{"Affiliation":[{"label":"Affiliation","value":"Education, Faculty of","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#departmentOrSchool","classmap":"vivo:EducationalProcess","property":"vivo:departmentOrSchool"},"iri":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#departmentOrSchool","explain":"VIVO-ISF Ontology V1.6 Property; The department or school name within institution; Not intended to be an institution name."}],"AggregatedSourceRepository":[{"label":"Aggregated Source Repository","value":"DSpace","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/dataProvider","classmap":"ore:Aggregation","property":"edm:dataProvider"},"iri":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/dataProvider","explain":"A Europeana Data Model Property; The name or identifier of the organization who contributes data indirectly to an aggregation service (e.g. Europeana)"}],"Campus":[{"label":"Campus","value":"UBCV","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeCampus","classmap":"oc:ThesisDescription","property":"oc:degreeCampus"},"iri":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeCampus","explain":"UBC Open Collections Metadata Components; Local Field; Identifies the name of the campus from which the graduate completed their degree."}],"Creator":[{"label":"Creator","value":"Peterson, Lester Ray","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:creator"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; An entity primarily responsible for making the resource.; Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organization, or a service."}],"DateAvailable":[{"label":"Date Available","value":"2012-01-06T06:23:36Z","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","classmap":"edm:WebResource","property":"dcterms:issued"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; Date of formal issuance (e.g., publication) of the resource."}],"DateIssued":[{"label":"Date Issued","value":"1959","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","classmap":"oc:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:issued"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; Date of formal issuance (e.g., publication) of the resource."}],"Degree":[{"label":"Degree (Theses)","value":"Master of Arts - MA","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#relatedDegree","classmap":"vivo:ThesisDegree","property":"vivo:relatedDegree"},"iri":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#relatedDegree","explain":"VIVO-ISF Ontology V1.6 Property; The thesis degree; Extended Property specified by UBC, as per https:\/\/wiki.duraspace.org\/display\/VIVO\/Ontology+Editor%27s+Guide"}],"DegreeGrantor":[{"label":"Degree Grantor","value":"University of British Columbia","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeGrantor","classmap":"oc:ThesisDescription","property":"oc:degreeGrantor"},"iri":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#degreeGrantor","explain":"UBC Open Collections Metadata Components; Local Field; Indicates the institution where thesis was granted."}],"Description":[{"label":"Description","value":"Most anthropologists agree today that the Indians of America came to this continent by way of the Bering Sea somewhere between fifteen and eight thousand years ago. During their years of occupancy of the northwest, they developed a culture adapted to its economy. They perfected neither writing nor formal education, but asserted their heraldry and transmitted their legends and traditions orally.\r\nEuropeans, in search of a westward route to the orient, reached the American northwest late in the eighteenth century. They introduced into the native way of life a modicum of European artifacts, but also, particularly along the coast, began the destruction of the aboriginal culture through disease, liquor, and creation of unnatural villages about trading posts.\r\nProtestant and Roman Catholic missionaries began to arrive toward the middle of the nineteenth century. They worked to counteract the influence of the fur-traders but, in their efforts at evangelism, helped to precipitate disintegration of the native way of life.\r\nAnglican, Methodist and Roman Catholic Churches gradually founded missions, and later schools, among Indian groups throughout the province. Sponsored entirely by Church funds and contributions from the Indians themselves at first, these schools began to receive Federal government grants as reserves became established following British Columbia's entry into Confederation in 1871. Each Church established a dual system of schooling, consisting of small day schools located on such reserves as it was practicable to place them, and larger residential schools, strategically located, at which orphans and children from outlying reserves could remain while receiving their education.\r\nLittle direct government interest was shown in their education until after World War II, when census figures began to reveal the fact that the Indians were not a dying race. In 1948 a joint Parliamentary committee made recommendations which became embodied in the revised Indian Act of 1951, which has since received further revision. The Indian Affairs Branch of the Department of Citizenship and Immigration has assumed almost the entire costs of operating both day and residential schools, has erected day schools, and has appointed inspectors to supervise the system. Eighteen agency superintendents act as local school boards In B.C.\r\nProvision in the revised Indian Act for Federal-provincial cooperation has greatly increased the number of Indian students attending regular public schools. In 1958, out of a total of 8746 students at school, 6411 were enrolled in a system of 78 Indian schools, and the remaining 2335 were attending provincial and private schools.\r\nThe standard of Indian education is rising but, in relation to that of the average non-Indian population element, the Indians' economic standards are declining.\r\nIntegration of the Indian into the Canadian way of life; ethnically, culturally, or economically, is not taking place. Ethnic integration is not being really sought; cultural Integration is. It cannot proceed until some degree of economic parity has been achieved. Indians today cannot afford the impedimenta of White culture; to date the destination of the Indian, educated or not, is the reservation whence he came. In remote localities Indians should he trained for their way of life rather than ours, until civilization advances to meet them. Wherever possible, the adult Indian must be granted fair employment and a fair representation in a unified provincial educational system. Only then can his children become acculturated.","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/description","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:description"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/description","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; An account of the resource.; Description may include but is not limited to: an abstract, a table of contents, a graphical representation, or a free-text account of the resource."}],"DigitalResourceOriginalRecord":[{"label":"Digital Resource Original Record","value":"https:\/\/circle.library.ubc.ca\/rest\/handle\/2429\/39916?expand=metadata","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/aggregatedCHO","classmap":"ore:Aggregation","property":"edm:aggregatedCHO"},"iri":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/aggregatedCHO","explain":"A Europeana Data Model Property; The identifier of the source object, e.g. the Mona Lisa itself. This could be a full linked open date URI or an internal identifier"}],"FullText":[{"label":"Full Text","value":"INDIAN EDUCATION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA by LESTER RAY PETERSON B.A., U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1951 B.Ed., U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1953 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n the Department of E d u c a t i o n We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA October, 1959 THESIS ABSTRACT Most a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s agree today that the Indians of Amer-i c a came t\u00a9 t h i s c o n t i n e n t hy way of the B e r i n g Sea somewhere between f i f t e e n and e i g h t thousand years ago. During t h e i r years \u00a9f occupancy of the northwest, they developed a c u l t u r e adapted t\u00a9 i t s economy. They p e r f e c t e d n e i t h e r w r i t i n g nor f o r m a l edu-c a t i o n , but a s s e r t e d t h e i r h e r a l d r y and t r a n s m i t t e d t h e i r legends and t r a d i t i o n s o r a l l y . Europeans, i n s e a r c h of a westward route to the o r i e n t , reached the American northwest l a t e i n the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . They i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the n a t i v e way of l i f e a modicum of European a r t i f a c t s , but a l s o , p a r t i c u l a r l y a l o n g the c o a s t , began the d e s t r u c t i o n \u00a9f the a b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e through d i s e a s e , l i q u o r , \/-and c r e a t i o n \u00a9f u n n a t u r a l v i l l a g e s about t r a d i n g p o s t s . P r o t e s t a n t and Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s began to a r r i v e toward the middle of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . They worked t\u00a9 cou n t e r a c t the i n f l u e n c e of the f u r - t r a d e r s but, i n t h e i r e f f o r t s at evangelism, helped to p r e c i p i t a t e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n \u00a9f the n a t i v e way \u00a9f l i f e . A n g l i c a n , Methodist and Roman C a t h o l i c Churches g r a d u a l l y founded m i s s i o n s , and l a t e r s c h o o l s , among Indian groups throughout the p r o v i n c e . Sponsored e n t i r e l y by Church funds and c o n t r i b u t i o n s from the Indians themselves at f i r s t , these schools began t o r e c e i v e F e d e r a l government grants as r e s e r v e s became e s t a b l i s h e d f o l l o w i n g B r i t i s h Columbia's e n t r y i n t o Con- \\~ f e d e r a t i o n i n I87I. Each Church e s t a b l i s h e d a dual system of s c h o o l i n g , c o n s i s t i n g of s m a l l day schools l o c a t e d on such r e -serves as i t was p r a c t i c a b l e to place them, and l a r g e r ( i l l ) r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s , s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d , a t which orphans and c h i l d r e n from o u t l y i n g r e s e r v e s c o u l d remain while r e -c e i v i n g t h e i r e d u c a t i o n . L i t t l e d i r e c t government i n t e r e s t was shown i n t h e i r e d u c a t i o n u n t i l a f t e r World War I I , when census f i g u r e s began to r e v e a l the f a c t that the Indians were not a dying r a c e . In 19U8 a j o i n t P a r l i a m e n t a r y committee made recommendations which became embodied i n the r e v i s e d I n d i a n A c t of 195l\u00bb which has s i n c e r e c e i v e d f u r t h e r r e v i s i o n . The I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch \u00a9f the Department of C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration has assumed almost the e n t i r e c o s t s of o p e r a t i n g both day and r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s , has e r e c t e d day s c h o o l s , and has appointed i n s p e c -t o r s to s u p e r v i s e the system. E i g h t e e n agency superintendents a c t as l o c a l s c h o o l boards In B.C. P r o v i s i o n i n the r e v i s e d I n d i a n Act f o r F e d e r a l - p r o v i n c i a l c o o p e r a t i o n has g r e a t l y Increased the number of I n d i a n students a t t e n d i n g r e g u l a r p u b l i c s c h o o l s . In 1958* out of a t o t a l of 87I+6 students at s c h o o l , 61+11 were e n r o l l e d In a system of 78 I n d i a n schools,,and the remaining 2335 were a t t e n d i n g p r o v i n c i a l and p r i v a t e s c h o o l s . The standard of I n d i a n e d u c a t i o n i s r i s i n g but, i n r e l a t i o n to t h at \u00a9f the average non-Indian p o p u l a t i o n element, the Ind-i a n s ' economic standards are d e c l i n i n g . I n t e g r a t i o n of the I n d i a n i n t o the Canadian way of l i f e ; e t h n i c a l l y , c u l t u r a l l y , or e c o n o m i c a l l y , i s not t a k i n g p l a c e . E t h n i c i n t e g r a t i o n i s not being r e a l l y sought; c u l t u r a l I n t e -g r a t i o n i s . I t cannot proceed u n t i l some degree of economic p a r i t y has been a c h i e v e d . Indians today cannot a f f o r d the ( i v ) impedimenta of White c u l t u r e ; to date the d e s t i n a t i o n of the Indian, educated or not, i s the r e s e r v a t i o n whence he came. In remote l o c a l i t i e s Indians should he t r a i n e d f o r t h e i r way of l i f e r a t h e r than ours, u n t i l c i v i l i z a t i o n advances to meet them. Wherever p o s s i b l e , the a d u l t Indian must be granted f a i r employ-ment and a f a i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n a u n i f i e d p r o v i n c i a l edu-c a t i o n a l system. Only then can h i s c h i l d r e n become a c c u l t u r a t e d . (v) I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I. f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by t h e Head o f my Department o r by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g or p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department of E d u c a t i o n  The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, Vancouver 8 , Canada. Date October. 1959 CONTENTS THESIS ABSTRACT CHAPTER I . THE ABORIGINAL BRITISH COLUMBIAN Where They Came From - The Land They.Found -C u l t u r a l Groups They Formed - T h e i r B e l i e f s and Myths - T h e i r S o c i a l and Economic L i f e -T h e i r A r t - T h e i r E d u c a t i o n CHAPTER I I . THE EUROPEAN APPEARS E x p l o r e r s - Fur-Traders - Spain, B r i t a i n , and R u s s i a - The Hudson's Bay and North-west Companies - A l c o h o l i s m and Disease -Inter-marriage CHAPTER I I I . THE MISSIONARIES ARRIVE M i s s i o n a r y v s . Trader - M i s s i o n a r y v s . Shaman-R e l i g i o u s Sects - M i s s i o n s - Schools CHAPTER IV. THE IN-BETWEEN YEARS The Gold Rush - Re s e r v a t i o n s - F e d e r a l J u r i s -d i c t i o n - I n d i a n Acts - A Dying Race CHAPTER V. THE SOCIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF INDIAN LIFE I n t e g r a t i o n - The Fr a n c h i s e - Liquor -. Economy - Land - R e l i g i o n - E d u c a t i o n CHAPTER V I . INDIAN EDUCATION TO-DAY Enrolment - I n d i a n Schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia - The Revised I n d i a n Act -In d i a n E d u c a t i o n P h i l o s o p h i e s - Extent to Which In d i a n E d u c a t i o n Has Succeeded CHAPTER V I I . CONCLUSIONS - RECOMMENDATIONS APPENDIX \"A\" EXCERPTS, INDIAN ACT OF 1951 APPENDIX \"B\" EXCERPTS, INDIAN DAY SCHOOL REGULATIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY ( v i ) TABLES Number Page 1. Synopsis from Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report, 1880 61+ 2. P o p u l a t i o n o f Indians by Groups, Pre-European and 1935 7i+ 3 . I n d i a n P o p u l a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia, T o t a l s 75 1+. Enrolment, R e s i d e n t i a l and I n d u s t r i a l S c h o o l s , 1907 and I927 79 5 . Schools by Denomination, I907 79 6. Enrolment by Grades, 1907, 1927, 191+7 80 7. Indian S c h o o l Expenses, 1917 and I9I+7 80 8. Language D i s t r i b u t i o n , 1913 and 1917 8 l 9. Enrolment of Indian Students i n B r i t i s h Columbia, 1957 107 10. Indian Schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia 108 ( v i i ) ILLUSTRATIONS The Lord's Prayer i n Chinook F r o n t i s p i e c e P l a t e Number F o l l o w i n g Page I I . C u l t u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n Map: Language Boundaries 25 I I I . The Portage 3k IV. T r a d i n g Posts i n Northwest America 1+1 V. Indian Agencies - P o p u l a t i o n , 1958 -06 V I . Indian Schools In B r i t i s h Columbia, 1958 123 V I I . B u r i a l Grounds of S a l i s h Indians 136 ( v i i i ) Ok LORD'S PRAYER IN CHMOK Nesika papa klaksfa mitUte kopa SBohalle., Out- father who s tayeth m ike a&ove, Kloshe kopa -nesika tumtum mika nennj Good in our hearts ihe'} thy -name', HIoshe wika t y a e kopa konaway t i i i i c u w ; G o o d i h o u c h f e f a ^ o x \\ q aM p e o p l e ; kloshe m i k a tumtutn kopa i j l ah ie , Good t k y wil l upon ear - th , As in rhe above , Pot\/a^ch k o n a w a y sun n e s i k a muckawuck. Give e v e r y day out- f o o d . S p o s e nesiisa m a m o o k Kt tasahck\/ 'e , If w_ do _ v t l , L b e J Wake m i k a k y a s so i ldks , p e s p o * * Mot th o u ve\u00bb*N anqr-y, andt 'if K f a k s t a m a s a h c h i e kopa n e s i k a , \/ Anyone t o w a r d s u s , Wake vie* t fa Sol|\u00abks hopa k l a s K a fVot angry t d v \/ a r - d ^ t h a w y .Scnotaway f a r f t-ovn u.s a l l evi l . ^ CHAPTER I THE ABORIGINAL BRITISH COLUMBIAN What, i n our human world, i s t h i s power to l i v e ? I t i s the a n c i e n t , l o s t reverence and p a s s i o n f o r human p e r s o n a l i t y , j o i n e d w i t h the a n c i e n t , l o s t reverence and p a s s i o n f o r the e a r t h and i t s web of l i f e . 1 No evidence of human l i f e on the land mass of what i s now c a l l e d North America p r i o r t o the l a s t g l a c i a l p e r i o d has as yet been p found. Oldest remains found to date are from the v i c i n i t y of Polsom, A r i z o n a , and i n the Sandia Caves of C a l i f o r n i a . 3 Carbon t e s t s made on animal remains l y i n g i n the same s t r a t a as stone spear-heads, i n d i c a t e the presence of human beings i n the former l o c a l i t y about 9000 B.C., and i n the l a t t e r s i t e approximately 13,000 B.C. Future a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e x c a v a t i o n s may of course unearth f i n d s o f much g r e a t e r age, but f o r the present we can wi t h any degree of c e r t a i n t y s t a t e o n l y t h a t man's tenancy of t h i s c o n t i n e n t has endured through about f i f t e e n thousand y e a r s . Many t h e o r i e s have been advanced as to the o r i g i n \u00a9f the American p r o t o t y p e . U n t i l the t u r n of the century a b e l i e f popular p a r t i c u l a r l y a l o n g the A t l a n t i c seaboard a s s e r t e d an o r i g i n of human l i f e on North America i t s e l f . Charles H i l l - T o u t , i n h i s Oceanic O r i g i n of the Kwakiutl-Nootka and S a l l s h Stocks  of B r i t i s h Columbia.^ sought words and customs of South P a c i f i c 1 John C o l l i e r , Indians of the Americas. New York, Mentor, 19Ltf, p. 7. 2 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, I n t r o d u c t i o n to Our Native Peoples. V i c t o r i a , P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s , 1951, p. 9. 3 W.W. Elmandorf, L e c t u r e s , Anthropology 301, Summer S e s s i o n , 1958, U.B.C. I4 Ottawa, J . Hope and Sons, 1898. 2 d e r i v a t i o n among Indian c u l t u r a l groups i n B r i t i s h Columbia as proof of t h e i r A s i a t i c o r i g i n . Most s c h o l a r s now agree that these peoples d i d indeed come from A s i a , but that they c r o s s e d the B e r i n g S t r a i t , not the P a c i f i c Ocean, to reach h e r e . C o l l i e r says of t h e i r o r i g i n : ^ They came from A s i a by way of the B e r i n g S t r a i t a t a date so f a r back t h a t the long e x t i n c t horse and ca-mel, the g i a n t beaver and g i a n t bear, the four-horned antelope and the d i r e wolf and mammoth were t h e i r f o e s and t h e i r p r ey.... The year 13,000, or perhaps 18,000 B.C. saw these migrant hunters moving a c r o s s the g r e a t c e n t r a l p l a i n of A l a s k a . Date of r e c e s s i o n of the l a s t of the f o u r g l a c i a l ages, t r a d i t i o n a l l y p l a c e d a t about 25,000 years ago, has, s i n c e per-f e c t i o n of the carbon r a d i a t i o n t e s t , been advanced t o a much more r e c e n t time of some 6000 years ago. I f p r e v i o u s l y mentioned m i g r a t i o n t h e o r i e s are c o r r e c t , migrants must have made t h e i r way t o t h i s c o n t i n e n t thousands \u00a9f years b e f o r e the i c e - s h e e t ' s r e c e s s i o n was complete. However, g e o l o g i s t s now b e l i e v e t h a t the P a c i f i c and the Laurentide i c e - s h e e t s may not have met, but that a c o r r i d o r may have e x i s t e d immediately east of the Rocky Mountains, and a l s o t h a t a s t r i p of the c o a s t l i n e along the A r c t i c Ocean l i k e l y remained f r e e of the cake of compressed snow which i n p l a c e s reached a depth of three thousand f e e t . ^ M i g r a t i o n d i d not occur, a p p a r e n t l y , e i t h e r a l l a t one time nor c o n t i n u o u s l y , but r a t h e r i n a s e r i e s of i n f i l t r a t i o n s spaced hundreds, and perhaps even thousands, \u00a9f years apart.7 Some of the e a r l i e s t \" p i o n e e r s \" might, then, have d r i f t e d south 5 C o l l i e r , op. c i t . , p. 17. 6 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , op. c i t . . p. 12. 7 Loc. c i t . 3 to the i c e - s h e e t ' s southern l i m i t s , then turned west across the mountains and f o l l o w e d i t s r e c e s s i o n northward. L a t e r a r r i v a l s could have made t h e i r way almost d i r e c t l y southward a l o n g r i v e r v a l l e y s of the inter-montane i n t e r i o r p l a t e a u s . As r o u t e s to the coast became a v a i l a b l e , s p l i n t e r groups a p p a r e n t l y made t h e i r way thence, to e s t a b l i s h themselves u l t i m a t e l y as hunters of sea, r a t h e r than l a n d , c r e a t u r e s . Examination of t o o l s and u t e n s i l s excavated from the lowest s t r a t a of kitchen-middens' l o c a t e d near the mouth of the F r a s e r R i v e r tend t o i n d i c a t e a 8 movement from an i n t e r i o r c u l t u r e to a c o a s t a l one, and c o a s t a l Indians of the Nass have r e t a i n e d a s t o r y of how t h e i r a n c e s t o r s shot under an i c e b a r r i e r t h a t blocked t h e i r m i g r a t i o n by canoe 9 down the r i v e r . How l o n g , then, has what we now c a l l B r i t i s h Columbia been i n h a b i t e d ? H i l l - T o u t , e s t i m a t i n g the time element from examin-a t i o n s of the great Marpole Midden, produced an answer to t h i s q u e s t i o n d u r i n g the f i r s t decade of t h i s century:: H i s t o r y of t h e i r own, i n the s t r i c t sense of the word, the n a t i v e r a c e s of B r i t i s h Columbia and a d j -o i n i n g t e r r i t o r i e s have none. Like other p r i m i t i v e peoples they have o r a l t r a d i t i o n s of the f a m i l y and t r i b e , and records of descent, more or l e s s r e l i a b l e , which go back f o r f i v e or s i x or even, i n some i n s t -ances, f o r ten g e n e r a t i o n s . Beyond these they can supply us w i t h no i n f o r m a t i o n concerning t h e i r past;: such knowledge as we would gather of t h a t we must gle a n f o r o u r s e l v e s from, t h e i r o l d camp s i t e s and from a n c i e n t b u r i a l grounds. From these two sources we l e a r n t h a t the country has been occupied by r a c e s l i v i n g i n a s t a t e of p r i m i t i v e c u l t u r e s i m i l a r to that of the t r i b e s now occupying the l a n d f o r two or perhaps three thousand y e a r s . Beyond t h i s p e r i o d we 8 Diamond Jenness, Indians of Canada. B u l l e t i n 65, Nat-i o n a l Museum of Canada, Ottawa, 1932., p. 228. 9 G.T. Emmons, The T a h l t a n Indians, U n i v e r s i t y of Penn-s y l v a n i a , Museum A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1911, p. 15. have no evidence of man's presence i n t h i s p a r t of the w o r l d . 10 P r o f e s s o r Charles Borden of the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l -umbia, d i g g i n g i n the same s i t e n e a r l y f i f t y years l a t e r , con-firmed t h i s p e r i o d of occupancy on the b a s i s of carbon remains from lodge p o s t - h o l e s dug i n t o b a r r e n g l a c i a l t i l l . I t i s b e l i e v e d that m i g r a t i o n by way of the B e r i n g S t r a i t 12 ceased between e i g h t and s i x thousand years ago. About f i v e thousand years a f t e r the l a s t migrants had made t h e i r way i n t o the vast reaches of the Americas, then, some of t h e i r descend-ants had searched out most of the i n h a b i t a b l e corners of what i s now B r i t i s h Columbia. What of t h i s l a n d which was to be the new home of these immigrants? A c c o r d i n g to H i l l - T o u t , The h a b i t a t and n a t u r a l surroundings of a people , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f that people be i n the e a r l i e r , ruder stages of l i f e , have such an important b e a r i n g upon t h e i r c h a r a c t e r and c u l t u r a l development that any attempt \"to t r e a t of t h e i r n a t i o n a l o r t r i b a l l i f e must ... g i v e some account o f t h e i r geographic p o s i t i o n . 13 The c h i e f g e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s of the area under study here were a c o a s t - l i n e indented by lon g , narrow i n l e t s , and p r o t e c t e d from the open ocean by one l a r g e i s l a n d t h a t covered almost h a l f of the e n t i r e c o a s t , plus innumerable s m a l l e r islands;; a 10 The Native Races of the B r i t i s h Empiret B r i t i s h North America: The Far West. The Home of the S a l i s h and Dene. London, A r c h i b a l d Constable & Co. L t d . , I9O7, p. l k . 11 Information r e c e i v e d d u r i n g an i n t e r v i e w on l a s t day of ex c a v a t i n g , August, 1955\u2022 12 B r i t i s h Columbia H e r i t a g e S e r i e s , op. c i t . . p. li}.. 13 H i l l - T o u t , i b i d . , p. 1. 5 c o a s t a l mountain range, h i g h , rocky and steep, which crowded cl o s e to the water's edge, l e a v i n g l i t t l e or no i n t e r v e n i n g p l a i n ; i n l a n d , a s e r i e s of a l t e r n a t e plateaus and mountain ranges running i n a g e n e r a l n o r t h - t o - s o u t h d i r e c t i o n , and d r a i n e d by waterways which u l t i m a t e l y wound through p r e c i p -i t a t e , g l a c i a t e d v a l l e y s to tidewater at the i n l e t s ' heads. C l i m a t i c a l l y , the coast underwent a c y c l e of c o o l , r a i n y w i n t e r s and m i l d summers, while the i n t e r i o r remained compara-t i v e l y a r i d throughout the year to the south, p r e c i p i t a t i o n g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g toward the n o r t h . A dense c o n i f e r o u s r a i n -f o r e s t covered the c o a s t l i n e throughout i t s l e n g t h ranged, from south to n o r t h , through sagebrush to b o r e a l f o r e s t to near-tundra . C o a s t a l waters abounded w i t h f i s h and sea-mammals of many spe c i e s and v a r i e t i e s , and beaches, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s h e l t e r e d bays where f r e s h and s a l t waters mingled, were r i c h w i t h clams, mussels, c o c k l e s and other sea-foods. Salmon, by f a r the most p l e n t i f u l of the many kinds of f i s h , ascended streams and r i v e r s i n s e a rch of s u i t a b l e spawning grounds, one v a r i e t y , the sock-eye, r e a c h i n g the very h e a r t of the i n t e r i o r up the Skeena and the F r a s e r . Deer frequented almost the e n t i r e a r e a , and moose, e l k , and c a r i b o u wandered about c e r t a i n areas of the i n t e r i o r , the c a r i b o u alone remaining e x c l u s i v e l y to the n o r t h . V a r y i n g kinds of b e r r i e s grew d u r i n g the summer season along the e n t i r e coast and i n r i v e r v a l l e y s . Ducks and geese frequented i n l e t s and lakes d u r i n g t h e i r m i g r a t i o n s , and one or another kind of grouse could be found almost everywhere. I t was i n g e n e r a l a la n d of p l e n t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y along the c o a s t , where, so a s a y i n g has come down, \"When the t i d e i s out, the t a b l e Is s e t \" . John Wesley Powell i n l891 1^' made the f i r s t major a n a l -y s i s of American I n d i a n languages, of which he found over f i f t y i n North America. Edward S a p i r 1 ^ reduced the number of c u l t -u r a l language groups to seven, three of which he found r e p r e -sented i n B r i t i s h Columbia. S a p i r grouped the Athapascas and Haidas together i n t o the Na-Dene group; the S a l i s h , Kootenays, and Kwakiutls w i t h the Mosan-Algonkin, and p l a c e d the Tsimsh-i a n s w i t h the Penutian stock of the Western United S t a t e s . The N a t i o n a l Museum of Canada i n 1932 d e l i n e a t e d nine l i n g u i s t i c f a m i l i e s (see P l a t e I I ) as they occupied the P a c i f i c l i t t o r a l between the [4.9th and 60th P a r a l l e l s about 1725, A.D. The areas of occupancy as so d e l i n e a t e d have remained more or l e s s s t a t i c d u r i n g the ensuing two hundred y e a r s . The l a n g -uages spoken by a l l of these groups d i f f e r so much from any present-day A s i a t i c tongue that i t i s v i r t u a l l y impossible to t r a c e t h e i r o r i g i n on l i n g u i s t i c grounds. Since there are q u i t e marked d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t r a - g r o u p d i a l e c t s , those of Squamish, S e c h e l t , and Nanaimo v i l l a g e s b e i n g mutually u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , a l though the g r e a t e s t s e p a r a t i o n between v i l l a g e s i s only s i x t y m i l e s , would tend to i n d i c a t e t h a t settlements as d i s c o v e r e d by e a r l y European a r r i v a l s have remained r e l a t i v e l y i s o l a t e d over many c e n t u r i e s . I f we can reason from midden remains that Indians have occ u p i e d s i t e s i n B r i t i s h Columbia f o r a t l e a s t two thousand years i l l I n d i a n L i n g u i s t i c F a m i l i e s , Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, I89I. 15 \" C e n t r a l and North American Languages', E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , llj,th e d i t i o n , v o l . $. 16 Map 27OA, A b o r i g i n e s of Canada. 7 and deduce from language d i f f e r e n c e s which e x i s t even w i t h i n any g i v e n l i n g u i s t i c boundary t h a t d i a l e c t groups have main-t a i n e d t h e i r l e s s e r boundaries through many hundreds of y e a r s , then we can f u r t h e r c o n j e c t u r e t h a t the c u l t u r e s which the f i r s t white men to a r r i v e observed to e x i s t among them hatfe e v o l v e d over e q u a l l y lengthy p e r i o d s of time. Although here again many l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s endured, the en-t i r e area c o u l d be d i v i d e d i n t o three g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l r e g i o n s ; the Northwest Coast, the P l a t e a u , and the Mackenzie, or Atha-bascan. 17 D i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s of the Coast r e g i o n were: ' depend-ence on sea foods, use of wood, and the development of a soc-i a l c l a s s system. P r e c i p i t o u s t e r r a i n and dense undergrowth r e p e l l e d the land hunter, while s h e l t e r e d waters and compara-t i v e l y e a s i l y procured sea-game a t t r a c t e d the fi s h e r m a n . Cus-t o m a r i l y , the ab l e - b o d i e d men f i s h e d , o l d e r men tended s e a l -nets a t the shore, and women and c h i l d r e n gathered b e r r i e s and clams. Although f i s h was the s t a p l e d i e t , the s o f t s k e l e t o n of t h i s c r e a t u r e soon decomposed, while the clam's hard s h e l l r e -mained. The word \"midden\" on t h i s coast has thus become almost synonymous w i t h \"clam-heap\". Since f i s h of one type or another could be caught almost anywhere, the determining f a c t o r f o r the l o c a t i o n of a permanent v i l l a g e s i t e was the presence of a clam-bed. Wood, p a r t i c u l a r l y cedar, found almost u n i v e r s a l use. I t provided p o s t s , beams and planks f o r lodges so l a r g e , some of 17 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, Haida, Nootka, B e l l a Coola. Tslmshian. K w a k i u t l . Coast  S a l l s h , V i c t o r i a . P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s . 1952. 8 them hundreds of f e e t l o n g and f i f t y f e e t wide, t h a t t h e i r t e n -i fi ants comprised an e n t i r e v i l l a g e . I t s u p p l i e d m a t e r i a l f o r boxes, bowls, and canoes. I t s bark could be used f o r c l o t h i n g , ropes and mats, and i t s r o o t s f o r b a s k e t s . T r a n s p o r t a t i o n was almost e n t i r e l y by water, every v i l l a g e m a i n t a i n i n g i t s f l e e t of dug-out canoes. Haida and Nootka Ind-ians p e r f e c t e d t h i s v e s s e l to the p o i n t where i t c o u l d take to the open sea. S p e c i a l i z e d Nootka men employed t h e i r high-prowed canoes i n whale-hunting. Perhaps because of the comparative permanence of t h e i r v i l -l a g e s , peoples of t h i s maritime c u l t u r e developed a c o n s c i o u s -ness of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y ownership. A l s o , p a r t l y at l e a s t no doubt because of the f a c t t h a t enough food c o u l d be gathered d u r i n g the summer to l a s t through the w i n t e r , l e a v i n g a p e r i o d of comparative l e i s u r e time, a s e r i e s of f e s t i v i t i e s came i n t o e x i s t e n c e to h e l p while away t h i s otherwise d r e a r y season. S o c i a l rank, p a r t i c u l a r l y among the Nootka, Kwakiutl, Haida, and Tsimshian, thus came to be determined by a combin-a t i o n of p r o p e r t y p o s s e s s i o n , r i g h t s t o c e r t a i n f o o d - g a t h e r i n g areas, and p r i v i l e g e s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n c e r t a i n ceremonial per-formances. V i l l a g e s o c i e t y , a g a i n p a r t i c u l a r l y among the group j u s t mentioned, was g e n e r a l l y made up of three c l a s s e s ; n o b l e s , commoners, and s l a v e s . Leaders tended to be lodge major-domos r a t h e r than v i l l a g e or t r i b a l c h i e f s , as found among p l a i n s Ind-i a n s . P o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y went a l o n g w i t h s o c i a l rank, and d i s c u s s i o n s which would a f f e c t the e n t i r e v i l l a g e l a y i n the 18 John Rodgers J e w i t t , A J o u r n a l Kept a t Nootka During  the Years 1803 - 1805. Boston, C E . G-oodapeed, l f e l \" 9 hands of an u p p e r - c l a s s o l i g a r c h y , a group which remained r e l -a t i v e l y s t a t i c , but to which commoners had some access through v e r t i c a l m o b i l i t y . Since no w r i t t e n language had been developed, claims to t i t l e s , p r o p e r t y and p r i v i l e g e s were made o r a l l y . The customary o c c a s i o n f o r such claims to be made, g e n e r a l l y upon the b i r t h or marriage w i t h i n the f a m i l y h o l d i n g i t , became known as a p o t l a t c h . Although Webster's D i c t i o n a r y c r e d i t s the term tio the Chinook \" p a t s h a t l \" , and denotes i t as a ceremonial d i s t r i b u t i o n of g i f t s a t a f e s t i v a l , i t meant much more than j u s t t h a t . The p o t l a t c h was a time f o r g r a n t i n g names, l a y i n g claims to h e r i -tage, r e c i t i n g f a m i l y h e r a l d i c legends, and d i s p l a y i n g wealth, and the degree of i t s success l a r g e l y determined the s o c i a l p o s i t i o n of the f a m i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r I t . Commoners seldom had s u f f i c i e n t p r o p e r t y of claims to h o l d p o t l a t c h e s ; s l a v e s were simply p i e c e s of p r o p e r t y , a c q u i r e d by the c l a s s e s above them, I n i t i a l l y through wars or r a i d s , which could be disposed of on p o t l a t c h o c c a s i o n s . Tsimshian and Haida v i l l a g e s were d i v i d e d i n t o c l a n s , the Tsimshian i n t o four c l a n s , and the Haida i n t o two. Marriage i n both groups was exogamous,and descent m a t r i l i n e a l . Kwakiutl, Nootka, and S a l i s h v i l l a g e s had no c l a n s ; the f i r s t two groups f o l l o w e d a b i l i n e a l , and the l a s t a p a t r i l i n e a l descent. Throughout the l e n g t h of the c o a s t , noble f a m i l i e s c r e -ated and maintained a l l i a n c e s through i n t e r - v i l l a g e marriages, g e n e r a l l y w i t h i n t h e i r own l i n g u i s t i c b o u n d a r i e s . 1 ^ The I n t e r i o r S a l i s h and Kootenay groups hunted game animals 19 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, Haida. K w a k i u t l . Nootka. Coast S a l i s h . T s imshian. 10 as w e l l as f i s h e d f o r f o o d , and developed a l e s s e l a b o r a t e 20 s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e than d i d t h e i r maritime n e i g h b o r s . There seems t o have been l i t t l e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e , c h i e f t a i n s h i p and other p o s i t i o n s of importance being gained by m e r i t . There was l i t t l e a f f i l i a t i o n among v i l l a g e s , and the v i l l a g e , r a t h e r than any l a r g e r t r i b a l or band grouping, remained the c u l t u r a l u n i t . Horse-back r i d i n g , and the use of l e a t h e r c l o t h i n g and f e a t h e r adornments seem to have been borrowed, p a r t i c u l a r l y by the Kootenays, from n e i g h b o r i n g p l a i n s groups, but b a s i c s o c i a l customs i n g e n e r a l seem to have remained a r a t h e r s i m p l i f i e d v e r s i o n of those of the C o a s t a l S a l i s h peoples, w i t h whom the westernmost of the Plateau groups came i n t o c o n t a c t . The Dene of the n o r t h geared t h e i r economic l i f e to move-ments of the r o v i n g herds of c a r i b o u , on which they depended 21 f o r food and c l o t h i n g . These nomadic groups were made up of f a m i l i e s of r e l a t e d males, who cooperated i n t h e i r s e a r c h f o r game on known hunting grounds. Again, although t h e i r economic way of l i f e was s i m i l a r to t h a t of t h e i r neighbors to the e a s t , they adopted t h e i r s o c i a l customs from peoples to the west of them. Throughout the e n t i r e i n t e r i o r , p r o p e r t y tended to be h e l d i n communal, r a t h e r than p r i v a t e , ownership. The a r t of p l a n t d o m e s t i c a t i o n , which had been a c q u i r e d by the peoples of Mexico and C e n t r a l America about 3000 B.C., and which by 1500 A.D. or so had spread throughout most of the western North American d e s e r t , d i d not r e a c h the 49th P a r a l l e l , and a l l 20 T e i t , James A., The S a l l s h a n T r i b e s of the Western P l a t -eaus , Washington, U.S. P r i n t i n g Bureau, 1930. 2.1 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s ; Our Native Peoples, Dene. 11 peoples n o r t h of t h a t remained food-gathers r a t h e r than food-growers. That they d i d so undoubtedly hindered t h e i r t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s , but not n e c e s s a r i l y t h e i r c u l t u r a l growth i n other r e s p e c t s . In the words of C o l l i e r : , T e c h n o l o g i c a l l y , a n c i e n t man advanced s l o w l y . In the c o n t r o l and b e n e f l c i e n t development of human nature through i n s t i t u t i o n s he advanced f a s t and f a r . 22 A p r i m i t i v e people, l i v i n g i n an i n t i m a c y w i t h nature to h i g h l y c i v i l i z e d n a t i o n can comprehend, developed t h e i r b e -l i e f s as e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r , and attempts to l i v e i n harmony w i t h , the n a t u r a l f o r c e s and phenomena of t h e i r environment. Although v a r i a t i o n s i n d e t a i l developed among the c u l t u r a l groups of the a r e a , the fundamental bases o f t h e i r b e l i e f s r e -v e a l e d remarkable s i m i l a r i t i e s . P h i l i p Drucker\u00bbs summing up of these fundamental bases can be a p p l i e d to a l l of the peoples of B r i t i s h Columbia: These fundamental p r i n c i p l e s that combined to give Northwest Coast r e l i g i o n i t s d i s t i n c t i v e c a s t were:: l a c k of s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n of b e l i e f s on c r e a t i o n , cos-mology and d e i t i e s ; a r a t h e r vague n o t i o n of a r e -mote, d i s i n t e r e s t e d Supreme Being or Beings; a set of b e l i e f s , r e v o l v i n g about the i m m o r t a l i t y of c e r -t a i n e c o n o m i c a l l y important s p e c i e s of animals, com-bi n e d w i t h a s e r i e s of r i t u a l p r a c t i c e s to ensure the r e t u r n of these c r e a t u r e s ; and, f i n a l l y , the concept of the p o s s i b i l i t y of l i f e l o n g a s s i s t a n c e by a p e r s o n a l guardian s p i r i t . 23 With the e x c e p t i o n of the Dene, b e l i e f i n a Supreme Being was common among I n d i a n groups of the a r e a . T y p i c a l l y , a lthough '22 John C o l l i e r , op. c i t . , p. 23. 23 P h i l i p Drucker, Indians Of the Northwest Coast. Smith-sonian I n s t i t u t i o n , 1955, p. 13b. 12 he may have taken an a c t i v e p a r t i n world events i n the p a s t ; may, i n f a c t , have been the C r e a t o r , at present he l i v e d r e -mote from the a f f a i r s of men. The Haidas r e f e r r e d t o t h i s Being as \"Power-of-the-Shining-Heavens\", the Tsimshians as \"Laxha\", and the Nootkas as f o u r \"Great C h i e f s \" . The K w a k i u t l s , B e l l a Coolas, and Kootenays saw the sun as t h e i r C r e a t o r , and the S a l i s h , although they r e c o g n i z e d a Supreme Being, gave him no 2k p a r t i c u l a r name. H\" These Beings of the heavens seem, endeed, to have p l a y e d l i t t l e p a r t i n the n a t i v e s ' l i v e s , but t\u00a9 have dwelt In a realm \u00a9f myth r a t h e r than a t a f o c a l p o i n t of worship. M o n o t h e i s t i c gods, a l l - p o w e r f u l and ever-present as p l a i n s Indians envisaged them, peoples of the northwest d i d not have. What d i d form the b a s i s and the core of t h e i r code of l i f e was a thorough and a l l - i n c l u s i v e animism. \"The gods walked on every road of man, and every road of man was s a c r e d \" P h i l i p Drucker \u00b0 suggests t h a t the b e l i e f o r i g i n a t e d w i t h the salmon, whom the Indian regarded as d w e l l i n g as people l i k e themselves i n a far-away l a n d , and coming p e r i o d i c a l l y i n d i s g u i s e t\u00a9 o f f e r themselves as food. Diamond J e n n e s s 2 ? found that the Sekani had once b e l i e v e d t h a t animals and human beings had once been a l i k e . The peoples of the northwest f i n a l l y found themselves l i v -i n g i n a world o f s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s , which caused e v e r y t h i n g and c o n t r o l l e d the m a t e r i a l world. Animism entered even i n t o t h e , t o us, inanimate world, endowing the elements, u t e n s i l s , t o o l s and ~~ 2h P h i l i p Drucker, op. c i t . . p. lkO. 25 John C o l l i e r , op. c i t . . p. 22. 26 P h i l i p JDrucker, op. c i t . , p. l l | 0 . 27 Diamond Jenness, op. c i t . , p. 67. 13> weapons w i t h p e r s o n a l s p i r i t s . S p i r i t s were l i t e r a l l y every-where, and t h e i r power determined man's v e r y d e s t i n y . These f o r c e s , however, were not beyond a p p e a l . The a n i m i s -t i c and magical world-view of the Indian l e d him to an assump-t i o n t h at i n t e n s i t y of consciousness - c o n c e n t r a t e d , sus-t a i n e d l o n g i n g and the f e e l i n g of power, joy, h a p p i -ness, beauty, and of union w i t h the sources of being - was e f f e c t u a l i n the magical c o n t r o l of nature through c o - p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h the gods. 28 The attainment o f c o - p a r t n e r s h i p c o u l d be won, on the b a s i s of t h i s assumption, through group ceremony and i n d i v i d u a l r i t -u a l . One of the most r i g i d l y adhered-to ceremonies, p a r t i c u l a r l y among a l l groups which depended on c y c l i c spawning runs o f f i s h f o r t h e i r main food supply, was the \" f i r s t - f i s h \" ceremony. W i l -l i a m Duncan, m i s s i o n a r y d u r i n g much of the l a s t h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h century among the Tsimshian, has l e f t a d e t a i l e d r e c o r d of the treatment accorded the f i r s t eulochan c a t c h by some of these people a t the Nass R i v e r . \" A l l o f these plans must be c a r r i e d out without a d d i t i o n or change,\" he concludes h i s account, \"otherwise the f i s h w i l l be ashamed, and perhaps never come again\".^9 These same people and others c a r r i e d out s p e c i a l ceremonies, l i k e w i s e , over the f i r s t salmon c a t c h of the season, on to honor and welcome the f i r s t of the s p e c i e s . J The Kootenays, p o s s i b l y through P l a i n s i n f l u e n c e , each day extended p e t i t i o n s to the Dawn and to the Sun, and t h e i r d a i l y 28 John C o l l i e r , op. c i t . , p. 21. 29 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, Tsimshian, p. 36. 30 P h i l i p Drucker, op. c i t . , p. II4.O. I l l round was f i l l e d w i t h many small ceremonies aimed at s e c u r i n g f a v o r from the s p i r i t w o r l d . J S i m i l a r l y , the s e c r e t s o c i e t y dances and w i n t e r ceremonials o f the Kwakiutls, the t o s s i n g i n t o the sea of g i f t s to the k i l l e r whale by the Haidas, the Wolf Dance of the Nootkas, the C a n n i b a l Dance of the B e l l a Coola, and the h a r v e s t songs of thanks of the I n t e r i o r S a l i s h were a l l aimed, i n p a r t a t l e a s t , a t g a i n i n g r a p p o r t w i t h which-32 ever s p i r i t s each people f e l t a p p r o p r i a t e . E n t i r e v i l l a g e s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n appeals to these s p i r i t s , but they were l e d by a type of p r i e s t known as a shaman. Wearing costumes and masks, the shaman, accompanied by c e r t a i n chosen members of the t r i b e s i m i l a r l y a c c o u t r e d , sought by i n c a n t a t -i o n s , dances, and the m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e i r masks to p r o p i t i a t e s p i r i t s whose a i d they wished to s o l i c i t . ^ The masked a c t o r s were, i n e f f e c t , the embodiment of the s p i r i t s of the c r e a t u r e s b e i n g appealed t o , g e n e r a l l y wolves, b e a r s , k i l l e r whales, and the legendary c a n n i b a l s and t h u n d e r b i r d s . Thus the ceremonies r e p r e s e n t e d a kind of sympathetic magic, as the performers acted out p o r t i o n s of the m y t h o l o g i c a l and legendary h e r i t a g e of t h e i r audience group. The Kwakiutls were so i n f l u e n c e d by t h i s type of ceremony that they r e f e r r e d to summer as the \"profane\" 1, and to winter as the \" s a c r e d \" season. During the l a t t e r p e r i o d of time, v i l l a g e s , i n s t e a d of being grouped i n c l a n s , waived t h i s 31 B r i t i s h Columbia H e r i tage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, Kootenay, p. 28. 32 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, Kwakiutl, p. 50; Haida, p. 2l+; Nootka, p. 1+0; B e l l a Coola, p. 60; I n t e r i o r S a l l s h . p. 1+0. 333 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Our  Native Peoples, p. 28. 15 form of o r g a n i z a t i o n , and membership i n a s e c r e t s o c i e t y became the paramount grouping. The i n d i v i d u a l , i n a d d i t i o n to p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n group ce r e -monies, observed p e r s o n a l r i t u a l i s t i c behavior i n h i s d a i l y l i f e . No a d u l t , i t was b e l i e v e d , c o u l d f u n c t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y un-l e s s he had obtained d u r i n g h i s youth the s p i r i t f o r c e of some cr e a t u r e or o b j e c t as h i s p r i v a t e g u a r d i a n s p i r i t . From e a r l y c h i l d h o o d , boys i n p a r t i c u l a r l e a r n e d to l o o k among the f e a t u r e s of h i s n a t u r a l surroundings f o r some p a r t i c u l a r element which presented i t s e l f to h i s p e r c e p t i o n i n an unusual way. Some time during e a r l y puberty he would wander out, to a customary s i t e a t f i r s t , where f o r s e v e r a l days and n i g h t s he would pursue h i s quest, while h i s f a m i l y at home e n j o i n e d i n ceremonies t o f a c i l -i t a t e h i s s u c c e s s . L a t e r , he would disappear from h i s v i l l a g e and remain absent f o r weeks, or even months, during a l l of # i l c h time he sought r e v e l a t i o n by h i s chosen b i r d , beast, or o b j e c t that i t s s p i r i t was w i l l i n g to be h i s g u a r d i a n . Some time a f t e r h i s r e t u r n home, aid e d by a shaman at a s p e c i a l ceremony, the s p i r i t , about which he vhad t o l d no one, would a s s e r t i t s e l f i n 3k song through h i s l i p s . T h i s g u a r d i a n - s p i r i t d i d not enter the i n d i v i d u a l to poss-ess him, but a i d e d him i n the p u r s u i t of h i s h u n t i n g , f i s h i n g , woodworking, and other a c t i v i t i e s . The i n d i v i d u a l had h i s own s o u l ; i l l n e s s or death c o u l d r e s u l t i f t h i s s o u l were l o s t or i f some extraneous e v i l i n f l u e n c e were to i n t r u d e h i s body. Cer-t a i n shamans made a p r a c t i c e of c a l l i n g upon t h e i r s p i r i t h e l p e r s 3l+ W.W. Elmandorf, Anthropology 301, Summer S e s s i o n , U.B.C. 1958> and Mrs E l l e n P a u l l , S e c h e l t , s e r i e s of i n t e r v i e w s 1958-59. 16 to seek the l o s t s o u l , which might have s t r a y e d t o the land of the dead, and of removing i n t r u d i n g a r t i c l e s and contaminat-35 i o n s . The s o u l was of g r e a t e s t concern to the f a m i l y d u r i n g times of b i r t h and death. I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t the s o u l of a new-born c h i l d was h e l d only p r e c a r i o u s l y i n the body; that the s l i g h t e s t f a l s e a ct on t h e i r p a r t might cause i t to r e t u r n t o the dead ancestor whence i t came. When a member of a f a m i l y d i e d h i s k i n were t o r n between g r i e f a t the l o s s and f e a r of the ghost. Wakes, a t which f a m i l y d i r g e s were sung, were h e l d to encourage the s o u l t o journey to the l a n d of the dead, f o r i f i t remained i n the v i l l a g e i t might s t e a l souls from the l i v -i n g . There was no h e a v e n - h e l l a n t i t h e s i s i n northwest Indian b e l i e f . The Kootenays and I n t e r i o r S a l l s h b e l i e v e d that the land of the dead was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an abundance of food; most other peoples envisaged i t merely as a vague shadow-land 37 i n one d i r e c t i o n or another from t h e i r p l a c e of abode. Mythology played a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n the l i v e s of a l l northwest p e o p l e s . G e n e r a l l y speaking, myths were of three c a t -e g o r i e s : those i n v o l v i n g c r e a t i o n , or a \" t r a n s f o r m a t i o n \" of the world; those i n v o l v i n g f a m i l y h e r a l d r y from a n c i e n t times, and those of more r e c e n t times, o f t e n based on some s l i g h t i n c i d e n t . U s u a l l y , however, myths h e l d the common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of b e i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s of why things are as they are a t the presen t time. \"35 P h i l i p Drucker, op. c i t . . p. 114+. 3:6 I b i d . , p. 159. 3>7 B r i t i s h Columbia H e r i t a g e S e r i e s ; Our Native Peoples. 17 Indian mythology s t r e s s e d the f a c t that a t some age f a r i n t o the p a s t , animals c o u l d a l t e r n a t e from t h e i r own guise to that of the human being, and animals and man spoke the same language. Since peoples the world over have a t t r i b u t e d s o u l to the human b e i n g , t h i s p a r t of t h e i r mythology e x p l a i n e d to the I n d i a n peoples why animals a l s o had s o u l s , or s p i r i t s . P o s s i b l y stemming from a t r i b a l remembrance of c r e a t u r e s encountered by t h e i r ancestors d u r i n g the g l a c i a l epoch, a type of myth dwelt upon the deeds of a \"transformer\", g e n e r a l l y termed \"Raven\", who i n ages gone by a i d e d the people by r i d d i n g the world of monsters who had preyed upon them, and even m o d i f i e d the human being i n t o i t s present form from a more rudimentary s t a t e of ex-i s t e n c e . S i m i l a r i t y between these and myths from A s i a suggest that some of the Indian h i s t o r i c legends may have endured from before the time of t h e i r m i g r a t i o n . Myths of l e s s a n c i e n t o r i g i n g e n e r a l l y p e r t a i n e d to the d e r i v a t i o n of f a m i l y h e r a l d i c emblems, and were the a s s e r t i o n , which could be made at a p o t l a t c h or other a p p r o p r i a t e ceremony, of the r i g h t s of c e r t a i n l i n e a g e s to use a bear, a toad, an eagle, or other c r e a t u r e on a totem p o l e , which was the p h y s i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of such legends. The B e l l a Coola b e l i e v e d t h e i r myths, and even maintained t h a t t h e i r f a m i l y names had been brought down from above by remote ancestors.^\u00ae Most legends of more re c e n t o r i g i n were intended l a r g e l y f o r amusement, but even these u s u a l l y c o n t a i n e d , even i f as a n o n - e s s e n t i a l element, e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r c e r t a i n phenomena. 38 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s ; Our Native Peoples, B e l l a C oola. p. 28. 18 Indian a r t grew d i r e c t l y out of r e l i g i o n and mythology. The whole a r t .... was aimed at the d e p i c t i o n of the s u p e r n a t u r a l beings, i n animal, monster, or human form, who a c c o r d i n g to l i n e a g e or c l a n t r a d -i t i o n s had appeared to some a n c e s t o r . . . . The desc-endants of that a n c e s t o r , i n the proper l i n e , i n -h e r i t e d the r i g h t t o d i s p l a y symbols of the super-n a t u r a l b eing to r e p r e s e n t t h e i r noble descent .... Thus the a r t s t y l e i t s e l f , through the o b j e c t s made a c c o r d i n g to i t s d i c t a t e s , was i n t i m a t e l y l i n k e d w i t h the s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , rank, and s t a t u s , as w e l l as the ceremonial p a t t e r n s , of the Northern groups. 39 A r t , i n f a c t , c o u l d not be s a i d to have e x i s t e d as a pur-s u i t i n i t s e l f among these p e o p l e s . No space on b u i l d i n g , p o s t , or u t e n s i l was carved or c o l o r e d as f i n e a r t , merely to be d e c o r a t i v e . The a r t i s t a p p l i e d h i s a r t to u t i l i t a r i a n m a t e r i a l s and ceremonial c l o t h i n g . Men worked t h e i r c o n v e n t i o n a l i z e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a r t i n wood, bone, and stone - totem p o l e s , boxes, c l u b s , t o o l s , spoons, masks, and canoes. Women worked t h e i r geometric designs i n t o t h e i r weaving - c l o t h i n g , b a s k e t s , and mats. V i l l a g e and a l s o i n d i v i d u a l s t y l e s developed, and no a r t i s t c ould borrow from another, s i n c e he would not have the r i g h t to use the other's c r e s t s . A r t r e f l e c t e d the s o c i a l as w e l l as the r e l i g i o u s l i f e of a v i l l a g e ; the magnitude of a p i e c e of work such as a totem p o l e , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n d i c a t e d the s o c i a l s t a t u s of the l i n e a g e d e p i c t e d as much as d i d the c r e s t s r e p r e s e n t e d on i t . As might be expected, the maritime peoples, e n j o y i n g a more s t a b l e v i l l a g e l i f e , and more l e i s u r e time, developed a more e l a b o -r a t e a r t form than d i d those of the i n t e r i o r . In g e n e r a l , the extent to which o b j e c t s were carved and c o l o r e d d i m i n i s h e d from 39 P h i l i p Drucker, op. c i t . . p. 166. li.0 W'.W. Elmandorf, Anthropology 301, TJ.B.C. Summer S e s s i o n , 1958. 19 n o r t h to south a l o n g the c o a s t , and from coast t o p l a t e a u . The I n t e r i o r S a l l s h and Dene d i d v i r t u a l l y no c a r v i n g , hut the f o r -mer group decorated t h e i r b a s k e t r y , and the l a t t e r ornamented t h e i r l e a t h e r c l o t h i n g . E x t e n s i v e t r a d i n g was c a r r i e d on between groups whose prod-u c t s d i f f e r e d . I n t e r i o r Indians thus exchanged deer and c a r i b o u a n t l e r s , h i d e s , and other animal products f o r oolachan o i l and cured salmon from maritime peoples, and b u f f a l o robes from the p l a i n s made t h e i r way as f a r west as Spences B r i d g e . A n o r t h -south trade r o u t e a l s o e x i s t e d a l l the way from A l a s k a to nor-thern C a l i f o r n i a . The Chinook band, l o c a t e d on the Columbia R i v e r where, so one of t h e i r legends goes, a huge n a t u r a l stone bridge once e x i s t e d , became engaged i n t h i s trade to such an extent t h a t , even before a r r i v a l of the white man i n t e n s i f i e d the p r o c e s s , t h e i r tongue had come to be the accepted b a r t e r language throughout the P a c i f i c l i t t o r a l . E d u c a t i o n , as a r t , stemmed from, and was concerned w i t h , the r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l , and economic s t r u c t u r e complex of the s o c i e t y . Taking place e n t i r e l y w i t h i n the f a m i l y and w i t h i n the v i l l a g e t e r r i t o r y , i t e x i s t e d as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of l i f e to an extent t h a t nowhere obtains i n our modern t e c h n o l o g i c a l s o c i e t y . As w i t h a r t , i t d i d not a t any time, i n f a c t , e x i s t as an e n t i t y i n i t s e l f , but a c t e d as the warp which s u s t a i n e d the weave and the p a t t e r n of s o c i e t y i n i t s e n t i r e t y . John C o l l i e r , United S t a t e s Commissioner of Indian A f f a i r s from 1933 to 19kS, says of t h i s e d u c a t i o n i n h i s book, Indians of the Americas; Hence was b u i l t and s u s t a i n e d the l i f e a r t . The elements of t h i s l i f e a r t were language, song, dance, 20 ceremonial, c r a f t s m a n s h i p , a s c e t i c d i s c i p l i n e , f i g h t i n g , and the chase. A l l o f these, I n c l u d i n g language, were s u s t a i n e d by u n w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n , and the t r a d i t i o n was communicated through the ge n e r a t i o n s by systematized e d u c a t i o n . U s u a l l y the e d u c a t i o n was aimed toward, and was c a r r i e d out from, the c r i s i s of adolescence i n the i n d i -v i d u a l and the e r i s e s o f sacred ceremony In the group. L|.l The u l t i m a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of the p r i m i t i v e group was upon ed u c a t i o n , and the u l t i m a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h i s e d u c a t i o n was upon the c r i s i s o f adolescence, the b r i e f p e r i o d i n the l i f e of the i n d i v i d u a l which determined whether or not the c h i l d would succeed i n growing up. E v e r y t h i n g t h a t was done w i t h the baby and the c h i l d was aimed a t t h i s most important b r i d g e i n h i s l i f e . At b i r t h the baby was g i v e n a name. This name was not a mere a p p e l a t i o n , but an i n t i m a t e p a r t o f the b e i n g concerned. The name i t s e l f c a r r i e d c o n s i d e r a b l e power, and could be used to c o n t r o l i t s possessor to some e x t e n t . G e n e r a l l y , i t was a h e r i t a g e name, a v a i l a b l e from a deceased f o r e b e a r , who had i n t u r n obtained i t i n l i k e manner. The bearer c o u l d add to t h i s i n i t i a l name d u r i n g h i s l i f e , as he earned the p r i v i l e g e t o do so, each of these a d d i t i o n a l names being l i k e w i s e f a m i l y p r o p -e r t y . Some time d u r i n g v e r y e a r l y c h i l d h o o d , an e l d e r o f the f a m i l y , g e n e r a l l y a grandmother, sang a song a p p r o p r i a t e to the endowed name. T h i s song was repeated at i n t e r v a l s and memorized 142 by the c h i l d . Ill p. 21. 1+2 Information obtained from t a l k w i t h S h i r l e y J u l i a n , S e c h e l t , J u l y , 1958. _a A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Indian psychology was absence o f corp-o r a l punishment. I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t harsh c o r r e c t i o n l e d t o l a c k of s e l f - c o n t r o l . The young c h i l d was t h e r e f o r e r e a r e d i n a permis s i v e s i t u a t i o n i n which he would l e a r n s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e . T h i s permissive i n f a n c y and apparent l a c k o f formal t r a i n i n g among most t r i b e s d u r i n g the f i r s t three or fo u r years was i n -tended t o make te a c h i n g e a s i e r l a t e r on. Formal t r a i n i n g , when i t began, v a r i e d s l i g h t l y from t r i b e to t r i b e , but i n the main i t i n v o l v e d l e a r n i n g myths, c r a f t s and c o r r e c t b e h a v i o r . Haidas, i n p a r t i c u l a r , l a i d g r e a t s t r e s s on the t e l l i n g , over and over a g a i n , c e r t a i n s t o r i e s , a n c e s t o r ad-venture legends, and f a m i l y h i s t o r i e s . The I n t e r i o r S a l i s h em-phasized hardihood of body, honesty, and moral s c r u p u l o u s n e s s . The Kootenay taught the young c h i l d to do f a m i l y chores. Coast 1+3 S a l i s h i n c u l c a t e d e t i q u e t t e and taboos. Emphasis on boys' edu c a t i o n of course d i f f e r e d from g i r l s ' In t h a t the former r e c e i v e d t r a i n i n g i n woodcraft and the making and u s i n g of hunting and f i s h i n g equipment by male r e l a t i v e s , while the l a t t e r were i n s t r u c t e d In cooking, weaving, and the use o f m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s by female members of the l i n e a g e or fam-i l y . Boys, i n a d d i t i o n , were t r a i n e d to endure s u f f e r i n g . Pain was i n f l i c t e d by o l d e r members of the t r i b e a t a p p r o p r i a t e stages of the t r a i n i n g , not as punishment, but as t e s t s o f the novi c e s * s t o i c i s m . The concept of p a i n was thus employed i n a p o s i t i v e , not a n e g a t i v e , way by these p e o p l e s . 1+3 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, Haida, p. 38, I n t e r i o r S a l i s h . p. 38, Kootenay. p. 38, Coast S a l i s h , p. h7. 22 Both boys and g i r l s were taught accepted codes of b e h a v i o r , together w i t h the r i g h t s and d u t i e s of t h e i r c l a s s . Rules of conduct were taught i n a p r a c t i c a l manner. Taboos were made tan-g i b l e by g i v i n g them c o r r e l a t i v e s . Thus, the c h i l d might be taught, \" i t i s bad to s t e a l because people w i l l not have you i n t h e i r house\", or \" i t i s bad to be cowardly, because people w i l l laugh a t you and impose upon you, and the women w i l l say, *He should wear a s k i r t \" . ^ Since there was no w r i t t e n language, d e t a i l s o f l e a r n i n g had to be memorized and r e t a i n e d , not o n l y by the ve r y young, as i n our s o c i e t y , but by a l l ages, s i n c e no p r i n t e d r e f e r e n c e e x i s t e d t h at c o u l d be turned t o i f memory l a p s e d . C h i l d r e n were thus taught to pay c l o s e a t t e n t i o n while s t o r i e s were being t o l d , and p u r p o s e f u l l y made to s i t s t i l l to the p o i n t of be-coming uncomfortable to emphasize the need f o r l i s t e n i n g and watching c a r e f u l l y . \" I f you go to s l e e p while s t o r i e s are be i n g t o l d \" , so one precept r a n , \"you w i l l grow up hunchbacked\".^ \"'I learned e a s i l y \" , says Mrs. E l l e n P a u l l of S E c h e l t , e i g h t y years of age, who can n e i t h e r read nor w r i t e , but who can s i n g L a t i n hymns and speak f l u e n t l y In S a l l s h , Chinook, and E n g l i s h . A b i l i t y to endure i n t e n s i t y of c o n c e n t r a t i o n over a pro-longed p e r i o d of time without l e s s e n i n g of mental or p h y s i c a l v i g o r seemed to be the aim of the i n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s . At puberty, boys' and g i r l s ' t r a i n i n g f o r adulthood entered i t s f i n a l s t a g e s. The boy's guardian s p i r i t ceremony, accomp-an i e d , i n some n o r t h e r n maritime groups, by I n i t i a t i o n i n t o a I4I4. B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s ; Our Native Peoples, I n t e r i o r S a l l s h . p. 39. 1+5 W'.W. Elmandorf, Anthropology 301, Summer U.B.C., 1958.. 2:3 s e c r e t s o c i e t y , marked h i s e n t r y i n t o manhood. The g i r l ' s t r a i n i n g a t t h i s time of l i f e i n v o l v e d negative admonitions i n the form of taboos as w e l l as p o s i t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n . She must av o i d c e r t a i n foods, e a t w i t h only c e r t a i n u t e n s i l s , and comb her h a i r w i t h only a s p e c i a l comb. She must at a l l times keep her f i n g e r s busy. (\"I want to b r i n g my hands back to l i f e , \" s a i d Mrs. E l l e n P a u l l , who r e c e n t l y resumed basket-making a f t e r a year of enforced i n a c t i v i t y i n h o s p i t a l ) . A l l such mode of con-duct was aimed at the d e v e l o p i n g , at an age when such an aware-ness might w e l l not have developed n a t u r a l l y , of the s i g n i f i c a n c e of womanhood and motherhood. P r e s t i g e of the f a m i l y could be maintained through success-f u l i n s t r u c t i o n , and damaged through poor t r a i n i n g . S o c i a l pressure was t h e r e f o r e a powerful goafc, d r i v i n g p u p i l and i n -s t r u c t o r a l i k e to do t h e i r b e s t . Since i n t e r - v i l l a g e marriages l i n k e d many noble f a m i l i e s t o g e t h e r , the s i z e of the group a f f -ected was o f t e n v e r y l a r g e , and the s o c i a l p r e s s u r e p r o p o r t i o n -a t e l y g r e a t . Behavior b e f i t t i n g s o c i a l p o s i t i o n was i n s t i l l e d I n t o youngsters from the e a r l i e s t p o s s i b l e age. High s o c i a l rank im-p l i e d d i g n i t y ; one must not, under any circumstances whatever, behave i n an u n d i g n i f i e d way. \" I t i s a l l v ery w e l l f o r the com-moner f a m i l y to be l a x i n t h e i r b e h a v i o r , \" a noble grandparent might say to h i s charges, \"but you must maintain a r i g i d code of behavior at a l l times.\" Since many commoner f a m i l i e s were s t r u g g l i n g to ascend the s o c i a l l a d d e r , they too, however, tended to i n s i s t on a s t r i c t moral code. For examples o f s l a c k conduct there e x i s t e d always the s l a v e c l a s s , whose members 2k could not g a i n p r e s t i g e through moral r e c t i t u d e , and which seems t o have been c r e a t e d as an ever-present example o f be-h a v i o r c o n t r a s t r a t h e r than as a labor f o r c e . E d u c a t i o n i n the pre-European I n d i a n s o c i e t y was, through-out c h i l d h o o d , a continuous process c a r r i e d on w i t h i n the group of h i g h e s t potency, the primary, f a c e - t o - f a c e s o c i a l group. Each v i l l a g e was a cosmos unto i t s e l f , c o n t a i n i n g w i t h i n v i s -i b l e c o n f i n e s every i n g r e d i e n t of a h i g h l y developed r e l i g i o u s socio-economic complex. The c h i l d c o u l d p e r c e i v e every phase, every s p e c i a l t y , of human behavior and endeavor take p l a c e . B i r t h , death, warfare, the g a t h e r i n g of food, the making o f c l o t h i n g , the c o n s t r u c t i o n of b u i l d i n g s and canoes, a l l went on In a world i n which every i n d i v i d u a l was p a r t i c i p a n t as w e l l as observer. Every a c t was of s i g n i f i c a n c e - no act c o u l d take place unseen by the eyes of o t h e r s , and every nuance of be-h a v i o r i n v o l v e d a l l others i n i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s . The break from c h i l d h o o d i n t o adulthood, towards which a l l the years of t r a i n i n g had been aimed, i n v o l v e d t e s t s which had to be met and passed, but, once passed, the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was complete. Proofs of how m e r i t o r i o u s an a d u l t the new graduate would become l a y yet ahead, but a d u l t he was. The l i n e of demar-c a t i o n was c l e a r and d e c i s i v e ; the c h i l d d i d not l a y c l a i m to the a d u l t world, which was not yet h i s , and the a d u l t d i d not behave as a c h i l d . When I was a c h i l d , I spoke as a c h i l d , I understood as a c h i l d , I thought as a c h i l d , but when I became a man, I put away c h i l d i s h t h i n g s . J4.7 I4.6 John C o l l i e r , op. c i t . . p. 21. i+7 I C o r i n t h i a n s 13::11. 25 I t was a world founded on a group ethos which p e r c e i v e d the whole of e x i s t e n c e as one magic c i r c l e , and on an i n d i v i d u a l psyche which l i v e d a c c o r d i n g to the p a r t i n i t that I t must p l a y . P l a t e I I CULTURE- DISTRIBUTION MAP'. LANGUAGE 0OOtf J?0\/?\/5 s CHAPTER I I THE EUROPEAN APPEARS There was an I n d i a n , who had known no change, Who s t r a y e d content along a s u n l i t beach Gathering s h e l l s . He heard a strange Commingled n o i s e ; looked up; and gasped f o r speech, Fo r i n the bay, where nothi n g was b e f o r e , Moved on the sea, by magic, huge canoes, With b e l l y i n g c l o t h s on p o l e s , and not one oar, And f l u t t e r i n g c o l o u r e d s i g n s and clambering crews. , And he, i n f e a r , t h i s naked man a l o n e , His f a l l e n hands f o r g e t t i n g a l l t h e i r s h e l l s , His l i p s gone p a l e , k n e l t low behind a stone, And s t a r e d , and saw, and d i d not understand, Columbus's doom-burdened c a r a v e l s S l a n t to the shore, and a l l t h e i r seamen l a n d . S i r John C o l l i n s Squire The f i r s t e x p l o r e r s and f u r - t r a d e r s to v i s i t the north-west corner of North America encountered and observed, along i t s coast and throughout i t s i n t e r i o r , bands of a b o r i g i n e s . C o n t i n u i n g an e r r o r made c e n t u r i e s e a r l i e r by C h r i s t o p h e r Columbus on the Car-' lbbean I s l a n d s , they c a l l e d these o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s '\"Indians\". Subsequent i n v e s t i g a t i o n s by s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n s of anthro-p o l o g i s t s have determined t h a t a l l of the n a t i v e peoples of t h i s c o n t i n e n t and i t s adjacent i s l a n d s almost c e r t a i n l y possess some common a n c e s t r a l o r i g i n , so t h a t a c o n t i n u a t i o n of the o r i g i n a l misnomer throughout the l a n d mass a t l e a s t d i d not i n o r d i n a t e l y compound the o r i g i n a l e r r o r . E a r l y European o b s e r v e r s , however, were not concerned w i t h the o r i g i n of these p e o p l e s . They sought no l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n of t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s , but were s a t i s f i e d w i t h r e g a r d i n g them as e t h n i c sub-groups of the a l l - i n c l u s i v e a p p e l -a t i v e \"North American I n d i a n \" . Any study of the \" d i s c o v e r y \" of t h i s area must be made wit h 27 the r e a l i z a t i o n i n mind t h a t a t no time s i n c e i t became h a b i t -able thousands of years ago has i t been u n i n h a b i t e d , Europeans, i t must be f u r t h e r admitted, thought of t h i s l o c a l i t y , not as a g o a l , but o n l y as a span of water and l a n d , and a time-consuming hindrance, on the way to the o r i e n t . Since the s i x t e e n t h cent-ury, when t h i s search f o r f i r s t an e l u s i v e north-west, and, l a t e r , a n o r t h - e a s t , passage through the v a s t b u l k of North America began, a c o n s t a n t l y changing s e r i e s of resources has brought s u c c e s s i v e waves o f seekers i n t o the a r e a . When i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t Columbus had not indeed reached the o r i e n t , succeeding e x p l o r e r s s t i l l b e l i e v e d that t h e i r g o a l l a y only a s h o r t d i s t a n c e to the west. While a search f o r a passage through the Americas was p r o v i n g f r u i t l e s s , one of Mag-e l l a n ' s s h i p s i n 1J?22 succeeded i n c i r c u m n a v i g a t i n g the globe westward from S p a i n . Even a f t e r t h i s voyage, which cros s e d the P a c i f i c near the Equator, the b e l i e f p e r s i s t e d t h a t , somewhere to the n o r t h , a very narrow body of water separated the bother-some mass of North America from the fabulous East.\"'\" In the l a t e l^OO's, then, i t was i n search of t h i s s o - c a l l e d \" S t r a i t s of Anian\" t h a t c a r a v e l s came from Europe to the P a c i f i c c o a s t . Hakluyt's Voyages, p r i n t e d i n 15^7, names S i r F r a n c i s Drake's e x p e d i t i o n , i n 1580, as the f i r s t e x p l o r a t i o n of the c o a s t . Purchas, i n h i s P l l g r i m e s , r e l a t e s having i n t e r v i e w e d an e l d e r l y mariner, one Juan de Fuca, who had supposedly, In 1592, s a i l e d up the west coast of North America, a g a i n i n search of the e l u s i v e S t r a i t s of A n i a n . Between the l a t i t u d e s of I4.7 and 1+8 degrees North he had discovered, s\u00a9 he maintained, a broad arm of the sea extending i n t o the c o n t i n e n t a l mass. 1 See maps of Hakluyt, D e l i d e , and o t h e r s . 28 F i r s t a u t h e n t i c a t e d voyage to the North P a c i f i c coast of America seems to be that of the v e s s e l s of V i t u s B e r i n g , which made a l a n d f a l l i n T l i n g i t t e r r i t o r y i n 171+1. The^ , e x p e d i t i o n s a i l e d away when the crew of a boat sent ashore f a i l e d to r e t u r n , and when a number of war canoes came out to t h r e a t e n the s h i p i t s e l f . 2 In 177U\u00bb Juan Perez Hernandez, a Spa n i a r d , hove to a t a spot which he c a l l e d \"San Lorenzo\", near the entrance to what Captain Cook l a t e r named Nootka Sound. He d i d not l a n d , but gave, among other trade goods, two s i l v e r spoons to Indians who came out to h i s s h i p i n canoes.^ F i r s t e x p l o r a t i o n of any d e t a i l along the coast was t h a t c a r r i e d out by C a p t a i n James Cook of the Royal Navy, who a r r i v e d i n 1778 w i t h orders to s a i l along the coast from L a t i t u d e 1+5 to L a t i t u d e 65, and to explore a l l i n l e t s n o r t h of the l a t t e r p a r a -l l e l which appeared to p o i n t toward Hudson's Bay, the hoped-for North-East Passage. He named Cape F l a t t e r y but, d r i v e n out to sea by adverse winds, f a i l e d to f i n d de Fuca's s t r a i t , and made h i s f i r s t l a n d f a l l at Nootka Sound.^ Cap t a i n Cook's j o u r n a l s , p u b l i s h e d i n I78I+, contained r e f e r e n c e s to the s e a - o t t e r , p e l t s of which h i s crew members had seen a t Nootka, and c h a r t s of much of the coast along which they might be found. During the next few years ships commanded by Captains P o r t -l o c k , Hanna, Dixon, and others took cargoes of p e l t s to China. 2 P h i l i p Drucker, op. c i t . , p. 19. 3 Loc. c i t . 1+ J . Austen B a n c r o f t , op. c i t . , p. 6. 5 Margaret A. Ormsby, B r i t i s h Columbia: a H i s t o r y , Van-couver, Evergreen Press, 195b, p. 10. 29 In I787 C a p t a i n John Meares s a i l e d i n t o the S t r a i t of Juan de Puca and took p o s s e s s i o n of the surrounding lands i n the name of the King of E n g l a n d . 0 Captain George Vancouver, sent out from B r i t a i n i n 179 2 to ensure implementation of terms of the Nootka Convention, r e -ce i v e d no s p e c i f i c orders as t o t e r r i t o r i a l s t a t u s , b u t, by co-o p e r a t i n g i n h i s e x p l o r a t i o n s w i t h G a l i a n o and Valdez, who shared w i t h him work they had a l r e a d y done, pr o v i d e d remarkable accurate c h a r t s of the e n t i r e coast of what was to become B r i t i s h C o l -umbia. The Russians made no f u r t h e r r e a l attempts t o e x p l o i t t h i s s e c t i o n of c o a s t l i n e . When, i n 1795 > B r i t a i n and Spai n agreed to an i n f o r m a l s h a r i n g of the t e r r i t o r y of which Nootka Sound had been the c e n t r e , b o t h nati o n s withdrew d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n . B r i t a i n would r e - e n t e r h i s t o r y t h e r e ; S p a i n would n o t . Meanwhile, the f u r - t r a d e r was s t i l l p r e s ent, and he would remain the dom-in a n t element d u r i n g the f o l l o w i n g s i x t y y e a r s . P u r - t r a d e r s , who up to 1800 remained e n t i r e l y maritime, while p r o v i d i n g the b a s i s f o r impact of European c u l t u r e , working o n l y , as they d i d , from t h e i r t r a n s i e n t v e s s e l s , c r e a t e d no deep c o n v u l s i o n i n the n a t i v e way of l i f e . The t r a d e r s , i t i s t r u e , had duped the naive a b o r i g i n e s i n t o a c c e p t i n g t r i f l e s f o r f u r s which c o u l d be r e - s o l d a t a tremendous p r o f i t . Indians e v e n t u a l l y gained some awareness of the value of the products they had to o f f e r , and le a r n e d to b a r g a i n f o r b e t t e r r e t u r n s . Some f r e e -b o o t e r s , such as Hanna, took f u r s by f o r c e . ? The n a t i v e s d i d not take a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h i s type of European e t h i c s , but where, \" 6 B a n c r o f t , op. c i t . t p. 6. 7 Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. 13. p a r t i c u l a r l y , an offense a g a i n s t p e r s o n a l d i g n i t y was i n v o l v e d , o c c a s i o n a l l y r e t a l i a t e d by massacring e n t i r e crews. An e p i -demic, undoubtedly brought by a t r a d i n g v e s s e l , a p p a r e n t l y spread as f a r east as the Rockies about 178\u00a3, decimating even t r i b e s which had never seen Europeans.9 Diseases and a r t i f a c t s remained as the most prominent r e -s u l t s o f e a r l y v i s i t s by Europeans to the n o r t h P a c i f i c c o a s t . Metal u t e n s i l s and c o t t e n c l o t h i n g tended g e n e r a l l y merely to augment stone implements and bark garments. D i s a s t r o u s as d i s -eases might have been to some v i l l a g e p o p u l a t i o n s , they d i d not a l t e r the n a t i v e c u l t u r e . D i s p u t e s , even those i n v o l v i n g v i o -l e n c e , were s e t t l e d p r i v a t e l y . Since the t r a d e r s were unorgan-i z e d and g r e a t l y outnumbered, and s i n c e i n t e r v e n t i o n by n a t i o n a l armed f o r c e s was n e g l i g i b l e , the Indians tended to h o l d t h e i r own i n these c r i s e s . The a t t a c k on I n d i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n would be made by l a n d , not by sea. While s e a - o t t e r t r a d e r s were s c o u r i n g the P a c i f i c n o r t h -west coast of America by sea, a continuous search f o r beavers was r e a c h i n g f o r the same go a l by l a n d . In 1793 Alexander Mac-ken z i e , seeking a . p r a c t i c a l r i v e r route a c r o s s the t e r r a i n west of the Ro c k i e s , reached the P a c i f i c near B e l l a C o o l a . The North-west Company, i n which he was a p a r t n e r , had been organized i n I787 i n Montreal to combat the o l d e r company's monopoly i n the Hudson's Bay T e r r i t o r y . Organized by S c o t t i s h entrepeneurs, and employing French-Canadian t r a p p e r s , i t was d e s t i n e d , d u r i n g the next t h i r t y y e a r s , to explore the f a r corners of the l a n d be-yond the R o c k i e s . 8 See John J e w i t t , pp. c i t . 9 W. Elmandorf, Anthropology 301, U.B.C. Summer Se s s l o r i , 1958. 31 During the e a r l y years of the n i n e t e e n t h century, Simon Fr a s e r and David Thompson e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i n g posts a t vantage p o i n t s throughout the i n t e r i o r from the country of the Sekani to that of the Kootenay (see P l a t e I I ) . In 1808 F r a s e r f o l l o w e d the r i v e r which David Thompson l a t e r named a f t e r him to the Musqueam v i l l a g e , and i n 1812 David Thompson descended the Columbia. Late the next year the North-West Company purchased F o r t A s t o r i a , which John Jacob A s t o r ' s P a c i f i c Fur Company had e s t a b l i s h e d a t the mouth of that r i v e r , and re-named i t F o r t G e o r g e . ^ The Red R i v e r c o n f l i c t of l 8 l 6 , added to c o m p e t i t i v e over-expansion across the vast North American h i n t e r l a n d i n a c o n t i n -u a l race f o r new sources of f u r s , r e s u l t e d In a merger of the two companies i n 1821, and the North-West name disappeared from use. In 1821; George Simpson, Governor of the Columbia Department of the c o a l i t i o n Company, made h i s f i r s t c r o s s i n g o f the c o n t i n -ent.''\"'1\" He immediately i n v e s t i g a t e d the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of e s t a b -l i s h i n g t r a d i n g posts on or near the P a c i f i c c o a s t . These posts would a l s o a c t as arguing p o i n t s when the q u e s t i o n of s o v e r e i g n t y of the t e r r i t o r y reached a c r i t i c a l s t a g e . In 1825, Dr. John McLaughlin, Chief F a c t o r , moved h i s head-q u a r t e r s to a new s i t e on the Columbia, F o r t Vancouver. In 1827 he sent James McMillan to the F r a s e r r i v e r , where he e r e c t e d F o r t Langley on the south bank. During the next twenty y e a r s , p u r s u i n g Governor Simpson's p o l i c y , the Company b u i l t f o r t s C o l -v i l e , Kilmaurs, Simpson, Connoly, Dease, McLaughlin, N i s q u a l l y , Hope, C h i l c o t i n , Y a l e , Nanaimo, and V i c t o r i a (see P l a t e I I ) . 10 Margaret Ormsby, op. c i t . . p. 38. 11 I b i d . , p. 52-60 32 Although North-West Company e x p l o r e r s were f i r s t to c r o s s overland from Canada to the P a c i f i c , a t the B e l l a Coola, the P r a s e r , and the Columbia, t r a d e r s f o r that company never reached the P a c i f i c s e a l grounds. In 1792, Captain Vancouver had l i s t e d e l e v e n B r i t i s h ships and s i x American i n the t r a d e . By 1802 the 12 f i f t e e n American shi p s had the i n d u s t r y t o themselves. Be-tween t h a t date and I82I4. they had v i r t u a l l y no c o m p e t i t i o n . These ships were i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c e n t e r p r i s e s , w i t h the r e -s u l t that when a l l i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p e t i t i o n was removed, each t r a d e r competed a g a i n s t a l l o t h e r s . What happened can be r e a l -i z e d from an examination of the p r i c e of brandy over the y e a r s . In I7I+8, the Hudson's Bay Company's standard of trade i n Rupert's Land, where i t operated by monopoly, asked f o u r beavers per g a l -l o n f o r t h i s d r i n k . ^ i n 1835, American t r a d e r s on the P a c i f i c coast were exchanging s i x g a l l o n s of brandy f o r one beaver. 1^\" Governor Simpson a t t a c k e d h i s c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h s h i p s as w e l l as w i t h f o r t s . These v e s s e l s not only traded on t h e i r own b e h a l f a l o n g the c o a s t , but a l s o stood by f o r the p r o t e c t i o n of b u i l d e r s of shore p o s t s , and a c t e d as supply s h i p s f o r them once they were i n o p e r a t i o n . The combined pressure of f o r t s and ships f o r c e d the Americans to r e t i r e , l e a v i n g the Hudson's Bay Company i n f u l l p o s s e s s i o n of the c o a s t a l t r a d e . ^ The f u r trade i n the P a c i f i c north-west was now c a r r i e d on through a network of p o s t s , both i n l a n d and on the c o a s t . A l l 12 P. W. Howay, B r i t i s h Columbia. Toronto, The Ryerson Pr e s s , 1928, p. 07. 13 Maria Lawson, H i s t o r y of Canada. Toronto, W.J. Gage & Co. L i m i t e d , 190b, p. 231. i l l Margaret Ormsby, op. c i t . . p. 70. 15 Howay, op. c i t . . p. 83. 33 through the no r t h e r n i n t e r i o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y , where d i f f i c u l t i e s of t r a n s p o r t kept import of e v e r y t h i n g but trade goods t o a min-imum, post f a c t o r s had to depend f o r foods on what the surround-ing country c o u l d p r o v i d e . Each f o r t had i t s own garden, and i t s own c a t t l e and swine. Wheat was grown as f a r n o r t h as A l e x a n d r i a . Horses f o r the f u r brigade which terminated f i r s t at the Colum-b i a , and l a t e r a t F o r t Hope, were kept at Kamloops. F o r t Lang-l e y w i t h i n i t s f i r s t year of o p e r a t i o n harvested over two thou-17 sand bushels o f p o t a t o e s . The main d i e t , however, of t r a d e r s , t r a p p e r s , and other occupants of the f o r t s , as w e l l as of the Indians around them, c o n s i s t e d of f i s h . As many as tw e n t y - f i v e thousand salmon were needed f o r the annual sustenance of a post.\"1\" Inland, e s p e c i a l l y , i f the salmon run f a i l e d , a post could face a v e r y s e r i o u s food shortage, as game was scarce i n New C a l e -donia.\" 1\"^ T r a n s p o r t of s u p p l i e s to c o a s t a l p o r t s was of course somewhat e a s i e r . Although almost a l l t r a d e r s and f a c t o r s were of S c o t t i s h e x t r a c t i o n , not many other occupants of a post were B r i t i s h . Alexander Mackenzie i n 1793 w a s accompanied by Alexander McKay, 2 0 s i x voyageurs, and two In d i a n s . Simon F r a s e r i n 1807 had a p a r t y made up of John S t u a r t , J u l e s Maurice Quesnel, seven voy\u2014 21 ageurs, and two I n d i a n s . David Thompson completed h i s journey 16 F.W. Howay, op. c l t . t p. 101. 17 Denys Nelson, F o r t Langley: 1827-1927, Vancouver, A r t s H i s t o r i c a l and S c i e n t i f i c A s s o c i a t i o n , 1927, p. 7, 8. 18 Margaret Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. lj.6. 19 Walter Sage, S i r James Douglas and B r i t i s h Columbia, The U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto P r e s s , 1930, p. LL. 20 Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. 31. 21 I b i d . , p. 35. 31+ 22 down the Columbia w i t h seven voyageurs and two I n d i a n s . James McMil l a n , on h i s journey to e s t a b l i s h P o r t Langley i n I827, took a l o n g twenty-four men: Donald Manson, George Barnston, F r a n c o i s Noel Annance, Amable A r q u o i t h , James Baker, Louis B o i s v e r t , O l -i v e r Bouchard, P i e r r e C h a r l e s , Como (Sandwich I s l a n d e r ) , Joseph Cornoyer, Jean B t e . E t t i e r s , Jean Bte.Dubois, Dominique Faron, John Kennedy, Anawiskum d i t Macdonald, Peopeoh (Sandwich I s l a n d -e r ) , Antoine P i e r r a u l t , Jacques P i e r r a u l t (2), F r a n c o i s P i e t t e d i t F a n i a n t , Simon Pomondeau, Louis Satakarata d i t Rabaska, Laur-ent Sauve d i t L a p l a n t e , F r a n c o i s X a v i e r Tarihonya, and Abraham V i n c e n t . 2 3 There was f u l l employment throughout the year, as l a b o r was always scarce i n New C a l e d o n i a . Indians, as w e l l as t r a p p i n g f o r p e l t s , cut timber f\u00a9reconstruction and f u e l , h e l p e d w i t h b u i l d -i n g , c a r r i e d goods and, at F o r t Langley, learned to m i l k cows and to plough w i t h b u l l o c k s . 2 ^ - In the Kamloops d i s t r i c t , they became s k i l l e d horsemen. The North-West Company, and, l a t e r , the Hudson's Bay Company, were i n t e r e s t e d i n m a i n t a i n i n g an Indian p o p u l a t i o n , to act not only as trappers and employees, but a l s o to use trade goods. There are signs here o f the growing up of a unique c u l t u r e , a r i s i n g out of a p o p u l a t i o n of mixed peoples, m u t u a l l y i n t e r d e -pendent, w i t h those p o s s e s s i n g the most advanced technology much i n the m i n o r i t y , and a l l having to l i v e t o a great extent d i r e c t -l y o f f the land on which they l i v e d . To help make f o r amicable r e l a t i o n s w i t h the groups w i t h 22 Margaret Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. 1+0. 23 Denys Nelson, op. c i t . , p. 9 . 2k I b i d . , p. 20. P l a t e I I I T H E PoKT\/\\C>e 35 whom i t was t r a d i n g , the Company encouraged i t s non-Indian males to take Indian w i v e s . 2 ^ James Douglas, i n 1828, while a t S t u a r t Lake, married Amelia Connolly, whose f a t h e r was c h i e f f a c t o r t h e r e , and whose mother was Chippewyan, \" a f t e r the custom o f the c o u n t r y \" . 2 ^ Men l i k e John Work, says Margaret Ormsby, 2^ were kind to these women, o r d e r i n g t r i n k e t s f o r t h e i r adornment, s c h o o l i n g them, and p r o v i d i n g what comforts they c o u l d . No matter how much the t r a d e r s might long to leave the s e r v i c e and r e t u r n t o c i v i l i z a t i o n , a f f -e c t i o n and g r a t i t u d e helped to keep them i n I n d i a n cou n t r y . \"Why shouldn't I speak E n g l i s h w e l l ? \" s a i d Mrs. E l l e n P a u l l r e -c e n t l y . \"My daddy was an Englishman.\" John B a l l , who taught a t a sc h o o l s t a r t e d by Dr. McLoughlin a t P o r t Vancouver, r e c a l l e d that i n 1832 \" a l l the boys were h a l f breeds, as there was not a white woman i n Oregon\"'. Douglas* son, James, was educated i n England, and a l l of h i s f o u r daughters married w e l l and were PQ made welcome i n t o the most impeccable s o c i e t y . 7 The meeting was not simply one of European and P a c i f i c north-west Indian s o c i e t i e s . Voyageurs, many of whom were them-se l v e s of mixed b l o o d , Kanakas from the Sandwich I s l a n d s , and ea s t e r n Canadian I n d i a n s , as w e l l as Northern Europeans, were i n v o l v e d i n the l i f e of a t r a d i n g p o s t . Since each f a c t o r made e f f o r t s to ma i n t a i n a semblance of European c u l t u r e w i t h -i n h i s post, and since accoutrements imported were g e n e r a l l y of European manufacture, the dominant interchange tended to be \"25 Denys Nelson, op. c i t . , p. 20. 26 Walter Sage, op. c i t . , p. I4.I4.. 27 Op. c i t . . p. 52. 28 Sage, op. c i t . , p. K5. 29 I b i d . , p. 338. 36 between European and Indian c u l t u r e complexes. However, i n c r e a s e i n use o f Chinook^ 0 reduced dependence on E n g l i s h as a b a r t e r language, and the presence of a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of voyageurs kept t h e i r p a t o i s a l i v e d u r i n g and beyond the d u r a t i o n of t h e i r r e s i -dence. The gre a t m a j o r i t y of Indian women, then, had l i t t l e d i -r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h Europeans, and Indian males had no o p p o r t u n i t y whatever t o be i n f l u e n c e d by European women. Although S e c h e l t Indians traded at Nanaimo from the time a post was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1852, a g e n e r a t i o n l a t e r a g i r l whose f a t h e r was E n g l i s h had to a c t as i n t e r p r e t e r f o r the remainder of the v i l l a g e p o p u l a t -31 i o n . I t can h a r d l y be s a i d t h a t the P a c i f i c north-west a b o r -i g i n e was Europeanized by the f u r - t r a d e r . I n t e r i o r and coast I n d i a n c u l t u r e s were a f f e c t e d to d i f f e r -ent degrees by the f u r - t r a d e e r a . The e a r l y maritime trade was \" ' e s s e n t i a l l y a h u r r i e d l o o t i n g of the c o a s t \" . ^ 2 The Indians were e n r i c h e d i n w o r l d l y possessions and f r e e to make such use of them as they p l e a s e d , on t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l v i l l a g e s i t e s . A t t -r a c t i o n to f o r t s d i d not d i s r u p t n o r t h e r n I n d i a n l i f e too much, as the Dene were t r a d i t i o n a l l y a nomadic people. The I n t e r i o r S a l i s h and Kootenay had an e s t a b l i s h e d v i l l a g e l i f e , but congre-g a t i o n o f s e v e r a l groups a t a post a g a i n d i d not a f f e c t t h e i r way o f l i f e too much, s i n c e s o c i a l caste was not a s i g n i f i c a n t moral pressure among them. Liquor was such a r a r e commodity i n New Caledonia that D a n i e l W i l l i a m s Harmon, f a c t o r among the Car-r i e r s , was \"embarrassed when Indians observed debauches of 30 Charles H i l l - T o u t , Oceanic O r i g i n of the Kwakiutl-Nootka and S a l i s h Stocks o f B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 201. 31 Mrs. E l l e n P a u l l , nee E l l e n J e f f r e y . 32 F.W. Howay, op. c i t . . p. 90. 37 voyageurs\" 1 d u r i n g a New Year's c e l e b r a t i o n , and only v i s i t i n g c h i e f s were allowed to d r i n k w i n e . 3 3 E f f e c t s of European impact on c o a s t a l Indians was much more d r a s t i c . There, f r e e lance t r a d e r s had, from the d i s c o v e r y of the sea o t t e r , peddled l i q u o r , among t h e i r other trade goods, f o r f u r s . The Hudson's Bay Company, when they entered the maritime t r a f f i c a f t e r 1821+, went so f a r to meet t h i s c o m p e t i t i o n t h a t i n I832 Dr. McLoughlin engaged a former American c a p t a i n , and p e r -m i t t e d him, i n c o n t r a v e n t i o n of the Company's r u l e s and i n t e r -n a t i o n a l agreement, to s e l l guns and l i q u o r to the I n d i a n s . 3 ^ Governor Simpson d i d not d i s c o n t i n u e t h i s p o l i c y u n t i l 181+1, by which time he had d r i v e n a l l competitors from the c o a s t as f a r n o r t h as A l a s k a , and had e l i m i n a t e d c o m p e t i t i o n there through an agreement w i t h the Russian-American Company by which h i s Com-pany would t r a p the Panhandle. 3^ In l8li.6, S i r John P e l l y , Governor of the Hudson's Bay Com-pany, wrote to Lord Grey, s e c r e t a r y of s t a t e f o r the c o l o n i e s : 3 ^ ... I s h a l l , a t p r e s e n t , merely submit to E a r l Grey's c o n s i d e r a t i o n whether t h a t o b j e c t ( c o l o n i z a t i o n of Van-couver I s l a n d ) embracing as I t r u s t i t w i l l , the c o n -v e r s i o n to C h r i s t i a n i t y and c i v i l i z a t i o n of the n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n might not be most r e a d i l y and e f f e c t u a l l y accomplished through the i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y of the Hud-son's Bay Company... On January 13, l81+9> Vancouver I s l a n d was ceded to the Com-pany. 3 7 i n 1850, proof that c o a l e x i s t e d at Nanaimo was purch-ased from an o l d Indian of that v i c i n i t y by Joseph McKay at 33 Margaret Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. 1+5\u2022 3l+ I b i d . , p. 6 9 . 35 F.W. Howay, op. c i t . , p. 8 5 . 36 Walter Sage, op. c i t . , p. l l + l . 37 Howay, op. c i t . . p. 10i+. 38 V i c t o r i a f o r a b o t t l e of rum.^0\" Worse i n i t s e f f e c t s on Coast Indians than the s e l l i n g of i n t o x i c a t i n g l i q u o r s to them from i t i n e r a n t t r a d i n g v e s s e l s , which brought t h e i r wares to the v i l l a g e s , was the c o n s t r u c t i o n of permanent, f i x e d f o r t s along the c o a s t . These e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , l o c a t e d a t s i t e s most s u i t a b l e to the f u r - t r a d e r , and not nec-e s s a r i l y a t the h e a v i e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s \u00a9f p o p u l a t i o n , a t t r a c t e d Indians from many m i l e s away, and from many v i l l a g e s , t\u00a9 move t\u00a9 the white man's place of b u s i n e s s . Dr. R.G. Large, who spent ten years d u r i n g h i s youth a t P o r t Simpson, t e l l s of I t s c o n s t r u c t -i o n i n 1 8 3 1 : 3 9 There were no Indians encamped i n McLeughlln Bay, l a r g e s ettlements were l o c a t e d f i v e m i l e s south a t a creek c a l l e d Lahou, and a g a i n twenty m i l e s f u r -t h e r south i n what was l a t e r t o become the harbor of P r i n c e Rupert. With the b u i l d i n g of the P o r t , the n a t i v e s r a p i d l y congregated i n i t s v i c i n i t y , e r e c t -i n g t h e i r l a r g e community houses along the beach on e i t h e r s i d e u n t i l over two thousand were permanently l i v i n g t h e r e . P o r t McLoughlin, l o c a t e d i n B e l l a Coola, and P o r t Rupert, In Kwakiutl t e r r i t o r y , a l s o l u r e d Indians from s e v e r a l v i l l a g e s t\u00a9 t h e i r p r o x i m i t y * Emphasizing, as they d i d , s o c i a l s t a t u s w i t h i n t h e i r own v i l l a g e , and b a s i n g t h e i r whole moral code on s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s d e r i v e d from s t a t u s consciousness, these people found themselves b e r e f t of t h e i r v ery s o c i a l b a s i s . V i l l a g e c h i e f s and noblemen groups, u n c e r t a i n of t h e i r ranks i n these e n l a r g e d , m u l t i - t r i b a l groups, v i e d f o r p o s i t i o n s of p r e s t i g e i n t h e i r customary man-ner, through a s e r i e s of p o t l a t c h e s . At the same time, deprec-i a t i o n of the value of trade goods brought i n c r e a s e d wealth, so 38 Walter Sage, op. c i t . . p. 1J2. 39 R.G. Large, The Skeena, R i v e r of D e s t i n y , Vancouver, M i t c h e l l P r e s s , 1957, p. l b . 3>9 t h a t p o t l a t c h r i v a l r i e s became d i s t o r t e d out of a l l t r a d i t i o n a l p r o p o r t i o n s , and the o l d system whereby p r i v i l e g e s , t i t l e s , h e r -a l d r y , and names were wont to be a s s e r t e d , a l t h o u g h I n t e n s i f i e d i n i t s outward d i s p l a y s , was f a l l i n g i n t o r u i n as a c u l t u r a l base. Voyageurs, whose numbers were i n the m a j o r i t y i n the con-s t r u c t i o n of P o r t Langley i n 1827, d i d not go n o r t h from Por t Vancouver to V i c t o r i a w i t h Douglas i n 181+3. There was no p l a c e f o r t h e i r kind of work i n the maritime t r a d e . A f t e r d i s c o n t i n u -a t i o n of the c r o s s - c o n t i n e n t f u r brigade i n 181+8, most of them withdrew to the S t . Boniface area T h e i r e m i g r a t i o n from New Caledonia and the Columbia meant the end of French-Canadian i n -f l u e n c e on Indians of those a r e a s , and p e r m i t t e d new elements which began to impinge on the c u l t u r e s c o a l e s c i n g there to have more e f f e c t than they would have had a l a r g e body of t h i s group remained s o l i d l y r o o t e d throughout the a r e a . On Vancouver I s l a n d , s i n c e one term of the Royal Grant c a l l e d f o r the Company to s e l l l a n d to immigrant B r i t i s h sub-j e c t s , C h i e f F a c t o r Douglas was faced w i t h the problem of r e -moving o b j e c t i o n s to such s a l e s from i t s o r i g i n a l occupants, the I n d i a n s . He overcame t h i s d i f f i c u l t y by purchasing, from the Songhees and C l a l l u m t r i b e s , f o r a l i t t l e more than &150, a l l lands f o r some f o r t y m i l e s u p - i s l a n d from V i c t o r i a \"with the e x c e p t i o n of v i l l a g e s i t e s and enclosed f i e l d s \" . 4 1 Thus, even before government other than that enacted by the Company i t s e l f came i n t o e f f e c t , the n a t i v e peoples began to f i n d themselves 1+0 Dean WoodJ, E l . 519, H i s t o r y of E d u c a t i o n i n Canada, U.B.C. Summer S e s s i o n 1957, notes. 1+1 Walter Sage, op. c i t . . p. l 6 l . r e s t r i c t e d t o s m a l l p l o t s of ground, which soon took the name \" r e s e r v a t i o n \" . To sum up, then, the impact of the f u r - t r a d i n g e r a on B r i t -i s h North America west of the R o c k i e s : (1) In New C a l e d o n i a , the complete absence of e i t h e r white women or p r i e s t s l e d a mixture of non-Indian males, f o r a p e r i o d of at l e a s t t h i r t y y e a r s , to mate w i t h I n d i a n females In the customs o f the a b o r i g i n a l peoples: (2) Company employees of B r i t i s h s t o c k i n s t r u c t e d t h e i r wives and c h i l d r e n as best they c o u l d I n the language and man-ners of t h e i r homeland. A f t e r the coming of the Hudson's Bay Company, a few c h i l d r e n r e c e i v e d f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n ; most d i d n o t . A l l c h i l d r e n l e a r n e d an In d i a n d i a l e c t from t h e i r mothers, and the m a j o r i t y , i f they gained a second language from t h e i r f a t h -e r s , l e a r n e d not E n g l i s h but some other tongue. (3) E x t e n s i o n o f the f u r - t r a d e brought the Chinook jargon i n t o use throughout most of the a r e a , w i t h the r e s u l t t h a t mem-bers of most e t h n i c groups c o u l d c a r r y on a b a s i c c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h one another. Hudson's Bay Company f o r t s and American f r e e b o o t e r s along the coast competed f o r tr a d e , but combined i n the e f f e c t s they produced, through a t t r a c t i o n away from home s i t e s and s a l e of l i q u o r , to d e s t r o y the Ind i a n s * way of l i f e . (5) Before the end of the e r a , a r r i v a l of European women and m i s s i o n a r i e s , and s t a r t of r e s e r v a t i o n r e s t r i c t i o n s , com-bined to mark the begin n i n g of the end of the unique c u l t u r e that had begun to s p r i n g up a f t e r the North-Westers' a r r i v a l . The o n l y way f o r an i n d i v i d u a l of mixed blo o d to a v o i d r e s t r i c t -i o n and low s o c i a l s t a t u s was to cross the c o l o r l i n e . A few cou l d do so; most c o u l d n o t . hi (6) The term \"Indian\" came o f t e n to be a p p l i e d to a person i n whose v e i n s ran as much European as a b o r i g i n a l b l o o d , but who knew l i t t l e or n o t h i n g of the ways of h i s f a t h e r . The f u r - t r a d e e r a , i n g e n e r a l , sowed some seeds which d i d not grow to f r u i t i o n , and others which would continue to bear an unwanted y i e l d to the present day.^ 2 The f u r trade not o n l y opened up the Dominion of Canada and determined i t s boundaries, but i t a l s o i n -t e n s i f i e d t h a t d i s a s t r o u s c o n t a c t between two c i v i l -i z a t i o n s , the European and the North American... The s t r u g g l e i n c u l t u r e between the I n d i v i d u a l i s m , the p r o g r e s s i v e n e s s , and the C h r i s t i a n i t y of the w h i t e s , and the s o c i a l i s m , the conservatism, the paganism, and the taboos of the I n d i a n s , was to f o l l o w the f u r trade a c r o s s Canada's broad expanse. Before the l u r e of gold brought i t s thousands o f seekers i n t o the north-west to p r e c i p i t a t e the d i s r u p t i o n of both the Indians' a b o r i g i n a l way of l i f e and the new c u l t u r e that was r i s i n g t h e r e , another f a c e t of European c i v i l i z a t i o n made i t -s e l f f e l t . T h i s was the advent of C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s , who added another s t r a n d to the t a p e s t r y of l i f e i n the new c o l o n y . 1+2 H.A. Innes, The Fur Trade i n Canada, Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1930, p. 392. P l a t e IV \u2014 7 j 7\u00b0\u00b0 T r \u2014r >zcf I V Mo<Vh-Weit C o m p a n y F o r t s Litho'd by BEST Mimeograph Co. Ltd. , Vancouver, B.C. CHAPTER I I I THE MISSIONARY ARRIVES \"... a f e e b l e and q u i t e i n d e f i n i t e p o l y t h e i s m \" . 1 H.J. V a l l e r y , i n h i s Master of A r t s t h e s i s f o r Queen's Uni-v e r s i t y , says of the work done by m i s s i o n a r i e s i n nor t h e r n North 2 America: Since t h e i r f i r s t c o n t a c t s w i t h the Indian t r i b e s i n Canada, the Europeans, both French and E n g l i s h , have had as t h e i r i d e a l the c i v i l i z a t i o n of t h i s ab-o r i g i n a l p o p u l a t i o n . In t h i s p r o c e s s , they have s t r i v e n by formal and i n f o r m a l methods of ed u c a t i o n to p r o t e c t the Indian from v i c e s which were not h i s own, and to i n s t r u c t them i n p e a c e f u l o c c u p a t i o n s , f o r e i g n to t h e i r n a t u r a l bent. F i r s t recorded m i s s i o n a r y i n Canada was Jesse F l e c h e , who came i n l 6 l 0 to A c a d i a , where he converted and b a p t i z e d twenty-f i v e I n d i a n s . In l 6 l l F a t h e r s B i a r d and Masse found that the so-c a l l e d converts had no knowledge of C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e and no i n t e n t i o n of d i s c a r d i n g t h e i r pagan customs. 3 Between l 6 l 5 and 1650, twenty-nine m i s s i o n a r i e s l a b o r e d among the Hurons. Seven s u f f e r e d v i o l e n t deaths. In 1639 U r s u l i n e nuns a r r i v e d to teach the c h i l d r e n of the \"savages\".^ By i t s c h a r t e r of I67O, the Hudson's Bay Company was estab-l i s h e d i n p a r t f o r \" C h r i s t i a n i z i n g the I n d i a n \" . ^ 1 Rev. Thomas Crosby, Up and Down the North P a c i f i c Coast By  Canoe and M i s s i o n Ship, F r e d e r i c k C l a r k e Stephenson. 191k'. P. 9 9 . 2 A H i s t o r y of Ind i a n E d u c a t i o n i n Canada. 19I4.2, P r e f a c e . 3 Charles E.. P h i l l i p s , The Development of E d u c a t i o n In Can-ada, Toronto, W.J. Gage, 1957, p. 2 9 . 1+ I b i d . , pp. . 5 Alexander Begg, H i s t o r y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, Toronto, W i l l i a m B r i g g s , l t f9k, p. 111. 1+3 The f i r s t m i s s i o n a r i e s to v i s i t the P a c i f i c north-west, a p p a r e n t l y , were Fathers C r e s p i and Pena who, s a i l i n g w i t h Juan Perez i n 1771+, s i g h t e d and named San C h r i s t o b a l , the higblest peak on the Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s . R e t u r n i n g south along the western coast of Vancouver I s l a n d , they c e l e b r a t e d Mass o f f shore, being prevented from l a n d i n g by a v i o l e n t g a l e . ^ In I789, Father Don Jose Lopez d l Nava, a s s i s t e d by Don Jose Maria Diaz and four F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s , chanted High Mass i n the presence of the Governor, the s o l d i e r s , and a group of Indians at Nootka Sound, the day a f t e r t h e i r a r r i v a l a t the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of Governor M a r t i n e z . P r i e s t s remained on Vancouver I s l a n d u n t i l 1795\u00bb a t which time they were f o r c e d t o leave by terms of the S p a n i s h - B r i t i s h agreement made then.''7 The Roman C a t h o l i c Church was thus f i r s t t o r e a c h the P a c i f i c north-west. I t i s h a r d l y l i k e l y that maritime f u r - t r a d e r s took time from t h e i r b usiness endeavors to i n s t r u c t C h r i s t i a n i t y . In New C a l e d o n i a , however, where from the time of t h e i r a r r i v a l the North-Westerners e s t a b l i s h e d permanent f o r t s , t r a d e r s , metis voy-ageurs from Red R i v e r , and E a s t e r n Canada Indians among whom mis-s i o n a r i e s had worked, spread some idea of C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f among the n a t i v e peoples w i t h whom they came i n t o p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t . Simon F r a s e r was of the Roman C a t h o l i c f a i t h . So, too, were Dr. McLoughlin \u00a9f F o r t Vancouver and C h i e f F a c t o r Ogden of F o r t S a i n t James. These men and t h e i r f \u00a9 H e w e r s \"taught the rudiments of the' F a i t h to t h e i r Indian wives'and women, and made them and t h e i r h a l f b r e e d c h i l d r e n long f\u00a9r the coming \u00a9f the C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s \" . ^ 0\" Rev. George Forbes. O.M.I., The O r i g i n s \u00a9f the A r c h d i o -cese of Vancouver, Unpublished manuscript, 1958* 7 I b i d . 8 I b i d . The Sekani, who had not p r e v i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d the e x i s t e n c e o f any p a r t i c u l a r m o n o t h e i s t i c d e i t y , by the time o f the a r r i v a l o f the f i r s t m i s s i o n a r y spoke of God as \"Hata\", a term which had f o r m e r l y been a p p l i e d to any ou t s t a n d i n g medicine man who claimed to have r e c e i v e d h i s power from the thunderbird.9 M i s s i o n a r y e f f o r t , on the whole, was c l o s e l y interwoven w i t h e f f o r t s of e x p l o r a t i o n and w i t h the f u r t r a d e . A l t h o u g h many churchmen put i n t h e i r share of time i n the w i l d e r n e s s alone among the peoples they hoped to c o n v e r t , the most p r a c t i c a b l e mode of t r a n s p o r t was w i t h the f u r brigade or supply s h i p , and the t r a d i n g post was the l o g i c a l p o i n t from which to work, not only because i t a f f o r d e d s h e l t e r but a l s o because almost a l l Ind-i a n s of the surrounding area appeared there p e r i o d i c a l l y . Even so, no m i s s i o n a r y , a f t e r withdrawal of the Spaniards from Nootka, made h i s way i n t o the north-west u n t i l I 8 3 6 . In tha t y e a r the Reverend Herbert Beaver was posted t o P o r t Van-couver as c h a p l a i n . 1 1 His departure w i t h i n a year can of course be a t t r i b u t e d i n p a r t to the f a c t t h a t Dr. McLoughlin c o u l d h a r d l y b r i n g h i m s e l f t o cooperate f u l l y w i t h an A n g l i c a n who not only made the c h i e f f a c t o r ' s post h i s headquarters, but who was i t s c h a p l a i n . I t i s not too d i f f i c u l t , however, to read another source of c o n f l i c t i n t o Reverend Beaver's s t i n t a t P o r t Van-couver. The Hudson's Bay Company, i n b r i n g i n g the c h a p l a i n to m i n i s t e r to the s p i r i t u a l needs of the post I n d i a n s , was o f course f u l f i l l i n g i t s o b l i g a t i o n t o b r i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y to i t s 9 Diamond Jenness, The Sekani Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia. N a t i o n a l Museum of Canada, B u l l e t i n No. 61+, 1937, p. bk. 10 D.C. S c o t t , The A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s . Canada I n s t u t u t e o f P u b l i c A f f a i r s , 1931, p. 1. 11 Rev. P.A. Peake, Heroes of the Church i n B r i t i s h Colum-b i a , Diocese of Board or Keiigious j&aueation (Ang.) p. 13. 1+5 t e r r i t o r i e s . The same company, however, was a l s o engaged i n s e l l i n g i n t o x i c a t i n g l i q u o r s to the p o t e n t i a l c o n v e r t s . Any m i n i s t e r o f f i c i a l l y sponsored by such a c o r p o r a t i o n would t h e r e -f o r e f i n d h i m s e l f i n an i n t o l e r a b l e p o s i t i o n . I t was perhaps be-cause of t h i s dichotomy that A n g l i c a n m i n i s t e r s remained absent from the north-west u n t i l a f t e r e x p i r a t i o n of the Company's trade monopoly i n 1858. Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s d i d not have to l a b o r under t h i s d i f f i c u l t y . In I838, two s e c u l a r p r i e s t s , Fathers S l a n c h e t and Demers, and two J e s u i t s , Fathers de Smet and N o b i l i , s e t out w i t h the overland f u r brigade from S t . B o n i f a c e f o r F o r t Van-couver. On October l l ; of t hat year Reverend Demers, en r o u t e , o f f e r e d Holy S a c r i f i c e of the Mass at the B i g Bend of the C o l -umbia, f o r the f i r s t time on the n o r t h e r n mainland. In 18)4.1 t h i s m i s s i o n a r y made a v i s i t to F o r t Langley, where he b l e s s e d the marriages of employees of h i s f a i t h , b a p t i z e d seven hundred and f i f t y - e i g h t c h i l d r e n , and preached to hundreds of I n d i a n s . In 181+2 he set out w i t h the annual f u r brigade f o r F o r t S t . James, i n s t r u c t i n g a d u l t s and b a p t i z i n g c h i l d r e n a t F o r t Okanogan, F o r t Kamloops, F o r t A l e x a n d r i a , and F o r t George on the way. L a t e r he spent s e v e r a l months e v a n g e l i z i n g the C a r r i e r s of F o r t Alexan-d r i a and the Shuswaps of Chinook Creek, near W i l l i a m s Lake, a t which p l a c e s he b u i l t the f i r s t two churches on the mainland. In 18I|3 Father B a l d r u c , who had accompanied James Douglas to F o r t V i c t o r i a , o f f e r e d the f i r s t Mass i n the new p o s t . He a l s o preached, on a s p e c i a l o c c a s i o n , to Hudson's Bay Company employ-ees and twelve hundred I n d i a n s , and b a p t i z e d one hundred and two 12 Rev. George Forbes, op. c i t . he c h i l d r e n . 1 3 About 181+5, Fathers N o b i l i and Gaetz b u i l t a m i s s i o n s t a t i o n a t the head of Okanagan Lake, near the present c i t y of Vernon, Father N o b i l i t r a v e l l e d n o r t h from there and spent the next two years among the C a r r i e r s and Babines. In 181+7 the J e s u i t Order was withdrawn from the north-west to s t a f f the m i s s i o n s of C a l i f o r n i a , and the s t a t i o n on Lake Okanagan was c l o s e d . In 181+7 Father Modeste Demers was consecrated i n Oregon, and became Bishop of what i s now B r i t i s h Columbia and Alaska. 1^\" In 1 8 5 1 , k n e e l i n g on a t r e e trunk on the beach, he took p o s s e s s i o n of the b i s h o p r i c of Vancouver I s l a n d . 1 ^ However, he had no mis-s i o n a r i e s , and f o r s e v e r a l years could o b t a i n none. F i n a l l y , i n 1 8 5 7 , the Oblates of Mary Immaculate came to h i s a s s i s t a n c e and, w i t h Rev. L . J . D'Herbomez as F a t h e r S u p e r i o r , e s t a b l i s h e d temporary headquarters a t E s q u i m a l t . In 1 8 5 9 F a t h e r s Pandosy and R i c h a r d and Brother S u r e l journeyed through Hope and Kamloops to Lake Okanagan to found the M i s s i o n of the Immaculate Conception near Kelowna. In i 8 6 0 Father Fouquet came from France to open S t . C h a r l e s ' M i s s i o n a t New Westminster, and a year l a t e r he undertook to e s t a b l i s h S t . Mary's M i s s i o n i n the lower F r a s e r V a l l e y . In l 8 6 l chapels were a l s o b u i l t a t Hope and Y a l e , w i t h Father G r a n d i d i e r s e r v i n g both communities. That same year F a t h e r D'Herbomez v i s i t e d Father G r a n d i d i e r and asked him to v i s i t the Cariboo and suggest a centre f o r that p a r t of the c o u n t r y . He r e p o r t e d back on the s u i t a b i l i t y of the present l o c a t i o n of S t . 1 3 Rev. A.G. Morice, OMI, H i s t o r y of the C a t h o l i c Church i n  Western Canada (I695 - 1 0 9 5 )> Toronto, The Musson Book Co. L t d . , 1 9 1 0 , p. 2 9 2 . ll+ Rev. George Forbes OMI, op. c i t . 1 5 Rev. A.G. Morice, op. c i t . , p. 2 9 6 . 1 6 Rev. George Forbes, op. c i t . 47 Joseph's M i s s i o n near W i l l i a m s Lake, and a m i s s i o n was e s t a b -l i s h e d there i n I 8 6 7. 1 7 In I863 a m i s s i o n was opened at F o r t Rupert, but d e s p i t e the e f f o r t s of three d i f f e r e n t m i s s i o n a r i e s , Father Fouquet, Father D u r i e u and Father LeJacq, i t was abandoned i n 187)+. In that same y e a r , Father Fouquet founded the M i s s i o n of the Kootenays at Cranbrook. Father Blanchet a t about the same time b u i l t a church near F o r t S t . James, and a m i s s i o n under the 1 8 charge of Father Chirouse opened i n Kamloops i n I878. 0 In I863 the Holy See d i v i d e d the no r t h e r n d i o c e s e , and made Father D'Herbomez V i c a r A p o s t o l i c of the Mainland. By I89O, when Father D'Herbomez d i e d , he had b u i l t seventy churches on the mainland of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . 1 9 Meanwhile, on Vancouver I s l a n d m i s s i o n s were founded under d i r e c t i o n of Bishop Demers a t Clayoquot i n 1875, a t Namukamus, B a r c l a y Sound, i n 1877, and a t Ahousat In l 8 8 l . 2 0 Monseigneur D u r i e u , OMI, succeeded Bishop D'Herbomez as A p o s t o l a t e , and i n I89O he became Bishop of New Westminster. Rev. Forbes says of the \"Durieu System\": I t was based on love f o r the B l e s s e d Sacrement and aimed at making the India n s ' every act a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r or an act of Thanks g i v i n g a f t e r Holy Communion... The Euchar-i s t i c C h i e f and h i s Watchmen sought to prevent crimes and misdemeanours and, a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r immemorial custom, t r i e d and punished those who had g i v e n s c a n d a l . To pro-t e c t the Indians from e v i l i n f l u e n c e , fche Bishop b u i l t model v i l l a g e s at S e c h e l t and North Vancouver to which only those l i v i n g completely exemplary l i v e s were ad-m i t t e d and from which those who set bad examples were 17 H i s t o r i c Y a l e , B r i t i s h Columbia, Vancouver S e c t i o n B r i t i s h Columbia H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , 1951+, p. 32. 18 Rev. A.G. Morice, op. c i t . , pp. 3U3\u20143^7\u2022 19 Rev. George Forbes OMI, op. c i t . 20 Morice, op. c i t . , pp. 355-370. 1*8 e x p e l l e d . Even a f t e r he became bishop, he spent months at a time at the North Vancouver Indian V i l l a g e . 21 The A n g l i c a n Diocese of Vancouver I s l a n d was formed In 1859, and Very Reverend George H i l l s became f i r s t A n g l i c a n b i s h o p . The f i r s t m i s s i o n a r y to the new diocese was the Rev-erend R i c h a r d Dowson, who a r r i v e d i n V i c t o r i a d u r i n g the same year. Unable to f i n d accommodation w i t h i n the suddenly expanded 22 c i t y , he s e t t l e d some fou r m i l e s away, at C r a i g f l o w e r . In i860 the Reverend Alexander G a r r e t t came to the colony, to work among the two thousand Indians who had gathered across the h a r -bor from the p o r t . 2 3 Unlike the Roman C a t h o l i c Church, which d i d most of i t s work among the Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, the A n g l i c a n Church d i v i d e d i t s energies between the Indians and the white miners and s e t t l e r s , who w i t h the g o l d r u s h i n c r e a s e d suddenly i n num-bers from s e v e r a l hundred to s e v e r a l thousand. This study w i l l r e s t r i c t i t s e l f to work done among the I n d i a n peoples of the p r o v i n c e . One of the f i r s t tasks undertaken by Bishop H i l l s was an e x t e n s i v e tour of the southern mainland of the newly c r e a t e d Crown Colony of B r i t i s h Columbia. Accompanied by Reverend R.J. Dundas and Reverend John Sheepshanks, he made h i s way as f a r n o r t h as L i l l o o e t , speaking w i t h Indian groups at many stops along the way. 2^ 21 Rev. George Forbes, op. c i t . 22 Rev. Frank A. Peake, The A n g l i c a n Church i n B r i t i s h C o l -umbia, Vancouver, M i t c h e l l P ress, 1959, P\u00ab 22. 23 I b i d . , p. 60 *k I b i d . , pp. 30-3\u00a3. 1+9 In 1861 Reverend John Good and h i s wife made t h e i r way up-i s l a n d from V i c t o r i a t o Nanaimo, where they e s t a b l i s h e d a church f o r the I n d i a n s . In l86\u00a3 Reverend Good moved to Y a l e , and thence to L y t t o n , where he worked among the Thompson Indians f o r f i f -teen y e a r s . 2 ^ In 1866 Reverend W.S. Reece, a s s i s t e d by W. Henry Lomas, became r e s i d e n t m i s s i o n a r y among twelve hundred Indians a t Cow-i c h a n . Reverend R.R.A. Doolan i n 1861+ t r a v e l l e d n o r t h from M e t l a -k a t l a to the Nass R i v e r . His plac e was taken, b r i e f l y , by Rev-erend P.B. G i b b e l l i n 1865, and h i s i n t u r n by Reverend Robert Tomlinson i n 1867. W i l l i a m Henry C o l l i s o n was sent t o M e t l a k a t l a i n I873; to a s s i s t W i l l i a m Duncan. In 1876 he l e f t the c o l o n y to e s t a b l i s h a m i s s i o n a t Massett, among the Haidas of the Queen C h a r l o t t e s . The Reverend A . J . H a l l at about the same time went south to work 27 w i t h the Kwawkewlth Indians a t A l e r t Bay, ' Reverend R.W. Gurd to K i t k a t l a , on P i t t I s l a n d , occupied by Kwakiutl peoples, and Reverend John F i e l d to H a z e l t o n , i n Tsimshian c o u n t r y . In I88I4, Right Reverend R i d l e y , who i n I879 had been appointed bishop of the newly c r e a t e d diocese of C a l e d o n i a , sent Reverend A.H. S h e l -don to Port E s s i n g t o n , a t the south entrance to the Skeena R i v e r , a l s o Tsimshian t e r r i t o r y . In I889 Reverend A l f r e d Edwin P r i c e e s t a b l i s h e d a m i s s i o n a t Kitwanga, on the Skeena, and Reverend 2^ Rev. Frank A. Peake, Heroes of the Church i n B r i t i s h C o l -umbia , Diocese of New Westminster, Board of R e l i g i o u s E d u c a t i o n ( A n g l i c a n ) , pp;. 18-20. 26 Peake, The A n g l i c a n Church i n B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 63. 27 I b i d . , pp. 17, 18. 50 James McCullagh a t A i y a n s h , on the Nass. In 1897 Reverend F. Palgrave t r a v e l l e d as f a r n o r t h as the bend of the S t i k l n e , 2'fl where he worked among the T a h l t a n s . Non-conformist m i s s i o n a r y work began i n the north-west i n I83I4., when the Reverend Jason Lee, a Methodist m i n i s t e r from the U n i t e d S t a t e s , t r a v e l l e d to F o r t Vancouver, and from there e s t -a b l i s h e d m i s sions i n the Willamette V a l l e y and at The D a l l e s , among the Chinooks. P r e s b y t e r i a n missions were e s t a b l i s h e d soon a f t e r at W a l l a Walla and a t Lapwai, i n the Nez Perce Country. In l8i;0 Methodist missions were b u i l t a t N i s q u a l l y , on Puget Sound, and at C l a t s o p , on the Columbia. 29 A Methodist m i n i s t e r , Reverend A r t h u r Browning, made h i s way to Nanaimo i n 1859 to work among the Cowichan S a l l s h t h e r e . In I872, Reverend Thomas Crosby l e f t the Songees Reserve to take over the Nanaimo m i s s i o n , and two years l a t e r he t r a v e l l e d up the coast to Port Simpson, from where W i l l i a m Duncan had l e f t to form h i s M e t l a k a t l a colony ten years b e f o r e . C h i e f Scow-Gate o f f e r e d the use of h i s house f o r a church u n t i l a separate b u i l d i n g c o u l d be r a i s e d , and the Indians gave a thousand d o l l a r s worth of goods towards i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n . About the r e s u l t s ob-t a i n e d among these people Dr. Crosby wrote : 3 <^ We had a t Simpson, about t h i s time, nine c l a s s e s o r g a n i z e d . I t was a b l e s s e d s i g h t to see f i f t y or s i x t y a d u l t s coming forward to be b a p t i z e d , a f t e r weeks and, i n some cases, months of p r e p a r a t i o n i n s p e c i a l c l a s s e s . A f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g experience was the p r e s e n t a t i o n of i n f a n t s f o r baptism, the young parents d e c e n t l y dressed and the c h i l d r e n b e a u t i f u l l y arranged, i n i m i t a t i o n of white babies whom they had seen. 28 Peake, The A n g l i c a n Church In B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 92. 29 I b i d . , p. 11. 30 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. 6 l . 51 As about one thousand people had gathered at the a r t i f i c -i a l l y c r e a t e d v i l l a g e , the m i s s i o n a r y f e l t that there should be some kind of law or r u l e . A M u n i c i p a l C o u n c i l was suggested. I t was to be an e n t i r e l y C h r i s t i a n v i l l a g e . The f i r s t law was a g a i n s t gambling, then a g a i n s t c o n j u r i n g . There was t o be no dog-eating, w h i s k y - d r i n k i n g , q u a r r e l i n g , f i g h t i n g , or heathen marriages. Watchmen were appointed, and \"For many years before any J u s t i c e of the Peace, Indian Agent or other o f f i c e r o f the law was sent to t h a t p a r t of the country, these people were gov-e r n i n g themselves under the d i r e c t i o n of t h e i r m i s s i o n a r y , and no more p e a c e f u l or q u i e t community could be f ound\" In I876 the Reverend C M . Tate went from Port Simpson to the s i t e of F o r t McLoughlin, which had been abandoned by the Hudson's Bay Company, and there founded the n a t i v e v i l l a g e of B e l l a B e l l a , complete w i t h h o s p i t a l , c o u n c i l h a l l , m i s s i o n house, saw m i l l , wharf, and s t o r e . In I877 C h a r l i e Amos, a s e c r e t s o c i e t y dancer from K i t a -maat, converted to C h r i s t i a n i t y i n V i c t o r i a , spent time at the Port Simpson s c h o o l , and then w i t h George Edgar, a Tsimshian, r e t u r n e d to e s t a b l i s h a m i s s i o n i n h i s v i l l a g e i n I 8 7 8 . In I883 Mr. George Robinson, at the request of the Haidas of Skidegate, who had l e a r n e d how w e l l the Tsimshians were doing, went to t h e i r v i l l a g e to h e l p them. There were by t h i s date Methodist churches a l s o a t K i t - w a n - s i l k , Nass, Kit-la-tamux, Hyhise, and Wee-ke-no. Three m i s s i o n a r i e s looked a f t e r a l l of these s c a t t e r e d s e t t l e m e n t s , a s s i s t e d by s i x n a t i v e s . 3 2 31 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. 66. 32 I b i d . , p. 56. 52 In 188k a seventy-one f o o t v e s s e l , the \"Glad T i d i n g s \" , was b u i l t at V i c t o r i a by W i l l i a m O l i v e r . With Crosby as c a p t a i n , O l i v e r e n g i n e e r , and a n a t i v e deck-hand, t h i s s h i p f o r twenty years helped to b u i l d and s e r v i c e t h i r t y churches along the c o a s t . 3 3 In the Nootka t e r r i t o r y of Vancouver I s l a n d ' s west c o a s t , a Methodist m i s s i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d a t U c l u e l e t i n 1892 and, a church b u i l t a t Clo'ose i n 1893. In 1896 the P r e s b y t e r i a n Church e s t a b l i s h e d a m i s s i o n a r y a t Ahousat. 3^\" The s t o r y of m i s s i o n a r y endeavor i n the north-west would i n no wise be complete without r e f e r e n c e b e i n g made to the work of W i l l i a m Duncan. Although sponsored by the Church M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y , he was never ordained by the A n g l i c a n Church. He would undoubtedly have r e t a i n e d the support of t h i s church, r e g a r d l e s s of h i s r e f u s a l of o r d i n a t i o n , had he a b i d e d by A n g l i c a n r i t u a l and d o c t r i n e . Duncan's stubbornness had made i t s e l f evident even before h i s journey to Port Simpson to e s t a b l i s h a m i s s i o n t h e r e . At E s q u i m a l t , upon h i s a r r i v a l i n 1857 on Captain Prevost's \" S a t e l l i t e \" , he was informed by the Hudson's Bay Company that he could accomplish n o t h i n g by going nortlh, s i n c e i t would be too hazardous f o r him to leave the f o r t , and the I n d i a n s , among whom \u2022it he wished to work, c o u l d not e n t e r i t . In 1862, a f t e r he had been at Port Simpson f o r f o u r y e a r s , W i l l i a m Duncan was ready to make h i s move to his- new c o l o n y . On \"33 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. 318. 3I4. Captain Robert C. S c o t t , My Captain O l i v e r : A S t o r y of  Two M i s s i o n a r i e s on the B r i t i s h Columbia Coast, Toronto, I947, PP. 162-165. 35 Rev. F.A. Peake, The A n g l i c a n Church i n B r i t i s h C o l -umbia , Vancouver, M i t c h e l l Press, 1959, p. 13. 53 May 27 of that year, f i f t y men, women and c h i l d r e n moved w i t h t h e i r F a t her Duncan to the s i t e of t h e i r a n c e s t r a l v i l l a g e , from which n a t i v e s had gathered around the Hudson's Bay Company post a t Port Simpson. Three hundred more persons j o i n e d the f i r s t group w i t h i n a few weeks. There he d i r e c t e d h i s people i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n of a w a t e r - d r i v e n sawmill, w i t h which they c o u l d cut lumber f o r houses, a church, and a s c h o o l . By r e t u r n i n g t o England to study v a r i o u s t r a d e s , he was able to teach the Indians b l a c k s m i t h i n g , b r i c k making, soap manufacturing, weaving, and other i n d u s t r i e s . The n a t i v e s operated t h e i r own t r a d i n g post and even a salmon cannery. In t h i s c i t y b u i l t under h i s own d i r e c t i o n W i l l i a m Duncan allowed no h e r e d i t a r y c h i e f , but was h i m s e l f supreme r u l e r . Twelve c o n s t a b l e s appointed by him helped m a i n t a i n s t r i c t d i s c i -p l i n e . The r e s i d e n t s were of course f r e e to leave i f they so wished. On the c o n t r a r y , however, they continued to a r r i v e , u n t i l i n time the p o p u l a t i o n of the e c o n o m i c a l l y s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t c o l -ony grew to a t h o u s a n d . 3 0 Duncan planned to make h i s M e t l a k a t l a colony a C h r i s t i a n v i l l a g e , guided by the f o l l o w i n g objects: 3\"^ (1) To p l a c e a l l C h r i s t i a n s , when they became w i s h f u l to be taught C h r i s t i a n i t y , out of the miasma of heathen l i f e , and away from the deadening and en-t h r a l l i n g i n f l u e n c e of heathen customs. (2) To e s t a b l i s h the M i s s i o n where we c o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y shut out i n t o x i c a t i n g l i q u o r s , and keep l i q u o r s a t bay. (3) To enable us to r a i s e a b a r r i e r a g a i n s t the Indians v i s i t i n g V i c t o r i a , except on l a w f u l b u s i n e s s . 36 R.G. Large, op. c i t . . 20-21. 37 F.A. Peake, The A n g l i c a n Church In B r i t i s h Columbia, pp. 15-16. 5k (1+) That we might be able to a s s i s t the people thus gathered out to develop i n t o a model community, and r a i s e a C h r i s t i a n v i l l a g e , from which n a t i v e E v a n g l i s t s might go f o r t h , and C h r i s t i a n t r u t h r a d i a t e to every t r i b e around. (5>) That we might gather a community round us, whose moral and r e l i g i o u s t r a i n i n g and bent of l i f e might render i t safe and proper to impart secu-l a r i n s t r u c t i o n . (6) That we might be able to break up a l l t r i b a l d i s -t i n c t i o n s and a n i m o s i t i e s , and cement a l l who came to us, from whatever t r i b e , i n t o one common brotherhood. (7) That we might a l s o p l a c e o u r s e l v e s i n a p o s i t i o n to s e t up and e s t a b l i s h the supremacy of law, teach l o y a l t y to the Queen, conserve the peace of the country around, and u l t i m a t e l y develop our settlement i n t o a m u n i c i p a l i t y w i t h i t s Native C o r p o r a t i o n . Duncan's c l a s h w i t h the Church i n t e n s i f i e d w i t h the a r r i v a l a t the c o l o n y of Bishop R i d l e y i n 1879 \u2022 The cause f o r d i s s e n t i o n seemed to centre around r i t u a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y communion s e r v i c e . Duncan was a p p a r e n t l y l o a t h to teach p a r t a k i n g of the conse-c r a t e d elements because he b e l i e v e d that h i s people would f i n d i n i t too c l o s e an a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h the r i t e s of the pagan can-n i b a l s o c i e t i e s . Dr. Thomas Crosby, twenty years l a t e r a t Port Simpson, speaks of the \"Man-Eater\" as a r e a l and s t i l l - p r e s e n t e v i l . 3 8 The outcome of the c o n t r o v e r s y was t h a t i n I887 Duncan and e i g h t hundred and f i f t y of h i s f o l l o w e r s removed to a p l o t of land on Annette T s l a n d , i n the A l a s k a A r c h i p e l a g o , granted by the United S t a t e s Government, and h i s colony was t h e n c e f o r t h l o s t to B r i t i s h Columbia. The m i s s i o n a r y to north-west America found h i s passage d i s -puted by two a d v e r s a r i e s ; the l i q u o r p e d d l e r , and the shaman. The i n d i s c r i m i n a t e s e l l i n g of a l c o h o l i c d r i n k to the Indians was 38 Op. c i t . . pp. 319-32i+. 55 c a r r i e d on from the time of the f i r s t maritime t r a d e r s . Since the m i s s i o n a r y d i d not b e g i n work among these peoples u n t i l f i f t y years had e l a p s e d , he d i d not see what was happening to them be f o r e the l i q u o r t r a f f i c had been wreaking i t s havoc i n t o the second g e n e r a t i o n . No great c r y seems to have been r a i s e d a g a i n s t t h i s t r a f f i c d u r i n g t h i s time. Of course, the t r a d e r s themselves could h a r d l y have been expected t o p r o t e s t , and few other Europeans wandered i n t o the I n d i a n s ' domain to observe what went on t h e r e . In 1856, however, Captain James Prevost's request f o r a m i s s i o n a r y f o r the n o r t h coast was made because of the e v i l i n -f l u e n c e of white t r a d e r s he observed t h e r e . 3 9 James Douglas, while Governor of the Crown Colony of B r i t i s h Columbia, appointed W i l l i a m Duncan J u s t i c e of the Peace at M e t l a k a t l a , and I n f l e x i b l y prosecuted o f f e n d e r s of l i q u o r laws to the f u l l l i m i t of h i s powers.^ 0 The Methodist m i n i s t e r Reverend Ebenezer Robson, at Hope d u r i n g the f i r s t year of the g o l d r u s h , observed \"with g r i e f and d i s t r e s s the ignorance and d e g r e d a t i o n of the Indians i n the area rendered a l l the deeper by sudden contact w i t h white and o f t e n u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d a d v e n t u r e r s \" . ^ 1 Reverend Thomas Cros b y ^ 2 quotes from H i g g i n s ' The P a s s i n g of  a Race: An Indian's love of s t r o n g d r i n k i s so keen that he w i l l s e l l h i s wife or h i s c h i l d r e n i n t o worse than s l a v e r y to o b t a i n money to buy i t . No s a c r i f i c e i s too g r e a t , no p r i c e too h i g h to g r a t i f y h i s a p p e t i t e 39 Rev. F.A. Peake, The A n g l i c a n Church In B r i t i s h C o l -umbia , p. 13. J+0 R.G. Large, op. c i t . . pp. 2 0 , 2 1 . i | l G. Dorey, No V a n i s h i n g Race, Toronto, Ryerson, 1955, P. 1+7. 1+2 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . . p. l 6 . 56 f o r the i n e b r i a t i n g bowl... The g u i l t y p a r t i e s are immune from the v i s i t s of c o n s t a b l e s , and J u s t i c e was not only b l i n d , she was a l s o s\u00ae deaf t h a t she could not hear the p l a i n t i v e c r i e s of the wretched v i c t i m s of man's greed and r a p a c i t y as they r e n t the n i g h t a i r and seemed to c a l l down Heaven's ven-geance upon t h e i r p o i s o n e r s . E. Odium, i n a l e t t e r to Dr. Crosby r e m i n i s c i n g t h e i r days t o -gether i n m i s s i o n work d u r i n g the l a t t e r years of the n i n e t e e n t h century :^\"3 The most debased heathen l i f e I have witnessed has been the d i r e c t r e s u l t of the white man's whisky... Under the i n f l u e n c e of the white men, ap a r t from the m i s s i o n a r y , the Indians were r a p i d l y s i n k i n g i n t o debasement and dying out. Dr. Crosby h i m s e l f ^ estimated that l i q u o r obtained from f u r -t r a d e r s , p l u s i n t e r - t r i b a l wars r e s u l t i n g from the use o f t h i s l i q u o r , had by h i s day reduced the A l a s k a n coast Indians t o a tenth of t h e i r former numbers. There can be no doubt that the In d i a n l e a d e r s , those who, through t h e i r s o c i a l consciousness p e r c e i v e d the e v i l s of t h i s t r a f f i c and wished to combat i t , asked h e l p from t h i s one group of white men a g a i n s t the ravages of other white men. In 1866 the Reverend John Good went to L y t t o n i n answer to a request made to him i n the form of a telegram i n C h i n o o k : ^ \" L y t t o n siwashes turn turn mika c l o o s h hyaek chaco. Tikke wawwa mika\" : (the L y t t o n Indians t h i n k you had b e t t e r make haste and come. They wish to speak to you). The l a b o r s of these men i n t h i s r e s p e c t seem not to have been i n v a i n . The Reverend A.G. Morice,OMI,^ c i t e s an e a r l y 1|3 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. 396. kk I b i d . . p. 115. I4.5 Rev. PvA. Peake, op. c i t . , p. 66. J+6 Op. c i t . . p. 327. 57 example of the success gained by one of the g r e a t Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s a f t e r only three years e f f o r t : In May, 1861+, Governor S i r James Douglas r e s o l v e d to have a g r e a t c e l e b r a t i o n to commemorate the Queen's B i r t h d a y . Wishing to reach t h e r e f o r e as l a r g e a c o n -course o f Indians as p o s s i b l e , he a p p l i e d to t h e i r r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r , the d e s p i s e d French m i s s i o n a r y . As a consequence, Father Fouquet went down from S t . Mary's M i s s i o n to New Westminster w i t h a f l o t i l l a of s i x or seven hundred canoes, c a r r y i n g some 3,500 n a t i v e s , w i t h s i x t y temperance f l a g s - a r e d c r o s s on a white f i e l d bordered i n r e d , and the words \" R e l i g i o n , Temperance, C i v i l i z a t i o n \" i n l a r g e golden l e t t e r s . Photographs taken years a f t e r t h i s time show groups, some from as f a r away as S t u a r t Lake, gathered a t S t . Mary's and a t S e c h e l t , and c a r r y i n g these f l a g s to show t h a t they had taken the p ledge. The obvious opponent t\u00a9 m i s s i o n a r y e f f o r t w i t h i n the t r i b a l group was the shaman. He saw i n the m i s s i o n a r y a u s u r p e r of h i s place as a c o n t r o l l e r of s p i r i t s of good and e v i l , and the mis-s i o n a r y saw i n him i n t u r n the symbol o f heathen b e l i e f . He t h e r e f o r e exerted a l l of h i s power toward the e l i m i n a t i o n of the \"medicine-man\". In the s t r u g g l e the shaman was g e n e r a l l y a t a disadvantage. With h i s v i l l a g e uprooted, t r a n s p l a n t e d and t o r n a p a r t by the i n g r e s s of f u r - t r a d i n g , mining, and other a c t i v -i t i e s of the white man, the p o s i t i o n which a shaman had once h e l d w i t h i n a s p e c i f i c f a c e - t o - f a c e group was l o s t . In a d d i t i o n , he could c o n t r o l n e i t h e r the disease nor the a l c o h o l which the European was i n t r o d u c i n g i n t o h i s d i s r u p t e d s o c i e t y . The v i l l a g e c h i e f , unable to g a i n the h e l p needed from h i s shaman, and im-p e l l e d t o c a l l upon the m i s s i o n a r y , f e l t g e n e r a l l y o b l i g a t e d to s i d e w i t h the l a t t e r i n d i s p u t e s . The shaman d i d not c a p i t u l a t e e a s i l y or suddenly. Almost a l l e a r l y m i s s i o n a r i e s found that they had to overcome the i n -f l u e n c e of the l o c a l shaman before they could make progress w i t h 58 t h e i r e f f o r t s . As Late as 1878, when the Methodist Church was attempting to e s t a b l i s h a m i s s i o n a t Kitamaat, a \" c o n j u r e r \" , as Dr. Crosby r e f e r r e d to him, o f f e r e d p h y s i c a l r e s i s t a n c e . The m i s s i o n a r y then \"assumed the r o l e of the m i l i t a n t preacher\", and the shaman backed down. H' The m i s s i o n a r y sometimes found h i m s e l f o b l i g a t e d to meet the shaman on h i s own grounds, the h e a l i n g of the s i c k . F i r s t i n the I n d i a n s ' own lodges, then i n m i s s i o n s o l a r i u m s , they p i t t e d t h e i r s k i l l s to win those who needed med i c a l a i d t o t h e i r c a r e . Medical m i s s i o n a r i e s thus made t h e i r appearance. In 1888 Dr. A r t h u r Pease was appointed M i s s i o n a r y Doctor by the A n g l i c a n Church. In 1893 he opened the S t . Bartholomew I n d i a n H o s p i t a l a t L y t t o n . 4 ^ The Methodist Church appointed Dr. A.E. B o l t o n M e d i c a l M i s s i o n a r y a l s o i n 1888. He e s t a b l i s h e d a h o s p i t a l a t Port Simp-son i n I892, and branch h o s p i t a l s a t Port E s s i n g t o n i n 1895 and at R i v e r s I n l e t i n 1897, to which he r o t a t e d as I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n s h i f t e d w i t h s e a s o n a l o c c u p a t i o n . For some years he was the only C h r i s t i a n m e d i c a l doctor on the coast n o r t h of Nanaimo. A hos-p i t a l under Dr. R.W. Large was b u i l t a t B e l l a B e l l a i n 1898, and at Haze I t on under Dr. H.C. Wrinch i n 1900.^ 9 In 190!+ a h o s p i t a l s h i p , the \"Columbia\", was put i n t o s e r v i c e under d i r e c t i o n of the Reverend John A n t l e , Superintendent of the Columbia Coast M i s s i o n . T h i s M i s s i o n was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n the b u i l d i n g of S t . George's A n g l i c a n H o s p i t a l a t A l e r t Bay In 1909.^\u00b0 \" 1+7 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . . pp. 251+ -255. 1+8 Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . . p. 71. 1+9 Crosby, op. c i t . . pp. 297-299. 50 Peake, op. c i t . . p. 71. 59 The Roman C a t h o l i c Church d i d not appoint medical doctors as m i s s i o n a r i e s , but s i s t e r s of the t e a c h i n g orders who a r r i v e d i n the province d u r i n g m i s s i o n a r y days acted as nurses i n m i s s i o n s o l a r i u m s , and the h o s p i t a l which burned i n 1958 a t Anaham served f o r many years the Cariboo and W i l l i a m s Lake d i s t r i c t s . A l l Cath-o l i c h o s p i t a l s have of course been a v a i l a b l e to the I n d i a n s . M i s s i o n a r i e s , i n order t o make themselves understood t o t h e i r l i s t e n e r s , had to l e a r n a language which they c o u l d under-stand. Since d i a l e c t v a r i e d g r e a t l y from group to group, many of the e v a n g e l i s t s , who t r a v e l l e d from group to group, l e a r n e d Chin-ook, the \" l i n g u a f r a n c a \" west o f the Rocky Mountains. They, as w e l l as the f u r - t r a d e r s , were thus i n s t r u m e n t a l i n promulgating use of t h i s d i a l e c t . Hymns and prayers (see F r o n t i s p i e c e ) were, throughout the p r o v i n c e , l e a r n e d i n the l o c a l tongue, Chinook, and e i t h e r E n g l i s h or L a t i n . - ^ The m i s s i o n a r y u s u a l l y could not l e a r n i n advance the l a n g -uage of the group w i t h whom he was going to work, s i n c e no one out s i d e of that group c o u l d teach i t . He would q u i t e l i k e l y , then, a r r i v e a t a v i l l a g e unable t o speak the d i a l e c t of i t s occ-upants . E a r l y m i s s i o n t e a c h i n g thus i n v o l v e d a t t a c k s on the language b a r r i e r r a t h e r than formal e d u c a t i o n as we now t h i n k of i t . I t i n v o l v e d of course not only c h i l d r e n , but the e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n , as s t u d e n t s , f o r n e i t h e r young nor o l d knew e i t h e r the new l a n g -uage nor the new r e l i g i o n . In the e a r l y m i s s i o n a r y days, then, when i t i s s a i d t h a t a s c h o o l was e s t a b l i s h e d what was f r e q u -e n t l y meant was t h a t a group of Indians of a l l ages had been 51 Some S e c h e l t Indians know L a t i n , Chinook, Chataleech S a l i s h , and E n g l i s h . 6o assembled f o r the purposes of language and r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n . I t i s t h e r e f o r e impossible to d i s s o c i a t e , i n those y e a r s , edu-c a t i o n and m i s s i o n work, s i n c e they were of a n e c e s s i t y i n t e r -dependent, and t h e i r terminology, as a r e s u l t , o f t e n synonymous. M i s s i o n a r y work, by i t s v e r y name, i m p l i e s t e a c h i n g of the Gospel as a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r c o n f i r m a t i o n i n t o some s e c t of C h r i s t i a n church. Emphasis was t h e r e f o r e p l a c e d e n t i r e l y upon b r i d g i n g the communication gap, and, once i t was b r i d g e d , upon i n s t r u c t i o n i n catechism, s t o r y , song, music and ceremony of some form of C h r i s t i a n i t y . The Reverend Herbert Beaver, d u r i n g h i s s h o r t s t a y as chap-l a i n of F o r t Vancouver, gave up the task of p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n t\u00a9 the c h i l d r e n of surrounding Indian t r i b e s because he d i d not know Chinook.^ 2 Father Demers, one of the f i r s t m i s s i o n a r i e s to the n o r t h -west a f t e r abandonment of the Spanish Nootka p o s t , when i n 1839 he met w i t h Indians of twenty-two peoples, d i s t r i b u t e d among them \" C a t h o l i c Ladders\"; wood w i t h groups of notches and symbols carved to r e p r e s e n t passage of time and p r i n c i p a l events s i n c e C r e a t i o n . He e x p l a i n e d these devices to h i s \"congregation\" i n the Chinook j a r g o n . ^ 3 While t r a v e l l i n g n o r t h w i t h the f u r b r i g -ade i n I8I4.2, Father Demers spent a l l the time he c o u l d l e a r n i n g the languages of the Indians w i t h whom he came i n c o n t a c t . ^ The Reverend Alexander G a r r e t t l e a r n e d Chinook to teach 5>2 Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . , p. 3 . 53 Wayne S u t t l e s , \"The P l a t e a u Prophet Dance Among the Coast S a l i s h \" , Southwestern J o u r n a l o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y of New Mexico, Winter, 1957, p. 357. 51+ Rev. George Forbes, op. c i t . 61 f i f t y - f o u r c h i l d r e n who spoke f i v e languages at V i c t o r i a i n 1 8 6 0 . ^ The Reverend J . Wlllem, i n h i s sch o o l a t A l b e r n i i n 1868, asked students who knew Chinook or E n g l i s h to h e l p him w i t h others .-^ Dr. Crosby l e a r n e d Chinook while a t the Songees r e s e r v e i n 1870, and while a t Port Simpson had h i s Indian c o n g r e g a t i o n mem-o r i z e B i b l e t e x t s i n both Tsimshian and E n g l i s h . - ^ In the l a t e l880's the Reverend Charles H a r r i s o n worked on a t r a n s l a t i o n of the A n g l i c a n Prayer Book i n t o the Haida d i a l e c t , and the Reverend John Henry Keen undertook the task of c o m p i l i n g a grammar of Haida language.-^ Father M o rice, d u r i n g the same y e a r s , d e v i s e d f o r the bene-f i t o f h i s charges a t S t u a r t Lake a system of s y l l a b i c p r i n t i n g . He c a s t type and p r i n t e d a primer, p r a y e r book, and a monthly p e r i o d i c a l . Father LeJeune adapted a k i n d of stenography to the t r a n s c r i p t i o n of Chinook, and f o r years p u b l i s h e d the well-known Kamloops \"Wawa\".^9 In 1882 Reverend Crosby brought out a paper c a l l e d the \"Simpson H e r a l d \" , the f i r s t newspaper on the upper c o a s t . I t was f o l l o w e d by the S i t k a \"North S t a r \" , the Wrangel \"Northern Light\"', and the Nass R i v e r \"Ahah\". At Kitamaat the Reverend George Raley compiled the f i r s t d i c t i o n a r y of n o r t h e r n coast dialects.^\u00b0 55 Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . , p. 60. 56 I b i d . . p. 70. 57 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. J4.7. 58 Peake, op. c i t . , p. 92. 59 Rev. A.G. Morice, op. c i t . , p. 377. 60 Crosby, op. c i t . . p. 76. 62 W i l l i a m Henry Lomas, commenting i n the Columbia M i s s i o n Report of 1867 on h i s work among the Cowichans, r e v e a l e d the r e l a t i o n s h i p between language and e v a n g e l i s m : 0 1 Of course the i n s t r u c t i o n was of a v e r y elementary nature, and I f e a r we can have but l i t t l e hope of imparting much r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n u n t i l the l a n g -uage has been a c q u i r e d . At a v e r y e a r l y date, however, what could be c a l l e d schools began to make t h e i r appearance. Before any m i s s i o n a r y came west of the Rockies, some I n d i a n boys from Hudson's Bay Company posts were being taught a t Red rei 63 62 R i v e r , where they were a p p a r e n t l y taught r e a d i n g , r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n , and a g r i c u l t u r e . The Methodist Church e s t a b l i s h e d a s c h o o l among the Indians of Nanaimo i n 18\u00a37, w i t h C o r n e l i u s Bryant as t e a c h e r T h e Rev-erend Ebenezer Robson's g r i e f and d i s t r e s s a t c o n d i t i o n of the Indians a t Hope l e d him i n 1859 to open a s c h o o l f o r them there.\u00b0^ The Reverend Alexander G a r r e t t i n i860 opened a s c h o o l i n a t e n t near V i c t o r i a , When, a year l a t e r , the t e n t suddenly be-came a s a i l on a dug-out canoe, he appealed to f r i e n d s , and r a i s e d a thousand d o l l a r s f o r a wooden s c h o o l . The b u i l d i n g was l a i d out i n the shape of an octagon \"so that one d i v i s i o n might be used by the m i s s i o n a r y , while the c h i l d r e n of the s e v e r a l t r i -bes who d i d not love each other might be p l a c e d i n the o t h e r s \" . 0 0 ~6l Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . , p. 61+. 62 I b i d . , p. 63. 63 Charles E . P h i l l i p s , op. c i t . , p. 15I4. 61+ Peake, op. c i t . , p. 63. 65 G. Dorey, op. c i t . , p. 1+7. 66 Peake, op. c i t . , p. 62. 63 W i l l i a m Duncan, although he encountered o p p o s i t i o n from some c h i e f s and medicine men, was a b l e , a f t e r spending a w i n t e r l e a r n i n g the Tsimshian language, to open a classroom i n a s m a l l lo g b u i l d i n g the year a f t e r h i 3 a r r i v a l at P o r t Simpson.^? By 1880, Duncan's s c h o o l at M e t l a k a t l a , w i t h an enrolment of 160 (see Table 1) , was by f a r the l a r g e s t Indian s c h o o l In the prov-i n c e , and h i s system, added to t h a t a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d by F a t h e r Lacombe i n A l b e r t a , s e t the p a t t e r n f o r I n d i a n I n d u s t r i a l Schools across C a n a d a . ^ S t . Mary's M i s s i o n e s t a b l i s h e d an i n d u s t r i a l s c h o o l i n I863, w i t h separate establishments f o r boys and g i r l s . ^ 9 _ n 1875J the S i s t e r s of S t . Ann e s t a b l i s h e d an i n d u s t r i a l s c h o o l a t W i l l i a m s Lake, and the same t e a c h i n g order opened a day s c h o o l i n Nanaimo i n 1 8 7 7 . 7 0 The Reverend John Good i n I867 opened an Indian boys' s c h o o l at L y t t o n . A f l a g r u n up a t ten o ' c l o c k showed students t h a t i t was time to go to s c h o o l . A b e l l was rung f o r p r a y e r s , f o l l o w e d by work t i l l twelve. A f t e r a noon r e c e s s , academic work continued t i l l t h r e e p.m., then i n d u s t r i a l a r t s t i l l f o u r . O c c a s i o n a l l y there were evening c l a s s e s . In the same year, f i n d i n g t h a t there were no funds f o r a s c h o o l b u i l d i n g at Y a l e , David Holmes h e l d c l a s s e s i n the parsonage t h e r e . S t . George's I n d u s t r i a l S c h o o l was opened i n L y t t o n i n 1901* w i t h the Reverend George Ditcham p r i n c i p a l 67 R.G. Large, op. c i t . , p. 19. 68 Dean Wood. Ed. $19, Summer S e s s i o n U.B.C., 1957. 69 Rev. A.G. Morice, op. c i t . . p. 317. 70 I b i d . , pp. 352-255. 71 Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . . pp. 67-70. Table 1. Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report - 1880 Salarv How Raised Enrolled. Boys Enrolled. Girls r-i a O EH Average Attendance Reading & Spelling Writing Arithmetic 1 & J3 p ct! w o M e t l a k a t l a u \u00a9 o ft o c \u2022P \u2022ri O ft -P CS O P p ^ E CM \u00a3 r-i \u00a3 i Funds sutions 87 73 180 69 160 120 92 .Nass R i v e r i Funds sutions 19 51+ 1+6 51+ 1+2 7 _ S t . Mary's M1fln1nn i Funds sutions 133 26 39 11 21+ 13 26 13 25 10 25 6 25 6 ' 16 Port Simpson i Funds sutions 6)i 58 122 ho 10Q 81+ V 1 ' - 3 s Mass4t-t Indiar Contril _72 3 75 75 75 12 Indiar Contril 28 22 50 20 50 50 50 \u2022 \\ . V i c t o r i a Indiar Contril 23 21 1+1+ 12 39 19 71 65 The Reverend Thomas Crosby's f i r s t words i n the Cowichan I n d i a n language, w i t h which he addressed h i s p r o s p e c t i v e p u p i l s at Nanaimo, were \"Muek-stow-ay-wilth may-tla ta s c h o o l \" ( a l l c h i l d r e n come to s c h o o l ) . A p p a r e n t l y they d i d not always come to 72 s c h o o l , but f r e q u e n t l y went swimming i n s t e a d . At Port Simpson Dr. Crosby was able by 1875 to stage a F a i r , a t which n e a r l y a hundred a r t i c l e s were e x h i b i t e d , i n c l u d i n g samples of needlework, k n i t t i n g , beadwork, patchwork, c a r v i n g s , and other woodwork. The students a l s o d i s p l a y e d t h e i r p r o f i c i e n c y i n s p e l l i n g and In the m u l t i p l i c a t i o n t a b l e . 7 3 W i l l i a m Henry C o l l i s o n , sent from England by the Church M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y , founded a school a t Massett i n 187!+. From there he was posted to the Skeena, where he e s t a b l i s h e d a s c h o o l at K i n c o l i t h , and where, i n 1878, he was ordained by Bishop Bom-bus. 71+ The Methodist Church sent the Reverend CM. Tate to the Skeena duri n g these same y e a r s , where he b u i l t the f i r s t day school a t H a z e l t o n . The Skeena a l s o r e c e i v e d Methodist schools f o r a time a t Hagwilget and at K i s p i o x . Reverend and Mrs. Tate l a t e r r e t u r n e d south, where they began, a t f i r s t i n t h e i r own home, at S a r d i s , what was to become the Coqualeetza I n s t i t u t e . By the t u r n of the c e n t u r y , when the m i s s i o n a r y p e r i o d might be s a i d to have more or l e s s ended, t h i s Church was a l s o o p e r a t i n g I n d i a n schools a t China Hat, H a r t l e y Bay, and K i t l o p e . 7 ^ 72 L e t t e r from Mrs. H.L. H i l l , Nanaimo, A p r i l 21, 1958. 73 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. 7ij.. 7I4. Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . , p. 90* 75 Crosby, op. c i t . , pp. 8I4.-89. 66 In 188k S l a t e r Mary P e l i c i a n , of the S i s t e r s of C h i l d Jesus, from Lepuy, Prance, came to t e a c h twelve students a t S t , Paul's Indian S c h o o l , e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t year i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the North Vancouver M i s s i o n . Land was c l e a r e d and the s c h o o l b u i l t by the Indians t h e m s e l v e s R o m a n C a t h o l i c r e s i d e n t i a l schools f o r Indians were e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1890 a t Cranbrook, i n 1893 a t Kamloops, i n 1900 a t Kakawis, and, e a r l y i n the twent-i e t h century, a t S e c h e l t and a t L e j a c . 7 7 A l l Hallows School grew out of an a p p e a l by Bishop Acton Windeyer S i l l i t o e , f i r s t A n g l i c a n bishop of New Westminster, who sent out a c a l l t o England f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n h i s work w i t h the n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n . The response came from A l l Hallows community of High A n g l i c a n nuns i n Ditchingham, N o r f o l k . In 1881+ three teachers of t h i s order used a vacant parsonage a d j o i n i n g S t . John's Church a t Y a l e as a s c h o o l f o r Indian g i r l s . In 1885 the s c h o o l moved i n t o the abandoned C.P.R. h o s p i t a l , and i n 1888 i n t o a wing of the Onderdonk house. The s c h o o l , attended by both White and I n d i a n g i r l s , was w e l l known throughout the West u n t i l i t s c l o s u r e i n 1916.78 The S a l v a t i o n Army began m i s s i o n a r y work i n the Skeena area towards the end of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . In 1898 t h a t o r g a n i -s a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d a s c h o o l a t the newly-created v i l l a g e of Glen Vowell, an o f f s h o o t of K i s p i o x , 7 ^ a n a d u r i n g t h i s century has e s t a b l i s h e d s e v e r a l other schools i n s m a l l v i l l a g e s on the Skeena and Nass r i v e r s . 76 E l i n o r Glenn, The Vancouver Sun. August 27, I9I4.9. 77 C h r i s t i e School J u b i l e e , 1900-1950. (Unpaged). 7 8 H i s t o r i c Y a l e , pp. 22-25. 79 R.G. Large, op. c i t . , p. 20. 67 To sum up t h i s e r a : The m i s s i o n a r y came t o the northwest to work among the I n d i a n s , who d e s p e r a t e l y needed h e l p , when no one e l s e would come. They came, a t f i r s t , when there was i n ex-es tence no government except that of a f u r - t r a d i n g company. The government which was l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d was d i s i n t e r e s t e d i n the welfare of the Indians and of them. 8 0 They r e c e i v e d no o f f i c i a l f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e , i n the main, and many labored throughout t h e i r l i v e s w i t h l i t t l e or no p e r s o n a l income even from p r i v a t e s o u r c e s . Knowing that t e a c h i n g can take place o n l y where a sense of worth i s i n v o l v e d , they sought t o e s t a b l i s h t h i s b a s i s of worth i n t h e i r C h r i s t i a n i n s t r u c t i o n . They l a b o r e d , o f t e n , among i n c r e d i b l y h a rsh and t r y i n g c o n d i t i o n s , which c o s t the h e a l t h of many, and the l i f e of not a few. What l i t t l e thanks they have r e c e i v e d from t h i s world they have been awarded, most of them, posthumously; few were the p r a i s e s sung them d u r i n g t h e i r own l i f e t i m e s . Some of them a t t a i n e d r e s u l t s t h a t were t r u l y remark-able . Yet they came too l a t e and they gave too l i t t l e . To a people who f o r anywhere from f i f t y to a hundred years had s u f f e r e d a p h y s i c a l and moral de g r e d a t i o n from the white man's l i q u o r , d i s -ease, and i l l e g i t i m a t e b r e e d i n g , they brought a kind of solace which was i n i t s f i n a l a n a l y s i s almost e n t i r e l y s p i r i t u a l . 80 Dr. I.W. Powell, Indian Superintendent, i n 1880 wrote i n the Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report, page 121: \"The m i s s i o n s as a r u l e are unable t o e r e c t proper schoolhouses, most of them b e i n g c o m f o r t l e s s and un-a t t r a c t i v e , and on account of the v a r i o u s l o c a l i t i e s b e i n g unreserved, no grants from the Government have been made to a i d i n the e r e c t i o n of e f f i c i e n t b u i l d i n g s \" . 81 In 1880, only s i x s c h o o l s ; V i c t o r i a , Port Simpson, Met-l a k a t l a , K i n c o l l t h . Nass R i v e r , and Mas s e t t , r e c e i v e d g r a n t s . For some J4.65 s t u d e n t s , these t o t a l l e d only $1777. (Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report, page 1 2 1 ) . 68 Intent on e v a n g e l i z i n g , they f i s h e d not so much f o r men as f o r s o u l s , and brought the heathen g i v e n them f o r t h e i r i n h e r i t ance merely t o where \"Knowing God, they g l o r i f i e d Him not as God\" . P e r s i s t e n t i n t h e i r constant b a t t l e to break the heathen way o f l i f e , they broke the whole of the Ind i a n s ' way of l i f e , and s u b s t i t u t e d a realm f o r the s p i r i t , but not f o r the body, 1 Op i t s p l a c e . Thomas Crosby w r i t e s : The M i s s i o n a r y f i n d s among a people that are so con-s t a n t l y moving about that i f he i s to expect r e a l , good work i t must be done by g a t h e r i n g a number of the c h i l d r e n together i n a Home or Boarding S c h o o l or I n d u s t r i a l I n s t i t u t i o n , where they can be kept c o n s t a n t l y and r e g u l a r l y a t Schoo l and away from the e v i l i n f l u e n c e s of the heathen l i f e . One o f the few who sought to nu r t u r e more than the s p i r i t was W i l l i a m Duncan, of whom Dr. R.G. Large says:. 0* 3 I t would seem, however, t h a t he e a r l y grasped the n e c e s s i t y of f e e d i n g the body as w e l l as the s o u l . . . . B y making the Indian e c o n o m i c a l l y independent, he gave him a chance to develop s p i r i t u a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y . T h i s man was f o r c e d e v e n t u a l l y to break w i t h h i s Church, and ha never been completely f o r g i v e n h i s t r e s p a s s e s , ^ one of which was a f a i l u r e to conduct a s u f f i c i e n t number of B i b l e c l a s s e s 1 c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h i s s c h o o l . ^ F i r e d w i t h the energy of a z e a l which drove them c o n s t -a n t l y , they sometimes p e r m i t t e d a m i s d i r e c t i o n of t h e i r d r i v e to the undoing of the work of others r a t h e r than a t the doing of t h e i r own. The r e s u l t s o f such r i v a l r y o v e r - e v a n g e l i z e d \"82 Up and Down the North P a c i f i c Coast by Canoe and Mis-s i o n Ship, p. tik. 83 The Skeena, R i v e r of D e s t i n y , p. 22. 81; Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . , p. 16. 85 I b i d . , p. 9 1 . 69 86 some I n d i a n groups, and l e f t other groups almost untouched. F a i l i n g t o comprehend the nature of the n a t i v e p o l y t h e i s m , they attempted to make a h o l y vow of marriage, the one s i g n i f -i c a n t i n s t i t u t i o n i n the I n d i a n s ' l i f e which was not bound by a s p i r i t u a l f o r c e . While attempting to h e l p the I n d i a n l e a d a l i f e i n which he c o u l d f i n d r e s p e c t , they engendered a sense o f shame i n the h i t h e r t o accepted Indian marriage custom, which d i e d s l o w l y i n many groups. James Douglas, to name but one ex-ample, was persuaded by the Reverend Herbert Beaver to remarry h i s I ndian wife by Church of England r i t e s i n 1837, nine years a f t e r he had married by Indian c u s t o m . 8 7 T h i s c r e a t i o n of a d u a l l e v e l of acceptance of marriage r i t e added i t s weight to the continued d e p r e s s i o n of Indian and p a r t - I n d i a n s t a t u s . While attempting to overcome the d e s t r u c t i v e i n f l u e n c e of the rum-peddler, they themselves d i d much, through c r e a t i o n of a r t i f i c i a l v i l l a g e s , o f t e n f a r from immemorial hunting grounds, to sow the seeds f o r a break-down of the s o c i a l and economic c u l t u r e p a t t e r n s of the I n d i a n . One sept was brought some s i x t y m i l e s to the a r t i f i c i a l v i l l a g e of S e c h e l t i n I889. The v i l l a g e today i s almost completely without i t s own r e s o u r c e s . D e s p i t e t h e i r undoubted love f o r the i n d i v i d u a l b e i n g , and t h e i r unquestioned s i n c e r i t y i n t h e i r work, i n t h e i r eagerness to remake the n a t i v e Indian \" c l o s e r to the h e a r t ' s d e s i r e \" , and from t h e i r d i s t a s t e f o r almost the whole of h i s a b o r i g i n a l c u l -t u r e , they b u i l t a w a l l between themselves and t h e i r p u p i l s which must f r e q u e n t l y have thwarted good t e a c h i n g . 86\" See M. Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. l 6 8 . 87 I b i d . , p. 9i;. CHAPTER IV THE IN-BETWEEN YEARS There i s but one n a t i v e race i n Canada, now r a p i d l y p a s s i n g away. 1 The I n d i a n , d u r i n g the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , had met the t r a d e r , who depended on him f o r f u r s , and the m i s s i o n a r y , who came to h e l p him a g a i n s t the f i r s t comer and to convert him to C h r i s t i a n i t y . J u s t a f t e r the middle of the century he encountered a t h i r d type of European, the go l d miner. The Hudson's Bay Company had been r e c e i v i n g some g o l d at 2 Kamloops f o r s e v e r a l years before the major d i s c o v e r y , but the main f i n d was made on the sand-bars of the lower F r a s e r Canyon i n 1858. W i t h i n months, thousands of gold-seekers had entered the f i e l d s , some o v e r l a n d , but mostly through the post of V i c -t o r i a . By i 8 6 0 , the source o f t h i s g o l d had been t r a c e d to the Cariboo country; by 1861+ to the Kootenays, and by 1869 to the Skeena, S t i k i n e , and other r i v e r s of the f a r n o r t h . 3 Each new g o l d f i n d brought i t s thousands of p r o s p e c t o r s to one area a f t e r another, u n t i l almost the whole o f the province had f e l t t h e i r presence. But whereas the f u r - t r a d e r s , even w i t h the t r o u b l e s they brought, needed the I n d i a n , and t h e r e f o r e encroached l i t t l e on h i s p r o p e r t y , the miner f e l t no such dependence. For the f i r s t time, t o o, non-Indians began to outnumber Indians along the r i v e r -v a l l e y s where gold was to be found. The miners ignored the Ind-i a n s ' t r a d i t i o n a l h u n t i n g and t r a p p i n g grounds, and i n many 1 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. v i i . 2 M. Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. I38. 3 F. Howay, op. c i t . . p. I 7 I - I 7 2 . 71 l o c a l i t i e s e i t h e r k i l l e d or drove o f f the animals from which they had obtained t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d . Admixture of Indian and non-Indian bloods g r e a t l y a c c e l e r -ated d u r i n g the years i n which these unattached men roamed the c o u n t r y . N a t i v e s as f a r n o r t h as the S t i k i n e , who had had almost no c o n t a c t w i t h the white r a c e , suddenly found themselves over-whelmed by the f l o o d t h a t now Invaded t h e i r t e r r i t o r y . Between I87O and 1900, miners and t r a d e r s i n t e r b r e d w i t h the Indians u n t i l a t T e l e g r a p h Creek they completely l o s t not o n l y t h e i r r a c i a l p u r i t y , but a l s o t h e i r o l d ways of l i f e , and a c q u i r e d an i n h e r -i t a n c e of White c u l t u r e A Many other v i l l a g e s underwent s i m i l a r e x p e r i e n c e s . Hawthorn, Belshaw, and Jamieson comment on t h i s impact of White on I n d i a n c u l t u r e d u r i n g t h i s period:;-' Despite the long h i s t o r y of c o n t a c t s , the Indians of the Province have been subjected to I n t e n s i v e a c c u l t -u r a t i o n o n l y i n r e c e n t times - d a t i n g from the middle of the n i n e t e e n t h century f o r some, and from the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o r o t h e r s . The phenomenon which f i r s t brought Whites i n l a r g e numbers to the northwest was the d i s c o v e r y of g o l d . The d i s c o v e r y of other r e s o u r c e s brought more Whites over the y e a r s , so t h a t the p r o p o r t i o n o f White over Indian p o p u l a t i o n continued t o i n c r e a s e . For s i x t y years the Indians of the northwest knew no law except that of the f u r - t r a d e r . In 1828 James Douglas, w h i l e s t a t i o n e d at S t u a r t Lake, had an I n d i a n , who had s e v e r a l years before been one of the k i l l e r s of two Hudson's Bay Company men, \" I4, Information obtained 1958 from Fred Brown, p r i n c i p a l of Telegraph Creek Elementary-High S c h o o l . 5 H.B. Hawthorn, C.S. Belshaw, S.M. Jamieson, The Indians  of B r i t i s h Columbia, The U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto P r e s s , 1950, P. 19. 72 clubbed t o death w i t h garden implements and thrown t o the dogs of the f o r t In I8I4.2, a Hagwilget I n d i a n , who had k i l l e d the Postmaster at P o r t Kilmaurs i n what he b e l i e v e d to be revenge f o r the death 7 of a r e l a t i v e , was shot by a p a r t y of Hudson's Bay Company men.' Even when R i c h a r d Blanshard i n 18^0 t r a v e l l e d to N e w i t t i i n an attempt to apprehend n a t i v e s who had murdered three s a i l o r d e s e r t e r s , he was t o l d by the c o l o n i a l o f f i c e t h a t he should i n f u t u r e not undertake to \" p r o t e c t or attempt to punish i n j u r i e s committed on B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s who v o l u n t a r i l y p l a c e d themselves o at a d i s t a n c e from the s e t t l e m e n t s \" . There was as yet l i t t l e l e g a l i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h the I n d i a n s ' r i g h t s of tenancy. Three years l a t e r , however, Governor James Douglas d i d app-rehend an a l l e g e d murderer a t Cowichan. While t h e r e , he informed a group of Indians t h a t the whole country was a p o s s e s s i o n of the B r i t i s h Crown. 9 In l 8 6 l , Douglas o f f i c i a l l y d i r e c t e d the C h i e f Commissioner of Lands and Works to \"take measures as soon as p r a c t i c a b l e f o r marking out d i s t i n c t l y the Indian Reserves throughout the C o l -ony\". He added t h a t \"the extent of the I n d i a n Reserves to be d e f i n e d \" was to be \"as they may s e v e r a l l y be p o i n t e d out by the n a t i v e s themselves\". The d i r e c t i v e was n o t , however, put i n t o e f f e c t . By S e c t i o n 91, s u b - s e c t i o n 2 I 4 , o f the B r i t i s h North America 6 Walter Sage, op. c i t . , p. I4.6. 7 R.G. Large, op. c i t . , p. 13. 8 F.W. Howay, op. c i t . , p. 106. 9 Sage, op. c i t . , p. 179* 73 A c t , the Dominion Government was t o l e g i s l a t e f o r \"I n d i a n s , and lands f o r I n d i a n s \" . By terms of the Act of Union of I 8 7 I , by which B r i t i s h C o l -umbia entered the Dominion, contained the f o l l o w i n g phrases i n Clause 13: ... the charge of the Indians and t r u s t e e s h i p and management of the land r e s e r v e d f o r t h e i r use and b e n e f i t s s h a l l be assumed by the Dominion Govern-ment, and a p o l i c y as l i b e r a l as h i t h e r t o pursued by the B r i t i s h Columbia Government, a f t e r Union. To c a r r y out such a p o l i c y t r a c t s of l a n d of such extents as has h i t h e r t o been the p r a c t i c e of the B r i t i s h Columbia Government to a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h a t purpose s h a l l from time t o time be conveyed by the L o c a l Government t o the Dominion Government. The B r i t i s h Columbia Pre-emption A c t of I87O excluded Ind-ians from c l a i m i n g Crown l a n d s . Clause 13, intended t o p r o t e c t the Indian a g a i n s t the onrush of White p o p u l a t i o n , d i d not f o r some years do so, w i t h the r e s u l t that many o r i g i n a l v i l l a g e s i t e s e i t h e r disappeared a l t o g e t h e r or were hemmed i n t o extremely s m a l l corners of ground. In I876 three commissioners, Alexander Anderson, to r e p r e -sent the Dominion Government; A r c h i b a l d McKinley, to r e p r e s e n t the P r o v i n c i a l Government, and G i l b e r t Sproat, j o i n t member, were appointed to i n v e s t i g a t e and r e p o r t on the r e s e r v e s problem.\"' - 0 Main r e s e r v e s were surveyed by I89O, and v i r t u a l l y a l l de-t a i l s completed by 1916, i n t h a t year, 1628 r e s e r v e s were l i s t e d , t o t a l l i n g 821,Ij.lO a c r e s . 1 1 One obvious f a c t o r important to the study of the e d u c a t i o n o f a people i s the number o f persons i n v o l v e d . The I n d i a n popu-l a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia over the years has been estimated 10 Report, Deputy Superintendent-General o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , I876. 11 Canada Year Book, p. 172. many times, w i t h g r e a t v a r i a t i o n i n the e s t i m a t e s . Diamond 12 Jenness has made what i s probably the most d e t a i l e d p r e -European a n a l y s i s , g i v i n g estimates from a number of sources f o r f o u r t e e n groups (see Table 2 ) . Table 2 P o p u l a t i o n of Indians by Groups Group Pre-European T l i n g i t 5 8 5 0 * Haida 8]+00 Tsimshian 6000 B e l l a Coola 2500 Kwakiutl 7200 Nootka 6000 Coast S a l i s h 15000 I n t e r i o r S a l i s h 15500 Kootenay C h i l o o t i n 2500 C a r r i e r 8500 T s e t s a u t 500 T a h l t a n 1000 Sekani 1000 75950&k 1935 1+L26 650 3 ^ 8 300 2000 1500 kOOO 6000 500 kSO 2000 3 288 160 257Z5 k Smallpox i n t r o d u c e d by Spaniards 1775 && Plus Kootenays One e s t i m a t e 1 3 put the I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n a t t h i r t y thousand i n 1853, but the Report of the Hudson's Bay Company to the Com-mons i n 1857 p l a c e d the f i g u r e at s e v e n t y - f i v e thousand. The White p o p u l a t i o n of the northwest was approximately one thousand i n 1 8 5 3 ^ During three months of I858, n e a r l y f i f t e e n thousand persons a r r i v e d a t V i c t o r i a a l o n e . \u00b0 A l t o g e t h e r , some \"12 The Indians of Canada, pp. 3 3 I - 3 8 2 . 13 M. Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. 127. 14 A. Begg, op. c i t . , p. I l 6 . 15 Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. 127. 16 P. Howay, op. c i t . , p. 119. 75 t w e n t y - f i v e thousand miners had made t h e i r way to the F r a s e r R i v e r . 1 7 H i l l - T o u t , from examinations he made of v i l l a g e s i t e s , c a l -c u l a t e d that the a b o r i g i n a l S a l i s h p o p u l a t i o n alone had been \"I fi s i x t y thousand a t the time of Simon F r a s e r . Of course, no o f f i c i a l count of the n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n was made by e a r l i e s t Europeans. Soon a f t e r the time t h a t schools began to be e s t a b l i s h e d among them, however, census t a l l i e s were begun (see Table 3 ) . E d u c a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia's I n d i a n pop-u l a t i o n i n v o l v e d a t o t a l , as r e v e a l e d by these f i g u r e s , of be-tween twenty and t h i r t y thousand persons. Table 3 1 Q Indian P o p u l a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia- 1\" 7 1871 - 2 3 , 0 0 0 1881 - 25,661 1891 - 3U,202 1901 - 28,91+9 1911 - 20,131+ 1921 - 22,377 1931 - 2l+,599 19U1 - 2l+,875 191+9 - 27,936 1951+ - 31 ,086 S c h o o l s , while s c a t t e r e d throughout much of the p r o v i n c e , reached by no means a l l o f the n a t i v e peoples at any e a r l y date. The Report o f Superintendent J.W. Powell f o r 1887 showed twenty-f i v e hundred Indians whose r e l i g i o n was known to be pagan a t that time, and seventeen thousand whose r e l i g i o n was unaccounted f o r , and c o u l d t h e r e f o r e be assumed to be pagan. Sinee e d u c a t i o n g e n e r a l l y began w i t h c o n v e r s i o n , or purported c o n v e r s i o n , to \"17 M. Ormsby, op. c i t . . p. ll+O 18 The Far West. The Home of the S a l i s h and Dene, p. ll+. 19 From I n d i a n A f f a i r s R e p o r t s . 76 C h r i s t i a n i t y , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t these n e a r l y twenty thousand n a t i v e s had had l i t t l e up to t h i s time. E d u c a t i o n of Indians was p l a c e d under the newly c r e a t e d o f f i c e of the S e c r e t a r y of State i n 1868. In I873 i t was t r a n s -f e r r e d to the Department of the I n t e r i o r , to the Department of Indian A f f a i r s from 1880 to 1936, and to the Department of Mines and Resources from then to 191+9\u2022 Since t h a t date i t has come 20 under j u r i s d i c t i o n of C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration. S e c t i o n 93 \u00b0f the B r i t i s h North America Act s t a t e s t h a t \"Nothing i n any law s h a l l p r e j u d i c i a l l y a f f e c t any r i g h t or p r i v -i l e g e w i t h r e s p e c t t o denominational schools which any c l a s s of persons have by law i n the province a t the u n i o n \" . The government of B r i t i s h Columbia was i n any case not prepared to undertake the task of I n d i a n e d u c a t i o n i n I 8 7 I , and the e f f e c t of t h i s c l a u s e has been to leave the management of I n d i a n schools under the con-t r o l of the C h r i s t i a n church denominations which s t a r t e d edu-c a t i o n of the n a t i v e s . With no s t a t u t e to enforce attendance, enrolment i n these m i s s i o n schools f l u c t u a t e d g r e a t l y . The twenty students a t the s c h o o l founded by Father Lacombe a t Edmonton i n l 8 6 l were \" w i l d as hares and a t the sound of the voyageurs 1 songs or cheers i n autumn, they flew l i k e arrows from t h e i r bows to the bank to o -1 welcome the brigade home\". W i l l i a m Henry Lomas, w r i t i n g of h i s s c h o o l among the Cow-ichans i n 1867, commented on the attendance s i t u a t i o n as he saw i t t h e r e : 2 2 20 C. P h i l l i p s , op. c i t . . p. 337. 21 I b i d . , p. 156. 22 Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . . p. 61+. 77 The s c h o o l was open f o r a f o r t n i g h t , w i t h an average attendance of 12, but a t the end of that time a l l the boys l e f t the v i l l a g e to go w i t h t h e i r f a m i l i e s to d i f f e r e n t s t a t i o n s on the coast to f i s h f o r clams, and gather r o o t s t h a t grow on the h i l l s i d e s , which they dry f o r winter use. T h i s w i l l , f o r some time, be one drawback of the work of t e a c h i n g the young as at i n t e r v a l s , throughout the season, they a l l go away to f i s h , e t c . A f t e r I875, schools l o c a t e d on g a z e t t e d r e s e r v e s were to be e n t i t l e d to g r a n t s . 2 3 However, o n l y a h a l f - d o z e n schools i n B.C. r e c e i v e d grants d u r i n g the next s e v e r a l y e a r s , and these grants amounted to o n l y about f o u r d o l l a r s a p u p i l per year. 2^\" Attendance seems not to have improved, however, f o r i n h i s 1880 Report Dr. Powell wrote: Judging from tone r e p o r t s forwarded to t h i s o f f i c e , a very e x t e n s i v e r o l l or l i s t of p u p i l s i s n e c e s s a r y to show a l i m i t e d average attendance d u r i n g the q u a r t e r . Many of the c h i l d r e n appear, i n t h i s way, to have v i s i t e d the s c h o o l two or three times i n the q u a r t e r , and can t h e r e f o r e r e c e i v e l i t t l e b e n e f i t , or indeed produce any e f f e c t , except t h a t of h e l p i n g out a d e f e c t i v e and u n s a t i s f a c t o r y average a t the end of the r e q u i r e d p e r i o d . I n 1888 W.H. Lomas, by t h i s time Superintendent of the Cow-ichan Agency, repeated i n h i s Report the complaints he had made twenty years e a r l i e r as a teacher t h e r e , c o n c l u d i n g that there was \"very s l i g h t b e n e f i t d e r i v e d from these day schools\". 2-' R.H. Pidcock, Superintendent f o r the P o r t Rupert Agency, of. r e p o r t e d i n the same year that The s c h o o l , I am s o r r y to say, i s not so w e l l attended as could be d e s i r e d , the c h i l d r e n are not averse to l e a r n i n g , but t h e i r parents see i n edu-c a t i o n the d o w n f a l l of a l l of t h e i r most c h e r i s h e d customs * \"23 \"Report of Dr. I.W. Powell, Indian Superintendent f o r B.C., I87U\" S e s s i o n a l Papers. 1873. V o l 6, No. 23, p. 7. 2l+ P. 121. 25 P. 102. 26 P. IOI4.. 78 Dr. Powell's 1880 Report had suggested a p o s s i b l e remedy 27 f o r t h i s attendance problem:; 1 The q u e s t i o n of i m p a r t i n g common school e d u c a t i o n to Indians i s one not unattended w i t h d i f f i - c u l t i e s , and the v a r i o u s systems adopted o f t e n appear to end i n f a i l u r e . A c c o r d i n g t o my own e x p e r i e n c e , I am of the o p i n i o n that no I n d i a n s c h o o l can be s u c c e s s f u l which Is not connected w i t h some i n d u s t r i a l system, and more or l e s s i s o l a t e d from the d i r e c t l y opposing tendencies of camp l i f e . A lthough they had t h e i r disagreements i n other r e s p e c t s , I n d i a n Agents and m i s s i o n a r i e s found common ground i n t h e i r answers t o the attendance problem. In 1894, l e g i s l a t i o n s e t up the f i r s t important code f o r Indian e d u c a t i o n . I t r e q u i r e d the attendance a t s c h o o l of a l l Indian c h i l d r e n between the ages of seven and s i x t e e n and made parents or others who prevented t h e i r attendance l i a b l e to p e n a l t i e s . The Go v e r n o r - i n - C o u n c i l was a u t h o r i z e d to e s t a b l i s h i n d u s t r i a l and boarding s c h o o l s , and to d e c l a r e any e x i s t i n g s c h o o l to be such an I n s t i t u t i o n . By 1907, e i g h t r e s i d e n t i a l and nine i n d u s t r i a l s c h ools had been e s t a b l i s h e d by the v a r i o u s Churches. Du r i n g the f o l l o w i n g twenty years 3ome schools dropped out of e x i s t e n c e , and others came i n t o b e i n g (see Table !+)\u2022 Although numbers of students f o r which grants were p a i d d i d not i n a l l schools correspond to exact enrolment f i g u r e s , r e s i d e n t i a l schools r e c e i v e d $60 per c a p i t a f o r d esignated number of p u p i l s , and i n d u s t r i a l schools $130 per 20 c a p i t a . 7 A t o t a l of t h i r t y - s i x day schools were a l s o i n oper-a t i o n a t t h i s time (see Table 5). 27 P. 121. 28 C E . P h i l l i p s , op. c i t . . p. 338. 29 Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report. 79 Table 1+ Enrolment, R e s i d e n t i a l and I n d u s t r i a l Schools 30 Name of School L o c a t i o n Ahousat A l b e r n i A l e r t Bay Cariboo C h r i s t i e Coqualeetza K l t i m a t Kootenay Kuper I s l a n d Lejac Port Simpson S t . George's S t . Mary's-S e c h e l t -Squamish Kamloops A l l Hallows Port Simpson Clayoquot S t . Eugene M e t l a k a t l a W i l l i a m s Lake Ahousat A l b e r n i A l e r t Bay 150 Mile House Kakawis S a r d i s K i t i m a t M i s s i o n Cranbrook Kuper I s l a n d Lejac P o r t Simpson L y t t o n M i s s i o n S e c h e l t North Vancouver Kamloops Y a l e P o r t Simpson Clayoquot Sound Kootenay M e t l a k a t l a W i l l i a m s Lake Denomination United (Pres.) United (Pres.) Church of Eng. Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c United (Meth.) United (Meth.) Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c United (Meth.) Church of Eng. Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c Church of Eng. Methodist Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c Church of Eng. Roman C a t h o l i c Enrolment 1907 1927 !+2 1*8 3 OA 95* 67* 1*1* 102 k 3>3> 53 102 159 19 109 122 83 l k 8 A I n d u s t r i a l Schools 79 ^ 3 63A-36 58A 51A 5 PA 899 ( G i r l s ) ( G i r l s ) ( G i r l s ) (Boys) Table 5 Schools by Denomination - 1907 Day 36 Boarding 8 I n d u s t r i a l 9 T o t a l Number of Schools 53 Undenominational 0 Roman C a t h o l i c 16 Church of England 15 Methodist 17 P r e s b y t e r i a n 1* S a l v a t i o n a l Army 1 T o t a l Enrolment 191*9 A l l boys i n i n d u s t r i a l schools were taught farming. They c o u l d a l s o l e a r n c a r p e n t r y , shoemaking, t a i l o r i n g , b l a c k s m i t h i n g , 30 Department of I n d i a n A f f a i r s Reports. 1907, 1927. 31 Department of Ind i a n A f f a i r s Report, 1907. 80 baking, harnessmaking, p r i n t i n g , p a i n t i n g , and t i n s m i t h i n g . The g i r l s were taught cooking, homemaking, sewing, and k n i t t i n g . Boys worked i n the shops or f i e l d s f o r h a l f of each day, and attended c l a s s e s f o r the remaining h a l f . H a l f of each day was s i m i l a r l y spent a t non-academic a c t i v i t i e s by the g i r l s . 3 2 Table 6 i n d i c a t e s enrolment by grade f o r day and r e s i d e n t i a l schools a t i n t e r v a l s of twenty year3. Table 6 ^ Enrolment by Grades-*-* Day Schools R e s i d e n t i a l Schools Grade 4Year 1907 1927 191+7 1907 1927 191+7 1 671 735 931 165 535 523 2 231 \/ 208 33l+ 157 289 3kk 3 107 l 6 l 243 260 286 331 k 1+1+ I l k 174 ll+2 227 2 64+ 5 \/ 7 1+6 15k 107 118 2k5 6 11+ 88 58 118 188 7 1+3 111 8 1+1 73 9 2 22 T o t a l 1060 1278 2010 889A 1573 2109 ft R e s i d e n t i a l and I n d u s t r i a l Schools Combined. Table 7 shows t o t a l expenses i n c u r r e d by I n d i a n e d u c a t i o n f o r two y e a r s , separated by a time i n t e r v a l of t h i r t y years Table 7 Indian School Expenses 1917 191+7 Day $38,867.91 $ 95,1+25.95 R e s i d e n t i a l k l , 6 l 8 . 3 0 390,936.18 I n d u s t r i a l 83,897.66 32 Department of I n d i a n A f f a i r s Report, 1907 33 Department of Indian A f f a i r s Reports. 3l+ Department of Indian A f f a i r s R eports. 81 if In 1907, A.W. Vowell, I n d i a n Superintendent f o r B r i t i s h Columbia, r e p o r t e d t h a t i n areas where there were no I n d i a n schools students were allowed to a t t e n d the r e g u l a r p r o v i n c i a l p u b l i c s c hools \"where, by t h e i r good b e h a v i o r , neat appearance, c l e a n l i n e s s and a t t e n t i o n to t h e i r s t u d i e s , they give g e n e r a l s a t i s f a c t i o n and cause no l i t t l e s u r p r i s e \" J N a t i v e boys, Super-inte n d e n t Vowell continued, were teaching i n t h e i r v i l l a g e s , and f o r the most p a r t g i v i n g ^ o o d s a t i s f a c t i o n . The r i s i n g g e n e r a t i o n , he s a i d , were speaking E n g l i s h . 3 ^ The number of Indians who a c t u a l l y d i d speak E n g l i s h i s shown i n Table 8 f o r the o n l y I n t e r v a l i n which t h i s phenomenon i s quoted. I t i s obvious from the f i g u r e s t h a t , i f the r i s i n g Table 8 , Language D i s t r i b u t i o n ^ 0 No. Who Speak No. Who Write No. Who Speak No. Who Write E n g l i s h E n g l i s h French French 1913 8272 2899 1 33 3 1917 8955 2898 123 3 g e n e r a t i o n were speaking E n g l i s h , two-thirds of the t o t a l popu-l a t i o n s t i l l were n o t . Two g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r s c h o o l s were b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d , o n l y one I n d i a n In three could a p p a r e n t l y speak En-g l i s h , and o n l y one In seven c o u l d w r i t e i t . ( B y 19U7, however, about the same p r o p o r t i o n of Indians as Whites, approximately one out of s i x of the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n , were a t t e n d i n g school,! R e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s , i t w i l l be a s c e r t a i n e d from a study of Table 6, d i d a b e t t e r job of combatting p u p i l drop-out than d i d day s c h o o l s . The problem of b r i n g i n g the p u p i l along to the end 35 Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report, p. 259. 36 Canada Year Book. 1913. p. 605-606. of elementary s c h o o l i n g was contemplated a t the time of i n c e p -t i o n of the m i s s i o n s c h o o l by Roman C a t h o l i c teachers and ad-m i n i s t r a t o r s . The theory by which they worked was that p u p i l s of the f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n taught i n any p a r t i c u l a r s c h o o l should be taken o n l y as f a r as Grade I I , the next g e n e r a t i o n to Grade IV, and so on, u n t i l f i n a l l y a g e n e r a t i o n would be ready to go through h i g h s c h o o l . The f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n , h a v i n g o n l y two grades of s c h o o l i n g , would not f e e l so f a r s u p e r i o r t o t h e i r parents t h a t they would despise them and t h e i r r e s e r v a t i o n . A t u r n i n g a g a i n s t t h e i r p a r e n t s , i t was b e l i e v e d , would d r i v e the youth, on l e a v i n g s c h o o l , t o the c i t i e s where, s i n c e they would not be accepted there by the Whites, they would be d r i v e n t o p r o s t i -t u t i o n and other low-status employments. L i k e w i s e , the second g e n e r a t i o n , having a t t a i n e d o n l y two grades above t h e i r p a r e n t s , would not f e e l s u p e r i o r to them and to t h e i r home l i f e . 3 7 How-ever, the p o l i c y of g i v i n g students but h a l f of each day i n academic s t u d i e s i n these schools m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t t h i s p h i l -osophy, and prob a b l y accounted a t l e a s t i n p a r t f o r the f a c t that only one student i n three reached Grade VI i n 191+7 \u2022 Day s c h o o l s , however, which d i d not r e q u i r e t h e i r students to spend h a l f of t h e i r day i n manual work, e x e r t e d a h o l d i n g power much weaker than t h a t o f the r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s , fewer than one i n ten students r e a c h i n g grade s i x on an average i n 19lr7. One former student o f such a s c h o o l s t a t e s t h a t he spent three years In Grade V because there were f o r t y - f i v e students i n the room, and no m a t e r i a l f o r Grade V I . 3 8 37 Information r e c e i v e d from Rev. George Forbes,OMI, S t . Peter's Rectory, May 30, 19$8. 38 Information r e c e i v e d from Gordon Robinson, K i t i m a t , Sept. 19, 1958. 83 The f a c t that as l a t e as 191+7 I n d i a n day schools were oper-a t i n g on a gross budget of f o r t y - f i v e d o l l a r s per p u p i l w h ile p r o v i n c i a l schools were expending some two hundred d o l l a r s annu-a l l y on i t s students e x p l a i n s a t l e a s t the obvious reason f o r the shortage of s u p p l i e s . Although r e s i d e n t i a l schools r e c e i v e d a much l a r g e r per c a p i t a g r a n t , much of t h i s income was needed t o provide food and c l o t h i n g f o r the s t u d e n t s . Interviews w i t h former r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l students have r e v e a l e d a p i c t u r e of r a t h e r b l e a k s u r r -oundings - v i r t u a l l y no l i t e r a t u r e except on the t o p i c o f r e -l i g i o n ; no newspapers; almost no contact w i t h the o u t s i d e world to acquaint the student i n advance w i t h what s o c i e t y beyond the environments of M s school was l i k e . One former student s t a t e d t h a t the r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l she attended was on her own r e s e r -v a t i o n , w i t h i n s i g h t of her own home. She c o u l d not, however, go to her home except d u r i n g the same h o l i d a y s d u r i n g which students who had come from d i s t a n t r e s e r v e s could r e t u r n to t h e i r s . Proponents of the r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l system c r e d i t i t w i t h h e l p i n g to combat d i s e a s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t u b e r c u l o s i s , which con-t i n u a l l y ravaged the I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n . - ^ By keeping c h i l d r e n out of contact w i t h r e s e r v a t i o n l i f e , i t was f e l t t h a t they would a t the same time be kept out of con t a c t w i t h d i s e a s e s t h a t were p r e v a l e n t t h e r e , and a l s o away from u n d e s i r a b l e elements of r e s e r v a t i o n l i f e . These schools a l s o a c t e d as homes, not o n l y f o r c h i l d r e n from o u t l y i n g v i l l a g e s where no schools e x i s t e d , 39 Information r e c e i v e d from Reverend George F o r b e s . He maintains t h a t the care r e c e i v e d by students of S t . Eugene from Father John P a t t e r s o n , a former chemdist, who went there i n 1928, d i d much t o save the Kootenays from e x t i n c t i o n . 81+ but a l s o f o r c h i l d r e n from broken homes, who c o u l d thus not a t t e n d r e g u l a r day s c h o o l s . However, t e a c h i n g s i s t e r s admit that u n t i l the advent of modern drugs there was l i t t l e they could do f o r c h i l d r e n who had a l r e a d y c o n t r a c t e d t u b e r c u l o s i s except give them r e s t i n s c h o o l s o l a r i u m s . The r u l e which con-f i n e d students to the s c h o o l , however, while i t p r o t e c t e d some from disease and unwholesome s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , at the same time worked a h a r d s h i p on those f a m i l i e s who r e t a i n e d the s o c i a l p r i d e to keep up acceptable l i v i n g standards and y e t c o u l d not have t h e i r school-age c h i l d r e n w i t h them. In 1912 an a c t was passed a b o l i s h i n g p o t l a t c h e s . The a c t was based on the r e a s o n i n g t h a t these a f f a i r s had become so de-bauched and e x c e s s i v e through the use of l i q u o r that they d i d not r e f l e c t I n d i a n c u l t u r e . In 1920 the G o v e r n o r - i n - C o u n c i l was g i v e n a u t h o r i t y to e s t a b l i s h day s c h o o l s . Such schools were g r a d u a l l y b u i l t on r e s -e r v a t i o n s which were not being adequately served by any denom-i n a t i o n a l s c h o o l . These schools d i d much to overcome the nec-e s s i t y of removing the c h i l d from h i s home f o r ten months of the year during h i s elementary y e a r s . Day schools have not p r o v i d e d h i g h s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n . As r e c e n t l y as 191+6-117 average day s c h o o l attendance throughout the province was s t i l l o nly s i x t y - f i v e per cent The o f f i c i a l p o l i c y of the Canadian government toward the Indian p o p u l a t i o n has v a r i e d over the y e a r s . In I873, an a c t o f the Canadian P a r l i a m e n t ^ 1 s t a t e d t h a t The aim of the Department of I n d i a n A f f a i r s i s 1+0 Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report. 1+1 R-S., c. 81. 85 the advancement of the I n d i a n i n the a r t s of c i v -i l i z a t i o n , and agents have been appointed t o en-courage the Indians under t h e i r charge t o s e t t l e on the r e s e r v e s and to engage i n i n d u s t r i a l pur-s u i t s . S e v e r a l i n f e r e n c e s can be re a d i n t o t h i s p o l i c y . There seems to have been some s l i g h t t r e p i d a t i o n , f i r s t , t h a t the Indians might r e s i s t the move to s e t t l e them on r e s t r i c t e d r e s e r v a t i o n s . Re-se r v e s , the a c t i n f e r s , were to be a permanent arrangement. I t was hoped that the Indians would take to i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n on these s i t e s , and there i s no su g g e s t i o n that they would merge w i t h the non-Indian p o p u l a t i o n . In 1911, Duncan Campbell S c o t t , who had been appointed Superintendent o f I n d i a n E d u c a t i o n i n 1909, enunciated the p o l -i c y of the educa t i o n branch as \"the f i t t i n g of the Indians f o r c i v i l i z e d l i f e i n t h e i r own environment\".^ - 2 There s t i l l seems to be an i n f e r e n c e of permanence i n the r e s e r v e system, and i n the Ind i a n s ' e x i s t e n c e as a r a c i a l group. In 1913, throughout Canada, the average b i r t h r a t e among Indians was 36 per 1000; the death r a t e , 1+0 per 1 0 0 0 T h e Can-ada Year Book f o r 1922-23 s t a t e d t h a t the system of r e s e r v e s was designed \" to p r o t e c t the Indians from encroachment, and to provide a s o r t of sanctuary where they c o u l d develop unmolested, u n t i l advancing c i v i l i z a t i o n had made p o s s i b l e t h e i r a b s o r p t i o n i n t o the g e n e r a l body of the c i t i z e n s \" . The a t t i t u d e here has changed. The I n d i a n i s not d e s t i n e d t o remain i n d e f i n i t e l y on the r e s e r v a t i o n , nor i s he d e s t i n e d t o remain i n d e f i n i t e l y as. a r a c e . 1+2 S e s s i o n a l Papers. 1911, V o l . 19, Paper 27, p. 271. 1+3 Canada Year Book, p. 60\u00a3. 86 To sum up these \"in-between y e a r s \" - the l a s t f o r t y years of the n i n e t e e n t h century and the f i r s t f o r t y years o f the t w e n t i e t h : (1) The p e r i o d began w i t h the I n d i a n s ' i n t r o d u c t i o n to a new example of White c i v i l i z a t i o n , the go l d miner and the land seeker. These men d i s r e g a r d e d the n a t i v e s ' r i g h t s . Government, d u r i n g the e a r l y years of the Crown c o l o n i e s and the p r o v i n c e , made l i t t l e or no attempt to a d m i n i s t e r f o r them. (2) Government a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , when i t d i d come i n t o e x i s t -ence, attempted t o c o n t a i n the n a t i v e s behind a s e t of p a l e s , where i t was presumed they would develop a quasi-White c i v i l i z a t i o n , safe from the onslaught of a c t u a l White c i v i l i -z a t i o n . (3) A c t s concerning e d u c a t i o n , when a t l e n g t h they d i d apply to the Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, tended f o r many years to r e f l e c t the r e s e r v a t i o n p o l i c y of containment. Some agents, however, mentioned what appeared to be s u c c e s s f u l t r i a l s a t sc h o o l i n t e g r a t i o n . (1+) During the second decade of the present century, depart-mental p o l i c y began openly to vo i c e the b e l i e f t h a t the Indian was a v a n i s h i n g race which would, through h i g h death r a t e and a b s o r p t i o n i n t o the g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n , i n time d i s a p p e a r . (5>) The denominational r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l system was i n gen-e r a l based on the p h i l o s o p h y t h a t the Indian's b e s t oppor-t u n i t i e s l a y i n being l e f t to h i m s e l f , and aimed a t p r e p a r i n g him f o r making h i s own way on the r e s e r v a t i o n . (6) The day s c h o o l system, i n t r o d u c e d l a t e i n t h i s e r a , arose from a departmental p h i l o s o p h y which p r e d i c a t e d the even-t u a l merging of the Indian i n t o the White p o p u l a t i o n . I n d i a n 87 p o p u l a t i o n d i d , i n g e n e r a l , d e c l i n e throughout t h i s p e r i o d . (7) Almost a l l f o r c e s throughout the p e r i o d combined, w i t t i n g l y or u n w i t t i n g l y , to wipe out the I n d i a n s ' pre-European c u l -t u r e . In most areas the o l d way of l i f e was completely ploughed under, and i n some even memory of i t was l o s t . (8) The popular b e l i e f h e l d by Whites - openly expressed by some; t a c i t l y accepted as a philosophy by others - was that the Indian c o u l d accomplish only a l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n a l programme. He c o u l d not progress i n t o h i g h s c h o o l . (9) The a t t i t u d e to assume toward the I n d i a n b e s t s u i t e d to h i s w e l f a r e , i t was f e l t by the Whites, was one o f p a t e r n a l i s m . He was a c h i l d , who c o u l d be best l e g i s l a t e d f o r by t r e a t i n g him as a ward of the s t a t e . T h i s b e l i e f c o u l d , i n a sense, be s a i d to sum up a l l other a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p h i l o s o p h i e s , which stemmed from CHAPTER \"V \u2022 THE SOCIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF INDIAN LIFE Our r e s e a r c h work takes as axiomatic that the a c c u l t u r a t i v e change of the I n d i a n i s i r r e v e r -s i b l e and i s going to c o n t i n u e , no matter what i s done or d e s i r e d by anyone. 1 But the Indian d i d not d i e out. By 195U, the I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia had r i s e n to 3 1 , 0 8 6 (see Table 3 ) , an i n -crease of over three thousand from the count f o u r years b e f o r e . In 1959, the p o p u l a t i o n has been estimated a t between t h i r t y -2 f i v e and t h i r t y - s i x thousand. Nor i s he d i s a p p e a r i n g through i n t e g r a t i o n . No group which can, through n a t u r a l i n c r e a s e , grow i n numbers by some twenty-e i g h t per cent i n t e n years can be l o s i n g very many of i t s mem-b e r s . In any case, were the process of i n t e g r a t i o n be s a i d to be t a k i n g p l a c e , by v e r y d e f i n i t i o n of the term the net number of Indians would decrease from year to y e a r . One of the d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h working w i t h these f i g u r e s a r i s e s from the meaning of the word \" I n d i a n \" . The I n d i a n A c t 3 says \"'Indian* means a person who pursuant to t h i s A c t i s r e g i s -t e r e d as an Indian or i s e n t i t l e d t o be r e g i s t e r e d a 3 an I n d i a n \" . P r o f e s s o r s Hawthown, Belshaw and Jamieson say of t h i s t e r m i n -ology:^-T h i s d e f i n i t i o n i s adequate f o r the great m a j o r i t y of the people we have s t u d i e d , y e t i t has no f i x e d c u l t u r a l or b i o l o g i c a l meaning, an Indian d e f i n e d by the Act p o s s i b l y having fewer I n d i a n f o r b e a r s than another person not so c a l l e d . 1 H.B. Hawthorn, C.S. Belshaw, S.M. Jamieson, op. c i t . , p. 2 J o i n t Committee of the Senate and the House of Commons on Indian A f f a i r s , 1959, Minutes. No. 3 . p. l i j . 8 . 3 R.S. 1952, Chapter li+9, 2 ( g ) . I4, Hawthorn, e t a l , op. c i t . . p. 16. 89 The f a c t i s t h a t the d e f i n i t i o n of an In d i a n i n B r i t i s h Columbia i s a l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n , not an a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l one. A non-Indian woman may become an In d i a n pursuant to t h i s A c t by marrying a man e n t i t l e d to be so c l a s s e d by i t ; ^ an In d i a n woman may become non-Indian through marriage to a non-Indian.^ E i t h e r male or female I n d i a n may cease to be so c l a s s e d through e n f r a n -chisement.' 7 The term \"I n d i a n \" w i l l , i n t h i s and the subsequent chapters, be used t o designate those persons i n B r i t i s h Columbia who come under j u r i s d i c t i o n of the \"Indian A c t \" . The Act i s admi n i s t e r e d by the M i n i s t e r of C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration, who i s a l s o superintendent g e n e r a l o f In d i a n A f f a i r s . The Province of B r i t i s h Columbia Is d i v i d e d i n t o e i g h t e e n agen-c i e s (see P l a t e V ), each w i t h a superintendent r e s p o n s i b l e t o the Q I n d i a n Commissioner f o r B r i t i s h Columbia. By S e c t i o n 73 (1) of the Indian A c t the G o v e r n o r - i n - C o u n c l l may d e c l a r e by order t h a t a band c o u n c i l s h a l l be e l e c t e d by the procedure l a i d down i n the A c t . The c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s which g i v e r i s e to problems wi t h r e -gard t o the In d i a n a r e , i n g e n e r a l , those which p e r t a i n to l e g a l r i g h t s (other than r e s e r v a t i o n s ) , the r e s e r v a t i o n system, s o c i a l and economic c o n d i t i o n s , r e l i g i o n , i n t e g r a t i o n , and e d u c a t i o n . A H of these f a c t o r s a r e , to a g r e a t e r or l e s s e r degree, i n t e r -r e l a t e d . In t h i s chapter an attempt w i l l be made to d e l i n e a t e problems t h a t have a r i s e n i n r e l a t i o n to the f i r s t f i v e c a t e g o r -~~ 5 R.S. 1952. Chapter l k 9 , S e c t i o n 11. 6 I b i d . . S e c t i o n 12. 7 I b i d . , S e c t i o n 109. 8 Information r e c e i v e d from A.V. Parminter, R e g i o n a l I n -spec t o r of Schools f o r B r i t i s h Columbia. 90 i e s , keeping each category as d i s t i n c t i v e as p o s s i b l e f o r the sake of c l a r i t y . E d u c a t i o n w i l l form the body of the f o l l o w i n g c h a p ter. The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia have over the years organ-i z e d i n t o movements to a i r t h e i r g r i e v a n c e s . Out of these groups, on the Coast, the Native Brotherhood of B r i t i s h Columbia d e v e l -oped. In I9I4JL4. C h i e f Andy P a u l l of North Vancouver i n f l u e n c e d a number of Coast and I n t e r i o r Indians to form a chapter of the North American I n d i a n Brotherhood, of which he was B r i t i s h Colum-b i a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e u n t i l the time of h i s death i n J u l y of 1959* In 19U5, under l e a d e r s h i p of Mr. B a s i l Falardeau of Kamloops, the B r i t i s h Columbia I n t e r i o r Confederacy came i n t o e x i s t e n c e . 9 These groups, n a t i v e l e a d e r s , and non-Indian t e a c h e r s , church o f f i c i a l s and members of Parliament, g r a d u a l l y made the F e d e r a l government aware of the f a c t t h a t the Indian was not a v a n i s h i n g r a c e , but a growing one. In I9I+6 a S p e c i a l J o i n t Comm-i s s i o n of the Senate and the House of Commons convened to d i s -cuss I n d i a n problems. Recommendations made by t h i s Commission i n 19i+8 were l a r g e l y i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o r m u l a t i o n of the Revised I n d i a n Act of 1 9 5 1 . 1 0 An amendment In 1955 p e r m i t t e d Indians to d r i n k a l c o h o l i c beverages i n beer p a r l o r s where p e r m i s s i o n was so granted by p r o v i n c i a l law. In 1956, S e c t i o n 69 of the A c t was r e v i s e d to i n c r e a s e the r e v o l v i n g l o a n fund to one m i l l i o n d o l l -a r s . B r i t i s h Columbia Indians were g i v e n the p r o v i n c i a l vote i n 191+9, and i n 1950 an I n d i a n , Frank C a l d e r , r e p r e s e n t e d the e l e c -t o r a l d i s t r i c t of A t l i n i n the l e g i s l a t i v e assembly. In 1951 9 Hawthorn e t a l , op. c i t . , pp. I47I1-I4.75. 10 Dominion Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s Reference Papers 1952, p. 290. K  91 the Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia were g i v e n the r i g h t to d r i n k a l c o h o l i c beverages i n beer p a r l o r s . P r o f e s s o r s Hawthorn, Belshaw and Jamieson comment thus on the new a t t i t u d e toward the Indian r e f l e c t e d by such l e g a l a c t i v i t y : 1 1 Now the Indian i s not v a n i s h i n g a t a l l . He i s a per-son w i t h an i n c r e a s i n g say i n h i s own f u t u r e , who has outgrown some forms of g u a r d i a n s h i p by government and churches. Headed f o r a s s i m i l a t i o n , he i s an economic f a c t o r and a neighbor whose d e s i r a b i l i t y i s a matter of v a r i e d o p i n i o n . Such a c t s and amendments have not of course s o l v e d a l l of the I n d i a n s ' problems. \"\"\u2022 j o i n t P a r l i a m e n t a r y Committee i s c u r r -e n t l y again i n s e d s i o n . One b r i e f a l r e a d y submitted to i t i s t h a t of the Native Brotherhood of B r i t i s h Columbia, presented by Reverend Peter K e l l y , Chairman of the L e g i s l a t i v e Committee of the Brotherhood. The main request i n t h i s b r i e f i s f o r the Fed-e r a l vote f o r I n d i a n s . I t a l s o asks f o r the e l i m i n a t i o n of the power of veto by the m i n i s t e r and I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch o f f i c i a l s , and the removal of J u s t i c e of the Peace a u t h o r i t y from department 12 o f f i c i a l s . In a s k i n g that the r e v o l v i n g l o a n fund be i n c r e a s e d to f i v e m i l l i o n d o l l a r s , Reverend K e l l y , a Haida Indian by b i r t h , s a i d : 1 3 I f the Indian i s to be i n t e g r a t e d e c o n o m i c a l l y he needs to be encouraged i n f i n a n c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and i n t e g r i t y . . . I t should be r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the Indian can no l o n g e r l i v e h i s t r a d i t i o n a l way of l i f e on the r e s e r v e . Contrary to the o r d i n a r y pub-l i c concept of h i s p o s i t i o n as a \"ward of the gov-ernment\" the In d i a n i s fa c e d w i t h the problem of 11 The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 59. 12 Minutes, p. 138. 13 I b i d . , p. l i p . . 92 making a l i v i n g l i k e any other c i t i z e n , and i s doing so i n the face of unequal c o m p e t i t i o n i n the Canadian economy. The b r i e f f u r t h e r claims income tax exemption f o r the Ind-i a n , and makes the c o n t e n t i o n t h a t \"the a b o r i g i n a l t i t l e s t o the land of B r i t i s h Columbia have never been e x t i n g u i s h e d \" The r e s e r v e system has i n f l u e n c e d Indian t h i n k i n g from i t s i n c e p t i o n . Never too l a r g e , r e s e r v e s have been encroached on by White c i v i l i z a t i o n , and where they abut or are surrounded by a c i t y they come i n f o r p e r i o d i c p u b l i c s c r u t i n y . The Songhees band, removed from the V i c t o r i a harbor i n 1912 to a l o c a t i o n near E s q u i m a l t , have r e c e i v e d overtures f o r s a l e of t h e i r present s i t e . 1 - ' The Cowichans were Induced i n 1957 to s e l l a p o r t i o n of t h e i r r e s e r v a t i o n , only to d i s c o v e r t h a t the land was s u b d i v i d e d 1 6 and r e - s o l d a t a g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d p r i n e . The pressure t h a t has been put on a p o r t i o n of the North Vancouver r e s e r v e i s com-mon kn ow le d ge . Some r e s e r v e s l i e completely vacant - out of twenty-eight s m a l l p l o t s o f ground, the S e c h e l t t r i b e occupies o n l y one, the l a s t of the others having been abandoned o n l y t h i s y e a r . The Chek-Welp r e s e r v e , a d j a c e n t t o the v i l l a g e of Gibsons, i s com-p l e t e l y tenanted by Whites. Such r e s e r v e s as the l a t t e r o f course b r i n g a c e r t a i n amount o f revenue to whatever bands h o l d r i g h t s to them, which f a c t accounts i n p a r t f o r the In d i a n s ' r e l u c t a n c e to p a r t w i t h them. Understandably, r e s e r v a t i o n Indians f e e l t h a t ll+ Minutes , p. 11+3 \u2022 15 Information r e c e i v e d from i n t e r v i e w w i t h Chief Percy Ross, Songhees, A p r i l , 1958. 16 Information r e c e i v e d from R. E l l i o t t , Cowichan. A p r i l . 1958. 93 these p l o t s of l a n d , s m a l l as they may be, are a t l e a s t t h e i r domain, and that a b o l i s h i n g them would only be g i v i n g away the l a s t b i t s of a land which was once a l l t h e i r s . Some Indian l e a s e r s f e e l t h a t the r e s e r v a t i o n stands i n the way of the Ind i a n s ' i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o White c u l t u r e . Others f e e l t h a t i t must be h e l d to m a i n t a i n the Indian s ' s o l i d a r i t y , 1 ' ' ' a sense of u n i t y they could not r e t a i n were the r e s e r v a t i o n to be a b o l i s h e d . 1 8 Dr. S t u a r t Jamieson b e l i e v e s t h a t r e s e r v e s are too s m a l l , too i s o l a t e d ; t h a t l a r g e r r e s e r v e s , w i t h b e t t e r f a c i l i t i e s , are needed, so t h a t the I n d i a n may g a i n a sense of i d e n t i t y beyond the s m a l l r e s e r v a t i o n . 1 9 Some Indians a p p a r e n t l y f e e l t h i s need a l s o - r e s i d e n t s from the \"backwoods\" r e s e r v e of V i l l a g e I s l a n d , f o r i n s t a n c e , i d e n t i f y themselves w i t h the l a r g e r centre of 20 A l e r t Bay. A teacher who was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n the opening of the f i r s t s c h o o l f o r the C a r r i e r Indians of Pendleton Bay i s convinced that a r e s e r v a t i o n Is needed on Babine Lake so that l i q u o r p eddlers could be prosecuted under S e c t i o n 30 of the 21 Indian A c t f o r t r e s p a s s i n g . S o c i a l and economic c o n d i t i o n s on these r e s e r v e s a r e , i n g e n e r a l , poor. The re s e r v e i t s e l f i s u s u a l l y unproductive and 17 Information obtained from C h i e f Reg P a u l l , S e c h e l t , August, 1958. 18 Information obtained from Joe M i c h e l l e , teacher, Kamloops R e s i d e n t i a l S c h o o l , August, 1958. 19 CBU Roundtable, November 8, 1958. 20 Information obtained from Clarence Joe, S e c h e l t Band s e c r e t a r y , August, 1959* 2:1 Information obtained from Mrs. Jay K u l l a n d e r , Pendleton Bay, Babine Lake, J u l y , 1958. 9k s m a l l . The Indian has a c q u i r e d enough of the White man's c u l t u r e to eat foods he d i d not have i n h i s own c u l t u r e , but he has not taken to r a i s i n g h i s own f r u i t s and v e g e t a b l e s . He remains a food g a t h e r e r , but the n a t u r a l foods he once gathered i n abund-ance are not so p l e n t i f u l now. He has l o n g s i n c e ceased t o make h i s own c l o t h i n g . He has l e a r n e d to purchase h i s n e c e s s i t i e s , 22 but h i s purchasing power i s onl y a t h i r d of the White man's, or l e s s . Therefore r e s e r v a t i o n houses tend to be s m a l l , u n p a i n t e d , and l a c k i n g In f a c i l i t i e s which the White man has come to c o n s i d e r b a s i c . The survey conducted i n 195>1+ f o r P r o f e s s o r s Hawthorn, B e l -shaw and Jamieson r e v e a l e d that only e l e v e n per cent of houses sampled throughout the province had f l u s h t o i l e t s , baths, or r e -f r i g e r a t o r s Since money i s a comparatively new f e a t u r e i n h i s economy, and s i n c e t r a d i t i o n a l l y he d i d not have to purchase f o o d , even long a f t e r he began t r a d i n g w i t h the White man, the I n d i a n does not always budget or buy on a b a s i s of t h r i f t when he does have money. Since the money he earns comes, u s u a l l y , from spor-a d i c seasonal j o b s , there are long p e r i o d s d u r i n g the year w i t h -out income. During these p e r i o d s many Indian f a m i l i e s , even dur-i n g times of comparatively f u l l employment i n White communities nearby, are f o r c e d to r e g i s t e r f o r r e l i e f . Such r e l i e f i s drawn from band f u n d s w h e n these funds are d e p l e t e d , the I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch a d m i n i s t e r s r e l i e f , g e n e r a l l y s c r i p t . Most bands are f o r c e d to expend t h e i r funds on r e l i e f , and to save d u r i n g 22 Hawthorn e t a l , op. c i t . , p. 220. 23 The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 2i+5. 21; S e c t i o n 66 (2). 95 times of comparative p l e n t y f o r such purposes. P r o v i s i o n f o r f e n c e s , s a n i t a r y c o n d i t i o n s , and adequate d w e l l i n g s , which must a l s o be p a i d f o r out of band funds, s u f f e r as a r e s u l t . Frank Howard, MP f o r Skeena, found upon p r i c i n g the goods r e c e i v e d by an I n d i a n f a m i l y on r e l i e f that t h e i r cash e q u i v a l e n t was $10.i|.7 each per month. 2^ Even at t h i s s m a l l r a t e , one r e s e r v a t i o n w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of only three hundred r e q u i r e d some f i f t e e n thousand d o l l a r s i n r e l i e f d u r i n g the past w i n t e r . Trapping, f i s h i n g and wood-working, t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n i n d -u s t r i e s , are o f f e r i n g l e s s and l e s s employment to them, and \"un-f o r t u n a t e l y f o r the In d i a n , r e l a t i v e l y few of h i s s p e c i a l i z e d pQ s k i l l s had any s i g n i f i c a n t t r a n s f e r v a l u e \" . Fur p r i c e s are de-pressed; f i s h c a n n e r i e s , once s c a t t e r e d along the c o a s t , a re now almost a l l concentrated near c i t i e s , where there are l a r g e non-Indian l a b o r p o o l s . F i s h i n g boats are d e t e r i o r a t i n g on beaches a l l up and down the coast because I n d i a n s , having no c o l l a t e r a l , cannot o b t a i n loans to m a i n t a i n them a f t e r a poor season, when they l a c k funds. NHA loans are not a v a i l a b l e . The r e v o l v i n g l o a n fund i s used up each year without b e n e f i t t i n g many needy b a n d s . 2 9 In lumbering, a seasonal I n d u s t r y at b e s t , Indians say \"We are the l a s t h i r e d and the f i r s t t o be l e t go\". 25 Information obtained from C h i e f Reg P a u l l , S e c h e l t , August, 1958. 26 S e c t i o n 66. 27 Vancouver Sun, August 29, 1958. 28 Diamond Jenness, \"Canada's In d i a n Problem\", Annual Re-f o r t of the Boards of Regents of the Smithsonian I n s t -t u t l o n , 19k2, p. 373. 29 Information obtained from C h i e f Reg P a u l l , S e c h e l t , August, 1959. In an attempt te a l l e v i a t e depressed economic c o n d i t i o n s , p r o v i s i o n has been made i n t h i s year's estimates f o r the estab-lishment of a new d i v i s i o n of the Indian A f f a i r s Branch, the r e -s p o n s i b i l i t y of which w i l l be to l o o k a f t e r the economic d e v e l -opment of the I n d i a n . The Branch w e l f a r e budget, which was two m i l l i o n d o l l a r s i n I9I4.8-I4.9, i s nine m i l l i o n f o r 1 9 5 8 - 5 9 . 3 0 Yet economic and s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , measured i n t r i n s i c a l l y or compared w i t h c o n d i t i o n s i n White communities, can be f u l l y i n t e r p r e t e d o n l y i n the l i g h t of how these c o n d i t i o n s are i n -t e r p r e t e d by and a f f e c t the Indians concerned. P r o f e s s o r s Haw-tho r n , Belshaw and Jamieson say3-*- \"we have a r r i v e d a t the con-c l u s i o n that no customary a c t i o n s , elements of b e l i e f or a t t i t u d e , knowledge or techniques, have been t r a n s m i t t e d from e a r l i e r gen-e r a t i o n s to the present without major a l t e r a t i o n s \" , but a d d 3 2 \" ( y e t ) i t must be remembered that some of the needs f e l t by Ind-ians today are not ones shared by most White communities\". The p r i n c i p a l 3 3 of the p r o v i n c i a l s c h o o l a t Telegraph Creek says of the s i x hundred i n h a b i t a n t s t h e r e : \"They are not I n d i a n , w i t h I n d i a n a s p i r a t i o n s , but 'people', w i t h the a s p i r a t i o n s o f 'people'. Given i n c e n t i v e , t h e i r aims and o b j e c t i v e s are the same as those of the r e s t of our p o p u l a t i o n tends to be. They want jobs, a l i v e l i h o o d . They know nothing of the o l d way of l i f e \" . 30 Minutes, p. 13. 31 The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 39. 32 I b i d . , p. 1+1. 33 Information obtained from an i n t e r v i e w , J u l y , 1958. Among s t i l l other groups v e s t i g i n a l ceremonies based on a b o r i g i n a l b e l i e f s are s t i l l observed. Some remote Kwakiutl and Tsimshian v i l l a g e s continue to h o l d p o t l a t c h e s , i n camera and q u i e t l y . C a r r i e r s s t i l l keep g i r l s home from s c h o o l d u r i n g the onset of menstruation. The Cowichans openly h o l d s e c r e t s o c i e t y i n i t i a t i o n r i t e s i n a s p e c i a l h a l l . Many groups give I n d i a n names to babies a t b i r t h and, along the coast where caste was once important, keep t r a c k of i n h e r i t e d s o c i a l p o s i t i o n . E l e c t e d c h i e f s are d i s t i n g u i s h e d from h e r e d i t a r y c h i e f s . Of the former, members of one v i l l a g e s a i d \" F i r s t they gave us a d r i n k i n g c h i e f then a s l e e p i n g c h i e f \" . Some s u p e r s t i t i o n s remain. 3^\" In g e n e r a l , I t can be s a i d t h a t the I n d i a n s ' s o c i a l l i f e i s a c h a o t i c , shaken one. A.F. F l u c k e , w r i t i n g i n the B r i t i s h C o l -umbia Heritage S e r i e s , 3 ' ' comments on t h i s d i s r u p t i o n : The white man's c i v i l i z a t i o n p resses forward as an overwhelming f l o o d , b l o t t i n g out the c u l t u r e s of l e s s e r peoples i n a l l p a r t s of the w o r l d . The l i f e of the B e l l a Coolas has been d e s t r o y e d , and wonder-i n g l y , h a l f - p r o u d l y , h a l f - p l a i n t i v e l y , the s u r -v i v o r s watch the d o w n f a l l of a l l t h a t t h e i r an-c e s t o r s c h e r i s h e d . Too o f t e n the white man f a i l s to understand t h i s ; too o f t e n he f a i l s t o r e a l i z e t h a t p r o g r e s s , as he sees i t , i s wiping out v a l u -able elements of c i v i l i z a t i o n s other than h i s own, i n s t e a d of s e e k i n g the good i n them and p r e s e r v i n g i t f o r the b e n e f i t of h i m s e l f and the n a t i v e a l i k e . ... I t i s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t the o l d r i t e s and o l d ambitions should pass, but the p r o h i b i t i o n of these before new ones had taken t h e i r p l a c e has been d i s -a s t r o u s . Such a breakdown i n c u l t u r e has of course r e s u l t e d i n per-s o n a l problems. A s u r v e y 3 0 shows that I n d i a n marriages tend to be durable, and r e s i s t a n t to such f a c t o r s as p o v e r t y , poor l i v -ing c o n d i t i o n s , and seasonal employment, f a c t o r s which tend to \"3l+ Information obtained from I n d i a n s , teachers and o t h e r s . 35 B e l l a Coola, pp. 69, 70. 36 Hawthorn, Belshaw, Jamie son, op. c i t . , p. 281;. 98 break up White marriages. But n a t i v e s are f i n d i n g themselves i n the t o i l s of the law to a c o n t i n u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g degree. F o r t y -f i v e per cent of the women inmates at O a k a l l a P r i s o n Farm are Indian, i n c a r c e r a t e d mainly f o r a l c o h o l i s m and p r o s t i t u t i o n . Economic c o n d i t i o n s can be a l t e r e d f a i r l y r a p i d l y f o r a group of t h i s s i z e . S o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s cannot be changed so q u i c k l y or e a s i l y . Both of these a t t r i b u t e s of c u l t u r e have a s i g n i f i c a n t b e a r i n g on another f a c t o r , i n t e g r a t i o n . The term \" i n t e g r a t i o n \" has two d i s t i n c t i m p l i c a t i o n s . I t Is used i n both the c u l t u r a l and the e t h n i c sense. A r e l a t i o n s h i p might or might not e x i s t between the two k i n d s , but there i s no i n e v i t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p . Grouping peoples together f o r work or s c h o o l i n g does not n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d to e t h n i c i n t e g r a t i o n , and e t h n i c i n t e g r a t i o n does not n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d to c u l t u r a l i n -t e g r a t i o n . C u l t u r a l l y , s t a t i s t i c s are of l i t t l e value i n attempts to p o r t r a y a true p i c t u r e . The f a c t that two r a c i a l groups work at the same job does not mean that they p e r c e i v e any sense of c u l -t u r a l u n i t y . Negroes i n Canada work as p o r t e r s on t r a i n s , but one c o u l d h a r d l y argue from t h i s f a c t t h a t they are i n t e g r a t e d c u l -t u r a l l y w i t h engineers, firemen and conductors i n the r a i l r o a d i n g i n d u s t r y . I n d i a n s , a t what n o r t h e r n canneries remain, f i s h as do non-Indians, but they e x i s t i n s o c i a l e n c l a v e s , d i s t i n c t one from the o t h e r . There i s , then, w i t h i n c u l t u r a l i n t e g r a t i o n a f u r t h e r s u b d i v i s i o n i n t o economic i n t e g r a t i o n and s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n . From the days of the f u r - t r a d e r , B r i t i s h Columbia has seen much economic, but very l i t t l e s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n of I ndian and White r a c e s . True s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n must, i n order t o e x i s t , be per-c e i v e d by the a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s , not merely by an o b s e r v e r . 99 Apparent i n t e g r a t i o n i s not n e c e s s a r i l y r e a l i n t e g r a t i o n . U n t i l s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n can be t r u t h f u l l y s a i d , by those persons con-cerned, to be the r u l e r a t h e r than the e x c e p t i o n , c u l t u r a l i n t e -g r a t i o n has not o c c u r r e d . To date, i t i s the e x c e p t i o n r a t h e r than the r u l e i n B r i t i s h Columbia. General \" f r i e n d l i n e s s \" i s no c r i t e r i o n . A chat i n the market-place means n o t h i n g . The degree of s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n i n a neighborhood can probably be best d i s c o v e r e d from an i n d i c a t i o n of the extent to which I n d i a n and non-Indian f a m i l i e s v i s i t I n homes of the opposite group. In most B r i t i s h Columbia v i l l a g e s such v i s i t i n g i s v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t . I t does take p l a c e , to a l i m i t e d e x t e n t , i n A l e r t Bay and i n A l b e r n i . In most l o c a l i t i e s , even where the r e s e r v a t i o n i s completely surrounded by a White community, almost no p u r e l y s o c i a l v i s i t i n g takes p l a c e . E t h n i c i n t e g r a t i o n of a p r i v a t e nature may be s a i d to have taken place i n the mating of an Indian w i t h a non-Indian. Yet u n l e s s the dominant r a c i a l m a j o r i t y f u l l y accepts the mate who r e p r e s e n t s the dominated r a c i a l m i n o r i t y , merely b i o l o g i c a l , and not e t h n i c , i n t e g r a t i o n has o c c u r r e d . O f f s p r i n g from such a u n i o n e i t h e r become i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the dominated m i n o r i t y group of the one parent, or manage to cross the c o l o r - l i n e i n t o the dominant m a j o r i t y group &f the o t h e r . There i s no mid-point on the s c a l e i n B r i t i s h Columbia as occurred i n Manitoba w i t h the appearance of the M e t i s . A q u e s t i o n n a i r e , m a i l e d to the e i g h t e e n agency s u p e r i n t e n -dents, and responded to by t h i r t e e n of them, e l i c i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n on the i n t e g r a t i o n element i n Indian l i f e i n B r i t i s h Columbia. T h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e f o l l o w s , w i t h a summary of r e p l i e s r e c e i v e d , and comments where a p p r o p r i a t e : 100 1. What i s the t o t a l I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n of your agency? P l a t e V shows these f i g u r e s f o r a l l a g e n c i e s , f o r 195U\u00bb 2 . Do you know how many of these speak no E n g l i s h ? Most r e p l i e s gave f i g u r e s of between 2\u00a3 and \u00a30 persons, w i t h the comment that these were e l d e r l y persons. In a l l , an es-timated $% of the In d i a n p o p u l a t i o n cannot speak E n g l i s h today. 3. Do the young s t i l l l e a r n t h e i r n a t i v e tongue? Only one r e p l y s t a t e d t h a t no c h i l d r e n l e a r n the language of t h e i r a n c e s t o r s . On an average, superintendents estimated t h a t approximately 7%% of Indian c h i l d r e n do speak t h e i r own language. Language i s a d i f f i c u l t element to d i s c o v e r . I have had In d i a n parents t e l l me on one inst a n c e t h a t they deplore the f a c t t h a t none of the young can speak t h e i r n a t i v e tongue, and at another time have heard them converse w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r own language. i+. How many young, i f any, l e a r n no E n g l i s h a t home? Superintendents i n d i c a t e d t h a t an average of through-out the p r o v i n c e , l e a r n no E n g l i s h at home. Again, i t i s d i f f -i c u l t to make an accurate estimate on language. Many teachers from the area between the lower Skeena and Babine Lake s t a t e that most or a l l of t h e i r students begin s c h o o l speaking no En-g l i s h . T h i s of course i s no c e r t a i n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t fchey c o u l d not do so - perhaps the I n d i a n tongue dominates i n some l o c a l i t i e s t o such an extent t h a t the c h i l d appears to know no E n g l i s h . 5. About how many of the Indians are pure-blood; how may mixed? One superintendent b e l i e v e d t h a t 60$ of the Indians of h i s agency are of pure b l o o d . Another estimated $0%; most estimates v a r i e d 101 from 3>0% down to 10$. I t would seem, from estimates made, t h a t about 2$% of the Indians of the pro v i n c e are f u l l - b l o o d . The r a c i a l admixture does not seem to va r y d i r e c t l y i n p r o p o r t i o n to the degree of White c o n t a c t . Some I n t e r i o r areas, overrun by Whites f o r over a hundred y e a r s , show g r e a t e r r a c i a l p u r i t y than do some c o a s t a l l o c a l i t i e s to which Whites came much l a t e r and i n much s m a l l e r numbers. Yet, eco n o m i c a l l y a t l e a s t , Indians of the former groups have i n t e g r a t e d b e t t e r than have the l a t t e r . 6. About how many are Indian l e g a l l y , but not of I n d i a n blood? Almost a l l r e p l i e s to t h i s q u e s t i o n gave an estimate of about 1%, A survey made by P r o f e s s o r s Hawthorn, Belshaw and Jamieson shows tha t i n 1954, i n 27 marriages out of a t o t a l of 21+8, a White wi f e entered an In d i a n b a n d . 3 7 Unless t h i s year was abnormal, there should be f a r more than 1% of the l e g a l l y d e f i n e d I n d i a n p o p u l -a t i o n non-Indian by b i r t h . What happens i s t h a t the White p a r t -ner who enter s the band through marriage does not remain i n the band, but d r i f t s back Into White s o c i e t y . 7. Can you estimate about how many men and women become non-Indian, a c c o r d i n g t o the A c t , each y e a r ? An average of about 7 persons per band, a l l women, gained non-Ind i a n s t a t u s through marriage to a non-Indian each y e a r . I f i t can be assumed that the f i g u r e s f o r the agencies not recorded i n t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e would show about the same average, the number of I ndian women who became non-Indian i n accordance w i t h the A c t , through marriage, approximates 130, the t o t a l enfranchisement f i g u r e f o r B r i t i s h Columbia f o r 1 9 5 8 . 3 8 Thus i t would seem that \"37 The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 62. 38 I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch Report, 1958, p. 65.. 102 almost no In d i a n males g a i n enfranchisement. In th a t case, how-ever, there should be a c o n s i d e r a b l e m a j o r i t y of a d u l t males on each r e s e r v e . Pew Indian males, however, tend, t o remain s i n g l e . What occurs here i s that the woman, deserte d by or otherwise separated from, her White husband, e v e n t u a l l y makes her way back to the r e s e r v a t i o n , where she mates w i t h an I n d i a n male. T h i s phenomenon has occurred w i t h i n the past week of the time o f t h i s w r i t i n g on a r e s e r v e w i t h which I am acq u a i n t e d . As i s o f t e n the case, t h i s woman has a c h i l d , which has been c l a s s e d as non-Indian while she has been o f f the r e s e r v a t i o n . With her r e t u r n , she r e g a i n s her Indian s t a t u s , and the c h i l d becomes I n d i a n . 3 9 Undoubtedly another reason f o r the presence of so few women of White b i r t h on r e s e r v e s i n p r o p o r t i o n to the number of I n d i a n -non-Indian marriages r e g i s t e r e d i s t h a t i n a c t u a l i t y many of these marriages take p l a c e between two persons both of whom are e t h n i c a l l y I n d i a n . The presence of the r e s e r v a t i o n makes the r e t u r n to her own people e a s i e r f o r a woman such as the one men-t i o n e d above than would be the ease were i t not i n e x i s t e n c e . 8. About how many mixed marriages are there i n a year? Answers here ranged from 1 to 12, w i t h an average of be-tween 1+ and 5\u00bb Since a v e r y few males (estimated a t fewer than one per r e s e r v e per ye a r ) do seek enfranchisement, and since a few I n d i a n males do marry non-Indian women and r e t a i n t h e i r Ind-i a n s t a t u s , there i s a di s c r e p a n c y between the number of mixed marriages and the number of females who g a i n enfranchisement, as estimated i n Question 7\u00bb Much of t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s undoubtedly made up by the marriages r e f e r r e d to i n the comments on Question 39 Chapter 1+0, S e c t i o n 13 of I n d i a n A c t as Amended 1956. 7; marriages i n v o l v i n g a partner who i s non-Indian l e g a l l y but Indian r a c i a l l y . 9. Of these, c o u l d you estimate how many or what f r a c t i o n take p l a c e between pure-blood Indians and non-Indians, and how many between Indians of mixed a n c e s t r y and non-Indians? Some superintendents f e l t t h a t they c o u l d not answer t h i s ques-t i o n . Among those who d i d answer, a few s t a t e d t h a t there seemed to be no a p p r e c i a b l e d i f f e r e n c e , but most i n d i c a t e d t h a t the m a j o r i t y of mixed marriages i n v o l v e an Indian p a r t n e r of mixed a n c e s t r y . This should of course be t r u e , since an average of 75$ of the Indian p o p u l a t i o n i s of mixed b l o o d , but one s u p e r i n t e n -dent commented t h a t the pure-bloods seem t o p r e f e r t o remain i n t h e i r own group. 10. Most spokesmen are of p a r t l y White a n c e s t r y . Do you b e l i e v e that these spokesmen t r u l y r e p r e s e n t the f e e l -ings and a s p i r a t i o n s of the pure-blood? Almost a l l answers agreed that spokesmen, who tend to be p a r t l y White because t h i s p o r t i o n of the p o p u l a t i o n has the b e t t e r com-mand of E n g l i s h , do r e p r e s e n t the f e e l i n g s and a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e i r group. One superintendent s t a t e d t h a t the Indians do not make a d i s t i n c t i o n between pure-blood and p a r t - b l o o d In the same way as Whites do with r e f e r e n c e t o them, and another commented t h a t a pa r t l y - W h i t e spokesman would want t o prove to h i s group t h a t he was I n d i a n . Hubert Evans, who spent many years among the Tsimshians, a t Kitamaat and along the Skeena, i n Mist on the R l v e r ^ p o r t r a y s the i n t e g r a t i o n problem as encountered and responded to by a bro t h e r and s i s t e r from a s m a l l Skeena v i l l a g e . In t h i s s t o r y , the g i r l a t l e n g t h succumbs to the a t t r a c t i o n s of the c u l t u r e she experiences i n a cannery town, while the boy f e e l s i m p e l l e d to r e t u r n t o take h i s h e r e d i t a r y place i n h i s n a t i v e v i l l a g e . I4.O Copp C l a r k , 195k. All B r i t i s h Columbia Indians are nom i n a l l y C h r i s t i a n . Over seventeen of the t h i r t y - o n e thousand p o p u l a t i o n of the 195U Indian A f f a i r s Branch census are l i s t e d as Roman C a t h o l i c , w i t h s l i g h t l y over s i x thousand each of A n g l i c a n and U n i t e d Church denominations. V i r t u a l l y the whole i n t e r i o r o f the p r o v i n c e , from the Kootenays to the C a r r i e r s , except f o r L y t t o n , which i s A n g l i c a n , i s Roman C a t h o l i c . The Skeena continues to be repr e s e n t e d by a l l s e c t s , I n c l u d i n g s e v e r a l hundred S a l v a t i o n Army adherents. The Queen C h a r l o t t e s and the coast as f a r south as B e l l a B e l l a are mainly U n i t e d . A l e r t Bay i s A n g l i c a n . The southern mainland coast from Church House to North Vancouver i s Roman C a t h o l i c . Nanaimo and A l b e r n i are U n i t e d ; from there south Vancouver I s l a n d i s mainly Roman C a t h o l i c . The west c o a s t of Vancouver I s l a n d Is comprised m a i n l y of Roman C a t h o l i c and U n i -ted denominations. The lower F r a s e r V a l l e y c o n t a i n s adherents t o Roman C a t h o l i c , A n g l i c a n and United Churches. The degree to which Indians have been converted to C h r i s t -i a n i t y v a r i e s from plac e to p l a c e , depending p a r t l y on the dur-a t i o n of White c o n t a c t , and p a r t l y on the t e n a c i t y of a b o r i g i n a l b e l i e f s . A.F. Flucke says of the B e l l a C o o a l ' s : ^ 1 The o l d b e l i e f s s u r v i v e even among members of the community who are nominal C h r i s t i a n s , and those who h o l d to t h e i r a n c i e n t r e l i g i o n l i v e i n an atmos-phere of the s u p e r n a t u r a l . For most, however, Mr. Flucke c o n t i n u e s , 1+2 Hand i n hand w i t h the e x t e n s i o n of white man's knowledge has gone d i s b e l i e f i n t h e i r own a n c i e n t l o r e . The white man denies mythology and laughs at dramatic performances, which have p e r i s h e d sinc e they can s u r v i v e o n l y i n an a t t i t u d e of profound b e l i e f . lj.1 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , B e l l a Coola, p. 23. 1+2 Loc. c i t . 105 An e l d e r l y Indian l a d y , i n r e c o u n t i n g her gra n d f a t h e r ' s r e c o l l -e c t i o n of a s o u l r e c o v e r y ceremony, went through the motions of the shaman's hands, but the event t o her had become onl y another legend from the p a s t . P r o f e s s o r Wayne S u t t l e s envisages contemporary Coast S a l i s h r e l i g i o n as r e p r e s e n t i n g \"the r e s u l t of not one but a s e r i e s of compromises and r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s \" Even some who acknowledge complete c o n v e r s i o n t o C h r i s t i a n -i t y have a f e e l i n g of ambivalence toward t h e i r new r e l i g i o n . One band c h i e f s t a t e d r e c e n t l y that h i s people, although devout i n t h e i r b e l i e f , f e e l h e l d i n an i r o n f i s t . He b e l i e v e s that the Church has too much a u t h o r i t y ; that i t s d i s c i p l i n e c a r r i e s i n t o the I n d i a n s ' l i f e i n realms beyond r e l i g i o u s r e g u l a t i o n . They look upon e d u c a t i o n as one f i e l d i n which they f e e l unduly f e t t -ered by the C h r i s t i a n Church. The Shaker Church, founded i n Washington S t a t e i n 1882 by John Slocum, has a p p a r e n t l y gained some f o l l o w e r s among the Cow-ichans and In the lower F r a s e r V a l l e y . I t purports to be a C h r i s -t i a n Church, but i s i n a c t u a l i t y a s y n c r e t i s m o f a b o r i g i n a l be-l i e f s and C h r i s t i a n i t y . I t s main ceremony seems t o be the a c q u i -s i t i o n of a song a t the time of c o n v e r s i o n , and i t s main t e n e t the avoidance of s i n . Although no B r i t i s h Columbia Indians are nominally Shaker, the movement has appeared as an added b e l i e f i n some communities, where i t i s looked upon as a s t r i c t l y I n d i a n r e l i g i o n . ^ I4.3 \"The P l a t e a u Prophet Dance Among the Coast S a l i s h \" , p. 353. kk W.W. Elmandorf, Anthropology 301, U.B.C. Summer S e s s i o n , 1958. io6 T h i s chapter can be summed up i n the words of Dr. Ben R e i f e l , Area D i r e c t o r , Aberdeen Area, born of a German f a t h e r and a Sioux mother. Although the remarks r e f e r to Indians south of the l+9th P a r a l l e l , they seem e q u a l l y p e r t i n e n t w i t h r e g a r d to those who l i v e n o r t h of i t j ^ > The s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n of the Indian Americans has l i t t l e i f anything i n common w i t h that of other r a c -i a l or e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s from the standpoint of soc-i a l adjustments.... The Indians had no need t o be apprehensive about the f u t u r e , from a m a t e r i a l stand-p o i n t . The Indian, i n h i s s o c i e t i e s over a l l those thousands of years when he was f a s h i o n i n g h i s way of l i f e , found he c o u l d have a l l t h a t he r e q u i r e d i n the way of f o o d , c l o t h i n g , and s h e l t e r by l i v i n g i n har-mony w i t h n a t u r e . T h i s means that the essence of l i f e was found i n being and not In becoming something we are not today.... To the Indians there was no reason to be c o n s t a n t l y t h i n k i n g of the f u t u r e . To them the n e c e s s i t i e s f o r l i v i n g were n e a r l y as f r e e as the a i r we b r e a t h e . A i r i s necessary f o r l i f e but we seldom t h i n k of saving i t up f o r f u t u r e use.... The wonder of our time i s not that s o c i a l a d j u s t -ment of Indian Americans has been slow but t h a t so many have found i t p o s s i b l e to f i t i n t o the American s o c i a l system i n so short a time. I t h i n k we might have speeded up the a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s . . . had i t been r e a l i z e d t h a t a l a r g e p a r t of the adjustment process hinged on the development of concepts of time, work, and s a v i n g by the I n d i a n peoples themselves. These e l e -ments are not by t h e i r nature l i k e l y t o create any great amount of emotional r e s i s t a n c e i f presented f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . To have them i n t r o d u c e d i n the c u l t u r e need not have changed t h e i r manner of d r e s s , the s y s -tem of worship, the ways of r e c r e a t i o n , or t h e i r l a n g -uage . But what was done? Indian people were asked to give up t h e i r language, t h e i r ceremonials, t h e i r way of d r e s s i n g , and other aspects of t h e i r way of l i f e t h a t had no s e n s i b l e b e a r i n g on s o c i a l adjustment. Had they been helped to understand the importance f o r the s u r v i v a l of t h e i r c h e r i s h e d way of l i f e by the i n c o r -p o r a t i o n of concepts of time, s a v i n g and work i n t o the Indian system they might have saved much that i s l o s t to a l l of us today. T+5 Indian E d u c a t i o n . A p r i l 1 5 , 1 9 5 7 . Plate V V iMJDlflrJ A G E N C I E S - P O P U L A T I O N \\9S8 CHAPTER VI INDIAN EDUCATION TODAY One of the e a s i e s t mistakes a teacher can make i s t h a t of I d e n t i f y i n g those whom he i s t e a c h i n g w i t h h i m s e l f or w i t h the t h i n g he a s p i r e s t o , not r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t h i s p u p i l s may not be i n h i s s t a t e of development. 1 There are 66 day, 3 h o s p i t a l , and 11 r e s i d e n t i a l I n d i a n schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia (see P l a t e V I ) . Indians a l s o attended pro-v i n c i a l and p r i v a t e schools throughout the p r o v i n c e . A break-down of enrolment by grade a t these schools i s given below. Table 9 Enrolment of Indian Students i n B r i t i s h Columbia, 1957' Grade Day a t R e s i d e n t i a l R e s i d e n t i a l K i n d e r g a r t e n 1 2 I 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 U n i v e r s i t y 1 - U n i v e r s i t y 2 Teacher T r . Nursing Burses Aide Commercial Trades Other T o t a l , 7 1+59 3U0 ? U 410 307 113 % 56 2 2 k 27 9 13 Day 108 720 U96 U50 1+50 340 321 162 118 P r o v i n c i a l H o s p i t a l and P r i v a t e 1+1+ 30 20 18 16 12 2 2560 285 21U 215 165 170 182 230 160 156 99 6 2 P r 2 1 3 I 13 28 17 286- 3065 170 2081 1 L.G.P. W a l l e r , Inspector of Indian Schools, A l b e r t a , \"Workshop on Indian E d u c a t i o n \" , Lecture 3, V i c t o r i a , 1952 2 I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch Report. 1957. 108 T o t a l enrolment of day, r e s i d e n t i a l , and h o s p i t a l schools f o r 1958 was 61+11, and f o r p r o v i n c i a l and p r i v a t e s c h o o l s , 2335. 3 Table 10 shows names and l o c a t i o n s of Indian schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia by agency. Numbers correspond t o Legend f o r P l a t e VI. School Babine Agency Table 10 < Indian Schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia 4 Post O f f i c e Address 1. Glen Vowell 2. K i s p i o x K i t s e g u k l a Kitwanga 5 . Rocher Deboule 6. Moricetown 7. Kitwancool B e l l a Coola Agency 8. B e l l a B e l l a 9. K i t i m a t 10. Klemtu Cowichan Agency 11. Westholme 12. Chemainus 13. S h e l l Beach llj.. S t . Catherine's 15. Nanaimo 16. T s a r t l i p 17. Songhees 18. Kuper I s l a n d 19. Nanaimo H o s p i t a l Kootenay Agency 20. Kootenay R e s i d e n t i a l HazeIton, B.C. HazeIton, B.C. Skeena C r o s s i n g , B.C Kitwanga, B.C. New Hazelton, B.C. Moricetown, B.C. Kitwanga, B.C. Campbell I s l a n d P.O., B.C. K i t i m a t I n d i a n V i l l a g e , B.C, Klemtu, B.C. Westholme, B.C. Ladysmith, B.C. Ladysmlth, B.C. Duncan, B.C. Nanaimo, B.C. Brentwood Bay, B.C. C r a i g f l o w e r P.O., V i c t o r i a , B.C, P.O. Box 510, Chemainus, B.C. Nanaimo, B.C. Cranbrook, B.C 3 Indian A f f a i r s Branch Report, 1958. 1+ Information s u p p l i e d by Mr. A.V. Parminter, R e g i o n a l Inspector of Schools f o r B r i t i s h Columbia. 109 Table 10 (cont'd.) Kamloops Agency 21. N e s k a i n l i t h 22. Deadman's Creek 23. Adams Lake 2l+. Kamloops R e s i d e n t i a l Kwawkewlth Agency 25. G i l f o r d I s l a n d 2o. Turn our I s l a n d 27. Cape Mudge 28. Kingcome I n l e t 29. M a m a l i l l i k u l l a 30. Smith's I n l e t 31. Quatsino 32. A l e r t Bay R e s i d e n t i a l L y t t o n Agency 33. Seton Lake 34. F o u n t a i n 35' S t . George's R e s i d e n t i a l New Westminster Agency 36. Douglas 37. Chehalis 38. S e a b i r d I s l a n d 9\u00ab Coqualeetza H o s p i t a l 0. S t . Mary's R e s i d e n t i a l N i c o l a Agency 1+1. Shulus 1+2. Upper N i c o l a Okanagan Agency 1+3. I r i s h Creek 1+1+. Okanagan 1+5 \u2022 P e n t i c t i o n Queen C h a r l o t t e Agency 1+6. Mas set 1+7. Skidegate St u a r t Lake Agency 1+8. Stony Creek 1+9* F o r t S t . James 50. Lejac R e s i d e n t i a l Shuswap, B.C. Savona, B.C. Chase, B.C. Kamloops, B.C. Simoon Sound, B.C. M i n s t r e l I s l a n d P.O., B.C. Qu a t h i a s k i Cove, B.C. Kingcome I n l e t , B.C. M i n s t r e l I s l a n d , B.C. Boswell Camp, Smith I n l e t , B.C. Quatsino, B.C. A l e r t Bay, B.C. S h a l a l t h , B.C. L i l l o o e t , B.C. Ly t t o n , B.C. Port Douglas v i a H a r r i s o n H a r r i s o n M i l l s , B.C. A g a s s i z , B.C. S a r d i s , B.C. M i s s i o n C i t y , B.C. M e r r i t , B.C. Douglas Lake, B.C. Vernon, B.C. Vernon, B.C. P e n t i c t o n , B.C. Masset, B.C. Skidegate M i s s i o n , B.C. Vanderhoof, B.C. F t . S t . James, B.C. Lej a c , B.C. 110 Table 10 (cont'd.) Skeena R i v e r Agency-51. M i l l e r Bay H o s p i t a l 52. Gitlakdamix 53. Canyon C i t y 5%. H a r t l e y Bay 55. K i n c o l i t h 56. K i t k a t l a 57 \u2022 Lakalsap 58. M e t l a k a t l a 5 9 ' Port Simpson Vancouver Agency 60. Sliammon 61. Mount C u r r i e 62. S e c h e l t R e s i d e n t i a l 63. Squamish R e s i d e n t i a l West Coast Agency 6i|. Kyuquot 65. U c l u e l e t 66. Ahousat 67. A l b e r n i R e s i d e n t i a l 68. C h r i s t i e R e s i d e n t i a l 69. Nootka 70. Opitaht W i l l i a m s Lake Agency 71. Upper Dean R i v e r 72. Anaham 73. Cariboo R e s i d e n t i a l 7I4.. Nazko 75. Sugar Cane 76. Canim Lake S t u a r t Lake Agency 77. F t . Babine Vancouver Agency 78. S e c h e l t Day School 79\u2022 Church House Pri n c e Rupert, B.C. Aiyansh P.O. v i a M i l l Bay, B.C. Canyon C i t y v i a M i l l Bay, B.C. H a r t l e y Bay, B.C. K i n c o l i t h , B.C. K i t k a t l a , B.C. G r e e n v i l l e , M i l l Bay P.O., B.C. M e t l a k a t l a , B.C. Port Simpson, B.C. Powell R i v e r , B.C. Mount C u r r i e , B.C. S e c h e l t , B.C. 51+1 K e i t h Rd., North Van., B.C. Kyuquot, B.C. U c l u e l e t , B.C. M a t i l d a Creek, V.I., B.C. A l b e r n i , B.C.. Kakawia P.O., v i a T o f i n o , B.C. Nootka, v i a Port A l b e r n i , B.C. v i a T o f i n o , B.C. Anaham Lake, B.C. H a n c e v i l l e , B.C. W i l l i a m s Lake, B.C. Nazko v i a Quesnel, B.C. W i l l i a m s Lake, B.C. Canim Lake, B.C. F t . Babine, B.C. (Reduced to one room) S e c h e l t , B.C. (New s c h o o l ) Church House, B.C. (New s c h o o l ) The e i g h t e e n agency s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , r e s p o n s i b l e to the Indian Commissioner of B r i t i s h Columbia, i n a d d i t i o n to other d u t i e s , perform most of the f u n c t i o n s of a School Board, super-v i s i n g maintenance, f u e l and s c h o o l s u p p l i e s , and attendance i n I l l I ndian schools i n t h e i r a r e a s . Mr. A.V. Parminter i s R e g i o n a l I n s p e c t o r of Schools f o r B r i t i s h Columbia. Beginning i n 1958, he was granted the h e l p of one a s s i s t a n t i n s p e c t o r . A l l three types of s c h o o l ; day, r e s i d e n t i a l , and h o s p i t a l , f o l l o w the p r o v i n c i a l c u r r i c u l u m as o u t l i n e d by the Department of E d u c a t i o n . Most t e x t books used are those p r e s c r i b e d f o r p r o -v i n c i a l s c h o o l s . Most day schools provide l i v i n g accommodation f o r t e a c h e r s . P u p i l s e n r o l l e d i n these schools l i v e at home. Teachers are gen-e r a l l y l a y t e a c h e r s , w i t h c e r t i f i c a t i o n from r e g u l a r teacher t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . P r i n c i p a l s of r e s i d e n t i a l schools are nominated by Church a u t h o r i t i e s and appointed by the Department. Teachers i n a l l but three of these schools are a l s o appointed by the Department and p a i d a c c o r d i n g th the Department's s a l a r y schedule f o r t e a c h i n g s t a f f . A H schools i n t h i s category are f i n a n c e d on a per c a p i t a b a s i s . R e s i d e n t i a l schools of Roman C a t h o l i c denomination are s t a f f e d by four t e a c h i n g o r d e r s ; S i s t e r s of S t . Ann, S i s t e r s of C h i l d Jesus, S i s t e r s of Providence, and the B e n e d i c t i n e S i s t e r s . P r o t e s t a n t r e s i d e n t i a l schools are s t a f f e d by l a y t e a c h e r s . H o s p i t a l s are operated by the Northern A f f a i r s Branch of the Department of H e a l t h and We l f a r e . They i n c l u d e on t h e i r s t a f f s teachers who endeavor to ensure t h a t no c h i l d i s unduly r e t a r d e d a c a d e m i c a l l y through h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n . - ^ During 1957, a t o t a l of 181 teachers h e l d p o s i t i o n s i n Ind-i a n schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia s u b j e c t to departmental super-v i s i o n . ^ i n a d d i t i o n , j o i n t p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l s , attended by both 5 Information s u p p l i e d by Mr. A.V. Parminter. 6 Indian A f f a i r s Branch Report, 1957. 112 Indian and non-Indian students and not under departmental j u r i s -d i c t i o n , operate at Burns Lake, Vanderhoof, Smithers, P o r t S t . James and, commencing i n the f a l l of 1959, a t Hazelton.' Emphasis on ed u c a t i o n of Indians o r i g i n a t e d d i r e c t l y from the S p e c i a l J o i n t Commission of the Senate and the House of Com-mons which began to meet i n 191+6. On June 22, 191+8, the Committee recommended \"the r e v i s i o n of those s e c t i o n s of the Act which per-t a i n to ed u c a t i o n , i n order to prepare Indian c h i l d r e n to take t h e i r place as c i t i z e n s . . . . Whenever and wherever p o s s i b l e , Ind-i a n c h i l d r e n should be educated i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h other c h i l d -r e n \" . 8 Recommendations of the Committee were i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the Indian A c t of 1951, and a f t e r i t s f i r s t r e a d i n g as a B i l l , n i n e -teen s e l e c t e d Indian delegates were i n v i t e d to Ottawa by the M i n i s t e r o f C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration t o study i t and present t h e i r views i n a cl a u s e - b y - c l a u s e conference with Department o f f i c i a l s , the f i r s t time n a t i v e Indians had been c o n s u l t e d on proposed l e g i s l a t i o n r e l a t i n g to t h e i r own government. 9 Chapter 29, S e c t i o n 113 of t h i s A c t e n t i t l e s the Govern\u00a9r-in-Council t o a u t h o r i z e the M i n i s t e r of C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration to estab-l i s h , operate and m a i n t a i n schools fOr I n d i a n c h i l d r e n , and t o enter i n t o agreements w i t h the government of a p r o v i n c e , a pub-l i c or separate s c h o o l board, or a r e l i g i o u s or c h a r i t a b l e or-g a n i z a t i o n f o r t h e i r e d u c a t i o n . By 1952, the P r o v i n c i a l A d v i s o r y Committee on Ind i a n A f f a i r s , 7 Information s u p p l i e d by Mr. A.V. Parminter. 8 Dominion Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s Reference Papers, 1952, p. 290. 9 P r o v i n c i a l A d v i s o r y Committee on Indian A f f a i r s F o u r t h  Annual Report, 1953\u00ab P\u00bb 6. 113 organized i n 1950 under the Indian I n q u i r y A c t , r e p o r t e d t h a t twelve hundred Indian c h i l d r e n were a t t e n d i n g P r o v i n c i a l schools j i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . 1 0 In 1955 the F e d e r a l and P r o v i n c i a l Governments shared i n the c a p i t a l c o s t s of c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the A l e r t Bay High S c h o o l , w i t h an enrolment of one hundred Indian and e i g h t y White p u p i l s . 1 1 By 1956, p u b l i c s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s a t Queen C h a r l o t t e C i t y were expanded to admit I n d i a n c h i l d r e n , and f o u r t e e n other con-t r a c t s f o r j o i n t F e d e r a l - P r o v i n c i a l s h a r i n g of s c h o o l c o n s t r u e t -12 i o n c o s t s were i n f o r c e . In 1957, the L e g i s l a t i v e Assembly assented to the I n d i a n A d v i s o r y A c t , of which Miss Joanna R. Wright was appointed D i r -e c t o r . 1 3 The Committee r e p o r t e d t h a t d u r i n g 1957-58* a l l s e n i o r p u p i l s boarding a t P r o t e s t a n t r e s i d e n t i a l schools were r e c e i v i n g t h e i r e d u c a t i o n i n near-by p u b l i c h i g h s c h o o l s , and that an In-c r e a s i n g number of Ind i a n c h i l d r e n were a l s o a t t e n d i n g Roman C a t h o l i c s chools o f f the res e r v e s . 1 ^ \" ' A T u i t i o n fee f o r each c h i l d of Indian s t a t u s l i v i n g on Re-serve land and a t t e n d i n g a j o i n t or p u b l i c s c h o o l i s p a i d t o the School Board by Indian A f f a i r s Branch. F i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e , i n -c l u d i n g t e x t book expenses and even cost of room and board, i s a v a i l a b l e to Indian students who show a p t i t u d e f o r s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g \"10 P r o v i n c i a l A d v i s o r y Committee on Indian A f f a i r s , T h i r d  Annual Report, 1952, p. 1+. 11 S i x t h Annual Report. 1955. p. 8. 12 Seventh Annual Report, 1956. p. 9. 13 E i g h t h Annual Report, 1957. p. 5 . Ik N i n t h Annual Report, 1958, p. 8. 15 A.V. Parminter, \"Education o f Indians i n B r i t i s h C o l -umbia\", The B.C. School T r u s t e e , Sept., 1955, p. 20 Ilk Since 1950 a common v o i c e has been r a i s e d i n f a v o r of edu-c a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n . Dr. Peter K e l l y , speaking before the J o i n t Committee of the Senate and the House of Commons on Ind i a n A f f -a i r s on June 17, 1959, s a i d \" I n t e g r a t i o n i s a must t o which if) there i s no a l t e r n a t i v e \" . The Most Reverend Fergus 0-'Grady, OMI, i s quoted as having s t a t e d 1 7 \"You cannot expect the I n d i a n to conform to white s o c i e t y , customs and manners i f he i s not educated a l o n g s i d e white c h i l d r e n from k i n d e r g a r t e n up. The most p r e s s i n g need of B r i t i s h Columbia Indians today i s high e r edu-c a t i o n i n j o i n t w h i t e - I n d i a n s c h o o l s \" . While these two p o i n t s of view c o i n c i d e i n t h e i r end r e -s u l t , the p h i l o s o p h i e s which the speakers r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r In how the r e s u l t i s to be a t t a i n e d . Dr. K e l l y presents the P r o t e s -tant viewpoint, which advocates e d u c a t i o n of Indians, where p r a c t i c a b l e , i n the p r o v i n c i a l s c h o o l system, the students l i v -i n g e i t h e r at home or i n r e s i d e n t i a l boarding s c h o o l s . Bishop O'Grady presents the viewpoint of the Roman C a t h o l i c Church, the p o l i c y of which i s t o educate i n p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l s . In areas where bands are predominantly of a P r o t e s t a n t s e c t , then, c h i l d r e n are In g e n e r a l a t t e n d i n g I n d i a n A f f a i r s day schools on i s o l a t e d r e s e r v e s , and r e g u l a r p u b l i c schools i n l o -c a l i t i e s where such schools are w i t h i n r e a c h . C h i l d r e n of bands whose f a i t h i s Roman C a t h o l i c a t t e n d day schools or r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s . In areas where other f a i t h s are re p r e s e n t e d , j o i n t p a r o c h i a l schools are b e i n g b u i l t t o educate both I n d i a n and non-Indian Roman C a t h o l i c c h i l d r e n . ~~l6 Minutes , p. II4.3 . 17 Vancouver D a i l y P r o v i n c e , August, 1958* H 5 Proponents of both systems have arguments to o f f e r i n f a v o r of t h e i r c h o i c e . In Nanaimo, soon a f t e r I n d i a n students began t o a t t e n d c i t y s chools i n 1950, news items such as the f o l l o w i n g appeared i n 1 fi the l o c a l p r e s s : Indian c h i l d r e n a t t e n d i n g Nanaimo schools are f i t -t i n g i n t o the s c h o o l system v e r y s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . T h i s statement by School I n s p e c t o r Dr. Wm. P l e n -d e r l e i t h , the p r i n c i p a l and teachers of the s c h o o l was given School Board Wednesday and heard w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e p l e a s u r e by the t r u s t e e s . . . . I t i s g r a t i f y i n g to note that s i n c e the Indian c h i l d r e n have been a t t e n d i n g p u b l i c s c h o o l , t h e i r parents have been t a k i n g an i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t i n the s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s . Reverend C o l i n Dickson, of the Shulus Indian M i s s i o n , comm-ents on the r e s i d e n t i a l school:^9 I do not b e l i e v e that an i n s t i t u t i o n i s the proper place to r a i s e c h i l d r e n , p a r t i c u l a r l y from the age of s i x or seven to e l e v e n or twelve.... By p l a c i n g c h i l d r e n i n r e s i d e n t i a l schools parents are denied the p r i v i l e g e of r a i s i n g t h e i r own f a m i l y , and i n -v a r i a b l e lose some p a r t of t h e i r own f a m i l y - r a i s i n g e x p e r i e n c e . One Superintendent contends that the d i s c i p l i n e of the r e s -i d e n t i a l s c h o o l i s o f t e n overpowering and sometimes has the opp-o s i t e e f f e c t to that assumed by the well-meaning p r i n c i p a l . Reverend G.P. K e l l y , OMI, p r i n c i p a l of Lejac I n d i a n R e s i -d e n t i a l S c h o o l , d e f i n e s the f u n c t i o n s of the r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l on system: v In the r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l the p u p i l s are In two c a t e g o r i e s . Those who come from remote areas s t a r t to s c h o o l l a t e , and have very l i t t l e knowledge of the E n g l i s h language on entrance to the s c h o o l . The others a r e , f o r the most p a r t , products of broken 18 Correspondence from Mrs. A d e l a i d e H i l l , Nanaimo, A p r i l 21, 1958. 19 Correspondence r e c e i v e d February 25, 1958. 20 Correspondence r e c e i v e d March 6, 1958. 116 homes and are assign e d here f o r c a r e . Most of these c h i l d r e n have had an i n f e r i o r u p b r i n g i n g , some have attended day s c h o o l i n t e r m i t t e n t l y f o r a few y e a r s , and some have been delayed i n t h e i r e d u c a t i o n by a long or s h o r t bout w i t h T.B. Fourteen I n d i a n s t u d e n t s , e n r o l l e d i n grades nine and ten a t the P r i n c e George p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l , were boarding w i t h White f a m i l i e s i n 1957, Reverend K e l l y s t a t e s , and about t h i r t y were expected to do so i n 1958. Reverend G.D. Dunlop, OMI, p r i n c i p a l of Kootenay I n d i a n S c h o o l , compares r e s i d e n t i a l and p r o v i n c i a l h i g h s c h o o l r e s u l t s from h i s e x p e r i e n c e : In 19l+9> arrangements were made f o r the c h i l d r e n above the grade e i g h t l e v e l t o a t t e n d the P u b l i c High School In the C i t y of Cranbrook. T h i s p o l i c y i s s t i l l f o l l o w e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t has proved a f a i l u r e . During the past e i g h t years we have had as many as f i f t e e n p u p i l s a t t e n d i n g High S c h o o l , t h i r t y - f i v e c h i l d r e n i n a l l , and as y e t we have not had one s u c c e s s f u l graduate.... In Kamloops and M i s s i o n C i t y , where we have In d i a n High Schools, there have been many graduates. A comparison between the p r o p o r t i o n of In d i a n students a t t -ending schools of t h i s v a r i e d system and non-Indian students i n the p r o v i n c i a l system to t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n s i s s l i g h t l y m i s l e a d -i n g . The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, i n c r e a s i n g i n numbers as they now are, are preponderantly a young p o p u l a t i o n (In 1957, the 22 1575 Indian p u p i l s e n r o l l e d i n grade one comprised one twen-t i e t h of t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n , a t a time when enrolment i n the same grade i n the p u b l i c schools system of the province accounted f o r only about one f o r t i e t h of B r i t i s h Columbia's p o p u l a t i o n ) . 2 3 There can be no doubt, then, from these f i g u r e s , t h a t Ind-i a n c h i l d r e n do go to s c h o o l . The next p o i n t to be co n s i d e r e d 21 Correspondence r e c e i v e d December 15, 1957* 22 I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch Report, 1957. 23 B r i t i s h Columbia P u b l i c Schools Report, 1957-58. 117 i s , t o what extent i s the Indian of B r i t i s h Columbia b e i n g edu-cated i n one or another of the s c h o o l systems? At the grade e i g h t l e v e l , about the same number of I n d i a n and non-Indian c h i l d r e n , i n p r o p o r t i o n to t h e i r t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n s , are at s c h o o l . Prom that grade on, the p r o p o r t i o n of I n d i a n students d i m i n i s h e s r a p i d l y . However, t h i s p r o p o r t i o n could r i s e c o n s i d e r a b l e d u r i n g the next few y e a r s , as students who have had advantage of the f u l l day of academic s c h o o l i n g inaugurated i n 1949, a n < ^ the g r e a t l y expanded I n d i a n e d u c a t i o n program imple-mented by the Revised I n d i a n Act of 1951 a f f e c t the groups who began s c h o o l d u r i n g and a f t e r those y e a r s . In 1957 there were 24 students e n r o l l e d i n grade twelve i n r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s ; 57 i n p r o v i n c i a l and p r i v a t e schools (see Table 9)\u00bb The Vancouver V o c a t i o n a l T r a i n i n g I n s t i t u t e graduated 30 I n d i a n students i n that year, 75$ of the number who had en-r o l l e d , the same percentage as f o r non-Indian t r a i n e e s . Of 30 P r a c t i c a l Nurse T r a i n i n g D i v i s i o n \"graduates, 15 were Indian g i r l s . S i x Indian boys graduated from the Nanaimo F e d e r a l -P r o v i n c i a l T r a i n i n g School. 2^\" Average attendance i n 1957 was 94.74$ i n r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s ; 90-03$ i n day schools throughout B r i t i s h Columbia. 2^ I t appears, from trends i n d i c a t e d by a comparison of f i g -ures from a decade ago w i t h those of today, t h a t an i n c r e a s i n g number of I n d i a n students do graduate. Yet even such a d e d u c t i o n might w e l l be f a l l a c i o u s . The number of Indian students e n r o l l e d i n grade twelve f o r 1958 remained the same as f o r 1957 i n r e s i -d e n t i a l schools and was only h a l f of the 1957 f i g u r e f o r p r i v a t e 2I4. B r i t i s h Columbia I n d i a n A d v i s o r y Committee Report, 1957. 25 Indian A f f a i r s Branch Report. 1957. Table 7. 118 and p r o v i n c i a l s c h o o l s . There are i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t not a l l Ind-ians are a s p i r i n g to h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . As the excerpt from Reverend G.F. K e l l y ' s l e t t e r , c i t e d on page 115, i n d i c a t e s , Indians of the F r a s e r Lake area are not t a k i n g r e a d i l y t o s c h o o l i n g . Reverend K e l l y ' s l e t t e r c oncludes: \" I t w i l l take many years y e t before the Indians of the Northern Regions w i l l come to understand the b e n e f i t s of White Man's edu-c a t i o n \" . Teachers from the Skeena, Babine, and C h i l c o t i n areas c o n s i s t e n t l y admit t h a t c h i l d r e n f r e q u e n t l y do not b e g i n s c h o o l there u n t i l they are ten or more years o l d . Throughout much of the f i r s t two areas i n p a r t i c u l a r , many do not speak E n g l i s h on a r r i v a l at s c h o o l . One teacher from the Skeena s t a t e d t h a t h i s attendance f l u c t u a t e d from 33 to 8 . Lack of a s p i r a t i o n i s not r e s t r i c t e d t o the North. Not one Indian student a t Nanaimo, i n t e g r a t e d s i n c e 1951, has graduated from the s c h o o l system there s i n c e 1952. R e g i s t e r s of a day sc h o o l l o c a t e d on a s m a l l i s l a n d r e s e r v e show that d u r i n g the past ten years only one student has prog-r e s s e d beyond grade e i g h t . \"Absent 16 (or l l i , or 18) days a t Knight I n l e t f o r o o l i c h a n o i l and grease\" appears as the teacher's u n v a r i e d comment on a s c h o o l enrolment that v a r i e s from 7$% to With e d u c a t i o n , as w i t h the gen e r a l c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n of the I n d i a n , c o n d i t i o n s can be i n t e r p r e t e d only as they a f f e c t the p a r t i c i p a n t s , the Indians themselves. A School of S o c i a l Work s t u d e n t 2 ? i n 1951 wrote: \"26 Information r e c e i v e d from Mrs. Ad e l a i d e H i l l , Nanaimo. 27 F.W. Thompson, The Employment Problems and Economic Status of the B r i t i s h Columbia I n d i a n s , Master of S o c i a l Work t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1951. 119 One cannot speak of e d u c a t i o n amongst Indians without r a n g i n g i n t o other f i e l d s , without d i g -g i n g a t the r o o t of the I n d i a n problem, without i n q u i r i n g i n t o h i s true p o s i t i o n and the e f f e c t of h i s p o s i t i o n i n every-day l i f e . R e g i o n a l Inspector L.G.P. W a l l e r , speaking a t a Workshop i n Indian E d u c a t i o n a t V i c t o r i a i n 1952, s a i d : Many Indians f i n d our way of l i f e p o i n t l e s s and without purpose i n the l i g h t of t h e i r c u l t u r a l i n h e r i t a n c e . . . . The Indian wants, as the White man does, to know that what he i s doing i s of j some use... D r a s t i c m o d i f i c a t i o n s of environment ' may f o r c e s e r i o u s changes w i t h i n a b r i e f p e r i o d . E d u c a t i o n , however, proceeds more slo w l y and to be most e f f e c t i v e works i t s change wi t h the con-sent and c o o p e r a t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l s a f f e c t e d . In a p a n e l d i s c u s s i o n of the B r i t i s h Columbia I n d i a n A d v i s -ory Committee i n 1957 the viewpoint was s t a t e d that the B r i t i s h Columbia Indians want a chance \"to express t h e i r own o p i n i o n s 28 on how they should be educated\". Looking back over the c e n t u r i e s of European oc c u p a t i o n i n Canada, H.J. V a l l e r y i n 19I4.2 wrote : 2 <? T h i s c o n f l i c t (between the White man's attempts to educate and the Indians' r e s i s t a n c e ) has been waging from the time Champlain founded h i s f i r s t c o l o n y i n A c a d i a to the present day. The I n d i a n has been an u n w i l l i n g p u p i l of White attempts to p u r p o s e f u l l y educate him. A band s e c r e t a r y r e c e n t l y s t a t e d the problem i n the form of a s u c c i n c t q u e s t i o n : \" A f t e r e d u c a t i o n , what?\" That i s the Indian's own summing up of the problem. In what l i g h t does the I n d i a n envisage the e d u c a t i o n a l melange i n t o which the White man's c u l t u r e has t h r u s t him? He p e r c e i v e s , a l l too o f t e n , that \"We s t i l l have a s i t u a t i o n i n a B r i t i s h Columbia community where two schools stand s i d e by '28 The Vancouver Sun, November 8, 1957. 29 A H i s t o r y of I n d i a n E d u c a t i o n i n Canada, p. 1I4. 120 side - one f o r I n d i a n s , the other f o r W h i t e s \" . 3 0 He knows, i f he l i v e s one. c e r t a i n r e s e r v a t i o n s , that he must send h i s c h i l d r e n of h i g h s c h o o l age to a r e s i d e n t i a l or p a r o c h i a l , r a t h e r than to a p r o v i n c i a l s c h o o l or he and h i s f a m i l y w i l l ,be excommunicated by h i s Church. Such a r e g u l a t i o n i s not the t h r e a t i t might appear to be to one newly a p p r i s e d of i t , f o r q u i t e l i k e l y he cannot a f f o r d to c l o t h e these c h i l d r e n f o r h i g h s c h o o l anyway. F i n a l l y , he sees t h a t , whatever degree of educa t i o n h i s c h i l d r e n a t t a i n , there i s but one road open to them - the road t h a t leads back to the r e s e r v a t i o n . I n d i a n g i r l s from S e c h e l t , graduates w i t h commerce majors from S t . Mary's R e s i d e n t i a l S c h o o l , have met w i t h u n q u a l i f i e d f a i l u r e i n t h e i r attempts to f i n d employment i n t h e i r v o c a t i o n i n the adjacent White v i l l a g e , which d e r i v e s a l a r g e share of i t s business from the r e s e r v a t i o n . S t o r e s , bank, Post O f f i c e ; a l l r e f u s e d to employ. Twelve years of s c h o o l i n g aimed a t i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o the community had been c a n c e l l e d out. One, who c o u l d have passed f o r White, found employment In a r e s t a u r a n t , but even that s i n g l e e x c e p t i o n ended r e c e n t l y . The woman l i v e d o f f the re s e r v e d u r i n g her term of employment; she has si n c e r e t u r n e d to i t . An account i n the Vanderhoof l o c a l newspaper i n 1\u00b057 l i s t e d among the s t a f f of the Lejac R e s i d e n t i a l School \"Mr. Zaa Louie and Johnny Joseph, a s s i s t a n t s u p e r v i s o r s ; Miss Seraphine Joseph, Miss C l a r a Joseph and Miss Euphrasie Peter, a s s i s t a n t cooks, and Miss Leonie Louie, t y p i s t \" . \"The N e c o s l i e Reserve\", so a l e t t e r s t a t e s , \"boasts of a graduate nurse, another n u r s e - i n - t r a i n i n g , a graduate p r a c t i c a l 30 Dr. David C o r b e t t , speaking to B r i t i s h Columbia Reg-i o n a l Human Rights Conference, U.B.C. F a c u l t y Club, 1959. 121 nurse, and two boys who have completed t r a i n i n g i n v o c a t i o n a l s c h o o l s . S e v e r a l g i r l s completed grade twelve, and l a t e r r e -turned to the Reserve and m a r r i e d \" . In 1958, W i n n i f r e d McKinnon, Indian g i r l from Por t S t . James, won a $500 Department of I n d i a n A f f a i r s s c h o l a r s h i p f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n j u n i o r m a t r i c u l a t i o n . She w i l l a p ply the money to nurses* t r a i n i n g a t S t . P a u l ' s . She wants, so the press r e l e a s e says, to go back to work among her people as a p u b l i c h e a l t h nurse . 3 1 At Telegraph Creek, a p r o v i n c i a l s c h o o l , a l l but f o u r s t u d -ents out of one hundred and twenty were Indian i n 1958* The c h i l d r e n , stranded on the banks of the S t i k i n e by a changing technology that has passed them by, have never been beyond t h e i r v i l l a g e and know n o t h i n g of the world beyond i t . Only two s t u d -ents were e n r o l l e d i n grade e i g h t . 3 2 Some F e d e r a l o f f i c e s pay l i p s e r v i c e to n o n - d i s c r i m i n a t o r y employment p o l i c i e s by h i r i n g on t h e i r s t a f f s I n dian g i r l s who i n any s i t u a t i o n c o u l d pass the c o l o r l i n e . Such p r a c t i c e , r a t h e r than m i t i g a t i n g r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , o n l y tends t o emphasize the f a c t that i t e x i s t s . I t does n o t h i n g to promote t o l e r a t i o n by the g e n e r a l p u b l i c of those persons who possess f e a t u r e s which are d e f i n i t e l y I n d i a n , and h i n d e r s i n t e g r a t i o n of those who appear White and are i n f a c t predominantly White r a c i a l l y . One Indian l e a d e r , born of a White f a t h e r and married to a White woman, s a i d w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e p r i d e , i n an i n t e r v i e w , t h a t h i s son had become a s u c c e s s f u l d e n t i s t i n a l a r g e B r i t i s h 31 The Vancouver Sun; J u l y , 1959. 32 Information obtained from Fred Brown, p r i n c i p a l , J u l y , 1958. 122 Columbia C i t y . To the f a t h e r , an In d i a n had succeeded i n g a i n -i n g economic and s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n . To the son's c l i e n t s and f r i e n d s he i s undoubtedly White. Joe M i c h e l l e , of Chase, graduated from Kamloops R e s i d e n t i a l School i n 1950, from Vancouver Normal i n 1952, and i s now t e a c h -i n g a t the s c h o o l he f o r m e r l y attended. He says t h a t he f e l t p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y l o s t i n White c u l t u r e . He i s pleased to be teach-i n g h i s own people, among whom he r e t a i n s a f e e l i n g o f s o l i d -a r i t y . 3 3 R i g h t Reverend J.L. Coudert, OMI, V i c a r A p o s t o l i c of White-horse, has f e l t h i m s e l f i m p e l l e d to w r i t e on t h i s problem f o r the guidance of h i s m i s s i o n a r i e s : 3 4 Now, i n r e g a r d to the ed u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g of young I n d i a n s , i t was thought f o r some time t h a t a minimum of e d u c a t i o n would solve the problem of t h e i r i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o our Canadian way of l i f e ; b ut, as a matter of f a c t , i t appears now beyond a doubt, that such a l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n has only s e r -ved, i n most cases, to f a c i l i t a t e more frequent and dangerous r e l a t i o n s of our younger Indians w i t h the very type of whites a g a i n s t whose bad i n -f l u e n c e such an ed u c a t i o n was intended to p r o t e c t them. To sum up t h i s c h a p t e r : The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia are by no means a l l convinced that White e d u c a t i o n i s b e n e f i c i a l . They have v e r y l i t t l e say i n the kind of s c h o o l t h e i r c h i l d r e n a t t e n d , and no v o i c e whatever i n the c u r r i c u l u m f o l l o w e d by i t . Some f a m i l i e s are c u r r e n t l y a c q u i e s c i n g i n the i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t s c h o o l i n g can l e a d t o economic and s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n . The I n d i a n student who p e r s i s t s i n h i s s t u d i e s f i n d s , however, t h a t e d u c a t i o n opens no golden doors. 33 Information obtained from an Interview, J u l y , 1958* 3i+ C i r c u l a r No. U8 b i s . September 15, 1957. 123 A l l signs seem to p o i n t i n the same d i r e c t i o n . Some Ind-i a n s , such as W i n n i f r e d McKinnon and Joe M i c h e l l e , are a t t r a c t e d hack t o the r e s e r v a t i o n ; others are f o r c e d back. I t Is the o n l y s o c i e t y , the onl y c u l t u r e , i n which they are a t home. Beyond i t i s a \"Brave New World\", i n which the n a t i v e of B r i t i s h Columbia, l i k e t h a t from A r i z o n a i n the Huxley a l l e g o r y , i s destroyed i f he attempts to ent e r and remain i n i t . P l a t e VI CHAPTER VII CONCLUSIONS Lo, the poor Indian I whose u n t u t o r ' d mind Sees God i n c l o u d s , or hears him i n the wind; His s o u l , proud Science never taught to s t r a y Par as the s o l a r walk, or m i l k y way; Yet simple Nature to h i s hope has g i v ' n Behind the c l o u d - t o p t h i l l , an humbler heav'n. Alexander^ Pope The major p r o p o s i t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s i s that the Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia are not becoming i n t e g r a t e d i n t o the g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n , e c o n o m i c a l l y , c u l t u r a l l y , or e t h n i c a l l y ; such i n t e -g r a t i o n as has taken place i n the past w i l l i n the f o r s e e a b l e f u t u r e proceed a t a slower, not a f a s t e r pace. A l l succeeding c o n c l u s i o n s are c o r o l l a r i e s of t h i s prime p r o p o s i t i o n . These d e r i v a t i v e deductions are made up of a complex which can be broken down i n t o f o u r s u b o r d i n a t e , i n t e r r e l a t e d elements; e t h -n i c , s o c i o - c u l t u r a l , economic, and e d u c a t i o n a l : I . E t h n i c Conclusions 1. Indian males are s t i l l r e c e i v i n g almost no i n f l u e n c e what-ever from non-Indian females. Only one male Indian per agency, on the average, i s seeking enfranchisement each year, and even of t h i s number a la r g e percentage are un-m a r r i e d . 2. P o t e n t i a l f o r e t h n i c i n t e g r a t i o n v a r i e s tremendously throughout the p r o v i n c e . At such r e s e r v a t i o n s as Song-ees, T s a r t l i p , Nanaimo, A l b e r n i , North Vancouver, S e c h e l t , and o t h e r s , the p o t e n t i a l i s extremely h i g h . With r e s e r v e s on s m a l l i s l a n d s , a t the heads of i n l e t s , and a l o n g the Nass, S t i k i n e and Skeena r i v e r s i t i s low. Even i n areas i d e a l l y s i t u a t e d f o r e t h n i c i n t e g r a t i o n , however, such 12$ i n t e g r a t i o n i s not t a k i n g p l a c e . 3. The Indian has i n many p a r t s of B r i t i s h Columbia l e s s con-t a c t w i t h Whites than he had f i f t y or a hundred years ago. The White man's dependence on the Ind i a n has d e c l i n e d s t e a d i l y . Most White p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e has taken p l a c e i n a comparatively few c e n t r e s ; there has a c t u a l l y been a withdrawal of Whites from remote areas once pe n e t r a t e d by them. Even where White p o p u l a t i o n has i n c r e a s e d , there i s l i t t l e v i s - a - v i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . i | . I n d i v i d u a l Indians who speak i n f a v o r o f e t h n i c i n t e g r a t i o n do so because they have hope t h a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n , or t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s c h i l d r e n , may have a chance some day t o cr o s s the c o l o r l i n e and emerge as Whites. Those w i t h no such p e r c e p t i b l e hope do not speak of I n t e g r a t i o n . Many do not want i t . $. I n t e g r a t i o n i s not, as i s assumed by many, a process t h a t moves g r a d u a l l y from one extreme t o another. A f a m i l y does not c r o s s the c o l o r l i n e from one g e n e r a t i o n to another under the s c r u t i n y of i t s n e i g h b o r s . There i s i n the pro-cess no w a y - s t a t i o n , no p o i n t at which s o c i e t y says t h a t an Indian i s p a r t i a l l y i n t e g r a t e d . I n t e g r a t i o n occurs only when an i n d i v i d u a l completely c r o s s e s the c o l o r l i n e w i t h -out s o c i e t y ' s awareness that he has done so. He succeeds only so long as h i s Ind i a n background remains unknown, or vague and d i s t a n t i n both space and time^ 6. O f f s p r i n g r e s u l t i n g from mixed marriages, whether male or female Indian takes a White mate, are almost I n v a r i a b l y brought up on the r e s e r v a t i o n of the Ind i a n p a r e n t . They add to the Ind i a n , not the White p o p u l a t i o n . 126 7. I n f u s i o n of White blo o d has b u i l t up more r e s i s t a n c e to d i s e a s e , so t h a t there has been a g r e a t e r percentage of s u r v i v a l of those of mixed b l o o d . 1 The s u r v i v o r s have sur-v i v e d as I n d i a n s . Today, modern drugs are h e l p i n g pure-bloods to s u r v i v e , and an I n d i a n has a b e t t e r chance, through compulsory p e r i o d i c h e a l t h checks, of d e t e c t i o n of disease i n i t s e a r l y stages than has the average White p e r s o n . 2 8. Department of Indian A f f a i r s o f f i c i a l s s t a t e t h at they doubt t h a t B r i t i s h Columbia i s r e a l l y t r y i n g to i n t e g r a t e i t s Indians e t h n i c a l l y . 9. S c a t t e r e d through Indian country there w i l l remain f o r years to come Indians who have adapted t h e i r h a b i t s enough to get on s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h t h e i r White n e i g h b o r s , but who have a s t r o n g d e t e r m i n a t i o n not to s a c r i f i c e t h e i r r a c i a l i d e n t i t y , 3 I I . S o c i o - C u l t u r a l Conclusions 1. Indians c o n s i d e r themselves s o c i a l l y i n f e r i o r to Whites be-cause they have been c o n d i t i o n e d to f e e l t h a t way. There i s no p o i n t i n our r e g a r d i n g t h e m ^ur equals u n t i l they can c o n s i d e r themselves our equals.^\" 2. Even e n f r a n c h i s e d Indians are r e t u r n i n g to t h e i r o l d r e s e r -v a t i o n s . They f i n d that t h e i r c e r t i f i c a t e of enfranchisement i s no passport i n t o White c u l t u r e . 3. In g e n e r a l , Indians f e e l that enfranchisement means g i v i n g 1 Information obtained by i n t e g r a t i o n q u e s t i o n n a i r e . 2 Information obtained from H e a l t h and Welfare n u r s e . 3 L.G.P. W a l l e r , Workshop on I n d i a n E d u c a t i o n , 1952. K Correspondence from Prank Howard, MP Skeena, Sept. 15, 1958. 127 up o l d r i g h t s , not g a i n i n g new o n e s \/ Only M e t l a k a t l a has a p p l i e d f o r enfranchisement since bands obtained l e g a l en-t i t l e m s n t to do so i n 1951, and t h i s band d i d not proceed w i t h i t s a p p l i c a t i o n . In the human background, the primary s o c i a l group looms enormous i n terms of the human nature which i t made p o s s i b l e through a hundred thousand years or l o n g e r . The p r i m i t i v e primary s o c i a l group as a c t u a l l y exper-ienced by any given one of i t s members o f t e n was more massive and more complex and v e r s a t i l e than a whole g e n e r a t i o n of today as experienced by any g i v e n one of i t s members. 7 Some awareness of t h i s primary s o c i a l group and i t s complex of experiences s t i l l p e r s i s t s . \"I want Indians to remember 8 t h e i r h e r i t a g e and take p r i d e i n i t \" , s a i d Andy P a u l l . Indians adapted themselves t o t h e i r environment. Small numbers of Whites, i s o l a t e d i n s i m i l a r l o c a l i t i e s on the B r i t i s h Columbia c o a s t , removed from the technology o f t h e i r c u l t u r e , would be f o r c e d t o adapt i n much the same way today as d i d these other peoples d u r i n g the past thou-sands of y e a r s . The White man's world Is p a s s i n g the Indian's at an a c c -e l l e r a t i n g r a t e . The f i r s t European t o v i s i t the northwest, p a r t i c u l a r l y the man before the mast, found l i t t l e d i f f e r -ence between the lodge of the n a t i v e and the home he had l e f t (See Lord Macaulay's H i s t o r y of England, V o l . I , page 320, f o r c o n d i t i o n s of London s t r e e t s d u r i n g l680's, and R.L. Stevenson's Kidnapped f o r c o n d i t i o n s of S c o t t i s h homes ______ s 5 G l o r i a Cranmer, CBU Roundtable, Nov. 8, 1958. b I n d i a n A c t , 1951, S e c t i o n 111. 7 John C o l l i e r , op. c i t . , p. 21. 8 Obituary A r t i c l e , Vancouver Sun, J u l y 30, 1959. 128 i n 1750. John J e w i t t ' s o n l y comment on the lodge of C h i e f Maquinna was an e x p r e s s i o n of amazement as to i t s s i z e ) . Most r u r a l f a m i l i e s o f B r i t i s h Columbia t h i r t y years ago l i v e d without running water, e l e c t r i c i t y , or the l u x u r y of automobile ownership. Almost no White c h i l d i n B r i t i s h C o l -umbia i s r a i s e d i n such a combination of circumstances t o -day. A i m o s t no I n d i a n c h i l d Is r a i s e d i n a combination of a l l . t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s . But i t Is not i n j u s t these outward s i g n s of standard of l i v i n g t h a t c o n d i t i o n s d i f f e r . The White f a m i l y , d u r i n g the past t h i r t y years or so, through the media of p r e s s , r a d i o , and now t e l e v i s i o n - amenities which again the Indian has been l i t t l e a f f e c t e d by - has been propagandized i n t o a world that makes a f e t i s h of l a b o r s a v i n g d e v i c e s , a p p l i a n c e s , a e s t h e t i c f u r n i s h i n g s , s a n i -t a t i o n , deodorants, and symptoms of conspicuous consumption. The worlds of the White and the Indian are s e p a r a t i n g , not converging. 7. Indians do not speak w i t h one v o i c e i n t h e i r attempts to answer t h e i r problems. Questioners are p u z z l e d by t h e i r answers, because they are confused as to what to say. White c u l t u r e has helped to s p l i t t h e i r p h i l o s o p h i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y along r e l i g i o u s l i n e s , u n t i l they have come to d i f f e r i n ways i n which they would not o r d i n a r i l y d i f f e r . The Native Brotherhood and the I n t e r i o r Confederacy, f o r i n s t a n c e , cleave the two geographic areas along r e l i g i o u s l i n e s . 8. C h r i s t i a n i t y , a l l that has been o f f e r e d the Indian i n place of the old way of l i f e i t helped t o d e s t r o y , i s not enough to f i l l the v o i d . 129 I I I . Economic Conclusions 1. The White man, du r i n g the f i r s t years of c o n t a c t , gave the Indian, i n exchange f o r what he had to o f f e r i n t r a d e , goods which were of value o n l y i n the n a t i v e way of l i f e . Then he broke t h a t way of l i f e , and I t s system of values along w i t h i t . He has never g i v e n the I n d i a n , f o r h i s time and e f f o r t , an exchange that i s of e q u i t a b l e value i n the White c u l t u r e . 2. Indians are not being g i v e n a chance t o a t t a i n the degree of s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y they c o u l d a t t a i n even on such s m a l l p l o t s of ground as have been l e f t them. They cannot i n v e s t band funds to develop even such r e s o u r c e s as t h e i r r e s e r v e s possess(The Quinte Mohawks of Ontario i n 1959 earned the r i g h t to spend t h e i r own revenue, the onl y band t o date i n Canada able to make use of S e c t i o n 68 of the 1951 I n d i a n A c t ) . 9 S e c h e l t Indians have been unable to secure p e r m i s s i o n to e r e c t t h e i r own saw-mill w i t h band funds. The r e s u l t i s that a White-owned m i l l now operates on the r e s e r v e . 3. R e s e r v a t i o n s are \" i s l a n d s without hope.... pockets of des- t\/ p a i r \" , 1 0 where Indians l i v e as e t h n i c , c u l t u r a l and economic r e f u g e e s . The answers to t h e i r other problems can come only through answers to t h e i r economic problems. Economic p a r i t y must be a t t a i n e d before c u l t u r a l or e t h n i c i n t e g r a -t i o n i n t o White c u l t u r e can p r o g r e s s . U n t i l they can g a i n confidence i n themselves through some measure of economic s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y , they w i l l remain \" s t a r t l e d , b e w i l d e r e d , f r i g h t e n e d , a t the mention of enfranchisement or i n t e g r a t i o n - r e s e r v e - p r o n e \" . 1 1 9 I n d i a n News, Ottawa, J u l y , 1959. 10 Dorothy Howarth, Vancouver Sun. August 22, 1959. 11 Loc. c i t . 130 IV. E d u c a t i o n a l Conclusions 1. Indians need e d u c a t i o n , but e d u c a t i o n i s not the panacea f o r t h e i r problems i t i s claimed by some to be. Mrs. E l l e n P a i r c l o u g h , M i n i s t e r o f C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration, i s r e p o r t e d ^ 2 to have s a i d , \" I f we can persuade Indian parents to get c h i l d r e n i n t o schools a t f i v e or s i x years of age, i n s t e a d o f n i n e , t e n , or e l e v e n , the problem would be s o l v e d i n a g e n e r a t i o n \" . Many f a m i l i e s have sent t h e i r c h i l d r e n to sc h o o l a t the l e g a l s t a r t i n g age, and t h e i r \"problem\", how-ever l o o s e l y t h a t word might be d e f i n e d , has not been s o l v e d . 2. F a i l u r e of ed u c a t i o n t o solve the I n d i a n s 1 problem i s not a l l due to t h e i r r e t i c e n c e to p i n t h e i r hopes on i t . A con-ference of Roman C a t h o l i c teachers i n 1957 d e c i d e d : l Due to d i f f e r e n c e s i n c u l t u r a l background and i n view of the f a c t that the m a j o r i t y of non-Indians are not educated to understand the Indians, no s c h o o l can pre-pare Indians f o r the same k i n d of l i f e experience and v o c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s as i f they were non-Indian. 13; 3\u00ab E d u c a t i o n i s today o n l y advancing the In d i a n toward an i n -t e g r a t i o n that i s i l l u s o r y . Larger groups coming up the e d u c a t i o n a l l a d d e r , u n l e s s they f i n d economic o p p o r t u n i t i e s j c u r r e n t graduates are not f i n d i n g , w i l l only add to group f r u s t r a t i o n . I}.. Indian e d u c a t i o n i n B r i t i s h Columbia has from i t s beginnings been the r e s u l t , not of any c a r e f u l l y conceived o v e r - a l l program, but of an h i s t o r i c a c c i d e n t which brought s p o r a d i c b u r s t s of i n t e r e s t by v a r i o u s denominational s e c t s i n the 12 Vancouver Sun. August 22, 1959. 13 Information obtained from Father Berbado, OMI S e c h e l t R e s i d e n t i a l School p r i n c i p a l , J u l y , 1958. 131 I n d i a n s ' s p i r i t u a l . w e l f a r e . Denominational t e a c h e r s , from the beginning of what might be c a l l e d I ndian e d u c a t i o n to the present day, have been h o s t i l e to the I n d i a n s ' way of l i f e . The Indian has been t r a d i t i o n a l l y taught, then, by persons i n i m i c a l to whatever v e s t i g e the Indian student r e t a i n e d of h i s own c u l t u r e . 5 . With the I n d i a n , as w i t h other \" l e s s e r breeds\", d i s c r i m i n -a t i o n began as an e t h n i c phenomenon; assumed l e g a l form l a t e r . Only d u r i n g the past decade or so have attempts been made to a m e l i o r a t e e t h n i c d i s c r i m i n a t i o n through r e v i s i o n s of d i s c r i m i n a t o r y l e g i s l a t i o n . Such r e v i s i o n s , however, armed as they are w i t h e d u c a t i o n a l , r a t h e r than economic weapons, w i l l i n e l u c t a b l y f a i l . I f B r i t i s h Columbia I n d i a n s , g a i n i n g g r a d u a l l y i n education as they a r e , awake more f u l l y to the f a c t t h a t economic e q u a l i t y i s being denied t h e i r r a c e , i t i s e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e that they w i l l develop a f e e l i n g of o v e r t n a t i o n a l i s m . I f t h a t o c c u r s , then pres-^ ent day benign l e g i s l a t i o n might once more become o p p r e s s i v e . 6. Diana Maddox, commenting on the A p a r t h e i d system of South A f r i c a , a f f i r m e d 3 \" 4 t h a t \"Neither by s u b t e l t y , s a i n t h o o d , nor genius can he (the negro) be anything but a b l a c k man\". Although the p o s i t i o n of the Indian i n B r i t i s h Columbia i s not i d e n t i c a l , I t i s n e a r l y so. 7. Even i f the day comes when ed u c a t i o n can assume i t s proper place i n the process of I n d i a n I n t e g r a t i o n , whether such i n t e g r a t i o n be e t h n i c or c u l t u r a l , i t w i l l have to take a form d i f f e r e n t from t h a t which i t has assumed to the p r e s e n t \" 11+ CBU, August 2 2 , 1959. 132 day. P r o f e s s o r s Hawthorn, Belshaw, and Jamiesen s t a t e i n g e n e r a l terms the form i t must take: 1-* The immature person i s i n the l e a s t e f f e c t i v e p o s i t i o n to i n i t i a t e s o c i a l reform, and should the teachers f e e l c a l l e d upon to undertake a program of reform, they w i l l f i n d more e f f e c t i v e ways of f u r t h e r i n g i t than by t r y i n g to b r i n g i t about through the c h i l d r e n . R e g i o n a l Inspector L.G-.P. W a l l e r s t a t e s more s p e c i f i c a l l y the course t h a t Indian e d u c a t i o n i n the f u t u r e must t a k e : 1 ^ I t i s not the young people to whom we must a p p e a l . They may be the ones who must u l t i m a t e l y base t h e i r success upon a change i n t r i b a l a t t i t u d e s , b u t t h e v change must b e g i n i n the t h i n k i n g of t h e i r e l d e r s . C h i l d r e n have never b a s i c a l l y a l t e r e d any c u l t u r e . A s c h o o l , v as educators know, cannot w i t h impunity advance on any f r o n t v ery f a r beyond the concepts of t h e , c u l t u r e of which i t i s a p a r t . E d u c a t i o n does not i n g e n e r a l advance a c i v i l i -z a t i o n . Rather, i t forms but a p o r t i o n of the broad c u l t u r a l base of i t s c i v i l i z a t i o n , and advances only as the e n t i r e broad c u l t u r a l base i t s e l f advances. The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia cannot adopt our White c u l t u r e u n t i l they can a f f o r d to do so. U n t i l they can buy the p h y s i c a l components of White c u l t u r e , e d u c a t i o n toward a t a s t e f o r them i s b o o t l e s s . When, and o n l y when, the Indians can be helped to solve t h i s economic problem, can e d u c a t i o n be of any a v a i l toward i n t e g r a t i o n . The p r o v i n c e of e d u c a t i o n must then i n c l u d e , not o n l y the c h i l d r e n , who cannot e f f e c t i v e l y a c t upon i t s d e s i r a b l e motives, but a l s o the a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n , who can. 15 The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 3O3. 16 Workshop oh I n d i a n E d u c a t i o n , V i c t o r i a , 1952. 3 133 RECOMMENDATIONS Canada and i t s pr o v i n c e s are faced w i t h making one of f o u r b a s i c choices i n t a k i n g a c t i o n to reduce i t s h i s t o r i c I n d i a n problem. They can: (a) l e t them s t a r v e , (b) give them d o l e , (c) employ them, or (d) work out some means by which they can, w i t h a minimum of White technology, l e a d t h e i r own way of l i f e . The f i r s t choice i s of course e t h i c a l l y i n d e f e n s i b l e . The second course of a c t i o n i s being pursued on some r e s e r v a t i o n s t o such an ext e n t that i t can be almost d e s c r i b e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g present day p o l i c y . As a permanent course o f a c t i o n i t i s moral-i s t i c a l l y u n t enable. The t h i r d course of a c t i o n c o u l d be f o l l o w e d f a i r l y q u i c k l y i n l o c a l i t i e s where Indian and White p o p u l a t i o n s are re a s o n a b l y a d j a c e n t . I t would there simply mean an e x t e n s i o n of the p o l i c y which i s a l r e a d y being f o l l o w e d In theory by the In d i a n A f f a i r s Branch, other F e d e r a l departments, and some b u s i n e s s e s ; namely, t h a t o f employing, i n o f f i c e s , p l a c e s of b u s i n e s s , s e r v i c e i n -d u s t r i e s and manufacturing p l a n t s a p r o p o r t i o n of I n d i a n h e l p . In many towns and v i l l a g e s i t would simply mean a r e l a x a t i o n of present d i s c r i m i n a t o r y p r a c t i c e , f o r many Indians are q u a l i f i e d f o r employment which i s c u r r e n t l y being denied them on p u r e l y r a c i a l grounds. F u r t h e r economic s e l f - s u f f i e i e n c y c o u l d be gained through employment of Indians t o do jobs they are capable o f doing, but which are now b e i n g done by non-Indians, on t h e i r own r e s e r v e s . Freedom to use band funds f o r e n t e r p r i s e investment might r e s u l t 13k i n some business f a i l u r e s , but even i f the p r o p o r t i o n were to reach o n e - h a l f , i t would be no h i g h e r than the r a t e of f a i l u r e In American s o c i e t y . Hugh S h i r r e f f , Skeena MLA, i s r e p o r t e d 1 7 to have accused the F e d e r a l government of n e g l e c t i n i t s h a n d l i n g of I n d i a n a f f a i r s , and to have suggested that the B r i t i s h Columbia govern-ment take over a l l c o n t r o l of I n d i a n a f f a i r s . C e r t a i n l y F e d e r a l -P r o v i n c i a l c o o p e r a t i o n beyond the p r e s e n t e d u c a t i o n a l b a s i s would be h e l p f u l . A Royal Canadian Mounted P o l i c e o f f i c e r a t Ladysmith a d v i s e d a g a i n s t a v i s i t to the S h e l l Beach r e s e r v e i n A p r i l of 1958 because the access road was almost Impassable. The Indians r e c e i v e no allowance f o r road maintenance, and there i s no F e d e r a l equipment to m a i n t a i n r e s e r v e r o a d s . P r o v i n c i a l road machinery passes the r e s e r v e s by, and P r o v i n c i a l P u b l i c Works foremen do not h i r e Indians on t h e i r crews because they do not pay d i r e c t P r o v i n c i a l l a n d t a x e s . Indians do, however, pay a l l other P r o v i n c i a l t a x e s , d i r e c t and hidden, to an amount g r e a t e r than the one tax from which they are exempt. Such employment would not go f a r to h e l p the g e n e r a l economic p l i g h t , but i t would, by b r i n g i n g the I n d i a n more c l o s e l y i n t o the o v e r a l l economic s t r u c t u r e of the p r o v i n c e , a s s i s t i n promotion of the next step, c u l t u r a l i n t e g r a t i o n . In l o c a l i t i e s remote from centres of White p o p u l a t i o n , where Indians cannot t h e r e f o r e a l l be r e a d i l y employed i n one or the other o f the aforementioned manners, they must be g i v e n oppor-t u n i t i e s f o r seIf-employment. Bishop Coudert, i n a c i r c u l a r 1 8 to h i s m i s s i o n a r i e s , w r i t e s on t h i s t o p i c : ~~ 17 Vancouver Sun, February 10, 1959. 18 No. 1+8 b i s . September 15, 1957. 135 We have come to the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t most of the uneducated and p r i m i t i v e n a t i v e s , who are unable to make a decent l i v i n g i n the white s e t t l e m e n t s , should be f o r some time, a t l e a s t , sent back to t h e i r h u n t i n g grounds, and s u b s i d i z e d to t r y and l i v e t h e i r normal I n d i a n l i f e ; money thus spent would keep them working and h e a l t h y and away from the p h y s i c a l and moral d e g r e d a t i o n to which they are unavoidably exposed i n town. Such a p o l i c y would, I am sure, mean a saving f o r the I n d i a n Branch, the Department of H e a l t h and Welf a r e , and the Department of J u s t i c e . Bishop Coudert sees happening at Whitehorse now what hap-pened i n B r i t i s h Columbia as f a r back as a hundred years ago. His s u g g e s t i o n i s designed to prevent the trend from running f u l l c y c l e , as i t has done i n many l o c a l i t i e s h e r e . A t t r a c t i o n to the c e n t r e s of p o p u l a t i o n has not l e d to I n t e g r a t i o n , but only to the worst k i n d of a c c u l t u r a t i o n . Bishop Coudert's r e c -comendation would n e c e s s i t a t e e n l a r g i n g most present remote r e -serves to a p o i n t where they would enclose s u f f i c i e n t game, f u r s and timber t o provide economic s u f f i c i e n c y . ^Whether Indians f i n d employment i n the g e n e r a l c u l t u r e of the country or on t h e i r r e s e r v a t i o n s , they must be p e r m i t t e d to r e t a i n whatever elements of t h e i r h e r i t a g e they r e q u i r e to s u s t a i n them u n t i l such time as they might no longer need i t . No c u l t u r e :can grow except by s t r e n g t h d e r i v e d from I t s own pa s t . T h i s s t r e n g t h cannot come from any h e r i t a g e but i t s owny To the present day, much o f the I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n has had no r e a l o p p o r t u n i t y to merge i n t o White c u l t u r e . U n t i l i t can do so, i t must be pe r m i t t e d t o i d e n t i f y i t s e l f w i t h i t s own pa:st. We must admit, f o r the time a t l e a s t , t h a t the I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia i s an enclave of c u l t u r e i n the whole popu-l a t i o n . We e r r i n b e l i e v i n g i t to be a co u n t e r p a r t of the White element of the p r o v i n c e . We must show the Indians that we are s i n c e r e ; t h a t we are d e a l i n g w i t h them w i t h i n t e g r i t y . We can 136 g a i n , suggests Prank Howard, MP f o r Skeena, by r e c i p r o c a t i n g w i t h a t l e a s t an a p p r e c i a t i o n of the Indian's c u l t u r e i n r e -t u r n f o r h i s adopting o u r s . 1 ^ Indian e d u c a t i o n s t i l l has before i t the job i t s e t out to do a hundred years ago; th3t_..of\u201e.convincing t h e ^ n a t i v e t h a t a c c e p t -ance of our c u l t u r e would be b e n e f i c i a l t o him. Many bands cannot yet merge i n t o our s o c i e t y . C h i l d r e n of these bands must be edu-cated In such a way t h a t our c u l t u r e ^ i s _ n o t f o r e i g n toJbhem, but a l s o i n such a way that t h e i r own n a t i v e way of l i f e i s not made so f o r e i g n to them that they cannot continue f o r the time b e i n g i n i t . I t i s p o i n t l e s s to educate a g e n e r a t i o n f o r a l i f e t h a t cannot be t h e i r s . Where groups are i n c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h White c u l t u r e , and as others i n s u c c e s s i o n come i n t o such c o n t a c t , they can be guided toward a c c u l t u r a t i o n . The age-group t h a t musjt be approached is_ the .adult group. A d u l t I n d i a n s , who pay p r o v i n c i a l taxes on the goods they buy, must be g i v e n a . d i r e c t v o i c e , v i a school d i s t r i c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , i n an e d u c a t i o n a l system that must become one w i t h i n the p r o v i n c e . Only then can true e d u c a t i o n , as we envisage i t i n the p u b l i c schools of B r i t i s h Columbia, begin to take place f o r the I n d i a n . 19 Correspondence of September 1$, 19$b\\ 137 APPENDIX \"A\" EXCERPTS PROM THE INDIAN ACT, l \u00b0 5 l Chapter l l i 9 \u00bb Schools 113. The Governor i n C o u n c i l may a u t h o r i z e the M i n i s t e r , i n accordance w i t h t h i s A c t , (a) to e s t a b l i s h , operate and maintain schools f o r I n d i a n c h i l d r e n , (b) to enter i n t o agreements on b e h a l f of Her Majesty f o r the edu c a t i o n i n accordance w i t h t h i s A c t of Ind i a n c h i l d r e n , w i t h (1) the government of a p r o v i n c e , ( i i ) a p u b l i c or separate s c h o o l board, and ( i l l ) a r e l i g i o u s or c h a r i t a b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n . I I L L . The M i n i s t e r may (a) provide f o r and make r e g u l a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t to standards f o r b u i l d i n g s , equipment, t e a c h i n g , e d u c a t i o n , i n s p e c t i o n and d i s c i p l i n e i n connec t i o n w i t h s c h o o l s , (b) provide f o r the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of c h i l d r e n to and from s c h o o l , (c) e n t e r i n t o agreements w i t h r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r the support and maintenance of c h i l d r e n who are being educated i n schools operated by those o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and (d) apply the whole or any p a r t of moneys t h a t would otherwise be payable to or on b e h a l f of a c h i l d who i s a t t e n d i n g a r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l to the maintenance of that c h i l d a t t h a t s c h o o l . 115. (1) Subject t o s e c t i o n 116, every Indian c h i l d who has a t t a i n e d the age of seven years s h a l l a t t e n d s c h o o l . (2) The M i n i s t e r may (a) permit an I n d i a n who has a t t a i n e d the age of s i x years t@ at t e n d s c h o o l , \u2022(b) r e q u i r e an In d i a n who becomes s i x t e e n years o f age d u r i n g the s c h o o l term t o continue t o at t e n d s c h o o l u n t i l the end of that term, and (c) r e q u i r e an Indian who becomes s i x t e e n years o f age to at t e n d s c h o o l . f o r such f u r t h e r p e r i o d as the M i n i s t e r con-s i d e r s a d v i s a b l e , but no Indian s h a l l be r e q u i r e d to a t t e n d s c h o o l a f t e r he becomes ei g h t e e n years of age. 117. Every I n d i a n c h i l d who i s r e q u i r e d to a t t e n d s c h o o l s h a l l a t t e n d such s c h o o l as the M i n i s t e r may d e s i g n a t e , but no c h i l d whose parent i s a P r o t e s t a n t s h a l l be assign e d to a s c h o o l conducted under Roman C a t h o l i c auspices and no c h i l d whose parent i s a Roman C a t h o l i c s h a l l be assigned to a s c h o o l con-ducted under P r o t e s t a n t a u s p i c e s , except by w r i t t e n d i r e c t i o n of the parent. 138 119* An Indian c h i l d wh\u00a9 (a) i s e x p e l l e d or suspended from s c h o o l , or (b) r e f u s e s or f a i l s t o attend s c h o o l r e g u l a r l y , s h a l l be deemed to be a j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n t w i t h i n the meaning of the J u v e n i l e Delinquent A c t . 120. (1) Where the m a j o r i t y of the members of a band belongs to one r e l i g i o u s denomination the s c h o o l e s t a b l i s h e d on the r e s e r v e t h a t has been s e t apart f o r the use and b e n e f i t of t h a t band s h a l l be taught by a teacher of that denomination. (2) Where the m a j o r i t y of the members of a band are not members of the same r e l i g i o u s denomination and the band by a m a j o r i t y vote of those e l e c t o r s of the band who were presen t a t a meeting c a l l e d f o r the purpose requests t h a t day sc h o o l s on the r e s e r v e should be taught by a teacher b e l o n g i n g to a p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g -i o u s denomination, the s c h o o l on t h a t r e s e r v e s h a l l be taught by a teacher of t h a t denomination. 121. A . P r o t e s t a n t or Roman C a t h o l i c m i n o r i t y of any band may, w i t h the a p p r o v a l of and under r e g u l a t i o n s to be made by the M i n i s t e r , have a separate day s c h o o l or day s c h o o l classroom e s t a b l i s h e d on the r e s e r v e u n l e s s , i n the o p i n i o n of the Gover-nor i n C o u n c i l , the number of c h i l d r e n of s c h o o l age does not so warrant. 139 APPENDIX \"B\" EXCERPTS PROM INDIAN DAY SCHOOL REGULATIONS 1+. The s c h o o l calendar of the p r o v i n c e , t e r r i t o r y or m u n i c i -p a l i t y w i t h i n the boundaries \u00a9f which the s c h o o l i s s i t u -ated s h a l l be the c a l e n d a r of such s c h o o l , except t h a t s c h c o l s conducted under Roman C a t h o l i c a u s p i c e s s h a l l not be i n s e s s i o n on The Epiphany, The As c e n s i o n , and A H S a i n t s and Conception Days. 5>. (1) The l e n g t h of the s c h o o l day s h a l l be f i v e and one-h a l f hours i n c l u s i v e of time f o r r e c e s s , opening exer-c i s e s and assemblies, and s h a l l extend from 9 a.m. to twelve noon and from 1:30 p.m. to I4. p.m. (2) The Superintendent may, where necessary or d e s i r a b l e , a u t h o r i z e changes i n the hours p r e s c r i b e d i n (1). 6. The sc h o o l c u r r i c u l u m of the province or t e r r i t o r y w i t h i n the boundaries of which the s c h o o l i s s i t u a t e d s h a l l , sub-j e c t to any changes a u t h o r i z e d by the Superintendent, be the c u r r i c u l u m f o r such s c h o o l . 7. The t e x t books s h a l l , s u b j e c t to any changes a u t h o r i z e d by the Superintendent, be those p r e s c r i b e d f o r the pro v i n c e or t e r r i t o r y i n which the school Is s i t u a t e d . 8. (1) A p e r i o d of not more than one-half hour a day to be devoted t o r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n may be i n c l u d e d i n the t i m e - t a b l e f o r classroom i n s t r u c t i o n . (2) R e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n may be g i v e n by any person . a s s i g n e d f o r such purpose by the r e l i g i o u s denomin-a t i o n i n the f a i t h of which p u p i l s are to be i n s t r u c t e d . (3) A p u p i l s h a l l not be r e q u i r e d t o r e c e i v e i n s t r u c t i o n i n the f a i t h of any r e l i g i o u s denomination c o n t r a r y to the d e s i r e of such p u p i l ' s parent as expressed to the p r i n -c i p a l or teacher i n charge of the s c h o o l and reco r d e d i n the sc h o o l r e g i s t e r . 13. A p r i n c i p a l or teacher i n charge of a s c h o o l s h a l l ( f ) exclude from the s c h o o l any person whom the S u p e r i n -tendent, Indian Agency, d e s i g n a t e s . 14. The Superintendent, I n d i a n Agency, s h a l l r e g u l a r l y i n s p e c t s c h o o l p r o p e r t y . l ^ . When, pursuant t o paragraph (c) or (d) of S e c t i o n l l 6 of the I n d i a n Act a c h i l d i s not r e q u i r e d to attend s c h o o l , the Superintendent s h a l l i s s u e to the p r i n c i p a l or teacher concerned a c e r t i f i c a t e to that e f f e c t . 16. (1) Teachers s h a l l be s e l e c t e d by the Superintendent and recommended by him f o r appointment, and the S u p e r i n -tendent s h a l l n o t i f y teachers of t h e i r appointment s t a t i n g the sc h o o l to which they are a s s i g n e d . BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Adams, E v e l y n C. American Indian E d u c a t i o n . New York, Kings Crown Pr e s s , 191+6. 2. B a n c r o f t , J . Austen. Geology o f the Coast and I s l a n d s Between the S t r a i t of Georgia and Queen C h a r l o t t e  Sound. B.C. G e o l o g i c a l Survey, Memoir 23, 1913. 3 . B a r n e t t , Homer G. The C o a s t a l S a l l s h o f B r i t i s h C o l -umbia. U n i v e r s i t y of Oregon, 1955\u2022 !+. Begg, Alexander. H i s t o r y of B r i t i s h Columbia. Toronto, W i l l i a m B r i g g s , IO9I4.. 5 . B r i t i s h Columbia A d v i s o r y Committee. Reports. V i c t o r i a , Queen's P r i n t e r . 6. B r i t i s h Columbia I n d i a n A r t s and Welfare S o c i e t y . Re-po r t of Conference on Native I n d i a n A f f a i r s a t  Acadia Camp. U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia. 191+8. 7. Brown, Rev. R.C. Linden. M i s s i o n a r y L i f e i n B r i t i s h Columbia. London, I 8 7 3 . 8. Canada, Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s . The Canada Year Book. (S e l e c t e d Y e a r s ) . Ottawa, Queen's P r i n t e r . 9. C o l l i e r , John. Indians of the. Americas. New York, Mentor Pr e s s , 191+7. 10. Crosby, Rev. Thomas. Up and Down the North P a c i f i c Coast by Canoe and M i s s i o n S h i p . F r e d e r i c k C l a r k e Stephenson, 19H+\u2022 11. Dorey, G. No V a n i s h i n g Race - The Canadian I n d i a n Today. Toronto. Ryerson. 1955. '. : 12. Drucker, P h i l i p . Indians o f the Northwest Coast. Smithsonian I n s t i t u t e , 1955* 13. Emmons, G.T. The T a h l t a n I n d i a n s . U n i v e r s i t y o f Penn-s y l v a n l a , Museum A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1911. ll+. Evans, Hubert. Mist on the R i v e r . Toronto, Copp C l a r k , 195li 15. Golden J u b i l e e of C h r i s t i e I n d i a n R e s i d e n t i a l S c h o o l . V i c t o r i a , Acme Press, 1950. 16. H a l l i d a y , W i l l i a m May. P o t l a t c h and Totem. Toronto, 1935. 17. Hawthorn, H.B., Belshaw, C.S., Jamieson, S.M. The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, The U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto Press, 1958. 18. H i l l - T o u t , C h a r l e s . Oceanic O r i g i n of the K w a k l u t l -Nootka and S a l l s h Stocks of B r i t i s h Columbia. Ottawa, J . Hope and Sons, 1898\u2022 19. The Native Races of the B r i t i s h Empire - B r i t i s h North America: The F a r We3t, The Home of the S a l i s h and Dene. London, A r c h i b a l d Constable and Co. L t d . , 1907. 20. Howay, F.W. B r i t i s h Columbia. The Ryerson Press, 1928. 21. Jenness, Diamond. The Indians of Canada. B u l l e t i n 65, N a t i o n a l Museum of Canada, Ottawa, 1932. 22. \u2014 \u2014 T h e Sekani Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia. Canada Department of Mines and Resources, B u l l e t i n 81+, 1937. 23\u00bb J e w i t t , John Rodgers. A J o u r n a l Kept a t Nootka D u r i n g  the Years 1802-1805. Boston, C.E. Goodspeed, 1931. 2l+. Large, R.G. The Skeena, R i v e r of D e s t i n y . Vancouver, M i t c h e l l P r e s s , 1957. 2 5 . Morice, Rev. A.G. H i s t o r y of the C a t h o l i c Church In Western Canada (1659-1895)\u2022 Toronto, The Musson Book Co. L t d . , 1910. 26. M e l l w r a i t h , T.F. \"The Indians of Canada\". The Annals of the American Academy of P o l i t i c a l and S o c i a l  S c i e n c e , September, 19U-7* 27. MacLaurin. D.L. The H i s t o r y of E d u c a t i o n i n the Crown Co l o n i e s of Vancouver I s l a n d and B r i t i s h Columbia  and In the Province of B r i t i s h Columbia. - U n i v e r s i t y of Washington, Unpublished d o c t o r a l t h e s i s , 193b. 28. Nelson, Denys. F o r t Langley I827-I927. Vancouver A r t , H i s t o r i c a l \u00a7nd S c i e n t i f i c A s s o c i a t i o n , 1927. 29. Ormsby, Margaret. B r i t i s h Columbia: A H i s t o r y . Van-couver, Evergreen Press, 1958\u2022 30. Peake, Rev. Frank A. The A n g l i c a n Church In. B r i t i s h Columbia. Vancouver, M i t c h e l l P ress, 1959\u2022 31. P h i l l i p s , Charles E . The Development of E d u c a t i o n i n Canada. Toronto, W.J. Gage, 1957. 32. P i e r c e , Rev. W i l l i a m Henry. From P o t l a t c h to P u l p i t Vancouver Bindery, 1933* ll+2 33* R a v e n h i l l , A l i c e . The Native T r i b e s of B r i t i s h Columbia. 1938. : 3lj.. Reports of the Department of I n d i a n A f f a i r s and of the  Indi a n A f f a i r s Branch, Ottawa, Queen's p r i n t e r . 35\u00bb Report of the. Royal Commission on Indian A f f a i r s f o r the Province of B r i t i s h Columbia. Acme P r e s s , 1916\u00bb 36. Sage, Walter. S i r James Douglas and B r i t i s h Columbia. The U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto Pres3, 1930. 37. S c o t t , D.C. The A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of I n d i a n A f f a i r s . Canada I n s t i t u t e of P u b l i c A f f a i r s , 1931. 38. S c o t t , Captain Robert C. My Captain O l i v e r ; A S t o r y of Two M i s s i o n a r i e s on the B r i t i s h Columbia Coast. Toronto, 191+7. 39* S u t t l e s , Wayne. \"The P l a t e a u Prophet Dance Among the Coast S a l i s h \" . Southwestern J o u r n a l of Anthropology. U n i v e r s i t y of New Mexico, Winter, 1957. 1+0. T e i t , James. The S a l i s h a n T r i b e s of the Western P l a t e a u . Washington, U.S. P r i n t i n g Bureau, 1930. 1+1. Thompson, P.W. The Employment Problems and Economic Status of the B r i t i s h Columbia I n d i a n s . Master of S o c i a l Work t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1951. 1+2. V a l l e r y , H.J. A H i s t o r y of I n d i a n E d u c a t i o n i n Canada. King s t o n , Queen's U n i v e r s i t y , Master \u00a9f A r t s T h e s i s , 191+2. 1+3. Wellcome, Henry S. The S t o r y of M e t l a k a h t l a , 1887. 1+1+. W e l l s , H.G. The Ou t l i n e of H i s t o r y , 1920. 1+5. Wolfenden, R. Commission on Co n d i t i o n s of Indians o f the North-West Coast. ItitJb. 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