{"AggregatedSourceRepository":[{"label":"AggregatedSourceRepository","value":"CONTENTdm","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/dataProvider","classmap":"ore:Aggregation","property":"edm:dataProvider"},"iri":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/dataProvider","explain":"A Europeana Data Model Property; The name or identifier of the organization who contributes data indirectly to an aggregation service (e.g. Europeana)"}],"Collection":[{"label":"Collection","value":"British Columbia Historical Books Collection","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/isPartOf","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:isPartOf"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/isPartOf","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; A related resource in which the described resource is physically or logically included."}],"Contributor":[{"label":"Contributor","value":"Geological Survey of Canada","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/contributor","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:contributor"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/contributor","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource.; Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organization, or a service."}],"Creator":[{"label":"Creator","value":"McConnell, R. G. (Richard George), 1857-1942","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:creator"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; An entity primarily responsible for making the resource.; Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organization, or a service."},{"label":"Creator","value":"Dawson, George Mercer, 1849-1901","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:creator"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; An entity primarily responsible for making the resource.; Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organization, or a service."}],"DateAvailable":[{"label":"DateAvailable","value":"2015-06-19","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","classmap":"edm:WebResource","property":"dcterms:issued"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; Date of formal issuance (e.g., publication) of the resource."}],"DateIssued":[{"label":"DateIssued","value":"1896","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","classmap":"oc:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:issued"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; Date of formal issuance (e.g., publication) of the resource."}],"DigitalResourceOriginalRecord":[{"label":"DigitalResourceOriginalRecord","value":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/collections\/bcbooks\/items\/1.0222060\/source.json","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/aggregatedCHO","classmap":"ore:Aggregation","property":"edm:aggregatedCHO"},"iri":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/aggregatedCHO","explain":"A Europeana Data Model Property; The identifier of the source object, e.g. the Mona Lisa itself. This could be a full linked open date URI or an internal identifier"}],"Extent":[{"label":"Extent","value":"40 pages : illustrations ; 25 cm","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/extent","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:extent"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/extent","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; The size or duration of the resource."}],"FileFormat":[{"label":"FileFormat","value":"application\/pdf","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/elements\/1.1\/format","classmap":"edm:WebResource","property":"dc:format"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/elements\/1.1\/format","explain":"A Dublin Core Elements Property; The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource.; Examples of dimensions include size and duration. Recommended best practice is to use a controlled vocabulary such as the list of Internet Media Types [MIME]."}],"FullText":[{"label":"FullText","value":" GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA\nG. M. DAWSON, C.M.G., LL.D., P.R.S., Dibectoe\nREPORT\nON AN EXPLORATION\nFINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS\nR, G. McCONNELL, B.A.\nOTTAWA\nPRINTED BY S. E. DAWSON, PRINTER TO THE QUEEN'S MOST\nEXCELLENT MAJESTY\n1896 George^M. Dawson, C.M.G., LL.D., E.R.S.,\nDirector of the Geological Survey of Canada.\nSir,\u2014I beg to present herewith a report, accompanied by a map,\non^the Omenica and Finlay Rivers, based on field-work carried out by\nmyself, and by Mr. H. Y. Russel who acted as my assistant, during\nthe season of 1893.\nI have the honour to be, sir,\nYour obedient servant,\nR. G. McCONNELL.\nGeological Survey Office, 30th Nov., 1895.\nH Note.\u2014Thebearings given in this report are all referred to the true\nMeridian. REPORT\nON AN EXPLORATION OP THE\nFINLAY AND OMENIOA RIVERS\nBY\nR. G. McCONNELL, B.A.\nThe following report on the Omenica and Finlay rivers is based on Preparations\nan exploration carried out during the year 1893. Quesnel, on the \"or -6 ]0ur\"\nFraser, was selected as the base of operations. That point was reached\non the 24th of May, but owing to the scarcity of competent canoemen,\nand to delays in obtaining tiansport for supplies to Eort McLeod, we\nwere detained there until the 9th of June. The party consisted, besides myself, of Mr. H. Y. Russel, who acted as topographer, and four\ncanoemen (two Indians, one half-breed, and one white man). From\nQuesnel we proceeded up the Fraser River to the Giscome Portage,\nwhere we arrived on the 23rd of June. A portage-road here, seven Route fol-\nmiles and a half in length, connects the Fraser River with Summitlowed-\nLake, one of the sources of Peace River. The portage was made in\ntwo days and a half. From Summit Lake we followed a chain of small\nlakes connected by small, crooked, and at times exceedingly swift\nstreams down to Fort McLeod, which we reached on the 28th of June.\nOur supplies, which had been sent overland by pack-train from Quesnel,\nwere delayed owing to the flooded condition of the rivers, and did not\narrive until a week later. On the 6th of July we started down McLeod Lake River and the Parsnip, carrying our summer's supplies, in\ntwo Peterborougli canoes, and a canvas canoe which we had fitted up\nwhile waiting at Fort McLeod. The mouth of the Parsnip, our objective point, was reached on the following day.*\nThe Parsnip, coming from the south, and the Finlay from the northwest, meet near the western base of the Rocky Mountains, and the\nunited streams, bending to the east, break through that range and\ntraverse the great central plain of the continent in a northerly direction under the various names of Peace, Slave and Mackenzie rivers.\n*The I'oute followed from Giscome Portage to the mouth of the Parsnip, was\nexamined by Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn in 1S75, and is described by him in the report of\nthe Geological Survey for that year, pp. 37-41 and 64-07. 6 c\nFINLAY AND 0MENICA RIVERS.\nRiverse\nplored.\nCharacter of\nexploration.\nMountainous\nnature of\ncountry.\nPeace River was descended as far as the foot-hills bordering the\nRocky Mountains on the east, and a hasty examination of the structure\nof the range and of its various geological components was made. After\nreturning to the Parsnip-Finlay Forks, the latter stream was ascended\nto the mouth of the Omenica, the first considerable tributary which it\nreceives. An ascent of the Omenica was then made to a point above\nthe Omenica-Sitleka Pass. On the way up visits were made to the\nGermansen Creek, Manson Creek, and other old gold mining camps of\nthe region, all now nearly abandoned. A traverse was also made of\none of the passes leading from the Omenica River to Tacla Lake.\nThe examination of the Omenica River occupied about three weeks.\nAfter completing, it we returned to our cache which we had previously\nconstructed at its mouth, and on the 5th of August commenced the\nascent of the main branch of the Finlay. Fort Grahame was reached\non the 8th, the forks, or the junction of the Qua-da-cha (white water)\nwith the Finlay, on the 21st, and the Fishing Lakes above the long\nseries of rapids at the \" Bend,\" on the 28th of August. The latter\npart of the journey was- made on foot, owing to the almost unnavigable\ncondition of the river.\nA couple of days were spent in climbing the mountains in the vicinity\nof the Fishing Lakes, after which the return journey was commenced.\nThe mouth of the Finlay was reached on the 14th of September and\nQuesnel on the 1st of October.\nThe exploration was necessarily carried out in a somewhat hurried\nmanner, owing to the shortness of the season available for work, and\nthe time occupied in making the long journey from Quesnel to the field\nof operations. About nine weeks in all were spent on the Finlay and\nits branches, but as considerable time was lost in making return trips\nover the same routes, and on account of bad weather, barely six weeks\nwere left for effective work.\nThe region drained by the Finlay and its branches is characterized\nthroughout by its mountainous character; with the exception of the\nnarrow flats bordering the principal rivers, no plains of any magnitude\nwere anywhere observed. The eastern branches drain the western\nslope of a portion of the Rocky Mountains proper, while the western\nbranches head in a confused medley of nameless ranges, lying to the\neast of Tacla Lake and its feeders. The mountains have a fairly\nuniform height of about 4000 feet above the bottoms of the main\nvalleys. Glaciers occur at the head of the Qua-da-cha River in the\nRocky Mountains, and also on the Peak Mountains west of the Fishing\nLakes. The rivers, as a rule, are swift and interrupted by frequent MCCONNELU.\nDESCRIPTION OP ROUTES. 7 C\nrapids, but gently flowing lake-like expansions of considerable length\noccur on both the Finlay and the Omenica. Coniferous forests, unvary- Forests,\ning in their monotony, extend over hill and valley throughout the district, up to a height of about 5200 feet above the sea. The principal\nvarieties observed were the white and black spruces (Picea alba and\nPicea nigra), the balsam fir (abies subalpina), the black pine (Pinus\nMnrrayana), and the larch (Larix Americana). Broad-leaved trees\nare represented by the aspen (Populus tremuloides), the balsam poplar\n(Populus balsami\/era), the birch (Betula papyri\/era), and varieties of\nwillow and alder.\nDescription of Routes.\nOmenica River.\nThe Omenica River was brought into prominence by the discovery Omenica\nof gold on Silver Creek, one of its branches, by Ezra Evans, \" Twelve- Klver-\nfoot Davis \" and a party of prospectors in 1868. On the announcement of the discovery of gold, miners flocked into the country by\nhundreds, and for some time the population of the district was estimated at from 1200 to 1500. It reached its maximum about 1879,\nand has since, as the creeks became exhausted, gradually declined.\nAt the present time there are scarcely twenty whites in the whole\ncountry.\nVery few accounts by actual explorers have been published on the Previous ex-\nOmenica country. Captain (now Sir W. F.) Butler ascended the Ploratlon-\nlower part of the river in 1873, and describes it in his book entitled\nthe Wild North Land (p. 274-309), and Mr. Horetzky explored the part\nbetween Hogem and Germansen Creek in 1879 (Report Canadian\nPacific Railway, 1880, p. 82-83). In 1891 a party sent out by the\nBritish Columbia Government attempted to ascend the river, but turned\nback near the mouth of the Oslinca.\nThe Omenica joins the Finlay from the west, about fifteen miles Character of\nabove the junction of the latter with the Parsnip, and is by far its rlver-\nlargest tributary. From its mouth to the Black Canon, a distance of\nfive miles, its course is about 30\u00b0 south of west. The stream is\nshallow in this reach and its current is extremely swift, the slope of\nthe bed exceeding ten feet to the mile. Numerous gravel bars and\nislands, covered in places by huge drift-piles, obstruct the course of the\nstream, and divide it in places into several channels.\nAt the Black Canon, the Omenica cuts through a ridge of gneiss. Black Canon.\nThe Canon is about half a mile in length and varies in width from 8 c\nFINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nOmenica\nabove the\nBlack Canon.\nRapid character of\nOmenica.\none to two hundred feet. Its walls are usually nearly vertical and in\nplaces exceed 150 feet in height. In low water, the navigation of the\nCanon is reported to be easy, but in seasons of flood the swoollen\nstream is partly dammed back, and its effort to force a way through\nthe narrow channel is attended with the production of such whirlpools and billows that its passage with large boats is exceedingly difficult and with small boats is impossible. The Omenica was still high\nwhen we reached the Canon, and after an examination it was decided\nto make a portage. A trail was cut along the north bank, and the\nportage was made in less than a day. The ridge through which the\nOmenica cuts at the Cafion increases rapidly in height to the north,\nand develops into a mountain range the peaks of which exceed 5000\nfeet in height. Southward the ridge soon dies away.\nAbove the Black Canon the valley is closed in for a mile or more by\nsteep cliffs of sandstones, clays and conglomerates between which the\nstream rushes with torrential speed. Further up the stream bends to the\nnorth-west and follows parallel to the direction of the mountain ranges\nof the district, the rocky walls disappear, and the river, freed from\nconfinement, enlarges to twice its former width. Above the bend the\nriver follows a wide valley between the mountains as far the mouth of\nTchutetzeca, a distance of ten miles. The Omenica in this reach\nis wide and swift; no rapids were met with, but short and strong\n\" riffles,\" exceedingly difficult to ascend, occur every few hundred\nyards. A notable feature of the river here is the great drift-piles of\nlogs which have been heaped up by the rapid current at all the bends,\nand on the heads of the numerous gravel-bars and islands around\nwhich the stream divides. The Tchutetzeca, a rapid stream about\n150 feet wide, comes in from the north-west down the same valley\noccupied by the Omenica above the Cafion. It has not yet been\nexplored.\nAbove the mouth of the Tchutetzeca the Omenica leaves the longitudinal valley followed below, and bends to the west. The declivity\nand current increase, and for some miles the river is simply a wild torrent plunging in a succession of rapids from bar to bar. The ascent of\nthis portion of the river proved a matter of no ordinary difficulty.\nThe tracking-line could not be used owing to the beaches being\ncovered b}' high water, and the strength of the current rendered\npoling in many places equally impracticable. At the worst places\nwading in the ice cold water and pulling the canoes up foot by foot\nagainst the foaming stream, at the risk of stumbling on hidden and\nslippery boulders paving the channel, proved the only practicable\nmeans of ascent. Our progress here was very slow, and for some days ucconnell.j DESCRIPTION OF ROUTES. \u00bb C\nwe scarcely averaged five miles per day. Five miles above the mouth\nof the Tchutetzeca, the Oslinca the largest tributary of the Omenica,\ncomes in from the north. This stream is nearly equal in size to the\nmain branch. It drains a large area of mountainous country lying\nbetween the Omenica and the south branch of the Finlay, all of which\nis practically unknown.\nAbove the mouth of the Oslinca, the Omenica cuts through a gneissic Little Canon,\nband, and for some miles lofty ranges of mountains press.close down to\nthe banks of the river. Six miles above the Oslinca, a contraction in\nthe valley occurs, which is known as the Little Canon. At this point\nthe river makes a sharp double bend and strikes with its whole force\nagainst.two points of gneissic rock which jut out in succession from\neither bank. The Little Canon is comparatively easy to ascend, as the\ntracking-line can be used all the way by crossing the stream between\nthe two rocks, but is dangerous to run at high water. It was at this\npoint that Pete Toy, the Cornish miner (see Wild North Land, p. 291),\nwho so efficiently assisted Capt. Butler at the Black Cafion, afterwards\nlost his life.\nAbove the Little Canon the current of the river sensibly diminishes. Current di-\nRifiies are still numerous, but they occur at longer intervals, and with mlmshes-\nfew exceptions are of inconsiderable fall. Nine miles above the Little\nCafion quiet water was reached, and we were able for the first time to\nproceed with paddles.\nFrom the mouth of the Omenica to the head of the swift portion of Grade of\nthe river, is a distance of about thirty-five miles. The difference in\nelevation of the two points is approximately 425 feet, giving the river\nan inclination in this reach of about twelve feet to the mile, an excep-\ntionably high grade for a stream of this size.\nFrom the head of the rapid water to Germansen Landing at the\nmouth of Germansen Creek, a distance of twelve miles, with the exception of a few small riffles the current is easy, from two to three\nmiles an hour. The river has a width of about 100 yards, and for\npart of the way becomes very tortuous, winding from side to side of\nthe wide flats which now border it. Before reaching Germansen\nCreek the Omenica turns almost due west and continues in this direction for many miles.\nGermansen Landing, in the old days was a place of considerable im- Cermansen\nportance, as most of the supplies for the Germansen and Manson Creek Landing,\ncamps were brought from Tacla Lake across to the Omenica, floated\ndown the stream in bouts and landed here for distribution. In recent 10 C FINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nyears this route has been abandoned, and such supplies as are needed\nfor the few remaining miners are brought in by pack-train.\nTrail to Man- A trip was made on foot from the Landing to Manson Creek. The\nson Cree t. tra,i\\t onf;e trodden deep by gold-seekers, is now scarcely distinguishable\nin places, and in others is badly blocked by fallen timber. It leads\nacross a burnt plateau for a couple of miles, and then descends into\nthe (Jeep valley of Germansen Creek. Extensive mining operations\nwere once carried on at this point, but have long since ceased. A\nfew deserted houses and some decaying flumes remain to tell the story\nof a brief activity and a sudden death. A mile farther up, the ' trail\ncrosses Germansen Creek, at a place where the stream is closely confined between two rocky walls, by a dilapidated-looking bridge consisting of a single half rotten stringer bent downward under the weight\nof a number of dependant fragments. From the bridge we followed\na rough trail along the east side of the stream to a mining camp which\nstill preserves^ some signs of life. Three white men and one China-\nGold on Ger- man were found here. Gold on Germansen Creek has been obtained\nmansenCreek, i^^ from rjVer-flats and bars, and from gravels underlying the boulder-\nclay and referred to the early part of the glacial period. The flats\nhave been worked out, but extensive areas of the auriferous glacial\ngravels are still untouched. Some work was being done on the latter\nat the time of our visit, but on too limited a scale to afford satisfactory\nresults. Above the mining camp, the trail leaves Germansen Creek,\ncrosses a ridge about 1300 feet high and theu descends into the valley\nof Slate Creek, a tributary of Manson Creek. Two miles farther on\nwe reached the town of Manson, situated on Manson Creek, formerly\nthe richest creek in the district.\nGold on Man- Gold was first found on Manson Creek in 1891, and for two or three\nyears the bars proved exceedingly productive, but since then the yield\nhas been gradually diminishing, and at the present time the little\nwork that is being done barely pays expenses. Gold was found in\npaying quantity along the bed of the creek for a couple of miles, and\nalso in two of the tributary valleys. The glacial gravels here, as in\nGermansen Creek, are auriferous and have been worked to some extent,\nand it is highly probable that a large proportion of the gold found in\nthe bed of the stream is concentrated from these deposits.\nTrails. Manson Creek is connected by trail with Quesnel by way of Stuart\nLake, and with Hazel ton on the Skeena by way of Tom's Cieek and\nTacla Lake, but the former trail, and the latter for part of the way,\nare in a bad state of repair, and mining operations are greatly hampered by the high freight charges on supplies. The rate from Hazelton,\nthe cheapest route, amounts at present to 17 cents per pound. MCCONNELL\nDESCRIPTION OF ROUTES. 11 C\nWe returned from Manson Creek by the same route and continued\nup the Omenica. \u2014\nAbove the mouth of Germansen Creek the Omenica occupies a wide\nvalley, bottomed in places by marshy flats, behind which appear ranges\nof high mountains. The current for a considerable distance, except\nfor. a couple of short riffles, is easy, and in places the stream has a\nlake-like appearance. The change in the character of the river from Character of\nthe high grades and rocky bottoms which prevail in the lower reaches,\nto the slight inclination and basin-like alluvium-filled depression which\nit occupies here, point to crustal movements of some magnitude for\ntheir explanation.\nSlack current on the Omenica continues nearly to New Hogem, a\ndistance, measured along the valley, of about twenty-three miles. The\nlength of the river is fully one-third more, as in places it becomes very\ntortuous. Above New Hogem the Omenica enters a granite area and\na rapid current is again encountered, which continued to Old Hogem,\na distance of eight miles.\nThe character of the country through which the Omenica flows, Mountains\nwith the exception of a few miles at its mouth, is everywhere mountainous. A range culminating in peaks exceeding 5000 feet in height,\ncrosses the river a few miles above the canon and extends far to the\nnorthward. West of this range the elevations are lower and have a\nmore irregular distribution, but long before reaching Tacla Lake high\nrocky peaks again dominate the landscape.\nFrom the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains west to Tacla Lake Absence of\n(the western limit of the exploration), with the exception of the long- l\"ains.\nitudinal valleys of the Finlay River and Tacla Lake, no flat lands of\nany importance are met with. The whole region is ridged up into a\nsuccession of lofty ranges. The valleys and the lower slopes of the\nmountains are, as a rule, densely timbered with the monotonous evergreen forest so prevalent in the north. The principal varieties are the\nwhite spruce (Picea alba) and the black pine (Pinus Murrayana).\nThe latter is usually found on dry sandy and gravelly flats and ridges. yorest.\nThe smooth- and rough-barked poplars (Populus tremidoides and\nP. balsamifera) occur in some abundance locally, but are usually confined to the valley. The summits of all the higher mountains are bare,\nas the forest seldom ascends in this region beyond an elevation of\n5200 feet.\nAbove Old Hogem the Omenica bends more to the north and runs Trail to Tacla\nnearly parallel to the strike of the rocks. As little geological infor- Lake,\nmation was obtainable by following the river, it was decided to leave 12 C FINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nit and to make a traverse on foot to Tacla Lake across the strike of\nthe rocks. The old trail from Hogem to Vital Creek is still in good\ncondition. From Vital Creek to Tom's Creek the trail is little used,\nbut for the remainder of the distance on to Tacla Lake a good trail\nhas been recently built by the Provincial Government in order to\nfacilitate communication with the mining camp at Tom's Creek. The\ntrail leaves the Omenica at Old Hogem and follows up the valley of\nVital Creek. Silver Creek to Vital Creek, a tributary of the latter, passing over\nsandy and gravelly flats, forested with black pine, most of the way.\nBefore reaching Vital Creek the trail leaves the wide valley of the\nOmenica and enters the mountains. Vital Creek is a rapid mountain\nstream twenty or thirty feet wide and four or five miles long. Gold\nwas discovered on it in 1869, and it has been worked more or less ever\nsince, but latterly with but little profit.\nGold on Vital Three white men, including Mr. Vital the discoverer, and some\nChinamen, were engaged on it at the time of our visit, but they did\nnot speak hopefully of their prospects, and the stream may be regarded\nas worked out. A considerable quantity of silver amalgam (arquerite)\nhas been found with the gold in the alluvial washings on Vital Creek.\nIt has not been found in situ. ,\nFrom Vital Creek the trail follows up Silver Creek for a couple of\nmiles, and then turns westward up a branch running parallel to Vital\nCreek. Three miles from Silver Creek the valley widens out, and\nfor some miles its bottom is filled with a succession of small lakes\nTom's Creek, connected by short winding streams. Nine miles from Silver Creek\nwe reached Tom's Creek, a small mountain stream coming from the\nsouth. Tom's Creek, as an auriferous stream, was not discovered until\n1889, and was practically worked out during the years 1890-91-92.\nIn 1892, about a dozen white men and Indians and a few Chinamen\nwere at work on it, but few of the claims did much more than pay\nexpenses. The discovery of an auriferous stream like Tom's Greek,\nclose to Vital Creek, twenty years after the finding of gold on the\nlatter, shows what a small proportion of the country has yet been\nthoroughly prospected.\nFrom Tom's Creek we followed up the wide valley of Kenny Creek\nfor nine miles, passing several small lakes on the way, to the summit\nof the pass between the Omenica and Tacla Lake. The elevation of\nthe summit is approximately 1644 feet above Tacla Lake, or 3915\nfeet above the sea. After crossing the summit, the track followed for\na short distance a stream flowing towards Tacla Lake; then, after\ncrossing a spur from the mountains, it descends rapidly towards Tacla UcCONnell.] FINLAY RIVER. 13 C\nLake, reaching the latter about half a mile below the old landing.\nThree miles from the landing a sharp descent of 700 feet was made\nover the face of an escarpment running parallel with the lake.\nTacla Lake is one of those long narrow bodies of water so prevalent Tacla Lake,\nthroughout British Columbia. It occupies a great longitudinal valley,\nrunning parallel with that at the western base of the Rocky Mountains which now holds the Finlay and Parsnip. The two valleys are\nseparated by about eighty miles of rough mountainous country.\nTacla Lake was not examined except for three or four miles south of\nthe landing. It is from two to three miles in width, and is bordered\non both sides by heavily timbered flats several miles wide. It is separated from Babine Lake, which occupies a somewhat similar valley\nfarther to the west, by the Fire-pan Mountains.\nThe most notable feature of the country in the latitude of the Mountainous\nOmenica and Finlay rivers, or from latitude 55\u00b0 30' to latitude 57\u00b0 or 00un'*y-\nbeyond, is its universal mountainous character. In this latitude, the\nwhole country from the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains westward to the Pacific Ocean is destitute of plains of any considerable\nextent, and with the exception of the breaks where the region is\ncrossed by the valleys mentioned above, is covered with a succession\nof mountains and mountain ranges varying in height from 3000 to\n5000 feet above the valleys. In no other part of British Columbia is\nthe country so persistently mountainous across the whole Cordilleran\nbelt.\nFinlay River.\nThe Finlay River is named after John Finlay, who ascended it in Finlay River.\n1824 in the interests of the North-west Company. The journal kept\nby Mr. Finlay on this journey has never been published. It is now at\nCumberland House in the possession of Mr. James McDougall of the\nHudson Bay Co., where it was seen and some extracts taken from it Previous ex-\nby Mr. J. B. Tyrrell in 1894. Miners are also reported to have as- l,loratlon-\ncended the river to varying distances during the Omenica excitement,\nand in 1891 an exploring expedition sent by the British Columbia\nGovernment ascended it to Fort Grahame a distance of about forty-five\nmiles.\nThe Finlay River is much the larger of the two streams which form General char-\nPeace River, and is practically the upper part of that river. It has a fav River\"\"1\" 14 c\nFINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nCurrent a\nwidth.\nAuriferous\nbar.\ntotal length of about 310 miles,* and ranges in width from thirty\nyards, where it issues from the expansion at the Fishing Lakes, to 300\nyards near its mouth. The Finlay drains a region which is everywhere of a mountainous character and is itself bordered throughout\nthe whole of its course by lofty mountain ranges. Its navigation, for\ntwo hundred miles above its mouth, with the exception of one cafion\nhalf a mile in length, is easy, the current seldom exceeding five miles\nan hour, but farther up, its course is interrupted for many miles by a\nlong succession of canons and rapids. Its branches interlock with\ntributaries of the Skeena, Stikine and Liard rivers, and low passes\nthrough the mountains from one basin to the other are not uncommon.\nnd The Finlay River from its mouth to its junction with the Omenica,\nwinds through a wide flat, skirting the western base of the Rocky\nMountains. It has a width in places of 300 yards or more, but is\nusually divided into several channels by islands and gravel bars. The\ncurrent is easy, averaging about three miles an hour at a medium stage\nof water. The bars along this stretch of the river are all auriferous,\nand one of them, called Pete Toy's Bar after the discoverer, yielded\na large amount of gold in the early days of mining in the country.\nThe gold in this reach is probably mostly derived from the Omenica.\nThe Omenica River contributes about one-fifth of the whole water\nof the Finlay, at its confluence. A mile above the Omenica, the\nOspica joins the Finlay from the east. It enters the latter in two\nbranches each about a hundred feet wide. The Ospica was ascended\nand prospected by a party of miners some years ago, but no paying\nbars were discovered. It runs in a southerly direction, and cuts off\na long rounded ridge from the main range of the Rockies. Above the\nOspica River. Ospica, the Finlay runs, with the exception of one bend, in a nearly\nstraight direction for twelve miles. It has a width here of about 200\nyards and a current of scarcely two miles an hour, the slowest in the\nwhole course of the river. It occupies a depression about four miles\nin width, bounded on the west by a gneissic ridge which commences\nat'the Black Canon on the Omenica and runs northward with gradually increasing height, and on the east by the rounded ridge which\n^.*The total length of the Finlay-Peace-Mackenzie watercourse is approximately\n2362 miles, made up as follows :\u2014\nMiles.\nFinlay River 310\nPeace 757\nSlave \u201e 240\nGreat Slave Lake 90\nMackenzie River 965 ,\n2362 FINLAY RIVER.\n15 C\nseparates the Ospica from the Finlay. The latter is overlooked, farther Finlay Valley,\nto the east, by the peaks and ridges of the main range of the Rocky\nMountains.\nThe depression in which the Finlay flows, is floored with a varying\nthickness of sands, clays and gravels, forming a forested plain, in\nwhich the river has cut a valley to a depth of about a hundred feet.\nNo rock is exposed along this part of the river. The material shown Absence of\nin the banks of the valley contains numerous scratched and polished J^^ *\npebbles and boulders, and is evidently of glacial origin, but appears in\nsome instances to have been redistributed. Above the straight reach\njust described, on to Fort Grahame, a distance of about twenty-one\nmiles in a straight line, the Finlay becomes more tortuous and is\nobstructed by islands and bars, the river being frequently divided\ninto half a dozen different channels.\nDrift-piles are everywhere present. They occur at the heads of all Drift-piles,\nthe bars and islands, and, alternating from one bank to the other, form\nin places an almost continuous line along the river. The drift-wood\nis derived from the washing away of the forested flats bordering the\nriver, and the enormous amount carried down during high water each\nyear measures the destructive power of the stream. Rapid changes\nin the course of the river are notable features in this reach, the main\nchannel of one season being often represented in the next by a scarcely\nused slough.\nNear Fort Grahame, the mountains on the west, approach close to Ascent of\nthe river and sections of limestone and gneiss are exposed. An as- mo\u2122taln at\ncent of the range east of the fort was made on August 10th. The\nriver is bordered on the east by a series of scarps and terraces rising\nup to a height of 275 feet with a width of about three miles.\nThe main terrace has a height of 175 feet above the river and is\nthickly wooded with black pine. Near the mountains the pine is\nreplaced by white spruce. The lower slopes of the mountain are well\nforested up to a height of 2000 feet above the river, but above that\nelevation the trees gradually thin out, and a thousand feet higher up\nthey cease altogether. The elevation of the timber-line in this district Elevation of\nis approximately 5200 feet above the sea. From the point ascended, tmlDer-lme-\nthe valley of the Finlay could be followed southward to the mouth of\nthe Omenica and northward could be seen stretching out in a nearly\nstraight direction for over sixty miles, or as far as the eye could pierce\nthe haze. In all this distance it preserves a nearly uniform width of\nfrom four to six miles. Looking up the valley, the most striking\nobject in view was a range of mountains about forty miles distant, 16 C FINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nwhich appeared in the evening light to be almost pure white. They\nwere afterwards examined and found to be composed of a much altered\ncompact limestone. Westward, range after range of nameless mountains, running nearly parallel to the valley of the Finlay, extended to\nthe horizon, while eastward the view was soon obstructed by the higher\npeaks of the central ranges of the Rockies. Patches of snow cling\nround the summits of most of the higher mountains, but no flowing\nglaciers were seen. The heights of the principal peaks range from\n7000 to 7500 feet above the sea.\nTrails. The range bordering the valley on the west is broken through oppo\nsite Fort Grahame by a small stream flowing into the Finlay, up which\na trail leads which can be followed through the mountains to Bear\nLake, a distance of sixty or seventy miles. A second trail from Fort\nGrahame is stated to run eastward to the Liard.\nFrom Fort Grahame to the Ingenica, a distance of sixteen miles in a\nstraight line, and about twenty miles following the curves of the river,\nthe Finlay is characterized by the same features which prevail below.\nIt is divided into numerous channels by islands and bars, and holds a\nnearly straight course along the centre of the great depression it occupies, never touching the mountains on either side and seldom even\ncutting into the bordering terraces. The current is rapid, averaging\nfully five miles an hour.\nIngenica The Ingenica is the first large stream which enters the Finlay from\nthe west above the Omenica. It is a clear, rapid river fifty to sixty\nyards wide, and is reported to be navigable up to the forks, a distance\nof about thirty miles, above which it is filled with rapids.\nAn Indian trail to Bear Lake runs along its bank. The Ingenica is\nwell worthy of being prospected, as it must cut through the same band\nof green and dark schists from which the gold in the Omenica country\nis derived. Fine gold was found in the wash at the mouth of the\nriver.\nFourteen miles above the Ingenica, the Finlay is narrowed in by\na canon named Deserters' Cafion by Finlay. For part of the distance\nthe stream presents its usual characteristics, but five miles below the\ncanon the islands and bars disappear and it is confined to one channel\nvarying in width from to 200 to 250 yards. Above the Ingenica the\nFinlay bends slightly to the west, and at the cafion it approaches the\nbase of the range bordering the valley on the east. On the west the\nspace between the river and the mountains is occupied by a plain five\nto six miles in width wooded with poplar, spruce, and black pi' e. iicconneu-] FINLAY RIVER. 17 C\nDeserters' Cafion is situated about ninety miles above the mouth of Deserters'\nthe Finlay River, and is the first interruption to its navigation. This Canon,\ncanon is about half a mile long and in the narrowest places scarcely\nexceeds a hundred feet in width. It is cut through hard conglomerate\nand sandstone. The walls, except at the lower end, where there is a\nsteep conglomerate cliff, are not very high. The channel is crooked\nand is interrupted by several bad riffles. Deserters' Cafion can be\nrun at certain stages of water but its navigation is dangerous. A\ngood portage-track half a mile in length has been cut out by the Indians along the we^t bank.\nAbove Deserters' Canon, the Finlay makes a couple of great bends\nto the west, above which it receives the A-ki-e River from the east. At\nthe bends high cut-banks of boulder-clay, silts and gravel, are exposed.\nThe white limestone mountains seen from Fort Grahame are now\ndirectly west. This range commences west of the Cafion and extends White moun-\nnorth-westward. It evidently, from its condition, marks a line of dis- talns-\nturbance and probably of faulting. The range immediately east of\nthe valley is still composed of gneiss and mica-schists, but farther\nback, bare sharp crested mountains come into view, which are probably\nbuilt of limestone.\nThe Akie River has not been explored. It enters the Finlay in Akie River,\ntwo branches, the larger of which is one hundred feet wide; its valley\nis wide and cuts straight back into the mountains for a distance of\nabout twelve miles; it then bends to the north, but sends a branch\nsouthward. The wash in the bed of the Akie is principally limestone\nand does not contain gold. Above the mouth of the Akie, the Finlay\npursues a very tortuous course as far as Paul's Branch, a distance\nmeasured in a straight line of about twenty-one miles, but following\nthe course of the river for thirty-five miles. In several points of this\nreach, the river is bordered by high gravel and boulder-clay banks, in\nsome cases exceeding 250 feet in height. The valley maintains a\nwidth of from five to six miles for part of the distance, but six miles\nbelow Paul's Branch, a range rises up west of the river which narrows\nit in to about three miles. The ranges bordering the valley on both\nsides have a height in this latitude of about 3000 feet above the\nvalley.\nPaul's Branch is a small stream about thirty feet in width. Its Paul'sBrsmch.\nvalley is narrow and canon-like where it breaks through the gneissic\nrange that borders the Rockies on the west, but widens out when it\nreaches the softer rocks behind. No gold was found on Paul's Branch,\nbut good prospects were obtained from a couple of streams which enter\n2 18 c\nFINLAY\" AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nLowermoun-\ntains.\nQuadacha\nRiver.\nGreat valley.\nthe Finlay from the west, a few miles lower down. The mountains\neast of the bordering gneissic range of the Rockies are comparatively\nlow in this latitude, and are separated by wide wooded valleys often\nholding lakes of considerable size. Their lower elevation is due to the\nrelatively softer and more easily eroded nature of the argillites and\ncalc-schists of which they are composed. Farther back, near the\ncentre of the range, the calc-schists are replaced by hard limestones,\nand higher and bolder-looking mountains again prevail.\nFrom Paul's Branch to the Qua-da-cha, or Whitewater, a distance\nof eleven miles, the Finlay runs in a nearly straight direction, skirting\nthe base of the range bordering it on the east. The width of the\nriver here is about 250 yards, and its current has a rate of about four\nmiles and a half an hour.\nThe Quadacha, or Whitewater, as it is appropriately termed on\nmost of the maps, is' the largest stream which enters the Finlay from\nthe east, and is usually referred to as \"The Fork,\" although its volume\nis scarcely one-sixth that of the main river. It is a deep rapid stream\nabout one hundred feet wide. Its water is filled and whitened with\nfine sediment, evidently derived from glaciers, and presents a strong\ncontrast in this respect to the clear blue water of the main stream.\nThe two streams flow side by side for several miles before commingling. The Quadacha follows the western side of the same valley\nwhich the Finlay has occupied for so long, for several miles, and then\nturns eastward into the Rockies. It is reported by the Indians to\nfork soon after entering the mountains, one branch coming from a\nlarge lake, while the other heads in a glacier near the centre of the\nrange. At the Quadacha, the Finlay bends to the west, and three miles\nfurther on receives the Tochieca, a stream about seventy-five feet\nwide. Soon after, still turning westward, it leaves the great valley\nwhich it has hitherto occupied. The valley extends northward with\nundiminished size, although it now holds only an insignificant tributary of the Finlay.\nThe great Inter-montane valley referred to above, and of which\nmention is so frequently made in this report, forms one of the most\nimportant topographical features of British Columbia. It crosses the\ninternational boundary about longitude 115\u00b0 10' W. and runs in a\ndirection N. 33\u00b0 W. along the western base of the Rocky Mountains,\nseparating the latter from the Selkirks and other ranges on the west,\nfor a distance of over 800 miles. It is entirely independent of the\noresent drainage systems of the country, as it is occupied successively,\nbeginning at the boundary, by a number of rivers belonging to distinct ^ICCONNELl.\nFINLAY RIVER. 19 C\nsystems, among which are the Kootanie, the Columbia, Canoe River,\nthe Fraser, Bad River, the Parsnip, the Finlay and the Tochieca. The\nlink between Bad River and the Fraser has not yet been surveyed,\nand its extension, if any, beyond the Tochieca is still unknown. Its\nwidth varies from two to fifteen miles, and it is everywhere inclosed,\nexcept for some distance along the west bank of the Parsnip, by\nmountain ranges varying in height from 3000 to 6000 feet or more\nabove the valley.\nThe width of the valley does not depend on the size of the stream\nwhich occupies it at any particular place. It is fully as wide along width of\nthe smaller streams and at the watersheds which separate the different vaUsy-\nstreams, as along great rivers like the Columbia and the Finlay. The\naverage height of the bottom of the valley above the sea is about\n2300 feet, and the variation in height is about 1000 feet. The heights\nof the watersheds in. the valley are approximately as follows : Koo- Height abcwe\ntanie-Columbia, 2740 feet ; Columbia-Fraser, 2900 feet; Peace-Liard, the sea-\n3100 feet. The increase in height of the watersheds \"toward the\nnorth, does not hold good in regard to the depressions. The Columbia\nleaves the valley at a height of 2050 feet, the Fraser at a height of\n2100 feet (?), and the Peace at a height of 2020. The two former\nstreams break through the ranges bounding the valley on the west,\nwhile the latter cuts through its eastern walls. None of the streams\noccupying the great valley, the salient features of which have just been\ndescribed, are doing much rock-cutting at the present time. Secondary\nvalleys are being sunk in most places through the old floor, but the\ncutting is usually through glacial deposits. The principal exception\nto this is in the case of the Columbia, which has done considerable\nrock excavation in the reach extending from above Donald down to\nthe Big Bend, the point at which it leaves the valley. It now flows,\nfor part of the distance, in a rock-walled narrow channel eroded\nthrough the floor of the old depression. In no place is any widening\nof the old valley going on.\nThe age of the valley has not been worked out, but it is evident\nthat it long antedates the inception of the present drainage system of Age of valley\nthe country, and may have been in existence before the elevation of\nthe Rocky Mountains proper. Rocks of Tertiary age (probably Miocene) are supposed by Dr. Dawson to underlie part of the southern\nportion of the valley, while sandstones and conglomerates of Laramie\nage are found in places along both the Parsnip and Finlay. Glacial\n\u25a0deposits are present throughout its whole extent.*\n*See on this great valley, sketch of Phys. Geol. and Geol. of Canada, Sehvyn and\nDawson, 1884, p. 34. Annual Report, Geol. Surv. Can., vol. I, (N.S.), p. 28 B.\n2i 20 C FINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nThe Finlay River, as already stated, turns to the west above its junction with the Tochieca and breaks a gap about a mile wide through\nthe range bounding the valley on that side. The part of the range\nPrairie Moun- adjoining the river on the north, is called Prairie Mountain by the\nIndians, on account of the bare slope it presents on the southern exposure. An ascent of Prairie Mountain was made. It is a steep-\nsided flat-topped elevation about 2400 feet high. The aspen and\nspruce forest which covers the narrow plain at its base extends up its\nlower slopes for a few hundred feet, above which the trees become\nmore scattered and inclose large grassy areas. The summit of the\nmountain is covered with low shrubs, varied at intervals with clumps\nof stunted spruce (Picea alba), balsam (Abies subalpina) and black\npine. Farther to the north the ridge increases in elevation and is\nsurmounted by bare rocky peaks.\nView from From the point ascended, a view of the great valley which holds the\ntajn ! Finlay and the Tochieca was obtainable for fifty miles or more in each\ndirection. Northward, as far as visible, it maintains a straight wide\ncourse, and is characterized by the same features which prevail below.\nThe range bordering it on the east is regular and well defined, and has\nan elevation of about 2500 feet above the level of the valley. This is\nsucceeded by somewhat lower round-topped ranges, behind which is a\nseries of massive looking limestone mountains forming the summit of\nthe range. The latter support the large glacier from which the Quadacha issues. Westward, mountains appeared everywhere, apparently\nincreasing in elevation towards the west, and culminating at a distance\nof forty or fifty miles in a range, the higher peaks of which approach\n6000 feet in height. A number of small glaciers appear dotted along\nthis range at the bases of the higher peaks. No plains were visible in\nany direction.\nThe Finlay River, after passing Prairie Mountain, bends again to the\nnorth-west, and runs for some miles nearly parallel to the continuation\nRapids. of the great valley occupied by it below. The current gradually\nincreases and twelve miles above the mouth of the Tochieca its navigation, except at very low water, is practically stopped by a long\ncafion. We ascended the canon for two miles, and then as an examination showed that the river for many miles ahead was simply a\nsuccession of canons, riffles and rapids, it was decided to cache the\ncanoes and continue the exploration on foot.\nLong Canon. The Long Cafion has a length of about five miles. The river in this\ndistance is frequently narrowed in to less than a hundred feet in width,\nthe constriction often resulting in the production of wild rapids. The\nwalls are irregular and are built partly of Tertiary conglomerates, and \u2022tcoNNELL. ] FINLAY' RIVER. 21 C\npartly of Palaeozoic calc-schists and limestones, arranged in steep and\noften vertical cliffs from fifty to one hundred feet in height, and capped\nabove by steeply sloping scarped glacial beds. The total depth of the\ngorge at the upper end exceeds 600 feet. Above the Long Canon, the\nFinlay for five miles is a swift shallow stream about 150 yards wide.\nIt is then interrupted by a second but shorter canon, through which\nits waters pour in an exceedingly turbulent manner. The river for\nsome miles above the s- cond canon was not examined.\nLeaving the river at the lower end of the Long Cafion, we climbed Leave the\nout of the valley, here about 300 feet deep, and skirted for some miles rlver-\nthe base of the range bounding the valley on the west; then, turning\nmore to the north, we descended into the valley of a small stream,\nwhich falls into the Finlay below the second cafion. This stream\noccupies the eastern slope of a wide valley which runs directly westward and meets the Finlay again beyond the great semicircular bend\nwhich the latter describes above the second canon. The space between\nthis valley and the Finlay is occupied by a long mountain, about 3000\nfeet high above the valle}7, which was named Mt. Finlay.\nTravelling up the valley proved to be very difficult owing to fallen Difficult\ntimber, and we were obliged, for most of the way, to follow the bed of\nthe stream, crossing and recrossing it continually. Nine miles from\nour cache, the stream that we were following turned south into the\nmountains. Here we, left it, and, continuing westward, shortly afterwards reached a couple of narrow lakes, the first about two miles and\nthe second about one mile in length. No water was flowing from\nthese lakes, but in seasons of flood they evidently drain eastward, as\nthe valley ascends beyond them.\nHalf a mile from the second lake we reached the summit of the Reach the\npass, and three miles further on came again to the Finlay, here flowing mla5'-\nin a north-easterly direction. The river at this point is about 150\nyards wide and is swift and shallow. We followed up the right (east)\nbank, and two miles further on reached the junction of the Finlay and\nThudaca, a rapid mountain stream heading in the Peak Range. Above\nthe Thudaca the Finlay has a rapid flow, and is interrupted by several\nsmall falls and rapids for a distance of six miles. Above this reach,\nwhat appears to be an old lake basin begins, the rocky banks and bed\nwhich characterize it below, suddenly disappear, and are replaced by\nclay, silt and gravel. The current diminishes to about a mile and a Diminution\nhalf an hour, and the stream expands to twice its usual size. The flatln current-\nbordering the river is intersected by sloughs, and holds a couple of\nsmall sheets of water, known to the Indians as the Fishing Lakes. 22 C PINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nThe valley here has a width of about a mile and a half, and is\nbordered by mountains, 4000 to 5000 feet above the river, belonging-\nGlaciers, to the Peak Range. Numerous small isolated glaciers, descending to\na height of about 2500 feet above the river, occur in the depressions\nbetween the summits, but no extended ice-field was noticed. The expanded lake-like portion of the Finlay has a length of about eighteen\nmiles. Near its head, the river divides into several branches, none\nof which were explored by us. The western branch (called Thucatade\nby Finlay) was ascended by Mr. Finlay, and is stated by him, in the\njournal referred to before, to be thirty-five miles in length and to head\nin a narrow lake, sixteen to twenty miles long, called Lake Thutade\nby the Indians.\nGeological Observations.\nRock exposures.\nLandslip.\nRocks at\nBlack Canon.\nLaramie\nrocks.\nOmenica River Section.\nRock exposures on the Omenica commence at the Black Cafion, five\nmiles above its mouth. Below the Black Canon the valley is cut\nthrough the glacial and alluvial deposits which floor the narrow plain\nbordering the Finlay. A good section of the latter, consisting here of\nclays, sands and gravels, was observed about a mile above the mouth of\nthe river. A landslip of considerable magnitude occurred at this\npoint not long ago, by v\/hich material from the north bank of the\nvalley was carried right across the main channel of the river and\ndeposited on the further side. No permanent change in the course of\nthe stream was effected by this slide, as the blocked channel was\nquickly cleared by the rapid river.\nAt the Black Canon, the valley for half a mile is bordered by sharp\nrocky walls consisting of medium-grained muscovite gneisses, micaceous\nand chloritic schists, and quartzites. At the upper end of the canon\nthe gneisses and schists are overlaid by a bed of hard grayish limestone,\nfilled with mica, quartz, and other impurities. The general strike of\nthe rocks at the cafion is S. 58\u00b0 E. and the dip is south-westerly at an\nangle of 28\u00b0. The gneiss and mica-schists of the Black Canon\nrepresent the oldest rock series found in the Omenica district and are\nundoubtedly of Archaean age. They run in a north-westerly direction\nparallel to the course of the Finlay for many miles. Their extension\nsouthward has not been worked out.\nThe Archtean gneisses and schists of the Black Cauon, are succeeded\nin the valley of the Omenica by a series of shales, sandstones and\nconglomerates of Laramie age. These rocks occur in several places in wcconnell. ] OMENICA RIVER SECTION. 23 C\nthe Omenica and Finlay River districts, but so far as observed are\neverywhere confined to the valleys. They usually strike parallel, or\nnearly so, to the general direction of the valleys in which they lie, and\nconform approximately in dip to the older rocks on which they rest.\nAbove the Black Canon the strike is S. 28\u00b0 E. and the dip is southwesterly at an angle of 30\u00b0.\nThe materia's of these conglomerates and associated beds have been\nderived from the Archaean gneisses and schists and the Palaeozoic\nschists and- limestones which floor the surrounding country. The\nconglomerate consists of pebbles of quartz, felsite, chert, schist and\nlimestone, imbedded in a soft sand or clay matrix, occasionally hardened by a feruginous cement. The shales are usually dark in colour,\nare coarsely laminated and often pass by the gradual addition of\narenaceous material into a shaly sandstone. Mica enters largely into\nthe composition of the rocks of this series, and in some instances beds\na foot or more in thickness were observed, which consisted almost\nentirely of this material.\nFossil leaves and other vegetable remains are abundant in some of Fossils.\nthe shales and shaly sandstones, but are usually in a somewhat fragmentary condition. Among the specimens brought back, Sir J. Wm.\nDawson has recognized fragments of the stem of an Arundo, Sequoia\nLangsdorffii and S. Gouttsia;, a Populus like P. Arctica, a Platanus, a\nQuercus, a Viburnum, probably V. asper, Newberry, and a carpolite\nresembling Leguminosiles arachnoides, Lesquereux. The only animal\nfossils found were a couple of Ostracods which have not yet been\nspecifically determined.\nThe Tertiary beds are exposed above the cafion in a nearly continuous section for about a mile, and at intervals for several miles\nfarther. Two miles and a half below the mouth of the Tchutetzeca a\nledge of limestone projects out from the left bank, and is also exposed\non an island in the centre of the stream. The limestone here is very Limestone ex-\nhard, an '. evidences its proximity to a line of strong disturbance in its Posures-\nwhitened and cracked appearance, and in the schistose condition of\nsome associated shaly beds. A mile further up. an exposure of hardened shales, holding some beds of impure limestone, was noticed in the\nright bank, which probably belongs to the Laramie series. At the\nbend of the Omenica above the mouth of the Tchutetzeca, grayish-\nlimestones are exposed in several places, and they also occur in the\nmountains north of the river. No fossils were found in these lime Age of limestones, and their age is therefore uncertain, but they probably belong s one' 24 c\nFINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nGneiss.\nArchsean\nrocks.\nBow River\nseries.\nCastle Mountain limestones.\nOrder of succession.\nto the Castle Mountain group, a series which includes beds: ranging:\nfrom the Middle Cambrian to the Cambro-Silurian.*\nAbove the limestone outcrops just referred to, exposures aue wanting for a distance of over two miles and then hard garnetiferous gneiss;\nappears in the banks of the valley. The Bow River series: of conglomerates, quartzites and argillites which usually separates the Castle-\nMountain limestone from the Archaean was not observed and! may be\ncut off by a fault. '\nArchaean rocks commence about a mile and a half below the mouth\n\u25a0of the Oslinca and are exposed along the river for a distance of twelve\nmiles. The principal variety consists of a medium grained biotite-\ngneiss. Muscovite- and hornblende-gneisses are also present, but are\nless abundant. A felspathic augen-gneiss occurs in one section and\ngarnetiferous gneisses were observed at several horizons. Lustrous\nmica-schists and soft hydro-mica schists alternate with the gneisses in\nbands and beds, and constitute a considerable proportion of the formation. The Archaean outcrop crossed by the Omenica has the form\nof a great anticline, with its eastern limb dipping in a north-easterly\ndirection at angles ranging from 30\u00b0 to 70\u00b0 and the western limb\ndipping in a south-westerly direction at correspondingly steep angles.\nThe strike is S. 48\u00b0 E.\nThe Archaean gneisses and schists are overlain by the Bow River\nseries consisting here, as elsewhere, of grayish conglomerates and\nquartzites, and hard dark slates. The conglomerates are rather finegrained, the pebbles seldom exceeding a third of an inch in diameter,\nand are crushed and altered in places into a schistose condition. The\npebbles consist principally of quartz and felspar. The Bow River\nrocks are exposed along the river for two miles. They are succeeded\nand overlain in turn by grayish unfossiliferous limestone similar in\nand,\nps to\ncharacter to that exposed below the mouth of the Tchutetzeca,\nlike it, probably belonging to the Castle Mountain group. It di_\nthe south-west at angles ranging from 40\u00b0 to 50\u00b0.\nThe three series of rocks briefly described above, viz., the Archaean\ngneisses and schists (Shuswap series), the Bow River conglomerates,\nquartzites and slates, and the Castle Mountain limestones, occur in a\nsimilar succession to that on the Omenica, so far as observed, all along\nthe Rocky Mountain range. In the section previously examined on\nthe Bow River the lower beds do not come to the surface, and in other\nplaces the relationship is obscured by faults and overturns, but when-\n*For a definition of this and the Bow River series, see Annual Report, Geol. Surv.\nCan., vol. II. (N.S.), pp. 240, 29n. iuconneu j OMENICA RIVER SECTION. ZO C\never the section is normal and complete the above described order\nobtains.\nThe Bow River conglomerates have a thickness on the Omenica of\nfrom 4000 to 5000 feet. The thickness of the Castle Mountain limestone was not ascertained.\nThe limestones are succeeded by a series of rocks which are entirely\ndifferent in character from those just described and are mainly of volcanic origin. At the bend of the river below Germansen Landing, Green vol-\nthree rounded hills, each about a thousand feet high, occur, which are\nbuilt principally of a green diabasic rock described by Mr. Ferrier as\na compact diabase tuff. This rock is massive in character along its\neastern border, but proceeding westward, lines of stratification are\n'gradually developed, and in a short distance it passes into a well-foliated green schist, interbedded in places with darker schists, apparently argillaceous in character. The lithological succession at this\npoint, indicates a gradual passage from massive volcanic rocks through\n-an imperfectly bedded pyroclastic variety to well foliated schists probably derived from volcanic ash.\nAt Germansen Landing, green schists, striking S. 48\u00b0 E., and dipp- Rocks on Ger-\ning at high1 angles, are exposed. In proceeding up Germansen Creek\n:the rocks, while apparently all belonging to the same series, display\ngreat variety. The predominant type for some miles is a green ash\nrock pressed and altered into a schist. Interbedded with it are layers\nof grauwacke, felsite, and hallaflinta, and bands of dolomite, serpentine, and magnesite. At one point below Clinton's an exposure of\nserpentine, sprinkled with decomposed crystals of felspar, was observed.\nNear Clinton's, on Germansen Creek, the green schists are replaced\nlargely by dark evenly bedded argillites. On the trail between Germansen Creek and Manson Creek, both green schists and dark argillites are largely developed. The latter are often speckled with yellow\nspots, due to decomposed pyrite crystals. The strike of the schists and\nargillites has an average direction of S. 55\u00b0 E. The dips are variable,\nbut are usually steep.\nGranite is reported to occur on Manson Creek, a mile above the Granite,\ntown of Manson. Its presence in the neighbourhood is evidenced by\nthe number of granite boulders of all sizes, which are scattered everywhere over the face of the country.\nBetween Germansen Landing and New Hogem, the rocks exposed\nalong the Omenica consist of green and dark schists similar to those\noutcropping on Germansen Creek, alternating with indistinctly foliated\ndiabase-tuffs. The latter in some places are destitute pf stratification 26 c\nKINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nand are not distinguishable in the field from the massive diabases.\nThey vary greatly in texture, passing gradually from a compact crypto-\nerystalline condition to a rock of medium grain.\nGranite. At New Hogem the schists and diabase tuffs are replaced by a\ndark-coloured medium-grained granite, usually of a hornblendic type.\nAn agglomeratic-looking rock, made up of granite and diabase debris,\nprobably a junction material, was found in the wash of a small stream\nwhich enters the Omenica immediately below New Hogem.\nGranite outcrops along the Omenica from New to Old Hogem, a\ndistance of about eight miles, and extends north and south of the\nriver in a direction parallel, or nearly so, to the prevalent strike of the\nneighbouring schistose rocks. The southern limit of the area was not\nascertained, and it is possible that it may be continuous with the\ngranite outcrops on Manson Creek.\nFrom New Hogem the trail to Tacla Lake via Vital and Tom's\nCreek was followed. An occurrence of granite half a mile south of\nthe river marks the western boundary of the granite area, as a short\ndistance away, greenish schists and dark gray argillites similar to those\nGreen schists, on Germansen Creek crop out in the valley of Silver Creek. Outcrops\nof the same argillites and schists occur in numerous exposures along\nthe route traversed until within a few miles of Tacla Lake. They are\ninstratified in places with grauwacke and beds of felsite. Hallaflinta\nand amphibolite are also not infrequent. The beds dip at high angles,\nusually towards the south-west, and are occasionally vertical. Seven\nmiles from Tacla Lake, the argillites and associated rocks are replaced\nby conglomerates, sandstones and shales of a somewhat similar char-\nacter'to those on the Omenica above the Black Canon. Conglomerates\nwere also found on the shores of Tacla Lake, and they probably form\nthe basement of the wide valley in which the lake is situated.\nThe Tacla valley conglomerates are more indurated than those on\nthe Omenica and have been subjected to greater disturbances, the\ntilting of the beds often amounting to 70\u00b0 and over. The age of the\nconglomerates is doubtful, as no fossils were obtained from them, but\nthey probably belong to the Cretaceous.\nConglomer\nates.\nFinlay River Section.\nFinlay River\nsection.\nThe Finlay section is much inferior to that afforded by the Omenica,\nas the direction of the river for long distances is parallel or nearly so\nto the strike of the rocks. No exposures occur along the lower part\nof the river. From its mouth up to the Omenica, the Finlay winds nceoNNELL. ] FINLAY RIVER SECTION. 27 C\nthrough a low alluvial plain without touching the bordering highlands\nor mountains. Above the mouth of the Omenica the banks increase\nin height, and where cut into by the stream, show glacial sands, gravels\nand clays, holding numerous scratched and polished boulders.\nA mile and a half below Fort Grahame, an exposure of hard grayish\ncontorted limestone appears on the west bank of the river, underlying\nmica-schists and gneisses. The limestone strikes N. 40\u00b0 W., and dips\nto the west at an angle of 70\u00b0 or over.\nAn examination was made of the mountains bordering the valley in Terraces,\nthe vicinity of Fort Grahame. The valley here has a width of about\nfive miles and is terraced on both sides of the river. The main terrace has a height above the stream of 175 feet. The other terraces,\nalthough plainly visible from a distance, could not be distinguished\nduring the ascent. Water-worn pebbles were found up to a height of\nover 2000 feet above the river.\nThe rocks observed consisted of lustrous mica-schists, mica-gneisses, Rooks in\nand hornblende-schists, bedded diorites, quartzites, and occasional nf0\u2122 (\u00a3?afaS\nbands of whitish crystalline limestone, all belonging to the Shuswap hame,\nseries.\nAt the base of the 'mountains the rocks dip to the south-west, at a\nhigh angle, but further up the dip diminishes and at the summit the\nbeds are nearly horizontal. The strike is approximately N. 40 W., or\nparallel to the direction of the valley.\nThe mountain west of the valley was ascended by Mr. Russel and\nare reported by him to consist of mica-schists, gneisses and limestones,\nsimilar to those east of the valley, dipping at high angles.\nNo glacial striae or grooves were noticed on either slope, but the Absence of\nrocks in places appeared to have been smoothed and rounded by ice Slaclal striae\nmoving in a south-easterly direction. From Fort Grahame to the\nmouth of the Ingenica, a distance of about twenty miles, no exposures\nwere noticed along the valley. The bordering mountain ranges, judging by the material brought down by numerous tributary streams, are\nbuilt mainly of gneiss and mica-schists. The latter outcrops in a\ncouple of places a short distance above the mouth of the Ingenic t.\nSix miles above the mouth of the Ingenica, plant-bearing conglomerates and sandstones of Laramie age appear in the valley. These\nbeds are similar in character to those in the Omenica, previously described. They appear to be confined entirely to the great valleys of the\ndistrict and to be absent from the highlands, and if ever deposited on\nthe latter have been entirely swept away. They rest partly on an '28\nFINLAY ANIT OMENICA RIVERS.\nShuswap\nseries.\nWhite limestone mountains.\nBordering\nranges.\nLaramie conglomerates.\nArchaean, and partly on a Palaeozoic floor, and have participated to\nsome extent in the later folding which has affected the region.\nThe pebbles of the conglomerates seldom exceed half an inch in\ndiameter and consist of rounded and sub-angular fragments derived\nfrom the disintegration of the schists, siates and quartzites of the\nneighbourhood. Below Deserters' Cafion, a ridge of hard conglomerate and sandstone, through which the stream has cut a narrow gorge,\ncrosses the valley. At the lower end of the cafion the walls are vertical\nin places, but farther up, the banks have weathered into a steep slope.\nDeserters' Cafion has the appearance of a recent channel, and probably owes its origin to an alteration in the course of the stream during\nthe glacial period, as the easily eroded material of which its banks are\nformed could not have withstood the assaults of a large swift stream\nheavily charged with sediment, such as the Finlay, for any lengthened\nperiod.\nThe Tertiary conglomerates and associated rocks are replaced, a short\ndistance east of the Deserters' Cafion, by the gneisses and mica-schists\nof the Shuswap series, but extend in a westerly direction for four or\nfive miles, or as far as the base of the mountain range bounding the\nvalley in this direction.\nAbove Deserters' Cafion, the valley is bordered on the west by a conspicuous range of white mountains from 2000 to 3000 feet in height. '\nOn closer examination these proved to be composed of a fine-grained,\nwhitish, compact limest\/ne. This rock weathers in places to a light\nyellow or rusty colour, and occasionally is very siliceous. No fossils\nwere found in it, but from its position relatively to the Shuswap\nseries it was referred to the Cambrian. The limestone is very much\ndisturbed and probably lies along a line of faulting running with the\nvalley.\nThe schists and gneisses of the Shuswap series form the bordering\nmountain ranges on both sides of the Finlay below the mouth of the\nIngenica, but above that point, while still continuing on the east, they\nrecede toward the west, and are replaced by the limestones referred to\nabove.\nFrom Deserters' Cafion to Paul's Branch, a distance of thirty miles\nin a straight line, the Finlay winds through the centre of its valley\nwithout touching the bordering mountain ranges. The valley in this\nstretch is floored throughout with Laramie conglomerates, sandstones\nand shales, exposures of which occur at intervals all along. These\nrocks here are usually little indurated and occasionally hold small\nlignite seams. Fossil plants occur in many of the beds. MCCONNEU.J FINLAY RIVER SECTION. 29 C\nTen miles below Paul's Branch, banks of glacial deposits 225 feet Glacial der.\nhigh occur at the bends of the stream. The banks are sloping below, posl 8-\nbut are capped with steep bluffs above consisting mostly of coarsely\nstratified gravels interbedded with bands of hard boulder-clay filled\nwith scratched boulders. The boulder-clay bands often pass into\ngravels when traced along their outcrop.\nAt Paul's Branch, the river approaches the mountains on the east, Paul'sBranch.\nand an opportunity was afforded for a short trip inland. Paul's\nBranch enters the Finlay through a deep narrow canon, cut through\nthe hard rocks of the outer range. Farther back, its valley becomes\nenlarged, and the stream soon splits up into several tributaries which\nwind through the wide marsh-filled valleys separating the hills and\nridges of the district.\nThe eastern range here, as elsewhere along the valley, consists of\nthe limestones, gneisses and schists of the Shuswap series. A band of\nhard compact limestone outcrops at the water's edge, while further\nback, bands of mica-gneisses, lustrous mica-schists, hornblende-schists,\nand occasionally quartzose-schists, alternate across the range. These\nrocks all dip to the south-west at angles from 50\u00b0 to 60\u00b0, and strike\nN. 73\u00b0 W.\nThe Shuswao series has a width at Paul's Branch of two miles. Width of band\nA ... . of Shuswap\nIt is succeeded towards the east by argillites calc-schists and lime- rocks.\nstones of Cambrian age, dipping in a south-west direction under the\nolder rocks. The contact between the two formations is apparently a\nfaulted one, the Shuswap series being thrust eastward over the\nyounger formation.\nThe ridges foi ming the central part of the Rocky Mountain range Rocks in cen-\nwere not examined closely, but, judging from their appearance and\nfrom the wash of the streams flowing from them, they are evidently\ncomposed of massive limestones, similar to those found in a corresponding position in other parts of the range.\nFrom Paul's Branch to the Quadacha, a distance of ten miles, the\nFinlay follows the eastern bank of the valley, and occasional exposures\nof the schists of the Shuswap series occur. A short distance below\nthe mouth of the Quadacha, Laramie conglomerates outcrop on the left\nbank.\nAt the Quadacha, the Finlay bends to the west and soon after leaves\nthe great valley which it has occupied from its mouth to this point.\nThe valley continues northward, and is occupied, after the Finlay\nabandons it, by the Tochieca a tributary. 30 c\nFINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nVolcanic\nschists.\nLaramie\nrocks.\nLimestones.\nCambrian conglomerates.\nIn crossing the valley Laramie rocks were seen in a couple of places,\nbut below the mouth of the Tochieca these are replaced by green\nschists, probably sheared and altered volcanic rocks similar to those\noverlying the limestones in the Omenica district. These schists have\nthe usual strike, but the dip is to the north-east at an angle of 40\u00b0.\nThe green schists have a width of five miles. They form the first ridge\nthrough which the Finlay breaks after it leaves its old valley. Prairie\nMountain, the part of the ridge abutting on the Finlay from the north,\nwas examined, and found to consist of green schists, often strongly\nchloritic, holding numerous stringers of quartz alternating with bands\nof yellowish weathering dolomites. Three bands of the latter were\nobserved and four of the former. The strike of these beds is N. 30\u00b0 E.\nand the dip is to the north-west.\nGlacial striation or grooving were carefully looked for in ascending\nPrairie Mountain, but no trace of either was found.\nAfter cutting through Prairie Mountain range, the Finlay enters and\nfollows for some distance a second longitudinal valley running parallel\nto the first. Laramie sandstone and conglomerates occur in this\nvalley and probably extend southwards along it to its junction with\nthe main valley, a few miles below Pauls Branch. The conglomerate\nin this valley consists in places largely of sub-angular limestone pebbles, often several inches in diameter, and is occasionally coloured red\nby iron.\nAt the second valley, the green schists are replaced towards the\nwest by limestones, alternating with dark, glossy calc-schists, sericite-\nschists and argillites, evidently a continuation of the same band which\nforms the mountains bordering the Finlay valley on the west at the\nDeserters' Canon, and for some distance above.\nThe band of limestones and associated rocks has a width of five\nmiles. The thickness was not ascertained, as the dips are very irregular, the beds being overturned in many places. At the western edge\nof the band the prevalent dip is to the north-west.\nThe limestones are underlain by fine-grained conglomerates, interbedded with some quartzites and schists. The conglomerate is of\nCambrian age, and like similar occurrences elsewhere, consists mostly\nof quartz and felspar pebbles inclosed in a hard siliceous matrix. It\nstrikes in a north-west direction and dips to the north-east. The conglomerates are succeeded, in descending order, by mica-schists, mica-\ngneisses, hornblende-schists, etc., of the Shuswap series. The latter\nare exposed along the Finlay River from the mouth of the Thudaca\nRiver, westward to the expanded portion of the river at the Fishing ucconneu ] SECTION IN PEACE RIVER PASS. 31 C\nLakes. Above this point the river enters an old alluvium-filled basin,\nand exposures cease. East of the valley, which here runs almost\ndirectly north-and-soutb, the mountains are built of the schists of the\nShuswap series, while west of the valley an area of eruptive rocks\noccurs. The latter consist of diorites around the periphery, but soon\npass to the west into biotite- and hornblende-granites. The dip of the\nschists is to the north-east, or away from the eruptive area.\nThe rock section exposed along the Finlay, after the latter leaves Finlay seethe valley bounding the Rocky Mountains on the west, consists of the \"'\nwestern half of a great anticline, which includes the schists of the\nShuswap series (Archaean), conglomerates and limestones of Cambrian\nage (Bow River and Castle Mountain groups), and an upper schistose\nseries consisting of altered volcanic rocks, the age of which was not\ndetermined.\nThe dip of these rocks is usually to the north-east, but in places,\nand more especially in the limestone series, overturns have been produced by pressure from the west, and the dip is reversed.\nThe eastern limb of the anticline has entirely disappeared, a result Faulted anti-\nprobably affected by faulting along the line of the Finlay Valley.\nThe junction between the volcanic schists at the summit of the Pakeo-\nzoic section, and the Shuswap series east of the Finlay Valley, over\nwhich they are apparently faulted, is concealed by the Laramie conglomerates.\nSection in Peace River Pass.*\nA short trip was made through the Peace River Pass of the Rocky Peace River\nMountains, for the purpose of obtaining a general view of the structure s sectlon-\nof the range in this latitude. The time occupied, one day in descending, and two days in ascending the river, was too limited for anything\nbut a hurried reconnaissance.\nPeace River breaks through the Rocky Mountains, here about Character of\neighteen miles wide, in a direction a few degrees south of east. In its\npassage of the range it has a width of from three to five hundred yards.\nIts course, with the exception of two small rapids, one before entering\nand the other after leaving the range, is uninterrupted. The current\nseldom exceeds five miles an hour and for most of the distance is much\nless. The valley averages about a mile in width, and the bordering\nmountains range in height from 2000 to 4500 feet above the river, or\n4000 to 6500 feet above sea-level.\n* See also Report of Progress, Geol. Surv., Can., 1875-76, pp. 41, SO. 32 c\nFINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nof limestone.\nPredominance The rocks exposed along the pass consist principally of grayish\nPalaeozoic limestones striking in a north-westerly direction, and dipping\npersistently to the south-west. Repetitions of parts of the limestone\nseries, caused by overthrust faults, occur at several points. No infolds\nof Cretaceous or Laramie strata, such as occur in Alberta, exist, and to\nthis fact is due the greater irregularity of the subordinate ranges.\nImmediately east of the main range, exposures of yellowish-weathering calcareous sandstone, probably of Cretaceous age, occur in the banks\nof the river. These are replaced, going westward, by grayish limestones\ndipping steeply to the west. The junction between the limestone and\nsandstone is concealeei in the valley, but there is little doubt, from the\nrelative position of the two formations, that the contact is a faulted one\nand that the Palaeozoic limestones of the mountains, here as elsewhere\nalong the eastern boundary of the range, are thrust up over the Meso-\nzoic rocks of the foot-hills.\nCretaceous\nsandstone.\nFossiliferous\nlimestone.\nTriassic beds.\nFault.\nThe limestones are fossiliferous, the fauna, so far as ascertained, being\nsimilar to the Banff or Devono-Carboniferous division of the jBow\nRiver section.\nWest of the fault, the limestones stand at a steep angle, the beds\nbeing fairly regular, but further west they become greatly confused\nand show evidence of much disturbance. In the second range, the\nlimestones are overlain by a band of dark Monotis-henriag calcareous\nshales and impure limestones of Triassic age. West of the Triassic\nband, a second fault brings the Banff limestones again to the surface,\nand the same limestones, probably repeated by faults, occur in the next\ntwo ranges. In the first of these, the Banff limestones and overlying\nTriassic beds have a regular westerly dip, but in the second, a line of\nstrong disturbance is reached, and the strata as seen on the mountain\nsides are crushed into numerous subordinate folds.\nA fault of considerable magnitude crosses the valley west of the two-\nridges referred to above, and brings up limestones which were referred\nto the Castle Mountain group. West of this fault, the dips north of the\nriver for some distance were too confused to follow, but south of the\nriver, the beds, with the exception of one double fold, dip regularly\nwestward until near Mount Selwyn. The limestones in this part of\nthe range are mostly unfossiliferous and of the Castle Mountain type,\nbut higher beds holding Halysites were found in one place.\nMount Selwyn shows a sharp anticline on its eastern slope. The\ncentre of the mountain is formed of almost vertical limestone beds, but\ngoing westward these are soon replaced by the quartzites, schists and\ncrushed conglomerates of the Bow River series. The latter are forced BCOONNEU.] GEOLOGICAL SUMMARY. 33 C\nup over the limestones by a well-defined overthrust fault, running in\na north-westerly direction.\nMount Selwyn is flanked on the west by a small range composed Structure of\npartly of the rocks of the Bow River series and partly of jthe schists *' e wyn'\nof the still older Shuswap series, all dipping to the south-west. The\nlatter overlie the former, but the cause of their superior position was\nnot ascertained.\nThe Peace River section through the Rocky Mountains, thus Comparison\nresembles the Bow River section through the same range, in the R^^ection.\npredominance of limestones and in the persistent westerly dips duetto\nrepetition of the beds by overthrust faulting, but differs from it in\nits absence of beds newer than the Triassic, and in the gradually\nincreasing age of the rocks from east to west.\nGeological Summary.\nArchcean (Shuswap Series).\nThe oldest rocks in the district consist of a series of well foliated Shuswap\nmica-gneisses, probably derived to a large extent from sheared erup-\ntives, lustrous mica-schists, horneblende- and actinolite-schists, quartz-\nose schists and crystalline limestones, filled with mica, hornblende and\nother secondary minerals. The rocks of this series are usually evenly\nbedded and conform in dip with the overlying formations.\nRocks of the Shuswap series are found on both sides of the Finlay Distribution,\nfrom its mouth up to its junction with the Ingenica. North of this\npoint, the formation divides around a bay filled with newer rocks.\nThe eastern limb follows the eastern slope of the Finlay Valley northwestward to the Quadacha and for some distance beyond. It has a\nwidth at Paul's Branch, where it forms the most westerly range of\nthe Rocky Mountains, of four miles. This width decreases towards\nthe north and increases to the south.\nThe western limb bends' away from the Finlay above the Ingenica,\nbut crosses it again at the great bend which the Finlay describes after\nleaving the Rocky Mountains, and continues on to the north. The\nwidth of this band was not ascertained, as its western boundary was\nnot reached.\nA second area of Shuswap rocks, separated from the first by a band\nof limestones, occurs on the Omenica River above the Oslinca. The\ngneisses in this occurrence are coarser in grain than is usually the case,\nand in places have a granitic appearance. The band has a width of\nten miles.\n3 34 c\nfinlay and omenica rivers.\nLower Palceozoi\nClastic rocks\noverlying\nShuswap\nseries.\nCastle Moun\ntain group.\nDistribution.\nThe Shuswap series is overlain on the Omenica by a band of slates,\nquartzites and conglomerates similar in lithological character and in\ngeological position to the Bow River series of the Bow River section;\nand like it, probably referable to the Lower and Middle Cambrian.\nThe conglomerates have an arkose appearance, and consist principally\nof small rounded quartz and felspar pebbles interbedded in a hard\nsiliceous matrix. Fragments of schist and slate are also occasionally\nincluded. A purplish coloration of many of the quartz grains characterizes the conglomerates of this formation wherever found, from Bow\nRiver north to the Finlay. The conglomerates and associated rocks\non the Omenica have a thickness of about 4000 feet.\nA band of conglomerates and schists, referable to the Bow River\nseries, also occur on the Finlay below the mouth of the Thudaca,\nThese rocks overlie the Shuswap series and are similar in most\nrespects to the Omenica occurrence. The conglomerates are greatly\ncrushed in places, and often assume a schistose appearance from the\ndevelopment of secondary mica parallel to the cleavage planes.\nA third band, similar in character to the others, forms part of the\nwestern slope of Mount Selwyn.\nThe conglomeratic bands are everywhere overlain by a great limestone formation, corresponding to the Castle Mountain group of the\nBow River section, and like it, probably ranging in age from Middle\nCambrian up to Cambro-Silurian. The limestones are grayish in\ncolour, except where whitened along lines of disturbance, and are\nusually evenly bedded, but in places, especially when impure, pass into\na calc-schist. No fossils were obtained from them.\nLimestones of this group are found all along the western portion of\nthe Peace River section through the Rocky Mountains east of Mount\nSelwyn, and extend northward along the range as far as examined.\nWest of the Rocky Mountains they occur in bands of from four to\neight miles in width, running in a north-westerly direction. One of\nthese bands crosses the Finlay at its bend and extends south to the\nIngenica where it is cut off, and two others cross the Omenica above\nthe Tchutetzeca.\nThe limestone rests normally on the Bow River conglomerates, but\nin many places in the district the latter are absent, either from non-\ndeposition or in consequence of faulting, and the limestone comes in\ndirect contact with the Shuswap rocks. ucconneu. J GEOLOGICAL SUMMARY. 35 C\nUpper Palaeozoic.\nGrayish well-bedded limestones, holding corals, brachiopods and other Banff lime-\nfossils characteristic of the Banff or Devono-Carboniferous division of stones-\nthe Bow River section, occur in the eastern ranges of the Rocky\nMountains, while near the centre of the range, lower beds probably\nSilurian in age, holding Halysitis catenulatus, were found in one place.\nThe volcanic schists and associated rocks exposed along the Volcanic\nOmenica from below Germansen Landing to near Tacla Lake, are s\u00b0hists-\nprobably upper Palaeozoic, but no definite evidence of age was obtained,\nbeyond the fact that they overlie the limestones referred to the Castle\nMountain group and underlie the probably Cretaceous conglomerates\nof Tacla Lake. The band of green schists which crosses the Finlay\nabove the mouth of the Quadacha occupies a similar position.\nThe schists are greenish in colour and are well foliated, as a rule,\nbut in places the bedding becomes indistinct, and the rock assumes\na very massive character. The transition is nowhere abrupt, and\nprobably indicates a gradual passage from a volcanic centre, usually\ndiabasic in character, outwards to tuffaceous and well stratified ash\nrocks.\nThe volcanic schists are interbedded with argillites, and occasionally\nwith beds of limestone and dolomite.\nMesozoic.\nTriassic beds, consisting of dark calcareous shales passing into an Triassic beds.\nimpure limestone, occur in the second range of the Rocky Mountains,\nand a band of similar rocks forming part of the third range may\npossibly belong to the same foundation. Specimens of Monotis sub-\ncircularis are abundant in the first-mentioned locality.\nCretaceous beds occur in the foot-hills, but were not recognized in Cretaceous\nthe mountains. The conglomerate and sandstones found in the valley\nof Tacla Lake resemble Cretaceous rocks found elsewhere in the province, but no direct proof of their age was obtained.\nTertiary (Upper Laramie).\nBeds consisting of conglomerates, interbedded in places with shales Laramie.\nand sandstones, occupy the bottom of the valley of the Finlay from\nthe Ingenica River north to the Tochieca, and continue northwards\nalong the valley of the latter stream. Similar beds appear again on 36 c\nFINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nDistribution\nof Laramie.\nFossils.\nthe Finlay a few miles farther west in a parallel longitudinal valley,\nwhich it enters and follows for some distance. They are also found\non the Omenica from the Black Cafion up to its junction with the\nTchutetzeca.\nThe pebbles of the conglomerate are usually small, but in places are\nseveral inches in diameter. They consist mainly of slate, quartz, and\nlimestone. Oxide of iron is occasionally present in the matrix in\nsufficient quantities to give a reddish coloration to exposures. The\nshales are dark in colour, are evenly bedded, and are interstratified in\nplaces with small lignite seams. The sandstones are usually somewhat argillaceous, and occasionally consist largely of mica derived from\nthe disintegration of the underlying schists.\nThe Tertiary conglomerates and associated rocks, as stated on a\nprevious page, are distributed in narrow strips along the deep valleys\nof the district and were nowhere found on the highlands. They were\nprobably deposited in lakes during a Tertiary depression, and evidence\nthe pre-Tertiary age of the present main river-channels. The conglomerates are occasionally horizontal or nearly so, but in most cases\nthey are tilted at angles ranging from 10\u00b0 to 40\u00b0, showing that they\nhave been affected to some extent by the later mountain-making\nmovements.\nSome leaves and other plant remains, obtained from the shales\ninterbedded with the conglomerates, were examined by Sir J. Wm.\nDawson, who has kindly furnished the following note on them :\u2014\n\" The collection is small, and the specimens imperfect, more especially\nin respect to the finer venation and margins of leaves. The following\nforms were recognized :\u2014\n\" Arundo.\u2014A ribbed stem possibly of this genus. Omenica River.\n\" Sequoia.\u2014Plentiful in Finlay River shales; appears to be S. Langs\ndorffii. On the black flags from Omenica Ptiver there is another form,\nwhich may be distinct, and shows curious terminal buds. There are\nalso branchlets referable to S. Couttsice.\n\" Populus.\u2014A leaf of the type of P. Arctica, Heer, P. Nebrascensis,\nNewberry, and P. speciosa, Ward, if these are really distinct,\nOmenica River.\n\" Platanus.\u2014Possibly P. Haydenii, Lesquereux, or allied species.\nOmenica River.\n\" Quercus.\u2014A fragment possibly of this genus. Omenica River.\n\" Grewia or Grewiopsis.\u2014This is a genus allied to Tilia. A single\nimperfect leaf may represent it. Finlay River.\n\" Viburnum.\u2014Apparently V. aspera, Newberry, or near to it. MCCONNELL.\ngeological'summary. 37 c\n\" Carpolite.\u2014A single imperfect specimen resembling Legumenosites\narachnoides of Lesquereux.\n\"Animal Fossils.\u2014Minute bivalve shells of two kinds, one possibly\nan Estheria, another perhaps a Cyprid.\n\" All the above fossils, so far as determinable, appear to indicate\nthe Upper Laramie period. Of the collections in my possession, the\nplants seem most nearly to resemble those of the Lignitic series on the\nMackenzie River, which are referable to the Upper Laramie. There\nis nothing among the plants to indicate any other horizon.\"\nPleistocene\nEvidences of glaciation abound throughout the district. In the Glacial groov-\nPeace River Pass, well-marked glacial groovings occur on the south mgs'\nside of the river two miles east of Mount Selwyn. The movement of\nthe ice here was eastward. Glacial groovings of a pronounced character,\nrunning in an easterly direction, were observed on the hillsides north\nof the Omenica River twelve miles above Germansen Landing, and\nthey are also reported to occur on the summit of a mountain south of\nManson Creek at an elevation of 5000 feet above the sea. No groovings were found along the Finlay, but the exposures on the mountain\nslopes north-east of Fort Grahame present in many instances the smooth\nrounded characters of rocks polished by moving ice. The movement\nhere was in a south-easterly direction.\nThe glacial deposits consist of boulder-clay, accompanied by gravels,\nsands and silts.\nIn Peace River Pass, gravels, sands, and silts of glacial age are of Glacial de-\nconstant occurrence, and boulder-clay holding striated stones occurs in '\na couple of places. On the Omenica River, a high bank of stratified\nsands, silts and gravels occurs below the Black Cafion, and boulder-\nclay accompanied with sand and gravel was found above the mouth of\nthe Oslinca. Below Germansen Landing, light-colouring silts weathering into steep bluffs are exposed for several miles along the valley.\nFrom Germansen Landing to Hogem the immediate shores of the\nriver are low and are mostly built of alluvium.\nBoulder-clay is developed to a greater extent on some of the tributaries of the Omenica than on the river itself. High banks of this\nmaterial occur on Germansen Creek and on Manson Creek, and in\nboth cases are underlain by fluvio-glacial gravels, which are often auriferous. Boulder-clay banks of considerable thickness were also found\non Vital Creek and on Tom's Creek. 38 o\nPINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nMorainic\nhills.\nBoulder-clay\nbanks.\nTerrasce.\nGlacial sue\ncession.\nMorainic hills, among which small lakes are interspersed, occur near\nthe summit of the pass leading from Tom's Creek to Tacla Lake.\nOn the Finlay River, boulder-clay is scarce below Deserter's Cafion.\nThe river in this stretch is bordered for long distances by banks of\nalluvial clays and sands, and where the higher terraces are cut into, the\nsections show, as a rule, only the upper stratified sands and silts. From\nDeserters' Cafion to the bend of the Finlay, boulder-clay banks, some\nof which are 225 feet in height, are frequent. The boulder-clay here\nis often imperfectly stratified and often passes horizontally into gravel\nbeds. Striated stones are common, but the majority of the pebbles are\nwater-worn to a varying extent. No boulder-clay was noticed on the\nFinlay above its bend, the banks usually consisting of rolled gravels\noverlying the older rocks in the swifter portions of the stream, and of\nalluvial clays and sands where the current becomes sluggish.\nTerraces were observed at a number of places. Along Peace River\nPass they occur up to a height of about 400 feet and on the Omenica\nbelow the mouth of the Oslinca, up to a height of 250 feet. On the\nFinlay, north-east of Fort Grahame, rolled gravels and traces of terraces\neasily distinguishable at a distance, occur up to a height of 2000 feet\nabove the river. High terraces were also noticed lining the sides of\nthe mountains at the Fishing Lakes. A well-marked terrace, built of\nsilty clay and gravel, occurs here at a height of 1250 feet above the\nriver or 4500 feet above the sea, and others less distinct were found\nup to a height of 1950 feet above the river.\nThe glacial succession, when fully developed, consists in ascending\norder of gravels, associated in places with stratified sands and silts;\nboulder-clays holding occasional pebble beds; stratified sands, clays\nand gravels ; and terraces. The position of the light coloured silts on\nthe Omenica, below Germansen Landing, was not ascertained, as\ntheir contact with the other members of the glacial section is concealed.\nThe alluvium-filled rock-basins which the Finlay enters six miles\nabove the Thudaca, and the Omenica, near Slate Creek, probably\nowe their origin to recent differential crustal movements.\nEconomic Notes.\nDiscoveries of The first discovery of gold in the Peace River country was made on\n8 the Parsnip, about 20 miles above its mouth, by Bill Cust, in 1861.\nIn the following year Pete Toy's bar on the Finlay, a few miles below\nthe Omenica was found, and for some time proved wonderfully productive, the yield amounting to about $50 per day to the man. Silver UCCONNELL.\nECONOMIC MINERALS. 39 C\nCreek, a tributary of the Omenica, was found in 1868, and Vital Creek,\na branch of the former, in 1869. In 1870, diggings were found on\nGermansen Creek and the following year on Slate, Manson and Lost\nCreeks. No further discoveries were made until Tom's Creek was\nstruck in 1889.\nThe population of the country reached its maximum about 1872, Population,\nand has since steadily declined. In 1893 four miners were working\non Germansen Creek, eight on Manson Creek, three on Vital Creek\nand about twenty on Tom's Creek. The other creeks have been\nworked out and deserted.\nThe total production of the camp up to the present time, judging Production,\nfrom the fragmentary statistics of the district published in the Annual\nReports of Minister of Mines for British Columbia, and from other\nsources, probably approaches closely to, if it does not exceed, a million\ndollars.\nThe gold in the Omenica region has been obtained principally from Auriferous\nthe gravels overlying the older rocks, in the beds of the present streams. Laveis\nThe gravels, as a rule, have little depth, and the productive portions\nof the different streams seldom exceed three miles in length. No\ndeep diggings or extensive hydraulic workings have so far been\nattempted in the district.\nThe auriferous gravels underlying the boulder-clay on Germansen, Auriferou\nManson and other creeks in the district have a wide distribution and travels\npromise favourable results if worked on a sufficiently large scale. A\nshort tunnel was driven into a bank of this description on Germansen\nCreek by Mr. Clinton in 1892, and sufficient gold taken out to pay\nsmall wages. Water can be obtained almost anywhere from lakes\nand mountain streams, within a reasonable distance, and the only\ndrawback to successful hydraulic mining is the great expense attendant on the carriage of material and supplies from the coast. The Transporta-\nabsence of easily navigable waterways, and the mountainous and\nswampy character of the surrounding country, present obstacles to\ntransportion which can only be overcome at great expense. At the\npresent time, the greater part of the supplies are brought in by pack\nanimals from Hazleton at the Forks of the Skeena, the rate to Manson\nCreek amounting to 17 cents per pound.\nSome prospecting has been done in the Omenica region every season Prospecting\nsince its auriferous character became known, but the district has by\nno means been thoroughly explored. The discovery of pay gravels on\nTom's Creek, close to Vital Creek, twenty years after the later was\nfound, shows how loose the examination has been, nor need this be 40 c\nFINLAY AND OMENICA RIVERS.\nGold on the\nFinlay.\nGalena veins\nOccurrence of\ngold.\nRocks probably metalliferous.\nwondered at when the short seasons, difficult travelling and high prices\nof supplies are taken into account. That further discoveries of auriferous creeks will be made admits of little doubt.\nFine gold occurs on the Finlay throughout most of its course, but\nwith the exception of Pete Toy's bar, previously referred to, no paying\nplacers have been discovered. Very little prospecting has, however,\nbeen done on this stream, and with the exception of the Ospica, none\nof the tributaries, so far as I could learn, have ever been prospected.\nGold, mostly in a fine condition, was found in ascending the river,\nat the mouths of the Ingenica, the Quadacha, and the Tochieca, and\nalso on two of the smaller western tributaries, one of which enters the\nFinlay eight miles below Paul's Branch, and the other six miles above\nthe Tochieca. With the exception of the Quadacha no \" colours\"\nwere found on the eastern or Rocky Mountain streams above Deserters' Cafion.\nNo ore mining has so far been attempted in the Omenica region\nowing to the want of transportation facilities, although the existence\nof large veins of highly argentiferous galena has been known for many\nyears.* Arquerite or silver-amalgam is also of common occurrence in\nthe placer diggings on Silver Creek, and on Vital and Tom's Creek,\ntwo of its tributaries. The two latter streams are of little length, and\na systematic examination of their basins could be made at small expense.\nThe gold in the Omenica district occurs in a coarse condition, nuggets often being found with quaftz still attached to them, and is evidently derived from the band of green schists and argillites previously\ndescribed which outcrops along the Omenica and its tributaries from\nbelow Germansen Landing west nearly to Tacla Lake. All the auriferous creeks worked up to the present are situated within this zone,\nwhich has a width of forty-eight miles. The schists, of which it is\nformed, are everywhere much disturbed, are broken up by intrusions of\ngranitic and other eruptive rocks, and present in this and other ways\npromising indications that they are metalliferous in character.\n\u2666Report of Progress, Geol. Surv. Can., 1879-80, p. Ill B. Geological Survey ok Canada.\nAnnual Report, Vol. VII., Part C.\nR. G. McConncll, Photo., Aug., 189.3.\nMOUTH OV LONG CANON, FINLAY RIVF.R. Geological Survey op Canada.\nAnnual Report, Vol. VII., Part C.\nJR. (1. McdonneV, Photo., Aug., ISPS.\nGLACIAL BEDS, FINLAY R1VFR.","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2009\/08\/skos-reference\/skos.html#note","classmap":"oc:AnnotationContainer"},"iri":"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2009\/08\/skos-reference\/skos.html#note","explain":"Simple Knowledge Organisation System; Notes are used to provide information relating to SKOS concepts. 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Other Copies: http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/184781772","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2009\/08\/skos-reference\/skos.html#note","classmap":"skos:Concept","property":"skos:note"},"iri":"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2009\/08\/skos-reference\/skos.html#note","explain":"Simple Knowledge Organisation System; Notes are used to provide information relating to SKOS concepts. There is no restriction on the nature of this information, e.g., it could be plain text, hypertext, or an image; it could be a definition, information about the scope of a concept, editorial information, or any other type of information."}],"Provider":[{"label":"Provider","value":"Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/provider","classmap":"ore:Aggregation","property":"edm:provider"},"iri":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/provider","explain":"A Europeana Data Model Property; The name or identifier of the organization who delivers data directly to an aggregation service (e.g. Europeana)"}],"Publisher":[{"label":"Publisher","value":"Montreal : W. F. 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For permission to publish, copy, or otherwise distribute these images please contact digital.initiatives@ubc.ca.","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/rights","classmap":"edm:WebResource","property":"dcterms:rights"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/rights","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; Information about rights held in and over the resource.; Typically, rights information includes a statement about various property rights associated with the resource, including intellectual property rights."}],"SortDate":[{"label":"SortDate","value":"1896-12-31 AD","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/elements\/1.1\/date","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/elements\/1.1\/date","explain":"A Dublin Core Elements Property; A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource.; Date may be used to express temporal information at any level of granularity. 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Library. Geoffrey R. Weller Library. QE185 .A32 v.7C","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/source","classmap":"oc:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:source"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/source","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; A related resource from which the described resource is derived.; The described resource may be derived from the related resource in whole or in part. Recommended best practice is to identify the related resource by means of a string conforming to a formal identification system."}],"Subject":[{"label":"Subject","value":"Geology--Canada","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/subject","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:subject"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/subject","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; The topic of the resource.; Typically, the subject will be represented using keywords, key phrases, or classification codes. Recommended best practice is to use a controlled vocabulary."}],"Title":[{"label":"Title","value":"Report on an exploration of the Finlay and Omenica rivers","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/title","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:title"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/title","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; The name given to the resource."}],"Type":[{"label":"Type","value":"Text","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/type","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:type"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/type","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; The nature or genre of the resource.; Recommended best practice is to use a controlled vocabulary such as the DCMI Type Vocabulary [DCMITYPE]. To describe the file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource, use the Format element."}],"Translation":[{"property":"Translation","language":"en","label":"Translation","value":""}]}