{"Affiliation":[{"label":"Affiliation","value":"Science, Faculty of","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#departmentOrSchool","classmap":"vivo:EducationalProcess","property":"vivo:departmentOrSchool"},"iri":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#departmentOrSchool","explain":"VIVO-ISF Ontology V1.6 Property; The department or school name within institution; Not intended to be an institution name."},{"label":"Affiliation","value":"Oceans and Fisheries, Institute for the","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#departmentOrSchool","classmap":"vivo:EducationalProcess","property":"vivo:departmentOrSchool"},"iri":"http:\/\/vivoweb.org\/ontology\/core#departmentOrSchool","explain":"VIVO-ISF Ontology V1.6 Property; The department or school name within institution; Not intended to be an institution name."}],"AggregatedSourceRepository":[{"label":"Aggregated Source Repository","value":"DSpace","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/dataProvider","classmap":"ore:Aggregation","property":"edm:dataProvider"},"iri":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/dataProvider","explain":"A Europeana Data Model Property; The name or identifier of the organization who contributes data indirectly to an aggregation service (e.g. Europeana)"}],"Citation":[{"label":"Citation","value":"Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 8 (11): 945 (2020)","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#identifierCitation","classmap":"oc:PublicationDescription","property":"oc:identifierCitation"},"iri":"https:\/\/open.library.ubc.ca\/terms#identifierCitation","explain":"UBC Open Collections Metadata Components; Local Field; Indicates a bibliographic reference for the resource if it has been previously published."}],"Contributor":[{"label":"Contributor","value":"University of British Columbia. Fisheries Economics Research Unit","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/contributor","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:contributor"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/contributor","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource.; Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organization, or a service."}],"Creator":[{"label":"Creator","value":"Issifu, Ibrahim","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:creator"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; An entity primarily responsible for making the resource.; Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organization, or a service."},{"label":"Creator","value":"Sumaila, Ussif Rashid","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:creator"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/creator","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; An entity primarily responsible for making the resource.; Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organization, or a service."}],"DateAvailable":[{"label":"Date Available","value":"2020-11-26T18:22:12Z","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","classmap":"edm:WebResource","property":"dcterms:issued"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; Date of formal issuance (e.g., publication) of the resource."}],"DateIssued":[{"label":"Date Issued","value":"2020-11-20","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","classmap":"oc:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:issued"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/issued","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; Date of formal issuance (e.g., publication) of the resource."}],"Description":[{"label":"Description","value":"The human attachment to plastic has intensified recently due to its lightweight, versatility, low-cost and durability and so has the damage to the marine environment as marine plastic pollution has correspondingly increased. As a result, there has been increasing concern on the issue of marine plastic pollution. Policy-based organizations such as the United Nations Environment Programme have drawn public attention to the scope, magnitude and impacts of marine pollution in recent decades. Research on marine pollution can play a significant role in contributing to policy-making processes in support of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal on Life Below Water (SDG 14), by providing scientific analysis on the effects and sources of marine plastic pollution. This paper provides a theoretical and empirical overview of marine plastic pollution and its potential effects on marine ecosystems. It also discusses SDGs that are relevant to marine plastic pollution and suggest priorities for further research.","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/description","classmap":"dpla:SourceResource","property":"dcterms:description"},"iri":"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/description","explain":"A Dublin Core Terms Property; An account of the resource.; Description may include but is not limited to: an abstract, a table of contents, a graphical representation, or a free-text account of the resource."}],"DigitalResourceOriginalRecord":[{"label":"Digital Resource Original Record","value":"https:\/\/circle.library.ubc.ca\/rest\/handle\/2429\/76591?expand=metadata","attrs":{"lang":"en","ns":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/aggregatedCHO","classmap":"ore:Aggregation","property":"edm:aggregatedCHO"},"iri":"http:\/\/www.europeana.eu\/schemas\/edm\/aggregatedCHO","explain":"A Europeana Data Model Property; The identifier of the source object, e.g. the Mona Lisa itself. This could be a full linked open date URI or an internal identifier"}],"FullText":[{"label":"Full Text","value":"Journal ofMarine Science and EngineeringArticleA Review of the Production, Recycling andManagement of Marine Plastic PollutionIbrahim Issifu * and U. Rashid Sumaila *Fisheries Economics Research Unit, Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British Columbia,Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada* Correspondence: i.issifu@oceans.ubc.ca (I.I.); r.sumaila@oceans.ubc.ca (U.R.S.)Received: 2 October 2020; Accepted: 15 November 2020; Published: 20 November 2020\u0001\u0002\u0003\u0001\u0004\u0005\u0006\u0007\b\u0001\u0001\u0002\u0003\u0004\u0005\u0006\u0007Abstract: The human attachment to plastic has intensified recently due to its lightweight, versatility,low-cost and durability and so has the damage to the marine environment as marine plastic pollutionhas correspondingly increased. As a result, there has been increasing concern on the issue of marineplastic pollution. Policy-based organizations such as the United Nations Environment Programmehave drawn public attention to the scope, magnitude and impacts of marine pollution in recentdecades. Research on marine pollution can play a significant role in contributing to policy-makingprocesses in support of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal on Life Below Water(SDG 14), by providing scientific analysis on the effects and sources of marine plastic pollution.This paper provides a theoretical and empirical overview of marine plastic pollution and its potentialeffects on marine ecosystems. It also discusses SDGs that are relevant to marine plastic pollution andsuggest priorities for further research.Keywords: marine plastic pollution; sustainable development goals1. IntroductionPlastic has become ubiquitous in human society, as of 2015, about 8.5 billion metric tons of plasticwas estimated to have been produced globally since the first production of synthetic plastic in theearly 20th century [1]. With an annual growth of 4% between 2010 and 2015, more plastic has beenproduced in the last two decades compared to the previous 50 years [2]. Cheap production of primaryplastic packaging materials from petroleum products has led to the creation of the biggest virgin plasticmarket compared to recycled plastics resulting in substantial amount of plastic in landfills and thenatural environment [3]. In 2010, close to 12.7 million tons of mismanaged land-based plastic wastewas estimated to have entered the oceans [4]. The situation is acute for many middle-income countrieswho have become the epicenters for plastic leakage. The current review seeks to address the following:What has been the outcomes of selected studies on the effect of plastic pollution on marine ecosystems?Are there studies pointing to significant reduction in the levels of plastic pollutants? The purpose ofthis paper is to present both theoretical and empirical overview of marine plastic pollution based onexisting studies and suggest future recommendations in accordance with the lessons learnt from thecurrent study.By the end of 2015, 16 of the top 20 nations contributing to marine plastic pollution (MPP) weremiddle-income economies, whose rapid economic growth outpace waste management infrastructureexpansion [4]. Plastic pollution seems to be a single greatest threat to marine health due to its abundanceand longevity once leaked into the marine environment. Should global demand for and uncontrolleddisposal of plastic waste go unchanged, it is suggested that there will be more plastic in the ocean thanfish biomass by 2050 [5].J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 945; doi:10.3390\/jmse8110945 www.mdpi.com\/journal\/jmseJ. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 945 2 of 16Although the discovery of plastic remains a novelty without well-thought out management ofits waste, the global environment stands to suffer its negative effect. Given the closely intertwinednature of marine plastic pollution, the call for its careful management and prevention is strategic andtimely [6].To ameliorate the effect of marine pollution, significant initiatives targeted at reducing dumpingof plastic waste into oceans has been carried over the past three decades. The International Conventionfor the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) began publishing a series of articles to strengthenits disciplines on marine pollution in 1978. Since its introduction about 140 states have approvedMARPOL, covering 97.5% of global shipping tonnage [7]. The MARPOL Directive, as amended in 2012,focused on stopping pollution from vessels. As stated by the International Maritime Organization,MARPOL forbids dumping of plastic anywhere in the ocean, while the discharge of other waste isseverely restricted to coastal waters and \u201cSpecial Areas\u201d (i.e., areas designated special due to sea trafficand ecological conditions).The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) has also hosted workshopsand conferences to highlight the conservation and sustainable handling of marine resources vialegal processes as contained in the UNCLOS\u2019 protocol entitled \u2018The Future We Want.\u2019 Furthermore,Articles 192\u2013237 of UNCLOS outline basic rules to address marine pollution from various sources.However, the protocols of UNCLOS fail to specify the types of measures necessary, leaving it toindividual governments to adopt local and regional laws and regulation to address sources of marinepollution. Recent developmental goals such as the United Nations (UN) Agenda 2030 for SustainableDevelopment, approved in 2015, provides an overarching plan to guide global actions. Out of the 17Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), three keys align directly and indirectly with reducing marinepollution and improving marine life (Goal 14, 12 and 3). Targets 14.1 and 14.2 specifically address theissue of marine pollution. Land-based causes of ocean pollution to be reduced significantly by 2025are depicted in Table 1. To quickly achieve a reduction in MPP, short- and medium-term strategiesmust focus on campaigns to use plastic waste as inputs into other products (e.g., building and roadconstruction materials) and work to recover and reprocess usable products that might otherwise bediscarded (i.e., recycling programs). Long-term strategies should focus on sustainable initiatives suchas reducing waste at source or production stage. The association and potential impact of the threeSDGs (i.e., 3, 12 and 14) on MPP is illustrated by Figure 1. Here we provide a conceptual relationshipof how achievements of three SDGs may result in reduction in the volume of plastics in oceans.J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16  Although the discovery of plastic remains a novelty without well-thought out management of its waste, the global environment stands to suffer its negative effect. Given the closely intertwined nature of marine plastic pollution, the call for its careful management and prevention is strategic and timely [6]. To ameliorate the effect of marine pollution, significant initiatives targeted at reducing dumping of plastic waste into oceans has been carried over the past three decades. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) began publishing a series of articles to strengthen its disciplines on marine pollution in 1978. Since its introduction about 140 states have approved MARPOL, covering 97.5% of global shipping tonnage [7]. The MARPOL Directive, as amended in 2012, focused on stopping pollution from vessels. As stated by the International Maritime Organization, MARPOL forbids dumping of plastic anywhere in the ocean, while the discharge of other waste is severely restricted to coastal waters and \u201cSpecial Areas\u201d (i.e., areas designated special due to sea traffic and ecological conditions). The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) has also hosted workshops and conferences to highlight the conservation and sustainable handling of marine resources via legal processes as contained in the UNCLOS\u2019 protocol entitled \u2018The Future We Want.\u2019 Furthermore, Articles 192\u2013237 of UNCLOS outline basic rules to address marine pollution from various sources. However, the protocols of UNCLOS fail to specify the types of measures necessary, leaving it to individual governments to adopt local and regional laws and regulation to address sources of marine pollution. Recent developmental goals such as the United Nations (UN) Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development, approved in 2015, provides an overarching plan to guide global actions. Out of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), three keys align directly and indirectly with reducing marine pollution and improving marine life (Goal 14, 12 and 3). Targets 14.1 and 14.2 specifically address the issue of marine pollution. Land-based causes of ocean pollution to be reduced significantly by 2025 are depicted in Table 1. To quickly achieve a reduction in MPP, short- and medium-term strategies must focus on campaigns to use plastic waste as inputs into other products (e.g., building and road construction materials) and work to recover and reprocess usable products that might otherwise be discarded (i.e., recycling programs). Long-term strategies should focus on sustainable initiatives such as reducing waste at source or production stage. The association and potential impact of the three SDGs (i.e., 3, 12 and 14) on MPP is illustrated by Figure 1. Here we provide a conceptual relationship of how achievements of three SDGs may result in reduction in the volume of plastics in oceans.  Figure 1. Potential impact of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) on marine plastic pollution. Presents a conceptual relationship of how achievements of three SDGs-SDG 3 (Good health and well-being); SDG 12 (Responsible consumption and production) and SDG 14 (Life below water) may reduce marine plastic pollution (MPP).   Figure 1. Potential impact of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) on marine plastic pollution.Presents a conceptual relationship of how achievements of three SDGs-SDG 3 (Good health andwell-being); SDG 12 (Responsible consumption and production) and SDG 14 (Life below water) mayreduce marine plastic pollution (MPP).J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 945 3 of 16Table 1. Sustainable Development Goals targets related to marine litter. Sources: Adapted from [8].SDGs Target Index SDG Targets Linked to Marine Debris6.3 By 2030, the quantity of untreated wastewater should be halved.11.6. 1 By 2030, minimize the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including bypaying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management.12.1Implement the 10-year framework of programme on sustainable production andconsumption of all countries acting, with advanced economies taking the lead,considering the development and capabilities of developing economies.12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources.12.4By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and wastesthroughout their life cycle. In accordance with agreed international frameworks andsignificantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to reduce theiradverse impacts on human health and the environment.12.5 By 2030, substantially minimize waste generation through prevention,reduction, recycling and reuse.12.b Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainabletourism that create jobs and promote local culture and products.14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular fromland-based sources, including marine debris and nutrient pollution.14.2By 2020, sustainably managed and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoidsignificant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience and act for theirrestoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans.14.7By 2030, increase the economic benefits to Small Island Developing States and leastdeveloped economies from the sustainable use of marine resource, including throughsustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism.14.aIncrease scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine technology,considering the intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria and Guidelines onthe Transfer of Marine technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance thecontribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing economies,in particular Small Island Developing States and least developed economies.14.cEnhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources byimplementing international law as reflected in UNCLOS, which provides the legalframework for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources,as recalled in paragraph 158 of The Future We Want.15.5 Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt theloss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species.Notwithstanding these global efforts, research interest on the negative phenomena continue torise due the exponential increase in the use of plastic in modern society [6].Inadequate management of waste generated through plastic possess a significant threat to globalefforts to improve life under water. The ultimate effects will be the significant reduction in economicwelfare as a result of its impacts on marine ecosystem and ecological communities. This will also reducerevenues from marine-based tourism [9,10]. Studies on the effect of plastics has been conducted acrossthe globe but these have remained scatted and, in most instances, computing the absolute amount ofplastic discharged into the ocean is said to be difficult. The different environmental transport pathwaysfurther complicate the computational challenges associated with MPP [6].2. MethodsThe search for peer-review papers was conducted using search engines and citation databasessuch as Scopus, Google Scholar and Science Direct. To facilitated the search a combination of keywords and phrases such as \u201cmarine pollution\u201d \u201cplastic pollution,\u201d \u201cocean pollutants,\u201d \u201cenvironmentalmarine plastic,\u201d \u201csustainable development\u201d were employed. Boolean operators such as AND, OR andNOT were also employed. In addition to the keywords and Boolean operators, the search was furthernarrowed down with the use of filters such as year of publication. The following inclusion criteriawas adopted to help sift through the volumes of publications generated; relevance of paper to thetopic based on stated keywords and the content of the abstract. We excluded student thesis andJ. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 945 4 of 16non-academic documents from the review. A desktop review of each of the journal articles and contentanalysis was used to develop the respective themes and categorization of the articles. Special attentionwas given to the theoretical foundations that the selected papers were based on.3. Categories of Academic StudiesWe categorized the literature on MPP into three thematic themes: Exploratory empirical andtheoretical. Exploratory studies can also be referred to as pioneering studies focus on the definitions ofMPP [11]; identification of the sources and movement of plastic litter; and the estimation of the rate ofplastic pollution to the marine environment. For instance, it has been estimated that 27.5% of all plasticlitter ends up in the oceans [12]. Empirical studies aim to provide systematic evidence on the impact ofMPP in the real world. However, they are limited by the lack of data on the amount of plastic enteringthe ocean [13].The development of theoretical frameworks on MPP started with the Driver-Pressure-StateImpact-Response (DPSIR) model, developed to explain how social and economic developments exertpressure on the environment leading to changes in the environment [14]. But the general conclusionappears to be that controlling MPP should concentrate on material reduction, increased Governmentinvestment to improve recycling capacity, increase the design of end-of-life recyclability, strategies toreduce littering and development of bio-based feedstocks [15].3.1. Empirical StudiesIn this section, we present and discuss the findings of some empirical studies on the sources andimpacts of MPP.3.1.1. MPP: Sources, Pathways and EstimationIngestion of plastics by marine organisms such as seabirds gained prominence as early as the1960s [16]. The interactions between marine living organisms and persistent debris in the northwestHawaiian Islands [17]. As the first systematic study on MPP reported in the 1960s, their findings provideevidence that the 100 seabirds that died had plastic debris in their abdomens at an average weight of 2 gof plastic per seabird after flushing their stomachs. They concluded that these indigestible plastics wereingested unintentionally at sea, suggesting that the huge size of some of these plastic litters might haveled to the demise of seabirds. Added to this, significant interest in ingested plastic pellets hindering thedigestive efficiency, sometimes resulting in deaths among seabirds were raised [17]. The subsequentfindings of huge quantities of plastic items in the North Atlantic in the 1970s spurred research interestin MPP. Some novel studies reported the presence of plastics on the seabed, which affected a variety ofmarine organisms. The first comprehensive survey of marine plastics debris examined 100 Laysanalbatross carcasses in the Southeast Islands in the Caribbean and North Atlantic and revealed thatpellets of indigestible items were prevalent in the area but were concentrated close to mainland-basedchannels along the eastern seaboard in the US [18]. Unlike [17], they failed to find any pellets in marineliving organisms sampled.Notwithstanding these studies, global research agenda on marine plastic pollution gainedmomentum after the first two conferences organized by the US National Marine Fisheries Service inHonolulu between 1982 and 1984 [19]. The prevalence of litter in the open oceans is highlighted bynumerous images of plastic showing in shorelines and flowing into rivers before entering the oceansand by the fact that every year large quantities of litter are collected by ocean cleanups around the world.For instance, the 2017 cleanup event showed that the dominated top items collected around the globalbased on item counts of coastal litter were all made of plastics, which was repeated during the 2018cleanup event [20]. Meanwhile, a number of studies provide estimates of marine plastic debris [4,21].As recently reported by Eriksen et al. [22], an estimated figure of the volume of plastics floating inthe oceans, and found that more than five trillion pieces of plastic and approximately 268,940 tonsare currently floating in the oceans. They estimation however excluded plastic litter on the seafloor.J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 945 5 of 16The widespread use of single-use plastic and unmanaged disposal of litter along with pour wastemanagement and recycling practices contribute to the growing accumulation of litter in the oceans.In terms of transportation pathways, leakages from municipal solid waste streams which ultimatelyend up in the seas have been viewed as an increasing source of plastic debris in the oceans [23].Results from studies estimating MPP\u2013covering both ocean and land-based sources\u2013indicate theseare very large [4,24,25]. The total plastic pollution of 15 million metric tons per year is estimated [12].These estimates were based on compilation from previously published sources. The marine environmenthas become a substantial reservoir for plastic litter with huge negative effects [26]. As the definitionof marine plastic debris deepened [22], necessitating studies on other sources and forms of marinedebris [27,28]. New perspective to this debate found microplastic in Arctic polar waters and suggestthat the accumulation of plastic can be attributed to transporting agents such as ocean currents,winds and tides [27]. These agents enhance the transport of plastic to remote regions far from theoriginal sources. Inland populations contributed between 0.79\u20131.52 million tons per year of plastic tooceans through river transport [29]. Their findings were based on plastic inputs from inland areas(>50 km from the coastline) to oceans. By analyzing the distribution and abundance, plastic litter canbe found in marine ecosystems, including beaches, shorelines, surface waters and on the seafloor [30].3.1.2. Impact of MPP on Marine EcosystemsThe review of the selected peer-review papers shows significant academic interest on the effectof MPP on marine ecosystems. Feeding tests with plastic pellets had confirmed that small fish ofteningested plastic pellets, which increase their mortality rates [31]. Floating plastic-litter such as fishinggear have been found to constitutes a navigation hazard, leading to death or injury of marine organisms,these often-clogged water intakes or interfering with ship propellers [26].The early studies that respond to the growing awareness of floating plastic debris stranded onbeaches, found that regular retention rate of containers and other distinct bottles varied across differentbeaches and that plastic bottles last longer on beaches than non-plastic bottles [32]. Active oceancurrents culminated in low weekly retention rates (11%\u201329%) and spread litter throughout the SouthernNorth Sea. Accordingly, employing manufacturers\u2019 identification symbols to examine the durabilityof containers, about 20% of plastic litter were made more than two years preceding stranding [32].Data from remote Alaskan beaches was used to conduct one of the first extensive quantitative studiesof beach debris and revealed that the amount of plastic debris increased from 2221 to 5367 itemsbetween 1972 and 1974 [33]. Plastic might be a cause of harmful compounds and other phthalates intomarine ecosystems [33]. In this case, a study was undertaken in response to overreliance on qualitativeanalysis on the effect of plastic bottles on marine life by earlier researchers [33].One of the most significant studies of the impacts of marine plastic litter on fisheries foundthat abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear (ALDFG), otherwise well-known as ghost fishing(Ghost fishing occurs when traps or nets, discarded at sea, continue to cause significant mortality,often to already overexploited stocks.) [34] influence marine ecosystems and the life they support.Trammel nets and gill nets are the most significant causal factors in terms of gear lost and in termsof ghost fishing-related mortality. From their review of 76 publications and other sources of greyliterature, over 5400 individuals from 40 different species were recorded as entangled in, or associatedwith, abandoned longlines [35]. It was predicted that removing or eliminating 9% of lost traps andnets would raise annual global landings by approximately 294,000 tons [36]. The global effect is thatclose to 52% of sea turtles may ingested plastic litter [13]. Considering the continuing detection ofplastic entanglements by a growing cohort of marine animal species, marine environment has perhapsbecome a sizable sink for plastic waste across the globe. Figure 2 shows the share of species withrecords of entanglement in marine debris in 2015. For example, nine species of true seals have recordedabout 47% marine litter entanglement.J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 945 6 of 16J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16   Figure 2. Share of incidents of entanglement. The number inside the parenthesis indicates number of species and the numbers after each blue bar denotes percent of the animals in each sample that were entangled. For example, seven species of turtles have recorded 100% marine litter entanglement; likewise, three species of divers recorded about 60% of marine debris entangled. [data source: Statista accessed online: https:\/\/www.statista.com\/statistics\/596960\/share-of-species-with-with-records-of-entanglement-in-marine-debris\/] (accessed on 1 March 2020). The degradation of macroplastics into microplastics\u2014those that directly leaked into the oceans as plastic particles less than 5 mm in diameter\u2014are widely known as marine environment pollutants [8]. A mid-point estimation of 1.5 million tons of microplastics from the average of lower and upper ranges (0.8\u20132.5 million tons) of abrasion of car tyres, laundering of synthetic textiles, abrasion of road markings, fallout of city dust, release of marine coatings, spills of plastic pellets and microbeads from cosmetics entering oceans per year [37]. Synthetic textiles accounts for 35% of the world\u2019s sources of ocean microplastics while some 28% of the ocean\u2019s microplastics originated from car tires [37]. It is estimated that microplastics account for 94% of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch in the ocean [37]. The quantity of plastic waste that was mismanaged as well as the mass of plastic available to be transferred into the marine environment in the year 2010, an estimated 275 million tons of plastic waste was created by 192 coastal nations, with 4.8 to 12.7 million tons transported into the ocean [4]. Ten largest emitters of MPP worldwide, include China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria and Bangladesh and it is predicted that by the year 2025, the cumulative amount of plastic waste feasible to get in the ocean will double without remarkable advances in waste collection and management strategy [4]. On the regional level, Asia accounts for 86% of plastic input share from rivers into oceans [29]. Current estimates show that only around 40% of plastic waste are collected on average across, Thailand, the Philippines, China, Vietnam and Indonesia [38]. One might argue that waste collection systems are insufficient in Asia and many developing countries, where the collection and disposal of domestic and imported waste are largely unregulated. Municipal solid waste (MSW) provides a mechanism for plastic debris as well as organic waste to be transported into the marine environment. Until recently, there has been no reliable evidence about the quantity of plastic in MSW. Data reported in [39] reveals that, in 2018, the share of plastics in global municipal solid waste was approximately 12%. The global flow of plastic resins as of 2016 and found that about 300 million metric tons of new plastic was produced and of this amount, 260 million metric tons were turned into waste and about 19% was unmanaged dump or leaks into oceans [3]. Building on the [4,8] simulated the distribution of plastic waste based on the predicted flow of plastic as a result of insufficient waste treatment and found a significant trans-boundary transport across the Bay of Bengal. Likewise, global compilation of data on plastic litter in the water column 0.060.271724.626.128.129.933.338.54047.4601001001000. 20. 40. 60. 80. 100. 120.Invertebrates (92)Fish (89)Albatross and other procellariiformes (24)Toothed whales (16)Grebes (6)Gulls, skuas, terns and auks (39)Pelicans, gannets and boobies, tropicbirds (20)Penguins (6)Marine ducks (5)Dugongs and sea cows (2)True seals (9)Divers (3)Eared seals (13)Turtles (7)Polar bear (1)Share of incidents of entanglement Animal (number of species)Figure 2. Share of incidents of entanglement. The number inside the parenthesis indicates numberof species and the numbers after each blue bar denotes percent of the animals in each sample thatwere entangled. For example, seven species of turtles have recorded 100% marine litter entanglement;likewise, three species of divers recorded about 60% of marine debris entangled. [data source: Statistaaccessed online: https:\/\/www.statista.com\/statistics\/596960\/share-of-species-with-with-records-of-entanglement-in-marine-debris\/] (accessed on 1 March 2020).The degradation of macroplastics into microplast cs\u2014th se that di ectly leaked i o the oceans asplastic particles less than 5 mm in diameter\u2014are widely known as marine environment pollutants [8].A mid-point estimation of 1.5 million tons of microplastics from the average of lower and upperranges (0.8\u20132.5 million tons) of abrasion of car tyres, laundering of synthetic textiles, abrasion of roadmarkings, fallout of city dust, release of marine coatings, spills of plastic pellets and microbeads fromcosmetics entering oceans per year [37]. Synthetic textiles accounts for 35% of the world\u2019s sources ofocean microplastics while some 28% of the ocean\u2019s microplastics originated from car tires [37]. It isestimated that microplastics account for 94% of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch i the ocean [37].The qu ntity of plastic waste that was mismanaged as well as the mass of plastic availableto be transferred nto the marine environment in the year 2010, an estimated 275 millio tons ofplastic waste was created by 192 coastal nations, with 4.8 to 12.7 million tons transported into theocean [4]. Ten largest emitters of MPP worldwide, include China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam,Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria and Bangladesh and it is predicted that by the year 2025,the cumulative amount of plastic waste feasible to get in the ocean will double without remarkableadvances in waste collection and management strategy [4].On the regional level, Asia accounts for 86% of plastic input share from rivers into oceans [29].Current estimates show that only around 40% of plastic waste are collected on average acr ss, Thailand,the Philippines, Chin , Vietnam and Indonesia [38]. One might argue that waste coll ction systems areinsufficient in Asia and many dev loping countries, w re the collection and dispos l of domesticand imported waste are largely unregulated. Municipal solid waste (MSW) provides a mechanism forplastic debris as well as organic waste to be transported into the marine environment. Until recently,there has been no reliable evidence about the quantity of plastic in MSW. Data reported in [39]reveals that, in 2018, the share of plastics in global municipal solid waste was approximately 12%.The global flow of plastic resins as of 2016 and found that about 300 million metric tons of new plasticwas produced and of this amount, 260 million metric tons were turned into waste and about 19% wasunmanaged dump or leaks into oceans [3].Building on the [4,8] simulated the distribution of plastic waste based on the predicted flow ofplastic as a result of insufficient waste treatment and found a significant trans-boundary transport acrossJ. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 945 7 of 16the Bay of Bengal. Likewise, global compilation of data on plastic litter in the water column across abroad range of rivers, found that plastic litter loads are positively associated with the mismanagedplastic debris created in the river catchments [28]. However, this connection appears to be nonlinearin locations where large river catchments with high population density delivering an unduly higherportion of waste into the sea. The rivers of Yangtze, Yellow, Indus, Hai, Pearl, Ganges, Amur, Niger,Mekong and the Nile transport over 90% of global marine plastic waste into the ocean which originatesfrom land-based sources [28]. In contrast, most of the debris on beaches away from urban centers(e.g., Alaska), is made up of fishing gear litter [40].The tourism industry is both a significant contributor to ocean plastic debris and also a leadingcause of the problem [8]. The presence of ocean plastic debris can demoralize some beach-loving visitors;thus, decreasing visitor attendances, which in turn can cause jobs and revenues losses in the tourismsector [41]. The potential effects of marine pollution identified in this contribution come into evenmore focus if viewed in terms of the well-being of future generations vis a vis their need for healthyseafood [42,43]. The discussion thus far has focused on identification of sources of marine plastic litter,the increasing evidence of the ubiquity of plastic litter in the open ocean, in the terrestrial environmentsand on shorelines of even the most remote islands [23]. Considering the sluggish growth in plasticrecycling rates compared with the astronomical growth in plastic production [3], the volume of plasticlitter in the marine environment has surely increased with time.3.1.3. Potential InterventionsThis section synthesizes peer-reviewed papers based on proffered interventions for amelioratingthe volumes of marine plastic pollution. The review identified some critical studies, between 2010and 2019, that suggested possible interventions to aid the reduction of MPP in the ecosystems.A significant number of the studies focus on freshwater (i.e., in-land waterbodies) while others focusedon oceans (i.e., outland waterbodies). Most of the papers reviewed studied macro or microplastics,however, a few studied both [44\u201346]. Stringent regulation of plastic litter [47], surveillance [48],mitigation, prevention and collection of plastics dominated the proposed interventions by thestudies reviewed. Other interventions focused on filtering of factory effluents and recycling of plastics.We summarized in Table 2 key studies possible intervention to reduce MPP. Table 2 presents details ofthe stated interventions.Table 2. Freshwater.Summary of Key Marine Plastic Pollution StudiesTypes of Plastic Input Environment Location Intervention ReferenceMacroplastic Freshwater Seine River surface Stringent regulationon plastic litter [47]Microplastic Freshwater Rhine River Monitoring and reducing microplasticat point sources [49]Microplastic Freshwater Italy Adriatic Sea Reduce plastic litter [50]Microplastic Freshwater Tibet river system Increase collection capacity to reducemismanaged waste [51]Micro- and macroplastic Freshwater Tamar estuary Reduce ocean plastic pollution fromland-based sources [45]Microplastic Freshwater Italy Lake Garda Surveillance to control microplasticpollution in freshwater [48]Microplastic Freshwater China Lake Taihu Prevent and eliminatepellet spillage [52]Microplastic Freshwater China,three Gorges ReservoireSafely recycled and properdisposal of waste [51]Macro- and microplastic Freshwater Lake Canada beach Increase filtering factory effluent [46]Microplastic Freshwater Rhine surface water Reduce anthropogenic litterin Rhine River [53]J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 945 8 of 16Table 2. Cont.Summary of Key Marine Plastic Pollution StudiesTypes of Plastic Input Environment Location Intervention ReferenceOcean: Summary of Key Marine Plastic Pollution StudiesMacro- and microplastic Ocean South China Sea Creating marine litter awarenessthrough education [44]Microplastic, microbeads Ocean Deep-sea Ireland Reduce microplastic emissionsat source points [54]Macro- and microplastic,hard plastics OceanOcean, North Pacificsubtropical gyreMonitoring and trackingocean plastic movements [55]Microplastic Ocean China beach Regulating tourism activity [56]Plastic Ocean Kauai, Hawaii Beach Substitute long degradable plasticwith easily compostable ones [57]Microplastic Ocean Singapore seabed Stopping pollution from vessels [58]Macro- and microplastic Ocean Mediterranean Sea Increase monitoring actionsto assess plastic pollution [59]3.2. Theoreticl StudiesMPP models have been in existence since the 1970s and 1980s [22,60]. These models are usefulfor investigating the sources and impacts of MPP. Here we describe two of the most widely acceptedmodels for understanding the distribution of MPP. One major theoretical model that has dominated thefield of chemical pollution in recent years is the standard planetary boundaries model described in [61]and later applied to MPP by [6] to examine the impact of MPP on a global scale. Possible mechanismsand pathways for thresholds and global systemic change were identified [6]. Figure 3 shows a modelthat plots the relationship between plastic concentration and its effect on the ocean.J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16  Macro- and microplastic Ocean South China Sea Creating marine litter awareness through education [44] Microplastic, microbeads Ocean Deep-sea Ireland Reduce microplastic emissions at source points [54] Macro- and microplastic, hard plastics Ocean Ocean, North Pacific subtropical gyre Monitoring and tracking ocean plastic movements [55] Microplastic Ocean China beach Regulating tourism activity [56]  Plastic Ocean Kauai, Hawaii Beach Substitute long degradable plastic with easily compostable ones [57] Microplastic Ocean Singapore seabed Stopping pollution from vessels [58] Macro- and microplastic Ocean Mediterranean Sea  Increase monitoring actions to assess plastic pollution [59] 3.2. Theoreticl Studies MPP models have been in existence since the 1970s and 1980s [22,60]. These models are useful for investigating the sources and impacts of PP. Here we describe two of the most widely accepted models for understanding the distribution of MPP. One major theoretical mod l that has dominated the field of chemical pollution in recent y ars is the standard planetary boundari s model described in [61] nd later applied to MPP by [6] to examine the impact of MPP on a global scale. Possible mechanisms and pathways for thresholds and global systemic change were identified [6]. Figure 3 shows a model that plots the relationship between plastic concentration and its effect on the ocean.  Figure 3. Cross-scale spatial and temporal dynamics of marine plastic pollution. Curve A depicts the direct local impact of plastic concentration on marine organisms which is being observed globally. Threshold (a) is the highest tolerable exposure of organisms. Curve B captures the impact on ecosystem; a large-region, time-lagged (\u0394t) impacts. Threshold (b) represents a basic ecosystem-level change due to the concentration of plastic in the ocean (e.g., loss of organism that has a major influence on the way the ecosystem works). Curve C denotes the cascading effect of plastic pollution on global ecosystem. A minimal impact of plastic pollution is noticed until a critical ecosystem shift occurs at the threshold c. [Adapted from [6]]. MPP appears to have direct impacts on organisms, indirect impacts as a vector (i.e., plastic litter is often seen as a potential vector for pathogens and viruses especially the deadly Zika virus) or bearer of other pollutants and systemic impacts that spread across ecosystems on multiple temporal and spatial levels [8] as shown in (Figure 3). However, four potential sequences of events by which the disruptive impacts of a given pollutant are not detected [62] until it turns into a global-level problem: (i) the concentrations of the pollutant are nearly homogeneous at a global scale; (ii) the impacts are swiftly distributed globally; (iii) the impacts of the pollutant are only detectable at a global scale; and (iv) when there is a time lag between the exposure of the pollutant and the impacts. Figure 3. Cross-scale spatial and temporal dynamics of marine plastic pollution. Curve A depicts the directlocal impact of plastic concentration on marine organisms which is being observed globally. Threshold (a)is the highest tolerable exposure of organisms. Curve B captures the impact on ecosystem; a large-region,time-lagged (\u2206t) impacts. Threshold (b) represents a basic ecosystem-level change due to the concentrationof plastic in the ocean (e.g., loss of organism that has a major influence on the way the ecosystem works).Curve C denotes the cascading effect of plastic pollutio on global ecosystem. A minimal impact of plasticpollution is noticed until a critical ecosystem shift occurs at the threshold c. [Adapted from [6]].MPP appears to have direct impacts on organis , i irect impacts as a vector (i.e., plastic litter isoften seen a a potential vector f pathogens and viruses especi deadly Zika virus) or b arer ofother p llutants and systemic i pacts that spread across ecosystems on multiple temporal and spatiallevels [8] as shown in (Figure 3). However, four potential sequences of events by which the disruptiveimpacts of a given pollutant are not detected [62] until it turns into a global-level problem:(i) the concentrations of the pollutant are nearly homogeneous at a global scale;J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 945 9 of 16(ii) the impacts are swiftly distributed globally;(iii) the impacts of the pollutant are only detectable at a global scale; and(iv) when there is a time lag between the exposure of the pollutant and the impacts.A planetary-level shift is a combination of many local changes; and plastic waste does not fit theboundaries model, because there was no plastic during the pre-industrial era [63]. However, there isdebate about what forms a global-scale shift among the numerous frameworks of the planetaryboundaries [63]. The Mediterranean Sea contained a relatively even distribution of plastic litter butwith a higher density on the continental level with deleterious consequences for its inhabitants [64].Plastic litter is being redistributed around oceans from dense concentration input regions whichappears to fulfils MacLeod et al. [62]\u2019s Scenario (i) demands [6] outlined above.Whether MPP satisfies scenarios or sequence of events (ii)\u2013(iv) depends on the impacts inquestion and on how \u2018planetary-scale\u2019 impacts are defined. The direct impacts of MPP on organisms(e.g., from entanglement, inhalation, ingestion) are often treated as isolated challenges\u2013but they aregaining global attention because of their high accumulated levels as shown by curve A in Figure 3. As forScenario (iv), the interval between the arrival of plastic into the oceans and its impacts on organisms istypically less than a decade [65]. However, considering ocean dynamics and the global redistributionof plastics, may contribute to the creation of high plastic hotspots in the marine environment whichare geographically dispersed [13]. This framework is a useful way not only to show evidence thatMPP meets planetary boundary threat conditions but also to identify knowledge gaps on boundarycontrol variables that have not been rigorously studied. For instance, further transdisciplinary study isrequired to identify the thresholds of greatest concern in each stage of the planetary threat pathway.Determining exactly how long plastic litter has been in the sea and their sources can be difficultbut models are particularly useful for indicating possible transport channels and the period takenfrom the origin to sampling destination [66]. The transport and distribution of floating litters washedinto the North Pacific Ocean as a result of the Tohoku tsunami in Japan was examined and suggeststhat a substantial quantity of litter washed into the ocean likely represents several years\u2019 worth of\u2018normal\u2019 debris flux from the country\u2019s urbanized coastline [60]. Predictions show the channels andimpacts of vast amounts of plastic litters introduced via natural events such as tsunamis. Consequently,results also reveal a single event may drastically increase local plastic debris concentrations [60].Although limited information is available for other sources of plastic into the ocean (e.g., input fromnatural disasters), the exact amount of plastic pollution caused by natural disaster are unknown.Another best-known model is the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) first developedby the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development [67]. The DPSIR framework wasused to investigate dynamics of microplastic flows in the environment and identified population growth,economic growth after World War 2 and search for non-natural resources as key drivers [14]. It appearsthat environmental cleanups, environmental education campaigns, product design, the developmentof biodegradable plastics, waste management, the regulatory and policy instruments are potentialresponses to mitigate plastic pollution [14]. Table 3 presents an overview of the DPSIR model, which isa valuable adaptive management device for identifying solutions to environmental challenges [68].The capacity of indigenous knowledge must be enhanced in order to overcome MPP. As outlinedin Table 3, encouraging active participation of community-based organization and multidisciplinaryexperts can contribute to minimizing MPP [8].J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 945 10 of 16Table 3. Major global marine debris challenges structured according to the Driver-Pressure-State- Impact-Response (DPSIR) approach. Source: Adapted from [68].Driver Pressure State Impact Response Main Geographical AreaPlastics Emitted to the Ocean from Coastal AreasUse of plastic, especially incoastal zones.4.8\u201312.7 million tons ofland-based plastic debris enterthe ocean annually [4].The exact quantity of plastics inocean unspecified; Some studies [8];>100 million litters in 12 regionalSeas [11]; possibly 51 trillion debrisfloating on the surface of theocean [66]; South Pacific gyre averagemass about 27,000 pieces per km2and 71 g km2 [22].The environmental impact onmarine ecosystems such asstarvation of marine speciesor entanglement or; economicimpacts on tourism throughblocked waterwaysor littered shores [8].Short-term solutions: A portfolio of diversesolutions such as source reduction, innovationsin ocean cleanups technologies, improve wastemanagement infrastructure, [69];Long-term solution: adopt circular economythinking -through behavioral change; reducesingle use plastic; phase out non-recoverableplastics; encourage alternative materials [3].Worldwide short-term focuson Asia. Especially middle- andlow-income economies (top 5:China, Philippines, Indonesia,Sri Lanka, Vietnam);Beaches clean up; Ocean Clean ups:North and South Pacific gyres;\u2018hotspots\u2019 of plastics.Macroplastics Emitted from RiversUse of plastics, especially inriver catchment.1.15\u20132.41 million tons of plasticdebris flows from rivers as aresult of mismanaged debris orpopulation growth [29].The exact quantity of plastics inocean undocumented;Some studies [8]; >100 million debrisitems in 12 Regional Seas [11];perhaps 51 trillion debris onocean surface [66].The environmental impact ofplastic on marine ecosystemssuch greenhousegas emissions [2];ocean damage [70].Short-term solution: Indigenous knowledge andthe capacity of the local communities should beencouraged to address plastic pollution [71].Long-term solution: Enhancing wastewatertreatment facilities in developing countries.Encourage more scholarly interdisciplinaryresearch into causes, effects and responses tocontributes to reducing plastic wastein marine environment [72].Worldwide but short-term focus onAsia; over 60% of the most pollutedrivers are based in Asia [29].Macroplastics from Abandoned Lost or Otherwise Discarded Fishing GearFishing. The exact emission unknown;About 640,000 tons per year [8].Approximately 10% of world marinelitter by volume [34].Habitat damage andentanglement ofmarine mammals viaghost fishing [26] andimpacting habitats ofconservation [73].Short-term Solutions: legislation ALDFG nowonly aiming at large scale vessels(>100 gross tonnage) should also aim at smallerships. paying fishers to remove ALDFG ormarine debris for recycling [74]. Long-termsolutions: Encouraging preventative approachesand quick recovery of ALDFG [75].Global.Primary MicroplasticsUse of microplastics;production flakes ormicrobeads used in industrialabrasives both onland and at sea [76].Existing emission levelsnot yet known.About 32,000\u2013236,000 metric tonsmicroplastics in oceans [76].Perhaps ecotoxicologicalimpacts, economic damagebecause of food safetyconcerns and accumulationin food chains.Short-term solutions: prevention ofmicroplastics entering the ocean; improvewastewater treatment facilities; bans likemicrobeads; industrial spills. Long-termsolutions: as outlined above and improvedtechnologies and alternative materials.Global.Secondary MicroplasticsCrumbling and disintegrationof plastics;tear and wear of tires;disintegrated packaging [76].Existing emission levelsnot yet known.About 32,000\u2013236,000 metric tonsmicroplastics in oceans [66].Perhaps ecotoxicologicalimpacts, economic damagebecause of food safetyconcerns and accumulationin food chains.Short-term solutions: prevention of single useplastics; upgrade waste water treatmentfacilities. Long-term solutions: Improvetechnologies such as filters washing machines.Global.J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 945 11 of 16Overall, there seems to be some evidence to indicate that MPP fulfils circumstances for chemicalcontamination of planetary boundary. In particular, there is widespread evidence of the marineecosystem consequence of plastic pollution but it is debatable whether MPP fulfils the overarchingcondition of disrupting earth system dynamics [62]. A consideration of the DPSIR framework for MPP,however, highlights the possibility of using the Response element of DPSIR framework to reduce theloss of marine ecosystems by influencing behavior change and utilizing market-based instruments suchas bans [68,77]. The introduction of deposit refund schemes on plastics and other economic incentivesencourage recycling and stimulate behavior that alleviates the marine litter problem as well as imposinghigher taxes on shops and supermarkets using a lot of non-recyclable package [78].4. ConclusionsThe purpose of the current study was to examine both theoretical and empirical overview of marineplastic pollution based on existing studies and suggest future recommendations. Empirical studiesoutlined the sources and prevalence of plastic litter in the marine ecosystem while theoretical studiesclarify under what conditions MPP becomes a large-scale problem. Though empirical investigations arelimited due to lack of data on the number of plastic wastes entering the oceans [13], empirical studiesprovide systematic evidence on the impact of MPP in the real world. Recently, there has beenan increasing amount of robust scientific data (e.g., neutrally-buoyant floats, current meter arrays,satellite surveillances and oceanographic observations of salinity and temperature) on MPP. Hence,there is increasing scope for more studies. Notably, a recent detailed assessment of the field andlaboratory-based observations of plastic litter and fragments on a broad variety of marine organismssuch as ingestions have been conducted by the Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of MarineEnvironmental Protection (GESAMP) [76]. This assessment outlines potential areas for future research.For instance, detailed field and laboratory information indicate the negative impacts of exposingmarine organisms to marine plastic pollution [76,79]. For example, the assessment includes the impactsof ingestion and retention of microplastic by Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) [76]. In addition, a detailedcompilation of results for both commercial and non-commercial fish species were explored [80]. As such,the scope of the assessment has expanded, nevertheless, it does not yet include long term humanhealth impacts.Though it seems that river catchments, particularly those with high coastal populations and highlevels of coastal tourism, can transport a significant load of plastic into the marine ecosystem as outlinedin the GESAMP assessment [76], detailed information on the quantity and types of plastic litter gettinginto the marine environment globally, which causes are most significant and what control measuresmay be most effective are lacking. Given the scope of GESAMP assessment, large investments intoglobal monitoring are warranted to produce the datasets necessary for regional and global comparisons.In highlighting the regional diversity in the sources, distribution and effects of marine plastic litter,we argue that reduction measures and policies must take these variations into consideration.Another potential area for future empirical work is to assess the degradation rate of various plasticresins in the marine ecosystem and the period of potential exposure to marine organisms. As marineplastic debris is not distributed randomly across all oceans, it is demanding to create a control group ofmarine organisms, for instance, commercial fishers that can be utilized to examine a counter-factualstudies. In this regard, water columns need to be stratified to obtain sampled population that can beused to explain the behavior of plastic litter inside the different layers of the ocean.To minimize the plastic footprint on the marine ecosystem, innovation, monitoring and regulationsare critical but to do this requires enhancing opportunities for the exchange of ideas between researchersand policymakers. All of these require adequate financing [81]. Participation of economists andother academic experts on conferences related to MPP such as the United Nations Conference onSustainable Development, entitled: \u201cThe Future We Want\u201d is limited to a handful of representativesmostly from developed countries. Most attendees at International conferences on plastic in the marineenvironment (ICPME) are diplomats and environmentalists who are not privy to recent academicJ. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 945 12 of 16studies that enhance our understanding of MPP. Here, we identify the need to develop a delegation ofrepresentatives from Small Island Developing States and least developed economies to strengthenthe links between scientific knowledge and the practical implications of MPP across countries andcontexts worldwide.More importantly, citizens must take individual actions not only to help reverse the trend of MPP bydemanding integration of recycled content in plastic products but also take ownership of the monitoringand implementation of SDG 3 as well as SDG 12 and SDG 14. Major gains towards SDG 3 will beachieved through the introduction of regulatory mandates on certain polymers, pigments and additives,via a global plastic protocol to prevent health risk and increase plastic recyclability. Controlling virginplastic production and consumption particularly of single-use, low value, disposable plastics will leadto the realization of SDG 12, while SDG 14 can be achieved via the effective management of plastic fromland-based sources by providing downstream infrastructure such as good waste collection systems,especially, for high pollution countries.Ocean circulation models can contribute useful assessments of the distribution and relativeprevalence of floating plastics; however, global-scale debris modelling may underestimate in someareas while over-estimating in others [13]. In addition, the main drawbacks with many currentglobal-level modelling techniques are that they do not examine key factors such as non-buoyantplastics, vertical transport towards the seafloor and fragmentations [8]. The empirical analysis ofplastic litter in the ocean suggests that surface plastic debris levels in gyres are lower than model debrispredictions would suggest [30]. A reasonable approach to tackle this issue requires sound metrics toprioritize action at regional and local levels, ranging from proper infrastructure to innovative productdesign for plastic recycling that cover many types of plastic polymers.Author Contributions: Conceptualization, writing the original draft preparation, and review I.I.; resources,editing and supervision U.R.S. Both authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.Funding: This research received no external funding.Acknowledgments: Support for this project was provided by The Pew Charitable Trusts. The views expressedare those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of The Pew Charitable Trusts.Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.References1. Geyer, R.; Jambeck, J.R.; Law, K.L. Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci. Adv. 2017, 3,e1700782. [CrossRef]2. Zheng, J.; Suh, S. 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