{"Affiliation":[{"label":"Affiliation","value":"Non UBC","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#departmentOrSchool","classmap":"vivo:EducationalProcess","property":"vivo:departmentOrSchool"},"iri":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#departmentOrSchool","explain":"VIVO-ISF Ontology V1.6 Property; The department or school name within institution; Not intended to be an institution name."}],"AggregatedSourceRepository":[{"label":"Aggregated Source Repository","value":"DSpace","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/dataProvider","classmap":"ore:Aggregation","property":"edm:dataProvider"},"iri":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/dataProvider","explain":"A Europeana Data Model Property; The name or identifier of the organization who contributes data indirectly to an aggregation service (e.g. Europeana)"}],"Citation":[{"label":"Citation","value":"Srecko Koralija. (2022). Targums. Database of Religious History, Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia.","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#identifierCitation","classmap":"oc:PublicationDescription","property":"oc:identifierCitation"},"iri":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#identifierCitation","explain":"UBC Open Collections Metadata Components; Local Field; Indicates a bibliographic reference for the resource if it has been previously published."}],"Contributor":[{"label":"Contributor","value":"Database of Religious History (DRH)","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/contributor","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:contributor"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/contributor","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource.; Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organization, or a service."}],"Creator":[{"label":"Creator","value":"Koralija, Srecko","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:creator"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; An entity primarily responsible for making the resource.; Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organization, or a service."}],"DateAvailable":[{"label":"Date Available","value":"2022-11-23T17:34:52Z","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","classmap":"edm:WebResource","property":"dcterms:issued"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; Date of formal issuance (e.g., publication) of the resource."}],"DateIssued":[{"label":"Date Issued","value":"2022-04-20","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","classmap":"oc:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:issued"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; Date of formal issuance (e.g., publication) of the resource."}],"Description":[{"label":"Description","value":"The meaning of the Aramaic word \u05ea\u05e8\u05d2\u05d5\u05dd 'targum' (pl. \u05ea\u05e8\u05d2\u05d5\u05de\u05d9\u05dd 'targumim') is 'translation' or 'interpretation'. It derives from the Akkadian word targummanu(m) 'interpreter, translator', which first occured in the beginning of the second millenium BCE. The Aramaic word was later adopted in Hebrew and Arabic. The term generally refers to written translations in any language. In the context of biblical (and Jewish) studies, it primarily refers to renderings of biblical texts in Aramaic; i.e. Targums. The Targums are interpretative reproductions of the original (Hebrew) biblical text for the Aramaic-speaking Jewish audience. They consist of both translational renderings of the Hebrew text and additional material (additions, omissions, interpretative interpolations) which provide insights into ancient Jewish interpretation of biblical narratives. There are Targums to all books of the Bible except for Ezra and Daniel, the biblical books which include Aramaic portions. Targum Onqelos is a targum of the Pentateuch, and Targum Jonathan is a targum to the Prophets; In addition, there is also Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, Targum Neofiti and the socalled Fragment Targum. However, different books of the Writings were composed individually. From the Qumran we have evidence that some written Targums (eg. the Qumran Job Targum) existed in early times and that they were known to Rabbi Gamaliel I and Gamaliel II. More recent Targumic manuscripts come from the sixteenth century. However, the main period in which the Targumic tradition was - so to say - at its 'peak' is the period between the 1st and the 7th century (mainly the period of rabbinic Judaism).","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/description","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:description"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/description","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; An account of the resource.; Description may include but is not limited to: an abstract, a table of contents, a graphical representation, or a free-text account of the resource."}],"DigitalResourceOriginalRecord":[{"label":"Digital Resource Original Record","value":"https:\/\/circle.library.ubc.ca\/rest\/handle\/2429\/83226?expand=metadata","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/aggregatedCHO","classmap":"ore:Aggregation","property":"edm:aggregatedCHO"},"iri":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/aggregatedCHO","explain":"A Europeana Data Model Property; The identifier of the source object, e.g. the Mona Lisa itself. This could be a full linked open date URI or an internal identifier"}],"FullText":[{"label":"Full Text","value":"Poll: Religious Text (v1.0) Published on: 20 April 2022Date Range: 70 CE - 601 CERegion: The spread of the TargumsRegion tags: Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, IsraelThe presence of Targumic narrativesTargumsBy Srecko Koralija, University of CambridgeEntry tags: Text, Jewish Traditions, Religious Group, Ritual text, Scripture, Early Jewish LiteratureThe meaning of the Aramaic word \u05ea\u05e8\u05d2\u05d5\u05dd  'targum' (pl. \u05ea\u05e8\u05d2\u05d5\u05de\u05d9\u05dd  'targumim') is 'translation' or 'interpretation'. Itderives from the Akkadian word targummanu(m) 'interpreter, translator', which first occured in thebeginning of the second millenium BCE. The Aramaic word was later adopted in Hebrew and Arabic. Theterm generally refers to written translations in any language. In the context of biblical (and Jewish) studies,it primarily refers to renderings of biblical texts in Aramaic; i.e. Targums. The Targums are interpretativereproductions of the original (Hebrew) biblical text for the Aramaic-speaking Jewish audience. They consistof both translational renderings of the Hebrew text and additional material (additions, omissions,interpretative interpolations) which provide insights into ancient Jewish interpretation of biblicalnarratives. There are Targums to all books of the Bible except for Ezra and Daniel, the biblical books whichinclude Aramaic portions. Targum Onqelos is a targum of the Pentateuch, and Targum Jonathan is atargum to the Prophets; In addition, there is also Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, Targum Neofiti and the so-called Fragment Targum. However, different books of the Writings were composed individually. From theQumran we have evidence that some written Targums (eg. the Qumran Job Targum) existed in earlytimes and that they were known to Rabbi Gamaliel I and Gamaliel II. More recent Targumic manuscriptscome from the sixteenth century. However, the main period in which the Targumic tradition was - so to say- at its 'peak' is the period between the 1st and the 7th century (mainly the period of rabbinic Judaism).Status of Readership:\u2713 Elite \u2713 Non-elite (common people, general populace)Sources and CorporaPrint SourcesPrint sources used for understanding this subject:Source 1: Bowker, J., The Targums and Rabbinic literature: an introduction to Jewish interpretations ofscripture, Cambridge: CUP, 1969.\u2014Source 2: Syren, R., The Blessings in the Targums: A Study on the Targumic Interpretations of Genesis 49and Deuteronomy 33, Abo: Abo Akademi, 1986.\u2014Source 3: Samely, A., \u201cThe Targums within a New Description of Jewish Text Structures in Antiquity\u201d,Aramaic Stud. 9.1 (2011), 5-38.\u2014Source 1: Flesher, P.V.M., Chilton, B. The Targums: A Critical Introduction, Leiden: Brill, 2011.\u2014Source 2: Smelik, W.F., Rabbis, Language and Translation in Late Antiquity, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2013.\u2014DOI: URL: https:\/\/religiondatabase.org\/browse\/1367This work is licensed under the Creative CommonsAttribution 4.0 International license.Please see our Terms of Use here:https:\/\/religiondatabase.org\/about\/creditsPage 1 of 52\u00a9 2022 Database of Religious History.The University of British Columbia.For any questions contactproject.manager@religiondatabase.orgOnline SourcesOnline sources used for understanding this subject:Online CorporaRelevant online Primary Textual Corpora (original languages and\/or translations)General VariablesMaterialityMethods of CompositionNotes: Although they were written, one has to bear in mind that they were first composed orally. Theorality of the Targums is, so to say, their crux interpretum. However, \"we know little about the oralaspects of the Targum, its actual delivery and its transmission in Antiquity.\" To put it in simple terms,Source 3: Gordon, R.P., \u201cThe Targum to the Minor Prophets and the Dead Sea Texts: Textual andExegetical Notes\u201d, RQ 8, 3 (31), 1974, 425-429.\u2014Source 1 URL: https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Targum\u2014Source 1 Description: Targum - biblical literature\u2014Source 2 URL: https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Targum-of-Onkelos\u2014Source 2 Description: Targum Onkelos\u2014Source 3 URL: https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Targum-Pseudo-Jonathan\u2014Source 3 Description: Targum Pseudo-Jonathan\u2014Source 1 URL: http:\/\/www.mss.vatlib.it\/guii\/console?service=present&term=35229&item=1&add=0&search=1&filter=&relation=3&operator=&attribute=100200\u2014Source 1 Description: Targum Vatican manuscripts\u2014Source 1 URL: https:\/\/www.oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393361\/obo-9780195393361-0187.xml\u2014Source 1 Description: a short overview\u2014Source 2 URL: https:\/\/www.sefaria.org\/Targum_Neofiti\u2014Source 2 Description: Targum Neofiti\u2014Source 3 URL: https:\/\/www.sefaria.org\/texts\/Tanakh\/Targum\/Targum%20Jonathan\/Prophets\u2014Source 3 Description: Targum Jonathan - Prophets\u2014Source 1 URL: https:\/\/www.sefaria.org\/texts\u2014Source 1 Description: The whole Bible with Targums and other primary sources from the Jewish tradition\u2014Source 1 URL: https:\/\/cal.huc.edu\/\u2014Source 1 Description: Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon\u2014Written\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 2 of 52Targums reflect an approach to the Hebrew text within a Jewish tradition.Reference: August den Hollander, Ulrich Schmid, Willem Smelik. Paratext and Megatext as Channels ofJewish and Christian Traditions. BRILL. isbn: 9789004421431. p.50Medium upon which the text is written\/incisedNotes: For example, the manuscript Add MS 9404 -held in the British Library. It contains thePentateuch, Haf\u1e6darot and Five Scrolls with Targum. It is not the earliest and cannot serve 'as theexample' but at least it provides an insight into how it looks like on the parchment. It is consultableonine: http:\/\/www.bl.uk\/manuscripts\/Viewer.aspx?ref=add_ms_9404_fs001r#Was the material modified before the writing or incising process?Notes: It depends on the manuscript in question. Usually, they were written on clear parchment, butthere are cases where we can find overwriting. For example, in the verso of the manuscript 1134 whichcontains a Palestinian Targum to Genesis 15:1-14, \"the original script, in a faded brown ink, has for themost part been overwritten by a later hand in a darker black ink.\"Reference: Michael Klein L.. A Genizah Fragment of Palestinian Targum to Genesis 15:1-4. HebrewUnion College Annual, 49(1978) p.75Was the text modified before the writing or incising process?Notes: They were first created in an oral environment, and then gradually put into writing. Such aprocess resulted in variant readings, textual differences, and Targumic interpretative approaches tothe Hebrew text.LocationIs the text stored in a specific location?[Note at which point in time, for reference, if known; select all that apply]Notes: There is no specific location of the text, but since it was used in the context of liturgy and Jewisheducation, we can presume, once written, it was preserved in places connected to these practices.Is the location where the text stored accompanied by iconography or images?Notes: There is no tendency in targumic writings to contain images or iconography. They are text-onlyInkedwith Ink\u2014Other textile: parchment\u2014Physical preparation\u2014Corrections\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 3 of 52documents.Is the area where the text is stored accompanied by an-iconic images?Production & Intended AudienceProductionIs the production of the text funded by the polity?Notes: It is produced in a controlled Jewish environment not necessarily connected with the polity.Is the text considered official religious scripture?Notes: A Targum is a translation, and consequently, it cannot be considered official religious scripturein the strict sense of the word. The official religious scripture is the Hebrew Bible. However, in the widersense, the Targums as Aramaic translations of books of the Hebrew Bible were officially recognized byrabbinic Jews. These translations differ from other translations in antiquity since they are \"Aramaictranslations of books of the Hebrew Bible done by Jews during the rabbinic period.\"Reference: Paul V.M. Flesher, Bruce D. Chilton. The Targums. BRILL. isbn: 9789004217690. p.8No\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014Is there a culture of oral recitation?Notes: A Targum, as primarily oral translation and interpretation of the Hebrew Bible, wasgradually put into writing. The final fixing of of its text belongs to the post-Talmudic period ofthe 5th century CE [The time of fixation of the text depends on the Targum in question. SomeTargums were put into writing earlier, like Targum Onqelos (3rd CE)]. Therefore, the culture oforal recitation is an essential part of the Targumic tradition.Reference: Grace Young , Emily Rodriguez TargumYes\u2014Is there a story associated with the origins of scripture?Notes: The Hebrew Bible is considered as the main revealed text. The Targum as translationand interpretation of the Hebrew Bible served not only to guide people through textualdifficulties of the Hebrew, but also to help them understand the message hidden in theHebrew text. For example, biblical stories are often short and do not always provide the readerwith the details needed to understand the narrative. Targum expands the narrative accordingto local Jewish traditions and interpretations and helps the Jewish audience grasp thecomplete message of biblical narratives.Reference: Paul V.M. Flesher, Bruce D. Chilton. The Targums. BRILL. isbn: 9789004217690.Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 4 of 52Revealed by a high god?Notes: not the Targum, but the Hebrew bible which is interpreted by a Targum isconsidered as revealed by God.No\u2014Revealed by other supernatural being?Notes: Only God reveals the Scriptures, helped by the people he chose to do so (e.g.prophets).No\u2014Inspired by high god?Notes: bu a Targum is not itself considered as the word of God, i.e. it cannot be put atthe same level as the Hebrew text.Yes\u2014Inspired by other supernatural being?Notes: Although angels transmit God's messages to humans, they do not inspire theScripture.No\u2014Originated from divine or semi-divine human beings?Notes: The most famous example of a semi-divine being in the Hebrew Bible areNephilim (Genesis 6:4) but such beings do not inspire the Scriptures - neither in theHebrew Bible nor in the Targums. Targum Pseudo-Jonathan expands the verse(Genesis 6:4) and reads Nephilim differently: \"Schamchazai and Uzziel, who fell fromheaven, were on the earth in those days; and also, after the sons of the Great had gonein with the daughters of men, they bare to them: and these are they who are calledmen who are of the world, men of names.\" Tg Onkelos reads: \"Giants were in the earthin those days; and also when, after that the sons of the mighty had gone in unto thedaughters of men, there were born from them giants who from of old were men ofname.\"Reference: Genesis 6:4No\u2014Originated from non-divine human being?No\u2014Are the scriptures alterable?Notes: Only Targums as Aramaic translation\/interpretation of the Hebrew original.Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 5 of 52Do the practitioners generally consider the scripture open to alteration?Notes: They are alterable only in the sense that there are different Targumic traditions.For example, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan is much more expansive than Targum Onqeloswhich is considered as a quite close interpretation of the Hebrew Bible. One shouldalways bear in mind that a Targum is a translation\/interpretation of the Hebrew Bibleand as such only is open to alterations. Different Targums and manuscripts witness tothat.Yes\u2014Are there formal institutions (i.e. institutions that are authorized by the religiouscommunity or political leaders) for interpreting scriptures?Notes: Targums were created by Jews during the rabbinic period. Rabbinic texts \"use targumand various verbal analogues to indicate the Aramaic translation delivered orally in thesynagogue service.\" In this respect, rabbinic Jews can be considered as formal institution forinterpreting scriptures.Reference: Paul V.M. Flesher, Bruce D. Chilton. The Targums. BRILL. isbn: 9789004217690. p.8Yes\u2014Can interpretation also take place outside these institutions?Notes: It is not entirely excluded, but a Targum is supposed to happen in thesynagogue service and is therefore controlled by the Jewish authorities. Even when aTargumic interpretation happens elsewhere (for educational purposes and the like) itis influenced by the teachings of Jewish authorities.No\u2014Interpretation is only allowed by official sanctioned figures?Notes: The people responsible for delivering a Targum are the meturgemanim(interpreters) whose role is to interpret biblical narratives Targumically.Yes\u2014Are there common disagreements? (such as two or more different schools ofinterpretation?)Notes: They are not necessarily disagreements, they are better described as differentTargumic traditions. For example, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan and Targum Onqelosrepresent two different approaches to the Hebrew text of the Pentateuch.Yes\u2014Are there methods of permanently tabling or resolving debates amongstgroups of interpreters?No\u2014Is there a select group of people trained in transmitting the scriptures?Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 6 of 52Written in distinctly religious\/sacred language?Notes: In Aramaic dialects. It is worht mentioning here that Elijah Bokher Levita's \"Sefer meturgemanNotes: As indicated previously, the people delivering a Targum are called meturgemanim'interpreters'. They are trained in the community to interpret. \"The meturgeman of Tg. Onqelosdisplays a keen ear for the most immediate and superficial context, namely, the simple senseof the original Hebrew biblical text. At the same time, his mind reverberates with centuries oftraditional rabbinic interpretation, which he integrates into the seemingly innocent and literaltranslation. Beyond that, he does not lose sense of the living context for which he is creatinghis work - the congregation of simple worshippers in the sabbath synagogue, whose religiouspractice and faith he instructs by conveying to them the biblical message in their vernacular,and, at their assumed level of understanding.\"Reference: Michael Klein L.. The Masorah to Onqelos: A Reflection of Targumic Consciousness.Hebrew Union College Annual, 68(1997) p.64Yes\u2014Is the select group of people defined by any specific gender designation?Notes: The women were not allowed\/educated to read or interpret scriptures.Yes\u2014Is the select group of people defined by any age designation?No\u2014Is the select group of people defined by any form of linguistic designation?Notes: Targums were created by and for the Aramaic-speaking Jews.Yes\u2014Is there a codified canon of scriptures?Notes: The Hebrew Bible - Tanakh (Torah, Nevi'im and Ketuvim) is considered the canon. It isthen interpreted into Aramaic by meturgemanim (interpreters).Yes\u2014Can the canon be altered or added to?No\u2014Are additional commentaries part of the cannon as it is currently understood?Notes: The Targums are not part of the canon in the strict sense as the Hebrew Bible is,but they are taken very seriously into consideration in early Jewish communities.No\u2014Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 7 of 52(1541; \u201cA Translator\u2019s Book\u201d) was the first dictionary of the Targums, or Aramaic books of the HebrewBible. His lexicon Tishbi (1542) explained much of the Mishnaic Hebrew language and was asupplement to two important earlier dictionaries.\"Reference: Sefer MeturgemanArchaic ritual language?Notes: Aramaic was used in everyday communication; in the early Jewish liturgy it was notconsidered as 'ritual' as the Hebrew language.No\u2014Considered endogenous by the group itself?No\u2014Considered exogenous by the group itself?No\u2014Blended languages\/creolizations\/specific dialects?Yes\u2014Possess its own distinct written language?Notes: Each Targum contains not only interpretative but also linguistic idiosyncrasies (e.g. TgOnkelos, Tg Jonathan, Tg Neofiti)Yes\u2014Is use of this distinct written language confined to religious professionals?Notes: As indicated previously, it is confined to meturgemanim (interpreters).Yes\u2014If known: which authority (authorities) describe(s) the language as sacred?[Select all that apply]Institutions\u2014Are non-religious institutions involved with the support of teaching religiouslanguage(s) for this text?No\u2014Are non-religious written languages used by the group's adherents to supportreligious study of text?Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 8 of 52Intended AudienceWhat is the estimated number of people considered to be the audience of the textThis should be the total number of people who would serve as the intended audience for the text.Does the Religious group actively proselytize and recruit new members?Notes: Such a tendency did not exist in early Judaism.Are there clear reformist movements?(Reformism, as in not proselytizing to potential new conservative, but \"conversion\" - or rather, reform - tothe \"correct interpretation\"?)Is the text in question employed in ritual practice?No\u2014Are oral traditions used to support the religious study of the text?Yes\u2014Field doesn't know\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014Is it orally recited?Yes\u2014Is there any particular affect of the oral recitation of the text?Yes\u2014Is there any particular affect on the audience of the recitation?Notes: A Targum was not only recited but also chanted, and chanting supposesthe presence of affects. However the interpreter was forbidden to raise hisvoice over that of the reader, while the reader had to lower his voice if themeturgeman (interpreter) could not reach the same volume. \"Occasionalpresence of cantillation signs in Jewish Aramaic Bible translations (Targums)suggest that they were once chanted.\"Reference: August den Hollander, Ulrich Schmid, Willem Smelik. Paratext andMegatext as Channels of Jewish and Christian Traditions. BRILL. isbn:Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 9 of 529789004421431. p.49Does the affect involve unlocking hidden knowledge?Yes\u2014On the reciter?No\u2014Is it read?Notes: A Targum is delivered orally after a portion from the Scripture was read.No\u2014Describe the nature of the ritual practice?Specify: Targums are interpretations of biblical texts which means they were used after theHebrew text was read first.\u2014Is the text employed in large scale rituals?Notes: It is not possible to know how many people participated in a single liturgy, but we canpresume that for the Jewish feasts there were more people present.Yes\u2014On average, how many participants are present?Field doesn't know\u2014Is the text employed in small scale rituals?Notes: It is not possible to know how many people participated in the synagogue liturgy. Thenumber of participants depended on the community - be it small or large.Yes\u2014On average, how many participants are present?Field doesn't know\u2014How often do the rituals take place?Notes: It is difficulty to specify statistically, but in general every time when the Jewish liturgywas performed for the Aramaic speaking audience. At least, once a week (for the sabbath).Field doesn't know\u2014Are there orthodoxy checks?Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 10 of 52Is there material significance to the text?Context and Content of the Text (Beliefs and Practices)ContextIs the text itself accompanied by art?Notes: As far as I know, no manuscript of the Targum is accompanied by art that would accompanythe text.Are there multiple versions of the text?No\u2014Are there orthopraxy checks?No\u2014Are there synchronic practices?Yes\u2014Are there intoxicants used during the ritual?No\u2014Are there other substances (such as food or drink, for example) that are consumedduring rituals?No\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014Are multiple versions viewed as proper?Yes\u2014If multiple versions are proper, is there a differentiation among versions by anymeans?Yes\u2014Age of extant version of text?Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 11 of 52Is the text part of a collection of texts?If the text is not explicitly scripture, is it part of another important literary tradition?ContentIs the text - or does the text include - a ritual list, manual, bibliography, index, or vocabulary?(Select all that apply)Yes\u2014Content of text?Yes\u2014Ritual purpose of text?Yes\u2014Is there debate about which version is proper?No\u2014Yes\u2014Is there a sense of canonization?Yes\u2014How is the authority established?No\u2014Can the canon be altered or added to?No\u2014Have major debates shifted the sense of the place of the text with respect tothe larger canon?No\u2014Is the text part of a series of volumes?No\u2014No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 12 of 52Notes: Since a Targum is an interpretation\/translation of a biblical text written in Hebrew, it does notinclude additional things outside the text itself. It does contain occasional lexical interpolations as wellas textual additions and omissions.Are there lineages or a single lineage established by the text?Notes: The Hebrew version of the Pentateuch contains different lineages, they are paraphrased intoAramaic in the Targums. there are no specific lineages in the text that would affect the understandingof the Targums.Does the text express a formal legal code?Notes: Not in the strict sense, since the Targum is a translation\/interpretation of the Hebrew Bible. TheHebrew Bible contains a law code (the decalogue, or rules as outlined in Leviticus) that is supposed tobe applied by everyone. It refers not only to the clergy but also to members of the community. Thelaws cover both doctrinal and everyday questions (inheritances, contracts, marriage etc.). A Targumjust transfers the legal code from the Hebrew Bible using its own vocabulary and interpretation.Formulating a specifically religious calendar?Notes: The Targums follow the vocabulary of the calendar from the Hebrew Bible (Nisan\/Aviv, Iyar,Sivan, Tammuz, Av, Elul, Tishri, Marchesvan, Chisleu, Tebeth, Sebat, Adar). The same applies to theJewish feasts - The Hebrew Bible in its Targumic version is the basis for the Aramaic speaking Jews.BeliefsIs a spirit-body distinction present in the text?Notes: The spirit-body distinction is quite clear, especially in the book of Genesis. For example, theTargum Onqelos translates the Hebrew version of Genesis 2:7 ( \u05d5\u05d9\u05e4\u05d7  \u05d4\u05d0\u05d3\u05de\u05d4  \u05de\u05df  \u05e2\u05e4\u05e8  \u05d4\u05d0\u05d3\u05dd  \u05d0\u05ea  \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05dd  \u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4  \u05d5\u05d9\u05d9\u05e6\u05e8\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4\u05d5  \u05dc\u05e0\u05e4\u05e9  \u05d4\u05d0\u05d3\u05dd  \u05d5\u05d9\u05d4\u05d9  \u05d7\u05d9\u05d9\u05dd  \u05e0\u05e9\u05de\u05ea  \u05d1\u05d0\u05e4\u05d9\u05d5 ) \"Then the Lord God formed a man from the dust of the ground andbreathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being\" as follows: \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05dd  \u05d9\u05d5\u05d9  \u05d5\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05de\u05de\u05dc\u05dc\u05d0  \u05dc\u05e8\u05d5\u05d7  \u05d5\u05d4\u05d9\u05ea  \u05d3\u05d7\u05d9\u05d9  \u05e0\u05e9\u05de\u05ea\u05d0  \u05d1\u05d0\u05e4\u05d5\u05d4\u05d9  \u05d5\u05e0\u05e4\u05d7  \u05d0\u05e8\u05e2\u05d0  \u05de\u05df  \u05e2\u05e4\u05e8\u05d0  \u05d0\u05d3\u05dd  \u05d9\u05ea  - \"The Lord God created a man from the dust ofthe ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a speaking spirit.\"Targums Pseudo Jonathan ( \u05de\u05de\u05dc\u05dc\u05d0  \u05e8\u05d5\u05d7 ) shares the 'speaking spirit' with Onkelos, whereas Neofiti optsfor \u05de\u05de\u05dc\u05dc\u05d0  \u05d7\u05d9\u05d9\u05d4  - 'speaking being'.Vocabulary\u2014No\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014Spirit-Mind is conceived of as having qualitatively different powers or properties thanother parts?Notes: One has to bear in mind that Hebrew (an Aramaic) distinguish between nefesh (soul)and neshama (breath). Neshama ceases to exist when the body dies, whereas nefesh (soul)Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 13 of 52Is belief in an afterlife indicated in the text?continues to exist.Spirit-mind is conceived of as non-material, ontologically distinct from body?Notes: Yes, especially nefesh (soul).Yes\u2014Other spirit-body relationship?No\u2014Within conceptions of the mind: are there distinct notions of pyschological states oraggregates?No\u2014No\u2014Do practitioners engage in debates about mind-body dualism?No\u2014Are debates framed in other ways?No\u2014Do practitioners distinguish between a corporeal body and an incorporeal soul orspirit?Notes: As indicated earlier (on basis of Gen 2:7), there is a distinction between a corporeal body,soul and breath. We could add here that such a distinction is explicitly described in otherverses, especially when a person dies; e.g. Gen 35:18: \u05e7\u05e8\u05d0  \u05d5\u05d0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d5  \u05d0\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9  \u05d1\u05df  \u05e9\u05de\u05d5  \u05d5\u05ea\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0  \u05de\u05ea\u05d4  \u05db\u05d9  \u05e0\u05e4\u05e9\u05d4  \u05d1\u05e6\u05d0\u05ea  \u05d5\u05d9\u05d4\u05d9\u05d1\u05e0\u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05df  \u05dc\u05d5  \"And when her soul went from her she gave the child the name Ben-oni, but his fathergave him the name Benjamin.\" The Targums follow the Hebrew narrative: e.g. Tg Onkelos: \u05d5\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4\u05d1\u05e0\u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05df  \u05dc\u05d9\u05d4  \u05e7\u05e8\u05d0  \u05d5\u05d0\u05d1\u05d5\u05d4\u05d9  \u05d3\u05d5\u05d9\u05d9  \u05d1\u05e8  \u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05d4  \u05d5\u05e7\u05e8\u05ea  \u05de\u05d9\u05ea\u05d0  \u05d0\u05e8\u05d9  \u05e0\u05e4\u05e9\u05d4  \u05d1\u05de\u05e4\u05e7  \"And when her soul went from her shegave the child the name Bar-oni, but his father gave him the name Benjamin.\"Yes\u2014Are there other sides or features of the debate?No\u2014What are historical mainstream and minority positions?No\u2014Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 14 of 52Is belief in reincarnation in this world specified in the text?Notes: Reincarnation does not exist in the beliefs of rabbinic Judaism.Are there special treatments for adherents' corpses dicated in the text?Notes: Details are not known, but according to the Mishnah (Shab. 23) \"death was spoken of, andtherefore understood, as \"the exit of the soul\" (or overly literally, \"the exit of the breath\"). The Mishnah(Shab. 23, end) directs that a bystander should not touch the dying person, even to close his or hereyes, before the \"exit of the soul\" is clearly accomplished.\" Gen 46:4 implies that there is a practice ofclosing the eyes of the dead: \"I shall go down with you to Egypt, and I shall see that you come backagain, and at your death Joseph will put his hands on your eyes.\" The Targums render it into Aramaicin the same way; e.g. Tg Onqelos: \u05e2\u05d9\u05e0\u05da  \u05e2\u05dc  \u05d9\u05d3\u05d5\u05d4\u05d9  \u05d9\u05e9\u05d5\u05d9  \u05d5\u05d9\u05d5\u05e1\u05e3  \"and Joseph will put his hands on your eyes.\";TgPseudo Jonathan: \u05e2\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9\u05da  \u05e2\u05dc  \u05d9\u05d3\u05d9\u05d4  \u05d9\u05e9\u05d5\u05d9  \u05d9\u05d5\u05e1\u05e3  \"Joseph will put his hands on your eyes\"Reference: David Kraemer. The Meanings of Death in Rabbinic Judaism. Routledge. isbn:9781134616534. p.24Does the text indicate if co-sacrifices should be present in burials?Notes: Co-sacrifices are not required in burials in the early Jewish tradition; the Targums reflect that.Does the text specify grave goods for burial?Notes: Such a practice did not exist in rabbinic Judaism.Are formal burials present in the text?Notes: Not as a ritual, but there are indications in the text on how the (hung) corpse should be dealtwith. For example, Deut 21:23: \"Do not let his body be on the tree all night, but put it to rest in the earththe same day.\" Tg Onqelos (Deut 21:23): \u05d4\u05d4\u05d5\u05d0  \u05d1\u05d9\u05d5\u05de\u05d0  \u05ea\u05e7\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9\u05d4  \u05de\u05e7\u05d1\u05e8  \u05e6\u05dc\u05d9\u05d1\u05d0  \u05e2\u05dc  \u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05dc\u05ea\u05d9\u05d4  \u05ea\u05d1\u05d9\u05ea  \u05e2\u05dc  \"Do not let hisbody be on the three, but put bury it the same day.\"Is the spatial location of the afterlife specified or described by the religious group?No\u2014Is the temporality of the afterlife specified or described by the religious group?No\u2014Is there debate in the interpretation of the language of the afterlife?No\u2014No\u2014No\u2014No\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 15 of 52Are there practices that have funerary associations presented in the text?Are supernatural beings present in the text?Notes: Angels are messengers of God's messages throughout the Scripture.No\u2014Yes\u2014A supreme high-god is presentYes\u2014The supreme high god is anthropomorphic or described in anthropomorphictermsNotes: Although anthropomorphic descriptions of God prevail throughout the OldTestament there is a tendency to avoid anthropomorphism in the rabbinic andmedieval Jewish literature (including the Targums. Antianthropomorphic tendenciesreflect an internal development within Judaism and are not the result of Hellenisticinfluence, which they antedate. \"It is only natural that the targumim, being an integralpart of Rabbinic literature, and ultimately deriving from the same schools and thesame periods, would reflect rabbinic attitudes towards biblical anthropomorphism.\"For example, \"many of the biblical anthropomorphisms are transformed in Onqelos byparaphrase or circumlocution.\"Reference: Emerton. Congress Volume Vienne 1980. BRILL. isbn: 9789004275553. p.163No\u2014The supreme high god is a sky deityNotes: God of Israel is a sky deity, indeed. For example, Tg Jonathan of Isaiah 63:15reflects the Hebrew original: \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05da  \u05de\u05de\u05d3\u05d5\u05e8  \u05d5\u05d0\u05ea\u05d2\u05dc\u05d9  \u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05d0  \u05de\u05df  \u05d0\u05e1\u05ea\u05db\u05d9  \"Watch from heaven, revealfrom your holy dwelling place.\"Yes\u2014The supreme high god is chthonic (of the underworld)Notes: Early Jewish communities believed in the existence of Sheol (the abode of thedead) which is the place where human beings descend after death. The place isassociated with the negative implications of death. As the place of separation fromGod, Sheol cannot be considered as the place over which God rules - in the strict senseof the word.No\u2014The supreme high god is fused with the monarh (king=high god)Notes: God is considered as a king in a metaphorical way; Ps 46:7 \"God is the King of allthe earth.\"No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 16 of 52The monarch is seen as a manifestation or emanation of the high godNotes: Earthly kings are chosen by God and receive power from him (e.g. the kingDavid)No\u2014The supreme high god is a kin relation to elitesNotes: Although God does judge the people according to their behavior and chooseshis prophets and kings, he does not look at their social status as such.No\u2014The supreme high god has another type of loyalty-connection to elitesNo\u2014The supreme high god is unquestionably goodNotes: He is always considered as good, even when he punishes the people for theirsins or sends them to battles.Yes\u2014Other features of the supreme high godNotes: impassibility, impeccability, holiness, righteousness, providenceSpecify: no\u2014The supreme high god has knowledge of this worldNotes: God is the creator of the world (Gen 1:1), and consequently has knowledge ofeverything that happens in the created world.Yes\u2014Knowledge is restricted to a particular domain of human affairsNotes: God is omniscient.No\u2014Knowledge is restricted to (a) specific area(s) within the sample regionNo\u2014Knowledge is unrestricted within the sample regionYes\u2014Knowledge is unrestrict outside of sample regionKoralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 17 of 52Yes\u2014Can see you everywhere normally visible (in public)Notes: There is no human action that God cannot be aware of.Yes\u2014Can see you everywhere (in the dark, at home)Yes\u2014Can see inside heart\/mind (hidden motives)Notes: God is the only supernatural being that can see inside human heart andmind.Yes\u2014Knows basic character (personal essence)Yes\u2014Knows what will happen to you, what you will do (future sight)Notes: God posseses the knowledge of future events, but also grants the freewill to the humans.Yes\u2014Has other knowledge of this worldYes\u2014Has deliberate causal efficacy in the worldYes\u2014Can rewardNotes: God rewards for actions he considers good.Yes\u2014Can punishNotes: God punishes human beings for actions he considers bad.Yes\u2014Indirect causal efficacy in the worldKoralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 18 of 52Yes\u2014Exhibits positive emotionNotes: Since God rewards those who behave well, one can say he exhibits positiveemotions towards them; but one should not be too anthropomorphic in consideringthe God's so-called emotional behaviour.Yes\u2014Exhibits negative emotionNotes: God shows the so-called negative emotions via punishments for the sins ofhuman beings. The most known example is the story of Noah's ark from Genesis 6.Yes\u2014Possesses Hunger?Notes: Since God does not have a physical body he does not feel hunger.No\u2014Can be hurt?No\u2014Can be tricked?No\u2014Can be imprisoned?No\u2014Is it permissible to worship supernatural being other than the high god?Notes: However, one is expected to listen to his messengers (the angels).No\u2014The supreme high god possesses\/exhibits some other featureSpecify: no\u2014The supreme high god communicates with the livingNotes: For example, God can sometimes speak or reveal things in dreams.Yes\u2014In waking, everday lifeKoralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 19 of 52Previously human spirits are presentNotes: Whilst the body is considered mortal, the community members believe in the eternal existenceof the soul. In this respect, they believe that the soul (nefesh) of the dead is alive, but they spirits(neshama) are not present.Notes: Sometimes God communicates with the people verbally. A goodexample is his revelation to Moses in the burning bush (Exodus 3); In Ex 3:12God says to Moses\" and he said, truly I shall be with you; and this will be thesign to you that I have sent you: when you have taken the children of Israel outof Egypt, you will give worship to God on this mountain.\"Yes\u2014In dreamsYes\u2014In trance possessionNo\u2014Through divination practicesNo\u2014Only through religious specialistsNotes: Although priests, kings, and rabbis are considered as chosen people,God does not exclusively communicate his will through them. He can send hismessages to anyone in society. For example, God spoke to Abraham beforeAbraham became someone \"important\" for the chosen people.No\u2014Only through monarchNo\u2014Other form of communication with livingNo\u2014Does the text make communication with supreme high-god possible?Notes: Not directly, but reading and listening to the messages of the text enablespeople to learn about and understand God's messages. This is one of the main reasonswhy Targums exist.No\u2014No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 20 of 52Non-human supernatural beings are presentNotes: Yes, the people believe in the existence of angels, but the supreme power is attributed only toGod.Yes\u2014Supernatural beings can be seenNotes: Angels are often sent by God to transmit his messages to human beings. Especially inthe Targums, the 'angel of the Lord' often replaces the name of God in the Scripture.Yes\u2014Supernatural beings can be physically feltNotes: They are not material beings.No\u2014Non-human supernatural beings have knowledge of this worldYes\u2014Knowledge is restricted to a particular domain of human affairsNotes: They only know things God allows them to know; subsequent answers dependon that.Yes\u2014Knowledge is restricted to (a) specific area(s) within the sample regionYes\u2014Knowledge is unrestricted within the sample regionYes\u2014Knowledge is unrestricted outside of sample regionYes\u2014Can see you everywhere normally visible (in public)Yes\u2014Can see you everywhere (in the dark, at home)Yes\u2014Can see inside heart\/mind (hidden motives)Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 21 of 52Yes\u2014Know basic character (personal essence)Yes\u2014Know what will happen to you, what you will do (future sight)Yes\u2014Have other knowledge of this worldYes\u2014Non-human supernatural beings have deliberate causal efficacy in the worldNo\u2014Non-human supernatural beings communicate with the living according to the text?Notes: As indicated in previous answers, they communicate with the living only when Godallows them to do so. The Targumic versions of the biblical text witness to that.Yes\u2014In waking, everyday life?Yes\u2014In dreams?Yes\u2014In trance possession?No\u2014Through divination practices?No\u2014Only through religious specialists?No\u2014Only through monarch?No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 22 of 52Does the text attest to a pantheon of supernatural beings?Notes: God Yahweh is the supreme God, among other gods. These other gods are gods worshipped bynon-Israelites; this is evident in the book of Psalms. There is also a belief in the existence of angels whoare organized hierarchically. However, they are not considered gods.Are mixed human-divine beings present according to the text?Is there a supernatural being that is physically present in the\/as a result of the text?Are other categories of beings present?Does the text guide divination practices?Other?Specify: no\u2014These supernatural beings have indirect causal efficacy in the worldNotes: When they communicate God's will to the people, the people change theirbehaviour\/life according to the messages received. In this respect, yes they have indirect causalefficacy in the world.Yes\u2014These supernatural beings exhibit positive emotionYes\u2014These supernatural beings exhibit negative emotionYes\u2014These supernatural beings possess hungerNo\u2014These supernatural beings possess\/exhibit some other featureSpecify: no\u2014No\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Other [specify]: no\u2014No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 23 of 52Notes: The text does describe what is pure and what is impure, how to worship, and the like (especiallythe book of Leviticus), but does not guide divination practices.Supernatural MonitoringIs supernatural monitoring present in the text?Notes: Jewish communities are concerned about ethical norms as outlined in the Pentateuch andpracticed within the community. These norms and practices are considered supernatural monitoring.The Targums have a tendency to polarize good and bad. For example, biblical heroes are madeexemplary figures, while villains are denigrated. In addition, the Targums do not always clearly presenta desirable code of behaviour, but such a code is implicit in their modifications of the biblical text. Theystress adherence to the Law and the value of prayer; through these practices supernatural monitoringis understood.Reference: Katharine Dell. Ethical and Unethical in the Old Testament. A&C Black. isbn:9780567217097. p.235Yes\u2014There is supernatural monitoring of prosocial norm adherence in particularNotes: People are concerned with ethical norms as outlined in the Bible and the local Jewishcommunity (based upon Targumic explanations).Yes\u2014Do expectations of ritual offerings play a role in supernatural monitoring?Notes: Ritual offerings (burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guiltoffering) as outlined in the preceptive texts of the Bible (Leviticus and Deuteronomy) influenceGod's behavior towards human beings (i.e. supernatural monitoring).Yes\u2014Libations?Yes\u2014Food?Yes\u2014Animal sacrifice?Yes\u2014Human sacrifice?No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 24 of 52Sacred objects?No\u2014Daily life objects?No\u2014Other?Specify: no\u2014Supernatural being care about taboosNo\u2014Supernatural beings care about murder of coreligionistsNotes: Murder is prohibited by the ten commandments (Ex 20 and Deut 5). Targum Pseudo-Jonathan has a long expansion on Exodus 20:13: \"My people, the sons of Israel, You. shall not bemurderers; you shall not be companions of or partakers with murderers: in the congregationsof Israel there shall not be seen a murderous people; neither shall your sons rise up after youand teach one another to take part with murderers: for on account of the guilt of murder thesword cometh forth upon the world: My people of the house of Israel, Be ye not adulterers, norcompanions nor partakers with adulterers: nor in the congregations of Israel shall there beseen an adulterous people, that your sons may not arise after you to teach one another to havepart with adulterers: for through the guilt of adultery death cometh forth upon the world: Sonsof Israel My people, Ye shall not be thieves, nor companions nor partakers with thieves: thereshall not be seen in the congregations of Israel a thievish people; that your sons may not ariseafter you to teach one another to have part with thieves: for on account of the guilt of theftfamine cometh forth upon the world: Sons of Israel My people, Ye shall not testify against yourneighbours a testimony of falsehood, nor be companions or partakers with those who bearfalse witness nor shall there be seen in the congregations of Israel a people who testify atestimony of falsehood; neither shall your sons arise after you to teach one another to havepart with those who testify falsehood: for because of the guilt of false testimony the clouds goup and the rain cometh not down, and dryness cometh upon the world.\"Reference: Exodus 20:13No\u2014Supernatural beings care about murder of members of other religionsNotes: The murder of any human being is prohibited by the ten commandments (Ex 20 andDeut 5); this also includes members of other religions.Yes\u2014Supernatural beings care about murder of members of other politiesNotes: Murder is prohibited by the ten commandments (Ex 20 and Deut 5), which alsoYes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 25 of 52includes members of other polities.Supernatural beings care about sexNotes: Adultery is prohibited - as in the ten commandments (Ex 20 and Deut 5).Yes\u2014AdulteryNotes: Targum Pseudo Jonathan Exodus 20:14: \"Sons of Israel My people, Ye shall not becovetous companions or partakers with the covetous: nor shall there be seen in thecongregations of Israel a covetous people; that your sons may not arise after you toteach one another to have part with the covetous: neither shall any among you covetthe wife of his neighbour, nor his servant, nor his handmaid, nor his ox, nor his ass noranything that belongeth to his neighbour; because through the guilt of covetousnessthe government breaketh in upon the possessions of men to take them, and thewealthy are made poor, and slavery cometh upon the world.\"Reference: Exodus 20:14Yes\u2014IncestNotes: Incest is prohibited - e.g. Leviticus 18. Targum Pseudo-Jonathan Leviticus 18:7:\"The nakedness of thy father, or the nakedness of thy mother, thou shall not dishonour.A woman shall not lie with her father, nor a man with his mother; she is thy mother:thou shalt not discover her nakedness.\"Reference: Leviticus 18:7Yes\u2014Taboo about close blood relations (beyond incest) [e.g. from same clan group,village, settlement, so forth].No\u2014Specifies taboo regarding power relations (i.e. defines what constitutesabusive behavior)No\u2014Does worship\/veneration include sex acts\/references?No\u2014Other sexual practicesNotes: e.g. homosexual practices or other ''sexual perversions\" as prohibited in theYes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 26 of 52Bible.Supernatural beings care about lyingNotes: Lying is prohibited - Ten commandments (Ex 20 and Deut 5): \"You shall not bear falsewitness against your neighbor.\" Tg Pseudo-Jonathan Leviticus 19:11: \"Sons of Israel, My people,you shall not steal, nor prevaricate, nor do fraudulently one man with his neighbour.\"Reference: Leviticus 19:11Yes\u2014Supernatural beings care about honouring oathsNotes: Once given, vows and oaths are to be kept, otherwise, they are considered a sin (e.g.Deuteronomy 23:21 - \"If you make a vow to the Lord your God, you shall not delay fulfilling it, forthe Lord your God will require it of you, and you will be guilty of sin\")Yes\u2014Supernatural beings care about lazinessNotes: Laziness is considered negative: Proverbs 10:4 \"Lazy hands make for poverty, but diligenthands bring wealth.\"Yes\u2014Supernatural beings care about sorceryNotes: Doing sorcery is prohibited. Leviticus 19:31 \"Do not turn to mediums or necromancers; donot seek them out, and so make yourselves unclean by them: I am the Lord your God\"Yes\u2014Supernatural beings care about non-lethal fightingYes\u2014Supernatural beings care about shirking riskNo\u2014Supernatural beings care about disrespecting eldersNotes: Respect for elders is explicitly focused on parents and family: Ten commandments (Ex20 and Deut 5): honor your father and your motherYes\u2014Supernatural beings care about gossipingNotes: Gossip and evil tongue are regarded as evil.Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 27 of 52Do supernatural beings mete out punishment in the text?Notes: God punishes sin if the person does not follow the moral principles of conduct as set out in theBible. Targums sometimes change the anthropomorphic wording of the Hebrew. For example, itchanges the narrative of Exodus 7:5: \"when I stretch forth my hand upon Egypt\" into: \"when I set theplague of my punishment upon Egypt.\" in Tg Neofiti.Supernatural beings care about property crimesNotes: The Bible forbids stealing and requires the wrongdoer to make the repair. Leviticus 19:11:\"Do not steal\"Yes\u2014Supernatural beings care about proper ritual observanceYes\u2014Supernatural beings care about performance of ritualsNotes: It is focused on both inner disposition and external observation of ritual rules.Yes\u2014Supernatural beings care about conversion of non-religionistsNo\u2014Supernatural beings care about economic fairnessYes\u2014Supernatural beings care about personal hygieneNotes: Ritual washing (especially of hands), and cleaning - is the requirement.Yes\u2014Supernatural beings care about or expect the maintenance of the place?Yes\u2014Supernatural beings care about otherSpecify: no\u2014Yes\u2014Is the cause or agent of supernatural punishment known?Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 28 of 52Done only by high godNotes: God generally punishes sins. Sometimes the cause is explicitly presumed. Forexample, if someone knows (s)he has done something wrong and then something badhappens to him\/her, then the person will attribute that action to God, but sometimes,causality can't be traced, it's just presumed to depend on the caseYes\u2014Done by many supernatural beingsNotes: Early Jewish communities believe in the existence of angels but did notattribute supreme controlling powers to them when it comes to punishments of sins.Only God can punish and forgive sins.No\u2014Done through impersonal cause-effect principleNotes: Punishment of sins is not causal in the sense that it is predictable. Negative lifeevents can be understood as a punishment for sins.No\u2014Done by other entities or through other meansNo\u2014Is the reason for supernatural punishment known?Yes\u2014Done to enforce religious ritual-devotional adherence?Notes: Those who sin are punished by death. Ezekiel 18:4 \"Behold, all souls are mine; asthe soul of the father, so also the soul of the son is mine: the soul that sins, it shall die.\"Yes\u2014Done to enforce group norms?Notes: For example, the story of Genesis 6 (Noah's ark).Yes\u2014Done to inhibit selfishness?Yes\u2014Done randomlyNotes: In the sense that the punishment is not predictable.Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 29 of 52OtherNo\u2014Supernatural punishments are meted out in the afterlife?Yes\u2014Highly emphasized by the religious groupYes\u2014Punishments in the afterlife consists of mild sensory displeasureNo\u2014Punishment in the afterlife consists of extreme sensory displeasure?Notes: Sheol is considered as a place of darkness (in every sense) to which the souldescends at death.Yes\u2014Punishment in the afterlife consists of reincarnation as an inferior life form?Notes: Rabbinic Judaism does not believe in reincarnation.No\u2014Punishment in the afterlife consists of reincarnation in an inferior realm?Notes: There is no belief in multiple lives (there is no reincarnation). One is rewarded orpunished after death.No\u2014Other form of punishmentSpecify: no\u2014Supernatural punishments are meted out in this lifetime?Notes: It is done through making sacrifices according to the rules outlined in the Pentateuch(especially in Leviticus and Deuteronomy) repenting and good deeds.Yes\u2014Highly emphasized by the religious group?Yes\u2014Consists of bad luck?Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 30 of 52Do supernatural beings bestow rewards in the text?Notes: If behaved well, the main reward for a member of the community is eternal salvation afterdeath. \"Although the Hebrew Pentateuch lacks any defined notion of the resurrection of the dead or ofan afterlife, the targums insert it.\" This is evident in Tg Neofiti Genesis 3:19 where God punishes AdamYes\u2014Political failure?Yes\u2014Defeat in battle?Yes\u2014Crop failure or bad weather?Yes\u2014Disaster on journeys?Yes\u2014Mild sensory displeasure?Yes\u2014Extreme sensory displeasure?Yes\u2014Sickness or illness?Yes\u2014Impaired reproduction?Yes\u2014Back luck visited on descendants?Yes\u2014Other?Specify: no\u2014Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 31 of 52for eating the forbidden fruit: \"You will eat bread from the sweat from before your face until you returnto the earth, because from it you were created; because you are dust and to dust you are to return. Butfrom the dust you are to arise again to give an account and a reckoning of all that you have done.\"Reference: Alan Avery-Peck, Jacob Neusner. Judaism in Late Antiquity 4. Death, Life-After-Death,Resurrection and The World-to-Come in the Judaisms of Antiquity. BRILL. isbn: 9789004294141. p.311-312Is the cause\/purpose of supernatural rewards known?Notes: Good deeds in earthly life are the cause of supernatural rewards.Yes\u2014Done only by high godNotes: God is considered the final judge.Yes\u2014Done by many supernatural beingsNo\u2014Done through impersonal cause-effect principleYes\u2014Done to enforce religious ritual-devotional adherenceYes\u2014Done to enforce group norms?Notes: Good behavior includes observing group norms. So, implicitly yes - rewards orpromises of rewards are done to enforce group norms.Yes\u2014Done to inhibit selfishness?Yes\u2014Done randomlyYes\u2014Supernatural rewards are bestowed out in the afterlife?Notes: Observing the commandments and good behavior in the community are rewarded inYes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 32 of 52the afterlife in the form of eternal salvation. Rewards are provided by God Yahweh.Highly emphasized by the religious group?Yes\u2014Reward in the afterlife consists of mild sensory pleasure?No\u2014Consists of extreme sensory pleasure?Notes: Pleasures are not mentioned in discourses about salvation by rabbinic Jews.There is the conception of a world to come in which the pious and righteous will havehappy and abundant life whereas the wicked ones will descend to Sheol.No\u2014Consists of eternal happiness?Notes: \"Satisfaction with one's lot, and not material wealth, yields happiness in thepresent and eternal reward in the world to come.\"Reference: Ari Mermelstein. Happiness. Judaism. Rabbinic Judaism. (Ari Mermelstein,Dale Allison C., Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception. De Gruyter. p.279-280.Yes\u2014Consists of reincarnation as a superior life form?No\u2014Consists of reincarnation in a superior realm?No\u2014Other?No\u2014Supernatural rewards are bestowed out in this lifetime?Notes: God is believed to give prosperity to those who observe the commandments.Supernatural rewards come in the form of health, good luck, political success, success in battle,and the like.Yes\u2014Highly emphasized?Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 33 of 52Consists of good luck?Yes\u2014Consists of political success or power?Yes\u2014Consists of success in battle?Yes\u2014Consists of peace or social stability?Yes\u2014Consists of healthy crops or good weather?Yes\u2014Consists of success on journeys?Yes\u2014Reward in this life consists of mild sensory pleasure?Yes\u2014Reward in this life consists of extreme sensory pleasure?Yes\u2014Reward in this life consists of enhanced health?Yes\u2014Reward in this life consists of enhanced reproductive success?Yes\u2014Reward in this life consists of fortune visited on descendants?Yes\u2014Other?Specify: no\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 34 of 52Messianism\/EschatologyAre messianic beliefs present in the text?Notes: In the Targumic texts, the passages interpreted messianically are generally the same in all ofthem, and the Messiah is given the title King Messiah. For example, In Tg Neofiti Gen 3:15 it is said thatsome unspecified persons will make appeasement in the end, i.e. the day of King Messiah.Reference: Martin McNamara. Targum Neofiti 1: Genesis. A Michael Glazier Book, The Liturgical Press.isbn: 0-8146-5476-2. p.39Is an eschatology present in the text?Notes: The Targumists develop eschatological concepts such as resurrection, Messianism, and the finalreward. In addition, they also spoke of the 'final banquet': e.g. Targum Isaiah 25:6-8; Targum Ezekiel39:16-20 4 Ezra 6:48-52; Baruch 29:4; 1 Enoch 60:7-10.Reference: Geoffrey Khan, Diana Lipton. Studies on the Text and Versions of the Hebrew Bible inHonour of Robert Gordon. BRILL. isbn: 9789004217379. p.315No\u2014Yes\u2014Eschaton is in this lifetimeNo\u2014At specified time in futureNo\u2014At unspecified time in near futureYes\u2014At unspecified time in distant futureYes\u2014At some other time [specify]No\u2014Adherents need to perform specific tasks to bring about World's endNo\u2014Divine judgment eventYes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 35 of 52Norms & Moral RealismAre general social norms prescribed by the text?Notes: In the Jewish tradition, the Law (Torah) was given to the people through Moses. In the Targumictradition, the Torah is identified with wisdom and a midrashic interpretation of Proverbs 8:22. Godplaced the first man in the Garden of Eden to toil in the Law and to keep its commandments (Tg.Neofiti Genesis 2:15). Social norms are derived from the Torah and Targumic understanding of theprecepts. As we have already seen, the Targums contain various degrees of imaginative exegesis intheir rendering of the biblical text. for example, \"the Targum for Shavuot includes piyyutim for almostall of the commandments and a long narrative about Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah as models offealty to God. (This tale is found in many copies of Midrash on the Ten Commandments.).\"Reference: Martin McNamara. Targum Neofiti 1: Genesis. A Michael Glazier Book, The Liturgical Press.isbn: 0-8146-5476-2. p.40Reference: Rachel Mikva S.. Midrash in the Synagogue and the Attenuation of Targum. Jewish StudiesQuarterly, 18(4) p.322Is there a conventional vs. moral distinction in the religious text?Are there centrally important virtues advocated by the text?Restoration of the worldYes\u2014Start of a new temporal cycleYes\u2014Establishment of new political systemYes\u2014Establishment of new religious systemNo\u2014Other form of eschatology?Specify: no\u2014Will anyone survive the eschaton?Field doesn't know\u2014Yes\u2014No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 36 of 52Notes: Observing the commandments implies doing good works and working on virtues. Such anemphasis is visible in the Targums. When it refers to humans, the Targumic tradition usuallyunderstands the Hebrew lexeme tm ('perfect') as 'perfect in good works'. Observing thecommandments also includes working on other virtues like honesty, courage, generosity, charity etc.Yes\u2014Honesty\/trustworthiness\/integrityNotes: E.g. Tg Proverbs 12:7 \"The one who testifies faithfully performs integrity\/trustworthiness( \u05e6\u05d3\u05d9\u05e7\u05d5\u05ea\u05d0 ) and the one who lies deceit\"Yes\u2014Courage (in battle)Notes: Tg Pseudo-Jonathan on Deuteronomy 31:6:\"Be strong, then, and of good courage, fearnot, nor be dismayed before them; for the Shekinah of the Lord your God will be the Leader ofyou, He will not forsake nor be far from you.\"Reference: Deuteronomy 31:6Yes\u2014Courage (generic)Notes: Targum Jonathan on Joshua 1:9 \u05b7\u05d3\u05d9\u05d9\u05b8  \u05b5\u05de\u05d9\u05b0\u05de\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0  \u05d1\u05bc\u05b0\u05b7\u05e1\u05b2\u05e2\u05b8\u05d3\u05da\u05b0  \u05b2\u05d0\u05e8\u05b5\u05d9  \u05ea\u05b4\u05bc\u05ea\u05b0\u05d1\u05b7\u05e8  \u05d5\u05b0\u05dc\u05b8\u05d0  \u05ea\u05b4\u05b0\u05d3\u05b7\u05d7\u05dc  \u05dc\u05b8\u05d0  \u05d5\u05b6\u05b0\u05e2\u05dc\u05b5\u05dd  \u05bc\u05ea\u05b0\u05b5\u05e7\u05e3  \u05e4\u05b7\u05b5\u05e7\u05d9\u05b0\u05d3\u05bc\u05ea\u05b8\u05da\u05b0  \u05b2\u05d4\u05dc\u05b8\u05d0\u05b4\u05d3\u05ea\u05b0\u05b8\u05d4\u05da\u05b0  \u05b2\u05d0\u05ea\u05b7\u05e8  \u05d1\u05bc\u05b0\u05db\u05b8\u05dc  \u05b1\u05d0\u05dc\u05b8\u05b8\u05d4\u05da\u05b0  \"Did I not order you: be strong and resolute, do not be terrified or dismayed,for the Memra of the Lord your God is with you wherever you go.\" The Targum heredeliberately uses 'Memra' in difference to the Hebrew original. Using 'Memra of the Lord' toavoid speaking directly of the Lord, is one of the main Targumic features. In the Targum, it isnot the Lord, but the Memra of the Lord who performs or says things. This, however, does notimply that God is not the actor of his own actions.Reference: Joshua 1:9Yes\u2014Compassion\/empathy\/kindness\/benevolenceNotes: Targum Pseudo-Jonathan on Exodus 33:19 \"but He said, Behold, I will make all themeasure of My goodness pass before thee, and I will give utterance in the good name of theWord of the Lord before thee; and I will have compassion upon whom I see it right to havecompassion, and will be merciful to whom I see it right to have mercy.\"Reference: Exodus 33:19Yes\u2014Mercy\/forgiveness\/toleranceNotes: For example the Palestinian Targums present a theological debate between Cain andAbel (Genesis 4) once they arrived at the field. Palestinian Tg: 'I see that the world was createdby mercy and is governed by mercy.' Tg Neofiti: I know that the world was not created byYes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 37 of 52mercy, that it is not governed according to the fruit of good deeds and that there is favor injudgment. We can see on this example that the debate about understanding of mercy isdifferent.Reference: Jouette Bassler M.. Cain and Abel in the Palestinian Targums: A Brief Note on an OldControversy. Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period,17(1) p.56-57Generosity\/charityNotes: Targum Jonathan on Isaiah 58:10 : \u05e0\u05b0\u05d4\u05d5\u05b9\u05e8\u05b8\u05da\u05b0  \u05d1\u05bc\u05b7\u05b2\u05d7\u05e9\u05c1\u05d5\u05bc\u05db\u05b8\u05d0  \u05d5\u05b0\u05d9\u05b4\u05b0\u05d3\u05e0\u05b7\u05d7  \u05bc\u05ea\u05b4\u05e9\u05c2\u05b0\u05d1\u05bc\u05b7\u05e2  \u05b0\u05de\u05b7\u05e1\u05d2\u05b0\u05e4\u05b8\u05d0  \u05d5\u05bc\u05e0\u05b0\u05e4\u05b7\u05e9\u05c1  \u05e0\u05b7\u05e4\u05b0\u05e9\u05c1\u05b8\u05da\u05b0  \u05db\u05bc\u05b7\u05e4\u05b0\u05e0\u05b8\u05d0  \u05b3\u05e7\u05b8\u05d3\u05dd  \u05d5\u05b0\u05ea\u05b4\u05ea\u05b0\u05bc\u05e4\u05b7\u05d7\u05db\u05b0\u05b4\u05d8\u05b2\u05d4\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0  \u05d9\u05b0\u05b5\u05d4\u05d9  \u05d5\u05b0\u05b4\u05e7\u05d1\u05b0\u05dc\u05b8\u05da\u05b0  \"Offer help to the hungry and satisfy the famished creature, and your light willshine in darkness, and your gloom shall be like noonday.\" The Targum slightly modifies theHebrew: 'offer help to the hungry' would literally be 'blow your soul to the hungry' i.e. be -generous.Reference: Isaiah 58:10Yes\u2014Selflessness\/selfless givingYes\u2014Righteousness\/moral rectitudeYes\u2014Ritual purity\/ritual adherence\/abstention from sources of impurityNotes: e.g. discussion on clean and unclean animals in Leviticus 11Yes\u2014Respectfulness\/courtesyYes\u2014Familial obedience\/filial pietyYes\u2014Fidelity\/loyaltyYes\u2014CooperationYes\u2014Independence\/creativity\/freedomKoralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 38 of 52Yes\u2014Moderation\/frugalityYes\u2014Forbearance\/fortitude\/patienceYes\u2014Diligence\/self-discipline\/excellenceYes\u2014Assertiveness\/decisiveness\/confidence\/initiativeYes\u2014Strength (physical)Yes\u2014Power\/status\/nobilityYes\u2014Humility\/modestyNotes: Targum Pseudo-Jonathan on Leviticus 16:29: \"And this shall be to you for an everlastingstatute: in the seventh month, it is the month Tishri, on the tenth day of the month, you shallhumble your souls, (abstaining) from food, and from drinks, and from the use of the bath, andfrom rubbing, and from sandals, and from the practice of the bed: nor shall you do any work,neither the native-born nor the stranger who dwelleth among you.\"Reference: Leviticus 16:29Yes\u2014Contentment\/serenity\/equanimityYes\u2014Joyfulness\/enthusiasm\/cheerfulnessNotes: Targum to Psalm 47:2 \u05bc\u05ea\u05d5\u05bc\u05e9\u05c1\u05b0\u05d1\u05bc\u05b7\u05b0\u05d7\u05bc\u05ea\u05b8\u05d0  \u05d1\u05bc\u05b0\u05b8\u05e7\u05dc  \u05d9\u05b0\u05d9\u05b8  \u05b3\u05e7\u05b8\u05d3\u05dd  \u05d9\u05b7\u05d1\u05bc\u05b4\u05d9\u05d1\u05d5\u05bc  \u05d1\u05b0\u05b6\u05d7\u05b0\u05d3\u05d5\u05b8\u05d0  \u05d9\u05b0\u05b8\u05d3\u05d0  \u05bc\u05ea\u05b0\u05b7\u05e7\u05e2\u05d5\u05bc  \u05b7\u05e2\u05b7\u05de\u05d9\u05b8\u05d0  \u05db\u05bc\u05b8\u05dc  \"All the people, clapyour hands with joy, shout gloriously before God.\"Reference: Psalm 47:2Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 39 of 52Optimism\/hopeYes\u2014Gratitude\/thankfulnessYes\u2014Reverence\/awe\/wonderYes\u2014Faith\/belief\/trust\/devotionYes\u2014Wisdom\/understandingNotes: Targum to Proverbs 4:5 \u05e4\u05d5\u05bc\u05b4\u05de\u05d9  \u05b7\u05de\u05b2\u05d0\u05b8\u05de\u05e8\u05b5\u05d9  \u05b4\u05de\u05df  \u05ea\u05b4\u05b0\u05e1\u05b5\u05d8\u05d9  \u05d5\u05b0\u05dc\u05b8\u05d0  \u05ea\u05b4\u05e0\u05b0\u05e9\u05c1\u05b5\u05d9  \u05dc\u05b8\u05d0  \u05d1\u05b0\u05d9\u05d5\u05bc\u05e0\u05b8\u05d0  \u05b0\u05e7\u05e0\u05b5\u05d4  \u05b8\u05d7\u05db\u05b0\u05b0\u05de\u05ea\u05b8\u05d0  \u05b0\u05e7\u05e0\u05b5\u05d4  \"Acquire wisdom,acquire understanding, do not forget and do not depart from my words\"Reference: Proverbs 4:5Yes\u2014Discernment\/intelligenceNotes: The opening chapter of the book of Proverbs speaks about how proverbs help acquireintelligence, learning, and discernment. Targum to Proverbs 1:5 \u05d5\u05b0\u05e1\u05d5\u05bc\u05db\u05b0\u05dc\u05b0\u05ea\u05b8\u05e0\u05b8\u05d0  \u05b7\u05de\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05e2\u05d0  \u05d5\u05b0\u05d9\u05d5\u05b9\u05b4\u05e1\u05d9\u05e3  \u05b7\u05d7\u05db\u05bc\u05b4\u05d9\u05b8\u05de\u05d0  \u05d9\u05b4\u05e9\u05c1\u05b0\u05b7\u05de\u05e2\u05d9\u05b4\u05b0\u05e7\u05e0\u05b5\u05d9  \u05b7\u05de\u05b0\u05d3\u05d1\u05bc\u05b0\u05e8\u05b8\u05e0\u05d5\u05bc\u05ea\u05b8\u05d0  \"The wise man, hearing them, will gain more wisdom; the discerning man willlearn to be adroit.\"Reference: Proverbs 1:5Yes\u2014Beauty\/attractivenessYes\u2014Cleanliness (physical)\/orderlinessNotes: Targum Pseudo-Jonathan on Deuteronomy 23:11-14: \"Should there be a man among youwho is unclean from accidents of the night, let him go without the camp, and come notamong the tents. But at evening time let him wash with water, and on the going down of thesun he may come within the camp. Let a place be prepared for thee without the camp wherethou mayest shed the water of thy feet, and insert a blade with your weapon in the place oilwhich you bind your swords, and in thy sitting without thou shalt dig with it, and do what thouneedest there, and turn and cover it.\"Reference: Deuteronomy 23:11-14Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 40 of 52Advocacy of PracticesDoes the text require celibacy (full sexual abstinence)?Does the text require constraints on sexual activity (partial sexual abstinence)?Notes: Sexual sins belong to central sins in Judaism. There is an expansion in Tg Neofiti regardingSodom: (Genesis 13:13) \"And the people of Sodom were evil, one toward the other, and were very guiltybefore the Lord of revealing their nakedness and of the shedding of blood and of foreign worship.\"Also, \"in th biblical text [Exodus 19:14-15] Moses, after receiving God's command to have the peoplesanctify themselves, adds to God's instructions when he tells the people to refrain from sexualintercourse as well.\"Reference: Naomi Koltun-Fromm. Sexuality and Holiness: Semitic Christian and JewishConceptualizations of Sexual Behavior. Vigiliae Christianae, 54(4) p.389Does the text require castration?Does the text require fasting?Notes: Fasting is a requirement already in the Hebrew Bible. Targums sometimes expand the Hebrewtext to accentuate the message. For example, Tg Neofiti expands Leviticus 23-27:\"But on the tenth dayof this seventh month is the Day of Atonement; a holy convocation shall it be to you, and you shallOther important virtuesNo\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014Monogamy (males)No\u2014Monogamy (females)No\u2014Other sexual constraints (males)I don't know\u2014Other sexual constraints (females)I don't know\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 41 of 52humble your souls, (abstaining) from food, and from drink, and from the use of the bath, and fromanointing, and the use of the bed, and from sandals; and you shall offer an oblation before the Lord.\"This is the expansion of the Hebrew Leviticus 23:27: \"Mark, the tenth day of this seventh month is theDay of Atonement. It shall be a sacred occasion for you: you shall practice self-denial, and you shallbring an offering by fire to \u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4 .\"Reference: Leviticus 23Does the text require forgone food opportunities (taboos on desired foods)?Does the text require permanent scarring or painful bodily alterations?Does the text require painful physical positions or transitory painful wounds?Does the text require sacrifice of adults?Does the text require sacrifice of children?Notes: Not on a regular basis, but the story from Genesis 22 is an example of such a requirement;namely, Abraham is asked by God to offer his own son Isaac as a sacrifice: Tg Pseudo-Jonathan Genesis22:2: \"And He said, Take now thy son, thy only one whom thou lovest, Izhak, and go into the land ofworship, and offer him there, a whole burnt offering, upon one of the mountains that I will tell thee.\"This is a slightly modified rendering of the Hebrew: \"Take your son, your favored one, Isaac, whom youlove, and go to the land of Moriah, and offer him there as a burnt offering on one of the heights that Iwill point out to you.\"Reference: Genesis 22Does the text require self-sacrifice (suicide)?Does the text require sacrifice of property\/valuable items?Does the text require sacrifice of time (e.g. attendance at meetings or services, regular prayer,etc.)?Notes: A prayer is not only a need of human beings, but also God's requirement; e.g. Jeremiah 29:11-Yes\u2014No\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 42 of 5212:\"For I am conscious of my thoughts about you, says the Lord, thoughts of peace and not of evil, togive you hope at the end. And you will go on crying to me and making prayer to me, and I shall giveear to you.\" Targum Jonathan renders it into Aramaic using the typical Targumic feature 'qdm' (infront of\/before): \"And you will pray in front of me and I shall receive your prayers and you will ask\/prayfrom before me, and I shall consider your petitions.\"Does the text require physical risk taking?Does the text require accepting ethical precepts?Notes: Ethical precepts as outlined in the ten commandments. The meturgemanim (interpreters)translate the ten commandments (Ex 20:2-17) to the Aramaic audience without altering the messageof the Hebrew original. They expand the narrative, though. For example, Tg Pseudo-Jonathan on Ex20,2: \"The second word which came forth from the mouth of the Holy One, whose name be blessed,was like storms, and lightnings, and flames of fire. A burning light was on His right hand and on His leftand was borne through the air of the heavens, returned, and was made manifest unto the camp ofIsrael; it returned, and was engraven on the tables of the covenant, and was turned in them from sideto side. Then called He, and said, House of Israel, My people, Thou shalt have no other God beside Me.\"This targum is much longer than the Hebrew original upon which it is based: \"You will have no othergods besides Me.\" The message of the commandment remains the same.Reference: Exodus 20Does the text require marginalization by out-group members?Does the text require participation in small-scale rituals (private, household)?Does the text require participation in large-scale rituals?Are extra-ritual in-group markers present as indicated in the text?Does the text employ fictive kinship terminology?No\u2014Yes\u2014Yes\u2014Yes\u2014What is the average interval of time between performances?Field doesn't know\u2014No\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 43 of 52Does the text include elements that are intended to be entertaining?Does the text specify sacrifices, offerings, and maintenance of a sacred space?No\u2014Yes\u2014Are sacrifices specified by the text?Yes\u2014Animal sacrifice?Notes: Targum Pseudo-Jonathan 15:9 \"And He said, Bring Me oblations, and offerbefore Me an heifer of three years, and a goat of three years, a ram of three years, anda dove, and the young of a pigeon.\"Reference: Genesis 15:9Yes\u2014Human sacrifice?No\u2014Are there self-sacrifices specified by the text?No\u2014Are there material offerings present?Yes\u2014Are they mandatory?Yes\u2014Are they composed of valuable objects?Yes\u2014Are they composed of daily-life objects?Yes\u2014Are material offerings interred at this place (in caches)?No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 44 of 52Are there particular smells associated with material offerings?Yes\u2014Are there particular visual stimuli (colors, symbols) associated with theofferings? (I.e. 'must be bright' 'must include red')No\u2014Other?Specify: no\u2014Is attendance to worship\/sacrifice mandatory?Notes: For example, the sin offering is mandatory (Leviticus 4)Yes\u2014By the community?Yes\u2014By specific individuals?Yes\u2014Is the maintenance of the place regulated by the text?Notes: For example, 2 Chronicles 29:3-31:21.Yes\u2014Is it required?Yes\u2014Is there cleansing (for the maintenance)?Yes\u2014Are there periodic repairs\/reconstructions?No\u2014Is the maintenance performed by permanent staff?Yes\u2014Other?Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 45 of 52Institutions & Production Environment of TextSociety & InstitutionsSociety of religious group that produced the text is best characterized as:Notes: The Pentateuch (i.e. the Torah) is at the very heart of Jewish life (at home, in the liturgy and inschools). Targumic interpretations of the Torah (which include haggadic and exegetical tradition)coincide with the rabbinic tradition. There is a strong conceptual link between the Targums andrabbinic Judaism.Are there specific elements of society that have controlled the reproduction of the text?Notes: The Jewish authorities (rabbis) were responsible for transmitting the Targums. The transmissionis done directly - via manuscript reproduction, and via indirect transmission. For example, someTargumic interpretations can be found in other Jewish literature like Genesis Rabba, Talmud and thelike.Are there specific elements of society involved with the destruction of the text?Notes: The texts are not destroyed, since they contain the name of God. They are put in a genizahinstead. The genizah is a place in a Jewish synagogue designated for storing worn-out sacred (Hebrewand Aramaic) books.WelfareDoes the text specify institutionalized famine relief?Notes: Not in the strict sense, but the famine-based narratives are present in biblical narratives. Forexample, because of the famine, Jacob and his entire family went to Egypt to seek refuge fromfamine. Famine actually represents the motivating factor for major changes. In addition, \"rain and thelack thereof, as well as abundance of food and famine, are thematized as signs of blessing andpunishment, righteousness and wickedness.\" (e.g. Numbers 11:13-17). The Targums do not use specificvocabulary to interpret this phenomenon. In this case, they simply render the Hebrew narrative intoAramaic.Reference: Aryeh Cohen. Justice, Wealth, Taxes: A View from the Perspective of Rabbinic Judaism. TheJournal of Religious Ethics, 43(3) p.410Does the text specify institutionalized poverty relief?Specify: no\u2014A Faith Elect\u2014A Faith Elect\u2014A Faith Elect\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 46 of 52Notes: Not in an institutionalized way, but it is strongly recommended to help the needy and the poor.For example, Leviticus 19:10 says: \"You shall not gather the fallen grapes of your vineyard; you shallleave them for the poor and the sojourner.\" The Targumic tradition (Onqelos, Pseudo-Jonathan, Neofiti)supports this reading of the verse.Does the text specify institutionalized care for elderly & infirm?Notes: Leviticus 19:32 \"You will stand up before the gray head and honor the face of an old man, andyou will fear your God, I am the Lord.\"Other forms of welfare?EducationAre there formal educational institutions available for teaching the text?Notes: The Targums were mainly delivered in synagogues, but also in schools. In Talmud Yerushalmi(Megillah 4,1) there is a saying \"concerning the Targum in the synagogue attributed to Rav Samuel barR. Isaac: 'R. Samuel bar R. Isaac entered a synagogue and saw a certain man translating while leaningagainst a pillar. He said to him: It is forbidden to you! Just as it was given in awe and reverence, thus wehave to treat it with awe and reverence.' According to R. Samuel then, the Targum merits the samerespect as that accorded the Law itself.\" R. Samuel from this story used to issue edicts in the areas ofthe public reading of the Scriptures and of the school system. He also had a role as the administratorof the school system.Reference: Anthony York D.. The Targum in the Synagogue and in the School. Journal for the Study ofJudaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period, 10(1) p.75Are there formal educational institutions specified according to the text?Notes: The Targums as interpretation of the Hebrew Bible, do not deal with schools as educationalinstitutions since the nature of biblical narratives is different. However, the Biblical text provides thebasis for teaching in Jewish communities. Usually, the teachers in the school system served asmeturgemanim (interpreters \/ we have already seen this term before), but it was not excluded that acapable pupil does so as well. In practice, this means that a child under thirteen was permitted to readthe Hebrew text and translate it - to say it more precisely - he could only transmit translations hereceived from his teachers, he was not permitted to act as his own translator.Does the text make provisions for non-religious education?Notes: The Targums were created within and for the Jewish audience.Yes\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 47 of 52Does the text restrict education to religious professionals?Notes: Not the biblical text itself, but the Jewish community did so. A Targumist was the personresponsible to translate and interpret the biblical text and teach the people according to the needs ofthe community he belonged to. Sometimes, his interpretations would be ''converse translations''which involved \"saying the exact opposite of what the original Hebrew text intends, for example by theinsertion or omission of a negative particle.\"Reference: Robert P. Gordon. Hebrew Bible and Ancient Versions. Routledge. isbn: 9781317122944.p.303Does the text restrict education among religious professionals?Is education gendered according to the text?Notes: In the rabbinic period the Targum served as a translation and elucidation of the scripturalreadings. \"In BT Ber 8ab we find: 'R. Huna b. Judah says in the name of R. Ammi: A man should alwayscomplete his parashiyot together with the congregation, reading twice the Hebrew text and once theAramaic Targum, and even such verses as Atarot and Dibon, for if one completes his parashiyottogether with the congregation, his days and years are prolonged.\" According to this text, it is clearthat the delivering of the Targums and teaching the people were restricted to men. However, it doesnot exclude the possibility of women learning the Torah and interpretations during the liturgy in thesynagogue; but they were not trained meturgemanim (interpreters).Reference: Alberdina Houtman, E. van Staalduine-Sulman, Hans-Martin Kirn. A Jewish Targum in aChristian World. BRILL. isbn: 9789004267824. p.81-82Is education gendered with respect to this text and larger textual tradition?Does the text specify teaching relationships or ratios? (i.e.: 1:20; 1:1)Are there specific relationships to teachers that are advocated by the text?Are there worldly rewards\/benefits to education according to the text specified by the textitself?Notes: There was a belief that if one completes his parashiyot together with the congregation, his daysand years are prolonged.No\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014I don't know\u2014No\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 48 of 52BureaucracyIs bureaucracy regulated by this text?Public WorksDoes the text detail interaction with public works?TaxationDoes the text specify forms of taxation?Notes: There are different types of taxes in the Bible: income tax, property tax, special assessment tax,and poll tax. An income tax is a levy based on the income of a person or the yield of property, such asfarmland or herds of livestock (e.g. Gen 47:26). A property tax is assessed on basis of the valuation ofpersonal or real property (e.g. 2 Kings 23:35). A special assessment tax is a tax levied to raise revenuefor specific projects (2 Chronicles 24:5). A poll tax is a flat sum levied on a per-capita basis (e.g. Exodus30:12). In the Targums, mas\/missin are taxes in general, whereas karga\u02be is specifically poll-tax, asopposed to tasqa\u02be - ground rent.Reference: Manuel Jose L., Charles Moore K.. The Development of Taxation in the Bible: Improvementsin Counting, Measurement, and Computation in the Ancient Middle East. The Accounting HistoriansJournal, 25(2) p.65-67Reference: Philip S. Alexander. The Targum of Lamentations. Liturgical Press. isbn: 9780814658642.p.110WarfareDoes the text mention warfare?No\u2014No\u2014Yes\u2014Does the text require the religious group in question levy taxes or tithes?Yes\u2014Are taxes levied on the group's adherents by an institution(s) other than the religiousgroup in question?No\u2014Is taxation linked to an understanding of charitable giving?No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 49 of 52Food ProductionDoes the text mentioned food production\/disbursement?BibliographyEntry\/Answer ReferencesReference: Paul V.M. Flesher, Bruce D. Chilton. The Targums. BRILL. isbn: 9789004217690. p.8, , p.8Reference: August den Hollander, Ulrich Schmid, Willem Smelik. Paratext and Megatext as Channels ofJewish and Christian Traditions. BRILL. isbn: 9789004421431. p.49, p.50Reference: Michael Klein L.. A Genizah Fragment of Palestinian Targum to Genesis 15:1-4. Hebrew UnionCollege Annual, 49(1978) p.75Reference: Grace Young , Emily Rodriguez TargumReference: Michael Klein L.. The Masorah to Onqelos: A Reflection of Targumic Consciousness. HebrewUnion College Annual, 68(1997) p.64Reference: David Kraemer. The Meanings of Death in Rabbinic Judaism. Routledge. isbn: 9781134616534.p.24Reference: Emerton. Congress Volume Vienne 1980. BRILL. isbn: 9789004275553. p.163Reference: Martin McNamara. Targum Neofiti 1: Genesis. A Michael Glazier Book, The Liturgical Press. isbn:0-8146-5476-2. p.40, p.39Reference: Manuel Jose L., Charles Moore K.. The Development of Taxation in the Bible: Improvements inYes\u2014Does the text dictate how to control an institutionalized military?Notes: Not in the strict sense, but it does indicate that man's ornament of war is not to be puton a woman; Tg Onqelos Deuteronomy 22:5: \"Let no man's ornament of war be put on awoman.\" This is slightly different from the Hebrew original which reads: \" A woman shall notwear that which belongs to a man.\"No\u2014Does the text restrict\/advocate for participation in exogenous military organizations?No\u2014Does the text celebrate\/bemoan protection\/subjugation by an exogenous militaryforce?No\u2014No\u2014Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 50 of 52Counting, Measurement, and Computation in the Ancient Middle East. The Accounting HistoriansJournal, 25(2) p.65-67Reference: Philip S. Alexander. The Targum of Lamentations. Liturgical Press. isbn: 9780814658642. p.110Reference: Aryeh Cohen. Justice, Wealth, Taxes: A View from the Perspective of Rabbinic Judaism. TheJournal of Religious Ethics, 43(3) p.410Reference: Anthony York D.. The Targum in the Synagogue and in the School. Journal for the Study ofJudaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period, 10(1) p.75Reference: Robert P. Gordon. Hebrew Bible and Ancient Versions. Routledge. isbn: 9781317122944. p.303Reference: Alberdina Houtman, E. van Staalduine-Sulman, Hans-Martin Kirn. A Jewish Targum in aChristian World. BRILL. isbn: 9789004267824. p.81-82Reference: Rachel Mikva S.. Midrash in the Synagogue and the Attenuation of Targum. Jewish StudiesQuarterly, 18(4) p.322Reference: Jouette Bassler M.. Cain and Abel in the Palestinian Targums: A Brief Note on an OldControversy. Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period, 17(1) p.56-57Reference: Genesis 22Reference: Leviticus 23Reference: Exodus 20Reference: Naomi Koltun-Fromm. Sexuality and Holiness: Semitic Christian and JewishConceptualizations of Sexual Behavior. Vigiliae Christianae, 54(4) p.389Reference: Alan Avery-Peck, Jacob Neusner. Judaism in Late Antiquity 4. Death, Life-After-Death,Resurrection and The World-to-Come in the Judaisms of Antiquity. BRILL. isbn: 9789004294141. p.311-312Reference: Katharine Dell. Ethical and Unethical in the Old Testament. A&C Black. isbn: 9780567217097.p.235Reference: Exodus 20:13Reference: Exodus 20:14Reference: Leviticus 18:7Reference: Leviticus 19:11Reference: Genesis 6:4Reference: Ari Mermelstein. Happiness. Judaism. Rabbinic Judaism. (Ari Mermelstein, Dale Allison C., Ed.),Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception. De Gruyter. p.279-280.Reference: Deuteronomy 31:6Reference: Joshua 1:9Reference: Exodus 33:19Reference: Isaiah 58:10Reference: Leviticus 16:29Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 51 of 52Reference: Psalm 47:2Reference: Proverbs 4:5Reference: Deuteronomy 23:11-14Reference: Proverbs 1:5Reference: Geoffrey Khan, Diana Lipton. Studies on the Text and Versions of the Hebrew Bible in Honourof Robert Gordon. BRILL. isbn: 9789004217379. p.315Reference: Sefer MeturgemanReference: Genesis 15:9Koralija, Database of Religious History, 2022 Page 52 of 52","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2009\/08\/skos-reference\/skos.html#note","classmap":"oc:AnnotationContainer"},"iri":"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2009\/08\/skos-reference\/skos.html#note","explain":"Simple Knowledge Organisation System; Notes are used to provide information relating to SKOS concepts. 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