing \u767e\u55bb\u7d93 (Sutra of the One Hundred Parables). Composed 5th c. by Sa\u1e43ghasena \u50e7\u4f3d\u65af\u90a3 (d.u.); trans. to Chinese in 492 by Gu\u1e47av\u1e5bddhi \u6c42\u90a3\u6bd8\u5730 (fl. 479-502). T4 n209.  Baiyuan jing \u767e\u7de3\u7d93 aka Zhuanji baiyuan jing \u64b0\u96c6\u767e\u7de3\u7d93 (Skt. Avada\u0304na\u015bataka; Sutra Collating the Hundred Conditions). Trans. by Zhiqian \u2f40\u652f\u8b19 (fl. 223-253). T4 n200.  Baizhang gu qinggui \u767e\u4e08\u53e4\u6e05\u898f (Old [i.e., original] Version of the Baizhang Pure Rules). Attr. to Baizhang Huihai \u767e\u4e08\u61f7\u6d77 (720-814). Not extant.  Bao\u2019en jing \u5831\u6069\u7d93 \u2014> Da fangbian fo bao\u2019en jing  Baopuzi \u62b1\u6734\u2f26\u5b50 (Master of Simplicity). Published 317 by Ge Hong \u845b\u6d2a (283-363).   Bencao gangmu \u672c\u8349\u7db1\u2f6c\u76ee (Compendium of Materia Medica). Compiled 1578 and published 1596, Li Shizhen \u674e\u6642\u73cd (1518-1593). Scripta Sinica.  Benxing jing \u672c\u2f8f\u884c\u7d93 \u2014> Fo benxingji jing  Benxin zhai shushi pu \u672c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u9f4b\u852c\u98df\u8b5c (Vegetable Recipes from Benxin Studio). Chen Dasou \u9673\u9054\u53df (d.u.). Wang, ed. in chief, Congshu jicheng chubian, v. 1473.   Bianzhenglun \u8faf\u6b63\u8ad6 (Treatise on Discerning the Correct). Falin \u6cd5\u7433 (572\u2013640). T52 n2110.  Bukong juansuo shenzhou xinjing \u4e0d\u7a7a\u7f82\u7d22\u795e\u546a\u2f3c\u5fc3\u7d93 (Skt. Amoghap\u0101\u015bakalpa-h\u1e5bdayadh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b; Divine Heart Spell of the Infallible Lasso). Trans. by Xuanzang \u7384\u5958 (602-664). T20 n1094.  Cefu yuangui \u518a\u5e9c\u5143\u9f9c (Oracle of the Literary Storehouse). Wang Qinruo \u738b\u6b3d\u82e5 (962-1025) et al. SS.    230\t \u00a0Chang ahan jing \u9577\u963f\u542b\u7d93 (Longer \u0100gama Sutra; Skt. D\u012brgh\u00e2gama). Trans. in 412-13 by Zhu Fonian \u7afa\u4f5b\u5ff5 (4th c.) and Buddhaya\u015bas \u4f5b\u9640\u8036\u820d (5th c.). T1 n1.  Chanlin baoxun yinyi \u79aa\u6797\u5bf6\u8a13\u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9 (Treasured Guidance on Pronunciation and Meanings in Chan). Dajian \u2f24\u5927\u5efa (fl. 1635). X64 n1262.  Chanyuan qinggui \u79aa\u82d1\u6e05\u898f (Pure Rules for Chan Temples). 1101-1103 CE, Changlu Zongze \u9577\u8606\u5b97\u8cfe (d. ca. 1107). X63 n1245.  Cheng weishi lun \u6210\u552f\u8b58\u8ad6 (Discourse on the Theory of Consciousness-Only; Skt. Vij\u00f1aptima\u0304trata\u0304siddhi-\u015ba\u0304stra). Composite text. T31 n1585.   Chixiu Baizhang qinggui \u52c5\u4fee\u767e\u4e08\u6e05\u898f (Imperially-Commissioned Baizhang Pure Rules). Ca. 1335 CE, Dongyang Dehui \u6771\u967d\u5fb7\u8f1d (fl. 1329-1335). T48 n2025.  Chongding jiaosheng fashu \u91cd\u8a02\u6559\u4e58\u6cd5\u6578 (Revised Numbered Concepts of the Teaching Vehicle). Revised prior to 1735 by Chaohai \u8d85\u6d77 (d.u.) et al. based on the original compilation by Yuanjing \u5713\u701e (ca. 15th c.). L162 n1666.   Chuxue ji \u521d\u5b78\u8a18 (Record for the Beginning of Learning). Xu Jian \u5f90\u5805 (659-729) et al.  Chuyao jing \u51fa\u66dc\u7d93 (Skt. Dharmap\u0101da; Sutra of the Appearance of Light). Trans. by Zhu Fonian \u7afa\u4f5b\u5ff5 (4th c.) in 374. T4 n212.  Da banniepan jing \u2f24\u5927\u822c\u6d85\u69c3\u7d93 (Skt. Mah\u0101parinirv\u0101\u1e47a-s\u016btra; Sutra of the Great Decease). Referring to a trans. by Darmak\u1e63ema \u66c7\u7121\u8b96 (385-433), T12 n374; and to a trans. by Huiyan \u6167\u56b4 (363-443), T12 n375.  Dabao guangbo louge shanzhu mimi tuoluoni jing \u2f24\u5927\u5bf6\u5ee3\u535a\u6a13\u95a3\u5584\u4f4f\u7955\u5bc6\u9640\u7f85\u5c3c\u7d93 (Most Secret Well-Established Dh\u0101ra\u1e47i of the Vast Gem-Encrusted Tower). Trans. by Amoghavajra \u4e0d\u7a7a (705-774). T19 n1005.  Dabei zhou \u2014> Qianshou qianyan guanshiyin pusa wuai dabeixin tuoluoni    231\t \u00a0Da fangbian fo bao\u2019en jing \u2f24\u5927\u2f45\u65b9\u4fbf\u4f5b\u5831\u6069\u7d93 (Great Skillful Means Sutra on the Buddha's Repayment of Kindness). Eastern Han dynasty, 25-220 CE (author\/trans. unknown). T3 n156.  Dafangguangfo huayan jing suishu yanyi chao \u5927\u65b9\u5ee3\u4f5b\u83ef\u56b4\u7d93\u758f (Commentary on the Flower Garland Sutra of the Vast Buddha). Chengguan \u6f84\u89c0 (738-839). T35 n1735.  Dafangguangfo huayan jing suishu yanyi chao \u5927\u65b9\u5ee3\u4f5b\u83ef\u56b4\u7d93\u96a8\u758f\u6f14\u7fa9\u9214 (Summary of the Gist of the Commentary on the Flower Garland Sutra of the Vast Buddha). Chengguan \u6f84\u89c0 (738-839). T36 n1736.  Da foding rulai miyin xiuzheng liaoyi zhu pusa wanxing shou lengyan jing \u2f24\u5927\u4f5b\u9802\u5982\u4f86\u5bc6\u56e0\u4fee\u8b49\u4e86\u7fa9\u8af8\u83e9\u85a9\u842c\u2f8f\u884c\u2fb8\u9996\u695e\u56b4\u7d93 (\u015a\u016bra\u1e45gama s\u016btra). Trans. (705) attr. to Pramiti \u822c\u523a\u871c\u5e1d (d.u.) but thought by many scholars to be an apocryphal Chinese work. T19 n945.  Da foding wanxing shoulengyan tuoluoni \u2f24\u5927\u4f5b\u9802\u842c\u2f8f\u884c\u2fb8\u9996\u695e\u56b4\u9640\u7f85\u5c3c (Great Buddha-Peak Heroic March Dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b of the Ten Thousand Practices). Found in fascicle 7 of Da foding rulai miyin xiuzheng liaoyi zhu pusa wanxing shou lengyan jing.  Da piluzhena chengfo shenbian jiachi jing \u2f24\u5927\u6bd8\u76e7\u906e\u90a3\u6210\u4f5b\u795e\u8b8a\u52a0\u6301\u7d93 (Skt. Mah\u0101vairocana-s\u016btra; Sutra of the Transformations and Empowering Presence of the Manifest Enlightenment of the Grand Resplendent One; aka Dari jing \u2f24\u5927\u2f47\u65e5\u7d93). Trans. \u015aubhakarasi\u1e43ha \u5584\u7121\u754f (637-735) and Yixing \u2f00\u4e00\u2f8f\u884c (683-727) in 724. T18 n848.  Daming sanzang fashu \u2f24\u5927\u660e\u4e09\u85cf\u6cd5\u6578 (Great Ming [Collection of] Numerical Concepts from the Buddhist Canon). Collated by Yiru \u2f00\u4e00\u5982 (1352-1425) et al. P181-183 n1615.  Dazhidu lun \u2f24\u5927\u667a\u5ea6\u8ad6. Attr. to N\u0101g\u00e2rjuna \u9f8d\u6a39 (2nd-3rd c.); trans. by Kum\u0101raj\u012bva \u9ce9\u6469\u7f85\u4ec0 (344-413). T25 n1509.    232\t \u00a0Daming sanzang fashu \u2f24\u5927\u660e\u4e09\u85cf\u6cd5\u6578 (The Great Ming Tripi\u1e6daka Encyclopedia of Numbered Concepts). Yiru \u2f00\u4e00\u5982 (1352-1425). See YIRU in the list of secondary sources for the edition used here. Also P181-183 n1615.  Dasheng bensheng xindi guan jing \u2f24\u5927\u4e58\u672c\u2f63\u751f\u2f3c\u5fc3\u5730\u89c0\u7d93 (Mah\u0101y\u0101na Sutra of Contemplating the Mind Ground in the Buddha's Life). Trans. attr. to Praj\u00f1\u0101 in 791, but now thought to be later work by someone else. T3 n159.  Dasheng baoyun jing \u2f24\u5927\u4e58\u5bf6\u96f2\u7d93 (Maha\u0304ya\u0304na-ratnameghasu\u0304tra; Jewel Cloud Scripture). T16 n659.  Daweide jing \u2013\u2013> Daweide tuoluoni jing  Daweide tuoluoni jing \u2f24\u5927\u5a01\u5fb3\u9640\u7f85\u5c3c\u7d93 (Dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b of Greatly Powerful One; Skt. Mah\u0101bala-dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b-s\u016btra). Trans. by J\u00f1\u0101nagupta \u95cd\u90a3\u5d1b\u591a (523-600\/605?). T21 n1341.  Dazhidu lun \u5927\u667a\u5ea6\u8ad6 (Skt. Mah\u0101praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101-\u015b\u0101stra; Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom [Sutra]). Attr. to N\u0101g\u0101rjuna \u9f8d\u6a39 (2nd-3rd c.); trans. by Kum\u0101raj\u012bva \u9ce9\u6469\u7f85\u4ec0 (344-413). T25 n1509.  Dijing jingwu l\u00fce \u5e1d\u4eac\u666f\u7269\u7565 (Summary of Scenes and Objects of the Imperial Capital). Liu Tong \u5289\u4f97 (scholar status in 1634).  Dongjin lu \u6771\u6649\u9304 (Records of the Eastern Jin). [Identity not clear]   Eihei shingi \u6c38\u5e73\u6e05\u898f (Pure Rules for Eihei Temple). D\u014dgen \u9053\u5143 (1200-1253).  Fahua yishu \u6cd5\u83ef\u7fa9\u758f (Commentary on the Meaning of the Lotus Sutra). Jizang \u5409\u85cf (549-623). T34 n1721.  Fajiyao song jing \u6cd5\u96c6\u8981\u980c\u7d93 (Scripture of Collected Essentials for Recitation; Skt. Uda\u0304na-varga \/ Dharmapada). T4 n213.   Famen mingyi ji \u6cd5\u2fa8\u9580\u540d\u7fa9\u96c6 (Collection on the Meanings of Well-Known Buddhist Doctrine). Li Shizheng \u674e\u5e2b\u653f (fl. 618-626). T54 n2124.    233\t \u00a0Fanwang jing \u68b5\u7db2\u7d93 (Scripture of Brahma's Net). Trans. attributed to Kum\u0101raj\u012bva, but now thought to be apocryphal.   Fanyi mingyi ji \u7ffb\u8b6f\u540d\u7fa9\u96c6 (Compilation of Translated [Buddhist] Terms). 1143 CE., Fayun \u6cd5\u96f2 (1088-1185 CE). T54 n2131.  Fanyu qianzi wen \u68b5\u8a9e\u5343\u5b57\u2f42\u6587 (Sanskrit Words for a Thousand Characters). Collated by Yijing \u7fa9\u6de8 (635-713). T54 n2133.  Fanyu zaming \u68b5\u8a9e\u96dc\u540d (A Miscellany of Sanskrit Terms). Compiled by Liyan \u79ae\u2f94\u8a00 (fl. 839) and edited by Zhenyuan \u771f\u6e90, T54 n2135.  Fayuan zhulin \u6cd5\u82d1\u73e0\u6797 (Dharma Gardens and Pearled Groves). 668 CE., Daoshi \u9053\u4e16 (?-683). T53 n2122.  Fengtu ji \u98a8\u2f1f\u571f\u8a18 (Record of Local Customs). Zhou Chu \u5468\u8655 (238-299).  Fo benxingji jing \u4f5b\u672c\u2f8f\u884c\u96c6\u7d93 (Skt. Abhini\u1e63krama\u1e47a-s\u016btra; Sutra of the Collection of the Past Activities of the Buddha). Trans. by J\u00f1\u0101nagupta \u95cd\u90a3\u5d1b\u591a (523-600). T3 n190.   Fodi lun \u4f5b\u5730\u8ad6 aka Fodi jinglun \u4f5b\u5730\u7d93\u8ad6 (Treatise on the Buddha-bh\u016bmi-s\u016btra). Trans. in 650 by Xuanzang \u7384\u5958 (602-664). T26 n1530.  Foding zhou\u2014> Da foding wanxing shoulengyan tuoluoni  Foshuo ajiuliu jing \u4f5b\u8aaa\u963f\u9ce9\u7559\u7d93 (Sutra on A\u1e45kura spoken by the Buddha). Trans. unknown. T14 n529.  Foshuo chaoriming sanmei jing \u4f5b\u8aaa\u8d85\u2f47\u65e5\u660e\u4e09\u6627\u7d93 (Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on the Samadhi Brighter Than the Sun). Trans. attr. to Nie Chengyuan \u8076\u627f\u9060 (fl. 290-306). T15 n638.   Foshuo daji famen jing \u4f5b\u8aac\u5927\u96c6\u6cd5\u9580\u7d93 (Sutra of the Great Collection of Teachings Spoken by the Buddha). Trans. in 1005 by D\u0101nap\u0101la \u65bd\u8b77 (fl. 982-1005). T1 n12.   234\t \u00a0 Foshuo faji mingshu jing \u4f5b\u8aaa\u6cd5\u96c6\u540d\u6578\u7d93 (Sutra of the Numbered Concepts in the Collected Teachings Spoken by the Buddha). Da\u0304napa\u0304la \u65bd\u8b77 (fl. 982). T17 n764.  Foshuo hailongwang jing \u4f5b\u8aaa\u6d77\u9f8d\u738b\u7d93 (Scripture Spoken by the Buddha on the Dragon King of the Ocean; Skt. Sa\u0304garana\u0304gara\u0304ja paripr\u0323ccha\u0304 su\u0304tra). Trans. ca. 300 by Dharmaraks\u0323a \u7afa\u6cd5\u8b77 (230?-316). T15 n598.  Foshuo lishi apitan lun \u4f5b\u8aac\u2f74\u7acb\u4e16\u963f\u6bd8\u66c7\u8ad6 (Abhidharma Treatise on the Establishment of Worlds as Spoken by the Buddha; Skt. Lokasth\u0101n\u00e2bhidharma \u015b\u0101stra). Author unknown. Trans. attr. to Param\u00e2rtha \u771e\u8ae6 (499-569) (now under question). T n1644.  Foshuo shishi huo wufubao jing \u4f5b\u8aaa\u98df\u65bd\u7372\u4e94\u798f\u5831\u7d93 (Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on the Five Blessings Reaped from the Bestowal of Food). Ca. Eastern Jin (317-420), translator unknown. T2 n132.  Foshuo weimojie jing \u4f5b\u8aaa\u7dad\u6469\u8a70\u7d93 (The Vimalak\u012brti Sutra Spoken by the Buddha). Trans. between 222-229 by Zhiqian \u2f40\u652f\u8b19 (fl. 223-253). T14 n474.  Gaoseng Faxian zhuan \u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u6cd5\u986f\u50b3 (The Biography of Faxian). Faxian \u6cd5\u986f (320?-420?). T51 n2085.  Gaoseng zhuan \u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u50b3 (Biographies of Eminent Monks). Compiled by Huijiao \u6167\u768e (497-554). T50 n2059.  Guang hongming ji \u5ee3\u5f18\u660e\u96c6 (The Broad Collection Aggrandizing and Clarifying [Buddhism]). Compiled 7th c. by Daoxuan \u9053\u5ba3 (596-667). T52 n2103.  Guoqu xianzai yinguo jing \u904e\u53bb\u73fe\u5728\u56e0\u679c\u7d93 (Scripture on Causes and Effects of Past and Present). Trans. between 435-443 by Gu\u1e47abhadra \u6c42\u90a3\u8dcb\u9640\u7f85 (394-468) et al. T3 n189; K 777.  Hailongwang jing \u2013\u2013> Foshuo hailongwang jing  Hanfeizi \u97d3\u975e\u2f26\u5b50 (Master Hanfei). Han Fei \u97d3\u975e (d. 233 BCE). SS.    235\t \u00a0Hanshu \u6f22\u66f8 (History of the Han). Multiple authors; completed 2nd c. SS.  Hongming ji \u5f18\u660e\u96c6 (Collection Aggrandizing and Clarifying [Buddhism]). Sengyou \u50e7\u7950 (445\u2013518). T52 n2102.  Houhan shu \u5f8c\u6f22\u66f8 (History of the Latter Han). Fan Ye \u8303\u66c4 (398-445). SS.  Hualin bianl\u00fce \u83ef\u6797\u904d\u7565 (Concisely Edited Flowered Grove). Listed in the Jiu tangshu \u820a\u5510\u66f8: Compiled by Xu Mian \u5f90\u52c9 in six hundred fascicles.  Huanglan \u7687\u89bd (Magnificent Readings). Listed in the Jiu tangshu \u820a\u5510\u66f8: Compiled by He Chengtian \u4f55\u627f\u5929 in one-hundred twenty-two fascicles; appended with an additional eighty-four fascicles by Xu Yuan \u5f90\u7230.  Huayan jing suishu yanyi chao\u2013\u2013> Dafangguangfo huayan jing suishu yanyi chao   Jilei pian \u96de\u808b\u7de8 (Chicken Breast Book). Zhuang Chuo \u838a\u7dbd (ca. 12th c.). SS.  Jin\u2019gang bore boluomi jing \u2fa6\u91d1\u525b\u822c\u82e5\u6ce2\u7f85\u871c\u7d93 (Skt. Vajracchedik\u0101-praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101-s\u016btra; the Diamond Sutra). Trans. by Kum\u0101raj\u012bva \u9ce9\u6469\u7f85\u4ec0 (344-413). T8 n235.  Jin\u2019gang bore lun \u2fa6\u91d1\u525b\u822c\u82e5\u8ad6 (Treatise on the Diamond Sutra) aka Jin'gang bore boluomi jing lun \u91d1\u525b\u822c\u82e5\u6ce2\u7f85\u871c\u7d93\u8ad6 (Skt. Vajracchedik\u0101-praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u00f4pade\u015ba; Treatise on the Sutra of Adamantine Transcendent Wisdom). Referring to two different treatises: one by Asa\u1e45ga \u7121\u8457 (d.u.), trans. by Dharmagupta \u9054\u6469\u7b08\u591a (d. 619), T25 n1510b; and one by Vasubandhu \u4e16\u89aa (d.u.), trans. by Bodhiruci in 509, T25 n1511.  Jingl\u00fc yixiang \u7d93\u5f8b\u7570\u76f8 (Representations of the Sutras and Vinaya). 516 CE. Baochang \u5bf6\u5531 (fl. 495-505) et al. T53 n2121.   Jinzang lun \u2fa6\u91d1\u85cf\u8ad6 (Treatise on the Golden Treasury). Daoji \u9053\u7d00 (late 6th c.).   Jiumianran egui tuoluoni shenzhou jing \u6551\u2faf\u9762\u71c3\u9913\u9b3c\u9640\u7f85\u5c3c\u795e\u546a\u7d93 (Dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b for Saving the Burning-Mouth Hungry Ghosts). Trans. by \u015aik\u1e63\u0101nanda \u5be6\u53c9\u96e3\u9640 (ca. late 7th c.). T21 n1314.    236\t \u00a0Jiyi menzu lun \u96c6\u7570\u2fa8\u9580\u2f9c\u8db3\u8ad6 aka Apidamo jiyi menzu lun \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u96c6\u7570\u2fa8\u9580\u2f9c\u8db3\u8ad6 (Collection of Different Aspects of the Abhidharma Path Treatise; Abhidharma-sa\u1e43g\u012bti-pary\u0101ya-p\u0101da-\u015b\u0101stra). Trans. 660-664 by Xuanzang (602-664). T26 1536.  Jujia biyong shilei quanji \u5c45\u5bb6\u5fc5\u2f64\u7528\u4e8b\u985e\u5168\u96c6 (Complete Collection of Topically Ordered Essentials for the Householder). Yuan (1271-1368), authorship unknown.  Jushe lun \u2014> Apidamo jushe lun  Jushelun songshi shu \u4ff1\u820d\u8ad6\u980c\u91cb\u758f\u2014> Jushe lun song shu lun ben  Jushe lun song shu lun ben \u5036\u820d\u8ad6\u980c\u758f\u8ad6\u672c (Root [Meanings] of Treatises, Commentaries, and Eulogies of the Abhidharma Storehouse Treatise). Yuanhui \u5713\u6689 (8th c.). T n1823.  Kissa y\u014dj\u014dki \u55ab\u8336\u990a\u2f63\u751f\u8a18 (Notes on Drinking Tea to Nourish Life). My\u014dan Eisai \u660e\u5eb5\u69ae\u897f (1141-1215).  Leiyuan \u985e\u82d1 (Topical Collection). Listed in the Jiu tangshu \u820a\u5510\u66f8: Compiled by Liu Xiao \u5289\u5b5d, one-hundred twenty fascicles.  Lengqie abaduuoluo bao jing \u695e\u4f3d\u963f\u8dcb\u591a\u7f85\u5bf6\u7d93 (Skt. La\u1e45k\u00e2vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra). Trans. by Gun\u0323abhadra \u6c42\u90a3\u8dcb\u9640\u7f85 (394-468). T16 n670.  Longkan shoujian \u9f8d\u9f95\u2f3f\u624b\u9451 (Hand Mirror of the Dragon Shrine). 997 CE, Xingjun \u2f8f\u884c\u5747 (d.u.). FANCHI JUSHI, et al., Foxue cishu jicheng. Also accessed through DCCV.  Mah\u0101vagga-p\u0101\u1e37i, (The Great Section [of the Pali Vinaya]). <http:\/\/tipitaka.sutta.org\/canon\/vinaya\/mah\u0101vagga>.  Miaofa lianhua jing \u5999\u6cd5\u84ee\u83ef\u7d93 (Skt. Saddharmapu\u1e47\u1e0dar\u012bka-s\u016btra; Sutra of the Lotus of the Wonderful Dharma, aka the Lotus Sutra). Trans. by Kum\u0101raj\u012bva (344-413) in 406. T9 n262.    237\t \u00a0Mishasaibu hexi wufenl\u00fc \u5f4c\u6c99\u585e\u90e8\u548c\u91af\u4e94\u5206\u5f8b (Vinaya of the Mah\u012b\u015b\u0101saka School). Brought in 413 to China by Faxian \u6cd5\u986f (ca. 320-420); transl. ca. 423-434 by Buddhaj\u012bva \u4f5b\u9640\u4ec0 (fl. 423-424) and Daosheng \u9053\u2f63\u751f (355-434). T22 n1421.  Mohe sengqi l\u00fc \u6469\u8a36\u50e7\u7947\u5f8b (Skt. Mah\u0101s\u0101\u1e43ghika vinaya; Monastic Codes of the Mah\u0101s\u0101\u1e43ghika School of Buddhism). Trans. in the Eastern Jin dynasty (317-420) by Buddhabhadra \u4f5b\u9640\u8dcb\u9640\u7f85 (359-429) and Faxian \u6cd5\u986f (ca. 337-422). T22 n1425.   Mouzi lihuo zhengwu lun \u725f\u2f26\u5b50\u7406\u60d1\u6b63\u8aa3\u8ad6 (Master Mou's Treatise on Correcting Error and Removing Doubt). Traditionally dated to ca. 2nd c. Contained in the Hongming ji \u5f18\u660e\u96c6, T52 n2102.  Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan \u5357\u6d77\u5bc4\u6b78\u5167\u6cd5\u50b3 (A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea). Completed in 691 by Yijing \u7fa9\u6de8 (635-713). T54 n2125.  Naxian biqiu jing \u90a3\u5148\u6bd4\u4e18\u7d93 (Sutra on the Questions of King Milinda). Trans. unknown; ca. Eastern Jin (317-420). T32 n1670A and n1670B.  Niepan jing \u6d85\u69c3\u7d93 (Skt. Maha\u0304parinirva\u0304n\u0323a-su\u0304tra; Nirvana Sutra). Refers to a group of related s\u016btras.   Pusa shanjie jing \u83e9\u85a9\u5584\u6212\u7d93 (Sutra on the Wholesome Morality of Bodhisattvas). Trans. in 431 by Gu\u1e47avarman \u6c42\u90a3\u8dcb\u6469 (367-431). T30 n1582 (9 fascicles) and n1583 (1 fascicle).  Qianshou qianyan guanshiyin pusa daguang dayuanman wuai dabeixin tuoluoni jing \u5343\u624b\u5343\u773c\u89c0\u4e16\u97f3\u83e9\u85a9\u5927\u5ee3\u5927\u5713\u6eff\u7121\u7919\u5927\u60b2\u5fc3\u9640\u7f85\u5c3c\u7d93 (Sk. Mah\u0101-k\u0101ru\u1e47ika-citta-dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b; Dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b of the Thousand-Eyed, Thousand-Armed Bodhisattva Who Regards the World's Sounds with a Vast, Wholly Perfect, Unimpeded, Greatly Compassionate Heart; aka the Dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b of Great Compassion). T20 n1060.  Qingyi lu \u6e05\u7570\u9304 (Records of the Pure and Strange). Tao Gu \u9676\u6996 (903-970).   Qishi jing \u8d77\u4e16\u7d93 (Sutra on the Arising of Worlds; assoc. with Pali Agga\u00f1\u00f1a Sutta). Trans. 585-600 by J\u00f1\u0101nagupta \u95cd\u90a3\u5d1b\u591a (523-600\/605?). T1 n24.    238\t \u00a0Rishe pian \u2f47\u65e5\u6d89\u7bc7  \/  Rishe bian \u2f47\u65e5\u6d89\u7de8 (Book of the Wading Sun). 1611, Chen Jie \u9673\u5826  (fl. 1611). SS.  Shanjia qinggong \u5c71\u5bb6\u6e05\u4f9b (Pure Offerings of Rural Households). Compiled in the Southern Song by Lin Hong \u6797\u6d2a (d.u.). Wang, Congshu jicheng chubian, v. 1473.  Shijing \u8a69\u7d93 (aka Maoshi \u2f51\u6bdb\u8a69; Book of Odes). SS.  Shishi huo wufubao jing \u98df\u65bd\u7372\u4e94\u798f\u5831\u7d93 (Sutra on the Five Blessings Reaped from the Bestowal of Food). Trans. unknown. T2 n132b.  Shishi liutie \u91cb\u6c0f\u516d\u5e16 (Six Books of the \u015a\u0101kya Clan). 954 CE., Yichu \u7fa9\u695a (fl.945-954). Yanagida and Shiina. Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan Dai 6, Vol.2.   Shishi yaolan \u91cb\u6c0f\u8981\u89bd (Manual of Buddhist Practices [\u201cEssentials of the \u015a\u0101kya Clan\u201d]). 1019 CE., Daocheng \u9053\u8aa0 (d.u.). T54 n2127.  Shisong l\u00fc \u2f17\u5341\u8aa6\u5f8b (Ten Recitations Vinaya). Trans. by Pu\u1e47yat\u0101ra \u5f17\u82e5\u591a\u7f85 (ca. 4-5th c.) and Kum\u0101raj\u012bva \u9ce9\u6469\u7f85\u4ec0(344\u2013413). T23 n1435.  Shiwen leiju \u4e8b\u2f42\u6587\u985e\u805a (Citations on Matters in Topical Arrangement). Preface to Zhu Mu\u2019s initial compilation dated 1246, Zhu Mu \u795d\u7a46 (?-1255), Fu Dayong \u5bcc\u2f24\u5927\u2f64\u7528 (d.u.), and Zhu Yuan \u795d\u6df5 (d.u.).   Shi zhu egui yinshi ji shui fa \u65bd\u8af8\u9913\u9b3c\u98f2\u98df\u53ca\u2f54\u6c34\u6cd5 (Method for Giving Water and Food to the Various Hungry Ghosts). T21 n1315.  Shouguang shuyuan \u58fd\u5149\u66f8\u82d1 (Library of the Light of Long Life). Listed in the Jiu tangshu \u820a\u5510\u66f8: Compiled by Liu Xiang \u5289\u2fb9\u9999, two hundred fascicles.   Shoulengyan jing \u2014> Da foding rulai miyin xiuzheng liaoyi zhu pusa wanxing shou lengyan jing  Shuo wugoucheng jing \u8aaa\u7121\u57a2\u7a31\u7d93 (Sutra Spoken on the Immaculate Reputation [of Vimalak\u012brti]). Trans. in 650 by Xuanzang \u7384\u5958 (602-664). T14 n476.    239\t \u00a0Sifenl\u00fc \u56db\u5206\u5f8b (Four-Part Vinaya). Trans. by Buddhaya\u015bas \u4f5b\u9640\u8036\u820d (5th c.) and Zhu Fonian \u7afa\u4f5b\u5ff5 (4th c.). T22 n1428.  Sifenl\u00fc shanfan buque xingshi chao \u56db\u5206\u5f8b\u522a\u7e41\u88dc\u95d5\u2f8f\u884c\u4e8b\u9214 (Summary of the Four-Part Vinaya Eliminating Repetition and Augmenting Overlooked Services). Composed ca. 626-630 by Daoxuan \u9053\u5ba3 (596-667). T40 n1804.  Sifenl\u00fc xingshi chao zichi ji \u56db\u5206\u5f8b\u2f8f\u884c\u4e8b\u9214\u8cc7\u6301\u8a18 (Record Upholding the Value of Perpetuating the Services in the Vinaya of the Four Categories). Yuanzhao \u5143\u7167 (1048-1116). T40 n1805.  Song gaoseng zhuan \u5b8b\u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u50b3 (Song Biographies of Eminent Monks). 988 CE., Zanning \u8d0a\u5be7. Zhongguo fojiao dianji xuankan. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju \u4e2d\u83ef\u66f8\u5c40, 1987.  Suihua jili \u6b72\u83ef\u7d00\u9e97. Han E \u97d3\u9102 (ca. late Tang to early Five Dynasties).  Sou shen ji \u641c\u795e\u8a18 (Record of the Search for the Supernatural). Gan Bao \u2f32\u5e72\u5bf6 (?-336 CE). SS.  Supohu tongzi qingwen jing \u8607\u5a46\u547c\u7ae5\u2f26\u5b50\u8acb\u554f\u7d93 (Tantra of the Questions of S\u016bbahu; Skt. S\u016bbahu-parip\u1e5bcch\u0101-tantra, S\u016bbahu-parip\u1e5bcch\u0101). T18 n895. Trans. by \u015aubhakarasi\u1e43ha \u5584\u7121\u754f (637\u2013735).  Taiping yulan \u592a\u5e73\u5fa1\u89bd (Imperial Readings from the Great Peace). Completed in 984 by Li Fang \u674e\u6609 (925-996) et al.   Tangfan wenzi \u5510\u68b5\u2f42\u6587\u5b57 (Chinese-Sanskrit Glossary). Quanzhen \u5168\u771f (fl. 839). T54 n2134.   Tangfan liangyu shuangdui ji \u5510\u68b5\u5169\u8a9e\u96d9\u5c0d\u96c6 (Chinese-Sanskrit Bilingual Glossary). Attributed to \u601b\u591a\u8616\u591a Tatha\u0304gatapa\u0304la and \u6ce2\u7f85\u77bf\u90a3\u5f4c\u6368\u6c99 Gun\u0323avi\u015bes\u0323a.   Tianan sheng chanshi yulu \u5929\u5cb8\u6607\u79aa\u5e2b\u8a9e\u9304 (Recorded Sayings of Chan Master Tianan [Ben]Sheng). Recorded by Shengyue \u6607\u8aaa (ca.17th c.) and Yuanyu \u5143\u2f5f\u7389 (ca.17th c.). J26 nB187.   240\t \u00a0 Tongzi wen jing \u7ae5\u2f26\u5b50\u554f\u7d93 ?=Tongzi wen fo qishi shi jing \u7ae5\u2f26\u5b50\u554f\u4f5b\u4e5e\u98df\u4e8b\u7d93 (Sutra of a Neophyte Inquiring of the Buddha About the Matter of Begging for Food). See T55 n2145, 25c06.  Tuoluoni ji jing \u9640\u7f85\u5c3c\u96c6\u7d93 (Skt. Dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b-samuccaya-s\u016btra; Dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b Collection Scripture). Trans. in 654 by Atigupta \u963f\u5730\u77bf\u591a (d.u.). T18 n901.  Weimojie suoshuo jing \u7dad\u6469\u8a70\u6240\u8aaa\u7d93 (Sutra Spoken by Vimalak\u012brti). Trans. by Kum\u0101raj\u012bva \u9ce9\u6469\u7f85\u4ec0 (344-413). T14 n475.  Wenshu wen jing \u2f42\u6587\u6b8a\u554f\u7d93 \u2014> Wenshushili wen jing \u2f42\u6587\u6b8a\u5e2b\u5229\u554f\u7d93 (Sutra of the Questions of Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b). T14 n468.  Wufen l\u00fc \u4e94\u5206\u5f8b \u2014> Mishasaibu hexi wufenl\u00fc  Wufubao jing \u4e94\u798f\u5831\u7d93 \u2014> Foshuo shishi huo wufubao jing  Xinji zangjing yinyi suihan lu \u65b0\u96c6\u85cf\u7d93\u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9\u96a8\u51fd\u9304 (Comprehensive Record of Pronunciations and Meanings in the Newly Compiled Canon). Kehong \u53ef\u6d2a (fl. Later Jin 936-946). K34 n1257 and K35 n1257. Also in FCJ.  Xiuxi zhiguan zuochan fayao \u4fee\u7fd2\u2f4c\u6b62\u89c0\u5750\u79aa\u6cd5\u8981 (Essentials of Practicing \u015aamatha and Vipa\u015byan\u0101 \u0304Meditation). Zhiyi \u667a\u9857 (538-597). T46 n1915.  Xu gaoseng zhuan \u7e8c\u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u50b3 (Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks). Compiled by Daoxuan \u9053\u5ba3 (596-667). T50 n2060.  Y\u0101gu-sutta (Porridge S\u016btra). HARE, The Book of the Gradual Sayings, v.3, p.183.   Yangjuemoluo jing \u592e\u6398\u6469\u7f85\u7d93 (Skt. An\u0323gulima\u0304li\u0304ya-su\u0304tra). Trans. by Dharmarak\u1e63a \u6cd5\u8b77 (230?-316). T2 n118.  Yaoji \u8981\u96c6. =\u8af8\u4f5b\u8981\u96c6\u8ad6?    241\t \u00a0Yiqie jing yinyi \u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u7d93\u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9, aka Huilin yinyi \u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9\u6167\u7433 (Pronunciations and Meanings for All Scriptures, or, Huilin's Pronunciations and Meanings). Huilin \u6167\u7433 (737-820). T54 n2128.  Yiqie jing yinyi \u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u7d93\u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9, aka Xuanying yinyi \u7384\u61c9\u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9 (Pronunciations and Meanings for All Scriptures, or, Xuanying's Pronunciations and Meanings). Xuanying \u7384\u61c9 (7th c.). X35 n1-2 and other collections.  Yinming zhengli men lun ben \u56e0\u660e\u6b63\u7406\u2fa8\u9580\u8ad6\u672c (Skt. Ny\u0101yamukha; Gateway to Logic). By Dign\u0101ga \u9673\u90a3 (ca. 480-540); tran. 649-650 by Xuanzang \u7384\u5958 (602-664). T32 n1628.  Yiwen leiju \u85dd\u2f42\u6587\u985e\u805a (Topically Presented Arts and Letters). Completed in 624 by Ouyang Xun \u6b50\u967d\u8a62 (557-641) et al.   Yongle dadian \u6c38\u6a02\u2f24\u5927\u5178 (Great Reference Work of the Yongle Era). Officially completed 1408. A collective effort of Ming scholars in the employ of the Court. Only partially extant.  Youposai jie jing \u512a\u5a46\u585e\u6212\u7d93 (Sutra of Precepts for Lay Buddhists). Trans. by Dharmak\u1e63ema \u66c7\u7121\u8b96 (385-433). T24 n1488.  Yuqie \u745c\u4f3d =Yuqie jing \u745c\u4f3d\u7d93? or Yuqie shi di lun \u745c\u4f3d\u5e2b\u5730\u8ad6?  Yuqie shi di lun \u745c\u4f3d\u5e2b\u5730\u8ad6 (Discourse on the Stages of Concentration Practice; Skt. Yoga\u0304ca\u0304rabhu\u0304mi-\u015bastra). Trans. to Chinese by Xuanzang \u7384\u5958 (602-664) between 646-648. T30 n1579.  Za ahan jing \u96dc\u963f\u542b\u7d93 (Sa\u1e43yukt\u00e2gama-s\u016btra; \u0100gama of Combined Discourses). Trans. by Gu\u1e47abhadra \u6c42\u90a3\u8dcb\u9640\u7f85 (394-468) between 435-443. T2 n99.  Zaxin lun \u96dc\u2f3c\u5fc3\u8ad6 aka Za apitan xin lun \u96dc\u963f\u6bd7\u66c7\u2f3c\u5fc3\u8ad6 (Heart of Scholasticism with Miscellaneous Additions). Dharmatr\u0101ta \u6cd5\u6551 (ca. 2nd c. CE). Trans. in 434 to Chinese by Sa\u1e43ghavarman \u50e7\u4f3d\u8dcb\u6469 (5th c.) et al.    242\t \u00a0Zengyi ahan jing \u589e\u58f9\u963f\u542b\u7d93 (Skt. Ek\u00f4ttar\u0101gama-s\u016btra; Increased by One \u0100gama S\u016btras). Trans. in 397 by Gautama Sa\u1e43ghadeva \u77bf\u66c7\u50e7\u4f3d\u63d0\u5a46 (fl. 383-398). T2 n125.    Zenrin sh\u014dkisen \u79aa\u6797\u8c61\u5668\u7b8b (Encyclopedia on Zen Monasticism). Published 1741. Mujaku D\u014dch\u016b \u7121\u7740\u9053\u5fe0 (1653-1744). Foguang dazang jing edition (\u2014> Foguang dazang jing bianxiu weiyuanhui [in secondary-source list]): Chan zang \u79aa\u85cf: zaji bu \u96dc\u96c6\u90e8; series 4, vols. 5-7.  Zhengfa nian jing \u2014> Zhengfa nianchu jing  Zhengfa nianchu jing \u6b63\u6cd5\u5ff5\u8655\u7d93 (Sutra on the True Dharma as the Base of Mindfulness;Skt. Saddharma-sm\u1e5bty-upasth\u0101na-s\u016btra). Trans. 538-541 by Gautama Praj\u00f1\u0101ruci \u82e5\u6d41\u2f40\u652f\u8b6f. T17 n721.  Zhengli \u6b63\u7406 = \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u9806\u6b63\u7406\u8ad6? Makita and Yamaji point to the Bianzhenglun \u8faf\u6b63\u8ad6  Zhilun \u667a\u8ad6 = Dazhidu lun ?  Zhong ahan jing \u4e2d\u963f\u542b\u7d93 (Skt. M\u0101dhyam\u00e2gama; Middle Length \u0100gama Sutras). Trans. 397-398 by Gautama Sa\u1e43ghadeva \u77bf\u66c7\u50e7\u4f3d\u63d0\u5a46 (fl. 383-398). T1 n.26.  Zhoushu \u5468\u66f8 (Book of Zhou). 636 CE, Linghu Defen \u4ee4\u72d0\u5fb7\u68fb (582-666).  Zhouyi \u5468\u6613 (aka Yijing \u6613\u7d93, Book of Changes). SS.  Zhuan falun jing \u8f49\u6cd5\u8f2a\u7d93, aka Foshuo zhuan falun jing \u4f5b\u8aaa\u8f49\u6cd5\u8f2a\u7d93 (Sutra of the Turning of the Dharma Wheel; Skt. Dharmacakra-pravartana-s\u016btra). Attr. to An Shigao \u5b89\u4e16\u2fbc\u9ad8 (2nd c. CE), but now argued to be a later translation by some scholars. T2 n109.  Zhuangzi \u838a\u2f26\u5b50 (Master Zhuang). Attr. to Zhuang Zhou \u838a\u5468 (ca. 4th c. BCE). SS.    243\t \u00a0Zhufo yaoji lun \u8af8\u4f5b\u8981\u96c6\u8ad6 aka Zhufo yaoji jing \u8af8\u4f5b\u8981\u96c6\u7d93 (Treatise Collecting the Essentials of the Various Buddhas). Trans. Dharmarak\u1e63a \u7afa\u6cd5\u8b77 (230?-316). T17 n810.  Zhu weimojie jing \u6ce8\u7dad\u6469\u8a70\u7d93 (Annotated Vimalakirti Sutra). Sengzhao \u50e7\u8087 (384-414?). T38 n1775.  Zuting shiyuan \u7956\u5ead\u4e8b\u82d1 (Patriarch Garden Affair Villa). Compiled 1108 by Lu\u2019an Shanqing \u9678\u83f4\u5584\u537f (d.u.)     Secondary Sources (by author)  AITANI, Yoshimitsu \u6703\u2f95\u8c37\u4f73\u5149. S\u014ddai shoseki sh\u016bsan k\u014d: shint\u014dsho geibunshi shakushi rui no kenky\u016b \u5b8b\u4ee3\u66f8\u7c4d\u805a\u6563\u5b5d\u30fc\u65b0\u5510\u66f8\u85dd\u2f42\u6587\u5fd7\u91cb\u6c0f\u985e\u306e\u7814\u7a76\u30fc. Tokyo: Ky\u016bko shoin \u6c72\u53e4\u66f8\u9662, 2004.  ANDERSON, Eugene N. The Food of China. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.  \u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013. Everyone Eats: Understanding Food and Culture. New York: New York University Press, 2005.  \u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013. Food and Environment in Early and Medieval China. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014.  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His ancestors were people of Anyang in Xiangzhou.408 At seven years of age Chu paid a visit to Lixia,409 where Preceptor of Great Virtue Xiujin thereby became the teacher under whom he would take tonsure. Xiujin was Chu\u2019s paternal uncle. Xinglun, youngest of his paternal uncles, resided at Xiangyan Cloister. Xiujin recited the \"Guanyin pin\" and the \"Pumen pin\" (two chapters of the Lotus Sutra410) nearly 100,000 times, made standing obeisance to the Lotus Sutra, prostrating once for each character and in such manner completing all its sections. Xinglun was the magistrate of Qingqiu411 and lived mostly in meditation. He recited both the Dabei [zhou]412 and the Foding [zhou]413 a hundred-million (i.e., countless) times.  Yichu modeled himself on the example of his uncles, all parties mutually benefiting from teaching and learning. Climbing in this way to near perfection, he diligently studied without slacking. His intellect maturing early, he realized the profundity and reached the zenith of the school of Abhidharma.414 He lectured more than ten times on Yuanhui\u2019s commentary (the Jushelun songshi shu \u4ff1\u820d\u8ad6\u980c\u91cb\u758f)415. Later he read completely through the Buddhist canon three times, sighing over writings treated by Confucians as Buddhist teachings and over the many misinterpretations. The interpretations thus corrupted, many [Buddhist] matters were misconstrued. Modeling on Bai Letian\u2019s (Bai Juyi\u2019s) Liutie,416 he compiled doctrine, passages, various matters, and assortments of things, arranging them by type and establishing their categories, which in entirety encompass fifty sections. Within these he separately lists 440 categories, beginning with the section \u201cBeneficial glimpses of the King of the Dharma (i.e., the \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0408 Present-day Anyang County, Henan Province.\t \u00a0409 Now part of Jinan City \u6fdf\u5357\u5e02 in Shandong Province.\t \u00a0410 Miaofa lianhua jing \u5999\u6cd5\u84ee\u83ef\u7d93, T9 n262.\t \u00a0411 Guangrao County \u5ee3\u9952\u7e23 in Shandong Province.\t \u00a0412 E.g., Qianshou qianyan guanshiyin pusa wuai dabeixin tuoluoni (Sk. Mah\u0101k\u0101ru\u1e47ikacitta-dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b) or a version of this incantation.\t \u00a0413 This incantation is known variously as the Lengyan zhou \u695e\u56b4\u5492, Baisan\u2019gai foding zhou \u2f69\u767d\u5098\u84cb\u4f5b\u9802\u5492, and Baisan\u2019gai shen zhou \u2f69\u767d\u5098\u84cb\u4f5b\u795e\u5492. \t \u00a0414 Buddhist lineage based on the teachings of the Abhidharma Storehouse Treatise.\t \u00a0415 Shiina, Kaidai, 530. I.e., the Jushelun song shu lun ben \u4ff1\u820d\u8ad6\u980c\u758f\u8ad6\u672c, T41 n1823.\t \u00a0416 I.e., the Baishi liutie.\t \u00a0  258\t \u00a0Buddha)\u201d and ending with the section \u201cLions and beasts.\u201d The categories among these are thoroughly investigated, such that when writing one should have no reason to complain of not finding something. For a decade Yichu applied himself diligently and tirelessly, beginning in Kaiyun 2 (945) of Jin and finishing in the first year of Xiande (954). He presented [his compiled work to the court of] Shizong, who decreed that it be given to the Bureau of Historiography, conferred on him purple robes, and gave him the title Mingjiao Dashi (Great Master who Elucidates the Teaching). During the Kaibao era (968-976) he passed away at Longxing qielan (Longxing Monastery). By secular reckoning, his age was 74; since being ordained, 54 [years had passed].  From when Yichu first planned this work, he wrote things down as he encountered them, decreasing [the text] in cases of abundance and augmenting in cases of paucity.417 As days and months passed by, a compiled record magnificently took shape. He had [experienced] a sudden [insight when he noticed that] an old stone by the gate of his monastery had the two characters \u201cliu tie\u201d (six books, i.e., primers for study) naturally appearing on it. Seeing this divine sign, he then knew [that his work was] predestined, so he searched through [writings of] the present and went through [those of] the past, his brush never stopping its compiling. At the time, the Military Affairs Commissioner and Chief Minister of State, the Honorable Wang Pu, wrote Yichu a preface to crown the compilation, which today is disseminated throughout the country. At first, when Yichu was compiling, his mind toiled418 and his eyes lost their clarity, which could not be healed through medical means. Thereupon he searched deep into his mind in repentance of his faults, [and] worrying lest he abridge and corrupt the Teachings, he trimmed and selected, [working] cautiously like this with even less time for rest. When in the following year his eyesight returned, people said this was a divine response to his effort.419     \u2f24\u5927\u5b8b\u9f4a\u5dde\u958b\u5143\u5bfa\u7fa9\u695a\u50b3\u4fee\u9032  \u7701\u502b   \u91cb\u7fa9\u695a, \u4fd7\u59d3\u88f4\u6c0f, \u7956\u76f8\u5dde\u5b89\u967d\u2f08\u4eba\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u695a\u4e03\u6b72\u4f86\u7701\u6b77\u4e0b, \u81e8\u58c7\u2f24\u5927\u5fb7\u4fee\u9032\u56e0\u70ba\u51fa\u5bb6\u5e2b\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u9032\u4e43\u695a\u4e4b\u8af8\u2f57\u7236\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u5b63\u2f57\u7236\u7701\u502b\u5c45\u2fb9\u9999\u56b4\u9662\u3002\ufe12\u9032\u4e5f\u8aa6\u89c0\u2fb3\u97f3\u666e\u2fa8\u9580\u2f40\u652f\u7d93\u5411\u2f17\u5341\u842c\u904d, \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0417 A Confucian allusion. This is what the Gentleman is said to do. \u541b\u2f26\u5b50\u4ee5\u88d2\u591a\u76ca\u5be1\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0418 The phrase likely alludes to \u6c11\u4ea6\u52de\u6b62 in the poem Minlao \u6c11\u52de (The Toil of the Commoners) in the Shijing (aka Maoshi \u2f51\u6bdb\u8a69, Book of Odes). Under \"Shengmin zhi shen\" \u751f\u6c11\u4e4b\u4ec0 in the section Daya \u5927\u96c5, p72 of SS edition.\t \u00a0  259\t \u00a0\u2f74\u7acb\u79ae\u6cd5\u83ef\u7d93, \u5b57\u5b57\u5404\u62dc, \u62dc\u4e14\u5fb9\u90e8\u7109\u3002\ufe12\u502b\u5247\u9752\u4e18\u4e3b\u5bb0, \u79aa\u5c45, \u8aa6\u2f24\u5927\u60b2\u3001\ufe11\u4f5b\u9802\u4ff1\u2f00\u4e00\u5104\u904d\u3002\ufe12  \u695a\u57f7\u67ef\u4f10\u2f4a\u6728, \u718f\u7fd2\u76f8\u8cc7\u3002\ufe12\u767b\u6b64\u8fd1\u5713, \u52e4\u5b78\u4e0d\u61c8, \u654f\u6167\u5919\u6210\u3002\ufe12 \u4ff1\u820d\u2f00\u4e00\u5b97, \u9020\u5fae\u81fb\u6975\u3002\ufe12\u9042\u50b3\u8b1b\u5713\u6689\u758f\u2f17\u5341\u8a31\u904d\u3002\ufe12\u5f8c\u8a72\u89bd\u2f24\u5927\u85cf\u4e09\u904d, \u4e43\u6168\u5112\u5bb6\u70ba\u4f5b\u6559\u4e4b\u2f42\u6587\u2f7d\u800c\u591a\u8b2c\u89e3\u3002\ufe12 \u89e3\u65e2\u8b2c\u6b5f, \u4e8b\u591a\u609e(\u8aa4)\u2f64\u7528\u3002\ufe12\u64ec\u2f69\u767d\u6a02\u5929\u516d\u5e16, \u7e82\u91cb\u6c0f\u7fa9\u7406\u3001\ufe11\u2f42\u6587\u7ae0\u3001\ufe11\u5eb6\u4e8b\u3001\ufe11\u7fa4\u54c1, \u4ee5\u985e\u76f8\u5f9e, \u5efa\u5176\u2fa8\u9580\u2f6c\u76ee, \u7e3d\u62ec\u2f24\u5927\u7db1, \u8a08\u4e94\u2f17\u5341\u90e8\u3002\ufe12\u96a8\u4e8b\u5225\u5217, \u56db\u767e\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u2fa8\u9580, \u59cb\u5f9e\u300c\u6cd5\u738b\u5229\u2f92\u898b\u90e8\u300d, \u7d42\u300c\u5e2b\u2f26\u5b50\u7378\u985e\u90e8\u300d, \u5176\u9593\u7269\u985e, \u6aa2\u62ec\u5468\u65cb, \u4ee4\u4f9b\u7b46\u4e4b\u6642, \u5fc5\u7121\u544a\u4e4f\u77e3\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u2f17\u5341\u5e74\u4e2d, \u5b5c\u5b5c\u7f54\u5026,  \u8d77\u6649\u958b\u904b\u2f06\u4e8c\u5e74, \u81f3\u986f\u5fb7\u5143\u5e74\u7562\u3002\ufe12\u9032\u5448\u4e16\u5b97, \u6555\u4ed8\u53f2\u9928, \u8cdc\u7d2b\u8863, \u4ecd\u52a0\u865f\u660e\u6559\u2f24\u5927\u5e2b\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u958b\u5bf6\u4e2d, \u7d42\u65bc\u9f8d\u8208\u4f3d\u85cd\u3002\ufe12\u4fd7\u58fd\u4e03\u2f17\u5341\u56db, \u6cd5\u81d8\u4e94\u2f17\u5341\u56db\u3002\ufe12  \u695a\u59cb\u8b00\u6b64\u4f5c, \u96a8\u5f97\u4fbf\u66f8, \u88d2\u591a\u76ca\u5be1, \u2f47\u65e5\u5c45\u2f49\u6708\u8af8, \u9b31\u6210\u7de8\u9304\u3002\ufe12\u5ffd\u56e0\u672c\u9662\u2fa8\u9580\u53e4\u2f6f\u77f3\u4e0a\u6709\u300c\u516d\u5e16\u300d\u2f06\u4e8c\u5b57, \u5929\u7136\u5206\u660e\u3002\ufe12\u7779420\u6b64\u9748\u7b26, \u4e43\u77e5\u5bbf\u5b9a, \u641c\u4eca\u65a1\u53e4, \u7b46\u4e0d\u505c\u7db4\u3002\ufe12\u6642\u6a1e\u5bc6\u76f8\u570b\u738b\u516c\u6734\u70ba\u695a\u4f5c\u5e8f, \u51a0\u65bc\u7de8\u2fb8\u9996, \u4eca\u2f8f\u884c\u65bc\u5bf0\u6d77\u77e3\u3002\ufe12\u521d, \u695a\u8457\u8ff0\u2f3c\u5fc3\u4ea6\u52de\u2f4c\u6b62, \u2f7d\u800c\u96d9\u2f6c\u76ee\u55aa\u660e, \u6bc9(\u91ab)\u2f2f\u5de5\u83ab\u7642\u3002\ufe12\u9042\u51a5\u2f3c\u5fc3\u61fa\u904e, \u616e\u522a\u788e\u6559\u2f42\u6587, \u88c1\u91cf\u5dee\u812b\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u662f\u8654\u8654, \u66f4\u7121\u9593\u606f\u3002\ufe12\u518d\u6b72\u9084\u660e, \u2f08\u4eba\u8b02\u5176\u5fb5\u611f\u7109\u3002\ufe12 (\u300a\u5b8b\u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u50b3\u300b\u6372\u7b2c\u4e03 )  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0419 Song gaoseng zhuan, fascicle 7; Zhonghua shuju (1987), vol.1, pp.159-160. I made minor modifications in the punctuation.\t \u00a0420 The Zhonghua edition uses the other form: \u8005 + \u2f92\u898b.\t \u00a0  260\t \u00a0Appendix 2: Preface by Wang Pu421  Comments on the Six Books By distant cousin Wang Pu, Acting Regent of the Eastern Capital (Kaifeng), Acting Grand Guardian, Supervisor of Kaifeng prefecture, and Military Affairs Commissioner.  The way of the Tath\u0101gata, being something that arises in the mind and is practiced [in the] material [world], is a teaching. That which manifests in form and qualities, let us call this appearance. That which depends on emptiness and words [for expression], let us call this dharma. Forms, qualities, emptiness\u2013\u2013all these belong to language. Thus, those who spoke [the teachings] are called sagely, those who transmitted [it] are called worthy, and those who study [it] are called faithful. Had nothing been spoken or transmitted, how could the faithful study it? What was spoken originated from the one voice [of the Buddha]; those transmitting it proliferated it into the three parts of the [voluminous] Buddhist canon; and those who study it gallop out [to explore] along its various tracks. There are thus explications in scriptures, monastic codes, treatises, collections, records, eulogies, chronicles, paeans, and accounts. Upon each reading [of a scripture], winter and summer alternate, one\u2019s energy fails, and one cannot accomplish the task. In the end, those who are left wandering about the eight directions encounter many detours and give up the chase. Those who would drink up the four seas bow down to ladle water and [immediately] fill their bellies. [Though] seeking and desiring broad knowledge, they cannot obtain it. Master Yichu is a scholar of wisdom and abundant learning. Apart from his lecturing as a teacher, he is industrious with written commentary. He has selected from among the myriad sayings of the Great Teaching complete passages of essential meaning, ordering them by their characteristics into a total of fifty sections and 440 categories, comprising six books. This allows scholars, every time they discuss a particular thesis, to then, in accordance with [Yichu\u2019s] sections, peek through the door of classical passages from five thousand scrolls, unimpeded. The one who compiled it exerted great efforts, but those who learn from it exert little. Is the rarity of that which is called marvelous in transmitting the dharma [an \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0421 Yanagida and Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan 6:2, 6a-b.\t \u00a0  261\t \u00a0indication of] holiness? From this we know that Bai Juyi could not naturalize beauty to the Confucian Way (i.e., Confucian learning cannot claim a monopoly on beauty). Vice Minister of Appointments Situ Xu (894-959) respects the teachings of the Buddha, thinks highly of the abilities of teachers, and wishes to see this book brought into society. So accordingly, I, Wang Pu, [Situ Xu's] disciple, Military Affairs Commissioner, and Regent of the Eastern Capital, expound on the essential meanings of this compilation.   \u516d\u5e16\u8ff0 \u5f9e\u8868\u59ea\u5b6b \u6b0a\u6771\u4eac\u7559\u5b88 \u6a1e 422\u5bc6\u4f7f \u5224\u958b\u5c01\u5e9c \u6aa2\u6821\u592a\u4fdd \u738b\u6734 \u8ff0 \u5982\u4f86\u4e4b\u9053\uff0c\u767c\u65bc\u2f3c\u5fc3\u2f7d\u800c\u65bd\u65bc\u7269\u8005\uff0c\u6559\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u8457\u65bc\u2f8a\u8272\u76f8\u8005\uff0c\u8b02\u4e4b\u8c61; \u5047\u65bc\u7a7a\u2f94\u8a00\u8005\uff0c\u8b02\u4e4b\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u4e43\u2f8a\u8272\uff0c\u4e43\u76f8\uff0c\u4e43\u7a7a\uff0c\u7686\u4e4b\u65bc\u2f94\u8a00\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u8aaa423\u8005\u4e4b\u8b02\u8056\uff0c\u50b3\u8005\u4e4b\u8b02\u8ce2\uff0c\u5b78\u8005\u4e4b\u8b02\u4fe1\uff0c\u82e5\u4e0d\u8aaa\u4e0d\u50b3\uff0c\u4fe1\u8005\u4f55\u5b78\u4e4b\u77e3? \u662f\u4ee5\u8aaa\u8005\u8087\u4e4e\u2f00\u4e00\u2fb3\u97f3\uff0c\u50b3\u8005\u64ad\u7232\u4e09\u85cf\uff0c\u5b78\u8005\u9a01\u5176\u6b8a\u8ecc424\u8f4d\u3002\ufe12\u65bc\u662f\u4e4e\u6709\u7d93\u3001\u5f8b\u3001\u8ad6\u3001\u96c6\u3001\u8a18\u3001\u8b9a\u3001\u8a8c\u3001\u980c\u3001\u9304\u4e4b\u8a01(\u8aaa) \u3002\ufe12 [\u6bcf ]425\u2f00\u4e00\u89bd\uff0c\u5247\u5bd2\u6691[\u9077]426\u8cbf\uff0c\u7cbe\u2f12\u529b\u7f77\u9813\u2f7d\u800c\u4e0d\u80fd\u8fa6\u3002\ufe12\u9042\u4f7f\u904a\u516b\u6975\u8005\uff0c\u81e8\u591a\u6b67\u2f7d\u800c\u6295\u7b56; \u98f2\u56db\u6d77\u8005\uff0c\u63d6\u52fa\u2f54\u6c34\u2f7d\u800c\u6eff\u8179\u3002\ufe12\u6c42\u6b32\u65c1\u901a\u535a\u9054\uff0c\u4e0d\u53ef\u5f97\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u7fa9\u695a\u4e0a\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u667a\u6167\u591a\u805e\u4e4b\u2f20\u58eb\u3002\ufe12\u8b1b\u6388\u4e4b\u5916\uff0c\u4ee5\u8ff0\u4f5c\u7232\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0422 The original is in error, supplying \u6473.\t \u00a0423 Variant has on right \u516c over \u2f09\u513f.\t \u00a0424 Variant uses \u2f0f\u51e0 on right. Note that the parallel structure in this sentence suggests that either \u8ecc or \u8f4d is redundant. The previous \u2f00\u4e00\u2fb3\u97f3 and \u4e09\u85cf should be followed by a parallel \u6b8a\u8ecc or \u6b8a\u8f4d , but \u6b8a\u8ecc\u8f4d breaks this parallelism. \t \u00a0425 Text partly obscured by damage. 1669 edition gives \u8aaa\u6bcf. \t \u00a0426 Character partly obscured by damage.\t \u00a0  262\t \u00a0\u696d\u3002\ufe12\u65bc\u2f24\u5927\u6559\u7fa4427\u2f94\u8a00\u4e4b\u5167\uff0c\u53d6\u5176\u5168\u2f42\u6587\u7cbe\u7fa9\uff0c\u4ee5\u985e\u76f8\u5f9e\uff0c\u51e1\u4e94\u2f17\u5341\u90e8\uff0c\u56db\u767e\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u2fa8\u9580\uff0c\u7232\u516d\u5e16\u7109\u3002\ufe12\u5c07\u4ee4\u5b78\u8005\u6bcf\u8a0e\u8ad6\u2f00\u4e00\u8aac\uff0c\u5247\u6309\u90e8\u95da\u2fa8\u9580\u4e94\u5343\u5377\u4e4b\u5178\u7ae0\uff0c\u7121\u4e0d\u6d89\u77e3\u3002\ufe12\u8457\u4e4b\u8005\u2f64\u7528\u2f12\u529b\u591a\uff0c\u5b78\u4e4b\u8005\u2f64\u7528\u2f12\u529b\u5be1\u3002\ufe12\u6240\u8b02\u5999\u65bc\u50b3\u6cd5\uff0c\u5176\u5e0c\u8056\u8005\u6b5f? \u6240\u4ee5\u77e5\u2f69\u767d\u6c0f\u4e0d\u80fd\u5c08\u7f8e\u65bc\u5112\u9053\u77e3\u3002\ufe12\u540f\u90e8\u4f8d\u90ce\u53f8\u5f92\u8a61\u656c\u4f5b\u4e4b\u6559\uff0c\u5584\u5e2b\u4e4b\u80fd\uff0c\u6b32\u2f8f\u884c\u5176\u66f8\u65bc\u4e16\uff0c\u4ffe428\u2fa8\u9580\u2f63\u751f\u6a1e\u5bc6\u4f7f\u6771\u4eac\u7559\u5b88\u738b\u6734\u8ff0\u5176\u64b0\u96c6\u4e4b\u65e8\u7109\u3002\ufe12                 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0427 Variant vertically arranged.\t \u00a0428 Variant used.\t \u00a0  263\t \u00a0Appendix 3: Yichu\u2019s preface429  (Attached to the title of his work and followed by the table of contents)  Yichu\u2019s Six Books, with preface \u7fa9\u695a\u516d\u5e16\u5e76\u5e8f Collated by Yichu, Purple-Robed \u015aramana of Kaiyuan Temple in Qizhou who Lectures on the Abhidharma Storehouse Treatise430. \u9f4a\u5dde\u958b\u5143\u5bfa\u8b1b\u4ff1\u820d\u8ad6\u8cdc\u7d2b\u6c99\u2fa8\u9580 \u7fa9\u695a \u96c6  With [great] reverence have I heard that the Buddha was from India and that his teachings flowed to eastern lands (i.e., China). With many years passing, the ages drifting along, literary works grew numerous and translations and commentarial literature [became] especially expansive\u2013\u2013a surging sea of dharma [teachings], lofty pinnacles of meaning. Therefore [we] know [how it is that people pursuing] the ten ranks [of bodhisattva-hood] are still confused by the teachings of the two vehicles.431 How is one to fathom that Buddhist priests seldom exhaust the foundational [teachings], while erudite Confucian scholars rarely investigate [even] the great waves? If we do not collect the names of categories, arranging them by type, it will be difficult to gather together essentials, and not easy to seek them.  Thus, I, Yichu, having served from a young age the King of Emptiness (i.e., the Buddha), grew up investigating the Great Teaching and from its views have collected together these passages, inclusive of all the main principles, comprising fifty sections, allowing matters to be separately listed in 440 categories. I hope that curious and knowledgeable people studying diligently in the future can consult [my compilation] when writing commentary [on Buddhist ideas]. They will then know that the \u015a\u0101kya clan (i.e., the sa\u1e43gha) is good and long lasting, and believe that the teachings of the dharma \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0429 Yanagida and Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan 6:2, 7a.\t \u00a0430 The Abidamo jushe lun \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u5036\u820d\u8ad6, Skt. Abhidharmako\u015ba-bh\u0101\u1e63ya, T 1558, 1559.\t \u00a0431 The Hinay\u0101na (Therav\u0101da) and Mah\u0101y\u0101na.\t \u00a0  264\t \u00a0are profound. I began the draft in the forty-second year432 (945) and finished work in the fifty-first year (954) on the tenth day of the second summer month.433   \u606d\u805e\u4f5b\u51fa\u897f\u5929, \u6559\u6d41\u6771\u2f1f\u571f, \u6b72\u2f49\u6708\u7dbf\u9088, \u6642\u4ee3\u63a8\u79fb, \u90e8\u5e19\u5bd4\u7e41, \u7ffb\u8ff0\u5c24\u5ee3, \u6ed4\u6ed4\u6cd5\u6d77, \u5db7\u5db7\u7fa9\u5c71\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u77e5\u2f17\u5341\u5730, \u7336\u8ff7\u2f06\u4e8c\u4e57, \u8c48\u6e2c\u7dc7\u4fa3\u7f55\u7aae\u6839\u8515, \u9d3b\u5112\u5c1f434\u7a76\u6ce2\u703e\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u975e\u6522435\u851f\u2fa8\u9580\u540d, \u4ee5\u985e\u7f85\u5217\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u96e3\u5099\u8981, \u4e0d\u6613\u5c0b\u6c42\u3002\ufe12 \u7136\u7fa9\u695a\u5e7c\u4e8b\u7a7a\u738b, \u9577\u7aae\u2f24\u5927\u6559, \u8f12\u65bc\u6240\u2f92\u898b, \u96c6\u6210\u6b64\u2f42\u6587, \u7e3d436\u62ec\u2f24\u5927\u7db1, \u8a08\u4e94\u2f17\u5341\u90e8; \u96a8\u4e8b\u5225\u5217, \u56db\u767e\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u2fa8\u9580\u3002\ufe12 \u5180437\u597d\u4e8b\u901a\u2f08\u4eba, \u5c07\u4f86\u52e4\u5b78, \u8ff0\u4f5c\u4e4b\u6b21, \u804a438\u53ef\u6aa2\u5c0b\u3002\ufe12\u77e5\u91cb\u6c0f\u512a\u9577, \u4fe1\u6cd5\u2fa8\u9580\u6df1\u9083439 \u3002\ufe12\u8d77[\u8349]\u2f04\u4e59\u5df3, \u7562\u529f\u7532\u5bc5, \u4ef2\u590f\u2f49\u6708\u4e4b\u2f17\u5341\u2f47\u65e5\u2f7f\u8033\u3002\ufe12        \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0432 The dates are given in the ganzhi \u2f32\u5e72\u2f40\u652f system of sixty-year cycles.\t \u00a0433 I.e., the tenth day of the fifth month in the first year of Xiande, or 13 June 954.\t \u00a0434 Variant combines \u751a + \u5c11.\t \u00a0435 Variant has two \u592b in place of \u5148. The character is also written with \u4ebb and \u2f4a\u6728 radicals. I do not find the compound listed, but both characters have the meaning of \u201cto gather together,\u201d suggesting they can be read as the single word z\u01cenc\u00f9 or cu\u00e1nc\u00f9.\t \u00a0436 Variant \u624c + \u6031.\t \u00a0437 Variant has \u516b in place of \u5317.\t \u00a0438 Variant used.\t \u00a0439 Variant used.\t \u00a0  265\t \u00a0Appendix 4: Table of Contents for the Shishi liutie (\u91cb\u6c0f\u516d\u5e16 \u2f6c\u76ee\u9304)440  All variant characters have been verified in the Dictionary of Chinese Character Variants (DCCV), but to save from tedium I have not marked these with footnotes.  For definitions, I consulted the Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (DDB) first, then verified, adjusted, and augmented definitions using other sources, as necessary. Because only in some instances did I use the body text of the Shishi liutie to verify that content matches my interpretations of headings, some definitions remain tentative.  \u7fa9\u695a\u516d\u5e16\u5e76\u5e8f [Book One of] Yichu\u2019s Six Books, with preface. (The preface by Yichu goes here.)  \u6cd5\u738b\u5229\u2f92\u898b\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f00\u4e00 1. Beneficial glimpses441 of the King of the Dharma (i.e., the Buddha)  \u540d\u59d3\u2f8f\u884c\u696d\u2f00\u4e00 1.1. Names and activity442 [of the Buddha]  \u76f8\u597d\u5149\u660e\u2f06\u4e8c 1.2. Primary and secondary marks [of the Buddha] and [his] radiance  \u964d\u2f63\u751f\u6642\u4ee3\u4e09 1.3. Era of [the Buddha\u2019s] descent into the world  \u6240\u5c45\u570b\u2f1f\u571f\u56db 1.4. Land where [the Buddha] lived \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0440 Yanagida and Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan 6:2, 7a-9b.\t \u00a0441 Lijian is a term from the Zhouyi \u5468\u6613, and seems to have come to refer to leadership by great people. Nakamura, Bukky\u014dgo daijiten, 1720c, defines the term in Buddhist use as benefit derived from an encounter [with a great person].\t \u00a0442 Karma, behavior. The Buddha\u2019s actions, speech, and deeds.\t \u00a0  266\t \u00a0 \u5165\u6ec5\u820d\u5229\u4e94 1.5. [The Buddha\u2019s] entering into nirv\u0101\u1e47a and [his] relics  \u50cf\u5316\u9748\u7570\u516d 1.6. [The period of] teaching through images and of wonderful experiences  \u4fe1\u5949\u8b17\u6bc0\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c 2. Belief [in] and slander [of the Buddha\u2019s teachings]  \u738b\u4faf\u4fe1\u5949\u2f00\u4e00 2.1. King\u2019s and lord\u2019s belief in [the Buddha\u2019s teachings]  \u537f\u76f8\u767c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u2f06\u4e8c 2.2. Arousing the minds of great ministers [toward the great goal of awakening]  \u9053\u2fa8\u9580\u6b78\u5d07\u4e09 2.3. Reverence returns to the gate of the way (i.e., the Buddha\u2019s teachings)  \u8b17\u6bc0\u5831\u61c9\u56db 2.4. [Karmic] results of slander [against the Buddha\u2019s teachings]  \u2f24\u5927\u6cd5\u771e\u8a6e\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09 3. The correct exegesis of the great Dharma  \u6cd5\u5bf6\u540d\u6578\u2f00\u4e00 3.1. Dharma treasures by name and number  \u8aaa\u6cd5\u76f8\u5f0f\u2f06\u4e8c 3.2. Teaching Dharma [by] form and ritual  \u8aaa\u6cd5\u6642\u8655\u4e09 3.3. Times and places of the teaching of Dharma  \u8af8\u6cd5\u540d\u76f8\u56db 3.4. Names and forms of the various dharmas   267\t \u00a0 \u807d\u6cd5\u5f92\u8846\u4e94 3.5. Groups of disciples who listened to Dharma [teachings]  \u6c42\u6cd5\u53d7\u6301\u516d 3.6. Seeking and upholding Dharma  \u767c\u9858\u8ff4\u5411\u4e03 3.7. Arousing the vow to transfer one\u2019s merit to others [for the salvation of all]  \u6cd5\u5a01\u5fb7\u2f12\u529b\u516b 3.8. The eminent power of Dharma  \u6cd5\u6ec5\u56e0\u7de3\u4e5d 3.9. Causes and conditions of the disappearance of Dharma  \u8af8\u2f8f\u884c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u6cd5\u2f17\u5341\u5584\u6709\u56db\u2f00\u4e00\u4fe1\u2f06\u4e8c\u6a02\u4e09\u611b\u56db\u5ff5\u60aa\u6709\u4e03\u2f00\u4e00\u60aa\u2f06\u4e8c\u6bd2\u4e09\u55d4\u56db\u7661\u4e94\u6162\u516d\u90aa\u2f92\u898b\u4e03\u4e94\u9006[\u516b\u6173\u4e5d\u8caa\u2f17\u5341\u5ac9\u5992] 3.10. Conditioned phenomena and the Dharma of mind. The ten kinds of skillful [behaviors] have four [types]: the one belief, the two kinds of delight, the three kinds of attachment, and the four kinds of mindfulness. Unskillful [behaviors] have seven [types]: wickedness, poison (i.e., hindrances), anger, delusion, pride, perverse views, and the five heinous crimes.443 \u640d\u60f1\u6709\u60c5\u90e8\u7b2c\u56db 4. Suffering and sentience  \u2f63\u751f\u2f00\u4e00 4.1. Birth  \u5bbf\u547d\u2f06\u4e8c 4.2. Previous lives  \u2f7c\u8001\u4e09 4.3. Aging \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0443 Three more are appended in the table of contents found in the body of the text: stinginess, greed, and jealousy.\t \u00a0  268\t \u00a0 \u75c5\u56db 4.4. Disease  \u6b7b\u4e94 4.5. Death  \u9084\u9b42\u516d 4.6. Rebirth  \u82e6\u96e3\u4e03 4.7. Tribulations  \u5730\u7344\u516b 4.8. Hell  \u516d\u5230\u5f7c\u5cb8\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e94 5. The six perfections (\u201csix [methods for] arriving at the other shore\u201d)  \u5e03\u65bd\u2f00\u4e00\u521d\u6460\u2f06\u4e8c\u5225 5.1. Giving. Initial [giving] and comprehensive [giving] treated separately  \u6301\u6212\u2f06\u4e8c 5.2. Upholding precepts  \u5fcd\u8fb1\u4e09 5.3. Forbearance  \u7cbe\u9032\u56db 5.4. Effort  \u79aa\u5b9a\u4e94 5.5. Meditative concentration  \u667a\u6167\u516d 5.6. Wisdom  \u7fa9\u695a\u516d\u5e16\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c Book Two of Yichu\u2019s Six Books    269\t \u00a0\u2f24\u5927\u2f20\u58eb\u50e7\u4f3d\u90e8\u7b2c\u516d 6. Great leaders and the sa\u1e43gha  \u50e7\u5bf6\u2f00\u4e00 6.1. The sa\u1e43gha treasure  \u83e9\u85a9\u2f06\u4e8c 6.2. Bodhisattvas  \u8072\u805e\u4e09 6.3. Voice-hearers (i.e., disciples; Sk. \u015br\u0101vaka)  \u53d7\u8a18\u56db 6.4. Receiving assurance [that one will attain enlightenment]  \u51fa\u5bb6\u4e94 6.5. Leaving home (i.e., renouncing secular life)  \u9084\u5bb6\u516d 6.6. Returning home (i.e., returning to lay life)  \u7834\u6212\u4e03 6.7. Breaking of precepts  \u6c99\u5f4c\u516b 6.8. Novice monks (Sk. \u015br\u0101ma\u1e47era)  [\u7ae5\u2f26\u5b50\u4e5d 6.9. Child-monks (\u2018princes\u2019, neophytes)  \u2f8f\u884c\u8005\u2f17\u5341] 6.10. Practitioners  \u5e2b\u5f92\u6559\u8aa1\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e03 7. Teachers, students, and instruction  \u5e2b\u4e3b\u2f00\u4e00 7.1. Masters  \u5f1f\u2f26\u5b50\u2f06\u4e8c\u5584\u60e1 7.2. Disciples (good and bad)  \u4f8d\u8005\u4e09 7.3. Attendants  \u8ad6\u5e2b\u56db 7.4. Treatise masters   270\t \u00a0 \u6cd5\u5e2b\u4e94 7.5. Dharma masters  \u7db2\u7dad\u516d 7.6. Regulations  \u77e5\u4e8b\u4e03 7.7. Officers  \u6559\u8aa0\u516b 7.8. Instruction  \u77e5\u2f9c\u8db3\u4e5d 7.9. Satiation of knowledge  \u6709\u77e5\u2f17\u5341 7.10. Understanding  \u6709\u6c42\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 7.11. Having something to ask  \u4e0d\u5408\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 7.12. Irrelevant  \u4e0d\u61c9\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 7.13. Inapplicable  \u96e3\u77e5\u2f17\u5341\u56db 7.14. Difficult to understand  \u96e3\u6e2c\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 7.15. Difficult to fathom  \u96e3\u5f97\u2f17\u5341\u516d 7.16. Difficult to attain  \u5947\u602a\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 7.17. Extraordinary occurrences   \u4e0d\u53ef\u907f\u2f17\u5341\u516b 7.18. Unavoidable circumstances  \u5b89\u6a02\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d 7.19. Peace of mind  \u7f9e\u6065\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341 7.20. Shame    271\t \u00a0\u5a01\u5100\u79ae\u696d\u90e8\u7b2c\u516b 8. Deportment and ritual activity  \u79ae\u5100\u2f00\u4e00 8.1. Ritual \/ Etiquette  \u2f8f\u884c\u6b65\u2f06\u4e8c 8.2. Walking  \u4f4d\u2f74\u7acb\u4e09 8.3. Position  \u5750\u8d77\u56db 8.4. Sitting and rising  \u7720\u81e5\u4e94 8.5. Sleeping  \u907f\u5acc\u516d 8.6. Avoiding the arousal of suspicions  \u61fa\u8b1d\u4e03 8.7. Repentance \/ Apology  \u4f9b\u990a\u516b 8.8. To make offerings  \u9f4b\u6703\u4e5d 8.9. Gatherings [of monks receiving] offerings of food  \u6eab\u6d74\u2f17\u5341 8.10. Warm Bath  \u798f\u696d\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 8.11. Meritorious activity  \u7834\u9f4b\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 8.12. Breaking monastic rules for eating  \u8a9e\u8ad6\u6a1e\u6a5f\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e5d 9. The crux of [Buddhist] discourse  \u8a9e\u2f94\u8a00\u2f00\u4e00 9.1. Language  \u8ad6\u7fa9\u2f06\u4e8c 9.2. Explaining meanings   272\t \u00a0 \u5632\u6232\u4e09 9.3. Joking  \u8faf\u624d\u56db 9.4. Rhetorical skill  \u7b11[\u54c2]\u4e94 9.5 Laughter  \u96e2\u9593\u516d 9.6 Sowing dissent  \u5475\u8cac\u4e03 9.7 Criticism (severe scolding)  \u6b3a\u8a91\u516b 9.8 Deception  \u8b17\u6bc0\u4e5d 9.9 Slander  \u5984\u8a9e\u2f17\u5341 9.10 False speech  \u4e0d\u8070\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 9.11 Unintelligence  \u2f4c\u6b62\u8acd\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 9.12 Ending remonstration  \u4e5d\u6d41\u2f42\u6587\u85dd\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f17\u5341 10. Letters and arts of the different professions  \u9053\u4fd7\u8457\u8ff0\u2f00\u4e00 10.1 Works [by members] of the clergy and of secular society  \u4e5d\u6d41\u2f42\u6587\u5b57\u2f06\u4e8c 10.2 Words of the different professions  \u540d\u5229\u4e09 10.3 Fame and profit  \u66f8\u6a84\u56db 10.4 Correspondence and public declarations   273\t \u00a0 \u80fd\u66f8\u4e94 10.5 Literacy  \u8a69\u980c\u516d 10.6 Eulogy \/ Poetry  \u5112\u58a8\u4e03 10.7 Ruists (Confucians) and Mohists  \u5fd7\u5b78\u516b 10.8 Dedication to learning  \u7d19\u7d20\u4e5d\u7b46\u58a8[\u9644] 10.9 Paper and silk [for calligraphy and painting] (brushes and ink appended)  \u91ab\u85e5\u2f17\u5341 10.10 Medicine  \u8853\u6578\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 10.11 Prophesy  \u5360\u2f18\u535c\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 10.12 Divination  \u5360\u5922\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 10.13 Oneiromancy, the interpretation of dreams  \u76f8\u6cd5\u2f17\u5341\u56db 10.14 Distinctive marks  \u2f2f\u5de5\u5de7\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 10.15 Fine arts  \u756b\u5851\u2f17\u5341\u516d 10.16 Painting and sculpture  \u5546\u8cc8\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 10.17 Merchants  \u2fbc\u9ad8\u2f8f\u884c\u8af8\u5c3c\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 11. Various nuns of lofty conduct  \u516b\u656c\u5f9e\u9053\u2f00\u4e00 11.1 Complying with the way of the eight [special rules for nuns]   274\t \u00a0 \u73fe\u901a\u5316\u2f08\u4eba\u2f06\u4e8c 11.2 Beings manifested in the present  \u50b3\u5217\u2fbc\u9ad8\u2f8f\u884c\u4e09 11.3 Lofty conduct [of nuns] listed in biographies  \u50e7\u5c3c\u4e0d\u62dc\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 12. [History of] not paying homage [to the sa\u1e43gha]  \u6649\u671d\u82f1\u5f65\u2f00\u4e00 12.1 Talented [people] of the Jin dynasty  \u5b8b\u6b66\u547d\u62dc\u2f06\u4e8c 12.2 Emperor Wu of the Liu Song dynasty (363-422) orders obeisance  \u8d6b\u9023\u81f4\u79ae\u4e09 12.3 Helian Bobo's \u8d6b\u9023\u52c3\u52c3 (381-425) homage paid to the sa\u1e43gha  \u9f4a\u6b66\u6c99\u6c70\u56db 12.4 The sifting [of the sa\u1e43gha by] Emperor Wu of Southern Qi (440-493)  \u968b\u5510\u91cd\u8b70\u4e94 12.5 Renewed debates [on Buddhism] during the Sui and Tang dynasties  \u6703\u660c\u6bc0\u6ec5\u516d 12.6 Destruction [of Buddhist institutions] in the Huichang era (841-846)  \u50e7\u9053\u5148\u5f8c\u4e03 12.7 [Debates on] the order of imperial preference for Buddhists and Daoists  \u5f65\u60b0\u798f\u2f65\u7530\u516b 12.8 Yancong\u2019s (fl. mid 7th c.) Futian lun     275\t \u00a0\u2f24\u5927\u9053\u9748\u4ed9\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 13. The Great Way (i.e., Daoism) and [its] immortals  \u9053\u541b\u2f00\u4e00 13.1 Noble Daoists  \u9053\u6cd5\u2f06\u4e8c 13.2 Daoist teaching  \u9053\u2f20\u58eb\u4e09 13.3 Daoist priests  \u5949\u9053\u56db 13.4 Obeying (i.e., conforming to) the Way  \u6368\u9053\u4e94 13.5 Parting with (i.e., non-conformance to) the Way  \u7fa9\u695a\u516d\u5e16\u7b2c\u4e09444 Book Three of Yichu\u2019s Six Books  \u6d41\u901a\u2f24\u5927\u6559\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f17\u5341\u56db 14. Spread of the Great Teaching (i.e., Buddhism)  \u8b6f\u7d93\u6c42\u6cd5\u8a08\u2f00\u4e00\u767e\u2f00\u4e00\u2f08\u4eba 101 people who translated scriptures, sought the dharma, and recorded [it]  \u6460445\u5e8f\u2f00\u4e00 14.1 Comprehensive introduction   \u6cd5\u5f0f\u2f06\u4e8c 14.2 [Buddhist] methods and rites \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0444 The body text of the woodblock print edition has this as \u4e94, indicating \u7b2c\u4e94\u518a, then lists 14 to 23, while covering only 14 and 15 in the fifth booklet and 16 to 23 in the sixth. The division of fifty bu \u90e8 into six tie \u5e16 is not reflected in the number of bound booklets, which are twelve.\t \u00a0445 \u7e3d\t \u00a0  276\t \u00a0 [\u8b6f\u7d93\u4e09 14.3 Translation of scriptures]  [\u6c42\u6cd5\u56db 14.4 Seeking the Dharma]  \u6cd5\u65bd\u50b3\u71c8\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 15. Giving dharma teachings and passing on the lamp[-flame]  \u89e3\u7fa9\u2f06\u4e8c\u767e\u516d\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f08\u4eba 262 people who understood the meaning [of Buddhism] 446  \u795e\u901a\u5316\u7269\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f17\u5341\u516d 16. Supernatural ability [to] convert beings  \u795e\u7570\u2f17\u5341\u4e03\u2f08\u4eba\u611f\u901a\u2f00\u4e00\u767e\u2f00\u4e00\u2f17\u5341\u56db\u2f08\u4eba Seventeen people [associated with] miracles and 114 people [associated with] response [from buddhas and bodhisattvas]447  \u975c\u616e\u8abf\u2f3c\u5fc3\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 17. Quieting thoughts and harmonizing the mind  \u7fd2\u79aa\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00\u2f08\u4eba\u4e0b\u7e8c\u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u4e5d\u2f17\u5341\u56db\u2f08\u4eba Twenty-one practitioners of meditation [from the Gaoseng zhuan, Biographies of Eminent Monks], \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0446 Makita and Yamaji, Giso rokuj\u014d in'y\u014d shomei sakuin, have this in two sections that should equal 266 people. Here and elsewhere, the information provided in the T\u014dfukuji edition's table of contents conflicts with the body text, the latter being more reliable. The wording in the body text, however, cannot easily be used to improve the table of contents, because it too has discrepancies of wording. See for example the next (sixteenth) section, which the table of contents lists as 17 + 114 = 131 people; on p.142 of Yanagida and Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan 6:2, the number of biographies is given as 28 + 78 + 5 = 111; on p. 191 the same (sixteenth) section is listed with the numbers 18 + 78 +5 = 101. Because of these problems, I have deferred mostly to the wording in the table of contents. \t \u00a0447 See the above note regarding the numbers of biographies in this section.\t \u00a0  277\t \u00a0followed by ninety-four from the Xu Gaoseng zhuan (Further Biographies of Eminent Monks)  \u6301\u72af\u958b\u906e\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f17\u5341\u516b 18. Rule adherence and [moral] prescription and proscription  \u660e\u5f8b\u2f00\u4e00\u2f17\u5341\u4e09\u2f08\u4eba\u4e0b\u7e8c\u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u516d448\u2f08\u4eba Thirteen people who elucidated the monastic rules, followed by twenty-six from the Xu Gaoseng zhuan  \u6350\u8eab\u7232\u6cd5\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d 19. Casting away one\u2019s body for the dharma  \u4ea1\u8eab\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00\u2f08\u4eba\u4e0b\u7e8c\u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u2f00\u4e00\u2f17\u5341\u4e09\u2f08\u4eba\u8b77\u6cd5\u2f17\u5341\u516b\u2f08\u4eba Eleven self-immolators, followed by thirteen more and eighteen dharma protectors from the Xu Gaoseng zhuan  \u6301\u8aa6\u8cab\u82b1\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341 20. Holding g\u0101th\u0101s [and scriptures] in memory through chanting  \u8aa6\u7d93\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00\u2f08\u4eba Twenty-one people who chanted scriptures  \u8377\u8ca0\u8208\u5d07\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 21. Uplifting and promoting [the Dharma]  \u8208\u798f\u2f17\u5341\u56db\u2f08\u4eba\u7e8c\u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u6b63\u7d00\u2f17\u5341\u516b\u9644\u2f92\u898b\u4e94\u2f08\u4eba Fourteen people who promoted the merits [of Buddhism], followed by eighteen from the main   278\t \u00a0biographies of the Xu Gaoseng zhuan and five who are appended in notes [to the Xu Gaoseng zhuan]  \u6291\u63da\u534a\u6eff\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 22. Modulated, partial, and complete [Buddhist teachings]  \u7d93\u5e2b\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00\u2f08\u4eba\u7e8c\u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u6b63\u7d00\u2f17\u5341\u516b\u2f08\u4eba\u9644\u2f92\u898b\u516b\u2f08\u4eba Eleven masters of scripture, eighteen [more] from the main biographies of the Xu Gaoseng zhuan, and eight who are appended in notes [to the Xu Gaoseng zhuan]   \u5316\u5c0e\u2f08\u4eba\u5929\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 23. Instruction of humans and gods  \u5531\u5c0e\u2f00\u4e00\u2f17\u5341\u2f08\u4eba[\u5f8c\u96dc\u79d1\u516b\u2f08\u4eba\u9644\u2f92\u898b\u6b63\u50b3\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f08\u4eba449] Ten preachers [after which are eight people of miscellaneous categories, and twelve found in notes appended to the main biographies of the Xu Gaoseng zhuan]  \u7fa9\u695a\u516d\u5e16\u7b2c\u56db Book Four of Yichu\u2019s Six Books  \u5a01\u9748\u795e\u8846\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u56db 24. Gods and deities  \u68b5\u738b\u2f00\u4e00 24.1 King of the Brahma Heaven \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0448 Makita and Yamaji give twenty-seven. \t \u00a0449 See Yanagida and Shiina, p.142, 232. On pp. 232-233 I only count twelve biographies in the miscellaneous category, so it is unclear to what the \"eight people\" refers.\t \u00a0  279\t \u00a0 \u5e1d\u91cb\u2f06\u4e8c 24.2 Indra  \u9b54\u738b\u4e09 24.3 M\u0101ra (demon king of the sixth heaven)  \u5929\u738b\u56db 24.4 [The four] heavenly kings [of the desire realm]  \u4e16\u4e3b\u2f08\u4eba\u738b\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 25. Lords of the world and kings of men  \u8f49\u8f2a\u738b\u2f00\u4e00 25.1 Wheel-turning kings  \u897f\u2f1f\u571f\u6709\u9053\u7c9f\u6563\u738b\u2f06\u4e8c 25.2 Scattered kings of western lands450 who possessed the Way  \u7121\u9053\u4e09 25.3 [Those of western lands] without the Way  \u6771\u2f1f\u571f\u6709\u9053\u7c9f\u6563\u738b\u56db 25.4 Scattered kings of the eastern lands who possessed the Way  \u7121\u9053\u4e94 25.5 [Those of eastern lands] without the Way  \u5132\u541b\u81e3\u4f50\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u516d 26. Various lords, ministers, and assistants  \u592a\u2f26\u5b50\u2f00\u4e00\u5fe0\u5b5d\u8ce2\u667a\u7b49 26.1 Crown prince (the faithful, filial, virtuous, and wise) \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0450 Most likely this refers to Central Asia and South Asia, with \"eastern lands\" referring to China, but this assumption needs to be checked against the citations in the body text.\t \u00a0  280\t \u00a0 \u2f24\u5927\u81e3\u2f06\u4e8c\u5584\u8ce2\u5fe0[\u8c9e]\u76f4[\u624d]\u624d\u667a\u8ac2\u4f5e[\u7b49] 26.2 Great ministers (the good, virtuous, faithful, correct, upright, talented, wise, fawning, and flattering)  \u795e\u4ed9\u2fbc\u9ad8\u2f20\u58eb\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 27. Immortal men (and women?) of excellence  \u4ed9\u2f08\u4eba[\u2f00\u4e00] 27.1 Seers  \u5916\u9053\u2f06\u4e8c 27.2 Non-Buddhists  \u9053\u5e2b\u4e09 27.3 Teachers of the Way  \u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u56db 27.4 Brahmins  \u9577\u8005\u4e94 27.5 [Upright] householders  \u5c45\u2f20\u58eb\u516d 27.6 Lay practitioners  \u4fe1\u2f20\u58eb\u4e03 27.7 Male devotees  \u9038\u2f20\u58eb\u516b 27.8 [Socially reclusive] men of moral character  \u96b1\u2f20\u58eb\u4e5d 27.9 Hermits  \u535a\u2f20\u58eb\u2f17\u5341 27.10 Men of broad learning  \u2f08\u4eba\u4e8b\u89aa\u670b\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u516b 28. Human relations, family, and friends  \u2f08\u4eba\u7269\u2f00\u4e00 28.1 Human possessions   281\t \u00a0 \u2f57\u7236\u6bcd\u2f06\u4e8c 28.2 Father and mother  \u5144\u5f1f\u4e09 28.3 Older and younger brothers  \u8205\u4f2f\u56db 28.4 Uncles and in-laws  \u7ae5\u2f26\u5b50\u4e94 28.5 Children  \u5b5d\u2f26\u5b50\u516d 28.6 Filial sons  \u9006\u2f26\u5b50\u4e03 28.7 Rebellious sons  \u670b\u53cb\u516b 28.8 Friends  \u8cd3\u5ba2\u4e5d 28.9 Guests  \u7aef\u6b63\u2f17\u5341 28.10 The elegant (i.e., beautiful people)  \u919c\u964b\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 28.11 The ugly  \u5974\u50d5\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 28.12 Slaves and servants  \u4f7f\u5f79\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 28.13 Attendants  \u4f34\u4fb6\u2f17\u5341\u56db 28.14 Companions  \u5b64\u7368\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 28.15 The lonely  \u8ca7\u7aae\u2f17\u5341\u516d 28.16 The poor  \u4e5e\u2f08\u4eba\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 28.17 Beggars  \u975e\u7537\u2f17\u5341\u516b 28.18 Hermaphrodites   282\t \u00a0 \u8ecd\u65c5\u96c4\u52c7\u90e8\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d 29. Troops and those of great courage   \u8ecd\u65c5\u2f00\u4e00 29.1 Troops  \u9b2a\u6230\u2f06\u4e8c 29.2 Battle  \u52ab\u8cca\u4e09 29.3 Robbers  \u7aca\u76dc\u56db 29.4 Pilferers  \u4e0d\u5f8b\u4e94 29.5 The undisciplined  \u6bba\u2f63\u751f\u516d 29.6 Killing of life  \u6253\u7e33\u4e03 29.7 Tying up  \u76f8\u64b2\u516b 29.8 Wrestling  \u6f01\u2f08\u4eba\u4e5d 29.9 Fishermen  \u7375\u5e2b\u2f17\u5341 29.10 Hunters  \u2f4b\u6b20\u8ca0\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 29.11 Owing debt  \u5931\u7269\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 29.12 Lost articles  \u6709\u904e\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 29.13 Wrongdoing  \u7a05\u5229\u2f17\u5341\u56db 29.14 Tax and interest  \u65b7\u4e8b\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 29.15 Settling matters   283\t \u00a0 \u2f24\u5927\u6b0a\u73fe\u5316\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09\u2f17\u5341 30. Great potentiality for manifestation  \u8056\u5973\u2f00\u4e00 30.1 Noblewomen  \u5bf6\u5973\u2f06\u4e8c 30.2 Precious maidens  \u9b54\u5973\u4e09 30.3 Daughters of M\u0101ra (i.e., temptresses)  \u5929\u5973\u56db 30.4 Goddesses  \u540e\u5983\u516c\u4e3b\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 31. Empresses, imperial concubines, and princesses  \u540e\u5983\u2f00\u4e00 31.1 Empresses and imperial concubines  \u516c\u4e3b\u2f06\u4e8c 31.2 Princesses  \u5bae\u2f08\u4eba\u4e09 31.3 Palace women  \u5a66\u5973\u8ce2\u4e82\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 32. Women virtuous and licentious   \u5ba4\u5973\u2f00\u4e00 32.1 Unmarried girls  \u5ac1\u5a36\u2f06\u4e8c 32.2 Daughters marrying out and brides marrying in [to a household]  \u59bb\u5ba4\u4e09 32.3 Wives   284\t \u00a0 \u504f\u5ba4\u56db 32.4 Concubines  \u5a62\u5993\u4e94 32.5 Slave girls and prostitutes  \u9003\u4ea1\u516d 32.6 Fugitive [women]  \u5a6c\u6feb\u4e03 32.7 [The] sexually unrestrained   \u5e7d\u51a5\u795e\u9b3c\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 33. Netherworld deities and ghosts  \u95bb\u7f85\u2f00\u4e00 33.1 Yama  \u2fa6\u91d1\u525b\u2f06\u4e8c 33.2 Vajra (Vajra-warriors)  \u4fee\u7f85\u4e09 33.3 Asura  \u795e[\u738b]\u56db 33.4 Deva king[s]  \u9b3c[\u5c07]\u4e94 33.5 Ghost [generals]  \u591c\u53c9\u516d 33.6 Yak\u1e63a  \u7f85\u524e\u4e03 33.7 Ogres (Sk. r\u0101k\u1e63asa)   \u7cbe\u9b45\u516b 33.8 Evil spirits  \u5996\u602a\u4e5d 33.9 Monsters  \u9748\u8b8a\u2f17\u5341 33.10 Unexplainable phenomena    285\t \u00a0\u7fa9\u695a\u516d\u5e16\u7b2c\u4e94 Book Five of Yichu\u2019s Six Books  \u2f83\u81ea\u5728\u5149\u660e\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09\u2f17\u5341\u56db 34. Sovereign radiance  \u5929\u2f00\u4e00 34.1 Heaven  \u9053\u2fa8\u9580\u5929\u2f06\u4e8c 34.2 Heaven of the Daoists  \u66f0\u4e09 34.3 Sun  \u2f49\u6708\u56db 34.4 Moon  \u661f\u4e94 34.5 Stars  \u98a8\u516d 34.6 Wind  \u96f2\u4e03 34.7 Clouds  \u2fac\u96e8\u516b 34.8 Rain  \u96f7\u4e5d 34.9 Thunder  \u96f9\u2f17\u5341 34.10 Hail  \u96fb\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 34.11 Lightning  \u9713\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 34.12 [Double] rainbows  \u96ea\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 34.13 Snow  \u65f1\u2f17\u5341\u56db 34.14 Drought   286\t \u00a0 \u5e74\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 34.15 Years  \u52ab\u6642\u2f17\u5341\u516d 34.16 Kalpa chronology  \u7bc0\u6703\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 34.17 Holiday feasts  \u5bd2\u71b1\u2f17\u5341\u516b 34.18 Cold and heat  \u665d\u591c\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d 34.19 Day and night  \u539a\u8f09\u9748\u6e90\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 35. Solid land and numinous waters  \u5730\u2f00\u4e00 35.1 Ground  \u5c71\u2f06\u4e8c\u5ddd\u2f95\u8c37\u9644\u4e4b 35.2 Mountains, appended with [small] rivers and valleys  \u6d77\u4e09 35.3 Ocean  \u6c5f\u56db 35.4 Vast rivers (like the Yangzi)  \u6cb3\u4e94 35.5 Great rivers (like the Yellow River)  \u2f54\u6c34\u516d 35.6 Waters  \u6cc9\u4e03 35.7 Springs  \u6c60\u516b 35.8 Ponds  \u4e95\u4e5d 35.9 Wells  \u5751\u2f17\u5341 35.10 Caves and ravines   287\t \u00a0 \u5875\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 35.11 Dust  \u6ce5\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 35.12 Mud  \u2f1f\u571f\u2f17\u5341\u4e09[\u6c99\u9644] 35.13 Soil, appended with sand  \u7070\u2f17\u5341\u56db 35.14 Ash  \u2f55\u706b\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 35.15 Fire  \u71c8\u2f17\u5341\u516d 35.16 Lamps  \u8349\u2f4a\u6728\u679c\u5be6\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09\u2f17\u5341\u516d 36. Plants and fruits  \u5712\u2f00\u4e00 36.1 Gardens  \u6797\u2f06\u4e8c 36.2 Woods  \u6a39\u4e09 36.3 Trees  \u82b1\u56db 36.4 Flowers  \u679c\u4e94 36.5 Fruits  \u68d8\u516d 36.6 Thorny plants  \u8349\u4e03[\u82ad\u8549\u9644\u4e4b] 36.7 Herbaceous plants, appended with apple banana  \u2f62\u7518\u8517\u516b 36.8 Sugarcane  \u2f75\u7af9\u4e5d 36.9 Bamboo   288\t \u00a0 \u8461\u8404\u2f17\u5341 36.10 Grape  \u863f\u8514\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 36.11 Radish  \u74dc\u83dc\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 36.12 Gourds and melons  \u82a5\u523a\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 36.13 Mustard [greens] and thorns451  [\u96dc\u8349\u2f17\u5341\u56db 36.14 Miscellaneous plants]  \u9152\u98df\u52a9\u5473\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 37. Food, drink, and assisting flavors (i.e., salt and sauce)  \u9152\u2f00\u4e00\u5f97\u2f06\u4e8c\u5931 37.1 Alcoholic beverages, [their] benefit and harm  \u98df\u2f06\u4e8c 37.2 Food and eating  \u7ca5\u4e09 37.3 Porridge  \u98f0(\u98ef)\u56db 37.4 Cooked rice  \u7fb9\u4e94 37.5 Soup  \u9905\u516d 37.6 Flour products  \u9ea8\u4e03 37.7 Dry-roasted and milled grain  \u9e7d\u516b 37.8 Salt \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0451 Why Yichu put these two together is not clear, but the entries show that the heading refers to these two separate items.\t \u00a0  289\t \u00a0 \u8607\u4e5d 37.9 Butter (\u9165452)  \u4e73\u2f17\u5341 37.10 Milk  \u916a\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 37.11 Yogurt  \u2f62\u7518\u9732\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 37.12 Ambrosia  \u871c\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 37.13 Honey  \u2f81\u8089\u2f17\u5341\u56db 37.14 Meat  \u9eb5\u2f17\u5341\u4e94\u9ea6\u9644 37.15 Flour, appended with wheat  \u6cb9\u2f17\u5341\u516d 37.16 Oil  \u6f3f\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 37.17 Beverages  \u7a3b\u2f17\u5341\u516b 37.18 Rice  \u7cb3453\u2f76\u7c73\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d 37.19 Millet  \u6996\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341 37.20 Grain  \u7ce0\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 37.21 Sugar  \u2f29\u5c0f\u2f96\u8c46\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 37.22 Small beans \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0452 Terminology for dairy products in both Sanskrit and Chinese is complex, due to instances of overlapping usage, such as Sk. gh\u1e5bta being rendered in English as ghee, fat, or cream. The associated Chinese terms and attempts to translate them into English have perpetuated this lack of clarity. Thus, I have translated the three dairy terms with what I identify as their most basic meanings in the Buddhist literature.\t \u00a0453 The body text lists \u79d4 and gives \u2f76\u7c73 as appended.\t \u00a0  290\t \u00a0 \u7a2e\u690d\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 37.23 Planting  \u98e2\u6e34\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u56db 37.24 Hunger and thirst  \u98fd\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 37.25 Satiation  \u5bf6\u2f5f\u7389\u73cd\u7ad2(\u5947)\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09\u2f17\u5341\u516b 38. Treasure, jade, and rarities  \u5bf6\u2f00\u4e00 38.1 Treasure  \u2fa6\u91d1\u2f06\u4e8c 38.2 Gold  \u2fa6\u91d1\u525b\u4e09 38.3 Diamond  \u9280\u56db 38.4 Silver  \u7409\u7483\u4e94 38.5 Glass  \u73e0\u516d 38.6 Pearl  \u2f54\u6c34\u6676\u4e03 38.7 Crystal  \u2f5f\u7389\u516b 38.8 Jade  \u9322\u4e5d 38.9 Cash  \u8ca1\u2f17\u5341 38.10 Wealth (i.e., capital)  \u9435\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 38.11 Iron  \u5bcc\u8cb4\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 38.12 Riches and honor   291\t \u00a0 \u96c5\u6a02\u6e05\u6b4c\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e09\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d 39. Refined music and pure songs  \u6a02\u2f00\u4e00 39.1 Music  \u7434\u2f06\u4e8c 39.2 Stringed instruments (lute and zither)  \u7435\u7436\u4e09 39.3 Pipa  \u2fce\u9f13\u56db 39.4 Drums  \u937e\u4e94 39.5 Large bells  [\u9234 Small bells]  [\u78ec Chimes]  \u6b4c\u516d 39.6 Song  \u821e\u4e03 39.7 Dancing  \u7881\u516b 39.8 Board games (go and Chinese chess)  \u4e94\u5883\u7232\u7de3\u90e8\u7b2c\u56db\u2f17\u5341 40. The five conditioned external objects [of perception]  \u2f8a\u8272\u2f00\u4e00 40.1 Colors and form  \u8072\u2f06\u4e8c 40.2 Sounds   292\t \u00a0 \u2fb9\u9999\u4e09 40.3 Smells  \u5473\u56db 40.4 Flavors  \u89f8\u4e94 40.5 Tactile objects  \u516d\u6839\u56b4\u76f8\u90e8\u7b2c\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 41. The adorning outward forms of the six [sense] faculties  \u773c\u2f00\u4e00 41.1 Eyes  \u2f7f\u8033\u2f06\u4e8c 41.2 Ears  \u2fd0\u9f3b\u4e09 41.3 Nose  \u2f86\u820c\u56db[\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u8123\u9f52\u9644] 41.4 Tongue, appended with mouth, lips, and teeth  \u8eab\u4e94\u71d2\u6368\u8ce3\u6613\u9644\u4e4b 41.5 Body, appended with burning, abandoning, selling, and altering  \u610f\u516d 41.6 Mind  \u96a8\u6839\u8af8\u4e8b\u90e8\u7b2c\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 42. Various things associated with the faculties   \u982d\u2f00\u4e00 42.1 Head  \u81c2\u2f06\u4e8c 42.2 Arms   293\t \u00a0 \u2f3f\u624b\u4e09 42.3 Hands  \u6307\u56db 42.4 Fingers  \u2f9c\u8db3\u4e94 42.5 Feet  \u80a1\u516d 42.6 Legs  \u7709\u4e03 42.7 Eyebrows  \u9aee\u516b 42.8 Head hair  \u2f51\u6bdb\u4e5d 42.9 [Other] hair  \u2f6a\u76ae\u2f17\u5341 42.10 Skin  \u9aa8\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 42.11 Bone  \u2f8e\u8840\u8108\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 42.12 Blood vessels  \u6dda\u6c57\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 42.13 Tears and sweat  \u5410\u2f17\u5341\u56db 42.14 Vomit  \u7cde\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 42.15 Feces  \u5c3f\u2f17\u5341\u516d 42.16 Urine  \u606f\u6c23\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 42.17 Breath  \u7fa9\u695a\u516d\u5e16\u7b2c\u516d Book Six of Yichu\u2019s Six Books   294\t \u00a0 \u570b\u57ce\u5dde\u5e02\u90e8\u7b2c\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 43. States, cities, regions, and markets  \u570b\u2f00\u4e00 43.1 States  \u57ce\u2f06\u4e8c 43.2 [Walled] cities  \u5dde\u4e09 43.3 Regions  \u5e02\u56db\u2f45\u65b9\u8655\u9644[\u4e4b] 43.4 Markets, appended with directions and places  \u5bfa\u820e\u5854\u6bbf\u90e8\u7b2c\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u56db 44. Temple, shelter, st\u016bpa, and hall  \u5bfa\u2f00\u4e00\u6771\u2f1f\u571f\u897f\u5929[\u9053]\u89c0\u6bc1[\u5ee2]\u5bfa\u7b49[\u9644\u4e4b] 44.1 Temples, of eastern lands and India, appended with Daoist temples, ruined temples, and so forth  \u6bbf\u2f06\u4e8c\u95a3[\u6a13]\u9644\u4e4b 44.2 [Palatial] halls, appended with [extensive] pavilions and tall buildings  \u5854\u4e09 44.3 St\u016bpas \/ Pagodas  \u5802\u56db\u4ead\u5ba4\u9644[\u4e4b] 44.4 Halls, appended with pavilions and rooms  \u5b85\u4e94 44.5 Residences  \u2fa8\u9580\u516d[\u95dc\u9644\u4e4b] 44.6 Doors, appended with gate  \u67f1\u4e03 44.7 Pillars  \u3551\u516b 44.8 Kitchens   295\t \u00a0 \u968e\u4e5d 44.9 Stairs  \u81fa\u2f17\u5341\u69ad\u9644\u4e4b 44.10 Stage, appended with open gazebo  \u64c5\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 44.11 Platforms  \u58c1\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 44.12 Walls  \u53a0\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 44.13 Latrine  \u8caf\u7a4d\u79e4\u91cf\u90e8\u7b2c\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 45. Storing, weighing, and measuring  \u85cf\u2f00\u4e00 45.1 Storehouse  \u5331\u2f06\u4e8c 45.2 Cabinet  \u2f43\u6597\u4e09\u6753\u9644\u4e4b 45.3 Dou [scoop] measure, appended with ladle  \u79e4\u56db 45.4 Steelyard scale  \u76c6\u7515\u4e94\u91dc\u9644\u4e4b 45.5 Bowl and jar, appended with cauldron  \u52a9\u9053\u8cc7\u8eab\u90e8\u7b2c\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u516d 46. [Things that] aid the Way and benefit the body  \u8863\u670d\u2f00\u4e00 46.1 Clothing  \u8888\u88df\u2f06\u4e8c[\u9053\u8863\u4fd7\u670d] 46.2 Ka\u1e63\u0101ya, [appended with] monastic garb and secular clothing   296\t \u00a0 \u5982\u610f\u4e09 46.3 Ruyi scepter   \u6578\u73e0\u56db 46.4 [Buddhist] rosary  \u5243\u2f11\u5200\u4e94 46.5 Shaving knife  \u6de8\u74f6\u516d 46.6 Water bottle  \u6fa1\u7f50\u4e03\u2fb9\u9999\u7210\u9644\u4e4b 46.7 Water basin, appended with censer  \u9262\u76c2\u516b\u5319\u9644\u4e4b 46.8 Alms bowl, appended with spoon  \u932b\u6756\u4e5d 46.9 Monk\u2019s staff  \u978b\u5c65\u2f17\u5341 46.10 Footwear  \u6de8\u2f31\u5dfe\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 46.11 Hand cloth  \u5e61\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 46.12 Banner  \u62c2\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 46.13 Fly whisk  \u6247\u2f17\u5341\u56db 46.14 Fan  \u5e33\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 46.15 Curtain and canopy  \u5e8a\u2f17\u5341\u516d 46.16 Bed (or raised platform for meditation)  \u6795\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 46.17 Pillow  \u5ea7\u2f17\u5341\u516b\u2f0f\u51e0\u9644\u4e4b 46.18 Seat, appended with table  \u6c08\u8925\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d 46.19 Felt mattress   297\t \u00a0 \u5e2d\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341 46.20 Straw mat  \u74d4\u73de\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 46.21 Necklaces and bracelets (of precious stones, flowers, etc.)  \u91f5\u91e7\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 46.22 Hairpins and bracelets (i.e., feminine jewelry?)  \u93e1\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 46.23 Mirror  \u91dd\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u56db\u9477\u9644[\u4e4b] 46.24 Needle, appended with tweezer  \u7dda\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e94\u7d72\u7e6d\u9644[\u4e4b] 46.25 Thread, appended with thread and cocoons of silk  \u7dbf\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u516d 46.26 Cotton \/ silk floss454   \u7d79\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e03\u5e03\u9644[sic.]455[\u9326\u9644\u4e4b] 46.27 [Thin] silk fabric, appended with brocade  \u3cb2456\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u516b[\u5e03\u9644\u4e4b] 46.28 Finely woven wool fabric, appended with cloth of coarse cotton or hemp  \u9ebb\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d 46.29 Hemp or linen  \u6b66\u5099\u5b89\u90a6\u90e8\u7b2c\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 47. Weaponry for protecting a country  \u5370\u2f00\u4e00 47.1 Seal \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0454 Whether this refers to cotton or to silk floss needs to be checked against the body text. Some sources suggest that cotton was present in China but not widely known in the north before the Song period. \t \u00a0455 In the body text, bu \u5e03 is placed together with die \u3cb2 as the 28th item.\t \u00a0456 Pronounced di\u00e9. See DCCV, character C06045.\t \u00a0  298\t \u00a0 \u6756\u2f06\u4e8c 47.2 Staff  \u7532\u4e09 47.3 Armor  \u515c\u936a\u56db 47.4 Helmet  \u69cd\u621f\u4e94 47.5 Spear and halberd  \u2f11\u5200\u5294\u516d 47.6 Knife and sword  \u5f13\u4e03 47.7 Bow  \u7bad\u516b 47.8 Arrows  \u6775\u4e5d 47.9 Club  \u65a7\u2f17\u5341 47.10 Axe  \u8f2a\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 47.11 Wheel  \u84cb\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 47.12 Parasol  \u7db2\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 47.13 Net  \u7d22\u2f17\u5341\u56db 47.14 Rope  \u68af\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 47.15 Ladder  \u2f9e\u8eca\u2f17\u5341\u516d 47.16 Cart  \u8239\u7b4f\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 47.17 Boat and raft  \u6a4b\u2f17\u5341\u516b 47.18 Bridge   299\t \u00a0 \u6a90\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d 47.19 Eaves  \u2f54\u6c34\u65cf\u9c57\u87f2457\u90e8\u7b2c\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u516b 48. Fish and critters of the water  \u9f8d\u2f00\u4e00 48.1 Dragon  \u9f9c\u2f06\u4e8c\u9f07\u9eff\u9644\u4e4b 48.2 Turtle, appended with sea turtle  \u2fc2\u9b5a\u4e09 48.3 Fish  \u87ba\u56db 48.4 Snail  \u86e4\u4e94\u86ed\u9644\u4e4b 48.5 Clam, appended with leech  \u737a\u516d\u8766\u87f9\u9644 48.6 Otter, appended with shrimp and crab  \u86c7\u4e03\u8734\u9644\u4e4b 48.7 Snake, appended with lizard  \u8766\u87c6\u516b 48.8 Frog and toad  \u87f2\u87fb\u4e5d 48.9 Insects  \u86a4\u8768\u2f17\u5341 48.10 Flea and louse  \u2fa6\u91d1\u7fc5\u2f7b\u7fbd\u65cf\u90e8\u7b2c\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d[\u2fb6\u98db\u2fc3\u9ce5\u6709\u56db\u5343\u4e94\u767e\u7a2e] 49. Garu\u1e0da and the feathered clan (i.e., birds) \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0457 In the body text this section is titled longwang shuizu \u9f8d\u738b\u2f54\u6c34\u65cf, Dragon King and water critters. See Yanagida and Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan 6:2, 409.\t \u00a0  300\t \u00a0 \u2fa6\u91d1\u7fc5\u2f00\u4e00 49.1 Garu\u1e0da  \u9cf3\u51f0\u2f06\u4e8c 49.2 Pheonix  \u5b54\u96c0\u4e09 49.3 Peacock  \u9db4\u56db 49.4 Crane  \u9e1a\u9d61\u4e94 49.5 Parrot  \u9df9\u516d 49.6 Hawk458  \u9d70\u4e03 49.7 Vulture  \u70cf\u516b 49.8 Crow  \u9d08\u4e5d 49.9 Wild goose  \u9d5d\u2f17\u5341 49.10 Domesticated goose  \u96de\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00 49.11 Fowl  \u9d3f\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c 49.12 Dove  \u689f\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 49.13 Owl  \u8759\u8760\u2f17\u5341\u56db 49.14 Bat  \u8702\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 49.15 Bees and wasps  \u8805\u2f17\u5341\u516d 49.16 Fly \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0458 Any similar bird of prey.\t \u00a0  301\t \u00a0 \u87a2\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 49.17 Firefly  \u868a\u2f17\u5341\u516b 49.18 Mosquito  \u96dc\u985e\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d 49.19 Miscellaneous  \u5e2b\u2f26\u5b50\u7378\u985e\u90e8\u7b2c\u4e94\u2f17\u5341[\u7378\u6709\u56db\u5343\u4e94\u767e\u7a2e] 50. Lion and other beasts  \u5e2b\u2f26\u5b50\u2f00\u4e00\u9e9f\u9644\u4e4b 50.1 Lion, appended with unicorn  \u8c61\u2f06\u4e8c 50.2 Elephant  \u864e\u4e09\u718a\u9644\u4e4b 50.3 Tiger, appended with bear  \u9e7f\u56db 50.4 Deer  \u99dd\u4e94 50.5 Camel  \u2fba\u99ac\u516d 50.6 Horse  \u9a62\u4e03\u9a3e\u9644\u4e4b 50.7 Donkey, appended with mule  \u2f5c\u725b\u516b 50.8 Cattle  \u2f7a\u7f8a\u4e5d 50.9 Sheep  \u8c6c\u2f17\u5341 50.10 Swine  \u72d7\u2f17\u5341\u2f00\u4e00\u72fc\u9644\u4e4b 50.11 Dog, appended with wolf  \u737c\u7334\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c\u733f\u9644 50.12 Macaque, appended with monkey   302\t \u00a0 \u5154\u2f17\u5341\u4e09 50.13 Rabbit  \u72d0\u2f17\u5341\u56db 50.14 Fox  \u91ce\u8c7b\u2f17\u5341\u4e94 50.15 Wild dog  \u8c93\u2f17\u5341\u516d 50.16 Cat  \u9f20\u2f17\u5341\u4e03 50.17 Rats and mice  \u96dc\u985e\u2f17\u5341\u516b 50.18 Miscellaneous [end]     303\t \u00a0Appendix 5: Translation of all entries under the topic of shi \u98df in Yichu's Shishi liutie459  Part Two. Eating460 \u98df\u2f06\u4e8c  [1] [When] morsel food461 was first received [by humans]. The Jushe lun462 says: At the beginning of the kalpa of formation (i.e., formation of the present universe), the flavor of joy-in-meditation gradually gave rise to the flavor of earth, its scent deeply fragrant, its taste sweet and delicious. At that time there was someone habituated from a prior lifetime to indulge in flavors, to smell fragrances, to take food. That time is known as the first receipt of morsel food, after which arose forests, vines, and scented paddy rice. Of old, it was called tuanshi (lumped food); now it is newly [referred to] as duanshi (piecemeal food). \u6bb5463\u98df\u521d\u53d7\u300e\u4ff1\u820d\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6210\u52ab\u4e4b\u521d\uff0c\u79aa\u6085\u70ba\u5473\uff0c\u6f38\u2f63\u751f\u5730\u5473\uff0c\u5176\u2fb9\u9999\u9b31\u99a5\uff0c\u5176\u5473\u2f62\u7518\u7f8e464\u3002\ufe12\u6642\u6709\u2f00\u4e00\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u5bbf\u7fd2\u8ead465\u5473\uff0c\u81ed466\u2fb9\u9999\u53d6\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5c12467\u6642\u540d\u70ba\u300c\u521d\u53d7\u6bb5\u98df\u300d\uff0c\u6b21\u2f63\u751f\u6797\u85e4\u2fb9\u9999\u7a3b468\u3002\ufe12\u820a\u4e91\u300c\u5718\u98df\u300d\uff0c\u4eca\u65b0\u70ba\u300c\u6bb5\u98df\u300d\u3002\ufe12 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0459 Yanagida and Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan 6:2, 330-332.\t \u00a0460 Shi \u98df can mean food or eating. Here I choose the latter translation into English, with an awareness that in Chinese it is simultaneously both. \u201cEating\u201d better serves the Buddhist discussion here, which tends to emphasize the interactive aspect over the static (i.e., foodstuffs).\t \u00a0461 This is one of four types of food \u56db\u98df identified in Buddhist doctrine, referred to in this way because it is eaten piece by piece, sequentially and periodically. See Chapter 4 discussion.\t \u00a0462 Abbr. of Apidamo jushe lun \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u5036\u820d\u8ad6, the Abhidharma Storehouse Treatise, Skt. Abhidharmako\u015ba-bh\u0101\u1e63ya, T29 n1558 and n1559. The cited material is an origin myth that occurs in T29 n1558, 65b15-c20. For an English translation of this passage, see Vasubandhu\u2019s Abhidharmako\u015babh\u0101\u1e63yam, v.2, pp.487-489. See also Benavides, \u201cEconomy,\u201d in Lopez, Critical Terms, for a discussion of the origin myth from the perspective of Pali literature.\t \u00a0463 FCJ edition gives \u65b7\t \u00a0464 Variant -\u2f24\u5927 +\u2f55\u706b\t \u00a0465 Reading this as a variant of dan \u803d, to indulge.\t \u00a0  304\t \u00a0 [2] Foods have ten types. The Jigui zhuan469 records [the following list]: 1) rice, 2) wheat and beans, 3) roasted grain470, 4) meat, and 5) wheat-flour products. The latter five: 1) roots, 2) stems, 3) leaves, 4) flowers, 5) fruits. Regarding the number [of types of food], [for] the poor there are twenty or thirty, [for] the rich a hundred or more varieties fit for a king.  \u98df\u6709\u2f17\u5341\u7a2e\u300e\u5bc4\u6b78\u50b3\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u98ef\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2fc6\u9ea5\u2f96\u8c46\u98ef\uff0c\u4e09\u9ea8\uff0c\u56db\u2f81\u8089\uff0c\u4e94\u9905\u3002\ufe12\u5f8c\u4e94\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u6839\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u8396\uff0c\u4e09\u8449\uff0c\u56db\u82b1\uff0c\u4e94\u679c\u3002\ufe12\u5176\u822c\u6578\uff0c\u8ca7\u8005\u4e09\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u822c\uff0c\u5bcc\u8207\u738b\u7b49\u767e\u9918\u822c\u3002\ufe12  [3] Flavorings create interest. The Baolouge jing471 lists [the following breads]: Steamed buns, butter breads, granular sugar [breads], sesame breads, A\u015boka472 breads, Marvelously Flavored [breads], and pan-roasted breads.  \u52a9\u5473\u8b8a\u8208\u300e\u5bf6\u6a13\u95a3\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a[\u2ede+\u593e473]\u9905\uff0c\u8607\u9905\uff0c\u6c99\u7cd6\uff0c\u6cb9\u9ebb\uff0c\u7121\u6182\uff0c\u5999\u5473\uff0c\u714e\u9905\u3002\ufe12  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0466 Variant \u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3+\u81f0\t \u00a0467 A variant of er \u723e.\t \u00a0468 Variant \u2f72\u79be+\u7130-\u2f55\u706b. FCJ edition gives \u7a31.\t \u00a0469 Abbr. for Tang-dynasty Yijing\u2019s \u7fa9\u6de8 (635-713) Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan \u5357\u6d77\u5bc4\u6b78\u5167\u6cd5\u50b3 (A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea). Completed in 691, this text records Yijing\u2019s travels in India and other parts of South Asia. The relevant passage is T54 n2125, 210b18-20. The translation by TAKAKUSU Junjir\u014d \u2fbc\u9ad8\u6960\u9806\u6b21\u90de, A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (CE 671\uff5e695) by I-tsing, 43, gives \"1. rice; 2. a boiled mixture of barley and peas; 3. baked corn-flour; 4. meat; 5. cakes.\" Takakusu must mean \"corn\" in the now archaic sense of \"grain,\" otherwise this is an anachronism. \t \u00a0470 Whether ground to a flour or kept whole. The passage in the Taish\u014d edition (cited above) gives another character with the same meaning: \u7cd7.\t \u00a0471 Dabao guangbo louge shanzhu mimi tuoluoni jing \u2f24\u5927\u5bf6\u5ee3\u535a\u6a13\u95a3\u5584\u4f4f\u7955\u5bc6\u9640\u7f85\u5c3c\u7d93 (Most Secret, Well-Established Dh\u0101ra\u1e47i of the Vast, Gem-Encrusted Tower), T19 n1005A, p628a13-15. A different translation with a slightly different title, shows similar content in passages at T19 n1006 p644a13-14 and 651b28-c01.\t \u00a0472 This may refer to a bread named after the famous ruler of the Mauryan Empire, or one named after the A\u015boka tree, Saraca indica, the celebrated \"sorrowless tree\" under which the Buddha is said to have been born.\t \u00a0473 Ji\u00e1 a wheat flour product similar to steamed buns, also written\u2ede+\u5408\t \u00a0  305\t \u00a0 [4] Food is without coarse and fine.  The Luzhe\u2019na chengfo jing474 says, What we eat benefits the body, [so] do not seek splendor. Just as grease lubricates a cart, or fragrant oils give aroma to fats, [eating] is the same as adjusting lubrication.  \u98df\u7121\u9e81\u7d30\u300e\u76e7\u906e\u90a3\u6210\u4f5b\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6240\u98df\u8cc7\u8eab\uff0c\u7121\u6c42\u5149\u6fa4\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u8102\u818f\u2f9e\u8eca\uff0c\u2fb9\u9999\u6cb9\u81f0475\u8102\uff0c\u7b49\u540c\u8abf\u6ed1\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12  [5] Impure thoughts return to food. The Yinguo jing476 says, A bhik\u1e63u gave his begging bowl to a woman for food and saw that she was of graceful appearance. Impure thoughts arose. The bhik\u1e63u said, \u201cI do not need food; I cannot make use of it now.\u201d477 The woman said, \u201cIf you repent, you can [still] receive the food.\u201d He then repented and received it.  \u90aa\u5ff5\u9084\u98df\u300e\u56e0\u679c\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6709\u2f00\u4e00\u6bd4\u4e18\u8207\u5973\u2f08\u4eba\u9262\u8207\u98df\uff0c\u2f92\u898b\u5973\u7aef\u6b63\uff0c\u90aa\u5ff5\u5373\u2f63\u751f\u3002\ufe12\u6bd4\u4e18\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u6211\u4e0d\u9808\u98df\uff0c\u4eca\u4e0d\u6d88\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u5973\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u6094\u53ef\u53d7\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u537d\u6094\uff0c\u53d7\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0474 T 18 n848 Da Piluzhena chengfo shenbian jiachi jing \u2f24\u5927\u6bd8\u76e7\u906e\u90a3\u6210\u4f5b\u795e\u8b8a\u52a0\u6301\u7d93. This scripture has been translated to English by Rolf Giebel, under the title The Vairocan\u0101bhisa\u1e43bodhi Sutra. Similar content to Yichu\u2019s citation occurs on 54a06-13: \u6b21\u5949\u6476\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f64\u7528\u737b\u672c\u5c0a\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u4f5c\u96a8\u610f\u98df\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u6545\u6709\u9918\u3002\ufe12\u66f4\u51fa\u5c11\u5206\u3002\ufe12\u7232\u6fdf\u98e2\u4e4f\u4e5e\u6c42\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u7576\u2f63\u751f\u662f\u2f3c\u5fc3\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u7232\u4efb\u6301\u8eab\u5668\u3002\ufe12\u5b89\u96b1\u2f8f\u884c\u9053\u3002\ufe12\u53d7\u662f\u6bb5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u818f\u2f9e\u8eca\u8f44\u3002\ufe12\u4ee4\u4e0d\u6557\u50b7\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u6240\u81f3\u5230\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u61c9\u4ee5\u6ecb\u5473\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u5897\u6e1b\u5176\u2f3c\u5fc3\u3002\ufe12\u53ca\u2f63\u751f\u60a6\u6fa4\u56b4\u8eab\u4e4b\u76f8\u3002\ufe12\u7136\u5f8c\u89c0\u6cd5\u754c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u5b57\u3002\ufe12\u904d\u6de8\u8af8\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u4e8b\u696d\u2fa6\u91d1\u525b\u3002\ufe12\u52a0\u6301\u2f83\u81ea\u8eab\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u4e2d\u7a2e\u2f26\u5b50\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u9441\u5b57\u771e\u2f94\u8a00\u6240\u8aac\u5fa9\u8aa6\u65bd\u2f17\u5341\u2f12\u529b\u660e\u516b\u904d\u3002\ufe12\u2f45\u65b9\u4e43\u98df\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12  The analogy of lubricant for a cart is also used in the Sifenl\u00fc T22 n1428, 963c24-27: \u4ee5\u85e5\u5857\u4e4b\u53d6\u4ee4\u7621\u5dee\u3002\ufe12\u6bd4\u4e18\u98df\u4ee5\u77e5\u2f9c\u8db3\u3002\ufe12\u53d6\u4ee4\u8eab\u5b89\u4ea6\u5fa9\u5982\u662f\u3002\ufe12\u8b6c\u5982\u2f08\u4eba\u4ee5\u818f\u6cb9\u818f\u2f9e\u8eca\u7232\u8ca1\u7269\u6545\u6b32\u4ee4\u8f49\u8f09\u6709\u6240\u81f3\u5230\u3002\ufe12\u6bd4\u4e18\u98df\u77e5\u2f4c\u6b62\u2f9c\u8db3\u53d6\u4ee4\u2f40\u652f\u8eab\u4ea6\u5fa9\u5982\u662f\u3002\ufe12  See also MORI Sh\u014dji, Bukky\u014d hiyu reiwa jiten, 56, for a concise discussion of this analogy.\t \u00a0475 (\u81ed)\t \u00a0476 Guoqu xianzai yinguo jing \u904e\u53bb\u73fe\u5728\u56e0\u679c\u7d93 (Scripture on Causes and Effects of Past and Present.), T3 n189; K 777. I do not find the episode in the cited text. I do, however, see similar content in the Zengyi ahan jing \u5897\u2f00\u4e00\u963f\u542b\u7d93 T2 n125 , beginning p687c13 and running through five variations of a similar scenario of temptation.\t \u00a0477 The nuance of the bhik\u1e63u's words is that he has not met the proper conditions for accepting a donation of food; he admits that he cannot use the food to cultivate merit and make a return on the gift, because his   306\t \u00a0 [6] Personally unaffected by the accidental poisoning. The Xu gaoseng [zhuan]478[has the following story]: While on the road, Dhy\u0101na Master Zao sought some food. His host mistakenly boiled up poisonous berries. [Zao] finished eating and departed. The host ate afterward, throwing it all up and nearly dying. A neighbor saw this, grabbed some medicine, and pursued [Zao]. Only catching up with him after a ten li chase, [the neighbor] told him he had eaten poison. Zao replied, \u201cI personally am not poisoned, [but] thank you for troubling to come to my aid.\u201d The powers of the Way are beyond understanding479.  \u6bd2\u609e\u2f83\u81ea\u7121\u300e\u7e8c\u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u300f\u74aa\u79aa\u5e2b\u8def\u6b21\u6c42\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4e3b\u2f08\u4eba\u609e\u7151\u6bd2\u845a\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u7562\u2f7d\u800c\u53bb\u3002\ufe12\u4e3b\u2f08\u4eba\u5f8c\u98df\uff0c\u7686\u5410\u6b32\u6b7b\u3002\ufe12\u96a3\u2f08\u4eba\u2f92\u898b\u4e4b\uff0c\u6301\u85e5\u2f7d\u800c\u9010\uff0c\u2f17\u5341\u2fa5\u91cc\u2f45\u65b9\u53ca\uff0c\u66f0\u98df\u6bd2\u4f86\u3002\ufe12\u74aa\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u6211\u2f83\u81ea\u7121\u6bd2\uff0c\u52de\u4f86\u76f8\u6551\u300d\u3002\ufe12\u9053\u2f12\u529b\u4e0d\u601d\u8b70\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12  [7] Due to food, feigned courage. The Baiyu jing480 (Sutra of the One Hundred Parables) records [the following parable]: A wife strongly desired to kill her husband. On the occasion of his going on a distant outing, she made him provisions for the road, putting poison within the food. The husband went on the road, but before eating he encountered a brigand who had stolen the king\u2019s horse, [so he] groped for the food and gave it to him. The brigand ate it and died. He took the horse to the king and the king regarded him to be courageous, capable of killing a terrible brigand, and so awarded him a high position. Then, because a lion was a menace to the people of the kingdom, the king came to kill it. The previously mentioned person held a sword, [but] seeing [the lion481] he climbed a tree. Terrified, he lost his sword, which fell \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0intentions have gone astray. See the discussion in the Zhu weimojie jing \u6ce8\u7dad\u6469\u8a70\u7d93 (Annotated Vimalakirti Sutra) T38 n1775, 401a13-26.\t \u00a0478 T50 n2060 pp585c20-26. [\u667a\u74aa (556-638)] \u74aa\u53c8\u56e0\u4e8b\u51fa\u5f80\u6703\u7a3d\u3002\ufe12\u8def\u7531\u5261\u7e23\u5b5d\u2f8f\u884c\u6751\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4e3b\u2f08\u4eba\u8aa4\u716e\u6bd2\u6939\u8a2d\u3002\ufe12\u74aa\u98df\u7adf\u9032\u8da3\u524d\u9014\u3002\ufe12\u4e3b\u2f08\u4eba\u65bc\u5f8c\u5649\u6b64\u9918\u6b98\u3002\ufe12\u4e26\u7686\u5410\u75e2\u82e5\u6b7b\u7b49\u82e6\u3002\ufe12\u96a3\u2f08\u4eba\u2f92\u898b\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u5373\u6301\u85e5\u8ffd\u74aa\u3002\ufe12\u2f17\u5341\u2fa5\u91cc\u2f45\u65b9\u53ca\u3002\ufe12\u2f92\u898b\u74aa\u5feb\u2f8f\u884c\u7121\u6059\u3002\ufe12\u554f\u66f0\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u6545\u2f92\u898b\u5c0b\u3002\ufe12\u5177\u9673\u4e0a\u4e8b\u3002\ufe12\u4fbf\u7b11\u2f7d\u800c\u7b54\u66f0\u3002\ufe12\u8ca7\u9053\u7121\u4ed6\u53ef\u68c4\u85e5\u53cd\u8e64\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u9808\u2f92\u898b\u9010\u3002\ufe12\u9a57\u4e4b\u9053\u2f12\u529b\u6240\u85ab\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u6bd2\u4e0d\u80fd\u50b7\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0479 Beyond logic, thought, conventional knowledge.\t \u00a0480 This is parable number 65 of the collection, T4 n209, pp. 552c13-553b05. The last bit of dialogue when reunited with his wife is not included in the present text of the Baiyu jing found in the Taish\u014d canon and its meaning is not fully clear. \t \u00a0481 The 1669 edition includes this in the Chinese text.\t \u00a0  307\t \u00a0onto the lion, causing it to die. He again reaped the highest merit, and the king\u2019s retinue did not die. [It is] further said that when someone went to the far off country to seek his [old] wife, his new wife made him food, which he repeatedly swallowed in haste. His wife asked, \u201cWith no brigand chasing [after you], what is the occasion for this haste?\u201d He replied, \u201cThis is a secret. Do not ask about it.\u201d His wife said, \"Since I do not understand, I need to ask [you about it].\" He said, \u201cI learned from what people of previous generations liked.\u201d  \u56e0\u98df\u8a50\u52c7\u300e\u767e\u55bb\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6709\u2f08\u4eba\u59bb\u6feb\uff0c\u6b32\u6bba\u5176\u592b\uff0c\u9047\u592b\u903a482\u51fa\uff0c\u7232\u4f5c\u8def\u7cae483\uff0c\u5b89\u6bd2\u98df\u4e2d\u3002\ufe12\u592b\u81f3\u8def\u672a\u98df\uff0c\u9022\u5077\u738b\u2fba\u99ac\u8cca\uff0c\u7d22\u98df\uff0c\u8207\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u8cca\u98df\u2f7d\u800c\u6b7b\u3002\ufe12\u5c07\u2fba\u99ac\u4e0a\u738b\uff0c\u738b\u7232\u4e4b\u52c7\uff0c\u80fd\u6bba\u60e1484\u8cca\uff0c\u4e43\u8cdc\u91cd\u4f4d\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u56e0\u5e2b\u2f26\u5b50\u8207\u570b\u2f08\u4eba\u7232\u707e(\u707d)\uff0c\u738b\u5fa0485\u6bba\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u524d\u2f08\u4eba\u57f7\u2f11\u5200\uff0c\u2f92\u898b\u2f7d\u800c486\u4e0a\u6a39\u3002\ufe12\u6230\u6016\u907a\u2f11\u5200\u843d\u5e2b\u2f26\u5b50\u4e0a\uff0c\u56da487\u662f\u2f7d\u800c\u6b7b\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u7372\u4e0a\u529f\uff0c\u738b\u8005\u4e0d\u6b7b\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u4e91\uff1a\u6709\u2f08\u4eba\u9060\u570b\u7d22\u59bb\uff0c\u5f8c\u59bb\u70ba\u9020\u98df\uff0c\u6025\u5fa9\u541e\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u59bb\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u7121\u8cca\u8d81\uff0c488\u4f55\u6025\ufe16\uff1f\u300d\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u6b64\u5bbb\uff0c\u83ab\u554f\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u59bb\uff1a\u300c\u4e0d\u77e5\uff0c\u9808\u554f\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u7fd2\u5148\u2f08\u4eba\u597d\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u300d  [8] Need to be equipoised, like a steelyard balance. The Tongzi wen jing489 says, When practitioners eat, they are not greedy about amounts, do not [fuss over] much or little, [and] are not covetous of flavors\u2013\u2013as if eating the flesh of one\u2019s own son, as when a steelyard weighs things it is neither high nor low. [They] must be appropriate [in obtaining food] and give rise to shame and remorse.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0482 (\u9060)\t \u00a0483 (\u7ce7)\t \u00a0484 Variant: \u8980 over \u2f3c\u5fc3\t \u00a0485 Variant \u4f86+\u2f12\u529b, l\u00e1i, to come; also l\u00e0i\t \u00a0486 FCJ edition gives ...\u2f92\u898b\u5e2b\u2f26\u5b50\u2f7d\u800c\u2026\t \u00a0487 FCJ edition\/ 1669 edition gives \u56e0. Reading qi\u00fa here makes no sense, so I follow the 1669 edition, reading y\u012bn.\t \u00a0488 Variant \u2f9b\u8d70+\u5c12\t \u00a0489 T18 n895 Supohu tongzi qingwen jing \u8607\u5a46\u547c\u7ae5\u2f26\u5b50\u8acb\u554f\u7d93 (Tantra of the Questions of Sub\u0101hu; Skt. Sub\u0101huparip\u1e5bcch\u0101-tantra). Content similar to that cited by Yichu appears in two places: roughly 721b07-c08 and 737a18-29.\t \u00a0  308\t \u00a0\u9808\u5e73\u5982\u79e4\u300e\u7ae5\u2f26\u5b50\u554f\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u2f8f\u884c\u8005\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u591a\u5c11\u7121\u8caa\uff0c\u52ff\u591a\u52ff\u5c11\uff0c\u7121\u611b\u5176\u5473\uff0c\u5982\u98df\u2f26\u5b50\u2f81\u8089\uff0c\u5982\u79e4\u7a31\u7269\uff0c\u4e0d\u2fbc\u9ad8\u4e0d\u4f4e490\u3002\ufe12\u5408\u9808\u5f97\u6240\uff0c\u2f7d\u800c\u2f63\u751f\u615a\u6127\u3002\ufe12  [9] Like a starving [person] being told to eat. The Fahua jing491 says,  [It492 is] like coming from a country [with] starvation,  Abruptly encountering the fine foods of a great king,  And not daring to begin eating.  But if one repeatedly obtains permission from the king,  Thereafter one dares to eat.  \u5982\u98e2\u6559\u98df\u300e\u6cd5\u83ef\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a \u5982\u5f9e\u98e2\u570b\u4f86\uff0c \u5ffd\u9047\u2f24\u5927\u738b\u81b3\uff0c \u672a\u6562\u5373\u4fbf\u98df\u3002\ufe12 \u82e5\u5fa9\u5f97\u738b\u6559\uff0c \u7136\u5f8c\u4e43\u6562\u98df\u3002\ufe12  [10] Food distributed, people poisoned. The second [fascicle of the] Bao\u2019en jing493 says, [It is] like the stupid almsgiver, providing people food and drink, [but] mistakenly using poisoned water and having the people die.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0490 Variant \u4fc2-\u2f29\u5c0f\t \u00a0491 Miaofa lianhua jing \u5999\u6cd5\u84ee\u83ef\u7d93 (Sutra of the Lotus of the Wonderful Dharma), Kum\u0101raj\u012bva\u2019s translation of the Lotus Sutra. T9 n262. Yichu\u2019s cited material appears in some verse, fascicle 3 pp21a02-15, in Chapter Six: Prediction \u6388\u8a18\u54c1\u7b2c\u516d. It also appears in Jizang\u2019s commentary on the Lotus Sutra, the Fahua yishu \u6cd5\u83ef\u7fa9\u758f. See T34 n1721, 567b18-24.\t \u00a0492 The analogy comes from verse sung by members of the Buddha\u2019s audience, who praise the Buddha for predicting that they will all become buddhas but express that they have doubts that this could be so\u2013\u2013just like a starving person hesitating before a king\u2019s lavish banquet.\t \u00a0  309\t \u00a0\u98df\u65bd\u2f08\u4eba\u6bd2\u300e\u5831\u6069\u7d93\u300f\u2f06\u4e8c\u4e91\uff1a\u5982\u7661\u65bd\u4e3b\uff0c\u8a2d\u2f08\u4eba\u98f2\u98df\uff0c\u8aa4494\u2f64\u7528\u6bd2\u2f54\u6c34\uff0c\u98df\u8005\u6b7b\u3002\ufe12  [11] Nourishment of sentient beings. The Daweide jing495 records that food is of many varieties. The human realm has four types [of food]: morsel, volitional, contact, and [that of] consciousness. The desire realm [also] has four, [while] the realm of form upwards lacks morsel food. Therefore [it is] theorized that morsel [food is tied to the] desire [realm], and its substance is three [dusts: aroma, flavor, and tactile qualities.]496 The iron pills of the three hell destinies temporarily extinguish [the pangs of] starvation. [The food of] the realm of form [is] joy in meditation.  \u8cc7\u76ca\u6709\u60c5\u300e\u2f24\u5927\u5a01\u5fb3\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u98df\u6709\u591a\u7a2e\u3002\ufe12\u2f08\u4eba\u9593\u6709\u56db\u7a2e\uff1a\u6bb5\u3001\ufe11\u601d\u3001\ufe11\u89f8\u3001\ufe11\u8b58\u3002\ufe12\u6b32\u754c\u5177\u56db\ufe14\uff1b\u2f8a\u8272\u754c\u5df3(\u5df2)\u4e0a\uff0c\u4e26\u7121\u6bb5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u8ad6\u300c\u6bb5\u6b32\u9ad4\u552f\u4e09\u300d\u3002\ufe12\u4e09\u5857\u5730\u7344\u9435\u4e38\uff0c\u66ab\u606f\u98e2\u7fa9\u3002\ufe12\u2f8a\u8272\u754c\u79aa\u60a6497\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12  [12] Even clothing is not coveted. The Baiyu [jing]498 says, As with [the parable of] the honey cake (\"joy-ball\"), [wherein] a small child obtained food (i.e., a honey cake) and \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0493 Da fangbian fo bao\u2019en jing \u2f24\u5927\u2f45\u65b9\u4fbf\u4f5b\u5831\u6069\u7d93 (DDB: \u201cGreat Skillful Means Sutra on the Buddha's Repayment of Kindness\u201d). T03 n.156. The story of the foolish almsgiver runs roughly 132b13-133b12.\t \u00a0494 Variant \u2f3c\u5fc3+\u5433\t \u00a0495 Daweide tuoluoni jing \u2f24\u5927\u5a01\u5fb7\u9640\u7f85\u5c3c\u7d93 (\u201cDh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b of the Greatly Powerful One\u201d). T21 n1341 and X11 n8, plus many other editions in different canons. Translated between 561-600 by J\u00f1\u0101nagupta \u95cd\u90a3\u5d1b\u591a. Also titled \u5a01\u5fb7\u9640\u7f85\u5c3c\u7d93. See Ono vol 7 208b-209ab. Most\u2013\u2013if not all\u2013\u2013of Yichu\u2019s content in \u8cc7\u76ca\u6709\u60c5 is found in passages in fascicles 12 and 13, but fascicles 14-17 also contain extensive discussion of \u98df. See MORI Sh\u014dji, Bukky\u014d hiyu reiwa jiten, 180-1, and Chapter Four of this dissertation for a discussion of the \u2018four foods\u2019 \u56db\u98df.\t \u00a0496 Yichu appears to have in mind a discussion of foods in the Apidamo jushe lun, T29 n1558, 55a01-56a10. Commentarial literature on the Abhidharma Storehouse Treatise contains explanations of these ideas, which I have used here to clarify this passage. See Yuanhui's \u5713\u6689 (8th c.) Jushe lun songshu lunben \u4ff1\u820d\u8ad6\u980c\u758f\u8ad6\u672c, T41 n1823, 877a28-b01. \t \u00a0497 Variant \u2f3c\u5fc3+\u516c over \u2f09\u513f\t \u00a0498 As above, T4 n209. This is parable number 92, 556c20-27: (\u4e5d\u2f06\u4e8c)\u2f29\u5c0f\u5152\u5f97\u6b61\u559c\u4e38\u55a9    310\t \u00a0had his clothing stripped from his body, his mind not registering any disappointment [over the loss of their clothing], likewise a bhik\u1e63u may obtain a [small] benefit, but lose his precepts, mental concentration, or wisdom.  \u8863\u4ea6\u4e0d\u60dc\u300e\u767e\u55bb\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u5982\u6b61\u559c\u4e38\uff0c\u2f29\u5c0f\u5152499\u5f97\u98df\uff0c\u67c0\u812b\u8eab\u8863\uff0c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u4ea6\u4e0d\u60dc\uff0c\u5982\u6bd4\u4e18\u5f97\u5229\uff0c\u5931\u6212\u3001\ufe11\u5b9a\u3001\ufe11\u6167\u7b49\u3002\ufe12  [13] Food is fundamentally to sustain the body. The Naxian jing500 says, A king asked a religious practitioner, \"Why is it necessary to eat fine foods of many flavors?\" [The religious practitioner] replied, \u201cTo sustain the body and practice the Way, just as Your Majesty once had arrow wounds on his body after a battle and spread medicine on bandages, not loving the medicine for its healing the wounds. So it is with a religious practitioner eating fine foods of many flavors.\u201d  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\u6614\u6709\u2f00\u4e00\u4e73\u6bcd\uff0c\u62b1\u5152\u6e09\u8def\u3002\ufe12\u2f8f\u884c\u9053\u75b2\u6975\uff0c\u7720\u7761\u4e0d\u89ba\u3002\ufe12\u6642\u6709\u2f00\u4e00\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u6301\u6b61\u559c\u4e38\uff0c\u6388\u8207\u2f29\u5c0f\u5152\u3002\ufe12\u2f29\u5c0f\u5152\u5f97\u5df2\uff0c\u8caa\u5176\u7f8e\u5473\uff0c\u4e0d\u9867\u8eab\u7269\u3002\ufe12\u6b64\u2f08\u4eba\u5373\u6642\u89e3\u5176\u9257\u93c1\u74d4\u73de\u8863\u7269\u90fd\u76e1\uff0c\u6301\u53bb\u3002\ufe12\u6bd4\u4e18\u4ea6\u723e\uff1a\u6a02\u5728\u8846\u52d9\u6192\u9599\u4e4b\u8655\uff0c\u8caa\u5c11\u5229\u990a\uff0c\u7232\u7169\u60f1\u8cca\u596a\u5176\u529f\u5fb3\u6212\u5bf6\u74d4\u73de\uff0c\u5982\u5f7c\u2f29\u5c0f\u5152\uff0c\u8caa\u5c11\u5473\u6545\uff0c\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u6240\u6709\uff0c\u8cca\u76e1\u6301\u53bb\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0499 1669 edition gives \u5982\u4ee4\u6b61\u559c\u51e1 \u2060\u2f29\u5c0f\u51e1\u5152.\t \u00a0500 The Naxian biqiu jing \u90a3\u5148\u6bd4\u4e18\u7d93 (Sutra on the Questions of King Milinda), ca. Eastern Jin (317-420). T32 n1670A and n1670B. The cited analogy of foods as a practical need is in T32 n1670B 716a06-19: \u738b\u5fa9\u554f\u90a3\u5148\u3002\ufe12\u6c99\u2fa8\u9580\u5be7\u2f83\u81ea\u611b\u5176\u8eab\u4e0d\u3002\ufe12\u90a3\u5148\u2f94\u8a00\u6c99\u2fa8\u9580\u4e0d\u2f83\u81ea\u611b\u5176\u8eab\u3002\ufe12\u738b\u2f94\u8a00\u5982\u4ee4\u6c99\u2fa8\u9580\u4e0d\u2f83\u81ea\u611b\u5176\u8eab\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u4ee5\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u2f83\u81ea\u6d88\u606f\u81e5\u6b32\u5f97\u5b89\u6e29\u8edf\u3002\ufe12\u98ee\u98df\u6b32\u5f97\u7f8e\u5584\u2f83\u81ea\u8b77\u8996\u4f55\u4ee5\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u90a3\u5148\u554f\u738b\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u5be7\u66fe\u5165\u6230\u95d8\u4e2d\u4e0d\u3002\ufe12\u738b\u2f94\u8a00\u7136\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u66fe \u5165\u6230\u95d8\u4e2d\u3002\ufe12\u90a3\u5148\u2f94\u8a00\u5728\u6230\u95d8\u4e2d\u66fe\u7232\u2f11\u5200\u5203\u7bad\u6240\u4e2d\u4e0d\u3002\ufe12\u738b\u2f94\u8a00\u6211\u66fe\u9817\u7232\u2f11\u5200\u5203\u6240\u4e2d\u3002\ufe12\u90a3\u5148\u554f\u738b\u3002\ufe12\u2f11\u5200\u5203\u2f6d\u77db\u7bad\u7621\u67f0\u4f55\u3002\ufe12\u738b\u2f94\u8a00\u6211\u4ee5\u818f\u85e5\u7dbf\u7d6e\u88f9\u2f7f\u8033\u3002\ufe12\u90a3\u5148\u554f\u738b\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u738b\u7232\u611b\u7621\u6545\u4ee5\u818f\u85e5\u7dbf\u7d6e\u88f9\u8036\u3002\ufe12\u738b\u2f94\u8a00\u6211\u4e0d\u611b\u7621\u3002\ufe12\u90a3\u5148\u2f94\u8a00\u6b8a\u4e0d\u611b\u7621\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u4ee5\u6301\u818f\u85e5\u7dbf\u7d6e\u88f9\u4ee5\u8b77\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u738b\u2f94\u8a00\u6211\u6b32\u4f7f\u75be\u6108\u2f7f\u8033\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u611b\u5176\u7621\u3002\ufe12\u90a3\u5148\u2f94\u8a00\u6c99\u2fa8\u9580\u4ea6\u5982\u662f\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u611b\u5176\u8eab\u3002\ufe12\u96d6\u98ee\u98df\u2f3c\u5fc3\u4e0d\u6a02\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u2f64\u7528\u4f5c\u7f8e\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u2f64\u7528\u4f5c\u597d\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u2f64\u7528\u4f5c\u808c\u2f8a\u8272\u3002\ufe12\u8da3\u6b32\u2f40\u652f\u8eab\u9ad4\u5949\u2f8f\u884c\u4f5b\u7d93\u6212\u2f7f\u8033\u3002\ufe12 Note how the analogy of this story is used in the Sifenl\u00fc \u56db\u5206\u5f8b, T22 n1428, 963c18-24, to emphasize that tonsured Buddhists are to eat for sufficiency and to support health, but not for indulgence in flavors: \u6bd4\u4e18\u4ea6\u5982\u662f\u3002\ufe12\u65bc\u516d\u89f8\u5165\u4e2d\u3002\ufe12\u5584\u5b78\u8b77\u6301\u5584\u5b78\u8abf\u4f0f\u5584\u5b78\u2f4c\u6b62\u606f\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u6709\u5982\u662f\u8056\u6212\u5f97\u8056\u773c\u6839\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u77e5\u2f4c\u6b62\u2f9c\u8db3\u4ea6\u4e0d\u8caa\u5473\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u990a\u5176\u8eab\u3002\ufe12 \u2f7d\u800c\u4e0d\u8ca2\u2fbc\u9ad8\u618d\u6162\u53d6\u2f83\u81ea\u2f40\u652f\u8eab\u3002\ufe12\u4ee4\u7121\u82e6\u60a3\u3002\ufe12\u5f97\u4fee\u6de8\u2f8f\u884c\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u82e6\u6d88\u6ec5\u3002\ufe12\u65b0\u82e6\u4e0d\u2f63\u751f\u3002\ufe12\u7121\u6709\u5897\u6e1b\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u2f12\u529b\u7121\u4e8b\u3002\ufe12\u4ee4\u8eab\u5b89\u6a02\u3002\ufe12\u7336\u5982\u7537\u2f26\u5b50\u5973\u2f08\u4eba\u8eab\u60a3\u7621\u4ee5\u85e5\u5857\u4e4b\u53d6\u4ee4\u7621\u5dee\u3002\ufe12\u6bd4\u4e18\u98df\u4ee5\u77e5\u2f9c\u8db3\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0  311\t \u00a0\u98df\u672c\u2f40\u652f\u8eab\u300e\u90a3501\u5148\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u738b\u554f\u9053\u2f08\u4eba\u300c\u4f55\u9808\u7f8e\u98df\u767e\u5473\ufe16\uff1f\u300d\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u2f40\u652f\u8eab\uff0c\u2f8f\u884c\u9053\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u738b\u66fe\u6230\u8eab\u6709\u7bad\u7621\uff0c\u85e5\u5857\u7dbf\u88e1502\u4ea6\u975e\u611b\u85e5\u4ee5\u7642\u7621\uff0c\u5982\u9053\u2f08\u4eba\u98df\u767e\u5473\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u300d  [14] No eating after midday.503 The Vinaya504 says that [Buddhist] fasting has five benefits: 1) sleeping less, 2) having fewer misbehaviors, 3) obtaining a concentrated mind free of disorder, 4) having less flatulence, and 5) having a body at ease and free of illness. Food not to be taken after midday is the foods of the three evil destinies.  \u98df\u4e0d\u4e2d\u5f8c\u300e\u5f8b\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u9f4b\u6709\u4e94\u5229\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u5c11\u7761\u3001\ufe11\u2f06\u4e8c\u5c11\u975e\u2f8f\u884c\u3001\ufe11\u4e09\u5f97\u2f00\u4e00\u2f3c\u5fc3\u4e0d\u4e82\u3001\ufe11\u56db\u5c11\u4e0b\u98a8\u3001\ufe11\u4e94\u8eab\u5b89\u7121\u75c5\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u4e2d\u5f8c\u98df\u3001\ufe11\u4e09\u5857\u98df\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12  [15] Visualize impurity when eating. The Yaoji505 records that when a bhik\u1e63u eats, he first takes this view. In order to not covet flavors, he must know that in the place from which [the food] comes there is much filth and little food, so it inherently (i.e., by karma) becomes impure. Therefore the Treatise (the Zhufo yaoji lun or Jushe lun?) says that when [you] wish to eat, think of your own virtuous acts (i.e., whether these suffice to receive the food) and estimate how much labor [went into producing the food]. Give some thought to the origins of the food. Think of giving offerings to the wise and the worthy, and of relieving the many starved and exhausted [people].  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0501 Variant has \u2f88\u821f on left.\t \u00a0502 Variant \u91cd on top of \u8863\t \u00a0503 Compare with guowu bushi \u904e\u5348\u4e0d\u98df.\t \u00a0504 Which set of monastic codes Yichu intended to cite is not clear. I do not find his formula in searches using CBETA and SAT.\t \u00a0505 This may point to \u8af8\u4f5b\u8981\u96c6\u8ad6 (\u8af8\u4f5b\u8981\u96c6\u7d93) . Trans. Dharmarak\u1e63a \u7afa\u6cd5\u8b77, T17 n810.756b-770a. I do not yet see an exact match for Yichu\u2019s content in this text, however.\t \u00a0  312\t \u00a0\u98df\u89c0\u4e0d\u6de8\u300e\u8981\u96c6\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6bd4\u4e18\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u5148\u4f5c\u5176\u89c0\u3002\ufe12\u7121\u8caa\u5473\u6545\uff0c\u9808\u77e5\u4f86\u8655\uff0c\u6c59\u591a\u98df\u5c11\uff0c\u5bbf\u6210\u4e0d\u6de8\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u300e\u8ad6\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u5c07\u6b32\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u60f3\u2f30\u5df1506\u5fb3\u2f8f\u884c\uff0c\u8a08\u529f507\u591a\u5c11\uff0c\u5ff5\u98df\u4f86\u8655\uff0c\u601d\u4f9b\u8ce2\u8056\uff0c\u6fdf508\u8af8\u98e2\u7fb8\u3002\ufe12  [16] [One] must be measured in eating. The Zengyi [ahan] jing509 records [the following]: Overeating leads to trouble (e.g., illness). In years past, a young bhik\u1e63u ate little [in order to] increase his blessings, [but] his physical strength was not sufficient and he collapsed in the midst of an assembly. The Buddha said, \"Do not go to extremes. [Be] like a steelyard balance holding things but resting at the mean510, not making [the arm] swing up and down.\" \u9808\u91cf\u5176\u8179\u300e\u589e\u2f00\u4e00\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u591a\u98df\u81f4\u60a3\u3002\ufe12\u6614\u5e74\u5c11\u6bd4\u4e18\u5c11\u98df\u5897\u798f\uff0c\u6c23\u2f12\u529b\u4e0d\u5145\uff0c\u8846\u4e2d\u2f7d\u800c\u5012\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u2f94\u8a00\uff1a\u7121\u81f3\u904e\u5ea6\uff0c\u5982\u79e4\u6301\u7269\uff0c\u4f46\u8655\u4e2d\u2f7d\u800c\u5df3\uff0c\u7121\u4ee4\u4f4e\u6602\u3002\ufe12  [17] To eat fruits, you must receive them. The Zengyi [ahan] jing511 records [the following]: A bhik\u1e63u receives fruit [but] distances [himself] from his denigrators. A bhik\u1e63u was walking with a non-Buddhist and noticed his fruit tree. The non-Buddhist invited him to climb up and take some fruit. The bhik\u1e63u replied, \u201cThe Buddhist teachings do not permit climbing of trees.\u201d The non-Buddhist climbed up and brought [some fruit down] to the ground, but the bhik\u1e63u would not take it. The non-Buddhist asked why. The bhik\u1e63u said, \u201cThe Buddha directed that, should we receive too much from outside Buddhism, we will give rise to belief and submit.\u201d  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0506 1669 edition gives \u5df3.\t \u00a0507 Variant \u2f2f\u5de5+\u2f11\u5200 (DCCV). 1669 edition gives \u529f.\t \u00a0508 1669 edition gives \u9f4b.\t \u00a0509 Zengyi ahan jing \u589e\u2f00\u4e00\u963f\u542b\u7d93, also \u589e\u58f9\u963f\u542b\u7d93 (Increased by One \u0100gama S\u016btras; Skt. Ek\u00f4ttar\u00e2gama-s\u016btra), a collection of sutras in 51 fascicles, T2 n125. Yichu attribution of the content cited here to the Zengyi ahan jing is consistent with several other sources, but SAT does not readily serve up a direct match. \t \u00a0510 Ch\u01d4zh\u014dng, being situated in the middle. This term connects with the Buddhist doctrine of the Middle Way and Confucian doctrine of the mean through a metaphor of balance.\t \u00a0  313\t \u00a0\u98df\u679c\u9808\u53d7\u300e\u589e\u2f00\u4e00\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6bd4\u4e18\u53d7\u679c\uff0c\u96e2\u5176\u8b4f\u8b17\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u6bd4\u4e18\u8207\u5916\u9053\u2f8f\u884c\uff0c\u2f92\u898b\u5176\u679c\u6a39\u3002\ufe12\u5916\u9053\u4ee4\u4e0a\u53d6\u679c\u3002\ufe12\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u4f5b\u6559\u4e0d\u8a31\u4e0a\u6a39\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u5916\u9053\u4e0a\u53d6\u5728\u5730\uff0c\u6bd4\u4e18\u4e0d\u53d6\u3002\ufe12\u5916\u9053\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u4f55\u4e5f\ufe16\uff1f\u300d\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u4f5b\u4ee4\uff0c\u904e\u53d7\u5916\u9053\uff0c\u2f63\u751f\u4fe1\u6b78512\u4f0f\u77e3\u3002\ufe12513\u300d  [18] Eating has strict rules. The Faxian zhuan514 records [the following]: The people of Khotan515 revere the good practice (i.e., Buddhism) and have small stupas. Mah\u0101y\u0101na monks and nuns number three thousand, every day ascending to the hall, with donated food and lay-Buddhist servers. They sit according to a hierarchical scheme, not daring to speak, having what they need set before them by means of hand gestures. There are four great temples, taking the Buddha\u2019s image in procession on the first day of the fourth month, in beautiful decorum.  \u98df\u6709\u56b4\u5236\u300e\u6cd5\u986f\u5085\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u4e8e\u586b\u570b\u2f08\u4eba\u5bb6\u5d07\u5584\u2fa8\u9580\uff0c\u6709\u2f29\u5c0f\u5854\u3002\ufe12\u2f24\u5927\u4e57\u50e7\u4e09\u5343\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u6bce\u2f47\u65e5\u4e0a\u5802\uff0c\u76ca\u98df\u6de8\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u4f9d\u2f24\u5927\u2f29\u5c0f\u5750\uff0c\u7121\u6562\u8a9e\u8005\uff0c\u8a2d\u6709\u6240\u8981\uff0c\u4ee5\u2f3f\u624b\u6307\u63ee\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u56db\u2f24\u5927\u5bfa\uff0c\u56db\u2f49\u6708\u2f00\u4e00\u2f47\u65e5\u2f8f\u884c\u50cf\uff0c\u5a01\u5100\u56b4\u9e97\u3002\ufe12  [19] Foods have grades. The Bao\u2019en jing516 records [the following]: King Agnidatta [fed] the Buddha [and his retinue] grain for horses. The Buddha still accepted it and \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0511 I do not find this anecdote in the Zengyi ahan jing, but it is in a Song work by Yuanzhao \u5143\u7167, the Sifenl\u00fc xingshi chaozi chiji \u56db\u5206\u5f8b\u2f8f\u884c\u4e8b\u9214\u8cc7\u6301\u8a18 T40 n1805, 319b19-29. Yuanzhao\u2019s account is slightly longer and more specific in its wording, but does not cite a source.\t \u00a0512 1669 edition gives \u7688\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0513 Variant \u53b6 over \u5929\t \u00a0514 Gaoseng Faxian zhuan \u2fbc\u9ad8\u50e7\u6cd5\u986f\u50b3 (The Biography of Faxian) T51 n2085, 857-866. Faxian\u2019s travel writings, recording his observations of Indian kingdoms. Legge, A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, translates the related passage (857b03-29) in Chapter III, consultation of which has benefited my own translation. The account given in the Shishi liutie is highly condensed, drawing short excerpts from about the first half of the account translated by Legge.\t \u00a0515 Skt. Udayana. Also written \u512a\u586b, \u4e8e\u95d0. Ding Fubao records that the king of Khotan \u586b\u738b was the first to have carved Buddhist likenesses.\t \u00a0516 Introduced above. This content may be adapted from the passage beginning T03 n156, 137a02, which discusses how six spiritual teachers, appalled by Gautama\u2019s complete disregard for social status,   314\t \u00a0transformed it into the tastiest food, because the Buddha's merit made a difference. One also reads in the Hongming [ji]517, \u201cThose who eat grain are wise, those who eat weeds are foolish, those who eat meat are brave (or ferocious), and those who eat qi are long-lived.  \u98df\u6709\u7b49\u7d1a\u300e\u5831\u6069\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u963f\u8006\u9054\u738b\u65bd\u4f5b\u2fba\u99ac\u9ea6518\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u4ea6\u53d7\u4e4b\uff0c\u8b8a\u6210\u4e0a\u5473\uff0c\u4f5b\u798f\u5225\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u300e\u5f18\u660e\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u98df\u7a40\u8005\u667a\uff0c\u98df\u8349\u8005\u61a8519\uff0c\u98df\u2f81\u8089\u8005\u608d\uff0c\u98df\u6c23\u8005\u58fd\u3002\ufe12  [20] Dharma [study] is food; [differentiating] meaning is the sauce. The Riyan sanmei jing520 says, \u201cReciting and studying the scriptures is to be taken as food, differentiating the meaning of the scriptures is to be considered the sauce, and cultivating the six perfections is to be regarded as virtuous.\u201d Additionally, the Jingming [jing521] says, \u201cThe bliss of dharma and the joy of meditation [is the] food, the taste of liberation the sauce.\u201d  \u6cd5\u98df\u7fa9\u6f3f\u300e\u2f47\u65e5\u56b4\u4e09\u6627\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u8aa6\u7fd2\u7d93\u5178\u4ee5\u7232\u98df\uff0c\u5206\u5225\u7d93\u7fa9\u4ee5\u7232\u6f3f\uff0c\u4fee\u2f8f\u884c\u516d\u5ea6\u7232\u8ce2\u826f\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u300e\u6de8\u540d\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6cd5\u559c\u79aa\u6085\u98df522\uff0c\u89e3\u812b\u5473\u7232\u6f3f\u3002\ufe12  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0attempted unsuccessfully to sway his following with warnings about his impure associations and tolerance of morally tainted followers.\t \u00a0517 In the Mouzi lihuo zhengwu lun \u725f\u5b50\u7406\u60d1\u6b63\u8aa3\u8ad6, contained in the Hongming ji \u5f18\u660e\u96c6, T52 n2102 juan1, 6a12-21:  \u554f\u66f0\u3002\ufe12\u7232\u9053\u8005\u6216\u8f9f\u7a40\u4e0d\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f7d\u800c\u98ee\u9152\u5556\u2f81\u8089\u3002\ufe12\u4ea6\u4e91\u2f7c\u8001\u6c0f\u4e4b\u8853\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u7136\u4f5b\u9053\u4ee5\u9152\u2f81\u8089\u7232\u4e0a\u8aa1\u3002\ufe12\u2f7d\u800c\u53cd\u98df\u7a40\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u5176\u4e56\u7570\u4e4e\u3002\ufe12\u725f\u2f26\u5b50\u66f0\u3002\ufe12\u8846\u9053\u53e2\u6b98\u51e1\u6709\u4e5d\u2f17\u5341\u516d\u7a2e\u3002\ufe12\u6fb9\u6cca\u7121\u7232\u83ab\u5c1a\u65bc\u4f5b\u3002\ufe12\u543e\u89c0\u2f7c\u8001\u6c0f\u4e0a\u4e0b\u4e4b\u7bc7\u3002\ufe12\u805e\u5176\u7981\u4e94\u5473\u4e4b\u6212\u3002\ufe12\u672a\u89a9\u5176\u7d76\u4e94\u7a40\u4e4b\u8a9e\u3002\ufe12\u8056\u2f08\u4eba\u5236\u4e03\u5178\u4e4b\u2f42\u6587\u3002\ufe12\u7121\u2f4c\u6b62\u7ce7\u4e4b\u8853\u3002\ufe12\u2f7c\u8001\u2f26\u5b50\u8457\u4e94\u5343\u2f42\u6587\u3002\ufe12\u7121\u8f9f\u7a40\u4e4b\u4e8b\u3002\ufe12\u8056\u2f08\u4eba\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u7a40\u8005\u667a\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u8349\u8005\u7661\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u2f81\u8089\u8005\u608d\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u6c23\u8005\u58fd\u3002\ufe12\u4e16\u2f08\u4eba\u4e0d\u9054\u5176\u4e8b\u3002\ufe12\u2f92\u898b\u516d\u79bd\u9589\u6c23\u4e0d\u606f\u79cb\u51ac\u4e0d\u98df\u6b32\u52b9\u2f7d\u800c\u7232\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u77e5\u7269\u985e\u5404\u2f83\u81ea\u6709\u6027\u3002\ufe12\u7336\u7920\u2f6f\u77f3\u53d6\u9435\u4e0d\u80fd\u79fb\u6beb\u2f51\u6bdb\u77e3\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0518 (\u2fc6\u9ea5) This is just grain for horses, not a particular variety.\t \u00a0519 Character not clear. It appears to be a variant of \u61a8 h\u0101n, similar in appearance and meaning to \u7661 ch\u012b. 1669 edition gives \u75f4.\t \u00a0520 No text with this title appears in CBETA or SAT, but this likely refers to the Foshuo chaoriming sanmei jing \u4f5b\u8aaa\u8d85\u2f47\u65e5\u660e\u4e09\u6627\u7d93 T15 n638, where we find the cited content 538a16-18: \u8aa6\u7fd2\u7d93\u5178\u4ee5\u7232\u98ef\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5206\u5225\u7d93\u7fa9\u4ee5\u7232\u98ee\u6f3f\u3002\ufe12\u4fee\u516d\u6cd5\u2f8f\u884c\u4ee5\u7232\u8ce2\u826f\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0521 The Jingming jing is a Chinese translation of the Vimalak\u012brti-nirde\u015ba-s\u016btra that is no longer extant, having been overshadowed by Kumarajiva\u2019s popular translation.\t \u00a0522 1669 edition inserts \u70ba: \u79aa\u6085\u70ba\u98df.\t \u00a0  315\t \u00a0[21] Food has three whites. The Bukong523 says, Those who adhere to Zhenyan (True Word Buddhism) eat three white foods. Millet, [other] grain, and white milk are [their] foods. Eliminating various alcohols and meats [from their diet], needing to maintain purity, and fasting their minds, their wishes are fulfilled. \u98df\u6709\u4e09\u2f69\u767d\u300e\u4e0d\u7a7a\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u7232\u6301\u771f\u2f94\u8a00\u8005\u98df\u4e09\u2f69\u767d\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u7cb3\u3001\ufe11\u7cae524\u3001\ufe11\u2f69\u767d\u4e73\u7232\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u65b7\u8af8\u9152\u2f81\u8089\uff0c\u5e38\u9808\u6e05\u6de8\uff0c\u9f4b\u6f54\u5176\u2f3c\u5fc3\uff0c\u6240\u6c42\u5982\u9858\u3002\ufe12  [22] Send off food to exorcise illness. The Tuoluoni [ji jing525] (Dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u012b Collection Sutra) says, Use vinegar and sweet preserved fish, one bowl each on top of the diseased body. Spin [the bowls] to the southwest and send them off. Do not look back. Reciting the spell seven times, [the illness] is immediately improves.  \u9001\u98df\u7a70\u75c5\u300e\u9641526\u7f85\u5c3c527\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u2f64\u7528\u918b\u3001\ufe11\u751c\u9b93528\uff0c\u5404\u2f00\u4e00\u6900\u65bc\u75c5\u8eab\u4e0a\u3002\ufe12\u8f49\u897f\u5357\uff0c\u9001\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u5f97\u8ff4\u980b\u3002\ufe12\u8aa6529\u5492\u4e03\u904d\uff0c\u2f74\u7acb\u8356(\u5dee)\u77e3\u3002\ufe12  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0523 Similar content can be found in the Bukong juansuo shenzhou xinjing \u4e0d\u7a7a\u7f82\u7d22\u795e\u546a\u2f3c\u5fc3\u7d93 T20 n1094, 405c01-06, in a passage describing a purification fast. T20 n1092 to n1098 all contain \u201cbukong\u201d in the title, but only 1094 contains a close match of Yichu\u2019s cited content, suggesting that this may have been the text that he cites as \u201cBukong.\u201d\t \u00a0524 (\u7ce7)\t \u00a0525 This content, with some variation, appears in \"Foding daoyin zhou\" number 22 \u4f5b\u9802\u2f11\u5200\u5370\u546a\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c, a spell for treating illness that is presented in the first fascicle of the Tuoluoni ji jing, T18 n901, 792a13-20: \u5373\u53d6\u2f00\u4e00\u6900\u918b\u98ef\u2f00\u4e00\u6900\u751c\u6f3f\u2f54\u6c34\u2f00\u4e00\u6900\u6c37\u2f54\u6c34\u3002\ufe12\u53d6\u5176\u98ef\u6900\u3002\ufe12\u65bc\u75c5\u2f08\u4eba\u982d\u4e0a\u2f3c\u5fc3\u80f8\u8eab\u4e0a\u3002\ufe12\u53f3\u8f2a\u65cb\u8f49\u546a\u4e09\u4e03\u904d\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u6900\u66ab\u8457\u75c5\u2f08\u4eba\u982d\u4e0a\u3002\ufe12\u4ee4\u2f00\u4e00\u2f08\u4eba\u7576\u524d\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u6de8\u5668\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u6900\u4e2d\u98ef\u3002\ufe12\u7009\u6de8\u5668\u5185\u3002\ufe12\u9918\u2f06\u4e8c\u6900\u4ea6\u723e\u3002\ufe12\u546a\u5e2b\u53d7\u53d6\u6de8\u5668\u4e09\u7269\u3002\ufe12\u652a\u4ee4\u76f8\u548c\u3002\ufe12\u982d\u4e0a\u9076\u8eab\u8f49\u4e09\u531d\u5df2\u3002\ufe12\u9063\u2f08\u4eba\u6025\u9001\u7009\u897f\u5357\u4e0a\u3002\ufe12\u52ff\u4ee4\u8ff4\u9867\u3002\ufe12\u6b64\u9001\u98df\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u521d\u591c\u4e94\u66f4\u2f06\u4e8c\u5ea6\u7232\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12.\t \u00a0526 (\u9640)\t \u00a0527 Variant \u2f2b\u5c38+\u2f2f\u5de5\t \u00a0528 Reading zh\u01ce, fish preserved through a pickling process. Exact variant not found in DCCV. 1669 edition gives \u98df+\u535e (\u98ef), but the T\u014dfukuji edition clearly uses the fish radical. If \u535e was sometimes used in place of \u53cd, then reading b\u00e0n \u9b6c, a type of fish, might also be possible.\t \u00a0529 Pronounced \u011b. Information in the DCCV suggests that \u980b was in close relationship with the character g\u00f9 \u9867.\t \u00a0  316\t \u00a0[23] Before the distinction of fire-cooked [versus raw] food. The Zhengli530 says that in ancient times [people] resided in nests and stayed in holes, making clothes of skin and eating meat. Later, Shennong531 tasted the hundred grains, Suiren532 drilled wood to get fire, [and they] ate cooked [food].  \u71e7\u98df\u672a\u5206\u300e\u6b63\u7406\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u4e0a\u53e4\uff0c\u5de2\u5c45\u7a74\u8655\uff0c\u8863\u2f6a\u76ae\u98df\u2f81\u8089\u3002\ufe12\u5f8c\u795e\u8fb2\u5617533\u767e\u6996\uff0c\u71e7\u2f08\u4eba\u947d\u2f55\u706b\uff0c\u719f\u98df\u3002\ufe12   [24] Food divided in fifths. The Tongzi wen jing534 says, The food obtained through begging by a bhik\u1e63u should be divided into five parts: The first is given to passersby on the road, \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0530 Yichu\u2019s citation of \u201cZhengli\u201d suggests the Apidamo shun zhengli lun \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u9806\u6b63\u7406\u8ad6 (Abhidharma-ny\u0101y\u00e2nus\u0101ra \u015b\u0101stra) T29 n1562, or the Yinming zhengli men lun ben \u56e0\u660e\u6b63\u7406\u2fa8\u9580\u8ad6\u672c (Ny\u0101yamukha), T32 n1628, but neither of these Indian texts in Chinese translation shows a match for the cited material, which is Chinese in origin. Makita and Yamaji, Giso rokuj\u014d sakuin, point to the Bianzhenglun \u8faf\u6b63\u8ad6 T52 n2110. This text by Falin \u6cd5\u7433 (572\u2013640) is a critical assessment of Daoism, written as a response to anti-Buddhist polemic in the early Tang dynasty (Muller, DDB). The cited material occurs in half-size text that may have been annotation: T52 n2110, 490b25-c06. The citation is from c03-c05. \u6cb3\u5716\u62ec\u5730\u8c61\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u5929\u5730\u521d\u2f74\u7acb\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u5929\u7687\u6c0f\u3002\ufe12\u6fb9\u6cca\u2f83\u81ea\u7136\u8207\u6975\u540c\u9053\u3002\ufe12\u8eab\u4f69\u4e5d\u7ffc\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u2f4a\u6728\u5fb3\u738b\u3002\ufe12\u7121\u6240\u65bd\u7232\u2f83\u81ea\u7136\u2f7d\u800c\u5316\u3002\ufe12\u958b\u5c71\u5716\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u5730\u7687\u8208\u65bc\u718a\u2f7f\u8033\u9f8d\u2fa8\u9580\u4e4b\u5c71\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u2f55\u706b\u5fb3\u738b\u3002\ufe12\u547d\u66a6\u5e8f\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u2f08\u4eba\u7687\u99d5\u516d\u2f7b\u7fbd\u3002\ufe12\u4e58\u96f2\u2f9e\u8eca\u51fa\u2f95\u8c37\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u3002\ufe12\u5206\u4e5d\u5dde\u9577\u5929\u4e0b\u3002\ufe12\u5144\u5f1f\u4e5d\u2f08\u4eba\u3002\ufe12\u4f9d\u5c71\u5ddd\u5730\u52e2\u5206\u7232\u4e5d\u57df\u3002\ufe12\u5404\u5c45\u2f00\u4e00\u5dde\u3002\ufe12\u5e1d\u7cfb\u8b5c\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u5929\u7687\u6cbb\u5404\u2f00\u4e00\u842c\u516b\u5343\u6b73\u3002\ufe12\u5730\u7687\u51e1\u2f00\u4e00\u767e\u4e94\u2f17\u5341\u4e16\u6cbb\u5929\u4e0b\u3002\ufe12\u5408\u4e94\u842c\u56db\u5343\u6b73\u3002\ufe12\u6b21\u4e94\u9f8d\u6c0f\u7687\u4f2f\u7687\u4ef2\u7687\u53d4\u7687\u5b63\u7687\u5c11\u3002\ufe12\u5144\u5f1f\u4e94\u2f08\u4eba\u3002\ufe12\u4e26\u4e58\u9f8d\u4e0a\u4e0b\u3002\ufe12\u51e1\u2f00\u4e00\u767e\u516b\u2f17\u5341\u4e16\u6cbb\u5929\u4e0b\u3002\ufe12\u5408\u4e5d\u767e\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u4e03\u842c\u4e09\u5343\u516d\u767e\u5e74\u3002\ufe12\u5373\u9748\u5a01\u4ef0\u7b49\u4e94\u795e\u662f\u4e5f \u6b21\u6709\u795e\u8fb2\u6c0f\u3002\ufe12\u99d5\u516d\u9f8d\u7504\u5ea6\u56db\u6d77\u5bd2\u6691\u5747\u4ee5\u5e03\u2f08\u4eba\u6c11\u901a\u98a8\u2fac\u96e8\u3002\ufe12\u51e1\u2f17\u5341\u4e16\u5404\u6cbb\u4e5d\u767e\u6b73\u3002\ufe12\u6b21\u6709\u56db\u59d3\u3002\ufe12\u6b21\u6709\u4e0d\u7d42\u2f00\u4e00\u4e16\u6b21\u6709\u4e03\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c\u59d3\u3002\ufe12\u6b21\u6709\u4e09\u59d3\u3002\ufe12\u6216\u4e58\u2fb6\u98db\u2f7a\u7f8a\u2fb6\u98db\u9e7f\u3002\ufe12\u59cb\u6559\u6c11\u7a74\u8655\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u2fc3\u9ce5\u7378\u2f81\u8089\u3002\ufe12\u8863\u2f6a\u76ae\u2f51\u6bdb\u8863\u3002\ufe12\u6b21\u6709\u5de3\u6c0f\u99d5\u9f8d\u9e9f\u4e58\u9cf3\u864e\u3002\ufe12\u69cb\u2f4a\u6728\u7232\u5de3\u6559\u6c11\u5c45\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u907f\u79bd\u7378\u4e4b\u5bb3\u3002\ufe12\u6b21\u71e7\u2f08\u4eba\u6c0f\u3002\ufe12\u6559\u6c11\u945a\u71e7\u51fa\u2f55\u706b\u8b8a\u2f63\u751f\u7232\u719f\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u907f\u8165\u81ca\u4e4b\u5c6c\u3002\ufe12\u9444\u4f5c\u2fa6\u91d1\u5203\u2f7d\u800c\u6c11\u2f24\u5927\u60a6\u3002\ufe12\u6b64\u51e1\u516d\u7d00\u6709\u4e5d\u2f17\u5341\u4e09\u4ee3\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u5343\u2f06\u4e8c\u767e\u516b\u2f17\u5341\u4e5d\u4e16\u3002\ufe12\u5408\u2f00\u4e00\u5343\u2f00\u4e00\u2f17\u5341\u842c\u2f00\u4e00\u5343\u516b\u767e\u56db\u2f17\u5341\u5e74\u3002\ufe12\u2f83\u81ea\u5929\u5316\u4e0b\u7e3d\u8b02\u4e09\u7687\u4e5f References to Shennong and Suiren appear in early Chinese writings that predate the arrival of Buddhism to China. For example, we find a reference to Suiren in the received text of the Hanfeizi, in the first paragraph of \u201cWudu \u4e94\u8839,\u201dand also two mentions in the Outer Chapters of the Zhuangzi. Early Chinese attributed radical advances in human society to several legendary figures\u2013\u2013Fuxi, Shennong, and Suiren, for example, have come to represent the innovations of patrilineal family, agriculture, and cooking, respectively. This traditional lore appears to have entered Buddhist writings through apologetical literature responding to Daoist and perhaps also Confucian critiques.\t \u00a0531 The Divine Agriculturalist, a legendary figure credited with originating knowledge of plants and agricultural techniques.\t \u00a0532 The Fire-using Person, a personification of the people who first learned to produce and use fire.\t \u00a0533 Variant -\u65e8+\u2f62\u7518\t \u00a0  317\t \u00a0the second [to people on] water[ways], the third [to people on] land, the fourth to those who have passed away before [him], and the fifth to the various hungry ghosts. [Any] remainder he then eats himself, making a meditation on impurity. \u98df\u5206\u4e94\u5206\u300e\u7ae5\u2f26\u5b50\u554f\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6bd4\u4e18\u6240\u4e5e\u5f97\u98df\uff0c\u7576\u5206\u4e94\u5206\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u65bd\u8def\u2f8f\u884c\u2f08\u4eba\u3001\ufe11\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f54\u6c34\u3001\ufe11\u4e09\u9678\u3001\ufe11\u56db\u904e\u53bb\u5148\u4ea1\u3001\ufe11\u4e94\u8af8\u9913\u9b3c\u3002\ufe12\u9918\u5373\u2f83\u81ea\u98df\uff0c\u4f5c\u4e0d\u6de8\u89c0\u3002\ufe12  [25] Eating, seated facing a wall. The Bore lun535 says, \u015a\u0101riputra was eating while seated facing a wall. There was a brahmin woman named Pi\u1e45gala (\u201cBlue Eyes\u201d) who asked \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0534 See earlier note, above. This material is from T18 n895, 720c27-721a05: \u61c9\u6301\u6b64\u5668\u6b21\u7b2c\u5bb6\u5bb6\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5f97\u98df\u2f9c\u8db3\u5df2\u3002\ufe12\u8fd1\u65bc\u6e05\u6cc9\u4e4b\u6240\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u2f54\u6c34\u6de8\u6d2e\u3002\ufe12\u5176\u98ef\u82e5\u6b32\u98df\u6642\u3002\ufe12\u5148\u51fa\u9262\u4e2d\u98ef\u5206\u7232\u4e94\u5206\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u5206\u51c6\u64ec\u8def\u2f8f\u884c\u3002\ufe12\u98e2\u2f08\u4eba\u4f86\u8005\u5373\u662f\u2f00\u4e00\u5206\u65bd\u2f54\u6c34\u4e2d\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u5206\u65bd\u9678\u5730\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u5206\u65bd\u4e03\u4e16\u2f57\u7236\u6bcd\u53ca\u9913\u9b3c\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u3002\ufe12\u7b2c\u4e94\u5206\u2f9c\u8db3\u8207\u4e0d\u2f9c\u8db3\u2f83\u81ea\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u6b63\u6b32\u98df\u6642\u3002\ufe12\u89c0\u6b64\u9262\u4e2d\u98ef\u3002\ufe12\u4f5c\u4e0d\u6de8\u89c0\u3002\ufe12\u7136\u5f8c\u98df\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u4f46\u7642\u98e2\u75c5\u52ff\u8caa\u7f8e\u5473\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u8a16\u4e86\u5df2\u3002\ufe12\u5373\u5411\u6cb3\u6c60\u6cc9\u3002\ufe12\u6e05\u6de8\u6fa1\u6d74\u6f31\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u4ee5\u67f3\u2f4a\u6728\u63e9\u9f52\u3002\ufe12 I include here some extra text, which goes on to explain that one should not crave delicious flavors and should follow eating with cleaning of the mouth.\t \u00a0535 A version of this story can be found in the Za ahan jing \u96dc\u963f\u542b\u7d93 (Sa\u1e43yukt\u00e2gama-s\u016btra), T2 n99, 131c09-132a03:  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\u6c42\u98df\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u7136\u6211\u59ca\u59b9\u3002\ufe12\u4f46\u4ee5\u6cd5\u6c42\u98df\u2f7d\u800c\u2f83\u81ea\u6d3b\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u6545\u6211\u8aac\u4e0d\u7232\u56db\u7a2e\u98df\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12  Most similar in content to Yichu\u2019s citation is Zhiyi\u2019s \u667a\u9857 Xiuxi zhiguan zuochan fayao \u4fee\u7fd2\u2f4c\u6b62\u89c0\u5750\u79aa\u6cd5\u8981, T46 n1915, 463b01-08: \u6b21\u98df\u6cd5\u6709\u56db\u7a2e\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u8005\u82e5\u4e0a\u2f08\u4eba\u2f24\u5927\u2f20\u58eb\u3002\ufe12\u6df1\u5c71\u7d76\u4e16\u3002\ufe12\u8349\u679c\u96a8\u6642\u5f97\u8cc7\u8eab\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u2f06\u4e8c\u8005\u5e38\u2f8f\u884c\u982d\u9640\u53d7\u4e5e\u98df\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u4e5e\u98df\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u80fd\u7834\u56db\u7a2e\u90aa\u547d\u3002\ufe12\u4f9d\u6b63\u547d\u2f83\u81ea\u6d3b\u3002\ufe12\u80fd\u2f63\u751f\u8056\u9053\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u90aa\u547d\u2f83\u81ea\u6d3b\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u4e0b\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f06\u4e8c\u4ef0\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4e09\u7dad\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u56db  318\t \u00a0\u015a\u0101riputra saying, \u201cDo you [or do you] not go up, down, all around, or ensnare, in begging food for a living? A bhik\u1e63u should not feed himself by looking up at stars and gazing at the moon (i.e., engaging in astrology), by [bending] down to engage in planting, by [going] in all directions being a servant [of the wealthy], or by netting [profits] through engaging in medicine-mixing, sacrifices, spells, and such. To make a living from these is called the four evils.536\u201d [\u015a\u0101riputra] replied, \u201cI am not like this.\u201d \u98df\u5411\u58c1\u5750\u300e\u822c\u82e5\u8ad6\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u98df\u5411\u58c1\u5750\uff0c\u820e\u5229\u2f26\u5b50\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u68b5\u5fd7\u5973\u540d\u66f0\u9752\u2f6c\u76ee\uff0c\u554f\u820e\u5229\u2f26\u5b50\u66f0\u300c\u7121\u4ef0\u3001\ufe11\u4e0b\u3001\ufe11\u2f45\u65b9\u3001\ufe11\u7dad\u6c42\u98df\u6d3b\u547d\u5426\u3002\ufe12\u6bd4\u4e18\u4e0d\u61c9\u4ef0\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u7232\u77bb\u661f\u671b\u2f49\u6708\uff0c\u4e0b\u7232\u7a2e\u690d\uff0c\u2f45\u65b9\u5373\u7232\u4f7f\uff0c\u7dad\u7232\u5408\u85e5\u3001\ufe11\u796d537\u3001\ufe11\u5492\u7b49\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u6b64\u6d3b\u547d\uff0c\u540d\u7232\u56db\u90aa\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u66f0\u300c\u6211\u975e\u6b64\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u300d  [26] Plan meritorious acts and guard against greed. The [Da zhidu] lun538 records [the following]: \u201cThis food, [requiring] cultivation and weeding, bringing in the harvest and trampling [the grain] to process [the chaff], grinding to a polish [in a pestle] and washing, and blowing [on a fire] to cook it [before it] is done, uses very heavy exertions. Reckoning for [just] one begging bowl of rice, if we collect together and measure the sweat of the farmer who made [it], [we would find that] the food is less than the sweat. This food\u2019s measure of exertion and its toil being like this, it becomes impure as soon as it enters the mouth and reaches the belly.\u201d To not arrive at gluttony, it is necessary to hold this view.  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\u2f45\u65b9\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u90aa\u547d\u4e4b\u76f8\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u820d\u5229\u5f17\u7232\u9752\u2f6c\u76ee\u5973\u8aac\u3002\ufe12\u4e09\u8005\u963f\u862d\u82e5\u8655\u3002\ufe12\u6a80\u8d8a\u9001\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u56db\u8005\u65bc\u50e7\u4e2d\u6f54\u6de8\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u6b64\u7b49\u98df\u7e01\u5177\u2f9c\u8db3\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0536 For a brief discussion of the foods of right livelihood and of wrong livelihood, see Fukunaga, Bukky\u014d igaku jiten, 100-102.\t \u00a0537 Variant with only slight stroke differences that I cannot represent. 1669 edition gives \u68b5, a reading that can work in the context, but which departs from the language of the T\u014dfukuji edition.\t \u00a0538 This text is a commentary on the Mah\u0101praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101-s\u016btra. The citation is from the passage T25 n1509 (23rd fascicle) 231b29-c03. \u5fa9\u6b21\uff0c\u601d\u60df\u6b64\u98df\uff0c\u58be\u690d\u8018\u9664\uff0c\u6536\u7a6b\u8e42\u6cbb\uff0c\u8202\u78e8\u6d2e\u6c70\uff0c\u708a\u716e\u4e43\u6210\uff0c\u2f64\u7528\u529f\u751a\u91cd\ufe14\uff1b\u8a08\u2f00\u4e00\u9262\u4e4b\u98ef\uff0c\u4f5c\u592b\u6d41\u6c57\u96c6\u5408\uff0c\u91cf\u4e4b\u98df\u5c11\u6c57\u591a\u3002\ufe12\u6b64\u98df\u4f5c\u4e4b\u529f\u91cd\uff0c\u2f9f\u8f9b\u82e6\u5982\u662f\uff0c\u5165\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u98df\u4e4b\uff0c\u5373\u6210\u4e0d\u6de8\uff0c\u7121\u6240\u2f00\u4e00\u76f4\uff0c\u5bbf\u6614\u4e4b\u9593\uff0c\u8b8a\u70ba\u5c4e\u5c3f\u3002\ufe12\u672c\u662f\u7f8e\u5473\uff0c\u2f08\u4eba\u4e4b\u6240\u55dc\ufe14\uff1b\u8b8a\u6210\u4e0d\u6de8\uff0c\u60e1\u4e0d\u6b32\u2f92\u898b\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0  319\t \u00a0\u8a08\u529f\u6212\u8caa\u300e\u667a\u8ad6\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u300c\u6b64\u98df\uff0c\u58be\u690d\u8018\u9664\u3001\ufe11\u53ce\u7a6b\u8e42\u6cbb\u3001\ufe11\u8202\u78e8\u6d2e539\u6c70\u3001\ufe11\u5439\u7151540\u4e43\u6210\uff0c\u2f64\u7528\u529f\u751a\u91cd\u3002\ufe12\u8a08\u2f00\u4e00\u9262\u98f0\uff0c\u4f5c541\u592b\u6d41\u6c57\uff0c\u96c6\u5408\u91cf\u4e4b\uff0c\u98df\u5c11\u6c57\u591a\u3002\ufe12\u6b64\u98df\u4e4b\u529f542\u91cf\uff0c\u5176\u2f9f\u8f9b\u82e6543\u5982\u662f\uff0c\u5165\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u81f3\u8179\uff0c\u5373\u6210\u4e0d\u6de8\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u7121\u81f3\u8caa\u9955\uff0c\u9808\u4f5c\u5176\u89c0\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12  [27] Food and Buddha a gushing spring. The Dazhidu lun544 says, The Buddha arrived at a brahmin's house, avidly begging for food. He (the brahmin) thought the Thus-Come-One (i.e., the Buddha) seemed to be carrying debt. The Buddha knew and spoke a \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0539 In the DCCV, similar though not exact variants are listed under \u6cc4. Another possibility would be a variant for \u6cda. But the 1669 edition gives \u6d2e, which allows us to read \u201ctaotai \u6d2e\u6c70,\u201d to wash away. CBETA\u2019s edition of the Dazhidu lun, T25 n1509 (juan 23, p231b29) also has taotai, so I take it to be the standard reading.\t \u00a0540 (\u716e)\t \u00a0541 Variant? The last horizontal is missing from \u4f5c, but I can find no such character in DCCV. The FCJ and 1669 editions give \u4f5c, which is also in related text in CBETA's Dazhidu lun.\t \u00a0542 The character used is \u2f2f\u5de5+\u2f11\u5200, which DCCV gives as a variant of \u2f2f\u5de5+\u5202 g\u014dng, meaning \u928d zh\u00ec, a sickle. The context suggests that \u529f was intended here, which is what appears in the 1669 edition and FCJ editions.\t \u00a0543 Variant\t \u00a0544 The cited passage is at T25 n1509, 225a20-b17:  \u4f5b\u2f00\u4e00\u6642\u820d\u5a46\u63d0\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u2f00\u4e00\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u59d3\u5a46\u7f85\u57f5\u901d\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u6578\u6578\u5230\u5176\u5bb6\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f3c\u5fc3\u4f5c\u662f\u5ff5\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u6c99\u2fa8\u9580\u4f55\u4ee5\u4f86\u6578\u6578\u5982\u8ca0\u5176\u50b5\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u6642\u8aac\u5048     \u6642\u2fac\u96e8\u6578\u6578\u58ae \u4e94\u7a40\u6578\u6578\u6210         \u6578\u6578\u4fee\u798f\u696d \u6578\u6578\u53d7\u679c\u5831         \u6578\u6578\u53d7\u2f63\u751f\u6cd5 \u6545\u53d7\u6578\u6578\u6b7b         \u8056\u6cd5\u6578\u6578\u6210 \u8ab0\u6578\u6578\u2f63\u751f\u6b7b \u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u805e\u662f\u5048\u5df2\u3002\ufe12\u4f5c\u662f\u5ff5\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u2f24\u5927\u8056\u2f08\u4eba\u5177\u77e5\u6211\u2f3c\u5fc3\u3002\ufe12\u615a\u6127\u53d6\u9262\u5165\u820d\u76db\u6eff\u7f8e\u98df\u4ee5\u5949\u4e0a\u4f5b\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u4e0d\u53d7\u4f5c\u662f\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u7232\u8aac\u5048\u6545\u5f97\u6b64\u98df\u6211\u4e0d\u98df\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u98df\u7576\u8207\u8ab0\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u4e0d\u2f92\u898b\u5929\u53ca\u2f08\u4eba\u80fd\u6d88\u662f\u98df\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u6c5d\u6301\u53bb\u7f6e\u5c11\u8349\u5730\u82e5\u7121\u2f8d\u866b\u2f54\u6c34\u4e2d\u3002\ufe12\u5373\u5982\u4f5b\u6559\u6301\u98df\u8457\u7121\u2f8d\u866b\u2f54\u6c34\u4e2d\u3002\ufe12\u2f54\u6c34\u5373\u2f24\u5927\u6cb8\u7159\u2f55\u706b\u5036\u51fa\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u6295\u2f24\u5927\u71b1\u9435\u3002\ufe12\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u2f92\u898b\u5df2\u9a5a\u6016\u2f94\u8a00\u672a\u66fe\u6709\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u4e43\u81f3\u98df\u4e2d\u795e\u2f12\u529b\u5982\u662f\u3002\ufe12\u9084\u5230\u4f5b\u6240\u982d\u2faf\u9762\u79ae\u4f5b\u2f9c\u8db3\u3002\ufe12\u61fa\u6094\u4e5e\u51fa\u5bb6\u53d7\u6212\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u2f94\u8a00\u5584\u4f86\u3002\ufe12\u5373\u6642\u9b1a\u9aee\u2f83\u81ea\u58ae\u4fbf\u6210\u6c99\u2fa8\u9580\u3002\ufe12\u6f38\u6f38\u65b7\u7d50\u5f97\u963f\u7f85\u6f22\u9053\u3002\ufe12\u5fa9\u6709\u6469\u8a36\u618d\u66c7\u5f4c\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u2fa6\u91d1\u2f8a\u8272\u4e0a\u4e0b\u5bf6\u8863\u5949\u4f5b\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u77e5\u8846\u50e7\u582a\u80fd\u53d7\u2f64\u7528\u544a\u618d\u66c7\u5f4c\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u6b64\u4e0a\u4e0b\u8863\u8207\u8846\u50e7\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u662f\u6545\u77e5\u4f5b\u5bf6\u50e7\u5bf6\u798f\u7121\u591a\u5c11\u3002\ufe12\u6a80\u8d8a\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u7232\u4f5b\u5e03\u65bd\u3002\ufe12\u50e7\u80fd\u6d88\u80fd\u53d7\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u4ee5\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u5a46\u7f85\u57f5\u901d\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u98df\u4f5b\u4e0d\u6559\u4ee4\u50e7\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u8af8\u6c99\u5f4c\u7b54\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u7232\u986f\u50e7\u2f24\u5927\u2f12\u529b\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u4e0d\u2f92\u898b\u98df\u5728\u2f54\u6c34\u4e2d\u6709\u2f24\u5927\u795e\u2f12\u529b\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u7121\u4ee5\u77e5\u50e7\u2f12\u529b\u7232\u2f24\u5927\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u7232\u4f5b\u65bd\u7269\u2f7d\u800c\u50e7\u5f97\u53d7\u3002\ufe12\u4fbf\u77e5\u50e7\u2f12\u529b\u7232\u2f24\u5927\u3002\ufe12...\t \u00a0  320\t \u00a0verse. The brahmin said, \u201cIf the Buddha knows my mind, then I will fill his begging bowl with abundant foods.\u201d The Buddha did not consent to accept, saying, \u201cI am out to preach the dharma; I cannot take food. I will not take the Dharma and exchange it for food.\u201d [The Buddha] ordered that the food be put into water and there was a great upwelling. Why is this? Food donated to the Buddha could not be received by others. Making the water [boil] like this, the merit of the Buddha was most excellent (i.e., sufficient to cause this supernatural event).  \u98df\u4f5b\u6cc9\u6d8c\u300e\u667a\u5ea6\u8ad6\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u4f5b\u81f3545\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u5bb6\uff0c\u6578\u6578\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u5ff5\u5982\u4f86\uff0c\u7336\u4f3c\u8ca0\u50b5\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u77e5\uff0c\u8aaa\u5048\u3002\ufe12\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u2f94\u8a00\u300c\u4f5b\u77e5\u6211\u2f3c\u5fc3\uff0c\u5373\u76db\u98df\u6eff\u9262\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u4f5b\u4e0d\u80af\u53d7\uff0c\u66f0\u300c\u6211\u56e0\u8aaa\u6cd5\uff0c\u7121\u5f97\u53d6\u98df\uff0c\u4e0d\u4ee5\u6cd5\u63db\u98df\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u98df\u4ee4\u81f4\u2f54\u6c34\u4e2d546\uff0c\u5373\u2f24\u5927\u6cb8\u6d8c\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u4e5f? \u65bd\u4f5b\u4e4b\u98df\uff0c\u9918\u7121\u80fd\u53d7\u3002\ufe12\u81f4\u2f54\u6c34\u5982\u662f\uff0c\u4f5b\u798f\u6700\u52dd\u3002\ufe12  [28] Think of the provenance of food. The Yuqie [lun547] teaches [the following]: As if [I] am eating the flesh of [my] son, [I] think of the almsgiver\u2019s extremely great hardships [in] accumulating and collecting property. As if slicing off his skin and flesh, [he] gives it [to me] as alms. I eat it and abide at ease, faultlessly receiving and using it. Returning the almsgiver\u2019s kindness, I cause him to reap the excellent realization [of enlightenment]; he [too] will benefit. \u98df\u60f3\u4f86\u8655\u300e\u745c\u4f3d\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u5982\u98df\u2f26\u5b50\u2f81\u8089\uff0c\u60f3\u65bd\u4e3b\u751a\u2f24\u5927\u8271\u82e6\uff0c\u7a4d\u96c6\u8ca1\u5bf3\uff0c\u5982\u5272\u2f6a\u76ae\u2f81\u8089\u76f8548\u65bd\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u98df\u2f7d\u800c\u2f83\u81ea\u5b89\u8655\uff0c\u7121\u5012\u53d7\u2f64\u7528\uff0c\u5831\u65bd\u4e3b\u6069\uff0c\u4ee4\u7372\u52dd\u679c\uff0c\u5f7c\u4ff1\u5229\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12  [29] Their colors each different. The Chang ahan [jing549] records [the following]: When gods of the six heavens are born and come to be hungry, jeweled vessels fill on their own \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0545 Zhi is missing from the 1669 edition.\t \u00a0546 Tofukuji edition appears to have \u2f31\u5dfe. 1669 edition gives \u4e2d, which better matches the context. The missing horizontal may be a print-quality issue in the facsimile.\t \u00a0547 The Yuqie shidi lun \u745c\u4f3d\u5e2b\u5730\u8ad6 T30 n1579 p.409a21-a27 has similar content: \u5982\u2f26\u5b50\u2f81\u8089\u60f3\u98df\u65bc\u6bb5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u61c9\u4f5c\u662f\u5ff5\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u8af8\u65bd\u4e3b\u751a\u2f24\u5927\u8271\u96e3\u7a4d\u96c6\u8ca1\u5bf6\u3002\ufe12\u5177\u53d7\u5ee3\u2f24\u5927\u8ffd\u6c42\u6240\u4f5c\u7a2e\u7a2e\u904e\u60a3\u3002\ufe12\u7531\u60b2\u610d\u6545\u6c42\u52dd\u679c\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u5272\u2f6a\u76ae\u2f81\u8089\u53ca\u4ee5\u523a\u2f8e\u8840\u2f7d\u800c\u76f8\u60e0\u65bd\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u5f97\u6b64\u98df\u5b9c\u61c9\u5982\u662f\u2f45\u65b9\u4fbf\u53d7\u2f64\u7528\u3002\ufe12\u8b02\u61c9\u5982\u6cd5\u2f7d\u800c\u2f83\u81ea\u5b89\u8655\u3002\ufe12\u7121\u5012\u53d7\u2f64\u7528\u5831\u65bd\u4e3b\u6069\u3002\ufe12\u4ee4\u7372\u6700\u52dd\u2f24\u5927\u679c\u2f24\u5927\u5229\u2f24\u5927\u69ae\u2f24\u5927\u76db\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0548 1669 edition: \u60f3\t \u00a0  321\t \u00a0with the flavors of heavenly nectar. Superior merit is of a white color, middle [merit] is blue\/green, lesser [merit] is yellow. Their various beverages are also like this, [as are their] clothing, music, and palaces.  \u5176\u2f8a\u8272\u5404\u7570\u300e\u9577\u963f\u542b\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u516d\u5929\u5929\u2f26\u5b50\u2f63\u751f\u5df3\u98e2\u6642\uff0c\u6709\u2f83\u81ea\u7136\u5bf3550\u5668\u76db\u5929\u8607\u9624551\u5473\u3002\ufe12\u4e0a\u798f\u2f8a\u8272\u2f69\u767d\uff0c\u4e2d\u9752\uff0c\u4e0b\u2fc8\u9ec3\u3002\ufe12\u5176\u8af8\u6f3f\u4ea6\u7136\uff0c\u8863\u6a02\u5bae\u6bbf\u7b49\u3002\ufe12  [30] Induced to deception because of food. The Zhong ahan [jing552] records [the following parable]: Two people shared a meal. One first stole a bite. [The other one thought,] \u201cThis [guy] is able to cheat me!\u201d He then took [poisonous] medicine and gave it to him, that person nearly dying. [The first] said, \u201cYou took food and deceived me, I took medicine and deceived you.\u201d   \u56e0\u98df\u81f4\u6b3a\u300e\u4e2d\u963f\u542b\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6709\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f08\u4eba\u5171\u2f00\u4e00\u8655\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u5148\u76d7\u55ab\u2f00\u4e00\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u3002\ufe12\u300c\u6b64\u80fd\u6b3a\u6211\uff01\u300d\u9042\u4ee5\u85e5[\u8207553]\u4e4b\uff0c\u5176\u2f08\u4eba\u6b32\u6b7b\u3002\ufe12\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u6c5d\u4ee5\u98df\u6b3a\u6211\uff0c\u6211\u4ee5\u85e5\u6b3a\u6c5d\u3002\ufe12\u300d   \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0549 The Longer \u0100gama-s\u016btra. Most of the cited content appears in T1 n1, 134a09-18, but Yichu\u2019s phrasing at the end is elliptical and has unclear grammar.\t \u00a0550 1669 uses simple form: \u5b9d\t \u00a0551 tu\u00f3. The exact variant cannot be represented. Historical dictionaries in DCCV suggest it was a variant of \u9640. 1669 edition gives \u9640. The combination is \u8607\u9640, sudh\u0101, nectar.\t \u00a0552 The Middle Length \u0100gama Sutras, M\u0101dhyam\u00e2gama. The cited parable can be found at T1 n.26, 530b27-c14.  \u5c0a\u8005\u9ce9\u6469\u7f85\u8fe6\u8449\u544a\u66f0\u3002\ufe12\u8731\u8086\u3002\ufe12\u5fa9\u807d\u6211\u8aac\u55a9\u3002\ufe12\u6167\u8005\u805e\u55a9\u5247\u89e3\u5176\u7fa9\u3002\ufe12\u8731\u8086\u3002\ufe12\u7336\u5982\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f08\u4eba\u8a31\u6232\u8ced\u3002\ufe12\u7b2c\u2f00\u4e00\u6232\u8005\u4e26\u7aca\u98df\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u2f00\u4e00\u2f06\u4e8c\u4e09\u6216\u81f3\u8846\u591a\u3002\ufe12\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u6232\u8005\u4fbf\u4f5c\u662f\u5ff5\u3002\ufe12\u5171\u6b64\u2f08\u4eba\u6232\u6578\u6578\u6b3a\u6211\u2f7d\u800c\u5078\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u6216\u2f00\u4e00\u2f06\u4e8c\u4e09\u6216\u81f3\u8846\u591a\u3002\ufe12\u2f92\u898b\u5982\u662f\u5df2\u8a9e\u5f7c\u4f34\u66f0\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u4eca\u6b32\u606f\u5f8c\u7576\u66f4\u6232\u3002\ufe12\u65bc\u662f\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u6232\u8005\u96e2\u65bc\u5f7c\u8655\u3002\ufe12\u4fbf\u4ee5\u6bd2\u85e5\u2f64\u7528\u5857\u5176\u3002\ufe12\u5857\u5df2\u5373\u9084\u8a9e\u5176\u4f34\u66f0\u3002\ufe12\u53ef\u4f86\u5171\u6232\u5373\u4f86\u5171\u6232\u3002\ufe12\u7b2c\u2f00\u4e00\u6232\u8005\u5fa9\u7aca\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u6216\u2f00\u4e00\u2f06\u4e8c\u4e09\u6216\u81f3\u8846\u591a\u3002\ufe12\u65e2\u98df\u5df2\u5373\u4fbf\u6234\u773c\u5410\u6cab\u6b32\u6b7b\u3002\ufe12\u65bc\u662f\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u6232\u8005\u5411\u7b2c\u2f00\u4e00\u6232\u2f08\u4eba\u5373\u8aac\u980c\u66f0     \u6b64\u6bd2\u85e5\u5857 \u6c5d\u8caa\u98df\u4e0d\u89ba         \u5750\u7232\u6b3a\u6211 \u5f8c\u5fc5\u81f4\u82e6\u60a3  \u7576\u77e5\u8731\u8086\u3002\ufe12\u4ea6\u5fa9\u5982\u662f\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u6c5d\u6b64\u2f92\u898b\u6b32\u53d6\u605a\u53d6\u6016\u53d6\u7661\u53d6\u7d42\u4e0d\u6368\u8005\u6c5d\u4fbf\u7576\u53d7\u7121\u91cf\u4e4b\u60e1\u4ea6\u7232\u8846\u2f08\u4eba\u4e4b\u6240\u618e\u60e1\u3002\ufe12\u7336\u5982\u6232\u2f08\u4eba\u7232\u6b3a\u4ed6\u9084\u2f83\u81ea\u5f97\u6b83\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0553 1669 edition adds this character.\t \u00a0  322\t \u00a0[31] Food furnishes the five blessings. The Wufu jing554 records [the following]: Obtain a marvelous and strong appearance, prosperity, joy, long life, [and] eloquence. The Jushe [lun555] also says, Obtain a marvelous appearance, reputation, people\u2019s admiration, a soft and flexible body, and be at all times in comfort (sukha-sa\u1e43spar\u015ba).  \u98df\u65bd\u4e94\u798f\u300e\u4e94\u798f\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u5f97\u5999\u5f37\u2f8a\u8272\u3001\ufe11\u51a8\u3001\ufe11\u6a02\u3001\ufe11\u58fd\u547d\u3001\ufe11\u8a5e\u8faf\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u300e\u4ff1\u820e\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u5f97\u5999\u2f8a\u8272\u3001\ufe11\u597d\u540d\u3001\ufe11\u8846\u611b\u3001\ufe11\u67d4\u8edf\u8eab\u3001\ufe11\u6709\u96a8556\u6642\u6a02\u89f8\u4e5f557\u3002\ufe12  [32] Possessing milk springs [when] eating. The [Apidamo da pi]posha [lun] says558, When buddhas eat, all [foods] regardless of their coarseness or fineness become the most delicious flavors, by virtue of buddhas having in their throat two springs of milk. [The outcomes of] meritorious activities differ [from being to being].  \u98df\u6709\u4e73\u6cc9\u300e\u5a46\u6c99\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u4f5b\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u96a8\u5176\u9e81\u7d30\uff0c\u7686\u6210\u4e0a\u5473\u8005\uff0c\u4ee5\u4f5b\u5589\u4e2d\u6709\u2f06\u4e8c\u4e73\u6cc9\u3002\ufe12\u798f\u696d\u5225\u77e3\u3002\ufe12 \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0554 Makita and Yamaji, Giso rokujo sakuin, point to the Foshuo shishi huo wufubao jing \u4f5b\u8aac\u98df\u65bd\u7372\u4e94\u798f\u5831\u7d93\/ Shishi huo wufubao jing \u98df\u65bd\u7372\u4e94\u798f\u5831\u7d93, T2 n132a and n132b. DDB is completely silent on this short scripture. SAT has only the former title but includes also the \u201cb\u201d edition of CBETA\u2019s Taish\u014d. Searches in CBETA suggest that T2 n132a and n132b are the only digitized editions.\t \u00a0555 From verse in the Apidamo jushelun T29 n1558, 96b01-2:    \u8ca1\u7570\u7531\u2f8a\u8272\u7b49 \u5f97\u5999\u2f8a\u8272\u597d\u540d         \u8846\u611b\u67d4\u8edf\u8eab \u6709\u96a8\u6642\u6a02\u89f8\t \u00a0556 Character cramped down against bottom border line and unclear. FCJ edition gives \u96a8, which on close observation seems probable.\t \u00a0557 1669 edition omits \u4e5f.\t \u00a0558 T27 n1545 juan177, 888c16-25. The cited content comes at the end of a long passage on the thirty-two signs of a great being in the Apidamo da piposha lun \u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u2f24\u5927\u6bd8\u5a46\u6c99\u8ad6, Abhidharma-mah\u0101vibh\u0101\u1e63\u0101-\u015b\u0101stra, the Treatise of the Great Commentary on the Abhidharma. Yichu cites the twenty-sixth sign, that of obtaining supreme flavors: \u2f06\u4e8c\u2f17\u5341\u516d\u8005\u5f97\u6700\u4e0a\u5473\u76f8\u3002\ufe12\u8b02\u4f5b\u2f86\u820c\u6839\u6de8\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u4ee4\u6240\u98f2\u98df\u8b8a\u6210\u4e0a\u5473\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u8aaa\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u2f86\u820c\u6839\u4e0a\u6709\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u4e16\u9593\u6085\u610f\u7f8e\u5999\u52dd\u5473\u7a2e\u2f26\u5b50\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u8af8\u82e6\u9162\u7b49\u7269\u81f3\u2f86\u820c\u6839\u6642\u3002\ufe12\u6b64\u7a2e\u96dc\u8b8a\u7686\u6210\u4e0a\u5473\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u8aaa\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u4f86\u2f86\u820c\u6839\u6709\u5982\u662f\u52e2\u2f12\u529b\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u8af8\u98f2\u98df\u4f86\u81f3\u2f86\u820c\u6839\u3002\ufe12\u65bc\u4e2d\u6085\u610f\u7f8e\u5999\u6027\u8005\u4fbf\u2f63\u751f\u2f86\u820c\u8b58\u3002\ufe12\u9e81\u9119\u6027\u8005\u4e0d\u2f63\u751f\u2f86\u820c\u8b58\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u8aaa\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u54bd\u5589\u4e2d\u6709\u2f06\u4e8c\u4e73\u6cc9\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u98f2\u98df\u6642\u5176\u4e73\u6d41\u51fa\u3002\ufe12\u96dc\u8af8\u98f2\u98df\u7686\u6210\u4e0a\u5473\u3002\ufe12\u7136\u65bc\u6b64\u4e2d\u2f86\u820c\u6839\u6de8\u6545\u4ee4\u5473\u6b8a\u52dd\u3002\ufe12\u6b64\u7406\u61c9\u7136\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0  323\t \u00a0 [33] Foods give benefit according to their faculties. The Zengyi [ahan] jing559 says, The resource, benefit, and meaning of foods each follow their faculties. Eyes take sleep to be their food, ears take sounds, noses take aromas, tongues take flavors, bodies (skin) take touch, the mind takes dharma (i.e., truth), and nirvana takes lack of self-indulgence [as its food].  \u98df\u96a8\u6839\u76ca\u300e\u5897\u2f00\u4e00\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u98df\u8005\uff0c\u8cc7\u3001\ufe11\u76ca\u3001\ufe11\u7fa9\uff0c\u5404\u96a8\u5176\u6839\u3002\ufe12\u773c\u4ee5\u7761\u7232\u98df\uff0c\u2f7f\u8033\u4ee5\u8072560\uff0c\u2fd0\u9f3b\u4ee5\u2fb9\u9999\uff0c\u2f86\u820c\u4ee5\u5473\uff0c\u8eab\u4ee5\u89f8\uff0c\u610f\u4ee5\u6cd5\uff0c\u6d85\u69c3\u7121\u9038\u7b49\u3002\ufe12  [34] Incant over the food then offer it. The Jiaomian jing561 says, When one is to eat, speak incantations for the various ghosts and others. This is no less than setting up a heavenly assembly, [the food] turning to sweet dew, all [the hungry ghosts] opening their throats and being satiated; they will obtain both food and treasures. [When] ghosts and deities obtain a little food it can become much, with one mouthful increased immeasurably. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0559 This citation frames \u2018food\u2019 as objects of desire for the senses and cognition, and not just as material sustenance for the body. The cited passage is T2 n125, 656c09-25:  (\u56db)\u805e\u5982\u662f\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u6642\u4f5b\u5728\u820d\u885e\u570b\u7947\u6a39\u7d66\u5b64\u7368\u5712\u3002\ufe12\u723e\u6642\u4e16\u5c0a\u544a\u8af8\u6bd4\u4e18\u3002\ufe12\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u4e4b\u985e\u6709\u56db\u7a2e\u98df\u9577\u990a\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u7b49\u7232\u56db\u3002\ufe12\u6240\u8b02\u6476\u98df\u6216\u2f24\u5927\u6216\u2f29\u5c0f\u3002\ufe12\u66f4\u6a02\u98df\u5ff5\u98df\u8b58\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u8b02\u56db\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u4e91\u4f55\u540d\u7232\u6476\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u6476\u98df\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u4eca\u2f08\u4eba\u4e2d\u6240\u98df\u8af8\u5165\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u4e4b\u7269\u53ef\u98df\u5649\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u8b02\u540d\u7232\u6476\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4e91\u4f55\u540d\u66f4\u6a02\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u6240\u8b02\u66f4\u6a02\u98df\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u8863\u88f3\u7e56\u84cb\u96dc\u2fb9\u9999\u83ef\u718f\u2f55\u706b\u3002\ufe12\u53ca\u2fb9\u9999\u6cb9\u8207\u5a66\u2f08\u4eba\u96c6\u805a\u3002\ufe12\u8af8\u9918\u8eab\u9ad4\u6240\u66f4\u6a02\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u8b02\u540d\u7232\u66f4\u6a02\u4e4b\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u4e91\u4f55\u540d\u7232\u5ff5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u8af8\u610f\u4e2d\u6240\u5ff5\u60f3\u6240\u601d\u60df\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u6216\u4ee5\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u8aac\u6216\u4ee5\u9ad4\u89f8\u3002\ufe12\u53ca\u8af8\u6240\u6301\u4e4b\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u8b02\u540d\u7232\u5ff5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u4e91\u4f55\u7232\u8b58\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u6240\u5ff5\u8b58\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u610f\u4e4b\u6240\u77e5\u68b5\u5929\u7232\u2fb8\u9996\u3002\ufe12\u4e43\u81f3\u6709\u60f3\u7121\u60f3\u5929\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u8b58\u7232\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u8b02\u540d\u7232\u8b58\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u8b02\u6bd4\u4e18\u6709\u6b64\u56db\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u4e4b\u985e\u4ee5\u6b64\u56db\u98df\u6d41\u8f49\u2f63\u751f\u6b7b\u3002\ufe12\u5f9e\u4eca\u4e16\u81f3\u5f8c\u4e16\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u6545\u8af8\u6bd4\u4e18\u3002\ufe12\u7576\u5171\u6368\u96e2\u6b64\u56db\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u662f\u8af8\u6bd4\u4e18\u7576\u4f5c\u662f\u5b78\u3002\ufe12\u723e\u6642\u8af8\u6bd4\u4e18\u805e\u4f5b\u6240\u8aac\u3002\ufe12\u6b61\u559c\u5949\u2f8f\u884c...\t \u00a0560 Variant\t \u00a0561 Makita and Yamaji, Giso rokuj\u014d sakuin, point to the Jiumianran egui tuoluoni shenzhou jing \u6551\u2faf\u9762\u71c3\u9913\u9b3c\u9640\u7f85\u5c3c\u795e\u546a\u7d93, T21 n1314. See the passage on page 466a26-c26 for a description of the method to use when providing offerings to hungry ghosts, which loosely matches the content that Yichu cites. Note also the next Taish\u014d text, Shi zhu egui yinshi ji shui fa \u65bd\u8af8\u9913\u9b3c\u98f2\u98df\u53ca\u2f54\u6c34\u6cd5, T21 n1315, which also explains ritual for offering food to hungry ghosts, citing this content as coming from the previous or similar source: \u65bd\u71cb\u2faf\u9762\u9913\u9b3c\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u9b3c\u795e\u9640\u7f85\u5c3c\u7d93\u8981\u6c7a.\t \u00a0  324\t \u00a0\u5492\u98df\u5f8c\u65bd\u300e\u71cb\u9763562\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u7576\u98df\uff0c\u5492\u65bd\u8af8\u9b3c\u7b49\uff0c\u52dd\u8a2d\u5929563\u6703\uff0c\u8b8a\u6210\u2f62\u7518\u9732\uff0c\u6089\u7686\u958b\u5589\u98fd\u6eff\uff0c\u517c[\u5f97]\u98df564\u5bf3\u3002\ufe12\u9b3c\u795e\u5f97\u5c11\u98df\u80fd\u8b8a\u591a\uff0c\u2f00\u4e00\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u5343\u842c\u500d\u77e3\u3002\ufe12  [35] Foods are unclean. The [Dazhidu] lun565 says, There was a brahmin who cultivated the dharma of joy and purity. Something came up and he had to go to an unclean country. While thinking about pure food, he saw an old woman come along, selling marrow cakes. [She came] day after day to sell [them]. After eating [some, the brahmin] suddenly found them flavorless, so he asked the woman, saying, \u201cWhy haven\u2019t they any flavor?\u201d The woman replied, \u201cMy lord suffers ulcers on her genitals, [so I] usually take buttered flour to stick [together] medicine and cover [the ulcers]. Taking it [off], I mix it with strong-flavored wine and sell it as marrow cakes. Now the ulcers have healed and I haven\u2019t the ulcer[-soaked] flour. These have only oil.\u201d The brahmin upon hearing this was retching without end and very nearly wishing he would die. \u98df\u4e0d\u6de8\u6f54566\u300e\u667a\u8ad6\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6709\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u4fee\u6a02\u6de8\u6cd5\uff0c\u6709\u4e8b\uff0c\u9808\u81f3\u4e0d\u6de8\u4e4b\u570b\u3002\ufe12\u7576\u601d\u6de8\u98df\uff0c\u2f92\u898b\u2f00\u4e00\u2f7c\u8001\u6bcd567\u4f86\uff0c\u8ce3\u9ad3\u9905\uff0c\u2f47\u65e5\u2f47\u65e5\u8ce3\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u5f8c\uff0c\u5ffd\u7121\u5473\uff0c\u4e43\u554f\u6bcd\u66f0\u300c\u4f55\u7121\u5473\u4e5f ?\u300d \u6bcd\u66f0\u300c\u6211\u2f24\u5927\u5bb6\u96b1\u8655\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0562 \u2faf\u9762. 1669 edition gives the more common form.\t \u00a0563 1669 edition gives \u2f24\u5927.\t \u00a0564 1669 edition inserts \u5f97: \u517c\u5f97\u98df\u5bf6.\t \u00a0565 T25 n1509, 231c09-22. This parable appears in a passage that sets out justifications for an \u201cattitude of despising foods \u98df\u53ad\u60f3.\u201d \u56e0\u98df\u53ad\u6545\u65bc\u4e94\u6b32\u4e2d\u7686\u53ad\u3002\ufe12\u8b6c\u5982\u2f00\u4e00\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u4fee\u6de8\u6f54\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u4e8b\u7e01\u6545\u5230\u4e0d\u6de8\u570b\u3002\ufe12\u2f83\u81ea\u601d\u6211\u7576\u4e91\u4f55\u5f97\u514d\u6b64\u4e0d\u6de8\u3002\ufe12\u552f\u7576\u4e7e\u98df\u53ef\u5f97\u6e05\u6de8\u3002\ufe12\u2f92\u898b\u2f00\u4e00\u2f7c\u8001\u6bcd\u8ce3\u2f69\u767d\u9ad3\u9905\u2f7d\u800c\u8a9e\u4e4b\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u6709\u56e0\u7e01\u4f4f\u6b64\u767e\u2f47\u65e5\u3002\ufe12\u5e38\u4f5c\u6b64\u9905\u9001\u4f86\u7576\u591a\u8207\u50f9\u3002\ufe12\u2f7c\u8001\u6bcd\u2f47\u65e5\u2f47\u65e5\u4f5c\u9905\u9001\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u8caa\u8457\u98fd\u98df\u6b61\u559c\u3002\ufe12\u2f7c\u8001\u6bcd\u4f5c\u9905\u521d\u6642\u2f69\u767d\u6de8\u3002\ufe12\u5f8c\u8f49\u7121\u2f8a\u8272\u7121\u5473\u3002\ufe12\u5373\u554f\u2f7c\u8001\u6bcd\u4f55\u7e01\u723e\u8036\u3002\ufe12\u6bcd\u2f94\u8a00\u7670\u7621\u5dee\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u554f\u3002\ufe12\u6b64\u2f94\u8a00\u4f55\u8b02\u3002\ufe12\u6bcd\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u2f24\u5927\u5bb6\u592b\u2f08\u4eba\u96b1\u8655\u2f63\u751f\u7670\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u9eba\u9165\u2f62\u7518\u8349\u62ca\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u7670\u719f\u81bf\u51fa\u548c\u5408\u9165\u9905\u3002\ufe12\u2f47\u65e5\u2f47\u65e5\u5982\u662f\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u6b64\u4f5c\u9905\u8207\u6c5d\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u4ee5\u9905\u597d\u3002\ufe12\u4eca\u592b\u2f08\u4eba\u7670\u5dee\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u7576\u4f55\u8655\u66f4\u5f97\u3002\ufe12\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u805e\u4e4b\u5169\u62f3\u6253\u982d\u6425\u80f8\u5401\u5614\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u7576\u4e91\u4f55\u7834\u6b64\u6de8\u6cd5\u6211\u7232\u4e86\u77e3\u3002\ufe12\u68c4\u6368\u7e01\u4e8b\u99b3\u9084\u672c\u570b\u3002\ufe12\u2f8f\u884c\u8005\u4ea6\u5982\u662f\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0566 Variant uses \u51abat top, rather than full height \u6c35\t \u00a0567 Variant has solid center vertical, not two dots.\t \u00a0  325\t \u00a0\u60a3\u7670568\uff0c\u5e38\u4ee5\u8607\u6cb9\u9eb5569\u9644\u85e5\u2f7d\u800c\u8986\uff0c\u53d6\u4e4b\u548c\u81bf\uff0c\u7576\u4f5c\u9ad3\u9905\u8ce3\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u4eca\u5df3570\u7670\u6108\uff0c\u7121\u5176\u7670\u9eb5571\uff0c\u6b64\u552f\u6cb9\u2f7f\u8033\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u805e\uff0c\u5df3\u2f24\u5927\u5410\u4e0d\u2f4c\u6b62\uff0c\u5e7e\u5c07572\u6b32\u6b7b\u77e3\u3002\ufe12  [36] Begging for food: qishi and fenwei. The [Yiqie] jing yinyi573 says, The expression fenwei (\u201crotating duty\u201d) is erroneous and elliptical. It should read bintujia (Skt. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0568 Variant uses \u5e7a to the left of \u2fab\u96b9. Y\u014dng, an ulcer, abscess, sore.\t \u00a0569 Variant used has \u4e10 in place of \u2faf\u9762. See note for next occurrence of \u9eb5.\t \u00a0570 Reading yi \u5df2. The T\u014dfukuji edition here and elsewhere gives s\u00ec \u5df3 in contexts that suggest that yi was intended. The 1669 edition gives s\u00ec for the two instances here.\t \u00a0571 Variant differs from the last occurrence, having \u2faf\u9762 on the right (not \u4e10), but using \u9ea6 in place of \u2fc6\u9ea5. Were these considered different words at the time this edition was written? In the DCCV, both point to \u9eb5. Why would a scribe use two different variants in the same passage?\t \u00a0572 Variant \u723f+ \u5bfd\t \u00a0573 This occurs in Huilin\u2019s Yiqie jing yinyi \u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u7d93\u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9, T54 n2128, 425a04; ibid. 538a06; and ibid. 734c05: \u5206\u885e\u6b64\u2f94\u8a00\u8a1b\u4e5f\u6b63\u2f94\u8a00\u8cd3\u837c\u591c\u6b64\u4e91\u98df\u5718\u8b02\u2f8f\u884c\u4e5e\u98df\u4e5f \u5206\u885e\u6b64\u2f94\u8a00\u8a1b\u4e5f\u6b63\u2f94\u8a00\u5110\u837c\u6b64\u4e91\u5718\u6ce2\u591a\u6b64\u4e91\u58ae\u2f94\u8a00\u98df\u58ae\u5728\u9262\u4e2d\u4e5f\u6216\u2f94\u8a00\u8cd4\u837c\u591c\u6b64\u4e91\u5718\u5718\u8005\u98df\u5718\u8b02\u4e5e\u98df\u4e5f \u5206\u885e\u6b64\u2f94\u8a00\u8a1b\u4e5f\u6b63\u2f94\u8a00\u64ef\u837c\u6ce2\u591a\u64ef\u837c\u6b64\u4e91\u5718\u6ce2\u591a\u6b64\u4e91\u58ae\u2f94\u8a00\u98df\u58ae\u5728\u9262\u4e2d\u6216\u2f94\u8a00\u8cd3\u837c\u591c\u6b64\u4e91\u5718\u5718\u8005\u98df\u5718\u8b02\u4f55\u4e5e\u98df Note that the Fanyi mingyi ji, a later text from the Southern Song, includes a detailed discussion under the term fenwei, T54 n2131, 1174a09-b11:  \u5206\u885e\u3002\ufe12\u5584\u2f92\u898b\u8ad6\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u6b64\u4e91\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u50e7\u7947\u5f8b\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u4e5e\u98df\u5206\u65bd\u50e7\u5c3c\u885e\u8b77\u4ee4\u4fee\u9053\u696d\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u4e91\u5206\u885e\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u5247\u8ad6\u5f9e\u68b5\u8a9e\u3002\ufe12\u5f8b\u8b02\u83ef\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u5169\u8aac\u672a\u8a73\u3002\ufe12\u61c9\u6cd5\u5e2b\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u8a1b\u7565\u3002\ufe12\u6b63\u2f94\u8a00\u5110\u8336\u6ce2\u591a\u3002\ufe12\u6b64\u4e91\u5718\u58ae\u3002\ufe12\u2f94\u8a00\u98df\u58ae\u5728\u9262\u4e2d\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u6216\u4e91\u5110\u8336\u591c\u3002\ufe12\u6b64\u4e91\u5718\u3002\ufe12\u5718\u8005\u98df\u5718\u3002\ufe12\u8b02\u2f8f\u884c\u4e5e\u98df\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c\u982d\u9640\u660e\u5e38\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f24\u5927\u8ad6\u91cb\u4e09\u7a2e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u53d7\u8acb\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f06\u4e8c\u8846\u50e7\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4e09\u5e38\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u524d\u2f06\u4e8c\u98df\u8d77\u8af8\u6f0f\u56e0\u7e01\u3002\ufe12\u6240\u4ee5\u8005\u4f55\u3002\ufe12\u53d7\u8acb\u98df\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u5f97\u4f5c\u662f\u5ff5\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u662f\u798f\u5fb3\u597d\u2f08\u4eba\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u5f97\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u4e0d\u5f97\u5247\u5acc\u6068\u8acb\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u7232\u7121\u6240\u5225\u8b58\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u61c9\u8acb\u8005\u8acb\u3002\ufe12\u61c9\u8acb\u8005\u4e0d\u8acb\u3002\ufe12\u6216\u2f83\u81ea\u9119\u8584\u3002\ufe12\u61ca\u60f1\u2f83\u81ea\u60c5\u3002\ufe12\u2f7d\u800c\u2f63\u751f\u6182\u82e6\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u8caa\u611b\u6cd5\u5247\u80fd\u906e\u9053\u3002\ufe12\u8846\u50e7\u98df\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u5165\u8846\u4e2d\u7576\u96a8\u8846\u6cd5\u65b7\u4e8b\u6599\u7406\u50e7\u4e8b\u8655\u5206\u4f5c\u4f7f\u3002\ufe12\u2f3c\u5fc3\u5247\u6563\u4e82\u59a8\u5ee2\u2f8f\u884c\u9053\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u5982\u662f\u7b49\u4e82\u4e8b\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u53d7\u5e38\u4e5e\u98df\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u8f14\u2f8f\u884c\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u8af8\u5f8b\u8ad6\u2f42\u6587\u3002\ufe12\u4e5e\u98df\u4e4b\u6cd5\u4e0d\u2f00\u4e00\u8655\u2f9c\u8db3\u3002\ufe12\u7232\u798f\u4ed6\u6545\u4ee4\u81f3\u4e03\u5bb6\u3002\ufe12\u8087\u6cd5\u5e2b\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u4e5e\u98df\u6709\u56db\u610f\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u7232\u798f\u5229\u7fa4\u2f63\u751f\u3002\ufe12\u2f06\u4e8c\u7232\u6298\u4f0f\u618d\u6162\u3002\ufe12\u4e09\u7232\u77e5\u8eab\u6709\u82e6\u3002\ufe12\u56db\u7232\u9664\u53bb\u6eef\u8457\u3002\ufe12\u5bf6\u2fac\u96e8\u7d93\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u4e5e\u98df\u6210\u5c31\u2f17\u5341\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u7232\u651d\u53d7\u8af8\u6709\u60c5\u3002\ufe12\u2f06\u4e8c\u7232\u6b21\u7b2c\u3002\ufe12\u4e09\u7232\u4e0d\u75b2\u53ad\u3002\ufe12\u56db\u7232\u77e5\u2f9c\u8db3\u3002\ufe12\u4e94\u7232\u5206\u5e03\u3002\ufe12\u516d\u7232\u4e0d\u803d\u55dc\u3002\ufe12\u4e03\u7232\u77e5\u91cf\u3002\ufe12\u516b\u7232\u5584\u54c1\u73fe\u524d\u3002\ufe12\u4e5d\u7232\u5584\u6839\u5713\u6eff\u3002\ufe12\u2f17\u5341\u7232\u96e2\u6211\u57f7\u3002\ufe12\u5bf6\u96f2\u7d93\u660e\u4e5e\u98df\u56db\u5206\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u5206\u5949\u540c\u68b5\u2f8f\u884c\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u8207\u7aae\u4e5e\u2f08\u4eba\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u8207\u8af8\u9b3c\u795e\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u5206\u2f83\u81ea\u98df\u3002\ufe12 \u8f14\u2f8f\u884c\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u6614\u6709\u9577\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u540d\u66f0\u9ce9\u7559\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u4fe1\u56e0\u679c\u3002\ufe12\u8207\u4e94\u767e\u5036\u2f8f\u884c\u9060\u2f92\u898b\u53e2\u6a39\u3002\ufe12\u60f3\u662f\u5c45\u5bb6\u3002\ufe12\u5230\u5f7c\u552f\u2f92\u898b\u6a39\u795e\u3002\ufe12\u4f5c\u79ae\u5df2\u8aac\u2f30\u5df1\u9951\u6e07\u3002\ufe12\u795e\u5373\u6500\u2f3f\u624b\u4e94\u6307\u3002\ufe12\u2f83\u81ea\u7136\u51fa\u65bc\u98ee\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f62\u7518\u7f8e\u96e3\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u8a16\u2f24\u5927\u54ed\u3002\ufe12\u795e\u554f\u5176\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u7b54\u66f0\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u4e94\u767e\u4f34\u3002\ufe12\u4ea6\u2f24\u5927\u98e2\u6e07\u3002\ufe12\u795e\u4ee4\u547c\u4f86\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u524d\u8207\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u8846\u2f08\u4eba\u7686\u98fd\u3002\ufe12\u9577\u8005\u554f\u66f0\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u798f\u6240\u81f4\u3002\ufe12\u7b54\u66f0\u3002\ufe12\u6211  326\t \u00a0pi\u1e47\u1e0dik\u0101 \/ pi\u1e47\u1e0dak\u0101, alm\u2019s food, literally a lump or ball of food) or bintuye (P. pi\u1e47\u1e0d\u0101ya [carati], to go begging for food)574, which refers to a lump of food. This is to carry out begging. It also goes on to say that [fenwei] is not \u201cbegging for food.\u201d This is still not translated correctly.575  \u4e5e\u98df\u5206\u885e576\u300e\u7d93\u2fb3\u97f3\u7fa9\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u2f94\u8a00\u5206\u885e\u8005\uff0c\u6b64\u2f94\u8a00\u8a1b\u7565\u3002\ufe12\u61c9\u4e91\u8cd3\u837c\u8fe6\uff0c\u6216\u4e91\u8cd3\u837c\u591c\uff0c\u6b64\u4e91\u98df\u5718\u3002\ufe12\u7232\u2f8f\u884c\u4e5e\uff0c\u6b64\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u4fbf\u2f94\u8a00\u4e5e\u98df\uff0c\u975e\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u4ea6\u975e\u7ffb\u5c0d\u7b49\u3002\ufe12   [37] Proceed slowly [if you] see someone. The Vinaya577 says, When a bhik\u1e63u begged for food, he straightaway entered people\u2019s homes, turned around when he did not obtain anything, swayed his body and covered his head, and swung his hands, arms, and legs [in hasty retreat]. Seeing someone come out [of a home], if you silently respond and go, there will be treasure (i.e., an offering). Seeing someone depart, proceed slowly and do not cause trouble. Other sayings [in the Vinaya] are like this. \u2f92\u898b\u2f08\u4eba\u5f90\u9032\u300e\u5f8b\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6bd4\u4e18\u4e5e\u98df\uff0c\u76f4\u5165\u2f08\u4eba\u820d\uff0c\u4e0d\u5f97\u6771\u897f\u5f8c\u9867578\uff0c\u6416579\u8eab\u8986\u982d\uff0c\u68f9\u2f3f\u624b\u81c2\u811a\u3002\ufe12\u2f92\u898b\u2f08\u4eba\u51fa\uff0c\u7121\u2f94\u8a00\u61c9\u8005\u53bb\uff0c\u6709\u5bf6\u3002\ufe12\u2f92\u898b\u2f08\u4eba\u53bb\uff0c\u5f90\u2f8f\u884c\u7121\u60f1\u3002\ufe12\u4ed6\u2f94\u8a00\u5982\u6b64\u7b49\u3002\ufe12  [38] Take along a bhik\u1e63u [companion]. The Fahua jing580 says, \u201cUpon entering a village to beg food, take along a bhik\u1e63u [companion], and if there is no bhik\u1e63u [to accompany \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\u672c\u8fe6\u8449\u4f5b\u6642\u6975\u8ca7\u3002\ufe12\u65bc\u57ce\u2fa8\u9580\u5916\u78e8\u93e1\u6bce\u6709\u6c99\u2fa8\u9580\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5e38\u4ee5\u6b64\u6307\u3002\ufe12\u2f70\u793a\u5206\u885e\u8655\u53ca\u4f5b\u7cbe\u820d\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u662f\u975e\u2f00\u4e00\u3002\ufe12\u58fd\u7d42\u2f63\u751f\u6b64\u3002\ufe12\u9577\u8005\u2f24\u5927\u609f\u3002\ufe12\u2f47\u65e5\u98ef\u516b\u5343\u50e7\u3002\ufe12\u6dd8\u2f76\u7c73\u6c41\u6d41\u51fa\u57ce\u5916\u53ef\u4ee5\u4e58\u8239\t \u00a0574 Also pi\u1e47\u1e0da-p\u0101tika \u5110\u837c\u6ce2\u5e95\u8fe6 \/ \u8cd3\u837c\u6ce2\u5e95\u8fe6. The Skt. \"pai\u1e47\u1e0dap\u0101tika\" is a typo in Hirakawa? \t \u00a0575 There seems to be disagreement over the terminology used for \u2018begging for food\u2019. Dictionary entries also suggest that there were multiple interpretations. \t \u00a0576 A variant of \u885b, which is the form given in the 1669 edition.\t \u00a0577 Yichu does not indicate which Vinaya text he was citing, but we do find a narrative in the Sifenl\u00fc \u56db\u5206\u5f8b on the Buddha correcting the errors of etiquette of a begging monk. This monk got into trouble by carelessly entering a home where the householder\u2019s wife was sleeping in an exposed manner, then hastily retreating from this scene. This led the Buddha to lay down some begging guidelines for his community. See T22 n1428, 932b29-933c06.\t \u00a0578 Variant uses \u5384-\u353e+\u5df3\t \u00a0579 Variant\t \u00a0  327\t \u00a0you], focus your mind on thinking of the Buddha; do not bare your chest; do not reveal your teeth in laughter,\u201d and so forth. Furthermore, the Jin\u2019gang jing581 says, \u201cWhen [the Buddha wished] to eat, he put on [proper] clothing, held his alms bowl in hand, and entered homes, feudal states, and walled cities.\u201d \u5c07\u2f00\u4e00\u6bd4\u4e18\u300e\u6cd5\u83ef\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u300c\u5165\u2fa5\u91cc\u4e5e\u98df\uff0c\u5c07\u2f00\u4e00\u6bd4\u4e18\uff0c\u82e5\u7121\u6bd4\u4e18\uff0c\u4f46\u2f00\u4e00\u2f3c\u5fc3\u5ff5\u4f5b\u300d\uff0c\u300c\u4e0d\u73fe\u80f8582\u81c6\u300d\uff0c\u300c\u4e0d\u9732\u9f52\u7b11\u300d\u7b49\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u300e\u2fa6\u91d1\u525b\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u300c\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u8457\u8863\uff0c\u6301\u9262\uff0c\u5165\u820d\u3001\ufe11\u885e\u3001\ufe11\u2f24\u5927\u57ce\u3002\ufe12\u300d  [39] \u0100nanda begs for food. The Da foding fang583 and other works say, [For] \u0100nanda, no departure meal was provided by donors (fuqing \u8d74\u8acb). He held his alms bowl, his mind dwelt on equality, and he did not discriminate between noble and humble. [This] differs from the Great K\u0101\u015byapa following [the path of] poverty and from Subh\u016bti seeking wealth; one accorded with compassion, [the other] with absence of grievances (i.e., dwelling in peace). \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0580 Miaofa lianhua jing \u5999\u6cd5\u9023\u83ef\u7d93, the Lotus Sutra, one of the most important scriptures in Chinese and Japanese Buddhism. The citation comes from two passages in close proximity, T9 n262, 37b07-08 and 37c07-08.\t \u00a0581 This passage comes from the Jin\u2019gang bore boluomi jing \u2fa6\u91d1\u525b\u822c\u82e5\u6ce2\u7f85\u871c\u7d93, Vajracchedik\u0101-praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101-s\u016btra, The Diamond Sutra, translated by Kumarajiva, T8 n235,748c20-22: \u5982\u662f\u6211\u805e\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u6642\u4f5b\u5728\u820d\u885e\u570b\u7947\u6a39\u7d66\u5b64\u7368\u5712\u3002\ufe12 \u8207\u2f24\u5927\u6bd4\u4e18\u8846\u5343\u2f06\u4e8c\u767e\u4e94\u2f17\u5341\u2f08\u4eba\u5036\u3002\ufe12\u723e\u6642\u4e16\u5c0a\u98df\u6642\u8457\u8863\u6301\u9262\u5165\u3002\ufe12\u820d\u885e\u2f24\u5927\u57ce\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0582 Variant has right part on top, in vertical arrangement.\t \u00a0583 x DDB. Makita and Yamaji do not clarify. Searching SAT and CBETA for clues only tells me that there are a few texts with Da foding in the title, but none of these includes fang \u2f45\u65b9. Nor is there mention in all the digitized canon of \u201cDa foding fang.\u201d This may be a reference to the Shou lengyan jing T19 n945, which has Da foding in its full title: Da foding rulai miyin xiuzheng liaoyi zhu pusa wanxing shou lengyan jing \u2f24\u5927\u4f5b\u9802\u5982\u4f86\u5bc6\u56e0\u4fee\u8b49\u4e86\u7fa9\u8af8\u83e9\u85a9\u842c\u2f8f\u884c\u2fb8\u9996\u695e\u56b4\u7d93. The Shou lengyan jing does have much discussion between \u0100nanda and the Buddha, so Yichu\u2019s paraphrasing could represent content found there, though I am unable to find a close match anywhere\u2013\u2013perhaps because this material is highly condensed from long narratives?\t \u00a0  328\t \u00a0\u963f\u96e3\u4e5e\u98df\u300e\u2f24\u5927\u4f5b\u9802\u2f45\u65b9\u300f\u7b49\u4e91\uff1a\u963f\u96e3\uff0c\u5225\u8acb\u4e0d\u8d74\uff0c\u7576\u6301\u9262\uff0c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u5ff5\u5e73\u7b49\uff0c\u4e0d\u64c7\u8cb4\u8ce4\u3002\ufe12\u7570\u2f24\u5927\u8fe6\u8449584\u5f9e\u8ca7\uff0c\u7a7a\u2f63\u751f\u6c42\u51a8585\uff0c\u2f00\u4e00\u9806\u60b2\uff0c\u2f00\u4e00\u9806\u7121\u8acd\u7b49\u3002\ufe12  [40] Get the alms bowl and run! The Jingming jing586 says, Subh\u016bti obtained the sam\u0101dhi of freedom from grievances. Arriving at Vimalak\u012brti\u2019s house to beg food, he was rebuked and wanted to get his alms bowl and leave. Vimalak\u012brti said, \u201cTake your alms bowl and do not be afraid. If a manifestation of the Tath\u0101gata is questioned like this, will he, or will he not, be frightened?\u201d  \u81f4\u9262\u2f7d\u800c\u9003\u300e\u6de8\u540d\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u9808\u83e9\u63d0\u5f97\u7121\u8acd\u4e09\u6627\u3002\ufe12\u8a63587\u6de8\u540d\u5bb6\u4e5e\u98df\uff0c\u67c0588\u5475\uff0c\u6b32\u81f4\u9262\u2f7d\u800c\u53bb\u3002\ufe12\u6de8\u540d\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u53d6\u9262\uff0c\u52ff\u61fc\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u4f86\u6240\u4f5c\u5316\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u82e5\u4ee5\u662f\u8a70589\uff0c\u61fc\u5426?\u300d \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0584 Variant uses \u4e91 in place of \u4e16\t \u00a0585 \u5bcc\t \u00a0586 This is a reference to the Vimalak\u012brti-nirde\u015ba-s\u016btra, which was translated into Chinese multiple times. Only three of these have reached present times: Foshuo weimojie jing \u4f5b\u8aaa\u7dad\u6469\u8a70\u7d93 T14 n474, Weimojie suoshuo jing \u7dad\u6469\u8a70\u6240\u8aaa\u7d93 T14 n475, and Shuo wugoucheng jing \u8aaa\u7121\u57a2\u7a31\u7d93 T14 n476. Yichu\u2019s phrasing most closely matches the exchange between Vimalak\u012brti and Subh\u016bti (minus the preamble that frames the episode as a conversation between Subh\u016bti and the Buddha) in Weimojie suoshuo jing T14 n475, 540c13-15, the influential translation by Kum\u0101raj\u012bva: \u4e0d\u77e5\u4ee5\u4f55\u7b54\u3002\ufe12\u4fbf\u7f6e\u9262\u6b32\u51fa\u5176\u820d\u3002\ufe12\u7dad\u6469\u8a70\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u552f\u9808\u83e9\u63d0\u53d6\u9262\u52ff\u61fc\u3002\ufe12\u65bc\u610f\u4e91\u4f55\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u4f86\u6240\u4f5c\u5316\u2f08\u4eba\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u4ee5\u662f\u4e8b\u8a70\u3002\ufe12\u5be7\u6709\u61fc\u4e0d\u3002\ufe12The similar wording suggests the thesis that for this \u201cJingming jing,\u201d Yichu was referencing this translation by Kum\u0101raj\u012bva. In the next entry, he cites a \u201cWeimo jing,\u201d using the alternative, transliterated title of the scripture, but still seems to be choosing phrasing most closely associated with Kum\u0101raj\u012bva\u2019s translation. Could he be citing a translation that was lost? There seems little justification for citing the same text by two different names. Note also that in the chanding \u79aa\u5b9a subsection (p73 of Yanagida and Shiina, Zengaku tenseki s\u014dkan 6b) he cites an Wugoucheng jing \u7121\u57a2\u7a31\u7d93, which likely corresponds with T14 n476, Xuanzang\u2019s translation of the Vimalak\u012brti-nirde\u015ba-s\u016btra. He then goes on to cite \u201cJingming\u201d and \u201cWeimo jing,\u201d suggesting that he was indeed treating the different translations as different sources. Consulting Makita and Yamaji, Gisorokuj\u014d sakuin, we see that he cites \u201cWeimo jing\u201d some thirty times, \u201cWugoucheng jing\u201d twice (never \u201cShuo wugoucheng jing\u201d), \u201cJingming\u201d sixteen times, and \u201cJingming jing\u201d about thirty-six times. The latter two are probably equivalent, as he seems to often abbreviate titles. Whether or not his \u201cWeimo jing\u201d and \u201cJingming jing\u201d are distinct translations needs to be tested through the phrasing of his citations\u2013\u2013based on my work for the two entries here, both appear closely connected with T14 n475, Kum\u0101raj\u012bva\u2019s influential translation, but one could represent a translation that is no longer extant.\t \u00a0587 Variant has \u4ea0 over\u2f47\u65e5\t \u00a0588 1669 edition gives bei \u88ab.\t \u00a0  329\t \u00a0 [41] Extraordinary compassion. The Weimo[jie] jing590 says, The Great K\u0101\u015byapa followed [the way of] poverty and begging, abandoning power and wealth, and dwelling in the dharma of equality. Begging in response to these conditions, he arrived at neither great fortune nor little fortune. The [Vimalak\u012brti] sutra also records591 [the following]: Dawn was approaching. Vimalak\u012brti asked [the assembly], \u201cAre you coming for the Dharma or for food?\u201d He then transformed [himself] into a Bodhisattva in the realm of the Buddha of Accumulated Fragrance and took an alms bowl of fragrant rice, the aroma permeating all Vai\u015b\u0101li and fully satiating the assembly. He then came to humans and the humans all ate, collecting [as much food] as Mt. Sumeru. As in [this] example, [one\u2019s resources] do not run dry, [one] obtains fruits [of the Dharma], reaps benefits, and so forth. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0589 1669 edition adds \u6709: \u8a70\u6709\u61fc\u5426.\t \u00a0590 Yichu\u2019s phrasing most closely matches Kumaraj\u012bva\u2019s translation, where the cited material is found at T14 n475, 540a28-b11:  \u552f\u2f24\u5927\u8fe6\u8449\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u6148\u60b2\u2f3c\u5fc3\u2f7d\u800c\u4e0d\u80fd\u666e\u3002\ufe12\u6368\u8c6a\u5bcc\u5f9e\u8ca7\u4e5e\u3002\ufe12\u8fe6\u8449\u3002\ufe12\u4f4f\u5e73\u7b49\u6cd5\u61c9\u6b21\u2f8f\u884c\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u7232\u4e0d\u98df\u6545\u61c9\u2f8f\u884c\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u7232\u58de\u548c\u5408\u76f8\u6545\u61c9\u53d6\u63e3\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u7232\u4e0d\u53d7\u6545\u61c9\u53d7\u5f7c\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u7a7a\u805a\u60f3\u5165\u65bc\u805a\u843d\u3002\ufe12\u6240\u2f92\u898b\u2f8a\u8272\u8207\u76f2\u7b49\u3002\ufe12\u6240\u805e\u8072\u8207\u97ff\u7b49\u3002\ufe12\u6240\u55c5\u2fb9\u9999\u8207\u98a8\u7b49\u3002\ufe12\u6240\u98df\u5473\u4e0d\u5206\u5225\u3002\ufe12\u53d7\u8af8\u89f8\u5982\u667a\u8b49\u3002\ufe12\u77e5\u8af8\u6cd5\u5982\u5e7b\u76f8\u7121\u2f83\u81ea\u6027\u7121\u4ed6\u6027\u3002\ufe12\u672c\u2f83\u81ea\u4e0d\u7136\u4eca\u5247\u7121\u6ec5\u3002\ufe12\u8fe6\u8449\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u80fd\u4e0d\u6368\u516b\u90aa\u5165\u516b\u89e3\u8131\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u90aa\u76f8\u5165\u6b63\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u2f00\u4e00\u98df\u65bd\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u3002\ufe12\u4f9b\u990a\u8af8\u4f5b\u53ca\u8846\u8ce2\u8056\u3002\ufe12\u7136\u5f8c\u53ef\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5982\u662f\u98df\u8005\u975e\u6709\u7169\u60f1\u975e\u96e2\u7169\u60f1\u3002\ufe12\u975e\u5165\u5b9a\u610f\u975e\u8d77\u5b9a\u610f\u3002\ufe12\u975e\u4f4f\u4e16\u9593\u975e\u4f4f\u6d85\u69c3\u3002\ufe12\u5176\u6709\u65bd\u8005\u7121\u2f24\u5927\u798f \u7121\u2f29\u5c0f\u798f\u3002\ufe12\u201cO Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa, you have the mind of sympathy and compassion but are unable [to apply it] universally. You have abandoned the wealthy to beg from the poor.  \u201cK\u0101\u015byapa, while abiding in the Dharma of universal sameness, you should proceed in sequence in your begging.  \u201cIt is because of not eating that you should practice begging. It is because of the destruction of one\u2019s physical integrity that you should take that lump of food. It is because of not receiving that you should receive that food.  \u201cYou should enter a village with the idea that it is an empty aggregation.  12. \u201cThe forms you see are equivalent to [what] the blind [see]; the sounds you hear are equivalent to echoes; the fragrances you smell are equivalent to the wind; the flavors you eat should not be discriminated; your tactile sensations are like the realizations of wisdom; and you should understand that the dharmas are like phantasms. That which is without self-nature and without other-nature originally was not burning and will not become extinguished now.  13. \u201cK\u0101\u015byapa, if you are able to enter the eight emancipations without renouncing the eight perversions, using the characteristic of perversion to enter into the correct Dharma, and using a single meal to give to all, making offerings to the buddhas and the assembly of worthies and sages, only then should you eat.  \u201cTo eat in this fashion is neither to have the afflictions nor to transcend the afflictions, it is neither to enter into concentration nor to arise from concentration, it is neither to abide in the world nor to abide in nirvana.  \u201cWhere there is charity, there are neither great nor small blessings, \u2026\u201d John McRae, The Vimalak\u012brti Sutra, 97-98.\t \u00a0591 The following material is from the tenth chapter, which begins in Kum\u0101raj\u012bva\u2019s translation at T14 n475, 552a06. See especially cited phrasing in the passage running 552b27-c03.\t \u00a0  330\t \u00a0\u60b2\u2f3c\u5fc3\u4e0d\u666e\u300e\u7dad\u6469\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u2f24\u5927\u8fe6\u8449\u5f9e\u8ca7\u4e5e\uff0c\u6368\u8c6a\u51a8\uff0c\u4f4f\u5e73\u7b49\u6cd5\uff0c\u61c9\u6b21\u7b2c\u4e5e\uff0c\u4e43\u81f3\u7121\u2f24\u5927\u798f592\u2f29\u5c0f\u798f\u7b49\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u7d93\u4e91\uff1a\u2f47\u65e5\u6642\u6b32\u81f3\uff0c\u6de8\u540d\u66f0\uff1a\u7232\u6cd5\u4f86\uff0c\u7232\u98df\u4f86\ufe16\uff1f\u4e43\u5316\u2f00\u4e00\u83e9\u85a9\u65bc\u2fb9\u9999\u7a4d\u4f5b\u570b\uff0c\u53d6\u2f00\u4e00\u9262\u2fb9\u9999\u98ef\uff0c\u666e\u85b0\u6bd7\u8036\uff0c\u6089\u98fd\u8846\u6703\uff0c\u4e43\u81f3\u2f08\u4eba\u2f08\u4eba\u7686\u98df\uff0c\u640f\u82e5\u9808\u5f4c\u3002\ufe12\u7336\u6545\u4e0d[\u2f4d\u6b79+\u65af]593\uff0c\u5f97\u679c\uff0c\u7372\u5229\u7b49\u3002\ufe12  [42] A\u1e45kura obtains food. The Jiuliu jing594 says, An elder (A\u1e45kura) and five hundred people entered the [lands near] the sea and their food and drink all ran out. Coming to the base of a tree, [A\u1e45kura] saw a man and questioned him. The man raised his right hand and produced food. The company was satiated, all obtaining food, treasure, lodging, karmic blessings, etc. \u9ce9\u7559\u9047\u98df\u300e\u9ce9\u7559\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u9577\u8005\u8207\u4e94\u767e\u2f08\u4eba\u5165\u6d77\uff0c\u5176\u98df\u98f2\u7686\u76e1\u3002\ufe12\u81f3\u2f00\u4e00\u6a39\u4e0b\u2f92\u898b\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u554f\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u5373\u8209\u53f3\u2f3f\u624b\uff0c\u51fa\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u8846\u98fd\u2f9c\u8db3\uff0c\u517c\u5f97\u98df\u3001\ufe11\u5bf3\u3001\ufe11\u5bbf\u3001\ufe11\u696d\u798f\u5831\u7b49\u3002\ufe12  [43] The five harms of overeating. The Chuyao jing595 says, Excess in eating and drinking has five harms: 1) much stool, 2) much urine, 3) troubled sleep, 4) a heavy body, and 5) many ailments and indigestion. Furthermore, the Zhi lun596 says, Gav\u0101\u1e43pati vomited, picked up [the vomited food and] ate [it]. Karma does not follow (or correspond with) wisdom. \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0592 The 1669 edition inserts a second \u7121: \u7121\u2f24\u5927\u798f, \u7121\u2f29\u5c0f\u798f\u7b49.\t \u00a0593 Variant C05878 in DCCV. S\u00ec, meaning \u6b7b or \u76e1, or s\u012b, a variant of \u6f8c, to exhaust, to drain dry.\t \u00a0594 From Foshuo ajiuliu jing \u4f5b\u8aac\u963f\u9ce9\u7559\u7d93, T14 n529, a short sutra in a single fascicle, whose translator is not known. Note also Fujimoto, \u201cA\u1e45kura-Petavatthu \u3068\u300e\u4ecf\u8aac\u963f\u9ce9\u7559\u7d4c\u300f, which very concisely documents a set of parallels between the Chinese text and a narrative from a set of ghost stories in the Pali literature, suggesting that these are overlapping narratives representing slightly different tellings of the same story. \t \u00a0595 Dharmap\u0101da, Sutra of the Appearance of Light, T4 n212, 655c11-15. This comes from a passage discussing why Buddhists uphold precepts associated with eating. \t \u00a0596 Dazhidu lun, T25 n1509, 251b01-02: \u5982\u618d\u68b5\u6ce2\u63d0\u6bd4\u4e18\u3002\ufe12\u96d6\u5f97\u963f\u7f85\u6f22\u3002\ufe12\u2f83\u81ea\u98df\u5410\u2f7d\u800c\u66f4\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u696d\u4e0d\u96a8\u667a\u6167\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0  331\t \u00a0\u98df\u591a\u4e94\u5931\u300e\u51fa\u66dc\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u98df\u98f2\u904e\u591a\uff0c\u7576\u6709\u4e94\u5931\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u2f24\u5927\u4fbf\u591a\u3001\ufe11\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f29\u5c0f\u4fbf\u591a\u3001\ufe11\u4e09\u9952\u7761\u3001\ufe11\u56db\u8eab\u91cd\u3001\ufe11\u4e94\u591a\u60a3\uff0c\u98df\u4e0d\u6d88\u5316\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u300e\u667a\u8ad6\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u618d597\u68b5\u6ce2\u63d0\u5410\u2f7d\u800c\u53d6\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u696d\u4e0d\u96a8\u667a\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12  [44] [Approaches to] food differ. The Hongming598 says, Daoists do not eat (i.e., they fast) and [they] permit the partaking of alcohol and meat. Why is it that the Buddhist teachings are opposite this? The answer is that the \"Five Thousand [Words]\" (i.e., the Laozi) has no discussion of fasting from grain, and the Seven Confucian Classics599 lack techniques for omitting grain [from one's diet]. [The Hongming ji touches on] four foods600 and that is all.  \u98df\u6709\u4e0d\u540c\u300e\u5f18\u660e\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u9053\u2fa8\u9580\u4e0d\u98df\uff0c\u8a31\u98df\u9152\u2f81\u8089\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u6559\u8fd4\u662f\uff0c\u4f55\u4e5f\ufe16\uff1f\u8345\u66f0\uff1a\u300e\u4e94\u5343\u300f\u7121\u8f9f\u7a40\u4e4b\u8ac7\u3001\ufe11\u300c\u4e03\u5178\u300d\u7d55\u2f4c\u6b62\u7cae\u4e4b\u8853\uff0c\u56db\u98df\u2f7d\u800c\u4f4f\u3002\ufe12  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0597 Variant has \u53f3 over \u518b on right\t \u00a0598 Hongming ji \u5f18\u660e\u96c6, T52 n2102, by Sengyou \u50e7\u7950, which addresses points of disagreement between Buddhist and Daoist teachings. The cited content is at T52 n2102, 6a12-21: \u554f\u66f0\u3002\ufe12\u7232\u9053\u8005\u6216\u8f9f\u7a40\u4e0d\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u2f7d\u800c\u98ee\u9152\u5556\u2f81\u8089\u3002\ufe12\u4ea6\u4e91\u2f7c\u8001\u6c0f\u4e4b\u8853\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u7136\u4f5b\u9053\u4ee5\u9152\u2f81\u8089\u7232\u4e0a\u8aa1\u3002\ufe12\u2f7d\u800c\u53cd\u98df\u7a40\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u5176\u4e56\u7570\u4e4e\u3002\ufe12\u725f\u2f26\u5b50\u66f0\u3002\ufe12\u8846\u9053\u53e2\u6b98\u51e1\u6709\u4e5d\u2f17\u5341\u516d\u7a2e\u3002\ufe12\u6fb9\u6cca\u7121\u7232\u83ab\u5c1a\u65bc\u4f5b\u3002\ufe12\u543e\u89c0\u2f7c\u8001\u6c0f\u4e0a\u4e0b\u4e4b\u7bc7\u3002\ufe12\u805e\u5176\u7981\u4e94\u5473\u4e4b\u6212\u3002\ufe12\u672a\u89a9\u5176\u7d76\u4e94\u7a40\u4e4b\u8a9e\u3002\ufe12\u8056\u2f08\u4eba\u5236\u4e03\u5178\u4e4b\u2f42\u6587\u3002\ufe12\u7121\u2f4c\u6b62\u7ce7\u4e4b\u8853\u3002\ufe12\u2f7c\u8001\u2f26\u5b50\u8457\u4e94\u5343\u2f42\u6587\u3002\ufe12\u7121\u8f9f\u7a40\u4e4b\u4e8b\u3002\ufe12\u8056\u2f08\u4eba\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u7a40\u8005\u667a\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u8349\u8005\u7661\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u2f81\u8089\u8005\u608d\u3002\ufe12\u98df\u6c23\u8005\u58fd\u3002\ufe12\u4e16\u2f08\u4eba\u4e0d\u9054\u5176\u4e8b\u3002\ufe12\u2f92\u898b\u516d\u79bd\u9589\u6c23\u4e0d\u606f\u79cb\u51ac\u4e0d\u98df\u6b32\u52b9\u2f7d\u800c\u7232\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u4e0d\u77e5\u7269\u985e\u5404\u2f83\u81ea\u6709\u6027\u3002\ufe12\u7336\u7920\u2f6f\u77f3\u53d6\u9435\u4e0d\u80fd\u79fb\u6beb\u2f51\u6bdb\u77e3 The last comment in the text of Yichu\u2019s entry may be his own, as neither the Hongming ji nor its continuation by Daoxuan, the Guang hongming ji \u5ee3\u5f18\u660e\u96c6, mentions the doctrine of four foods, if my search results are accurate. Yichu\u2019s paraphrasing is not accurate to the source above and is not fully clear, especially in light of Daoist and Confucian texts lacking a doctrine of four foods, which is a Buddhist concept, at least in name (I searched Chinese Text Project and SS). Thus my translation here is tentative.\t \u00a0599 The Lunyu (Analects), Xiaojing (Classic of Filial Piety), Shijing (Book of Songs), Shujing (Book of Documents), Liji (Book of Rites), Yijing (Book of Changes), and the Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals).\t \u00a0600 The four foods mentioned here may refer to grains, greens, meat, and qi. See the Chinese text cited in the note above and also entry #19.\t \u00a0  332\t \u00a0[45] Nirvana of not obtaining. The Bore lun601 says, Bhik\u1e63u Losaka[-ti\u1e63ya602] was a great arhat. [His] merit little and [his] conditions exhausted, he begged food for seven days without obtaining [any], looked upon the Unconditioned, and then entered nirvana.  \u4e0d\u7372\u6d85\u69c3\u300e\u822c\u82e5\u8ad6\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u7f85\u983b\u6bd4\u4e18\uff0c\u662f\u2f24\u5927\u7f85\u6f22\u3002\ufe12\u798f\u5c11\u7de3\u76e1\uff0c\u4e03\u2f47\u65e5\u4e5e\u98df\u4e0d\u5f97\uff0c\u89c0\u7121\u7de3\u8005\uff0c\u4e43\u5165\u6d85\u69c3\u3002\ufe12  [46] The seven kinds of conditions603 [for retaining the dharma as a tonsured Buddhist]. The Shanjie jing604 records [them as follows]: 1) giving up ornamentation (i.e., beautification) of the body; 2) shaving the head and facial hair; 3) donning a \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0601 This would usually refer to the Jin\u2019gang bore lun \u2fa6\u91d1\u525b\u822c\u82e5\u8ad6 T25 n1510 or the Jin\u2019gang bore boluomi jing lun \u2fa6\u91d1\u525b\u822c\u82e5\u6ce2\u7f85\u871c\u7d93\u8ad6 T25 n1511. I do not, however, see evidence that the anecdote appears in either of these two texts. See next note.\t \u00a0602 Hirakawa, Chinese-Sanskrit Dictionary: \u7f85\u983b\u73e0. This three-character name leads to the following passage of the Dazhidu lun, T25 n1509, 172c07-10, which accords with Yichu\u2019s citation: \u5982\u7f85\u983b\u73e0\u6bd4\u4e18\u3002\ufe12\u96d6\u5f97\u963f\u7f85\u6f22\u9053\u4e5e\u98df\u4e03\u2f47\u65e5\u4e0d\u5f97\u7a7a\u9262\u2f7d\u800c\u9084\u3002\ufe12\u5f8c\u4ee5\u79aa\u5b9a\u2f55\u706b\u2f83\u81ea\u71d2\u5176\u8eab\u2f7d\u800c\u822c\u6d85\u69c3\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u662f\u6545\u77e5\u3002\ufe12\u975e\u4f46\u798f\u5fb3\u2f12\u529b\u6545\u5f97\u9053\u3002\ufe12\u6b32\u6210\u4f5b\u9053\u8981\u9808\u61c3\u2f24\u5927\u7cbe\u9032\u3002\ufe12Another passage of the same scripture, Dazhidu lun T25 n1509, 278c02-13, records the story in more detail, giving the name with a different character that has a similar pronunciation: \u5982\u820d\u5229\u5f17\u5f1f\u2f26\u5b50\u7f85\u983b\u5468\u6bd4\u4e18\u3002\ufe12\u6301\u6212\u7cbe\u9032\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u516d\u2f47\u65e5\u2f7d\u800c\u4e0d\u80fd\u5f97\u3002\ufe12\u4e43\u81f3\u4e03\u2f47\u65e5\u547d\u5728\u4e0d\u4e45\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u540c\u9053\u8005\u4e5e\u98df\u6301\u8207\u3002\ufe12\u2fc3\u9ce5\u5373\u6301\u53bb\u3002\ufe12\u6642\u820d\u5229\u5f17\u8a9e\u2f6c\u76ee\u63f5\u9023\u3002\ufe12\u6c5d\u2f24\u5927\u795e\u2f12\u529b\u5b88\u8b77\u6b64\u98df\u4ee4\u5f7c\u5f97\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u5373\u6642\u2f6c\u76ee\u9023\u6301\u98df\u5f80\u8207\u3002\ufe12\u59cb\u6b32\u5411\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u8b8a\u6210\u7232\u6ce5\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u820d\u5229\u5f17\u4e5e\u98df\u6301\u8207\u2f7d\u800c\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u2f83\u81ea\u5408\u3002\ufe12\u6700\u5f8c\u4f5b\u4f86\u6301\u98df\u8207\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u4f5b\u798f\u5fb3\u7121\u91cf\u56e0\u7e01\u6545\u4ee4\u5f7c\u5f97\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u6bd4\u4e18\u98df\u5df2\u3002\ufe12\u2f3c\u5fc3\u2f63\u751f\u6b61\u559c\u500d\u52a0\u4fe1\u656c\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u544a\u6bd4\u4e18\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u7232\u4e4b\u6cd5\u7686\u662f\u82e6\u76f8\u7232\u8aac\u56db\u8ae6\u3002\ufe12\u5373\u6642\u6bd4\u4e18\u6f0f\u76e1\u610f\u89e3\u3002\ufe12\u5f97\u963f\u7f85\u6f22\u9053\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u8584\u798f\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u7f6a\u751a\u6b64\u8005\u4f5b\u4e0d\u80fd\u6551\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0603 \u4e03\u7a2e\u4e4b\u7de3 etc. x DDB, though \u4e03\u7de3 points to Hirakawa p19, where it and \u4e03\u7a2e\u56e0\u7de3 are listed with a Skt equiv: saptabhi\u1e25\u2026k\u0101ra\u1e47ai\u1e25. The short form makes many appearances in the canon, while the longer formulae are few, but the sense found here does not seem common. For the meaning cited by Yichu, I find neither formula in the Ming-period encyclopedia of Buddhist categories, the Daming sanzang fashu \u2f24\u5927\u660e\u4e09\u85cf\u6cd5\u6578, (Yongle beizang) P181-183 n1615.\t \u00a0604 Taish\u014d contains two editions of this sutra, by the same translator and bearing the same title: Pusa shanjie jing \u83e9\u85a9\u5584\u6212\u7d93, T30 n1582 and n1583. The cited content is in T30 n1582, 986b03-09: \u662f\u540d\u5a01\u5100\u82e6\u3002\ufe12\u651d\u6cd5\u82e6\u8005\u6709\u4e03\u7a2e\u2f00\u4e00\u8005\u8eab\u6368\u98fe\u597d\u3002\ufe12\u2f06\u4e8c\u8005\u5243\u9664\u9b1a\u9aee\u3002\ufe12\u4e09\u8005\u8457\u5272\u622a\u8863\u3002\ufe12\u56db\u8005\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u4e16\u4e8b\u4e0d\u5f97\u2f83\u81ea\u5728\u547d\u5c6c\u65bc\u4ed6\u3002\ufe12\u4e94\u8005\u4e5e\u6c42\u6d3b\u547d\u3002\ufe12\u516d\u8005\u9060\u96e2\u2f63\u751f\u696d\u5c11\u6b32\u77e5\u2f9c\u8db3\u3002\ufe12\u4e03\u8005\u6368\u96e2\u89aa\u65cf\u4e94\u6b32\u4e4b\u6a02\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u540d\u651d\u6cd5\u82e6\u3002\ufe12\u4e5e\u6c42\u82e6\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u4f9b\u8eab\u4e4b\u7269\u8863\u670d\u98ee\u98df\u623f\u820d\u81e5\u5177\u75c5\u75e9\u91ab\u85e5\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u4ef0\u4ed6\u4e0d\u5f97\u4e0d\u5acc\u5f97\u6642\u77e5\u2f9c\u8db3\u3002\ufe12This passage helps clarify that these are conditions suffered by tonsured Buddhists in order to have the opportunity to uphold the Dharma.\t \u00a0  333\t \u00a0pieced-together robe; 4) not obtaining ease; 5) [begging to] make a living; 6) distancing [oneself from] particularizing karma and having few desires; and 7) abandoning family [relations] and begging for food. \u4e03\u7a2e\u4e4b\u7de3\u300e\u5584\u6212\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u6368\u8eab\u98fe\u597d\u3001\ufe11\u2f06\u4e8c\u5243\u9b1a\u9aee\u3001\ufe11\u4e09\u8457\u5272\u622a\u8863\u3001\ufe11\u56db\u4e0d\u5f97\u2f83\u81ea\u5728\u3001\ufe11\u4e94\u6d3b\u547d\u3001\ufe11\u516d\u96e2\u2f63\u751f\u696d\uff0c\u5c11\u6b32\u3001\ufe11\u4e03\u6368\u96e2\u89aa\u65cf\uff0c\u4e5e\u98df\u3002\ufe12  [47] Fear of encountering dogs. The Zhi lun605 says, In begging for food, a practitioner came to fear dogs and beat them with a stick, saying, \u201cI do not obtain food, [even though] I multiply my skillful means. How can you merely lie there, lethargic in your guarding?\u201d606 \u9047\u72d7\u4e4b\u6016\u300e\u667a\u8ad6\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u9053\u2f08\u4eba\u4e5e\u98df\uff0c\u9047\u72d7\u4e4b\u6016\uff0c\u53c8\u4ee5\u6259\u6253\uff0c\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u6211\u7a2e\u7a2e\u2f45\u65b9\u4fbf\uff0c\u4e0d\u5f97\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u6c5d\u4f55\u7a7a\u81e5607\u6212\u6175\ufe16\uff1f\u300d  [48] Merit for seven lifetimes. The thirteenth fascicle of the Zhong\u2019ahan [jing] records608 [as follows]: Aniruddha said, \u201cWhen in a previous life I was in a society suffering starvation, locust [infestations], drought, and failing crops, a pratyekabuddha entered the walled city to beg food and came out with an empty alms bowl. I, as a fuelwood carrier, saw him and invited him to follow me back home, [where I] divided my own food and gave it to him. [This \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0605 Dazhidu lun T25 n1509, 658a23-27: \u5982\u53d7\u4e5e\u98df\u9053\u2f08\u4eba\u3002\ufe12\u81f3\u2f00\u4e00\u805a\u843d\u5f9e\u2f00\u4e00\u5bb6\u81f3\u2f00\u4e00\u5bb6\u4e5e\u98df\u4e0d\u5f97\u3002\ufe12\u2f92\u898b\u2f00\u4e00\u9913\u72d7\u98e2\u81e5\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u6756\u6253\u4e4b\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u6c5d\u755c\u2f63\u751f\u7121\u667a\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u7a2e\u7a2e\u56e0\u7e01\u5bb6\u5bb6\u6c42\u98df\u5c1a\u4e0d\u80fd\u5f97\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u6cc1\u6c5d\u81e5\u2f7d\u800c\u671b\u5f97\u3002\ufe12\u9808\u83e9\u63d0\u554f\u4e16\u5c0a\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u662f\u4f9b\u990a\u8af8\u4f5b\u7b49. This analogy does not, however, contain the reference to fear with which Yichu frames the entry. The surrounding discussion, not quoted here, suggests that the analogy was in illustration of how one can cultivate merit yet still encounter hardships and frustrations.\t \u00a0606 This last line may have some humorous punning, as the language also suggests a different reading appropriate for how some people may have derogatorily described monks: \u201clying around and lax in observing precepts.\u201d\t \u00a0607 Variant has \u2f18\u535c on right\t \u00a0608 See T1 n26 fasc.13, paragraphs beginning 508c19. Here, Aniruddha tells how in a past life he shared some food during a time of famine with a pratyekabuddha who was unable to beg food from the hungered masses. The merit of the act multiplied exponentially, sending him through a series of favorable births as heavenly kings, then as human kings, and finally as one able to leave home and learn the Way. (DDB points to a paper by An\u0101layo that may discuss the textual history of this Middle Agama.)\t \u00a0  334\t \u00a0act] aroused the sympathy of the heavenly realm and I returned to the human realm seven times, receiving rich [karmic] results, even to the extent that I obtained the Way.\u201d \u4e03\u2f63\u751f\u4e4b\u798f\u300e\u4e2d\u963f\u542b\u300f\u2f17\u5341\u4e09\u4e91\uff1a\u90a3\u5f8b\u66f0\uff1a\u6211\u65bc\u5f80\u6614\u6642\uff0c\u4e16\u98e2\u9913\u3001\ufe11\u8757\u3001\ufe11\u65f1\u3001\ufe11\u4e0d\u719f\uff0c\u6709\u7368\u89ba\u5165\u57ce\u4e5e\u98df\uff0c\u7a7a\u9262\u2f7d\u800c\u51fa\u3002\ufe12\u6211\u7232\u6a90\u85aa\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u2f92\u898b\u4fbf\u8acb\u6b78\uff0c\u5206\u2f83\u81ea\u98df\u65bd\uff0c\u611f\u5929\u4e0a\uff0c\u2f08\u4eba\u9593\u4e03\u8fd4\uff0c\u53d7\u2f24\u5927\u51a8\u679c\uff0c\u81f3\u4ee4\u5f97\u9053\u3002\ufe12  [49] Obtaining the Way because of food. The Zhi[du] lun609 records [the following]: Bhik\u1e63u Losaka[-ti\u1e63ya], a disciple of \u015a\u0101riputra, upheld the precepts and exerted himself in practice, [but] for six days he begged for food and did not obtain any, [such that] on the seventh day his life was close to its end. Food given by fellows on the path was stolen by crows. Maudgaly\u0101yana (one of the ten major disciples of the Buddha) used supernormal powers to give food, which transformed into mud. [When] \u015a\u0101riputra gave [him] food, his mouth closed on its own. Only when the Buddha gave [him] food, did he arouse the [necessary] resolve and obtain the fruits [of awakening]. \u56e0\u98df\u5f97\u9053\u300e\u667a\u8ad6\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u820e\u5229\u5f1f\u2f26\u5b50\u7f85\u983b\u6bd4\u4e18\u6301\u6212\u7cbe\u9032\uff0c\u516d\u2f47\u65e5\u4e5e\u98df\u4e0d\u5f97\uff0c\u81f3\u4e03\u2f47\u65e5\u547d\u5728\u4e0d\u4e46610\u3002\ufe12\u540c\u9053\u8207\u98df\u88ab\u70cf\u929c611\u53bb\u3002\ufe12\u2f6c\u76ee\u9023\u795e\u2f12\u529b\u8207\u98df \uff0c \u5316\u7232\u6ce5\u3002\ufe12\u820d\u5229\u8207\u98df\uff0c\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u5373\u2f83\u81ea\u9589\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u8207\u98df\uff0c\u2f45\u65b9\u5f97\u767c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u5f97\u679c\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12  [50] Eating clay for seven days. The Baiyuan jing (Avad\u0101na\u015bataka) says,612 There was a bhik\u1e63u (Leku\u00f1cika \u68a8\u8ecd\u2f40\u652f) who from birth was short of food. Whether from various \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0609 Dazhidu lun T25 n1509, 278c02-13. For the text, see note above under \u201cNirvana of not attaining \u4e0d\u7372\u6d85\u69c3.\u201d\t \u00a0610 \u4e45\t \u00a0611 Character appears to be xi\u00e1n, given here. The combination \u70cf\u929c appears in classical texts in connection with a story about an official (or envoy?) whose meat is stolen by a crow when he goes to eat by the side of the road. Not in DDB. The next entry also uses wuxian, in the context of food being stolen by animals.\t \u00a0612 T4 n200, 251c01-252b16, case number 94 in the tenth fascicle. This is a story about the conditions from a past life that caused a bhik\u1e63u to be chronically short of food his entire life, while nonetheless   335\t \u00a0people\u2019s giving it or from begging, he would not receive [food]. In some cases he forgot; in others it was stolen by dogs or crows. Among the causes [for this state of affairs] was that he had once denied his mother food, [leading to] seven days of karmic retribution, wherein he ate clay and died. \u98df\u6c99\u4e03\u2f47\u65e5\u300e\u767e\u7de3\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6709\u6bd4\u4e18\u2f63\u751f\u4fbf\u95d5\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u8af8\u2f08\u4eba\u8207\uff0c\u4e5e\uff0c\u4ea6\u4e0d\u5f97\u3002\ufe12\u6216\u5fd8\uff0c\u6216\u9047\u72d7\u596a\u3001\ufe11\u70cf\u929c\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u2f83\u81ea\u56e0\u4e2d\uff0c\u66fe\u4e0d\u8207\u6bcd\u98df\uff0c\u4e03\u2f47\u65e5\u611f\u679c\uff0c\u98df\u6c99\u2f7d\u800c\u6b7b\u3002\ufe12  [51] To overcome painful karma. The Benxing jing613 says, The Buddha practiced asceticism for six years, mastering the various non-Buddhist methods [of self-cultivation]. Whether eating one meal per day, or one meal per seven days, or one sesame seed and one grain of wheat, he overcame the various practices of the non-Buddhists and furthermore came to the point of fruition of the Way, which he obtained upon eating three dou and six sheng (three and a half bushels) of milk porridge. This shows that it was not due to making himself hungry that he completed the path [to awakening]. [The Buddha\u2019s] having614 crossed the river [near] \u015a\u0101keta615, a well-accomplished non-Buddhist [practitioner] asked the Buddha, \u201cRelying on what should all sentient beings reside?\u201d The Buddha said to rely on food for residing, explained the meaning of \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0having an opportunity to learn the Way directly from the Buddha. He had, in a previous life, made regular offerings to a buddha and sa\u1e43gha, until his father died. In anger over his mother choosing to distribute more of their food to the buddha and retinue, he locked her up until she starved to death. His death as a hungry bhik\u1e63u mirrored the pattern of suffering that he inflicted on his mother.\t \u00a0613 Abbr. of Fo benxingji jing \u4f5b\u672c\u2f8f\u884c\u96c6\u7d93, Skt. Abhini\u1e63krama\u1e47a-s\u016btra, Sutra of the Collection of the Original Acts of the Buddha (DDB). T3 n190. The story of Siddh\u0101rtha eating rice porridge is in fascicle 25, p.771b02-772b16. In the Fo benxingji jing, I do not find the anecdote of a non-Buddhist questioning the Buddha, but it does appears in various other sources, such as T1 n12 227c02 (\u4f5b\u8aac\u2f24\u5927\u96c6\u6cd5\u2fa8\u9580\u7d93), T3 n159 314b04 (\u2f24\u5927\u4e58\u672c\u2f63\u751f\u2f3c\u5fc3\u5730\u89c0\u7d93) and T26 n1536 (\u963f\u6bd8\u9054\u78e8\u96c6\u7570\u2fa8\u9580\u2f9c\u8db3\u8ad6), beginning p.367b27, in a section titled \u96c6\u7570\u2fa8\u9580\u2f9c\u8db3\u8ad6\u2f00\u4e00\u6cd5\u54c1\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c. The more common wording is \u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u7686\u4f9d\u98df\u4f4f and \u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u6709\u60c5\u7686\u4f9d\u98df\u4f4f.\t \u00a0614 Reading \u5df3 as \u5df2.\t \u00a0615 Pali S\u0101keta. Equivalent to Suoqi \u5a11\u7947, a city in the Buddha\u2019s time. See Mochizuki 1-6; 2134b, which lists quite a number of synonyms. This city is known elsewhere in Chinese texts as Shaqi \u6c99\u5947 and was located in the eastern part of the Kushan empire (Silk Road Seattle online project, Wei lue notes, Kingdom of Juli, n.7.5\u2014accessed 26 May 2013). The compound \u5a11\u7947 only appears in the Za ahan jing T2 n99, 145c18 and 146a22, while Poqi \u5a46\u7947 has many more occurrences in the Buddhist canon. Yichu\u2019s use of the latter compound is in accord with other textual evidence, despite the apparent phonetic mismatch.\t \u00a0  336\t \u00a0the four foods and so forth, whereupon [the practitioner] gave rise to firm conviction and obtained passage [out of delusion].616 \u7232\u4f0f\u82e6\u696d\u300e\u672c\u2f8f\u884c\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u4f5b\u516d\u5e74\u82e6\u2f8f\u884c\uff0c\u4f0f\u8af8\u5916\u9053\u3002\ufe12\u6216\u2f00\u4e00\u2f47\u65e5\u2f00\u4e00\u98df\uff0c\u6216\u4e03\u2f47\u65e5\u2f00\u4e00\u98df\uff0c\u6216\u2f00\u4e00\u9ebb\u2f00\u4e00\u2fc6\u9ea5\uff0c\u4f0f\u8af8\u2f8f\u884c\u5916\u9053\uff0c\u53c8\u9053\u679c\u5c07\u6210\uff0c\u98df\u4e09\u2f43\u6597617\u516d\u5347618\u4e73\u7cdc\u5f97\u9053\u3002\ufe12\u8868\u975e\u56e0\u2f83\u81ea\u9913\u53c8\u6210\u9053\u3002\ufe12\u5df3\u5ea6\u5a46\u7947\u6cb3\uff0c\u6709\u570e619\u6eff\u5916\u9053\u554f\u4f5b\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u6709\u60c5\u7576\u4f9d\u4f55\u4f4f\ufe16\uff1f\u300d\u4f5b\u2f94\u8a00\u7576\u4f9d\u98df\u4f4f\uff0c\u8aac\u56db\u98df\u7fa9\u7b49\uff0c\u5f7c\u4fbf\u2f63\u751f\u4fe1\u5f97\u5ea6\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12  [52] N\u0101gakany\u0101 serves food. The Yaoji620 says, For the entertainment of snakes, N\u0101gakany\u0101 (daughter of the dragon king) was walking about in the wild [when she encountered] humans who wanted to kill her. A person saved her. Entering the [dragon king\u2019s] palace, she invited her savior to a meal, saying, \u201cThis food has items that digest in seven days and those that digest for an entire lifetime. I also present you with a continually renewed segment of gold, which upon selling persists as of old,\u201d and so forth. \u9f8d\u5973\u8a2d\u98df\u300e\u8981\u96c6\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u9f8d\u5973\u7232\u86c7621\u6232\uff0c\u2f8f\u884c\u65bc\u91ce\uff0c\u88ab622\u2f08\u4eba\u6b32\u6bba\u3002\ufe12\u6709\u2f08\u4eba\u6551\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u5165\u5bae\u8acb\u6551\u8005\u8a2d\u98df\uff0c\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u6b64\u98df\u6709\u4e03\u2f47\u65e5\u6d88\u8005\uff0c\u6709\u76e1\u2f63\u751f\u6d88\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u8207\u7e8c\u2f63\u751f\u2fa6\u91d1\u622a\uff0c\u8ce3\u7e8c\u2f63\u751f\u5e38\u5982\u820a\u7b49\u3002\ufe12  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0616 Hirakawa p. 131 gives \u0101h\u0101ra-sthiti...\"food\/nutriment\"+\"continuance\/abiding\/duration.\" Does this mean that food sustains us during our impermanent sojourn in the world? Connecting this with the doctrine of Four Foods, the Buddha seems to mean that all sentient existence is, one way or another, sustained by nourishment of some kind. But why would the practitioner pose this as a significant question? And why was the Buddha's answer so significant?\t \u00a0617 Variant \u2f96\u8c46+\u2f43\u6597\t \u00a0618 Variant. Note that \u5347 sh\u0113ng was also read do\u01d4 and used as a variant of \u2f43\u6597. Reading two different characters here as dou seems awkward, but does a reading of sheng makes sense, in terms of the measures?\t \u00a0619 Variant of \u5713\t \u00a0620 As noted above, this may point to the Zhu fo yaoji lun \u8af8\u4f5b\u8981\u96c6\u8ad6, aka Zhu fo yaoji jing \u8af8\u4f5b\u8981\u96c6\u7d93, T17 n810. In this text, however, I do not find the cited story, which appears rather in the Mohe sengqi l\u00fc \u6469\u8a36\u50e7\u7947\u5f8b, T22 n1425, 488c07-29, and in other sources. \t \u00a0621 Variant \u2f8d\u866b+\u4e5f\t \u00a0622 Variant uses \u793bin place of\u8864\t \u00a0  337\t \u00a0[53] The Buddha eats milk porridge. The Benxing jing623 says, The Buddha's six years [of ascetic practices] completed, upon the arrival of spring in the second month and on the sixteenth day he thought to himself, \u201cI need good food. After eating624 I will attain the fruit of awakening.\u201d At the time there was a low-level god who informed the favorably-born second daughter of the village head, ordering her to make delicious food. The girl then took milk from a thousand cows, mixing it together. When she took milk and simmered porridge, the milk porridge manifested a sign, leaping out of the pot by several chi, giving the appearance of ten thousand words\u2013\u2013virtuous words. She offered it to him in a golden alms bowl; the Buddha ate and attained completion of the Way. \u4f5b\u98df\u4e73\u7cdc\u300e\u672c\u2f8f\u884c\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u4f5b\u516d\u5e74\u65e2\u6eff\uff0c\u81f3\u6625\u2f06\u4e8c\u2f49\u6708\u2f17\u5341\u516d\u2f47\u65e5\u6642\uff0c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u2f83\u81ea\u601d\u60df\u300c\u6211\u9808\u597d\u98df\uff0c\u98df\u5df3\u2f7d\u800c\u8b49\u4f5b\u679c\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u6642\u6709\u5929\u2f26\u5b50\uff0c\u544a\u5584\u2f63\u751f\u6751\u4e3b\u2f06\u4e8c\u5973\uff0c\u4ee4\u4f5c\u7f8e625\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5973\u4e43\u53d6\u5343\u2f5c\u725b\u4e73\uff0c\u4e92626\u98f2\u3002\ufe12\u53d6\u4e73\u716e\u7cdc\u6642\uff0c\u4e73\u7cdc\u73fe\u76f8\uff0c\u8e0a\u51fa\u2fbc\u9ad8\u6578\u5c3a\uff0c\u73fe\u842c\u5b57\u5fb7\u5b57\u76f8\u3002\ufe12\u2fa6\u91d1627\u9262\u737b\u4e4b\uff0c\u4f5b\u98df\u6210\u9053\u77e3\u3002\ufe12  [54] That which [we] eat has differences. The Fayuan628 says, [Those beings that] eat clay lack forever a [discriminating] mind. [Those that] eat grain have much wisdom. [Those that] eat meat have much anger. [Those that] eat grass have much strength. [Those that] eat mulberry [spin] silk. [Those that] eat qi are long lived. [Those who] do not eat do not die. [The Fayuan zhulin says] also629 that the offering of food reaps the five merits, namely [good] \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0623 As noted above, for this episode see the Fo benxingji jing T3 n190 771b02-772b16.\t \u00a0624 Reading \u5df3 as \u5df2.\t \u00a0625 Variant \u2f7a\u7f8a over \u2f55\u706b\t \u00a0626 Near matches for the variant are listed in the DCCV under both \u4e92 and \u7259.\t \u00a0627 Variants in the DCCV suggest \u2fa6\u91d1, though I did not find a perfect match.\t \u00a0628 Fayuan zhulin \u6cd5\u82d1\u73e0\u6797, T53 n2122, 530b23-c04. The content Yichu cites comes from a passage that quotes the Sou shen ji \u641c\u795e\u8a18 by Gan Bao \u2f32\u5e72\u5bf6 (?-336 CE) of the Jin dynasty (265-420 CE), a collection of tales and hearsay regarding the supernatural. Note the English translation by DeWoskin and Crump, In Search of the Supernatural.\t \u00a0629 See Fayuan zhulin, T53 n2122, 611b-c12. \t \u00a0  338\t \u00a0appearance, strength, long life, joy, and [the ability to] distinguish purity and ease. Therefore, [food offering] allows one to obtain the five constants630.  \u6240\u98df\u6709\u7570\u300e\u6cd5\u82d1\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u98df\u2f1f\u571f\uff0c\u7121\u2f3c\u5fc3\u4e0d\u606f\uff0c\u98df\u6996\u591a\u667a\uff0c\u98df\u2f81\u8089\u591a\u55d4\uff0c\u98df\u8349\u591a\u2f12\u529b\uff0c\u98df\u6851\u8005\u7d72\uff0c\u98df\u6c23\u8005\u58fd\uff0c\u4e0d\u98df\u4e0d\u6b7b\u3002\ufe12\u53c8\u65bd\u98df\u8005\uff0c\u7576\u7372\u4e94\u798f\uff0c\u6240\u8b02\u2f8a\u8272\u3001\ufe11\u2f12\u529b\u3001\ufe11\u58fd\u3001\ufe11\u6a02\u3001\ufe11\u8faf\u6e05\u5b89\u3002\ufe12\u6545\u4ff1\u7372\u4e94\u5e38\u77e3\u3002\ufe12  [55] Eating requires thoughtfulness. The Youposai jie jing says631, When first wanting to eat, [one] should recite some thoughts. The first spoonful must cut off all evils, the second must cultivate all good, and the good roots cultivated by a third spoonful [must be] turned around and given to all sentient beings as a universal offering for their achieving buddhahood. If unable to recite these orally, recalling each as a thought when wanting to eat will also bring [merit]. \u98df\u9808\u4f5c\u5ff5\u300e\u512a\u5a46\u585e\u6212\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u521d\u6b32\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u7576\u9808\u4f5c\u5ff5\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u5319\u9808\u65b7\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u60e1\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u9808\u4fee\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u5584\u6eff\uff0c\u4e09\u5319\u6240\u4fee\u5584\u6839\u8ff4\u65bd\u8846\u2f63\u751f\uff0c\u666e\u4f9b\u6210\u4f5b\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u4e0d\u80fd\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u4f5c\u5ff5\uff0c\u81e8\u6b32\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u90fd\u4f5c\u2f00\u4e00\u5ff5\u4ea6\u5f97\u3002\ufe12  \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0630 This commonly refers to celebrated virtues of the Ru (Confucian) school: benevolence \u4ec1, righteousness \u7fa9, ritual propriety \u79ae, wisdom \u667a, and fidelity \u4fe1. They sometimes appear in Chinese Buddhist writings. See for example the Guang hongming ji T52 n2103, 107b21-25, where Daoxuan makes a case for equating these five virtues with the five most basic Buddhist precepts: \u5185\u5916\u5169\u6559\u672c\u7232\u2f00\u4e00\u9ad4\u3002\ufe12\u6f38\u6975\u7232\u7570\u6df1\u6dfa\u4e0d\u540c\u3002\ufe12\u5185\u5178\u521d\u2fa8\u9580\u8a2d\u4e94\u7a2e\u4e4b\u7981\u3002\ufe12\u8207\u5916\u66f8\u4ec1\u7fa9\u79ae\u667a\u4fe1\u4e94\u5e38\u7b26\u540c\u3002\ufe12\u4ec1\u8005\u4e0d\u6bba\u4e4b\u7981\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u7fa9\u8005\u4e0d\u76dc\u4e4b\u7981\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u79ae\u8005\u4e0d\u90aa\u4e4b\u7981\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u667a\u8005\u4e0d\u9152\u4e4b\u7981\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u4fe1\u8005\u4e0d\u5984\u4e4b\u7981\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12But \u201cwuchang\u201d is not mentioned along with the content cited from the Fayuan zhulin, so connection with the \u201cfive merits\u201d is tenuous.\t \u00a0631 T24 n1488. I do not find this formula in the cited text. For this entry, Yichu appears to have relied on the Fayuan zhulin, T53 n2122, 612b19-26, where we find similar wording and an attribution to the Youposai jie jing: \u53c8\u512a\u5a46\u585e\u6212\u7d93\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u2f83\u81ea\u9020\u4f5c\u8863\u670d\u9262\u5668\u3002\ufe12\u5148\u5949\u4e0a\u4f5b\u3002\ufe12\u5e76\u4ee4\u2f57\u7236\u6bcd\u5e2b\u9577\u548c\u5c1a\u5148\u2f00\u4e00\u53d7\u2f64\u7528\u3002\ufe12\u7136\u5f8c\u2f83\u81ea\u670d\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u4e0a\u4f5b\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u4ee5\u83ef\u2fb9\u9999\u8d16\u3002\ufe12\u51e1\u6240\u98df\u5649\u8981\u5148\u65bd\u65bc\u6c99\u2fa8\u9580\u68b5\u5fd7\u3002\ufe12\u7136\u5f8c\u2f83\u81ea\u98df\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12\u6b63\u4e0b\u98df\u6642\u5fa9\u9808\u4f5c\u5ff5\u3002\ufe12\u521d\u4e0b\u2f00\u4e00\u5319\u98ef\u6642\u3002\ufe12\u9858\u65b7\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u60e1\u76e1\u3002\ufe12\u4e0b\u7b2c\u2f06\u4e8c\u5319\u6642\u3002\ufe12\u9858\u4fee\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u5584\u6eff\u3002\ufe12\u4e0b\u7b2c\u4e09\u5319\u6642\u3002\ufe12\u6240\u4fee\u5584\u6839\u8ff4\u65bd\u8846\u2f63\u751f\u666e\u5171\u6210\u4f5b\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u4e0d\u80fd\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u4f5c\u5ff5\u3002\ufe12\u81e8\u6b32\u98df\u6642\u7e3d\u4f5c\u2f00\u4e00\u5ff5\u4ea6\u5f97\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0  339\t \u00a0[56] Buddha ate, then offered [the remainder to others]. The Vinaya632 says, When the Buddha had surplus, he fed his attendants. Bhik\u1e63us obtained food and laypeople attended the Buddha. [They] also obtained regular offerings; after the Buddha ate [from these], the sa\u1e43gha received food. \u4f5b\u98df\u8f49\u65bd\u300e\u5f8b\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u4f5b\u6709\u9918\uff0c\u98df\u4f8d\u8005\u3002\ufe12\u6bd4\u4e18\u5f97\u98df\uff0c\u2f69\u767d\u8863\u4f8d\u4f5b\u3002\ufe12\u4ea6\u5f97\u5e38\u4f9b\ufe14\uff1b\u4f5b\u98df\u5f8c\uff0c\u50e7\u2f45\u65b9\u5f97\u98df\u4e5f\u3002\ufe12  [57] Food has three virtues. The Niepan jing633 records [these virtues as follows]: 1) lightness and suppleness [of body], 2) purity, and 3) accordance with the dharma, etc. \u98df\u6709\u4e09\u5fb3\u300e\u6d85\u69c3\u7d93\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u8f15\u8edf\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u6de8\u6f54\uff0c\u4e09\u5982\u6cd5\u7b49\u3002\ufe12          \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0632 Because Yichu does not specify a specific text, this content is difficult to locate. I do find a statement with some similar phrasing in Daoxuan\u2019s Sifenl\u00fc shanfan buque xingshi chao \u56db\u5206\u5f8b\u522a\u7e41\u88dc\u95d5\u2f8f\u884c\u4e8b\u9214, T40 n1804, 57b24-27, which is an important Chinese commentary on the Vinaya: \u56db\u8005\u737b\u4f5b\u7269\u3002\ufe12\u5f8b\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u4f9b\u990a\u4f5b\u5854\u98df\u6cbb\u5854\u2f08\u4eba\u5f97\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5584\u2f92\u898b\u4e91\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u524d\u737b\u98ef\u4f8d\u4f5b\u6bd4\u4e18\u98df\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u7121\u6bd4\u4e18\u2f69\u767d\u8863\u4f8d\u4f5b\u4ea6\u5f97\u98df\u3002\ufe12The point here is to designate who can rightfully consume food offerings placed before Buddhist stupas, images, alters, etc.\u2013\u2013here \u201cFo\u201d is clearly not the historical Buddha, though Yichu\u2019s phrasing suggests that interpretation.\t \u00a0633 This could refer to one of two texts with the title Da banniepan jing \u2f24\u5927\u822c\u6d85\u69c3\u7d93, T12 n374 or n375. I find the cited content in the first at T12 n374, 366c23-27: \u8af8\u512a\u5a46\u585e\u7232\u4f5b\u53ca\u50e7\u3002\ufe12\u8fa6\u8af8\u98df\u5177\u7a2e\u7a2e\u5099\u2f9c\u8db3\u3002\ufe12\u7686\u662f\u6834\u6a80\u6c88\u2f54\u6c34\u2fb9\u9999\u85aa\u3002\ufe12\u516b\u529f\u5fb3\u2f54\u6c34\u4e4b\u6240\u6210\u719f\u5176\u98df\u2f62\u7518\u7f8e\u6709\u516d\u7a2e\u5473\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u82e6\u2f06\u4e8c\u918b\u4e09\u2f62\u7518\u56db\u2f9f\u8f9b\u4e94\u918e\u516d\u6de1\u3002\ufe12\u5fa9\u6709\u4e09\u5fb3\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u8005\u8f15\u8edf\u3002\ufe12\u2f06\u4e8c\u8005\u6de8\u6f54\u3002\ufe12\u4e09\u8005\u5982\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u4f5c\u5982\u662f\u7b49\u7a2e\u7a2e\u838a\u56b4\u3002\ufe12In the second it is at T12 n375, 606a28-b03:\u8af8  340\t \u00a0Appendix 6: Appended Material for Chapter Five (Porridge)  Appendix 6A The following is a translation of Porridge \u7ca5, third topic in the 37th section on food themes in Yichu\u2019s Shishi liutie.634   [37.]3 Porridge \u7ca5\u4e09  Porridge has ten benefits. The Sifenl\u00fc says, Giving porridge to the sa\u1e43gha secures ten beneficial merits: [healthful] appearance, strength, longevity, joy, eloquence, removal of indigested foods and of wind [pathologies], [elimination of] hunger and of thirst, and [benefits to] digestion.635 \u7ca5\u6709\u2f17\u5341\u5229\u300e\u56db\u5206\u5f8b\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u65bd\u7ca5\u8207\u50e7, \u4ff1\u5f97\u2f17\u5341\u5229\u529f\u5fb3\uff1a\u2f8a\u8272\u3001\ufe11\u2f12\u529b\u3001\ufe11\u58fd\u3001\ufe11\u6a02\u3001\ufe11\u8fad636\u6e05\u8faf\u3001\ufe11\u5bbf\u98df\u98a8\u9664\u3001\ufe11[\u9664]\u98e2\u6e07\u3001\ufe11\u6d88\u3002\ufe12   There are eight types of porridge. The Shisong637 lists [these]: 1) butter, 2) oil, 3) sesame, 4) milk, 5) small bean, 6) ground [bean] powder, 7) hemp seed, and 8) plain porridge. [These] can have five benefits: Elimination of hunger and thirst, calming (of temper or excitement), removal of chill, and [good] digestion of food. \u7ca5\u6709\u516b\u7a2e\u300e\u2f17\u5341\u8aa6\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u2f00\u4e00\u8607\u3001\ufe11\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\u512a\u5a46\u585e\u7232\u4f5b\u53ca\u50e7\u3002\ufe12\u8fa6\u8af8\u98df\u5177\u7a2e\u7a2e\u5099\u2f9c\u8db3\u3002\ufe12\u7686\u662f\u6834\u6a80\u6c88\u2f54\u6c34\u2fb9\u9999\u85aa\u3002\ufe12\u516b\u529f\u5fb3\u2f54\u6c34\u4e4b\u6240\u6210\u719f\u3002\ufe12\u5176\u98df\u2f62\u7518\u7f8e\u6709\u516d\u7a2e\u5473\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u82e6\u2f06\u4e8c\u918b\u4e09\u2f62\u7518\u56db\u2f9f\u8f9b\u4e94\u918e\u516d\u6de1\u3002\ufe12\u5fa9\u6709\u4e09\u5fb3\u3002\ufe12\u2f00\u4e00\u8005\u8f15\u8edf\u3002\ufe12\u2f06\u4e8c\u8005\u6de8\u6f54\u3002\ufe12\u4e09\u8005\u5982\u6cd5\u3002\ufe12\u4f5c\u5982\u662f\u7b49\u7a2e\u7a2e\u838a\u56b4\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0634 The following text on porridge is from Yanagida and Shiina, Zengaku Tenseki S\u014dkan 6:2, 332.\t \u00a0635 See Furuyama, \u201c\u2018Shukuy\u016bj\u016bri\u2019k\u014d,\u201d for a strong case in favor of the reading given here. A more logical placement of breaks, suggested in the Shishi yaolan, would divide ciqingbian into two terms and place xiao as part of jike, but Furuyama shows that such a reading is not in accord with Pali sources. Nonetheless, we might ask whether the \u2018correct\u2019 reading is the one that accords best with early sources, or the one that most Chinese adopted as standard. Yichu did not supply punctuation or otherwise comment, so we cannot know his preference for where to place the breaks.\t \u00a0636 Variant \u53f0+\u2f9f\u8f9b.\t \u00a0  341\t \u00a0\u2f06\u4e8c\u6cb9\u3001\ufe11\u4e09\u80e1\u9ebb\u3001\ufe11\u56db\u4e73\u3001\ufe11\u4e94\u2f29\u5c0f\u2f96\u8c46\u3001\ufe11\u516d\u78e8\u6c99\u3001\ufe11\u4e03\u9ebb\u2f26\u5b50\u3001\ufe11\u516b\u6e05\u7ca5\u3002\ufe12\u80fd\u6709\u4e94\u76ca\uff1a\u9664\u98e2\u3001\ufe11\u6e07\u3001\ufe11\u4e0b\u6c23\uff0c\u5374\u51b7\u3001\ufe11\u6d88\u98df\u3002\ufe12    Six kinds [of ingredient] made into porridge. The Wufen [l\u00fc]638 says, There was a brahmin whose cart was loaded with offerings. Following the Buddha, he wanted to make offerings to the Buddha and sa\u1e43gha, but because of the prior invitations of various kings, great ministers, and elders, he was unable to obtain precedence. An elder said [on his behalf], \u201cMy lay disciple also has domestic obligations.\u201d He (the disciple) said to the Buddha, \"I would like to scatter the offerings. Wherever the Buddha will go, I hope the Buddha will tread on [the offerings], in order to express my intention.\" The Buddha said no and had them cook porridge and give it to the sa\u1e43gha as a donated breakfast and lunch. The elder took the butter, milk, oil, curd, fish, and meat and cooked them at one time into porridge, presented it to the Buddha, and returned home. \u516d\u7a2e\u7232\u7ca5\u300e\u4e94\u5206\u300f\u4e91\uff1a\u6709\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u2f9e\u8eca\u8f09\u4f9b\u7269\uff0c\u96a8\u4f5b\uff0c\u6b32\u4f9b\u990a\u4f5b\u53ca\u50e7\u8846\uff0c\u88ab\u8af8\u738b\u3001\ufe11\u2f24\u5927\u81e3\u3001\ufe11\u9577\u8005\u5148\u8acb\uff0c\u4e0d\u5f97\u6b21\u7b2c\u3002\ufe12\u9577\u8005\u66f0\uff1a\u300c\u6211\u4fd7\u5f1f\u2f26\u5b50\u4ea6\u6709\u5bb6\u52d9\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u2f69\u767d\u4f5b\uff1a\u300c\u6b32\u6563\u4f9b\u7269\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u2f8f\u884c\u8655\uff0c\u9858\u4f5b\u5c65\u8e10\uff0c\u8868\u6211\u2f3c\u5fc3\u6545\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u4f5b\u2f94\u8a00\u4e0d\u5f97\uff0c\u4ee4\u5c07\u716e\u7ca5\u8207\u50e7\uff0c\u958b\u9f4b\u798f\u8207\u9f4b\u7b49\u3002\ufe12\u9577\u8005\u5c07\u8607\u3001\ufe11\u4e73\u3001\ufe11\u6cb9\u3001\ufe11\u916a\u3001\ufe11\u2fc2\u9b5a\u3001\ufe11\u2f81\u8089\u2f00\u4e00\u6642\u716e\u7ca5\uff0c\u65bd\u4f5b\u2f7d\u800c\u6b78\u3002\ufe12    \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0637 Shisong l\u00fc: T23 n1435, 188c14-21.\t \u00a0638 A similar narrative can be found in the Wufenl\u00fc at T22 n1421, 54c06-19. \u65bc\u662f\u4e16\u5c0a\uff0c\u9032\u81f3\u5b89\u90a3\u983b\u982d\u2fa2\u9091\u3002\ufe12\u6642\u6709\u2f24\u5927\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\uff0c\u540d\u66f0\u300c\u6c99\u2fa8\u9580\u300d\uff0c\u4ee5\u4e94\u767e\u4e58\u2f9e\u8eca\u91cd\u8f09\u98ee\u98df\u9010\u4f5b\u3002\ufe12\u4e94\u2f49\u6708\u9918\u2f47\u65e5\uff0c\u6c42\u6b21\u8a2d\u4f9b\uff0c\u7adf\u672a\u80fd\u5f97\u3002\ufe12\u5176\u5bb6\u8ffd\u2f94\u8a00\uff0c\u8fb2\u6642\u6b32\u904e\uff0c\u53ef\u9084\u9644\u696d\u3002\ufe12\u6642\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u5230\u963f\u96e3\u6240\uff0c\u8a9e\u963f\u96e3\u2f94\u8a00\uff0c\u300c\u6211\u4e94\u767e\u4e58\u2f9e\u8eca\u8f09\u8af8\u98ee\u98df\uff0c\u6b32\u4f9b\u4f5b\u53ca\u50e7\u3002\ufe12\u9010\u4f5b\u5df2\u4f86\uff0c\u4e94\u2f49\u6708\u9918\u2f47\u65e5\uff0c\u7336\u672a\u5f97\u8a2d\u3002\ufe12\u5bb6\u4fe1\u2f92\u898b\u8ffd\uff0c\u4e0d\u5f97\u5fa9\u4f4f\u3002\ufe12\u6b32\u4ee5\u98df\u5177\uff0c\u6563\u5e03\u9053\u4e2d\uff0c\u4ee4\u4f5b\u53ca\u50e7\uff0c\u8e0f\u4e0a\u2f7d\u800c\u904e\u3002\ufe12\u65bc\u6211\u5bbf\u2f3c\u5fc3\uff0c\u4fbf\u7232\u5f97\u9042\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u963f\u96e3\u7b54\u2f94\u8a00\uff0c\u300c\u7576\u2f69\u767d\u4e16\u5c0a\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u5373\u4ee5\u2f69\u767d\u4f5b\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u8a9e\u963f\u96e3\uff0c\u300c\u6c5d\u53ef\u5c07\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u770b\u4f9b\u98df\u5bb6\u3002\ufe12\u82e5\u6709\u6240\u7121\uff0c\u6559\u4ee4\u4f5c\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u963f\u96e3\u53d7\u6559\u3002\ufe12\u5c07\u5a46\u7f85\u2fa8\u9580\u770b\u4f9b\u98df\u5bb6\uff0c\u2f92\u898b\u7121\u6709\u7ca5\uff0c\u53ca\u6cb9\u871c\u714e\u9905\u3002\ufe12\u5f7c\u4fbf\u4f5c\u4e03\u7a2e\u7ca5\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u7a2e\u9905\u3002\ufe12\u6668\u671d\u2f69\u767d\u4f5b\uff0c\u300c\u9905\u7ca5\u5df2\u8fa6\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u4f5b\u8a9e\u963f\u96e3\uff0c\u300c\u6c5d\u52a9\u4e0b\u4e4b\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u963f\u96e3\u53d7\u6559\uff0c\u52a9\u4e0b\u7ca5\u9905\u3002\ufe12\t \u00a0  342\t \u00a0First with Vi\u015b\u0101kh\u0101. The Sengqil\u00fc (Mah\u0101s\u0101\u1e43ghika-vinaya) says, not until Mother Vi\u015b\u0101kh\u0101 had attained sagehood and was replete with meritorious virtues did she start to provide breakfast porridge for the sa\u1e43gha. \u521d\u6bd7\u820e\u4f3d\u300e\u50e7\u7947\u5f8b\u300f\u4e91: \u6bd7\u820e\u4f3d\u6bcd639\u5df3640\u5f97\u8056\u679c, \u5177\u2f24\u5927\u798f\u5fb3, \u59cb\u7232\u50e7\u7f6e\u958b\u9f4b\u7ca5.   Zhanzhou miyu (porridge). The Zhoushu says, The Yellow Emperor first cooked grain to make zhoumi, which is porridge. [He] also exchanged (traded) zhan, which is thick porridge. Adding \u201cmi\u201d to [the term zhoumi] is redundant. \u9958\u7ca5\u9e8b\u9b3b\u300e\u5468\u66f8\u300f\u66f0: \u2fc8\u9ec3\u5e1d\u59cb\u70f9641\u7a40\u7232\u7ca5\u9e8b, \u5373\u7ca5\u4e5f. \u53c8\u8ca8\u6613\u9958, \u5373\u539a\u7ca5\u4e5f. \u9e8b\u52a0\u4e4b\u9918\u4e5f.         \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0639 This seems to be an alternative rendering of Pisheqiamu \u6bd8\u820d\u4f49\u6bcd (Vi\u015b\u0101kh\u0101 \u6bd8\u820d\u4f49, also \u9e7f\u2f26\u5b50\u6bcd or \u9e7f\u6bcd), later called M\u1e5bg\u0101ra-m\u0101t\u1e5b after her husband\u2019s name. She was a wealthy patron of the Buddha who with her husband provided a retreat center (vih\u0101ra).\t \u00a0640 Reading \u5df2.\t \u00a0641 Variant or damaged character. I do not find an exact match in DCCV, but the extant form of the character and the context point toward peng \u70f9.\t \u00a0  343\t \u00a0Appendix 6B Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on the Five Blessings Reaped from the Bestowal of Food \u4f5b\u8aaa\u98df\u65bd\u7372\u4e94\u798f\u5831\u7d93642 Name of translator lost. It is now attached to (included in) the Records of the Eastern Jin \u5931\u8b6f\u2f08\u4eba\u540d\uff0c\u4eca\u9644\u300e\u6771\u6649\u9304\u300f Thus have I heard: \u805e\u5982\u662f\uff1a At one time, the Buddha was at [the park] Jetavana An\u0101thapi\u1e47\u1e0dada-\u0101r\u0101ma in \u015ar\u0101vast\u012b. The Buddha addressed the monks, \u201cWhen you know to eat in moderation, you can receive [food] without harm.\u201d The Buddha said, \u201cWhen people take rice food and offer it to [other] people, there are five advantageous virtues that make (help) people attain the Way. If the wise settle into a broadminded view, then they will reap the five blessings. What are the five? One is the bestowal of life; two is the bestowal of [good] appearance; three is the bestowal of strength; four is the bestowal of ease; and five is the bestowal of wit.\u201d \u2f00\u4e00\u6642\uff0c\u4f5b\u5728\u820d\u885b\u570b\u7947\u6a39\u7d66\u5b64\u7368\u5712\u3002\ufe12\u4f5b\u544a\u8af8\u6bd4\u4e18\uff1a\u300c\u7576\u77e5\u98df\u4ee5\u7bc0\u5ea6\uff0c\u53d7\u2f7d\u800c\u4e0d\u640d\u3002\ufe12\u300d\u4f5b\u2f94\u8a00\uff1a\u300c\u2f08\u4eba\u6301\u98ef\u98df\u65bd\u2f08\u4eba\uff0c\u6709\u4e94\u798f\u5fb7\uff0c\u4ee4\u2f08\u4eba\u5f97\u9053\uff0c\u667a\u8005\u6d88\u606f\uff0c\u610f\u5ea6\u5f18\u5ed3\uff0c\u5247\u7372\u4e94\u798f\u3002\ufe12\u4f55\u7b49\u70ba\u4e94\ufe16\uff1f\u2f00\u4e00\u66f0\u65bd\u547d\uff0c\u2f06\u4e8c\u66f0\u65bd\u2f8a\u8272\uff0c\u4e09\u66f0\u65bd\u2f12\u529b\uff0c\u56db\u66f0\u65bd\u5b89\uff0c\u4e94\u66f0\u65bd\u8faf\u3002\ufe12 \u201cWhat is what is meant by the bestowal of life? When people do not obtain food, their facial complexion is wan and sallow and [their vitality] cannot be vividly manifested. Before the passage of seven days their lives abruptly end. Because of this, the wise do a bestowal of food, this bestowal of food in turn bestowing life. This bestowal of life [allows them], in life after life, good longevity and birth into heavens or human society (i.e., favorable birth); their lifespan extends, they do not suffer early death, they naturally receive advantageous rewards, and their riches are without measure. This is   344\t \u00a0the \u2018bestowal of life.\u2019\u201d \u300c\u4f55\u8b02\u65bd\u547d\ufe16\uff1f\u2f08\u4eba\u4e0d\u5f97\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u984f\u2f8a\u8272\u71cb\u60b4\uff0c\u4e0d\u53ef\u986f\u2f70\u793a\uff0c\u4e0d\u904e\u4e03\u2f47\u65e5\uff0c\u5944\u5ffd\u58fd\u7d42\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u6545\uff0c\u667a\u8005\u5247\u70ba\u65bd\u98df\uff0c\u5176\u65bd\u98df\u8005\u5247\u70ba\u65bd\u547d\ufe14\uff1b\u5176\u65bd\u547d\u8005\uff0c\u4e16\u4e16\u9577\u58fd\uff0c\u2f63\u751f\u5929\u4e16\u9593\ufe14\uff1b\u58fd\u547d\u5ef6\u9577\uff0c\u2f7d\u800c\u4e0d\u592d\u50b7\uff0c\u2f83\u81ea\u7136\u798f\u5831\uff0c\u8ca1\u5bcc\u7121\u91cf\uff0c\u662f\u70ba\u65bd\u547d\u3002\ufe12 \u201cWhat is what is meant by the bestowal of appearance? When people do not obtain food, their facial complexion is wan and sallow and [their vitality] cannot be vividly manifested. For this reason the wise do a bestowal of food, this bestowal of food in turn bestowing [good] appearance. This bestowal of appearance [allows them], in life after life to be handsome, to be born into the heavens or human society, their faces shining and beautiful, such that people who see them feel fondness, kowtowing and being courteous. This is the \u2018bestowal of appearance.\u2019\u201d \u300c\u4f55\u8b02\u65bd\u2f8a\u8272\ufe16\uff1f\u2f08\u4eba\u4e0d\u5f97\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u984f\u2f8a\u8272\u6194\u60b4\uff0c\u4e0d\u53ef\u986f\u2f70\u793a\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u6545\uff0c\u667a\u8005\u5247\u70ba\u65bd\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5176\u65bd\u98df\u8005\u5247\u70ba\u65bd\u2f8a\u8272\ufe14\uff1b\u5176\u65bd\u2f8a\u8272\u8005\uff0c\u4e16\u4e16\u7aef\u6b63\uff0c\u2f63\u751f\u5929\u4e16\u9593\uff0c\u984f\u83ef\u7152\u66c4\uff0c\u2f08\u4eba\u2f92\u898b\u6b61\u559c\uff0c\u7a3d\u2fb8\u9996\u4f5c\u79ae\uff0c\u662f\u70ba\u65bd\u2f8a\u8272\u3002\ufe12 \u201cWhat is what is meant by the bestowal of strength? When people do not obtain food, their bodies thin and wills weak, they cannot accomplish that which they set out to do. For this reason the wise do a bestowal of food, this bestowal of food in turn bestowing strength. This bestowal of strength [allows them] in life after life to have much strength, incarnating in heavens or among humans with strength that has no equal. Whether entering or leaving, advancing or stopping, their strength is not diminished. This is the \u2018bestowal of strength.\u2019\u201d \u300c\u4f55\u8b02\u65bd\u2f12\u529b\ufe16\uff1f\u2f08\u4eba\u4e0d\u5f97\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u8eab\u7fb8\u610f\u5f31\uff0c\u6240\u4f5c\u4e0d\u80fd\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u6545\uff0c\u667a\u8005\u5247\u70ba\u65bd\u98df\ufe14\uff1b\u5176\u65bd\u98df\u8005\u5247\u70ba\u65bd\u2f12\u529b\ufe14\uff1b\u5176\u65bd\u2f12\u529b\u8005\uff0c\u4e16\u4e16\u591a\u2f12\u529b\uff0c\u2f63\u751f\u5929\u2f08\u4eba\u9593\uff0c\u2f12\u529b\u7121\u7b49\u96d9\ufe14\uff1b\u51fa\u5165\u9032\u2f4c\u6b62\uff0c\u2f12\u529b\u4e0d\u8017\u6e1b\uff0c\u662f\u70ba\u65bd\u2f12\u529b\u3002\ufe12 \u201cWhat is meant by the bestowal of ease? When people do not obtain food, their minds worry and their bodies are in danger. They do not sit still and they cannot be at ease \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0642 T2 n132a.\t \u00a0  345\t \u00a0with themselves. For this reason the wise do a bestowal of food, this bestowal of food in turn bestowing ease. This bestowal of ease [allows them] to be secure in life after life, to incarnate in heavens or among humans, to not encounter a host of calamities, but to always encounter virtuous goodness in the places to which they arrive. [They] have immeasurable wealth while avoiding harm and early death. This is the \u2018bestowal of ease.\u2019\u201d \u300c\u4f55\u8b02\u65bd\u5b89\ufe16\uff1f\u2f08\u4eba\u4e0d\u5f97\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u2f3c\u5fc3\u6101\u8eab\u5371\uff0c\u5750\u8d77\u4e0d\u5b9a\uff0c\u4e0d\u80fd\u2f83\u81ea\u5b89\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u6545\uff0c\u667a\u8005\u5247\u70ba\u65bd\u98df\ufe14\uff1b\u5176\u65bd\u98df\u8005\u5247\u70ba\u65bd\u5b89\ufe14\uff1b\u5176\u65bd\u5b89\u8005\uff0c\u4e16\u4e16\u5b89\u96b1\uff0c\u2f63\u751f\u5929\u2f08\u4eba\u9593\uff0c\u4e0d\u9047\u773e\u6b83\uff0c\u5176\u6240\u5230\u8655\uff0c\u5e38\u9047\u8ce2\u826f\uff0c\u8ca1\u5bcc\u7121\u91cf\uff0c\u4e0d\u4e2d\u592d\u50b7\uff0c\u662f\u70ba\u65bd\u5b89\u3002\ufe12 \u201cWhat is meant by the bestowal of wit? When people do not obtain food, their bodies are emaciated, their will is weak, and their mouths cannot speak. For this reason, the wise do a bestowal of food, this bestowal of food in turn bestowing wit. This bestowal of wit [allows them] to be intelligent in life after life, to be eloquent in speaking, to be without hindrance, [and] to understand wisdom with penetrating [intellect]. They are born into the heavens or human society, those who hear them taking joy, none [refusing to] kowtow and listen to and accept the words of truth. These are the rewards of the five blessings of food bestowal.\u201d \u300c\u4f55\u8b02\u65bd\u8faf\ufe16\uff1f\u2f08\u4eba\u4e0d\u5f97\u98df\u6642\uff0c\u8eab\u7fb8\u610f\u5f31\uff0c\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u4e0d\u80fd\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u6545\uff0c\u667a\u8005\u5247\u70ba\u65bd\u98df\u3002\ufe12\u5176\u65bd\u98df\u8005\u5247\u70ba\u65bd\u8faf\ufe14\uff1b\u5176\u65bd\u8faf\u8005\uff0c\u4e16\u4e16\u8070\u660e\uff0c\u2f1c\u2f1d\u53e3\u8aaa\u6d41\u5229\uff0c\u7121\u6240\u8e93\u7919\uff0c\u6167\u8faf\u901a\u9054\uff0c\u2f63\u751f\u5929\u4e16\u9593\uff0c\u805e\u8005\u6b61\u559c\uff0c\u9761\u4e0d\u7a3d\u2fb8\u9996\uff0c\u807d\u63a1\u6cd5\u2f94\u8a00\u3002\ufe12\u662f\u70ba\u4e94\u798f\u65bd\u98df\u4e4b\u5831\u3002\ufe12\u300d The Buddha said, \u201cIf the sons and daughters of great clans give rise to aspiration for enlightenment (bodhicitta), bestowing on all [beings] beverages, food, clothing, and bedding, upon their rebirth they are manifested before the Buddha to learn [from him] the three types of dharma, the four intentions643 and the three liberations; to attain the ten powers, the thirty-two marks [of a buddha], and the eighty minor marks. [They] advance and retreat in the ten directions like the rising of the sun, brilliantly radiate \t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0\t \u00a0643 I read this as a reference to the four [deeper] meanings, siyiqu \u56db\u610f\u8da3, points of doctrine that help resolve seeming dilemmas in Buddhist thought. \t \u00a0  346\t \u00a0light throughout all the ten directions, educating all, continuing to manifest the doctrine of the scriptures after pari\u1e47irv\u0101\u1e47a (extinction of afflictions), and upholding it and obtaining the other shore (i.e., awakening), no differently from a Buddha.\u201d \u4f5b\u2f94\u8a00\uff1a\u300c\u82e5\u65cf\u59d3\u2f26\u5b50\u3001\ufe11\u65cf\u59d3\u5973\uff0c\u82e5\u767c\u9053\u610f\uff0c\u65bd\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\u98f2\u98df\u8863\u88ab\uff0c\u5728\u6240\u2f63\u751f\u8655\uff0c\u2f92\u898b\u73fe\u5728\u4f5b\uff0c\u8aee\u53d7\u4e09\u6cd5\uff0c\u56db\u610f\u4e09\u812b\uff0c\u81f4\u2f17\u5341\u7a2e\u2f12\u529b\uff0c\u4e09\u2f17\u5341\u2f06\u4e8c\u76f8\uff0c\u516b\u2f17\u5341\u7a2e\u597d\uff0c\u9032\u2f4c\u6b62\u2f17\u5341\u2f45\u65b9\uff0c\u7336\u5982\u2f47\u65e5\u51fa\uff0c\u6689\u6689\u6709\u5149\uff0c\u904d\u7167\u2f17\u5341\u2f45\u65b9\uff0c\u6559\u5316\u2f00\u4e00\u5207\uff0c\u822c\u6ce5\u6d39\u5f8c\uff0c\u7d93\u6cd5\u7e8c\u73fe\uff0c\u5949\u4e4b\u5f97\u5ea6\uff0c\u8207\u4f5b\u7121\u2f06\u4e8c\u3002\ufe12\u300d When the Buddha spoke this, of the celestials, snake spirits, ghosts, and deities, the people of human society, the lords and great ministers, and the four groups of Buddhist disciples, none did not rejoice and they paid obeisance to the Buddha. \u4f5b\u8aaa\u662f\u6642\uff0c\u5929\u9f8d\u9b3c\u795e\u3001\ufe11\u4e16\u9593\u2f08\u4eba\u6c11\uff0c\u5e1d\u4e3b\u2f24\u5927\u81e3\u3001\ufe11\u56db\u8f29\u5f1f\u2f26\u5b50\uff0c\u9761\u4e0d\u6b61\u559c\uff0c\u70ba\u4f5b\u4f5c\u79ae\u3002\ufe12 ","@language":"en"}],"Genre":[{"@value":"Thesis\/Dissertation","@language":"en"}],"GraduationDate":[{"@value":"2015-05","@language":"en"}],"IsShownAt":[{"@value":"10.14288\/1.0166253","@language":"en"}],"Language":[{"@value":"eng","@language":"en"}],"Program":[{"@value":"Asian Studies","@language":"en"}],"Provider":[{"@value":"Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library","@language":"en"}],"Publisher":[{"@value":"University of British Columbia","@language":"en"}],"Rights":[{"@value":"Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.5 Canada","@language":"en"}],"RightsURI":[{"@value":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/2.5\/ca\/","@language":"en"}],"ScholarlyLevel":[{"@value":"Graduate","@language":"en"}],"Title":[{"@value":"Skilled eating : knowledge of food in Yichu's Shishi liutie, a Buddhist encyclopedia from tenth-century China","@language":"en"}],"Type":[{"@value":"Text","@language":"en"}],"URI":[{"@value":"http:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/2429\/52875","@language":"en"}],"SortDate":[{"@value":"2015-12-31 AD","@language":"en"}],"@id":"doi:10.14288\/1.0166253"}