SOCIAL WORE COMPONENTS.OF THE UNITED NATIONS TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMMES A Comparative Analysis of Technical Assistance and Social Work Princip l e s and Methods by BRIGITTA EVA BALLA-LEGRADY Thesis Submitted i n P a r t i a l Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SOCIAL WORE i n the School of Social Work Accepted as conforming to the standard required for the degree of Master of Social Work School of Social Work April, 1954 The University of British Columbia Abstract SOCIAL WORK COMPONENTS OF THE UNITED NATIONS TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME In 1946, the United Nations inaugurated the Technical Assistance Programme, a new and international application of "mutual aid" and "self-help" principles. There are many aspects to these programmes, which focus particularly on raising standards of l i v i n g through increased productivity in the "under-developed" countries. The present study singles out the social welfare ac-t i v i t i e s only, starting in the Advisory Social Welfare Services (1946), and the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance which followed. The method adopted i s twofold: (l) An examination of the major principles of Technical Assistance, (a) as enunciated in o f f i c i a l statements of policy, and (b) as indicated i n opera-tional practice. The significance of the use of experts, U.N. fellowships, seminars, and demonstration projects i s explored in this light. (2) The principles of Technical Assistance are com-pared, i n broad terms, with the basic principles of social work. One of the important by-products of "-Technical Assistance Admini-stration, an international survey of professional social work, and a definitive statement of the nature of social work s k i l l s , Is referred to in this connection. As a means of highlighting the principles and methods of the advisory social welfare services, two countries are refer-red to as examples of a receiving country (Guatemala) and a con-tributing country (Canada). They serve in conclusion to i l l u s -trate the interrelatedness of welfare programmes with local needs, with education for social work, and with overall national policies. A major part of the material used for this study i s derived-from United Nations documents, available from library sources. It i s supplemented by essential data from the United Nations Headquarters and from Canadian Government agencies con-cerned with participation in these programmes. Interviews with Canadian social welfare personnel who have participated in several of the programmes helped considerably to compensate for the need of first-hand material in the role of advisers, and the problems and procedures of fellowship and scholarship programmes. A num-ber of points were also clarified by correspondence. c The study reveals positive achievements in practical methods of promoting peace, which deserve greater publicity. Much more remains to be done; of most relevance for social work, however, is perhaps the need for increased professional writing on the f i e l d experience of social worker participants, and further re-search directed to analysis of methods, process, and results. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It i s with great pleasure that I express my appreciation to the Faculty Members of the School of Social Work whose teaching made i t possible to write th i s thesis. I am p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l to Dr. Leonard C. Marsh fo r h i s encouragement, constructive c r i t i -cism and valuable advice. I also f e e l indebted to Miss Marjorie J. Smith, Director of the School of Social Work for her he l p f u l comments, suggestions and guidance. I also wish to thank Professor Geoffrey Davies, who has given me the benefit of h i s knowledge about the United Nations; the o f f i c i a l s of the Inter-national Technical Co-operation Div i s i o n of the Depart-ment of Trade and Commerce of Canada, and the o f f i c i a l s of the United Nations who kindly supplied essential Information. F i n a l l y , I wish to thank the Staff of the Reference Division of the University Library for t h e i r generous co-operation i n making so readily a v a i l -able the reference material which was so essential f o r this study. TABLE OP CONTENTS Page Chapter I. Development and Administration of United Nations Technical Assistance Programmes Forerunners of Technical Assistance: the League of Red Cross Societies; the Save the Children Fund; the League of Nations. The United Nations Technical Assis-tance Programme. General principles and methods. The United Nations machinery. Government p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Method and focus 1 Chapter I I . S o c i a l Work and Technical Assistance: a Comparison of Principles and Methods Social work p r i n c i p l e s . Technical Assistance, the s c i e n t i f i c process. Analysis, planning, implementation of the programme: experts, training, technical publica-tions, evaluation. Social work methods i n technical assistance: casework, group work, community organization, research, administrative objectives 32 Chapter I I I . Advisory Social Welfare Services: T r a i - ning and Experts From UNRRA to UNTAA: the development of the pro-gramme. Fellowships and scholarships; selection of trainees, planning for programme. Orientation and re-porting. Social welfare experts; survey missions and others. Integration of the programme. ... - 68 Chapter IV. Seminars, Conferences and Demonstration Projects Seminars and Conferences. European Exchange. - Plan. Demonstration and p i l o t projects. Technical information. Surveys: the new concept of international s o c i a l welfare and s o c i a l work 105 Chapter V. Receiving and Contributing Countries: Two Examples Necessity f o r comprehensive and integrated national planning. The Technical Assistance Programme i n Guate-mala. Canadian p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n advisory s o c i a l welfare services. The r e l a t i o n of technical assistance to s o c i a l work. New needs i n s o c i a l work tra i n i n g to-day. The general contributions of s o c i a l work to national develop-02 6 XI "t • • • • • • • • • • The Charter of the Rights of the Child Text of Resolution 58(1) Adopted by the General Assembly on December 14, 1946. Resolution 200(111) - Technical Assis-tance f o r Economic Development. ... Resolutions on the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance for Economic Development of Under-Developed Coun-"fc n © s • ••• ••• ••• UN Resolution 316(IV) Welfare Services.... UN Resolution 418(V) Welfare Services. - Advisory Social - Advisory Social S t a t i s t i c a l Appendix : Table I. . Fellowship Awards Accor-ding to Fields of Study. 1947-1951 Table II* Project Areas i n Which Wel-fare Experts Worked. 1947-19 51 • •»* • • • Table I I I . D i s t r i b u t i o n of Fellowship Awards by Recipient Countries. Totals for 1947-1951- ' ... Table IV. Fellowship Awards According to Countries of Operation i n Five Regions. 1947-1951. Table V. D i s t r i b u t i o n of Experts Ac-cording to Regions. 1947-1951 * • • • ••• Table VI. Countries from Which Experts Were Recruited. 1947-1951. Table VII. Subjects and Scope of United Nations Seminars and Related Projects Under the Advisory Social Welfare Services. 1947-3_951 * • • • ••* ••• •*• Appendices H I Page Outline of Report - United Nations Social Welfare Fellowships. ... 162 International Economic and Technical Co-operation D i v i s i o n - Department of Trade and Commerce, Ottawa, Canada: a Copy of Expert's Application Forms ... .... ... 164 J Bibliography. ... 168 CHAPTER I DEVELOPMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OP UNITED NATIONS TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMMES T e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e - the i n t r o d u c t i o n of experience and knowledge to l e s s developed c o u n t r i e s - has probably been known si n c e time immemorial. The r u i n s of Roman s t r u c t u r e s are s t i l l to be seen i n some p a r t s of C e n t r a l Europe: they remain as mute evidence of the past existence of the Roman Empire which t r i e d to keep under c o n t r o l vast areas which have s i n c e become i n -dependent n a t i o n s . • The remnants o f t h i s ancient c i v i l i z a t i o n , a f t e r the f a l l o f the Empire, became mere h i s t o r i c a l s i t e s which have not c o n t r i b u t e d to f u r t h e r development because these t e c h -niques were not adapted to l o c a l c u l t u r e s . The l a t e r h i s t o r y of c o l o n i a l development i s more v a r i e d , but shows some s i m i l a r t r e n d s . New t e c h n o l o g i c a l knowledge was introduced by i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s to c o u n t r i e s i n A s i a , mainly with, the aim of u s i n g cheap m a t e r i a l and l a b o u r to r e i n f o r c e the economy of the i m p e r i a l i s t power. The motives f o r such economic expansion have V a r i e d , from sheer e x p l o i t a t i o n " t o an enlightened i n t e r e s t i n "subject peoples". C o l o n i z i n g a c t i v i t i e s , a l b e i t r e l e a s i n g and u t i l i z i n g s u r p l u s m a t e r i a l , a l l too f r e q u e n t l y neglected the s o c i a l and economic needs o f the "conquered" c o u n t r i e s and focused r a t h e r on the i n t e r e s t of the conqueror or donor, i n v e s t o r or i n d u s t r i a l -i s t . The d i f f e r e n c e s i n economic and s o c i a l l e v e l s between c o l o -n i a l and i m p e r i a l c o u n t r i e s have grown even wider, e s p e c i a l l y 2 since the foreign methods were not accepted and made part of the native economic and s o c i a l structure. Colonial development reached a new peak i n the nineteenth century, transforming the relationships p a r t i c u l a r l y of western Europe with the other parts of the globe. Not u n t i l the l a t e r years of the century did a new phase develop - the recognition of col o n i a l possession as a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , the development of huma-ni t a r i a n codes, the f i r s t international conventions l i m i t i n g abuses or agreeing to reform programmes to help countries according to t h e i r indigenous needs. International r e l i e f a c t i v i t i e s per se were a further development. Such a c t i v i t i e s f i r s t developed from a sense of so c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for people damaged by disaster, f o r whom re-l i e f meant an immediate answer to meet hunger, suffering and d i -sease. Relief-giving required action which was considered " i n -ternational" because i t involved crossing national boundaries. The present century i s now witnessing the most s i g n i f i -cant evolution away from mere r e l i e f - g i v i n g and receiving - the carrying into action of international r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to mobilize the resources of recipient countries, thus enabling active co-operation on t h e i r part as well. They constitute a new recogni-t i o n of the p r i n c i p l e that a country's resources should be used for the benefit of i t s inhabitants. And i t applies especially to under-developed and primitive countries which have never had the "know-how" to translate modern technology into p o l i c i e s which en-hance the welfare of the people. The development of service, as 3 a result of international co-operation has been a slow and gradual process. It began with r e l i e f action transcending f r o n t i e r s , and was followed by a number of voluntary agencies promoting various welfare projects. The war devastation and the subsequent stimu-lus to international co-operation among the A l l i e d Powers brought about international governmental action based on international agreements on a highly specialized, world-wide basis. Forerunners of Technical Assistance Probably the oldest, and s t i l l one of the most important organizations f o r international aid i s the Red Cross. Its foun-dations were l a i d by Henri Dunant, a Geneva businessman. Moved by the misery attendant on the battle of Solferino, i n 1864, he formed a committee to approach the governments of major countries and urge them to provide protection for a l l wounded combatants on the b a t t l e f i e l d . Out of this group of private c i t i z e n s grew the International Red Cross Committee. It i s today a world-wide or-ganization. Its a c t i v i t i e s are concerned with the "wounded and the sick of the armies"~L and, more recently, "the treatment of 2 prisoners of war". The international committee encourages the formation of national Red Cross s o c i e t i e s . These national bodies federated i n the League of Red Cross Societies i n 1929- With i t s headquarters i n Geneva, Switzerland, the League now functions as a neutral intermediary between governments i n war and peace for the furtherance of charitable and humanitarian work. The Inter-1 International Red Cross Convention, 1864. 2 International Red Cross Convention, 1929. 4 national Red Cross Committee expanded i t s a c t i v i t i e s at the begin-ning of the second World War and opened an agency f o r prisoners of war. This was an information and communication centre between prisoners and t h e i r families. The Committee also assumed the task of r e l i e f - g i v i n g to prisoners of war, undertaking the d i s t r i -bution of food, medicines and other goods which were v o l u n t a r i l y contributed by other national s o c i e t i e s . During the war i n Spain (1936-1938) the Committee established a section to aid c i v i -l i a n s i n order to promote personal communication between separated non-military individuals and fa m i l i e s . The International Red Cross Committee has also performed other humanitarian services such as the rescue of enemy aliens i n several countries. Numerous special tasks were focused i n an eff o r t to solve individual problems which accompanied the world-wide conflagration.^ The League of Red Cross Societies, which co-ordinates the a c t i v i t i e s of the national societies, i s mainly concerned with the "improvement of health, the prevention of disease, and the 2 mitigation of human suffering." It i s a n o n - p o l i t i c a l , non-governmental and non-sectarian organization, which, through pro-moting, stimulating and co-ordinating r e l i e f work i n cases of national calamities (such as earthquakes, famines, floods, disease), promotes the idea of international co-operation and international good-will. 1 Ringwood, O.K.D. & E.S. Hediger, "The International Red Cross Committee". Foreign Policy Reports. . XIX (May 1943), p.46. 2 "The League's A r t i c l e s of Association", paragraph 2. The Red Cross, Its International Organization. Geneva, 1930. 5 The objective of both organizations, the International Red Cross Committee and the league of Red Cross Societies, is to provide quick and efficient "international f i r s t aid" when national disasters occur, and their value l i e s in the readiness and e f f i -cient organization of their activities which are provided to a l l peoples in immediate need. Voluntary agencies which narrowed their activity to par-ticular problems of relief and rehabilitation have also played im-portant roles in international welfare. For over thirty years, the Save the Children Fund has pooled international resources to act for the welfare of children a l l over the world, but especially where standards have been lacking or low. The organization was established i n London, in 1919, and gave impetus to the setting up of a world-wide organization. It was the f i r s t World War that brought to.the fore the unmet needs of children. In order to meet these, the Fund focused upon establishing a permanent struc-ture of social services in devastated areas. The programmes are governed by Article (V) of i t s Charter: "The Child must be the f i r s t to receive re l i e f in times of distress." In addition to r e l i e f work, the operations of the Fund encompass a l l aspects of child welfare and the protection of c h i l -dren. At the Declaration of Geneva, the Fund presented the "Charter of the Rights of the Child" which was accepted by a l l members of the Union of Child Welfare.''" Ever since, i t has been governing national and international child welfare activ i t i e s . 1 Appendix A. 6 The F u n d i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n E u r o p e a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h , a n d c o - o p e r a t e s w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l b o d i e s w h e r e a v a i l a b l e . S i n c e 1 9 4 5 , i t h a s h a d a c o n s u l t a t i v e p o s i t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s I n t e r n a t i o n a l C h i l d r e n ' s E m e r g e n c y F u n d . I t i s a s t r o n g v o l u n -t a r y a g e n c y , f i n a n c e d f r o m v o l u n t a r y c o n t r i b u t i o n s , a n d i t g a v e r i s e t o o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l movemen t s i n c h i l d w e l f a r e . 1 The end o f t h e f i r s t W o r l d War m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n o n a b r o a d e r s c a l e . W h e r e a s t h e r e s t i l l r e m a i n e d t h e n e e d f o r t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f p r i v a t e w e l f a r e a g e n c i e s , t h e A l l i e d a n d a s s o c i a t e d p o w e r s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 9 2 0 a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f s t a t e s , t h e L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s . I t s t a s k was t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f p e a c e a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n a m o n g s t n a t i o n s . A c c o m p a n y i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l t a s k , t h e L e a g u e a s s u m e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r " t e c h n i c a l w o r k " u n d e r w h i c h p r o v i s i o n was made t o s t u d y p r o b l e m s p e r t a i n i n g t o n a t i o n a l e c o n o m i c , h e a l t h a n d s o c i a l w e l f a r e m e a s u r e s . The p r o b l e m s w e r e s t u d i e d t h r o u g h t h e means o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n s a n d t h e L e a g u e p r o v i d e d g e n e r a l s u p e r v i s i o n o v e r t h e e x e c u t i o n o f a g r e e m e n t s w h i c h w e r e a r r i v e d a t b y t h e c o n v e n t i o n s . The L e a g u e was a l s o t o c o - o r d i n a t e s t a n d a r d s t o be f o l -l o w e d b y n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t s . The S o c i a l U n i t o f t h e L e a g u e h a n d l e d " s o c i a l q u e s t i o n s " , s u c h a s n u t r i t i o n , h o u s i n g , c h i l d w e l -f a r e a n d o t h e r p r o b l e m s b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f 2 c o u n t r i e s . Some s t e p s t o w a r d " t e c h n i c a l c o - o p e r a t i o n " w e r e a l s o 1 F r e e m a n , K a t h l e e n , " I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o - o p e r a t i o n i n S o c i a l W o r k " . The W o r l d ' s C h i l d r e n . X X X I , N o . 1 1 . pp.3 4 3 - 3 4 9 . 2 The L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s , E s s e n t i a l F a c t s a b o u t t h e L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s , G e n e v a . I n f o r m a t i o n S e c t i o n , 1 9 3 5 . P a s s i m . 7 taken by the League, although such a c t i v i t y was confined to short-term investigations of d e f i n i t e problems which were "exclusively technical" i n character. Such service was provided upon the ac-tual request of governments who implemented action on the basis of the reports submitted to them by the different organizations of the League. The "technical a c t i v i t y " of the League had been valuable, especially as t h i s was the f i r s t attempt to bring together member nations and set such standards i n a l l areas of l i f e , which would promote health and welfare and human rights. Its s o c i a l , humani-tarian and other, n o n - p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s survived even the tem-pest of the second World War. The recognition of the necessity of international co-operation was taken over from the League by the United Nations. After the lesson of the second World War, i t was generally accep-ted that peace "can only be ensured by international co-operation broadly on the l i n e s agreed to i n 1920". The fundamental principles of the two organizations are the same i n character. In February 1946, the General Assem-bly of the United Nations adopted the resolution to take over the League's functions which were of two main categories: (l) p o l i -t i c a l and (2) technical and n o n - p o l i t i c a l . The League's non-p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s have been expanded and continued i n the com-prehensive programmes of the Economic and Social Council and other 1 league of Nations, The League Hands Over. League of Nations, Geneva, 1946. p.46. 8 committees which are d i r e c t successors of the League organs. The United Nations T e c h n i c a l A s s i s t a n c e Programme The t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e programme i s based on the U n i -ted Nations Charter which gave r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to the O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r a c h i e v i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l co-operation i n s o l v i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l problems of an economic, s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l and humanitarian*charac-t e r , and f o r the ensurance of e f f e c t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of e f f o r t s and resources f o r the f u l f i l m e n t of the s o c i a l t a sks, accompany-i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e c h n i c a l co-operation. The programme i s a l s o the r e s u l t of the emphasis l a i d upon the r i g h t s of a l l people to " h e a l t h and decency" and independence. S e v e r a l t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e a c t i v i t i e s were undertaken by the United Nations, before T e c h n i c a l A s s i s t a n c e per se became a separate o r g a n i z a t i o n . But A r t i c l e 55 of the United Nations Charter of June 1945, s e t f o r t h a p o l i c y as "the d i r e c t means by which the United Nations seeks to promote h i g h e r standards of l i v i n g , f u l l employment and c o n d i t i o n s of economic and s o c i a l progress and development." 1 The purpose of the t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e programme i s to communicate the ideas and methods of the advanced c o u n t r i e s to people and i n s t i t u t i o n s of under-developed areas. The programme c o n t r i b u t e s to r i s i n g standards of l i v i n g throughout the world by 1 T e c h n i c a l A s s i s t a n c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , S e r v i c e s of T e c h n i c a l A s s i s t a n c e and How to Obtain Them. United Nations Document ST/TAA/3- p . i i i . 9 narrowing the s o c i a l and economic gap between countries, or within the country's different economic l e v e l s . Technical assistance promotes economic, s o c i a l and cultural development by communicating s c i e n t i f i c knowledge, technological s k i l l and operational "know-how" to countries that need them."*" Mr. Trygve Lie, the f i r s t Secretary-General of the United Nations, referred to the universal character of the technical as-sistance programme i n his opening speech to the Technical Assis-tance Conference at Lake Success on 12 June, 1950: " . . . I t i s a true United Nations programme, founded on the principles of uni-v e r s a l i t y ; u n i v e r s a l i t y of p a r t i c i p a t i o n , of contributions and of benefit." The programme follows the basic principles of democra-cy, and i t s success depends more on the methods, a r i s i n g from these p r i n c i p l e s , than upon any other single factor. The funda-mental factors i n administering the programme can be summarized under the following headings: 1. Respect f o r National Sovereignty and Integrity. As-sistance i s given to countries without interference i n t h e i r na-t i o n a l or foreign p o l i c i e s . The aim i s to enable these countries to develop t h e i r own resources without fear of exploitation; to achieve t h e i r economic independence and to provide decent stan-dards of l i v i n g for t h e i r people. 2. The programme i s based on co-operation. The wisdom 1 United Nations, United Nations Programmes f o r Tech- n i c a l Assistance. ( I t a l i c s added by writer.) United Nations Publications, October 1952, 3rd Edition. Chapter 1, p . l 1 0 and experience of different countries are pooled, c a r e f u l l y co-ordinated and administered to meet the existing needs. This i s perhaps the most important element i n the successful operation of the programme, which could not be achieved without the close co-operation and understanding of governments and organizations con-cerned. 3- The principles of freedom and voluntary p a r t i c i p a t i o n are followed i n every aspect of the programme. To request tech-n i c a l assistance i s within the rights of every country. Further-more, technical assistance of any kind i s considered only i f there i s a d e f i n i t e request. The requesting governments are by t h i s token especially concerned with meeting the needs of economic and s o c i a l development within t h e i r boundaries. Contributions to the programme ( f i n a n c i a l pledges, provisions f o r f a c i l i t i e s , etc.) are also voluntary and are based on the a b i l i t y of member govern-ments. These concepts are not new to professions i n the econo-mic, s o c i a l and medical sciences. But heretofore they have only been applied on the l o c a l a ri;d national l e v e l . For the f i r s t time, an international organization has based i t s a c t i v i t i e s on such p r i n c i p l e s . Freedom and respect for individuals has thereby acquired broader meaning: on the international l e v e l , between a l l countries of the world, with the recognition that " a l l peoples of the world share the same desire for self-respect, self-help and self-determination. 1 Carnegie Endowment, "Technical Assistance for Econo-mic Development - Programme of the United Nations and i t s Specia-l i z e d Agencies." International C o n c i l i a t i o n , No. 4 5 7 , p.11 (January 1 9 5 0 ) . Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, New York, 1 9 5 0 . 11 Methods of Technical Assistance The technical assistance programme i s implemented by the United Nations and i t s agencies by p r a c t i c a l methods which f a l l within the following broad areas: 1 1. Fellowships, enabling l o c a l experts to observe and study methods and techniques used by more advanced countries. 2. Scholarships, providing formal t r a i n i n g to experts, but especially to junior personnel entering a f i e l d i n which the requesting country lacks f a c i l i t i e s for t r a i n i n g . 3. Local training, arranged through foreign experts who come to the recipient country i n order to teach and demonstrate techniques. 4. Consultation with foreign experts (expert advisors) or with a group of experts (expert missions) whereby l o c a l experts obtain expert advice on t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s and on existing technical problems. 5. Seminars and conferences where working groups of one or several countries meet with experts from other parts of the world; or, groups of neighbouring areas meet i n order to exchange their experiences and explain methods used i n t h e i r f i e l d s . 6 . Demonstration or " p i l o t projects", which are examples of how a p a r t i c u l a r task should be performed by actually perfor-ming i t on a small scale, or for a li m i t e d period of time; and 1 United Nations Technical Assistance Administration: Methods of Technical Assistance. ST/TAA/3. United Nations, New York. 12 7. Exchange of information, securing t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a -t u r e , books, f i l m s and other educational m a t e r i a l r e l a t i n g to the area of knowledge e s s e n t i a l to supplement t r a i n i n g and p r a c t i c a l experience. These l a t t e r items come under " t e c h n i c a l equipment" which may a l s o include machinery or other t e c h n i c a l instruments. This c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w i l l be u t i l i z e d i n the a n a l y s i s of the programme which i s undertaken i n l a t e r chapters. I t should be noted here, however, that these methods, important as they are, are not expected to accomplish the f u l l task of r a i s i n g a coun-t r y ' s economic and s o c i a l development. They are to serve p r i n -c i p a l l y as an a i d to governments to supplement and s t i m u l a t e t h e i r own n a t i o n a l programmes. They are t o enable r e c i p i e n t s to adapt techniques which are a v a i l a b l e to them and which would en-able f u r t h e r development to b r i n g standards to a desired l e v e l w i t h i n a few years, but which, without help, could only be achieved through the t r i a l and e r r o r of a whole generation. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Technical Assistance of course ope-rates through the s e v e r a l organs of the United Nations; and i t i s c l e a r l y one of the a c t i v i t i e s making the most demands on e f f i -c i e n t c o - o r dination. I t i s necessary therefore to sketch b r i e f -l y the main UN framework i n t o which i t f i t s . There are s i x p r i n c i p a l organs w i t h i n the United Nations. These are the f o l l o w i n g : the General Assembly, the S e c u r i t y Coun-c i l , the Economic and S o c i a l C o u n c i l , the Trusteeship C o u n c i l , the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Court and the S e c r e t a r i a t . For the purpose of t h i s study, the functions of the Economic and S o c i a l Council are of greatest importance because t h i s body was given the r e s p o n s i -1 3 b i l i t y of studying and implementing technical, assistance to those countries which participate i n the programme. Whereas the Econo-mic and Social Council provides services through i t s subsidiary organs i n the f i e l d (the country), i t i s the task of the Secreta-r i a t to provide administrative and c l e r i c a l s t a f f through i t s re-levant departments to the Council (and to a l l other United Nations organs). In t h i s respect, the role of the Secretary-General i s purely administrative. The Economic and Social Council consists of representa-tives of eighteen member-nations elected by the General Assembly for terms of three years. Its subsidiary organs report to the Council. • In the selection of i t s members, geography and econo-mic systems of nations are taken into consideration. The Economic and Social Council functions through f i v e subsidiary organs: ( l ) Functional Commissions; ( 2 ) Regional Commissions; ( 3 ) Standing Committees; ( 4 ) Ad-hoc Committees; ( 5 ) Special Bodies. The Functional Commissions deal with economics, unem-ployment, transport and communication, human rights, status of women, narcotics, f i s c a l and s o c i a l (including population) prob-lems and p o l i c i e s . The Regional Commissions represent the Coun-c i l i n the three regions into which the world i s divided for UN purposes. The f i r s t regional economic commission was sent to Europe i n 1 9 4 7 . l a t e r , two other regional economic commissions were established, one for L a t i n America and one for Asia and the Far East. These commissions perform services related to major problems of economic development and co-operate with governments 14 i n t h e i r regions, helping them with basic tasks such as regional conferences, requests for technical assistance, etc. They also prepare surveys f o r technical assistance purposes and provide i n -formation to governments on t e c h n i c a l i t i e s of the programme. Ac-cording to the basic p r i n c i p l e s of technical assistance, these commissions cannot take any action without agreement or request expressed d i r e c t l y to them, by the host or recipient countries, as the case may be. Standing Committees were established under the Council for the purpose of consultation with non-government agencies and the preparation of agenda and programmes of action. One of the standing committees, the Technical Assistance Committee (TAC) was set up as a policy-making body. It exercises overall supervision on a high p o l i t i c a l l e v e l on behalf of the Economic and Social Council. The Technical Assistance Committee, composed.of the eighteen governments represented i n the ECOSOC, receives annual proposals and recommendations from the Technical Assistance Board (TAB) and, a f t e r t h e i r c a r e f u l examination, transmits them with i t s own recommendations to the ECOSOC for action through the functional commissions. The Committee also receives periodic progress reports on technical assistance a c t i v i t i e s , and on funds received for t h i s purpose. The p o l i c i e s of the Committee w i l l then determine how these should be spent. Such recommendations are also forwarded to the ECOSOC for approval. Another important standing committee of the ECOSOC i s the Technical Assistance Board. This i s a separate executive secretariat within the ECOSOC, devised to undertake the task of 15 the o v e r a l l direction and co-ordination of technical assistance programmes. The Board consists of the UN Secretary-General and of the executive heads of the par t i c i p a t i n g organizations. 1 Its major objectives are the following: 1. Co-ordination of technical assistance a c t i v i t i e s of par t i c u l a r agencies; 2. Recommendation to TAC concerning the a l l o c a t i o n of funds; 3. Submission of progress reports to ECOSOC through TAC. Since the Technical Assistance Board i s i n direct con-tact with governments requesting technical assistance, and with agencies providing i t , i n order to achieve the above objectives 2 the following a c t i v i t i e s were required: (i) To set up procedures for achieving effective consultation between the part i c i p a t i n g orga-nizations regarding requests for assistance received by them; ( i i ) To work out common administrative and finan-c i a l p o l i c i e s ; (,-iii) To devise methods which, while not unduly delaying the implementation of requests, would permit the Board to consider impor-tant requests involving the- r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of several organizations; '(iv) To consider reports from organizations on the progress of technical assistance ren-dered or projected by them; 1 Report of the Secretary-General, United Nations Programme of Technical Assistance. E/220/21 ( A p r i l 1952). Passim. 2 Economic and Social Council, Report of the Admini- strati v e Committee on Co-ordination. E/2161 (13 December, 1951) Passim. 16 (v) To co-ordinate joint projects of specia-l i z e d agencies; (vi) To improve co-ordination of f i e l d a c t i v i -t i e s ; ( v i i ) To establish l i a i s o n with governmental agencies engaged i n carrying out technical assistance programmes on a regional or b i -l a t e r a l basis, and to render ad hoc as s i s -tance to governments i n s p e c i f i c f i e l d s on hand; ( v i i i ) To help governments to make comprehensive long-term plans and to i n i t i a t e long-term projects. This planning and supervisory function, which i s carried out by the TAB with consideration of a l l aspects of the technical a s s i s -tance programmes, allocates tasks to the par t i c i p a t i n g organiza-tions, avoids repetitions and ensures the integrated implementa-tio n of the a c t i v i t i e s . In order to improve the a c t i v i t i e s and effectiveness of administration, a full-time executive chairman of TAB was appoin-1 2 ted i n 1951. His role includes the following: 1. To execute the p o l i c i e s l a i d down by the Board; 2. To co-ordinate and integrate the programmes of the par t i c i p a t i n g agencies; and 3. To control the operation of the TAB Secre-t a r i a t through the Executive Secretary. The Ad hoc Committees of the Economic and Social Coun-1 David Owen, who has been Assistant Secretary i n charge of the Department of Economic and Social A f f a i r s of the Secretariat, was appointed as Executive Chairman. 2 ECOSOC Document E/2161. p.7. 17 c i l deal with matters concerning genocide, appeal f o r children and related problems, when they occur. The Special Bodies of the Council are the Permanent Opium Board, the High Commissioner f o r Refugees, and under t h i s category belong the Specialized Agencies. The United Nations Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEP), the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Education, S c i e n t i f i c and Cultural Or-ganization (UNESCO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the United Nations R e l i e f and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees i n the Near East (UNRWAPRNE),^ the Pood and A g r i c u l t u r a l Organiza-t i o n (PAO) and other organizations are technical i n nature. These bodies are especially s i g n i f i c a n t i n providing expert services and material contribution to technical assistance programmes. They are international bodies, created by inter-governmental agreements, brought by the Charter under the general aegis of the Council. They are designated as "specialized agencies" because of the tech-n i c a l services they provide. Technical assistance has been provided to some extent by the United Nations since December 1946. At this time, the General Assembly "recognizing that the Members (countries) of the United Nations are not yet a l l equally developed", asked the Eco-nomic and Social Council to "study the question of providing ef-fective ways and means for furnishing, i n co-operation with the specialized agencies, expert advice i n the economic, s o c i a l and 1 UNRWAPRNE, o r i g i n a l l y a r e l i e f agency, has become a f i e l d o f f i c e , co-ordinating programmes and serving as a l i a i s o n between the TAB and the governmental agencies. 18 cu l t u r a l f i e l d s to Member nations who desire assistance." Accordingly, the technical assistance a c t i v i t i e s of the Economic and Social Council were provided only to countries re-presented i n the United Nations. This programme was financed from the regular United Nations funds. The Department of Social A f f a i r s of the Secretariat was made responsible for s t a f f i n g ECOSGC when i t dealt with problems of human rights, status of women, health, refugees, education, c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l a c t i v i -t i e s , and the Social Welfare Division under the Department has been functioning with regard to policy which the Secretary-General advocates to ECOSOC. In 1948, the Economic and Social Council demanded ex-pansion of the programme and President Truman took the i n i t i a t i v e i n t h i s expansion on behalf of the United States. At t h i s time, a l l under-developed countries were made e l i g i b l e for technical assistance, p a r t i c u l a r l y for assistance provided i n the form of a 2 team of experts. This programme was supported by the General Assembly which proceeded to ask the Economic and Social Council and i t s specialized agencies "to give further and urgent conside-ration to the whole problem of economic development i n under-developed countries i n a l l i t s aspects, including measures already designed to raise the standards of l i v i n g of these areas." Following t h i s request, the Economic and Social Council, 1 Resolution 52 (I) of the United Nations General Assembly. (December 1946) U.N. Document, Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance f o r Economic Development. Appendix. UN. I ST/TAB/1. United Nations, New York. 2 Resolution 200(111), December 4, 1948. 19 at i t s meeting i n February 1949, asked the Secretary-General to prepare f o r the next session of the Council ( l ) a plan for an expanded programme of technical assistance, paying due attention to questions of a s o c i a l nature which d i r e c t l y condition economic development, (2) methods of financing such a programme, and (3) ways of co-ordinating the planning and execution of the programme Simultaneously with t h i s preparatory work, technical as sistance programmes were carried out on an increasing scale, f o r which f i f t y governments pledged twenty m i l l i o n d o l l a r s , over and above t h e i r regular United Nations contribution. As a result of the technical assistance a c t i v i t i e s and the increasing demand f o r assistance, the Secretary-General i n his c i r c u l a r of July 31, 2 1950, established the Technical Assistance Administration to serve as the "operations arm" of the Secretariat. Upon i t s foun dation, the Technical Assistance Administration was given the re-s p o n s i b i l i t y of administering technical assistance programmes f o r which funds are provided from the United Nations regular budget, whereas projects financed from voluntary contributions of govern-ments remained under the Expanded Programme of Technical Assis-tance, administered by the Economic and Social Council. The im-plementation of regular United Nations programmes include the f o l lowing areas of a c t i v i t y : ( l ) Advisory Social Welfare' Services, (2) Economic Development of Under-developed Areas, and (3) Assis-3 tance and Training i n Public Administration. 1 ECOSOC Resolution 180(VIII), March 4, 1949. 2 Document ST/AFS/SGB/32/Rev.7. 3 The United Nations Yearbook, 1951. United Nations New York, 1952. pp.110-111. 20 S E C R E T A R I A T DIRECTOR - GENERAL CO-ORDINA-TION, PLANS OPERATIONS Expert Missions Training PUBLIC ADMI-NISTRATION Regional Con-ferences Social A c t i -v i t i e s 1 Reports Pig. 1 Structure of the Technical Assistance Administration. The Technical Assistance Administration i s headed by a Director-General 1 who reports direct to the UN Secretary-General, and i s assisted by a Deputy Director-General. The Co-ordination and Planning Division i s responsible f o r the policy advocated by ECOSOC, or the General Assembly and by the Social Welfare D i v i s i o n of the Secretariat. The Co-ordinating and Planning D i v i s i o n consults these bodies on a l l questions of policy, r e l a t i n g to economic and s o c i a l development. In addition, the Technical Assistance Administration makes f u l l use of the services of the Regional Representatives and, through i t s own l i a i s o n s with the Regional Economic Commissions, i s concurrently informed of the 2 day-to-day operation of the programmes. 1 Dr. Hugh L. Keenleyside (a Canadian and graduate of the University of B r i t i s h Columbia; formerly a Deputy Minister i n the Federal Department of Resources and Development; also well known for his work i n adult education^and the YMCA). 2 Report of the Secretary-General, United Nations Programme of Technical Assistance. E/1893 (January 1951). Passim. 21 The Operations D i v i s i o n of TAA i s responsible f o r the implementation of the d i f f e r e n t methods of assistance ( i . e . , mis-sions, fellowships and scholarships, regional conferences, semi-nars and technical information). The Reports Section under t h i s d i v i s i o n provides information about these programmes through the Director-General to the Secretariat and to the other United Nations Agencies. The Division of Public Administrations was established to provide "new f a c i l i t i e s and improve existing f a c i l i t i e s for the t r a i n i n g of government o f f i c i a l s i n public administration, i n -cluding such phases as public finance, public personnel matters, administrative management and planning development. The D i v i s i o n i s also concerned with substantive aspects of awarding fellowships and scholarships i n public administration, training of teachers of public administration, and with the sending of experts and ex-pert missions to advise governments on public administration mat-1 ters." Through th i s d i v i s i o n , economic and s o c i a l development has been greatly strengthened since sound administrative struc-tures are essential to the implementation of long-term develop-ment planning. The Department of Social A f f a i r s The United Nations General Assembly, at i t s f i r s t ses-sion (1946) recognized the need for helping peoples throughout the world towards the development of t h e i r s o c i a l services and 1 UN Document ST/TAA/SER.B/14. p.8. 22 . for the amelioration of t h e i r s o c i a l conditions. The Depart-ment of Social A f f a i r s under the Secretariat was therefore es-tablished to provide services i n two broad areas: ( l ) s o c i a l policy making, by providing information and advice to a l l organs and branches of the United Nations i n the f i e l d of s o c i a l welfare and development, human rights, demography and narcotic drugs, and by advising the Secretary-General on a l l matters r e l a t i n g to p o l i -cies i n s o c i a l welfare; and, (2) s t a f f i n g , by as s i s t i n g govern-ments i n establishing a programme of p r a c t i c a l action in- the s o c i a l welfare f i e l d , by providing advice and assistance through appointing q u a l i f i e d experts. The Department of Social A f f a i r s , d i r e c t l y responsible to the Secretary-General, consists of four main div i s i o n s : ( l ) The D i v i s i o n of Human Rights i s concerned with problems impinging upon the democratic rights of individuals throughout the world, including the handicapped and minorities. Its r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s to study the implications of the B i l l of Rights which provides basic principles f o r further international action, on the one hand, and personnel to the relevant Commissions of the Economic and So-c i a l Council, on the other. (2) The Div i s i o n of Narcotics and Drugs i s studying the use and t r a f f i c of narcotics and especially those problems which arise from i l l e g a l manipulation of these devices. Through i t s findings the Division enables related agen-cies of the United Nations to develop preventive and co n t r o l l i n g measures inte r n a t i o n a l l y . (3) The Population Division i s con-cerned with problems of migration, aboriginal population and un-employment i n over- and under-populated areas. The Di v i s i o n informs other United Nations organs, such as the Population 23 Commission of the Economic and Social Council, the Pood and Agri -c u l t u r a l Organization and the International Labour Organization. (4) The Divi s i o n of Social Welfare consists of f i v e sections which are concerned with the development of s o c i a l p o l i c i e s . It also provides experts f o r the s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s of the Technical Assistance Administration and of the Economic and Social Council. Its basic a c t i v i t y , however, i s research i n s o c i a l f i e l d s , which as an aid to policy formulation leads to international action. The Division of Social Welfare, which has special significance f o r the present study, to-day has four sections: (a) The Social Policy and Development Section surveys standards of l i v i n g , s o c i a l structure and popular attitudes of areas throughout the world which affect economic and s o c i a l deve-lopment and necessitate community organization. (b) The Housing and Town Planning Section prepares sur-veys and plans related to needs i n the areas of community develop-ment, town and country planning, and housing. The Section func-tions also as an international reference centre providing techni-cal l i t e r a t u r e and publishing a b u l l e t i n of standards and pro-grammes related to economic and s o c i a l development. (c) The Social Services Section centres i t s attention upon organizational, administrative, operational and training as-pects of s o c i a l welfare services. It sets international stan-dards for the training of professional personnel, and i s particu-l a r l y interested i n programmes related to family and youth welfare and the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of the physically handicapped. Further-more, the Social Services Section, through the Social Welfare 24 Division, enables other United Nations organizations to a s s i s t governments i n setting up adequate programmes and services and i n r e c r u i t i n g personnel for technical assistance programmes. (d) The Social Defence Section studies international p o l i c i e s r e l a t i n g to the prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders, to the suppression of t r a f f i c i n persons and to the exploitation of people. This Section also assumes the functions of the International Penal and Penitentiary Commission. (e) The Social Reference Centre of the Social Welfare Division provides technical information services to a l l United Nations agencies, to governments, to schools of s o c i a l work and to public and private i n s t i t u t i o n s . 1 It has become an i n t e r -national clearing house for technical information re l a t i n g to s o c i a l a f f a i r s , and i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y has been to analyse a v a i l -able reference material i n connection with research projects. This service has promoted s i g n i f i c a n t developments i n in t e r n a t i o -2 nal standards for t r a i n i n g i n professional s o c i a l work. The Advisory Social Welfare Services were o r i g i n a l l y introduced and conducted by the Department of Social A f f a i r s . Even though these a c t i v i t i e s have become a part of the t o t a l United Nations Technical Assistance Programme and have therefore been transferred to the Technical Assistance Administration, the Department of Social A f f a i r s , within the l i m i t s of i t s competence, has continued to conduct research, prepare p o l i c i e s and re c r u i t 1 Set up under Resolution 5 l ( l ) of the General Assem-bly i n 1946. 2 See Training for Social Work, an International Sur- vey. E/CN.5/196/Rev.l (October 23, 1950). United Nations, New York. 25 personnel for technical assistance programmes. As a result of the recommendations of the Social Commission of the Economic and Social Council, i t was decided that the advisory s o c i a l welfare services, while forming one of the elements of the whole technical assistance programme, should preserve t h e i r own special charac-t e r i s t i c s i n the new administrative organization, and that the f i e l d s of technical assistance should include the f o l l o w i n g : 1 (i) Social development p o l i c i e s ; ( i i ) Research i n s o c i a l f i e l d s as an aid i n policy formulation; ( i i i ) S o cial welfare services - organization, administration and t r a i n i n g of s t a f f ; (iv) Population and migration questions i n r e l a t i o n to economic and s o c i a l deve-lopment ; (v) Housing, town and country planning; (vi) Organization and operation of community, family and c h i l d welfare services, i n -cluding r u r a l welfare services; ( v i i ) Measures for " s o c i a l defence", i . e . , care and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of juvenile delinquents and adult offenders. There i s an essential unity i n the s o c i a l welfare f i e l d based on the fact that a l l i t s various areas are interdependent. Consequently, i t would be d i f f i c u l t to give p r i o r i t y to any of the above mentioned f i e l d s because such p r i o r i t y would lead to a r t i -f i c i a l results and discrepancies. How then could action i n the f i e l d of s o c i a l welfare be systematized? The United Nations t r i e d to answer th i s question by recognizing that while community, 1 United Nations Technical Assistance Administration, Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance. UN Document ST/TAA/ 3. p.5. 2 6 family and ehild welfare present the core of welfare measures, planning, organization and administration of the a c t i v i t i e s are essential to the promotion of s o c i a l progress and development. In the implementation of advisory s o c i a l welfare services, the Technical Assistance Administration "based i t s decision for p r i o r i -t i e s on the urgency of the needs, on the one hand, and on t h e i r weight i n national s o c i a l welfare developments, on the other. Government Pa r t i c i p a t i o n The Economic and Social Council of the United Nations attached great importance to three main features of the technical assistance programme: ( l ) i t s univ e r s a l i t y , (2) the fact that i t derives support from the regular budget of the United Nations, and (3) the permanent character of the services that are provided. In the early days of technical assistance, requests f o r assistance were usually submitted by i n d i v i d u a l ministries or governmental departments, either direct to the United Nations, to the appropriate specialized agency, or again through a loosely formed non-technical committee established by the requesting go-vernment. Under such arrangements, technical assistance was often concentrated i n one single f i e l d , with necessary and related developments lagging and hampering effe c t i v e work. In order that international action might be co-ordinated with national planning, the United Nations requested the p a r t i c i p a t i n g governments (bene-f i c i a r y and host countries) to strengthen t h e i r internal machinery so as to render more effe c t i v e services to the a c t i v i t i e s of the p a r t i c i p a t i n g organizations and,to f a c i l i t a t e the co-ordinating 27 work of the Technical Assistance Board and of i t s resident repre-sentatives. Governments were also asked to give special consi-deration to ensuring that the projects, which are carried out, are closely integrated with the recipient government's own eff o r t s and plans f o r development. In thi s respect, r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for deve-lopment, planning and integration of technical assistance projects was placed with recipient governments. Advice and other means of assistance are therefore given only at the request of governments, which, on t h e i r part, make use of assistance to meet the needs existing on the country-level. The United Nations, i n turn, assists and advises governments regarding methods which should be used i n achieving t h e i r p o l i c i e s and objectives. Governments were also asked to establish a co-ordinating machinery i n th e i r country. These national organizations co-operate with the United Nations on the national, regional and international l e v e l , assuring that technical assistance programmes are carried out to th e i r maximum ef f i c i e n c y . To t h i s end, govern-ments are now providing the following services: 1. Co-ordination of a l l requests for technical assistance i n a l l areas of economic and s o c i a l development; 2. Co-ordination of technical assistance pro-jects within the country and a l l o c a t i o n of re s p o n s i b i l i t y to the appropriate govern-mental department; 3. Selection of applicants f o r fellowships and scholarships; 4. Recruitment of experts upon the request of the United Nations; 5. Co-ordination of the use of expert advice, available under the technical assistance programme; 28 6. Direct communication and co-ordination of a c t i v i t i e s with the United Rations and i t s specialized agencies. 7. Bringing together committees of represen-tatives of different ministries, on the na-t i o n a l l e v e l , to make necessary preparations for technical assistance programmes and to interpret the same to the general public. Method and Focus of the Thesis P r i o r to the second World War, international assistance centred on r e l i e f measures which met certain s p e c i f i c needs a r i s i n g out of national disasters. These programmes were focused upon material aid and took the form of donations given by countries or organizations which were equipped for such programmes. These a c t i v i t i e s , however, did not aim d i r e c t l y at the causes underly-ing these problems. Although contingencies, such as famine, flood and forced migration, s t i l l s t r i k e certain areas of the world, a new p h i l o -sophy of international co-operation developed a f t e r the second World War. This new trend was the outcome of spreading democra-t i c p r i n c i p l e s , accompanied by p o l i t i c a l events. A closer ana-l y s i s of the causes of international c o n f l i c t s revealed the fact that some countries, even though p o l i t i c a l l y independent, are un-able to function independently because of the l a g i n t h e i r econo-mic development. The more advanced countries therefore pooled t h e i r resources to help under-developed areas through technical assistance programmes. The o r i g i n a l idea of technical assistance programmes was "help for self-help" whereby technical s k i l l (instead of 29 material aid) r e l a t i n g to production was to be shared i n order to enable the recipient country to undertake long-term development planning. The self-help aspect of the programme i s perhaps the basic and most dynamic characteristic because i t involves the active p a r t i c i p a t i o n of recipient countries i n developing th e i r natural and.professional resources towards becoming equal partners i n the world economy. Economic and technological development, however, i n -volves many complicated hazards which deny a state of well-being to people. Evidence of this i s found i n the history of indus-t r i a l development of Germany, Great B r i t a i n and other countries. I f i t led to a modern economy, i t was also accompanied by s o c i a l changes and by problems of re-adjustment. Shifts i n the methods of work changed the status and relationships of the ind i v i d u a l i n the family and i n the community, and changed his cu l t u r a l values. Slums accompanied a developing industry, as did lack of adequate housing consequent upon a trend from r u r a l to urban l i v i n g , and disease grew out of changed working and l i v i n g conditions. In order that yesterday's errors should not be repeated to-day, international co-operation and assistance had to assume the respon-s i b i l i t y of considering the s o c i a l consequences accompanying tech-nological change. It i s therefore important that technical as-sistance programmes should include s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s and make s o c i a l p o l i c i e s an int e g r a l part of a country's economic policy. I f a comprehensive programme for economic development i s undertaken, i t has to incorporate methods whereby s o c i a l prob-lems can be foreseen and prevented and prevailing inadequate con-30 ditions remedied. It i s i n working towards this goal that the profession of soc i a l work has become a partner i n the internatio-nal professional team. There are of course many implications of the Technical Assistance Programmes besides s o c i a l welfare or s o c i a l work: i n -deed, these are probably s t i l l the least f a m i l i a r . Some aspects of Technical Assistance are primarily economic, some primarily p o l i t i c a l : they may be examined as examples of international a d m i n i s t r a t i o n or inter-governmental co-operation; as case-h i s t o r i e s of co-operation between people of dif f e r e n t c u l t u r a l backgrounds but with common needs; as techniques f o r r a i s i n g productivity; as experiments i n mutual aid or a new kind of i n -ternational "lease-lend" contrasted with the commercial exploi-t a t i o n of nineteenth century imperialism. The present thesis i s concerned with a much less f a m i l i a r - and, i n some ways at lea s t , a much less ambitious - approach. What are the spe c i a l -l y s o c i a l welfare parts of these combined operations? What principles are being applied, or being developed i n this and i n related branches of the programmes? • More s p e c i f i c a l l y s t i l l , i s the spread or development of Technical Assistance Programmes (which almost inevitably emphasize s o c i a l welfare because they must take intimate account of human resources, i . e . , the people of the under-developed country) also giving further d e f i n i t i o n to s o c i a l work as a profession and as a group of special s k i l l s ? What principles i n Technical Assistance Programmes can be r e l a -ted to those generally acknowledged i n the s o c i a l work profession; and how f a r are these common elements? 31 Obviously, a f u l l exploration of t h i s theme would require f i e l d studies. Detailed evidence and analysis could only be de-rived from dire c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in at l e a s t some of the programmes, while evaluations would also demand the co-operation of govern-ments and inhabitants concerned. The present study i s , however, more of an exploratory or reconnaissance survey, to gain as much information as possible from published documents, and to highlight at least the main principles which have been stated by or which can be discerned from available reports. The analysis of the Advisory Social Welfare Services i s based almost e n t i r e l y on the o f f i c i a l documents published by the United Nations and i t s agen-cies insofar as they are available i n main l i b r a r i e s . An attempt was made throughout the study to examine the extent to which basic s o c i a l work concepts appear i n the programme, even though these are precisely the areas regarding which there i s l i t t l e informa-t i o n i n the o f f i c i a l material. CHAPTER II SOCIAL WORK AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE: . A'COMPARISON OP PRINCIPLES AND METHODS ' The ultimate goal of United Nations Technical Assistance Programmes i s to help nations to develop t h e i r own resources i n order to achieve economic and s o c i a l improvement for the welfare of t h e i r peoples. This a c t i v i t y , which i n the technical a s s i s -tance documents as i n the f i r s t UNRRA projects, i s defined as "helping people to help themselves", i s characterized by p r i n c i -ples and methods which appear to have a great deal i n common with s o c i a l work. In t h i s chapter, i t i s proposed to compare the underlying principles and methods of these two helping a c t i v i t i e s , to examine how far s o c i a l work and technical assistance have ana-logous features. Social Work Pr i n c i p l e s . Social work has been defined by a well-known writer on the subject as "a profession which i n -tegrates and implements complementary principles of human rights and human needs i n the growing science of welfare.""'" In another standard text, the object of s o c i a l work i s summed up "to effect such an organization of potentials within the community and the individual that (people) without resources and with l i m i t e d re-sources, as well as those i n e f f e c t i v e l y using what resources they 1 Hamilton, Gordon, "Helping People - The Growth of a Profession", Social Work and Human Relations, 1949. Anniver-sary Papers of the New York School of Social Work and the Commu-ni t y Service Society, New York, 1949. 33 have, might he helped to achieve a more adequate way of l i f e . " 1 The p a r a l l e l s are remarkably close. Technical a s s i s -tance programmes are directed toward sharing the s k i l l s of deve-loped countries with the people of under-developed areas i n order to help the l a t t e r discover and use t h e i r resources f o r t h e i r own advantage, and to develop s k i l l s whereby the resources already available can be u t i l i z e d more e f f e c t i v e l y , and to a t t a i n higher lev e l s of economic and s o c i a l well-being f o r the entire population. The recognition of the need fo r mutual help and co-ope-ration i s not new. In the basic ethics of a l l great r e l i g i o n s there have been provisions that the better endowed must help those who are l e s s fortunate. Social work, i n addition, carries with i t a conviction that "order i n the world evolves out of s p i r i t u a l i n s p i r a t i o n and f a i t h , appreciation of the value of each human i n -2 dividual, and b e l i e f i n the equality and brotherhood of man." This b e l i e f , which underlies democratic l i v i n g , has been incor-porated i n the United Nations Charter setting out the basic rights of every human being. It has also been accepted, therefore, as the basic philosophy of technical assistance, the benefits of which are open on "a basis of equality to a l l peoples, regardless of t h e i r p o l i t i c a l opinions, t h e i r s o c i a l organization, or any 3 other differences among them." 1 Pink, A.E., The F i e l d of Social Work. H. Holt & Co., New York, 1942. p.2. 2 Holly, Jane M., "Social Work: Its Base, S k i l l s and Relation to other F i e l d s " , Social Casework. XXXI, No. 10 (195°), pp.339-410. 3 From the speech of UN Secretary-General Trygve Lie, Technical Assistance Conference, June, 1950. 34 Consequently, no d i s t i n c t i o n i s made between countries other than t h e i r need for technical assistance. The deep impulse of human charity consistent with voluntary help and personal giving, has thus developed a new concept: the concept of mutual aid under-taken by governments. The aim of a l l nations, assembled i n the United Nations, i s higher standards of l i v i n g and s o c i a l progress. But to achieve t h i s , the obstacles i n the way of development, the greatest of which are disease, ignorance and poverty, have to be a l l e v i a t e d . "Equality of a l l peoples" makes provision not only f o r the basic needs of peoples to be met, but also for t h e i r right to self-determination, whereby people through t h e i r governments, make t h e i r own decisions to request assistance and to decide i n what form and for what purpose they wish assistance to be ren-dered. Just as the s o c i a l worker does not force his services upon people i n need, but respects t h e i r decisions and provides the opportunity to meet the need, so "Technical assistance f o r economic development of underdeveloped countries i s to be ren-dered by the United Nations only i n agreement with governments concerned, and on the basis of requests received from them."1 In this process, attention i s paid to national sovereignty, and assistance does not become a means of foreign interference i n the internal a f f a i r s of the countries concerned, nor i s i t accompa-nied by any consideration of a p o l i t i c a l nature. On the con-trary, governments take direct r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r improving t h e i r own national economic and s o c i a l conditions. These principles of technical assistance are of such essential importance that 1 United Nations, Technical Assistance for Economic Development - General Principles"] ST/TAA/3 . p.7 . United Nations, New York. 35 they are reiterated at every stage and i n every description of methods of the programme, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the phrase "upon the request of the Government."1 In addition to the emphasis s o c i a l work principles place upon the equality of people (as f a r as t h e i r rights are concerned), they include respect for i n d i v i d u a l differences, which demand d i f -f e r e n t i a l treatment within the methods of s o c i a l work. Such d i f -f e r e n t i a l treatment also applies to technical assistance given to countries. Consideration must be given to the unique needs and p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , resources and problems, background and traditions of d i f f e r e n t countries. While the method of assistance has a developed pattern, i t has to be applied i n a way that meets the p a r t i c u l a r circumstances, and i s determined by the c u l t u r a l values of the p a r t i c u l a r socio-economic setting i n which i t operates. In the adaptation and selection of methods and techniques, consi-deration must be given to the fact that, while certain basic p r i n -ciples are universal and applicable to a l l humanity, many of t h e i r s o c i a l problems are regional and stem from l o c a l conditions, r i -tual codes of behaviour, l o c a l s o c i a l structure and organization. Imported methods, therefore, must not be b l i n d l y adopted and un-thinkingly applied but should be adapted to the unique impact and incidence of l o c a l problems and s o c i a l conditions. The s o c i a l worker's a c t i v i t i e s are governed by the f a i t h that the people he serves have the a b i l i t y to change and to grow. Technical assistance i s also based on the assumption that, 1 "Upon the request of the Government" also.implies l e g a l r a t i f i c a t i o n of b i l a t e r a l conventions and agreements con-cerning the nature and extent- of technical assistance. 36 given the opportunity to acquire new techniques and to develop re-sources, b e n e f i c i a l change can be brought about which w i l l ensure the attainment of higher lev e l s of economic and s o c i a l welfare. Social work i s based on co-operation: working with peo-ple and not doing things f o r them. In this dynamic a c t i v i t y em-phasis i s placed on self-help and p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Consequently, "helping" broadens from a r e l i e f - g i v i n g a c t i v i t y and a passive receiving to an enabling process which preserves the self-respect of people. I t i s reasonable to assume a desire i n every i n d i v i -dual, group or nation to develop t h e i r resources, and technical assistance i s based on the principles of co-operation to achieve this end. I f new s k i l l s are introduced by technical assistance representatives, the intention i s that they should be shared with, and transferred to, the country where they w i l l be used by the people and t h e i r representatives f o r the purpose of general im-provement, employing, as f a r as possible, l o c a l resources and i n -i t i a t i v e . Without t h i s component of co-operation, technical as-sistance cannot be effective and i t s achievements w i l l only be temporary since the people w i l l not f e e l that they have been a part of the developmental process. Technical assistance advi-sers, therefore, must have the a b i l i t y to consult with or advise with people, rather than to dominate them; ' to organize and not to operate. They should help i n assessing potential resources and i n enabling others to u t i l i z e and develop them. Technical assistance a c t i v i t y , s i m i l a r l y to s o c i a l work, i s an inter-personal process, which must be based on mutual res-pect, understanding and confidence between technical assistance 37 representatives and those of the recipient country. A positive working relationship i s an essential element of a successful tech-n i c a l assistance programme. The establishment of rapport between technical adviser and advisee i s just as important as i t i s i n so-c i a l work. To t h i s end, the adviser must become thoroughly ac-quainted with the culture of the community before sta r t i n g his work. He should understand and sense what the'problems mean to the people, how they f e e l about necessary changes, how f a r he should compromise with l o c a l values and i n s t i t u t i o n s . He should f i t h i s suggestions and objectives into the l o c a l situation, even i f he himself cannot agree with them f u l l y , i n order that h i s sug-gestions should be those of the people and t h e i r government, his aims should be common aims, whereby technical assistance w i l l bring about technical change which Is f u l l y understood, accepted and u t i l i z e d by the recipients. He must control his national, r a c i a l , and r e l i g i o u s prejudices, and must have a capacity to work with people who are often on a lower l e v e l of t r a i n i n g . The matter of communication and knowledge of language i s an important component of the helping a c t i v i t y . However, the understanding of the language, valuable as i t may be, i s a secon-dary consideration when compared with an understanding of the people and t h e i r needs. There are emotional aspects that have to be c a r e f u l l y assessed i n technical assistance. It i s not s u f f i c i e n t to say that with improved technical, medical, educational and s o c i a l services the country's s o c i a l situation w i l l improve. Although food w i l l be provided and disease controlled, i t i s also essential 38 to help the people of under-developed areas to adjust to new s i t u a -tions and to channel the improvement of s o c i a l processes i n such directions that they w i l l BDt create new s o c i a l problems, whether community, region or nation wide. To this effect not only tech-n i c a l advice, but also s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l advice have to be i n -corporated i n technical assistance programmes i n order to help a l l e v i a t e painful readjustments aroused by rapid economic progress, and to help people to decide whether they are w i l l i n g to pay the price of economic progress by s a c r i f i c i n g s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , ancient philosophies and traditions that may impede development. As a result of this consideration, "requests for technical as-sistance may be approved which w i l l help governments to take account of the probable consequences of proposed projects f o r economic development i n terms of the welfare of the population as a whole,...and also to take account of those s o c i a l conditions, customs and values i n a given area which would d i r e c t l y influence the kinds of economic development that may be feasible and desi-rable. Similarly, requests may also be approved f o r technical assistance to governments desiring to undertake the s p e c i f i c development and to mitigate s o c i a l problems - p a r t i c u l a r l y pro-blems of d i s l o c a t i o n of family and community l i f e - that may arise as a concomitant of economic change.""'" Social workers believe that the c l i e n t ' s l e v e l should be the key to a l l helping processes. This implies not only 1 UN Secretariat, "Progress Made by the United Nations i n the F i e l d of Social A c t i v i t i e s i n 1952", (January-December, 1952) Part I I , Advisory Social Welfare Services and Relevant As- sistance Provided Under the Expanded Programme of Technical Assis- tance for the Economic Development of Under-Developed Countries. E/CN.5/289/Add.5. (12 February, 1953) • Passim. 39 helping with those problems which are the most important to the c l i e n t , but also that the helping process should be geared to the c l i e n t ' s a b i l i t y to meet the s i t u a t i o n . Similarly, technical assistance has to be on the l e v e l of the recipient country. Im-mediate attention should be paid to the most pressing problems, but the techniques introduced should not necessarily be transplan-ted from the technically most advanced country, but from one where cu l t u r a l and economic conditions are not so superior that large gaps have to be f i l l e d before constructive action can be taken. Working towards optimum goals must be a gradual process involving the minimum amount of f r u s t r a t i o n f o r the recipient country. Meeting emergency needs by providing r e l i e f i s just as important i n technical assistance as i t i s i n s o c i a l work. Just as the s o c i a l problems of a maladjusted family cannot be dealt with before i t s members are fed, clothed and adequately housed, so mental health services introduced to starving people could not be implemented successfully. P a r a l l e l to s o c i a l assistance, i n s o c i a l work, technical assistance enlisted emergency services which provided assistance i n kind ( n u t r i t i o n , medical services, etc.) before the country could be involved i n plans for long-term development. The forces a f f e c t i n g the welfare of people are multiple and they reinforce each other. lack of technical knowledge leads to economic problems; unemployment results i n poverty, poverty breeds i l l n e s s , and i l l n e s s lowers morale. Just as the s o c i a l worker's focus i s upon the i n d i v i d u a l as a whole person, and an attempt i s made to co-ordinate vocational, f i n a n c i a l , 40 medical, s o c i a l and emotional treatment, the main objective of technical assistance Is to help -under-developed areas i n toto, attacking a l l those interrelated f i e l d s which are thwarting econo-mic and p o l i t i c a l growth. Therefore, technical assistance pro-grammes must be as integrated and systematic as possible, developing i n successive stages and seeking to provide a permanent character to the service concerned. Social work i s considered a " c a t a l y t i c agent" focusing the attention of many professions and occupations i n t h e i r specia-l i z e d capacity i n a team approach, i n order to meet the needs of the t o t a l human person, group or community. Similarly, technical assistance mobilizes a l l those professions whose contributions can be u t i l i z e d f o r economic and s o c i a l development of a p a r t i c u l a r country. Applied sciences are drawn upon f o r the improvement of production, medicine f o r the a l l e v i a t i o n of i l l n e s s ; education i s u t i l i z e d to fight ignorance and teach new s k i l l s , p o l i t i c a l science to improve and strengthen the effectiveness of govern-ments, and the s o c i a l sciences to study the causes of s o c i a l i l l s and bring preventive and improving measures into the s o c i a l s i t u a -tions. Whereas s o c i a l work has a s p e c i f i c network of s k i l l s and a body of s c i e n t i f i c knowledge which constitute i t s i d e n t i t y and which distinguish i t s practice from other professions and occu-pations, technical assistance, as a helping process, cannot be administered by a single profession. It has to mobilize d i f -ferent d i s c i p l i n e s within the frame of reference of i t s p r i n c i -ples and basic methods, principles which ultimately a l l f i t into the overall process of bringing about economic and s o c i a l progress. 4 1 Because these professional people are primarily experts and only secondarily do they represent these p r i n c i p l e s , i t would he un-r e a l i s t i c to assume that a l l participants demonstrate an under-standing and accepting attitude, which i s basic i n the practice of s o c i a l work. Technical Assistance. The process of technical a s s i s -tance and s o c i a l work are analogous i n t h e i r approach to problems. The tools for providing assistance are primarily educational i n nature and comprise expert advice, fellowships and scholarships, -seminars and conferences, demonstration and p i l o t projects and dissemination of technical information material. Their systema-t i c and concerted application, however, can only be effected i f the s c i e n t i f i c process of analysis, planning, implementation of plans and evaluation of the programmes i s followed. Stage I : Analysis In order that requests for technical assistance may be well defined and f u l l y documented, governments are requested to undertake a study of natural and s o c i a l resources i n order to establish the p o t e n t i a l i t i e s f o r development. Completing com-prehensive reconnaissance surveys i s an involved process, but i t i s the essential basis of development-planning. In countries where survey machinery i s not available, exploratory or survey missions are sent upon the request of the government. The use of foreign experts i n such cases proved useful because they are l i k e l y to be unbiased and also carry the stamp of United Nations authority. Their a c t i v i t y i s also 42 educational i n the sense that they are working i n co-operation with l o c a l o f f i c i a l s . The members of missions are experts repre-senting different d i s c i p l i n e s , each working i n t h e i r own f i e l d , but focusing upon the t o t a l development. The reconnaissance survey i s "diagnostic", and, i n ad-d i t i o n to revealing resources, i t brings the problems to the foreground. Through such a team approach, which i s also applied i n s o c i a l work, an integrated plan for economic and s o c i a l develop-ment can be e f f e c t i v e l y formulated. Based on such analysis, a request f o r direct assistance i s presented by the government to the Technical Assistance Board. Governments may use recommendations given by advisory missions, following, or sometimes substituting survey missions. When requested, the Technical Assistance Board assumes a function s i -milar to a s o c i a l service index. The Board informs a l l p a r t i -cipating organizations of the request and informing each of the other's action, avoids duplication of service. In cases where the recipient government has s p e c i f i c a l -l y requested assistance i n a variety of f i e l d s , the exploratory mission may recommend the appointment of a resident representa-t i v e i n agreement with the government, and the p a r t i c i p a t i n g organizations. The resident representative i s instructed to help the government to define i t s needs with precision, to har-monize the work of the different organizations i n the country, to act as a l i a i s o n of the Technical Assistance Board between the government and the United Nations, to assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r 43 the entire technical assistance programme i n the country, and to report to the Technical Assistance Board on behalf of the team of organizations. His functions vary from country to country, but such services are especially valuable where technical assistance affects a group of neighbouring countries ( i . e . , regions). In comprehensive planning, i t i s of primary importance to consider a l l f i e l d s that are affected by economic change and which may involve changes i n countries of a region where the same conditions exist. Under the co-ordination of a resident representative, several countries may join i n planning and i n making requests f o r assistance. Regional and international action can be harmonious-l y u t i l i z e d only i f these countries organize themselves i n groups, based on t h e i r c u l t u r a l differences, decide to pool t h e i r previous experiences, make a combined analysis of t h e i r techniques, and co-operate i n using such international aid as they deem necessary to improve t h e i r techniques. The resident representative may also minimize effects of p o l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t y , and establish continuity and integra-t i o n i n a l l facets of working relationships. The plan f o r development, incorporated i n the request for technical assistance, must set out objectives and determine p r i o r i t i e s . It should be long-term planning i n which every phase i s a part of the major goal. This i s to ensure that a l l secondary plans within the programme are consistent with each other and with, the t o t a l resources available. Stage II : Planning When the preliminary analysis has been completed, the 44 s o c i a l work treatment process i s outlined i n a tentative plan, which i s based on the potentials of c l i e n t s and upon the resources available i n the environment. Sim i l a r l y , a f t e r the request for technical assistance has been submitted to the United Nations, the agencies undertake the joint examination of the proposed plan and establish the extent to which technical assistance can be offered. I f the United Nations i s not i n a position to provide the requested technical assistance, the governments are informed about other f a c i l i t i e s that are available from other resources such as the specialized agencies, member countries, or non-governmental organi-zations. Stage III : Implementation of the Programme On the basis of the treatment plan, the s o c i a l worker aims to help his c l i e n t , through t h e i r relationship, to change and grow and to make the best•possible adjustment in the p a r t i c u l a r situation. In technical assistance the "treatment process" i s the implementation of plans: putting resources into operation In the required d i r e c t i o n . Requesting governments carry f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and by far the greater part of the material and f i n a n c i a l burden of the programme. Therefore, assistance can only be ef f e c t i v e i f i t i s an integral part of the national, plan. The means of implementing plans may be by operating missions, assuming operating responsibi-l i t y for the plan mainly on the l e v e l of economic and s o c i a l reforms. But the primary aim of action i s to supply technical t r a i n i n g and expert information i n s p e c i f i c f i e l d s . This i s done through 45 expert advice, fellowships and scholarships, seminars and confe-rences, demonstration and p i l o t projects and technical information. (a) Experts. The major portion of requests received under technical assistance has been for the appointment of experts. Their task i s twofold: f i r s t , to use t h e i r knowledge and experience to introduce projects, and, second, to introduce new s k i l l s , a role which i s mainly an educational one. The technical expert i s required to work with native experts of the same f i e l d so that his services can be gradually withdrawn. His high technical and hu-man q u a l i f i c a t i o n s are, therefore, p a r t i c u l a r l y important. Pro-fessional competence must be coupled with sympathetic understand-ing of the cu l t u r a l backgrounds and s p e c i f i c needs of the r e c i -pient country. His methods must be adapted to l o c a l conditions. Although expert advice i s used i n any area of economic and s o c i a l development where technical s k i l l i s required, such a contribution i s also valuable i n connection with seminars and conferences as well as demonstration projects where i t i s used for more formal education. Expert advice to governments may also extend to sur-veying and evaluating resources, needs and existing services; formulating p o l i c i e s , reorganizing administration, planning and tr a i n i n g of selected personnel at the technical or supervisory l e v e l , thus introducing new techniques to one or several f i e l d s . (b) Training. Training programmes are complementary to the expert services on the l o c a l l e v e l . Three types of f a c i -l i t i e s are afforded for t r a i n i n g under the technical assistance programme: l o c a l , regional and international. 4 6 Where l o c a l counterpart personnel i s attached to Inter-national experts i n the normal course of t h e i r assignment, t h e i r services are not only more economical than those of foreign ex-perts, but they also ensure continuity of work a f t e r the experts have gone, and they can-apply the newly acquired technical know-ledge to l o c a l conditions on a permanent basis. Local t r a i n i n g may also be done through in-service t r a i n i n g which has the most immediate results with the least cost. Training programmes i n more developed countries are worked out through three means: fellowships, scholarships and seminars. ( l ) Fellowships are awarded to individuals, groups or teams to observe and acquaint themselves with the experience and practice of other countries i n t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d s . They are often more useful i f spent i n a country where the l e v e l of development does not diverge too sharply from that of the r e c i -pient country, and where s i m i l a r s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l patterns p r e v a i l . The prerequisite for fellowships i s that the candi-dates selected should be of a calibre of t r a i n i n g and experience that w i l l enable them to take f u l l advantage of the opportunities offered. Fellowship programmes are designed to meet the needs of administrative, policy-making, supervisory, executive and technical personnel. Upon t h e i r return, the Fellows may assume tra i n i n g positions and share t h e i r acquired knowledge with t h e i r co-workers, or they may continue as practitioners using and adap-ti n g t h e i r experiences to l o c a l conditions. As d i s t i n c t from fellowships, (2) scholarships provide t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s to persons who cannot receive adequate f o r -47 mal t r a i n i n g i n t h e i r own countries, and are, as a rule, designed for the purpose of higher education. It Is the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the government and that of the United Nations to ensure that nomi-nations should be based on a b i l i t y , and the candidates' employ-ment upon t h e i r return should be secured i n the capacity f o r which this t r a i n i n g best f i t t e d them. Specific problems, important to one country or a group of countries, may be subjects of (3) technical seminars and con- ferences focusing on indigenous needs of a region. They serve as a means of f a m i l i a r i z i n g l o c a l personnel with the l a t e s t know-ledge and techniques. The basis of such action "must be i n most cases a demonstrated need, rather than request from a l l pos-si b l e p a r t i c i p a n t s . " 1 However, p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n such i n t e r -governmental technical assistance programmes depends upon the decision of each government i t s e l f . Seminars are usually orga-nized by governments, but the United Nations makes experts avai-lable who present new technical developments i n a s p e c i f i c f i e l d . While seminars are usually planned on a regional basis, conferences are, as a rule, organized on the national l e v e l where teams of experts i n one p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d come together f o r the purpose of formulating p o l i c y on matters of common interest. There i s , however, a f l e x i b l e approach with regard to p a r t i c i p a t i o n by different governments. (4) Demonstration projects are given on a national or 1 Report by the Secretary-General, United Nations Programme of Technical Assistance Under General Assembly Resolu- ti o n 58(1). 200(11), 246UIIK E/1893 (9 January, 1951), p.8. United Nations, New York. 48 a. regional basis with the help of expert assistance i n order to develop modern services which are suitable, to develop requisite materials and to serve as national t r a i n i n g centres. United Nations' assistance includes (a) advice on the preparation of the projects, (b) sending small numbers of experts to set up and i n -troduce the project, (c) providing technical equipment, (d) pro-viding technical publications, and (3) where necessary, awarding fellowships allowing the holders to p r o f i t by such t r a i n i n g as the centres may be able to provide. 1 The principles governing provisions f o r demonstration centres are as follows: (i ) Centres, i n respect of which assistance should be granted, should be ex i s t i n g national centres, established for t h i s purpose and should be at the disposal of countries with s i m i l a r problems; ( i i ) The centres should form a part of the nati onal plans; ( i i i ) They should be used for demonstration and t r a i n i n g . 2 In order, therefore, to ensure t h e i r effectiveness, the demonstration and p i l o t projects should be accessible by t h e i r Immediate be n e f i c i a r i e s . Care must also be taken to keep these projects from becoming isol a t e d and being used as exhibits by the government. Seminars are useful to review and compare the re-sults of different centres and to make t h e i r methods available to other countries, and, i n some cases, to reinforce basic research 1 Report by the Secretary-General, The Programme Un- der Resolution 5 8 ( 1 ) As Amended. Advisory Social Welfare Ser-vices. Economic and Social Council. E/CN.5/239 ( 5 February, 1 9 5 1 ) , p. 1 0 . United Nations, New York. 2 Ibid. 49 f a c i l i t i e s whose findings can be used fo r further development. In connection with these projects, provision of equip-ment i s an essential feature of the programme, but i t i s not a l -lowed to become a programme for the supply of goods and materials. Therefore, no request for equipment alone i s entertained by the United Nations, regardless of how useful i t might be to request-ing governments. Equipment and supplies are given for-demon-stra t i o n purposes only, and must be a part of the integrated programme.- Since equipment within the projects are highly specialized, t h e i r supply may increase the effectiveness of the technical assistance projects. (5) Technical Publications. Visual and audio-visual services are increasingly u t i l i z e d i n technical assistance pro-grammes and are provided by the United Nations f o r use i n demon-stration projects, educational i n s t i t u t e s and l i b r a r i e s . This enables specialized f i e l d s to exchange information and experience. The chief media for the communication of technical material are (i) technical l i t e r a t u r e ; ( i i ) films; ( i i i ) equipment; (iv) special studies; (v) periodic reports. The United Nations published, l i s t e d and purchased technical l i t e r a t u r e and disse-minated mimeographed l i s t s of recent publications i n the d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s . This material i s made accessible to the largest possible number of people and has been a useful supplement to a l l methods of technical assistance. It has been especially valuable i n the f i e l d of s o c i a l development i n both under-developed and advanced countries. 50 Stage IV : Evaluation In order to assess change and growth brought about by the s o c i a l work treatment process, i t i s important to evaluate the extent to which the goals have been achieved. In addition to revealing accomplishment, such an evaluation points at steps that should be taken for further improvement. While the United Rations assumed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to pro-vide f a c i l i t i e s to share technical knowledge i n diff e r e n t f i e l d s , i t i s the governments' r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to make use of the assistance and integrate i t into the country's o v e r a l l economic and s o c i a l development. International assistance should therefore be used to expand a c t i v i t i e s on the country l e v e l and to make assistance the basis of long-term national programmes. In order that the value and achievements, as well as the methods of technical a s s i s -tance, may be further developed and, i f necessary, modified, there i s a continuous need for evaluation and for review of a c t i v i t i e s . Since, however, differences between countries are great, and the programme has been i n operation only for a short time, i t i s d i f -f i c u l t to assess i t s permanent value. Nevertheless, evaluation should accompany every phase of the process. To t h i s end, the Economic and Social Council receives once a year a comprehensive account of technical assistance a c t i v i t i e s carried out by the United Nations Secretariat. Similarly, the Technical Assistance Board submits reviews to the Technical Assistance Committee i n re l a t i o n to the assistance rendered by the specialized agencies Jn each country. 51 Regular reporting l i e s within the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of r e s i -dent representatives who are a s s i s t i n g governments and agencies i n working out satisfactory programmes. Review of.the programmes i s done i n the l i g h t of recommendations concerning (i) the s u i t a b i l i -ty of any p a r t i c u l a r project In connection with the programme, ( i i ) the extent to which the country's programme contributes to planning and implementation of integrated development, and ( i i i ) the o v e r a l l balance of the programme with respect to geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n of e f f o r t and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of the p a r t i c i p a t i n g agencies. These are very close i n method to s o c i a l agency review committees. The United Nations established "working parties" whose findings are 'used to evaluate the UN machinery and the services already rendered to interpret United Nations p o l i c i e s and functions; and to assess, evaluate and improve procedures and techniques of technical'assistance programmes. Thus, i n summary, just as s o c i a l work treatment process begins with analysis and ends with evaluation, technical a s s i s -tance has to start with fact-finding and continues with evaluation a f t e r the f i n a l stages of the programme. Social Work Methods i n Technical Assistance Programmes Prom the preceding analysis i t can be seen that p r i n -c i p l e s , concepts and processes i n s o c i a l work and In technical assistance are similar i n numerous programmes. The next question i s to ask how f a r s o c i a l work methods as such are part of the 52 technical assistance projects. Professional s o c i a l work has developed s p e c i f i c methods whereby i t s body of knowledge of human relations i s put into ac-t i o n . In general, the aim of the s o c i a l worker i s to bring various resources "to bear on in d i v i d u a l , group and community needs by the application of a s c i e n t i f i c method of helping people to help themselves":"'" but three d i s t i n c t methods are usually recognized i n the performance of t h i s task: casework, group work and community organization. Basic to these methods are the as-s i s t i n g elements of s o c i a l research and administration. In practice, of course, these are apt to be interdependent and are cer t a i n l y united i n procedure and in. the objective of increasing and maintaining the welfare of human beings. In the technical assistance programmes i t i s possible also to distinguish three broad areas: ( l ) day-to-day working relations; (2) formal education; and (3) demonstration; and i n a l l of these i t i s possible to pursue the present analysis by ex-amining the extent to which s o c i a l work methods are prevalent i n the technical assistance a c t i v i t i e s i n general, and i n the advi-sory s o c i a l welfare services i n p a r t i c u l a r . 1. Casework i s the method which has been developed to help individuals "on a person-by-person basis to a t t a i n the f u l -p l e s t degree of personality development." Such person-to-person 1 Stroup, H.H., Social Work, an Introduction to the F i e l d . American Book Company, New York, U.S.A., 1948. p . l . 2 Ibid., p.2. 53 relationship i s also prevalent i n technical assistance, especial-l y i n respect to the work of experts and advisers who without exception are working closely with individuals, l o c a l experts and personnel. The philosophical outlook of the expert i s l a i d down i n the concepts and principles of technical assistance, and i t has been agreed that sharing s k i l l s can be successfully carried out only through a positive relationship, u t i l i z i n g the experts experience and understanding support i n helping locals experts or government representatives to u t i l i z e t h e i r own and t h e i r coun-try's resources to the maximal capacity. In a broad sense, the technical assistance expert i s the "caseworker" i n the programme. In his relationship with his ad-visees there i s a d e f i n i t e place for emotional, c u l t u r a l and so-c i a l considerations. The primary aim of his mission i s not to bring about a change i n the personality, attitudes and adjustment of his advisee, but to teach s k i l l s f o r increased production and better service. Nevertheless, i n a positive working r e l a t i o n -ship i n which the expert i s using himself i n the helping process, in d i r e c t i ndividual changes i n outlook, and, i n the long run, i n a better professional adjustment w i l l indeed come about. Direct teaching of casework techniques i s an important element i n the advisory s o c i a l welfare services whichis the tech-n i c a l assistance programme i n the f i e l d of s o c i a l welfare. A l -though every culture has developed an optimum person-to-person relationship, the s c i e n t i f i c and purposeful learning of casework s k i l l s i s achieved through i n - s e r v i c e - t r a i n i n g projects, fellow-ships and scholarships and i n the seminar setting. 54 Demonstration of casework method i s done by experts or Fellows returning to the recipient country i n a teaching capacity. In some cases films have been used to show the flow of casework interviews p a r a l l e l to theoreti c a l teaching u t i l i z i n g case-records i n class discussion. 2. Group Work. The function and purpose of groups have been defined by several well-known authorities. Authors i n s o c i a l work have emphasized t h e i r importance because'of the awareness that human functions and development are, i n every way of l i f e , related and influenced by association of the individual with other i n d i v i -duals. Groups have been found to be the media through which i n -dividuals achieve personal and s o c i a l s a t i s f a c t i o n s and goals; individual and s o c i a l norms are changed; s o c i a l controls are maintained and society passes on i t s customs, norms and values through groups. 1 Whatever the composite of the interest which brings people together into a group, the patterns thus formed may be placed i n two c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , (a) natural groups, such as the family, and (b) formed groups. Formed groups result when people are recruited to participate i n an organized e f f o r t . For the purpose of technical assistance programmes, i t i s the l a t t e r kind of group with which t h i s study i s concerned. The 'representative group" influencing the l i f e of other groups plays an important part i n technical assistance a c t i v i t i e s , as compared with the 1 Wilson, Gertrude and Gladys Ryland, Social Group Work Practice. The Creative Use of the Social Process. Hough-ton M i f f l i n Co., The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1949. p. 36. 55 "primary groups" which focus primarily on t h e i r own group l i f e . Representative groups are evident i n technical assistance, as they are i n most teaching a c t i v i t i e s . I t has been found i n many instances that l o c a l s p e c i a l i s t s , gathered under the leadership of a technical assistance expert i n seminars or group conferences, have used th i s setting e f f e c t i v e l y to exchange opinions, discuss mutual experiences and study different conditions. In t h i s way they have gained a better understanding of the common problems and arrived at p o l i c i e s and decisions which were help f u l i n t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d . The group method also appears i n governmental conferences and has proved to be valuable i n many instances. Formal group work education i s a part of the advisory s o c i a l welfare services, and i s done by awarding fellowships and scholarships for the study of group methods and agencies i n other countries. These programmes also include camping and other re-creational a c t i v i t i e s , i n addition to the therapeutic use of group work methods. Demonstration of group methods i s done by s o c i a l work experts, who, when assigned to technical assistance projects i n the welfare f i e l d , share t h i s s k i l l with l o c a l workers. Since technical assistance programmes manifest them-selves mainly i n teaching, the group method and awareness of group dynamics have been used purposefully throughout the programme to develop processes which encourage i n i t i a t i v e and p a r t i c i p a t i o n of l o c a l experts under the leadership of expert advisers. 3. Community organization as a s o c i a l work method, 56 c o n c e n t r a t e s n o t so m u c h o n t h e I n d i v i d u a l o r o n t h e g r o u p , b u t r a t h e r u p o n t h e l a r g e r a n d more i n c l u s i v e w e l f a r e p r o b l e m s o f t h e w h o l e c o m m u n i t y . The i n d i v i d u a l , who i s a member o f t h e c o m m u n i t y h a s a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y n o t o n l y t o h i m s e l f b u t a l s o t o w a r d s t h e s o -c i e t y i n w h i c h he l i v e s . I n t h e h e l p i n g p r o c e s s t h e s o c i a l w o r -k e r e n c o u r a g e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ( a n d g r o u p s ) t o make a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e i r c o m m u n i t y , n o t o n l y a s a p e r s o n b u t a l s o a s a c i t i z e n . I n t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e p r o g r a m m e s t h e g e n e r a l a i m i s t o a s s i s t i n t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y b y s t i m u l a t i n g among v i l l a g e r s and r u r a l w o r k e r s a d e s i r e f o r s e l f - i m p r o v e m e n t a n d b y g u i d i n g t h e m i n t h e i r e f f o r t s . T h i s a p p r o a c h i s b e i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y u s e d i n s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s o f u n d e r - d e v e l o p e d a r e a s . 1 T h e s e c o m m u n i t i e s a r e " r e f u g e e s o f s o c i e t y " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y a r e i s o l a t e d f r o m t h e more d e v e -l o p e d a r e a s o f t h e i r c o u n t r i e s . T h e y n e e d t o be made a w a r e o f t h e i r p r o b l e m s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e t h e y h a v e no c o m p a r i s o n w i t h i n t h e i r r e a c h . . The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e i n h e l p i n g t h e m t o do s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e p r o b l e m s i s . t h e same a s i n o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s , a n d t h e a i m o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i s t o s t i m u l a t e l o c a l p e o p l e t o o r g a n i z e t h e m s e l v e s a n d u t i l i z e t h e i r maximum s t r e n g t h a n d r e s o u r -c e s , a s w e l l a s t o p r e p a r e t h e way f o r t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e . The f i r s t s t e p i n c o m m u n i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s i s t o h e l p r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s f o r m a l l y a n d i n f o r m a l l y t o t h i n k t o g e -t h e r and t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i r n e e d s , w h i c h a r e m a i n l y i n t h e a r e a o f 1 R e s o l u t i o n 390 D ( X I I I ) o f t h e E c o n o m i c a n d S o c i a l C o u n c i l a u t h o r i z e d t h e " u s e o f c o m m u n i t y w e l f a r e c e n t r e s a s e f f e c -t i v e i n s t r u m e n t s t o p r o m o t e e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l p r o g r e s s t h r o u g h -o u t t h e w o r l d . " 57 sanitation, education, water-supply, recreation and roads. Next, the group of people accepts r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to pool t h e i r resources and attack problems of common inte r e s t . Thirdly, they must be helped to recognize that there i s a need f o r technical assistance and/or material aid, and, f i n a l l y , to develop a degree of respon-s i b i l i t y and pride to attack these problems. 1 In order to f u l f i l t h i s task, the Technical Assistance Administration made provision, upon governments' request, for sen-ding community organizers to under-developed r u r a l areas. The special q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r such a counsellor are two-fold. He must not only possess p r a c t i c a l s k i l l s but must be aware of group dynamics as well. He must have an understanding of, and respect for, people as well as an awareness of c u l t u r a l influences on the habits, attitudes, and viewpoints of r u r a l families. He must have confidence i n the a b i l i t y of people i n the community and establish a positive working relationship to t r a i n and help indigenous leaders. His task i s to help i n the analysis of prevalent needs and reassure the community that i t i s capable of doing something to meet these needs. To thi s end, the following principles and practices developed which are v a l i d i n a l l cases of community education and development : " 1 . Maximum self-help e f f o r t must be developed i n a l l cases and for this development spe-c i a l i s t s are required. 1 Dr. Ahmed Hussein and Dr. Carl C. Taylor, Report of the Mission on Rural Community Organization and Development i n the Caribbean Area and Mexico. Report prepared f o r the Technical Assistance Administration of the United Nations. ST/TAA/Ser.D/7 (March 1953) pp . 3 3 . 58 2 . I f such a person must work alone, he must f i r s t of a l l be a group organizer or s p e c i a l i s t , and secondly, must be thoroughly aware of where the community can go to obtain various kinds of t e c h n i c a l a ssistance required. I f a small team can be provided, each member of the team should be q u a l i f i e d i n more than one f i e l d . 3 . The person, or persons, working with a commu-n i t y must r e s i d e and work i n that community f o r a s u b s t a n t i a l period of time. 4. L o c a l l y r e c r u i t e d t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n t s must be t r a i n e d to assume some of the functions exer-cise d by t e c h n i c a l agents. 5. Regardless of the adequacy that welfare centres and t h e i r s e r v i c e s may achieve, they should, never be l e f t without at l e a s t one paid community spe-c i a l i s t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e to a s s i s t these centres i n t h e i r s e l f - h e l p e f f o r t and to act as a bridge between them and the s p e c i a l i z e d s e r v i c e s which the communities w i l l be p r o g r e s s i v e l y more ready to use.". I t i s believed that "these programmes f o r community or g a n i z a t i o n and development are our best hope f o r s o c i a l pro-gress i n l i g h t of the shortage, i n f a c t , non-existence, of p s i g n i f i c a n t outside c a p i t a l f o r development". Therefore, the United Nations provides formal t r a i n i n g through f e l l o w s h i p s and scholarships f o r members of r u r a l communities, and has sent ex-perts to advise and work with indigenous leaders i n order to promote such development. 4. Research. Study of the concepts underlying s o c i a l work s k i l l s i s one of the major tasks of s o c i a l work research. I t a l s o i n v o l v e s study of the r e l a t i o n s h i p of s o c i a l workers w i t h 1 I b i d . , p . 3 9 . 2 Henderson, J u l i a , "New F r o n t i e r s f o r S o c i a l Welfare Centres", S o c i a l Work Jo u r n a l . XXXIV, No.l (January 1 9 5 3 ) , p . 6 . 59 in d i v i d u a l c l i e n t s , groups or communities on various levels of interaction, as well as t h e i r mutual relationships and functioning within the organizational structure of s o c i a l agencies. 1 Research i s also basic to the development and evaluation of methods i n the l i g h t of accomplishments, and to the formulation of s o c i a l policy. Research i s also basic to technical assistance programmes because comprehensive data are prerequisites to long-term planning which has taken the place of emergency and r e l i e f projects. The Technical Assistance Administration, with the help of i t s a f f i l i a -ted agencies, has undertaken wide research a c t i v i t i e s i n order to promote economic and s o c i a l development and that the limited re-sources may be used to t h e i r f u l l e s t capacity. For technical assistance planning i t i s important to know : (i) What are the most urgent problems In the area, and what i s t h e i r importance i n the region; ( i i ) What are the major obstacles for improve-ment ; ( i i i ) Which problems can be resolved through international action, or must be r e s o l -ved before e f f e c t i v e action can be taken.^ In addition, as technical assistance programmes are translated into action, r e l i a b l e and periodic assessment of changes i n standards of production and of l i v i n g becomes neces-sary to determine the actual effectiveness of the programme. 1 Hochwald, H.L., "The Function of Social Research", Social Casework. XXXIV, No.l (January 1953), p.29. 2 Economic and Social Council, Programme of Concerted P r a c t i c a l Action i n the Social Fields; Parts which relate to Population. E/CN.9/102 (12 January, 1953) p.3. 60 Information f o r research in technical assistance i s ob-tained from published sources, such as government reports, o f f i c i a l gazettes, texts of l e g i s l a t i o n s , books, newspapers and periodicals. Auxiliary resources are the national commissions of member govern-ments, national consultants and correspondents, and research ex-perts of private organizations engaged for special studies. P r i -mary information i s obtained through enquiries carried out by i n -ternational organizations, t h e i r regional o f f i c e s , missions or individual and group surveys. The questionnaire method has also been used, but the findings obtained i n thi s way are not yet com-prehensive. These are used only as general information, mainly because s o c i a l and economic conditions d i f f e r to such a great extent i n the different countries that they cannot be obtained through standardized questionnaires. 1 u Economic and technical research i n general, and s o c i a l research i n pa r t i c u l a r , has been one of the most important c o n t r i -butions of the United Rations. A remarkable account of the 2 World Social Situation for example, covers population, health, n u t r i t i o n , education, conditions of work, income, welfare and special conditions of need i n different countries. This study has been used to a s s i s t member governments, the Economic and Social Council and the Social Commission i n formulating s o c i a l policy and In the planning and organizing of effective Inter-1 Report by the Secretary-General, Programme of Con- certed P r a c t i c a l Action i n the Social F i e l d of the United Nations and the Specialized Agencies. Economic and Social Council. E/CN.5/291 (2 March, 1953) pp.272-310. 2 E/CN.5/267/Rev.l. Economic and Social Council Publication, 1952. 61 national action. A s i m i l a r survey has been planned to be con-ducted i n 1954 to deal with population trends and t h e i r r e l a t i o n to s o c i a l and economic problems and changes. A survey evaluating the effects of assistance i n under-developed areas i s awaiting publication i n 1954. Research conducted by the Social Commission dealt with the evaluation of the following methods : (a) Review of programmes of assistance furnished to individual countries; (b) Analysis of reports submitted by experts and Fellows and programmes recommended to govern-ments; (c) Preparation of b r i e f s on outstanding s o c i a l problems i n countries requesting assistance; (d) Analysis of fellowship and scholarship a p p l i -cations; (e) B r i e f i n g of missions, e t c . 1 The following research projects have been undertaken for the 1953-55 budgetary period In the f i e l d of s o c i a l welfare : (a) Surveys of country needs to develop well-balanced programmes for maternal and c h i l d welfare i n selected areas; (b) Non-residential care of children of working mothers (1953-54); (c) Home-help f o r working mothers (1955); (d) Methods of administering assistance to the needy i n under-developed countries and t e r r i t o r i e s (1954-55); (e) Training for s o c i a l welfare personnel i n under-developed areas, including t r a i n i n g of a u x i l i a r i e s (1953-54); (f) Welfare of the deaf (1954-55). 2 1 Economic- and Social Council, Proposals Concerning Changes i n the Work Programmes for the Years 1955-54. Proposed Work Programme for the Year 1955- E/CN.5/272 (24 March 1952) p.4. 2 . Ibid. 62 The chief value of such surveys l i e s i n the fact that they present a background and appraisal of current conditions throughout the world, which can be used by governments as a reference and as a base f o r formulating s p e c i f i c proposals. They are also helpful as a tool i n the orientation of experts, as well as i n the assessment of countries where fellowships could be assigned. 5. Adminis1ration, as a s o c i a l work method, i s a clear-l y defined function directed towards the welfare of the community. Its basic purpose i s to translate agency policy into service. By way of method, s o c i a l agency administration i s d i r e c t i n g and enab-l i n g professional service, and creating conditions that improve the quality of agency services, Its contributions to the community and to the professional f i e l d . It encompasses the different concepts of related s o c i a l work methods (casework, group work, community organization and research), coupled with a u x i l i a r y business pro-cedures, and operates on the s c i e n t i f i c basis of analysis, planning, implementation and evaluation. Summary: Administrative Objectives. Serving the world community through technical assistance programmes, the United Nations assumed leadership, d i r e c t i o n and supervision of this programme through concerted international action. As a means of summarizing and underlining the comparisons made so far, i t i s very instructive to consider a standard statement of the administrative functions of s o c i a l agencies. 1 (a) The determination and c l a r i f i c a t i o n of objectives, and p o l i c i e s . This task has been accomplished through the 1 Dunham, Arthur, "Administration of Social Agencies", Social Work Yearbook, 1947. A Description of Organized A c t i v i t i e s i n Social Work and i n Related Fi e l d s . Russel H. Kurtz, Editor. Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1947. pp.15-16. S3 resolutions of the United Nations General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council. It has been implemented by the United Nations Technical Assistance Administration, the a f f i l i a t e d agencies and the recipient governments i n p a r a l l e l action. (b) The mobilization and maintenance of resources - per- sonal, f i n a n c i a l , material, even psychological, - to the end that the agency may carry out i t s purposes and f u l f i l i t s functions ef- f e c t i v e l y . It i s the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the Technical Assistance Administration and the Secretariat on the one hand, and the o b l i -gation of the recipient government, on the other, to rec r u i t per-sonnel. Funds and equipment for an effective programme of deve-lopment are contributed by member nations, i n addition to the regular UN funds. (c) The development of programme. Technical assistance programmes have been established i n terms of basic procedures by the United Nations. Their implementation i s f l e x i b l e and i s subor-dinated to the s p e c i f i c needs of recipient countries. (d) Organization and co-ordination. The United Nations established the Technical Assistance Administration to organize assistance a c t i v i t i e s and i t i s the task of the Technical Assistance Board of the Economic and Social Council to co-ordinate programmes and planning. This i s especially important i n order to avoid duplications and over-lapping a c t i v i t i e s . On the l e v e l of the recipient country, assistance i s organized and co-ordinated by a special machinery set up by governments f o r th i s purpose. (e) Leadership, direction, and supervision. These res-6 4 p o n s i b i l i t i e s l i e e n t i r e l y within the Economic Social Council and the Technical Assistance Administration and are only In part dele-gated to resident representatives and assistance agents, who, i n t h e i r turn are responsible to give regular accounts of the a c t i v i -t i e s to the central authorities. (f) Planning, standardization, and evaluation. The Technical Assistance Administration, together with other United Nations organs and the p a r t i c i p a t i n g organizations, i s working i n co-operation with the requesting governments i n planning programmes. Standardization and evaluation of procedures and methods, however, are dealt with e n t i r e l y by the United Nations Working Parties which were set up f o r this purpose. (g) Recording, accounting and related a c t i v i t i e s . The United Nations machinery has established a central r e g i s t e r at headquarters where reports of a c t i v i t i e s are compiled. Accounting and related a c t i v i t i e s are also within the United Nations, done by f i s c a l commissions administering the funds a l l o t t e d f o r the purpose of the programme. (h) Processing, or routine procedures. This task has necessarily developed within the practice of providing technical assistance. Information about procedures was made available by the United Nations Secretariat and has been distributed to par-t i c i p a t i n g organizations and to a l l governments. (i) Public Relations. Within the frame-work of techni-cal assistance a c t i v i t i e s i t seemed necessary to establish a govern-mental body i n every country p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the programme, through 65 which information i s made available to the general public. The United Rations headquarters pays special attention to t h i s aspect because the necessary funds are subject to the presentation of needs and achievements. Public relations and public information i n recipient countries, however, formed a controversial issue, because some governments found i t more advantageous i f development programmes were implemented without special reference to United Rations assistance. It may have been for t h i s reason that the publication of the Technical Assistance Administration Fortnightly B u l l e t i n , accounting for new developments i n the programme, has been discontinued a f t e r one year of existence. Since technical assistance a c t i v i t i e s are carried out i n a p a r a l l e l way by the United Rations and by the recipient governments, t h e i r administrative functions have had to be b i l a t e -r a l . In conclusion i t i s thus possible to say that i n t h e i r basic principles and methods, technical assistance programmes show a s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y to s o c i a l work. The u n i v e r s a l i t y of the programme has been l a i d down on the assumption that a l l countries are e n t i t l e d to take advantage of the services offered. This corresponds to the b e l i e f of s o c i a l workers that every individual i n the community and nation has the right to a t t a i n a f u l l l i f e of health and s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Technical assistance offers the means to f u l l e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the world community on a self-help base. The focus of technical assistance i s on the economic and s o c i a l development of countries, with special consideration 66 of t h e i r indigenous and unique needs. Similarly, s o c i a l workers consider t h e i r c l i e n t s as each having t h e i r own unique and d i f f e -rent features. In p r i n c i p l e , also, technical assistance i s provided on the assumption, not uncommon to s o c i a l work, that a l l areas of a nation's, region's or a community's l i f e are inter-related, and, therefore, change i n one area w i l l necessarily influence the others. Technological change necessitates change i n the economy, i n the way of l i v i n g of the people, and these changes may bring about problems which are s o c i a l and psychological i n nature. The emphasis upon such an overall consideration put the Advisory Social Welfare Services i n an essential position i n technical assistance programmes, especially as i n under-developed areas there i s a more serious lack of professional s o c i a l work person-nel than i n the more advanced areas. Incidental to helping provide adequate s o c i a l work training i n under-developed areas, the United Nations gave serious consideration to the study and d e f i n i t i o n of the s o c i a l work profession. By t h i s move i t s im-portance and potential contributions to s o c i a l development have been c l a r i f i e d . Even i n the United Nations' d e f i n i t i o n of s o c i a l work there i s a close relationship•to technical assistance a c t i -v i t i e s themselves. 1 1 Social Commission, Training for Social Work:, an In- ternational Survey. (Technical Assistance for Social Progress No. 3.) Prepared by the Secretariat. Economic and Social Council. E/CN.5/196 (10 February, 1950) pp.18-20. Other quotations which follow i n t h i s paragraph are from the same source. 67 " ( l ) It i s a helping a c t i v i t y , designed to give assistance i n respect to problems that pre-vent individuals, families and groups from achieving a minimum desirable standard of s o c i a l and economic well-being. (2) It i s a "social" a c t i v i t y , carried on not for personal p r o f i t by private practitioners but under the auspices of organizations, governmental or non-governmental or both, established f o r the benefit of members of the community regarded as requiring assistance. (3) It i s a " l i a i s o n " a c t i v i t y , through which d i s -advantaged individuals, families, and groups may tap a l l the resources i n the community available to meet t h e i r unsatisfied needs." The Advisory Social Welfare Services provide technical assistance to improve the welfare standards by promoting s o c i a l work tr a i n i n g . Social work and technical assistance, by " f i x i n g attention on s p e c i f i c s o c i a l i l l s and pointing to the need f o r appropriate remedial and preventive service, seek to maximize the resources available i n the community f o r promoting s o c i a l well-being." Social workers i n under-developed areas are en-abled, through training, to " i d e n t i f y classes of problems requi-ring orderly solution by the community, or classes of persons who can be brought to normal s o c i a l and economic functioning only through the creation of special community resources. The s o c i a l worker here performs a primarily technical and instrumental func-tion calculated to make more ra t i o n a l , more i n t e l l i g e n t , and more effective (a) the e f f o r t s of the community i n promoting s o c i a l well-being, and (b) the efforts of individuals, families, and groups to overcome obstacles to productive and s a t i s f y i n g l i v i n g . " CHAPTER III ADVISORY SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICES Advisory Social Welfare Services, as an international a c t i v i t y found t h e i r f i r s t r e a l i z a t i o n i n the a c t i v i t i e s of the United Nations Releif and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA). This organization, i n addition to supplying material r e l i e f on a large scale during the years immediately a f t e r the second World War, soon encountered the lack of l o c a l s o c i a l welfare personnel; and to meet t h i s , UNRRA established the f i r s t programmes f o r s o c i a l welfare fellowships to war-stricken countries. While the UNRRA programme had. to concentrate on emergency needs, i t was evident that even immediate programmes had to be connected sooner or l a t e r with reconstruction. UNRRA administrators also recog-nized that changes i n s o c i a l welfare needs would accompany peace-time economic.and s o c i a l development i n these countries; and i t was not i n UNRRA's charter to develop programmes of t h i s nature. In 1946, when the a c t i v i t i e s of UNRRA were terminated, the need for the continuation of tr a i n i n g i n s o c i a l welfare was evident. Some of the functions of UNRRA were transferred to WHO, some to FAO, some remained with organizations which were s t i l l regarded as short-term and emergency, such as the International Refugee Organization (IRO) and (later) the International Children's Emergency Fund. Eventually, the welfare tasks were recognized as United Nations r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and became a part of the programme of the Divi s i o n of Social Welfare i n the advisory 69 s o c i a l welfare services. As established i n 1946, the advisory s o c i a l welfare ser-vices were to apply to a l l countries i n need, but p r i o r i t y was given to under-developed and war-damaged countries where the need was the greatest and where some problems required immediate atten-ti o n . This was among the f i r s t statements recognizing the under- developed country per se, and marked the evolution from the post-war and emergency or " r e l i e f " program to the present concept. In order to establish a programme, adequate to improve s o c i a l welfare measures internationally, the Social Commission of the Economic and Social Council prepared a report i n which the basic principles and methods of the advisory s o c i a l welfare ser-2 vices were c l e a r l y defined. The most pervasive principles of the programme are that assistance should be given only upon the request of governments; the extent of assistance should be i n proportion to the needs and should cover those areas which could not be assisted from l o c a l resources. I t was also recommended that : 1. Social Welfare training programme should include scholarships and fellowships as well; 2. The p o s s i b i l i t y of creating demonstration centres and p i l o t projects should be pro-vided for: also fellowship and scholarship holders should be permitted to participate i n such projects; 1 General Assembly Resolution 58(1) of December 1946. 2 ECOSOC Resolution 312(IX) Section I. Suggestions of the Economic and Social Council to the General Assembly. Economic and Social Council Report 1949-50. 70 3. Provision should be made for planning and conducting seminars; 4. The furnishing of films should be autho-rized; 5. The authorization to furnish technical publications should be expanded to include a l l p a r t i c i p a t i n g governments, instead of the war-devastated countries only.^ As a result of these recommendations the General Assem-bly resolved that the following areas should constitute the ad-visory s o c i a l welfare services. : ' 1. Social welfare experts, to provide advisory services and to put i n practice over an appropriate period new technical methods i n any branch of s o c i a l welfare; 2. Fellowships, to enable q u a l i f i e d s o c i a l welfare o f f i c i a l s to observe and f a m i l i a r i z e themselves with the experience of other countries administering s i m i l a r programmes; 3. Advice and demonstration equipment, to be provided for the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and vocational t r a i n i n g of the physically handicapped; 4- Technical publications, to be furnished i n the f i e l d 2 of s o c i a l welfare. According to this resolution, the United Nations under-took the task of improving national s o c i a l welfare services which 1 Ibid., Chap. I, p.78. 2 It may be noted that at the beginning of the pro-, gramme (1946) technical publications were provided only to "Mem-ber countries which have been devastated during the war", and were not extended to a l l countries u n t i l 1951-71 were based on long-term planning. The extent of assistance was based on the request of governments, and on the extent to which the service would improve the welfare of the t o t a l population. At the beginning, the programme was based on a year-to-year plan. This was mainly due to the li m i t a t i o n s of a year-to-year budget the funds f o r which were contributed by member coun-t r i e s . Since, however, i n many cases, the programme could not be terminated by the end of a budgetary year, and, because newly deve-loped services showed the need f o r the introduction of additional welfare measures, the need for long-range planning by the United Nations i n co-operation with governments soon became apparent. To t h i s end, i t was decided i n 1948 to e n l i s t the f i n a n c i a l p a r t i -cipation of recipient countries as well, and i n 1949 the advisory s o c i a l welfare services were placed on a continuing and permanent basis. There was also a need for expansion within the programme. For example, the fellowship programmes could not be f u l l y u t i l i z e d i n some cases because participants, where the need proved to be great, lacked q u a l i f i e d o f f i c i a l s who could take part i n the f e l -lowship programmes. Therefore, i n 1950 the provision of scholar-ships was added to the advisory s o c i a l welfare services. This enabled young students who could not obtain professional t r a i n i n g i n t h e i r own countries to study abroad. In this way, an oppor-tunity was given to governments to nominate candidates for ad-vanced study, as an alternative to the fellowship programme. In addition, i t was realized that v i s u a l education could 72 be p r o f i t a b l y used, and seminars provided a useful device for group tr a i n i n g and exchange of experience. Therefore, these methods have also been added i n order to improve further the s o c i a l welfare services. Another important step was taken by the United Nations and i t s specialized agencies i n 1951- At t h i s time the Trust- and Non-Self-Governing T e r r i t o r i e s were included i n the technical a s s i s -tance programme. The development of technical assistance i n the welfare f i e l d shows a process of evolution. The expansion of a c t i v i t i e s and the increasing demand for assistance led the United Nations to give broader consideration to the development of countries i n need. Technical assistance was f i r s t given i n the f i e l d of s o c i a l welfare, and t h i s was followed by assistance f o r economic development and public administration. F i n a l l y , by the amalga-mation of these separate programmes, the "Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance" provided a frame of reference within which due consideration was given simultaneously to s o c i a l and economic needs and to t h e i r inter-relatedness- 1 Recognizing the value of the advisory s o c i a l welfare services, t h e i r methods have been taken over and applied i n a l l areas of technical t r a i n i n g . 1 Economic and Social Council, Progress Made by the United Nations i n the F i e l d of Social A c t i v i t i e s i n 1950- (Ja-nuary-December, 1950) E/CN.5/240 (17 January, 1951) p.16. United Nations, New York. See also: Economic and Social Council, Report of the Social Commission to the Economic and Social Council. E/1982, E/CN.5/254 (14 A p r i l , 1951) p.5. United Nations, New York. 13 Fellowships and Scholarships The p r i n c i p a l aim of the fellowship programme i s to of f e r assistance to governments by enabling suitably q u a l i f i e d s o c i a l welfare o f f i c i a l s to observe abroad and f a m i l i a r i z e themselves with the experience and practice of other countries i n branches of s o c i a l welfare most suitable to t h e i r needs. 1 Observation i s planned s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r short periods of time, and f o r experienced i n d i v i -duals who could p r o f i t from such a programme much more than junior personnel. The period of observation i s of two to six months' duration, but In exceptional cases i t may be extended. Experience i n administering t h i s programme revealed the fact that some Fellows would benefit to a much greater extent i f they were to choose as the area of study a country where the economic, s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l situation was similar, rather than too advanced i n comparison with the recipient country.' This en-couraged the pa r t i c i p a t i o n of an increased number of countries which provided f a c i l i t i e s f o r observation. The number of p a r t i -cipating governments Increased aft e r 1 9 4 9 , when the services were extended beyond the war-devastated areas and included the non-2 self-governing t e r r i t o r i e s . 1 Report of the Secretary General. E/ 1 8 9 3 ( 9 January 1 9 5 1 ) pp.5 4 - 5 8 . 2 See Appendix G, Tables I'll and IV. 74 Table 1. Development of Fellowship Programme, 1947-1951 Year Number of Host Countries Number of Awards Number of Reci-pient Countries 1947 8 104 12 1948 10 120 17 1949 11 188 32 1950 18 183 35 1951 23 176 52 Total - 771 -Source: United Nations Department of Social A f f a i r s , Evaluation of the Programme of Advisory Social Welfare Services. 1947-1951. United Nations, New York, 1953. pp.13-14. A further increase of over 50$ was shown i n 1952, when 280 awards were made to s o c i a l welfare Fellows and scholars. 1 During t h i s l a t t e r year, effo r t s continued to enable Fellows from less developed areas to spend at least a part of t h e i r observation period i n countries where development could be termed as "medium", but, which none the less show v a l i d achievements, and which, above a l l , show the same c u l t u r a l , s o c i a l and economic pat-tern. Scholarships have been awarded to graduates from coun-t r i e s having no appropriate specialized t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s . It i s , however, required that candidates should have had some experience 1 Economic and Social Council Report. E/CN.5/289/ Add.5. p.22. 75 i n s o c i a l welfare or i n related f i e l d s . 1 Their curriculum abroad i s to be closely related to the f i e l d of special need i n t h e i r own countries. Scholarships normally provide training f o r one year, but on the condition of obtaining sat i s f a c t o r y results during the p f i r s t year, they may be extended to an additional year. Whereas the Fellow learns mainly from observation, v i s i -t ing agencies, conferences, reading records, attendance at s t a f f meetings, board meetings, i n s t i t u t e s and regional conferences, where the objective i s to gain understanding of the welfare pro-grammes j scholarship holders acquire knowledge through academic training and through a c t i v i t i e s connected with this t r a i n i n g . Since fellowship and scholarship awards are a part of the t o t a l programme, consideration can only be given to nominations received from governments. It i s important to outline the f i e l d s of study of the candidates and to consider i n what way the proposed training relates to other s o c i a l welfare services which have been requested by governments. Although the Fellows show considerable v a r i a t i o n i n t h e i r f i e l d s of study, t h e i r interests are evidently closely related to the development of s o c i a l welfare i n t h e i r countries. In the beginning (1946-1949), the more basic areas of welfare had been emphasized, and there had been a steady increase backed by the en-deavour to meet these needs i n the different countries. During 1 United Nations Technical Assistance Administration, Programme of Fellowships and Scholarships for 1954 i n Economic Development, P u b l i c Administration and Social Welfare. (January 1953), p.4. : : " 2 E/CN.5/289/Add.5- p.25. 76 th i s period, community, family and c h i l d welfare, s o c i a l welfare organization and administration carried' the greatest weight. In the years that followed, development i n the areas of s o c i a l defenc p housing and town and country planning became apparent. While the fellowship programme was introduced i n order to provide a two to six months' observation period f o r welfare per sonnel, i n some cases i t was found that a b r i e f v i s i t would enable some participants to widen t h e i r experience, yet return to t h e i r employment af t e r a short absence. To achieve t h i s goal, the European Regional Office of the Social Welfare Division i n i t i a t e d an intra-European Exchange Programme i n 1950. The European coun-t r i e s took great advantage of t h i s scheme which gave opportunity for p a r t i c i p a t i o n to several categories of s o c i a l workers. Wor-kers and administrators of s o c i a l services, directors and s t a f f members of i n s t i t u t i o n s , faculty members and students of schools of s o c i a l work covered a wide variety of topics, such as c h i l d and family welfare, prevention and treatment of delinquency, i n -d u s t r i a l welfare, welfare labour l e g i s l a t i o n , housing, and tea-ching and supervision of s o c i a l casework. The financing of such a programme by recipient countries was more easily accomplished by governments than programmes fo r study overseas, and wider oppor tunity provided for national p a r t i c i p a t i o n than would otherwise have been possible. 1 "Social defence" i s a term used i n United Nations documents instead of "corrections" or "care and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of juvenile delinquents and adult offenders". 2 See Appendix G, Table I. 77 In determining the a l l o c a t i o n of funds f o r fellowships, account has to he taken not only of the volume of applications received, but of the needs of.the various countries and t h e i r capa-c i t y to u t i l i z e fellowships. The United Nations policy includes conditions under which awards are made, and i t i s the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the Secretariat to inform the governments about conditions and procedures. This i s done by correspondence and by the d i s t r i b u t i o n of a brochure describing the fellowships programme under the Tech-n i c a l Assistance Administration i n the f i e l d of s o c i a l welfare. 1 The Social Commission outlined the q u a l i f i c a t i o n s neces-p sary for applicants. Age l i m i t s were determined as between 25 -55. This enables them to have some experience, as well as to be able to make a contribution to t h e i r country f o r future years to come. Good health and l i n g u i s t i c a b i l i t y also seemed to be impor-tant. The applicant f o r a fellowship i s expected to have suitable tr a i n i n g and experience i n his f i e l d , and to be employed i n a senior position by his government or by a recognized welfare orga-nization. To enable the recipient countries to outline a plan most suitable to the candidate's f i e l d of study, the submission of a 1 The l a t e s t publication of this nature i s : United Nations Technical Assistance Administration, Programme of Fellow- ships and Scholarships for 1954 i n Economic Development, Adminis- t r a t i o n and Social Welfare. January 1953. United Nations, New York. 2 United Nations Secretary-General, Relation with and Co-ordination of Specialized Agencies. Co-ordination of Fellow- ships Programmes. Appendix I, p.19. "Standards of Selection, for International Fellows of P a r t i c i p a t i n g Organizations." E/1734 (30 June, 1950). United Nations, New York. 500-word statement i s required, outlining the proposed f i e l d of study and indicating i t s p r a c t i c a l use upon the Fellow's return to his home country. These measures were taken f o r two main reasons, the f i r s t and most pervasive being that technical assistance should bring the highest possible returns and benefit to the country, which can only be done i f a suitable programme i s designed. The second was recognition of the danger that unqualified candidates, despite t h e i r e f f o r t s and those of the host country, would be l i k e -l y to return home with a fee l i n g of i n f e r i o r i t y and fr u s t r a t i o n , which, i n addition to being detrimental to the Technical Assistance Programme, would undermine the effor t s being made towards better international understanding. Some governments found i t useful to establish a selection committee i n charge of re c r u i t i n g and selecting candidates. How-ever, others have encountered d i f f i c u l t i e s i n producing a well Integrated plan, simultaneously with t h e i r requests. In order to ass i s t them, experts and resident representatives working with the governments, have been successfully u t i l i z e d to ass i s t governments i n formulating integrated and purposeful plans. For example, i t was no coincidence that, i n 1951, a f t e r the mission of the United Rations Social Welfare Adviser to Japan was completed along with other l o c a l programmes, two observation fellowships were granted to two high-ranking Japanese welfare o f f i c i a l s , permitting them to study c h i l d welfare i n Canada and i n s t i t u t i o n a l services i n the United Kingdom and Norway."'" Advisers have also assisted governments at l a t e r steps,when applications had to be sorted and 1 United Nations Technical Assistance Administration, Fortnightly B u l l e t i n . (June 1951), p.8, and (July 1951), p.11. 79 candidates selected for submission to the United Nations. Such nominations are submitted i n t r i p l i c a t e to the Secretary-General, on the United Nations forms sent to a l l governments. Every a p p l i -cable question i n the nominating form must be answered with special reference to the work and experience of the candidate. Although there i s no l i m i t to the number of nominations, the Secretary-Gene-r a l reserves the f i n a l decision on the number of awards to be granted. 1 Governments were also requested by the Technical Assis-tance Administration to state the p r i o r i t i e s among the welfare f i e l d s according to the prevalent need of t h e i r countries. The practice i n selecting has, however, become quite f l e x i b l e because i n some countries the administration of welfare d i f f e r s greatly from others, and the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n presented by the Technical Assistance Administration was not suitable for the prevailing standards. In view of these differences, p r a c t i c a l rather than theoretical considerations were the basis of decisions. However, preference Is given to those requests for fellowships and scholar-ships which are related to the work of experts or to other forms of technical assistance provided i n the country. As was mentioned before, the necessity of establishing a l i a i s o n between the recipient country and the United Nations has become apparent. There i s no set method of establishing these supervisory and organizing bodies. However, i t i s neces-sary i n a l l cases that the fellowships be well integrated and planned within the t o t a l programme f o r development. 1 Secretary-General's Report. E/1893, pp.54-58. 80 At the beginning stages of the programme, countries selec-ted f o r observation were the most developed ones. Later experience showed that sometimes i t was more b e n e f i c i a l i f different levels of development were u t i l i z e d f o r observation. 1 Therefore, also the less advanced countries were playing host to Fellows and scholars. Their p a r t i c i p a t i o n provided for a better comparison and the c u l -t u r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s enabled the Fellows to p r o f i t to a much greater extent from the period of observation. The United Nations pro-vided a wide choice to the recipient governments, thereby enabling 2 them to state t h e i r preference for the country of observation. In some cases, however, the United Nations found i t necessary to suggest an alternative. These suggestions are p r a c t i c a l and reasonable, and would be acceptable to most candidates, although i t i s important that the reason for such a change be explained and f u l l y understood by the participants. The selection of suitable applicants has been a concern of the Technical Assistance Administration and of the requesting 1 Economic and Social Council Report. E/CN.5/238, p.11. 2 The following governments have offered f a c i l i t i e s for t r a i n i n g and study f o r UN Fellows and scholars : Aus t r a l i a , Austria, Belgium, B r a z i l , Canada, Ceylon, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Egypt, E l Salvador, I t a l y , Japan, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nor-way, Pakistan, Philippines, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom (including F i j i , Jamaica, Malta and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan), the United States (including Puerto Rico), Uruguay and Venezuela. (UN TAA, Programme of Fellowships and Scholarships for 1954. p.5.) 81 governments. The problem a r i s i n g out of selection necessitated improvement i n the methods, i n order to use the f a c i l i t i e s of assistance to the greatest advantage. One problem, that of the time element, often involved delay i n decisions and put the can-didate into a position where he did not have s u f f i c i e n t time to prepare his leave, hand over duties and to acquire s u f f i c i e n t knowledge about the country of observation. In some cases such obstacles led to the refusal of the fellowship. Consequently, nominating governments have been approached to confirm the dates when candidates can be released for study abroad, i n order to keep postponement and cancellation at a minimum. The selection o f candidates by the recipient governments has been done by different methods. Some appointed Fellows from th e i r administrative and employed personnel, e.g., a c h i l d welfare consultant from the Philippines who came to Canada i n 1953 to study c h i l d welfare services, was appointed to participate i n the programme. Others gave wide p u b l i c i t y to the matter and Invited applications throughout the welfare f i e l d . This has been the practice i n awarding scholarships where academic a b i l i t y as well as s o c i a l work experience are determining factors. Selection i n every case has been found to be based s o l e l y on the welfare needs, incorporated i n a plan for welfare services. The guiding principles i n awarding applicants are t h e i r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . They are chosen on the basis of merit and ac-cording to the contribution they can make to the development and improvement of t h e i r country's welfare services. An important fellowships experiment was started i n 82 Yugoslavia, where the team approach was used i n awarding s o c i a l welfare fellowships. It was used i n connection with a demonstra-t i o n project where s o c i a l workers' a c t i v i t i e s were closely related to those of other professions. Through the joint award, the mem-bers of the team were enabled to gain better insight into t h e i r own and the other professions' contributions and areas of respon-s i b i l i t y within a specialized scheme. In 1951, upon the recom-mendation of Dr. Henry H. Kessler, United Nations expert, a "Re-h a b i l i t a t i o n Team" of eight professional persons was composed: one doctor, a nurse, a s o c i a l worker, a vocational guidance ex-pert, a physical therapist, a teacher, a psychologist and a pros-thetics technician. The fellowships enabled them to tour and observe s i m i l a r a c t i v i t i e s i n the United States and thereafter i n the United Kingdom, and upon t h e i r return to Yugoslavia, they have become leading members of the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n demonstration centre where they combined and co-ordinated t h e i r e f f o r t s i n helping the seriously handicapped to a useful l i f e . 1 The method of fellowships i n t h i s case differed from those mentioned previously. Whereas o r d i n a r i l y fellowships are awarded to experts who have already had experience i n the f i e l d of observation, the Yugoslav team was studying methods which they were going to implement upon t h e i r return to t h e i r country, u t i -l i z e d i n a pioneer welfare project. In addition, t h i s welfare fellowship was provided not only to s o c i a l workers but also to a l l i e d professions, where the overall welfare aspect of the func-tioning team, rather than the single aspect of s o c i a l work was 1 United Nations Technical Assistance Administration, Fortnightly B u l l e t i n . (March 1951) pp.4-5, and (August 1951) p.11. 83 emphasized. Selection of Fellows by the United Nations was done i n consultation with the Division of Social Welfare, with due consi-deration to the needs of the applicant and his country, and to the resources available i n host countries. There were only few rejec-tions of candidates. The awarding of some fellowships had to be postponed on account of technical and budgetary d i f f i c u l t i e s , but these could be considered i n the subsequent year i f the government so desired. Reasons fo r rejection were lack of experience and training, or i f i t was found that the applicant's f i e l d was not closely related to s o c i a l welfare. Regardless of the reason for rejection, I t i s important that i t should be made clear by the Technical Assistance Administration, i n order to help recipient governments to avoid si m i l a r mistakes i n preliminary selection. After the Secretary-General has awarded the fellowship, and satisfactory placement arrangements have been completed, the nominating government received a formal notice of the award. 1 The Secretariat attaches great importance to the pre-paration of the Fellow to be undertaken i n his own country, p r i o r to his fellowship and departure. In order to provide such an 1 The award contains basic Information with regard to each, fellowships or scholarships, and states i n pa r t i c u l a r : (a) F i e l d and country of study; duration of study; (b) Person or agency i n host country who i s to supervise the study and to whom the Fellow w i l l report; (c) Date of departure from the home country; (d) Departure arrangements (passports, visas, medical examination, inocculation, etc.); (e) ' Travel arrangements; (f) Financial arrangements; (g) Arrangements f o r return journey. Report of the Secretary-General. E/1893. (9 January, 1950), p.66. 84 opportunity, notices of awards should be sent several months i n advance. Orientation includes improvement i n the fluency of the language, and f a m i l i a r i t y with s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l and other aspects of the host country. In order that the Fellows should be able to gain the greatest benefit from t h e i r observations and studies, orientation includes three main stages : 1. P r i o r to departure, printed material i s disseminated about the welfare a c t i v i t i e s of different countries, as well as about t h e i r s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l atmosphere. These help the can-didates to get some idea about the country i n which they are go-ing to spend considerable time. Resident representatives and experts from these countries can also be of help i n b r i e f i n g the candidate p r i o r to his departure. 2. Orientation at UN headquarters i s the second stage of b r i e f i n g . P r i o r to leaving f o r t h e i r destination, a l l candidates are requested to pass through the United Nations headquarters. Here they become thoroughly acquainted with the process and pro-gramme of technical assistance, with special reference to advisory s o c i a l welfare services. At the headquarters the Fellows receive the s p e c i f i c conditions of the fellowships, which include p a r t i c i -pation i n t h e i r individual programmes of observation, reporting and other personal obligations."'" 1 The formal obligations undertaken by Fellows and scholars, i n accepting the award, are the following : "(a).To conduct himself at a l l times i n a manner compatible with his r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as a holder of a UN fellowship or scholarship; (b) To proceed i n accordance with the instructions set out i n his notice of award; 8 5 3 . Orientation i n the host country Is the t h i r d step of preparations. In some countries special lectures and tours are organized for groups of Fellows, i n others they are briefed i n d i -v i d u a l l y . The most important aspect of orientation i s the c u l -t u r a l and s o c i a l differences and s i m i l a r i t i e s of the countries, and the aim i s to help the Fellow to adjust to these different condi-tions, thereby enabling him to see more c l e a r l y which methods and a c t i v i t i e s would be helpful i n terms of his own country's needs. Governments i n the countries of observation established agencies responsible for the planning and supervision of the f e l -lowship .programme. These programmes of observation are planned to permit Fellows to study the operation of welfare services and to learn something of the principles underlying them and of the conditions which have influenced t h e i r development. This i s achieved by discussions with responsible o f f i c i a l s and by p a r t i c i -pation i n short courses, seminars and conferences. Whatever the observation programme, i t should be construed with a focus upon the needs and resources of the Fellow's home coun-try. To thi s end, a copy of t h e i r background and conditions of th e i r country's development plan i s forwarded to the host country, (c) To spend f u l l time during the period of the award i n the study programme as directed by the supervising agency i n the country of study and by the United Nations; (d) To r e f r a i n from engaging i n p o l i t i c a l , commercial or any a c t i v i t i e s other than those covered by his work programme during the period of the award; (e) To submit reports as indicated; (f) To return to his home country at the end of the fellow-ship or scholarship; (g) To-provide a l l emergency expenses, such as medical, den-t a l and opt i c a l care." E / 1 8 9 3 , p . 6 6 . 86 although i n most cases detailed planning i s deferred u n t i l the ar-r i v a l of the Fellows. I f , however, t h e i r goals and interests have been c l e a r l y stated previously, preliminary planning can be more defined and accurate. Planning, aft e r the a r r i v a l of the Fellow, i s a co-opera-tive process i n which the responsible agency or individual super-vi s o r and the Fellow can make a selection of the available resour-ces . It i s important that the observation programme should be kept as f l e x i b l e as possible, i n order to enable the Fellow to ob-serve i n s t i t u t i o n s and a c t i v i t i e s which may not have been included i n the o r i g i n a l plan, but which, through his observations, may be found h e l p f u l . The programme should be developed with regard to the needs, background and a b i l i t y of the Fellow. Aspects of i n d i -vidual differences, national and c u l t u r a l background, as well as d i f -ference i n experience are determining factors as to how much the Fellow w i l l benefit from the programme. I f , on the other hand, i t i s found that several Fellows, a r r i v i n g simultaneously to the coun-try, have similar interests and a b i l i t y , i n some cases joint pro-grammes, group observations and discussions can be useful. As a part of the technical assistance programme, conduc-ted i n the Philippines, several s o c i a l welfare fellowships were awarded i n 1953• One of these Fellows, a c h i l d welfare consul-tant, i s also a lecturer i n casework and child- c a r e . 1 The pro-gramme of observation for this Fellow was arranged with her by the Social Welfare Panel of the Technical Co-operation Div i s i o n of 1 Interviewed by the writer. 87 the Department of Trade and Commerce i n Ottawa, and, amongst others, i t included v i s i t s to schools of s o c i a l work, and to ch i l d welfare agencies. During the interview she explained that she had greatly benefitted from her observations i n understanding Canadian welfare programmes and t h e i r development. But she also emphasized how welfare problems d i f f e r i n the Philippines from those i n Canada, because of the d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l milieu. Accordingly, protection of children through placement i n adopting and foster homes, as performed by children's aid societies In Canada, i s not a prevalent need i n her country because r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the c h i l d i s t r a d i -t i o n a l l y transferred to the relatives i f the parent i s unable to give adequate care. The welfare and status of the c h i l d within the family, i s also t r a d i t i o n a l l y established, and neglect or abuse i s non-existent. However, there i s a great need i n the whole country to establish and improve overal l measures f o r the improvement of general health (physical and mental) and welfare (education, recreation, etc.) measures f o r children which, l i k e the retarded economic development, are i n t h e i r primary stages. Prom this point of view, i t may have been more helpful to her i f her placement f o r observation had been i n a country which was s o c i a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y more similar to her own. This experience, however, was given to her at a regional conference, p r i o r to her v i s i t to Canada. As a teacher at the school of s o c i a l work and nursing, i t was more important f o r t h i s Fellow to improve her methods of teaching and administration of s o c i a l work while i n Canada. She 88 was planning to implement these techniques upon her return to the Philippines. Her f l e x i b l e programme also allowed her to add to her i t i n e r a r y a v i s i t to the Provincial Mental Hospital where she observed a session of the recently introduced weekly group super-v i s i o n sessions of s o c i a l work students who have been there on field-placement. The Fellow found the seminar helpful from two aspects: ( l ) i n observing the use of group dynamics i n tr a i n i n g casework students, and (2) i n acquainting herself with the prob-lems of s o c i a l workers i n a psychiatric setting (the subject of the group discussion). Social contacts and positive relationships have impor-tant bearing on the success of the Fellow's v i s i t . Helpful and understanding supervision, together with the opportunity to make professional contacts can make contributions which have important subjective value to the Fellow and to his work upon return to his country. The expenses of fellowships and scholarships can be broadly divided into two groups: ( l ) expenses occurring i n the recipient country, (2) expenses1 involved i n the host country. According to arrangements between the United Nations and the recipient government, the l a t t e r i s expected to bear at least those costs that can be met i n l o c a l currency, such as incidentals, medical examinations and tr a v e l within the boundaries of the country. Some governments also assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t o t a l t r a v e l l i n g costs, but i f they are unable to do so, these are covered by the United Nations. 8 9 The Technical Assistance Administration provides ( i ) a monthly l i v i n g allowance which i s intended to cover normal l i v i n g expenses, and varies from one country of observation to another, according to the cost of l i v i n g ; ( i i ) essential t r a v e l within the host country, up to a l i m i t which w i l l be determined f o r each coun-tr y of observation; ( i i i ) a limited amount f o r the purchase of i n -dispensable technical publications; and (iv) t u i t i o n and related fees f o r scholarship holders. In view of the d i f f i c u l t i e s the recipient countries en-countered i n meeting t h e i r share of f i n a n c i a l contributions, the Technical Assistance Committee of the Economic and Social Council i s considering the replacement of the recipient country's p a r t i c i -pation i n the cost of tr a v e l expenses by a lump sum contribution i n l o c a l currency, but ( 1 9 5 4 ) no decision has yet been taken on this subject. There are different f i n a n c i a l arrangements concerning the Fellow's salary during his absence. In some cases t h i s i s f u l l y provided, whereas others provide a l i v i n g allowance to family members only. Again, i n other cases, the Fellow's absence i s con-sidered as a leave of absence with no f i n a n c i a l provisions. Since governments did not indicate otherwise, presumably the Fellows and th e i r governments have come to satisfactory arrangements i n t h i s regard. In case a Fellow or scholar interrupts his training, either on his own i n i t i a t i v e , or at the request of his government, the recipient country may be requested to reimburse a part, or a l l of the expenses incurred by the United Nations. The same may be 90 the case i f the Fellow or scholar f a i l s to return to his home coun-try a f t e r the completion of his studies abroad. Reports from Fellows and scholars play an important role i n assessing the usefulness of the programme and i n evaluating the contribution of the experience of Fellows and scholars to the eco-nomic and s o c i a l development of t h e i r countries. The most important source of information i s the one received from the Fellow himself. Reports are written i n six copies, one of which i s retained by the Fellow, three are forwar-ded to the United Nations, one to the host country and one to the recipient government. The methods of reporting have changed from a detailed process-recording of a c t i v i t i e s to a s e l f evaluation. Among the types of reports which are generally requested, are the following : (1) Monthly summaries of a c t i v i t i e s , and nature of studies; (2) A f u l l report from each Fellow or scholar at the end of his programme of study. These are to throw l i g h t on the effectiveness of his v i s i t and observations, whether he has found areas of interest, and to what extent he thinks that he w i l l be able to u t i l i z e his observations upon his return to his country. Although there i s an outline given to each Fellow"1' which i s to be used i n the preparation of the report, i t may be abandoned 1 See Appendix H. 91 i f i t i s found to be too r i g i d and l i m i t i n g i n presenting the re-port. Fellows and scholars are also asked to discuss t h e i r f i n d -ings with t h e i r supervisors and, upon t h e i r return, with the United Nations o f f i c i a l s . - Such individual suggestions may be u t i l i z e d for further modifications and improvements i n conducting future programmes. ( 3 ) The most important aspect of reporting and evaluating i s the follow-up study. Fellows and scholars are requested to i n -form the United Nations and t h e i r governments, from time to time, to what extent they have been able to u t i l i z e t h e i r experiences acquired abroad. These reports help the Administration to im-prove t h e i r selection' and planning procedures, as well as to evaluate the extent of technical assistance and measure i t s achieve-ments. Social Welfare Experts The basic procedures i n providing s o c i a l welfare ex-perts services are similar to those of the fellowship programme. By i t s nature, expert service Is the opposite p a r a l l e l to fellowships. In t h i s programme, individuals, who are already experienced i n so c i a l welfare, are delegated by the United Nations from the host country to share t h e i r knowledge with the recipient country. The basic assumption governing t h i s service i s also that no country, or group of countries, has the monopoly of s o c i a l "know-how". The role of experts, i s mainly advisory. In such a capacity they have to take into consideration not only the purely technical aspects of t h e i r mission, but also the c u l t u r a l , economic 92 and s o c i a l background of the recipient country. The greatest number of experts nominated i n any single year (24) was during 1947. This was the f i r s t year of - operations afte r UNRRA terminated i t s a c t i v i t i e s . The year 1948-49 formed a t r a n s i t i o n a l period from emergency programmes to more normal type of operations and therefore there was a decline i n the number of s o c i a l welfare experts engaged i n the programme. After t h i s time, however, expert services show a steady increase. 1 The duration of expert missions usually did not exceed nine months. Upon governments' request t h i s could be extended, but some d i f f i c u l t i e s arose because of the expert's obligations to return to his o r i g i n a l position i n his country. However, i f the expert's assignment was of a specified nature, i n most cases a three to five-month period was s u f f i c i e n t for i t s completion. The time element depends larg e l y on the nature of the expert's mission. According to t h e i r duration, expert missions can be of two types : (1) Lasting from a minimum of several weeks to a maximum of six months. Experts on these missions carry out a well defined and highly specialized assignment, such as p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l wel-fare a c t i v i t i e s and s p e c i f i c forms of s o c i a l assistance, which do not necessitate any investigation or period of adaptation, and which enable the expert to give his advice In a short time. (2) Missions Of longer duration are closely linked with the c u l t u r a l , s o c i a l and economic structure of the recipient coun-1 See Appendix G, Table VI. 93 t r y , which require that, before the expert i s i n a position to give advice, he fa m i l i a r i z e himself with the existing conditions i n the country. Although the second type of mission i s less technical i n character, i t i s broader i n scope. According to the task the expert Is expected to complete, the services can be c l a s s i f i e d under three groups : (A) Survey Missions, which usually consist of a team of experts who assess the diff e r e n t aspects of welfare needs and make recommendations regarding the provision of Individual experts, fellowships and equipment, to ass i s t existing welfare programmes, or with a view to the establishment of demonstration centres. Such a team was sent to survey needs i n the area of r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of the physically handicapped In the Latin American countries. The team, composed of s o c i a l welfare and medical experts, sponsored by the United Nations and the World Health Organization, reviewed the basic medical and s o c i a l welfare f a c i l i t i e s of Mexico, B r a z i l , B o l i v i a , Paraguay and Chile, and, af t e r an eight weeks' survey, made recommendations to. the governments concerning the roost suitable establishment of a r e h a b i l i t a t i o n centre f o r the physically handi-capped. 1 Similar missions were sent by the United Nations and i t s specialized agencies to Asia, the Par and Middle East, to re-view selected community development projects. According to the p o l i c i e s , these groups of experts leave the country as soon as the i r survey i s completed and t h e i r recommendations are made. (B) Social Welfare Consultants and Advisers are assigned 1 Social Commission of the Economic and Social Council, Report No. E/CN.5/289/Add.5. P-29-94 to one pa r t i c u l a r country, although they may make short v i s i t s to neighbouring areas. They are to consult the government on the development of specialized s o c i a l welfare a c t i v i t i e s , on the for -mulation of s o c i a l p o l i c i e s and on special aspects of s o c i a l wel-fare administration. They usually advise heads of governments, but may also engage i n demonstration and supervision of s p e c i f i c s o c i a l work methods. So far, consultants were mainly used for r informal training, i . e . , working with l o c a l experts. Such prac-t i c a l and informal t r a i n i n g of workers already i n the f i e l d i s very important especially where there i s a lack of professionally trained personnel. Fellowships and scholarships are indispensable i n such cases i n order to buttress long-term planning of welfare services. The basic methods of tra i n i n g used by s o c i a l welfare consultants were seminars, conferences, in-service t r a i n i n g and orientation courses, with special attention to new techniques introduced by the consultants, and demonstration projects, such as t r a i n i n g centres and the establishment of schools of s o c i a l work. Marion Dix of the United Nations Information Centre i n India has described the areas covered by United Nations s o c i a l welfare advisers i n China., which was the f i r s t country to benefit 2 from the s o c i a l welfare advisory services. The components of 1 Social Commission of the Economic and Social Council, Proposals f o r the Revision of the Work Programmes f o r the Years 1952 and 1955. E/CN.5/240/Add.l (24 January. 1951) p.20. 2 Marion Dix, "United Nations Social Welfare Services", speech delivered at the A l l India Conference of Social Work, Bombay, 1947. Indian Journal of Social Work, IX, No.l, pp.78-81. 95 t h i s programme were the following : (a) Minimum standards for the improvement of homes for children, f o r the aged and f o r the d i s -abled ; (b) Minimum standards of emergency r e l i e f services, such as mass feeding, temporary shelter, refu-gee camps, d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e l i e f supplies, cash loans, etc.; (c) Minimum standards f o r the improvement of c h i l -dren's diet i n i n s t i t u t i o n s ; (d) Standards of r e g i s t r a t i o n and supervision of r e l i e f and welfare agencies and i n s t i t u t i o n s ; (e) Vocational t r a i n i n g of needy adolescent youth; (f) Rehabilitation of disabled adults and of handi-capped children; (g) Child welfare demonstration centres with special attention both to better care of children and to assisting, mothers to work to supplement family income. Similarly, Miss Aileen M. Davidson, a leading welfare worker of the Australian Red Cross, has acted as s o c i a l welfare adviser to a Maternal and Child Health Demonstration Centre i n Bangkok, Thailand. She gave assistance i n establishing stan-dards of maternal and c h i l d health through lectures on basic concepts of s o c i a l work, medical s o c i a l work and community organi-zation."'" (C) Social Welfare Resident Representatives are assigned to regions i n which there i s a need f o r long-term, multilateral action. They are available as welfare consultants to the regio-nal representatives of the Technical Assistance Administration and of the Technical Assistance Board. They also assist governments 1 Technical Assistance Administration, Fortnightly B u l l e t i n , (November 1951), p.5-96 on welfare problems and i n preparing requests to the Technical As-sistance Administration. They help i n the selection of candidates for fellowships and scholarships and give interpretation of United Nations p o l i c i e s . It i s also t h e i r duty to co-ordinate the programmes of the UNICEF and WHO i n t h e i r joint a c t i v i t i e s , mainly i n the area of c h i l d welfare, and they are also expected to help new experts to gain and provide assistance and guidance i n the manner most l i k e l y to lead to effective r e s u l t s . Such resident s o c i a l welfare re-presentatives were sent to four main regions of a c t i v i t i e s : Europe, the Par East, L a t i n America and the Middle East. 1 No attempt has been made by the Secretariat to appoint professional experts who would be permanently attached to the United Nations. Instead, experts are hired according to govern-ments' requests. I f t h e i r mission i s of long duration, i t seems to be more advantageous f o r the recipient governments to engage the services of- an expert i n the selection of whom the United Nations could help the recipient government. After the needs of war-stricken areas were met, the expert missions focused on under-developed areas. There was a decline i n the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of European countries, and t h e i r 2 place was occupied by the Par and Middle East and Latin America. Similar to fellowships, i n the experts' f i e l d s of as-signment p r i o r i t y was given to s o c i a l welfare administration, 1 Report of the Secretary-General. E/1893 (9 January, 1951), p.19. 2 See Appendix G, Table V. 97 community, family and c h i l d welfare, and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of the han-dicapped. Progressively, as the f i e l d s became more d i v e r s i f i e d , s o c i a l defence, housing and town and country planning have been added. This d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n has partly resulted from the neces-s i t y of meeting increasing needs i n less developed regions."'" P a r a l l e l with the fellow-exchange programme i n Europe, arrangements were made f o r short-term assignments of experts. This was large l y f a c i l i t a t e d by the common nature of problems i n the area of s o c i a l welfare development. The scheme was based on regional co-op'eration and promoted mutual assistance programmes. Within the European programme, up to 1952, eleven ex-perts were made available by t h e i r governments to requesting countries i n the f i e l d s of youth and c h i l d welfare, occupational therapy, s o c i a l casework, and in-service tr a i n i n g . They were recruited from Austria (three experts), the Netherlands (three experts) and from the United Kingdom (f i v e experts), and they ser-ved i n Finland (three experts), France (four experts) and Swit-zerland (four experts). This programme, introduced by the European o f f i c e , f a c i -l i t a t e d to the highest possible degree the exchange of ideas and techniques. It constituted an effective and inexpensive means of integrating international and regional action, which could be 2 applied and extended to other regions as well. Requests f o r the services of s o c i a l welfare advisers p.19. 1 See Appendix G, Table I I . 2 Report of the Secretary-General. E/CN.5/289/Add.l, 98 have been dealt with on the basis of certain fundamental c r i t e r i a , such as the nature of the request and i t s j u s t i f i c a t i o n , the avai-l a b i l i t y of competent personnel to render the services required, the extent to which the requesting government was able to c o n t r i -bute to the expenses which can be met i n l o c a l currency, and the extent to which similar assistance has been furnished by the United Nations to the same government previously. However, no r i g i d rule has been l a i d down concerning how much help was to be granted to a country, and the United Nations made every attempt to meet a l l re-quests. The method of sending experts to make preliminary surveys proved successful and has often resulted i n a better understanding of the nature of requests, since, i n such instances, experts were able to advise governments i n planning s o c i a l welfare services. This was even more necessary as requests of governments, normally received through t h e i r delegation to the United Nations, were i n some cases delayed, or involved misunderstandings when government o f f i c i a l s did not possess the necessary technical background or the terminology. Expressions such as " s o c i a l welfare", "policy making", " r e h a b i l i t a t i o n " , had different meanings i n diff e r e n t countries. To avoid such misconceptions, the Social Commission recommended the publishing of a glossary i n English, French and Spanish, l i s t i n g s o c i a l welfare terms and drawing attention to the d i f f e r e n t meanings which might be attached to them i n different countries using the same language. This publication has been use-f u l to Fellows and scholars, as well as to participants at seminars and conferences. 1 1 Social Commission, Terminology B u l l e t i n , No. 78, 1951. Economic and Social Council, United Nations, New York. 99 Arrangements have been made between the United Nations and the recipient countries whereby expenses incurred i n the ad-ministration and supervision of the. programme (such as the payment of experts' salaries and t h e i r t r a v e l expenses) would be met by the United Rations, i f the recipient country was unable to do so i n l o c a l currency. However, the recipient government was expec-ted to meet l o c a l expenses, such as providing o f f i c e accommodation, s e c r e t a r i a l assistance, travel within the country, and per diem or subsistence allowance. There have, however, been some d i f f i c u l -t i e s encountered i n the l o c a l administration of the expert pro-gramme. In some cases the government was unable to meet a l l expenses, i n which case the United Rations subsidized them; i n others, interpreters and s e c r e t a r i a l s t a f f were not always a v a i l a -ble. Experts i n s o c i a l welfare are selected from various countries. Although the Social Commission of the Economic and Social Council stressed that they should be highly q u a l i f i e d , i t i s more important that t h e i r experience and culture should be re-lated to those of the recipient countries. The s o c i a l welfare adviser should be f a m i l i a r with s o c i a l problems i n recipient countries and should have a b i l i t y to work with l o c a l personnel. Although, b a s i c a l l y , s o c i a l work methods and techniques are generic and applicable to a l l f i e l d s of s o c i a l welfare, i t i s im-portant that the s o c i a l welfare adviser have thorough experience i n the area i n which he i s to consult with the government or welfare agencies. But, i n addition to being an expert, he must be a good pra c t i t i o n e r who, providing good advisory services and demonstra-ting methods, i s also able to establish a positive working r e l a t i o n -100 ship with a l l ranks of s o c i a l workers. The Social Welfare Division of the Department of Social A f f a i r s compiled a roster of experts from different countries and made i t available to governments requesting such assistance. The roster took into account the experts', experience as well as t h e i r language q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . However, t h i s method did not always prove to be applicable because i t had to be re-adjusted and revised too frequently. The practice at the present time i s that the United Nations, upon the request of governments, consults the res-ponsible agencies of diff e r e n t countries, which i n turn provide a l i s t of suggestions which are then communicated to the requesting government.1 The l a t t e r i s free to choose, accept or reject nominations. Their choice i s often directed towards those wel-fare advisers who have worked i n countries under the UNRRA, and therefore did not require additional period of adjustment, and, who were fam i l i a r with the economic and s o c i a l conditions of the country. There i s l i t t l e emphasis on the orientation of experts pr i o r to t h e i r departure from t h e i r home country. It i s evident, however, that i t would help experts i f they were to acquaint them-selves with the special l i t e r a t u r e on the area or the problems i n the country of th e i r assignments. Contributions of experts i n sociology, anthropology, economics and diplomacy would provide valuable assistance to s o c i a l welfare advisers and i t would be helpful i f these could be made available to s o c i a l welfare experts 1 See Appendix I (copy of the application form for re c r u i t i n g experts used by the Social Welfare Panel of the Inter-national Technical Co-operation Division, Department of Trade and Commerce, Ottawa.) 101 p r i o r to t h e i r departure. The major part of orientation and b r i e f i n g Is done at the United Nations headquarters, where the expert's mission i s made clear and i s f i n a l i z e d . A b r i e f period i s devoted to the under-standing of administrative procedures, and of the work of present and past missions. The experts are also asked to consult the specialized agencies who have been active i n his f i e l d . In cases where the experts are unable to come to the headquarters, b r i e f i n g i s done through correspondence. The f i n a l stage of orientation i s upon the expert's ar-r i v a l i n the recipient country. Since the United Nations head-quarters may not be f a m i l i a r with the recent economic and s o c i a l developments of the country, the regional s o c i a l welfare advisers are helpful i n bringing experts up to date. Experience showed that the more the expert knew about the country of his assignment, the better was his understanding of the prevalent welfare problems, and the more profound the a s s i s -tance he could offer. B r i e f i n g at the headquarters had been lacking i n an organized programme of orientation and was based mainly on individual interviews with various s t a f f members. This was mainly due to d i f f i c u l t i e s which under-staffing and m u l t i p l i -c i t y of demands on s t a f f made i n the organization and administra^-t i o n of the different departments. The Technical Assistance Ad-ministration, however, made a r e a l e f f o r t to iron out these d i f f i -c u l t i e s . To t h i s end, an Inter-Departmental Working Group was set up i n 1951, which pooled the recommendations and opinions of experts and Fellows who had participated i n the programme. Their 102 suggestions were concerned with, among others, planned orientation periods, the appointment of a s p e c i f i c s t a f f member to be respon-si b l e for the supervision of the expert or Fellow's orientation, and a compilation of a d i v i s i o n a l manual outlining h i s t o r i c growth, purposes, functions, programmes, d i v i s i o n a l and departmental or-ganization and programme, p o l i c i e s and services, and f i e l d proce-dures. The United Nations documents and interviews with p a r t i c i -pants did not indicate that these recommendations have been followed up. However, the Secretariat compiled reference l i s t s of printed material, and provided study k i t s encompassing economic and so c i a l analyses of different under-developed areas which also indicate how f a r these countries have been able to adapt Western methods. As soon as the s o c i a l welfare adviser i s able to gauge the l a t t e r , he w i l l know to a degree the s o c i a l welfare problems facing the urban population; the degree to which there has or has not been land reform, for instance, w i l l be indicative of the s o c i a l wel-fare problems facing r u r a l communities. Such a survey has been completed under the t i t l e "Report on the World Social Situation", with special reference to under-developed areas, as mentioned i n the previous chapter. As i n the fellowship programme, experts are requested to provide the United Nations with monthly and f i n a l comprehensive reports. Monthly reports contain information on relations with governments, f a c i l i t i e s afforded and d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered. They also include a progress report and a description of techniques which were employed i n carrying out advisory services. The f i n a l report covers substantial aspects of the work, 103 the expert's views and advice on problems'of, his mission, and his own evaluation of his accomplishments. Recommendations made by the advisers are sent to the recipient governments, as well as to the Technical Assistance Administration and to the a f f i l i a t e d agencies. The evaluation of the services- of s o c i a l welfare advisers i s a task which can only be done i n co-operation with recipient governments. Comprehensive follow-up studies, af t e r a period of time, are essential to assess how t h i s contribution affected s o c i a l conditions of individuals and communities. A study of this na-ture was completed i n 1951, but i t s findings are not available. Reports and documents of the United Nations indicate that scholarships, fellowships and expert advice have so f a r f o r -med the core of•the programme of advisory s o c i a l welfare services. The reason f o r t h i s i s l i k e l y that these methods were the most feasible and could best be u t i l i z e d i n the endeavour to improve s o c i a l welfare programmes, formulate p o l i c i e s and provide profes-sional personnel to implement the plans. Expert advice, scholarships and fellowships introduced a new method i n international welfare. Their contributions have been essential and were most successfully u t i l i z e d i n an attempt to raise l i v i n g standards and enable under-developed countries to used advanced experience. In most under-developed countries, the lack of schools of s o c i a l work and the absence of q u a l i f i e d s o c i a l work instruc-tors was a serious impediment to the improvement of s o c i a l welfare. 104 To f i l l such a gap requires considerable time, especially as a l l aspects of l i v i n g of a community have to be encountered before tr a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s can be established. The s o c i a l worker's role, i n every community, i s to meet prevalent needs. The needs there-fore control the curriculum which i s to prepare the worker for his task. The United Nations has been a s s i s t i n g governments i n plan-ning and setting up schools of s o c i a l work. Preliminary studies to t h i s end required several months or years, meanwhile there was a need f o r trained workers, who would eventually share t h e i r know-ledge In the schools and who would provide s o c i a l services. The advisory s o c i a l welfare services, by providing fellowships, scholar-ships and expert advice, met t h i s demand to a certain extent. But the necessity for such training s t i l l prevails, even though the programme met the immediate needs. In order, however, to imple-ment integrated programmes of s o c i a l welfare, the recipient coun-t r i e s w i l l have to continue training on the national l e v e l , because only far-sighted and comprehensive s o c i a l work education can pro-vide service, adequate to reach a l l classes of the nation. CHAPTER IV SOCIAL WELFARE SEMINARS, CONFERENCES • AND DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS In addition to the formal t r a i n i n g of individual s o c i a l workers, the programme of advisory s o c i a l welfare services also adopted methods which have been applied to s o c i a l work previously. Seminars and conferences have been used i n s o c i a l work nationally and internationally and also In formal education i n schools of s o c i a l work. Their significance i s the value of inter-change of ideas, discussion of common problems and developments i n technique and methods. In the technical assistance programmes these aspects have been essential, but i n addition seminars and conferences have been used for the purposes of regional planning of welfare pro-grammes. The emphasis on the governments' r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r developmental planning as a prerequisite to technical assistance showed i t s effect by bringing neighbouring governments together not only i n better mutual understanding but also i n joint r e s p o n s i b i l i -t i e s . Seminars and Conferences Under the p o l i c i e s and procedures l a i d down by the Social Commission i n 1 9 5 0 , the purpose of a seminar i s to provide ah opportunity during a period of two to three weeks to specia-l i s t s and persons from p a r t i c i p a t i n g countries, who are responsible for policy-making, planning of programmes, or d i r e c t i n g operations 106 i n s o c i a l welfare to (a) discuss among themselves, und'er the l e a -dership of a United Nations s o c i a l welfare expert, the most recent technical developments i n t h e i r specialized f i e l d s , (b) compare methods of solving s o c i a l problems involved i n these developments, and (c) develop the findings of such comparative studies with a view to promoting s o c i a l progress. Seminars can be held i n areas where s o c i a l problems are similar, or among groups of nations with a common c u l t u r a l back-ground. They can be of greatest advantage i f they are conducted . on a regional basis, allowing maximum pa r t i c i p a t i o n . Under the programme, the United Rations authorized three categories of seminars: ( l ) Regional meetings, administered f i r s t by the Department of Social A f f a i r s and, l a t e r , by the Technical Assistance Administration; ( 2 ) Seminars i n Europe, under the European Exchange Plan, organized by the European Regional Office of the Technical Assistance Administration; and ( 3 ) Conferences, organized by a government or a group of governments with the a s s i s -tance of the Technical Assistance Administration. The seminars show a trend i n the d i r e c t i o n of more i n t i -mate exchange of views between persons on the same technical l e v e l , with a focus of attention on s p e c i f i c subjects. They have also been u t i l i z e d i n disseminating professional l i t e r a t u r e and evaluat-ing and promoting tr a i n i n g of workers from less developed areas. 1 In administering such programmes, the requesting govern-ments and welfare o f f i c i a l s . a r e asked to draw up. a tentative pro-1 See Appendix G, Table VII. 107 gramme, suggest topics for lectures and submit them to the Techni-cal Assistance Administration f o r approval. Thereafter, the or-ganization and administration i s the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the host country, while lecturers and experts for the seminars are selected by the United Nations on the spot, or often from neighbouring coun-t r i e s . Since the administrative process i s l e f t to the i n i t i a t i n g government, or governments, th i s encourages neighbouring countries to assist each other. A seminar of great significance i n European welfare pro-grammes was held i n Copenhagen on alcoholism, upon the i n i t i a t i v e of the Danish Government,.in November 1951. The United Nations and the WHO co-operated i n the organization, and brought together experts concerned with alcoholism as a public health and welfare problem. The participants were experts i n a variety of techni-cal f i e l d s , such as sociology, s o c i a l work, family care, welfare administration, criminology, penology, law enforcement and alco-h o l i c beverage control. They came from Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, West Germany and Yugoslavia and were awarded fellowships by the WHO."'" The European Seminar on Social Questions, held i n Paris, i n November 1949, had f a r reaching effects i n developing further projects and integrating in t e r n a t i o n a l l y accepted techniques into national p o l i c i e s . At the time of this seminar, the I t a l i a n Government had been engaged i n bringing about l e g i s l a t i v e measures to curb juvenile delinquency. • The Minister of Justice of t h i s 1 Secretary-General, Report on United Nations Programme of Technical Assistance. Economic and Social Council. E/2209 (21 A p r i l , 1952) p.70. New York. 108 country, who has attended the Paris seminar, i n i t i a t e d the organi-zing of a similar project on juvenile delinquency i n I t a l y . The Secretary-General chose from various other countries f i v e experts s p e c i a l i z i n g i n juvenile delinquency, to lecture and discuss and, thus, give the members of the seminar the benefit of t h e i r expe-rience. The Seminar was held i n Rome i n 1950. It was an i n t e -resting and o r i g i n a l experiment which gave an opportunity to a l l responsible personnel i n the prevention and treatment of young offenders to share t h e i r knowledge and discuss the best methods that could be applied i n I t a l y , and that could help personnel to perform i t s duties. Another seminar developed out of t h i s trend. This was held i n Brussels, i n December 1951, upon the i n i t i a t i v e of the Government of Belgium, with the co-operation of the WHO. The seminar dealt with the "Medical, Psychiatric and Social Examination of Offenders". Eighty-three participants represented eighteen governments at the seminar. 1 Each was asked to nominate a team of experts from among i t s members to represent the j u d i c i a l , s c i e n t i f i c and administrative aspects of the problem. The experts were assigned to corresponding workshops, the meetings of which formed the major part of the a c t i v i t i e s . P r i o r to the seminar, publications were distributed and each p a r t i c i p a t i n g country sup-plied a comprehensive report on i t s methods of dealing with offen-ders. In t h i s way nineteen reports were circulated i n advance. 1 The participants came from the following countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Greece, Germany, I s r a e l , I t a l y , Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and Yugoslavia. 109 The findings and recommendations of the seminar were distributed to a l l p a r t i c i p a t i n g and non-participating countries."'" Following the Brussels Seminar, a further i n s t i t u t e f o l -lowed which dealt with Probation, i n London (1952). The United Nations made available the services of eight experts and four faculty members, i n addition to those who were i n charge of organi-zing the seminar. The sixteen p a r t i c i p a t i n g governments were represented by judiciary and correctional administrators and s o c i a l workers. The purpose of the seminar was to exchange information and views on the practice of, and t r a i n i n g f o r , probation, i n c l u -ding c r i t e r i a for e l i g i b i l i t y f o r casework services, selection and training of personnel, and the observation of administrative and treatment procedures i n the United Kingdom, including the prepa-ration of s o c i a l h i s t o r i e s , methods of supervision, recording and 2 u t i l i z i n g a u x i l i a r y s o c i a l services. Seminars under the European Exchange Plan represent an interesting v a r i a t i o n of the group method. Their d i s t i n c t i v e features are mainly i n t h e i r administration. The host country, i n which the seminar i s held, provides h o s p i t a l i t y and conference f a c i l i t i e s free of charge f o r the participants. For t h i s con-t r i b u t i o n reciprocal v i s i t s of i t s own personnel to other p a r t i -cipating countries are the compensation, at a l a t e r date. The return v i s i t s are valuable from several aspects. They extend and stimulate interchange of ideas and techniques i n s o c i a l wel-fare, and they also stimulate international co-operation, bringing 1 E/2209, p.71. 2 E/CN.5/289/Add.5, pp.26-29. 110 together governments and representatives of different nations. Up to the year 1953, there have been four seminars, a l l studying s o c i a l work tr a i n i n g and offering workshops and courses fo r professional personnel. This contribution was especially valuable i n Europe where i n continental countries casework tech-niques have not been developed to any great extent. The tech-niques which were thus developed marked the beginning of the plan-ning f o r courses i n s o c i a l work tra i n i n g . Through acquiring the principles and methods of s o c i a l casework, and discussing t h e i r relationships to s o c i a l work practices, these seminars could be further u t i l i z e d i n professional training and practice. The f i r s t two of these seminars were held i n Geneva, Switzerland, i n 1950 and 1951- The workers were selected accor-ding to t h e i r knowledge of a common language, which was French fo r the Seminar i n 1950, and English i n 1951- The seminars were organized by the United Nations, i n co-operation with the Swiss Government, the Aide Suisse a 1'Europe, and the Geneva School of Social Studies. The main topics of discussion were s i g n i f i c a n t i n the development of professional t r a i n i n g . These dealt with the s o c i a l worker's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n his relationship with those whom he helps, techniques i n interviewing, teamwork i n s o c i a l case-work, use of community resources, and the role of the supervisor of s o c i a l welfare agencies i n the t r a i n i n g of t h e i r s t a f f . 1 A seminar on foster-home care of children was held i n Oslo, i n July, 1952, organized by the United Nations, the Nor-wegian Minister of Social A f f a i r s and the Municipality of Oslo. 1 Ibid. I l l The thirty-eight representatives of ten "Exchange Plan" countries studied and discussed foster-home care services i n t h e i r countries. This comparative analysis of the d i v e r s i t y of needs and methods resulted i n the improvement of services i n child-placement. Following t h i s project, a seminar was held i n Keerun, Finland, i n August, .1952, for sixty-three English-speaking profes-sional s o c i a l workers, supervisors and administrators from thir-r teen "Exchange Plan" countries. It was organized by the United Nations Geneva Office i n co-operation with the Finnish Minister ozf Social A f f a i r s and the WHO, with an emphasis on general case-work techniques and in-service training programmes. Miss Marjorie J. Smith, Director of the School of Social Work,1 found that European workers were eager to learn from the North American experience, which revealed to them that not only were casework problems on t h i s continent, analogous with those experienced by the European students, but many principles and concepts of casework were European i n or i g i n . The seminar came to rea l i z e t h a t , . i n order to be able to practise as a professional caseworker, three kinds of i n t e -grated knowledge and understanding are required: " f i r s t a tho-rough grounding i n s o c i a l sciences and i n the knowledge of human behaviour, that i s , a s c i e n t i f i c base of knowledge about man and society; second, certain attitudes toward people and t h e i r needs and rights; and t h i r d , a set of s k i l l s including such things as interviewing techniques, the establishment of relationships, selec-2 tion of material and recording, etc." 1 Interviewed by the writer. 2 Smith, Marjorie J., "Casework Across the A t l a n t i c " , Canadian Welfare. XXVIII, No.8 (15 March, 1953), pp.28-32. 112 Her main conclusion, however, which i s also a basic p r i n -c i p l e of technical assistance programmes Is that "One of the most important lessons to be learned from such an experience as teach-ing professional casework i n a different culture, i s that one. can-not merely teach techniques and expect them to be accepted and used i n the same way as they have been developed i n North America. Techniques i n themselves can be dangerous and can be used to mani-pulate and control. Most important i s to teach the attitudes, b e l i e f s and philosophy upon which s o c i a l work rests - the Impor-tance of the individual, acceptance of people as they are, help-fulness, no imposition of ideas or domination, the right of the person to s e l f determination. I f these attitudes and b e l i e f s can be accepted and are t r a d i t i o n a l i n the culture then technical s k i l l s can be easily taught and assimilated." The programme of exchange of s o c i a l work personnel, i n i -t i a t e d by the Regional Office of the Department of Social A f f a i r s , i n Geneva, proved to be very successful. Although i t was tem-por a r i l y discontinued i n Europe, plans were made to introduce the "Exchange of Fellows and Seminars" method i n the Latin American regions, where, on account of c u l t u r a l and economic s i m i l a r i t i e s , such a programme could be used to the advantage of a l l p a r t i c i -pants . Social welfare conferences are organized on a regional basis under the United Nations s o c i a l welfare advisory services. The governing princi p l e of t h i s method i s found., i n the b e l i e f that many s o c i a l problems are regional and stem from indigenous con-ditions . 113 While series of conferences were organized i n the Middle East, with the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the Arab States, the Regional Con-ference of Social Workers which had perhaps the most far-reaching results was one dealing with "Problems of Physically Handicapped Children and Rehabilitation Centres". This conference was held i n Jamshedpur, India, i n December 1950. Its programme included such topics as methods of care, treatment, tr a i n i n g and education. It was organized upon the recommendation of Dr. J. P. Bulsara, Par Eastern Social Welfare Representative of the United Nations Technical Assistance Administration, and was i n i t i a t e d by the Minister of Education of the Government of India, who approached the Department of Social A f f a i r s to a s s i s t i n the organization. 1 After the United Nations' approval was obtained, Invi-tations were sent to the governments of Afghanistan, Burma, Ceylon, Indonesia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand and the United Kingdom T e r r i t o r i e s In South East Asia,.each to send two s p e c i a l i s t s , or representatives to contribute data and papers on the subject. Pive governments, those of Ceylon, Indonesia, India, the Philippines and Thailand agreed to participate. For economic and p u b l i c i t y purposes, the conference was held at the same time and place as the 4th Annual Session of the Indian Conference of Social Work (Jamshedpur, 22-26 December, 1950). The organization of the conference was entrusted by the Technical Assistance Administration to the relevant body of the Indian Conference of Social Work, whereas expenses were assumed by the Government of India. Additional contributions were 1 Request No. P 3-9/50-D2 (9 August, 1950). 114 received from the UNESCO, ILO, WHO and the UNICEF, and published material was sent by other international organizations. The participants were sixty-eight s p e c i a l i s t s : doctors, therapists, educationists, psychologists, psy c h i a t r i s t s , teachers, vocational guidance and t r a i n i n g experts, and s o c i a l workers. The task of the conference was to survey the nature and the extent of problems i n r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , evaluate the steps already taken to meet the needs, and to prepare an "action-project" to systematize and organize treatment and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of the physically handi-capped. The Jamshedpur Conference emphasized the importance of co-ordination between the medical, educational, employment and s o c i a l services, and between these and the home and the community with a view to enabling the s o c i a l integration of the handicapped c h i l d . The recommendations of the conference dealt with the improvement of methods of r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , and further research to be undertaken by governmental organizations and by the represen-tatives of the medical and a l l i e d professions. Those recommen-dations which required the immediate attention of the organiza-tions were the following r 1 "(a) Formulation of l e g i s l a t i o n to enforce 1 Economic and Social Council, Progress Report i n the F i e l d of—Social A c t i v i t i e s . E/CN.5/240 (January-December 1950), pp.24-25. See also': E/1893, p.12, and Technical Assistance Admi-n i s t r a t i o n Conference and Seminar Series No.l. ST/TAA/SER.C/2 (July 1951). 115 (b (c (d (e (f (g (h ( i (3 (k (1 ( m re g i s t r a t i o n of the handicapped f o r sta-t i s t i c a l data; Establishment of services f o r early discovery, diagnosis and treatment; Promotion of general s o c i a l welfare measures; Use of modern safety devices i n industry; Training of s p e c i a l i s t s and t h e i r employment by i n s t i t u t i o n s ; Establishment of workshops to provide mecha-n i c a l aid for the physically handicapped; Training of technicians to produce mechanical aid; Vocational t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s for the physi-c a l l y handicapped; Public employment services f o r the handicapped; Establishing r e h a b i l i t a t i o n centres, wards and schools with modern equipment; Public education to change attitudes of public, family and employers; Co-ordination of a l l effo r t s f o r treatment and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n by the United Nations and i t s specialized agencies; Exploration of the p o s s i b i l i t y for a p i l o t project for t r a i n i n g of personnel f o r treat-ment, and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , by the United Nations and the specialized agencies f o r countries and regions who request i t . " The conference, the f i r s t of i t s kind i n the Par East, was not an end i n i t s e l f , but a means to an end. It f a c i l i t a t e d valuable contacts, mutual exchange of views and of essential i n -formation. It c l a r i f i e d problems and aroused interest and en-thusiasm. ,Its main purpose, however, can be served only when the participants themselves, and other co-workers i n the f i e l d s u t i l i z e the results toward an intensive follow-up and formulation and execution of p r a c t i c a l programmes of work. 116 Demonstration and P i l o t Projects Under the s o c i a l welfare advisory services, provision was made for the United, Nations to "organize and participate i n projects for experimenting i n , or demonstrating various phases of s o c i a l welfare and, to provide the necessary tools and equipment i n connection therewith." 1 The demonstration projects incorporate technical advice, advisory services to governments, seminars and the provision of fellowships and scholarships, since t h e i r basic aim i s to estab-l i s h centres where practice and academic teaching can be u t i l i z e d i n connection with prevalent s o c i a l needs of a country or a region. The projects are implemented upon the request of governments, on the basis of the recommendations of welfare advisers, and of P e l -lows who had been observing similar a c t i v i t i e s abroad. They can be established to serve a specialized need, and to conduct re-search, or to provide opportunities f o r general t r a i n i n g i n s o c i a l welfare. The f i r s t such demonstration centre was established i n Egypt, i n 1951, upon the recommendation of the United Nations Welfare Adviser, who i n this instance was Dr. Harry Cassidy, one of Canada's best known welfare educators and researchers. Upon the government's request, the United Nations assisted i n setting up a demonstration centre for the s o c i a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of the blind, a problem prevalent i n a l l Arab States. This centre was to t r a i n Egyptian nationals, and also to serve as a demonstration 1 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 418(V). 117 project at which nationals of the region could be introduced to modern methods of education, t r a i n i n g and employment of the b l i n d . ' Experts , fellowships and equipment for the project were provided by the United Nations and the Internat ional Labour Organization. The essent ia l value of t h i s project was i n research a c t i v i t i e s on the causes and methods of the prevention and treatment of bl indness , and i n the services provided i n medical treatment, education, voca-/ t i o n a l t r a i n i n g , and placement^for employment. A s i m i l a r centre was established i n Turkey, i n 1952, under the programme of a d v i - -sory s o c i a l welfare s e r v i c e s . 1 In connection with the Yugoslav fellowships programme, the government decided to set up a p i l o t demonstration centre to serve as a t r a i n i n g ground to s p e c i a l i s t s i n the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of phys i ca l ly handicapped i n Yugoslavia and i n other parts of Europe. It was equipped to treat t h i r t y - f i v e resident patients and one hundred outpatients, to which the United Nations supplied equipment, and awarded fellowships for the team of eight experts. This was the f i r s t major r e h a b i l i t a t i o n centre under the sponsor-ship of the Technical Assistance Administrat ion, opened i n B e l -grade, i n October 1952. Succeeding these projects , several s i m i l a r centres have been established i n other countries i n Europe, i n South America and i n A s i a . However, t h e i r development, compared with the programme of fel lowships and expert services , or even with the seminar projects , has been much slower on account of t echnica l d i f f i c u l t i e s which were encountered i n the preparation of se t t ing 1 E/CN.5/289/Add.5. •• p.29-See also: ST/TAA/SER.B/15 (October 1951). pp.3-4. 118 u p d e m o n s t r a t i o n c e n t r e s . One s u c h d i f f i c u l t y h a s b e e n , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e n e c e s s i t y t o t r a i n q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l who w o u l d s e r v e t h e p r o g r a m m e . T e c h n i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e a d v i s o r y s o c i a l w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s , t h e S o c i a l C o m m i s s i o n o f t h e E c o n o m i c a n d S o c i a l C o u n c i l e x p r e s s e d t h e v i e w t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s t h a t a c l e a r i n g - h o u s e f o r i n f o r m a -t i o n i n t h e s o c i a l w e l f a r e f i e l d i s o f e s s e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e . T h i s move b r o a d e n e d t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e p rogramme f r o m two a s p e c t s ; F i r s t , r e c o g n i t i o n was g i v e n t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f d e v e l o p i n g , c e n -t r a l i z i n g a n d c o l l e c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s o f s o c i a l w e l f a r e , a n d , s e c o n d , t h e a c c u m u l a t e d m a t e r i a l was made a v a i l a b l e t o p a r t i c i p a n t s i n U n i t e d N a t i o n s p r o g r a m m e s a n d t o s o c i a l w e l f a r e p e r s o n n e l i n i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r e g i o n a l t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n and r e f e r e n c e c e n t r e s , p r i n t e d p u b l i c a t i o n s , f i l m s , d e m o n s t r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t , s p e c i a l s t u d i e s a n d p e r i o d i c r e p o r t s w e r e a l s o made a v a i l a b l e . The m e t h o d o f c o l l e c -t i n g a n d d i s s e m i n a t i n g t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n h a d b e e n u s e d p r e v i o u s -l y b y n u m e r o u s p r o f e s s i o n s a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . B u t i t was f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e f i e l d o f s o c i a l w o r k t h a t a l l p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e was made a v a i l a b l e i n a c e n t r a l i z e d a n d o r g a n i z e d f a s h i o n . The f a c t t h a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , a w o r l d -w i d e o r g a n i z a t i o n , t o o k t h i s s t e p u n d e r l i n e s t h e a w a r e n e s s o f t h e n e c e s s i t y t o p r o m o t e s o c i a l w e l f a r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . P r i n t e d p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l s c i e n c e s h a v e b e e n a c c u m u l a t e d a n d c l a s s i f i e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h s t u d i e s o n 119 c h i l d and family welfare, s o c i a l services and s o c i a l defence. These are a l l u t i l i z e d i n the advisory s o c i a l welfare services. The series of Study K i t s 1 on "Social Progress Through Social Action" provides a useful t o o l i n community organization and development. Films have proved to be especially useful as a means of vi s u a l education to s o c i a l workers. The Geneva Office of the Social Welfare Division was the f i r s t to establish a f i l m - l i b r a r y , consisting of 316 s o c i a l welfare films f o r loan. This extensive c o l l e c t i o n i s quite unique i n number and i n quality, surpassing any similar attempt of the past. Its items, demonstrating s o c i a l work methods, have been extensively used by welfare i n s t i t u t i o n s and schools of s o c i a l work i n Europe, and, following the European example, other regions have also adopted t h i s technique. A special project was undertaken i n India, where, under the supervision of the United Nations, Dr. K. S. Mashkar, Tech-n i c a l Adviser and Honorary Secretary of the Bombay Mother's and Children's Welfare Society, i n i t i a t e d the production of four films concerning the role of the s o c i a l welfare worker i n India i n the f i e l d s of maternity welfare, infant care, environmental welfare, and the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of the physically handicapped children. This method of teaching solved a double problem i n India: the need f o r s o c i a l workers, and the lack of education f a c i l i t i e s f o r r u r a l welfare personnel. Since, i n most r u r a l areas, wel-fare workers lack the opportunity for formal education, they learn by imitation. The f i l m i s accompanied by a text of com-mentary and by large s t i l l photographs of the essential steps i n 1 "The United Nations Series on Community Organization and Development", published j o i n t l y by the UN and the UNESCO. ST/SOA/SER.0/ ST/TAA/SER.D/ 120 tr a i n i n g . These films and exhibits are loaned free of charge to s o c i a l welfare training centres, to public health nurses, health v i s i t o r s , colleges and u n i v e r s i t i e s . 1 The use of films i n teaching s o c i a l work i n India i s especially s i g n i f i c a n t because the services which are provided and the techniques used have to be complementary to the l i f e and c u l -ture, as well as to the needs of the community. The role of the s o c i a l worker i n t h i s country d i f f e r s from the North American or European concept because i t includes basic hygiene and medical services as well as the education of r u r a l communities. • In ad-d i t i o n to fellowships and expert advice, which are important i n the long run i n the development of s o c i a l welfare, these i n t e r --mediary steps help those r u r a l communities i n which welfare stan-dards are not yet comparable with the more advanced regions. Demonstration equipment supplied under the programme has so f a r been r e s t r i c t e d to prosthetic material f o r the reha-b i l i t a t i o n . of the physically handicapped, and has been provided for the use of demonstration and teach i n r e h a b i l i t a t i o n centres i n Yugoslavia, I s r a e l , Egypt, Turkey and Guatemala. The Geneva Office has, i n addition to such equipment, included, as an essential t o o l i n s o c i a l work education, the use of case-records. In order to supply schools of s o c i a l work i n Europe with such material, similar schools In North America were requested to contribute from t h e i r current case-material to this new record l i b r a r y i n Geneva. These f i l e s , adopted from 1 "UN Social Welfare Services", India Journal of Social Work. IX, No.l (June 1948), pp.77-78. actual casework and group work practice give European students an opportunity to analyse and study the application of theory to practice. Special studies on di f f e r e n t aspects of s o c i a l welfare have been conducted by the Social Commission i n co-operation with the Social Welfare Div i s i o n of the United Nations. These include texts of s o c i a l welfare l e g i s l a t i o n s of t h i r t y - f i v e countries, published and distributed year by year, showing changes that oc-cur. In addition to family and c h i l d welfare and prevention of crime and treatment of offenders, these cover texts r e l a t i n g to international conventions on the suppression of p r o s t i t u t i o n and t h e i r r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of the handicapped, and the welfare of the aged. In order to provide, f i r s t l y , governments, and, secondly, experts and United Nations Fellows with the best possible docu-mentation, a report on "Methods of Social Welfare Administration" (E/CN.5/224) was compiled which covers t h i r t y countries and d i s -cusses the r e l a t i v e role of central and l o c a l government and of non-governmental organizations i n bringing s o c i a l welfare services within the reach of t h e i r c l i e n t s . A study of special importance f o r the s o c i a l work pro-fession and s o c i a l work education generally i s the survey " T r a i -ning f o r Social Work: an International Survey" (E/CN.5/196). This encompasses information about t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s and methods i n t h i r t y - f o u r countries, along with supplementary material trans-mitted by u n i v e r s i t i e s and schools i n d i f f e r e n t countries. It i s a general review of systems of schools of s o c i a l work, and a 122 comparative analysis of these i n s t i t u t i o n s , with special reference to t h e i r c u r r i c u l a r and hon-curricular aspects. The report also provides a directory of 367 schools of s o c i a l work. After the completion of t h i s report, i t was distributed amongst governments. Its analysis enabled the Social Commission to develop basic p r i n c i p l e s , relevant to professional t r a i n i n g of s o c i a l workers, which i n turn was sent to governments with a re-commendation for t h e i r support. It i s generally recognized to-day that the employment of trained s o c i a l welfare personnel, i n preference to unskilled workers adds to the effectiveness of ser-vice and to the improvement of standard of l i v i n g . It was f o r this reason that the attention of governments was aroused to providing educational grants and to Including s o c i a l work t r a i n -ing i n s o c i a l welfare policy making. In directing t h i s survey, Dr. Katherine Kendall, f o r -merly of London, now Secretary of the Council of Social Work Education, made an important contribution to s o c i a l work educa-t i o n 1 as well as giving i t a new international interpretation. In a subsequent a r t i c l e she emphasized that the supply of pro-fe s s i o n a l l y trained workers i s everywhere considerably short of the demand; and the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for f i l l i n g t h i s gap l i e s , i n the f i r s t place, with national policy-making bodies. The completion of this survey marked the f i r s t occasion on which an international body gave recognition to standards i n the s o c i a l work profession: they emphasize the professional 1 Kendall, Katherine, "International Developments i n Social Work Education", Social Work Journal. XXXII, No.2 ( A p r i l 1951), pp.70-78. 123 aspects of s o c i a l welfare, the necessity for professional training, and the need for governments to take action i n providing opportu-n i t i e s for train i n g . The Social Commission also assumed the task of doing a similar study on "In-Service-Training i n Social Welfare Agencies", which has been especially helpful i n areas lacking i n educational i n s t i t u t e s . To aid the effective use of community welfare cen-tres In r u r a l areas, a survey was also prepared on "Social Ser-vices i n Relation to Rural Welfare". The focus of t h i s study i s on community self-help programmes, with special reference to the contribution of the United Rations and the -specialized agencies. Periodic reports on s o c i a l conditions and development programmes enabled governments and the Secretariat to follow the progress of development programmes i n pa r t i c u l a r countries. For example, the "Social Welfare Information Series on Current L i t e r a -ture and Rational Conferences" i s an important peri o d i c a l b u l l e t i n , published by the United Rations. <• Its services extend to several areas : (1) Selection and reproduction of suitable ar-t i c l e s and o r i g i n a l reference material on various a c t i v i t i e s of the Social Commission, which are not covered i n other periodicals; (2) Information on s o c i a l welfare l i t e r a t u r e , films, conferences, obtained from governments, and specialized agencies and organizations; and catalogues of films of s o c i a l welfare a c t i v i t i e s ; (3) Directories of nation-wide organizations concerned with family, youth and ch i l d welfare, welfare of the aged, r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of the handicapped, and other.social services; and (4) Directories of schools of s o c i a l work and 124 other t r a i n i n g bodies. Technical information, together with seminars and con-ferences have each contributed to the t r a i n i n g of s o c i a l Workers and to the improvement of s o c i a l welfare programmes i n under-deve-loped areas. Their value, however, can only be l a s t i n g i f each method comprises a part of the other In an integrated n a t i o n a l or r e g i o n a l programme. They have to be applied In accordance with the need and with a focus on development-planning. The improvement of p r o f e s s i o n a l s k i l l i n under-developed areas w i l l e l iminate some obstacles i n the way of s o l v i n g welfare problems. Fellowships, s c h o l a r s h i p s , expert s e r v i c e s and seminars must be used i n such a way that they complement each other and the l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e resources. They are not an end i n them-selves . These methods of t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e are s i m i l a r to each other on account of t h e i r educational nature. However, t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n depends l a r g e l y on the l e v e l of s o c i a l welfare a c t i v i t i e s i n a country or i n a region. Scholarships are essen-t i a l i n p r o v i d i n g basic p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g , on the other hand, higher l e v e l of development can be f u r t h e r improved through f e l l o w s h i p s f o r observation, since the l a t t e r shows a broader horizon to l o c a l welfare programmes. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n seminars al s o requires a c e r t a i n degree of p r o f e s s i o n a l experience. In areas where p r o f e s s i o n a l s o c i a l work i s not yet a v a i l a b l e , semi-nars would do l i t t l e i n enabling exchange of information; i n -stead, the more basic steps toward such development have to be p r e f e r r e d . CHAPTER V RECEIVING AND CONTRIBUTING COUNTRIES: TWO EXAMPLES The Social Welfare Advisory Services are based on the principles that the s o c i a l work knowledge and experience of ad-vanced countries should be shared with the professional personnel of under-developed areas. The aim of the programme i s achieved through exchange of information at every l e v e l of s o c i a l welfare administration. The programme marks the beginning of a new era i n international welfare and gives new emphasis to s o c i a l work education. This programme i s the outcome of comparative expe-rience between standards, cultures, economic and s o c i a l values. Its value i s not merely that i t i n i t i a t e d s o c i a l welfare deve-lopment throughout the world. In addition, the special s i g n i -ficance of technical assistance to s o c i a l work i s that i t i s provided by governments through an international body which recog-nized the necessity of establishing international principles and educational standards f o r professional s o c i a l work. The advisory s o c i a l welfare services, however, make la s t i n g contributions only i f the basic principles of the programme are adhered to throughout. Well-formulated requests from govern-ments are necessary i n order to give a concrete basis of objectives. To achieve t h i s , p a r t i c i p a t i n g governments have appointed an ap-propiate agency to co-ordinate and supervise l o c a l a c t i v i t i e s . The programme must, i n addition, be backed by the necessary funds 126 contributed both by the United Nations and by recipient govern-ments. Only through such a co-operative e f f o r t can the programmes be f u l l y integrated into the national plans. In order that the plans may be carried out systematical-l y , i t i s essential that the selection of scholars, fellows and experts be made i n terms of suitable c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l q u a l i f i -cations, enabling participants to make the highest contributions to t h e i r country's welfare. The underlying principles of United Nations Technical Assistance Programmes have now been presented, and the methods used i n s o c i a l welfare a c t i v i t i e s described. These a c t i v i t i e s can best be understood, however, i n the l i g h t of a country's t o t a l development. The reason for this i s mainly that s o c i a l welfare a c t i v i t i e s anywhere are closely "related to the prevalent economic and p o l i t i c a l conditions and to the cu l t u r a l and s o c i a l standards. Furthermore, a study of a country's overall welfare programme shows how the different f i e l d s of s o c i a l services re-la t e , on the one hand, to professional s o c i a l work education, and, on the other, to economic development. Such an analysis also reveals how a long-term, comprehensive national plan underlies immediate plans. Two s p e c i f i c countries were chosen to give con-crete examples of the "mutual aid" pr i n c i p l e s which are prevalent i n United Nations a c t i v i t i e s . The implementation of advisory s o c i a l welfare services i n Guatemala was one example, because thi s was one of the f i r s t countries where United Nations a c t i v i -t i e s have enabled far-reaching national reforms, and where i t was f i r s t recognized that technological change, expansion of production and a s h i f t i n s o c i a l structure must be accompanied by welfare 127 a c t i v i t i e s i n order that such evolution may be l a s t i n g . Canada was chosen as the example of contributing countries, mainly on account of i t s integrated administrative machinery which was set up f o r the purpose of technical assistance, and because the Canadian people and the government have shown interest i n helping other coun-t r i e s to f a r greater extent i n proportion to any of the Member governments. The Technical Assistance Programme i n Guatemala Guatemala, a country which lacked industry almost com-pl e t e l y and which has not developed i t s natural resources to t h e i r maximum capacity, showed also a low standard i n i t s welfare pro-1 grammes. After the 1944 Revolution, the Guatemalan government i n -troduced a comprehensive economic and s o c i a l reform programme. Technological retardation was found to be one of the problems of production. In addition to t h i s , the poverty of small farmers, comprising the majority of the rural- population, brough about multiple problems of general welfare. The government had become extremely conscious of the need to develop i t s s o c i a l welfare ser-vices, i n order to meet the most pressing needs of the population. The formation of Guatemala's s o c i a l security scheme shows 1 Economic and Social Council, Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance, 4th Report of the Technical Assistance Board to the Technical Assistance Committee. Vol. I I . E/2213 (8 May, 1952), pp.107-111. New York, 1952. See also: Report of the Secretary-General, United Nations Programme of Technical Assistance. E/2209 (21 A p r i l , 1952), p.28; and, Technical Assistance Administration, United Nations Technical Assistance Fortnightly B u l l e t i n , (15 May, 1951), pp.1-2. 128 positive signs of post-war economic growth, due to the measures taken by the government to expedite technical development. The programme of s o c i a l security was b u i l t gradually and was based upon a general plan which spelled out the needs that had to be met f i r s t . However, i t was also recognized that the available machinery and f i n a n c i a l resources would allow only a gradual i n -troduction of welfare measures. Thus, the expansion of welfare services depended largely upon a general increase i n production, i n income and on the improvement of l i v i n g standards. The "Organic Law" of 1946 made provision f o r the i n t r o -duction of a comprehensive s o c i a l welfare programme which was to operate throughout the Republic. This was preceded by a pre-liminary report and recommendations, as well as by information material produced and used by the government to obtain public understanding and support f o r the programme. The Act was an enabling measure setting up an adminis-t r a t i v e structure, the Guatemalan Social Security I n s t i t u t e . The f i r s t step i n organizing the Institute was to e n l i s t the services of the Ministry of Public Health and Social Assistance, which were successively expanded to suit the programme. The plan aimed at the eventual inclusion of a l l residents i n the welfare scheme. To this end, the s o c i a l security system was divided between two authorities; the Minister of Public Health and Social Assistance became responsible f o r medical care f o r s o c i a l assistance cases and for the maintenance of community health, whereas a l l other schemes were to be administered by the State Social Insurance I n s t i t u t i o n , supervised by the Minister 129 -of labour and Economic A f f a i r s . It soon became apparent that s o c i a l welfare measures cannot succeed without trained personnel. But there were no f a c i l i t i e s i n Guatemala for s o c i a l work train i n g . This problem was f i r s t discussed at the Inter-American Congress of Women at Guatemala City i n 1947, where the need f o r so c i a l work tr a i n i n g i n Latin America was given serious considera-ti o n . Following t h i s conference, the f i r s t United Nations Social Welfare Seminar was held at Medellin, Colombia, i n August 1947, at which certain members of the Guatemalan Institute of Social Security were also present. The Director of th i s Seminar was appointed by the United Nations and he was assisted by other s t a f f members In organizing and conducting the programme. The twenty-five delegates to Medellin came from thirteen countries; of these, twelve came from governmental departments; three from schools of s o c i a l work; there were four educators, three s o c i a l workers, and three others. The programme of the seminar centred around the follow-ing problems: s o c i a l welfare training and community organization, general principles of s o c i a l welfare, child, welfare, health, r u r a l welfare, programmes of work, and problems of delinquency. The language of the seminar was Spanish. As a result of these meetings, the need f o r s o c i a l work trai n i n g became even more evident> and the Government of Guatemala approached the United Nations to provide assistance i n establish-ing a school of s o c i a l work. ' In the F a l l of 1948, Dr. Walter P e t t i t , Director of the 130 New York School of Social Work was assigned i n an advisory capacity to a s s i s t the government i n this endeavour. Subsequently, four experts were secured through the UN to make plans f o r setting up the school, and a Regional Liaison O f f i c e r was appointed to co-ordinate other technical assistance projects. The experts so assigned to the school came from Puerto Rico, Chile and B r a z i l . An expert spent seven months i n Guatemala and did the i n i t i a l planning and organizing, and drew up further plans f o r United Nations scholarships and fellowships which the school could obtain i n the t r a i n i n g of s o c i a l workers. Another expert spent nine months, beginning i n A p r i l 1949, when the school was opened, i n developing the curriculum and teaching methods, d i r e c t i n g and planning classes, d e l i v e r i n g lectures, and organizing and super-v i s i n g field-work. This expert was also asked by the government to advise on the reorganization of welfare services. It was understood that a Guatemala national should eventually be appointed as the director of the school. Meanwhile, upon the request of the government, several United Nations fellowships and scholarships were awarded to Guatemalan cit i z e n s to study s o c i a l work methods abroad. The f i r s t three fellowships were awarded to graduates of the School of Social Work of Guatemala for s:udy i n Uruguay, Chile and Mexico, respectively. The courses established i n the school of so c i a l work were closely related to conditions i n Guatemala. The curricu-lum included subjects such as casework, s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n , s o c i a l problems and s o c i a l welfare i n s t i t u t i o n s of Guatemala, 131 psychology and mental hygiene, general principles of medicine, the various forms of s o c i a l security, s o c i a l anthropology, n u t r i t i o n and d i e t e t i c s . For p r a c t i c a l experience the students were assigned to Guatemalan agencies, and, i n addition, groups of students par-ticipate d i n f i e l d t r i p s to s o c i a l welfare i n s t i t u t i o n s i n order to acquire first-hand knowledge of s o c i a l welfare conditions. The school i s now functioning according to the highest standards of s o c i a l work education and i t has made the principles and methods of s o c i a l service known throughout the country. The experts also acted i n a consultative capacity to s o c i a l welfare agencies p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the setting up of the Guatemalan Demonstration Centre for the s o c i a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of the b l i n d . An expert was delegated to help establish a compre-hensive and co-ordinated programme f o r the t o t a l l y and p a r t i a l l y disabled blind i n a resident school, the programme of which i n -cluded vocational training, development of employment opportunities f o r the blind, s o c i a l adjustment techniques and a programme of public information and tr a i n i n g of personnel for work with the blind. The Guatemalan s o c i a l reform and the adjunctive techni-cal assistance programme i l l u s t r a t e the importance of comprehen-sive development planning. P a r a l l e l with the assistance obtained, l o c a l action was taken to harmonize s o c i a l welfare a c t i v i t i e s . The technical assistance programme took advantage of a l l methods of the advisory s o c i a l welfare services. I n i t i a l exploration and planning a c t i v i t i e s resulted from the lesson of a United Nations seminar; and a request for, and the appointment of, a 1 3 2 a s o c i a l welfare consultant was accompanied by l o c a l action and planning. U t i l i z i n g the services of resident representatives, expert consultants, fellowships and scholarships, technical i n f o r -mation and equipment, a firm foundation was l a i d for s o c i a l work education. Furthermore, through improving professional s k i l l s , i t was not possible to implement positive measures i n solving indigenous s o c i a l problems, with a focus on the general welfare of the t o t a l population. Canadian P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Advisory Social Welfare Services While the United Nations machinery co-ordinates tech-n i c a l assistance a c t i v i t i e s and ensures that services should be provided to those countries that need them, the instruments for this international programme are provided by Member governments. The governments of technically more advanced countries have recog-nized t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a s s i s t i n g under-developed countries not only by contributing the funds necessary to Implement the programme, but by providing the p r a c t i c a l services. They them-selves have asked, at least i n the f i r s t instance, t h e i r experien-ced or professional c i t i z e n s to serve on t h e i r behalf abroad; they have also given United Nations Fellows and scholars from recipient countries the opportunity to compare developed standards with t h e i r own, and to benefit from the available higher profes-sional educational f a c i l i t i e s by i n v i t i n g them to more advanced countries. Canada, both as a member of the Economic and Social Council and hence of the Technical Assistance Committee, has been 133 well represented i n the planning and co-ordination of various technical assistance programmes. In addition to f i n a n c i a l con-tributions, Canada has also given tangible evidence of the desire to co-operate i n a p r a c t i c a l manner by sending tehnical experts and by offering educational f a c i l i t i e s to United Nations Fellows and scholars. In fact, i n the l a s t eight years, p a r t i c i p a t i o n by Canadians has extended into a l l f i e l d s of assistance. In order to co-ordinate a l l Canadian a c t i v i t i e s i n the sphere of technical assistance, an International Economic and Technical Co-operation Division was established i n the Department of Trade and Commerce, i n September 1951, 1 under the direction of 2 Mr. R. G. Cavell of Toronto. The Division i s responsible f o r the administrative end of Canada's commitments to the economic development programme of United Nations Technical Assistance and the Colombo Plan (the programme for technical co-operation i n South and South East'Asia). The Division consists of two main units: ( l ) a group which Is concerned primarily with " c a p i t a l assistance" ( i . e . , sup-ply of machinery and other goods), and (2) the Technical Co-opera-t i o n Service, which i s essentially concerned with people (selec-t i o n of experts, planning for Fellows and scholars). The Technical Co-operation Service accordingly has a directorate which arranges the programmes fo r a l l foreign trainees 1 Department of Trade and Commerce, 60th Annual Report, Ottawa, 1951, p.49-,2 -Former Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Canadian i n s t i t u t e of International A f f a i r s and an i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y known businessman with many years of experience i n the Far East. 134 (Fellows and scholars) who come to Canada to study under the auspices of the various agencies which sponsor them (UN, UNESCO, FAO, WHO, Colombo Plan, etc.); and a second directorate which recruits and dispatches Canadian experts who go to the various technical assistance programmes abroad. The t r a i n i n g programme for Fellows and scholars i s designed to provide them with plans and in s t r u c t i o n programmes i n t h e i r f i e l d s of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , but i t also attempts to give them as complete a picture as possible of the democratic i n s t i t u t i o n s and general culture i n Canada. Since the programme began, nearly 200 persons have come to Canada under the auspices of the United Nations. The great majority of these were Fellows who have acquainted themselves with Canadian techniques i n t h e i r respective f i e l d s . Although t h e i r professions were preponderantly connected with industry, technology and natural resources, a sizeable number of s o c i a l wel-fare workers have also studied under United Nations and other international programmes (see Table 2, p.135). Under UNESCO, a fundamental education project has been established at Laval University i n Quebec City, f o r French-speak-ing trainees from H a i t i and the Middle East. In addition,, the McG-ill School of Social Work i n Montreal, at the suggestion of the Scholarship Panel of the Technical Co-operation Division, i s to o f f e r special courses for UN trainees to help them adapt Canadian methods to t h e i r own country's needs and conditions. 1 1 This very s i g n i f i c a n t development i s the f i r s t of i t s kind and i t s principles are further analysed i n Chapter I I . 135 Table 2. Personnel Trained i n Canada for The United. Nations, 1950-1955 F i e l d of Study Fellows Scholars Total Industrial Services and Technology 45 2 47 Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, Natural Re-sources and Development 10 - 10 Economies 42 . 2 44 Administration and Manage-ment 42 1 43 Social Welfare 16 7 2 3 Social Sciences* 5 1 6 Health** • 1 - 1 Total 161 13 174 <-> Source: Adapted from S t a t i s t i c a l Summary of Technical Co-operation Pro- gramme, 1950 - 31 December, 1955 of the Technical Co-operation Division, Department of Trade and Commerce, Ottawa, Canada, pp.1-5. In addition to the above, 206 persons were trained -under the following: Colombo Plan 161; UNESCO projects 29; FAO 8; ICAO 5; HO 1; FOA 2. The 174 persons from the United Nations came from 53 countries. * Includes education, l i b r a r y , communication and town, planning. ** Most training in.the-area of health services has been done under the sponsorship of the World Health Organization. 136 In the broad administration of the tr a i n i n g programme, a l l u n i v e r s i t i e s have been included i n the Directorate's work, and the schools of s o c i a l work across Canada have been hosts to welfare trainees coming from Europe, Latin America and the Asian countries. During the period 1950-1953, out of fourteen trainees who studied i n Canada under the sponsorship of the United Nations, seven were s o c i a l workers (one of them a student at the Univer-s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia), and three were studying i n related f i e l d s . 1 A l l requests for scholarships or fellowships are addres-sed by the United Nations and i t s agencies d i r e c t to the Technical Co-operation Service. The s o c i a l welfare applications are then forwarded to the Social Welfare Panel of thi s d i v i s i o n , and the Chairman, i n turn, recommends a suitable programme for t r a i n i n g . Academic training i s provided within the f a c i l i t i e s of di f f e r e n t u n i v e r s i t i e s , and programmes of observation for welfare Fellows are also explored and arranged by the Social Welfare Panel, i n consultation with schools of s o c i a l work and other welfare i n s t i -tutions. When the Technical Co-operation Service i s assured that a suitable programme of training can be arranged i n Canada, and that the Department of External A f f a i r s has no objection to the entrance of the trainee into Canada, the Directorate n o t i f i e s the United Nations. When the trainee arrives i n Canada, the Direc-1 Technical Co-operation Service, Monthly Report Trainees and Experts - 15 February, 1954. International Econo-mic and Technical Co-operation Division, Department of Trade and Commerce, Ottawa, Canada, February, 1954. pp.1—11. 137 torate makes the necessary administrative arrangements, and refers him, i f he i s a welfare trainee, to the Executive Assistant of the Deputy Minister of National Health and Welfare, who i s the Chair-man of the Social Welfare Panel. After a b r i e f i n g period, the Fellows proceed on a planned i t i n e r a r y throughout which they are assisted by Provincial Welfare Department representatives and wel-fare agency administrators. When the regular six-month period of observation i s over, the Fellows hand i n t h e i r reports to the Social Welfare Panel and return to the United Nations headquarters. Similarly, technical assistance scholarship-holders are required to keep i n touch with the Social Welfare Panel throughout t h e i r stay i n Canada. The Panel acts as a l i a i s o n between the trainee and the Technical Co-operation Division, and generally as the trustee f o r the trainee during his programme.1 A separate d i v i s i o n of the International Economic and Technical Co-operation Div i s i o n a s s i s t s UN and i t s specialized agencies i n r e c r u i t i n g technical experts. During the second year of i t s a c t i v i t i e s , the Division was considerably strengthened-2 to meet the increasing demands of the United Nations. In 1952, as many as nearly one hundred Canadian experts 1 B a r t l e t t , D.W., Mr., Chief, Technical Co-operation Service, l e t t e r to the writer (3 February, 1954). Bowen, D.G., Mr., Technical Co-operation Service, l e t t e r to the writer (6 November, 1953). S i n c l a i r , D.B., Mrs., Executive Assistant to the Deputy Minister of Health, and Welfare, l e t t e r to the writer (2 December, 1953). 2 Department of Trade and Commerce, 61st Annual Re- port. 1952, Ottawa, 1952. pp.52-57. 138 were working abroad under the United Nations Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance, some of them assuming leadership i n s o c i a l welfare p r o j e c t s . 1 To mention a few outstanding examples, the lat e Dr. Harry Cassidy, who was head of the School of Social Work at the University of Toronto, went as an expert to a s s i s t the government of Egypt i n set t i n g up a tra i n i n g i n s t i t u t e f o r the blind; Miss A l i c C a r r o l l , P rovincial Supervisor of Psychiatric Social Work i n the Province of B r i t i s h Columbia, went to Japan as a s o c i a l welfare adviser to ass i s t i n setting up child welfare services; Miss Elizabeth Govan of the Canadian'Welfare Council, the f i r s t person under the Technical Assistance Administration to v i s i t Iraq, helped with the establishment of s o c i a l work tra i n i n g there; Mrs. Helen McCrae, of the School of Social Work at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, taught c h i l d welfare at the UN Seminar i n Sweden, and Miss Marjorie J. Smith, Director of the School of Social Work at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, taught at the International Social Casework Seminar i n Finland. The recruitment of experts i s done upon the request of the United Nations through the appropriate channels of the Tech-n i c a l Co-operation Di v i s i o n . An attempt was made by the Social Welfare Panel to keep.a roster of suitable experts i n various f i e l d s who might be available i f t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s k i l l was re-quested by-one of the receiving governments. The Department of Health and Welfare, with the co-operation of the Canadian Asso-ciation of Social Workers, the Canadian Welfare Council, and the schools of s o c i a l work, p e r i o d i c a l l y provides a l i s t of experts. 1 Davis, R.E.G., "The Social Setting", 55rd Annual Report, Canadian Welfare Council, Ottawa, 1955. 139 Sometimes the Technical Assistance Administration, from i t s own knowledge, approaches people di r e c t . In other cases, individuals made direct application to the United Nations or have channelled t h e i r application through the Canadian government. The procedure i s f l e x i b l e , but the aim i s to find the best q u a l i f i e d person f o r the particular task. There Is very l i t t l e l e g i s l a t i o n governing the operations of the Technical Co-operation Division; i t s only l e g i s l a t i v e autho-r i t y i s a section of the "Appropriations Act" of 1951, which grants power for expenditure under regulations established by the Governor General-in-Council. These regulations simply grant authority to spend funds for specified purposes under specified conditions and do not go into the organizational aspect of the operations. Canada i s continuing to support the technical assistance a c t i v i t i e s . But to be f u l l y e f f e c t i v e , Canada's contribution to these schemes must have the understanding and backing of the Cana-dian people. Individuals, business associations, professional organizations and the government can promote technical assistance programmes of the United Nations and i t s specialized agencies to achieve t h e i r aim of r a i s i n g the standards of l i v i n g of under-developed areas by helping to find the right kind of expert and by ensuring that the nationals of countries which they are h e l -ping are welcomed into Canada. Relation to Social Work as a Profession In order to make s o c i a l work tr a i n i n g e f f e c t i v e , the right kind of education must be provided f o r both Canadian 1 1 4 0 s o c i a l workers and for the United Nations trainees. The Council of Social Work Education (mainly an American body but with exten-sive Canadian membership), i n outlining the standards of profes-sional t r a i n i n g has placed special emphasis upon the knowledge and understanding of the s o c i a l services, their development, and t h e i r r e l a t i o n to the s o c i a l order, to s o c i a l change and to community needs. There is l i t t l e doubt that the technical assistance pro-grammes are stimulating s o c i a l workers anew to greater awareness of the interrelatedness of s o c i a l and economic factors. Techni-c a l assistance programmes, l i k e s o c i a l welfare i t s e l f , recognize "three-dimensional" etiology of deprivation: socio-cultural, psychological, and economic determinants.. To-day, schools of s o c i a l work are broadening the areas of teaching with the comparative analyses of generic s o c i a l work methods and pri n c i p l e s which are basic to s o c i a l work practice throughout the world. Such a curriculum enables s o c i a l workers to participate e f f e c t i v e l y i n the advisory s o c i a l welfare services abroad, and i t also highlights "the areas which have to be included i n the supervision and guidance of foreign trainees studying i n Canada. While i t is important to provide the l a t t e r with ade-. quate s o c i a l work training, fellowships and scholarships w i l l serve the purposes of technical assistance only i f the trainee i s .helped through supervision to study and to Observe, keeping constantly i n mind the needs and differences of his own country. In view of this trend i n s o c i a l work, i t i s not accidental that the 7th International Conference on Social Work (to be held i n Toronto, June 27 - July 2, 1954) has adopted as i t s theme "Se l f -141 H e l p a n d C o - o p e r a t i v e A c t i o n " . A t t h i s c o n f e r e n c e s o c i a l w o r k e r s o f a l l n a t i o n s w i l l e x p l o r e ways i n w h i c h t h e p r o f e s s i o n a s a w h o l e c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e w o r l d c o m m u n i t y . T h i s c o n f e r e n c e w i l l u n d o u b t e d l y b r i n g t o t h e f o r e f i n d -i n g s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s o f many s o c i a l w o r k e r s who s e r v e d a s e x p e r t s i n t h e p rogramme o f A d v i s o r y S o c i a l W e l f a r e S e r v i c e s . I t i s l a r g e l y t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o g u i d e t h e p r o f e s s i o n as a w h o l e i n a n e f f o r t t o e s t a b l i s h i n t e r n a t i o n a l w e l f a r e s t a n d a r d s . Up t o 1 9 5 2 , o v e r s e v e n t y s o c i a l w o r k e x p e r t s f r o m many c o u n t r i e s h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s p r o g r a m ® , and t h e i r n u m b e r h a s b e e n i n c r e a s i n g e v e r s i n c e . R e g r e t t a b l y , t h e r e i s n o t y e t much p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e i n w h i c h t h e s e s o c i a l w o r k e r s h a v e a n a l y z e d a n d s h a r e d t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e . F o r e x a m p l e , l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h s u c h s u b j e c t s a s t h e way i n w h i c h c u l t u r a l c o n c e p t s a n d a t t i t u d e s a f f e c t t h e w o r k o f a N o r t h A m e r i c a n s o c i a l w e l f a r e a d v i s e r i n t h e O r i e n t , w h e r e t h e s m a l l e s t s e r v i c e r e n d e r e d t o i n d i v i d u a l s c a r r i e s w i t h i t an o b l i g a t i o n f o r r e p a y m e n t i n k i n d o n b e h a l f o f t h e h e l p e d ; d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a n d w o r k o f s o c i a l w o r k e r s i n u n d e r - d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s w h e r e t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r ' s d u t i e s a r e o n l y p a r t i a l l y i n t h e a r e a o f s o c i a l w e l f a r e , a n d t o a g r e a t e x t e n t i n de f a c t o h e a l t h s e r v i c e s ; - s u c h a r t i c l e s w o u l d g i v e N o r t h A m e r i c a n s o c i a l w o r k e r s s p e c i a l i n s i g h t i n t o t h e o b s t a c l e s a n d d i f f i c u l t i e s w h i c h p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e p rogramme h a v e t o f a c e . C l e a r l y s u c h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a l s o i l l u s -t r a t e s t h e n e e d f o r t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f s o c i a l work w i t h o t h e r f i e l d s , s u c h a s p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e , s o c i a l e c o n o m i c s , s o c i a l p s y c h o -l o g y , and . s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y . 142 Conclusion The Technical Assistance Programme i n general, and the Advisory Social Welfare Services i n p a r t i c u l a r , have a special interest for s o c i a l workers. In th i s programme of the. United Nations, a l l countries of the world banded together"with a view to the creation of conditions of s t a b i l i t y and well-being which are necessary for peaceful and f r i e n d l y relations among nations based on respect of the rights and self-determination of peoples, ...to promote high standards of l i v i n g , f u l l employment and con-ditions of economic and s o c i a l progress and development." 1 Most of the technical assistance programmes are s t i l l preocuppied with r a i s i n g economic productivity. Nevertheless welfare services have now been " b u i l t i n " to t h i s broad objective. Advisory s o c i a l welfare services, of course, cover more than has been the subject of the present study. No attempt has been made to analyse i n d e t a i l the p a r t i c u l a r areas of welfare a c t i v i t i e s which would include public welfare administration, community organization, corrections, housing, town and country planning, r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of the physically handicapped, insuran-ces and s o c i a l assistance, assistance, to indigent aliens, and mother and c h i l d care. Neither have human rights, narcotics, and population studies been considered, although they are essential to the s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s of the United Nations- Any of these could be topics for special research. It i s , however, of special importance that a better understanding be gained of the principles and methods underlying 1 A r t i c l e 55(a) of the United Nations Charter of 1946. 143 the technical assistance programme on the broadest international l e v e l . The aims of the programme, on examination, prove to be closely analogous to those towards which s o c i a l workers have been working i n p a r t i c u l a r countries for many years. In Technical Assistance, for the f i r s t time, s o c i a l work as a profession has been recognized by an international governmental organization and has been invited to join teams of professional experts. In ad-d i t i o n , s o c i a l -welfare i s now regarded, not as an adjunct to p o l i t i c a l or economic aspirations, "but rather as the foremost goal of national development. ' In a sense certain welfare needs are now recognized as the right of every i n d i v i d u a l , community and nation. Several other a c t i v i t i e s also - the expansion of industry, the use of natural resources, increased production of food - are now welfare-focused. And as s o c i a l work practice centres upon the well-being of people i n need, so are technical assistance a c t i v i t i e s centripetal and focus upon the needs of the under-developed countries. The United Rations has formulated a philosophy and some basic principles which underlie the Technical Assistance Programme. These pr i n c i p l e s are also basic to s o c i a l work. But more s p e c i f i c a l l y , a United Rations Programme of advisory s o c i a l welfare services has been developed, using methods unique to s o c i a l work (casework, group work, community organization) i n serving under-developed countries. The United Rations and the p a r t i c i p a t i n g agencies are making continuous efforts to Improve t h e i r methods and services. The value of the programme depends, on the one hand, on the f o l -low-up on the recommendations of participants, seminars and 144 conferences; and, on the other hand, on studies conducted subse-quently to appraise the r e s u l t s of i n d i v i d u a l assignments and seminars i n r e l a t i o n to s o c i a l development i n the r e c i p i e n t coun-t r i e s . The advisory s o c i a l welfare s e r v i c e s are r a p i d l y becoming an i n t e g r a t e d part of n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l planning. By promoting development through successive stages, s t a r t i n g often from the most modest l e v e l , through which higher standards c o n s i s -tent with the country's resources are being reached, u s u a l l y every step b r i n g s about changes and. .opens up new needs. I t i s impor-tant that r e a l i s t i c planning should take these i n t o account, i n order that the changes may be followed by f u r t h e r I n t e r n a t i o n a l assistance and n a t i o n a l a c t i o n . The United Nations Technical Assistance i s w e l l aware, of t h i s . I t has become a f o r c e i n en-couraging governments of under-developed countries to plan f o r the s o c i a l progress of t h e i r own peoples i n a way which o f f e r s i n the s o r e l y d i s t r e s s e d world of to-day one of the r e a l keys to the peace of mankind. No p r o f e s s i o n should be able to welcome t h i s more than s o c i a l work. APPENDIX A The Charter of the Rights of the Child I. THE CHILD must he protected beyond and above a l l considerations of race, nationality, or creed. I I . THE CHILD must be cared for with due respect for the family • as an entity. I I I . THE CHILD must be given the means requisite for i t s normal development, materially, morally and spiritually. IV. THE CHILD that i s hungry must be fed, the child that is sick must be nursed, the child that i s physically or mentally handicapped must be helped, the maladjusted child must be re-educated, the orphan and the waif must be sheltered and suc-coured. Vi THE CHILD must be the f i r s t to receive re l i e f in times of distress. VI. THE CHILD must enjoy f u l l benefits provided by social wel-fare and social security schemes, must'receive a training which will enable i t , at the right time to earn a livelihood, and must be protected against every form of exploitation. VII. THE CHILD must be brought up in the consciousness that i t s talents must be devoted to the service of i t s fellow men. 1 The Save the Children's Fund: "The Charter of the Rights of the Child". The World's Children. Vol. XXXIII, Ho.2, March 1 9 5 3 , p.3 8 . APPENDIX B Text of Resolution 58 (I) Adopted by the General Assembly on December 14, 1946 Whereas-Article 66 of the Charter of the United Nations provides : 1. The Economic and Social Council s h a l l perform such func-tions as f a l l within i t s competence i n connection with the carry-ing out of the recommendations of the General Assembly. 2. It may, with the approval of the General Assembly, per-form services at the request of Members of the United Nations and at the request of the specialized agencies. 3 . It s h a l l perform such other functions as are specified elsewhere i n the present Charter or as may be assigned to i t by the General Assembly; Whereas the Economic and Social Council, on 1 October 1 9 4 6 , recommended the transfer to the United Nations of certai n urgent and important advisory functions i n the f i e l d of s o c i a l welfare carried on by UNRRA, special consideration being given to the needs of children; Whereas the General Assembly, a f t e r examining the report and the recommendations presented by the Secretary General i n document A/ 1 3 2 , recognizes the necessity of transferring to the United Nations the urgent and important advisory functions i n the f i e l d of s o c i a l welfare carried on by UNRRA; The General Assembly, therefore, A. Authorizes the Secretary-General: 1. In consultation with the Economic and Social Council, to make provision, with the co-operation of the specialized agencies where appropriate, for the continuance of the urgent and important advisory functions i n the f i e l d of soc i a l welfare carried on by UNRRA; and, for t h i s purpose, 2 . To include i n the budget of_the United Nations f o r 1947 the funds necessary f o r the assumption of the following functions, a l l of which are necessary for the accomplishment of an effec t i v e programme: 1 United Nations General Assembly O f f i c i a l Records. Agenda item 3 1 . Annexes F i f t h Session. New York, 1 9 5 0 . Agenda item 31: Advisory Social Welfare Services: Report of the Economic and Social Council. Document A/ 1 3 5 5 . Annex 1, pp.2 - 4 . 1 4 7 (a) For a requisite number of social welfare experts to pro-vide, on the request of governments which show the need for them, such advisory services, and to put into practice, over an appro-priate period, new technical methods in any branch of social wel-fare; (b) For enabling a requisite number of suitable qualified social welfare o f f i c i a l s to observe, and familiarize themselves with, the experience of other countries administering social wel-fare programmes; (c) For providing advice, demonstration and instruction i n connexion with the manufacture of prosthetic appliances and the vocational training Of physically handicapped persons; and for furnishing the necessary equipment and tools; (d) For furnishing to the Member countries which have been devastated during the war, technical publications helpful in the training of social welfare workers. The furnishing of the experts shall be undertaken by the Secretary-General in agreement with the governments concerned, and the selection of grant holders shall be made by the Secretary-General on the basis of proposals received from governments. The amount of service to be furnished to the various governments shall be decided by the Secretary-General, and shall be reviewed by the Social Commission at its next session. The kind of service men-tioned under (a), (b), (c), and (d) to be rendered to each country shall be decided by the government.concerned. B. Requests the Secretary-General to report to the Social Commission on the measures which he takes in compliance with the terms of the present resolution, and requests the Commission during i t s f i r s t session to formulate recommendations concerning the con-tinued action required to carry on the essential advisory a c t i v i -ties of UNRRA in the field of social welfare. APPENDIX C Resolution 200 (III) Technical Assistance for Economic Development The General Assembly, 1. Taking into account the action i n r e l a t i o n to technical assistance previously taken by the General Assembly (resolutions 52(1) and 58(1) of 14 December 1946) and by the Economic and Social Council (resolutions 27(IV) and 51(IV) of 28 March 1947, 96(V) of 12 August 1947, 139(VII) A, of 26 August 1948 and 149(VII) C, of 27 August 1948), 2. Considering that (a) The promotion of conditions of economic and s o c i a l pro-gress and development is one of the p r i n c i p a l objectives of the Charter of the United Nations, (b) The lack of expert personnel and lack of technical or-ganization are among the factors which impede the economic deve-lopment of the under-developed areas, (c) The United Nations can extend efficacious and timely help i n this connection for the achievement of the objectives set forth i n Chapters IX and X of the Charter, 3. Decides to appropriate the funds necessary to enable the Secretary-General to perform the following functions, where appro-priate i n co-operation with the specialized agencies, when reques-ted to do so by Member Governments: (a) Arrange for the organization of international teams con-s i s t i n g of experts provided by or through the United Nations and the specialized agencies for the purpose of advising those Govern-ments i n connection with t h e i r economic development programmes., the organization of such teams, of course, not to preclude the i n v i t a t i o n of individual, or groups of, experts from the United Nations or from specialized agencies i n connection with problems i n the f i e l d of those specialized agencies; (b) Arrange for f a c i l i t i e s for the t r a i n i n g abroad of ex-perts of under-developed countries through the provisions of f e l -lowships for study i n those countries or i n s t i t u t i o n s which, i n the p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d s of study1, have achieved an advanced l e v e l of technical competence; (c) Arrange f o r the t r a i n i n g of l o c a l technicians within the under-developed countries themselves by promoting v i s i t s of experts 1 United Nations, O f f i c i a l Records of the Third Ses-sion of the General Assembly, Part I. 21 Sept.-12 Dec. 1948. RESOLUTIONS (Palais de C h a i l l o t , P a r i s ) . A/810. Dec. 1948. Resolution 200 (III) Technical Assistance for Economic Development, pp. 38-40. 149 in various aspects of economic development for the purpose of i n -structing local personnel and for assisting in the organization of technical institutions. (d) Provide f a c i l i t i e s designed to assist Governments to ob-tain technical personnel, equipment and supplies, and to arrange for the organization of such other services as may be appropriate in the promotion of economic development, including the organization of seminars on special problems of economic development, and the ex-change of current information concerning technical problems of eco-nomic development; 4. Instructs the Secretary-General to undertake the perfor-mance of the functions-listed i n paragraph 3 above, i n agreement with the Governments concerned, on the basis of requests received from Governments with due regard to geographical considerations and in accordance with the following policies: (a) The amount of services and the financial conditions under which they shall be furnished to the various Governments shall be decided by the Secretary-General, and shall be reviewed by the Economic and Social Council at each of i t s sessions; (b) The kind of service mentioned under paragraph 3 to be rendered to each country shall be decided by the Government con-cerned; (c) The countries desiring assistance should perform in ad-vance as much of the work as possible in order to define the na-ture and the scope of the problem involved; (d) The technical assistance furnished shall (i) not be a means of foreign economic and p o l i t i c a l interference in the inter-nal affairs of the country concerned and shall not be accompanied by any considerations of a p o l i t i c a l nature; ( i i ) be given only to or through Governments; ( i i i ) be designed to meet the needs of the country concerned; (iv) be provided, as far as possible, in the form which that country desires; (v) be of high quality and technical competence; (e) The sums appropriated for the performance of the func-tions set forth in paragraph 3 shall not be expended on functions or services which are a special responsibility of a specialized agency except in agreement with the executive head of that agency; 5. Requests the Secretary-General to report to each session of the Economic and Social Council on the measures which he has taken in compliance with the terms of the present resolution; 6. Recommends to the Economic and Social Council that i t review at each session and, when-necessary, formulate recommen-dations concerning policy and budgetary action required by the General Assembly to carry on the functions instituted by the present resolution. Hundred and seventieth plenary meeting 4 December 1948. APPENDIX D Resolution 222 (IX) Economic Development of Under-Developed Countries-^ Resolutions of 14 and 15 August 1949 Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance for Economic Development of Under-Developed Countries Resolution of 15 August 1949 The Economic and Social Council, Having considered the report prepared "by the Secretary-General, in consultation with the specialized agencies, on an ex-panded programme of technical assistance for economic development, pursuant to resoltuion 180(VHI), Being impressed with the significant contribution to economic development that can be made by an expansion of the international interchange of technical knowledge through inter-national co-operation among countries, Believing that a sound international programme of t h i s character must combine and make use of the experience of many nations, with different social patterns and cultural traditions and at different stages of development, so as to fac i l i t a t e pro-gress in the less advanced countries and to help solve their technical and economic problembs, 1. Transmits to the General Assembly the above-mentioned report together with the observations and guiding principles set out i n Annex I of this resolution; 2. Recommends that the General Assembly approve the draft resolution i n Annex II, which provides for an expanded programme of technical assistance for economic development of under-deve-loped countries; 3. Requests the Secretary-General, subject to such de-cision as may be taken by the General Assembly on the draft resolution in Annex II, to invite the Administrative Committee on Co-ordination to set up a Technical Assistance Board (TAB) which 1 United Nations, Economic and Social Council O f f i c i a l Records; Fourth Year, Ninth Session 5 July-15 August 1949. RESOLUTIONS, Geneva, Switzerland. No. E/1553/Corr.l, 8 Dec. 1949, No. E/1553, 15 Aug. 1949. 1 5 1 shall consist of the executive heads, or their representatives of the United Nations and of the specialized agencies which p a r t i c i -pate in accordance with this paragraph in the expanded programme of technical assistance. The Secretary-General, or his repre-sentative, shall be Chairman of the Board. Within the TAB: (a) Each participating organization shall inform the other organizations of requests to i t for technical assistance for economic development; (b) Important requests for such assistance shall be promptly discussed; (c) The participating organizations shall discuss their co-ordination efforts under this programme, shall consult before comprehensive missions and programmes of assistance involving several organizations are arranged, and each shall be prepared to co-operate fu l l y with the others in activities involving their common interests; (d) The participating organizations shall exchange infor-mation which becomes available to them on current developments in the f i e l d of technical assistance, including the progress of tech-nical assistance rendered or projected by them, by Governments and by private organizations; (e) The TAB shall inform the Technical Assistance Committee of the Council (TAC) mentioned below, of any requests for tech-nical assistance for economic development as soon as they have reached the TAB, so that the TAC shall always be in possession of a l i s t of projects being discussed or reviewed by the TAB or par-ticipating organizations; (f) Periodic reports shall be made by the TAB to the TAC; these reports shall include an examination of activities under-taken and results achieved, and a statement on funds received and committed under this expanded programme; (g) Each participating organization shall present annually to the TAB i t s proposed programme for the next f i s c a l year in the light of i t s experience with the expanded programme. The pro-grammes of the several participating organizations shall be examined in relation to each other, and the TAB shall make recom-mendations concerning them and the total programme to the Council through the TAC; (h) A l l decisions other than on procedural matters shall be taken by general agreement and, when agreement cannot be reached, the issue in dispute shall be referred for decision to the TAC; 4. Authorizes the Secretary-General, after consultation with the other participating organizations, to designate the Executive Secretary of the TAB, who shall: (a) Convene and service the TAB and prepare the needed documents; (b) Collect and circulate to members of the TAB: (i) Information regarding enquiries for technical assistance received by the participating organizations; ( i i ) Programmes of the participating organizations for tech-nical assistance in the fields for which they are responsible; ( i i i ) information on technical assistance rendered and pro-jected by the participating organizations and any other information 152 which becomes available to them concerning such assistance rendered by Governments or by other public or private bodies; (c) Prepare or arrange for such studies i n regard to requests and plans for technical assistance as may be needed by the TAB, and furnish, when required by the TAB, information and analyses relating to the needs and conditions of the various countries requesting as-sistance: (d) Prepare for the TAB, with the assistance of the organi-zations concerned and on the basis of information supplied by the Governments concerned, such reports on the operations carried out under the expanded co-operative programme of technical assistance as may be necessary; 5. Requests the Secretary-General to make appropriate arrange-ments whereby the executive heads of the participating organizations may assign members of their staff to the staff of the TAB as neces-sary. 7. Requests that the TAB and the TAG, in carrying out their terms of reference, be guided by the "Observations on and guiding principles of an expanded programme of technical assistance for economic development" (Annex I) and take into account the records of the debate on the expanded, programme which occurred during the ninth session of the Council. APPENDIX E United. Nations General Assembly Resolution 516(IV) Advisory Social Welfare Services. The General Assembly 1. Authorizes the Secretary-General to place on a continu-ing basis, rather than on the present year-to-year basis, the advisory s o c i a l welfare services o r i g i n a l l y authorized by i t s resolution 38(1) of 14 December 1946; 2. Directs the Secretary-General: (a) To include an amount for these services i n the budget of the United Nations i n the future; (b) For 1950, to continue this work at approximately the same l e v e l of expenditure on the part of the United Nations as i n 1949; 3. Requests the Economic and Social Council to review the terms of resolution 58(1), i n the l i g h t of the provisions, of paragraph 1.above and i n the l i g h t of the discussions and sugges-tions made i n the Third Committee of the General Assembly, and to recommend to the next regular session of the General Assembly any modifications which i t may consider necessary therein. Two hundred and f o r t y - t h i r d plenary meeting, 17 November 1949. 1 United Nations: O f f i c i a l Records of the Fourth Session of the General Assembly RESOLUTIONS. 20 Sept.-10 Dec. 1949-Lake Success, New York. A/1251. 28 Dec, 1949. APPENDIX F Advisory Social Welfare Services Revised text proposed by the Economic and Social Council (resolu-t i o n 312(XI) of July 14, 1950) and resolution adopted by the General Assembly 418(V). Whereas, by A r t i c l e s 55 and 60 of the Charter of the United Nations, the Economic and Social Council under the authori-ty of the General Assembly, i s charged with the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for promoting higher standards of l i v i n g and conditions of s o c i a l progress and development, Whereas, by A r t i c l e 66 of the Charter, the Economic and Social Council may, with the approval of the General Assembly, perform services at the request of Members of the United Nations and at the request of specialized agencies, Whereas the General Assembly, a f t e r examining the recom-mendations of the Economic and Social Council and the accompany-ing report of services rendered for the f i r s t three years of operation, approved the recommendations and placed the advisory s o c i a l welfare services of resolution 58(1) on a continuing basis and directed that a review be made of the terms of the resolution and appropriate recommendations made with respect to desirable or necessary changes, Whereas the General Assembly recognizes that the ad-visory s o c i a l welfare services constitute a p r a c t i c a l operational programme of direct assistance to governments and that the other a c t i v i t i e s of the United Nations i n the s o c i a l f i e l d should be properly correlated to these services i n order to achieve maximum effectiveness, to which end the Social Commission has adjusted i t s long-range work programme, The General Assembly, therefore, 1 United Nations General Assembly O f f i c i a l Records. Agenda item 31. Annexes F i f t h Session. New York, 1950. Agenda item 31: Advisory s o c i a l welfare services; report of the Economic and Social Council. Document A/1355. Annex I, pp.2-4. See also: United Nations Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly during period 19 Sept.-15 Dec. 1950. General Assembly, O f f i c i a l Records: F i f t h Session, Supplement No. 20; (A/1775) pp.40-41. Three hundred and fourteenth plenary meeting, 1 Dec. 1950. 155 A. Authorizes the Secretary-General: 1. Subject to the directions of the Economic and Social Council, to make provision f o r the under-mentioned functions and services, such provision to be made where appropriate with the co-operation of the specialized agencies and i n consultation with non-governmental organizations having consultative status: (a) For a requisite number of s o c i a l welfare experts to pro-vide advisory services at the request of governments which show the need for them, and to put into practice, over an appropriate period, new methods i n any branch of s o c i a l welfare; (b) For enabling suitably q u a l i f i e d s o c i a l welfare o f f i c i a l s to observe, and f a m i l i a r i z e themselves with, the experience and practice of other countries i n any branch of s o c i a l welfare; (c) For enabling suitably q u a l i f i e d persons who cannot re-ceive appropriate t r a i n i n g i n branches of s o c i a l welfare i n th e i r own country to receive appropriate t r a i n i n g i n foreign countries having the necessary f a c i l i t i e s ; (d) For planning by appropriate methods projects for experi-menting i n or demonstrating various phases of s o c i a l welfare, or-ganizing and p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n these projects, providing the neces-sary tools and equipment i n connection therewith, and associating to the extent practicable with the projects, the persons referred to i n sub-paragraphs (b) and (c) above; (e) For furnishing technical publications and films; and (f) For planning and conducting seminars; and 2. To include i n the budgetary estimates of the United Nations the sums necessary f o r carrying out an effective operation-a l programme based on the provision of the above services; B. Instructs the Secretary-General to undertake the perfor-mance of the functions l i s t e d i n paragraph A . l . above, i n agree-ment with the governments concerned, on the basis of requests received from governments and i n accordance with the following p o l i c i e s : 1. The kind of service to be rendered to each country s h a l l be decided by the government concerned; 2. The furnishing of the experts and services s h a l l be undertaken by the Secretary-General; the Secretary-General s h a l l , normally, make application for experts to States which are Members of the United.Nations, and the selection of grant holders s h a l l be made by the Secretary-General on the basis of proposals received from the governments, which s h a l l indicate t h e i r preferences with regard to host countries; 3. The amount of services and the conditions under which they s h a l l be furnished to the various governments s h a l l be decided by the Secretary-General with due regard to the greater needs of the under-developed areas and i n conformity with the p r i n c i p l e that each requesting government s h a l l be expected to participate finan-c i a l l y to the maximum possible extent i n the services provided to i t ; and 156 G. Requests the Secretary-General to report regularly to the Social Commission on the measures which he takes i n compliance with the terms of the present resolution and requests the Commis-sion to formulate recommendations from time to time, concerning the continued action required to carry on the essential advisory a c t i v i t i e s i n the f i e l d of s o c i a l welfare. APPENDIX G STATISTICS OF UNITED NATIONS TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE ADVISORY SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICES PROGRAMME^ Table I. Fellowship Awards According to Fields of Study. 1947-1951 Fields of Study Number of Fellows 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 Total Community, family and child welfare 26 30 43 58 35 192 Social welfare administration 23 24 29 31 22 129 Rehabilitation of the handicapped 16 12 23 16 38 105 Corrections 1 10 21 15 24 71 Social security 16 8 20 15 11 70 Housing, town and country planning 2 3 1 8 20 . 34 Employment services 8 4 7 9 2 30 Social aspects of health 7 6 7 5 1 26 Social research 2 2 10 6 6 26 Rural welfare 1 2 2 4 5 14 Labour relations — - 2 4 - 6 Social aspects of migration - - - 2 3 5 Co-operatives - - - 3 1 4 Standards of living - .1 - 2 1 4 Total 104 120 188 183 176 771 Table II. Project Areas in Which Welfare Experts Worked, 1947-1951 Project Area Number of Experts 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 Total Social welfare administration 7 3 4 3 3 20 Community, family and child welfare 8 2 2 2 4 18 Rehabilitation of the handicapped 4 1 2 3 3 13 Social security 5 3 - 1 - 9 Corrections - - 1 4 1 6 Housing, town and country planning - - - - 3 3 Labour relations _ 1. _ 1 — 2 Social development - - - - 2 2 Exploratory missions - - - • - 1 1 Public Education - - - 1 — 1 Standard of living - • - - 1 - 1 Total 24 10 9 17 17 77 1 Source: All the following tables were adapted from United Nations Department of Social Affairs: Evaluation of the Programme of Advisory Social Welfare Services. 1947-1951. Annex pp.88-95- E/CN.5/266/Rev.l. United Nations, New York, 1953. 158 Table III. Distribution of Fellowship Awards by- Recipient Countries. Totals for 1947-1951 Area No. Area No. EUROPE FAR EAST 174 Yugoslavia 55 India 75 Greece 47 Philippines 39 Austria 45 China 28 Finland 44 Japan 10 Italy 44 Thailand 8 Poland 29 Ceylon 5 Netherlands 25 Pakistan 4 Cz echoslovakia 23 South Korea 3 Belgium 17 Indonesia 2 Sweden 16 Norway 13 LATIN AMERICA XL Hungary 12 16 Switzerland 11 Ecuador Denmark 9 Chile 12 Luxemburg 5 British West Indies 11 West Germany 4 Brazil 9 United Kingdom 3 Haiti 9 Albania 2 Guatemala 4 Trieste 1 Netherlands West Indies 4 Argentina 3 NEAR AND MEDDLE EAST £k Colombia 3 Mexico 3 Egypt 20 Bolivia 1 Israel 19 Dominican Republic 1 Lebanon 16 Uruguay 1 Turkey 11 Iran 8 AFRICA 1 Syria 7 Southern Rhodesia 1 OCEANIA k NORTH AMERICA 1 Australia 3 New Zealand 1 Canada 1 159 Table IV. Fellowship Awards According to Countries of Operation in Five Regions. 1947-1951 Region 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 Total No. P.C. Europe 52 80 141 121 108 502 6 5 . 0 North America 38 41 45 45 221 29.0 Latin America (including Caribbean) - • 2 5 17 16 40 5-0 Oceania - 1 - 6 7 1 . 0 Far East - - - • 1 1 X Total 104 120 188 183 176 771 1 0 0 x = Less than 1 per cent. Table V. Distribution of Experts According to Regions. 1947-1951 Region 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 Total (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (b) Europe 7 13 4 4 4 5 3 6 1 1 29 Far East 2 11 1 2 1 1 1 1 4 .7 22 Near and Middle East - - - • - 1 1 4 4 2 3 8 Latin America - - 2 4 2 2 3 6 3 4 16 Africa 2 2 2 Total 9 24 7 10 8 9 11 17 12 17 77 (a) = Number of countries. (b) - Number of experts. 160 Table VI. Countries From Which Experts Were Recruited, 1947-1951 Country Total 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 United States of America 33 15 4 4 3 7 United Kingdom 8 2 1 1 - 4 France 6 3 - - 2 1 Chile 4 - 1 1 2 -Australia 3 1 - • - 1 • 1 Canada 3 - 1 2 - -Denmark 3 1 - - 2 -Union of Soviet Socialist Republic 3 1 2 _ Belgium 2 - - 1 1 -Mexico 2 ; - - - 1 1 Netherlands 2 - - - 2 - ' New Zealand 2 - -> 1 - 1 Austria 1 - - mm 1 Brazil 1 1 - - - -Finland i - - - - 1 India l - - - 1 • -Sweden l • - - - 1 -Union of South Africa l - 1 - mm -Total 77 24 10 9 17 17 161 Table VII. Shb.jects and Scope of United Nations Seminars and Related Projects Under the Advisory Social Welfare Services. 1947-1951 Subject Place Duration Participants UN (a) (b) Experts A. EUROPE 1. Training, housing, corrections, family welfare Paris 1949 (Nov-28-Dec.lO) 11 57 2. Corrections Brussels 1951 (Dec3-Dec.l5) 18 83 13 3- Social Casework(x) Vienna 1950 (Nov.6-Nov.18) 10 34 2 4- Social Casework(x) Woudschoten (Netherlands) 1951 (Aug.l9-Sep.l) 14 60 7 5. Training and Func-tions of the French Polyvalent (sic)l Social Worker (x) Sevres 1951 (Nov.12-Nov.19) 12 42 6. Conference on Juve-nile Delinquency Rome 1950 (Dec.3-Dec.10) 1 150-200 5 B. 1. MIDDLE EAST Social Welfare Beirut 1949 (Aug.l5-Sep.8) 7 52 12 2. Rural Welfare Cairo 1950 (Nov.22-Dec.14) 1 111 39 C. ASIA AND FAR EAST 1. Youth Welfare Simla 1951 (Nov.l-Nov.21) 5 24 25 Conference on Phy-sically Handi-capped Children Jamshedpur (India) 1950 (Dec.19-Dec.2l) 5 68 5 D. 1. LATIN AMERICA Social Welfare Medellin 1947 (Aug.ll-Aug.29) 13 25 9 2. Social Welfare Montevideo 1947 (Sep.8-Sep.25) 7 13 9 (a) = Number of countries represented. (b) = Number of delegates, (x) = Exchange Plan (Europe). 1 French expression for "generic". APPENDIX H Outline of Report - United Nations Social Welfare Fellowships I. Details of Preparation and Distribution: (a) Prepare six copies of the report, retaining one for your-self and sending five copies as follows, unless otherwise instruc-ted by UN Headquarters, New York, or Geneva. If observing in Europe, send five copies to the Geneva office. If observing elsewhere in the world, send five copies to UN Headquarters, New York. (b) Submit the five copies as indicated before you depart for your home country. Note: (l) The information in your report should be cleared with your supervisor in the country of observation, to assure accuracy. (2) The United Nations w i l l distribute your f i n a l report to your home government and to the supervising agency in the country of observation. II. Content of the Report: (a) On additional sheets of plain paper which you w i l l attach to this sheet, please discuss the following topics i n the order given: (1) Your own comments on the value of the fellowship pro-gramme from the international point of view;, also, any suggestions for improvement in this respect. (2) Your own comments about the fellowship programme as a means of assisting your government in developing i t s wel-fare services; in line with the purpose of the programme under Resolution 419(v"); also any suggestions i n this respect. ( 3 ) Any general comments you wish to make regarding your own fellowship and observation programme, including the ex-tent to which i t has met your interests and needs, and any suggestions for improvement. ( 4 ) A detailed statement of the specific aspects of your 163 observation that you think may be useful to you in your country. (5) A detailed summary of the aspects of the f i e l d of your interest on which you have been working during the entire period of your fellowship. (Summarize by topics.) (6) A l i s t of books and publications that you have found particularly useful during the period of your observation. Give t i t l e , author, date of publication, name and address of publisher. (b) Please f i l l in the following, for any period not covered by monthly reports. APPENDIX I Expert's Application Form INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL CO-OPERATION DIVISION DEPARTMENT OF TRADE AND COMMERCE OTTAWA, CANADA PERSONAL HISTORY NOTICE PERSONNELLE Please Attach Photo Size ijs x lg Apposez Photo Grandeur l|xl£ Please answer each question com-pletely. Type or print in ink. If certain items require more space, repeat their item numbers and continue on plain paper. Repondez en detail a checune des questions, a la machine ou en lettres majuscules. Si vous Tna.nqu.ez de place, continuez sur une feuille separee en indiquant le numero de la question. T.CS. FILE REF. NUMBERS 1. F a m i l y Namff - Nrtm rift Fawn "11A Fii-s+. Namfif? - Prpjirnns Maiden Name (if applicable) Nom de demoiselle (s*il y alieu) ,2. Permanent Address - Domicile permanent « Telephone 3. Mailing Address (if different from above) - Adresse postale (si elle differe de la precedente) Telephone - 4.A)Country of birth Pays d'origine B) Date of birth Date de naissance C) Sex - Sexe D) Marital Status Evat civil 5.A)Citizenship at birth Nationalite a la naissance B)Citizenship now Nationalite actuelle C)Length of residence in Canada Duree de la residence au Canada N.B. If 5A and B are different, attach explanation. Si 5A et 5B different, joindre explanations 6 . Dependents Personnes a Name Age Relationship Name Age Relationship Norn Degre de parente Nom Degre de parente 7. If appointed, for what period would you be willing to serve? Si vous etes nomme, quelle duree d'engagement envisages-vous? Six months or less One year or less One to two years Over two years Six mois ou moins Une annee ou moins D'un a deux ans Plus de deux ans 8. Have you previously submitted an application for employment with an international organiza-tion? If so, give details and dates. Avez-vous deja sounds une demande d'emploi a un organisme international? donnez des details et les dates. Dans 1'affirmative, 9. List any of your relatives employed by the United Nations or its Specialized Agencies. Donnez les noms de ceux de vos parents qui sont employes par les Nations Unies ou leurs institutions specialisees. Name - Nom Relationship Degre de parente Name of International Organization Nom de 1'organisation internationale 10. For exactly what kind of work do you wish to be considered? Pour quel genre de travail, exactement, des'irez-vous etre pris en consideration? 1 6 5 _ 11. EDUCATION - ETUDES A) College or University - Facultes ou grandes ecoles Name and Place Norn et adresse Years Attended Annees d'etudes From-de To-a Major Subjects Principaux sujets d1 etudes Degrees,Honours Grades univer-sitaires, diplomes B) Schools or Other Forma]. Training or Education Avez-vous frequente d'autres etablissements enseignement technique, general? Name and Place Nom et adresse Years Attended Annees d1etudes From-de To-a Type of School Genre d'etablisse-ment Diplomas, etc. Diplomes, etc. 12. List professional societies to which you belong. Enumerez les associations professionnelles dont vous etes membre. 13. List, but do not attach, any significant publications you have written. Include publisher and date and place of publication. Enumerez (san les joindre) tous travaux importants que vous pouvez avoir publies. Indi-quez le nom de l'editeur, le lieu et la date de la publication. 14- LANGUAGES - LANGUES List of languages (mother tongue first) Indiquez les langues (en commencant par votre langue matemelle) Describe your proficiency in the spaces provided. Precisez la mesure dans laquelle vous pouvez, dans Speaking Proficiency Parler Writing Proficiency Rediger Reading Proficienc Lire 15« You may be required to pass a medical examination before appointment. II se peut que vous soyez requis de passer un examen medical, avant votre engagement. A). Are you in good health? Etes-vous en bonne sante? B) Describe any physical defects. - Decrivez toute infirmite physique dont^ vous souffrez-C) Will you submit a certificate of health i f required? Soumettrez-vous un certificat de bonne sante, si vous en etes requis? D) Will you submit a certificate of vaccination i f required? Soumettrez-vous un certificat de vaccination, si vous en etes requis? E) Will you submit to any necessary inoculations? Vous soumettrez-vous a toute inoculation necessaire? 166 16. EMPLOYMENT RECORD: Starting with your present position, list in reverse order every employment during the last 10 years and any significant employment not in-cluded in that period. Include service in the Armed Forces. Use additional sheets of paper i f required. ANTECEDENTS PROFESSIONNELS: Enumerez, en'com-mon cant par le plus recent tous les emplois que vous avez exerces au cours des dix derni-eres annees; en dehors de cette periode, ne citez que les postes importants. Veuillez in-clure votre service aux Armees. Adjutez au pesoin des fuillets supplementaires. ,A) PRESENT EMPLOYMENT - POSTE ACTUEL Description of your work - Nature de votre travail Dates of Employment - Duree d'emploi From: month year To: present De: mois annee A : ce .iour • Title of your Position - Titre de votre poste Name and Address of Employer - Nom et adresse d'employeur t Type of Business - Genre d'entreprise Name of your Supervisor - Nom de votre supe-rieur Reason for wishing to leave - Pourquoi desirez-vous changer? Have you any objections to our making inquiries of your present employer? Voyez-vous quelque inconvenient a ce que nous prenions des renseignements aupres de votre em-ployeur actuel? 7 B) PREVIOUS POSITION - POSTE ANTERIEUR Description of your work - Nature de votre travail Dates of Employment - Duree d'emploi tfrom: month year To: present , Be: mois annee A : ce jour Salaries per Starting: Final: Au debut: A la fin: Title of your Position - Titre de votre poste Name and Address of Employer - Nom et adresse ' d'employeur Type of Business - Genre d'entreprise Name of your Supervisor - Nom de votre supe-rieur Reason for wishing to leave - Pourquoi desirez-vous changer? . . C PREVIOUS POSITION - POSTE ANTERIEUR Description of your work - Nature de votre travail '' ' Dates of Employment - Duree d' emploi From: month year To: present De: mois annee A : ce .iour Salaries per Starting: Final: Au debut: A la fin: Title of your Position - Titre de votre poste 1 Name arid Address of Employer - Nom et adresse d' employeur Type of Business - Genre d'entreprise Name of your Supervisor - Nom de votre supe-rieur Reason for wishing to leave - Pourquoi des^rez-167 . D) EMPLOYMENT RECORD (Cont'd.) ANTECEDENTS PROF. (Suite) Description of your work - Nature de votre travail ~ Dates of Employment - Duree d'emploi , From: month year To: present De: iriois annee A : ce .iour ; Salaries per , Starting: Final: Au debut: A la fin: Title of your Position - Titre de votre poste Name and Address of Employer - Nom et adresse d'employeur Type of Business - Genre d'entreprise Name of your Supervisor - Nom de votre supe-rieur Reason for wishing to leave - Pourquoi desirez-vous changer? * 17. REFERENCES: List three persons not re-lated to you, to whom we may refer for an estimate of your suitability for appoint-ment. Do not repeat names listed in item 16. REFERENCES: Nommez trois personnes qui n'ont pas de lien de parente avec vous et auxquelles nous pourrons nous referer pour determiner votre aptitude a remplir le poste solicite. Ne repetez pas de noms cites dans 1'article 16. Name - Nom Full Address - Adresse complete Profession 1$. State briefly any other relevant facts or Decrivez brievement tous autres details special qualifications. Include informa- pertinent ou aptitudes speciales. Veuillez tion regarding residence or prolonged inclure des renseignements sur vos sejours travel abroad, giving dates, areas, purpose, ou vos voyages prlonges a l'etranger, citant etc. dates, regions, objet, etc. 19* I certify that the statements made by me in answer to the foregoing questions are true, complete and correct to the best of my knowledge and belief. Date Je certifie que les declarations faites par moi en reponse aux questions ci-dessus sont, dans tout la mesure ou je pois en entre certain, vraies, completes et exactes. Signature APPENDIX J BIBLIOGRAPHY (Figures in left-hand column are the o f f i c i a l UN index numbers.) I. UNITED NATIONS DOCUMENTS A. General Assembly Official.Records A/81 A/1251 A/1345 A/1355 A/1884 A/2172 A/2430 United Nations O f f i c i a l Records of the Third Session of the General Assembly. 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In Econo mic Development, Publ ic Administrat ion and S o c i a l Welfare. January, 1953- United Nations, New York. United Nations, United Nations Yearbook. 1951. Lake Success, New York, 1951. Vandenbosch, A. & W.N. Hogan, The United Nations - Background, Organization, Funct i on, A c t i v i t i e s . McGraw-Hil l , New York 1952. Wilson, Gertrude & Gladys Ryland, Soc ia l Group Work P r a c t i c e . The Creative Use of the S o c i a l Process. Houghton M i f f l i n C o . , The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass. , 1949. V. CORRESPONDENCE AND INTERVIEWS