^ 3 37 Cop. / THE POETRY OF CECIL DAY LEWIS Edgar Charles Barton A T h e s i s Submitted In P a r t i a l F u l f i l m e n t of The Requirements For The Degree Of MASTER OF ARTS In The Department of ENGLISH TiiE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA October, 1948 THE POETRY OF CECIL DAY LEWIS ABSTRACT OF ESSAY Chapter One.("Amongst The Ruins") attempts t o survey contemporary s o c i e t y through Lewis' eyes. The main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the age are t h e s e : ( l ) the extent t o which the machine dominates the l i f e of our times, and the economic, s o c i a l , and p s y c h o l o g i c a l maladjustments which r e s u l t ; (2) the tragedy o f r e c u r r i n g war; (3) the decay of r e l i g i o u s orthodoxy and the quest f o r s p i r i t u a l reassurance Chapter Two (The A p p e t i t e F o r Wholeness) dea l s w i t h Lewis' attempt t o achieve s i n g l e n e s s of mind as r e l a t e d i n h i s s p i r i t u a l autobiography, T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. T h i s poem i s e s p e c i a l l y important f o r the e x p r e s s i o n of c e r t a i n g erminal i d e a s which l a t e r develop i n t o fundamental concept These germinal ideas are the p o l a r i t y of f l e s h and s p i r i t : the d u a l i t y o f p h y s i c a l and s p i r i t u a l l o v e ; a carpe diem conception of p l e a s u r e ; the acceptance of p a i n ; the worship of hero i n h i s r o l e of d e c i s i v e a c t i o n ; arid the d e c i s i o n t o i n the take the s i d e of the p r o l e t a r i a t / c l a s s s t r u g g l e s of the age Chapter Three (The S p e n d t h r i f t F i r e the Holy F i r e ) examines the poetry of lov e and sex. From Feathers To I r o n r e l a t e s the thoughts and f e e l i n g s of the poet d u r i n g the nine.months which precede the b i r t h of h i s f i r s t c h i l d . T h i s poem i s c o n s i d e r e d from t h r e e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s ; as a human s t o r y , as a pageant of nat u r e , as a p o l i t i c a l a l l e g o r y on the "birth of a new wor l d . Other l y r i c s of lo v e and sex d e a l with sex p e r v e r s i o n , and the change which time b r i n g s t o the marriage r e l a t i o n s h i p , while o t h e r s are i n the mood of c a v a l i e r d a l l i a n c e . Chapter Pour ( I n e r t i a and S t i m u l a n t s ) presents M B 1 8 ' argument t h a t the key to the s i c k n e s s of s o c i e t y i s a d i v o r c e between f l e s h and s p i r i t . T h i s d i v o r c e b r i n g s about 0X f r u s t r a t i o n and i n e r t i a , as/femplifled by the v a r i o u s "Defendants" of The Magnetic Mountain, and leads to attempts at a r t i f i c i a l s t i m u l a t i o n , as e x e m p l i f i e d by the f o u r "Enemies" of the same book. Chapter F i v e (The Shape of M a n 1 s N e c e s s i t y ) contends t h a t The Magnetic Mountain o f f e r s s o c i a l i s m as a p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n which w i l l h e a l the d i v o r c e of f l e s h and s p i r i t . The enthusiasm of The Magnetic Mountain and Noah and the Waters gives way i n l a t e r poems t o a disappointment tempered by the f a i t h t h a t the s o c i a l i s t s o l u t i o n , though delayed, w i l l e v e n t u a l l y come. Chapter S i x (In The Act of D e c i s i o n ) presents L e w i s 1 ideas o f t r a d i t i o n and shows t h a t the hero i s one who a c t s d e c i s i v e l y . b e c a u s e h i s knowledge of n e c e s s i t y has u n i t e d the d e s i r e s of f l e s h and the d e s i r e s of s p i r i t . "A Time To Dance" and "Nabara" are e p i c s t o r i e s which may be regarded as exemplar of men i n the a c t of d e c i s i o n . 3. Chapter Seven (The Unique Minute) d i s c u s s e s the d u a l nature of Lewis* p h i l o s o p h y of acceptance, The.acceptance of j o y becomes a carpe diem p h i l o s o p h y ; the acceptance of s u f f e r i n g shows t h a t the poet r e c o g n i z e s the complementary nature of joy a n d p a i n . Chapter E i g h t (Defend The Bad Ag a i n s t The Worse) examines the war poems which f a l l i n t o t hree c a t e g o r i e s : (1) p r o p h e t i c poems w r i t t e n b e f o r e 1939; (2) poems about England at war; (3) poems about the prospect of l a s t i n g peace i n the f u t u r e . Chapter Nine (Emotional L o g i c ) d e a l s w i t h the technique of the poems. Some of the c o n c l u s i o n s drawn are these? ( l ) S o t h l o g i c a l and emotional coherence are used, hut the former predominates; (2) £ n matters of rhythm and rhyme, the i n f l u e n c e of Anglo-Saxon v e r s i f i c a t i o n , Hopkins, Owen, E l i o t and Auden i s present, but as not as g r e a t as i s commonly supposed; (3) i n g e n e r a l Lewis Is not an obscure poet; (4) In h i s l a t e s t poems (Short I s The Time) Lewis r e -v e a l s t h a t t e c h n i c a l l y he i s both v e r s a t i l e and accomplished, and t h a t h i s poetry does not l a c k the p u r p o s e f u l ambiguity or q u a l i t i e s of " o c c l u s i o n " which i s a mark of gre a t p o e t r y . THE POETRY OP CECIL DAY LEWIS TABLE OP CONTENTS C H A P T E R I AMONGST THE RUINS An a n a l y s i s of the s o c i e t y i n which the poet l i v e s and about which he w r i t e s . CHAPTER I I THE APPETITE FOR WHOLENESS A study of the poet's search f o r single-mindedness a s r e l a t e d i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem CHAPTER I I I THE SPENDTHRIFT FIRE THE HOLY FIRE CHAPTER IV A c r i t i c a l examination of the problems of sex, l o v e , marriage and parenthood, as expressed i n Frem Feathers To I r o n and i n v a r i o u s other poems, e s p e c i a l l y c e r t a i n l y r i c s from Short I s The Time INERTIA AND STIMULANTS An examination of the causes and symptoms of the i l l n e s s of s o c i e t y , and concerning the d i a g n o s t i c p o r t -i o n s of The Magnetic Mountain m a i n l y CHAPTER V T H E S H A P E OF M A N ' S N E C E S S I T Y A study of the methods by which Lewis would attempt to cure the i l l n e s s of s o c i e t y , as r e l a t e d i n The Magnetic Mountain, Noah and the Waters, and other poems. CHAPTER VI I N T H E A C T O P D E C I S I O N A study of Lewis' ideas of t r a d i t i o n , of hero, and of ancestor, as found i n A Time To Dance, The Nabara, and other poems. An examination of two a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y aspects of L e w i s 1 p h i l o s o p h y ; namely, the b e l i e f i n the acceptance of joy, and the acceptance of s u f f e r i n g . An a n a l y s i s of the poet's a t t i t u d e to war and a study of h i s war poems. CHAPTER VII THE UNIQUE MINUTE CHAPTER VIII DEPEND THE BAD AGAINST ThE WORST CHAPTER IX EMOTIONAL LOGIC A study of form and technique i n Lewis' p o e t r y . CHAPTER I AMONGST THE RUINS PART ONE S h e l l e y ' s w r i t i n g s , whether i n prose or i n v e r s e , do not evoke today amongst readers the enthusiasm t h e y once d i d , day f i f t y years ago. H i s p o e t r y i s not as popular as i t f o r m e r l y was, and h i s c r i t i c a l w r i t i n g s are o f t e n a a i d t o l a c k the l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y and the c o n s i s t e n c y of good c r t i c i s m . L i k e S h e l l e y , C o l e r i d g e uses an a p p a r e n t l y haphazard method of development i n h i s B l o g r a p h l a L i t e r a r i a . and one f i n d s many random notes on a e s t h e t i c s s c a t t e r e d throughout K e a t s ' l e t t e r s . The s t a t u r e of K e a t s and C o l e r i d g e however, has r i s e n r a t h e r than f a l l e n . Obvious ly^ the causes of these d i v e r s e f o r t u n e s must he something e l s e than l a c k of l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y . Whatever may he the v a l u e of S h e l l e y ' s c r i t i c i s m as a whole , i t i s a f a c t t h a t f r e q u e n t l y he throws out ideas t h a t are at once s t r i k i n g and o r i g i n a l , much as C o l e r i d g e and K e a t s d o . F o r t h i s reason^ S h e l l e y ' s c r i t i c a l pre faces and essays deserve more i n t e n s i v e s tudy than they u s u a l l y get t o d a y . I n the " P r e f a c e " of Prometheus Unbound, f o r i n s t a n c e , S h e l l e y w r i t e s : P o e t s , not o therwise than p h i l o s o p h e r s , p a i n t e r s , s c u l p t o r s , and m u s i c i a n s , a r e , 2* i n one sense, the c r e a t o r s , and i n another , the c r e a t i o n s of t h e i r age . By t h i s s ta tement , i t would seem t h a t S h e l l e y q u a l i f i e s h i s t r u m p e t - b l a s t t h a t poets are the unacknowledged l e g i s l a t o r s of the w o r l d by s a y i n g i n the same b r e a t h t h a t the w o r l d i s a l s o the acknowledged l e g i s l a t o r of p o e t s . A p o e t , i n o ther words , i s bo th the c r e a t e d and the c r e a t o r o f h i s age. T h i s essay i s concerned w i t h a poet who, i t w i l l be shown, i s p e c u l i a r l y the c r e a t i o n of h i s age . The d e s i r e t o o b t a i n s i n g l e n e s s of m i n d , whioh was h i s f i r s t c o n c e r n , i s unders tandable i n an age w h i c h has no c e n t r a l t r a d i t i o n and no. one f a i t h . The s a t i r e w i t h w h i c h he a t t a c k s s o c i e t y , and the p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n s he presents show t h a t L e w i s 1 a t t i t u d e , l i k e t h a t of the Greeks, l s shaped by the c o n c e p t i o n of man as a " p o l i t i c a l a n i m a l " . MacNeice regards the p o l i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s -ness of Lewis as perhaps h i s most impor tant a t t r i b u t e , f o r , he w r i t e s : - - w i t h the r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t man i s c o n d i t i o n e d by economic f a c t o r s and t h e r e f o r e needs the company of men qua community goes the r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t man i s a c r e a t u r e of s t r o n g p h y s i c a l i n s t i n c t s and a f f e c t i o n s , and t h e r e f o r e , * needs the company of men qua i n d i v i d u a l s . The f a c t t h a t Lewis l s concerned w i t h r e - e s t a b l i § h i n g a l o s t t r a d i t i o n which w i l l c rea te a f e e l i n g of s o l i d a r i t y between h i m s e l f and h i s f e l l o w - m e n , and,between h i m s e l f and c e r t a i n heroes of the p a s t , i s a l s o the Result of an age which ( l ) L o u i s MacNeice , Modern P o e t r y . 0 x f O r d U . P r e s s , 1938, 15-16. 3 . has n e i t h e r e e n t r a l i t y nor a l i v i n g t r a d i t i o n , and which I s hogged down i n i n d i v i d u a l apa thy . Because t h i s c o n d i t i o n e x i s t s , the poet makes the ac t of d e c i s i o n one of the p a r t s of h i s c r e e d . At t imes the d i f f i c u l t y o f making progress towards h i s i d e a l s o c i e t y t i n g e s h i s p o e t r y w i t h d i s i l l u s i o n , and i n t ime he developes an a t t i t u d e of acceptance which acknowledges d i s i l l u s i o n as p a r t of the normal l o t ot mankind. As i s the case w i t h bA§ concept ion of the h e r o , h i s p h i l o s o p h y of acceptance has been c r e a t e d by contemporary s o c i e t y , f o r such a p h i l o s o p h y i a a defence a g a i n s t a h o s t i l e environment . Perhaps even the compression of s t y l e one f i n d s i n Lewis and i n many contemporary poets i s p a r t l y due t o a s o c i e t y t h a t turns the poet i n upon h i m s e l f f o r r e a s s u r a n c e . F o r i f the s t y l e i s the man, assuming t h a t t h i s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s some-t h i n g more than a p l a t i t u d e ^ then i t would f o l l o w t h a t i f the man l s the c r e a t i o n of h i s age, h i s s t y l e t o o , l s the c r e a t i o n of h i s age . To be more a p e c i f i c t h e r e seems t o be a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the c o m p l e x i t i e s of contemporary l i f e and the c o m p l e x i t i e s o f contemporary s t y l e . The ex tent t o w h i c h t h i s assumption i s t r u e , i f indeed^ i t i s t r u e a t a l l s , w i l l be examined more f u l l y i n Chapter N i n e . T h i s essay must concern i t s e l f p r i m a r i l y w i t h Lewis as the c r e a t i o n of h i s age. But there i s a second i d e a i n the 4 . S h e l l e y q u o t a t i o n w i t h w h i c h I opened t h i s c h a p t e r . He says t h a t a r t i s t s a r e , I n one sense , " the c r e a t o r s of t h e i r a g e " . I s he speaking l i t e r a l l y or f i g u r a t i v e l y ? Do poets a c t u a l l y h e l p t o change the p o l i t i c a l , m o r a l , and economic framework of t h e i r age? Or i s the e f f e c t of p o e t r y r e s e r v e d f o r those who read p o e t r y , so t h a t r e c r e a t i o n takes p lace o n l y i n the mind of the reader? I n s h o r t , what e x a c t l y does S h e l l e y mean by s a y i n g t h a t poets are the c r e a t o r s of t h e i r age? T h i s essay i s an a t tempt , not o n l y t o show t h a t Lewis i s the product of h i s age, but a l s o t o d i s c o v e r I n what sense and t o what ex tent he i s the c r e a t i o n of h i s age. I f , i n d e e d , i t i s t r u e t h a t s o c i e t y shapes our responses , then an examinat ion of t h a t s o c i e t y would seem t o he a n a t u r a l s t a r t i n g p o i n t . John L i v i n g s t o n e Lowes would agree t o t h i s i n i t i a l s t e p , I t h i n k , f o r he w r i t e s : R e v o l t i n p o e t r y i s not a w i n d t h a t blows a l o o f and f l t f j u l l y a l o n g the upper reaches of the a i r . I t I s hound up w i t h the g e n e r a l ebb and f l o w of a t t r a c t i o n s and r e p u l s i o n s which go t o make up l i f e . And i t i s never amiss to b e g i n by s c r u t i n i z i n g l i f e , when.one i s q u e s t i o n i n g the ways of s o c i e t y . ' 1 ' I s h a l l beg in the essay , t h e r f o r e , by s c r u t i n i z i n g s o c i e t y . PART TWO I s h a l l a t tempt , f i r s t of a l l , t o survey s o c i e t y w i t h L e w i s 1 eyes , and to p i c k out from a v e r y complex age c e r t a i n ( l ) J . L . Lowes, Convent ion and R e v o l t i n P o e t r y , Boston and New Y o r k , Houghton M i f f l i n C o . , 1924, 159. 5. s i g n - p o s t s t o guide one through the w a s t e l a n d . The f i r s t of these s i g n - p o s t s i s to be found i n a l l the v a r i e d Appl icat ions of the term, the machine age• Sc ience has developed machinery t o a p o i n t of p r o d u c t i v i t y undreamed of f i f t y years ago. Ours i s an age of dynamos, p y l o n s , l o c o m o t i v e s , aeroplanes , g e a r s , assembly l i n e s , b l a s t f u r n a c e s , wheels w i t h i n w h e e l s . The t e c h n o l o g i c a l advance has been so r a p i d , t h a t man has lagged beh ind i n b o t h the p s y c h o l o g i c a l and economic s p h e r e s . E c o n o m i c a l l y , the p r o d u c t i v i t y of machines has l e d t o the paradox of o v e r - p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h r e -s u l t i n g d e p r e s s i o n s . D i s t r i b u t i o n has r e p l a c e d p r o d u c t i o n as the key prob lem. P s y c h o l o g i c a l l y , the b e w i l d e r i n g i n c r e a s e of sense d a t a , and of s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r y , has l e d to the atrophy of man f s r e c e p t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n . Lewis w r i t e s t h a t : - -wonders crowd so t h i c k and f a s t around him t h a t he has almost l o s t the sense of wonder; and, i f he has a f e e l i n g f o r the s p i r i t or essence of t h i n g s , i t i s h e l d incommunicado from h i s sense of t h e i r m a t e r i a l u t i l i t y . Reason and I n s t i n c t are k e p t a p a r t . * 1 ' Lewis r e f e r s t o t h i s problem, w h i c h i s e s s e n t i a l l y a problem of the d i v o r c e , between ends and means, i n a poem c a l l e d , "A Warning To Those Who L i v e On M o u n t a i n s " . Speaking t o the men of s c i e n c e , he w r i t e s : S imple the password t h a t d isarms s u s p i c i o n : S t a r v e d are your r o o t s , and s t i l l would you s t r a i n . . The t i e between btfain and body t o b r e a k i n g - p o i n t ? * 2 ' (1) C . Day L e w i s , The P o e t i c Image, London, Jonathan Cape, 1947, 108 (2) A Time To Dance. "A Warning To Those Who L i v e On M o u n t a i n s " , : 7 1 1 . 19-22 6.. The warning Lewis g i v e s i n these l i n e s i s t h a t s c i e n t i s t s must b e g i n t o have a l a b o r a t o r y concern about the e f f e c t s of t h e i r i n v e n t i o n s on s o c i e t y . I t i s a p l e a t o c o n s i d e r ends as w e l l as means, m o r a l i t y as w e l l as mathematics , l i f e as w e l l as knowledge, s o c i a l as w e l l as l a b o r a t o r y v a l u e s . Economic d i s l o c a t i o n i s a more p e r c e p t i b l e , hut not a more r e a l , e f f e c t of the machine age, than p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s l o c a t i o n . The stepped-up p r o d u c t i v i t y of machines , and the spread of the machine technique from where i t began i n England t o the f o u r corners of the e a r t h , has c r e a t e d f o r the f i r s t t ime on a l a r g e s c a l e the problem of o v e r p r o d u c t i o n . The great d e p r e s s i o n of the e a r l y ' T h i r t i e s r e s u l t e d from the i n a b i l i t y of the economic system to adapt i t s e l f t o h i g h - s p e e d p r o d u c t i o n . Lewis b e l i e v e s t h a t the c a p i t a l i s t system i s a s c a r c i t y system; t h a t i s t o s a y , i t w i l l work e f f e c t i v e l y o n l y i f demand f o r goods f a r exceeds t h e i r s u p p l y . F o r t h a t reason Lewis b e l i e v e s t h a t c a p i t a l i s m has o u t l i v e d i t s u s e f u l n e s s , and t h a t i t must be r e p l a c e d by s o c i a l i s m which i s the next stage of economic e v o l u t i o n . By p r o d u c i n g goods f o r u s e , not f o r p r o f i t , the n e c e s s i t y f o r s h u t t i n g down the machines t o keep up p r i c e s w i l l be removed. A l l t h i s , of c o u r s e , i s commonplace s o c i a l i s t d o c t r i n e , but i t i s a mat ter w h i c h w i l l r e c e i v e m o r e a t t e n t i o n i n l a t e r c h a p t e r s . Whatever L e w i s 1 p o l i t i c a l b e l i e f s may be , w r i t e r s of h i s g e n e r a t i o n have mani fes ted an i n t e r e s t i n p o l i t i c s and economics.: t o an ex tent unsurpassed among E n g l i s h w r i t e r s s i n c e the French R e v o l u t i o n . I n a boadcast i n 1935^ Lewis pointed , out t h a t the c r u m b l i n g of the s o c i a l s t u r c t u r e i s t e n d i n g t o f o r c e ~> s o c i a l l y - c o n s c i o u s w r i t e r s t o a l i g n themselves w i t h one of the l a r g e r w o r l d p o l i t i c a l movements. He made i n h i s t a l k t h i s prophecy: I f and when the d i v i s i o n between the i n t e r e s t s of these c l a s s e s ( t h e w o r k i n g and the owning c l a s s e s ) grows more acute and o b v i o u s , we s h a l l f i n d w r i t e r s s t a n d i n g more and more d e f i n i t e l y on one s i d e or the o t h e r . And, as t h i s ta^es p l a c e , a new c o n c e p t i o n of the f u n c t i o n of l i t e r a t u r e i s bound t o grow u p . I t w i l l become more concerned w i t h the r e l a t i o n s between the masses, and l e s s w i t h the r e l a t i o n s between i n d i v i d u a l s , more of a guide t o a c t i o n and l e s s of a commentary on a c t i o n ; more d e l i b e r a t e l y a p a r t i s a n i n l i f e f s s t r u g g l e s . I n f a c t , i t w i l l m o r a l i z e more, ( i ) T h i s p u b l i c l y d e l i v e r e d m a n i f e s t o seems c l e a r enough. Y e t , as I s h a l l show, the p r e d i c t i o n has not been born out i n h i s own poet ry at l e a s t . Rather than c o n c e r n i n g h i m s e l f i n c r e a s i n g l y w i t h mass r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i n h i s l a t e r w r i t i n g s he has veered more and more towards p u t t i n g the emphasis on the i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s s h i f t of emphasis leads one t o b e l i e v e t h a t man f s o p i n i o n s , l i k e P r o t e u s , c o n s t a n t l y and b e w i l d e r i n g l y change shape, and, d e s p i t e the s t r e n g t h of one 's c o n v i c t i o n s at a g i v e n moment, the p o s s i b i l i t y of an about - face i s always p r e s e n t . S e n s i t i v e , i n t e l l i g e n t men, such as L e w i s , c o n s t a n t l y change the emphasis they put on t h e i r i d e a s . Perhaps , r a t h e r , t h e i r ideas are ( l ) C . Day L e w i s , "The R e v o l u t i o n I n L i t e r a t u r e " , The L i v i n g Age, May, 1935, 256. 8 . changed f o r them. Thus a poet grows, ever a l e r t t o new s t i m u l i , ever changing. The f i r s t landmark of our age wa s the economic, p o l i t i c a l , and p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s l o c a t i o n which was a r e s u l t of the machine age. The second c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s the prevalence of war i n contemporary s o c i e t y . To put the problem b r i e f l y , i t I s that i n the space of twenty-five years, mankind has fought the two most c a t a s t r o p h i c wars i n h i s t o r y . The causes of these wars w i l l be discussed i n Chapter E i g h t . The Important t h i n g to note here i s that these wars d i d occur, making a shambles of l i f e as i t was known, s u b s i t u t i n g d e s p a i r and f e a r s of per-p e t u a l c o n f l i c t f o r rosy dreams of progress and peace. When the f i r s t war was over, w r i t e s Lewis, " i t was l e f t t o an American, T. S. E l i o t , t o p i c k up some of the fragments of c i v i l i z a t i o n , place them end t o end, and on that c r a z y pave-ment walk p r e c a r i o u s l y through the w a s t e l a n d . F o r those who were to spend t h e i r youth i n the Nineteen Twenties, the impact of the war was e s p e c i a l l y s h a t t e r i n g . M a t e r i a l destruc-t i o n and s p i r i t u a l d i s o l l u t i o n l e f t a wreckage which b u r i e d f o r most people the i d e a of the i n e v i t a b i l i t y of progress which had been a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the Nineteenth Century. The magnitude of the Great War and the i n t e n s i t y , o f i t s events served t o mark, i n men's mind^ja i f not i n r e a l i t y , the end of an epoch. And though the world d i d not d i e , i t beca me a profoundly d i f f e r e n t world, "a stange new s o i l " , w i t h new i d e a s , new modes of l i f e , ( l ) C. Day Lewis, A Hope For Pastry': New York, Random House, 1935, 163. 9 . and a new a r t . Lewis expresses the e f f e c t of the Great War i n t h i s * ' , way: The Great War t o r e away our y o u t h f rom i t s r o o t s , and when the r o o t s had taken h o l d a g a i n , i t w a s i n a s t range new s o i l . Post-War p o e t r y was born amongst the r u i n s . (1) The Second World War a l s o had I t s i m p a c t . The na ture of t h i s impact and the poet ry w h i c h r e s u l t e d from i t w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter E i g h t . Before go ing on t o the next problem, however, i t s h o u l d be s t r e s s e d t h a t each c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of contemporary s o c i e t y does not e x i s t s u l g e n e r i s . A l l the problems f i t t o -ge ther l i k e the pieces of a J i g - s a w , and i n the profoundest sense , there i s on ly one problem; the problem of l i f e t o d a y . The t h i r d v i t a l problem of our age i s t i e d up w i t h the d e c l i n e of r e l i g i o u s o r t h o d o x y . T h i s d e c l i n e began t o reach c o n -s i d e r a b l e p r o p o r t i o n s among the E i g h t e e n t h Century r a t i o n a l i s t s , but i t was not u n t i l the growing e v o l u t i o n a y concept {a p a r t of-*bi£© the expansion of s c i e n c e ) found i t s c l i m a x w i t h the O r l g i o n of Spec ies t h a t human thought about man and h i s environment was r e f a s h i o n e d . Man l o s t h i s God i n 1859, and he has been t r y i n g t o r e d i s c o v e r Him ever s i n c e . A l l the attempts t o r e c o n c i l e i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e s c i e t i f i c theory w i t h orthodox r e l i g i o n , the ti l a t e s t b e i n g Lecomte Du Nouy's Human D e s t i n y , have f a i l e d t o f i l l the gap l e f t i n man's m i n d . R e l i g i o n must be based on f a i t h , and I f t h a t f a i t h i s l a c k i n g , no amount of l o g i c w i l l A l ) A Hope F o r P o e t r y . 166. 1 0 . b r i n g the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t God e x i s t s . I t i s t r u e t h a t Lewis i s a poet who o n l y r a r e l y concerns h i m s e l f d i r e c t l y w i t h the r e l a t i o n of man t o God. Much of h i s p o e t r y concerns man's r e l a t i o n t o h i s f e l l o w men, b u t , never -t h e l e s s , there seems t o he i n h i s most recent w r i t i n g s a growing concern about lean's p l a c e i n the u n i v e r s e . I n the broadest sense of the word , then he i s becoming more r e l i g i o u s . When, however, the church I s i n v o l v e d I n man f s r e l a t i o n t o s o c i e t y , Lewis has much t o say about i t . He f r e q u e n t l y s a t i r -i z e s a f e c k l e s s ohurchand i n the Magnetic Mountain he i n c l u d e s the church amoung these i n s t i t u t i o n s which c o n t r i b u t e t o the i n e r t i a of s o c i e t y . Lewis has concerned h i m s e l f w i t h the p r e a c h i n g of a f a i t h not e x c l u s i v e o f , but complementary t o , a f a i t h i n God. I mean a f a i t h i n the e s s e n t i a l d i g n i t y of man, and a c o n v i c t i o n t h a t p e r f e c t i b i l i t y , though i t s e l f u n a t t a i n a b l e , i s a p r a c t i c a l i d e a l . He c l a i m s l o v e as the g r e a t e s t g i f t of God, and the g r e a t e s t hope f o r man. As Tennyson lamented f o r Hal la ra , s o , i n "A Time To Dance" , Lewis i s moved by the u n t i m e l y d e a t h of h i s young f r i e n d , L . P . Hedges. Y e t , at a t ime of bereavement, the memory of HedgesV! p e r s o n a l i t y t u r n s the lament i n t o an ode t o l o v e . F r e q u e n t l y he uses the word " l o v e " almost as a synonym f o r God, as i n these l i n e s : But now a word i n season, a dance i n s p i t e Of d e a t h : l o v e , the a f f i r m a t i v e i n a l l l i v i n g , B lossom, dew o r b i r d . 11. For one l a dead, but h i s l o v e has gone be fore u s i p o i n t i n g and p a v i n g a way i n t o the f u t u r e . * 1 ' I s there not too i n the l a s t l i n e s a f e e l i n g about l i f e t h a t P a r a l l e l s h i s f e e l i n g about p leasure? namely t h a t i r r e s p e c t i v e of what happens to l i f e or how s h o r t i t s d u r a t i o n , i t has achieved a k i n d of permanence by i t s v e r y e x i s t e n c e . The quest f o r reassurance i n the w o r l d today has l e d many people to examine t h e i r innermost s e l v e s . F o r i t i s the c o n v i c t i o n of many t h a t , i f the Kingdom of God i s not w i t h i n u s , y e t one may f i n d i n the unconsc ious the e x p l a n a t i o n of d e s i r e s and a c t i o n s w h i c h w i J l make l i f e more m e a n i n g f u l . Because of t h i s c o n v i c t i o n , our age has become i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t r o s p e c t i v e . J u s t as e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y found i t s spokes-man i n D a r w i n , so t h e o r i e s of the psyche found a champion i n F r e u d , who c a l l e d man's a t t e n t i o n t o h i s u n c o n s c i o u s . Lewis h i m s e l f , though he r a r e l y uses the c l i n i c a l v o c a b u l a r y or the concepts of the p s y c h i a t r i s t , b e l i e v e s t h a t F r e u d ' s d i s c o v e r -i e s may be as important as the r e s u l t s of the I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n or the d i s c o v e r y of A m e r i c a . A t the t ime Freud was comple t ing h i s work i n V i e n n a , w r i t e r s were b e g i n n i n g to f e e l the d i s r u p t i o n i n s o c i e t y , and t o f a l l back upon t h e i r l a s t d e f e n c e s , t h e i r i n n e r s e l v e s . The c o n f l i c t w i t h i n a man's m i n d , r a t h e r than t h a t between I n d i v i d u a l s became f o r many w r i t e r s a f e r t i l e s u b j e c t t o c u l t i v a t e . Strange t r o p i c a l growths , rank v e g e t a t i o n , t a n g l e s l i a n a s - growths V i c t o r i a n ( l ) A Time To Dance. " A Time To Dance" , p . 49. 12 . w r i t e r s wpuld have judged Imposs ib le t o c u l t i v a t e i n our c o o l n o r t h e r n c l i m a t e - have been the r e s u l t . R i l k e , K a f k a , and P r o u s t on the c o n t i n e n t ; Joyce , E l i o t , and Dylan Thomas, and even Auden i n B r i t a i n , t o name o n l y a few, have absorbed, m o d i f i e d , o r extended F r e u d ' s b e l i e f s . When Auden, f o r example, t a l k s about the i l l s of s o c i e t y , he i s not mere ly u s i n g a f i g u r e of speech; he i s p s y c h o a n a l y z i n g the c o l l e c t i v e mind of s o c i e t y i n much the same way t h a t the p s y c h i a t r i s t ana lyzes the mind of an i n d i v i d u a l . Lewis sums up the v a l u e of FreudJs d i s c o v e r i e s i n t h i s way: F r e u d ' s a n a l y s i s has a l t e r e d a l l the v a l u e s of the human e q u a t i o n . I t has g i v e n us a new c o n c e p t i o n of c h a r a c t e r . I t has thrown a b r i l l i a n t - and o f t e n h u m i l i a t i n g - l i g h t on our m o t i v e s . And, above a l l , i t has c h a l l e n g e d us t o r e c o n s t r u c t our m o r a l i t y on the new f o u n d a t i o n s i t has l a i d , ( i ) L e w i s , then regards the c o n t i n u a l e x p l o r a t i o n of man's unconscious mind as a b r i g h t hope f o r a h e a l t h i e r s o c i e t y . A n e u r o t i c w o r l d needs probably a p s y c h i a t r i c c u r e , and Lewis would go even so f a r as. t o say t h a t p o s s i b l y Freud has g i v e n us the m a t e r i a l w i t h w h i c h t o r e c o n s t r u c t r e l i g i o n . That would be i r o n y i f I t were achieved - b e l i e f reborn f r o m the work of the great u n b e l i e v e r . These t h r e e problems : the problem of s c i e n c e and the machine age; the problem of r e c u r r i n g war ; and the s e a r c h f o r s p i r i t u a l r e a s s u r a n c e , are woven w i t h many r a m i f i c a t i o n s i n t o ( l ) C . Day L e w i s , "The R e v o l u t i o n I n L i t e r a t u r e " , 257 . • the o v e r a l l f a b r i c of l i f e t o d a y . These problems are woven a l s o i n t o the v e r y f a b r i c of L e w i s 1 p o e t r y . I t remains t o see j u s t how the poet moulds and shapes h i s c l a y on h i s p o t t e r ' s w h e e l . PART THREE A t h i n k i n g man, and a poet i s a t h i n k i n g man, may d e a l w i t h a g i v e n se t of problems i n a number of ways. An obvious way of d e a l i n g w i t h a problem i s t o shut one ' s eyes t o i t , o r pretend i t does not e x i s t . Much of V i c t o r i a n p o e t r y was p r e -occupied w i t h a dream-world^ and i t I s t o ' t h i s ' f a c t t h a t T . S . E l i o t a l l u d e s when ne d e s c r i b e s the V i c t o r i a n age as " a p e r i o d of f a l s e s t a b i l i t y " - ( l ) A r t h u r O'Shaughnessy's Ode has always seemed t o me to be the l o c u s c l a s s l c u s of " e s c a p e - w r i t i n g " . P a r t of the f i r s t s t a n z a of t h i s Ode f o l l o w s : We are the music-makers And we are the dreamers of mdreams, Wandering by lone s e a - b r e a k e r s , And s i t t i n g by d e s o l a t e s t r e a m s ; -W o r l d - l o s e r s and w o r l d - f o r s a k e r s , On whom the p a l e moon gleams - -T h i s l a n g u i d l o t u s - e a t e r r e n u n c i a t i o n of the r e a l w o r l d was a l s o a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of much of Georgian p o e t r y . L o u i s MacNeice d e s c r i b e d the Georgians i n t h i s manner: You i n your s m a l l c o r n e r and I i n mine was the p r i n c i p l e and the corners were t a s t e f u l l y f i t t e d u p . But they f o r g o t t h a t a corner i s by ( l ) T . S . E l i o t , The Use of P o e t r y And The Use of C f e l t l o l s m , London, Faber and F^aber L t d . , 1933, lOo 1 . 14. r i g h t s the oorner of a room, ( i ) T h i s i s another way of s a y i n g t h a t the Georgians had no w o r l d - v i e w . I t w a s o therwise w i t h most of the g r e a t Romantic p o e t s , though K e a t s , t o he s u r e , wrote h i s share of a e s t h e t e ' s v e r s e . The Romantics b e l i e v e d t h a t the i n t e r e s t s m o t i v a t i n g t h e i r p o e t r y were the m o t i v a t i n g f o r c e s i n the w o r l d . Lewis b e l i e v e s t h i s t o be t r u e of h i s own p o e t r y . A p o e t , he contends, cannot d i v o r c e h i m s e l f f rom the l i f e and thoughts of humani ty . Another way to s o l v e a se t of problems such as c o n f r o n t s the w o r l d today i s t o f i n d the answer i n r e l i g i o n . Our l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y i s , indeed^ r i c h w i t h examples of poets who sought t o d i s c o v e r a r e l i g i o u s answer t o man's p e r p l e x i n g problems. Vaughan, Crashaw, H e r b e r t , B l a k e , H o p k i n s , F r a n c i s Thompson, and, t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , Tennyson, Browning , and T . S . E l i o t come to m i n d . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note at t h i s p o i n t what a c a t h o l i c rev iewer w r i t i n g i n the Commonweal has t o say about the "New C o u n t r y " p o e t s . Speaking of Hopkinfe i n f l u e n c e on Auden, Spender, and L e w i s , he w r i t e s : So f a r the i n f l u e c e of the J e s u i t poet has been mere ly t e c h n i c a l . But i t may come about t h a t a l l the members of t h i s group w i l l e v e n t u a l l y d i s c o v e r the s i g -nificance of H o p k i n ' s p o e t i c c o n t e n t . I f t h a t ever happens they w i l l not f i n d any v e r y deep g u l f f i x e d between communism and Catholicism. (2) (1) L . MacNeice , Modern Poetry; 8 . (2) T . Maynard, "When The P i e Was Opened", The Commonweal. A u g . 2 , 1 9 3 5 . , 339. 15. To d a t e , there has been no s i g n o f Lewis jumping the g u l f . Some writ^Esr; seek t o f i n d fhe answer t o contemporary problems by' seek ing a profounder u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s e l f . They b e l i e v e t h a t i f one plumbs the depths of the u n c o n s c i o u s , one may f i n d means to r e c o n c i l e h i m s e l f w i t h a c h a o t i c s o c i e t y . S t i l l another way t o d e a l w i t h a s e t of problems i s t o examine them, e l u c i d a t e them, and then r e f r a i n f r o m o f f e r i n g a s o l u t i o n , or a s s e r t t h a t t h e r e i s no s o l u t i o n . T . S . E l i o t i n the e a r l y 'Twenties comes c l o s e t o the f i r s t ; Aldous H u x l e y i n the middle 'Twent ies comes c l o s e t o the second. Lewis r e s o r t s t o none of these s o l u t i o n s . Escape he f e e l s i s i m p o s s i b l e ; r e l i g i o n , w i t h i t s s t r e s s on another w o r l d , cannot be f o r him a d i r e c t s o l u t i o n t o the problems of t h i s w o r l d ; psychology may h e l p t o o r i e n t the i n d i v i d u a l , but he b e l i e v e s t h a t something bes ides i s needed t o h e l p s o c i e t y ; and the b e l i e f t h a t no s o l u t i o n e x i s t s d e f i e s h i s sense of h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , which r e v e a l s man s t r u g g l i n g s l o w l y out of p r i m i t i v e darkness t o a h i g h e r and h i g h e r p l a n e . As a mat ter of f a c t , Lewis g i v e s no one s o l u t i o n . He has something of va lue t o say t o the i n d i v i d u a l which w i l l enable him to l i v e a h a p p i e r l i f e i n an i m p e r f e c t w o r l d . He has a good d e a l t o s a y , moreover, t o s o c i e t y , and i n the Magnetic Mountain a t lea§fc> suggests a s o c i a l i s t s o l u t i o n . He I s consc ious of the f a c t , l i k e P l a t o , t h a t s o c i e t y can be no 16. b e t t e r than the sum t o t a l of the i n d i v i d u a l s which make i t u p . But he i s e q u a l l y c o g n i z a n t of the f a c t t h a t s o c i e t y by i t s c o l l e c t i v e power, owes a debt of a f u l l and r i c h l i f e t o every d e s e r v i n g i n d i v i d u a l . The i n t e r a c t i o n must be m u t u a l l y b e n e f i c i a l ; the s o c i e t y ga ins f rom the. i n d i v i d u a l , the i n d i v i d u a l gains f r o m s o c i e t y . Thus Lewis s t r i k e s a n i c e balance between the c o n t r i b u t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l , t o the mass, and t h a t bf the mass t o the i n d i v i d u a l . Above a l l , Lewis g i v e s one the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t he possesses , h i m s e l f , s o l i d common sense and g l o w i n g h e a l t h . He always has h i s f e e t on the ground of the r e a l w o r l d . The l i n e s he wrote f o r the two h e r o e s , P a r e r and M c i n t o s h , who f l e w t o A u s t r a l i a i n an obso le te p l a n e , are e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o h i m s e l f : We remember them as the g l o w i n g f r u i t remembers Sap- f low and s u n s h i n e . ( i ) Lewis has w r i t t e n t h a t "our w o r l d , our minds may be i n i a s t a t e of chaos . But i t i s the b u s i n e s s of the p o e t i c reason to c rea te order out of chaos" (2) The purpose of t h i s essay must be t o d i s c o v e r t o what ex tent he succeeds i n c r e a t i n g t h i s o r d e r , and how he goes about i t . H i s p o e t r y was "born amongst the r u i n s " . What hope f o r man's r e g e n e r a t i o n does i t o f f e r as i n i t s t u r n , i t grows and f l o w e r s . (1) A Time To Dance. "A Time To D a n c e " , p . 64 . (2) C . Day L e w i s , The P o e t i c Image, London, Jonathan Cape, 1947. 117. 17. CHAPTER I I THE APPETITE FOR WHOLENESS PART ONE C e c i l Day Lewis f i r s t came i n t o prominence i n 1931, when he p u b l i s h e d h i s second book of p o e t r y , From Feathers t o I r o n . H i s f i r s t book of v e r s e , T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem 3appeared i n 1929, but a l though i t was greeted w i t h warm a p p r e c i a t i o n by many c r i t i c s , i t f a i l e d t o achieve any widespread p o p u l a r i t y w i t h c r i t i c s and r e a d e r s . The second book, however, won f o r Lewis an immediate and e x t e n s i l e r e c o g n i t i o n as an o r i g i n a l poet of unusua l a b i l i t y . Lewis was a p o e t , i t was seen at once, who had something new and v a l u a b l e to say t o a w o r l d i n the m i d s t of d e p r e s s i o n , and who s a i d i t i n a new and s t r i k i n g way. T . E . Lawrence went so f a r as t o h a i l the a r r i v a l of Lewis as the most impor tant event i n the h i s t o r y of E n g l i s h p o e t r y s i n c e the death of Tennyson. From Feathers t o I r o n r e c e i v e d an e n t h u s i a s t i c r e a d i n g f rom both c r i t i c s and g e n e r a l r e a d e r s * From the o u t s e t , Lewis has been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h two other E n g l i s h p o e t s , Stephen Spender and W. H . Auden. .and A l l three poets resemble one another i n many ways, /because some of t h e i r e a r l y work appeared together i n the prominent a n t h o l o g i e s , New Country and New S i g n a t u r e s , which M i c h a e l Roberts compi led i n the e a r l y ' T h i r t i e s , these poets r e c e i v e d the name, "New Country P o e t s " . 18 . Many comparisons of the three poets have been made. J . G . F l e t c h e r w r o t e : Of the three c h i e f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the most recent r e v i v a l of p o e t r y i n E n g l a n d , we may say t h i s : t h a t i f W. H . Auden i s the most s a v a g e l y I n t e l l e c t u a l , and Stephen Spender the most i m p e n i t e n t l y e v a n g e l i c a l , C e c i l Day Lewis i s the most l y r i c a l l y broad-minded. ( l ) And Horace Gregory , w r i t i n g i n Books , s a y s : There i s no one w r i t i n g p o e t r y today who has a b e t t e r sense of i t s v o c a b u l a r y i n modern t e c h n i q u e ; t h e r e i s no one who has e x p l o i t e d i t s d i d a c t i c uses more s u c c e s s f u l l y than Day L e w i s . I f e e l c o n f i d e n t t h a t of the three p o e t s , (Auden, L e w i s , and Spender) Day Lewis has the g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l i t y f o r f u t u r e d e v e l o p -ment . (g) F i n a l l y , W i l l i a m Rose Benet , who had been at f i r s t r a t h e r lukewarm i n h i s o p i n i o n of L e w i s , f e e l s c a l l e d upon t o w r i t e : There was i n the b e g i n n i n g something s t u r d y about C . Day Lewis which has p e r s i s t e d . I n s o f a r as I c o u l d see i t f rom over h e r e , he seemed to me the one of the t h r e e most i n earnest r e a l l y t o get t o g r i p s w i t h h i s t i m e . (3) I quote the above t h r e e c r i t i c a l e x c e r p t s , not at t h i s time t o appra i se them, but merely t o suggest t h a t Lewis i s an important poet whose s t a t u r e hag been r e c o g n i z e d on both s i d e s of the A t l a n t i c . (1) J . G . F l e t c h e r , Saturday Review of L i t e r a t u r e . A p r i l 13 , (2) H . Gregory , Books, A p r i l 14, 1935, p . 4 . (3) W. R. Benet , "The Growing S t r e n g t h of C . Day L e w i s " , Saturday Review of L i t e r a t u r e . A u g . 25, 1945, p . 27 . 19 . My own p e r s o n a l view i s t h a t Lewis i s a v e r y f i n e p o e t , i f indeed he i s not a great one . That h i s output seems t o have f a l l e n o f f i n recent y e a r s i s d i s a p p o i n t i n g , and one can o n l y hope t h a t he i s mere ly e x p e r i e n c i n g a l u l l i n h i s powers w h i l e g a i n i n g s t r e n g t h f o r a new o u t b u r s t of energy. H i s s i g n i f i c a n c e , i r r e s p e c t i v e of h i s a r t , i s impor tant because of h i s t reatment of p r e s s i n g s o c i a l problems. He has much of v a l u e t o say to the w o r l d . And a f t e r three years of i n t e n s i v e r e a d i n g and s t u d y , I f i n d t h i s poet as f r e s h and as v i t a l as when I f i r s t read h i m . Lewis wag born a t B a l l i n t o g h e r , I r e l a n d , A p r i l 27, 1904. He wag the o n l y c h i l d of the Reverend P . 0 . Day Lewis and K a t h l e e n B l a k e S q u i r e s . H i s mother , who was a c o l l a t e r a l descendant of O l i v e r G o l d s m i t h , wrote c o n s i d e r a b l e u n p u b l i s h e d p o e t r y hersaLf. She d i e d , however, when C e c i l wag o n l y f o u r years o l d , and i t i s t h e r e f o r e v e r y u n l i k e l y t h a t she had any i n f l u e n c e on her s o n ' s p o e t i c t a l e n t . The f a m i l y moved to England i n 1907, where C e c i l began h i s s c h o o l i n g a t Sherborne . I t i s r e p o r t e d t h a t he made a consc ious attempt t o w r i t e v e r s e a t the age of s i x . L a t e r , Lewis was an e x h i b i t i o n e r a t Wadham C o l l e g e , O x f o r d , where i n 1927 he became c o - e d i t o r of Oxford P o e t r y . I n 1928 he m a r r i e d Constance Mary Sherborne . They have two s o n s . Prom the f i r s t , Lewis wished to devote a l l h i s time t o w r i t i n g , but he wag f i n a n c i a l l y unable to do s o . H e t h e r e f o r e 20 . became a t e a c h e r . Between 1927 and 1935 he was a master at t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s ; at Summer F i e l d s , O x f o r d ; a t L a r c h -f i e l d , He lensburgh ; and f i n a l l y a t Cheltenham C o l l e g e . I n 1935, owing p a r t l y to an i n c r e a s e i n income, d e r i v e d f r o m an unexpected s o u r c e , the s a l e of d e t e c t i v e s t o r i e s , he was able t o withdraw from t e a c h i n g and t o devote h i m s e l f e n t i r e l y to w r i t i n g and l e f t - w i n g p o l i t i c s . The f i r s t of h i s d e t e c t i v e y a r n s , w r i t t e n under the pseudonym of N i c h o l a s B lake (Blake w a s a f a m i l y name on h i s mother 13 s i d e ) was e n t i t l e d i A q u e s t i o n of P r o o f , and w a a p u r p o r t e d l y w r i t t e n i n 1935 t o o b t a i n money t o r e p a i r a l e a k y r o o f . S i n c e then , e i g h t more d e t e c t i v e yarns have f o l l o w e d , e x c e l l e n t of t h e i r k i n d , ( i ) I t i s seldom t h a t Lewis w r i t e s bad p r o s e . Lewis regards N i c h o l a s B l a k e , not mere ly a a f i n a n c i a l b e n e f a c t o r i but a l s o as a mechanism f o r r e l e a s i n g a s p r i n g of c r u e l t y , which he f i n d s i n a l l men and f o r which a country gentleman f i n d s an o u t l e t i n h u n t i n g . F o l l o w i n g h i s w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t e a c h i n g , Lewis moved t o G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e , but a t present l i v e s at B r i m c l o s e , Musbury, A x m i n s t e r , Devon. There he i s r e f e r r e d t o by the v i l l a g e r s a a " the poet w i t h a g u n " , f o r he i s f o n d of s h o o t i n g r a b b i t s . He i s a great observer of w i l d l i f e , e s p e c i a l l y b i r d s , which goes a l o n g way t o e x p l a i n the f r e q u e n t use of b i r d imagery and symbolism i n h i s p o e t r y . Among h i s o ther r e c r e a t i o n s he ( l ) See B i b l i o g r a p h y under " F i c t i o n " f o r a ' l i s t " . o f h i s d e t e c t i v e s t o r i e s . 2 1 . numbers s i n g i n g and s a i l i n g . Lewis i s a t a l l a t h l e t i c - l o o k i n g man, almost rawboned. Though o n l y f o r t y - t h r e e , h i s f a c e i s d e e p l y l i n e d , which f a c t , s e n t i m e n t a l i s t s to the c o n t r a r y , has p r o b a b l y not been caused by worry or s u f f e r i n g . He has o r i r y h a i r , grey eyes , and a s o f t v o i c e w i t h a l i n g e r i n g I r i s h i n t o n a t i o n . I f p o r t r a i t s and photographs are any c r i t e r i o n , he might he c a l l e d hand-some • B i o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n i t s e l f , a n d , as s u c h , h a s a p l a c e h e r e . Th® r e a l importance of b i o g r a p h y , however, i s t h a t i t s e t s the compass^ g i v e s one a b e a r i n g ^ and i n c r e a s e s o n e * 8 u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the whole man about whom I w r i t e . PART TWO Lewis was t w e n t y - f i v e years o l d when^ i n 1929, the Hogarth Press p r i n t e d h i s f i r s t major work . I t w a 8 c a l l e d ^ s i m p l y , T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. He h a d , however, w r i t t e n c o n -s i d e r a b l e verse before 1929, and i n d e e d , two c o l l e c t i o n s of h i s j u v e n i l i a were p r i v a t e l y p r i n t e d , though these books are never l i s t e d w i t h h i s p u b l i s h e d . w o r k s . Lewis h i m s e l f never a l l u d e s to these e a r l y books , Beechen V i g i l (1925) , and Country Comets (1928), i n any of h i s prose w r i t i n g s , and i t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e he would p r e f e r t o have h i s a u t h o r s h i p of them f o r g o t t e n . But the appearance of T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem showed 2 2 . t h a t a new poet o f c o n s i d e r a b l e promise had a r r i v e d . The year 1929 may be regarded as s i g n i f i c a n t f o r o t h e r reasons than the one ment ioned. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t Lewis ' f i r s t major work antedated Auden f s Poems of 1930. I t i s noteworthy , t o o , t h a t 1929 was the year of thw s tock market c r a s h , and the b e g i n n i n g of e i g h t years of d e p r e s s i o n . Despife* T . E . Lawrence 's over -sanguine o p i n i o n , T r a n s i t i o n -a l Peem remains the most obscure and the l e a s t s a t i s f a c t o r y of the p o e t ' s major w o r k s . The k e y t o i t s importance i n the development of L e w i s ' p o i n t of view i s to be found i n the seventh sonnet of h i s e x c e l l e n t sonnet sequence, "0 Dreams 0 D e s t i n a t i o n s " , w r i t t e n i n the l a t e ' T h i r t i e s . T h i s sonnet concludes w i t h these l i n e s : We march over our p a s t , we may behold i t Dreaming a s l a v e ' s dream on our b i v o u a c h e a r t h . ' L o s t the a r c h a i c dawn wherein we s t a r t e d , The a p p e t i t e f o r wholeness : now we p r i z e H a l f - l o a v e s , h a l f - t r u t h s - enough f o r the h a l f - h e a r t e d , The gleam snatched f rom c o r r u p t i o n s a t i s f i e s . Dead y o u t h , f o r g i v e us i f , a l l but d e f e a t e d , We r a i s e a t r o p h y where y o u r honour l i e s . ( i ) Lewis was o l d e r and w i s e r when he wrote the above l i n e s than he was i n 1929, f o r there i s i n them an acute awareness t h a t l i f e i s a grea t c o m p l e x i t y , and t h a t there are i n l i f e many i n t e r m e d i a t e shades between b l ac k and w h i t e . N e v e r t h l e s s , i t i s the p r e r o g a t i v e of y o u t h to be o p t i m i s t i c and t o b e l i e v e that the " a p p e t i t e f o r wholeness" can be s a t i s f i e d . (1) S h o r t I s The Time. "0 Dreams 0 D e s t i n a t i o n s " ^ "Sonnet S e v e n " , H . 7-14 . 2 3 . T r a n s i t i o n a l ?aam 1a the r e c o r d of the p o e t ' s attempts t o achieve i n t e g r a t i o n , e x p r e s s e d 0 w i t h the c o n f i d e n c e , some-times the " c o c k i n e s s " of y o u t h , b e f o r e the d i s i l l u s i o n o f ten y e a r s had taught him t h a t perhaps there were no t r u t h s , o n l y " h a l f - t r u t h s " f o r the " h a l f - h e a r t e d " . To use the p o e t ' s own e x p l a n a t o r y n o t e s , w h i c h f o r the f i r s t and o n l y t ime he appended t o a poem, Lewis w r i t e s : The c e n t r a l theme of t h i s poem i s the s i n g l e m i n d . The poem i s d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r p a r t s , which e s s e n t i a l l y represent f o u r phases of p e r s o n a l exper ience i n the p u r s u i t of s i n g l e - m i n d e d n e s s : i t w i l l be seen t h a t a t r a n s i t i o n i s i n t e n d e d f rom one p a r t t o the next such as I m p l i e s a c e r t a i n s p i r i t u a l progress and a consequent s h i f t i n g of a s p e c t . (1) The poem, then i s bo th a s t a r t i n g - p o i n t and a s e a r c h . I t i s the r e s u l t , not of s ing le -mindedness i n the p o e t , but of the l a c k of i t . The poet i s f r a n k l y l o s t and the poem i s a s o r t of b i o g r a p h i c a l account of the s t r u g g l e t o f i n d himsalf . I t i s p r e c i s e l y owing to the f a c t t h a t he i s not at a l l sure how t o f i n d s i n g l e - m l n d e d n e s s t h a t he m u s t . r e s o r t t o t r i a l and e r r o r r -W i t h i n each of the f o u r p a r t s of the poem„ I t i s t h i s f a c t , t o o , t h a t makes the poem haphazard and obscure . The poet i s l o s t i n a C a r l s b a d cavern of s i n g u l a r i n t r i c a c y . He gropes up many f a n t a s t i c a l l y f e s t o o n e d l a b y r -i n t h s o n l y to f i n d them b l i n d ; he r e t u r n s t o h i s s t a r t i n g p o i n t , o n l y t o f i n d i t was not h i s s t a r t i n g p o i n t ; he plumbs ( l ) C . Day L e w i s , C o l l e c t e d Poems 1929-1933. "No t e s " t o T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, London. Hogar th P r e s s , 19SS, p . SS. 2 4 . great d e p t h s , f o r the caverns have many l e v e l s , and he sees the t a n t a l i z i n g rays of s u n l i g h t w i t h o u t ever f i n d i n g an aper ture l a r g e enough t o permi t h i s e s c a p e . There are moments of d e s p a i r and moments of hope ; and when the s e a r c h i s o v e r , are not sure whether he has at l a s t escaped f rom the c o m p l e x i t i e s of the cavern o r whether he has r e s i g n e d h i m s e l f t o h i s f a t e . I t might indeed be argued t h a t r e s i g n a t i o n i s escape. Mathew A r n o l d ' s l i n e s f rom the " S c h o l a r G i p s y " d e s c r i b e the p o e t ' s dilemma v e r y w e l l : Who f l u c t u a t e i d l y wi thout term or scope , Of whom each s t r i v e s , n o r knows f o r what he s t r i v e s , And each h a l f l i v e s a hundred d i f f e r e n t l i v e s . I n t h i s , h i s f i r s t major work, L § ^ i s r e v e a l s t h a t he i s the product of an age t h a t has l o s t i t s c e r t a i n t i e s . I n a sense, the s p e c t a c l e of a confused man, g r o p i n g f o r u n d e r s t a n d -i n g and order i s s t r i k i n g l y symbol ic o f the age as a w h o l e . He represents what we see when we l o o k at s o c i e t y through the b i g end of the t e l e s c o p e . The problems of the age are h i s problems. He sees the dilemma of s c i e n c e whose t h e o r i e s of • r e l a t i v i t y have made man doubt t h a t he c o u l d adchieve any f i n a l i t y ; he I s aware of the dilemma of p s y c h o l o g y , the d i s c o v e r i e s of which i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s have proved t h a t many a c t i o n s , a p p a r e n t l y I n s t i n c t i v e , have been r i g i d l y de termined ; he f e e l s the embarrassment of the p e r f e c t i o n i s t whose b e l i e f s i n the i n e v i t a b i l i t y of progress were r o u n d l y shaken by r e r c u r r i n g war and d e p r e s s i o n . Ye t i n s p i t e of a l l these d i s -appointments and shor tcomings , T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem i n d i a a t e s 25 . t h a t the poet s t i l l b e l i e v e s he can f i n d an answer to a l l the v a r i e d problems of h i s age . T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem f a l l s i n t o f o u r p a r t s , c o n t a i n i n g a l t o g e t h e r t h i r t y - f o u r poems of v a r y i n g form and l e n g t h . Each p a r t i s meant to express a c e r t a i n phase of the search f o r s i n g l e mindedness. P a r t One i s m e t a p h y s i c a l i n approach; P a r t Two i s e t h i c a l ; P a r t Three i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l ; and P a r t Pour I s an attempt t o l i n k poe t ry t o the o ther three exper iences . I t Is obvious f rom a f i r s t r e a d i n g , however, t h a t the poet does not keep too r i g i d l y t o these d i v i s i o n s , f o r e t h i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s are i n t r o d u c e d i n P a r t Three and e l sewhere , w i t h the r e s u l t t h a t even the separate p a r t s are a melange of numerous i n g r e d i e n t s . He begins P a r t One w i t h the a s s e r t i o n t h a t he has grown up i n t o manhood: Now I have come t o reason And cas t my schoQlboy c l o u t . (1) He immediate ly begins h i s s e a r c h , and h i s f i r s t impulse I s t o f i n d some order I n the chaos he sees everywhere . The f i r s t t e n t a t i v e s o l u t i o n (and a l l h i s s o l u t i o n s i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem are t e n t a t i v e ) i s c e r e b r a l . He w r i t e s : I t i s c e r t a i n we s h a l l a t t a i n No l i f e t i l l we stamp on a l l L i f e the t e t r a g o n a l Pure symmetry of b r a i n . (2) The hardness of L e w i s 1 language reminds one of J . M . Synge 's prophecy made i n 1908 t h a t "be fore verse can be human again (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem 0ne'' T n . j - g . (2) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem One", 11« 9 -12 . 26 . I t must l e a r n t o be b r u t a l " • ( l ) The i m p r e s s i o n i t makes on one who has been brought up on the v e l v e t y - t e x t u r e d s t u f f of V i c t o r i a n and Georgian verse i s t h a t here indeed i s a coarse f a b r i c . Synge was p r o b a b l y c r i t i c i n g the dreamy escapism of poets l i k e Dawson and O'Shaughnessy, and f e l t t h a t these poets had l o s t touch w i t h r e a l p e o p l e . He no doubt means t o c r i t i c i z e as w e l l the a r t i f i c i a l p o e t i c d i c t i o n of some of the " f i n de s i e c l e " p o e t s , and yearns f o r a more " b r u t a l " , t h a t i s t o say a more o b j e c t i v e l y concrete d i c t i o n . I n the opening v e r s e s of T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, Lewis a t t a i n s a " b r u t a l i t y " of d i c t i o n which would p o s s i b l y s a t i s f y Synge'3 d e s i r e . The search c o n t i n u e s . Lewis disavows a t e m p t a t i o n t o compromise: For the mind must cope w i t h A l l elements or none . (2) I t can be s a i d t h a t Lewis i n t h i s book i s a temperamental p o e t . He s h i f t s h i s mood w i t h c o n f u s i n g abruptness f rom poem t o pern. As e a r l y as Poem Three , the opt imism of the opening poem h a s f a l l e n t o doubt and d e p r e s s i o n . Throughout the hook, t h i s mood of d e j e c t i o n i s symbol ized by the s p h i n x , and the poet'3 s c o r n of the t r a d i t i o n a l does not prevent h i m , when one of these dark f i t s i s upon h i m , f r o m g o i n g t o nature f o r c o n s o l a t i o n . I * i s not g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d that Lewis i s a nature poet of h i g h r a n k , but i t seems t o me t h a t h i s b o l d but always s e n s i t i v e observat ions, of nature make one of M s f i n e s t (1) J . M . Synge, quoted by F . B i c k l e y , J . M . . S i n g e . London, Constable and Constable L t d . , 1912, 93 . (2) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem Two", 1 1 . 5 - 6 . 27 . accomplishments . So i t i s a t h a t , e a r l y i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. t o d i s p e l a f i t of gloom, he goes i n t o the woods a t n i g h t . He d e s c r i b e s the woods i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : L a t e r we l i t a f i r e , and the hedge of darkness -Garn ished w i t h not a n i g h t i n g a l e n o r a glow-worm Sprang up l i k e a b e a n s t a l k by which our Jack a s p i r e d once . Then, though each s t a r seemed l i t t l e as a glow-worm Perched on L e v i a t h a n ' s f l a n k , and e q u a l l y t e r r i b l e My tenure of t h i s p l a t e a u t h a t s l o p e d on a l l s i d e s I n t o a n n i h i l a t i o n . (1) Here i s a p i c t u r e i n b l a c k and w h i t e , w i t h o n l y the " p a t i n e s of br ight^ g o l d " added t o d i m i n i s h a s e v e r i t y which e f f e c t i v e l y p o i n t s up the i n s i g n i f i c a n c e of man i n the cosmos. And l a t e r Lewis w r i t e s : - - - s e e i n g the f a l l o f a b u r n t - o u t faggot Make a l l the n i g h t sag down. (2) How e f f e c t i v e a mere park i s t o cut the d a r k n e s s , even i f f o r a moment. I t i s an o b s e r v a t i o n we have a l l made s e m i - c o n -s c i o u s l y many t i m e s , and the poet w i t h h i s "make a l l the n i g h t sag down" , h a s , 1 t h i n k , expressed i t f i n e l y . I t should be noted here t h a t Lewis does not use nature d e s c r i p t i o n f o r i t s own sake m e r e l y , but t o p o i n t up a mood, t o h e i g h t e n an e f f e c t , t o i n t e n s i f y the emot iona l impact f o r h i m s e l f and the r e a d e r . JEhis f u n c t i o n a l use of na ture d e s -c r i p t i o n i s seen t o good advantage i n F r o w Feathers t o I r o n , where, as we s h a l l see , t h e r e i s a f u s i o n of emot iona l exper ience w i t h the weather f l u c t u a t i o n s of the seasons . (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem T h r e e " , 1 1 . 11-17. (2) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem T h r e e " , 1 1 . 18-19 . 28 As T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem c o n t i n u e s , the s e c r e t of the r e l a t i o n -s h i p between body and s o u l becomes f o r Lewis a problem to ' be s o l v e d be fore any singleness of mind c an be won• I n Poem Pour he presents t h i s problem I n a way which reminds one of E m i l y D i c k i n s o n . Here Lewis i s t e r s e , austere^ and s t r a n g e l y l i k e a m y s t i c : I n t h a t one moment of evening When roses are most r e d I can f o l d back the f i rmament , I can put t ime t o b e d . (1) I t would seem t h a t the young poet i s e x p e r i m e n t i n g f o r a c o n g e n i a l technique as w e l l as f o r something t o s a y . A t t imes H i s s t y l e becomes v e r y o r n a t e ; a t o ther t i m e s , b a l d and a u s t e r e . I t would a l s o appear t h a t he f i n d s i t e a s i e r t o suggest what the i d e a l s t a t e or the i d e a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s to be than t o suggest how i t i s t o be a t t a i n e d . Thus, the harmony of body and s o u l i s the i d e a l . They a r e : Twin po les e n e r g i c , they Stand f a s t and generate T h i s spark t h a t c r a c k l e s i n the v o i d As between f a t e and f a t e . (2) He knows the v a l u e - i n o p e r a t i o n of the e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t o r . But he does not know as y e t how t o make one. The mechanica l imagery i n the above l i n e s i s b o l d and e f f e c t i v e , though too much of t h i s k i n d of imagery must have a c h i l l i n g e f f e c t on the r e a d e r . (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem P o u r " , 1 1 . 5 - 8 . (2) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem P o u r " , 1 1 . 33-36 . 29 . The r e l a t i o n of fle • So the ant ique b a l l o o n Wobbles w i t h no defence A g a i n s t the v o i d but a g r a p n e l t h a t hops and ploughs Through the landscape or sense . (2) The two most s i g n i f i c a n t ideas of P a r t One are t h e s e : no s o l u t i o n t o the problem of s i n g l e - m i n d e d n e s s i s p o s s i b l e w i t h -out the harmony of f l e s h and s p i r i t ; a n d t h a t no s o l u t i o n i s p o s s i b l e which r e j e c t s the p a s s i o n f o r the joys of the moment. Speaking of M e t h u s a l e h ' s l o n g e v i t y , Lewis w r i t e s : Give me an i n s t a n t r e a l i z e d And I ' l l outdo your s p a n . (3) These l i n e s express andidea which beoame f o r Lewis an i n t e g r a l p r t of h i s s o l u t i o n , a l t h o u g h I b e l i e v e t h a t he was unaware of (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem S i x " , , n... 1-2. (2) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem Seven" , 1 1 . 17-20 . (3) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem F o u r " ^ l 3 - 4 . 3 0 . t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e they would have i n the scheme he was t o e v e n t u a l l y work out when he wrote them i n 1929. J u s t how the i d e a developed i n t o a carpa diem p h i l o s o p h y w i l l he d i s c u s s e d inCfeapter Seven. P a r t Two of the work i s p r e f a c e d ' b y a famous q u o t a t i o n from Whitman's Leaves of G r a s s ; Do I c o n t r a d i c t mysel f? Very w e l l t h e n , I c o n t r a d i c t m y s e l f ; I am l a r g e , 1 c o n t a i n m u l t i t u d e s . Such an a t t i t u d e o f f e r s no concess ion t o c l a r i t y . Yet P a r t Two seeks t o c l a r i f y the e t h i c a l problems of the age. I t i s the problem of r i g h t a c t i o n , the problem of what e t h i c a l system should command h i s a l l e g i a n c e t h a t Lewis grapples w i t h i n P a r t Two. He commences by s t a t i n g the purpose of the s e c t i o n ! I t i s becoming now t© d e c l a r e my a l l e g i a n c e , To d i g some r e s e r v o i r f o r my s p r i n g t i m e ' s p a i n . (1) He g i v e s p r a i s e t o t h e s e : the woman he l o v e s * W i t h you I r a n the g a u n t l e t f o r my p r i m e , Then l i v i n g i n the moment l i v e d f o r a l l t i m e(2); the man who taught h im t o see a l l s i d e s of a problem: - q u i ck Was he t o t r i p the shambling r h e t o r i c Of laws and l i o n s — (8) ; those who taught h im the v a l u e of p r a c t i c a l t h i n g s : . A l l e v i a t i n g the v a i n cosmic I t c h W i t h f a c t coated i n formulae T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem 3 1 . C o n v e r s e l y , he r e j e c t s the l i f e of the dreamer, and i m p l i e s t h a t the e n t i r e hook, b e i n g a s e a r c h f o r menta l and s p i r i t u a l o r d e r , i s a mere p r e l i m i n a r y t o a p l a n of a c t i o n . There i s i n P a r t Two a re fe rence t o Ideas which) l i k e the v a l u e of unique minutes of j o y i n P a r t One, became f o r him important p a r t s of h i s p h i l o s o p h y of l i v i n g . I r e f e r t o h i s expressed a d m i r a t i o n of h e r o i c and d e c i s i v e a c t i o n . The embryo of Lewis* c o n c e p t i o n of hero i s seen f o r m i n g i n these l i n e s : S i n c e the heroes l i e Entombed w i t h the r e c i p e Of e p i c i n t h e i r h e a r t T h e r e ' s n o t h i n g but t o recant A m b i t i o n , and be content L i k e the poor c h i l d at p l a y To f i n d a h o l i d a y I n the s t i c k s and mud Of a f a m i l i a r r o a d , ( l ) The t r i a l and e r r o r e x e r c i s e goes o n . Lewis r e j e c t s i n t u r n , "the s t i c k s and mud of a f a m i l i a r r o a d " ^ orthodox r e l i g i o n , c rass m a t e r i a l i s m , and, i n a moment of d e s p a i r , complains t h a t h i s exper ience i s so d i s c o n t i n u o u s t h a t he says t h a t i f he c o u l d but make two p ieces f i t I n t o p l a c e , he would be s a t i s f i e d . He ends P a r t Two s t i l l undecided about h i s a t t i t u d e t o l i f e and s o c i e t y , but w i t h an o p t i m i s t i c acceptance of the good that l i f e does c o n t a i n . There i s acceptance and t h e r e f o r e joy i n the f o l l o w i n g passage which concludes P a r t ( l ) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem T e n " , 1 1 . 16-18, 22-27 32 . Two: Charabancs shout a l o n g the lane And summer g a l e s bay I n the wood . No l e s s s u p e r b l y because I c a n ' t e x p l a i n What I ' v e unders tood ( l ) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem l s an uneven performance . Though the a t h l e t i c suppleness of l i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of " A Time To Dance" or the c h i s e l l e d sculpturesque q u a l i t y of Shor t I s The Time appears now and t h e n , the verse as a whole surrenders larguage t o c a s u a l wanderings o f mind w i t h a r e s u l t i n g l a c k of t h a t cogency which comes f rom d i s c i p l i n e . Sometimes the verse s u f f e r s f rom excess ive h y p e r b o l e , and f r e q u e n t l y i t i s r e m i n i s c e n t of the t o r t u r e d c o n c e i t s of the Seventeenth Century m e t a p h y s i c a l p o e t s , such as Crashaw. The f o l l o w i n g l i n e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , seem to be s p o i l e d by e x c e s s . Even hyperbo le needs r e s t r a i n t , and the s u b j e c t d e s c r i b e d i n these l i n e s i s not weighty enough to bear the exaggerated f i g u r e : When her eyes d e l a y On men, so deep are they T u n n e l l e d by l o v e , a l t h o u g h You poured A t l a n t i c I n t h i s one and P a c i f i c I n the o t h e r , I know They would not o v e r f l o w . (2) I f one compares t h i s hyperbole w i t h a s i m i l a r image used by W i l f r e d Owen, the extent to w h i c h Lewis i s the l o s e r becomes c l e a r : Mine anc ient scars s h a l l not be g l o r i f i e d Nor my t i t a n t i c t e a r s , the seas , be d r i e d . ( 3 ) (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem Seventeen" . 1 1 . 21-24. (2) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem F i f t e e n " , n , 22-28'. (3) w. Owen, "The E n d " , Poems of W i l f r e d Owen, e d . Edmund Blunden , London, Chat to and Wlndus, 1933, p . 115, 11. 13-14. 33 Owen " s u r p r i s e s by a f i n e excess", Lewis somehow f a i l s . P o s s i b l y the s p e c i f i o naming of " A t l a n t i c " and " P a c i f i c " i n the Lewis l i n e s i s too d e f i n i t e , too " l o c a l " , t o use Words-worth! s words, whereas Owen's i s " g e n e r a l and o p e r a t i v e " . A good d e a l of the poetry i n P a r t tDwo of T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem i s f l a t and prosy. These prosy passages do not c r e a t e a c o n t r a s t by b e i n g purposely juxtaposed with passages p i t c h e d i n a h i g h key, i n the manner of Auden, but seemingly appear without methodafllthough, f o r the moment at l e a s t , Lewis has d e p l e t e d h i s r e s o u r c e s . P a r t Three of the book d e a l s w i t h the p s y c h o l o g i c a l con- . f l i c t "between s e l f as s u b j e c t and s e l f as o b j e c t " . (1) S h e l l e y might i d e n t i f y " s e l f as s u b j e c t " w i t h the poet as the c r e a t o r of h i s age, and " s e l f as o b j e c t " w i t h the poet as i t s c r e a t i o n . In any case, the q u e s t i o n Lewis seeks to answer i n Part Three i s : ^ § i i % : what common denominator can be found t o keep both the a c t i v e and the p a s s i v e , the c r e a t i v e and the r e c e p t i v e p a r t s of h i s p e r s o n a l i t y i n t e g r a t e d d u r i n g the search f o r single-mindedness? The I d e a l s o l u t i o n i s i m p l i e d i n an exerpt from Herman M e i v i l l e which Lewis p r e f i x e s to Part Three. The q u o t a t i o n f o l l o w s : But even so, amid the tornadoed A t l a n t i c of my b e i n g , do I myself i t i l l c e n t r a l l y d i s p o r t i n mute calm. Dur i n g h i s search f o r the i n t e g r a t i n g u n i t which w i l l b r i n g ( l ) Auden, W. H., and Day Lewis, C , " P r e f a c e " , Oxford Pr>etrv» London, B l a c k w e l l P r e s s , 1927. 34. him M e l v i l l e ' s "mute calm", Lewis compares the b r e v i t y of l o v e to the s o l i d a r i t y and age of e a r t h , i n a poem which r e c a l l s De La Mare's "Very aid are the woods". The use of g e o l o g i c a l imagery i n t h i s poem became c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the poet's l a t e r work. An example of t h i s type of imagery occurs i n these two l i n e s : What paroxysm of green can c r a c k those huge Ribs grown from Chaos, stamped by Deluge? (1) As the poem c o n t i n u e s , death i n e v i t a b l y i n t r u d e s as a . l o g i c a l s o l u t i o n t o an the poet's problems, but he decides t h a t death i s n e g a t i o n , and t h a t n e g a t i o n i s the opposite of h i s desideratum. The s e a r c h f o r the i n t e g r a t i n g u n i t evokes a d e s i r e f o r the s p i d e r ' s equanimity. I n a r a t h e r f i n e image which might have been u n c o n s c i o u s l y suggested by Whitman's n o i s e l e s s p a t i e n t s p i d e r , Lewis expressed the d e s i r e f o r calm s e l f - m a s t e r y : So the s p i d e r g r a d u a l l y , Drawing f i n e systems from h i s b e l l y , I n c l u d e s c r e a t i o n w i t h a t h r e a d And squats on the n a v e l of h i s w o r l d . (2) He ends t h i s s e c t i o n w i t h the i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e thought t h a t i f n o t h i n g e l s e w i l l s o l v e h i s problems, death c e r t a i n l y w i l l . So we f i n d the poet r e j e c t i n g death a s a s o l u t i o n , because i t i s a n e g a t i o n , y e t r e t u r n i n g t o i t as i f drawn by a magnet. Part Three i s the most ad o l e s c e n t of a l l the p a r t s . I t sometimes r e c a l l s the beginner a t the piano p r a c t i c i n g h i s (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem Twenty-one", n . 17*-18. .(2) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem Twenty", 11. 23-26. 35 ; s c a l e s . Lewis h i m s e l f g i v e s us a c l u e to h i s s t a t e of mind when he wrote P a r t Three, f o r he has w r i t t e n * I t was t r u e perhaps f o r our adolescent s e l v e s : i n those days we read add some-times wrote poet ry because we had doubts about our e m o t i o n a l potency or because our f e e l i n g s seemed so eonfused and u n -d i r e c t e d ; p o e t r y then seemed to e x e r c i s e the u n t r i e d muscles of our emot ions , and to be l i k e a r e l i e f model of t e r r i t o r y t h a t would soon be the b a t t l e f i e l d f o r u s . (1) The " r e l i e f model" which Lewis speaks of i n the above q u o t a t i o n i s an e x c e l l e n t term w i t h which t o d e s c r i b e T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem i n i t s e n t i r e t y . F o r the poem c o n t a i n s n e a r l y a l l the g e r m i n a l ideas which. Lewis l a t e r d e v e l o p e d . The poem i s indeed a map of a t e r r i t o r y whioh would soon be a b a t t l e f i e l d f o r h i m . The " r e l i e f model " i s completed i n P a r t F o u r . T h i s s e c t i o n , which Lewis i n t e n d e d as "an attempt to r e l a t e the p o e t i c impulse w i t h the exper ience as a w h o l e " , (2) i s p o s s i b l y the most d i f f i c u l t p a r t to see as a w h o l e . The s u b j e c t l s c e n t r a l l t y , bufe there seems t o be l i t t l e c e n t r a l i t y to the s e c t i o n . For the f i f t h t i m e , Lewis complains of h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s : Thos Himalayas of the mind Are not so e a s i l y possessed : T h e r e ' s more than p r e c i p i c e and storm Between you and your E v e r e s t . (3) The image of E v e r e s t t o symbol ize d i f f i c u l t y l s a n a t u r a l c h o i c e of a young man who must have watched w i t h f a s c i n a t i o n (1) The PpetiO % a g 9 . 3 1 . m (2) Notes t o T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, p . .55. (3) T r a n s i t i o n a l POem. "Poem T w e n t y - N i n e " . 1 1 . 1-4. 36.. the v a i n but h e r o i c attempts of the great E v e r e s t e r s , Arthur I < e i g h - M a l l o r y i n p a r t i c u l a r ^ t o conquer the peak d u r i n g the l a t e 'Twenties. Lewis means t h a t the attempt t o achieve the s i n g l e mind i s q u i t e as d i f f i c u l t as the attempt to s c a l e E v e r e s t . Perhaps he i m p l i e s , moreover^ w i t h the l o s s of M a i l o r y f r e s h i n h i s mind, t h a t the attempt i s aa dangerous too, and t h a t i t i s sometimes f a t a l . The c o n c l u d i n g p o r t i o n of T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem i s important f o r two reasons i n p a r t i c u l a r . F i r s t l y , Lewis expresses i n v e r s e the f u n c t i o n of a poet i n our s o c i e t y . T h i s e x p r e s s i o n of a e s t h e t i c i d e a s i n v e r s e became a r e g u l a r l y r e c u r r i n g theme i n L e w i s 1 l a t e r p o e t r y . Of course he has expressed b i s views of a e s t h e t i c s i n l u c i d prose a l s o upon a number of o c c a s i o n s ; i n the c o n c l u d i n g pages of A Hope F o r Poatrv f o r i n s t a n c e , or i n Chapters Three and S i x of The P o e t i c Image. In the former book, he compares a s u c c e s s f u l poem t o a l i g h t i n the window i n the l a s t of many houses he has b u i l t . He goes on t o say: But one s i n g l e window so i l l u m i n a t e d fan. j u s t i f y a l i f e ' s work, while a thousand s t r u c t u r e s of g r a c e f u l . d e s i g n are v a i n and v o i d without t h a t f i e r y occupant. (1) The use of the lighted-window image i n t h i s passage i s very a p t . In the T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem appgars a v e r s i f i e d d e f i n i t i o n of poetry, i n which the p o e t i c s p i r i t i s again d e s c r i b e d i n terms of l i g h t : ( l ) C. Day Lewis, C o l l e c t e d Poems. 1929-1953. and A Hope For P o e t r v j New York, Random House. 1955. 254. 37 , I t I s a b u r n i n g - g l a s s Whioh i n t e r r u p t s the sun To make h im more i n t e n s e , And touch t o s i n g l e f lame The v a r i o u s heap of sense , ( l ) The image of the m a g n i f y i n g g l a s s t o d e s c r i b e the p o e t ' s a c t i v i t y i s e f f e c t i v e , because the p o e t , l i k e the g lassJ must c o l l e c t and f u s e , s e l e c t . a n d i n t e n s i f y h i s e x p e r i e n c e s , to make the concentra ted t h i n g we c a l l a poem. I f Lewis does not f i n d s ingle -mindedness i n t h i s book, at l e a s t he i s a l o t c l o s e r t o i t at the end than at the b e g i n n i n g of the poem. By the end of P a r t Pour Lewis r e a l i z e s the weakness of a l l attempts t o s o l v e the r i d d l e by a b s t r a c t l o g i c a l o n e . The " t e t r a g o n a l pure symmetryof b r a i n " w i t h which he began h i s search i s now r e j e c t e d . He has a r r i v e d at the p o i n t f rom w h i c h a l l h i s subsequent books s t a r t ; namely, at the b e l i e f t h a t a l l jud4n?ents of l i f e and humanity must be baaed on a c t u a l o b s e r v a t i o n of l i v i n g man, and t h a t the poet must concern h i m s e l f w i t h the p a i n and s u f f e r i n g , joys and a s p i r a t i o n s of man. The f o l l o w i n g l i n e s express the nature of the p o e t ' s d i s c o v e r y : I s t r e t c h e d a l i n e f r o m pole t o pole To hang my paper l a n t e r n s o n . P o o r . s o u l , By such a m e t a p h y s i c a l c o n c e i t T h i n k i n g t o make ends meet ! T h i s l i n e , spun f rom the b l i n d h e a r t -What c o u l d i t do but prove the p o l e s apart? More expert now, I t w i s t the d i a l s , c a t c h E l e c t r i c h i n t s , c u r t omens such As may be heard by one t a p p i n g the a i r That b e l t s an ambiguous s p h e r e . Put down the t r i p o d h e r e . (2) (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem T h i r t y - T w o " 1 1 . 36-40 . (2) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem T h i r t y - . T h r e e " , 1 1 . 12-22 . 38, Lewis wishes to emphasize I n these l i n e s t h a t attempts t o understand l i f e by u s i n g the r a t i o n a l f a c u l t i e s alone have proven f u t i l e . The products of the i n t e l l e c t are "paper l a n t e r n s " , and the method i s "a l i n e spun from the b l i n d h e a r t " . And so he turns t o a c t u a l c o n t a c t w i t h man, t o h i s resources of human sympathy, centered i n the h e a r t . He " t w i s t s the d i a l s " so that he may tune i n on the r e a l j o y and r e a l s u f f e r i n g of man. He i n s i s t s on e m p i r i c i s m . T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem ends on a q u i e t e r n o t e i and w i t h a more chastened tone than i t began . The symbol of a hawk which Lewis used to denote h i m s e l f throughout the poem i s r e p l a c e d . i n the l a s t poem by t h a t of the l a r k ^ as i f t h a t were now the more a p p r o p r i a t e s y m b o l . The f i n a l l i n e s would i n -d i c a t e t h a t Lewis has achieved some measure of peace 5 So f rom a summer's h e i g h t I come i n t o my peace ; The s i n g s have earned t h e i r n i g h t , And the song may cease . (1) Whether i t i s the peace of harmony or the s l e e p of e x h a u s t i o n I am not q u i t e s u r e . The poem does leave one, however, w i t h the f e e l i n g t h a t Lewis has progressed towards h i s g o a l . I f C a r l y l e ' s words are t r u e , when he w r i t e s , "See deep enough, and you see m u s i c a l l y ; the h e a r t of Nature b e i n g everywhere m u s i c , i f you can o n l y reach i t " , (2) then Lewis a t l e a s t has put h i s hands on the k e y s . (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem T h i r t y - f o u r " , 1 1 . 21-24 . (2) T . C a r l v i a . Heroes and Hero W o r s h i p . New Y o r k , Thomas Y . C r o w e l l and C o . , 112. 39. PART THREE The poem as a whole r e v e a l s a number of d e f e c t s . I n the f i r s t p l a c e , the poem l a c k s wholeness , and the I r o n y of t h a t i s o b v i o u s . There i s l i t t l e cohes ion between p a r t and p a r t , or between poem and poem. Edgar A l l a n Poe argued t h a t l o n g poems are i m p o s s i b l e because t h e r e i s a l e n g t h , he contended^ beyond which "the i n t e n s e and pure e l e v a t i o n of s o u l " ( i ) , which he b e l i e v e d t o be the d e c i s i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of p o e t r y , cannot be m a i n t a i n e d . He-went on t o p o i n t out t h a t s u c c e s s f u l l o n g poems l i k e P a r a d i s e L o s t are r e a l l y r e c u r r i n g p e r i o d s of s h o r t e r l y r i c a l passages . Whatever may be the t r u t h about P a r a d i s e L o s t , and I b e l i e v e f loe's o p i n i o n i s open t o q u e s t i o n , Poe 's c r i t i c i s m i s undoubtedly t r u e of T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between the t h i r t y - f o u r l y r i c s w h i c h , make up the c y c l e i s i m p l i e d r a t h e r than e x p r e s s e d . T h i s f a c t i s probaby due to the s u b j e c t m a t t e r . The v a g a r i e s of a search f o r something about which there are so few c l u e s make a s u b j e c t not conducive t o c l o s e l y - k n i t f o r m . Perhaps Lewis should have w a i t e d , w i t h the p o e t ' s p a t i e n c e , u n t i l he was sure t h a t he had found o e n t r a l i t y , be fore a t t e m p t i n g t o d e s c r i b e h i s t r a v a i l . I t might a lmost he s a i d , t h e n , t h a t the poem l a c k s wholeness because , i f i t h a s a beginning)! i t has no middle or e n d . . I t must be admit ted i n a l l f a i r n e s s , t h a t Lewis does make (1) E . A . Poe, "The P o e t i c P r i n c i p l e " , Works. Volume P o u r , New Y o r k , H a r p e r s , p . 7 . 40 . some attempt t o r e l a t e the p a r t s . There are c e r t a i n c r o s s -r e f e r e n c e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , which are u n i f y i n g d e v i c e s . The sphinx i n 'Poem 0 n e " , symbol of the p o e t ' s d o u b t , i s repeated i n ' P o e m T h i r t y - O n e " . The e l e c t r i c l i g h t globe i n "Poem Twenty-T h r e e " , symbol of the p a r t i a l s o l u t i o n which love b r i n g s , i s a l l u d e d t o a g a i n i n "Poem T h i r t y - O n e " . The hawk of "Poem One" f l i e s back i n t o "Poem T h i r t y - P o u r " . However, these symbols are n e i t h e r c l e a r nor impor tant enough t o be e f f e c t i v e bonds . The l a c k of o r g a n i c u n i t y i s i n t e n s i f i e d by the g e n e r a l o b s c u r i t y of many of the poems. T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem i s w i t h o u t a doubt the p o e t ' s most d i f f i c u l t performance . O b s c u r i t y i n t h i s work i s not so much the r e s u l t of compress ion , e l i s i o n , i n v e r s i o n , o r emot iona l sequence, which are u s u a l l y the cause of contemporary o b s c u r i t y , but i s the r e s u l t of confused thought , u n c o o r d i n a t e d ideas and s l a p - d a s h c o n s t r u c t i o n . There are no p r i v a t e or p e r s o n a l r e f e r e n c e s i n the poem, so t h a t i t cannot be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as e s o t e r i c . O b s c u r i t y i s a s u b j e c t which w i l l be d e a l t w i t h at some l e n g t h i n Chapter N i n e , hut i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note here two types of o b s c u r i t y not g e n e r a l l y found i n the p o e t ' s o t h e r work . I n "Poem T e n t y - P i v e " there i s an example of what might be c a l l e d " p a r t i a l n e g a t i v e " . The obscure l i n e s f o l l o w : Where i s the t r u e , the c e n t r a l stone That c l a y and vapour zone, That earthquakes budge nor v i n e g a r b i t e s away, That r i v e t s man a g a i n s t Doomsday? (1) The n e g a t i v e i n these l i n e s a p p l i e s e q u a l l y t o "ear thquakes" (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem T w e n t y - F i v e " . 1 1 . 1-4. 41. and t o "vinegar", but l s s y n t a c t i c a l l y omitted i n the case of "earthquakes". T h i s omission p u z z l e s one at f i r s t . A second type of o b s c u r i t y occurs when the omission of commas i n the a p p o s i t i o n confuses the sense: One f a l s e spark f i r e the immense. Broadside the confounding thunder. (1) These l i n e s are doubly d o n f u s i n g , because the word "would" i s understood b e f o r e the verb, " f i r e " ; the whole c o n s t r u c t i o n i s i n the s u b j u n c t i v e mood. The a l l u s i o n s i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem are not r e c o n d i t e , but there i s a wealth of B i b l i c a l , c l a s s i c a l " , and h i s t o r i c a l a l l u s i o n . In none' of h i s other books does Lewis use many a l l u s i o n s of t h i s type. But i n t h i s one there are t w e n t y - f i v e c l a s s i c a l a l l u s i o n s (Minos, Artemis, Helen, P a t r o c l u s , and o t h e r s ) ; a n d some f i f t e e n B i b l i c a l r e f e r e n c e s (Methusaieh, Anakim, Abraham, Solomon, and o t h e r s ) . Pedantic notes i n the E l i o t manner are appended t o the poem, e x p l a i n i n g vague r e -f e r e n c e s t o Spinoza, Donne, Dante, Henry James, the Bib l e , and even a song of Sophie Tucker's. These notes add l i t t l e t o the c l a r i t y o f the poem, s i n c e the o b s c u r i t y does not r e s u l t from the a l l u s i o n s themselves. The v e r s e of T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem l s v e r y uneven, and t h e r e are times when the ve r s e seems almost s l i p s h o d . Suc£ l i n e s a s: 'so the dog Returns t o h i s v o m i t 1 , you p r o t e s t . W e l l o n l y The dog can t e l l what v i r t u e l i e s i n h i s vomit, ( f ) ; (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem Twenty-Six'', ' " ' (2) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem S i x " ; 11. 5-7. 4 2 . o r a s : I ' v e seen your s u b a l t e r n aaafeltions r i s e Y e l l o w and p a r a l l e l As smoke from garden c i t i e s t h a t soon fades I n a i r i t cannot even d e f i l e - - ( l ) f are d u l l and p r o s y . On the c r e d i t s i d e , a few p o i n t s should be n o t e d . F i r s t of a l l , i t has been shown t h a t some c o n c l u s i o n s were reached . Fur thermore , Lewis proves h i m s e l f to be a v e r s a t i l e t e c h n i c i a n He uses rhyming s tanzas of f rom f o u r t o e i g h t l i n e s , b l a n k verse used w i t h E l i o t ' s v a r i a t i o n s ; d e c a s y l l a b i c c o u p l e t s ; and t r i m e t e r s , t e t r a m e t e r s , and pentameters i n s u c c e s s f u l a s s o c i a t i o n . His rhymes are g e n e r a l l y or thodox , but a l r e a d y he has begun t o employ c o n s o n a n t a l , a s s o n a n t a l , and h a l f -rhymes i n the way W i l f r e d Owen used them. "Hooks - F l u x " ; "wive - g i v e " ; " a i r - h e a r " ; " l o v e - l i v e " ; " l i e - r e c i p e " ; "systems - p i s t o n s " ; and " c a t t l e - m e t a l " i s a l i s t which i n c l u d e s examples of the three types of rhyme mentioned above. I n h i s l a t e r p o e t r y , Lewis uses these "pararhymes" almost w i t h the e f f e c t of muted b e l l s , but i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem they occur f i t f u l l y , a p p a r e n t l y w i t h o u t p l a n , as though through i n d o l e n c e I n range of metaphor and o r i g i n a l i t y of imagery , Lewis has more to o f f e r . A c h i l d of the machine age, he draws on a l l the resources of s c i e n c e and I n d u s t r y . The l o v e r t r a v e l s " a l o o p l i n e " ; s o u l has i t s " e k t o g e n e s i s " ; l i f e has I t s " p i s t o n pounding i n t o t h e i r s e c r e t c y l i n d e r s " ; the sky has "golden ( l ) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem Twenty-Three" , 1 1 . 12-15 . 4 3 . seams t h a t cram the n i g h t " ; and so o n . Images are drawn from e l e c t r i c i t y : F o r I had been a modern moth and h u r l e d M y s e l f on many a f l a m i n g w o r l d , To f i n d i t s globe was g l a s s . (1) Love h a s i t s " t e r m i n a l s " , and d e s i r e i t s "charged b a t t e r i e s " * Lewis was the f i r s t w r i t e r t o use such imagery as a n a t u r a l medium. F r a n c i s S c a r f e defends h i s use of i t i n the f o l l o w i n g passage: L e w i s , t o my m i n d , i s not mere ly b e i n g s c h o o l b o y i s h or t r y i n g to be " t o u g h " , b u t t h i s type of imagery i s fundamental t o h i s c o n c e p t i o n of the modern w o r l d . And t h a t t h i s was a l l l a t e n t i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem i s a f a c t which r e f u t e s those c r i t i c s who have s a i d t h a t Lewis owes a l l h i s "modern . d r e s s " t o Auden. Such s i g n s as there are of Auden i n t h i s poem are v e r y s l i g h t i n d e e d . H i s b a s i c imagery i s i n d i c a t i v e of h i s own, and no o ther p o e t ' s n e u r o s i s . When he developed i t l a t e r , he gave i t a more p o s i t i v e v a l u e by u s i n g I t i n a s o c i a l c o n t e x t . (2) Scarge makes two o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s w h i c h should be n o t e d . He p o i n t s out L e w i s ' urgent d e s i r e t o be go ing somewhere. He draws a t t e n t i o n t o h i s t i t l e s ; S t a r t i n g _ P o i n t , T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, From Feathers_ t o I r o n . A Time To Dance. The Magnet ic M o u n t a i n , t o o , i s the s t o r y of a j o u r n e y . S c a r f e f u r t h e r p o i n t s out the p o e t ' s " cons tant p r e o c c u a t i o n w i t h the h a r d n e s s , the r e s i s t a n c e of m a t t e r " ( 3 ) . Some images i n t h i s ca tegory (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. "Poem Twenty-Three" . 1 1 . 38-40 . (2) F . S c a r f B t A u d e n a n d A f t e r 1950-1941. London, George Routledge and Sons L t d . , 1943, 5 . (3) F . S c a r f e , o p . c i t . 4 . 44.. ares " s t r a t a u n d i a g n o s e d " , " l o v e ' s g e o l o g y " , " b a s a l t peace" , " a u t h o r i t y of i c e " , " j a g of sense" , "Himalayas of the m i n d " , and " d i g e s t an adamant". I t i s q u i t e t r u e t h a t Lewis uses such images of hardness f r e q u e n t l y , but whether such a h a b i t has a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i s open t o q u e s t i o n . S c a r f e ' s a S s e r t i n t h a t L e w i s ' use of images of f l y i n g sparks, c o u l d be psychoanalyzed as an obsess ion w i t h the male sperm i s meaningless u n t i l such t ime as one knows the i n c i d e n c e i n humanity of such obsess ions w i t h t h e i r c a u s a l c o n n e c t i o n s . T h i s chapter should not be conc luded w i t h o u t emphasiz ing ' • the f a c t t h a t d e s p i t e L e w i s ' f requent use of machine imagery , the v e r y n o v e l t y oif which i s apt t o exaggerate i t s Importance, the poet more f r e q u e n t l y employs t r a d i t i o n a l r u r a l imagery , o f t e n w i t h b e a u t i f u l e f f e c t . The mystery and immensity of a s t a r i s t e l l i n g l y d e s c r i b e d , f o r example, i n the f o l l o w i n g p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n : When I c o n s i d e r each independent s t a r Wearing i t s w o r l d of darkness l i k e a f u r And r u b b i n g s h o u l d e r s w i t h i n f i n i t y — (1) The comparison of d a r k n e s s , i n e x p r e s s i b l y s o f t , t o a f u r i s v e r y f i n e ; and the word, " s h o u l d e r s " somehow steps i n f i n i t y down t o a measurable q u a n t i t y , as a t r a n s f o r m e r s teps down v o l t a g e . There are other superb passages of na ture d e s c r i p t i o n ^ t h i s one f o r i n s t a n c e : Mine. I s the h e r o n ' s f l i g h t Which makes a s o l i t u d e of any s k y . (a>) (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem F o u r t e e n " , 1 1 . 5 - 7 . (2) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem Twenty-Three" , 1 1 . 47-48 . 45. The heron I n t h i s e x c e r p t , l a r g e i n s i z e hut f l y i n g a l o n e , i n c r e a s e s by i t s v e r y l o n e l i n e s s the f e e l i n g of s o l i t u d e i n the w a t c h e r ; and the sky too seems v a s t e r because of the b i r d which.mars i t s wide expanse. Thus the sky e n r i c h e s the h e r o n , and the h e r o n , the s k y . The l i g h t i s I n the window i n these l i n e s . T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem i s the s p i r i t u a l autobiography of a young man who hag set out t o achieve the s i n g l e m i n d . He t r i e s and r e j e c t s a b s t r a c t l o g i c . ; as f u t i l e and escapism as i m p o s s i b l e . He grapples w i t h the r e l a t i o n s h i p of f l e s h and s p i r i t , and s t r i v e s t o f i n d a way t o make them s i n g toge ther a l l i n t u n e . As p a r t of tiie q u e s t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between f l e s h and s p i r i t , he c o n s i d e r s what h i s a t t i t u d e t o -wards love s h o u l d be, and dec ides t h a t no a t t i t u d e w h i c h r e j e c t s the f u l l enjoyment of b o d i l y senses i s t e n a b l e . He i s determ-i n e d t h a t h i s s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h y must be based on the a c t u a l o b s e r v a t i o n of and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the h u r l y - b u r l y of l i f e . Lewis concludes the poem o p t i m i s t i c a l l y , f o r he b e l i e v e s t h a t i f indeed he has not reached h i s g o a l , he has come a l o n g way towards i t . The poem i s i m p o r t a n t , t o o , f o r the g e r m i n a l i d e a s which i t c o n t a i n s , and which l e t e r deve lop i n t o c a r d i n a l p r i n c i p l e s . D e s p i t e i t s f a u l t s and o b s c u r i t i e s , T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem leaves one w i t h a sense of v i g o u r and h e a l t h , of moving f o r w a r d , of hope f o r man and f o r the p o e t ' s own p o e t r y . 4 6 . CHAPTER THE SPENDTHRIFT FIRE THE HOLY FIRE PART ONE I t o f t e n happens, when one has expended c o n s i d e r a b l e t ime and thought on a poem, t h a t new i d e a s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s explode i n one ' s mind w i t h almost the Impact of r e v e l a t i o n . Perhaps i t i s t h i s e v e r - u n f o l d i n g q u a l i t y which makes good a r t s a t i s f y i n g i n a l l ages . T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem does not q u a l i f y as g r e a t a r t . I t i s t o o i n c h o a t e ; there i s i n i t much seemingly profound verse, t h a t proves t o be d r y and s t e r i l e on c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n ; i t does not r e v e a l new v i s t a s of meaning as one probes deeper", as the f i n e s t p o e t r y d o e s . But even t h i s poem, u n s a t i s f a c t o r y as i t i s , has some protean q u a l i t y i n i t . The v e r y t i t l e , T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, a l l o w s of at l e a s t two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . On the s u r f a c e i t means a poem of t r a n s i t i o n l i n k i n g the j u v e n i l e w r i t i n g of Beeohen V i g i l w i t h the mature a r t y e t t o be w r i t t e n . I n t h i s sense , the poem i s a consc ious s t e p i n the p o e t ' s development. There I s , however, another p o s s -i b l e meaning of the t i t l e . P o s s i b l y the word " t r a n s i t i o n a l " r e -f e r s to the movement w i t h i n the poem from i d e a t o i d e a , from s o l u t i o n t o s o l u t i o n . I t i s t h i s c o n t i n u a l s t a t e of f l u x which l eads to the dominant i m p r e s s i o n of d i s u n i t y . A t h i r d p o s s i b l e 4 7 . i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the t i t l e might make the poem a p p l y t o a t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d i n h i s t o r y , and concern the poet growing f rom the accepted i d e a s of the p a s t to the u n c e r t a i n ones t h a t w i l l come i n the f u t u r e . I t i s d o u b t f u l , though, t h a t Lewis i n t e n d e d the l a t t e r meaning, s i n c e at the t ime of w r i t -i n g h i s S o c i a l c o n v i c t i o n s had a p p a r e n t l y not y e t f u l l y matured . I t I s the f i r s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , However, t h a t I w i s h t o use h e r e . I n s o f a r as Lewis p l a n t s v a r i o u s g e r m i n a l ideas w h i c h l a t e r deve lop i n t o major poems, T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem e f f e c t s a t r a n s i t i o n i n the f i r s t sense . The d e c i s i o n t o observe men i n t h e i r d a i l y s t r u g g l e s gave h im the s o c i a l consciousness which produced the Magnetic Mountain and Noah and the Waters ; the i d e a of hero and ances tor l e d t o A Time To Dance, the Nabara , and many s h o r t e r l y r i c s ; the s u g g e s t i o n t h a t joy i s a moment-ary t h i n g and should be s e i z e d and enjoyed t o the f u l l , became an a b i d i n g c o n v i c t i o n i n such books as Prom Feathers t o I r o n , and Short I s The Time. F i n a l l y , Lewis i n d i c a t e d i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem t h a t the g l o r i f i c a t i o n of sex would become a major p r e -o c c u p a t i o n I n h i s p o e t r y . And i t d i d . PART TWO The l o g i c a l development of the g e r m i n a l ideas i n -T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem i s probably what prompted H . J . C . G r i e r s o n t o w r i t e : Of these t h r e e poets (Auden, Spender , Day L e w i s ) , Mr.Day Lewis has developed most 48. c o n s i s t e n t y . (1) G r i e r s o n uses the word, " c o n s i s t e n t l y " , and i t i s n o t i c e a b l e t h a t c r i t i c s c o n t i n u a l l y use words l i k e " c o n s i s t e n t " , "common-sense", "steady", "level-headed", when r e f e r r i n g t o Lewis • The poet's h a n d l i n g of the lov e theme develops as con-s i s t e n t l y a s do a l l h i s v a r i o u s themes. I t f o l l o w s the c h r o n o l o g i c a l sex p a t t e r n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the experience of most men. A l l o w i n g f o r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s of temperament and e x p e r i e n c e , the l o v e l i f e of most people i s s i m i l a r . I t c o n s i s t s of shyness and f a s c i n a t i o n ; l a t e r adolescent e x c i t e -ment which sometimes culminates i n i n t e r c o u r s e ; marriage w i t h . i t s complex r e l a t i o n s h i p s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , which c o n t r i v e to make lov e a calmer and c o o l e r t h i n g ; and f i n a l l y , l a t e r In marriage, warm f r i e n d s h i p which long-shared experince b r i n g s ^ some a f f e c t i o n , some boredom, and some n o s t a l g i a f o r the p a s t . T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n i s o b v i o u s l y an over s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of a v e r y complex r e l a t i o n s h i p . But a l l I am t r y i n g t o say here i s t h a t men and women i n t h e i r e x perinces i n sex and marriage, resemble each other more than they d i f f e r . There I s , i n other words, a g e n e r a l c h r o n o l o g i c a l p a t t e r n . Another q u a l i t y of Lewis' l o v e p o e t r y i s d i s c e r n i b l e i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem.. I t i s not o n l y the acceptance of b o d i l y or s e x u a l d e s i r e s as b e i n g i n themselves worthy of regard or ad-m i r a t i o n . but a l s o the b e l i e f t h a t the s a t i s f a c t i o n of p h y s i c a l (1) H.J.C. G r i e r s o n and J.C. Smith, A C r i t i c a l H i s t o r y of E n g l i s h Poetry. London, Chatto and Windus, 1944, 4 9 . d e s i r e s i s i n no sense on a lower plane than the s a t i s f a c t i o n of i n t e l l e c t u a l or s p i r i t u a l d e s i r e s . Lewis regards the p h y s i c a l and s p i r i t u a l s i d e s of love as complementary p a r t s i n the o v e r a l l p o l a r i t y of sex. P o l a r i t y of t h i s k i n d s t r i v e s t o keep the p h y s i c a l and s p i r i t u a l aspects of love i n p e r f e c t e q u i l i b r i u m , so t h a t the balance may no be d e s t r o y e d e i t h e r by excess or r e p r e s s i o n . In t h i s chapter, I w i l l attempt t o t r a c e out the c h r o n o l o g i c a l p a t t e r n of L e w i s 1 s e x u a l e x p e r i e n c e , and t o show the extent t o which the poems r e v e a l the p o l a r i t y of p h y s i c a l and s p i r i t u a l l o v e . The treatment of love i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem I s t y p i c a l l y t h a t of a s e n s i t i v e but confused a d o l e s c e n t s e e k i n g t o i n c o r p -o r a t e i t i n t o h i s s c a l e of v a l u e s . What has lov e got t o do w i t h single-mindedness i s the q u e s t i o n he seeks t o answer. He t r i e s t o r e c o n c i l e love s e x u a l w l t h l o v e s p i r i t u a l , and concludes t h a t they form complementary p a r t s of the i n t e g r a l mind: I have a l o v e r of f l e s h And a l o v e r t h a t i s a s p r i t e : Today I l i e down w i t h f i n i t e , Tomorrow w i t h i n f i n i t e . (1) The f a c t t h a t Lewis separates the g r a t i f i c a t i o n of the two types of lov e by twenty-four hours would i n d i c a t e t h a t the d u a l i t y o o f b o d i l y and s p i r i t u a l l o v e has not y e t become the s i n g l e f o r c e which I t became l a t e r . I t i s p o s s i b l e , however. ( 3 ) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem Pour", 11.- 13-16. 5 0 . t h a t by the above l i n e s Lewis means t h a t h i s love e x p r i n e e i s a u n i t y compounded of equal p o r t i o n s of s p i r i t u a l and p h y s i c a l q u a l i t i e s . Side by s i d e w i t h t h i s somewhat ponderously expressed thought about b o d i l y and s p i r i t u a l l o v e , Lewis i n t e r s p e r s e s passages which express the y o u t h f u l j u b i l a t i o n of l o v e . "Poem F i v e " i a an exuberant d e c l a r a t i o n of love' s power, not y e t toned down by the weight of time and m a r r i e d l i f e . He w r i t e s : Time, twe al l o w , d e s t r o y s A l l a e r i a l t o y s : But t o a s s a i l l o v e ' s h e a r t He has no s t r a t e g y . Unless he suck up the sea And p u l l the e a r t h a p a r t , ( i ) He has many poems of the same tenop key, so many i n f a c t t h a t S c a r f e d r y l y observes t h a t " s e n s u a l i t y seems t o be the s u b j e c t r a t h e r than t h * s i n g l e mind". ( 2 ) . An important i d e a which i s expressed i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem i s the s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y of l o v e . I t i s an i d e a t h a t echoes and re-echoes throughout From Feathers t o I r o n . Love, Lewis w r i t e s , needs n e i t h e r apology, nor e x p l a n a t i o n , nor even permanence: For the e s s e n t i a l P h i l o s o p h e r - s t o n e , d e s i r e , Needs no other proof, Than i t s own f i r e . (3) D e s p i t e h i s use of s e x u a l imagery i n the lov e poems of T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, one somehow f e e l s t h a t i t i s a pale and (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l P o Q m ; "PoemFlve", 11. 19-24. (2) F. S c a r f e , op. c i t . 4. (3) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem F i f t e e n " , 11. 39-42. 5 1 . d i s t a n t l o v e , b r i g h t but m e t a l l i c , not of t h i s w o r l d . This i m p r e s s i o n i s p a r t l y the r e s u l t of d i s c o r d a n t q u a l i t i e s not b e i n g r e c o n c i l e d i n the poem. I n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, m e t a p h y s i c s , p s y c h o l o g y , e t h i c s , and a e s t h e t i c s a l l c o n s p i r e t o " a s s a i l l o v e ' s h e a r t " . Such i s not the case i n From Feathers t o I r o n , f o r i n t h i s c y c l e , l o v e i s the predominant , i f not the o n l y , s u b j e c t . T . S . E l i o t makes a s i g n l f c a n t o b s e r v a t i o n about the raw m a t e r i a l of p o e t r y when he w r i t e s : The p o e t ' s mind i s i n f a c t a r e c e p t a c l e f o r s e i z i n g and s t o r i n g up numberless f e e l i n g s , phrases , images, w h i c h remain there u n t i l a l l the p a r t i c l e s which can u n i t e t o form a new compound are present t o g e t h e r . (1) Now, i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, the "numberless f e e l i n g s , phrases , and Images" remain l a r g e l y a m i x t u r e ; the " d i s p a r a t e e x p e r i e n c e s " are not amalgamated. I n From Feathers t o I r o n , on the c o n t r a r y , • the v a r i o u s " p a r t i c l e s " of exper ience are u n i t e d by a new and p o w e r f u l reagent w h i c h serves t o s t a r t the chemica l a c t i o n . This new and p o w e r f u l exper ince was the n ine month w a i t f o r the b i r t h of h i s f i r s t c h i l d . T h i s experjfence p u l l e d the v a r i o u s thoughts and f e e l i n g s a t t e n d i n g h i s w i f e ' s pregnancy i n t o a l o g i c a l p a t t e r n , a p a t t e r n which was l a e k i n g i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. I n the f i r s t poem of From Feathers t o I r o n , Lewis expresses h i s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t love may serve t o g i v e one a T . S . E l i o t , The Sacred Wood, London, Mathuen And Oo. L t d . , 1932, 55 . 52. much-needed c e r t a i n t y i n our d i v i d e d n e u r o t i c c i v i l i z a t i o n . The f o u r t h q u a t r a i n of h i s w i d e l y known f i r s t l y r i c e s t a b l i s h e s h i s l o v e as a b r i d g e over chaos : Nor f e a r we how to l i v e who i n the v a l l e y Of the shadow of l i f e have found a causeway; For love r e s t o r e s the nerve and love i s under Our f e e t r e s i l i e n t . S h a l l we be weary? (1) The d e l i b e r a t e t w i s t i n g of the B i b l i c a l phrase , s u b s t i t u t i n g " l i f e " f o r " d e a t h " , i n l i n e two, i s b o l d but q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l . E l i o t does a s i m i l a r t h i n g i n "The H o l l o w Men" , u s i n g the phrase , " F o r T h i n e . I s The K i n g d o m " , w i t h mordant c y n i c i s m . E l i o t ' s c o n c l u s i o n i n "The H o l l o w Men" i s p e s s i m i s t i c , because he concerns h i m s e l f i n the poem only w i t h the p r e s e n t ; L e w i s , as much the product of h i s age as E l i o t , concludes on a note of optimism and hope. He looks t o the f u t u r e . The c o n c l u d i n g l i n e s of the f i r s t poem of From Feathers f o I r o n are o p t i m i s t i c w i t h the promise of f e r t i l i t y : our Now/research i s done, measured the shadow, The p l a i n s mapped o u t , the h i l l s a n a t u r a l b o u n d ' r y , Such and such i s our c o u n t r y . There remains to ' Plough up the meadowland, r e c l a i m the marshes . (2) L a t e r poems i n the ej&cle r e i t e r a t e h i s f a i t h i n l o v e . He can w r i t e : Space-spanned, G o d - g i r d l e d , l o v e w i l l keep I t s f o r m , b e i n g planned of bone. (3) And he i s able t o express a c o n v i c t i o n t h a t out of l o v e and p r o c r e a t i o n the w i l l to search out a new l i f e w i l l grow. He addresses h i s unborn c h i l d i n these l i n e s : (1) From Feathers To I r o n . "Poem One". 11. 15-16. (2) From Feathers To I r o n . "Poem One" 11. 29-52. (3) From Feathers To I r o n . "Poem Twenty-Three" , n . 15-16. 53. More than a l l e l s e might you, My son, my daughter, Be m e t a l t o bore through The impermeable c l a y And rock t h a t o v e r l a y The l i v i n g water. (1) Again the t a l k of "rock" and "water" pr o b a b l y owes something t o T. S . E l i o t . But i t i s E l i o t w i t h a d i f f e r e n c e . There was no a r t e s i a n w e l l i n E l i o t ' s r o c k . Although the e n t i r e q u e s t i o n o f technique and form w i l l be t r e a t e d at l e n g t h In Chapter Nine, one cannot but n o t i c e • the c o n s i d e r a b l e advance i n d i r e c t n e s s and cogency t h a t Lewis has made i n the above quoted l i n e s over h i s verse i n T r a n s i t i o n -a l Poem. An i n c r e a s e i n comparison w i t h an i n c r e a s e In c l a u t y i s no mean achievement i n two y e a r s . C o n s i d e r i n g the poem as a whole(and i t i s a whole, not merely a l o o s e a s s o c i a t i o n of l y r i c s ) , From Feathers To Iro n has s i g n i f i c a n c e when viewed on th r e e separate l e v e l s . The c y c l e i s (1) a love s t o r y and a marriagej&tory. I t c o n s i s t s l a r g e l y of the r e f l e c t i o n s , f e a r s , and hopes occasioned by h i s wife's pregnacy. I t i s (2) a sea s o n a l pageant of the r i t e s of Nature, w i t h a l l i t s I n f i n i t e v a r i e t y of shade, c o l o r , mood, and motion as i t moves i n s u c c e s s i v e stages from autumn to s p r i n g . T h i s pageant, completely overlooked by c r i t i c s as f a r as I know, p a r a l l e l s w i t h unique symbolism every stage of g e s t a t i o n . Lewis i s enough of a craftsman t o know t h a t w i t h the nature a l l e g o r y , the poem stands t o gain ( l ) From F e a t h e r s To I r o n . "Poem S i x t e e n " , 11. 1-6. 54. i n emphasis and r i c h n e s s . F i n a l l y , the poem may toe regarded as (3) a p o l i t i c a l a l l e g o r y , the toirth of the c h i l d toeing symbol ic of the b i r t h of a new s o c i e t y . I t i s my purpose to d e a l w i t h the f i r s t two of the t h r e e approaches i n t h i s c h a p t e r , f o r they are so i n e x t r i c a b l y i n t e r t w i n e d , t h a t t o separate the v i n e s would do damage t o the p l a n t s . The p o l i t i c a l aspects of the poem, however, w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter Four and F i v e . The t i t l e , From Feathers To I r o n , d e r i v e s f rom a sentence i n one of K e a t ' s l e t t e r s ; namely, "We take but t h r e e s teps from f e a t h e r s t o i r o n " . The meaning of the phrase when used as a t i t l e f o r the poem i s at f i r s t not easy to a s c e r t a i n , but "Poem F i v e " throws some l i g h t on the problem. Lewis w r i t e s i n t h i s poem: B e a u t y 1 s end i s i n s i g h t , Terminus where a l l f e a t h e r joys a l i g h t . Wings t h a t f l e w l i g h t l y F o l d and are i r o n . We see The t h i n end of m o r t a l i t y , ( i ) The " f e a t h e r s " , t h e r e f o r e , c o u l d symbol ize p a s s i o n w i t h o u t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , w i t h o u t f r u i t . A b i r d comes to m i n d , i n a i r detached f rom e a r t h , u n r o o t e d . I n o p p o s i t i o n , " i r o n " would represent r e s o l u t i o n - the d e c i s i o n to b r i n g the b i r d back t o e a r t h . I n s h o r t , the t i t l e expresses the d e c i s i o n t o have a . c h i l d . D i l y s P o w e l l e x p l a i n s the t i t l e as meaning, "a progress f rom f l y - a w a y i n d e c i s i o n t o m e t a l r e s o l u t i o n " . * 2 T h e r e are y e t ( l ) From Feathers To I r o n . "Poem F i v e " , l i . 1-5. • (2) D . P o w e l l Descent From Parnassusk London, Crescent Press ' 1954, -19'9f 5 5 . other connotations which the t i t l e , "Prom Feat h e r s Eo I r o n " , b r i n g s t o mind. One might c o n s i d e r the l a z y aimlessness of a f a l l i n g f e a t h e r , or b e i n g blown about by gusts of wind, as compared w i t h the e f f i c i e n t d i r e c t e d n e s s of i r o n as i t f a l l s . One might c o n s i d e r , furthermore, the R e s i l i e n c e and p l a s t i c i t y of a bag of f e a t h e r s as compared w i t h the r e s i s t a n c e and r i g i d -i t y and the permanence of a b l o c k o f i r o n . Such c o n t r a s t s as these c o u l d be a p p l i e d t o the change from youth t o m a t u r i t y , from l i g h t l o v e t o f i x e d d e v o t i o n , or" from y o u t h f u l a e s t h e t i c d a l l i a n c e t o a sense of s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . No matter which of the above mentioned connotations i s c o n s i d e r e d , one must i n f e r t h a t by the t i t l e , Lewis r e f e r s t o the hardening and. f i x i n g process of maturing. C o n s i d e r i n g a g a i n the q u o t a t i o n on page f i f t y - f o u r , one might observe t h a t the l i n e s are s u g g e s t i v e l y ambiguous. "Beauty's end", c o u l d mean, f o r example, the reason f o r beauty's e x i s t e n c e , as the beauty of a f l o w e r a t t r a c t s the bees; or the phrase might p o s s i b l e mean t h a t p r o c r e a t i o n puts an end t o feminine beauty f o r a time, as the f l o w e r fades b e f o r e the f r u i t comes. Perhaps Lewi3 wishes to imply both meanings. In any case j the i d e a i s t h a t the coming of a c h i l d b r i n g s the parents to g r i p s w i t h new r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , r e s o l u t i o n s , mixed w i t h f e a r s of m o r t a l i t y and i n s e c u r i t y - a l l symbolized by " i r o n " . The process of making i r o n from f e a t h e r s begins immediately i n the c y c l e . A f t e r t e s t i f y i n g t o the s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y of lo v e 56. i n "Poem 0n e"» when he w r i t e s : Love's proved by i t s c r e a t i o n not e t e r n i t y , (1) the poet moves from the c i t y t o the country, presumably because the poet and h i s wife f e e l t h a t c o u n t r y l i f e i s more conducive to happy and h e a l t h f u l c h i l d - b e a r i n g . Lewis o b t a i n s a f u n c t i o n -a l or a e s t h e t i c advantage, p u r e l y by a c c i d e n t , from the s h i f t o f s c e n e r y . By moving t o the country, he can i n c o r p o r a t e the moods of nature i n t o h i s theme w i t h more f a c i l i t y . And so both husband and w i f e w i l l , Watch not the markets but the s t a r s ; ' Get shares of g i l t - e d g e d space. (2) "Shares of g i l t - e d g e d space" i s a f i n e image, e f f e c t i n g a s u c c e s s f u l b l e n d i n g of two auch opposed p i c t u r e s as a busy brokerage o f f i c e and the s t a r r y firmament. Shakespeare d i d a s i m i l a r t h i n g w i t h : Rough winds do shake the d a r l i n g buds of May, And summer's l e a a e hath a l l too s h o r t a d a t e . In these l i n e s the n a t u r a l image of the f i r s t l i n e i s i n j u x t a p o s i t i o n w i t h the l e g a l image of the second. The d e c i s i o n t o have a c h i l d c o i n c i d e s w i t h the season of f r u i t f u l n e s s , autumn, a n d so" the a l l e g o r y from nature begins t o i n t e r t w i n e the human framework, as though I t were a t r e l l i s . L i k e the season, husband and wife hear the c a l l to a c t i o n : Look how the a t h l e t i c f i e l d H i s f l o w e r y v e s t has p e e l e d To w r e s t l e another f a l l w i t h r a i n and s l e e t . (3) (1) From Feat h e r s To I r o n , "Poem One1', 1.6. (2) From F e a t h e r s To I r o n . "Poem Two", 11. 11-12. (3) From F e a t h e r s To I r o n . "P0em Three", 11. 7-9. 57. . And they are q u i t e aware of the t r y i n g days ahead, t o he f a c e d w i t h clamness and r e s i g n a t i o n . Thus the poet w r i t e s : The swallows are a l l gone In t o the r i s i n g sun. You leave t o - n i g h t f o r the Americas. Under, the dr o p p i n g days Alone the l a b o u r e r s t a y s And says t h a t w i n t e r w i l l be slow t o pass, ( i ) Three d i f f e r e n t images; swallows a t dawn, an emigrant s h i p , and a Robert F r o s t r u s t i c , u n i t e t o evoke a mood of n o s t a l g i a - a mood which always attends the s t e p from o l d t o new, from f e a t h e r s t o i r o n . The n a t u r a l n e s s of Lewis' a t t i t u d e t o sex i s t o be seen i n the easy way he w r i t e s of the p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s of l o v e . There i s none of the hot-house atmosphere which one f i n d s , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n the poetry of D « G. R o s s e t t i when he d e s c r i b e s the p h y s i c a l aspects of love-making. (2) The reason f o r Lewis' success i n d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h i s k i n d i s p o s s i b l y h i s use of e i t h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l imagery, o r imagery from n a t u r e , t o d e s c r i b e what i s sensuous. He p i c t u r e s h i s w i f e , f o r instance, i n these l i n e s * Now she i s l i k e the white t r e e - r o s e That takes a b l e s s i n g from the sun. (3) c I n another poem, u s i n g a s i m i l a r d e p e r s o n a l i z i n g technique, he images s e x u a l I n t e r c o u r s e i n teams of an expresss engine p a s s i n g throughta s t a t i o n . I do not t h i n k he i s a l t o g e t h e r s u c c e s s f u l i n t h i s image, f o r the emotional l e a p which one (1) Frrnn F e a t h e r s To ITon, "P 0em Three", 11. 19-24 (2) c f . Sonnet 6 and Sonnet 7, The House of L j f e f f o r R o s s e t t i ' s over sensuous d e s c r i p t i o n s . (3) From Feathers To I r o n . "Poem S i x " , 11. 1-2. 58. has t o make between e c s t a c y and the express, between sex and s t e e l , i s too g r e a t , no matter how c l e v e r l y i t i s done. Here are the l i n e s I r e f e r t o : - Ti g h t e n s the darkness, the r a i l s thrum; For n i g h t express i s due. G l o r y of steam and s t e e l s t r i k e s dumb; Sense sucked away s w i r l s i n the vacuum. So p a s s i o n passes through, ( l ) I f t h i s image i s a f a i l u r e , and I am not sure t h a t i t i s completely so, i t i s not due t o any i n a b i l i t y on the p a r t of the "general i m a g i n a t i o n " t o accept the t r a i n Image, but t o a profound emotional d i s p a r i t y between the t r a i n and what i t seeks t o e x p l a i n . I n the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h i s c hapter, I p o i n t e d out tha t L e w i s 1 treatment of l o v e and marriage was n o t a b l e f o r i t s n a t u r a l n e s s and i n c l u s i v e n e s s . T h i s f a c t i s apparent i n the s t o r y of the pregnacy. The e n t i r e gamut of emotions and thoughts which a t t e n d c h i l d - b e a r i n g f i n d e x p r e s s i o n i n the poem. The s p i r i t of the c y c l e i s , at times, e p i t h a l a m i e i n i t s e x u l t a t i o n and the r e s u l t i s , I b e l i e v e , something unique i n E n g l i s h p o e t r y . T h i s i n c l u s i v e n e s s i s seen i n "Poem F i v e " , which r e c o r d s the nece s s a r y change i n the lov e r e l a t i o n s h i p which pregnacy e n t a i l s : We must a l i t t l e p a r t , And s p r o u t i n g seed crack our cemented h e a r t . ( 2 ) °ne might n o t i c e the p a r a l l e l from nature i n these l i n e s , f o r the nature a l l e g o r y everywhere I n t e r t w i n e s the human s t o r y . (1) From Feathers To i r o n . "Poem Four", 11. 21-25. (2) From Feathers To I r o n . "Poem F i v e " , 11. 6-7. { 8-) -gg amr Fe a%he ga - T e - i yea y - " Peem- S i s H T-].3. T~§-8. 59. I n "Poem S i x " , Lewis expresses t h a t i n c r e a s e d tenderness which the husband f e e l s f o r h i s w i f e , whom he d e l i c a t e l y compares to a p o p l a r : Or as a p o p l a r , c e a s e l e s s l y Gives a s o f t answer t o the wind: Coo l on the l i g h t her leaves l i e s l e e p i n g , F o l d i n g a column of sweet sound, ( i ) Once Lewis b r i n g s i n t o these l i n e s the comparison w i t h nature, and the e f f e c t i s v e r y b e a u t i f u l . I, f o r one, b e l i e v e Lewis i s more at home i n the t r a d i t i o n a l c o n t r y s i d e , u s i n g the r u r a l image, u s i n g o l d s t i m u l i i n new ways, than with the whir of f l y - w h e e l and dynamo. Often he succeeds admirably w i t h a machine metaphor, but sometimes, as pgrhaps i n the t r a i n analogy quoted above, he "misjudges the depth of h i s own i n t u i t i o n " (2) f a n d the r e s u l t i s e i t h e r f l a t or f a t a l l y amusing. As the c y c l e u n f o l d s , other f a c e t s of the poet's experience are brought i n . The c a t h a r t i c f u n c t i o n of p a i n i s made c l a a r i n "Poem T h i r t e e n " . He expresses the i n e v i t a b l e f e a r s f o r h i s wife's s a f e t y , p u r g i n g the emotion of any t r a c e of s e n t i m e n t a l i t y by an i n t e l l e c t u a l t e n s i o n of image. With E l i z a b e t h a n i n t e n s i t y he w r i t e s * Powder the s t a r s . F o r b i d the n i g h t To wear those b r i l l i a n t s f o r a brooch So Soon, dark death, you may c l o s e down (1) From Feat h e r s To I r o n . "Poem S i x " , 11. 5-8. ( 2) "In u s i n g such data, the poet runs a t w o - f o l d r i s k . He may misjudge the depth of h i s own i n t u i t i o n , and the r e s u l t w i l l be t h a t , i n s t e a d of ah image, we get from him a shallow and a c c i d e n t a l c o n c e i t . " The P o e t i c Imape f 91. 60. The mines3that made t h i s beauty r i c h . (1) This f e a r grows i n i n t e n s i t y as the hour of b i r t h approaches, and the c o n c l u d i n g octave of the t h i r d s o n n e t - l i k e s t a n z a of "Poem Twenty-Seven" expresses i n a manner q u i t e unique i n E n g l i s h poetry the harrowing sense of dread: So I , indoors f o r long enough remembering The round house on the c l i f f , the s p r i n g s l o p e s , The w e l l i n the wood, nor doubting t o r e v i s i t But i f t o see new s u n l i g h t on o l d haunts Swallows and men come back but i f come back Prom lands but i f beyond our view but i f She d i e s ? Why then, here i s a space t o l e t , The owner gone abroad, never r e t u r n i n g . (2) The c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e t o the swallows and emigrants of "Poem Three" should not be missed; now sh o u l d the crecendo of "but i f s " , and the c l i m a c t i c , "but i f she d i e s " . The n o s t a l g i c mood i s f u r t h e r enhanced by those remembered f a r - o f f t h i n g , the round house, s p r i n g y s l o p e s , and the r u s t i c w e l l . At other times f e a r i s r e p l a c e d by a f e e l i n g of accept-ance. Such a f e e l i n g i s e v i d e n t i n these l i n e s : What l i f e may now decide Is past the c l u t c h of c a u t i o n , the range of p r i d e . Speaking from the snow The crocus l e t s me know That there i s l i f e t o come, and go. (3) The f i r s t l i n e of t h i s q u o t a t i o n summarizes a f e e l i n g which everyone who has had c h i l d r e n knows w e l l . Worry, f e a r f o r the mother and f o r the c o n d i t i o n of the unborn c h i l d . e s p e c i a l l y , (1) From Feathers To I r o n , "Poem S i z " n . 9 - 1 2 . ( 2 ) From Feathers To I r o n . "Poem Twenty-Seven", 1 1 . 35-42. (3) From Feathers To f r o n . "Poem F i v e " , 11. 11-15. 61. Is l e s s e n e d by the knowledge t h a t the outcome Is "past the c l u t c h of c a u t i o n " - The f e e l i n g a r i s e s t h a t the respons-i b i l i t y f o r any p o s s i b l e m i s c a r r i a g e i s not h i s , and the lo a d i s l i g h t e n e d i f not removed. The n e c e s s i t y of a c c e p t i n g what i s i n e v i t a b l e i s expressed i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : We may not undo That or escape t h i s , who Have b i r t h and death c o l l e d i n our bones. Nothing we can do W i l l sweeten the r e a l rue, That we begin, and end, w i t h groans, ( l ) The p o l a r i t y of p a i n and joy i s a s u b j e c t which w i l l be f u l l y t r e a t e d i n Chapter Seven. F i n a l l y a l l f e a r s are d i s s i p a t e d , f o r the c h i l d i s born without mishap. Joy, and r e l i e f from a n x i e t y are the dominant moods. And the nature a l l e g o r y ends w i t h the warn s p r i n g sun and the e n t i r e world s t i r r i n g w i t h r e b i r t h . " R e j o i c e " , a says the poet, f o r , Another day i s born now. Woman, your work i s done. T h i s i s the end of l a b o u r Come out i n t o the sun1. (2) I have t r i e d t o t i e the hyman s t o r y and the symbolic r i t e s of n a t u r e t o g e t h e r from the s t a r t . Two f u r t h e r examples w i l l show how c l e v e r l y the two i d e a s are b lended. When the pregnacy i s of f i v e months d u r a t i o n and the embryo-c h i l d has quickened, Lewis w r i t e s : (1) From Feathers' To I r o n , "Poem E l e v e n " , 11. 7-12. (2) From Feathers To I r o n r "Poem Twenty-Eight" 11. 13-16. 62. Twenty weeks near past Since the seed took to earth. Winter has done his worst. Let upland snow ignore; Earth wears a smile betrays What summer she has In store. She feels insurgent forces Gathering at the core, And a spring rumour courses Through her (l) The entire process of conception and early development of the child i s here couched in a metaphor of the seasons with consummate ease. And later, when the woman's time i s near, how aptly Lewis compares her to the ripening f i e l d s : Draw up the dew. Swell with pacific violence. Take shape in silence. Grow as the clouds grew. Beautiful broods the cornlands, and you are heavy; Leafy the boughs - they also hide big f r u i t . (2) Thus the two miracles of regeneration go on side by side in the poem, each enriching the other, each in terms of the other. A third regeneration, that of human society, i s implicit. This third aspect of.the poem w i l l be discussed in Chapter Five. A concluding thought about From Feathers To Iron might be that £©r the f i r s t time in English literature, as , far a 3 I know, a poet ha a knitted together with completeness and economy the many feelings and thoughts attending the experience of pregnacy. He has written of theis natural miracle with a frankness befitting the subject, and with a reminder that the phenomenon of regeneration i s common to (1) From Feathers To Iron,. "Poem Ten", 11. 1-10. (2) From Feathers To Iron. "Poem Nineteen", 11. 13-16. nature a s t o man. 63. PART THREE The l o v e l y r i c s of T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem may he d e s c r i b e d as the i d e a l i z a t i o n of young l o v e ; those i n Prom Fe a t h e r s To I r o n as the e x p r e s s i o n of the v a r i e d moods of m a r r i e d l i f e and parenthood. The poems of l o v e or sex w r i t t e n a f t e r 1933 may be c l a s s i f i e d i n f o u r c a t e g o r i e s * Some few of them d e a l w i t h the problem of s e x u a l p e r v e r s i o n i n the contempor-ary w o r l d . Some may be d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g the r e s u l t of a en middle-age n o s t a l g i a f o r the c a r e f r e e experi/ces of youth. " A few are l i g h t - h e a r t e d poems of d a l l i a n c e i n the manner of the C a v a l i e r poets. The remaining love l y r i c s are of v a r i o u s k i n d s : some are prolonged m e t a p h y s i c a l c o n c e i t s , the product of a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s v i r t u o s i t y ; others d e a l w i t h the yearnings of a man who h a s l o s t h i s b e l o v e d , or the change i n marriage r e l a t i o n s h i p a f t e r middle-age, and so on. I s h a l l examine each d e i v i s i o n i n t u r n . Four poems d e a l w i t h sex p e r v e r s i o n i n some form. "Poem Seventeen" of the Magnetic Mountain, d e a l s w i t h the s e x - s i r e n of present-day s o c i e t y . The poem i s a s c a t h i n g a t t a c k on a s o c i e t y , which through q u a l i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n i t of malaise and boredom, causes i t s members t o t u r n f o r s t i m -u l a t i o n t o a p e r v e r t e d s e x - l i f e . Each s t a n z a , r e p r e s e n t i n g a s u c c e s s i v e stage of a s e d u c t i o n , ends w i t h a t r i t e phrase of obscure innuendo which cuts l i k e a r a z o r 1 s edge. 64. A remarkable poem c a n e d "Sex-Crime" uses a s i m i l a r theme, but i t plumbs g r e a t e r depths, and i s the product of Lewis' mibst mature s t y l e . I t i s f o r me one of h i s most moving poems, d e s e r v i n g a p l a c e i n any anthology of con-temporary v e r s e . The crime i s v i v i d l y and t e r s e l y d e s c r i b e d , w i t h a f i n e r e s t r a i n t and a f i e r c e compression not u s u a l l y achieved t o g e t h e r without o b s c u r i t y . At times the poem thre a t e n s to break out i n t o p r o l i x d e n u n c i a t i o n , but the poetfe sense of p r o p o r t i o n keeps a t i g h t h o l d on the r e i n s . The crime i t s e l f Is s u c c i n c t l y t o l d a s f o l l o w s s One step took him through the r o a r i n g w a t e r f a l l That c l o s e d l i k e a b e a d - c u r t a i n , l e f t him alone w i t h the w r i t h i n g Of what he loved or hated. His hands l e a p t aut; they took vengeance f o j j & l l D e n i a l s and s o f t answers (1) These l i n e s perhaps s a t i s f y C o l e r i d g e ' s remark about great p o e t r y ; namely, 'In the t r u l y g r e a t poets, there i s a reason a s s i g n a b l e , not o n l y f o r every word, but f o r the p o s i t i o n of every word. (2) The f i r s t t h r e e l i n e s of the above exc e r p t are p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e . The step t h a t the murderer takes shuts him out im p l a c a b l y from the human f e l l o w s h i p . The w a t e r f a l l image i s good because the r o a r , the d a z z l e , the coldness of the water can be a s s o c i a t e d with the mental s t a t e of the murderer, as he makes h i s d e c i s i o n . The b e a d - c u r t a i n , i n e f f e c t i v e con-t r a s t , m u f f l e s the mental uproar, a l l o w i n g the vengeance " f o r (1) Short Is The Time, "Sex-Crime", 11. 11-15. (2) C o l e r i d g e , S. ST., B i o g r a p h i a L i t e r a r ^ a , London, J.M. Dent and Sons L t d . , 1930, 4. . 6 5 . a l l d e n i a l s and s o f t answers" t o work i t s e l f out w i t h c o o l d e t e r m i n a t i o n . The remainder of the poem, i n the same c l i p p e d manner, hammers out the theme which the crime serves to i n t r o d u c e ; namely, t h a t s o c i e t y deserves the g u i l t ; t h a t we a l l had a hand i n the c r i m e ; : t h a t we a l l d i f f e r from the murderer o n l y i n degree, not k i n d ; t h a t , i n s h o r t , s o c i e t y has made us a l l p o t e n t i a l s e x - f r i m i n a l s . To a l l s o c i e t y , and to the p r e s i d i n g judge i n p a r t i c u l a r , the poet d i r e c t s these l i n e s of condemnation: A l l of you, now - though now i s s t i l l too l a t e -B r i n g on the m i s s i n g e v i d e n c e ! Reveal the c o i l e d Venom, the curse t h a t needs Only a touch to he a r t i c u l a t e . You, Judge, s t r i p off I Show us the ahass b o i l i n g Beneath your s c a r l e t . (1) I f , as Donne expressed i t , "any man's death d i m i n i s h e s me", Lewis would add t h a t , 'any man's crime d i m i n i s h e s me'. Another poem, "Night P i e c e " , t r e a t s o b l i q u e l y the sex theme, by p o i n t i n g out t h a t we l i v e i n two worlds, not one, the worlds of n i g h t and day. Lewis means t h a t the n i g h t hides a f r i n g e of i l l i c i t human conduct, which emerging from the dark unknown p a r t of the human mind, t h r i v e s only i n the shade's ; A l l the f e a r s c o l d - s h o u l d e r e d at noonday F l o c k t o these shades - - — (2) Love Is one of these, and l i k e c e r t a i n n o c t u r n a l p l a n t s , blooms at n i g h t . (1) Short Is The Time, "Sex-Crime", 11. 45-50.-(2) Short I s The Time, "Night P i e c e " , 11. 22-23. 66. A f i n a l poem d e a l i n g w i t h the i l l i c i t aspedt of lo v e deserves mention. I n a poem e n t i t l e d , "The F a u l t " , Lewis r e f e r s t o someone who, having had s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s b e f o r e marriage, f i n d s t hat h i s a t t i t u d e t o h i s m i s t r e s s , owing t o the i l l i c i t nature of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s has s u f f e r e d a sea-change. I n the profoundest. sense, he i s a p a r t of a l l t h a t he has met, f o r Lewis w r i t e s : . A f t e r the l i g h t d e c i s i o n Made by the bloo d In a moon-blanched l a n e , i Whatever weariness or c o n t r i t i o n May come, I c o u l d never see you p l a i n ; No, never again, ( i ) 0 T h i s poem i s shot through w i t h an i n t r i g u i n g i r i d e s p e n t l i g h t . T h i s i r i d e s c e n c e owes something t o the poem's key image, which i s moonlight. The a f f a i r takes p l a c e i n "a mooniblanched l a n e " , the lane i s " l i k e a r i f t loaded with moon-gold", the l o v e r s sleepwalk "through the moon's white d r i f t " . The poem i s conceived i n c h i a r o s c u r o . A number of poems express n o s t a l g i a f o r l o s t l o v e . One w i s t f u l l y r i c i s simply e n t i t l e d , "Song". I t evokes movingly; but without s e n t i m e n t a l i t y , the mood of a l o v e r who r e t u r n s to the f i e l d s where, ten years e a r l i e r , he had c o u r t e d h i s sweetheart, now dead. "The Album" v a r i e s the treatment i n t h a t i n i t the l o v e r s are separated by the passage of the ye a r s , r a t h e r than by death. A middle-aged couple, thumbing through an album of photographs, r e a l i z e w i t h acute r e g r e t t h a t the p a s s i n g time has robbed t h e i r l o v e of y o u t h f u l ardour, ( l ) Short I s The Time. "The F a u l t " , 11. 1-5. 67. t h e i r Noonday of blossom s p o i l t which promised so f a i r . (1) But the couple came to r a l i z e as they gaze at eaBh o t h e r t h a t they have gained more than they have l o s t . The ex-p e r i e n c e of l i v i n g t o g e t h e r has e n r i c h e d th§m both, and continues to do so, because e x p e r i e n c e , l i k e a sound wave, goes on e t e r n a l l y , ever widening, b r i n g i n g as ever-changing s i g n i f i c a n c e to marriage, no l e s s r e a l because I t i s not always c o n s c i o u s l y understood. They r e a l i z e t h a t the sunset c o l o u r s of l o v e are among i t s most b e a u t i f u l . A s i m i l a r poncern about time's e f f e c t on l o v e I s to be found i n "The Rebuke", but w i t h a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t t w i s t at the end. The "pandemonium of the h e a r t " , has imparted to calm middle-age, l i k e a g i f t , a k i n d of t r u t h : Where are the sparks at random sown The s p e n d t h r i f t f i r e , the h o l y f i r e ? Who Cares a damn f o r t r u t h t h a t ' s grown Exhausted h a g g l i n g f o r i t s own . And speaks without d e s i r e . (2) The rebuke i s f o r those who deprecate the "sensual arrogance" of youth', and perhaps a l s o f o r those who have allowed, middle-age to dim t h e i r enthusiasm f o r " e v e r y t h i n g . »• A t h i r d type of l o v e l y r i c i s c a s t i s the form, at once gay and c y n i c a l , of fhe C a v a l i e r p o e t s . " J i g " and "Hornpipe" are two such poems. The l a t t e r ends w i t h the admonition to .1 l o v e r s which has been heard b e f o r e i n p o e t r y . R e f e r r i n g to (1) Short I s The Time. "The Album", 1. 28.. (2) Short Is The Time, "The Rebuke'', 11. 31T35. 68. l o v e , Lewis w r i t e s ! And the harder we pursue i t , the f a s t e r i t s away ( l ) O c c a s i o n a l l y , Lewis i n d u l g e s i n w i t - w r i t i n g i n a manner r e m i n i s c e n t of the Seventeenth Century m e t a p h y s i c a l poets. I U s e the term "wit" i n a sense g i v e n by the Oxford D i c t i o n a r y , as the "power of g i v i n g sudden i n t e l l e c t u a l p l easure by unexpected combining or c o n t r a s t i n g of p r e v i o u s l y unconnected ideas or e x p r e s s i o n s " . I n a r e a l way, a l l imag-i n g i n p o e t r y i s the r e s u l t of such an unexpected combination, but i n the w i t - w r i t i n g of the s o r t Lewis uses i n the f o l l o w -i n g poems, the gap between experience and image i s wider than u s u a l , so t h a t when the r e a l i z a t i o n o f s l m i l i a r i t y does occur, the e f f e c t i s a l l the more s t r i k i n g . I t i s to be noted that the p l e a s u r e d e r i v e d from r e a l i z a t i o n i s sudden when i t comes, but i t comes only a f t e r an unusual amount of i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n h a s been expended i n f o l l o w i n g the l i n e of thought. "Poem E i g h t " of From Fea t h e r s To I r o n belongs t o t h i s type of poem, i n which the argument i s "based on the i n t e r -p l a y between fancy and reason". (2) T h i s poem l i k e n s the couple p r e p a r i n g f o r pregnacy to a p a i r of castaways on a d e s e r t i s l a n d . They b u i l d a r a f t , and soon w i l l push o f f i n t o the unknown s e a . They may even f i n d a new c o n t i n e n t . The i d e a i s c l e v e r l y spun out,without the undue c o n t o r t i o n which such a technique f r e q u e n t l y b r i n g s . ( l ) Short I s The Time, "Horn p i pelf, 1. 16. (2) The F n e t i c Image". 52. 69. "Poem Seventeen",of the same c y c l e i s an even more s p e c t a c u l a r d i s p l a y of m e t a p h y s i c a l f i r e w o r k s , I n t h i s poem, the union of male and female t o produce an o f f s p r i n g i s com-pared to a p r o d i g i o u s c o l l i s i o n i n space between two suns* Soon from the mother body t o r n and w h i r l e d By t i d a l p u l l And l e f t i n space t o c o o l That mountain top w i l l be a world T r e a d i n g i t s own o r b i t , And look t o her f o r warmth,to me f o r w i t . (1) The use of thw word "wit" i n the l a s t l i n e i s s u r e l y not c o i n c i d e n c e . Lewis i s q u i t e conscious of what he i s doing, and o b v i o u s l y f i n d s the i n t e r p l a y 0 f f a n c y and reason stim-u l a t i n g . S t i l l another poem of t h i s type i s c a l l e d "The Hunter's Game". In f & i s poem, l o v e i s expressed i n terms of an arrow and an h u n t r e s s . The analogy, however, seems to get out of hand. The w i t becomes so wire-drawn t h a t i t i s s u s t a i n e d i n t e l l i g i b l y only w i t h d i f f i c u l t y . I f a e s t h e t i c p l e a s u r e f o r the reader owes anything to a deep-seated urge t o s o l v e a c r o s t i c s , "The Hunter's G a m e " succeeds admirably. The l o v e p o e t r y of the type e x e m p l i f i e d by "The Hunter's Game", when i t i s compared with t h e body of h i s love poetry, l e a v e s one w i t h at l e a s t two i m p r e s s i o n s . The f i r s t of these i s t h a t the r o l e of the amused observer which Lewis p l a y s i n "The Hunter's Game" type of poem i s a world removed from the i n t e n s e l y s e r i o u s mood of T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, wit h which t h i s (1) From Feat h e r s To I r o n . "Poem Seventeen". 11. 19-24. "~ 70 . chapter began. The second i m p r e s s i o n i s t h a t n e a r l y the e n t i r e gamut of love experiences which l i e between T r a n s i t i o n - a l Poem and "The Hunter's G a m e " has. beero i n c l u s i v e l y t r e a t e d . The experince of pregnacy, s e x - p e r v e r s i o n , s e x u a l promiscuity, the changed r e l a t i o n s h i p s of middle-aged married l i f e , a l l f i n d a p l a c e i n . h i s p o e t r y . There are poems of a t r a g i c n a t u r e , l i k e "Sex-Crime"; of n o s t a l g i a , l i k e "Song"; of l i g h t -h e a r t e d d a l l i a n c e , l i k e " J i g " ; of a f e e l i n g of g u i l t , l i k e "The Rebuke", and of the s e x - s i r e n i n s o c i e t y , l i k e "Poem Seventeen" of Magnetic Mountain. C o n s i d e r i n g the s l i g h t b u l k of h i s love poetry, one i s s u r p r i s e d t o f i n d t h a t Lewis has t r e a t e d l o v e so e x h a u s t i v e l y . One f i n a l o b s e r v a t i o n shouldbe m ade, i n c o n c l u s i o n . Lewis leaves one w i t h a sense of s a n i t y and h e a l t h . H i s lov e poetry, r i c h i n v a r i e t y though s l i m i n b u l k , i s prevented by a keen i n t e l l i g e n c e and an u n f a i l i n g t a s t e from l a p s i n g i n t o s e n t i m e n t a l i t y . One f e e l s t h a t the s e x u a l s i d e of h i s l i f e at l e a s t has been s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n t e g r a t e d . And i n a complex and confused world, t h a t i s not an i n s i g n i f i c a n t accomplishment. A product of h i s age, he i s somehow o l d e r than h i s age, and w i s e r . One i s reminded of what Yeats wrote i n h i s Autobiographies; - - how s m a l l gi'fl&agment of our own nature can be brought t o p e r f e c t e x p r e s s i o n nor t h a t even but wit h g r e a t t o i l , i n a much d i v i d e d c i v i -l i s a t i o n , ( l ) ( i 1 Y e a t s . W.B.. Autobiographies, London, Maemlllan and Co., 1926, 364. 71. Lewis expresses i t a l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t l y . Love, he says, b r i n g s t h a t r a r e t h i n g , The t r u t h of f l e s h and s p i r i t , sun and c l a y S i n g i n g f o r once t o g e t h e r a l l i n tune. (2) I t i s ttofea harmony of f l e s h and s p i r i t which Lewis b e l i e v e s to be the desideratmm i n a l l aspects of l i f e . He does not pl a c e s p i r i t above f l e s h , nor f l e s h above s p i r i t , f o r he regards them as n a t u r a l complements. I have p o i n t e d out the harmony of f l e s h and s p i r i t which love b r i n g s . I n the next chapters the r e l a t i o n of f l e s h and s p i r i t as i t concerns the i l l n e s s of s o c i e t y must be examined. I t i s a s t e p from the s o c i e t y of two t o the s o c i e t y of m i l l i o n s . (1) Short I s The Time. "0 Dreams 0 D e s t i n a t i o n s " , Sonnet E i g h t 11. 13-14 72. CHAPTER 1. XV: INERTIA AND STIMULANTS PART ONE Oscar Wilde remarked once t h a t a l l a r t was e n t i r e l y u s e l e s s . By t h i s remark, Wilde meant to p r o t e s t a g a i n s t the conception which regards a r t as the hand-maiden of r e l i g i o n , of p h i l o s o p h y , of m o r a l i t y , or of p o l i t i c s . He meant t h a t a r t wa s, or p o s s i b l y , s h o u l d be, u s e l e s s as a means to a d i d a c t i c end. He denied t h a t a r t sh©£ld have any u t i l i t a r i a n v alue o t h e r than that.which d e r i v e s from i t s f u n c t i o n of g i v i n g d e l i g h t or p l e a s u r e . As spokesman f o r the " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" t h e o r i s t s , «K£-£)M£ he urged a conscious separa-t i o n of a r t from the r e s t of l i f e . No d i d a c t i c purpose sh o u l d i n t e r v e n e i n the cf-eative p r o c e s s , which i s an end i n i t s e l f , Wilde b e l i e v e d . The "pure a r t " p o i n t - o f - v i e w i s at the opposite p o l e from another p o i n t - o f - v i e w which might be termed the " a r t -f r o m - l l f e " a t t i t u d e or p o s s i b l y even b e t t e r , the " a r t - f o r -l i f e " a t t i t u d e . W r i t e r s who adhere t o t h i s theory c l a i m t h a t a r t i s r o o t e d i n the l i f e and humanity around us, and they would say t h a t to cut the s t a l k from the roo t s of l i f e means c e r t a i n death; perhaps the d r y , dead f l o w e r between the pages of a book*. The " a r t - f r o m - l i f e " a t t i t u d e i s c l e a r l y 73. expressed by Stephen Spender when he w r i t e s : W r i t e r s are the i n t e r p r e t e r s of l i f e around them. T h e i r genius l i e s i n the l i f e , not i n themselves, who are onl y i n t e r p r e t e r s o f l i f e . They are not s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t gramaphones, which can be h u r r i e d o f f when,things get hot i n one p l a c e , and s e t up to s t a r t p l a y i n g t h e i r r e c o r d s somewhere else. ( i ) N o t i c e t h a t Spender p l a c e s the emphasis s q u a r e l y on the l i f e around us. He would no doubt contend that i s o l a t i o n from l i f e i s i m p o s s i b l e even i f i t were d e s i r a b l e , and that perhaps a n a t u r a l embracing of l i f e ' s problems i s h e a l t h i e r and "purer" than a r e t r e a t from l i f e . I t seems t o me t h a t a r t produced under the guidance, of the two t h e o r i e s mentioned above does not d i f f e r i n k i n d , but onl y i n degree of emphasis, and most poets w r i t e both kinds of a r t . Spender - s r o t e h i s "Express" as w e l l a s h i s "Vienna", and i t i s d o u b t f u l whether he wa a guided by any d e f i n i t e theory when ' he wrote e i t h e r of them. A r t ' s mansion has many rooms, and perhaps as good a d e f i n i t i o n of a r t as any i s that a r t i s what the a r t i s t s have c r e a t e d . Lewis' i d e a of a r t i n g e n e r a l , and poetry i n p a r t i c u l a r , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the c l e a r common sense which we have come to expect from him. His p o s i t i o n r e c o n c i l e s the two extreme ideas about a r t and l i f e . He does not put as much emphasis on l i f e as Spender seems t o do i n the above q u o t a t i o n ; he would H not go so f a r as to say, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t w r i t e r s ' genius ( l ) Spender, Stephen, "Experts L i v e On Borrowed Time", L i v i n g Age, J a n . 1941, 416. 74. " l i e s i n the l i f e , not In themselves". Lewis g i v e s both l i f e and a r t i s t t h e i r due. He regards the poet's i n t e n t i o n as t w o - f o l d , Janus-faced, l o o k i n g w i t h i n and without s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . The poet l i v e s , he sees, he a c t s , he I s acted upon, he i s r a i s e d up, he i s h u r l e d down^ and he sees others do l i k e w i s e . I n t h i s he i s no more and no l e s s than m i l l i o n s of other human b e i n g s . But the poet c r e a t e s , he imagines, he probes, he siLects and r e j e c t s , he f e r r e t s out unseen co n n e c t i o n s , he f u s e s the experiences of l i f e i n the emotional furnace w i t h i n h i m s e l f . In t h i s he d i f f e r s from m i l l i o n s of other human b e i n g s . S u r e l y the genius l i e s i n the i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t . Lewis put3 the i d e a t h i s way: p o e t i c images r e p r e s e n t what a poet has seen l o o k i n g outwards at humanity and what he has seen l o o k i n g i n t o h i s own h e a r t , f o c u s e d t o e t h e r to make a whole t r u t h , ( l ) The task whieh must l o g i c a l l y be undertaken now i s to f i n d out j u s t what Lewis sees when he looks "outwards at humanity". What view does l i f e and s o c i e t y present t o the outward-looking f a c e of Janus? PART TWO Lewis" a t t i t u d e towards the s o c i e t y i n which we l i v e i s s u c c i n c t l y expressed at the b e g i n n i n g of Chapter E i g h t i n v A Hope Fo r Poetry. The f o l l o w i n g paragraph expresses the ( l ) C. Day Lewis, The P o e t i c Image. 156. 75. h e a r t of h i s o p i n i o n : I t i s a t r u i s m t h a t a sound s o c i e t y makes, f o r sound i n d i v i d u a l s , and sound i n d i v i d u a l s i n s t a n c e a sound s o c i e t y . F o r the post-war poet, l i v i n g i n a s o c i e t y u n d e n i a b l y s i c k , t h a t t r u i s m has t u r n e d i n t o a dilemma. We have seen him on the one hand redered more a c u t e l y c o nscious of i n d i v i d u a l i t y by the acceptance of c u r r e n t p s y c h o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e s ; and "on the other hand, rendered both by p o e t i c i n t u i t i o n and o r d i n a r y o b s e r v a t i o n a c u t e l y conscious of the present i s o l a t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l and the n e c e s s i t y f o r a s o c i a l organism which may r e s t o r e communion, ( l ) T h i s q u o t a t i o n i s c l e a r enough, but c e r t a i n phrases perhaps deserve e l u c i d a t i o n , ^he i n t e r a c t i o n between the i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i e t y , f o r example, i s d e s e r v e d l y s t r e s s e d . An i n d i v i d u a l r e c e i v e s c e r t a i n r i g h t s from and owes c e r t a i n r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o s o c i e t y , but, l i k e an i o n i c r e a c t i o n , the r e l a t i o n s h i p works the other way w i t h equal f o r c e . I t i s a p o i n t which P l a t o has made i n h i s R e p u b l i c . The phrase, "a s o c i e t y u n d e n i a b l y s i c k " should be noted, because l i k e Auden, Lewis puts the problem i n c l i n i c a l terms. F i n a l l y , the s t r e s s which Lewis p l a c e s on the " i s o l a t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l " i n present-day s o c i e t y i s most important, f o r i t i s a theme which f i n d s i t s way i n t o a number of h i s poems. He means th a t i n contemporary s o c i e t y , the community of i n t e r e s t and sympathy which i n other times h a a bound human beings to each other and t o the s t a t e In a pervading comradship has broken down. I t would appear, then, t h a t both i n d i v i d u a l s and ( l ) C. Day Lewis, A Hope F o r Poetry, 217. 7 6 . s o c i e t y are "undeniably s i c k " . But whether s o c i e t y should be cured by t r e a t i n g the i n d i v i d u a l s , or whether the i n d i v i d u a l s s hould be cured by t r e a t i n g s o c i e t y i s a problem which s t i l l must be dedided. Perhaps the cure of i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i e t y must go on s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . Very e a r l y i n h i s work, the poet notes the symptoms of d i s e a s e i n s o c i e t y . At the s t a r t of T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, the poet comments on s o c i e t y ' s g e n e r a l m a l a i s e . He w r i t e s , f o r i n s t a n c e : " D i s o r d e r I see without, And the mind must sweat a p o i s o n Keener than T h e s s a l y ' s brew." ( i ) The i l l n e s s , i t would seem i s s e r i o u s , and the f e v e r i s h i g h . T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, however, i s more concerned w i t h the s i c k -ness of the i n d i v i d u a l than w i t h the s i c k n e s s of s o c i e t y , o r more e x a c t l y , i t i s concerned with the poet's own s i c k n e s s . From Feathers To I r o n i s more s p e c i f i c i n c h a r t i n g the symptoms of the i l l n e s s of s o c i e t y , because the poet's r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t h i s c h i l d w i l l be born i n t o the*unhealthy world c r e a t e s an added concern f o r the c o n d i t i o n of the age. I t s hould be understood, however, t h a t From Feathers To I r o n i s not p r i m a r i l y a p o l i t i c a l a l l e g o r y . Indeed, i t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e that the p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s i n t h i s poem were not at f i r s t i n t e n d e d . Lewis a t t e s t s to t h i s h i m s e l f i n these words: I t i s my own experience t h a t , when ( l ) T r a n s i t i o n a l PnemT "Poem One", 11» 3-5. ! ~ r r' 77 I have expressed some p r i v a t e experience i n a poem, I have f r e q u e n t l y d i s c o v e r e d i t t o c o n t a i n a ' p o l i t i c a l 1 s i g n i f i c a n c e of which I was q u i t e unconscious while w r i t i n g i t t . A year or two ago I wrote a sequence c a l l e d 'Prom Feathers To I r o n ' which f o r me expressed simply my thoughts and f e e l i n g s d u r i n g the nine months bef o r e the b i r t h of my f i r s t c h i l d : the c r i t i c s , almost t o a man, took i t f o r a p o l i t i c a l a l l e g o r y : the simple, p e r s o n a l meaning evaded them. (1) N e v e r t h e l e s s , even though From Feathers To I r o n may not i n t e n t i o n a l l y be a p o l i t i c a l a l l e g o r y , I t c e r t a i n l y c o n t a i n s p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . Lewis h i m s e l f bears witness t o the f a c t t h a t v e r y o f t e n s u b s i d i a r y meanings t h a t were not at f i r s t i n t e n d e d creep i n t o a poem. In The P o e t i c Image, f o r i n s t a n c e , he observes t h a t Yet i t cannot be s a i d too o f t e n t h a t a poet does not f u l l y know what i s the poem he i s w r i t i n g u n t i l he has w r i t t e n i t . (2) Sometimes i t seems t h a t a 'super-imagination' works uncon-s c i o u s l y i n a poet a 3 he ©reatef. and by an unintended f e l i c i t y of phrase or by a s e c r e t accumulation of meaning, makes the poem g r e a t e r than the poet i s at f i r s t aware. So i t i s w i t h From Feathers To I r o n . The poem i s a scalene t r i a n g l e , and though the s h o r t e s t s i d e i s the p o l i t i c a l s i d e , i t i s none the l e s s p r e s e n t . The f i r s t r e f e r e n c e t o the s t a t e of s o c i e t y occurs i n Poem Twelve,which i n some ways, i s the most remarkable poem i n the e n t i r e c y c l e . T h i s poem makes use of an i t e r a t i v e (1) C.Day Lewis. A Hope For Poetry, 206. (2) C. Day Lewis,"The P o e t i c Image, 71. 7 8 . image. A c a s u a l e x p l o r e r i s trapped i n an o l d mine by a f a n of r o c k f a c e , and the poet l i k e n s h i s f r a n t i c e f f o r t s to escape t o man*s d e s i r e t o l e a v e behind a world without hope. The i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t the new world must be born out of the o l d should he n o t i c e d i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : But we seek a new world through o l d workings, Whose hope l i e s l i k e seed i n the l o i n s of e a r t h , Whose dawn draws g o l d from the r o o t s of darkness. Now i t i s q u i t e t r u e , as Lewis i n s i s t s , t h a t the above l i n e s need not be construed as a f i g u r e of speech d e s c r i b i n g the b i r t h af a new world out of the o l d . The "new wo r l d " he speaks of means the new domestic world o f h e a r t h and home which the entrance of a c h i l d i n e v i t a b l y b r i n g s . And of course, the new l i f e has been produced out of " o l d workings". Furthermore-, the word "seed" and " l o i n s " c a r r y unmistakable connotations of embryo and womb. To conclude the f i g u r e , the c h i l d i s g o l d , which i s s u e s f o r t h from the darkness. That, i t seems t o me, i s the "simple, p e r s o n a l meaning" which Lew* r e f e r r e d t o i n a p r e v i o u s l y quoted passage. But s u r e l y the p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s are there t o o . The e n t i r e f i g u r e w i t h i t s e n c r u s t a t i o n s of mining imagery and the use of words which might indeed h^ave emanated fDom the p l a t f o r m of a s o c i a l i s t open-forumy- words such a s "new world", "hope", "dawn", " r o o t s of darkness" - l e a d the reader i n e l u c t a b l y i n t o p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . T h i s a s s e r t i o n does not q u a l i f j r y t h e v a l i d i t y of Lewis 1 statement about no p o l i t i c a l a l l e g o r y b e i n g i n t e n d e d . P o l i t i c s was c e r t a i n l y not h i s 7 9 . immediate s u b j e c t i n the poem. But as the poem moves f o r -ward, the p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e gathers momentum l i k e a r i s i n g t i d e . Perhaps the " s u p e r - i m a g i n a t i o n " was unconscious-l y at work i n him. The p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n was the r e s u l t , as the d e p r e s s i o n took i t s t o l l , of a growing awareness t h a t there was something r a d i c a l l y wrong wi t h s o c i e t y . In any case the p o l i t i c a l r e f e r e n c e s i n c r e a s e i n number and d i r e c t n e s s as the c y c l e p r o g r e s s e s . "Poem Fifteen", f o r example, speaks of "an age d i v i d e d between to-morrow's wink, y e s t e r d a y ' s warn-i n g " ; w hile Poem E i g h t e e n d e s c r i b e s the l i f e which the c h i l d w i l l i n h e r i t a a " born to e s s e n t i a l dark, To an age t h a t toes the l i n e And never o'ersteps the mark." (1) S u r e l y there i s no shadow of doubt about the p o l i t i c a l meaning i n these l i n e s . So the p o l i t i c a l t i d e r i s e s . "Poem Twenty-One" speaks of b u r y i n g the dead and c o u n t i n g the l i v -i n g , and urges t h a t we must " c o n s o l i d a t e the s o u l a g a i n s t proved enemies"; and "Poem Twenty-Two" begins the c a t a l o g u i n g of m a t e r i a l d i s s o l u t i o n f o r which the "New Country" poets are noted. Lewis mentions the "rank e s t a t e " and "dead f o l l i e s " and wonders i f h i s c h i l d w i l l thank ufi f o r the f a v o u r , who I n h e r i t s a bankrupt f i r m , Worn-out machinery, an exhausted farm?" (2) He concludes h i s c y c l e of twenty-nine poems w i t h an image of l i f e o u t s t a y i n g from the exhausted womb, and i t i s m From Feather To I r o n , "Poem E i g h t e e n " , 11. 16-18. (2) From Feathers To I r o n . TPoem Twenty-Two", 11. 26-28. 8 0 . h a r d not to see i n t h i s m i r a c l e of b i r t h a m i r r o r of a g r e a t e r b i r t h , the phoenix-miracle of a new s o c i e t y a r i s i n g from the a Shes of the o l d . To sum Tap the study of From F e a t h e r s To I r o n as a poem of p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , i t may be s a i d t h a t though the p o l i t i c a l meaning i s s u b s i d i a r y throughout, the progress of the nine months towards the climax of b i r t h c a r r i e s with I t an unmistakable and growing concern about the s o r r y s t a t e of s o c i e t y , so t h a t by the end of the c y c l e , the s t e p which w i l l take the poet i n t o the p o l i t i c a l arena seems an obvious one. The Magnetic Mountain thus becomes, i n a sense, the. i n e v i t a b l e sequel of From Feathers To I r o n , and the progress from the o l d world t o the new c o u l d be appropriately termed a step from f e a t h e r s to i r o n . PART THREE The p u b l i c a t i o n of The Magnetic Mountain i n 1933 saw the poet's b r e a k i n g away from the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l technique which had served him as a framework i n h i s f i r s t two books. In From Feathers To I r o n . Lewis viewed s o c i e t y o n l y b r i e f l y and i n d i r e c t l y , somewhat as the Lady of S h a l o t t had done. But i n The Magnetic Mountain h i s view of fhe world i s t h r o u gh an open window, and what he sees i s not p l e a s a n t . Pferhaps a view of t h i s k i n d i s not disadvantageous t o a poet. I n t h i s c o nnection, T . S . E l i o t has written*• 81. •' " the e s s e n t i a l advantage f o r a poet i s not to have a b e a u t i f u l world w i t h which to d e a l : i t i s to be able t o see beneath both beauty and u g l i n e s s ; to see the boredom, and the h o r r o r , and the g l o r y . " ( i ) E l i o t ' s words remind us of a hard f a c t which the i d e a l i s t i n us i s prone t o i g n o r e : i t i s the f a c t t h a t beauty cannot e x i s t without u g l i n e s s , o r, to put i t d i f f e r e n t l y , t h a t beauty has meaning o n l y i n so f a r a s i t i s bound t o i t s n a t u r a l o p p o s i t e amd complement, u g l i n e s s . I f there were no u g l i n e s s , there c o u l d be no beauty, j u s t as l i g h t h a s n 0 meaning without dark. Consequently, when a poet l i k e Lewis seeks peace of mind as he does i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, or when he seeks a p e r f e c t s o c i e t y as he does i n The Magnetic Mountain, i t might seem t h a t he i s s t r i v i n g f o r something which, i f r e a l i z e d , would d e s t r o y h i s c r e a t i v e urge as as a r t i s t and h i s m o t i v a t i o n as a reformer. As beauty needs u g l i n e s s , so a r t needs c o n f l i c t and the reformer something t o reform. Lewis, however, undoubtedly i s aware t h a t p e r f e c t i o n i s an u n a t t a i n a b l e i d e a l , a reach exceeding h i s grasp. I t i s not so much the p e r f e d t s o c i e t y t h a t he seeks, but the next stage i n the s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n of man which would s o l v e c e r t a i n contemporary problems. He knows th a t new problems would s p r i n g from a new s o c i e t y , whifih would demand s o l u t i o n i n t h e i r t u r n . The nature of thesenew problems he does not know, nor would he concern h i m s e l f wifih them i f he d i d know. Lewis i s concerned w i t h the present, and the s o l u t i o n of (1) E l i o t , T.S., The Use of Poetry, London, Paber and Paber L t d . , 1933, 106 82. immediate problems. PART FOUR In the c o n c l u s i o n of Chapter Three,I quoted two l i n e s which seem' t o sum up the p e c u l i a r triumph of l o v e , a triumph which b r i n g s t o an i m p e r f e c t world, l o v e ' s own k i n d of p e r f e c t i o n . The l i n e s were as f o l l o w s s The t r u t h of f l e s h and s p i r i t , sun and c l a y S i n g i n g f o r once together a l l i n tune.* Each of these l i n e s c a r r i e s a s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of i t s own, over and above the s i n g l e meaning which both l i n e s combine t o g i v e . The f i r s t l i n e , f o r i n s t a n c e , demands an e x p l a n a t i o n of the phrase, " f l e s h and s p i r i t " . By " f l e s h " I take Lewis t o mean d i r e c t l y , the g r a t i f i c a t i o n of s e x u a l d e s i r e , a need of the f l e s h . By " s p i r i t " I take Lewis t o mean d i r e c t l y the g r a t i f i c a t i o n of a d e s i r e f o r f a m i l y , f o r a c h i l d t o l o v e , a need of the s p i r i t . The f i r s t need i s immediate and t r a n s i t o r y ; the second i s subsequent and permanent. However, the phrase may be given an even wider a p p l i c a t i o n . The word " f l e s h " may be p r o j e c t e d t o mean a l l m a t e r i a l d e s i r e s ; d e s i r e s f o r food, f o r s h e l t e r , f o r the comforts of home, f o r e d u c a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , " s p i r i t " may be p r o j e c t e d t o mean a l l s p i r i t u a l d e s i r e s ; d e s i r e s f o r r e c r e a t i o n ; f o r a e s t h e t i c p l e a s u r e , f o r comradship, f o r r e l i g i o n . Hence, harmony of f l e s h and s p i r i t would mean the l i v i n g of the f u l l l i f e and the good l i f e . 83. The second l i n e of the q u o t a t i o n demands e l u c i d a t i o n too. The word " s i n g i n g " i m p l i e s v i b r a n t happiness, which Is the r e s u l t of the harmony of f l e s h and s p i r i t . Moreover, the words "forbnce", imply t h a t such a harmony i s seldom r e a l i z e d , and they perhaps c a r r y an added i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t man must see to i t , i f he i s to. a t t a i n a g r e a t e r degree of happiness, t h a t t h i s harmony i s r e a l i z e d more o f t e n . I f these observa-t i o n s are c o r r e c t , i t would seem, then, t h a t Lewis has p l a c e d h i s f i n g e r on what he c o n s i d e r s t o be the r o o t cause of the i l l n e e s of s o c i e t y ; namely, the absence of harmony between the d e s i r e s of the f l e s h and the d e s i r e s of the s p i r i t . One f i n a l i d e a must be presented, b e f o r e i t can be s a i d t h a t the p o s s i b l e meanings of " f l e s h " a n d s p i r i t " are exhausted. I f Lewis uses " f l e s h " i n the sense of duty or t a s k or l a b o u r , and i f he uses " s p i r i t " i n the simple sense of z e a l , or enthusiasm, so t h a t " f l e s h " a n d s p i r i t s i n g i n g f o r once to g e t h e r a l l i n tune" should mean the accomplishment of a deed with a f e e l i n g of i n t e n s e p a r t i c i p a t i o n and joy because the whole body and the wholewsoul have entered I n t o the task; then a new t w i s t i s added to the meaning of the phrase. There i s no q u e s t i o n , 1 t h i n k , but t h a t such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s v a l i d . Lewis i s c o n t i n u a l l y d e p l o r i n g the l e t h a r g y of contemporary man, who h a a n o h e a r t f o r h i s t a s k s . He b e l i e v e s t h a t s o c i e t y should be so c o n s t r u c t e d t h a t a man might embrace h i s tasks w i t h h i s whole h e a r t , so t h a t he might almost, Indeed, l o s e h i s i d e n t i t y i n h i s t a s k . The 84. enthusiasm of an amateur sportsman f o r h i s game, or t h a t of a hungry man f o r h i s f o o d i s the k i n d of enthusiasm he means. T h i s i s what he has i n mind, I b e l i e v e , i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : "As the body t h a t knows through a c t i o n they are s p l e n d i d , P e e l i n g head and h e a r t agree"; ( l ) or when he urges: "Let yours be the s t a r t and s t i r Of a f l o o d i n g i n d i g n a t i o n That channels the d r y h e a r t deeper And s i n g s through the d r y bone" (2) The word "bone" i n the f o u r t h l i n e symbolizes the r e a l essence of man and i t i s used i n t h i s sense time and time a g a i n . Here as elsewhere the e x h o r t a t i o n i s f o r man t o i d e n t i f y h i m s e l f ^ w i t h i h i ' s a c t i v i t i e s by a s o r t of empathy. Indeed', Lewis w i l l go so f a r as to pardon the E s c a p i s t , because he w r i t e s , "Say, i f you l i k e , escape was i n h i s b l o o d . " (3) As Lewis looks out at contemporary s o c i e t y , then, he sees everywhere the d i v o r c e of " f l e s h and s p i r i t " i n a l l i t s v a r i o u s forms. There i s no " s i n g i n g t o g e t h e r a l l i n tune"; I n s t e a d a l l I s d i s c o r d . Now one of the r e s u l t s of d i s c o r d i s f r u s t r a t i o n , and the e f f e c t of f r u s t r a t i o n i s i n e r t i a . When an i n d i v i d u a l i s not able t o g r a t i f y h i s m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l needs, or when he i s in c a p a p b l e of complete Indent!-f i c a t i o n w i t h h i s o b j e c t i v e s or a c t i v i t i e s , the onl y d r i v i n g f o r c e he has l e f t i s (1) C. Day Lewis, The Magnetic Mountain. "Poem T h i r t y - F o u r " , 11. 30-31. (2) C. Day Lewis, " S e l f - O r i t i c l a m and Answer". 11. 29-32. (3) G. Day Lewis, "The Escapist",, i . 23. 85. that which i s s u f f i c i e n t t o preserve h i s l i f e and the l i f e of h i s f a m i l y . F r e q u e n t l y , even the w i l l to l i v e d i s a p p e a r s , and he k i l l s h i m s e l f . I t raeems t o me that many of the sympt-oms of the i l l n e s s of s o c i e t y which Lewis catalogues i n The Magnetic Mountain and elsewhere are d i r e c t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of the i n e r t i a I have mentioned. My f i r s t purpose, t h e r e f o r e , i n the remainder of t h i s chapter i s to show how these symptoms are m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of the i n e r t i a which i n t u r n I s the outcome of the d i s c o r d between " f l e s h and s p i r i t " . My second purpose i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the f i r s t . I l l n e s s i n a person, even or g a n i c i l l n e s s , may be d e f i n e d as the r e s u l t of a d i s c o n t between a p a r t of the body and the whole body. The p a r t s of the body are so i n t r i c a t e l y meshed, t h a t the f a i l u r e o f a p a r t w i l l cause the f a i l u r e of the e n t i r e mechanism. I l l n e s s i n s o c i e t y has a s i m i l a r e f f e c t . I t Is possible> however, f o r the p a t i e n t , whether i n d i v i d u a l or s o c i e t y , t o be momentarily r e v i v e d , or a t l e a s t t o have the pain a l l a y e d , by the i n j e c t i o n of drugs which s t i m u l a t e or deaden, but do not c u r e . I t i s an u n f o r t u n a t e p r o p e r t y of such drugs t h a t once used, ever i n -c r e a s i n g doses are needed to get the d e s i r e d e f f e c t : and t h a t , furthermore, once used, the t a k i n g of drugs may become a v i c i o u s h a b i t . In the same way, many of the symptoms of i l l n e s s which Lewis c h a r t s are the r e s u l t s of an attempt by s o c i e t y t o s t i m u l a t e the i n d i v i d u a l t o an u n n a t u r a l show of a c t i v i t y by the a d m i n i s t e r i n g of v a r i o u s kinds of s o c i a l 8 6 . dope. My second purpose i n t h i s chapter i s t o enumerate and study these "gross and v i o l e n t s t i n u l a n t s " , and to show t h a t they, too, are the siymptoms of the disharmony which e x i s t s between " f l e s h arid s p i r i t " , There i s a tendency f o r d i d a c t i c v e r s e t o become a l l e g o r i c a l , p o s s i b l y because a s t o r y framework h e l p s t o i n v e s t what would otherwise be b a l d p r e c e p t w i t h added i n t e r e s t and emphasis, A l l e g o r y makes p e r s u a s i o n d r a matic. The Magnetic Mountain i s such ah a l l e g o r y . Lewis l i k e n s the s e a r c h f o r a more p e r f e c t s o c i a l order, which he c a l l s the Magnetic Mountain, t o a r a i l w a y t r i p . The t r i p i n t o the un-known i s guided by a k e s t r e l , which symbolizes the f r e e and d a r i n g s p i r i t needed by those who would l e a d humanity towards i t s i d e a l s o c i e t y . The b i r d i s a f i t t i n g guide, because i t has contact with both e a r t h and sky, and consequently r e p r e s e n t s the marriage of p r a c t i c a l u nderstanding and s p i r i t u a l v i s i o n . In "Poem Two", Lewis warns a l l men who wish t o make the e x p e d i t i o n of two enemies who shadow them everywhere; namely, f e a r ; and p a i n . These two arch-enemies r e p r e s e n t the u n i v e r s a l i t y of human misery. They are at once a cause and e f f e c t of human i n e r t i a . Pear ahd p a i n are i n i m i c a l t o thought and a c t i o n ; and i n t u r n the i n a c t i o n which they eause m u l t i p l i e s the amcratnt of f e a r and p a i n . Lewis couples the two i n many poems, and o f t e n he simply c a l l s them, "the T w o " « I n "Poem Two" of Magnetic Mountain he w r i t e s of them i n t h i s 8 7 . way: Such are the temporal p r i n c e s , f e a r and p a i n , Whose borders march w i t h the i c e - f i e l d s of death, And from t h a t s e r v i t u d e escape there's none T i l l i n the grave we s e t up house alone And buy our l i b e r t y w i t h our l a s t b r e a t h , ( l ) The use of ah " i c e - a g e " or " g l a c i e r " image, as i n l i n e two of the ex c e r p t , i s a f a v o u r i t e d e v i ce of the poet when he t a l k s o f f e a r and p a i n . We f i n d the l i n k i n g of "pain", " f e a r " and " i c e " i n "Poem Twenty-Eight" of From Feathers To I r o n . when he w r i t e s : Pain's long-drawn equator The f a r t h e s t i c e of f e a r . (2) In t h i s e x c e r p t , however, the f i r s t l i n e r e f e r s t o the climax of c h i l d - b i r t h pains,and the second l i n e t o the c h i . l l of f e a r which attends l a b o u r . L a t e r i n Magnetic Mountain Lewis fo c u s e s the e f f e c t of f e a r and p a i n on o n l y one aspect of i S e r t i a . In "Poem Twenty-Seven" he speaks of the p a r a l y s i s which the two enemies b r i n g t o men who would otherwise j o i n the movement of masses towards the Mountain: F e a r and Pain b r o t h e r s : c a l l them b u l l i e s and curs Who take us i n t o c o r n e r s and make us squirm, F i n d i n g the weak sp o t , f u m b l i n g at s e c r e t d o o r s . (3) Lewis then exhorts mankind t o c o l l e c t I t s f o r c e s " f o r a c o u n t e r - a t t a c k " t o r e p e l l ?the i c e - w a l l of w i n t e r at our back". The ' r e l i e f t r a i n " would be made up of a l l those who have c a s t o f f the t o r p o r which f e a r and pa i n b r i n g s . F a i t h i n a new l i f e of hope and progress would e f f e c t such an (1) C.Day Lewis, The Magnetic Mountain. " P r i a m ffwo", n . 20-24. (2) C. Day Lewis, From Feathers To I r o n . "Poem Twenty-Eight" 1 1 . 7 - 8 . (3) C. Day Lewis, The Magnetic Mountain. "Poem Twenty-Seven", 88 emancipation, because f a i t h would serve t o r e p a i r the d i v o r c e of " f l e s h and s p i r i t " , . F a i t h would " r e s t o r e the b l M d ' s f u l l f i l m e n t " , and man would f e e l h i s program i n h i s b l o o d . By the time we reach the end of Part One of The Magnetic Mountain, the t r a i n has reached the f r o n t i e r s t a t i o n beyond which l i e s the unexplored l a n d . Here he exhorts the weak-in-h e a r t t o get o f f , f o r there i s no room aboard f o r them: Then book your b e d - s i t t e r a t the s t a t i o n h o t e l Or s t a y at the terminus t i l l you grow verminous, E a t i n g c h o c o l a t e creams from the slot-machines; But don't blame me when you f e e l u n w e l l . (1) The " c h o c o l a t e creams" symbolize the f l e e t i n g enticements which the e f f e t e c i v i l i s a t i o n s t i l l has t o o f f e r . But of these p l e a s u r e s he warns* T r a v e l l e r , take c a r e , Pick no fl o w e r s t h e r e / (2) The r e f e r e n c e to the e v i l f l o w e r s of our c i v i l i z a t i o n pre-pares as f o r the next step, f o r the poet decides t o take a l i g h t engine back a l o n g the l i n e F or a l a s t e x c u r s i o n , a t o u r of i n s p e c t i o n . (3) The view which he sees from t h i s " l a s t e x c u r s i o n " i s des-c r i b e d i n Parts Two and Three of the book. I t i s a c l o s e view, because when one looks at something f o r the l a s t time, one looks c l o s e l y . The view i n P a r t Two takes the form of a defence of i n e r t i a . b y f o u r s o c i a l types whom Lewis meets. (1) C.Day Lewis, Magnetic Mountain. "Poem Four". 11. 19-22. (2) C. Day Lewis, Magnetic Mountain. "Poem F i v e " , 11.. 33-34. (3) Magnetic Mountain. "Poem Four", 11. 38-39 89. These types^xn t u r n , the c l i n g i n g mother, the E n g l i s h p u b l i c s c h o o l master, the conforming m i n i s t e r , and the w i f e who d e s i r e s " l a r g e cupboards f o r s m a l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s " . He c a l l s these f o u r speakers "defendants", i n c o n t r a s t t o the more a c t i v e "enemies" of Part Three. A l l f o u r defendants are debaters f o r I n a c t i o n , f o r fefte hold-tight-keep-what-we-have a t t i t u d e of mind, and t h e i r v a r i o u s arguments are system-a t i c a l l y answered by the poet. The f i r s t defendant, the home-rooted mother, f e a r s t h a t any s o c i a l change w i l l u n s e t t l e the h a b i t u a l round of f a m i l y l i f e . She i s one who b e l i e v e s t h a t known hardships are p r e f e r a b l e t o unknown p e r i l s . She i s hard-headed, r o o t e d i n p r a c t i c a l t h i n g s , and she e x p o s t u a l t e s I n words such as these: l e t c r e a t i o n ' s pulse Keep Greenwich time, guard c r e a t u r e A g a i n s t c r e a t o r , and breed your supermenJ But not f o r me . (1) She w i l l "stand by the l a s t d i t c h of narrowing world and s t i r not", though she sees "pit-heads encroach or g l a c i e r c r awl down". Nothing makes h e r " s t i r " , n o t h i n g can break her i n e r t i a . The second defendant i s the t r a d i t i o n a l s c h o o l master of the E n g l i s h p u b l i c s c h o o l s , and he speaks out s t r o n g l y f o r convention i n l i n e s such as these? Here we i n o c u l a t e w i t h dead i d e a s Again s t blood-epidemics, a g a i n s t The i n f e c t i o n of f a i t h and the excess of l i f e . (2) (1) Magnetic Mountain. "Poem Seven", 11. 28-51. (2) Magnetic Mountain "Poem Nine", 11. 23-25. 90. N o t i c e the t h i n g s t h i s advocate of l a i s s e z - f a i r e i n o c u l a t e s a g a i n s t j "blood-epidemics"; " f a i t h " , " l i f e " . These are the very t h i n g s which Lewis regards a a n e c e s s i t i e s . "We t e a c h through head and not by h e a r t " , the defendant says l a t e r . He i s a g a i n s t b l o o d , because i t s i g n i f i e s s p i r i t and enthus-iasm; a g a i n s t f a i t h , because i t shakes a man out of h i s l e t h a r g y i n t o a c t i o n ; a g a i n s t an excess of l i f e , because ex-cess of any k i n d i s troublesome, even dangerous. Channels not r e g u l a t e d may overflow and f l o o d . B l i n d obedience to a code, he says, i s . t h e desideratum. He has a vested i n t e r e s t i n i n e r t i a . I have d e s c r i b e d the t h i r d defendant as a "conforming m i n i s t e r " , and o s t e n s i b l y he i s t h a t . He r e p r e s e n t s the clergyman who regards h i s p r o f e s s i o n as a l i v i n g and l i t t l e e l s e ; who bends over b e f o r e a f f l u e n c e ; who I s proud not humble; and who would compromise h i s p r i n c i p l e s f o r expediency. However, the m i n i s t e r i s more than t h a t . He symbolizes organized r e l i g i o n , past and present, p l a y i n g i t s r o l e of r e t r o g r e s s i o n or i n e r t i a down through the ages. I t would seem, t h e r e f o r e , that Lewis regards the church as a t o o l of the r u l i n g c l a s s , e s p e c i a l l y when he puts such words as these i n t o the defendants mouth: "I have c a l l e d down thunders on thw s i d e of a u t h o r i t y , L i g h t n i n g s t o . g a l v a n i z e the law.; Promising the bread of heaven to the hungry of e a r t h , Shunting the s p i r i t i n t o g r a s s y s i d i n g s . I have served the temporal p r i n c e s . " ( l ) (1) Magnetic Mountain, "Poem E l e v e n " , 11. 9-15. Note that i n previous q u o t a t i o n Lewis r e f e r r e d to f e a r and pain as "temporal p r i n c e s " . 91; The l a s t t hree l i n e s echo Lenin*s a s s e r t i o n t h a t the church serves the r u l i n g c l a s s e s when i t takes the minds of the oppressed or d e s t i t u t e people o f f t h e i r m a t e r i a l p l i g h t by i n j e c t i n g the q u e s t i o n of t h e i r s p i r i t u a l s a l v a t i o n . I n such a way does r e g l g i o n become the o p i a t e of the peo^ple. The c o n c l u s i o n we must draw, then, i s t h a t Lewis, at t h i s stage of h i s l i f e at l e a s t , regards the church as a d e f i n i t e b a r r i e r to progress now and i n the past . The church re p r e s e n t s a f o r c e working f o r maintenance of r u l i n g c l a s s a u t h o r i t y ; which, i n t u r n , encourages i n e r t i a . T h i s does not n e c e s s a r i l y imply t h a t Lewis i s an a t h e i s t or a g n o s t i c . H i s ind i c t m e n t i s a g a i n s t church p o l i t y , and he h e l i e v e s t h a t a man should m a n i f e s t a d i r e c t and spontaneous r e l a t i o n s h i p to God. Such a spontaneity!.3s p r e f e r a b l e t o p u t t i n g the s p i r i t i n t o the hands o f, The p e t t y bourgeois of fhe s o u l , The middleman of Godi ( l ) The f o u r t h and l a s t defendant of Part Two of the Magnetic Mountain i s the p o s s e s s i v e w i f e , who, r o m a n t i c i z i n g her p a s s i o n f o r the husband, d e s i r e s and w i l l not be s a t i s f i e d w i t h l e s s than the whole man. She i s an s p o s t l e f o r I n e r t i a because she regards any a s p i r a t i o n he might have f o r s o c i a l or p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p as i n i m i c a l to h e r d e s i r e t o have a l l of him. Hence, she complains t h a t , (1) Magnetic Mountain. "Poem Twelve", 11. 3-4. 92. Though I persuade him t h a t h i s s t a r s are mine eyes' R e f r a c t i o n , t h a t wisdom's b e s t expressed i n The p s s i v e mood, - here's no change f o r the b e t t e r . (1) N o t i c e that she attempts to t u r n a l l h i s e x t r a - m a r i t a l i n t e r e s t s towards h e r s e l f , " h i s s t a r s are mine eyes' r e -f r a c t i o n " , and f u r t h e r , n o t i c e the emphasis she p l a c e s on "the passive mood". By her i n s i s t e n c e on i n e r t i a , by h e r attempts to s h a c k l e man's " i n t e g r a l s p i r i t " , she p l a c e s her-s e l f with those f o r c e s who make f o r the divorcee of f l e s h and s p i r i t - w i t h f e a r a n d p a i n , w i t h the c l o s e l y r e l a t e d " c l i n g -i n g " mother, with the teacher of s t a t u s quo, and w i t h a r e l i g i o n which hangs "on the s k i r t s of p r o g r e s s " . E a r l i e r i n t h i s c h apter I attempted to make an analogy between an i l l s o c i e t y a n d an i l l man. I p o i n t e d out t h a t i l l n e s s i n man or s o c i e t y i s attended by i n e r t i a , and t h a t f r e q u e n t l y drugs may be a d m i n i s t e r e d to s t i m u l a t e the p a t i e n t to an u n n a t u r a l show of a c t i v i t y o r t o deaden the p a i n . We have d e a l t w i t h the "gross and v i o l e n t s t i m u l a n t s " oS which Lewis speaks. To b e g i n with, Lewis d i s c u s s e s the matter i n A Hope Fo r Poetry. He w r i t e s : F i r s t , t h e r e are a number of .'gross and v i o l e n t s t i m u l a n t s ' , i n the s o c i a l sense, wfeJL?3& are a c t i n g upon the mind to 'reduce i t t o a s t a t e of almost savage t o r p o r ' J We have a l r e a d y n o t i c e d some: advertisement and cheap p u b l i c i t y of every d e s c r i p t i o n , e ducation having a wide extent but l i t t l e depth, shots of s c i e n t i f i c dope. To these we must add the newspaper, the w i r e l e s s , ( l ) Magnetic Mountain, "Poem T h i r t e e n " , 11..35-37 93. the mass-produced novel, the cinema, a l l the machinery which enables men's minds or bodies to be carried faster and farther than their proper power of imagination or endurance could carry them. (1) I think the above excerpt is clear enough to stand without comment, but I wish to dra w attention.to the significance of the last part of the last sentence, beginning with, " a l l the machinery which enables men's minds ". Is Lewis not saying that the "harmony of flesh and s p i r i t " is broken by the acti ai of the gross and vijolent stimulants of which he speaks? What is the "proper power of imagination or endurance" but the force of vibrant self-realization working successfully to weld flesh and s p i r i t into a single entity, a conception which I discussed in the introduction to Part Three of this chapter. The reason why the social stimulants go beyond the "proper power of imagination" i s that the need for stimulants does not arise naturally from a body i n which flesh and s p i r i t agree; the stimulation does not arise from within; rather, i t i s imposed upsa from without. The stimul-ation induces a temporary and feverish activity. It gives rise to false notions of well-being, and designed uncon-sciously by the individual, consciously, perhaps, by society, to obscure the damage which the divorce of flesh and s p i r i t has wrought. In so far as such acceptance of stimulus i s a submission of personality to outside forces, i t may be described, to use i t i n Lawrence's sense, as a (1) A Hope For Poetry, 202'. ' 94. m a n i f e s t a t i o n of the Death W i l l . But l e t us now examine these s t i m u l a n t s s p e c i f i c a l l y a s they appear i n the Magnetic Mountain. The f i r s t "Enemy" of P a r t Three of t h i s work i s the sexual s e n s a t i o n - s e e k e r ; he, who jaded by one excess, seeks another and another. I h e s i t a t e to c a l l him a p e r v e r t , because " p e r v e r t " i m p l i e s a mental unbalance which would absolve him from r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Bi§ excesses are pre-meditated. He f i n d s i n the abuse of s e x u a l a p p e t i t e a n a r c o t i c s t i m u l a n t which, f o r the moment, s a t i s f i e s a c r a v i n g f o r s e n s a t i o n , and which, u n c o n s c i o u s l y perhaps, combats the i n e r t i a which g r i p s him. L i k e a drug, i t f a i l s t o e f f e c t a permanent cure, b e c a u s e i t does not get to the r o o t of the problem, and, l i k e a drug, i t demands a s t r o n g e r and st r o n g e r dose, w i t h the i n t e r v a l s between the doses making a d e c r e a s i n g p r o g r e s s i o n . The Enemy t e l l s the s t o r y of an i l l i c i t a f f a i r , each stanza ending with a t r i t e remark of obscene suggestion, which, i f strun g t o g e t h e r , t e l l the s t o r y i n themselves. The f i r s t stanza, f o r i n s t a n c e , concludes wit h , "Ido l i k e d oing t h i n g s with you 1 1, and the l a s t , "I suppose you hate me, now". But the most s i g n i f i c a n t l i n e s are these: So, so a g a i n . And he th a t was a l i v e I s dead. Or s l e e p s . A s t r a n g e r t o these p a r t s . Nerve i n s u l a t e d , f l e s h unfused, t h i s i s No consummation. (1) (1) Magnetic Mountain, "Poem Seventeen", 11. 31-34. 9 5 . "So, so a g a i n " Implies h a b i t u a l occurrence, and i r o n i c a l l y , i s u t t e r e d with a f e e l i n g of boredom. Even s e n s a t i o n bores now. "And he t h a t was a l i v e i s dead" may mean e i t h e r that s e x u a l excess has d u l l e d i n t o h a b i t what was n a t u r a l l y an e v e r - f r e s h and meaningful ex p e r i e n c e ; or, more l i k e l y , t h a t a f t e r , t h e t r a n s i e n t t h r i l l h a s passed, the a d d i c t s l i p p e d back i n t o the t o r p o r from which he sought t o eficape. "Nerve i n s u l a t e d , f l e s h unfused" b r i n g s us once again to our theme. The i n s u l a t i o n he speaks of prevents the f r e e and u n i n t e r r u p t e d flow of s p i r i t from i t s sources i n the mind to where i t can be put to use by the body. There h a s been a breakdown some-where i n the h i g h t e n s i o n wires from the power house. The f l e s h i s t h e r e f o r e "unfused" w i t h s p i r i t . The d i v o r c e of f l e s h and s p i r i t i s complete. The second "Enemey" r e p r e s e n t s the newspaper c h a i n s , purveyors of news not t r u t h . L i k e the f i r s t Enemy, the people seek s e n s a t i o n , and the press g i v e s i t t o them. Lewis la s h e s out at the i r r e s p o n s i b l e s e n s a t i o n a l i s m of the news-shee t s . He makes use of Auden's technique of r a p i d t e l e g r a p h -ese f o r the purpose, as i n the f o l l o w i n g passage: Read about r e c t o r * s g i r l s Duke's d i s e a s e s y n t h e t i c p e a r l s L a t e s t s i n n e r s t a s t y d i n n e r s Plucky dogs shot S i n n P e i n e r s F l o o d i n China rape i n Wales Murderers' t e a r s scenes at s a l e s That's the s t u f f aren't you t h r i l l e d S i t back and see the w o r l d . (1) 96. The l a s t l i n e i n d i c a t e s the purpose of the press i n con-temporary s o c i e t y ; namely, t o so f i l l the mind of i t s readers wi t h h y p n o t i c dope that i t p a r a l y z e s i n t o a s t a t e of i n e r t i a ; or, to use Lewis' own words: There's a nas t y h a b i t that s t a r t s i n the head And creeps through the v e i n s t i l l you go a l l dead. ( l ) The i n s i d i o u s e f f e c t of the newspapers i s t r e a t e d e l s e -where than i n the The Magnetic Mountain. The poem, "Newsreel", w r i t t e n some f i v e or s i x years a f t e r the Magnetic Mountain was p u b l i s h e d , i s at once more p o l i s h e d , more compressed, and more de a d l y s e r i o u s than the former poem. There i s i n i t no h i n t of the Audenesque b u f f o o n e r y which Lewis does f a i r l y w e l l , but which i s none the l e s s an i m i t a t i o n . Con-s i d e r the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s , f o r i n s t a n c e : E n t e r the dream-house, b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s , l e a v i n g Your debts a s l e e p , your h i s t o r y a t the door* T h i s i s the home f o r heroes, and t h l i l o v i n g Darkness a f u r you can a f f o r d . (2) The cinema i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the newspaper, and the i n s i s t e n c e on t h e e f f e c t o f hypnotism, of i n e r t i a , i s s t r e s s e d once again i n the f i r s t two l i n e s . Stanza S i x of the same poem i s noteworthy f o r the clfever use of e r o t i c imagery i n a unique way. The use of imagery u a u a l l y employed when one i s t a l k i n g about l i f e to evoke a mood of impending death i s g r i m l y i r o n i c : (1) Magnetic Mountain, "Poem Twenty", 11.. 5®6. (2) Short Is The Time, "Newsreel", 11. 1-4. 97 . See the b i g guns, r i s i n g , g r o p i n g , e r e c t e d To p l a n t death i n your world's s o f t womb. Fi r e - b u d , smoke-blossom, i r o n seed p r o j e c t e d -Are these e x o t i c s ? They w i l l grow nearer home, ( l ) The q u e s t i o n of the newspaper, the cinema, the r a d i o , and r e l a t e d s t i m u l i such as the j a z z l y r i c , "the s p i r i t u a l food of the masses", i s t r e a t e d i n v a r i o u s other p l a c e s " a s w e l l . In the c o n c l u d i n g s e d t i o n s of A Time To Dance, f o r example, we f i n d the r a d i o coming i n f o r I t s share of a t t e n t i o n ? So i f you're f e e l i n g low ma'am, I f you're a i l i n g s i r o r f a i l i n g , tune I n . (2) As always the i m p l i c a t i o n of i l l n e s s , of the hypodermic i n j e c t i o n , of the p r e v a i l i n g i n e r t i a , i s there i n the l i n e s . Before,we examine what the t h i r d "Enemy" of P a r t Three stands f o r , an apt q u o t a t i o n from A Hope F o r Poetry w i l l serve as an i n t r o d u c t i o n . Lewis w r i t e s as f o l l o w s : I t i s of prime importance f o r poets t o be warned t h a t a l l these products of town c i v i l i s a t i o n are damnable o n l y i n so f a r as they imply the autru n n i n g of man's p s y c h o l o g i c a l development by the co m p l e x i t i e s of h i s environment, the d e s t r u c t i o n of the c r e a t o r by the e l a b o r a t i o n of h i s own c r e a t i o n s . Remember the r i n g e d ammonite, running Crazy was k i l l e d f o r b e i n g too c l e v e r .'(3) There are a number of v e r y important i d e a s i n t h i s e x c e r p t . F i r s t of a l l , when Lewis w r i t e s of "these products of town l i f e " , he i s r e f e r r i n g not o n l y t o the "gross and v i o l e n t s t i m u l a n t s " a l r e a d y mentioned, but a l s o t o the p r o d i g i o u s (1) Short I s The Time, "Newsreel", 11. 21»-24. (2) C. Day Lewis. A "Time To Dance, London, The Hogarth Press, 1935, p. 62. (3) C. Day Lewis, A Hope For Poetry, 203. . 98. spawnings of s c i e n c e which have produced our machine age. Secondly, when he speaks of "the outrunning of man's psycho-l o g i c a l development", he means t h a t the products of s c i e n c e are so numerous and so s t a g g e r i n g to the i m a g i n a t i o n of the layman, t h a t they leave the layman i n a s t a t e of b e w i l d e r -ment or s t u p e f a c t i o n . These s c i e t i f i c marvels crowd i n upon him and he cannot a s s i m i l a t e them. Lewis means, I thirif, t h a t the c r e a t i o n s of s c i e n c e have caused a twofold d i s r u p t i o n i n s o c i e t y . By c o m p l i c a t i n g our environment? by speeding up the pace of l i v i n g without g i v i n g us a sense of d i r e c t i o n ; by t h r e a t e n i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n w i t h m a t e r i a l d i s s o l u t i o n ; by a l l these ways and by o t h e r s , s c i e n c e j e o p a r d i z e s the f u n c t i o n i n g of s o c i e t y . Depression, war, o v e r p o p u l a t i o n , such m a t e r i a l problems as these are the o f f s p r i n g of s c i e n c e . Hence, sc i e n c e endangers the body of s o c i e t y and the body of man. But s c i e n c e t h r e a t e n s the s p i r i t of s o c i e t y as w e l l , by t h r e a t e n i n g the s p i r i t of the i n d i v i d u a l . Man has not had the time to apprehend the s p i r i t u a l l e a n i n g of a machine as d i s t i n c t from i t s p h y s i c a l meaning. He sees the dynamo, f o r example, as a w h i r r i n g engine which generates e l e c t r i c i t y . He r e a l i z e s i t s u t i l i t a r i a n v a l u e . But he cannot envisage the dynamo as a l i v i n g c h i l d of h i s b r a i n , born l i k e a c h i l d with the hope t h a t i t w i l l prove to be a b l e s s i n g to him a l l the days of h i s l i f e . Lewis puts I t t h i s way: The modern man cannot see t h i n g s t h a t way: wonders crowd so t h i c k and f a s t around him that; he has almost l o s t the 99. sense of wonder; and, i f he has a f e e l i n g f o r the s p i r i t or essence of t h i n g , i t i s h e l d incommunicado from h i s sense of t h e i r m a t e r i a l u t i l i t y . Reason and i n s t i n c t are kept a p a r t . (1) And so the e f f e c t of s c i e n c e i s t w o f o l d , m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l , t h r e a t e n i n g by i t s v e r y c l e v e r n e s s , but b a s i c " i n d i r e c t i o n , to become i t s own g r a v e d i g g e r . T h i s i s what Lewis means by the l i n e s : Remember the r i n g e d ammonite, running Crazy wa s k i l l e d f o r b e i n g too c l e v e r . (2) The ammonites were p r o l i f i c m o l l u s c s which swarmed i n the Mesozoic sea s . T h e i r huge c o i l i n g s h e l l s were sometimes two f e e t or more i n diameter. They m u l t i p l i e d without number, i n c r e a s i n g i n d i v e r s i t y and producing exaggerated mutations. They ran c r a z y , Lewis says. And then, w i t h u n p a r a l l e l e d r a p i d i t y , they vanished, l e a v i n g only a v e r y d i s t a n t r e l a t i v e , the P e a r l y N a u t i l u s , to remind us of the e x t i n c t i o n of a genus. Lewis wishes to shock us i n t o a r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t man, too, may go the way of the ammonite. L i k e i t , man has become too c l e v e r , has m u l t i p l i e d h i m s e l f and h i s machines without number, has overcomplicated h i s environment. And l i k e i t , man may vanish, w i t h equal r a p i d i t y . The t h i r d "Eenemy" of The Magnetic Mountain i s s c i e n c e , the God. L i k e some images of Buddha, the god of s c i e n c e has many arms. Lewis makes each s t a n z a of "Poem Twenty-One" repr e s e n t one arm of the i d o l of s c i e n c e . Stanza one r e p r e s -(1) The P o e t i c Image", p. 108. (2) A Time To Dance. "A Warning To Those Who L i v e on Mountains", n . 14-15. 100. ents the god as a p r o p o s i t i o n . Lewis c r i t i c i z e s the smug confidence of a s c i e n c e which goes about e x p l a i n i n g God by a "bare h y p o t h e s i s " , or by a mathematical f o r m u l a . Stanza two, by the same token, begins, "God i s an e l e c t r i c i a n " ; S tanza three has, "God i s a s t a t i s t i c i a n " ; and Stanza f o u r b e g i n s , "God i s a Good P h y s i c i a n " . No matter what branch of s c i e n c e comes to mind, Lewis o f f e r s a similafc c r i t i c i s m . I t i s that s c i e n t i s t s worship t h e i r s c i e n c e as an end i n i t s e l f , a a a god , and t h a t t h e r e f o r e there i s l i t t l e or no attempt on t h e i r p a r t to t a l l y the r e s u l t s t h a t t h e i r c r e a t i o n s have on the i n d i v i d u a l as p a r t of a s o c i e t y . One of L e w i s 1 most s u c c e s s f u l poems d e a l i n g w i t h the problem of s c i e n c e appears i n A Time To Dance, and i s e n t i t l e d , "A Warning To Those Who L i v e On Mountains". The mountain d w e l l e r s are of course the s c i e n t i s t s , working i n the r a r e f i e d atmosphere, and. h a t c h i n g t h e i r d i v e r s e plans i n a w o r l d o u t s i d e humanity. The poet, i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s , warns the s c i e n t i s t s t h a t they must assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the r e s u l t s of t h e i r machines, which means they must renew t h e i r k i n s h i p w i t h man by c o n c e r n i n g themselves w i t h the human consequences of t h e i r d i s c o v e r i e s : Labouring a l o f t you f o r g e t p l a i n language, Simple the password t h a t disarms s u s p i c i o n : S t a r v e d are your r o o t s , and s t i l l would you s t r a i n The t i e between b r a i n and body to b r e a k i n g - p o i n t ? Your power's by-products have poisoned t h e i r streams T h e i r v i s i o n grows s h o r t as your shadow lengthens, And your w i l l w a l l s them In '—.- (1) (1) A Time To Da^ce "A Warning To Those Who L i v e On Mountains", 11. 19-25. 101. The passage i s c l e a r . Once again Lewis s t r e s s e s the ru p t u r e i n the " t i e between b r a i n and body". He puts much of the blame f o r the bewilderment and the i n e r t i a i n the dontemporary world r i g h t i n the l a p of s c i e n c e , the god. He hopes t h a t at the l a s t moment the s c i e n t i s t s w i l l have a change of h e a r t , by becoming s o c i a l l y c o n s c i o u s , a s w e l l as s c i e n t i f i c a l l y c onscious p e o p l e . The f o u r t h and l a s t "Enemy" has y e t to speak. He i s the dreamer of dreams, the s h i r k e r of duty, the man who i s a f r a i d to fa c e r e a l i t y ; I n s h o r t , he i s the e s c a p i s t . There are people among us who are l o a t h to admit the i l l n e s s t h a t g r i p s them. They w i l l not submit to an x-ray because i t may show them to have t u b e r c u l o s i s . So i t i s when the s i c k n e s s i s i n the s o u l . The f o u r t h "Enemy" of Lewis' poem' seeks escape i n a dream phantasy of h i s own c r e a t i o n , which has as i t s e n e r v a t i n g c e n t r a l law the b e l i e f t h a t r i g h t always wins and t h a t the g u i l t y are always found and punished. The dream world i s a p l a c e , t o quote Lewis, where, the youngest son wins through, Wee W i l l i e c a n t h r a s h the b u l l y , L i v i n g ' s cheap and dreams come t r u e . (1) Escape of t h i s k i n d i s worse than i n e r t i a , i t i s backward motion: i t i s r e t r e a t . Perhaps Lewis' most profound poem on t h i s s u b j e c t i s one simply e n t i t l e d , "The E s c a p i s t " . I n t h i s poem, as he does i n "Sex-Crime", he puts p a r t of the blame f o r the act on s o c i e t y : (1) The Magnetic Mountain. "Poem Twenty-Three", 11. 5-7. 102. Before yOu heap q u i c k - l i m e upon t h a t f e l o n Memory, t h i n k how nothin g you can do Could touch h i s self-vlndlctivenessV and n o t h i n g You d i d to cure the cowardice i t avenged f o r . Say, i f you l i k e , escape was i n h i s blood -Escape's as good a word as any o t h e r . (1) "Escape was i n h i s b l o o d " , Lewis w r i t e s , w i t h the emphasis on the l a s t word. Lewis means probably t h a t "escape" i s a s o f t word f o r what wa s r e a l l y i n ' h i s ' b l o o d , and t h a t i t was there as the r e s u l t of the c o n d i t i o n of s o c i e t y . The emphasis i s always t h e r e , w i t h i n - on the b l o o d , the f l e s h , or the s p i r i t -f o r i t i s the i n n e r d i s c o r d between these elements which makes f o r the i l l n e s s , the i n e r t i a , the f a l s e s t i m u l a t i o n , the escapism rampant i n the world. I t f o l l o w s that no cure can be wrought which does not i n some way r e p a i r the connection between f l e s h and s p i r i t . I t f o l l o w s , t o o, t h a t s i n c e the i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i e t y r e a c t one upon the other, backwards and forwards, the h e a l i n g of both must go on s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . S o c i e t y , too, h a s a body and a s p i r i t , l i k e an i n d i v i d u a l ' s , and the t i e s t h a t b i n d them are s t r a i n e d or broken. The i l l n e s s i s c r i t i c a l . S t i m u l a n t s do not cure; escapism cannot but evade the i s s u e . The surgeon must go deep to the roo t s of the matter.immediately 1 I t i s now or never, the hour of the k n i f e , The break w i t h the p a s t , the major o p e r a t i o n . (2) These are the thoughts with which Lewis concludes h i s examination of s o c i e t y . In the next c h a p t e r I s h a l l attempt (1) Short Is The Time. "The E s c a p i s t " n . i s - g a . (2) Magnetic Mountain. "Poem Twenty-Five", 11 . 27-28. . . 1 0 3 . t o d e s c r i b e the way Lewis would c a r r y out the o p e r a t i o n , to e s t a b l i s h once more the t r u t h of f l e s h and s p i r i t , s i n g i n g again t o g e t h e r a l l i n tune. 104. CHAPTER V THE SHAPE OF MAN'S NECESSITY PART ONE F r e q u e n t l y , d i a g n o s i s i s e a s i e r than c u r e , T h i s i s not always the case because sometimes the cause of i l l n e s s i s d i f f i c u l t t o a s c e r t a i n , but when the cause i s i s o l a t e d , the cure i s q u i c k and complete. On the oth e r hand, the d i s e a s e , although q u i c k l y diagnosed, may prove t o be i n c u r -able. The i l l n e s s of s o c i e t y presents d i f f i c u l t i e s i n both d i a g n o s i s and treatment. In Chapter IV, I examined L e w i s 1 d i a g n o s i s of contempor-ary s o c i e t y . Lewis seems to regard such symptoms as i n e r t i a and d e s i r e f o r u n n a t u r a l s t i m u l a t i o n as m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f a deep-seated s i c k n e s s i n man. The root-cause of t h i s i l l n e s s , Lewis suggests, i s a d i v o r c e between the f l e s h and the s p i r i t , between b o d i l y d e s i r e s and s p i r i t u a l a s p i r a t i o n s . Obviously, i f such a d i v o r c e between v i t a l human p a r t s i s the cause of the t r o u b l e , then the h e a l i n g of the p a r t s w i l l cure the s i c k n e s s . The problem i s to determine j u s t how such a h e a l i n g o p e r a t i o n can be c a r r i e d out. Who i s going t o handle the s c a l p e l i n the "major o p e r a t i o n " which Lewis t h i n k s i s needed? What o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t s , e t h e r s , g e r m i c i d e s , s k i l l s , w i l l be req u i r e d ? To change the metaphor, 105. when w i l l the "break with the p a s t " take place? What are the chances f o r success? These are some of the qu e s t i o n s one would l i k e t o have answered. The problem of d i a g n o s i s and cure may be expressed as a p o e t i c a l r a t h e r than a c l i n i c a l problem. M i c h a e l Roberts expresses the problem i n such a way when he w r i t e s : s c o n t r a d i c t i o n has been r e v e a l e d which you must remove e i t h e r by a l t e r i n g your standards or by a l t e r i n g your environment. I f you attempt the l a t t e r , your standards are a spur to a c t i o n ; I.e., the b a s i s of a m o r a l i t y . But i t i s here t h a t there i s a n e c e s s i t y f o r n e i t h e r pure p o e t r y nor s t o i c a l c l a s s i c i s m , but a v i g o r o u s l i v i n g p o e t r y , which s h a l l r e l e a s e our i n n e r energy and t u r n i t t o new ends, ( i ) Lewis, l i k e Roberts, urges the changing of the environment, f o r he b e l i e v e s t h a t a l t e r i n g one's standards, t h a t i s t o say, lowering one's standards, i s but another m a n i f e s t a t i o n of the i n e r t i a a g a i n s t which he i n v e i g h s . Escapism i s a f o l l o w i n g of the l i n e of l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e , a procedure which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the f o u r t h "Enemy" of our age i n The Magnetic Mountain. Lewis wishes t o r e i n t i g r a t e f l e s h and SpIKI'E, and t h i s r e i n t i g r a t i o n becomes h i s standard, the h a s i s of h i s m o r a l i t y . T h i s r e i n t i g r a t i o n w i l l enable man to r e l e a s e . h i s i n n e r energy and t u r n i t t o new ends. Two que s t i o n s remain to be answered* how i s t h i s r e i n t i g r a t i o n to be brought about? and what i s the nature of the "new ends"? ( l ) Roberts, M i c h a e l , C r i t i q u e o f Poetry, London, Jonathan Cape, 1934, 245. 106. PAR1?5'TWO Although From Feathers To I r o n l s not p r i m a r i l y a p o l i t i c a l a l l e g o r y , y e t there are i n i t c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s which one should not o v e r l o o k . "Poem Twelve" of t h i s c y c l e concerns the e f f o r t s of a man to escape from a d e s e r t e d mine, i n which a f a l l of rock-f a c e has b a r r e d h i s way. I n the second s t a n z a of t h i s poem he w r i t e s about seeking a new world through o l d workings, and he concludes w i t h these e f f e c t i v e l i n e s : T r a i n s h a l l s p r i n g from t u n n e l to terminus, Out on to p l a i n s h a l l the p i o n e e r plunge, E a r t h r e v e a l what v e i n s f e d , what h i l l s overed. L o v e l y the l e a p , e x p l o s i o n i n t o l i g h t . (1) These l i n e s t e l l us a number of t h i n g s . The f i r s t two l i n e s c o n t a i n two d i s t i n c t images, the t r a i n and the plainsman, both c a r r y i n g an i m p l i c a t i o n of a d i r e c t e d movement which has f o r a time been f r u s t r a t e d by some b a r r i e r . Both the t r a i n and the f r o n t i e r s m a n have, of course, been impeded by mountains. I t would seem, consequently, t h a t i f the move-ment of mases corresponds t o the t r a i n suddenly looming up out of a t u n n e l , or to a pioneer b r e a k i n g out of the mountains, then the s o c i a l movement towards a more p e r f e c t s o c i e t y w i l l be speeded up tremendously, so as almost to resemble an e x p l o s i o n . ."Poem E i g h t e e n " i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o o . I t makes the wish that the poet's son may grow up t o be a "white hope", to preserve " i n t e g r i t y and nerve" from " f l a t t e r e r s , pimps, and (1) From Feathers To I r o n , "Poem Twelve", 11. 27-50. 107. f a k e s " . The words " i n t e g r i t y and nerve" c a r r y unmistakeable a s s o c i a t i o n s of t h i t l i n k between f l e s h and s p i r i t , the i n s u l a t i o n of which would leave the poet's son open t o the i n f l u e n c e of "pimps and f a k e s " . "Poem Twenty-One" c a r r i e s more than a s u g g e s t i o n of the f l e s h - s p i r i t i d e a , f o r i t speaks of "the hour of s p i r i t r e c o n c i l e d to f l e s h " . "Poem Twenty-Three" r e i t e r a t e s the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t the harmony of f l e s h and s p i r i t i s the r e q u i s i t e f o r p e r f e c t l i v i n g . The f o l l o w i n g l i n e s are s i g n i f i c a n t : Space-spanned, G o d - g i r d l e d , l o v e w i l l keep I t s form, being planned of bone, (1) Love, Lewis means, comes c l o s e to p e r f e c t i o n i n an i m p e r f e c t world, because i t i s the r e s u l t of the complete I n t e g r a t i o n of f l e s h and s p i r i t . The word "bone" symbolizes the f o r c e with which the whole body and the whole s o u l of man a c t i n g as one apprehends l o v e . I t i s with an i d e n t i c a l f o r c e of r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t a man should apprehend, not merely l o v e , but e v e r y t h i n g . Lewis has not as y e t i n d i c a t e d , however, j u s t how the i j a j o r o p e r a t i o n upon s o c i e t y w i l l be performed. S i n c e From Feat h e r s To I r o n i s not p r i m a r i l y a p o l i t i c a l poem, however, one must look elsewhere to f i n d out how the • r e i n t i g r a t i o n of f l e s h and s p i r i r t i s to be brought about. The d i a g n o s t i c elements i n The Magnetic Mountain were d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter IV. I n t h i s c y c l e of t h i r t y - s i x - poems, p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s become the main thematic m a t e r i a l (1) From Feathers To I r o n , wPoem Twenty-Three", n . 15-16 108 f o r the f i r s t time. The i n i t i a l q u o t a t i o n p r e f i x e d t o P a r t One of t h i s c y c l e i s p o s s i b l y s i g n i f i c a n t . I t i s a c o u p l e t w r i t t e n by R. E. Warner, a c l o s e f r i e n d of the poet, and a member of the Communist Pa r t y at the time The Magnetic Mountain was w r i t t e n . The c o u p l e t i s as f o l l o w s : Come, then, companions, t h i s i s the s p r i n g of blodd, Heart's heyday, movement of masses, b e g i n n i n g of gtaod.2.. Warner, of course, r e f e r s t o the communist r e v o l u t i o n i n the l i n e s , but t h i s does not n e c e s s a r i l y imply t h a t , because Lewis uses the l i n e s as a p r e f i x , he too urges the fo r m a t i o n of a communist s t a t e . The l i n e s are s u f f i c i e n t l y g e n e r a l i z e d as they stand t o repr e s e n t any change f o r the b e t t e r . The f o r c e of such words as " s p r i n g of b l o o d " , and " h e a r t ' s " heyday" makes one r e a l i z e t h a t Lewis c o u l d v e r y w e l l have w r i t t e n the l i n e s h i m s e l f . I t must be allowed, n o n e t h e l e s s , t h a t the use of the q u o t a t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t Lewis, l i k e E a r n e r / belongs t o the l e f t wing of p o l i t i c s , even though he may not be a communist. I f the two w r i t e r s d i f f e r i n t h e i r p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s , i t i s a d i f f e r e n c e of degree, not k i n d . I t i s . a d i f f e r e n c e between s o & i a l l s t and eommunist. A f t e r the i n v o c a t i o n t o the k e s t r e l in"Poem One", and the admonition t o beware of f e a r a M p a i n i n "Poem Two", Lewis makes a g e n e r a l reference to the promised lan d i n "Poem Three". The r e f e r e n c e , however, i s f i g u r a t i v e , w i t h much emphasis on metal and machines. The f o l l o w i n g l i n e s 109. i l l u s t r a t e my meaning: There's i r o n f o r the a s k i n g W i l l keep a l l winds at bay, G i r d e r s t o take the leaden S t r a i n of a sagging sky. Oh there's a mine of metal, Enough to make me r i c h And b u i l d r i g h t over chaos A c a n t i l e v e r b r i d g e , ( i ) I t i s n a t u r a l to p i c t u r e a f u t u r e c i v i l i z a t i o n i n terms of s k y s c r a p e r s , b r i d g e s , r o c k e t - s h i p s and the l i k e , because such t h i n g s w i l l be there no matter what the economics of a f u t u r e s o c i e t y . They t h e r e f o r e become a n a t u r a l symbol of the f u t u r e . There are undoubtedly o t h e r connotations of metal which Lewis means to evoke i n the above l i n e s . I r o n i s s t r o n g , d u r a b l e , r e s i l i e n t , and yet i t i s easy to mould i n t o every shape. T h e r e f o r e i t may symbolize w i l l , d e t e r m i n a t i o n , r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s . I t may symbol!g e,planning and b u i l d i n g . A f t e r the momentary v i s i o n which "Poem Three" gives us, Lewis takes a l i g h t engine back over the l i n e so t h a t he may have a f i n a l glimpse of the s o c i e t y he i s l e a v i n g . I t i s then t h a t he presents the v a r i o u s "Defendants" and "Enemies'' whom he meets on h i s t o u r of i n s p e c t i o n , and whose arguments I presented i n Chapter IV. The r e b u t t a l s which Lewis makes to each of the "Defendants" are c l o s e to what to one might deduce by i m p l i c a t i o n . F o r i n s t a n c e , / t h e t h i r d "Defendant^", the church, which i s the t o o l of the r u l i n g c l a s s , he warns t h a t , (1) The Magnetic Mountain, "Poem Three'*, l l . ~ 2 5 - 3 2 . r 110 the medicine-man Must take h i s m e d i c i n e . (1) He seems t o lump church r i t u a l w i t h mumbo-jumbo. He r e -gards the church as the j a i l e r of man 13 a o u l , f a t h e r than i t s s a v i o u r , and urges the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a more p e r s o n a l and/direct r e l a t i o n s h i p between a man and h i s God. H i s o b j e c t i o n s to the church o r g a n i z a t i o n abe t h r e e f o l d : p o l i t i c a l , i n t h a t i t i s r e a c t i o n a r y ; s p i r i t u a l , i n t h a t i t i s deaden-i n g ; and m o r a l , i n t h a t i t i s compromis ing. Thus, the church " a a l l e down thundurs on the s i d e of a u t h o r i t y " ; i t turns " j o y i n t o sacraments , the H o l y Ghost t o a f o r m u l a " ; i t r a i s e s i t s hands " t o brand a C a i n and b l e s s a submar ine" . L e w i s ' r e b u t t a l s to each "Defendant" have t h i s i n common; they a l l d e c l a r e t h a t man must have freedom to a c t . The mother, the t e a c h e r , the m i n i s t e r , the l o v e r - they a l l r e s t r i c t freedom and p a r a l y z e a c t i o n . And so Lewis ends P a r t Two w i t h t h i s e x h o r t a t i o n : But the f u l l man must l i v e Rooted y e t u n c o n f i n e d . (2) The l a s t word of the q u o t a t i o n i s the emphatic one. I n the l i g h t of t h i s p l e a f o r i n d i v i d u a l f reedom, i t I s d o u b t f u l whether Lewis would be w i l l i n g to submit to the i r o n d i s c i p l i n e of the Communist P a r t y or the e q u a l l y i r o n d i s c i p l i n e of the Communist D i c t a t o r s h i p of the P r o l e t a r i a t . (1) The Magnetic Mounta in . "P 0 em T w e l v e " , 11 . 15-16 . (2) The Magnetic M o u n t a i n r "Poem F i f t e e n " , 1 1 . 19-20. 111. "Lewis' r e b u t t a l s to each "Enemy" may s i m i l a r l y be deduced by i m p l i c a t i o n . He deplores the smug attempts of scienc e , the t h i r d "Enemy", to f i n d God i n a test-tube or to measure Him w i t h a. s l i d e - r u l e . He r e j e c t s i n t e l l e c t u a l attempts to a t t a i n to God: f a i t h i s the only way, and emotion i s the handmaiden of f a i t h . Those who have f a i t h f e e l the f a t h e r here, They have him at he a r t , they shake hands, they know he i s near, ( l ) The key words are " f e e l " , "heart", and "near" In answering the va r i o u s "Enemies", Lewis i n d i r e c t l y r eveals c e r t a i n q u a l i t i e s of h i s i d e a l s o c i e t y , but there i s as yet no concrete evidence t h a t the i d e a l s o c i e t y represented by the Magnetic Mountain i s a s o c i a l i s t s o c i e t y . I n P a r t i Pour, Lewis f r e q u e n t l y b u i l d s the reader up t o a p i t c h of expect a t i o n , only t o d i s a p p o i n t him by f a i l i n g to give s p e c i f i c d e t a i l about h i s i d e a l s o c i e t y . "Poem Twenty-E i g h t " , f o r example, leads one t o expect some concrete suggestions, because the poet has reached the I n t e r i o r of The Magnetic Mountain. The suggestions are indeed concrete, but they do not give one an i n k l i n g of the p o l i t i c a l system he has i n mind. Skyscrapers and m a c h i n e s w i l l be cha r a c t e r -i s t i c of the f u t u r e i r r e s p e c t i v e of the nature of i t s p o l i t i c a l framework: Out of that dark a new world flowers There, i n the womb, i n the r i c h veins (1) The Magnetic Mountain, "Poem Twenty-Two", 11. 35-36. 112. Are t o o l s , dynamos, b r i d g e s , towers, Your t r a c t o r s and your t r a v e l l i n g - c r a n e s . (1) I t was the f e e l i n g of b e i n g l e t down which l e d S t a n l e y K u n i t z to remark, "The mountain has laboured and brought f o r t h a c a r l o a d of machinery." (2) F i n a l l y , however, i n "Poem T h i r t y - F o u r " , the t h i r s t f o r concrete d e t a i l s about the i d e a l s o c i e t y i s adequately quenched, f o r i n t h i s poem, Lewis crams i n t o twenty-four l i n e s enough s o c i a l i s t d o c t r i n e to f i l l a handbook. Stanza two demands a complete q u o t a t i o n : P u b l i s h the v i s i o n , b r o a d c a s t and screen i t , Of a world where the w i l l of a l l s h a l l be r a i s e d to h i g h e s t power, V i l l a g e or f a c t o r y s h a l l form the u n i t . C o n t r o l s h a l l be from the c e n t r e s , q u i c k b r a i n warm h e a r t , And the bearings bathed i n a pure F l u i d of sympathy. There possessions no more s h a l l be p a r t Of the man, where r i c h e s and s a c r i f i c e Are of f l e s h and blood, sex, muscles, limbs and eyes. Each s h a l l g i v e of h i s b e s t . I t s h a l l seem proper For a l l t o share what a l l produced. Men s h a l l be g l a d of company, love s h a l l be more than a guest And the bond no more of paper. (3) The s p e c i f i c items of s o c i a l i s t d o c t r i n e i n these l i n e s appear t o me to be these: (1) i n l i n e two: the " w i l l of a l l r a i s e d to h i g h e s t power" i m p l i e s the ext e n s i o n of governmental c o n t r o l over the means of s upply and p r o d u c t i o n : ( 1 ) The Magnetic Mountain, "Poem Twenty-Eight", 11. 28-51. (2) K u n i t z , S t a n l e y J«> "Between Two Worlds" i n Poetry, Dec. 1955., 158. (3) The Magnetic Mountain, "Poem T h i r t y - F o u r " , 11. 13-24. 113. (2) i n l i n e t h r e e : the ex t e n s i o n of trade-unionism t o become a u n i t of government: (3) i n l i n e f o u r : government by a c e n t r a l benevolent bureau-c r a c y : (4) i n l i n e f o u r a l s o : government w i l l be e f f i c i e n t because p l a n n i n g w i l l e l i m i n a t e waste: (5) i n l i n e s f i v e and s i x * the " l o n g - l o s t k i n s h i p " of man f o r man w i l l be r e - e s t a b l i s h e d because a man w i l l f e e l he i s making a s p e c i f i c c o n t r i b u t i o n t o s o c i e t y , and because com p e t i t i o n between man and man w i l l be e l i m i n a t e d : (6) i n l i n e s i x : a b o l i t i o n of p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e f o r p u b l i c e n t e r p r i s e ' (7) i n l i n e s seven and e i g h t : p r o d u c t i o n w i l l be f o r a l l men's use, not f o r one man's p r o f i t : (8) i n l i n e e i g h t : s o c i e t y w i l l demand work from each accord-i n g t o h i s a b i l i t y : (9) i n l i n e s n i n e and t e n : s o c i e t y w i l l g i v e t o each accord-i n g t o h i s needs: (10) i n l i n e s eleven and twelve: every man w i l l have a f e e l -i n g of comradeship w i t h h i s f e l l o w men, because each w i l l have h i s n i c h e t o f i l l , and consequently, each w i l l f e e l he i s a u s e f u l and nec e s s a r y p a r t of s o c i e t y . The next stanza adds more p o i n t s of d o c t r i n e t o the l i s t : (11) i n l i n e s one to t h r e e : money w i l l r e v e r t t o i t s f u n c t i o n -a l use; i . e . , w i l l become a medium of exchange, not wealth i n i t s e l f : » 114 (12) in lines four and five: human welfare w i l l replace private profit as the moti«§ force in government. (13) in lines six and seven: reason and intuition w i l l make a harmony i n place of a discord, "feeling head and heart agree": (14) in lines eight and nine: production w i l l increase, because the workers w i l l share i t s u t i l i t y value 5 Cl5) in lines nine and ten: there w i l l he freedom from worry about security because the government w i l l insure each man's security as general policy 5 (16) in lines eteven and twelve: those who w i l l not work w i l l not eat: The f i n a l stanza concludes with these items: (17) in line;:; four: there w i l l be a planned use of leisure time for cultural purposes: (18) in lines five fcoilseven: there w i l l be planned use of leisure time for sports and recreation: (19) in lines ten and eleven: respect w i l l be paid to the f, memory of proletarian martyrs like Rosa Luxemburg: (20) in line twelve 5 the illness of society w i l l be cured because the "major operation" w i l l have corrected the malady by removing i t s cause. The inertia of society w i l l be re-placed by a forward motion, and the inertia of the individual corrected by a reintegration of flesh and s p i r i t . Although Lewis never once mentions the word "socialism" 115. i n The Magnetic Mountain, there i s no doubt i n my mind t h a t i n "Poem T h i r t y - F o u r " he i s p r e s e n t i n g s o c i a l i s m as h i s i d e a l s o c i e t y . S p e c i f i c phrases sucb as one hears i n work-i n g c l a s s open forums show through the more g e n e r a l i z e d p o e t i c d i c t i o n i n which the stanzas of the poem are couched. Such phrases as " a l l to share what a l l produced", "possessions no more s h a l l be p a r t of the man", "only the e x p l o i t e r r e c e i v e no q u a r t e r " , a r e unmistafeeabl'y s o c i a l i s t i c i n f l a v o u r . Furthermore, the d e i f i c a t i o n of such p r o l e t a r i a n heroes and martyrs as H a r r i s , Wainwright, and Rosa Luxemburg c l i n c h the . matter. Many labour temples have these names tacked up along t h e i r bare w a l l s , i n company w i t h p o r t r a i t s of other heroes l i k e M a t e o t t i , Sacco, and V a n g e t t i . Such Heroes as these, Lewis w r i t e s , w i l l be remembered by the workers.as "ancestors t h a t gave them ease"-' ( l ) The c o n c l u d i n g poem i n The Magnetic Mountain c y c l e r e -emphasizes the conception of s o c i a l i s m as a benevolent bureau-c r a c y b u i l t by and f o r the working c l a s s e s ' D r i n k t o the ordered nerves, the s i g h t r e s t o r e d ; A dfty when power f o r a l l s h a l l r a d i a t e From the s o v e r e i g n c e n t r e s , and the b l o o d i s s t i r r e d To flow i n i t s a n c i e n t courses o f l o v e and h a t e . (2) The r e f e r e n c e t o "blood" i s most important. Lewis means t h a t s o c i a l i s m w i l l be able to s a t i s f y what the s p i r i t w i l l s t h a t the f l e s h should enjoy. S o c i a l i s m w i l l g ive man the f e e l i n g t h a t the government i s t r u l y h i s government, and he w i l l , (1) The Magnetic Mountain, "Poem T h i r t y - F o u r " . 11. 45. (2) The Magnetic Mountain, "Poem T h i r t y - S i x " , 11. 9-12. 116. t h e r e f o r e , f e e l t h a t h i s a c t i v i t i e s are s o c i a l l y m e a n i n g f u l . The aim of government, Lewis b e l i e v e s , i s to m i n i s t e r t o the needs of a l l men, and to t h i s end s o c i a l i s m d i r e c t s both the economic and p o l i t i c a l machinery of the s t a t e . By p l a n n i n g f o r p r o d u c t i o n , f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n , f o r - h e a l t h , f o r w e l f a r e , f o r r e c r e a t i o n , f o r c u l t u r e , and f o r e d u c a t i o n : by g i v i n g everyone an o p p o r t u n i t y t o f i n d h i s n i c h e ; by removing f e a r s of r i v a l r y and i n s e c u r i t y which make a man " s t a l e with de-f e r r e d c r i s i s " , i n s h o r t , by g i v i n g s o c i e t y d i r e c t i o n as w e l l as speed - by a l l these means and others - the divo a c e of f l e s h and s p i r i t w i l l be mended. Of people l i v i n g i n such a rescfcred s t a t e of b o d i l y and s p i r i t u a l h e a l t h he w r i t e s : They s i n g t h e i r own songs, they are a c t i v e , they p l a y not watch. (1) Such people are happy because they are c r e a t i n g . They are a c t i v e : they have thrown o f f fhe hobbles of i n e r t i a . One might e f f e c t i v e l y argue t h a t the items of p o l i t i c a l d o c t r i n e which I enumerated from "Poem T h i r t y - P o u r " are j u s t as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of communism as of s o c i a l i s m . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , communism i s but one ste p beyond s o c i a l i s m i n the s c a l e of s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n . T h e o r e t i c a l l y s o c i a l i s m i s not a c l a s s l e s s s o c i e t y , but communism i s . S o c i a l i s m remunerates the workers on a v a r y i n g s c a l e depending on the value of t h e i r work; communism remunerates a l l workers e q u a l l y , the o n l y s t i p u l a t i o n b e i n g t h a t every worker g i v e (1) The Magnetic Mountain, "Poem T h i r t y - P o u r " , 1. 28. 117. h i m s e l f to the best of h i s a b i l i t y . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , no country i n the world has yet achieved a s o c i a l i s t economy, while the communist i d e a l i s even f u r t h e r away i n the f u t u r e . The orthodox M a r x i s t terms the Russian experiment the " d i c t a t o r s h i p of the p r o l e t a r i a t " , which i s explained as a preparatory and necessary stage i n s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n preceding the advent of s o c i a l i s m , which i n t u r n w i l l e v e n t u a l l y give way t o communism. I t f o l l o w s from t h i s t h a t , i n M a r x i s t theory, a communist must i?jbso f a c t o be a s o c i a l i s t . I n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , however, a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e has emerged to separate the s o c i a l i s t and the communist, or more c o r r e c t l y , to separate the s o c i a l i s t p a r t y member from the communist p a r t y member. The d i f f e r e n c e i s t w o f o l d . The s o c i a l i s t advocates the use of the b a l l o t - b o x t o b r i n g about the change to s o c i a l i s m ; the communist advocates the v i o l e n c e of fhe c l a s s s t r u g g l e . That Is the f i r s t d i f f e r e n c e . Secondly, the s o c i a l i s t b e l i e v e s the step known as the " d i c t a t o r s h i p of the p r o l e t a r i a t " , w i t h i t s r e s t r i c t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l l i b e r t i e s , i s an unnecesary, even a retrograde step; the communist, «ith -BuateiAfi his. ili^itog :examplei& insists such an i n t e r i m step i s necessary and, indeed, i n e v i t a b l e . There are undoubtedly other d i f f e r e n c e s , but these two, i t seems t o me, are the fundamental ones. The question now a r i s e s , since most-of the u l t i m a t e aims of the s o c i a l i s t and eommunist are i d e n t i c a l , and s i n c e d i f f e r e n c e s are 118. l a r g e l y a matter of method, what p r e c i s e l y i s Lewis? I s he a communist or a s o c i a l i s t ? I t i s c e r t a i n , t o be g i n w i t h , t h a t Lewis has never belonged t o the Communist P a r t y . I n h i s " L e t t e r To a Young R e v o l u t i o n a r y " he h a s t h i s to say* I was o l d enough t o f e e l the l a t t e r war atmosphere and at my most s e n s i t i v e d u r i n g the e a r l y post-war y e a r s . The one gave me a perhaps exaggerated h o r r o r of b l o a i shed and d e s t r u c t i o n , which r a t h e r queers my pitch, as a p r a c t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n a r y ? the other has l e f t i n my system germs of " a c e d i a and mental sauve q u i peut", e q u a l l y p i t o h - q u e e r i n g from the r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o i n t of view. (1) T h i s seems c l e a r enough; he d i s l i k e s v i o l e n c e , and the " a c e d i a " he t a l k s about prevents the f a n a t i c a l d e v o t i o n t o p a r t y which the communist demands. Be f o r e a f i n a l and v a l i d answer can be reached, however, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o examine Lewis' most r a d i c a l work, the p l a y , N 0 f lh and the Waters. I n no other work does he d i r e c t l y advocate the use of f o r c e t o achieve p o l i t i c a l ends. He seems, t h e r e f o r e , to c o n t r a d i c t the o p i n i o n he expressed i n the " L e t t e r To A. Young Revolutionary". Ufaa^a and the Waters was p u b l i s h e d i n 1936, th r e e years a f t e r The Magnetic Mountain, and at a time when the clouds fif war were a l r e a d y b e g i n n i n g t o gather. A s i g n i f i c a n t q u o t a t i o n appears on the f l y l e a f of Noah and the Waters; i t i s a (1) Day Lewis, C e c i l , New Country, 25. 119. q u o t a t i o n from the Conmiunlat Ma n i f e s t o of Marx and Engels, and i t concerns the f i n a l stages of c a p i t a l i s t d i s i n t e g r a t i o n : A small p a r t of the r u l i n g c l a s s breaks away to make common cause w i t h the r e v o l u t i o n a r y c l a s s , the c l a s s which holds the f u t u r e i n i t s hands." ( l ) N o a h and the Waters i s a p l a y which d e a l s with the time "when the c l a s s - s t r u g g l e nears the d e c i s i v e hour." (2) The p l a y ' s c o n f l i c t r e v o l v e s i n two o r b i t s around the c e n t r a l f i g u r e of Noah, who r e p r e s e n t s Everyman. The f i r s t c o n f l i c t e x i s t s i n the mind of Noah h i m s e l f . I t s spokesmen are the F i r s t V o i c e r e p r e s e n t i n g the f u t u r e , the urge f o r change, a n d the Second Voice r e p r e s e n t -i n g the p a s t , the enemy of change. The second c o n f l i c t i s e x t e r n a l and has f o r i t s p r o t a g o n i s t s t h r e e Burgesses who symbolize the v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s , and the Chorus which re p r e s e n t s the working c l a s s . Throughout the p l a y , the Chorus and the Burgesses, the former i n v e r s e , the l a t t e r i n prose, do t h e i r b e s t t o persuade N 0 a h t o throw i n h i s l o t w i t h them. The Burgesses argue v e r y p e r s u a s i v e l y . F l a t t e r y , promises, t h r e a t s , a l l the guns of c a p i t a l i s t propaganda, are unlimbered and f i r e d w i t h consummate c l e v e r n e s s . The chorus r e p l i e s , attempting t o c o n t e r a c t the s u b t l e poisons of the Burgesses. Speaking to Noah, the chorus s a y s : You have come f a r To the b r i n k of t h i s t a b l e l a n d where the next step t r e a d s a i r , Your thoughts l i k e antennae f e e l i n g d o u b t f u l l y (1) Marx and Engels, The Communist M a n i f e s t o . Chicago, Charles H. K e r r Co., 26. (2) i b i d , 26. 120 towards the f u t u r e , Your w i l l swerving a l l ways to evade t h a t u n s t a b l e word; High s t a k e s , hard f a l l s , c o m f o r t l e s s c o n t a c t s l i e b e f o r e , But t o s i d e s t e p these i s to d i e upon a w a t e r l e s s p l a t e a u ; You must uncase and f l y . f o r ahead i s your t h o r o u g h f a r e . \1) Note t h a t the above q u o t a t i o n s u c c e s s f u l l y blends two d i s t i n c t images; a man approaching the b r i n k of a p r e c i p i c e and an inseclt about to emerge from i t s pupa and f l y away. Meanwhile, the F l o o d , s y m b o l i z i n g the i n e v i t a b l e march of h i s t o r y , s t e a d i l y r i s e s . F i n a l l y , Noah g i v e s h i s d e c i s i o n . He l i k e n s the propaganda of the Burgesses to The c l e v e r hands a l l g l o v e d to s t e r i l i z e And the s l i c k k n i f e t h a t l e e r e d above my manhood. (2) He blames the Burgesses f o r the p l i g h t the world i s i n , and j u s t i f i e s the r i s i n g of the F l o o d . In a passage of f i n e blank verse which deserves to be remembered, Noah r e j e c t s the Burgesses and makes common cause with the F l o o d . I do not know where the dilemma of c h o i c e has been more power-f u l l y and b e a u t i f u l l y expressed than i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : I was always the man who saw both s i d e s . The cork dancing where wave and backwash meet, From the i n v e t e r a t e c l a s h of c o n t r a r i e s g a i n i n g A spurious animation. Say, i f you l i k e , A top whom i t s s e l f - p a s s i o n s l a s h e d to s l e e p P i r o u e t t i n g upon c e n t r a l i n d i f f e r e n c e , The bored and p e r f e c t b a l l e t - d a n c e r engrossed By mere r e i t e r a t i o n ; but l a t e l y The one that cuts a f i g u r e on t h i n i c e . -Who saw both s i d e s and t h e r e f o r e c o u l d take n e i t h e r * A needle midway between two f i e l d s of f o r c e , Swinging at l a s t 1 p o i n t and prove the s t r o n g e r A t t r a c t i o n . Gentlemen, you have l o s t . ( 5 ) (1) Noflh and the Waters, 39T j 2 ) N 0 f l n and the Waters, 48. (3) Noah and the Waters, 50. 121. In these l i n e s Lewis d e s c r i b e s the endless s u c c e s s i o n of dilemma and i n d e c i s i o n which i s the r e s u l t of a b u r n i n g and f a t a l i n t e l l i g e n c e r f a t a l , t h a t i s , to a c t i o n . N 0ah, however, has made up h i s mind. The Burgesses have l o s t . The p l a y ends i n open f i g h t , w i t h the Burgesses at l a s t showing t h e i r t r u e c o l o r s . T h e i r d e f e a t i s c e r t a i n . I have s a i d t h a t Noah symbolizes Everyman. He i s Lewis as w e l l , the sometime i n d i f f e r e n t , sometime undecided i n t e l l e c t u a l who has remained o u t s i d e p o l i t i c a l movements, though sympathizing w i t h l e f t - w i n g p a r t i e s , but who at l a s t has been converted and has taken h i s p l a c e w i t h the F l o o d . I b e l i e v e thai? i n 1936 Lewis came v e r y c l o s e to becoming an a c t i v e r e v o l u t i o n a r y . The Magnetic Mountain r e v e a l s t h a t s o c i a l i s m i s h i s i d e a l s o c i e t y ; Noah and the Waters concerns i t s e l f w ith the r e v o l u t i o n which must b r i n g the i d e a l i n t o b e i n g . The l a t t e r work, t a k i n g i t s cue from the Communist Ma n i f e s t o , e n v i s i o n s the time when the c l a s s s t r u g g l e w i l l have broken out i n t o open warfare. At such a time, the working c l a s s and the r u l i n g c l a s s w i l l contend i n a l i f e -and-death s t r u g g l e , the former c l a s s to achieve mastery, the l a t t e r c l a s s t o m a i n t a i n i t . The i n e v i t a b i l i t y of such a s t r u g g l e i s Communist d o c t r i n e . Noah and the Waters expresses a supreme confidence i n the u l t i m a t e victo r y of the F l o o d . T h i s confidence I s a l s o a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of communists, f o r communists b e l i e v e w i t h the s t r e n g t h of a f a i t h , t h a t a l l the f o r c e s of s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n are w i t h them, and t h a t the 122 u l t i m a t e triumph of t h e i r M e a l s i s onl y a matter of time. In 1936, I t would seem that Lewis was an i n t e l l e c t u a l commun-i s t , whose l a c k of emotional urge or whose p e c u l i a r r e f l e c t -i v e temperament prevented him from becoming an a c t i v e member of the Communist P a r t y . Since then, as I s h a l l t r y to shew, Lewis has moved somewhat to the r i g h t of t h a t extreme p o s i t i o n . PART THREE A statement of W. B. Yeats which f i n d s i t s way i n t o many books of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s t h a t , " 0 u t of your q u a r r e l w i t h others we make rhetor!cy. but out of our q u a r r e l w i t h o u r s e l v e s , p o e t r y . " T h i s statement belongs with those which t a n t a l i z e the re a d e r by sometimes seeming q u i t e c l e a r , and at others d e f y i n g p r e c i s e e x p l a n a t i o n . I t i s a s t a t e -ment which prompts one t o say, "Yes, I f e e l t h a t i t expresses a fundamental t r u t h , y e t I cannot e x p l a i n i t or paraphrase i t without d e s t r o y i n g a p a r t of i t s meaning." The p o i n t I wish to make here i s t h a t Lewis, sinne 1936, has become i n c r e a s i n g l y e x p r e s s i v e of the " q u a r r e l w i t h h i m s e l f " . He concerns h i m s e l f more and more wit h h i s own c o n f l i s t s , h i s own problems, l e s s and l e s s with the problems of s o c i e t y . This does not mean th a t there are no more poems on d i r e c t p o l i t i c a l themes, But even the poems which do concern them-s e l v e s with p o l i t i c a l themes are more r e s t r a i n e d than Noah and the Waters, l e s s o b v i o u s l y p o l i t i c a l , p o s s i b l y l e s s 123. c o n f i d e n t l y s o c i a l i s t i c . Two poems which are s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r s of t h i s change of emphasis are "The C o n f l i c t " and " I n Me Two Worlds". Both these contemplative l y r i c s appeared among the ten poems which precede the l i t t l e poem i n A Time To Dance. "The C o n f l i c t " expresses the c o n f l i c t w i t h i n a man's mind, poss-i b l y the poet's, between a d e s i r e not to be concerned w i t h -s o c i a l or p o l i t i c a l problems, and the n e c e s s i t y of choosing a s i d e , of making a d e c i s i o n . As the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s i n d i c a t e , there i s no such t h i n g as n e u t r a l i t y i n life' Yet l i v i n g here, As one between two massing powers I l i v e Whom n e u t r a l i t y cannot save N 0 r occupation cheer. (1) To those who say they are "detached" or "unconcerned", Lewis r e p l i e s t h a t they l i v e i n a no-man's l a n d , "and onl y ghosts can l i v e between two f i r e s " . | The poem, "In Me Two Worlds" i s a twin poem i n many r e s p e c t s . The c o n f l i c t i n t h i s poem i s between a l l the f o r c e s w i t h i n the poet which h o l d him t o the past and a l l the f o r c e s w i t h i n him which p u l l him t o -wards the f u t u r e . Both these poems are i n d i r e c t l y concerned with the p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n , of course, but o n l y i n d i r e c t l y ; both poems are p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h the emotional c o n f l i c t w i t h i n the poet's mind. Lewis i s " q u a r r e l i n g with h i m s e l f " i n a way he does not do i n Noah. T h i s i n n e r q u a r r e l i n g i s a h e a l t h y s i g n I t h i n k . (1) A Time To Dance, "The C o n f l i c t " . , 11. 17-20. c 124. Another t r e n d seems to he d e v e l o p i n g i n h i s l a t e r poems. Lewis begins t o put emphasis on a s e m i - m y s t i c a l con-c e p t i o n of l o v e and comradeship as a b a s i s of p r o g r e s s i v e s o c i a l change. He has moved s l o w l y from the p o l i t i c a l b a s i s of s o c i a l i s m t o the e t h i c a l b a s i s of l o v e . I t i s a change of emphasis which Auden s i m i l a r l y made i n The Double Man. The Ideas of l o v e and comradeship b e g i n t o appear i n such e a r l y w r i t i n g s as A Hope F o r Poetry. I n t h i s essay, speak-i n g about a c r y i n g need of contemporary man, he w r i t e s • That i s why, speaking from the l i v i n g u n i t of h i m s e l f and h i s f r i e n d s , he appeals f o r the c o n t r a c t i o n of the s o c i a l group t o a s i z e at which human c o n t a c t may again he e s t a b l i s h e d and demands the d e s t r u c t i o n of a l l Impediments to l o v e . (1) Just how the s o c i a l group i s to be c o n t r a c t e d t o the d e s i r -able s i z e i s a problem. P o s s i b l y Lewis b e l i e v e s ' s o c i a l i s m w i l l s u pply an answer, f o r In The Magnetic Mountain he wrote t h a t , " V i l l a g e or f a c t o r y s h a n form the u n i t " (2) and t h a t , "Men s h a l l be glad of company, lov e s h a l l be more than a guest." (3) A poem c a l l e d "The A s s e r t i o n " probably c o n t a i n s the most profound a p p l i c a t i o n of h i s conception of s o c i a l l o v e , a conception which, "apprehends love a s a k i n d of n e c e s s i t y by which a l l t h i n g s are bound tog e t h e r and i n which, c o u l d the whole p a t t e r n be seen, t h e i r c o n t r a d i c t i o n s would appear r e c o n c i l e d " . (4) The i d e a expressed i n the l a s t q u o t a t i o n i s not a new one. (1) A Hope Fo r Poetry, 206. (2) The Magnetic Mountain,. "Poem T h i r t y - F o u r " , 1. 15. (3) The Magnetic Mountain. "Poem T h i r t y - F o u r " , 1. 23. (4) The P o e t i c Image., 37. 125 The c o n c e p t i o n of ah o v e r a l l p l a n which, i f understood, would e x p l a i n the paradoxes of l i f e , appears i n some shape i n n e a r l y a l l modern r e l i g i o n s . Indeed, such a b e l i e f i s i n e v i t a b l e concomitant of the i d e a of an omnipotent and benevolent d e i t y . P a i n , s u f f e r i n g , even war - i f the o v e r a m p l a n c o u l d be p e r c e i v e d - would be seen as n e c e s s a r y p i e c e s i n an harmonious p i c t u r e . Lewis expresses the Idea i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : Love's the b i g boss at whose s i d e f o r ever slouches The shadow.of the gunman: he's mortar and dynamitej Antelope, d r i n k i n g p o o l , but the t i g e r too t h a t ra crouches. (1) These l i n e s express the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t j o y and p a i n , or good and e v i l are opposltes n e i t h e r vstf which can e x i s t w i t h -out the o t h e r . The mood of fhe l i n e s i s one of acceptance. There i s acceptance, too, i n many of the p o l i t i c a l poems i n Short I s The Time, A l o t of water has flowed i n t o the sea s i n c e the d e p r e s s i o n days of the e a r l y " T h i r t i e s . The l a c k of markets which slowed the assembly l i n e s of c a p i t a l i s m t o a stop had been more than remedied by the i n s a t i a b l e demands of war. S c a r c i t y i s the l i f e - b l o o d of i n d u s t r y . The economic c r i s i s f o r the moment had been a v e r t e d . The worker's r e v o l u t i o n receded f u r t h e r i n t o the f u t u r e . The s o c i a l i s t s marked time. The r e v o l u t i o n a r y ardour which keyed up books l i k e The Magnetic Mountain and Noah and the Waters i s n o t i c e a b l y (1) Short I s The Time. "The A s s e r t i o n " . 11. 16-18. 126 l a c k i n g i n the l y r i c s of Short I s The Time. There i s an i n c r e a s e d awareness of the shades tnat e x i s t between b l a c k and w h i t e . "Not so sure", arid "Iwonder" r e p l a c e the con-f i d e n c e of "I know". Consequently, he can say: Boredom, the d u l l r e p e t i t i v e d e l a y , Opponents t r i c k y c a l l , the d i s c o n t e n t Of f r i e n d s , seem t o deny what h i s t o r y meant Mien f i r s t she showed her hand f o r you to p l a y . (1) These l i n e s sum up the disappointment w i t h which l e f t - w i n g t h i n k e r s r e a l i z e d t h a t the s o l c i a l i s m they had expected to e s t a b l i s h d u r i n g t h e i r l i v e s wag s t i l l f a r away i n the f u t u r e . Sometimes the mood i s c l o s e t o e x a s p e r a t i o n at the slowness of change and the deferment of hopes, as i n "Questions": How long w i l l you keep t h i s pose of s e l f - c o n f e s s e d And aspen h e s i t a t i o n D i t h e r i n g on the b r i n k , obsessed Immobilized by the feminine f a s c i n a t i o n Of an image a l l your own, Or doubting which i s shadow, which i s hone? (2) The q u e s t i o n which the above q u o t a t i o n frames might be addressed t o h i m s e l f , or to the undecided i n t e l l e c t u a l , or to the working c l a s s i n g e n e r a l . The poet complains t h a t r e f l e c t i o n i s p a r a l y z i n g to a c t i o n , and he wonders what huge catastrophe w i l l be necessary to shock mankind i n t o c r e a t i n g a b e t t e r s o c i a l system f o r i t s e l f . In h i s l a t e r poems, Lewis o f t e n looks w i t h a wry s m i l e at the e n t h u s i a s t i c dreams which had seemed so c l o s e (1) Short I s The Time. "Questions", 11. 1-6. 127. to r e a l i z a t i o n s Waking, how f a l s e i n o u t l i n e and i n hue We f i n d the dreams t h a t f l i c k e r e d on our cave, ( l ) P o s s i b l y Lewis f e e l s t h a t there has been,too much dream-i n g , not enough f a c i n g of r e a l i t y . L i n e s l i k e these would seem to i n d i c a t e t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y : , Ah, not i n dreams, but when our souls engage With the common mesh and m o i l , we come of age. (2) I have r e f e r r e d t o the growing p o l i t i c a l d i s i l l u s i o n which c h a r a c t e r i z e s much of Lewis* more recent p o e t r y . D i s i l l u s i o n may be the wrong word. I t i s not so much d i s -i l l u s i o n a s a n a t u r a l ebbing of the enthusiasm of youth. Lewis* changed a t t i t u d e i s p a r t l y the r e s u l t of changed world c o n d i t i o n s , t o be sure, but i t i s even mofe the r e s u l t of the poet*s gfowing o l d e r , and of the growing burden of wisdom. A c y c l e of seven poems e n t i t l e d , Overtures To Death, i s probably the f i n e s t e x p r e s s i o n of t h i s new and fjfrmly r e a l i s t i c view of l i f e . I n t h i s c y c l e , Lewis chats with death as an i n t i m a t e f r i e n d or a neSr r e l a t i v e , a d d r e s s i n g him.as " S i r " or " M i s t e r " . "Poem One" t a l k s about the immanence of death i n a s o c i e t y which i s i t s e l f d y i n g . The second poem l i k e n s death to a b a i l i f f who i s f o r e c l o s i n g a mortgage. In "Poem Three", a dramatic monologue i n blank v e r s e , the poet speaks (1) Short Is The Time, "0 Dreams 0 D e s t i n a t i o n s , Sonnet, Forcr", ! • 11. 12-13. ( 2 ) Short Is The Time. "0 Dreams 0 D e s t i n a t i o n s , Sonnet S i x " , 11. 13-14. 128. f a m i l i a r l y t o death, and without rancour. On the c o n t r a r y , he can compliment death w i t h such words as these: Happiest i n our nervous time, who name you Peace. You are the peace t h a t m i l l i o n s d i e f o r . (1) L e w i s 1 argument i s with d e a t h ' 3 "damned a u x i l i a r i e s " who rep r e s e n t the r e a c t i o n a r y f o r c e s i n s o c i e t y , and who cause - - - s t u n t e d h e a r t s t h a t droop by our o l i v e - g r e e n Canals, the blossom of c h i l d r e n u n t i m e l y s h a t t e r e d By t h e i r crazed, random f i r e , and the f e a r l i k e a b l a c k f r o s t F o r e s h o r t e n i n g our pro s p e c t , m e t a l l i c on our tongues. (2) Lewis' q u a r r e l w i t h these "damned a u x i l i a r i e s " i s t h a t they d e p r i v e our short l i f e of that w e l l - b e i n g which i s our due. I n "Poem Four", the poet a s k s death t o te a c h men the value of t h e i r s t a y , l e s t they " i n s u l t the l i v i n g c l a y " . "Poem F i v e " expresses the knowledge t h a t the t h r e a d of l i f e i s indeed f l i m s y , and l i a b l e t o break at any moment. The s i x t h poem exhorts man to l i v e h i s l i f e t o the f u l l . I t i s Lewis' z e s t f o r l i f e which makes him f e a r the dimming of the senses t h a t comes with age, "the downward graph of n a t u r a l j o y s " . He a s s e r t s t h a t the bes t way to l i v e a f u l l l i f e i s t o achieve t h a t balance of " r a d i a n t f l e s h " and " r e c e p t i v e s p i r i t " which makes l i v i n g v i b r a n t and harmonious. T h i s harmony of f l e s h and s p i r i t remains h i s c e n t r a l theme: he has not changed h i s mind. The f i n a l poem i s Overtures To Death concerns I t s e l f w i t h the worm i n the rose of s o c i e t y . (1) Short I s The Time, "Overtures To Death, *Poem Three", 11. 26-27. (2) Short I s The Time, "Overtures To Death* Poem Three" 11. 42-45. ' 129. Death l u r k s everywhere i n the contemporary world - among the "tornado wheels" of v e h i c l e s and machines, i n war, i n the f ' f a b r i c of s o c i e t y i t s e l f . Lewis concludes the c y c l e by a s s u r i n g death t h a t men of v i s i o n w i l l h e l p him to end a s o c i a l system which no longer i s f i t t o l i v e . T t may seem p a r a d o x i c a l that a chapter which began w i t h thoughts of a new l i f e s h o u l d end w i t h thoughts of d e a t h . The Magnetic Mountain r e v e a l e d a f a i t h i n a s o c i a l i s t s o c i e t y which would r e u n i t e f l e s h and s p i r i t , e s t a b l i s h l o n g - l o s t k i n s h i p and r e s t o r e the blood's f u l f i l m e n t . Noah and the Waters ended w i t h the triumph of the F l o o d . In com-p a r i s o n , Overtures to Death seems to be a r e t r e a t . But a c t u a l l y , n o t h i n g c o u l d be f a r t h e r from the t r u t h . I n the l a t t e r poem Lewis t a l k s w i t h death because he i s a l l the more anxious to come to g r i p s w i t h l i f e . The poem i s i n -s p i r e d by the knowledge t h a t the shortness of l i f e makes i t that much more urgent to p e r f e c t s o c i e t y so t h a t l i f e may be enjoyed t o i t s f u l l measure, and so t h a t " l i f e ' s green sta n d a r d s " may be advanced t o the l i m i t of death's " s a l t u n y i e l d i n g zone". Day Lewis has not l o s t h i s f a i t h i n s o c i a l i s m . But times have changed and he has grown w i s e r . T h e e v o l u t i o n of man's s o c i e t y i s a slow process, and nature w i l l not be h u r r i e d . But h i s f a i t h remains, f a i t h i n a time when, 130 th9 mounting stages of oppression L i k e mazed and makeshift s c a f f o r d i n g t o r n down Reveal h i s unexampled, b e s t c r e a t i o n -The shape of man's n e c e s s i t y f u l l - g r o w n . B u i l t from t h e i r hone, I see a power-house stand To warn men's h e a r t s again and l i g h t the l a n d . (1) Note t h a t the l i g h t h o u s e i s " b u i l t from t h e i r bone". I t i s b u i l t by happy men whose f l e s h and s p i r i t s i n g i n u n i s o n . 131 CHAPTER VT IN THE ACT OF DECISION PART ONE L i f e has been compared to many t h i n g s . I r e c a l l p a r t i c u l a r l y the passage i n Bede's H i s t o r i a E c c l e s l a s t l c a i n which he l i k e n s l i f e t o a sparrow t h a t f l i e s out of the stormy darkness i n t o a g r e a t h a l l where thegns are f e a s t i n g at the board, and a great f i r e i s b l a z i n g at the h e a r t h . The sparrow f e e l s the warmth and knows the l i g h t f o r a few moments, then f l i e s out the other end of the h a l l i n t o the c o l d and the n i g h t . So Bede emphasizes the b r e v i t y and inconsequence of i n d i v i d u a l l i f e . Robert Burn's c o u p l e t from Tarn O'Shanter i s ' equally a p p l i c a b l e to l i f e : Or l i k e the s n o w ' f a l l s i n the r i v e r , A moment white - then melts f o r ever. Burns emphasizes, l i k e Bede, the t r a n s i e n c e of l i f e . Though i n d i v i d u a l l i f e i s a l l too sh o r t f o r most of us, yet t h e r e i s much about l i f e t h a t g i v e s the im p r e s s i o n of an e t e r n a l p r o g r e s s i o n . A man d i e s , but some p a r t of him remains i n h i s c h i l d r e n or I n h i s works. A man d i e s , but the race l i v e s on, and p o s s i b l y moves forward. There has been much w r i t t e n about the t r a n s i e n c e of l i f e ; but not so much about i t s c o n t i n u i t y . Lewis i s aware of the b r e v i t y and inconsequence of l i f e , 132. but he i s ^.lso conscious of i t s c o n t i n u a l p r o g r e s s i o n . Lewis, I t h i n k , might compare l i f e t o a c i r c u l a r s t a i r c a s e whose base and top are l o s t i n the s w i r l i n g m ists of the unknown. L i f e i s never s t a t i c , Lewis contends, f o r man must go ever upwards; the present i s always t r e m b l i n g between the past and the f u t u r e . Time i s a s i n g l e s p i r a l , l i k e the s t a i r c a s e ; Past, p r e s e n t , and f u t u r e are one. Lewis might add t h a t Past, p r esent, and f u t u r e are l i k e w i s e i n s e p a r a b l e i n h i s concepts of h i s t o r y . Present and f u t u r e are rooted i n the Past, and can be understood o n l y i n so f a r as the past i s understood. A s i m i l a r Idea about time arid t r a d i t i o n i s express-ed by Joseph Conrad i n the Preface to The Nigger of the N a r c i s s u s . I n t h i s P r e f a c e , Conrad gi v e s us h i s a e s t h e t i c c r e e d . I t i s a creed which Lewis might be s a t i s f i e d t o c a l l h i s own, f o r Conrad, l i k e Lewis, i s conscious of the i n t r i c a t e l o c k i n g which binds pa s t , present, and f u t u r e i n t o u n i t y . Conrad w r i t e s as f o l l o w s : the a r t i s t , he says, speaks to our c a p a c i t y f o r d e l i g h t and wonder, to the sense of mystery surround-i n g our l i v e s ; t o our sense of p i t y , and beauty, and p a i n ; to the l a t e n t f e e l i n g of f e l l o w s h i p w i t h a l l c r e a t i o n - and to the s u b t l e but i n v i n c i b l e c o n v i c t i o n of s o l i d a r i t y t h a t k n i t s t o g e t h e r the l o n e l i n e s s of innumerable h e a r t s , to the s o l i d a r i t y i n dreams, i n j o y , i n sorrow, i n a s p i r a t i o n s , i n i l l u s i o n s , i n hope i n f e a r , which binds men to each other, which binds t o g e t h e r a l l humanity - the dead to the l i v i n g and the l i v i n g toTKe unborn, ( l ) ( i t a l i c s mine) When Conrad speaks of the "sense of mystery surrounding our T D J . Conrad, P r e f a c e , "The Nigger of The N a r c i s s u s " , A Conrad Argosy, New York, Doubleday, Doran And Co., 1W4K, P? "HI-82 133. l i v e s " , w e are reminded that the e v o c a t i o n of t h a t mystery i s one of h i s f i n e s t accomplishments i n w r i t i n g . He even i n v e s t s the i d e a of t r a d i t i o n w i t h mystery, p a r t l y because, i n . p l a c e of a b s t r a c t i o n s such as past, present, and f u t u r e , he uses "the dead", "the l i v i n g " , and "the unborn". C h a p t e r sW and V 0 f t h i s essay attempted to show how Lewis emphasized the n e c e s s i t y of l i v i n g man r e p a i r i n g the d i v o r c e between h i s f l e s h and h i s s p i r i t , and between him-s e l f and h i s f e l l o w men. He spoke o f ' t h e " i n t e g r a l s p i r i t " , and the "communal sense", and of " r e s t o r i n g l o n g - l o s t k i n s h i p , the blood's f u l f i l m e n t " . I t f o l l o w s from t h i s t h a t s i n c e p a s t , present, and f u t u r e are one, the " l o n g S l o s t k i n s h i p " must be r e s t o r e d between the l i v i n g and the dead ancestors of the race, and must reach f a r up the s p i r a l s t a i r c a s e i n t o the f u t u r e , t o the h e i r s . By " l i v i n g " a n c e s t o r s I mean th a t the i d e a s of the f u t u r e b e i n g b u i l t on the present, and the present on* the past i s so v i t a l , t h a t one must c o n s i d e r l i v i n g man the p o t e n t i a l a n c e s t o r of those y e t unborn. The l i v i n g are j u s t as much ancestors of f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s , as the dead are ancestors of the l i v i n g . The e n t i r e c o n c e p t i o n of t r a d i t i o n takes on added meaning when l i v i n g man r e a l i z e s he w i l l i n l a r g e measure determine the f a t e of the unborn, and when t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n i s of such f o r c e that i t moulds and d i r e c t s h i s present a c t i o n s . Hence s o c i a l consciousness and s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s p r o j e c t e d to i n c l u d e f u t u r e 134. generations as w e l l as the p r e s e n t . Man g e n e r a l l y , and the a r t i s t , s p e c i f i c a l l y , heaause of h i s more s e n s i t i v e antennae, must seek to h i n d "the dead to the l i v i n g and the l i v i n g t o the unborn". Lewis says much the same t h i n g when he w r i t e s ! S t a n d i n g at the end of an epoch,, the poet's arms are s t r e t c h e d out t o o p p o s i t e p o l e s , the o l d l i f e and the new; t h a t i s h i s power and h i s c r u c i f i x i o n . (1) I t i s the poet's "power" because, s t a n d i n g i n the present., h i s o u t s t r e t c h e d arms make e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t w i t h both the past and f u t u r e , and the e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t of an understanding g r e a t e r than h i s f e l l o w s are capable o f , surges through h i s body. T h i s experience i s the poet's " c r u c i f i x i o n " because he knows more than h i s f e l l o w s , and-he s u f f e r s f o r t h a t knowledge. The poet's f a t e i s s i m i l a r to the f a t e of T i r e s i a s , whom P a l l a s Athene cursed w i t h the words: thou hast seen too much, And speak the t r u t h t hat no man may b e l i e v e . (2) The poet's f a t e a l s o b r i n g s t o mind C h r i s t ' s f a t e , f o r He too s u f f e r e d f o r what He was, at the hands of u n b e l i e v i n g man. There i s a f i n e poem i n the volume, A Time To Dance, which bears d i r e c t l y on the matter I am d i s c u s s i n g . "Johnny Head - I n - A i r " i s a v i s i o n expressed i n b a l l a d form. I t (1) A Hope For Poetry, 218. (2) Tennyson, A l f r e d , T i r e s i a s , 11. 48-49. 135 i s a v i s i o n of the human race s t r u g g l i n g "over anoendless wold", on a never-ending road t h a t " r e e l s hack a m i l l i o n m i l e s " . The poet sees mankind come t o a h a l t before "sheer, u n f i s s u r e d w a l l s " , They have come to the c r i s i s of the road, They have come without maps or g u i d e s : To l e f t and r i g h t along the n i g h t The c r y p t i c way d i v i d e s . (1) And there i n f r o n t of t h a t endless company Is a s i g n p o s t , a man whose arms are p o i n t i n g t o east and west, l i k e the arms of the poet, l i k e the arms of a C h r i s t . The man i s Johnny -Head - In - A i r , whose fa c e was pure a s the winnowed l i g h t When the w i l d geese f l y h i g h , And g e n t l e as on October evenings The heron-feathered sky. (2) The company of t r a v e l l e r s ask Johnny the c o r r e c t path to take, and he r e p l i e s t h a t the path to the l e f t i s the one. As the t r a v e l l e r s move on, they ask Johnny t o come w i t h them, and he r e p l i e s , That cannot be t i l l two agree Who l o n g have l a i n a p a r t : T r a v e l l e r , know, I am here to show Your own d i v i d e d h e a r t . (3) Once agai n the poet r e a f f i r m s h i s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t d i v i s i o n , d i v o r c e , i s the g r e a t enemy of mankind. I t i s a d i v o r c e ' which separates f l e s h finom s p i r i t , man from man, the f u t u r e from the present, and the present from the p a s t . Johnny, , (1) A Time To Dance. "Johnny - Head - I n - A i r " , 11. 61-64. (2) A Time To Dance. "Johnny - Head - I n - A i r " , 11. 69-72. (3) A Time To Dance. "Johnny - Head - I n - A i r " , 11. 141-144. 136 too, s u f f e r s , l i k e the poet because he has s u p e r i o r knowledge; he sees the d i v i s i o n i n men's h e a r t s . That i s h i s power and h i s c r u c i f i x i o n , f o r h i s arms s t r e t c h to the past and the f u t u r e l i k e the poet's, l i k e C h r i s t ' s . How can the past be used by man i n a conscious way? Lewis emphasized r e p e a t e d l y the n e c e s s i t y of u s i n g i n any. f u t u r e s o c i e t y a l l t h a t i s b e s t i n the p a s t and the present s o c i e t y . The term " r e v o l u t i o n a r y conservation!' (1) was used by John Strachey to d e s c r i b e a s i m i l a r i d e a . Lewis r e -f e r s t o the i d e a i n a number of poems. In fhe Magnetic Mountain, he w r i t e s : The t r e e g r i p s s o i l , the b i r d Knows how to use the wind; But the f u l l man must l i v e Hooted y e t unconfirmed. (2) A p l a n t must have i t s r o o t s i n the s o i l , but i f i t i s to. t h r i v e , i t must have sun, and a i r , and moisture from the s k i e s , I t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Scandinavian mythology symbolizes l i f e a s the great t r e e , I g d r a s i l , which i s watered by three Nomas or Pates - the Past, Present, and F u t u r e . i n The Magnetic Mountain. Lewis v a r i e s the metaphor by d e s c r i b i n g the new world i n terms of a boat be-i n g b u i l t on the s t a y s : Many months have gone to h e r making, Wood well-seasoned f o r w a t e r t i g h t doors, The o l d world's be s t i n her r i b s and b a l l a s t , White-heat, h i g h pressure (3) (1) c f . Strachey, John, L i t e r a t u r e and D i a l e c t i c a l M a t e r i a l -ism,- New York, C o v i c i - F r i e d e , 1934, 46. (2) The Magnetic Mountain, "Poem F i f t e e n " , 11. 17-20. (3) The Magnetic Mountain "Poem Twenty-Nine", 11. 21-24. 137. T r a d i t i o n i s the e a r t h from which the pl a n t of s o c i e t y grows. And the new le a v e s themselves d i e i n time and f a l l i n t o the ear t h of t r a d i t i o n , ever e n r i c h i n g i t . T r a d i t i o n i n v o l v e s the h i s t o r i c a l sense, which sees not on l y , to use a q u o t a t i o n by T. S. E l i o t , "the pastness of the p a s t " , out i t s presence, and "compels a man to w r i t e not merely with h i s own geneea-t i o n i n h i s bones, but wit h a f e e l i n g t h a t the whole of the l i t e r a t u r e of Europe from Homer, and w i t h i n i t the whole of the l i t e r a t u r e of h i s own country ha«? a simultaneous e x i s t -ence and composes a simultaneous o r d e r . " ( i ) Lewis and E l i o t are a l i k e i n t h i s , t h a t they both have a profound grasp of the way t r a d i t i o n makes a oneness of time. Lewis might p o s s i b l e express h i m s e l f d i f f e r e n t l y ; he might say that t r a d i t i o n i s change, and t h a t change i s t r a d i t i o n . . PART TWO In h i s prose and i n h i s poetry, Lewis f r e q u e n t l y uses the word " a n c e s t o r " . The term needs t o be d e f i n e d . Lewis has d e s c r i b e d " a n c e s t o r s " i n t h i s way: We c l a i m f o r these " r e a l a n c e s t o r s " only t h i s : t h a t g r e a t men, heroes, men who have seemed t o l i v e , at a h i g h e r pressure than the r e s t , can brim over i n t o p o s t e r i t y . T h e i r i m m o r t a l i t y i s not through l i p - s e r v i c e and stone monuments, nor i n any act of, memory: i t i s not e x t e r n a l t o us, but works i n o u r minds, our b l o o d and our bones. (2) (1) T. S. E l i o t , The Sacred Wood^£Lond@&, Methuen and Co. L t d . , (2) A Hope F o r Poetry. 164. 1932,49. 138. This d e s c r i p t i o n i m p l i e s a number of t h i n g s . I t i m p l i e s that g r e a t men are the s e r v a n t s of t r a d i t i o n ; they are the a c t i v e agents t h a t v i t a l i z e the working of the past i n the p r e s e n t . T h e i r work "brims over" i n t o the present, to use Lewis 1 term, and becomes a p a r t of those who wish to work i n the same t r a d i t i o n . Choosing an ancestor compels a man, t h e r e -f o r e , t o make a l s o a choice of ends. The work of many gre a t men "brim over" i n t o p o s t e r i t y , but i f one d i s a g r e e s with the aims of a great man, one w i l l c e r t a i n l y not choose him as an a n c e s t o r . T h e r e f o r e , i n choosing h i s " a n c e s t o r s " , a man must choose an i d e o l o g y which he undertakes to p r o j e c t i n t o the f u t u r e . I n the same way, a poet must choose the type of poetry he wishes t o - p r o j e c t i n t o the f u t u r e . ( 1 ) T. S. E l i o t makes t h i s p o i n t c l e a r when speaking of the poet i n an essay e n t i t l e d , "Music of Poetry", he w r i t e s • he i s nlways t r y i n g t o defend the k i n d of p o e t r y he i s w r i t i n g , or to formulate the k i n d t hat he wants to w r i t e . he sees the p o e t r y of the past i n reaction t o his own: and h i s g r a t i t u d e to those dead poets from whom he has l e a r n e d , as w e l l as h i s i n d i f f e r e n c e t o those whose aims have been a l i e n t o h i s own, may be exaggerated. He i s not so much a judge as an advocate. (2) Lewis' i d e a of an "ancestor" i s a type of hero-worship, but h i s type of hero-worship goes deeper than C a r l y l e ' s . The heroes i n Heroes And Hero-fforship are revered " i n an act of memory"; and that i s p r e c i s e l y what Lewis does not mean. (1) Lewis claims Hopkins, Owen, and T.S. E l i o t among h i s p o e t i c a n c e s t o r s . T h i s matter w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter IX. (2) T.S. E l i o t , "The Music of Poetry", The P a r t i s a n Reader, ed. W. P h i l l i p s and P. Rahv, New York, D i a l P ress, 1946, 496. 139. C a r l y l e admires h i s heroes, whether Oden, May,omet, Dante, Luther, or Napoleon, f o r the manner i n which they c r e a t e i d e a s . He i s not so much concerned with the matter of t h e i r i d e a s . C a r l y l e b e l i e v e s t h a t man makes h i s t o r y . He says: U n i v e r s a l H i s t o r y , the h i s t o r y of what man has accomplished i n t h i s world, i s at bottom the H i s t o r y of the Great Men who have worked here . (1) Lewis on the other hand, b e l i e v e s t h a t h i s t o r y makes man. The i d e a s are a l r e a d y here, he b e l i e v e s , and a man must choose the i d e a s he wishes to p r o j e c t , so t h a t he h i m s e l f may become an ancestor to those as y e t unborn. To sum up then, when a man chooses h i s ancestors he t e l l s us h i s p o i n t of view. A man would not choose Ad o l f H i t l e r as an ancestor, though he i s an h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e who w i l l "brim over" i n t o p o s t e r i t y , i f the Nazi i d e o l o g y were not a l s o h i s own. A man must take s i d e s , as h i s " a n c e s t o r s " d i d i n t h e i r time. Lewis f i r s t mentions the a n c e s t o r i d e a i n the epilogue to Prom Feathers To I r o n . T h i s e p i l o g u e takes the form of t h r e e s o n n e t - l e t t e r s t o W. H. Auden. He l i k e n s Auden t o a mole, "the anonymous miner", " N o i s i n g among Saxon s k u l l s , r oots of our g e n e a l o g i e s " . Lewis f r e q u e n t l y uses the symbol-ism of a mole to d e s c r i b e the r e v o l u t i o n a r y . (2) Reference i s - a l s o made t o " a n c e s t o r s " i n The Magnetic Mountain. In d e s c r i b i n g the "Enemies" c o l l e c t i v e l y , he w r i t e s : (1) C a r l y l e Thomas, Heroes and Hero-Worship. New York, Thomas ' Y. C r o w e l l Co., 1. (2) c f . " L e t t e r To A Young R e v o l u t i o n a r y " i n New Country, p. 30; and Noah and the Waters, p. 51. 140. Leaders t o no sure l a n d , guides t h e i r h e a r i n g s l o s t Or i n league wifih robbers have reversed the s i g n p i s t s , . D i s r e s p e c t f u l to a n c e s t o r s , i r r e s p o n s i b l e t o h e i r s . ( l ) One should n o t i c e how Lewis l i n k s the past and the f u t u r e i n the l a s t l i n e . The f u l l e s t e x p r e s s i o n of ancestor-worship, however, i s to be found i n "A Time To Dance", which i s the s t o r y of two heroes, t o l d In memory of another dead hero, f o r the e n l i g h t -enment of a world almost without h e r o e s . Lewis d e s c r i b e s h i s airmen as those, whose p a s s i o n Brimmed over the deep grave and d a z z l e d e p i t a p h s : F o r a l l t h a t have won us w.ings t o c l e a r the tops of g r i e f . (2) And l a t e r i n the same prefaXjtory stanzas to great men, he wrote: T h e i r s p i r i t s f l o a t serene above time's roughest reaches, But t h e i r seed i s i n us and over our l i v e s they are evergreen. (3) The i m m o r t a l i t y of the aneestor does not r e s i d e " i n any act of memory" Lewis wrote. T h i s i d e a f i n d s a p o e t i c r e - l t e r a t f c o n i n the l a s t two l i n e s of the above q u o t a t i o n . T h e he r o e s ' i n f l u e n c e works " i n our minds, our bloo d and our bones". (4) Lewis never t i r e s of r e p e a t i n g t h i s theme i n "A Time To Dance". The poem i s d e d i c a t e d t o L. P. Hedges, a young f r i e n d of the (1) The Magnetic Mountain. "Poem Twenty-Five". 11. 2-4. (2) A Time To Dance. "A Time To Dance", 11. 6-10, p. 31. (3) A Time To Dance., "A Time To Dance*,' p. 31. (4) A Hope F o r Poetry, 164. 141. poetij who d i e d suddenly. The impact of h i s death upon Lewis i s q u i t e r e m i n i s c e n t of that of Hallam's death on Tennyson. Hedges was a hero i n the poet's d e f i n i t i o n , and Lewis con-t i n u a l l y a s s e r t s t h a t Hedges' p e r s o n a l i t y has not d i e d , hut l i v e s w i t h i n the poet h i m s e l f . He does so i n l i n e s such as these: F o r I knew, at l a s t w h o lly a c c e p t i n g death, Though e a r t h had taken h i s body and a i r h i s b r e a t h , He was not i n heaven or e a r t h : he was i n me. (1) The same i d e a f i n d s e x p r e s s i o n i n the l i n e s which f o l l o w : Each s t o p p i n g - p l a c e Wears h i s look of welcome. May even f i n d , When I come to the snow-line, the b i t t e r end, His hand-holds cut on death's t e r r i f i c f a c e . (2) In such verse as t h i s , Lewis uses sharp and concrete imagery to p o i n t up an emotional s t a t e of mind. He does i t ve r y we&L, I t h i n k , s a t i s f y i n g M i l t o n ' s dictum that p o e t r y should be "simple, sensuous, p a s s i o n a t e " ' So the e t e r n a l s p i r i t of our anc e s t o r s l i v e s on i n •us, as Hedges' s p i r i t l i v e s on i n the poet: T h e i r s p i r i t s h a l l be blowing out 6f the s u n r i s e , T h e i r v e i n s our r i v e r s , t h e i r bones our bread. (3) P A R T T H R E E > " L e w i s p r i z e s h i g h l y the w i l l i n men which leads to a c t i o n . Such a w i l l i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of those whom he c o n s i d e r s h i s a n c e s t o r s . The c a r r y i n g through of a course of a c t i o n , (1) A Time To Dance. " A Time To Dance", p. 47. (2) A Time To Dance, " A Time To Dance", p. 49. (5) A Time To Dance, " A Time To Dance", p. 64. 142. deemed necessary at the moment, to the best of one's a b i l i t y , c o n s t i t u t e s henoic a c t i o n . Heroism i s understanding f i r s t , and then the w i l l t o act i n the l i g h t of t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g . Heroism makes f o r that e x h i l a r a t i o n of s p i r i t one experiences i n every moment of d e c i s i o n . I t i s the n e g a t i o n of dilemma. I t i s the razor-edge d e t e r m i n a a t i o n which i s the a n t i t h e s i s of the confused groping found i n T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem. I t i s the n e g a t i o n of i n e r t i a , because the f l e s h and the s p i r i t and the mind are unanimous i n c r y i n g out f o r a c t i o n . Heroism i s , the w i l l t o prove Your case, though t h a t word And c l i n c h i n g argument should be your death. (1) I t w i l l be remembered t h a t i n The Magnetic Mountain Lewis spent much time l i s t i n g and examining the "Defendants" of the o l d system and the "Enemies" of the new. "Defendants" and "Enemies" a l i k e e i t h e r embodied the d i v o r c e of f l e s h and s p i r i t which p a r a l y z e d a c t i o n , or m i n i s t e r e d t o such a d i v o r c e i n o t h e r s . I n a sense, then, what Lewis was c r i t i z i n g was the absence of heroes; t h a t i s t o say, the absence of h e r o i c a c t i o n i n a s o c i e t y which needs i t more than ever b e f o r e i n h i s t o r y . No b i r t h i s p o s s i b l e without s t r u g g l e , without f i s t - c l e n c h i n g , and the "elan v i t a l " of w i l l i s e s p e c i a l l y needed f o r the b i r t h of a new s o c i e t y . Lewis h i m s e l f knows the pangs of i n d e c i s i o n . He needs (1) A Time To Dance. "A Time To Dance", p. 57. 143. the conscious goad of a s t r o n g w i l l to keep him moving, to counter the s l u g g i s h n e s s which a " f a t a l i n t e l l i g e n c e " puts i n t o h i s system. To a c t . d e c i s i v e l y , one needs almost a f a n a t i c i s m f o r the moment, and Lewis is. too " i n c l u s i v e " a man to f i n d i t easy to be even an e n l i g h t e n e d f a n a t i c . Lewis bears witness to t h i s s t a t e of i n e r t i a i n a number of poems i n Short Is The Time. He says, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t the contemplative s t a t e of mind i s p e c u l i a r l y e n e ^ i t i n g . Think-i n g , musing, throw a shadow over w i l l , but, I n the act of d e c i s i o n only, I n the h e a r t s c l e a r e d f o r a c t i o n l i k e l o v e r s naked ^ Fo r l o v e , t h i s shadow v a n i s h e s : there alone There i s n o t h i n g between our l i v e s f o r i t to t h r i v e on. ( l ) The poem, "Questions", a t t e s t s t o a s i m i l a r experience and ends wi t h t h i s q u e s t i o n : how l o n g w i l l i t be b e f o r e , Y o u ' l l r i s k your j a v e l i n d i v e And p i e r c e r e f l e c t i o n ' s h e a r t , and come a l i v e ? (2) I n another poem, (3) Lewis looks with f a v o r upon a p l a c i d l y swimming swan, "complacent, a w a t e r - l i l y upon the ornamental water", which suddenly comes to l i f e and f l i e s o f f . Lewis sees i n the a c t i o n of the swan, I b e l i e v e , a prophecy t h a t England w i l l shake h e r s e l f out of the i n d e c i s i o n of the Chamberlain era, and end an appeasement p o l i c y which c o u l d o n l y l e a d t o war. I f Lewis can w r i t e about the pangs of i n d e c i s i o n i n h i m s e l f and i n o t h e r s , he can a l s o w r i t e about the act of (1) Short I s The Time, "In The Heart of Contemplation", 11.17-20. (2) Short I s The Time, "Questions", 11... 17-18. (3) Short I s The Time, "Behold The Swan", p. 44. 144. d e c i s i o n . He has w r i t t e n two, long n a r r a t i v e poems which may be regarded as exempla of h e r o i c a c t i o n . They are, the n a r r a t i v e p o r t i o n of "A Time To Dance", and "The Nabara"' The former poem t e l l s the s t o r y of two l i e u t e n a n t s , Parer and Mcintosh, who, at the end of the f i r s t world war, a c q u i r e d an a b s o l e t e "D.H. 9", and f l e w i t , by hazardous stages, to t h e i r homes i n A u s t r a l i a . Lewis begins with the t a k e - o f f on January 8, 1920, and f o l l o w s t h e i r f o r t u n e s t o France where they were beSet by dense f o g , e n g i n e - t r o u b l e , and a d e f e c t i v e p e t r o l pump. They ran out of gas over I t a l y , b a r e l y escaped the " i c e - t i p p e d s p e a r s " of the Appenines, e x t i n g u i s h e d the f i r e which n e a r l y ended t h e i r saga prematurely, and f i n a l l y , a f t e r f o r t y - f o u r days reached C a i r o . They were f o r c e d down i n A r a b i a and a t t a c k e d by Arabs, whom Mcintosh heLd o f f with a p i s t o l , while Parer t i n k e r e d w i t h the engine. Somehow, fhey reached Burma, where they crashed. A f t e r s i x weeks of r e p a i r work, the "heap of s c r a p " took to the a i r a g a i n . Storms and l o s t b e a r i n g s to the c o n t r a r y , the two heroes f i n a l l y crashed near C u l c a i r n i n V i c t o r i a P r o v i n c e . Then they, Dazed as the dead awoken from death, stepped out of the broken Body and went away, ( l ) The poem l s w r i t t e n i n v i r i l e "sprung rhythm", which i s n i c e l y f i t t e d to the speed of a s t o r y t h a t never l a g s , t hat never i s weighted down wit h o t i o s e d e t a i l . The moments of ( l ) A Time To Dance, "A Time To Dance", p. 43. 145. l u l l are c o n t r a c t e d e f f e c t i v e l y with h e c t i c a c t i v i t y . The p o e t i c t e x t u r e i s muscular and sineway. The f o l l o w i n g l i n e s are t y p i c a l of the e n t i r e n a r r a t i v e : A i r was a l l ambushes round them,- was avalanche earthquake Quicksand, a f u n n e l deep a s doom, t i l l c l i m b i n g steep They crawled l i k e a f l y up the f a c e of p e r p e n d i c u l n i g h t And l e v e l l e d , f i n d i n g a break At f o u r t e e n thousand f e e t . (1) The rhythm of these l i n e s r e c a l l s the rhythm, of BirneyT.'s "David", and there are other p o i n t s .of s i m i l a r i t y between the two poems. "David", too, concerns the e x p l o i t s of a hero. The/only other l o n g n a r r a t i v e poem which Lewis has w r i t t e n a l s o concerns h e r o i c a c t i o n . "The Nabara" resembles the airmen poem i n t h a t i t i s based on an a c t u a l i n c i d e n t . I t d i f f e r s from the former poem i n t h a t i t s p r o t a g o n i s t s are many, not two; i n t h a t i t s s e t t i n g i s the Bay of B i s c a y ; i n that the heroes are s a i l o r s , not airmen; i n t h a t i t has a t r a g i c ending; and i n th a t p o l i t i c a l motives e n t e r ' i n t o the poem. I f "The Babara" i s a b e t t e r exemplumoof h e r o i c a c t i o n than "A Time To Dance", i t i s because the "knowledge of n e c e s s i t y " i s c a r r i e d out to the death, and because the Basque fishermen who s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t overwhelming odds are f i g h t i n g the good g i g h t a g a i n s t Fascism. ( l ) A Time To Dance, "A Time To Dance", p. 35-36. 146.. The i n c i d e n t r e l a t e d o c c u r r e d d u r i n g the Spanish C i v i l War. The government t r a w l e r s , Nahara, Guipuzkoa, B i z k a y a , and D o n o s t i a , were e s c o r t i n g the f r e i g h t e r , Galdames, from Bayonne to B i l h o a . The f r e i g h t e r c a r r i e d much-needed n i c k e l and other s u p p l i e s f o r the l o y a l i s t f o r c e s . There were a l s o important p o l i t i c a l refugees aboard. A dense f o g s e t t l e d down, and the f r e i g h t e r l o s t p o s i t i o n . When the f o g c l e a r e d , the Basque s a i l o r s saw, B l o c k i n g the sea and sky a mountain they might not pass, An i s l e thrown up v o l c a n i c and smoking, a g i a n t i n metal A s t r i d e t h e i r path - the r e b e l c r u i s e r , C a n a r i a s . ( 1 ) The poem goes on t o d e s c r i b e the one-sided b a t t l e which ends with the •Nabara, a glowing c o a l , h i s s i n g i n t o the sea. Of her crew of f i f t y - t w o , o n l y f o u r t e e n s u r v i v e , and a l l are wounded. The f o u r t e e n s u r v i v o r s p u l l away from t h e i r b u r n i n g s h i p i n a leaky rowboat, and as a l a s t gesture of d e f i a n c e , they s t r u n g t h e i r nerve For one l a s t f l i n g of defictance, they shipped t h e i r oars and threw Hand-grenades at the launch as i t c i r c l e d about t o board them. (2) The grenades f e l l s h o r t , and the men were overpowered, but t h e i r e p i c s t r u g g l e had borne f r u i t . The f r e i g h t e r escaped d u r i n g the f i g h t with i t s p r e c i o u s cargo. The poem concludes w i t h a b l a s t at those p o l i t i c i a n s , who, by t h e i r n e g a t i v e o b s t i n a c y , r e f u s e d to allow shipments of m a t e r i a l s t o a i d the l o y a l i s t cause. (1) Short I s The Time, "The Nabara", 11. 58-60. (2) Short Is The Time, "The Nabara", 11. 245-247. 147. The poem leaves no doubt i n our minds as to what Lewis means by heroism. As a poem, "N abara"> has i t s a n c e s t o r s t o o . I t c a r r i e s on the t r a d i t i o n of B r i t i s h sea-poems of which Tennyson's "Revenge" i s a c l a s s i c a l example. The prosody i s more d i g n i f i e d than t h a t of "A Time To Dance". The hexameters move on i n e v i t a b l y , but without rush, almost g r i m l y . A s h i p moves more c e r t a i n l y , w i t h l e s s ©ccentricity, than an o b s o l e t e "D.H. 9". But l i k e the a i r poem, "Nabara" l a a g r i p p i n g s t o r y , w e l l paced, r e v e a l i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e dramatic power. This chapter has been concerned with Lewis' conception of t r a d i t i o n , and with h i s i d e a of a n c e s t o r and h e r o . Lewis regards h i s ancestors as s e r v a n t s of the k i n d of t r a d i t i o n he h i m s e l f f a v o u r s . T r a d i t i o n , Lewis b e l i e v e s , i s dynamic, not s t a t i c , and i t works i n the present as i t has worked I n the past and w i l l continue to work i n the f u t u r e . Understand the past, diagnose the present, p l a n f o r the f u t u r e - that i s the sequence. F i n a l l y , Lewis has r e v e a l e d i n h i s two n a r r a t i v e poems l i v i n g examples of what he understands by d e c i s i v e a c t i o n . H e r o i c a c t i o n r e s u l t s from a "knowledge of n e c e s s i y y " which, with the body's courage and the s p i r i t ' s w 6 i l l , works i t s e l f out i n an act of d e c i s i o n . Once a g a i n f l e s h an& s p i r i t s i n g t ogether a l l i n tune. 148. CHAPTER VII THE UNIQUE MINUTE PART ONE Pew ages, I b e l i e v e , have been l e s s conducive to the development of a simple philosophy of l i f e than the present one. Probably no p e r i o d of h i s t o r y has been more complex and c o n f u s i n g than ours. The Middle Ages had as a t y p i c a l man the r e l i g i o u s a s c e t i c l i k e S t . F r a n c i s ; the Renascence had i t s u n i v e r s a l man, l i k e Leonardo; the "Age of Reason" i t s D e s c a r t e s ; „the Nineteenth Century i t s devotees of p r a c t i c a l m o r a l i t y . What c h a r a c t e r i s t i c has the t y p i c a l man of our own age? Would he be the man of s c i e n c e ? the benevo-l e n t p r e s i d e n t ? the man of s t e e l ? the b u s i n e s s executive? the general-stateman? We have our E i n s t e i n , our R oosevelt, our S t a l i n , our Henry F o r d , our M a r s h a l l s and Mac A r t h u r s . I suppose, i d e a l l y , the modern ma n would have to be one who combined q u a l i t i e s from a l l f i v e . But t h a t i s i m p o s s i b l e . The overwhelming d i v e r s i t y of modern l i f e and knowledge i s i n i m i c a l to a new da V i n c i . Ours i s an e r a of mixed f e e l -i n g s , the "nightmare c o n f l i c t of o p p o s i t e s " . And of a l l people, our i n t e l l e c t u a l s , " s i c k l i e d o'er w i t h the pale c a s t of thought", are most a prey t o t a n g l e d f e e l i n g s and c o n t r a d i c t o r y e x p e r i e n c e s . This c o n d i t i o n i s not a l t o g e t h e r 149. p e c u l i a r to our age, of course. John Donne compounded sen-s u a l i t y and r e l i g i o u s f e r v o u r . And I suppose Hamlet i s the . most complex, confused c h a r a c t e r i n drama. But the u n l v e r s -t a l i t y of dilemma i s unique i n our contemporary world. W i l l i a m Empson bears witness to t h i s f a c t i n the f o l l o w i n g sentence: But, indeed, human l i f e i s so much a matter of j u g g l i n g w i t h c o n t r a d i c t o r y impulses (Christian-worldly,, s o c i a b l e - i n d e p e n d e n t ) that one i s accustomed to t h i n k i n g people are probably s e n s i b l e i f they f o l l o w f i r s t one, then the other, of two such courses. (1) Though Empson does not s p e c i f i c a l l y say so, I thinkyhe i s r e f e r r i n g to contemporary human l i f e i n the above q u o t a t i o n . The poetry of W. H. Auden o f f e r s a s t r i k i n g example of the " j u g g l i n g w i t h c o n t r a d i c t o r y i m p u l s e s " to which Empson r e f e r s . Auden i s an example of the " i n c l u s i v e " man. "The D e v i l , i ndeed", w r i t e s Auden, " i s the f a t h e r of Poetry, f o r p o e t r y might be d e f i n e d a s the c l e a r e x p r e s s i o n of mixed f e e l i n g s " ( 2 ) U n f o r t u n a t e l y , many people are unable to p e r c e i v e the mixed f e e l i n g s which they experience w i t h any such c l a r i t y . I t i s w e l l known t h a t I . A. Richards claims t h a t such a mental s t a t e as i s i m p l i e d by Auden's d e f i n i t i o n i s the best c o n d i t i o n f o r the creati'on of p o e t r y . (3) I' would on l y add t h a t , although a s t a t e of mixed f e e l i n g s may produce the most profound p o e t r y , i t l i k e w i s e may produce the most un-s u c c e s s f u l poetry, because the p o e t i c f i r e needed to f u s e (1) W i l l i a m Empson. Seven Types of Ambiguity, London, Chatto and Windus, 1930, 250. (2) W. H. Auden, The Double Man,- New York, Random XXKXX House, 1941, 116. (3) I .A. R i c h a r d s , P r i n c t g ^ g g p;g ujLiterary C r i t i c i s m , London, "Kegan^Paul, 1938, 243-251. 150. d i s p a r a t e views must be more i n t e n s e than i s necessary f o r the c r e a t i o n of the " e x c l u s i v e " type of p o e t r y , and t h e r e f o r e more f r e q u e n t l y f a i l s to b r i n g i t s m a t e r i a l s to the r e q u i r e d m e l t i n g p o i n t . The r e s u l t i s a poem th a t f a l l s apart at the touch. S y n t h e s i s has been incomplete. Lewis, no l e s s than Auden, i s a product of the age of mixed f e e l i n g s . His poetry, however, does not c o n t a i n the number of d i v e r s e elements to be found i n Auden*s. On the other hand, one f e e l s t h a t Lewis has worked out h i s i d e a s and maintained them more c o n s i s t e n t l y than has Suden. This makes h i s p o e t r y more c o n s i s t e n t i n development, e a s i e r t o c l a s s i f y i n t o t r e n d s , but not n e c e s s a r i l y b e t t e r p o e t r y . Though Lewis' p o e t r y i s not so i n c l u s i v e of c o n t r a -d i c t o r y impluses as Auden's , y e t there are a number of apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n s which must be c o n s i d e r e d . Chapter S i x , f o r i n s t a n c e , r e v e a l e d Lewis' admiration of d e c i s i v e a c t i o n ; y e t , as T s h a l l t r y to prove i n t h i s chapter, there i s i n h i s l a t e r work, a s t r o n g f e e l i n g of r e s i g n a t i o n , of the acceptance of d i s i l l u s i o n a s the i n e v i t a b l e f a t e of mankind. T h i s Is a p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n , i t seems. Are r e s i g n a -t i o n and d e c i s i v e a c t i o n mutually e x c l u s i v e ? Or can they be e x p l a i n e d as the f s y s t o l e and d i a s t o l e of a s i n g l e p o i n t of view? There i s yet another q u a l i t y d i s p l a y e d i n Lewis' poetry 151. which seems t o c o n f l i c t with h i s f e e l i n g s of r e s i g n a t i o n . I t i s the e x p r e s s i o n of a carpe diem p h i l o s o p h y which i s the sub j e c t of much of h i s poetry . How can a b e l i e f i n the va l u e of immediate pl e a s u r e and immediate beauty be r e c o n c i l e d w i t h Lewis' concern f o r the i l l n e s s of s o c i e t y and f o r the b i r t h of a new s o c i e t y ? And how can i t be r e c o n c i l e d w i t h h i s acceptance of d i s i l l u s i o n as the i n e v i t a b l e Sate of mankind? These are some of the apparent c o n t r a d i c t o r y impulses which make Lewis, too, an i n c l u s i v e poet. These are c o n t r a d i c t i o n s which demand e l u c i d a t i o n i n t h i s c h a p t e r . PART TWO I t i s probably not f a r from the t r u t h to say t h a t what Lewis wants above e v e r y t h i n g e l s e from t h i s l i f e i s peace of mind. Indeed, peace of mind i s the g o a l of most men. The poet's f i r s t three c y c l e s were concerned with t h e search f o r t h i s peace. T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem r e l a t e d b i o g r a p h i c a l l y the poet's s t r u g g l e to a t t a i n s i n g l e n e s s of mind, without which peace of mind i s i m p o s s i b l e ; From Feathers To I r o n i s a d e l i c a t e l y balanced c o n f l i c t between f e a r and hope, but ends with the expressed f a i t h t h a t the c h i l d w i l l h e l p the poet come to g r i p s with l i f e and thus b r i n g him peace of mind; The Magnetic Mountain presents a p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n , without which peace of mind would be an u n a t t a i n a b l e M e a l . I f h i s three l a t e s t poems are any c r i t e r i o n , however, i t can be s a i d 152. that he has not achieved the peace f o r which he c r a v e s . These three poems appeared i n an, anthology of contemporary prose and p o e t r y e n t i t l e d , O r i o n , which came out i n the autumn of 1946. The l a s t of them, c a l l e d " S t a t u e t t e : Late Minoan", i s a l y r i c a l r e f l e c t i o n on an a r c h a i c s t a t u e . The f i n a l s t a n z a shows t h a t he has not y e t found the ttffinquil s t a t e of mind: Goddess or g i r l , you are e a r t h l The s m i l e , the o f f e r e d b r e a s t -T h i r s t i n g as I f o r r e s t , As I , u n b l e s t . Though he i s s t i l l " u n b l e s t " , Lewis would admit, I t h i n k , that he comes c l o s e s t to s a t i s f y i n g , h i s t h i r s t f o r r e s t when the mood of repose, of r e s i g n a t i o n i s upon him. He has found i t i s e a s i e r to h i t a t a r g e t from a s t a t i o n a r y p o s i t i o n than from a moving one. " R i l k e " , Lewis observes, "put p a t i e n c e f i r s t among the p o e t i c v i r t u e s " . ( 1 ) And although R i l k e i s t a l k i n g about the act o f . p o e t i c c r e a t i o n , Lewis would a l s o regard p a t i e n c e a s h i g h up among the v i r t u e s of l i v i n g . The s t a t e of repose, no matter how b r i e f , serves another purpose. I t i s , to quote Lewis, the process by which the s p i r i t w i t h -draws i n t o a s t a t e of a c c i d i e or one of impotent f r u s t r a t i o n , a doldrum s t a t e , as an i n i t i a t i o n i n t o new l i f e , going through a p e r i o d of i n t r o v e r s i o n b e f o r e t u r n i n g outward again w i t h new v i g o u r , (1) The P o e t i c Image, 100. 153. descending i n t o h e l l t h a t i t may r i s e to heaven. (1) In the l i g h t of t h i s , h i s moments of r e s i g n a t i o n cease t o c o n t r a d i c t h i s moments of a c t i o n . P e r i o d s of repose must be looked upon as l u l l s of power d u r i n g which he i s r e s t i n g , r e b u i l d i n g , h i s spent powers p r e l i m i n a r y t o another outburst of energy. No one i s able to l i v e c o n t i n u a l l y at the p i t c h of h i g h pressure which d e c i s i v e a c t i o n demands. The value of a s t a t e of calm i n the c r e a t i v e l i f e of a poet has been d e s c r i b e d i n v e r s e by Lewis: Oh, on t h i s s t r i d i n g edge, Th i s h a r e - b e l l h e i g h t of calm Where i n t u i t i o n s swarm Like n e s t i n g g u l l s and knowledge Is f r e e as the winds that blow. (2) The s t a t e of f r u i t f u l repose d e s c r i b e d i n these l i n e s must be s i m i l a r to Wordsworth's s t a t e of mind when emotion was r e c o l l e c t e d i n t r a n q u i l i t y . I have been r e f e r r i n g , be way of i n t r o d u c t i o n , t o one aspect of the s u b j e c t of r e s i g n a t i o n ; namely, the need of repose, whether i n l i f e or poetry, t o b u i l d up d e p l e t e d powers p r i o r t o a new b u r s t of a c t i v i t y . There are more important aspects of the s u b j e c t , however, because s t a t e s of repose of the k i n d r e f e r r e d to above have l i t t l e t o do wi t h a p h i l o s o p h y of l i f e . Repose i s a u n i v e r s a l n e c e s s i t y i n l i f e . Lewis' poems of r e s i g n a t i o n may be c o n v e n i e n t l y d i v i d e d (1) The P o e t i c Image. lOOT r""~" : : : ' (2) Short Is The Time. "The Poet", 11. 31-35. 154. i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s : poems which d e a l with the i m p e r f e c t i o n or inconsequence of i n d i v i d u a l l i f e ; and poems which d e a l with the acceptance of such i m p e r f e c t i o n , and the s u f f e r i n g that r e s u l t s , as a f a t e to he endured w i t h p a t i e n c e , The tone of Short I s The Time i s much l e s s o p t i m i s t i c than Lewis' previous hooks. For one t h i n g , he h a a come to r e a l i z e t h a t i n h i s younger days, h i s reach f a r exceeded h i s g rasp. P e r f e c t i o n i s not f o r t h i s l i f e : We who i n younger days, Hoping too much, t r i e d on The h a b i t of p e r f e c t i o n , Have l e a r n t how i t betrays Our c h r i n k i n g f l e s h , ( l ) C e r t a i n l y the l i n e s quoted express a d i s i l l u s i o n , but p o s s i b l y i t i s a h e a l t h y d i s i l l u s i o n , because i t expresses a fundamental t r u t h . The l i n e s c o n t a i n the germ of r e s i g n a t i o n , too, because the poet accepts the l i m i t p l a c e d on h i s a s p i r a t i o n s as necessa r y . T h e f e e l i n g of l i m i t a t i o n i s so s t r o n g that the poet uses words l i k e "betray" and " s h r i n k i n g f l e s h " to d e s c r i b e the d i s p a r i t y between what ane d e s i r e s and what one a c h i e v e s . F a l l i n g , as i t does, f a r s h o r t of p e r f e c t i o n / a man's i n d i v i d u a l l i f e sometimes leaves Lewis with a sense of i n c o n -sequence and f u t i l i t y . The n i n t h sonnet of the "0 Dreams, 0 D e s t i n a t i o n s " sequence compares a man(s l i f e to the f l i g h t of a b i r d . The s e s t e t f o l l o w s : ( l ) Short Is The Time. "Regency Houses", 11. 19-25. 155. Alask the b i r d f l i e s b l i n d , Hooded by a dark sense of d e s t i n a t i o n : Her weight on the g l a s s calm l e a v e s no im p r e s s i o n , Her home i s soon a b a s k e t f u l of wind. T r a v e l l e r s , we're f a b r i c of the road we go; We s e t t l e , but l i k e f e a t h e r s on time's f l o w , ( i ) In these l i n e s Lewis i s sa y i n g , I b e l i e v e , t h a t a man's i n d i v i d u a l l i f e i s i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l , l e a v i n g no impr e s s i o n , v a n i s h i n g l i k e the wind. A man t r a v e l s the road of time, becoming a p a r t of a l l he meets, but when l i f e ceases, he has made no more impr e s s i o n than a f e a t h e r makes when i t f a l l s to e a r t h . The f i r s t two l i n e s are d i f f i c u l t . Does Lewis mean by "a dark sense of d e s t i n a t i o n " t h a t man does not know h i s d e s t i n a t i o n ? that he i s i n the dark as to what i t i s ? or does he mean that man i s d r i v e n by a f e e l i n g t h a t he must s t r i v e forward to so$e unknown g o a l or end. Whatever may be the p r e c i s e meaning Lewis i n t e n d e d , the poem i s a statement of the inconsequence of i n d i v i d u a l l i f e , and Lewis seems to accept the f a c t w i t h p e r f e c t s e r e n i t y . There are a number of poems i n - S h o r t I s The Time which express the d e s i r a b i l i t y of pa t i e n c e and the need of sub-m i s s i o n i n the f a c e of a d v e r s i t y . "Sonnet For A P o l i t i c a l Worker" i s such a poem. I t i s a poem about p o l i t i c a l d i s i l l -u s i o n . Few people r e a l i z e w i t h what f o r c e of c o n v i c t i o n many people b e l i e v e d i n the imminence of t h e i r s o c i a l i s t system i n the e a r l y " T h i r t i e s . To many of them, even i n t h i s country, the establishment of s o c i a l i s m was thought t o be i n e v i t a b l e (1) Short I s The Time. "0 Dreams.O D e s t i n a t i o n s " . "Sonnet Nine", 11. 9-14. 156. and a matter of months. When the war clouds gathered, and the economic c r i s i s was s o l v e d by a m i l i t a r y c r i s i s , the d i s i l l u s i o n of these s o c i a l i s t s was profound. Lewis expresses t h e i r d i s i l l u s i o n , and h i s own d i s i l l u s i o n , i n "Sonnet For A P o l i t i c a l Worker". He speaks of "boredom, the d u l l r e p e t i -t i v e d e l a y " , and "opponent's t r i c k y c a l l " and " d i s c o n t e n t of f r i e n d s " . But In the s e s t e t he has an answer to t h i s seeming d e n i a l of what h i s t o r y meant. I t i s an answer i n v o l v -i n g acceptance of r e a l i t y . I t i s a p l e a f o r p a t i e n c e : Do you not see th a t h i s t o r y ' s h i g h t e n s i o n Must so be broken down to each man's need And h i s f r a i l f i l a m e n t s , t h a t i t may f e e d Not b l a s t a l l p a t i e n c e , l o v e and warm i n v e n t i o n ? On l i n e s beyond your s i n g l e comprehension The c i r c u i t and f u l l day of power proceed. (1) In these l i n e s Lewis compares the maddening slowness of p o l i t i c a l e v o l u t i o n t o an e l e c t r i c a l t r a n s f o r m e r which i s necessary to step down the v o l t a g e t o a f o r c e which can be c o n v e n i e n t l y and s a f e l y used. He might a l s o have compared i t to the atomic p i l e ' w h i c h prevents the c h a i n r e a c t i o n from g e t t i n g out of hand. The l a s t two l i n e s of the s e s t e t are e s p e c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . He means by them t h a t the sweep of c u r r e n t and f u t u r e h i s t o r y i s beyond a man's comprehension, but t h a t i t moves on i n i t s i n e v i t a b l e and ponderous course o b l i v i o n s of man or h i s und e r s t a n d i n g . There remains a s i n g l e but a l l - i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n . I t i s that the sweep of h i s t o r y i s i n the d i r e c t i o n d e s i r e d by the p o l i t i c a l Worker of the poem; t h a t i s to say, i t i s towards s o c i a l i s m . ( l ) Short I s The Time, "Sonnet F o r A P o l i t i c a l Worker", 11 9-14 \ 157. I t s r e a l i z a t i o n i s merely a matter of time - and p a t i e n c e . Another poem which expresses the poet's d i s i l l u s i o n i s "Word Prom A l l " . Rather, the poem expresses a d i s i l l u s i o n f o r the present, but a calm f a i t h f o r the f u t u r e . Lewis d e s c r i b e s w i t h d e s p a i r the c r a s h of bombs a d d the thump of the "ack-ack" guns. He speaks of "our time's. ghost-guise of impermanence", of being "caged with the d e v o u r i n g p r e s e n t " , and of " m i l l i o n s f a t e d to f l o c k down weeping roads to mere o b l i v i o n " * He r e s i g n s h i m s e l f to these grim f a c t s , but i t i s not a r e s i g n a -t i o n to h o p e l e s s n e s s . The f o l l o w i n g l i n e s express a f a i t h , p a t i e n t but s t r o n g , t h a t humanity w i l l emerge from i t s o r d e a l c l e a n e r and s t r o n g e r : Whether our good, amy t a r n i s h , our g r i e f t o f a r C e n t u r i e s glow no t . The Cause s h a l e s o f f , the Humankind stands f o r t h A m i g h t i e r presence, Flooded by down's p a l e courage, rapt i n eve's R i c h acquiesence. ( l ) These l i n e s suggest t h a t i f indeed the l i f e of i n d i v i d u a l man i s inconsequent!al 1/ the l i f e of c o l l e c t i v e man, of man-k i n d , i s the important t h i n g . Man d i e s , but the race l i v e s on. The poem e n t i t l e d "Ode To F e a r " i s y e t another p l e a f o r patience and f o r submission t o the i n s c r u t a b l e ways of h i s t o r y . I t i s not the f i r s t time Lewis has w r i t t e n about f e a r . I n The Magnetic Mountain, Lewis speaks about the Two, f e a r and- p a i n , b r o t h e r s , from whose s e r v i t u d e there i s no escape t h i s s i d e (1) Short Is The Time, "Word Over A l l " , 11. 51-56. 158* of the grave. In t h i s e a r l i e r poem he speaks of f e a r r e s e n t -f u l l y , as i f i t were an Enemy. In the Ode, however, the a t t i -i s t h a t tude/of a l o v e r : Come--to my h e a r t then, Pear, With a l l your l i n k e d h u m i l i a t i o n s , As w i l d geese f l i g h t and s e t t l e on an submissive mere. (1) The whole s p i r i t of the 'Ode" i s o n e o f acceptance, of r e s i g n a -t i o n . The words "submissiveimere" are most s i g n i f i c a n t . The 0 h u m i l i a t i o n s > of f e a r are l i k e n e d t o a f l o c k of geese, and the poet to a q u i e t l a k e which r e c e i v e d the geese i n t o i t s e l f . The poem which f o l l o w s "Ode"To Pear" i n Short I s The Time bears the t i t l e , "The Dead". The experience which f i r e s the poem i s the o b s e r v a t i o n of the dead v i c t i m s of an a i r -r a i d l y i n g " l i k e e f f i g i e s thrown down a f t e r a f e t e " among the "fag-ends of f i r e s " , and the " l i t t e r of r u b b l e " . He i s moved t o w r i t e about the l i f e of these v i c t i m s , i n these l i n e s : And i f they chose the dearer c o n s o l a t i o n s Of l i v i n g - the bar, the dog race, the d i s c r e e t E s t a b l i s h m e n t - and l e t K a r l Marx and Freud go hang, Now they are dead, who can d i s p u t e t h e i r choice? -Not I , nor even F a t e . (2) These l i n e s e v i n c e a p a s s i o n a t e l o v e f o r man and h i s simple p l e a s u r e s which makes Marxian c r i t i c i s m of them and F r e u d i a n a n a l y s i s of them seem q u i t e i r r e l e v a n t . Lewis f e e l s t h i s love f o r them i n s p i t e of t h e i r i l l - a d v i s e d l i v e s i n which they have chosen v a l u e l e s s a c t i v i t i e s . I f they were s t i l l (1) Short Is The Time. "Ode To F e a r " . 11. 40-42. (2) Short I s The Time. "The Dead", .11. 22-26. 159. a l i v e he would d i s p u t e w i t h them r e g a r d i n g t h e i r choice (as he h a s always done). But they are dead and he i s r e a l i s t i c about i t . There i s , over a l l the poems which d e a l w i t h the s u b j e c t of r e s i g n a t i o n , a blanket of calm. I t h i n k i t i s unquestion-able t h a t Lewis w r i t e s b e s t when t h i s mood of t r a n q u i l l i t y i s upon him. Speaking of the r e s i g n a t i o n poems, R o l f e Humphries w r i t e s : The n e a r e r these draw t o q u i e t and sep-a r a t i o n , the b e t t e r they are apt to be, as i f i n s t i l l n e s s , not i n keeping up, not i n ru s h i n g o f f In s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s , l a y the best t a l e n t of t h i s w r i t e r as a poet. (1) I b e l i e v e Lewis too th i n k s so, f o r of h i s own po e t r y he % a s w r i t t e n : I t never was possessed By d i v i n e i n c o n t i n e n c e . (2) Lewis produces h i s bes t poetry, I b e l i e v e , when i t i s possessed by continence, when a p e r i o d of "wise p a s s i v e n e s s " allows the i n t u i t i o n s add thoughts which swarm i n h i s mind to be c a r e f u l l y sS&ected or r e j e c t e d . Too much of h i s e a r l y p o e t r y i s s p o i l e d by a f a c i l i t y d i r e c t e d by y o u t h f u l p o l i t i c a l a r d o r . There i s something of the soap-box o r a t o r i n p a r t s of The Magnetic Mountain. P o s s i b l y he t a l k s too much and t h i n k s and means too l i t t l e . In h i s l a t e r poems, however, there i s the "fundamental brainwork" which R o s s e t t i asked f o r i n a poem. (1) R. Humphries, " H i s t o r y v. Contemplation", New Rep u b l i c , Aug. 6, 1945. (2) Short I s The Time, " S e l f - C r i t i c i s m * a n d Answer", 11. 13-14. 160. Lewis takes care i n s e l e c t i n g and r e j e c t i n g h i s imagery. In doing so he f o l l o w s Keat's advice as w e l l as R o s s e t t i ' s f o r he loads every r i f t w ith o r e . The poems from which I have quoted i n t h i s s e c t i o n were concerned w i t h the acceptance of s u f f e r i n g . Lewis' reasons f o r t h i s submission are two. He b e l i e v e s that s u f f e r i n g has a place i n the o v e r a l l plan of l i f e . I t i s one of the p i e c e s i n the jig-saw which makes an i n c l u s i v e u n i t y of l i f e . Another of the pieces i s joy, and he regards joy and s u f f e r -i n g as complementary to each o t h e r . T h e r e f o r e he can say: Dark over a l l , a b s o l v i n g a l l , i s hung Death's v a u l t e d p a t i e n c e ' Words are to s e t man's joy and s u f f e r i n g there In c o n s t e l l a t i o n s . Writing, he means, should s e t down the great j oy and the gre a t s u f f e r i n g of mankind. But Lewis urges the acceptance of pain f o r another reason; mankind, he b e l i e v e s , can progress o n l y through t r a v a i l ; the p a i n shales o f f , "the Humankind stands f o r t h a m i g h t i e r presence". FART THREE R e s i g n a t i o n i m p l i e s submission t o s u f f e r i n g . But i t a l s o i m p l i e s submission to j o y . Lewis sees w i t h profound c l a r i t y the r e l a t i o n s h i p between joy and s u f f e r i n g . He knows that each one cannot e x i s t without the ot h e r . Consequently, when the unique minutes of p l e a s u r e , or joy, or beauty do come, 161. he urges t h a t they be s e i z e d and enjoyed to the f u l l . Soon enough, the u n i q u e minutes of pa i n and s u f f e r i n g must come l i k e a c l o u d to b l o c k the sunshine. The Dryden t r a n s l a t i o n of the Twenty-Ninth Ode of the F i r s t Book of Horace co n t a i n s a passage which seems to me to be a f i n e e x p r e s s i o n of the carpe diem. Quam minimum c r e d u l a postero a t t i t u d e t o l i f e which c h a r a c t e r i z e s much of Lewis' p o e t r y : Happy the man, and he alone, He, who can c a l l to-day h i s own; He who, secure w i t h i n , can say, To-morrow do thy worst, f o r I have l i v e d today: Be f a i r , or f o u l , or r a i n , or s h i n e , The joys I have possessed, i n s p i t e of f a t e , are mine; Not heaven i t s e l f upon the p a s t has power, But what has been, has been,and 1 have had my hour. (1) T h i s excerpt needs no i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; i t i s p e r f e c t l y c l e a r . I n a p p l y i n g i t t o Lewis' attitude,however, there i s one m o d i f i c a t i o n I would make. Lewis gi v e s one the im p r e s s i o n , t h a t even when he i s most e n j o y i n g today, he can never q u i t e f o r g e t the tomorrow which w i l l b r i n g new p a i n , new r e s p o n s i b i l -i t i e s . Lewis i s able t o l i v e f o r the unique minutes, because the unique minutes provide a hope f o r the f u t u r e . They v a n i s h , l i k e the dew, but they come a g a i n . The f o l l o w i n g stanzas provide a good example of the a t t i -tude I have been d i s c u s s i n g : ( l ) John Dryden, Works, ed., S c o t t and S a i n t s b u r y , V o l . X I I , Edinburgh, Wm. Paterson, 1885, p. 367. 162. Suppose t h a t we, to-morrow or the next day, Came to an end - i n storm the s h a f t i n g broken, Or a mistaken s i g n a l , the f l a n g e l i f t i n g -Would t h a t be premature, a t e x t f o r sorrow? Say what endurance g i v e s or death denies u s . Love's proved i n i t s c r e a t i o n , not e t e r n i t y : L i k e l e a f or l i n n e t the true h e a r t ' s a f f e c t i o n I s born, d i e s l a t e r , asks no reassurance. (1) Lewis asks t h a t we enjoy beauty or lo v e f o r t h e i r own sake, here and now. Why worry about t h e i r impermanence, when i t i s t h e i r immediate b e i n g which gives them v a l u e . He goes on to say t h a t , Here - now we know, what death cannot d i m i n i s h Weeds no r e p l e n i s h i n g ; y e t c e r t a i n are, though Dying were w e l l enough, to l i v e i s b e t t e r . (2) Th i s i s carne diem,, though i t has not Guite the c a r e f r e e abandon of Horace or of H e r r i c k . The e i g h t h sonnet of "0 Dreams, 0 D e s t i n a t i o n s " i s per-h a p s / b e t t e r example of the "unique minute" philosophy than the previous q u o t a t i o n because i t i s i n a i i o y e d with concern f o r the morrow. The s e s t e t of the sonnet i s t h i s : Love, we have caught p e r f e c t i o n f o r a day As suc c o r y holds a gem of h a l c y o n r a y : Summer burns out, i t s f l o w e r w i l l t a r n i s h soon -Deathless i l l u s i o n , that c o u l d so r e l a y The t r u t h of f l e s h and s p i r i t , sun and c l a y S i n g i n g f o r once together a l l i n t u n e i (3) The l a s t two l i n e s should now be f a m i l i a r , f o r I have quoted them many times. They p r o v i d e here ah e x p l a n a t i o n of why "unique minutes" b r i n g s such happiness. For i t i s the harmony of b o d i l y and s p i r i t u a l a s p i r a t i o n s at any one moment (1) From Feathers To I r o n . "Poem One". 11. 1-8. (2) From Feathers To I r o n , "Poem One", 11. 22-24. (3) Short Is The Time, "0 Dreams, 0 D e s t i n a t i o n s " , "Sonnet E i g h t " . 163. which b r i n g s the f l o o d of happiness c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the "unique minutes". I t i s t h i s harmony whidh b r i n g s i n i t s t r a i n , " p e r f e c t i o n f o r a day". The phrase, "unique minute", i t s e l f i s taken from "0 Dreams, 0 D e s t i n a t i o n s " . The context i s as f o l l o w s : Looking beyond, or backward, more and more We grow u n f a i t h f u l t o the unique minute T i l l from n e g l e c t , i t s f e a t u r e s s t a l e and b l u r . (1) In these l i n e s Lewis expresses, perhaps with t m i n t e n t e d i r o n y , the v e r y reason why he h i m s e l f i s unable to surrender h i m s e l f completely to the joys of the moment. Lewis i s o f t e n g u i l t y of the v e r y breach of f a i t h he c r i t i c i z e s ; t h a t i s t o say, by -permitting past r e g r e t or futuaseconcern to i n t r u d e d he lowers the maximum of enjoyment at any given moment. Sometimes i t i s not the past or the f u t u r e , but a p h i l o s o p h i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n which i n t r u d e s and b l u n t s the joy of the unique minutes i n the poem. An example of i n t r u s -i o n of t h i s k i n d i s provided by the poem, "A Happy View". As the t i t l e would i n d i c a t e , i t i s a happy poem, but i t i s not as happy as one would suppose. The poem me r i t s a complete q u o t a t i o n : So take a happy view -This lawn graced w i t h the candle-flames of c r o c u s , F r a i l - h a n d e d g i r l s under the f l o w e r i n g chestnut, Or anything w i l l do That time takes back b e f o r e i t seem untrue: (1) Short I s The Time. "0 Dreams, 0 D e s t i n a t i o n s " , Sonnet Three". 164. And, i f the t r u t h were t o l d , You'd count ±t l u c k , p e r c e i v i n g i n what shallow C r e v i c e s and few crumbling g r a i n s of comfort Man's j o y w i l l seed, h i s c o l d And hardy f i n g e r s f i n d an eagle's h o l d . .(•!) Before l e a v i n g the poem, "A Happy View", I would draw a t t e n t i o n t o the d e s c r i p t i o n of the c r o c u s e s . Of course the crocus i s a candle flame, but i t needs the c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n of a poet to p o i n t out the resemblence. The s t r o k e of o r i g i n -a l i t y which makes the o l d seem new, and the new seem o l d was c a l l e d " r e p r f c s t i n a t i o n " by Robert Browning. Lbwessdescribes " r e p r i s t i n a t i o n " i n these words: And the supreme t e s t of o r i g i n a l i t y i s i t s power to give us the sense of a f o o t i n g on trodden and f a m i l i a r ground, which a l l at once i s r e c o g n i s e d a s unexplored. (2) The e x p l o r a t i o n of the i n f i n i t e woulf of thought and sense i s at once the poet's triumph and h i s f a i l u r e : triumph, i n t h a t he d i s c o v e r s hidden resemblences between a p p a r e n t l y u n l i k e t h i n g s ; f a i l u r e , i n t h a t f o r . every resebblence he f i n d s , a thousand remain hidden. The world of p o e t r y knows no f r o n t i e r . A f i n a l o b s e r v a t i o n about "A Happy View" would note the sound p a t t e r n of the l y r i c . The r i c h vowels might be compared wo a s t r i n g base, g i v i n g body to the-sound, and to the i n t r i c a t e consonantal harmony as a whole. I t would n o t i c e , furthermore, the predominance of the "k" sound i n words such a 3 "take", "candle", "crocus", "takes", "back","Bount", " l u o t k " , (1) Short Is The Time, "A Happy View", 15. (2) John L i v i n g s t o n e L 0wes, Convention and R e v o l t In Poetry, Boston and New York, Houghton M i f f l i n Co., 1924, 107. 165. " c r e v i c e s " , "crumbling", "comfbrt", and " c o l d " . A sound a t t r -a c ts others of i t s k i n d i n poetry, sometimes f o r a l l i t e r a t i v e e f f e c t , sometimes f o r i m i t a t i v e harmony, sometimes j u s t f o r company. The poem, "A Happy View", i s not alone i n r e v e a l i n g the potency of Lewis' power of " r e p r i s t i n a t i o n " . Lewis i s a great observer of p h y s i c a l beauty, of the " b r i e f act of beauty" which he p r a i s e s In the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s . — - For they, whose v i r t u e l i e s I n a b r i e f a c t of beauty, summarize EarthJ?s annual p a s s i o n and leave the naked e a r t h S t i l l d earer by t h e i r death than by t h e i r b i r t h , ( l ) Because he looks at beauty as though he i s l o o k i n g at i t f o r the l a s t time, he observes with s i n g u l a r i n t e n s i t y , and i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t " r e p r i s t i n a t i o n " f r e q u e n t l y r e s u l t s . At times h i s enthusiasm f o r n a t u r a l beauty approaches c l o s e t o the e c s t a c y of the m y s t i c ' s v i s i o n . Thus he i s able t o w r i t e : I n t h a t one moment of evening When roses are most r e d I can f o l d back the f i r m a n e n t , I can put time to bed. (2) or, i n the same poem, r e f e r r i n g to Methusaleh: Give me an i n s t a n t r e a l i z e d And I ' l l outdo your span. These excerpts from h i s e a r l y poetry a c t u a l l y show more genuine carpe diem sentiment than do some of h i s l a t e r poems. (1) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem Twnety-One", 11. 27-50. (2) T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, "Poem Four", 11. 5-8. 166. In moments of u n a l l o y e d pleasure d e r i v e d from n a t u r a l o b s e r v a t i o n , r e p r i s t i n a t i o n comds f r e q u e n t l y . I t i s p r e s e n t i n : D a f f o d i l s now, the p r e t t y debutantes, Are c u r t s y i n g at the f i r s t c o u r t of the year; (2) i t i s p r e s e n t i n : Dawn l i k e a greyhound l e a p t the hi11-tops A m i l l i o n leaves h e l d up the noonday. (2) or i n : Over the h i l l t h ree buzzards are wheeling On the g l a s s sky t h e i r s k a t e r s ' curves (3) I t comes wit h the shock of s u r p r i s e to read t h a t E d i t h S i t w e l l c r i t i c i a e s Lewis f o r h i s "av§rdance of p h y s i c a l beauty". " I t i s to be hoped t h a t i n the f u t u r e " , she w r i t e s , the " w h e n / s p i r i t u a l l i f e i s assured to him i n such a way t h a t he does not f e a r that i t w i l l fade, t h i s young poet w i l l become on terms of f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h i s other world which l i e s around us, whose ra d i a n c e , whose f l e e t i n g c o l o u r s , gleams and sounds, a l l bear t h e i r message from another l i f e " . (4). I do not t h i n k Miss S i t w e l l i s being f a i r to Lewis, any more than those who p i c k out her " E m i l y - c o l o u r e d p r i m u l a s " and her "Martha-coloured s c a b i o u s " f o r c r i t i c i s m are f a i r t o h e r . I t i s true t h a t Bhe Magnetic Mountain, which prompted her c r i t i c i s m , probably "avoids p h y s i c a l beauty" more than h i s U ) From Feathers To I r o n , " E p i l o g u e " , 11. 16-16. (2) The Magnetic Mountain, "Poem E i g h t " , 11. 13-14. (3) Orion, 'Buzzards Over C a s t l e H i l l " . (4) E d i t h S i t w e l l , Aspects of Modern Poetry , London, Duckworth, 1934, 247. 167. other c y c l e s , hut even i n t h i s m e t a l l i c poem there i s no l a c k of s o f t e r r u r a l beauty. Two f u r t h e r poems d e d i c a t e d to "a b r i e f act of beauty" might be mentioned to conclude t h i s aspect of the poet's work. "The E c s t a t i c " i s a s h o r t ode to the beauty of the s k y l a r k . " S p r i n g Song" comes c l o s e to the genuine gather-ye-rosebuds-while-ye-may" a t t i t u d e t o l i f e . R e f e r r i n g to the s p r i n g season, he w r i t e s : Now the bee f i n d s the p o l l e n , The pole boy a c u r e : Who cares i f i n the sequel Cocky s h a l l be c r e s t f a l l e n ? Who c a r e s whether beauty l a s t s ? We can d e l i g h t i n i t while i t l a s t s , and "not heaven i t s e l f upon the past has power"* • T h i s clfapter has been concerned with the p h i l o s o p h y of l i v i n g i n the immediate pre s e n t . Lewis' a t t i t u d e i s one of acceptance; acceptance of s u f f e r i n g , and acceptance of j o y . The poet has a profound understanding of the p o l a r i t y of joy and p a i n . They form the convex and concave s u r f a c e s of the s i n g l e curved m i r r o r . Each c r e a t e s the other, and each d e s t r o y s the o t h e r . Lewis, t h e r e f o r e , can submit to the one w i t h r e s i g n a t i o n ; and embrace the other w i t h p a s s i o n . Both pain and joy must have t h e i r due. Shadows are d i s s i p a t e d by the sun, but the sun seldom shines from a c l e a r sky. The clouds are n e a r l y always t h e r e . And there i s one c l o u d l a r g e r and darker than the r e s t : 168. There's a k i n d of r e l e a s e And a k i n d of torment i n every goodbye f o r every man -And w i l l be, even to the l a s t of h i s d a r k ^ d e p a r t u r e s . Death, s u r e l y , i s the most "unique minute" of a l l . I t i s the one "unique minute" to which we cannot grow u n f a i t h f u l . (1) Short Is The Time, "Departure I n The Dark", 11. 38-40. 169. CHAPTER VIII DEFEND THE BAD AGAINST THE "WORST PART ONE The Hundred Years War was an i n t e r m i t t e n t s t r u g g l e f o s t e r e d by the growing n a t i o n a l consciousness of England and France i n the Fourteenth and F i f t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s . There ere many s u b s i d i a r y causes, such as Edward's s t r o n g c l a i m to the French throne, and the s p o r a d i c a s s i s t a n c e France gave t o S c o t l a n d i n her border s t r i f e w i t h England. The fundamental causes l a y deeper, however. T h e Hundred Years War wag e s s e n t i a l l y a s t r u g g l e between the growing m e r c a n t i l -ism of England, one aspect of which wag tne l u c r a t i v e wool trade w i t h F l a n d e r s , and the more s o l i d l y entrenched f e u d a l -ism of France. I t wag, t h e r e f S r e , a c o n f l i c t between two worlds, one d y i n g and the other s t r u g g l i n g t o be born. L e f t - w i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s see our l a s t two wars i n a s i m i l a r l i g h t . They argue that the F i r s t and Second World Wars were not two wars, but merely s u c c e s s i v e stages i n the same war, as Henry V's wars were a c o n t i n u a t i o n of Edward I l l s wars. C o n t i n u i n g the analogy, these i n t e l l e c t u a l s p o i n t out th a t the two world wars r e p r e s e n t the death throes of the world order c a l l e d c a p i t a l i s m . Only by wag can c a p i t a l i s m s p u r i o u s l y s t i m u l a t e a demand f o r goods without which i t must p e r i s h . C a p i t a l i s m , they emphasize, i s a "scarcity..-170. system"; t h a t i s , i t can f l o u r i s h o n l y when ge n e r a l demand exceeds g e n e r a l s u p p l y . The g r e a t d e p r e s s i o n of the ' T h i r t i e s r e s u l t e d when the stepped-up p r o d u c t i v i t y of machinery f l o o d e d the world w i t h eonaummer goods, the v e r y abundance of which prevented the f a c t o r y 'owners from r e a l i z i n g an adequate p r i c e or p r o f i t f o r them. The l e f t - w i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s conclude t h a t modern war i s an a r t i f i c i a l but i n f e r n a l l y e f f e c t i v e way of s t i m u l a t i n g demandfor, and m a i n t a i n i n g a p r o f i t i n , the p r o d u c t i o n of consumer goods. War does t h i s by c r e a t i n g an i n s a t i a b l e demand f o r armaments, and by c r e a t -i n g a b a c k - l o g of commodity orders which r e q u i r e s many years to f i l l . Of course other f a c t o r s e n t e r i n t o the cause of modern wars, j u s t as s u b s i d i a r y causes e n t e r e d i n t o the Hundred Years War. Incompatible n a t i o n a l i s m s , and the c o n f l i c t between t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m and p o l i t i c a l democracy are i n v o l v e d , but the men whose concept of h i s t o r y i s based on economic determinism';regard a l l causes but the economic as secondary. Lewis i s a l e f t - w i n g , i n t e l l e c t u a l . H i s a t t i t u d e t o war i s based on the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t the t h e o r i e s of economic d e t e r m i n a t i o n are c o r r e c t . GSonsequently, F r a n c i s S c a r f e Is able to w r i t e t h a t Auden, Spender, and Lewis had agreat m y t h o l o g i c a l coneption of themselves as martyrs, born i n t o one war and f a t t e n e d f o r another, ( l ) (1) F. S c a r f e Auden and A f t e r , 1950-1941, London, George Routledge and Sons L t d . , 1942, 15 ( P r e f a c e ) . 171. These poets regarded themselves and a l l men as the v i c t i m s of modern wars,which were themselves the g i g a n t i c death s t r u g g l e s of c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . The Spanish C i v i l War, and the d e s t r u c t i o n by the D o l f u s s c a t h o l i c s of the worker's q u a r t e r s i n Vienna i n the middle ' T h i r t i e s , were s i m i l a r l y phases of the same s t r u g g l e . Lewis would e x p l a i n Fascism as the desperate l a s t defence of a system t h a t has been brought t o bay.' Fascism i s but a c a p i t a l i s m which h a 3 removed the v e l v e t glove t h a t covered the mailed f i s t . I t i s not s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , to f i n d Spender w r i t i n g h i s "Vienna", and Lewis w r i t i n g h i s "Nabara" i n the middle ' T h i r t i e s . In 1936, moreover, Lewis was w r i t i n g poetry warning of the impending outbreak of a new world war, and, indeed , one f e e l s t h a t Lewis wa s, even at t h a t date, w r i t i n g as though the war had a l r e a d y s t a t e d . The poem, "February.1936"^ f o r i n s t a n c e , i s f i l l e d with a dark sense of p r e m o n i t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g l i n e s imply that war has a l r e a d y begun : We cannot meet Our c h i l d r e n ' s m i r t h , at n i g h t Who dream t h e i r b l o o d upon a darkening s t r e e t . Stay away, S p r i n g I S i n c e death i s on the wing To b l a s t our seed and p o i s o n e v e r y t h i n g , ( l ) In these l i n e s , the t e r r i b l e f e a r s of war are imaged i n terms of a nightmare, by a poet who knew the imminence of war at a (1) Short Is The Time, "February 1936", 11. 19-24. 172. time when the western world was b u r y i n g i t s head i n the sands of appeasement and i s o l a t i o n i s m . There are other poem of the same p e r i o d e x p r e s s i n g not so much the imminence as the immanence of war. By t h i s I mean th a t though the p h y s i c a l war was i E i t h e f u t u r e , the germs of war were growing w i t h i n the world's body, l i k e the b a c i l l i of a f a t a l d i s e a s e . Three years before the outbreak of war, Lewis d e s c r i b e d an a i r - r a i d with s i n g u l a r r e a l i s m : B l a c k as vermin, c r a w l i n g i n echelon Beneath the c l o u d - f l o o r , the bombers come: The heavy angels, c a r r y i n g harm i n T h e i r wombs t h a t ache to be r i d of death. This i s the seed t h a t grows f o r r u i n , The i r o n embryo conceived i n f e a r . Soon or l a t e i t s need must be answered In f e a r d e l i v e r e d and s c r e e c h i n g f i r e , ( l ) I t i s n o t i c e a b l e t h a t i n the above l i n e s Lewis employs imagery which i s a s s o c i a t e d with co n c e p t i o n , g e s t a t i o n , and b i r t h to p i c t u r e death and war. A s i m i l a r i r o n i c a l i n v e r s i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l imagery i s to be found i n "Newsreel" ( 2 ) , where the r i s i n g of the b i g guns i s compared t o the e r e c t i o n of the penis, "to p l a n t death i n your world's s o f t womb". Such imagery c a r r i e s with i t the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t war i s i n the v e r y b l o o d and bones of c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y , t h a t war i s immanent'. This i s merely another way of saying t h a t a s o c i e t y which breeds death i n s t e a d of l i f e i s c r i t i c a l l y s i c k . (1) Short Is The Time, "Bombers". 11. 13-20. | (2) Short Is The Time, "Newsreel f', 11. 21-24. 173 Poems l i k e "Bombers", "February 1936", and "Newsreel" are poems of warning. But perhaps the most e f f e c t i v e , because i t i s the most b e a u t i f u l , poem of warning i s the f i r s t poem of Short Is The Time, e n t i t l e d , "Maple and Sumach". I n The octave of t h i s sonnet, Lewis speaks of the s c a r l e t leaves of the t r e e s i n autumn: You leaves drenched with the l i f e b l o o d of the y e a r -What flamingo dawns have wavered from the e a s t , What eves have crimsoned to t h e i r t o p p l i n g c r e s t To g i v e the fame and t r a n s i e n c e t h a t you wear. (1) He goes on to c o n t r a s t the " r u s s e t and r e j o i c i n g " d e c l i n e of the t r e e s w i t h the "ashen, h a r s h d e c l i n e " of man: His f a l l i s s h o r t of p r i d e , he bleeds w i t h i n And p a l e r creeps to the dead end of h i s days. 0 l i g h t ' s abandon and the f i r e - c r e s t sky Speak i n me now f o r a l l who are to d i e ! ($). I t i s p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r p r e t t h i s sonnet i n two ways. The f i r s t of these two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s would make no r e f e r e n c e t o war at a l l . The death Lewis r e f e r s t o i n the l a s t l i n e - w o u l d then mean the n a t u r a l d e c l i n e and demise which i s the f a t e of a l l men. The theme of the poem would thus not be d i s s i m i l -ar t o the theme of E l i o t ' s "Ho3rlow Men", f 0 r Lewis would be lamenting the f e c k l e s s p e t e r i n g out of a l i f e which was i t -s e l f c h a r a c t e r i z e d by b l i n d s t r i v i n g and H O achievement. The mood of the words, "creeps to the dead end of h i s days", i s s i m i l a r to E l i o t ' s . T h i s i s the way the world ends Not with a bang but a whimper.. U ) Short I s The Time, "Maple and- Sumach. • 11. 5-8, 11. 11-14. 174 Lewis cannot but note the d i f f e r e n c e between the death of the leaves and the death of man. T h e i r s i s a crimson f l o u r i s h ; man's i s a grey d e c l i n e . The second i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the sonnet v a r i e s from the f i r s t o n l y by g i v i n g a d i f f e r e n t i b m i s t t o the l a s t l i n e . The words, " f i r e - c r e s t sky" imply t h a t the death Lewis r e f e r s t o i n the l a s t l i n e i s the impending death-in-war of m i l l i o n s of people. I t i s a grey death because I t i s an unnecessary death and p o s s i b l y an i n g l o r i o u s death. The image of sheep b e i n g l e d to the slaughter i s hackneyed but apfcyy expresses the i d e a which Lewis wished t o convey. This second i n t e r -p r e t a t i o n p o s s i b l y gains a u t h o r i t y from the f a c t t h a t "Maple and Sumash" i s the f i r s t of a group of f i v e poems i n Short I s The Time, the remaining f o u r of which are d e f i n i t e l y war poems. Two other poems which prophesy impending war are "Land-scapes" and "A P a r t i n g Shot". The former poem c r i t i c i z e s the u g l i n e s s , both p h y s i c a l and s p i r i t u a l , of f a c t o r y towns. I t c o n t a i n s the l i n e s : I r o n and man they mould f o r war, But i n t h e i r death that war w i l l end. ( l ) By these^Lines i t would appear that Lewis b e l i e v e s that i n the long run war w i l l be seen t o have speeded up the d i s s o l u t i o n of c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y , and t h a t war w i l l end o n l y with, t h e death of the p r o f i t e e r s . ^ (1) Short Is The Time, "Landscapes", 11. 27-28. 175. . "A P a r t i n g Shot" i s a whimsical fragment which embodies, a warning. I t i s a warning t h a t armaments are made to be used, and t h a t the armaent race of the l a t e " T h i r t i e s must end i n war. I n the poem, an i n e x p e r i e n c e d or i r r e s p o n s i b l e gunman i s warned not to p o i n t the gun at the dove i n the judas t r e e . The warning I s i g n o r e d , the gun goes o f f , and the "only t h i n g one can t h i n k of to say i s , "I t o l d you So". These f i r s t war poems were w r i t t e n i n the middle of the Nineteen T h i r t i e s . They are poems which embody both phophedies and warnings. By 1939 the war which Lewis had so r e a l i s t i c a l l y and g r i m l y p r e d i c t e d had become a fact.. . Thus he found h i m s e l f i n the p o s i t i o n of the speaker of "A P a r t i n g Shot", and was f r e e to say w i t h him, i f he wished, "I t o l d you so". PART TWO During the l a s t war Lewis served with the Home-Guard, and spent much time watching the c o a s t l i n e and the sky i n company with the neighbours whom he commanded, country r u s t i c s f o r the most p a r t . Two poems d e s c r i b e these e x p e r i e n c e s : "Watching Post", w r i t t e n i n J u l y , 1940, and "The Stand-To", of September, 1940. The dates ard more than u s u a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , f o r the a i r - b a t t e r i n g t h a t England was experiencingon each of them was thought at the time to be a prelude to i n v a s i o n , the former poem,, the poet and the 176. farmer keep watch, " f o r whatever may come to i n j u r e our c o u n t r y s i d e - l i g h t s i g n a l s , parachutes, bombs, or sea-i n v a d e r s " . T n e v a r i o u s elements of the s u b j e c t - the moon, watchers, s e a r c h l i g h t s , f i r e s , Devon c o u n t r y s i d e , t a l k about crops - are i n g r e d i e n t s , pinheads tot you l i k e , out of which a s h i n i n g theme emerges. I t i s t h a t war h a s healed i n England the break between man and man which i n The Magnetic Mountain the poet had d e p l o r e d . A common f o e , a common need, and a common hope make poet and farmer f e e l as one. l e w i s i s a b l e , t h e r e f o r e , t o w r i t e , t h a t , Image or f a c t , we both i n the c o u n t r y s i d e Have found our n a t u r a l law, and u n t i l i n v a d e r s Come w i l l answer i t s need: f o r both of us, hope Means a h a r v e s t from s m a l l beginnings (1) The tragedy of the s i t u a t i o n i s t h a t i t has taken a war to make Englishmen f e e l t h e i r program w i t h t h e i r whole s e l v e s . I t i s a s i t u a t i o n whifih makes one wonder what p r o d i g i o u s achievements i n peace would r e s u l t i f the heoism, d e v o t i o n , s e l f - s a c r i f i c e , enthusiasm, and genius t h a t i s wasted i n war c o u l d be conjured up and c h a n n e l l e d i n t o constmuctive works. Lewis, h i m s e l f , expresses i n prose the e f f e c t which war had i n r e s t o r i n g " l o n g - l o s t k i n s h i p " t o the people of England: That common experience c r e a t e d an impulse towards community - an impulse which f o r the o r d i n a r y man meant an enlargement of i m a g i n a t i v e sympathy, so that he became, quite, simply, more c o o p e r a t i v e , more f r i e n d l y , more s e r i o u s . (2) (1) Short Is The Time, "Watching Post". 11. 25-28. (2) C. Day .Lewis, The P o e t i c Image, 110. 177. The v e r s e i n "Watching P o s t " i s simple without being shallow. The mood i s q u i e t , h o p e f u l , subdued but happy. The "Stand-To" t e l l s of an experience two months l a t e r , when H i t l e r massed h i s i n v a s i o n barges "on the o t h e r s i d e " . Lewis i s i n command of t h i r t y n o n d e s c r i p t men ordered out t o guard a v i l l a g e . At dawn the men stand down and go home. The poem i s w r i t t e n i n p r a i s e of the h e r o i c s p i r i t of these "ragtag f i g h t e r s of lane and shadow", and of the love t h a t has grown F a m i l i a r as working-clothes, f a i t h f u l as bone t o bone. (1) The i n s i s t e n c e w i t h which Lewis s r i t e s of the l o v e between man and man, and the frequency w i t h which he uses the imagery of 'bone" or "blood" t o d e s c r i b e i t s fundamental importance almost becomes monotonous. The r e a l v a l u e of the experiences r e l a t e d i n "Watching Post" and "Stand-To" i s the knowledge t h a t the s t r e s s and s t r a i n of England's n a t i o n a l emergency . has c r e a t e d "that human r e a c h i n g out of hands towards the warmth i n a l l t h i n g s " which Lewis c a l l s l o v e . War has c a n c e l l e d out a m u l t i p l i c i t y of c o n f l i s t i n g motives; i t has made l i f e s i m p l e r , and l i n k e d a l l men t o a s i n g l e goal which breathes and burns w i t h i n them. U n f o r t u n a t e l y the bond of f e l l o w s h i p w i l l d i e when the c r i s i s of war which c r e a t e d i t i s gone. The temporary c h a r a c t e r of the f e l l o w s h i p does not i n v a l i d a t e i t , however. (1) Short I s The Time, "The Stand-To", 11. 31-32. " 178. .Every reader of Lewis' war poems must f e e l how d i f f e r e n t i n tone they are from the war poems of the l a s t war. There i s i n them no f a n a t i c i s m of any k i n d , e i t h e r f o r or a g a i n s t the war. Since Lewis wa s not an a c t u a l combatant there i s l i t t l e t o be found i n h i s verse of the p h y s i c a l h o r r o r s of war, .such a<§ were t y p i c a l of Sassoon, Owen, and Isaac Rosen-burg. T h i s i s o l a t i o n from a c t u a l b a t t l e i s p o s s i b l y an advantage, f o r i t makes the p e r s p e c t i v e b e t t e r . F r a n c i s S c a r f e has s a i d that, "a good war poem must a l s o be a good peace poem" (1), and I f e e l t h a t many of Sassoon's poems are b e t t e r war poems than peace poems. The experience has not been s u f f i c i e n t l y d e - p e r s o n a l i z e d ; the poem i s too c l o s e to the e x p e r i e n c e . Lewis always uses the p h y s i c a l d e t a i l s of the war as a t r e l l i s upon jwhich t o t r a i n some green thoughts. S c a r f e goes on t o say th a t "the best war po e t r y i s n e c e s s a r i l y w r i t t e n , not by those who see war, but by those who f e e l I t i n t e n s e l y " . (2) Lewis does f e e l the war i n t e n s e l y . But what s p e c i f i c a l l y i s the poet's a t t i t u d e t o the war? PART THREE The s t r o n g note of r e s i g n a t i o n which c h a r a c t e r i z e d some of the poems d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter VII i s ahown e q u a l l y by the war poems. The poet's a t t i t u d e i s s u c c i n c t l y expressed i n the poem, "Where Are The War Poets?" The poem answers the (1) P. S c a r f e , op. c i t . , 170. : ~~~~ : ~" (2) F. S c a r f e , op. c i t . , 170. 179. q u e s t i o n about the apparent l a c k of songs and poems of t h i s war. The query was based on a popular misconception; namely, th a t the s t a t e of mind e x i s t i n g between 1914-and 1918 was the same s t a t e of mind as t h a t e x i s t i n g d u r i n g the l a s t war. Such, o b v i o u s l y , was not the case. A changed s t a t e of mind i s e x e m p l i f i e d i n "Where Are The War Poets?" The poem f o l l o w s i n i t s e n t i r e t y : .They who i n f o l l y or mere greed enslaved r e l i g i o n , markets, laws, Borrow our language now and b i d Us t o speak up i n freedom's cause. I t i s the l o g i c of our times, No s u b j e c t f o r immortal verse -That we who l i v e d by honest dreams Defend the bad a g a i n s t the worse, ( l ) The s t r e n g t h of t h i s poem l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t i t s s u b j e c t concerns two wars, not one. Obviously, the poem i s concerned w i t h the war a g a i n s t Germany and I t a l y , the i d e a b e i n g t h a t though c a p i t a l i s t democracy i s not p e r f e c t , i t i s b e t t e r than, and must be defended a g a i n s t , Fascism. The other war wi t h whifih the poem i s concerned i s i m p l i e d , not s t a t e d . I t i s the war at home between the f o r c e s of c a p i t a l i s t a u t h o r i y y , and the working c l a s s e s ; the war between r e a c t i o n and p r o g r e s s . Lewis i s a p a r t i c i p a n t of both wars. While defending the bad on one l e v e l , Lewis was a t t a c k i n g i t on another. Thousands of others were doing l i k e w i s e . Other poems r e v e a l more of the poet's a t t i t u d e t o the • r e c e n t l y concluded war. "Word Over A l l " s a t i s f i e s W i l f r i d (1) Short I s The Time. "Where Are The War Poets?". 76. 180 Owen's d e f i n i t i o n t h a t the p o e t r y i s i n the p i t y . The poem i s the e x p r e s s i o n of the poet's profound sense of p i t y f o r the " m i l l i o n s f a t e d to f l o c k down weeping roads to mere o b l i v i o n " The poem contains the opposite emotion too, anger a t the " preachers, the p o l i t i c i a n s weaving Vo l u b l e charms around T h i s o r d e a l , c o n j u r i n g a h a r v e s t t h a t s h a l l s p r i n g from Our h e a r t s ' a l l - h a r r o w e d ground. (1) Once again the twin wars - a g a i n s t g o r e i g n f o e s and c i v i l r e a c t i o n a r i e s - are i m p l i c i t i n the poem. The poem ends wit h the e x p r e s s i o n of a f a i t h t h a t mankind, i n spirbe of setbacks, w i l l march ever onward. About the "Ode To Pear", i n r e l a t i o n t o the other war. poems, W i l l i a m Rose Benet hag w r i t t e n ! C o n s i d e r i n g h i s more sombre poems, I have. read n o t h i n g as good about the mood of England under i n t e n s i v e bombing. (2) "Ode To F e a r " ends on a note of submission to the present and f a i t h i n the f u t u r e , as "Word Over A l l " does. I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o observe t h a t In t h i s poem Lewis places the g u i l t f o r the war s q u a r e l y on the head of every i n d i v i d u a l i n s o c i e t y . As f o r the sex-crime of an e a r l i e r poem, a l l men share the g u i l t f o r the war; f e c i t per a l l u m f e c i t per se. T h i s sense of communal g u i l t i s p a s s i o n a t e l y expressed i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : (1) Short Is The Time. "Word Over A l l " . 11. 25-28. " (2) W. H. Benet, ff,i'he Growing S t r e n g t h of C. Day Lewis", Saturday Review of L i t e r a t u r e . Aug. 25, 1945, 27.' 181. But bh, what drug, what k n i f e Can wither up our g u i l t a t the r o o t , Cure our d i s c o l o u r e d days and cleanse the b l o o d of l i f e ? (1) I t i s the anguished c r y of a s u p e r - s e n s i t i v e man who f e e l s the g u i l t of the whole world w i t h i n himself.. The f e e l i n g i s so i n t e n s e , i t takes on the f o r c e of p e r s o n a l shame. V o l u n t a r y i n a c t i o n , s o f t o p t i o n , d r e a m r e t r e a t - these he i s g u i l t y of h i m s e l f . I t i s not a mere r h e t o r i c a l f l o u r i s h which he makes i n "The Dead", when he w r i t e s : Each man d i e s f o r the s i n s of a whole world. (2) One f i n a l poem must have a p a s s i n g mention h e r e . The f o u r q u a t r a i n s of a poem c a l l e d " R e c o n c i l i a t i o n " express the f e e l i n g s of a tank-man d y i n g on the d e s e r t b e s i d e h i s b u r n t -out machine. The f i r s t q u a t r a i n c o n t a i n s a s t r i k i n g image h which i s one of Lewis* most o r i g i n a l : A l l . day b e s i d e the s h a t t e r e d tank he'd l a i n L i k e a limp c r e a t u r e hacked out of i t s s h e l l , Now s h r i v e l l i n g on the d e s e r t ' s g r i d . (3) The remaining three stanzas are b i t s of i m p r e s s i o n i s m . The eyes b l u r , v i s i o n s and n o i s e s accompany d e a t h ' 3 d e l i r i u m , and then he d i e s : Then, i n a heavenly calm, The l o c k - g a t e s open, and beyond Appear the argent, swan-assemblied reaches. (4) There i s a suggestion of i n e f f a b l e peace i n these l i n e s , and on t h i s note the poem ends. U J'Short"l?^e-Time ."^Ode^To Fear", 11. 55-55. (2) Short Is The Time. "The Dead", 1. 16. (5) Short I s The Time. " R e c o n c i l i a t i o n " , 11. 1-5. (4) Short l a The Time. " R e c o n c i l i a t i o n " , 11. 14-16. 182. To summarize, I have d i v i d e d Lewis' war poems i n t o three c l a s s e s : the pre-v»ar poems which warn of impending c o n f l i c t ; the poems which are the r e s u l t of the poet's own experiences d u r i n g the a i r - r a i d s ; and f i n a l l y the poems which e x p l a i n the poet's a t t i t u d e t o the war. H i s a t t i t u d e i s one of acceptance of the i n e v i t a b l e , but i t i s an accept-ance made meaningful by the f a c t t h a t he has never ceased • to a t t a c k the e v i l s i n the very s o c i e t y which he i s d e f e n d i n g . He f e e l s p e r s o n a l shame f o r the g u i l t of s o c i e t y , but he i s proud of man 1 3 heroism and d i g n i t y , and i s h o p e f u l t h a t the new-found sense of Sommunal Intimacy which was? has i n s p i r e d among Englishmen w i l l e v e n t u a l l y be a r e a l i t y i n a p e a c e f u l world as w e l l . The s p i r i t of England at war should animate England at peace, and one day i t w i l l do so. One q u e s t i o n remains. Does he express anywhere a . f a i t h t h a t war w i l l be abolished? The poem, " W i l l I t Be So Again?" s u p p l i e s an answer of s o r t s ; but the answ.er appears t o be a begging of the q u e s t i o n t h a t i s shallow and s e n t i m e n t a l . Perhaps, however, i t i s the onl y answer. Lewis simply says t h a t i t i s the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of a l l men, by an a c t of w i l l , to prevent a t h i r d war: S h a l l i t be so again? C a l l not upon the g l o r i o u s dead To be your witnesses then. The l i v i n g alone can s a i l t o t h e i r promise the ones who s a i d I t s h a l l not be so a ^ a l n . ( l ) (1) Short Is The Time, " W i l l I t So Again", 11. 21-25. 183. And we are reminded of what Arnold s a i d i n "The S c h o l a r G ipsy": S t i l l n u r s i n g the unconquerable-hope, S t i l l c l u t c h i n g the i n v i o l a b l e shade. 184. CHAPTER IX EMOTIONAL LOGIC PART ONE B r i g h t n e s s f a l l s from the a i r , Queens have d i e d young and fiair. (1) Not o n l y are these two images t i e d t o e t h e r by what I should venture to c a l l "emotional logic": t h e i r component p a r t s - the i d e a s , f o r example of b r i g h t n e s s , of f a l l i n g , and of a i r -have been brought i n t o an a s s o c i a t i o n from which each of them p r o f i t s a l i i to which (the complete image) each c o n t r i b u t e s , j u s t as each complete image c o n t r i b u t e s t o and p r o f i t s from the poem as a whole. (2) I t i s w i t h these words t h a t Lewis e x p l a i n s the n i c e c o n g r u i t y which v a r i o u s images i n a poem have f o r one another, a c o n g r u i t y making f o r c o n s i s t e n c y of i m p r e s s i o n and making one see, w i t h almost the f o r c e of r e v e l a t i o n , the s i m i l a r i n the d i s s i m i l a r . The process by which the poet s e l e c t s h i s images to c r e a t e a d e s i r e d emotional response he c a l l s "emotional l o g i c " . The term, I t h i n k , i s a good one, i n s p i t e of the paradox which the words "emotional" and " l o g i c " seem to imply. The term, "emotional coherence", might be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r "emotional l o g i c " , without d i s t o r t i n g i n any way themeaning which Lewis i n t e n d e d , and such a term would a v o i d the seemingly i r r e l e v a n t c o m p l i c a t i o n s which h i s term b r i n g s i n . The v e r y paradox of Lewis' term, however, (1) Thomag Nashe. "A Lamftwh i n Time of Plague", xx. A Pageant of E l i z a b e t h a n Poetry, ed. A Symohs, London, B l a c k i e and Son, p. 356, 11. 17-18. (2) The Pr%ftHft Image. 35. 185. Is s t i m u l a t i n g , and I propose t o use i t and extend i t s mean-i n g to serve a s a heading f o r the d i s c u s s i o n of the e n t i r e s u b j e c t of form and technique i n c l u d i n g the use of imagery and symbolism. The use of the term, "emotional L o g i c " , demands, however, r a t h e r meticulous e x p l a n a t i o n . A s u c c e s g f u i poem o r d i n a r i l y employs bo t h i n t e l l e c t u a l (or l o g i c a l , or r a t i o n a l ) coherence, and emotional coherence, though one of these may be s t r o n g l y predominant i n the poem. I f i n t e l l e c t u a l coherence pre-dominates, the images or p a r t s are h e l d t o g e t h e r m a i n l y by t h e i r l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s . The c o n n e c t i o n , f o r i n s t a n c e , may by the r e s u l t of a cause and e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p , or of a movement from the g e n e r a l t o the p a r t i c u l a r , or of the c h r o n o l o g i c a l sequence of events. I f emotional coherence predominates the images or p a r t s are h e l d t o g e t h e r by connections t h a t are n o n - r a t i o n a l or n o n - l o g i c a l . The connection may be the r e s u l t of the f e e l i n g fehat two images or ideas are s u i t a b l e to be presented t o g e t h e r , e i t h e r because they are capable of e v o l v i n g i n d e n t i c a l , or s i m i l a r , or even r e l a t e d emotional responses; or because they are capable of producing d i f f e r e n t or even c o n t r a d i c t o r y responses which serve the purpose of c o n t r a c t , a a a b l a c k ornament on a white d r e s s heightens the whiteness of the d r e s s . A non-r a t i o n a l sequence of images i n v o l v i n g a c o n t r a s t of t h i s k i n d c r e a t e s the k i n d of emotional u n i t y t h a t Lawrence c a l l e d p o l a r i t y . P o l a r i t y i s a word d e r i v e d from p h y s i c s , and i t 186. means t h a t a magnet i s a magnet because the opposite n o r t h and south poles are p r e s e n t . They are the opposites which are necessary to make a u n i t y . When I . A. Richards wrote about the i d e a of " i n c l u s i o n " or " i n c l u s i v e u n i t y " i n the P r i n c i p l e s of L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m ( 1 ) , he too was r e f e r r i n g t o the p o l a r i t y of opposite or c o n t r a d i c t o r y i d e a s which i s to be found i n some poems. When the r e l a t i o n between the p a r t s of a poem depends on emotional sequence, the coherence i s o f t e n more d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c o v e r , but i s i s none the l e s s t h e r e , and f r e q u e n t l y the d i s c o v e r y of the connection r e s u l t s i n a g r e a t e r t h r i l l of p l easure than would be the case i f a l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i o n had heen used. I t f o l l o w s t h a t emotional coherence can be e x p l a i n e d ; t h a t i s t o say, i t i s "emotional l o g i c " . T h e r e f o r e , a poem depending predominately on emotional coherence can have a l o g i c a l coherence superimposed upon i t . P r o f e s s o r Hunter Lewis has p o i n t e d out to me t h a t the l i n e s from Washe which Lewis uses to exemplify emotional l o g i c , and which were quoted i n t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y e x c e r p t , might be rephrased so as to use r a t i o n a l r a t h e r than emotional coherence. I f t h i s were done, the q u o t a t i o n might be t r a n s c r i b e d as f o l l o w s : The t h i e v i n g n i g h t s l a y s beauty As b r i g h t n e s s f a l l s from the a i r -s t r i p s from the sun's world g l o r y , As queens have d i e d young and f a i r . ) i . A . R i c h a r d s , P r i n c i p l e s of L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m , London, Kegan P a u l , 1938. (2) I am i n d e b t e d f o r much of the m a t e r i a l i n the i n t r o d u c t o r y p a r t o f . t h i s Chapter to Mr.^Hunter.Lewis, who has guided the w r i t i n g or t h i s essay with p a t i e n c e ana f o r b e a r a n c e . 187. By making t h i s change, the e f f e c t which Nashe c o n t r i v e d i s d i l u t e d of course, because the i n t r o d u c t i o n of a " s t o r y " and of a f o r t h r i g h t comparison decreases the immediacy of the e f f e c t and hence lowers i t s i n t e n s i t y . The s i g n i f i c a n t t h i n g t o note, however, i s t h a t even when a poem has i n t e l l e c t u -a l coherence, i t r e a l l y depends upon the emotional coherence (which i t must a l s o have) f o r the q u a l i t i e s which make i t a poem. Hence, the emotional and i n t e l l e c t u a l connections i n a poem, themselves make a p o l a r i t y without which the poem, l i k e the magnet, cannot e x i s t . Whether the poem depends on emotional coherence or r a t i o n a l coherence, there are numerous n o n - r a t i o n a l d e v i c e s or techniques t h a t are nec e s s a r y to the c r e a t i o n of a poem. Such t h i n g s a s the l e n g t h and q u a l i t y of l i n e s , the v e r y f a c t t h a t there are l i n e s , sound t e x t u r e , rhythm, metre, and the o r d e r i n g of words are n o n - r a t i o n a l d e v i c e s , Although these d e v i c e s have emotional consequences, they have no s p e c i f i c thought or f e e l i n g content, and are t h e r e f o r e d i f f e r e n t from the elements which e n t e r i n t o the c r e a t i o n of emotional coherence. I t i s the purpose of t h i s chapter t o examine the form of Lewis' p o e t r y from two p o i n t s of view: from the p o i n t of view of the coherence (emotional or l o g i c a l . . o r both) of a poem, which w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e the whole poem; and secondly, from the p o i n t of view of- the n o n - r a t i o n a l d e v i c e s 188. such as rhyme or rhythm or s t a n z a form, which w i l l i n v o l v e the p a r t s of a poem. Because I p r e f e r to begin w i t h the p a r t s and end w i t h the whole, I propose to d e a l with the l a t t e r of the two a s p e c t s - f i r s t . Many c r i t i c s have warned of the dangers i n v o l v e d i n the examination of the p a r t s of a poem. One of these dangers l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t i n the aoncern f o r a p a r t i c u l a r p a r t of a poem, one i s prone to f o r g e t t h a t the poem i s an organic whole, and t h a t the e f f e c t of any p a r t i c u l a r p a r t ' has meaning onl y i n so f a r as i t c o n t r i b u t e s t o the e f f e c t of the whole poem. Lewis h i m s e l f warns of t h i s danger, when he w r i t e s t h a t " i f the s u b j e c t i s not a cadaver b e f o r e you s t a r t d i s s e c t i n g , i t soon becomes o n e " i " ^ I . A.Richards adds h i s v o i c e i n warning: This t r i c k of judging the whole by the d e t a i l , i n s t e a d of the other way about, of m i s t a k i n g the means f o r the end, the technique f o r the v a l u e , i s i n f a c t much * the most s u e c e s s f u l of the snares which waylay the c r i t i c . (2) N e v e r t h e l e s s , a n a l y s i s i s i n e v i t a b l e i n any form of c r i t i c i s m . C r i t i c i s m cannot p o s s i b l y work without i t . However, one must be c a r e f u l not dst> view the p a r t s i n i s o l a t i o n . I f c r i t i c i s m d i s s e c t s i n o r d e r to view the p a r t s i n i s o l a t i o n , i t i s f a u l t y : i f i t d i s s e c t s so as to view the n i c e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the p a r t s , i t i s v a l u a b l e . And so, l i k e so many other Questions i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , , the problem of a n a l y s i s (1) The P o e t i c Image, 40. (2) R i c h a r d s , op. c i t . , p. 24. 189. comes down to a matter of balance, of emphasis. A f t e r the c l o c k has been taken a p a r t , and something has been l e a r n e d about i t s mechanism, i t must be put tog e t h e r again, f o r , a f t e r a l l , a c l o c k has no meaning o u t s i d e i t s f u n c t i o n a l one. This, then, i s the order of procedure t h a t I s h a l l f o l l o w i n t h i s c h a p t e r : f i r s t , the p a r t s of the whole, and secondly, the whole of the p a r t s . PART TWO A l l a r t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a q u a l i t y c a l l e d rhythm. In p a i n t i n g , rhythm may be c r e a t e d by the motion of a l i n e or by the p l e a s i n g d i s p o s i t i o n of r e l a t e d masses of c o l o r , or c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , or areas, so t h a t the eye moves i n an o r d e r l y way from p a r t to p a r t . Rhythm im p a i n t i n g i s n e c e s s a r i l y v i s u a l . Rhythm i n po e t r y i s a u d i t o r y , f o r even when the poem i s read s i l e n t l y , one n o t i c e s the rhythm i n the mind as though i t were being, read a l o u d . The mind has an ear as w e l l as an eye. The b a s i c q u a l i t y of rhythm, no matter i n which a r t i t may occur, I s a motion governed by some p a r t i c u l a r law imposed by the a r t i s t . Rhythm i n poetry may be d e f i n e d as a pattern, of s t r e s s e d and u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s r e c u r r i n g r e g u l a r l y w i t h i n the l i n e . Rhythm i s pl e a s a n t f o r I t s own sake, f o r the d i s c o v e r y , and o f t e n the i t e r a t i o n , of the law by which a piece of music, or a p a i n t i n g , or a poem moves, appeals t o some deep-190. seated d e s i r e i n a man f o r o r d e r . Now though rhythm i s pleasant f o r i t s own sake, i t i s not i n a r t an end i n i t s e l f . In poetry, f o r i n s t a n c e , i t i s a d e v i c e which c o n t r i b u t e s t o the e f f e c t of the e n t i r e poem. I t may po i s e the c r e s t of the sound on c e r t a i n " k e y words, g i v i n g them emphasis by s t r e s s or p o s i t i o n ; i t may r e f l e c t , by changing i t s q u a l i t y , the v a r i o u s moods of poetry; or i t may heighten the meaning of a l i n e by h e l p i n g to c r e a t e an onomatopoetic e f f e c t . The rhythm of a p a r t i c u l a r poem c o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y be s e l e c t e d by a poet on r a t i o n a l grounds. More g e n e r a l l y , however, the rhythm u n c o n s c i o u s l y Imposes i t s e l f on the thoughts or f e e l i n g s because i t s u i t s them, or i t i s worked out by t r i a l and e r r o r by the poet, who f i n a l l y s e l e c t s one because he ff.eels i t i s r i g h t . In matters of rhythm, Lewis i s a v e r s a t i l e t e c h n i c i a n , f o r he employs a gre a t many v a r i e t i e s . A good d e a l has been w r i t t e n about h i s use of s o - c a l l e d "sprung rhythm". This term was used by Hopkins t o d e s c r i b e h i s own prosody i n which the s t r e s s r a t h e r than the s y l l a b i c f o o t i s the co n s t a n t . The term may be new, but the i d e a was not new even i n Hopkin's day. C o l e r i d g e e x p l a i n e d i n the " C h r i s t a b e l " p r e f a c e h i s use of t h i s k i nd of metre i n the poem. Going even f u r t h e r back i n h i s t o r y , Anglo-Saxon v e r s i f i c a t i o n l i n k e d the s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s i n d i f f e r e n t h a l f - l i n e s by a l l i t e r a t i o n of the same i n i t i a l consonant or vowel sounds. A l l i t e r a t i o n always 191. occurred i n a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e , and t h e r e were two of these s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s i n each h a l f - l i n e . The f i r s t one i n the decond h a l f - l i n e always contained the a l l i t e r a t i v e l e t t e r , while i n the f i r s t h a l f - l i n e the a l l i t e r a t i o n sometimes occurred i n both s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s , sometimes o n l y i n the f i r s t , and o c c a s i o n a l l y only i n the second. These d e t a i l s of Old E n g l i s h v e r s i f i c a t i n are necessary i n order to determine hew c l o s e l y Lewis' "sprung rhythm" approximates the Anglo-Saxon. "Poem Twelve" of From Feathers To I r o n o f f e r s the c l o s e s t p a r a l l e l to Anglo-Saxon v e r s i f i c a -t i o n I can f i n d . F i v e of the l i n e s f o l l o w : As ode Sho wanders i n t o oi.d workings Dazed by the noonday d e s i r i n g coolness, Has found r e t r e a t b a r r e d by f a l l of r o c k f a c e Gropes through g a l l e r i e s where g r a n i t e b r u i s e s Taut palm and panic p a t t e r s c l o s e at he4l. I took the l i b e r t y of d i v i d i n g the h e m i s t i c h s , but no such a i d i s necessary to observe the s i m i L t a r i t y which e x i s t s between Lewis' verse and Old E n g l i s h v e r s e . 0 n the other hand, there are otovious p o i n t s of d i f f e r e n c e . I n the f i r s t l i n e , f o r i n s t a n c e , the second, not the f i r s t , s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e i n the second h a l f - l i n e , c o n t a i n s the a l l i t e r a t i v e l e t t e r , w h i c h i s "w". On the whole, Lewis i s not t r y i n g to reproduce the v e r s i f i c a t i o n of Anglo-Saxon a l l i t e r a t i v e poetry, but i s t r y i n g t o use some of i t s e f f e c t s . 192. In The Magnetic Mountain Lewis uses t h i s v e r s i f i c a t i o n f r e q u e n t l y . An example f o l l o w s : G e t t e r s not b e g e t t e r s ; g a i n e r s not beginn e r s ; Whiners, no winners; no t r i e r s , b e t r a y e r s ; Who s t e e r by no s t a r , whose moon means n o t h i n g . (1) With the e x c e p t i o n of the f i r s t l i n e , t h i s e x c e r p t departs from the s t r i c t r u l e s of Anglo-Saxon v e r s i f i c a t i o n , though i t has q u a l i t i e s which are unmistakeably d e r i v e d from i t . The use of the n e g a t i v e i n a l l three l i n e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , approximates the " l i t o t e s " of Anglo-Saxon poetry, which was a f i g u r e of speech i n which "an a f f i r m a t i v e was expressed by the negative of i t s o p p o s i t e " . Another c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Old E n g l i s h p o e t r y was the use of "kennings", which were metaphors by which an o b j e c t wa a mentioned not d i r e c t l y but by i t s a t t r i b u t e s . Thus the sea i s d e s c r i b e d as "the -whale-path", and the d e v i l as the " s o u l - s l a y e r " . Sometimes many "kennings" f o r the same o b j e c t were p i l e d up one a f t e r the other c r e a t i n g a ponderous e f f e c t q u i t e unique i n poetry, I b e l i e v e . O c c a s i o n a l l y Lewis i m i t a t e s the Old E n g l i s h use of such "kennings", as i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : A b e a t e r to windward, obedient to rudder, A steamer i n t o storm, a h u r r i c a n e - r i d e r , Foam-stepper, s t a r - s t e e r e r , f r e i g h t e r and f i g h t e r -(2) Sometimes the temptation to c r e a t e a n o v e l e f f e c t r e s u l t s i n l i n e s such as: Is i t your hope, hope's h e a r t h , hearth's home, here at the l a n e ' s end? (3) (1) The Magnetic Mountain. "Poem Twenty-Five". 11. 15-17. (2) The Magnetic Mountain. "Poem Twenty-Nine", 11. 27-29. (5) A Time To Dance. "Moving I n " , 1.1. 193. This l i n e , however, owes more to Hopkins than t o Old E n g l i s h p o e t r y . I n g e n e r a l , Lewis' a l l i t e r a t i v e metres g i v e the suggestion of Old E n g l i s h v e r s i f i c a t i o n without conforming s t r i c t l y to the r u l e s of Anglo-Saxon prosody. I t should be noted, furthermore, that i n the t o t a l c o l l e c t i o n of Lewis' poems, those which approximate Anglo-Saxon v e r s i f i c a t i o n form a v e r y s m a l l m i n o r i t y . Lewis' indebtedness to Old E n g l i s h poetry has been exaggerated. Nor xsan I f i n d any d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e of John Skelton's metres. The s u c c e s s i o n of s h o r t " b r e a t h l e s s " l i n e s , rhyming i n no s e t order, which S k e l t o n g e n e r a l l y used, and which h a s heen i m i t a t e d by some con-temporary poets, Auden f o r one, does not f i n d a place i n Lewis' poetr y . Sometimes, i t i s t r u e , Lewis does use the short l i n e , a s i n "Poem Twelve" of The Magnetic Mountain or In " S p r i n g Song", but h i s rhymes i n these poems are r e g u l a r , and h i s rhythms l a c k the choppy abandom of the " S k e l t o n i a d s " . The i n f l u e n c e of Hopkin's s t y l e , on the c o n t r a r y , i s apparent i n many of h i s poems. The l i n e quoted p r e v i o u s l y from "Moving I n " owes much to l i n e s such as: Oh why are we so haggard at the h e a r t , So d a r e - c o i l e d , c a r e - k i l l e d , so fagged, So fashed, so cogged, so cumbered. (1) One might n o t i c e the resemblance between Hopkin's l i n e and the f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n : I f anywhere l o v e - l i p s , f l o w e r - f l a u n t , crimson of c l o u d - c r e s t (1) Hopkins, "The Leaden Echo and The Golden Echo", 1.44. 194. With flames impassioned h o l d o f f the p a c i n g shadows -You can r e s t i n d u l g e n t (1) Such l i n e s as these have the v e r b a l music, the a l l i t e r a t i o n and the assonance, the hyperbaton, the constant caesura whiten are so c o n s i s t e n t l y employed by t h e - J e s u i t poet. P o s s i b l y the most s u c c e s s f u l use of "sprung rhythm" i s to be found i n the n a r r a t i v e p o r t i o n of "A Time To Dance". The rhythm of t h i s poem i s p e c u l i a r l y f i t t i n g to the s u b j e c t , ffhe speedy v i r i l i t y , the constant caesura which suggests resembling changes i n a plane's d i r e c t i o n , the freedom given by the use of a c c e n t u a l u n i t s ; a l l combine t o suggest the p r e c a r i o u s and uneven f l i g h t of an o b s o l e t e plane: A i r was a l l ambushes round them, was avalanche earthquake Quicksand, a f u n n e l deep as doom, t i l l c l i m b i n g steep They crawled l i k e a f l y up the f a c e of p e r p e n d i c u l a r n i g h t And l e v e l l e d , f i n d i n g a break At f o u r t e e n thousand f e e t . (2) The movement of these l i n e s i s t o p s y - t u r v y i n the f i r s t two; smooth and g r a c e f u l i n the t h i r d , l i k e the steady climb of a plane: r e g u l a r and q u i e t i n the f o u r t h and f i f t h , each Of change whythm i m i t a t i n g the v a r i o u s stages o f ' t h e plane's f l i g h t . And when the plane l e v e l s o f f , the verse l e v e l s o f f . I f Lewis f r e q u e n t l y makes s p e c t a c u l a r use of unusual rhythms, the great b u l k of h i s poetry conforms to the (1) Short I s The Time. "Overtures To Death", "Poem Three", " 11. 32-34. (2) A Time To Dance, "A Time To Dance", p. 35-36. 195. t r a d i t i o n a l types of prosody. He uses every type of l i n e ; dimeters, t r i m e t e r s , t e t r a m e t e r s , and pentameters; and he uses every type of metre except, i f my search has been thorough, the amphibrach f o o t . The success of any metre depends l a r g e l y on the v a r i a t i o n s which the poet i s able to p l a y on i t , u s i n g the normal p a t t e r n a a the theme. Lewis i s adept i n t h i s m a n i p u l a t i o n of rhythm, c r e a t i n g p l e a s i n g a u d i t o r y e f f e c t s , and f i t t i n g the speed and q u a l i t y of the rhythms to the sense. The v a r i a t i o n s which Lewis makes i n h i s b l a n k verse c r e a t e s a f l e x i b l e , even a sinuous medium. His blank verse l o s e s some of the majedty u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h "the mighty l i n e " , but i t gains by coming c l o s e r than t r a d i t i o n a l blank verse to the rhythms of every-day speech. T h e s e q u a l i t i e s are d i s c e r n i b l e i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : I t i s they, your damned a u x i l i a r i e s , must answer For the s e l f - s l a i n i n the f o o d l e s s , f i r e l e s s room, For stunted h e a r t s t h a t droop by our o i i v e - g r e e n Canals, the blossom of c h i l d r e n untine l y s h a t t e r e d By t h e i r crazed, random f i r e , and the f e a r l i k e a b l a c k f r o s t F o r e s h o r t e n i n g our p r o s p e c t , m e t a l l i c on our tongues. -( l ) The c o n v e r s a t i o n a l tone of t h i s b l a n k v e r s e i s s i n g u l a r l y f i t t i n g to the poem, which i s a r a t h e r i n t i m a t e c h i t - c h a t w i t h death, about h i s r e g a l d i s p e n s d t i o n s and h i s not so r e g a l henchmen, " h i s damned a u x i l i a r i e s " . As he does with rhythm, so w i t h rhyme Lewis f i n d s new (1) Short I s The Time, "Overtures To Death. Poem Three", 11.40-45. 196. uses f o r o l d t e c h n i q u e s . Rhyme i s a v e r y o l d t e c h n i q u e . L i k e rhythm i t i s a u d i t o r y and p l e a s i n g f o r i t s own sake. Rhyme, l i k e rhythm, i s based on the "desire i n man f o r r e g u l a r r e p e t i -t i o n d i c t a t e d by a d e f i n a b l e law. I f rhyme i s v a l u a b l e f o r i t s own sake, i t i s v a l u a b l e too i n t h a t i t may serve other ends. I t may give emphasis, f o r i n s t a n c e , t o words; or mark o f f the p h y s i c a l l i m i t s w i t h i n which an i d e a i s to be express-ed, as i t does i n t t h e c l a s s i c a l c o u p l e t ; or, by l i n k i n g l i n e s i n a stanza, a c t as a v a l u a b l e i n t e g r a t i n g d e v i c e . When these uses are i g n o r e d and rhyme i s used a s an end i n i t s e l f , i t f r e q u e n t l y d e g e n e r a t e s , i n t o a s t a t e and u n p r o f i t a b l e f e t i s h . Rhymes may become s t a l e , too, from overuse, f o r the human ear craves v a r i e t y . "As soon as rhyme i s worn threadbare," w r i t e s Robert Graves, "the ear a n t i c i p a t e s the echo and i s contemptuous of the clumsy t r i c k . " ( i ) I t wa s to s a t i s f y h i s own i n s i s t e n t c r a v i n g f o r v a r i e t y t h a t Lewis sought f r e s h and s t i m u l a t i n g rhymes. I n h i s departure from t r a d i t i o n i n t h i s regard, Lewis f o l l o w e d h i s l i t e r a r y a n c e s t o r s , e s p e c i a l l y W i l f r i d Owen. Ju s t as a v e r s i f i e r may p l a y a v a r i a t i o n on a c e r t a i n m e t r i c a l p a t t e r n by approximating but not i n d e n t i c a l l y f o l l o w i n g the norm, so he may p l a y a v a r i a t i o n on rhyme by approximating but not r e p e a t i n g e x a c t l y the i n i t i a l sound. He may (1) repeat o n l y the consonant sound and thus c r e a t e a consonantal rhyme, such as " a f f a i r - f i r e " ; (2) repeat o n l y the vowel sound and (1) R. Graves, On E n g l i s h Poetry, London, W i l l i a m Heinemann, 1922, 9 1 . 1 9 7 . "create an a s s q n a n t a l rhyme, such as "sonnet - p o r r i d g e " ; (3) repeat a vowel which i t s e l f o n l y approximates the i n i t i a l vowel, and c r e a t e a h a l f or p a r t i a l rhyme, such as " t e r r i b l e -p a r a b l e " . Lewis makes use of consonantal, a s s o n a n t a l , and p a r t i a l rhymes c o n t i n a l l y , amd he h a s done so from the s t a r t . The f i r s t poem of T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem h a s rhymes l i k e "reason -p o i s o n " , "hooks - F l u x " , "wive - g i v e " , and "mind - s t a n d " . Examples of consonantal rhymes s e l e c t e d as random from h i s poems are : "safe - s u r f " , "home - him", "sparse - s p i r e s " , and "coinage - aarnage". Examples of a s s o n a n t a l rhymes a r e : "squander - comrades" and " g r i e f - e a r " ; while the p a r t i a l rhymes ais e x e m p l i f i e d by "flown - dawn", "eye - m u l t i p l i c i t y " , and "turns - fawns"- Consonantal and half-rhymes are to be found i n p r o f u s i o n , but a s s o n a n t a l rhymes are r a r e r than one might suppose. Sometimes Lewis g i v e s one the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t h i s slant-rhymes, as a l l of the three types p r e v i o u s l y d e f i n e d are c a l l e d , r e s u l t from an Impatience which w i l l not allow him time to f i n d a purer rhyme. Slant-rhymes, however, have t h e i r p l a c e . F r e q u e n t l y such rhymes g i v e a s t i k i n g e f f e c t of muted b e l l s . But there i s a l i m i t beyond which the laws of rhyme can not be r e l a x e d without d e s t r o y i n g a l t o g e t h e r the e f f e c t of rhyme. P o s s i b l y such rhyme as "home - warm", "bay -sky", and " r i c h - budge" exceed t h i s l i m i t . I n any case the use of slant-rhymes served to e n l a r g e the stock of rhyme words, and r e v i v i f y a d e v i c e which b a d l y needed a t r a n s f u s i o n . 198. The purest k i n d of rhyme, I suppose, i s made by the repe-t i t i o n of i n d e n t i c a l words. Lewis uses i d e n t i c a l rhyme words o c c a s i o n a l l y , though the reader i s not l i k e l y to n o t i c e the f a s t u n l e s s he i s a c t u a l l y p l o t t i n g rhyme schemes. "Poem Three" of T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem uses each of the f o l l o w i n g words twice t o make the rhymes: " s u n l i g h t " , Sphinx", Surrender", "Worm", and " o f " . The o n l y e x c e p t i o n i s the rhyming of " t e r r i b l e " with "parable" which may be regarded as a p a r t i a l rhyme, consonantal i n i t s l a s t h a l f . "Departure I n The Dark" uses a s i m i l a r rhyming system, f o r the second, and seventh l i n e s i n each e i g h t - l i n e s t a n z a employ i n d e n t i c a l rhyme words. The r e p e t i t i o n of i d e n t i c a l or s i m i l a r sounds may occur w i t h i n a l i n e as w e l l as at the end of the l i n e . The e x p l o i t -a t i o n of t h i s melopoeic d e v i c e reached a hig h p o i n t of i n t e n s i t y i n the ve r s e of Hopkins, and i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , to see h i s h e i r s ^ Lewis among them make the most of a l l i t e r a t i o n , assonance, and i n t e r n a l rhyme t o cr e a t e v e r b a l music. This q u a l i t y i s n o t i c e a b l e i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : T h i s was your world and t h i s I owe you, Room- f o r growing, a s i t e f o r b u i l d i n g , The braced sinew, the hands agreeing, Mind f o r s e e i n g and nerve f o r r a c i n g . (1) Hopkins uses v e r b a l harmony of t h i s k i n d c o n t i n u a l l y , as a n a t u r a l i d i o m . The e f f e c t of such a poem as " S p e l t From S i b y l s Leaves" i s s i m i l a r to t h a t of a v i o l i n c o n c e r t o which i s a l l cadenza. Hopkins never l e t s up. There i s c o n t i n u a l (1) The Magnetic Mountain, "Poem E i g h t , j , 11 1-4. 199. v i r t u o s i t y , and i t puts something of a s t r a i n on the reader. Sometimes I am h e r e t i c a l enough t o f e e l t h a t Hopkins' v i r t u o s o p o e t r y would he even more e f f e c t i v e i f c o n t r a s t e d with p e r i o d s of l u l l , of suspended animation. Now, i f Lewis never a t t a i n s to the f e v e r - p i t c h of Hopkins' v i r t u o s i t y , ( p o s s i b l y because, having a c o o l e r temperament, he never t r i e s ) t y e t he r e v e a l s competence i n a l t e r n a t i n g sound passages p i t c h e d i n a h i g h key w i t h passages p i t c h e d i n a low key. The e f f e c t i s one of a r e f r e s h i n g shower a f t e r a hot s p e l l , or, of the smith p l u n g i n g the fuse d glowing metal i n t o the c o l d water. That i s the way metal i s tempered. A good example of v a r i e t y In t o n a l p i t c h i s seen i n Poems E l e v e n and Twelve of The Magnetic Mountain. In "Poem E l e v e n " , the smugness of the h y p o c r i t e preacher Is p i t c h e d i n a low sound key, while the succeeding poem, c o n t a i n i n g the poet's angry d e n u n c i a t i o n , i s d e f i n i t e l y a c o l o r a t u r a performance. The c o n t r a s t i s sharp and e f f e c t i v e . I n the Nabara, too, there are moments of s t a s i s i n the midst of the f i e r c e b a t t l e , d u r i n g which the poet makes a g e n e r a l -i z a t i o n and the reader can f i n d h i s b e a r i n g s . I t i s a l t o g e t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t the r i s e and f a l l of sound i n t e n s i t y should p a r a l l e l a s i m i l a r f l u c t u a t i o n i n p o e t i c i n t e n s i t y . Lewis* i n g e n u i t y i n making something new out. of something o l d i s ev i d e n t i n the uses he f i n d f o r o l d stanza forms. The twenty sonnets he has w r i t t e n t o date have twelve d i f f e r e n t rhyme schemes. I n the second, s i x t h , and n i n t h sonnets of 200, "0 Dreams, 0 D e s t i n a t i o n s " , the rhyme scheme resembles the Petrarchan sonnet i n the octave, but ends with the Shakes-e r i a n c o u p l e t . The rhyme scheme i s abba, cddc, e f f e , gg. The same scheme i s repeated i n "Maple and Sumach". A v a r i a -t i o n of t h i s p a t t e r n i s to be found i n two other sonnets of the "0 Dreams", Sequence, and i n "When They Have L o s t " , i n which the rhyme scheme i s t y p i c a l l y Shakesperian; namely, abab, cdcd, e f e f , gg. Sometimes he turns the Shakespearian sonnet upside down, be g i n n i n g i n s t e a d of ending with the c o u p l e t , and f o l l o w i n g with the q u a t r a i n s . "Sonnet Pour" of "0 Dreams" i s of t h i s type, b e g i n n i n g w i t h : Our youthtime passes down a colonnade Shafted with a l t e r n a t i n g l i g h t and shade. In the q u a t r a i n s which f o l l o w , Lewis gibes on to expand the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n expressed i n the opening c o u p l e t . T h i s procedure seems j u s t i f i e d because i t f o l l o w s the sound l o g i c a l sequence from g e n e r a l to p a r t i c u l a r . Not a l l of Lewis' sonnets use a c o u p l e t . Sonnets Seven and E i g h t of."0 Dreams", "The Image", "Sonnet For A P o l i t i c a l Worker", and "The L i g h t e d House", each employs a m o d i f i e d Petrarchan form, the l a t t e r rhyming abba,- abba, odd, cdd. "The L i g h t e d House" i s unusual i n employing p a r t i a l rhymes i n the s e s t e t . U s u a l l y i n h i s sonnets, Lewis makes o n l y pure rhymes. "Poem Twenty-Four" of From Feathers To I r o n Is s i n g u l a r too, i n t h a t the rhyme scheme of t h i s sonnet i s composed of f o u r t e r c e t s and a c o n c l u d i n g c o u p l e t . There are a number 201. of poems which look l i k e sonnets, i n t h a t they c o n s i s t of f o u r t e e n iambic, pentameter l i n e s d i v i d e d i n t o thought u n i t s which resemble c o u p l e t s and q u a t r a i n s . They are not c o u p l e t s o r q u a t r a i n s , however, nor are these poems t r u e sonnets, because there i s no rhyme at a l l . The compression of word and thought which i s one of the n e c e s s a r y f e a t u r e s of the sonnet, Is achieved i n these poems, without the added d i f f i c u l t y of a complex rhyme scheme. "Poem Twaaty-Seven" and the " E p i l o g u e " of From Feathers To I r o n each c o n s i s t s of three of these poems. Lewis w r i t e s at h i s best when he pours h i s p o e t r y i n t o f i r m moulds. The sonnet compels him to be c o n c i s e , and sometimes, by i t s very compression, generates the heat necessary f o r great p o e t r y . So, i n the sonnet sequence, "0 Dreams, 0 D e s t i h a a -t i o n s " , Lewis wrote probably the b e s t contemplative verse he has w r i t t e n to date. 1 w i l l examine one of these sonnets l a t e r i n t h i s chapter, when I d i s c u s s o c c l u s i o n . Lewis i s v e r y fond of the f o u r - l i n e s t a n z a , used i n every p o s s i b l e combination of rhyme and l i n e - l e n g t h . "Overtures" To Death" uses the q u a t r a i n i n s i x out of the seven poems i n the c y c l e . A t y p i c a l q u a t r a i n f o l l o w s -Now Death he i s the b a i l i f f And he s i t s i n our b e s t room A p p r a i s i n g c h i n t z and ornaments And the c h i l d i n the womb, ( l ) T h i s s t a n z a rhymes abcb, but he a l s o uses' aa bb, or abab, or-abca,. and sometimes, as i n "Poem One" of Frem Feat h e r s To I r o n , (1) Short I s The Time, "Overtures To Death", "Poem Two", : 11. 13-16. 202. no rhyme at a l l . I t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n e Lewis u s i n g t h i s simple f o u r - l i n e s t a n z a a a a b a l l a d metre. T h i s he does i n the supecbl l i m i t a t i o n b a u a d , e n t i t l e d , "Johnny-Head-In-A i r " , which was d i s c u s s e d i n an e a r l i e r chapter. Speaking of i m i t a t i o n , i t should he noted t h a t Lewis has a f l a i r f o r burlesque s a t i r e . The c o n c l u d i n g s e c t i o n s of A Time To Dance i n c l u d e burlesques of jazz-songs, r a d i o commercials, famous E l i z a b e t h a n l y r i c s , and n u r s e r y rhymes, a l l d i r e c t e d towards a d i d a c t i c end. The parody on the "Passionate Shepherd To His Love" begins i n t h i s manner: Come, l i v e with me and be my love,' And we w i l l a l l the pleasures prove Of peace and p l e n t y , bed and board, That chance employment may a f f o r d . (1) The use of an i d y l l i c p a s t o r a l , w i t h a l l i t s p l e a s a n t r u r a l c o n n o t a t i o n s , a s the b a s i s of a b i t t e r s a t i r e on the e v i l s of town l i f e i n a c a p i t a l i s t d e p r e s s i o n i s a m a s t e r f u l s t r o k e which would have pl e a s e d the f a n c y of Jonathan S w i f t . The burlesque on the n u r s e r y rhyme near the end of "A Time To Dance" i s e s p e c i a l l y mordant, because c h i l d r e n s u f f e r the r e s u l t s of m a l n u t r i t i o n and p o v e r t y even more than others i n a depressed s o c i e t y . The poem f o l l o w s i n i t s e n t i r e t y : Oh hush thee, my baby, Thy c r a d l e ' s i n pawn: No b l a n k e t s to cover thee Cold and f o r l o r n . The s t a r s In the b r i g h t sky Look down and are dumb At the h e i r of the ages ialeep i n a slum. ( l ) A Time To Dance. "A Time To Dance", p. 54. 203. The hooters are blowing No heed l e t him take; When baby i s hungry 'T i s b e s t n o t " t o wake. Thy mother i s c r y i n g , Thy dad's on the d o l e : Two s h i l l i n g s a week i s The p r i c e of a s o u l . ( 1 ) T h i s burlesque compounds the emotions of p i t y and i n d i g n a t i o n i n t o a d e v a s t a t i n g i n d i c t m e n t of a s o c i e t y which permits c h i l d r e n t o s u f f e r from m a l n u t r i t i o n . The poem i s f o r me a poignant experience, f o r the poverty d e s c r i b e d i n the poem was j u s t as r e a l i n Vancouver E a s t d u r i n g the d e p r e s s i o n as i t was i n Manchester. The e f f e c t of the poem i s enhanced by the bare s i m p l i c i t y of the material", and the g e n t l e t r i s y l l a b i c metre i s i n sharp c o n t r a s t to the f i e r c e i n d i g n a -t i o n which smoulders beneath the p l a c i d s u r f a c e . By i r o n i c a l l y t u r n i n g the p a s t o r a l s , and n u r s e r y rhymes to a d i d a c t i c end, Lewis was f i n d i n g a new use f o r an o l d b o t t l e . In the f a s h i o n i n g of a new type of imagery, however, Lewis was f i n d i n g an o l d use. f o r a new b o t t l e . I t i s always dangerous t o c l a i m t h a t a poet i n v e n t e d or d i s c o v e r e d t h i s or t h a t , because i t i s n e a r l y always p o s s i b l e to go back i n l i t e r a t u r e a n d f i n d p r i o r examples. I n a v e r y r e a l sense, there i s n o t h i n g new under the sun. Th e r e f o r e i t i s not wise to a s s e r t that Lewis, or Spender, or Auden was the f i r s t to use the machine image. Even the o l d E n g l i s h scops d e r i v e d imagery from t h e i r p r i m i t i v e machines: wheels, weapons, horns, s a i l i n g t a c k l e , and s i m i l a r t h i n g s . The E n g l i s h m e t a p h y s i c a l poets c o n s i s t e n t l y used the imagery of the mari n e r ' s compass, (1) A Time To Dance, "A Time To Dance", pp. oq-oo. 204. the geographer's compasses, p u l l e y s , t e l e s c o p e s , globes, p l a n i s p h e r e s , e p i c y c l e s , and the l i k e . These are t e c h n i c a l images, machine images of a s o r t . Of course the machines of today have developed i n v a r i e t y and extent t o an import-ance not dreamed of by the E l i z a b e t h a n s . But the f a c t r e -mains, that when Lewis uses a machine image, he i s not do i n g something d i f f e r e n t i n k i n d , but o n l y i n degree. Lewis wag the f i r s t poet ( T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem ante dates Auden's f i r s t volume) t o use machine imagery c o n s i s t e n t l y i s a n a t u r a l ex-p r e s s i o n i n modern times. He was the f i r s t t o draw people's a t t e n t i o n to the n e a r l y untapped res o u r c e s of imagery which the machine-woBld p r o v i d e d . Lewis t h i n k s n a t u r a l l y i n terms of machinery, and i t i s n e a r l y always metaphor r a t h e r than s i m i l e which he uses. The human body may be expressed i n terms of an aeroplane, a a i n the f o l l o w i n g e x c e r p t : Bodies we have, f a b r i c and frame designed To take the .stress of l o v e , Buoyant on gust, m u l t i - e n g i n e d . (1) A machine-age metaphor i s used again to d e s c r i b e the womb: There i s a dark room, The locked and s h u t t e r e d womb Where neg a t i v e ' s made p o s i t i v e . (2) The womb i s here d e s c r i b e d a a the generator room of an e l e c t r i c a l power house, and there i s , I t h i n k , n o t h i n g s t r a i n e d or u n n a t u r a l i n the comparison. Of course there i s always the danger t h a t the r a p i d progress of s c i e n c e may date machine imagery. Aeroplanes and (1) From Feathers To I r o n . "Poem Four". 11. 11-15. (2) From Feathers To I r o n , "Poem E l e v e n " , 11. 1-5. 205. • dynamos may be a b s o l e t e i n a hundred years or l e s s . "So long as a s c i e n t i f i c textbook i s o b s o l e t e i n a decade or l e s s " * wrote John L i v i n g s t o n Lowes, "to p o e t i z e s c i e n c e i s to c o u r t m o r t a l i t y . " (1) C e r t a i n l y i n The Magnetic Mountain, some of the machine imagery appears as u n d i g e s t e d gobbets, which have "not turned to b l o o d " w i t h i n the poet. One does get a l i t t l e t i r e d of the m e t a l l i c c l a n g which one hears at every t u r n i n g . In h i s l a t e r poetry, he does not f l a u n t the machine images; i t appears n a t u r a l l y and q u i e t l y as a spontaneous mode of e x p r e s s i o n . Furthermore the imagery i s more g e n e r a l i z e d , and i s t h e r e f o r e l e s s l i a b l e to become dat e d . A dynamo of a p a r t i c u l a r type, f o r i n s t a n c e , may become o b s o l e t e , but there i s more chance of e l e c t r i c i t y remaining a f o r c e i n the p h y s i c a l world f o r c e n t u r i e s to come, perhaps f o r e v e r . I have p r e v i o u s l y r e f e r r e d t o the e f f e c t i v e way Lewis uses e l e c t r i c i t y i n the sonnet, "For a P o l i t i c a l Worker": On l i n e s beyond your s i n g l e comprehension The c i r c u i t and f u l l day of power proceed. The reader i s s c a r c e l y aware he i s l o o k i n g at a machine image, and t h a t i s a s i g n that the imagery has been d i g e s t e d by the poet and by the r e a d e r . When the reader notes, with a shock or s u r p r i s e , the dynamo, or the g r i n d i n g gears, and he stands watching -and l i s t e n i n g to them i n s t e a d of the poem, then the imagery i s f a u l t y . Images should be s e l f - e f f a c i n g , f o r then, i n C o l e r i d g e ' s words, "they have the e f f e c t of reducing m u l t i t u d e to u n i t y , or s u c c e s s i o n to an i n s t a n t " (2) (1) J . L. Lowes, o p . c i t . , 298. ( 2 ) S . T . C o l e r i d g e , op. c i t . , 169. 206. Lewis' use of machine imagery h a g been exaggerated by the c r i t i c s . The Magnetic Mountain, t o which poem these c r i t i c s p o i n t , i s i n many ways the l e a s t t y p i c a l of Lewis' poems. But even i n t h i s poem, t r a d i t i o n a l imagery i s used more f r e q u e n t l y than machine imagery. I f I were t o l i s t the images Lewis most f r e q u e n t l y uses, I would i n c l u d e i n the l i s t the f o l l o w i n g t y p e s : (1) the geology image, as i n "Poem F o r An A n n i v e r s a r y " : (2) the f r o n t i e r image, as in'Poem T h i r t e e n " of From Feathers To I r o n ; (3) the Ice-age image, as i n "Poem Seven" of ffihe Magnetic Mountain: (4) the sun or l i g h t image, as i n "Poem T h i r t y - S i x " of The Magnetic Mountain; the b i r d image, as i n "Sonnet Nine" of "0 Dreams"; and the s p o r t or a t h l e t i c image, as i n "Poem ffhrrty-Four" of The Magnetic Mountain. Space w i l l not permit a q u o t a t i o n f o r each type of imagery; .possibly two examples w i l l s u f f i c e . Examples of the g e o l o g i c a l image and the a t h l e t i c image f o l l o w : A molten rage shook e a r t h from head to toe, Seas l e a p t from t h e i r beds World's bedrock b o i l i n g up, the t e r r i b l e l a v a Now I t i s not so. ( l ) Happy a t might t a l k i n g Of the demon bowler cracked over the elm-trees, The r e v e r s e pass t h a t won the match. (2) The s p o r t s which Lewis most o f t e n r e f e r s to are c r i c k e t and E n g l i s h rugby, and both s p o r t s f i n d t h e i r way i n t o the above e x c e r p t . The q u e s t i o n now a r i s e s as t o the manner i n which Lewis uses h i s images. F i r s t of a l l , h i s .juxtaposed images (1) A Time To Dance f "Poem For An A n n i v e r s a r y " , 11. 3-6. (2) The Magnetic Mountain, "Poem T h i r t y - F o u r " , 11. 41-43. I 207. g e n e r a l l y are c h a r a t e r i z e d by a h i g h degree of c o n g r u i t y . Whether the l i n k between two s u c c e s s i v e images i s an i n t e l l -e c t u a l coherence, or an emotional coherence, these images are congruous i f the s i m i l a r i t y between them which i s being r e -vealed, i s a true s i m i l a r i t y . The s i m i l a r i t y may be a p h y s i c a l l i k e n e s s , or the two o b j e c t s may c r e a t e e i t h e r s i m i l a r or opposite emotional responses. U s u a l l y Lewis employs l o g i c a l coherence, and the mental l e a p needed t o pass from image to image i s not v e r y g r e a t . Lewis i s not one of those whose e n t i r e meaning l i e s w i t h i n the images or symbols of the poem. He uses statement t o conduct the passage from image t o image. There i s a d e f i n i t e c a u s e - e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p , i n most of h i s poems, and f o r t h a t reason, he i s not an obscure poet. And y e t a l a r g e number of people who have heard of Lewis, &ut who are not r e a l l y familiar with h i s work, have the i d e a t h a t he i s an obscure and d i f f i c u l t poet. Of the three poets, Auden, Spender, and Lewis, I f i n d Auden the most d i f f i c u l t , and Lewis the l e a s t . O c c a s i o n a l l y , i t i s t r u e , Lewis does w r i t e i n the way that John Donne wrote "A V a l e d i c t i o n of Weeping". In t h i s poem, Donne d e s c r i b e s the thoughts which come to him as he experiences the t e a r f u l p a r t i n g with h i s wife p r i o r to a sea-voyage. The t e a r s , b e i n g round, suggest a b a l l , which i n i t s t u r n , being a sphere, suggests the e a r t h . The same b a l l l a t e r suggests the moon, which b r i n g s with i t images and ideas of the t i d e s , of storms, and of death by drowning. T h i s 208. method of p r o g r e s s i o n i s an important one, and,I suppose a l l poets must ase i t to a g r e a t e r or l e s s e r degree. The process i s c a l l e d " f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n " or sometimes, " t e l e s c o p -i n g " . The l a t t e r term i s good, because i t suggests the p u l l -i n g out of the i d e a s , which always m a i n t a i n a necessary r e l a t i o n , one to the other, l i k e the segments of a t e l e s c o p e . An example of " f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n " i s to he found i n "Departure I n The Dark". Departure i m p l i e s d i s t a n c e , d i s t -ance i n space b r i n g s the i d e a of d i s t a n c e i n time. Thus he conjures up a n Image of the i c e - a g e J And memories s l e e p L i k e mammoths i n l o s t caves. "The Passover" being a departure, and b e i n g d i s t a n t i n time, and r e p r e s e n t i n g i n i t s e l f a l i n e a l d i s t a n c e , comes to mind i n the t h i r d s t a n z a . The b r i d g e l e a d i n g t o a d i s c u s s i o n of the I s r a e l i t e s i s c r o s s e d i n s t a n z a f o u r . F i n a l l y , departure means death, the l a s t ' of man's dark d e p a r t u r e s . So the poem ends. Speaking of the great E l i z a b e t h a n s , T. S. E l i o t r e -f e r r e d to the technique of " f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n " when he wrote: They had a q u a l i t y of sensuous thought, of of t h i n k i n g through the senses, or of the senses t h i n k i n g (1) The technique of " f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n " i s an i n t r i g u i n g one, and i t lends i t s e l f admirably to the world of myriad and con-f l i c t i n g s e n s a t i o n s i n which we l i v e . Lewis r e v e a l e d i n "Departure I n The Dark" a consummate m a s t e r y of t h i s technique, and i t i s a p i t y he does not use i t more o f t e n . I have search-ed^fche poems through f o r other examples, but so f a r as I know, (1) T.S. E l i o t , The Sacred Wood, London, Methuen and Co., 1932,23. 209. "Departure I n The Dark" i s the o n l y poem which uses the technique e x t e n s i v e l y . Lewis f r e q u e n t l y uses imagery from nature t o i n t e n s i f y or e l a b o r a t e a theme. Imagery i s used i n t h i s way, f o r i s t a n c e , i n "Regency Houses" and i n "landscapes". I n the l a t t e r poem, the autumn evening f a l l i n g about the d i s s o l u t i o n of an o l d mansion keys the mood and g i v e s one a p e r f e c t i d e a of how the poet regards the d i s s o l u t i o n of s o c i e t y . Sometimes Lewis uses a key image, or sensuous key word which he repeats throughout the poem. By i t s v e r y r e p e t i t i o n , i t r e p e a t e d l y evokes the emotional response connected with i t , and achieves a cumulative emphasis. The key image of "Poem S i x t e e n " of From Feathers To I r o n i s an a r t e s i a n w e l l , which symbolizes the new hope a c h i l d w i l l b r i n g i n t o the d e s e r t of the poet's l i f e . In "Bombers", the sensuous key work i s "embryo", which c r e a t e s the d e s i r e d e f f e c t by c o n t r a s t . The j u x t a -p o i s i t i o n of "embryo", "womb", and other words associated-with l i f e , and of guns and bombs, which are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h death, makes l i f e seem more dear and death more t e r r i b l e than they would be without the c o n t r a S t . The sensuous key wond resembles the drone-pipe of a bagpipe, f o r i t sets the key and harmonizes s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . "Maple and Sumach" has " s c a r i e t " as a k e y word, "February, 1936" has "grey", "The F a u l t " has "moonlight", and so on. Lewis p r e f e r s t o frame h i s imagery i n an metaphor r a t h e r 210. than i n a s i m i l e . I n d e e d , he uses metaphor almost to the e x c l u s i o n of s i m i l e . Metaphor i s a more compact f i g u r e than a s i m i l e , at once more emphatic and more conducive to the compression modern poets p r i z e so h i g h l y . He can use s i m i l e e f f e c t i v e l y though, when he d e s i r e s a more e l a s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between h i s imagss, In"Sex-Crime", f o r example, he w r i t e s : While news-sheets are y e t f a l l i n g a l l over the town L i k e a white ash. (1) The comparison i s a good one, from the p o i n t of view of both the p h y s i c a l and emotional s i m i l i t u d e i n v o l v e d . "Ash" c a r r i e s w i t h i t ide a s of f i r e which d e s t r o y s what i t burns. But i t a l s o c a r r i e s w i t h i t connotations of s t e r i l i t y and drabness, l i k e much of the news and the s o c i e t y i t speaks f o r . Both ideas are a p p l i c a b l e t o the s e x - c r i m i n a l , who "can never be whole a g a i n " . Another f i n e s i m i l e occurs i n "The Nabara": Nervous the sea crawled and t w i t c h e d l i k e the s k i n of a beast That dreams of the chase, the k i l l , the blood-b e s l a v e r e d f e a s t . (2) Ev en the sea, the s i m i l e i m p l i e s , f e e l s t h at the o f f e r of new v i c t i m s i s imminent. In The Magnetic Mountain. Lewis f e l l f o r a while under the s p e l l of Auden, and the Audenesque p a r a p h e r n a l i a i s every-where ev i d e n t i n t h a t poem. There i s the a l t e r n a t e l y r i c i s m (1) Short I s 'i'he Time. "Sea-Crime", 11. 34-55. (2) Short I s The Time, "The Nabara f', 11. 42-43. 211. and f l a t n e s s , the emotional theme expressed i n an unemotional . phrase, apostrophes i n the v e r n a c u l a r , appeal to the c o t e r i e f o r unanimity, and a f l i p p a n t , cocky tone at times not v e r y f a r from the mood of Ogden Nashe. "Poem Ten" of The Magnetic Mountain c o n t a i n s most of these p e c u l i a r i t i e s . The opening l i n e s s e t the mood: Y o u ' l l be l e a v i n g soon, and i t ' s up to you, boys, Which s h a l l i t be? You must make your c h o i c e . There's a war on, you know. W i l l you take your stand In o b s o l e t e f o r t s or i n no-man's land? (1) At times, as i n the above e x c e r p t , the f e e l i n g of s o l i d a r i t y which Lewis has with Auden,. Spender, Warner, and others of the group becomes so warm as to be s c h o o l b o y i s h . I cannot but t h i n k t h a t l i n e s such a s the above must be a source of embarrassment t o Lewis today. Take t h i s l i n e f o r i n s t a n c e : Look west, Wystan, lone f l y e r , birdman, my b u l l y b o y l (2) This k i n d of p e r s o n a l i z a t i o n of the poet's thought does not seem to be i n v e r s good t a s t e . I t i s a l i t t l e r e m i n i s c e n t of the a c t o r who makes as i d e s to the audience. The p o i n t mast not belaboured, however, s i n c e o n l y i n The Magnetic Mountain does Lewis do t h i s s o r t of t h i n g . Furthermore, Lewis' s o l i d -a r i t y w i t h the c o t e r i e does not cause him to w r i t e c o t e r i e p o e t r y . There are no p r i v a t e jokes or s e c r e t experiences i n h i s p o e t r y . As Lewis' s t y l e has matured, he has found an i n c r e a s i n g use f o r v e r b a l paradox. Sometimes the paradox c o n s i s t s of the e x p r e s s i o n of b e l i e f s c o n t r a r y to those g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d , (1) The Magnetic Mountain, "Ppem Ten", 11. 1-4. (2) The Magnetic Mountain, "Poem S i x t e e n " , 1. 1 212. and sometimes c o n s i s t s of i d e a s which i n c l u d e p a r t s of a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e s . He can speak, f o r example, of love b e i n g a c r i p p l e , f a i t h b e i n g a bedtime s t o r y , and peace walking on k n i v e s . More and more, he compares idea s or o b j e c t s w i t h what one would l e a s t expect; he l i k e s t o d i s c o v e r hidden l i k e n e s s , nor merely i n d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s , but i n d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed t h i n g s . He can compare love to a gang-leader, f o r I n s t a n c e , a s he does i n "The A s s e r t i o n " : Love's the b i g boss at whose s i d e f o r ever slouches The shadow of the gunman. (1) I n f i n d i n g such l i k e n e s s e s , he i s going about the poet's o l d b u s i n e s s of b r i n g i n g emotional o r d e r out of m a t e r i a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n f u s i o n . The poet works by a k i n d of c e n t r i -p e t a l f o r c e , which makes a l i t t l e b i t of cosmos out of chaos. FART THREE The second p a r t of t h i s c h apter has been concerned with what might be c a l l e d the p a r t s of the whole. I t has been con-cerned with the examination and e v a l u a t i o n of v a r i o u s non-r a t i o n a l d e v i c e s used by Lewis i n the c r e a t i o n of whole poems. I t i s now time to examine and a p p r a i s e the whole of the p a r t s . I t i s time to look at whole, poems. I d i s c u s s e d Lewis' f i r s t l o n g poem the T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem, r a t h e r f u l l y i n Chapter I I . T h i s poem f a i l s to achieve' whole-ness, _ b e c a u s e > 1 ^ (1) Short I s 'i'he Time, "The A s s e r t i o n ' 1 , 11. 16-17. 213. r e c r e a t e w as not I t s e l f a completed e x p e r i e n c e . T h e d e s i r e f o r s i n g l e n e s s of mind i s never s a t i s f i e d , and every s t a t e of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n i s a sprin g b o a r d f o r new l e a p s , new s t r u g g l The s u c c e s s i v e l y r i c s of the c y c l e may be whole poems them-s e l v e s but the sequence f a i l s to achieve o r g a n i c u n i t y . The c l e a r d e c l a r a t i o n of purpose which Lewis makes i n the appended notes f o r each of the f o u r d i v i s i o n s of thd poem i s not r e a l i z e d i n f a c t , There i s much c o n f u s i o n and over-l a p p i n g , and the intended p r o g r e s s i o n from p a r t to p a r t f a l l s s h o r t of r e a l i z a t i o n . From ^Feathers To I r o n , on the c o n t r a r y , does achieve wholeness, p a r t l y because the experience i s complete when the poet begins to w r i t e , and p a r t l y because the experience of impending parenthood i s s t r o n g enough to draw the l y r i c s i n t o a w e l l - k n i t p a t t e r n . This c y c l e remains Lewis' most complete and most s a t i s f a c t o r y l o n g poem. A Time To Dance h a s a u n i t y of s o r t s . I do not r e f e r to the ten poems which predede the t i t l e poem. The requirements of h i s p u b l i s h e r s probably demanded that a l l the m a t e r i a l which Lewis then had at hand be i n c l u d e d i n the volume. I r e f e r t o the t i t l e poem i t s e l f , the u n i t y of which i s i m p l i c i t r a t h e r than s t a t e d . The poem may be d i v i d e d i n t o three p a r t s : f i r s t , the e p i c s t o r y of Parer and Mcintosh which i t s e l f achieves wholeness; then the e l e g i a c l i n e s t o the dead f r i e n d , D.P. Hedges; and f i n a l l y the b i t t e r s a t i r e 214. of contemporary s o c i e t y . Lew/is i s , of course, concerned here wi t h o p p o s i t e s . The a i r e p i c i s designed as a joyous hymn to the s p i r i t t h a t produced the airmen and Hedges, and the s a t i r e i s a g a i n s t a s o c i e t y which i s a n t i t h e t i c a l to t h a t s p i r i t . The d e s i g n i s c l e a r , and yet Lewis omits b r i d g e r passages between the parts which would have made the t r a n s i t i o n s e a s i e r . Noah and the Waters, a p l a y not i n t e n d e d f o r the stage, achieves complete wholeness. The c h a r a c t e r s are mere puppets, but the poet cannot be c r i t i c i z e d on t h a t score because he never intended them to be anything e l s e . Th3--Nabara i s s u p e r i o r as drama and as p o e t r y to Noah. I t i s , I b e l i e v e , one of the v e r y f i n e s t n a r r a t i v e s of i t s k i n d i n the language, and deserves to be known b e t t e r than i t i s . The Nabara i s " l i t e r a t e s q u e " i n Bagehot's sense of the word, having "that p e r f e c t combination of the s u b j e c t -matter of l i t e r a t u r e , which s u i t s the a r t of l i t e r a t u r e " . (1) The Nabara i s a whole poem. As f a r as the i n d i v i d u a l l y r i c s are conerned, they n e a r l y always have the k i n d of completeness which i s the r e -s u l t of a f e r t i l e but o r d e r l y i m a g i n a t i o n i n s i s t i n g t h a t every word and every image c o n t r i b u t e t o the t o t a l e f f e c t of the whole poem. I t i s a completeness which can o n l y be i l l u s t r a t e d by i n -t e n s i v e examination of a whole poem. The f i r s t sonnet of "0 Dreams 0 D e s t i n a t i o n s " e x e m p l i f i e s the s o r t of completeness I mean. The sonnet i s quoted i n i t s (1) W. Bagehot, "Wor#dsworth, Tennyson, and Browning'', L i t e r a r y S t u d i e s , H7dh"don, J.M.Dent, (Everyman), 310. 2 1 5 . e n t i r e t y : Fo r i n f a n t s time i s l i k e a humming s h e l l Heard between s l e e p and s l e e p , wherein the shores Foam-fringed, w i n d - f l u t e d of the strange e a r t h d w e l l And the sea's cavernous hunger f a i n t l y r o a r s . I t i s the humming pole of summer lanes Whose sound q u i v e r s l i k e heat-haze e n d l e s s l y Over the corn, over the poppied p l a i n s -An emanation from the e a r t h or sky. F a i n t l y tbey hear, through the womb's l i n g e r i n g haze, A rumour of that sea t o which they are born: They hear the r i n g i n g pole of summer days, But need not know what hungers f o r the c o r n . They are the l i s p i n g rushes I n a stream -Grace-notes of a profound, l e g a t o dream. The s u b j e c t i s i n f a n c y . The theme i s t h a t i n f a n t s are as much a p a r t of the womb-world from which they come as of the world i n t o which they are born. HDw does the poet evoke the mood of i n f a n c y ? Does he succeed? Does he b r i n g any s e r i o u s a l i e n notes i n , and i f so how, and of what kind? Is i t a whole poem? The sonnet begins w i t h a s u p e r l a t i v e l y e v o c a t i v e image of t h e n o i s e one imagines he hears i n a s e a - s h e l l . T h i s image i s e s p e c i a l l y congruous because c h i l d r e n i n p a r t i c u l a r are f a s c i n a t e d by the hollow w e l l i n g of sound, l i k e s e a - s u r f , which one hears i n the s h e l l . The vague murmurings which the i n f a n t must be conscious of "between s l e e p and s l e e p " i s compared to the murmurings of the s h e l l . The sea of l i f e i s as y e t unknown to the i n f a n t , but he i s conscious of i t s heave and s w e l l around him. The v e r b a l music of words l i k e "humming", and "the sea's cavernous hunger f a i n t l y r o a r s " i s onomatopoetic i n the best sense of the word. The v e r y movement of the f i r s t q u a t r a i n i s slow and i n d o l e n t , l i k e 216. i n f a n c y , l i k e the h y p n o t i c s w e l l i n the s e a - s h e l l . There i s something of K e a t s ' magic casements i n f a e r y lands f o r l o r n i n t h e s e j l i n e s . But the. poem moves on. Every c h i l d i s f a s c i n a t e d by the humming of e l e c t r i c a l w i r e s . I t i s f i t t i n g them that the poet use t h i s image i n the second q u a t r a i n to develop the mood. Once again the movement i s i n d o l e n t , the sound h y p n o t i c , again i t i s a "humming" sound. I t i s a summer's l a n e ; the heat q u i v e r s . An i n f a n t must be kept warm, sometimes he i s bundled up by the over-anxious mother so t h a t he must endure a c o n t i n u a l heat-haze. In l i n e seven the f i r s t a l i e n note creeps i n . The poet mentions f i e l d s of corn and of poppies. Now both corn and poppies l i k e heat, but the s i g n i f i c a n t t h i n g i s that corn i s o f t e n used to symbolize l i f e , and the poppy to symbolize death. I t i s not an a c c i d e n t t h a t the poet uses both i n the same l i n e . I n the new world to which the baby i s born, l i f e and death are at once the f o r c e s and the mysteries which impel a l l t h i n g s to a c t i o n . The s e s t e t begins with a phrase, "the womb's l i n g e r i n g haze", which aeems t o me an e x c e l l e n t d e s c r i p t i o n of the s t a t e of semi-consciousness and u t t e r h e l p l e s s n e s s which i s the l o t of new-born i n f a n t s . 0 n e should n o t i c e the r e p e t i t i o n of the key-word "haze". Even i n a poem about i n f a n c y , the s o c i a l l y - c o n s c i o u s poet b r i n g s i n a p o l i t i c a l n o t e . I t i 3 b e a u t i f u l l y muted however, i n p e r f e c t t a s t e , v ery d i f f e r e n t from the b l a t a n t and b i t t e r d e n u n c i a t i o n s of The Magnetic 217. Mountain. The l i n e , "But need not know what hungers f o r the cor n " , serves a dua? r o l e . With f a i n t i r o n y i t h i n t s t h a t the world t o which the i n f a n t i s born l a not a p e r f e d t world, and i t a l s o t e l l s us t h a t an i n f a n t i s e n t i r e l y unconscious .of such m a t t e r s . Thus i t t e l l s us something of the world and something of the i n f a n t . Meanwhile the i m i t a t i v e harmony c o n t i n u e s . We hear the murmur i n phrases l i k e "a rumour of t h a t sea", "the r i n g i n g pole of summer days". . The c o n c l u d i n g c o u p l e t b r i n g s i n another image, e q u a l l y i n d o l e n t , "the l i s p i n g rushes i n a stream". The p i c t u r e of the g e n t l y rhythmic movement of rushes i n a mazy, meander-i n g stream i s p e c u l i a r l y a pt. The impr e s s i o n i s everywhere c o n s i s t e n t . The word " l i s p i n g " i s once again a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c h i l d h o o d , and there are connotations of b u l l r u s h e s , the baby Moses, b u l l f r o g s , e l v e s and oth e r beings which i n h a b i t a c h i l d ' s f a i r y l a n d . The l a s t l i n e ends the poem as i t began - with sound and s l e e p . "Grace-notes of a profound, l e g a t o dream." I fee.1 t h a t t h i s i s a superb sonnet. I know of no other poem which so s u c c e s s f u l l y evokes the mood of c h i l d -hood. And l i k e most good poetry, i t gains from b e i n g read a l o u d . Day Lewis h a s a f i n e a u d i t o r y i m a g i n a t i o n . The poem s a t i s f i e s D a y Lewis' own d e f i n i t i o n of a whole poem: "Wholeness l i e s , s u r e l y , i n imaginati'oa statement which c r e a t e s a pure i m a g i n a t i v e response r e a c h i n g out beyond the l i m i t s of a theme towards human experience rxxxxon a l l s i d e s , y e t at the same time p e r f e c t l y 218. s a t i s f i e d w i t h those limfcts." (1) The sonnet quoted above i l l u s t r a t e s another q u a l i t y of good poetry which I have c a l l e d the q u a l i t y of o c c l u s i o n . By o c c l u s i o n I mean the impregnating of simple v e r b a l s t a t e -ment with many l a y e r s of meaning. I t i s an e n r i c h i n g process w e l l known i n chemistry, where the term o c c l u s i o n i s used to d e f i n e the a b s o r p t i o n of gases by c e r t a i n elements. (2) I n poetry, c e r t a i n images have t h i s same a b s o r p t i v e q u a l i t y , en-r i c h i n g , e n c r u s t i n g the poetry w i t h a meaning and s i g n i f i c a n c e sometimes not c l e a r l y p e r c e i v e d by the poet h i m s e l f . Good poetry expresses as much by what i s l e f t u n s a i d as by Twhiat i t a c t u a l l y s a y s . I t i s the mystery, the hidden depth which i s perhaps the most v a l u a b l e q u a l i t y of p o e t r y . T. S . E l i o t r e f e r s t o t h i s q u a l i t y when he w r i t e s : The r e c r e a t i o n of word and image which happens f i t f u l l y i n the poetry of such poets as C o l e r i d g e happens almost i n -c e s s a n t l y with Shakespeare. Again and again, i n h i s use of a word, he w i l l g i v e a new meaning or e x t r a c t a l a t e n t one. (3) I t i s t h i s l a t e n t q u a l i t y which makes a good poem e t e r n a l l y s a t i s f y i n g . The ore of a good poem i s never d e p l e t e d ; new vei n s of meaning are being c o n t i n u a l l y brought t o l i g h t . I would venture to p r e d i c t t h a t many of Lewis' poems w i l l be producing new ore from newly exposed v e i n s many years hence. (1) The P o e t i c Image, 75. (2) F i n e l y - d i v i d e d c h a r c o a l absorbs d e l e t e r i o u s gases, and paladium absorbs e i g h t hundred to nine hundred times i t s won volume of hydrogen when heated as a cathode f o r decomposing water. (3) ' T.S. E l i o t , The Use of Poetry and The Use of C r i t i c i s m , 219. Each of the sonnets of "0 Dreams", f o r i n s t a n c e , shows a h i g h l y developed power of o c c l u s i o n , and every new r e a d i n g b r i n g s a new stratum of meaning t o l i g h t . I t might be argued t h a t occlusion- makes f o r o b s c u r i t y . I f i t does, i t i s a v a l u a b l e o b s c u r i t y . f r o m which thought w i l l draw new and r i c h e r meanings. The s o r t of p u r p o s e f u l o b s c u r i t y which o c c l u s i o n o f t e n b r i n g s s h o u l d not be confused w i t h the t e c h n i c a l o b s c u r i t y which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of much con-temporary v e r s e . T e c h n i c a l o b s c u r i t y r e s u l t s from a d e s i r e which i s praiseworthy i n i t s e l f ; the d e s i r e f o r compression which seeks a way to say more and more i n fewer and fewer words. I f such a d e s i r e r e s u l t s i n the omission of a r t i c l e s , c o n j u n c t i o n s , pronouns, noun s u b j e c t s and other sentence p a r t s , then the r e s u l t i s a s o r t of p o e t i c t e l e g r a p h e s e , which i s c e r t a i n l y more b r i e f than i f these words had been used, but does not n e c e s s a r i l y mean more. S u c c e s s f u l compression r e -s u l t s when the poet impregnates the words he does use w i t h deep l a y e r s of meaning. Whether he does or does not omit connective words i s b e s i d e the p o i n t . Lewis i s not, on the whole, an obscure poet. H i s coherence i s a poem i s n e a r l y always of the l o g i c a l type, and when he does progress by emotional sequence, the c o n g r u i t y of the images i s so c l e a r , and the emotional responses which the images evoke are so s i m i l a r , t h at the meaning,.or at l e a s t , a meaning i s apparent. He does omit c o n j u n c t i o n s , but h i s 220. e l l i p s e s are not extreme enough t o t u r n h i s poems i n t o t e l e -graphese. Perhaps t h i s i s the wrong time t o w r i t e about o b s c u r i t y i n Lewis, however. Two-years ago, when I f i r s t read From Feathers To I r o n i n i t s e n t i r e t y , I had, I r e -member, a good d e a l of d i f f i c u l t y with some of the poems. I r e c a l l , furthermore, t h a t i t wa s hot u n t i l a f t e r many readings of "The C o n f l i c t " t h a t I understood the meaning of the f i r s t t h ree s t a n z a s . At f i r s t I c o u l d not f i n d the common denominator of a man s i n g i n g on a s i n k i n g s h i p , a storm-cock, and an ocean f l y e r running out of gas. I t f i n a l -l y occurred t o me, not i n a f l a s h of r e v e l a t i o n , but as a gradu a l a c c r e t i o n , t h a t a l l t h r e e are making the most of a bad job, but th a t they r e a l l y have no hope of improving t h e i r u n f o r t u n a t e p o s i t i o n . There i s a passage i n Of Human Bondage which might be used t o d e s c r i b e how unde r s t a n d i n g g r a d u a l l y emerges from o b s c u r i t y . P h i l i p , speaking t o Hayward, says: You see, i t seems t o me, one's l i k e a c l o s e d bud, and most of what one reads and does has no e f f e c t at a l l , but there are c e r t a i n t h i n g s t h a t ' have a p e c u l i a r s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r one, and they open a p e t a l ; and the p e t a l s open one by one; and at l a s t the flo w e r i s t h e r e . (1) That i s the way understanding u s u a l l y comes, not with the speed of r e v e l a t i o n , but s l o w l y , l i k e petals' opening one by one. I am s t i l l not sure t h a t I have grasped the meaning of (1) S. Maugham. Of Human Bondage, New York, Sun D i a l P r e s s , 1943, 357. 221. a t a n t a l i z i n g poem c a l l e d , "A Passage Prom Childhood", but I f e e l t h a t e v e n t u a l l y i t w i l l come, w e l l i n g out of the conscious and unconscious p a r t s of the mind. And when, t h a t time does come, I s h a l l not know f o r sure when the poem stopped b e i n g a r i d d l e and when i t became c l e a r . PART FOUR I began t h i s essay w i t h a q u o t a t i o n from Prometheus Un bound. S h e l l e y , i t w i l l be remembered wrote: Poets, not otherwise than p h i l o s o p h e r s , s c u l p t o r s , and musicians, are, i n one sense, the c r e a t o r s , and i n another, the c r e a t i o n s of t h e i r age. I have t r i e d t o show how Lewis' p o e t r y i s the product of t h i s age of u n c e r t a i n t i e s and c o n f l i c t s . Chapter TToshowed t h a t T r a n s i t i o n a l Poem was a n attempt t o achieve single-mindedness i n an age which puts a premium on s y n t h e s i s of any k i n d . Chapter I I I examined the p o e t r y of e r o t i c l o v e , the g r e a t value of which I s that i t , almost alone among human a c t i v i t i e s , achieves t h a t harmony of f l e s h and s p i r i t which i s the desideratum of a l l human a c t i v i t y . I t i s t h i s harmony which enables l o v e to c r e a t e " p e r f e c t i o n f o r a day". Chapter IV r e v e a l e d Lewis' a n a l y s i s of contemporary s o c i e t y , a s o c i e t y which, through i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i n e r t i a and f a l s e s t i m u l a t i o n , prevented the harmony of f l e s h and s p i r i t n e c e s s a r y f o r an i n t e g r a t e d and happy l i f e . Chapter V showed th a t the poet has suggested a p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n In s o c i a l i s m . 222 S o c i a l i s m would end much of the f r u s t r a t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l , and the s t a g n a t i o n of s o c i e t y , by r e p a i r i n g the d i v o r c e of body and s p i r i t i n the i n d i v i d u a l , and by c r e a t i n g a planned, p u r p o s e f u l s o c i a l economy, the o n l y purpose of which would be to m i n i s t e r t o the m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l w e l f a r e of every c i t i z e n . Chapter VI d i s c u s s e d the poet's i d e a of hero and ancestor, and the i n f e r e n c e that h e r o i c conduct was needed to b r i n g s o c i e t y up out of the morass i n t o which i t had f a l l e n . Chapter VII d e a l t with one of the many kinds of p o l a r i t y which must enter i n t o any d i s c u s s i o n of Lewis' p o e t r y . I t i s the p o l a r i t y formed by the complementary nature of joy and s u f f e r i n g . T h i s p o l a r i t y i s e x e m p l i f i e d i n Lewis' poetry'by the a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y acceptance of both s u f f e r i n g and joy.The one accepts d i s i l l u s i o n a a the i n e v i t a b l e s t a t e of mankind; the o t h e r urges a p a s s i o n a t e s e i z i n g of present joy and present beauty. Chapter V I I I attempted to d e f i n e Lewis' a t t i t u d e t o war, and to e v a l u a t e h i s war poems. F i n a l l y , Chapter IX has been concerned w i t h matters of s t y l e and technique. I t h i n k i t i s c l e a r how each aspect of Lewis' p o e t r y d i s c u s s e d i n the above chapters shows that the poet i s the c r e a t i o n of h i s age. Lewis i s a poet of contemporaneity. But p o s s i b l y the most i n t e r e s t i n g p a r t of S h e l l e y ' s q u o t a t i o n i s t h a t which claims f o r the poet the r o l e of c r e a t o r of the age. I t i s more i n t e r s t i n g because i t s meaning i s not so 223. obvious. A l l a r t i s t s , a l l men, are the products of t h e i r environments. But i n what sense a»e a r t i s t s the c r e a t o r s of t h e i r age? To begin with, I t h i n k t h a t the i d e a of the poet b e i n g a behind-the-scenes l e g i s l a t o r , an i d e a which S h e l l e y h i m s e l f broached, can be d i s c o u n t e d . I f th e r e are examples of poems which have moved governments to pass l e g i s l a t i o n , they are a r a r e occurence. Such a l e g i s l a t i v e r o l e i s more l i k e l y to be played by a n o v e l , or,an essay, or a j o u r n a l i s t i c r e p o r t , or even a drama, than by a poem. S h e l l e y undoubtedly had a more s u b t l e meaning i n mind t h a n d i r e c t l e g i s l a t i o n when he s a i d that poets are the unacknowledged l e g i s l a t o r s of man-ki n d . Poetry works i n i n d i r e c t ways a s a S o c i a l l y c r e a t i v e f o r c e . A poem does not l e g i s l a t e d i r e c t l y , but i t does cre a t e i n men h i g h e r i d e a l s of conduct and s o c i a l c onsciousness, and may show them new roads to t r u t h and beauty and hope. The a p p r e c i a t i o n of a good poem somehow makes one a f i n e r and b i g g e r person than he wag bef o r e he read i t , not because the poem n e c e s s a r i l y teaches a l e s s o n , but because i t t r a n s p l a n t s i n us a fragment of a gre a t t r u t h , and a p o r t i o n of a g r e a t beauty.. Lewis d e s c r i b e s the p e c u l i a r value of p o e t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n i n these wordsJ Through our experience of the poem, we are reborn - not indeed complete, f o r p e r f e c t i o n i s the 224. p r e r o g a t i v e of a r t alone i n t h i s world •& but, because poetry's i l l u s i o n i s a f e r t i l e one, a degree or two n e a r e r the wholeness f o r which our s e l f h o o d s t r i v e s . (1) A poet i s a s o r t of c r e a t o r i n another way t o o . A poet by h i s v e r y nature i s a s u p e r i o r r e c e i v i n g - s e t . He catches s e c r e t v i b r a t i o n s the presence of which most men are not even aware, and from these v i b r a t i o n s he can p i e c e together s u p e r i o r i n f o r m a t i o n about the a f f a i r s of men. Consequently he i s o f t e n aware of v a s t movements, whereas other men see o n l y l o c a l and t r a n s i t o r y t r e n d s . The poet has a s u p e r i o r p e r s p e c t i v e . He sees the mighty r i v e r from source to sea, while o r d i n a r y men are preoccupied with back-waters and e d d i e s . Because of h i s whole view, the poet can be of i n e s t i m a b l e s e r v i c e t o mankind. By showing that order comes out of chaos, he h e l p s to c r e a t e h i s age. He makes the age more understandable to i t s e l f . Lewis h a a p a i n t e d a l a r g e canvas of contemporary s o c i e t y . Out of the t a n g l e of c o n f u s i o n and aiihlessness which he saw everywhere, Lewis h a s c r e a t e d f o r h i m s e l f a p a t t e r n of the age. He has g i v e n a form to something which at f i r s t seemed u t t e r l y f o r m l e s s . But i n so f a r as he c r e a t e d a p a t t e r n to s a t i s f y h i s own c r a v i n g f o r order, he has c r e a t e d a p a t t e r n f o r a l l men. The d i s c o v e r y of a p a t t e r n of contemporaneity i s , moreover, a primary stage i n the r e c r e a t i o n of s o c i e t y , and the maker of such a p a t t e r n , i n a v e r y r e a l way, i s (1) The P o e t i c Image, 145~ 2 2 5 . h e l p i n g to c r e a t e h i s age. Lewis h a s helped to c r e a t e h i s age by d i s c o v e r i n g i t , f o r h i m s e l f , and f o r a n mankind. 226. THE POETRY OP CECIL DAY LEWIS BIBLIOGRAPHY PART ONE - BOOKS Arnold , M athew, Essays L i t e r a r y and C r i t i c a l . London, J . M.Dent (Everyman), 1911. Arno l d , Mathew, L i t e r a t u r e and Dogma. New Y 0 r k , Macmillan Co., 1924. Bagehot, Walter, L i t e r a r y S t u d i e s . London and Toronto, J . M. Dent (Every-man ). B e l l , C l i v e , A r t , London, Chatto and Windus, 1931. Brooks, C l e a n t h , Modern Po e t r y and the T r a d i t i o n , Chapel H i l l , U. of N. C a r o l i n a Press, 1939. C a r l y l e Thomas, Hecoes and Hero-Worshlp, \ New Y o r k , Thos. Y. C r a w e l l and Co. t Cawdell, C h r i s t o p h e r , I l l n a l o n and R e a l i t y , London, Macmillan Co., 1937. Daiches, David, The Place of Meaning fen Poetry, Edinburgh and London, O l i v e r and Boyd, 1935. Daiches, D a v i d , Poetry and the Modern World, Chicago U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago P r e s s , 1910. Deutsch, Babette, T h i s Modern Poetry, London, Paber and Paber L t d . , 1936. Eastman, Max A r t and The L i f e of A c t i o n , London, A l l e n and Unwin, 1935. E l i o t , T. S., The Sacred Wood, London, Methuen and Co. L t d . , 1932 E l i o t , T. S., The Use of Poetry and The Use of C r i t i c i s m , London, Faber and Faber L t d . , 1933. 227 Empson, W i l l i a m , Seven Types of Ambiguity. London, Chatto and Windus, 1930. Preud, Sigmund, B a s i c W r i t i n g s of Slgmund Freud, New York, Modern L i b r a r y , 1937. Graves, Robert, On E n g l i s h P o e t r y T London, W i l l i a m Heinemann, 1922. Graves, Robert, P o e t i c Unreason^ London, 0. Palmer Co., 1925. G r i e r s o n , H. J . C (and Smith, J . C.), A C r i t i c a l H i s t o r y of E n g l i s h P o e t r y . London, Chatto and Windus, 1944. H a z l i t t , W i l l i a m , Eragllsh Comic W r i t e r s . London, W a l l e r and Glover, 1903. Hughes, Glenn, I magi am and.thg, imagista,. a . _ S t a n f o r d , S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P ress, 1931. Huxley, Aldous, Texts and P r e t e x t s . London, Chatto and Windus, 1935. Ki e r k e g a a r d e , Soren The concept of Bread, ( t r a n s l . by Walter Lowrie), London, Oxford U. P r e s s , 1946. Langland W i l l i a m , The V i s i o n of P i e r s Plowm Bn v r ' London, J . M. Dent (Everyman), 1945. L e a v i s , F. R. New Bearings In E n g l i s h Poetry. London, Chatto and Windus, 1932. Lehmann, John, New W r i t i n g In Europe. Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1940. Lowes, J . L. Convention and Revolt In Poetry, Boston and New York, Houghton M i f f l i n Co., 1924. MacNeice, L o u i s Modern Poetry, Osfford U. Press, 1938. Marcuse, K. L. The Poetry of W. H Auden. T h e s i s f o r M.A. degree, A r c h i v e s of U.B.C, 1943. Matt h i e s s e n , F. 0. The Achievement of T. S . E l i o t , London, Oxford U. Pr e s s , 1935. 228. Megroz R. L., Phare, E . E., Poe, E. A., Powell, D i l y s , Ransom, J . C. Read, Herbert , Read, Herbert, R i c h a r d s , I . A. R i c h a r d s , I . A. Roberts, M i c h a e l , Roberts, M 1 C n a e i , Roberts, M i C h a ® l , S c a r f e , F r a n c i s , S i t w e l l , E d i t h Spender, Stephen, S t a u f f e r , D. A. Strachey, John, Modern E n g l i s h Poetry. London, N i c h o l s o n and Watson, 1933, The Poetry of Gerard Manley Hopkins,, Cambridge.University Press, 1933. Works, Volume 4, New York, Harpers. Descent From Parnassus, London, C r e s s e t P r e s s , 1934. The World's Body, N e w York, C. S c r i b n e r ' s S O B S , 1938. Phases of E n g l i s h Poetry. London, Hogarth Press, 1928. Reason and Romanticism, London, Faber and Gwyer, 1926. C o l e r i d g e On The Imagination, London, Kegan P a u l , 1934. P r i n c i p l e s of L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m , London, Kegan P a u l , 1938. C r i t i q u e of Poetry. London, Johathan Cape, 1934. New S i g n a t u r e s , London, Hogarth P r e s s , 1934. New Country, London, Hogarth P r e s s , 1933. Auden and A f t e r , London, George Routledge and Sons, 1942, Aspects of Modern Poetry, London, Duckworth, 1934. The D e s t r u c t i v e Element, London, Jonathan u a P e , 1935. The I n t e n t of the C r i t i c , P r i n c e t o n , P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1941. L i t e r a t u r e and D i a l e c t i c a l M a t e r i a l i s m , New York, C o v i c i - F r i e d e , 1934. 229. Tate, A l l a n , Whitman, Walt, Wilson, Edmund, Re a c t i o n a r y Essays on Poetry and I d e a s T New York, C . S c r i b n e r ' s Sons, 1936. Leaves of Grass. New York, Modern L i b r a r y , 1939. Axel's C a s t l e l New York, C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons, 1939. Wi 1s on, Edmund, Wolfe, Humbert, Yeats, W. B., Zweig, A r n o l d , The T r i p l e T h i n k e r s . New York, Harcourt Brace and Co., 1938. Romantic and Unromantic Poatrv. B r i s t o l , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i s t o l , 1933. Aut o b i o g r a p h i e s , London, M a c m i l l a n . c o . L t d . , 1926. Spinoza, New York, Longmans, Green and Co., 1939. 230. THE POETRY OP CECIL DAY LEWI'S BIBLIOGRAPHY PART TWO - PREFACES AND ARTICLES Auden, W. H. " C r i t i c i s m I n A Mass S o c i e t y , The I n t e n t of The C r i t i c . D. A. S t a u f f e r , ~ P r i n c e t o n TJ. Press, 1941. Auden, W. H. "Psychology and A r t Today", The A r t s Today. ed.'G. Grigson, London, Bodley Head, 1935. Auden, W. H. (and Day Lewis C.) I n t r o d . to Oxford P o e t r y , B l a c k w e l l Press, 19271 Conrad, J . "The Nigger of the N a r c i ssus, Preface , A Conrad Argosy. New York, Doubleday Doran.and Co., 1942. E l i o t , T. S. "The Music of Poetry", The P a r t i s a n Reader, ed. Wm. P h i l l i p s and P h i l i p Rahv., New York, D i a l Press, 1946. F o e r s t e r , N. "The E s t h e t i c Judgement of the E t h i c a l Judgement" The I n t e n t of the C r i t i c , D. A. S t a u f f e r , P r i n c e t o n U. Press, 1941. Ransom, J . C. " C f c i t i c i s m as Pure S p e c u l a t i o n " , The I n -t e n t of the C r i t i c . D. A. S t a u f f e r , P r i n c e t o n U. Press, 1941. Roberts, M., " I n t r o d u c t i o n " to New Country, London, Hogarth Press, 1933. Rodman, Selden, " I n t r o d u c t i o n " t o A. New Anthology of Modern Poetryy New York, Modern L i b r a r y , S h e l l e y , P. B. "Preface", Prometheus Unbound, Complete Poems, Boston, Houghton M i f f l i n Co., 1901. S h e l l e y , P. B. , "Preface", The Re v o l t of Islam. Complete Poems, Boston, Houghton M i f f l i n , Co., 1901. Synge, J . M. "Preface", Playboy of the Western World. London, George A l l e n and Wnwin L t d . , 1934. 231. Wilson, E., "The H i s t o r i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of L i t e r a t u r e " The I n t e n t of the C r i t i c . D.A. S t a u f f e r , P r i n c e t o n U. Press, 1941. Wordsworth, W. "Preface", L y r i c a l B a l l a r d s , London, Methuen and Co., 1940. Untermeyer, L. " i n t r o d u c t i o n " , Modern B r i t i s h P oetry. Harcourt Brace and Co., 1942. 232. THE POETRY OP CECIL DAY LEWIS BIBLIOGRAPHY P A R T T H R E E - P E R I O D I C A L S A r v i n , Newton, "A Time To Dance", i n The N a t i o n . M a y 6, 1936-Benet, W. R., "A Time To Dance'J i n S a t . Rev, of L i t . , A p r i l 11, 1936. Benet, W. R., "The Growing S t r e n g t h of C. Day Lewis", i n S a t . Rev, of L i t . . Aug. 25, 1945. Church, R. "C. Day Lewis", i n Ch. Sc. Mon.. May 22, 1935. Cowley, M., "A Hope F o r Poetry", i n New R e p u b l i c , Feb. 27, 1935. D a n i e l s , E., "Round About Parnassus", i n S a t . Rev. of L i t . , March 9, 1935. Deutsch, B., "A Time To Dance", i n Books, March 22, 1936. Dupee, F. W., "Lewis and MacNeice" i n The N a t i o n . Oct. 13,1945. E l i o t , T. S., "The Music of Poetry", i n P a r t i s a n Review;: Nov.-Dec, 1942. F l e t c h e r , J . G., "Prometheus Steel-Bound", i n S a t . Rev. of L i t . , A p r i l 13, 1935. Gregory, H., "A Time To Dance", i n Books, A p r i l 14, 1935. • Heilman, R. B., "Short I s The Time", i n New R e p u b l i c , Aug. 6, 1945. Humphries, R., " H i s t o r y v. Contemplation", i n New R e p u b l i c , Aug. 6, 1945. K u n i t z , S. J . , "Between Two Worlds", i n Poetry , December, 1935. Lewis, C. S., "Importance of an I d e a l " , i n The L i v -i n g Age, October, 1940. 233. M a c i e i s h , A., "The W r i t e r and R e v o l u t i o n " , i n S a t . Rev. Of L i t . . Jan. 26, 1935. Maynard, T., "When The P i e Wa s Opened", i n The Common-Weal. Aug. 2, 1935. Muir, E., "Noah and the Waters", i n S p e c t a t o r . March 13, 1936. Spender, S., " E s c a p i s t s L i v e On Borrowed Time", i n L i v i n g Age. Jan., 1941. S t o n i e r , G.W., "Pour Poets", i n The New Statesman and Na t i o n , A p r i l 4 , 1936. S t o n i e r , G. W., "Mr.Day Lewis A r r i v e s " i n The New S t a t e s -man and Nat i o n , March 9, 1935. Strachey, J . , "The Golden Age of E n g l i s h D e t e c t i o n " i n Sat . Rev, of L i t . . Jan. 7, 1939. 234. THE POETRY OF CECIL DAY LEWIS BIBLIOGRAPHY PART FOUR - WORKS BY C. DAY LEWIS - POETRY O o l M o t e d Poema. 1929-1933 and A Hope F o r P o e t r y New York, Random House, 1935. C o l l e c t e d Poems, 1929-1933, London, The Hogarth Pr e s s , 1938. A Time To Panne and Other Poems, London, Hogarth Press, 1935. Noah and the Waters. London, Hogarth P r e s s , 1936. Short Is The Time (1936-1943), New York Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1945. ' PART FOUR - WORKS BY C. DAY . LEV/IS - CRITICISM A Hope F o r Poetry and C o l l e c t e d Poems, 1929-1933, New York, Random Houses, 1935. , The P o e t i c Image, London, Jonathan Cape, 1947. PART FOUR - WORKS BY C. DAY LEWIS - FICTION The F r i e n d l y Tree, London, Jonathan Cape, 1936. S t a r t i n g P o i n t , London, Johathan Cape, 1937. Dick Willoughby, London, B l a c k w e l l P r e s s , 1933. PART POUR - WORKS BY NICHOLAS 1-BLA&E - DETECTIVE : ; — PTCTIQN A q u e s t i o n of Proof. New York, Harpers, 1935. Thou S h e l l of Death, New York, Harpers, 1936. 235. T h e r e f s Trouble Brewing, New York, Harpers, 1937. The Beast Must D i e . New York, Harpers, 1938. The S m l l e r With The K n i f e . New York, Harpers 1939. Ma l i c e In Wonderland, New York, Harpers, 1940. Corpse I n The Snowman, New York, Harpers, 1941. PART POUR - WORKS BY C. DAY LEWIS - PREFACES AND - - ARTICLES ~ " L e t t e r To A Young R e v o l u t i o n a r y " , New Country, ed. M i c h a e l Roberts, London, Hogarth Press, 1933. "The R e v o l u t i o n In L i t e r a t u r e " , The L i v i n g Age, May, 1935. "Pref ace", A New Anthology of Modern Verse, London, Methuen and Co., 1942.